document_title: Bull shark

question_text: where did the bull shark get its name

question_tokens: where did the bull shark get its name

text: Bull shark

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The name "bull shark" comes from the shark's stocky shape, broad, flat snout, and aggressive, unpredictable behavior.[4] In India, the bull shark may be confused with the Sundarbans or Ganges shark. In Africa, it is also commonly called the Zambezi River shark or just Zambi. Its wide range and diverse habitats result in many other local names, including Ganges River shark, Fitzroy Creek whaler, van Rooyen's shark, Lake Nicaragua shark,[5] river shark, freshwater whaler, estuary whaler, Swan River whaler,[6] cub shark, and shovelnose shark.[7]

text: Evolution[edit]

text: Some of the bull sharks's closest living relatives do not have the capabilities of osmoregulation. Its genus, Carcharhinus, also includes the sandbar shark, which is not capable of osmoregulation.[8]

text: The bull shark shares numerous similarities with river sharks of the genus Glyphis, and other species in the genus Carcharhinus, but its phylogeny has not been cleared yet.[9]

text: Anatomy and appearance[edit]

text: Bull sharks are large and stout, with females being larger than males. The bull shark can be up to 81 cm (2.66 ft) in length at birth.[10] Adult female bull sharks average 2.4 m (7.9 ft) long and typically weigh 130 kg (290 lb), whereas the slightly smaller adult male averages 2.25 m (7.4 ft) and 95 kg (209 lb). While a maximum size of 3.5 m (11 ft) is commonly reported, a single record exists of a female specimen of exactly 4.0 m (13.1 ft). The maximum recorded weight of a bull shark was 315 kg (694 lb), but may be larger.[3][11][12] Bull sharks are wider and heavier than other requiem sharks of comparable length, and are grey on top and white below. The second dorsal fin is smaller than the first. The bull shark's caudal fin is longer and lower than that of the larger sharks, and it has a small snout, and lacks an interdorsal ridge.[10]

text: Bull sharks have a bite force up to 5,914 newtons (1,330 lbf), weight for weight the highest among all investigated cartilaginous fishes.[13]

text:
Play media

A female Carcharhinus leucas at the Shark Reef Marine Reserve, Fiji

Upper teeth

Lower teeth

Electron micrograph of an upper tooth

text: Distribution and habitat[edit]

text: The bull shark is commonly found worldwide in coastal areas of warm oceans, in rivers and lakes, and occasionally salt and freshwater streams if they are deep enough. It is found to a depth of 150 m (490 ft), but does not usually swim deeper than 30 m (98 ft).[14] In the Atlantic, it is found from Massachusetts to southern Brazil, and from Morocco to Angola. In the Indian Ocean, it is found from South Africa to Kenya, India, Vietnam, Philippines to Australia.[citation needed]

text: Populations of bull sharks are also found in several major rivers, with more than 500 bull sharks thought to be living in the Brisbane River. One was reportedly seen swimming the flooded streets of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, during the 2010-11 Queensland floods.[15] Several were sighted in one of the main streets of Goodna, Queensland, shortly after the peak of the January 2011, floods.[16] A large bull shark was caught in the canals of Scarborough, just north of Brisbane within Moreton Bay. Still greater numbers are in the canals of the Gold Coast, Queensland.[17] In the Pacific Ocean, it can be found from Baja California to Ecuador. The bull shark has traveled 4,000 km (2,500 mi) up the Amazon River to Iquitos in Peru[18] and north Bolivia.[1] It also lives in freshwater Lake Nicaragua, in the Ganges and Brahmaputra Rivers of West Bengal, and Assam in Eastern India and adjoining Bangladesh.[citation needed] It can live in water with a high salt content as in St. Lucia Estuary in South Africa. Bull sharks have been recorded in the Tigris River since at least 1924 as far upriver as Baghdad.[19] The bull shark is generally prolific in the warm, coastal waters and estuarine systems of the Mozambique Channel and southward, including Kwa-Zulu Natal and Mozambique.[citation needed] The species has a distinct preference for warm currents.[citation needed]

text: After Hurricane Katrina, many bull sharks were sighted in Lake Pontchartrain.[20] Bull sharks have occasionally gone up the Mississippi River as far upstream as Alton, Illinois,[21] and up the Ohio River as far as Manchester, Ohio.[22] They have also been found in the Potomac River in Maryland.[23][24] A golf course lake in Queensland, Australia is the home to several bull sharks. They are believed to have become trapped following a flood in the 1990s. The golf course has capitalized on the novelty and now hosts a monthly tournament called the "Shark Lake Challenge".[25]

text: Behavior[edit]

