document_title: California mule deer

question_text: when do deer lose their antlers in california

text: California mule deer

text: Anatomy[edit]

text: One of the principal means of distinguishing the closely related black-tailed deer and white-tailed deer is the growth habit of the buck's antlers. In the case of the California mule deer, the antlers fork in an upward growth, whereas the other species' antlers grow in a forward direction.[2]

text: Distribution[edit]

text: This subspecies, O. h. californicus, is widespread throughout northern and central California in the California coastal prairie, as well as inner coastal ranges and interior mountains, especially the Sierra Nevada. This deer is much less frequently found on the floor of the interior valleys, and then mostly frequently in riparian zones.[3]

text: Habitat[edit]

text: Generally, the California mule deer has a preference for hill terrain, especially an oak woodland habitat. It is a browser and typically takes over 90% of its diet from shrubs and leaves and the balance from grasses.

text: Diet and behavior[edit]

text: California mule deer usually browse close to lakes or streams providing their water. From that water source, they may roam 1-2 mi, and typically make their beds in grassy areas beneath trees within such a one-mile radius from both water and forage.

text: Repeatedly used beds often are scratched to a nearly level surface, about 2 m in diameter. Less regularly used bedding areas are seen as flattened grass. On hot summer days, California mule deer often seek shade and rest in the midday.

text: In summer, California mule deer mainly browse on leaves of small trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, but also consume many types of berries (including blackberry, huckleberry, salal, and thimbleberry). In winter, they may expand their forage to conifers (particularly twigs of Douglas fir), aspen, willow, dogwood, juniper, and sage. Year-round, they feed on acorns; grasses are a secondary food source. Where humans have encroached on historic deer habitat by suburban development or orchards, California mule deer diversify their diet with garden plant material, tree fruit, and occasionally, pet food.

text: Fawns and does tend to forage together in familial groupings, while bucks tend to travel singly or with other bucks. California mule deer browse most actively near dawn and dusk, but also forage at night in open agricultural areas or when experiencing hunting pressure.

text: Breeding[edit]

text: Rutting season occurs in autumn when the does come into estrus for a period lasting only several days. Males exhibit aggressive behavior in competing for mates. Does begin estrus again if they do not become pregnant. The gestation period is about 200 days, with fawns arriving in the spring; the young remain with mothers throughout the summer and are weaned in the autumn. The buck's antlers fall off in the winter, and commence growing once more in spring in anticipation of next autumn's rut.

text: Human interactions[edit]

text: Since prehistoric times, the Native American indigenous peoples of California are known to have hunted California mule deer. Thus, since about 12,000 BCE, Gage suggests that human populations have served as a control to the numbers of California mule deer.[4]

text: In the modern era, since European colonists and Euro-Americans settled in California, hunting pressure intensified as the human population expanded and hunting became an activity not just associated with food supply. In addition, human population growth (through urban development) in California has consumed large amounts of natural habitat of the California mule deer starting in the late 19th century and continuing through the present.


document_title: Clinical psychology

question_text: the key function of clinical assessment is to

root

text: Clinical psychology

text: History[edit]

text: The earliest recorded approaches to assess and treat mental distress were a combination of religious, magical and/or medical perspectives.[5] Early examples of such physicians included Patañjali, Padmasambhava,[6] Rhazes, Avicenna,[7] and Rumi.[8] In the early 19th century, one approach to study mental conditions and behavior was using phrenology, the study of personality by examining the shape of the skull. Other popular treatments at that time included the study of the shape of the face (physiognomy) and Mesmer's treatment for mental conditions using magnets (mesmerism). Spiritualism and Phineas Quimby's "mental healing" were also popular.[9]

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text: While the scientific community eventually came to reject all of these methods for treating mental illness, academic psychologists also were not concerned with serious forms of mental illness. The study of mental illness was already being done in the developing fields of psychiatry and neurology within the asylum movement.[5] It was not until the end of the 19th century, around the time when Sigmund Freud was first developing his "talking cure" in Vienna, that the first scientific application of clinical psychology began.

text: Early clinical psychology[edit]

text: By the second half of the 1800s, the scientific study of psychology was becoming well established in university laboratories. Although there were a few scattered voices calling for an applied psychology, the general field looked down upon this idea and insisted on "pure" science as the only respectable practice.[5] This changed when Lightner Witmer (1867–1956), a past student of Wundt and head of the psychology department at the University of Pennsylvania, agreed to treat a young boy who had trouble with spelling. His successful treatment was soon to lead to Witmer's opening of the first psychological clinic at Penn in 1896, dedicated to helping children with learning disabilities.[10] Ten years later in 1907, Witmer was to found the first journal of this new field, The Psychological Clinic, where he coined the term "clinical psychology", defined as "the study of individuals, by observation or experimentation, with the intention of promoting change".[11] The field was slow to follow Witmer's example, but by 1914, there were 26 similar clinics in the U.S.[12]

text: Even as clinical psychology was growing, working with issues of serious mental distress remained the domain of psychiatrists and neurologists.[13] However, clinical psychologists continued to make inroads into this area due to their increasing skill at psychological assessment. Psychologists' reputation as assessment experts became solidified during World War I with the development of two intelligence tests, Army Alpha and Army Beta (testing verbal and nonverbal skills, respectively), which could be used with large groups of recruits.[9][10] Due in large part to the success of these tests, assessment was to become the core discipline of clinical psychology for the next quarter century, when another war would propel the field into treatment.

text: Early professional organizations[edit]

text: The field began to organize under the name "clinical psychology" in 1917 with the founding of the American Association of Clinical Psychology. This only lasted until 1919, after which the American Psychological Association (founded by G. Stanley Hall in 1892) developed a section on Clinical Psychology, which offered certification until 1927.[12] Growth in the field was slow for the next few years when various unconnected psychological organizations came together as the American Association of Applied Psychology in 1930, which would act as the primary forum for psychologists until after World War II when the APA reorganized.[14] In 1945, the APA created what is now called Division 12, its division of clinical psychology, which remains a leading organization in the field. Psychological societies and associations in other English-speaking countries developed similar divisions, including in Britain, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.

text: World War II and the integration of treatment[edit]

text: When World War II broke out, the military once again called upon clinical psychologists. As soldiers began to return from combat, psychologists started to notice symptoms of psychological trauma labeled "shell shock" (eventually to be termed posttraumatic stress disorder) that were best treated as soon as possible.[10] Because physicians (including psychiatrists) were over-extended in treating bodily injuries, psychologists were called to help treat this condition.[15] At the same time, female psychologists (who were excluded from the war effort) formed the National Council of Women Psychologists with the purpose of helping communities deal with the stresses of war and giving young mothers advice on child rearing.[11] After the war, the Veterans Administration in the U.S. made an enormous investment to set up programs to train doctoral-level clinical psychologists to help treat the thousands of veterans needing care. As a consequence, the U.S. went from having no formal university programs in clinical psychology in 1946 to over half of all Ph.D.s in psychology in 1950 being awarded in clinical psychology.[11]

text: WWII helped bring dramatic changes to clinical psychology, not just in America but internationally as well. Graduate education in psychology began adding psychotherapy to the science and research focus based on the 1947 scientist-practitioner model, known today as the Boulder Model, for Ph.D. programs in clinical psychology.[16] Clinical psychology in Britain developed much like in the U.S. after WWII, specifically within the context of the National Health Service[17] with qualifications, standards, and salaries managed by the British Psychological Society.[18]

text: Development of the Doctor of Psychology degree[edit]

text: By the 1960s, psychotherapy had become embedded within clinical psychology, but for many the Ph.D. educational model did not offer the necessary training for those interested in practice rather than research. There was a growing argument that said the field of psychology in the U.S. had developed to a degree warranting explicit training in clinical practice. The concept of a practice-oriented degree was debated in 1965 and narrowly gained approval for a pilot program at the University of Illinois starting in 1968.[19] Several other similar programs were instituted soon after, and in 1973, at the Vail Conference on Professional Training in Psychology, the practitioner–scholar model of clinical psychology—or Vail Model—resulting in the Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.) degree was recognized.[20] Although training would continue to include research skills and a scientific understanding of psychology, the intent would be to produce highly trained professionals, similar to programs in medicine, dentistry, and law. The first program explicitly based on the Psy.D. model was instituted at Rutgers University.[19] Today, about half of all American graduate students in clinical psychology are enrolled in Psy.D. programs.[20]

text: A changing profession[edit]

text: Since the 1970s, clinical psychology has continued growing into a robust profession and academic field of study. Although the exact number of practicing clinical psychologists is unknown, it is estimated that between 1974 and 1990, the number in the U.S. grew from 20,000 to 63,000.[21] Clinical psychologists continue to be experts in assessment and psychotherapy while expanding their focus to address issues of gerontology, sports, and the criminal justice system to name a few. One important field is health psychology, the fastest-growing employment setting for clinical psychologists in the past decade.[9] Other major changes include the impact of managed care on mental health care; an increasing realization of the importance of knowledge relating to multicultural and diverse populations; and emerging privileges to prescribe psychotropic medication.

text: Professional practice[edit]

text: Clinical psychologists engage in a wide range of activities. Some focus solely on research into the assessment, treatment, or cause of mental illness and related conditions. Some teach, whether in a medical school or hospital setting, or in an academic department (e.g., psychology department) at an institution of higher education. The majority of clinical psychologists engage in some form of clinical practice, with professional services including psychological assessment, provision of psychotherapy, development and administration of clinical programs, and forensics (e.g., providing expert testimony in a legal proceeding.[11]

text: In clinical practice, clinical psychologists may work with individuals, couples, families, or groups in a variety of settings, including private practices, hospitals, mental health organizations, schools, businesses, and non-profit agencies. Clinical psychologists who provide clinical services may also choose to specialize. Some specializations are codified and credentialed by regulatory agencies within the country of practice.[22] In the United States such specializations are credentialed by the American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP).

text: Training and certification to practice[edit]

text: Clinical psychologists study a generalist program in psychology plus postgraduate training and/or clinical placement and supervision. The length of training differs across the world, ranging from four years plus post-Bachelors supervised practice[23] to a doctorate of three to six years which combines clinical placement.[24] In the USA, about half of all clinical psychology graduate students are being trained in Ph.D. programs—a model that emphasizes research—with the other half in Psy.D. programs, which has more focus on practice (similar to professional degrees for medicine and law).[20] Both models are accredited by the American Psychological Association[25] and many other English-speaking psychological societies. A smaller number of schools offer accredited programs in clinical psychology resulting in a Masters degree, which usually take two to three years post-Bachelors.

text: In the U.K., clinical psychologists undertake a Doctor of Clinical Psychology (D.Clin.Psych.), which is a practitioner doctorate with both clinical and research components. This is a three-year full-time salaried program sponsored by the National Health Service (NHS) and based in universities and the NHS. Entry into these programs is highly competitive, and requires at least a three-year undergraduate degree in psychology plus some form of experience, usually in either the NHS as an Assistant Psychologist or in academia as a Research Assistant. It is not unusual for applicants to apply several times before being accepted onto a training course as only about one-fifth of applicants are accepted each year.[26] These clinical psychology doctoral degrees are accredited by the British Psychological Society and the Health Professions Council (HPC). The HPC is the statutory regulator for practitioner psychologists in the UK. Those who successfully complete clinical psychology doctoral degrees are eligible to apply for registration with the HPC as a clinical psychologist.

text: The practice of clinical psychology requires a license in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and many other countries. Although each of the U.S. states is somewhat different in terms of requirements and licenses, there are three common elements:[27]

text:
Graduation from an accredited school with the appropriate degree
Completion of supervised clinical experience or internship
Passing a written examination and, in some states, an oral examination

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text: All U.S. state and Canadian province licensing boards are members of the Association of State and Provincial Psychology Boards (ASPPB) which created and maintains the Examination for Professional Practice in Psychology (EPPP). Many states require other examinations in addition to the EPPP, such as a jurisprudence (i.e. mental health law) examination and/or an oral examination.[27] Most states also require a certain number of continuing education credits per year in order to renew a license, which can be obtained though various means, such as taking audited classes and attending approved workshops. Clinical psychologists require the Psychologist license to practice, although licenses can be obtained with a masters-level degree, such as Marriage and Family Therapist (MFT), Licensed Professional Counselor (LPC), and Licensed Psychological Associate (LPA).[28]

text: In the U.K. registration as a clinical psychologist with the Health Professions Council (HPC) is necessary. The HPC is the statutory regulator for practitioner psychologists in the U.K. In the U.K. the following titles are restricted by law "registered psychologist" and "practitioner psychologist"; in addition the specialist title "clinical psychologist" is also restricted by law.

text: Assessment[edit]

text: An important area of expertise for many clinical psychologists is psychological assessment, and there are indications that as many as 91% of psychologists engage in this core clinical practice.[29] Such evaluation is usually done in service to gaining insight into and forming hypotheses about psychological or behavioral problems. As such, the results of such assessments are usually used to create generalized impressions (rather than diagnoses) in service to informing treatment planning. Methods include formal testing measures, interviews, reviewing past records, clinical observation, and physical examination.[2]

text: Measurement domains[edit]

text: There exist hundreds of various assessment tools, although only a few have been shown to have both high validity (i.e., test actually measures what it claims to measure) and reliability (i.e., consistency). These measures generally fall within one of several categories, including the following:

text:
Intelligence & achievement tests – These tests are designed to measure certain specific kinds of cognitive functioning (often referred to as IQ) in comparison to a norming-group. These tests, such as the WISC-IV, attempt to measure such traits as general knowledge, verbal skill, memory, attention span, logical reasoning, and visual/spatial perception. Several tests have been shown to predict accurately certain kinds of performance, especially scholastic.[29]
Personality tests – Tests of personality aim to describe patterns of behavior, thoughts, and feelings. They generally fall within two categories: objective and projective. Objective measures, such as the MMPI, are based on restricted answers—such as yes/no, true/false, or a rating scale—which allow for computation of scores that can be compared to a normative group. Projective tests, such as the Rorschach inkblot test, allow for open-ended answers, often based on ambiguous stimuli, presumably revealing non-conscious psychological dynamics.
Neuropsychological tests – Neuropsychological tests consist of specifically designed tasks used to measure psychological functions known to be linked to a particular brain structure or pathway. They are typically used to assess impairment after an injury or illness known to affect neurocognitive functioning, or when used in research, to contrast neuropsychological abilities across experimental groups.
Clinical observation – Clinical psychologists are also trained to gather data by observing behavior. The clinical interview is a vital part of assessment, even when using other formalized tools, which can employ either a structured or unstructured format. Such assessment looks at certain areas, such as general appearance and behavior, mood and affect, perception, comprehension, orientation, insight, memory, and content of communication. One psychiatric example of a formal interview is the mental status examination, which is often used in psychiatry as a screening tool for treatment or further testing.[29]

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text: Diagnostic impressions[edit]

text: After assessment, clinical psychologists may provide a diagnostic impression. Many countries use the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10) while the U.S. most often uses the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Both are nosological systems that largely assume categorical disorders diagnosed through the application of sets of criteria including symptoms and signs.[30]

text: Several new models are being discussed, including a "dimensional model" based on empirically validated models of human differences (such as the five factor model of personality[30][31]) and a "psychosocial model", which would take changing, intersubjective states into greater account.[32] The proponents of these models claim that they would offer greater diagnostic flexibility and clinical utility without depending on the medical concept of illness.[citation needed] However, they also admit that these models are not yet robust enough to gain widespread use, and should continue to be developed.[citation needed]

text: Clinical psychologists do not tend to diagnose, but rather use formulation—an individualized map of the difficulties that the patient or client faces, encompassing predisposing, precipitating and perpetuating (maintaining) factors.[33]

text: Clinical v. mechanical prediction[edit]

text: Clinical assessment can be characterized as a prediction problem where the purpose of assessment is to make inferences (predictions) about past, present, or future behavior.[34] For example, many therapy decisions are made on the basis of what a clinician expects will help a patient make therapeutic gains. Once observations have been collected (e.g., psychological test results, diagnostic impressions, clinical history, X-ray, etc.), there are two mutually exclusive ways to combine those sources of information to arrive at a decision, diagnosis, or prediction. One way is to combine the data in an algorithmic, or "mechanical" fashion. Mechanical prediction methods are simply a mode of combination of data to arrive at a decision/prediction of behavior (e.g., treatment response). Mechanical prediction does not preclude any type of data from being combined; it can incorporate clinical judgments, properly coded, in the algorithm.[34] The defining characteristic is that, once the data to be combined is given, the mechanical approach will make a prediction that is 100% reliable. That is, it will make exactly the same prediction for exactly the same data every time. Clinical prediction, on the other hand, does not guarantee this, as it depends on the decision-making processes of the clinician making the judgment, their current state of mind, and knowledge base.[35] [34]

text: What has come to be called the "clinical versus statistical prediction" debate was first described in detail in 1954 by Paul Meehl,[35] where he explored the claim that mechanical (formal, algorithmic) methods of data combination could outperform clinical (e.g., subjective, informal, "in the clinician's head") methods when such combinations are used to arrive at a prediction of behavior. Meehl concluded that mechanical modes of combination performed as well or better than clinical modes.[35] Subsequent meta-analyses of studies that directly compare mechanical and clinical predictions have born out Meehl's 1954 conclusions.[36][37] A 2009 survey of practicing clinical psychologists found that clinicians almost exclusively use their clinical judgment to make behavioral predictions for their patients, including diagnosis and prognosis.[38]

text: Intervention[edit]

text: Psychotherapy involves a formal relationship between professional and client—usually an individual, couple, family, or small group—that employs a set of procedures intended to form a therapeutic alliance, explore the nature of psychological problems, and encourage new ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving.[2][39]

text: Clinicians have a wide range of individual interventions to draw from, often guided by their training—for example, a cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) clinician might use worksheets to record distressing cognitions, a psychoanalyst might encourage free association, while a psychologist trained in Gestalt techniques might focus on immediate interactions between client and therapist. Clinical psychologists generally seek to base their work on research evidence and outcome studies as well as on trained clinical judgment. Although there are literally dozens of recognized therapeutic orientations, their differences can often be categorized on two dimensions: insight vs. action and in-session vs. out-session.[11]

text:
Insight – emphasis is on gaining greater understanding of the motivations underlying one's thoughts and feelings (e.g. psychodynamic therapy)
Action – focus is on making changes in how one thinks and acts (e.g. solution focused therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy)
In-session – interventions center on the here-and-now interaction between client and therapist (e.g. humanistic therapy, Gestalt therapy)
Out-session – a large portion of therapeutic work is intended to happen outside of session (e.g. bibliotherapy, rational emotive behavior therapy)

text: The methods used are also different in regards to the population being served as well as the context and nature of the problem. Therapy will look very different between, say, a traumatized child, a depressed but high-functioning adult, a group of people recovering from substance dependence, and a ward of the state suffering from terrifying delusions. Other elements that play a critical role in the process of psychotherapy include the environment, culture, age, cognitive functioning, motivation, and duration (i.e. brief or long-term therapy).[39][40]

text: Four main schools[edit]

text: Many clinical psychologists are integrative or eclectic and draw from the evidence base across different models of therapy in an integrative way, rather than using a single specific model.

text: In the UK, clinical psychologists have to show competence in at least two models of therapy, including CBT, to gain their doctorate. The British Psychological Society Division of Clinical Psychology has been vocal about the need to follow the evidence base rather than being wedded to a single model of therapy.