text: Freshwater tolerance[edit]

text: The bull shark is the best known of 43 species of elasmobranch in 10 genera and four families to have been reported in fresh water.[26] Other species that enter rivers include the stingrays (Dasyatidae, Potamotrygonidae and others) and sawfish (Pristidae). Some skates (Rajidae), smooth dogfishes (Triakidae), and sandbar sharks (Carcharhinus plumbeus) regularly enter estuaries.[citation needed]

text: The bull shark is diadromous, meaning they can swim between salt and fresh water with ease.[27] These fish also are euryhaline fish, able to adapt to a wide range of salinities. The bull shark is one of the few cartilaginous fishes that have been reported in freshwater systems. Many of the euryhaline fish are bony fish such as salmon and tilapia and are not closely related to bull sharks. Evolutionary assumptions can be made to help explain this sort of evolutionary disconnect, one being that the bull shark encountered a population bottleneck that occurred during the last ice age.[28] This bottleneck may have separated the bull shark from the rest of the Elasmobranchii subclass and favored the genes for an osmoregulatory system.

text: Elasmobranchs' ability to enter fresh water is limited because their blood is normally at least as salty (in terms of osmotic strength) as seawater through the accumulation of urea and trimethylamine oxide, but bull sharks living in fresh water show a significantly reduced concentration of urea within their blood.[29] Despite this, the solute composition (i.e. osmolarity) of a bull shark in fresh water is still much higher than that of the external environment. This results in a large influx of water across the gills due to osmosis and loss of sodium and chloride from the shark's body. However, bull sharks in fresh water possess several organs with which to maintain appropriate salt and water balance; these are the rectal gland, kidneys, liver, and gills. All elasmobranchs have a rectal gland which functions in the excretion of excess salts accumulated as a consequence of living in seawater. Bull sharks in freshwater environments decrease the salt-excretory activity of the rectal gland, thereby conserving sodium and chloride.[30] The kidneys produce large amounts of dilute urine, but also play an important role in the active reabsorption of solutes into the blood.[30] The gills of bull sharks are likely to be involved in the uptake of sodium and chloride from the surrounding fresh water,[31] whereas urea is produced in the liver as required with changes in environmental salinity.[32] Recent work also shows that the differences in density of fresh water to that of marine waters result in significantly greater negative buoyancies in sharks occupying fresh water, resulting in increasing costs of living in fresh water. Bull sharks caught in freshwater have subsequently been shown to have lower liver densities than sharks living in marine waters. This may reduce the added cost of greater negative buoyancy.[33]

text: Bull sharks are able to regulate themselves to live in either fresh or salt water. It can live in fresh water for its entire life, but this does not happen, mostly due to reproduction. Young bull sharks leave the brackish water in which they are born and move out into the sea to breed. While theoretically, bull sharks to live in purely fresh water may be possible, the bull sharks that were being experimented on had died within four years. The stomach was opened and all that was found were two small, unidentifiable fishes. The cause of death could have been starvation since the primary food source for bull sharks resides in salt water.[34]

text: In a research experiment, the bull sharks were found to be at the mouth of an estuary for the majority of the time.[27] They stayed at the mouth of the river independent of the salinity of the water. The driving factor for a bull shark to be in fresh or salt water, however, is its age; as the bull shark ages, its tolerance for very low or high salinity increases.[27] The majority of the newborn or very young bull sharks were found in the freshwater area, whereas the much older bull sharks were found to be in the saltwater areas, as they had developed a much better tolerance for the salinity.[27] Reproduction is one of the reasons why adult bull sharks travel into the river—it is thought to be a physiological strategy to improve juvenile survival and a way to increase overall fitness of bull sharks.[27] The young are not born with a high tolerance for high salinity, so they are born in fresh water and stay there until they are able to travel out.

text: Initially, scientists thought the sharks in Lake Nicaragua belonged to an endemic species, the Lake Nicaragua shark (Carcharhinus nicaraguensis). In 1961, following specimen comparisons, taxonomists synonymized them.[35] They can jump along the rapids of the San Juan River (which connects Lake Nicaragua and the Caribbean Sea), almost like salmon.[14] Bull sharks tagged inside the lake have later been caught in the open ocean (and vice versa), with some taking as few as seven to 11 days to complete the journey.[35]

text: Diet[edit]

text: The bull shark's diet consists mainly of bony fish and small sharks, including other bull sharks,[3] but can also include turtles, birds, dolphins, terrestrial mammals, crustaceans, echinoderms, and stingrays. They hunt in murky waters where it is harder for the prey to see the shark coming.[1][36][37] Bull sharks have been known to use the bump-and-bite technique to attack their prey. After the first initial contact, they continue to bite and tackle prey until they are unable to flee.[38]