text: In the USA, intervention applications and research are dominated in training and practice by essentially four major schools of practice: psychodynamic, humanistic, behavioral/cognitive behavioral, and systems or family therapy.[2]

text: Psychodynamic[edit]

text: The psychodynamic perspective developed out of the psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud. The core object of psychoanalysis is to make the unconscious conscious—to make the client aware of his or her own primal drives (namely those relating to sex and aggression) and the various defenses used to keep them in check.[39] The essential tools of the psychoanalytic process are the use of free association and an examination of the client's transference towards the therapist, defined as the tendency to take unconscious thoughts or emotions about a significant person (e.g. a parent) and "transfer" them onto another person. Major variations on Freudian psychoanalysis practiced today include self psychology, ego psychology, and object relations theory. These general orientations now fall under the umbrella term psychodynamic psychology, with common themes including examination of transference and defenses, an appreciation of the power of the unconscious, and a focus on how early developments in childhood have shaped the client's current psychological state.[39]

text: Humanistic[edit]

text: Humanistic psychology was developed in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis, largely due to the person-centered therapy of Carl Rogers (often referred to as Rogerian Therapy) and existential psychology developed by Viktor Frankl and Rollo May.[2] Rogers believed that a client needed only three things from a clinician to experience therapeutic improvement—congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathetic understanding.[41] By using phenomenology, intersubjectivity and first-person categories, the humanistic approach seeks to get a glimpse of the whole person and not just the fragmented parts of the personality.[42] This aspect of holism links up with another common aim of humanistic practice in clinical psychology, which is to seek an integration of the whole person, also called self-actualization. From 1980, Hans-Werner Gessmann integrated the ideas of humanistic psychology into group psychotherapy as humanistic psychodrama. [43] According to humanistic thinking,[44] each individual person already has inbuilt potentials and resources that might help them to build a stronger personality and self-concept. The mission of the humanistic psychologist is to help the individual employ these resources via the therapeutic relationship.

text: Behavioral and cognitive behavioral[edit]

text: Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) developed from the combination of cognitive therapy and rational emotive behavior therapy, both of which grew out of cognitive psychology and behaviorism. CBT is based on the theory that how we think (cognition), how we feel (emotion), and how we act (behavior) are related and interact together in complex ways. In this perspective, certain dysfunctional ways of interpreting and appraising the world (often through schemas or beliefs) can contribute to emotional distress or result in behavioral problems. The object of many cognitive behavioral therapies is to discover and identify the biased, dysfunctional ways of relating or reacting and through different methodologies help clients transcend these in ways that will lead to increased well-being.[45] There are many techniques used, such as systematic desensitization, socratic questioning, and keeping a cognition observation log. Modified approaches that fall into the category of CBT have also developed, including dialectic behavior therapy and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy.[46]

text: Behavior therapy is a rich tradition. It is well researched with a strong evidence base. Its roots are in behaviorism. In behavior therapy, environmental events predict the way we think and feel. Our behavior sets up conditions for the environment to feedback back on it. Sometimes the feedback leads the behavior to increase- reinforcement and sometimes the behavior decreases- punishment. Oftentimes behavior therapists are called applied behavior analysts or behavioral health counselors. They have studied many areas from developmental disabilities to depression and anxiety disorders. In the area of mental health and addictions a recent article looked at APA's list for well established and promising practices and found a considerable number of them based on the principles of operant and respondent conditioning.[47] Multiple assessment techniques have come from this approach including functional analysis (psychology), which has found a strong focus in the school system. In addition, multiple intervention programs have come from this tradition including community reinforcement approach for treating addictions, acceptance and commitment therapy, functional analytic psychotherapy, including dialectic behavior therapy and behavioral activation. In addition, specific techniques such as contingency management and exposure therapy have come from this tradition.

text: Systems or family therapy[edit]

text: Systems or family therapy works with couples and families, and emphasizes family relationships as an important factor in psychological health. The central focus tends to be on interpersonal dynamics, especially in terms of how change in one person will affect the entire system.[48] Therapy is therefore conducted with as many significant members of the "system" as possible. Goals can include improving communication, establishing healthy roles, creating alternative narratives, and addressing problematic behaviors.

text: Other therapeutic perspectives[edit]

text: There exist dozens of recognized schools or orientations of psychotherapy—the list below represents a few influential orientations not given above. Although they all have some typical set of techniques practitioners employ, they are generally better known for providing a framework of theory and philosophy that guides a therapist in his or her working with a client.

text: Existential – Existential psychotherapy postulates that people are largely free to choose who we are and how we interpret and interact with the world. It intends to help the client find deeper meaning in life and to accept responsibility for living. As such, it addresses fundamental issues of life, such as death, aloneness, and freedom. The therapist emphasizes the client’s ability to be self-aware, freely make choices in the present, establish personal identity and social relationships, create meaning, and cope with the natural anxiety of living.[49]

text: Gestalt - Gestalt therapy was primarily founded by Fritz Perls in the 1950s. This therapy is perhaps best known for using techniques designed to increase self-awareness, the best-known perhaps being the "empty chair technique." Such techniques are intended to explore resistance to "authentic contact", resolve internal conflicts, and help the client complete "unfinished business".[50]

text:
Postmodern – Postmodern psychology says that the experience of reality is a subjective construction built upon language, social context, and history, with no essential truths.[51] Since "mental illness" and "mental health" are not recognized as objective, definable realities, the postmodern psychologist instead sees the goal of therapy strictly as something constructed by the client and therapist.[52] Forms of postmodern psychotherapy include narrative therapy, solution-focused therapy, and coherence therapy.
Transpersonal – The transpersonal perspective places a stronger focus on the spiritual facet of human experience.[53] It is not a set of techniques so much as a willingness to help a client explore spirituality and/or transcendent states of consciousness. It also is concerned with helping clients achieve their highest potential.

text:
Multiculturalism – Although the theoretical foundations of psychology are rooted in European culture, there is a growing recognition that there exist profound differences between various ethnic and social groups and that systems of psychotherapy need to take those differences into greater consideration.[40] Further, the generations following immigrant migration will have some combination of two or more cultures—with aspects coming from the parents and from the surrounding society—and this process of acculturation can play a strong role in therapy (and might itself be the presenting problem). Culture influences ideas about change, help-seeking, locus of control, authority, and the importance of the individual versus the group, all of which can potentially clash with certain givens in mainstream psychotherapeutic theory and practice.[54] As such, there is a growing movement to integrate knowledge of various cultural groups in order to inform therapeutic practice in a more culturally sensitive and effective way.[55]
Feminism – Feminist therapy is an orientation arising from the disparity between the origin of most psychological theories (which have male authors) and the majority of people seeking counseling being female. It focuses on societal, cultural, and political causes and solutions to issues faced in the counseling process. It openly encourages the client to participate in the world in a more social and political way.[56]
Positive psychology – Positive psychology is the scientific study of human happiness and well-being, which started to gain momentum in 1998 due to the call of Martin Seligman,[57] then president of the APA. The history of psychology shows that the field has been primarily dedicated to addressing mental illness rather than mental wellness. Applied positive psychology's main focus, therefore, is to increase one's positive experience of life and ability to flourish by promoting such things as optimism about the future, a sense of flow in the present, and personal traits like courage, perseverance, and altruism.[58][59] There is now preliminary empirical evidence to show that by promoting Seligman's three components of happiness—positive emotion (the pleasant life), engagement (the engaged life), and meaning (the meaningful life)—positive therapy can decrease clinical depression.[60]

text: Integration[edit]

text: In the last couple of decades, there has been a growing movement to integrate the various therapeutic approaches, especially with an increased understanding of cultural, gender, spiritual, and sexual-orientation issues. Clinical psychologists are beginning to look at the various strengths and weaknesses of each orientation while also working with related fields, such as neuroscience, behavioral genetics, evolutionary biology, and psychopharmacology. The result is a growing practice of eclecticism, with psychologists learning various systems and the most efficacious methods of therapy with the intent to provide the best solution for any given problem.[61]

text: Professional ethics[edit]

text: The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (February 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

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text: The field of clinical psychology in most countries is strongly regulated by a code of ethics. In the U.S., professional ethics are largely defined by the APA Code of Conduct, which is often used by states to define licensing requirements. The APA Code generally sets a higher standard than that which is required by law as it is designed to guide responsible behavior, the protection of clients, and the improvement of individuals, organizations, and society.[62] The Code is applicable to all psychologists in both research and applied fields.

text: The APA Code is based on five principles: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence, Fidelity and Responsibility, Integrity, Justice, and Respect for People's Rights and Dignity.[62] Detailed elements address how to resolve ethical issues, competence, human relations, privacy and confidentiality, advertising, record keeping, fees, training, research, publication, assessment, and therapy.

text: In the UK the British Psychological Society has published a Code of Conduct and Ethics for clinical psychologists. This has four key areas: Respect, Competence, Responsibility and Integrity.[63] Other European professional organisations have similar codes of conduct and ethics.

text: Comparison with other mental health professions[edit]

text: Psychiatry[edit]

text: Although clinical psychologists and psychiatrists can be said to share a same fundamental aim—the alleviation of mental distress—their training, outlook, and methodologies are often quite different. Perhaps the most significant difference is that psychiatrists are licensed physicians. As such, psychiatrists often use the medical model to assess psychological problems (i.e., those they treat are seen as patients with an illness) and rely on psychotropic medications as the chief method of addressing the illness[64]—although many also employ psychotherapy as well. Psychiatrists and medical psychologists (who are clinical psychologists that are also licensed to prescribe) are able to conduct physical examinations, order and interpret laboratory tests and EEGs, and may order brain imaging studies such as CT or CAT, MRI, and PET scanning.

text: Clinical psychologists generally do not prescribe medication, although there is a growing movement for psychologists to have prescribing privileges.[65] These medical privileges require additional training and education. To date, medical psychologists may prescribe psychotropic medications in Guam, Iowa, Idaho, Illinois, New Mexico, Louisiana, the Public Health Service, the Indian Health Service, and the United States Military.[66]

text: Counseling psychology[edit]

text: Counseling psychologists undergo the same level of rigor in study and use many of the same interventions and tools as clinical psychologists, including psychotherapy and assessment. Traditionally, counseling psychologists helped people with what might be considered normal or moderate psychological problems—such as the feelings of anxiety or sadness resulting from major life changes or events.[3][11] However, that distinction has faded over time, and of the counseling psychologists who do not go into academia (which does not involve treatment or diagnosis), the majority of counseling psychologists treat mental illness alongside clinical psychologists. Many counseling psychologists also receive specialized training in career assessment, group therapy, and relationship counseling.

text: Counseling psychology as a field values multiculturalism [67] and social advocacy, often stimulating research in multicultural issues. There are fewer counseling psychology graduate programs than those for clinical psychology and they are more often housed in departments of education rather than psychology. Counseling psychologists tend to be more frequently employed in university counseling centers compared to hospitals and private practice for clinical psychologists.[68] However, counseling and clinical psychologists can be employed in a variety of settings, with a large degree of overlap (prisons, colleges, community mental health, non-profits, corporations, private practice, hospitals and Veterans Affairs). Distinctions between the two fields continue to fade.

text:
Comparison of mental health professionals in USA

Occupation

Degree

Common Licenses

Prescription Privilege

Ave. 2004Income (USD)

Clinical Psychologist

PhD/PsyD

Psychologist

Mostly no

$75,000

Counseling Psychologist (Doctorate)

PhD/PsyD

Psychologist

No

$65,000

Counseling Psychologist (Master's)

MA/MS/MC

MFT/LPC/LPA

No

$49,000

School Psychologist

PhD, EdD

Psychologist

No

$78,000

Psychiatrist

MD/DO

Psychiatrist

Yes

$145,600

Clinical Social Worker

PhD/MSW

LCSW

No

$36,170

Psychiatric Nurse

PhD/MSN/BSN

APRN/PMHN

No

$53,450

Psychiatric and mental health Nurse Practitioner

DNP/MSN

MHNP

Yes (Varies by state)

$75,711

Expressive/Art Therapist

MA

ATR

No

$45,000

text: School psychology[edit]

text: School psychologists are primarily concerned with the academic, social, and emotional well-being of children and adolescents within a scholastic environment. In the U.K., they are known as "educational psychologists". Like clinical (and counseling) psychologists, school psychologists with doctoral degrees are eligible for licensure as health service psychologists, and many work in private practice. Unlike clinical psychologists, they receive much more training in education, child development and behavior, and the psychology of learning. Common degrees include the Educational Specialist Degree (Ed.S.), Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), and Doctor of Education (Ed.D.).

text: Traditional job roles for school psychologists employed in school settings have focused mainly on assessment of students to determine their eligibility for special education services in schools, and on consultation with teachers and other school professionals to design and carry out interventions on behalf of students. Other major roles also include offering individual and group therapy with children and their families, designing prevention programs (e.g. for reducing dropout), evaluating school programs, and working with teachers and administrators to help maximize teaching efficacy, both in the classroom and systemically.[75][76]

text: Clinical social work[edit]

text: Social workers provide a variety of services, generally concerned with social problems, their causes, and their solutions. With specific training, clinical social workers may also provide psychological counseling (in the U.S. and Canada), in addition to more traditional social work. The Masters in Social Work in the U.S. is a two-year, sixty credit program that includes at least a one-year practicum (two years for clinicians).[77]

text: Occupational therapy[edit]

text: Occupational therapy—often abbreviated OT—is the "use of productive or creative activity in the treatment or rehabilitation of physically, cognitively, or emotionally disabled people."[78] Most commonly, occupational therapists work with people with disabilities to enable them to maximize their skills and abilities. Occupational therapy practitioners are skilled professionals whose education includes the study of human growth and development with specific emphasis on the physical, emotional, psychological, sociocultural, cognitive and environmental components of illness and injury. They commonly work alongside clinical psychologists in settings such as inpatient and outpatient mental health, pain management clinics, eating disorder clinics, and child development services. OT's use support groups, individual counseling sessions, and activity-based approaches to address psychiatric symptoms and maximize functioning in life activities.

text: Criticisms and controversies[edit]

text: Clinical psychology is a diverse field and there have been recurring tensions over the degree to which clinical practice should be limited to treatments supported by empirical research.[79] Despite some evidence showing that all the major therapeutic orientations are about of equal effectiveness,[80][81] there remains much debate about the efficacy of various forms treatment in use in clinical psychology.[82]

text: It has been reported that clinical psychology has rarely allied itself with client groups and tends to individualize problems to the neglect of wider economic, political and social inequality issues that may not be the responsibility of the client.[79] It has been argued that therapeutic practices are inevitably bound up with power inequalities, which can be used for good and bad.[83] A critical psychology movement has argued that clinical psychology, and other professions making up a "psy complex", often fail to consider or address inequalities and power differences and can play a part in the social and moral control of disadvantage, deviance and unrest.[84][85]

text: An October 2009 editorial in the journal Nature suggests that a large number of clinical psychology practitioners in the United States consider scientific evidence to be "less important than their personal – that is, subjective – clinical experience."[86]


document_title: FIFA World Cup anthems and songs

question_text: what is the fifa world cup theme song

question_tokens: what is the fifa world cup theme song

text: FIFA World Cup anthems and songs

text: Anthems and Songs[edit]

text:
World Cup

Country

Title

Language

Performer(s)

Writer(s) & Producer(s)

Official Audio(s)&Video(s)

Live Performance

 1962
 Chile
"El Rock del Mundial"
Spanish
Los Ramblers
Jorge Rojas Astorga
Audio

 1966
 England
"World Cup Willie (Where in this World are We Going)"
English
Lonnie Donegan

Audio

 1970
 Mexico
"Fútbol México 70"
Spanish
Los Hermanos Zavala
Roberto do Nascimento
Audio

 1974
 West Germany
"Futbol"
Polish, English, GermanRussian, Spanish
Maryla Rodowicz
Jonasz Kofta, Leszek Bogdanowicz
Audio

Live Performance - Opening Ceremony

 1978
 Argentina
"El Mundial"

Buenos Aires Municipal Symphony
Ennio Morricone
Audio

 1982
 Spain
"Mundial '82"
Spanish

Plácido Domingo
Audio

 1986
 Mexico
"A Special Kind of Hero"[3]
English
Stephanie Lawrence
Rick Wakeman
1986 World Cup Official Film

"Hot Hot Hot"[4]
English
Arrow
Alphonsus Cassell and Leston Paul[5]
Music Video

"El mundo unido por un balón" (Official Song)
Spanish
Juan Carlos Abara
Spanish
Audio

 1990
 Italy
"Un'estate italiana (To Be Number One)"
Italian, English
Edoardo Bennato and Gianna Nannini (Italian)Giorgio Moroder Project (English)
Edoardo Bennato, Giorgio Moroder, Gianna Nannini and Tom Whitlock
Official Music Video (Italian-1)Official Music Video (Italian-2)Official Music Video (English-1)Official Music Video (English-2)

Live Performance - Opening Ceremony (Italian)
Live Performance - Opening Ceremony (English)

 1994
 United States
"Gloryland"
English
Daryl Hall and Sounds of Blackness
Charlie Skarbek and Rick Blaskey
Official Music Video-1Official Music Video-2Music Video (Instrumental-1)Music Video (Instrumental-2)Audio

Live Performance - Opening Ceremony

"We Are the Champions"
English
Queen

Official Music Video
Official Lyric Video

 1998
 France
"La Cour des Grands (Do You Mind If I Play)" (Official Anthem)
French, English
Youssou N'Dour & Axelle Red

Official Music Video

Live Performance - Opening Ceremony

"La Copa de la Vida (The Cup of Life)" (Official Song)
English, Spanish
Ricky Martin
Desmond Child and Robi Rosa
Official Music Video (English)Official Music Video (Spanish)

"Carnaval de Paris"

Dario G
Dario G
Official Music Video

"Together Now"
English, Spanish
Jean Michel Jarre and Tetsuya Komuro
Jean Michel Jarre, Tetsuya Komuro and Olivia Lufkin

Official Music Video

 2002
 South Korea   Japan(Jointly Hosted)
"Anthem" (Official Anthem)

Vangelis
Vangelis / Takkyu Ishino
Music VideoAudio (Synthesized)Music Video (Remixed)

"Boom" (Official Song)
English
Anastacia
Anastacia, Glen Ballard
Official Music Video

"Let's Get Together Now" (Official Local Song)
Japanese, Korean
Voices of KOREA/JAPAN

Live Performance - Opening CeremonyLive Performance - Closing Ceremony

"Vamos Al Mundial" (Univision Version)
Spanish
Jennifer Peña
Claudia Garcia
Official Music Video

 2006
 Germany
"Zeit dass sich was dreht (Celebrate The Day)" (Official Anthem)
German, French, BambaraEnglish
Herbert Grönemeyer featuring Amadou & Mariam
Herbert Grönemeyer
Official Music Video

Live Performance - Opening Ceremony

"The Time of Our Lives" (Official Song)
English, Spanish
Il Divo featuring Toni Braxton
Jörgen Elofsson & Steve Mac
Official Music Video

"Hips Don't Lie (Bamboo mix)"
English, Spanish
Shakira featuring Wyclef Jean
Jerry Duplessis, Omar Alfanno & LaTavia Parker
Official Music Video

Love Generation (song)

English

Bob Sinclar featuring Gary Pine

Duane Harden, Christophe le Friant, Gary Pine, Jay Woodhouse, JG Schreiner, Alain Wisniak