text: The bull shark is known to be a solitary hunter, although brief moments exist in which the bull shark teams up with another bull shark to make hunting and to tricking prey easier.[39][40]

text: Sharks are known to be opportunistic feeders,[38] and the bull shark is no exception to this, as it is part of the Carcharhinus family of sharks. Normally, sharks eat in short bursts, and when food is scarce, sharks digest for a much longer period of time in order to avoid starvation.[38] As part of their survival mechanism, bull sharks will regurgitate the food in their stomachs in order to escape from a predator. This is a distraction tactic; if the predator moves to eat the regurgitated food the bull shark can use the opportunity to escape.[41]

text: Reproduction[edit]

text: Bull sharks mate during late summer and early autumn,[8] often in freshwater[42] or in the brackish water of river mouths. After gestating for 12 months, a bull shark may give birth to 1 to 13 live young.[8][43]

text: They are viviparous, born live and free-swimming. The young are about 70 cm (27.6 in) at birth. The bull shark does not rear its young; the young bull sharks are born into flat, protected areas.[43] Coastal lagoons, river mouths, and other low-salinity estuaries are common nursery habitats.[3]

text: The male bull shark is able to begin reproducing around the age of 15 years while the female cannot begin reproducing until the age of 18 years.[43] The size of a fully matured female bull shark to produce viable eggs for fertilization seems to be 175 cm to 235 cm. The courting routine between bull sharks has not been observed in detail as of yet. The male likely bites the female on the tail until she can turn upside down and the male can copulate at that point. At some points, the harassment of the male can become violent. Seeing scratches and other marks on a mature female which may be from the mating ritual is not uncommon.[44]

text: Bull sharks have an unusual migratory pattern in comparison to other sharks. They are found in rivers all over the world. They give birth in the fresh water of rivers. The young bull sharks are free from predators while they grow up in the river before they go out to the sea to find mates.[45]

text: The ability to be able to survive in both fresh and salt water also gives another benefit that has been driven by evolution. Because the majority of sharks are only able to survive in salt water, the bull shark has evolved to have their offspring in the fresh water where other sharks cannot enter.[46] The freshwater acts as a protective area where the young are able to grow and mature without the threat of larger sharks preying on the younger bull sharks.[46] This is an explanation for the behavior that is observed from the Bull sharks as to why there would be any reason for the adult bull shark to ever travel into a freshwater area despite being able to tolerate the high salinity of marine water.

text: Interactions with humans[edit]

text: Since bull sharks often dwell in very shallow waters, are found in many types of habitats, are territorial by nature and have virtually no tolerance for provocation, they may be more dangerous to humans than any other species of shark,[14] and along with the Tiger shark and great white shark, are among the three shark species most likely to bite humans.[4]

text: One or several bull sharks may have been responsible for the Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916, which were the inspiration for Peter Benchley's novel Jaws.[47] The speculation of bull sharks possibly being responsible is based on two fatal bites occurring in brackish and fresh water.

text: The bull shark is responsible for biting swimmers around the Sydney Harbour inlets.[48] Most of these bites were previously attributed to Great White sharks. In India, bull sharks swim up the Ganges River and have bitten bathers. Many of these bite incidents were attributed to the Ganges shark, Glyphis gangeticus, a critically endangered river shark species, although the Sand Tiger shark was also blamed during the 1960s and 1970s.

text: The bull shark prefers coastal water which is less than 100 feet in depth. This is mostly due to their feeding patterns, since they prefer murky waters. This is also a problem since this gives the most interaction with humans. It is known that bull sharks inhabit areas off the coast of Florida, and there have been reports of bull sharks getting close enough to the coast to bite humans since the bull shark is a territorial animal, which encourages aggressive behavior.[49]

text: Visual cues[edit]

text: Behavioral studies have confirmed that sharks can take visual cues in order to discriminate between different objects.[45] The bull shark is able to discriminate between colors of mesh netting that is present underwater.[45] It was found that bull sharks tended to avoid mesh netting of bright colors rather than colors that blended in with the water. Bright yellow mesh netting was found to be easily avoided when it was placed in the path of the bull shark. This was found to be the reason that sharks are attracted to bright yellow survival gear rather than ones that were painted black.[45] This is very important because it gives an insight into how bull sharks are able to pick up certain visual keys underwater that might give them an advantage when seeking out certain prey.