Official Music Video

"Arriba, Arriba"
Spanish
Ana Barbara, Mariana Seoane, Anaís Martínez, Pablo Montero

Music Video

 2010
 South Africa
"Sign of a Victory" (Official Anthem)
English
R. Kelly featuring  Soweto Spiritual Singers
R. Kelly
Official Music Video

"Waka Waka"
English, Spanish, Fang
Shakira featuring Freshlyground
Shakira, Freshlyground
Official Music Video

Live Performance - Closing Ceremony

"Wavin' Flag" (official FIFA song)
English
K'Naan
K'naan, Bruno Mars, Philip Lawrence, Jean Daval
Official Music Video

"Wavin' Flag" (Spanish Celebration Mix)

English, Spanish

K'Naan, David Bisbal

Official Music Video

 2014
 Brazil
"Dar um Jeito (We Will Find a Way)" (Official Anthem)
English, Portuguese, Spanish
Carlos Santana featuring  Wyclef & Avicii & Alexandre Pires
Alexandre Pires, Arash Pournouri, Rami Yacoub, Carl FalkTim Bergling, Arnon Woolfson, Diogo Vianna, Wyclef Jean
Official Music Video

"We Are One (Ole Ola)" (Official Song)[6]
English, Portuguese, Spanish
Pitbull featuring Jennifer Lopez & Claudia Leitte
Jennifer Lopez, Claudia Leitte, Pitbull, Thomas Troelsen Danny Mercer, Sia Furler, Lukasz Gottwald, Henry Walter, Nadir Khayat
Official Music Video

"Tatu Bom de Bola" (Official Mascot Song)
Portuguese
Arlindo Cruz
Arlindo Cruz
Official Music Video

"La La La (Brasil 2014)"
English , Portuguese, Spanish
Shakira featuring Carlinhos Brown
Shakira, Carlinhos Brown, Jay Singh, Lukasz GottwaldMathieu Jomphe-Lepine, Max Martin Henry Walter, Raelene Arreguin, John J Conte Jr.
Official Music Video

"Magic in the Air"
French
Magic System and Chawki
Magic System (A'Salfo, Manadja,Goudé, Tino), RedOne, Alex PChawki
Official Music Video

"Adrenalina" (Univision version)
Spanish
Wisin, Ricky Martin and J-LO
Juan Luis Morera, José Torres, Carlos E. Ortiz
Official Music Video

"Time of Our Lives" (The Official BeIN Sports Song)
Arabic, French, English
Ahmed Chawki
RedOne
Official Music Video

"The World Is Ours"[7] (Coca-Cola official promotional anthem)

English

David Correy, Monobloco

Official Music Video

"La Copa de Todos" (Coca-Cola promotional anthem Spanish mix)

Spanish, English

David Correy, Paty Cantú, Wisin, Monobloco

Official Music Video

 2018
 Russia
"Live It Up" (Official Song)
English, Spanish
Nicky Jam featuring Will Smith and Era Istrefi
Nicky Jam, Will Smith, Era Istrefi
Diplo

Official Audio
Official Music Video

"Komanda 2018" (Команда 2018, Team 2018) [8]

Russian
Polina Gagarina featuring Egor Kreed and DJ Smash

DJ Smash

Official Music Video

"Colors" (Coca-Cola promotional anthem) and also (Spanglish version) & (Pakistani version)
English,
Spanish, Urdu

Jason Derulo, Maluma, Qurat-ul-Ain Balouch
Jason Derulo, Robin Weisse, Jamie Sanderson, Nija Charles, Ishmael Sadiq Montague, Geoffrey Earley, Diamond Platnumz
Sermstyle, ISM

Official Music Video
Official Spanish Music Video
Official Pakistani Music Video
Official Swahili Music Video

"Positivo" (Telemundo Version)
Spanish
J Balvin and Michael Brun
J Balvin, Michael Brun, Fernando Lugo

Official PromoOfficial Music Video

"United by Love"[9][10][11][12][13][14]
English, Russian, Spanish
Natalia Oreiro
Ettore Grenci, Sonia Molina, Diego Córdoba
Official Lyrics Video
Official Music Video

text: Official albums[edit]

text:
1994 – Gloryland World Cup USA 94
1998 – Music of the World Cup: Allez! Ola! Ole!
2002 – The Official Album of the 2002 FIFA World Cup
2006 – Voices from the FIFA World Cup
2010 – Listen Up! The Official 2010 FIFA World Cup Album
2014 – One Love, One Rhythm – The 2014 FIFA World Cup Official Album


document_title: Chief Justice of Nigeria

question_text: who is the chief justice of nigeria today

text: Chief Justice of Nigeria

text: List of Chief Justices[edit]

text: Source: Federal Judicial Service Commission, Nigeria

text:
Chief Justice
Term

Sir Edwin Speed
1914–1918

Sir Ralph Combe
1918–1929

Donald Kingdon
1929–1946

Sir John Verity
1946–1954

Sir Stafford Sutton
1955–1958

Adetokunbo Ademola
1958–1972

Taslim Olawale Elias
1972–1975

Darnley Arthur Alexander
1975–1979

Atanda Fatai Williams
1979–1983

George Sodeinde Sowemimo
1983–1985

Ayo Gabriel Irikefe
1985–1987

Mohammed Bello
1987–1995

Muhammad Lawal Uwais
1995–2006

Salihu Moddibo Alfa Belgore
2006–2007

Idris Legbo Kutigi
2007–2009

Aloysius Iyorgyer Katsina-Alu
2009–2011

Dahiru Musdapher
2011–2012

Aloma Mariam Mukhtar[2][3]
2012–2014

Mahmud Mohammed
2014–2016

Walter Samuel Nkanu Onnoghen
2017–

text: List of previous Chief Justices[edit]

text:
Sir William Nicholl (1902 – 1908)
Sir Thomas Crossley Rayner (1895 – 1902)
Sir John Salman Smith (1886 – 1895)
James Marshall (1874 – 1886)
George French (1867 – 1874)
John Carr (1866 – ) (West African Settlements Supreme Court)
Benjamin Way (? – 1866)

text:
Sir Edwin Speed (1908 – 1913)
Sir M R Mendez (1905 – 1908)
Henry Cowper Gollan (1901 – 1905)
Alastair Davidson (1900 – 1901)

text:
Willoughby Osborne (1906 – 1913)
Henry Green Kelly (1900 – 1902)


document_title: Education in Kenya

question_text: when did free primary education start in kenya

text: Education in Kenya

text: Education system structure[edit]

text: The current education system is organised into five main levels:

text:
Kindergarten year 1 (KG1)
Kindergarten year 2 (KG2)
Kindergarten year 3 (KG3)

text:
Lower primary: 4 years
Upper primary: 4 years
High school: 4 years
Adult education (Gumbaro)

text:
Artisan level: 1 term/semester
Craft level: 2 terms/semesters

text:
Technician (certificate) level: 6 terms/semesters
Technologist (diploma or bachelor's degree) level: 9 terms/semesters
Statutory registration and licensing (examinations/internship) level: 1 year
Specialist technologist (higher diploma or master's degree) level: 3 terms/semesters
Sub-specialist level (higher diploma, master's degree or PhD)

text:
Certificate: 1 semester
Ordinary diploma: 2 semesters (minimum)
Undergraduate degree: 8 semesters
Postgraduate diploma: 2 semesters
Bachelor of Philosophy or Master's degree: 4 semesters (minimum)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree

text: History[edit]

text: Historical records not only from the travels of Johann Ludwig Krapf and Johannes Rebmann reveal that Kenyans had access to education as far back as 1728 with a Swahili manuscript Utendi wa Tambuka (Book of Heraclius) attesting to the fact. The CMS missionaries interacted with locals in the coastal town of Mombasa and set up one of the earliest mission schools in the country at Rabai in 1846.

text: With the expansion of the railway from Mombasa to Uganda, the missionaries expanded their work into Kenya's interior. An attempt to set up a school and mission at Yatta in 1894 was resisted by the Kamba tribe. The missionaries then penetrated into western Kenya and set up schools and missions. The first school in western Kenya was established at Kaimosi in 1902. During the colonial era, the number of Kenyans with exposure to education steadily increased and a good number of them were privileged to proceed abroad for further education.

text: Among those who furthered their education abroad in the colonial era were Jomo Kenyatta, who attended Woodbrooke College and London School of Economics, Charles Njonjo, who attended Grays Inn Law School, Peter Mbiyu Koinange, who attended Columbia University, Mwai Kibaki who attended London School of Economics, R. Mugo Gatheru who attended Roosevelt University, Tom Mboya, who attended Ruskin College, Oxford, Masinde Muliro, who attended University of Cape Town, Julius Gikonyo Kiano who attended Stanford University, Paul Ngei and Barack Obama Sr., who attended the University of Hawaii at Manoa.

text: Julius Gikonyo Kiano was the first Kenyan to obtain a PhD. He returned to Kenya and was instrumental in establishing a school in Githunguri. The trend steadily rose over the years and by the time of independence in 1963, 840,000 African children were attending elementary school.

text: The earliest schools in Kenya[edit]

text:
School at Rabai near Mombasa – established 1846
Nairobi School established 1902.
Friends School Kaimosi, now Kaimosi Friends Primary School, established in 1903
Maseno School, established in 1906
Government Indian School or The Duke of Gloucester School, now Jamhuri High School, established 1906
Tumutumu Mission School, now Tumutumu Girls’ High School established in 1908.
European Girls' School, now Kenya High School established 1908.
Thogoto School, now Thogoto Teachers’ Training College established 1910.
Kaimosi Girls High School, established 1920
Allidina Visram High School, Mombasa established 1921
Kaimosi Boys High School, established 1921
Limuru Girls School, established 1922
Waa High School, Kwale County established 1923
Kenton College, established 1924 Kijabi 1935 Kileleshwa
Mang'u High School, established 1925.
Kapsabet High School, established 1925.
Alliance School, now Alliance High School (Kenya) established in 1926.
St. Mary's School Yala, established in 1927.
Highlands High School, now Moi Girls' High School – Eldoret established in 1928.
Kitale Primary, later Kitale Academy, now Kitale School established 1929
Kisii School, established in 1932

text: Pre and post colonial education Systems[edit]

text: Kenya began a campaign for free primary education after independence in 1963. Since then, the system of education has undergone transformation twice. Before independence elementary education was based on the colonial system of education.