text: Energy conservation[edit]

text: In 2008, researchers tagged and recorded the movements of young bull sharks in the Caloosahatchee River estuary. Specifically, they were testing to find out what determined the movement of the young bull sharks.[50] It was found that the young bull sharks synchronously moved downriver when the environmental conditions changed.[50] This large movement of young bull sharks were found to be moving as a response rather than other external factors such as predators. An interesting find was that the movement was directly related to the bull shark conserving energy for itself. One way the bull shark is able to conserve energy is that when the tidal flow changes, the bull shark uses the tidal flow in order to conserve energy as it moves downriver.[50] Another way for the bull shark to conserve energy is to decrease the amount of energy needed to osmoregulate the surrounding environment.[50]

text: Ecology[edit]

text: Bull sharks are apex predators and seldom have to fear being attacked by other animals. Humans are their biggest threat. Larger sharks, such as the tiger shark and great white shark, may attack them.[3] Crocodiles may be a threat to bull sharks in rivers. Saltwater crocodiles have been observed preying on bull sharks in the rivers and estuaries of Northern Australia,[51] and a Nile crocodile was reported as consuming a bull shark in South Africa.[52]


document_title: Night of the Living Dead

question_text: where was the original night of the living dead filmed

root

text: Night of the Living Dead

text: Plot[edit]

text: Barbra (Judith O'Dea) and Johnny Blair (Russell Streiner) drive to rural Pennsylvania for an annual visit to their father's grave. Barbra is attacked by a strange man (Bill Hinzman) walking in the cemetery. Johnny tries to rescue his sister, but the man throws him against a gravestone; Johnny strikes his head on the stone and is killed. After a mishap with the car, Barbra escapes on foot, with the stranger in pursuit, and later arrives at a farmhouse, where she discovers a woman's mangled corpse. Fleeing from the house, she is confronted by strange menacing figures like the man in the graveyard. Ben (Duane Jones) arrives and takes her into the house, driving the "monsters" away and sealing the doors and windows. Throughout the night, Barbra slowly descends into a stupor of shock and insanity.

tag: p

text: Ben and Barbra are unaware that the farmhouse has a cellar, housing an angry married couple, Harry (Karl Hardman) and Helen Cooper (Marilyn Eastman), along with their daughter Karen (Kyra Schon). They sought refuge after a group of the same monsters overturned their car. Tom (Keith Wayne) and Judy (Judith Ridley), a teenage couple, arrived after hearing an emergency broadcast about a series of brutal murders. Karen has fallen seriously ill after being bitten by one of the monsters. They venture upstairs when Ben turns on a radio, while Barbra awakens from her stupor. Harry demands that everyone hide in the cellar, but Ben deems it a "deathtrap" and continues upstairs, to barricade the house with Tom's help.

text: Radio reports explain that a wave of mass murder is sweeping across the eastern United States. Ben finds a television, and they watch an emergency broadcaster (Charles Craig) report that the recently deceased have become reanimated and are consuming the flesh of the living. Experts, scientists, and the United States military fail to discover the cause, though one scientist suspects radioactive contamination from a space probe. It returned from Venus, and was deliberately exploded in the Earth's atmosphere when the radiation was detected.

text: Ben plans to obtain medical care for Karen when the reports list local rescue centers offering refuge and safety. Ben and Tom refuel Ben's truck while Harry hurls molotov cocktails from an upper window at the ghouls. Judy follows him, fearing for Tom's safety. Tom accidentally spills gasoline on the truck, setting it ablaze. Tom and Judy try to drive the truck away from the pump, but Judy is unable to free herself from its door, and the truck explodes, killing them both; the zombies promptly eat the charred remains.

text: Ben returns to the house but is locked out by Harry. Eventually forcing his way back in, Ben beats Harry, angered by his cowardice, while the zombies feed on the remains of Tom and Judy. A news report reveals that only a gunshot or heavy blow to the head can stop them, aside from setting the "reactivated bodies" on fire. It also reports that posses of armed men are patrolling the countryside to restore order.

text: The lights go out, and the zombies break through the barricades. Harry grabs Ben's rifle and threatens to shoot him. In the chaos, the two fight and Ben manages to wrestle the gun away and shoots Harry. Harry stumbles into the cellar and collapses next to Karen, mortally wounded. She has also died from her illness. The ghouls try to pull Helen and Barbra through the windows, but Helen frees herself. She returns to the refuge of the cellar to see Karen is reanimated and eating Harry's corpse. Helen is frozen in shock, and Karen stabs her to death with a masonry trowel. Barbra, seeing Johnny among the zombies, is carried away by the horde and devoured. As the zombies overrun the house, Ben fights off Karen and seals himself inside the cellar, where Harry and Helen are reanimating, and he is forced to shoot them.

text: Ben is awakened by the posse's gunfire outside the next morning. He ventures upstairs; the posse spot him through the window and mistake him for one of the ghouls, shooting him through the forehead. Ben's body is thrown into a pile of bodies, laid next to the original zombie from the cemetery. After the credits, the bodies are all lit on fire.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Duane Jones as Ben: The lead role of Ben was played by Duane Jones. He was an unknown stage actor. His performance depicted Ben as a "comparatively calm and resourceful Negro" (a distinguished gentleman and former university professor, in real life), according to a movie reviewer in 1969.[a] Casting Jones as the hero was potentially controversial, in 1968. It was not typical for a black man to be the hero of a U.S. film when the rest of the cast was composed of white actors at the time, but Romero said that Jones simply gave the best audition.[6] He was in a few other films after Night of the Living Dead. He continued as a theater actor and director until his death in 1988.[7] Despite his other film roles, Jones worried that people only recognized him as Ben.[8]
Judith O'Dea as Barbra: Judith O'Dea, a 23-year-old commercial and stage actress, once worked for Hardman and Eastman in Pittsburgh. O'Dea was in Hollywood seeking to enter the movie business at the time of audition. Starring in the film was a positive experience for her, she remarked in an interview. She admitted that horror movies terrified her, particularly Vincent Price's House of Wax (1953). Besides acting, O'Dea performed her own stunts, which she jokingly claimed amounted to "lots of running". "I honestly had no idea it would have such a lasting impact on our culture", assessing Night of the Living Dead. She was just as surprised by the renown the film brought her: "People treat you differently. [I'm] ho-hum Judy O'Dea until they realize [I'm] Barbra from Night of the Living Dead. All of a sudden [I'm] not so ho-hum anymore!"[9]
Karl Hardman as Harry Cooper
Marilyn Eastman as Helen Cooper: Eastman also played a female ghoul eating an insect.[10]
Keith Wayne as Tom
Judith Ridley as Judy: Ridley later co-starred in Romero's second feature There's Always Vanilla (1971).[11]
Kyra Schon as Karen Cooper: Actor and producer Karl Hardman's 11-year-old daughter played Karen.[10] Schon also played the woman's mangled corpse that Ben dragged away.[10]
Charles Craig as Newscaster/zombie
Bill Hinzman as Cemetery Living Dead: The cemetery living dead who kills Johnny in the first scene. Hinzman also appeared in new scenes that were filmed for the 30th-anniversary edition of the film.[12]
George Kosana as Sheriff McClelland: Kosana was credited as the film's production manager.[13]
Russell Streiner as Johnny Blair: Russell Streiner is also an Executive Producer in the 1990 remake of the film. He makes a cameo appearance as Sheriff McClelland.[14]
Bill Cardille, a.k.a., "Chilly Billy Cardilly." Cardille was well-known locally as a Pittsburgh TV man who had his own horror movie show, "Chiller Theatre," on TV late Saturday nights in the 1960s and '70s. Bill portrays a WIIC-TV, Channel 11 (a real Pittsburgh TV station) news reporter; Cardille also makes a cameo appearance as the TV news reporter in the 1990 remake of the film.[15]

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: Development and pre-production[edit]

text: Romero embarked upon his career in the film industry while attending Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh.[16] He directed and produced television commercials and industrial films for The Latent Image, in the 1960s, a company he co-founded with friends John Russo, and Russell Streiner. The trio grew bored making commercials and wanted to film a horror movie during this period. They wanted to capitalize on the film industry's "thirst for the bizarre",[17] according to Romero. He and Streiner contacted Karl Hardman and Marilyn Eastman, president and vice president respectively of a Pittsburgh-based industrial film firm called Hardman Associates, Inc. They pitched their idea for a then-untitled horror film.[17] A production company, conceived by Romero, called Image Ten, was formed which included Romero, Russo, Streiner, Hardman and Eastman. The initial budget was $6,000[18] with the ten members of the production company, investing $600 each for a share of the profits.[19] Another ten investors were found when it was found that another $6,000 was required but this was also soon found to be inadequate. Image Ten eventually raised approximately $114,000 for the budget.[20]

text: Writing[edit]

text: Co-written as a horror comedy by John Russo and George A. Romero under the title Monster Flick,[21] an early screenplay draft concerned the exploits of adolescent aliens who visit Earth and befriend human teenagers. A second version of the script featured a young man who runs away from home and discovers rotting human corpses that aliens use for food scattered across a meadow. Russo came up with the concept that they would be the recently dead only, because they could not afford to bring long-dead people out of their graves, or at least "we" thought. He also came up with the idea that they would be "flesh-eaters." Romero decided he liked those two ideas and without them, it would have been labeled a true 'rip-off' of "Richard Matheson's I Am Legend" novel (1954). The final draft, written mainly by Russo during three days in 1967, focused on reanimated human corpses – Romero refers to them as ghouls – that consume the flesh of the living.[22] In a 1997 interview with the BBC's Forbidden Weekend, Romero explained that the script developed into a three-part short story. Part one became Night of the Living Dead. Sequels Dawn of the Dead (1978) and Day of the Dead (1985) were adapted from the two remaining parts.[23]