text: East African Community (7–4–2–3 System)[edit]

text: In 1967, Kenya, with Uganda and Tanzania, formed the East African Community. The three countries adopted a single system of education, the 7–4–2–3, which consisted of 7 years of primary education, 4 years of secondary education, 2 years of high school and 3–5 years of university education. Under the system, which was similar to the British system of education, children began their elementary (primary) education at the age of 7 and completed at the age of 13 after sitting for a regional examination known as the East African Certificate of Primary Education (EACPE).

text: After primary education those who passed very well proceeded to secondary school which ended four years later with the writing of the East African Certificate of Education examination (EACE). The highest level of education that qualified one to attend university was attained after two years of high school at that time distinct from secondary school with students sitting for the East African Advanced Certificate of Education (EAACE).

text: Kenya 7–4–2–3 System[edit]

text: With the collapse of the East African community in 1977, Kenya continued with the same system of education but changed the examination names from their regional identity to a national identity. The East African Certificate of Primary Education became the Certificate of Primary Education (CPE), the first time the C.P.E was marked by a computer system, the East African Certificate of Education became the Kenya Certificate of Education (KCE) and the East African Advanced Certificate of Education became the Kenya Advanced Certificate of Education (KACE).

text: 8–4–4 Curriculum[edit]

text: In 1985 President Daniel arap Moi, introduced the 8–4–4 system of education, which adopted 8 years of primary education, 4 years of secondary education and 4 years of university education. With the introduction of the 8–4–4 system CPE became KCPE (Kenya Certificate of Primary Education) while KCE became the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE).

text: Since 1985, public education in Kenya has been based on an 8–4–4 system,[1][2] with eight years of primary education followed by four years of secondary school and four years of college or university. To date, there has been steady growth in the advancement of education in the country. the country boasts of a great number of public and private universities as well as middle-level colleges.

text: British Curriculum[edit]

text: Some private schools, however, offer a system of education similar to the British system of education with ordinary level exams, "O-levels" taken at the end of 4 years of secondary school and advanced levels "A-levels", taken after two years of high school.

text: Transition rates and Overall Performance[edit]

text: Out of all children in Kenya about 85 percent attend primary school. 75 percent of those who complete primary education proceed to secondary schools and 60 percent of those who complete secondary school proceed to higher institutions of education which include business and vocational institutions, national polytechnics, public and private universities within the country. Over 950,000 Kenyans have furthered their education abroad with a majority of graduates from India, UK, Canada, the United States, Russia and Uganda.

text: Education quality[edit]

text: Education quality has recently received a lot of attention in Kenya. The government's main document in this effort, the Kenya Education Sector Support Programme for 2005–2010, established the National Assessment Centre (NAC) to monitor learning achievement. In 2010, the NAC released the results of its first assessment.

text: In 2009, in collaboration with the NAC, Uwezo Kenya conducted an assessment of the basic literacy and numeracy skills of children ages 6–16. The Annual Learning Assessment (ALA) reached villages in 70 out of 158 districts in Kenya and assessed nearly 70,000 children in their homes. The ALA was set at a Standard 2 level, which is the level where students are supposed to achieve basic competency in reading English and Kiswahili and complete simple arithmetic problems. The chart below shows the percent of children who could not read a Standard 2 level paragraph or solve Standard 2 level subtraction problems:[3]

text:
Level of Children Assessed
Cannot Read English Paragraph
Cannot Read Swahili Paragraph
Cannot Do Subtraction

Standard 2
85%
79%

Standard 5
27%
23%
30%

Standard 8
4%
4%
10%

text: Key findings about education in Kenya, based on the results of the Uwezo 2009 assessment:[4]

text:
Literacy levels are low, and are substantially lower in certain regions. Girls tend to perform better in reading English and Kiswahili, while boys tend to perform better in math.
Literacy levels are lower in public schools than private schools.
Most children can solve real world, "ethno-mathematics" problems, while fewer can solve similar math problems in an abstract, pencil and paper format.
5% of children are not enrolled in school, but the problem is far worse in particular regions.
About half of children are enrolled in pre-school.
Many children are older than expected for their class level, including 40% of children in class 2, and 60% of children in class 7.
North Eastern Province and arid districts in Rift Valley and Eastern Provinces have particularly low performance; and many older children, especially girls, are not attending school.
Many families pay for extra tuition, which focuses heavily on drilling and exam preparation.
Schools struggle to plan their budgets because they receive funds at unpredictable times.
Children whose mothers are educated, particularly beyond primary school, tend to have much higher rates of literacy and numeracy.
About 15% of students are absent on a given day, with much higher absenteeism in certain districts as a result of increased poverty level.
There is a severe shortage of teachers, estimated at 4 teachers per school.
The reluctance of the government to invest in educational institutions in marginalised areas thereby developing schools in cities only which result in inefficient education process in arid and semi-arid areas
embezzlement of public funds by school administrators and lack of accountability of the use of government grants and high levels of corruption in educational institutions

text: Primary education[edit]

text: Primary education in Kenya begins at the age of 5 to 7 after completion of a year of kindergarten commonly known as Nursery School or pre-unit. The first class or year of primary school is known as Standard 1, the final year as Standard 8 and primary school children are known as pupils. The school year at both primary and secondary levels, begins in January and ends in November. Students get 3 school vacations in April, August and December.

text: At the end of the school year students advance to the next grade.Since repetition was banned students still progress to the next grade even though they fail their examinations. Most primary schools are day schools with pupils living at home. Fewer schools at primary level are boarding schools compared to secondary schools. All public primary school pupils sit for the Kenya Certificate of Primary Education examination at the end of the school year in Standard eight.[citation needed] In primary school, students are taught English, Kiswahili and Indigenous language activities.[5]

text: In January 2003 President Mwai Kibaki re-introduced free primary education which previously existed before the mid 80s when the government adopted cost sharing measures that led to a minor level of school fees charged by primary schools for text books, PTA, and extra curricular activities. Since 2003, education in public schools became free and compulsory ( Kenya Constitution,Article 53, 2010). On learning that primary education had once again become free in Kenya, Kimani Maruge, an uneducated farmer and the world's oldest person to enroll in primary school joined Kapkenduiywo primary school in Eldoret at the age of 84. He was elected head boy at the age of 86 in 2005.[6]

text: Secondary education[edit]

text: Secondary schools in Kenya fall into three categories – government funded, harambee and private. Government funded schools are divided into national, provincial and district levels. Harambee schools do not receive full funding from the government and private schools are run by private organisations or individuals. After taking the primary school leaving exam and successfully passing, government funded schools select students in order of scores.

text: Students with the highest scores gain admission into national schools while those with average scores are selected into provincial and district schools. Harambee schools accept students with low scores. Students who fail their examinations pursue technical and vocational education. The latter is divided into technical secondary school (lasting 4 years) and apprenticeships solutions. Since 2010, technical secondary schools student can have access to university programs.[7] A number of students also drop out of school by choice due to poor scores.

text: Under the current system, students attend secondary school for four years before sitting for the school leaving exam at the end of the fourth year. The first class or year of secondary school is known as form 1 and the final year is form 4. At the end of the fourth year, from October to November students sit for the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education examination. In 2008, the government introduced plans to offer free Secondary education to all Kenyans.

text: Historic prestigious national high schools include Mang'u High School, Alliance High School (Kenya) and Starehe Boys' Centre and School. Private secondary schools in Kenya are generally high cost, offering students an alternative system of education with better or more luxurious facilities compared to public schools. They are often favoured for prestige. Most private schools in Kenya offer the British system of education which includes "O-levels" and "A-levels". Very few offer the American system of education and good number of them offer the Kenya system. Some of the oldest private schools in Kenya include Loreto Convent Msongari, Nairobi (1921), St. Mary's School, Nairobi, Braeburn School, Consolata School, Strathmore School, Oshwal Academy, Rift Valley Academy, Aga Khan Academy, Kenton College and Brookhouse School,

text: KCSE grading system[edit]

text:
Grade
A
A-
B+
B
B-
C+
C
C-
D+
D
D-
E

Points
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

text: The average grade is based on performance in the eight subjects. Where a candidate sits for more than eight subjects, the average grade is based on the best eight subjects. University matriculation is based on the best eight and performance in particular subjects relevant to degree courses. Example below:

text:
Subject
Group
Grade
Points

English
1
B+
10

Kiswahili
1
A-
11

Mathematics
1
A
12

History & Government
3
B
9

Geography
3
A-
11

Physics
2
B+
10

Chemistry
2
B-
8

Biology
2
A-
11

text: The total number of points is 81.

text: The average grade is 81 divided by 8, which equals 10.1 (approximately 10.0 points) which is Grade B+ according to the grading system. This student qualifies to join one of the Public Universities for his good score. Training institutions and faculties and departments determine their own minimum entry requirements.

text: Students who manage a grade of C+ qualify to do a degree course at the university. Owing to competition, and fewer places at the University, those with B and in a few cases B-, and above are taken for degree courses at the public universities and benefit by paying government-subsidised fees. The rest join private universities or middle-level colleges.

text: Interestingly(hilariously) the number of students admitted to public universities through J.A.B. depends on the total number of BEDS available in all the public universities. Nonetheless, those who miss out but attained the minimum university entry mark of C+ or C with a relevant diploma certificate are admitted through the parallel degree programmes (module II) if they can afford the full fees for the course.