text: Romero drew inspiration from Richard Matheson's I Am Legend (1954), a horror novel about a plague that ravages a futuristic Los Angeles. The infected in I Am Legend become vampire-like creatures and prey on the uninfected.[20][24][25] Discussing the creation of Night of the Living Dead, Romero remarked, "I had written a short story, which I basically had ripped off from a Richard Matheson novel called I Am Legend."[26] Romero further explained:

text: I thought I Am Legend was about revolution. I said if you're going to do something about revolution, you should start at the beginning. I mean, Richard starts his book with one man left; everybody in the world has become a vampire. I said we got to start at the beginning and tweak it up a little bit. I couldn't use vampires because he did, so I wanted something that would be an earth-shaking change. Something that was forever, something that was really at the heart of it. I said, so what if the dead stop staying dead? ... And the stories are about how people respond or fail to respond to this. That's really all [the zombies] ever represented to me. In Richard's book, in the original I Am Legend, that's what I thought that book was about. There's this global change and there's one guy holding out saying, wait a minute, I'm still a human. He's wrong. Go ahead. Join them. You'll live forever! In a certain sense he's wrong but on the other hand, you've got to respect him for taking that position.[27]

text: Official film adaptations of Matheson's novel appeared in 1964 as The Last Man on Earth, in 1971 as The Omega Man, and the 2007 release I Am Legend. Matheson was not impressed by Romero's interpretation, feeling that "It was ... kind of cornball",[28] though he later said, "George Romero's a nice guy, though. I don't harbor any animosity toward him."[29] Critic Danél Griffin remarked, "Romero freely admits that his film was a direct rip-off of Matheson's novel; I would be a little less harsh in my description and say that Romero merely expanded the author's ideas with deviations so completely original that [Night of the Living Dead] is expelled from being labeled a true 'rip-off'".[30]

text: Russo and Romero revised the screenplay while filming. Karl Hardman attributed the edits to lead actor Duane Jones:

text: The script had been written with the character Ben as a rather simple truck driver. His dialogue was that of a lower class / uneducated person. Duane Jones was a very well educated man [and he] simply refused to do the role as it was written. As I recall, I believe that Duane himself upgraded his own dialogue to reflect how he felt the character should present himself.[17]

text: Eastman modified cellar scenes featuring dialogue between Helen and Harry Cooper.[17] According to lead actress Judith O'Dea, much of the dialogue was improvised. She told an interviewer, "I don't know if there was an actual working script! We would go over what basically had to be done, then just did it the way we each felt it should be done".[31] One example offered by O'Dea concerns a scene where Barbra tells Ben about Johnny's death:

text: The sequence where Ben is breaking up the table to block the entrance and I'm on the couch and start telling him the story of what happened [to Johnny] it's all ad-libbed. This is what we want to get across [...] tell the story about me and Johnny in the car and me being attacked. That was it [...] all improv. We filmed it once. There was a concern we didn't get the sound right, but fortunately they were able to use it.[9]

text: Although the film is regarded as one of the launching pads for the modern zombie movie, the screenplay itself never uses the word.[32] In fact, Romero would later confess that he felt the film's antagonists were distinct enough from Haitian zombies that they were "something completely new" with Romero actively avoiding any similarities between the two creatures although he notes that he may have subtly been inspired by them.[32]

text: The lead role was originally written for someone of Caucasian descent, but upon casting African-American actor Duane Jones, Romero intentionally did not alter the script to reflect this.[32] Asked in 2013, if he took inspiration from the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. that same year, Romero responded in the negative noting that he only heard about the shooting when he was on his way to find distribution for the finished film.[32]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Principal photography[edit]

text: The small budget dictated much of the production process. According to Hardman, "We knew that we could not raise enough money to shoot a film on a par with the classic horror films with which we had all grown up. The best that we could do was to place our cast in a remote spot and then bring the horror to be visited on them in that spot".[17] Scenes were filmed near Evans City, Pennsylvania, 30 miles (48 km) north of Pittsburgh in rural Butler County;[33] the opening sequence was shot at the Evans City Cemetery on Franklin Road, south of the borough.[34] The interior upstairs scenes were filmed in a downtown Evans City home that later became the offices of a prominent local physician and family doctor (Allsop). This home is still standing on South Washington St. (locally called Mars-Evans City Road), between the intersecting streets of South Jackson and Van Buren. The cemetery chapel was under warrant for demolition; however, Gary R. Steiner led a successful effort to raise $50,000 to restore the building, and the chapel is currently undergoing renovations.[35][36]