text: This has been the subject of much discussion with people questioning the rationale and morality of locking out qualified students from public institutions yet still admitting those who come from financially able families.

text: Technical and Vocational Education and Training Institutions[edit]

text: These are two- or three-year post secondary school institutions also termed colleges. They award certificates, diplomas and higher national diplomas after successful completion of relevant courses. Courses offered by these institutions include Business Education, Accounting, Secretarial Studies, Nursing, Teacher Training, Computer Studies, Journalism, Media, Design, Culinary Studies, Foreign Languages, Tourism and Technical Skills. In order of credibility or accreditation, national polytechnics rank first, followed by government training institutes, teacher training colleges and private institutions. Although generally termed colleges, these institution do not award degrees. Degrees are only awarded by universities.

text: From July 2014, all government and private institutions offering Technical and Vocational Education and Training where put under "TVETA". Retrieved 10 October 2016. .[8] this act normalized this sector as it had become tainted by unaccredited institutions offering substandard education as revealed by "The Standard".  and "The Star". 2 December 2015.  As of October 10, 2016 there were 540 isntitutions accredited by the Authority[9]

text: Government TVET Institutions[edit]

text: There are three types of government TVET institutions in Kenya. these are;National Polytechnics,Technical Institutions and Vocational Education Centers(formerly Youth Polytechnics)[10] Notable Institutions include

text:
Technical University of Kenya
Technical University of Mombasa
Rift Valley Technical Training_Institute

text: University education[edit]

text: There are 48 universities in Kenya, 22 of which are public and 26 private. The University of Nairobi is the oldest public university in Kenya while KAG East university is the oldest among the private universities.

text: Public universities and their constituent colleges[edit]

text: Public universities[edit]

text:
Sno
University Name
Area
Year Chartered
Original name
Year established
Campus

1
University of Nairobi
Nairobi
1970
Royal Technical College, Royal College Nairobi
1956
Main campus, Kikuyu campus, Chiromo campus, Lower Kabete campus, Upper Kabete campus, Parklands campus, Embu University college,[11] South Eastern Univ. College Kitui, Kisumu campus, Mombasa campus

2
Moi University
Eldoret
1984
Moi University
1984
CONSTITUENT COLLEGES: Garissa University College, Rongo University College, CAMPUSES: Odera Akang'o yala campus, Mombasa Campus, Kericho Campus, Kitale Campus, Alupe Campus, Nairobi Campus,

3
Kenyatta University
Kiambu
1985
Kenyatta University College
1965
Main campus, Parklands campus, Ruiru campus, City campus, Kitui campus, Mombasa campus, Nakuru campus, Pwani University College, Machakos University College

4
Egerton University
Njoro
1988
Egerton Farm School, Egerton Agricultural College
1939
Kisii university college and Laikipia university college

5
Maseno University
Maseno
1991
Maseno Govt. Training Institute, Siriba Teachers College
1955
Oginga Odinga University

6
Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology
Kiambu
1994
Jomo Kenyatta College of Agriculture
1981
Multimedia University College of Kenya, Meru University College of Science and Technology, Murang'a University College,[12]

7
Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology
Kakamega
2007
Western College of Arts and Applied Sciences
1972
CONSTITUENT COLLEGES, Kibabii University College, Turkana University Uollege, Kaimosi University College, Main campus in Kakamega and Mumias campus

8
Dedan Kimathi University of Technology
Nyeri
2012
Kimathi Institute of Technology, Kimathi University College of Technology (2007) as a Constituent College of Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology
1972
Main Campus, Nyeri

9
Chuka University
Chuka
2012
Egerton University Eastern Campus College, Chuka University College (2007) as a Constituent College of Egerton University
2004
Main Campus, Chuka

10
Technical University of Kenya
Nairobi
2013
Kenya Technical Institute, Kenya Polytechnic, Kenya Polytechnic University College (2007) as a Constituent College of the University of Nairobi
1961
Main Campus, Nairobi

11
Technical University of Mombasa
Mombasa
2013
(MIOME), Mombasa Technical Institute [1966], Mombasa Polytechnic [1976], The Mombasa Polytechnic University College [2007] as a Constituent College of Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology
1940
Main Campus, Tudor. Satellite Campuses in Kwale and Lamu County

12
Pwani University
Kilifi
2013
Kilifi Institute of Agriculture, Pwani University College as a Constituent College of Kenyatta University
2007
Main Campus, Kilifi

13
Kisii University
Kisii
2013
Primary Teachers’ Training College (1965), Secondary Teachers' College (1983), Egerton Campus (1994), Kisii University College (2007) as a Constituent College of Egerton University
1965
Main Campus, Kisii Town Campus

14
University of Eldoret
Eldoret
2013
Chepkoilel University College as a Constituent College of Moi University

Main Campus Eldoret

15
Maasai Mara University
Narok
2013
Narok University College as a Constituent College of Moi University
2008
Main Campus, Narok

16
Jaramogi Oginga Odinga University of Science and Technology
Kisumu
2013
Bondo Teachers Training College, Bondo University College, as a Constituent College of Maseno University
(2009)
Main Campus, Lake Victoria

17
Laikipia University
Laikipia
2013
LSFTC (1965), AHITI (1979), Egerton University Campus (1990), Laikipia University College, as a Constituent College of Egerton University

Main Campus, Nyahururu town Campus, Naivasha Campus, Nakuru Campus, Maralal Campus

18
South Eastern Kenya University
Kitui
2013
Ukamba Agricultural Institute (Ukai), South Eastern University College (Seuco)
2008
SEKU Main Campus, Machakos Town Campus, Kitui Town Campus, Wote Town Campus, Mtito-Andei Campus,Nairobi City Campus.

19
Multimedia University of Kenya
Nairobi
2013
Central Training School (CTS) to serve East African Posts Training School (1948), (KCCT) Kenya College of Communications Technology (1992), Multimedia University college of Kenya
2008
(MMU) Main Campus

20
University of Kabianga
Kericho
2013
The Government School, Kabianga (1925), Kabianga Teachers’ Training College (1929), Kabianga Framers Training Cente (1959), Kabianga Campus of Moi University (2007), Kabianga University College
2009
(UoK) Main Campus, Kapkatet Campus, Kericho Satellite Campus, Satellite Campus

21
Karatina University
Karatina
2013
Moi University Central Kenya Campus, Karatina University College
2008
Main Campus, Karatina Town Campus, Itiati Campus, Nanyuki Campus, Riverbank Campus

22
Meru University of Science and Technology
Meru
2013
(MECOTECH) Meru College of Technology (1979), (MUCST) Meru University College of Science and Technology
2008
MUST Main Campus, Meru Town Campus

23
Kirinyaga University
Kerugoya
2016
Kirinyaga Technical Institute, Kirinyaga University College

text: Private universities[edit]

text: There are 3 categories of private universities: chartered universities – fully accredited universities, by the Commission for Higher Education; universities, which had been offering degrees long before the establishment of the Commission for Higher Education; and universities authorised to operate with Letters of Interim Authority (LIA).

text: Chartered universities[edit]

text:
KAG East University
University of Eastern Africa, Baraton.
Alliant International University or United States International University – USIU.
Catholic University of Eastern Africa – CUEA.
Daystar University.
Kabarak University.
Strathmore University.
Kenya Methodist University.(KeMU)
Africa Nazarene University.
St. Paul's University.
Kenya Methodist University.
Pan Africa Christian University.
Scott Christian University.
Maasai Mara University.
Mount Kenya University.
Kenya Highlands Evangelical University. Formerly Kenya Highlands Bible College – KHBC
Great Lakes University of Kisumu
Africa International University (formerly NEGST)
KCA University
Adventist University of Africa (Rongai).
Pwani University (KILIFI)
Pan Africa Christian University
Cooperative University of Kenya

text: Universities with Letters of Interim Authority (LIA)[edit]

text:
Aga Khan University.
Kiriri Women's University of Science and Technology.
Presbyterian University of East Africa.
Gretsa University.
Inoorero University
The East African University
UMMA University
Management University of Africa
Riara University
Pioneer International University

text: Universities operating with Certificates of Registration[edit]

text: [[The Nairobi International School of theology

text: Factors affecting education in Kenya[edit]

text:
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text: In 2003 the Kenyan government promised free primary education to its citizens. In the early 70s primary school fees were abolished but in the mid 80s cost-sharing measures between the government and its citizens led to the re-introduction of minor fee charges by primary schools. As the trend continued with schools requiring parents to pay fees such as PTA, harambee, textbooks, uniforms, caution fees, exam fees and extracurricular activity fees, most parents became overburdened and unable to raise such fees. Those who could not afford the money to pay for their children's school fees often had their children drop out of the school. Many children were also forced to drop out of school when teachers would not allow them to take exams. To pressurise parents to pay fees, schools often sent children home during the final exams.

text: The growth of Kenya's education sector has exceeded expectations. After the first university was established in 1970, six other public universities and 23 private universities have been established. Although Kenya has its own universities, some parents prefer to send their children to universities outside the country. This is largely because Kenyan public universities are not as flexible with admission requirements as some foreign universities. Another factor that has been pointed out is that youth with disabilities are facing major obstacles to progress in higher education, and measures as affirmative action or measures tailored to the needs of particular profiles of students could play a relevant role in this.[13]


document_title: Governor of California

question_text: how long can you be governor in california

text: Governor of California

text: Gubernatorial elections, oath, and term of office[edit]

text: Governors are elected by popular ballot and serve terms of four years, with a limit of two terms, if served after November 6, 1990.[2] Governors take the following oath:

text: I (Governor) do solemnly swear that I will support and defend the Constitution of the United States and the Constitution of the State of California against all enemies foreign and domestic, that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution of the United States and the Constitution of the State of California, that I take this obligation freely without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion and that I will well and faithfully discharge the duties upon which I am about to enter.