text: The outdoor, indoor (downstairs) and basement scenes were filmed at a location northeast of Evans City, near a park. The basement door (external view) shown in the film was cut into a wall by the production team and led nowhere. As this house was scheduled for demolition, damage during filming was permitted. The site is now a turf farm.[37][b]

text: Props and special effects were fairly simple and limited by the budget. The blood, for example, was Bosco Chocolate Syrup drizzled over cast members' bodies.[38] Consumed flesh consisted of roasted ham and entrails donated by one of the actors, who also owned a chain of butcher shops. Costumes consisted of second-hand clothing from cast members and Goodwill. Zombie makeup varied during the film. Initially makeup was limited to white skin with blackened eyes; but as filming progressed mortician's wax was used to simulate wounds and decaying flesh. As filming was not linear, the piebald faces appear sporadically. Eastman supervised the special effects, wardrobe and makeup.[17] Filming took place between June and December 1967 under the working title Night of Anubis and later Night of the Flesh Eaters.[39][40] The small budget led Romero to shoot on 35 mm black-and-white film. The completed film ultimately benefited from the decision, as film historian Joseph Maddrey describes the black-and-white filming as "guerrilla-style", resembling "the unflinching authority of a wartime newsreel". Maddrey adds, it "seem[s] as much like a documentary on the loss of social stability as an exploitation film".[41]

text: Directing[edit]

text: Night of the Living Dead was the first feature-length film directed by George A. Romero. His initial work involved filming shorts for Pittsburgh public broadcaster WQED's children's series Mister Rogers' Neighborhood.[42][43] Romero's decision to direct Night of the Living Dead essentially launched his career as a horror director. He took the helm of the sequels as well as Season of the Witch (1972), The Crazies (1973), Martin (1978), Creepshow (1982) and The Dark Half (1993).[44] Critics saw the influence of the horror and science-fiction films of the 1950s in Romero's directorial style. Stephen Paul Miller, for instance, witnessed "a revival of fifties schlock shock... and the army general's television discussion of military operations in the film echoes the often inevitable calling-in of the army in fifties horror films". Miller admits that "Night of the Living Dead takes greater relish in mocking these military operations through the general's pompous demeanor" and the government's inability to source the zombie epidemic or protect the citizenry.[45] Romero describes the mood he wished to establish: "The film opens with a situation that has already disintegrated to a point of little hope, and it moves progressively toward absolute despair and ultimate tragedy."[46] According to film historian Carl Royer, Romero "employs chiaroscuro (film noir style) lighting to emphasize humanity's nightmare alienation from itself."[46]

text: While some critics dismissed Romero's film because of the graphic scenes, writer R. H. W. Dillard claimed that the "open-eyed detailing" of taboo heightened the film's success. He asks, "What girl has not, at one time or another, wished to kill her mother? And Karen, in the film, offers a particularly vivid opportunity to commit the forbidden deed vicariously."[47] Romero featured social taboos as key themes, particularly cannibalism. Although zombie cannibals were inspired by Matheson's I Am Legend, film historian Robin Wood sees the flesh-eating scenes of Night of the Living Dead as a late-1960s critique of American capitalism. Wood asserts that the zombies represent capitalists, and "cannibalism represents the ultimate in possessiveness, hence the logical end of human relations under capitalism". He argues that the zombies' victims symbolized the repression of "the Other" in bourgeois American society, namely activists in the Civil Rights Movement, feminists, homosexuals, and counterculturalists in general.[48]

text: Post-production[edit]

text: Members of Image Ten were involved in filming and post-production, participating in loading camera magazines, gaffing, constructing props, recording sounds and editing.[49] Production stills were shot and printed by Karl Hardman, who stated in an interview that a "number of cast members formed a production line in the darkroom for developing, washing and drying of the prints as I made the exposures. As I recall, I shot over 1,250 pictures during the production".[17] Upon completion of post-production, Image Ten found it difficult to secure a distributor willing to show the film with the gruesome scenes intact. Columbia and American International Pictures declined after requests to soften it and re-shoot the final scene were rejected by producers.[31] Romero admitted that "none of us wanted to do that. We couldn't imagine a happy ending. . . . Everyone want[ed] a Hollywood ending, but we stuck to our guns".[42] The Manhattan-based Walter Reade Organization agreed to show the film uncensored, but changed the title from Night of the Flesh Eaters to Night of the Living Dead because a film had already been produced under a similar title to the former.[40] While changing the title, the copyright notice was accidentally deleted from the early releases of the film.[50]