text: Governors take office on the first Monday after January 1 after their election.

text: Gubernatorial removal[edit]

text: There are two methods available to remove a governor before the expiration of the gubernatorial term of office.

text: Impeachment and removal by the legislature[edit]

text: The governor can be impeached for "misconduct in office" by the State Assembly and removed by a two-thirds vote of the State Senate.

text: Recall by the voters[edit]

text: Petitions signed by California state voters equal in number to 12% of the last vote for the office of governor (with signatures from each of 5 counties equal in number to 1% of the last vote for governor in the county) can launch a gubernatorial recall election. The voters can then vote on whether or not to recall the incumbent governor, and on the same ballot they can vote a potential replacement. If a majority of the voters in the election vote to recall the governor, then the person who gains a plurality of the votes in the replacement race will become governor.

text: The 2003 California recall began with a petition drive that successfully forced sitting Democratic Governor Gray Davis into a special recall election. It marked the first time in the history of California that a governor faced a recall election. He was subsequently voted out of office, becoming the second governor in the history of the United States to be recalled after Lynn Frazier of North Dakota in 1921. He was replaced by Republican Arnold Schwarzenegger.

text: Relationship with Lieutenant Governor of California[edit]

text: The Lieutenant Governor of California is separately elected during the same election, not jointly as the running mate of the gubernatorial candidate. California has had a governor and a lieutenant governor of different parties 26 of the past 31 years. This occasionally becomes significant, since the California Constitution provides that all the powers of the governor fall to the lieutenant governor whenever the governor is not in the state of California, with the lieutenant governor often signing or vetoing legislation, or making political appointments, whenever the governor leaves the state. The lieutenant governor is also the President of the California State Senate. In practice, there is a gentlemen's agreement for the Lieutenant Governor not to perform more than perfunctory duties while the Governor is away from the state. This agreement was violated when Mike Curb was in office, as he signed several executive orders at odds with the Brown administration when Brown was out of the state. Court rulings have upheld the lieutenant governor's right to perform the duties and assume all of the prerogatives of governor while the governor is out of the state.[3]

text: Gubernatorial facts[edit]

text: Age and longevity[edit]

text:
Peter Burnett had the longest post-governorship, 44 years. He left office in 1851 and died in 1895.
Excluding governors who died in office, Robert Waterman had the shortest post-governorship. He died on April 12, 1891, a short three months and four days after the expiration of his term.
Sworn in at the age of 30, J. Neely Johnson was the youngest governor from 1856 to 1858.
Sworn in at the age of 72, Jerry Brown became the oldest governor in 2011.
Earl Warren was the only governor to serve more than two consecutive terms in office (1943–1953).

Jerry Brown previously served as governor for eight years (1975–1983) and returned to office 28 years later to serve as the incumbent governor (since 2011).

Milton Latham served the shortest term in office of five days (January 9–14, 1860).
Of the 38 governors who held office, seven of them were born in California (six of them after statehood):

One (Romualdo Pacheco) was born in Santa Barbara.
Four (George Pardee, James Rolph, Pat Brown, and Jerry Brown) were born in San Francisco.
One (Hiram Johnson) was born in Sacramento.
One (Earl Warren) was born in Los Angeles.

Two governors were not born in the United States:

John G. Downey was born in Ireland.
Arnold Schwarzenegger was born in Austria.

Only two governors have died in office:

Washington Bartlett on September 12, 1887
James Rolph on June 2, 1934

Ronald Reagan had the longest life-span of any governor, 93 years.
J. Neely Johnson had the shortest life-span of any governor, 47 years.
Both governors who died in office, Washington Bartlett in 1887 and James Rolph in 1934, served as Mayor of San Francisco shortly before becoming governor.
Two governors are related:

Pat Brown (1959–1967) was the father of twice-governor Jerry Brown (1975–1983, 2011 to present).

text: Transition events[edit]

text: 6th Governor (1860)

text:
Five governors have resigned:

Peter Burnett in 1851 "as a result of certain personal prejudices" in favor of slavery[4]
Milton Latham in 1860 to become a United States Senator
Newton Booth in 1875 to become a United States Senator
Hiram Johnson in 1917 to become a United States Senator
Earl Warren in 1953 to become Chief Justice of the United States

One governor has been recalled:

Gray Davis in 2003

Seven governors took office without being elected to the governor's seat, having been elected as lieutenant governor and then ascending from that position:

Four of them did not run to succeed themselves, and were never elected governor:

John McDougal in 1851
John G. Downey in 1860
Romualdo Pacheco in 1875
Robert Waterman in 1887

The other three later ran for governor, and were elected to succeed themselves as governor:

William Stephens in 1917
Frank Merriam in 1934
Goodwin Knight in 1953

One governor has served two terms, and was elected to a non-consecutive third term (followed by a fourth term):

Jerry Brown in 2010 (Brown and George Deukmejian are the most recent living former governors of California who were elected to two terms before the term limits were enacted on November 6, 1990)

text: Presidential campaigns[edit]

text:
33rd Governor (1967–1975)
40th President of the United States (1981–1989)

text:
One former governor of California won his party's nomination and was elected President of the United States:

Ronald Reagan in 1980 and 1984 (Republican)

Five governors actively sought the nomination of their party, but were unsuccessful:

Hiram Johnson in 1920 and 1924 (Republican)
Pat Brown in 1960 (Democratic)
Jerry Brown in 1976, 1980 and 1992 (Democratic)
Ronald Reagan in 1968 and 1976 (Republican)
Pete Wilson in 1996 (Republican)

Two governors were nominated for Vice President, but their ticket lost the election:

Hiram Johnson (Ran with Theodore Roosevelt, Progressive, 1912)
Earl Warren (Ran with Thomas Dewey, Republican, 1948)

Two governors did not run for president, but were under serious consideration by their party's nominee during their governorship to be their running mate for the office of Vice President, but were not chosen:

George Deukmejian (George H.W. Bush, Republican, 1988) declined being considered because of his vast ideological differences with Lieutenant Governor Leo McCarthy, who would have become governor if Deukmejian accepted the nomination and was elected to the Vice Presidency.[5]
Gray Davis (Al Gore, Democratic, 2000)

One unsuccessful candidate for governor of California was elected President of the United States:

Former Vice President Richard Nixon was the Republican nominee for Governor of California in 1962, and lost to Democrat Pat Brown. Nixon later was elected president in 1968 and reelected in 1972 (Republican).


document_title: .243 Winchester

question_text: how many feet per second does a 243 shoot

text: .243 Winchester

text: History[edit]

text: This cartridge was first introduced in 1955 for the Winchester Model 70 bolt-action and Model 88 lever-action sporting rifles and quickly gained popularity among sportsmen worldwide.[4] Just about every major manufacturer offers rifles chambered in .243.

text: It was a ground-breaking development, combining a useful combination of lightweight (70 to 85 grain) bullets optimized for long-range performance for varmint hunters (groundhogs, coyotes, prairie dogs) and 90- to 105-grain bullets suitable for game up to the size of deer and pronghorn antelope. Its predecessor in the Winchester lineup, the very similar .257 Roberts, could have easily been selected to accomplish the same tasks, but was not available factory loaded with either lighter, varmint-weight bullets or pointed, long range spitzer (pointed) bullets, so it never achieved the popularity of the newer round.

text: Remington also saw the 6 mm (.243") family as suitable for this dual-purpose use and introduced their version, the .244 Remington, in the same year (1955) based upon the .257 Roberts necked down to accept .243 bullets up to 90 grains in weight. The Winchester round remains available today whereas the .244 Remington, later renamed the 6mm Remington with the introduction of 100-grain bullets, is far less popular even though it can push all bullet weights slightly faster with maximum loads due to the larger capacity case. The fact that the .243 Win was originally offered in a 1 in 10" rifling twist rate, a rate better able to stabilize heavier, 100- and 105-grain bullets, versus the .244 Remington's 1 in 12" twist (hence the 90-grain factory offering) was also a factor in their popularity.

text: Since the enactment of the Deer Act 1963 in the United Kingdom, which stipulates a minimum bullet diameter of .240 inches, together with minimum levels of muzzle velocity and bullet energy, the .243 is now perceived as the entry-level caliber for legal deer-stalking. Firearms that would normally be chambered in .308 Winchester/7.62×51mm NATO are sometimes available in .243 in countries–such as Spain–whose regulations restrict or forbid private ownership of so-called military calibers. No military is known to currently designate this round for service.

text: In a non-sporting context, bolt-action rifles chambered for the .243 were utilized by the Los Angeles Police Department's special weapons And tactics (SWAT) unit during its early years.[5] A specialist 115 grain projectile can move up to 3,150 fps from a 28-inch barrel, or over 3,000 fps from a 26-inch barrel.[6]

text: P. O. Ackley created an improved version of this cartridge called the .243 Winchester Improved (Ackley).[7] Like other improved cartridges, this created a steeper shoulder and blew the sides out, giving about 10% more powder capacity, and some small improvement in velocity. Both versions of the .243 cartridge are good for hunting deer.

text: Performance[edit]

text: The .243 produces a velocity of 2,960 feet (902.21 m) per second with a 100-grain (6.6 gram) projectile from a 24-inch (610 mm) barrel. Commercially loaded .243 ammunition is available with bullet weights ranging from 55 grains (3.6 g) up to 115 grains (6.8 g). Twist rate of the barrel is the major deciding factor in which bullets to use, 1:10 being the most popular as it is sufficient to stabilize up to 100-gr. bullets. However, for very low drag-profile and bullets heavier than 100 grs., a 1:8 or 1:7 (for 115-gr. VLD bullets) is necessary.

text:
Some 243 Winchester cartridges (circle size proportional to recoil)

Game class vs 6 in maximum point blank range

Sectional density vs ballistic coefficient