text: The opening title music with the car on the road had been used in a 1961 episode of the TV series Ben Casey entitled "I Remember a Lemon Tree" (that piece of music accompanying each time that George C. Scott's character, a doctor who is secretly a drug addict, is injecting himself with morphine), and is also featured in an episode of Naked City entitled "Bullets Cost Too Much". Most of the music in the film had previously been used on the soundtrack for the science-fiction B-movie Teenagers from Outer Space (1959). The eerie musical piece during the tense scene in the film where Ben finds the rifle in the closet inside the farmhouse as the radio reports of mayhem play in the background, can be heard in longer and more complete form during the opening credits and the beginning of The Devil's Messenger (1961) starring Lon Chaney, Jr. Another piece, accompanying Barbra's flight from the cemetery zombie, was taken from the score for The Hideous Sun Demon (1959). According to WRS, "We chose a selection of music for each of the various scenes and then George made the final selections. We then took those selections and augmented them electronically". Sound tech R. Lococo's choices worked well, as Film historian Sumiko Higashi believes that the music "signifies the nature of events that await."[51]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
Night of the Living Dead: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack

Film score by Various Artists

Released
1982 (1982)

Genre
Soundtrack

Label
Varèse Sarabande

Producer
Scot W. Holton

Compiler
Scot Holton

tag: table

text: A soundtrack album featuring music and dialogue cues from the film was compiled and released on LP by Varèse Sarabande in 1982; it has never been reissued on CD. In 2008, recording group 400 Lonely Things released the album Tonight of the Living Dead, "an instrumental album composed entirely of ambient music and sound effects sampled from Romero's 1968 horror classic".[52]

text:
[show]Side one

No.
Title
Writer(s)
Length

1.
"Driveway to the Cemetery (Main Theme)"
Spencer Moore
02:19

2.
"At the Gravesite/Flight/Refuge"
William Loose/Loose—Seely/W. Loose
03:42

3.
"Farmhouse/First Approach"
Geordie Hormel
01:16

4.
"Ghoulash (J.R.'s Demise)"
Ib Glindemann
03:30

5.
"Boarding Up"
G. Hormel/Loose—Seely/Glindemann
03:00

6.
"First Radio Report/Torch on the Porch"
Phil Green/G. Hormel
02:27

7.
"Boarding Up 2/Discovery: Gun 'n Ammo"
G. Hormel
02:07

8.
"Cleaning House"
S. Moore
01:36

text:
[show]Side two

No.
Title
Writer(s)
Length

9.
"First Advance"
Ib Glindemann
02:43

10.
"Discovery of TV/Preparing to Escape/Tom & Judy" (All the samples of the track were composed by Geordie Hormel)
G. Hormel/J. Meakin/J. Meakin
04:20

11.
"Attempted Escape"
G. Hormel
01:29

12.
"Truck on Fire/Ben Attacks Harry/Leg of Leg*" (*electronic sound effects by Karl Hardman)
G. Hormel
03:41

13.
"Beat 'Em or Burn 'Em/Final Advance" (Final Advance was composed by Harry Bluestone and Emil Cadkin)
G. Hormel
02:50

14.
"Helen's Death*/Dawn/Posse in the Fields/Ben Awakes" (*electronic sound effects by Karl Hardman)
S. Moore
03:05

15.
"O.K. Vince/Funeral Pyre (End Title)"
S. Moore
01:10

text: Release[edit]

text: Premiere controversy[edit]

text: Night of the Living Dead premiered on October 1, 1968 at the Fulton Theater in Pittsburgh.[53] Nationally, it was shown as a Saturday afternoon matinée – as was typical for horror films at the time – and attracted an audience consisting of pre-teens and adolescents.[54][55][56] The MPAA film rating system was not in place until November 1968, so even young children were able to purchase tickets. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times chided theater owners and parents who allowed children access to the film with such potent content for a horror film they were entirely unprepared for: "I don't think the younger kids really knew what hit them," he said. "They were used to going to movies, sure, and they'd seen some horror movies before, sure, but this was something else." According to Ebert, the film affected the audience immediately:[56]

text: The kids in the audience were stunned. There was almost complete silence. The movie had stopped being delightfully scary about halfway through, and had become unexpectedly terrifying. There was a little girl across the aisle from me, maybe nine years old, who was sitting very still in her seat and crying... It's hard to remember what sort of effect this movie might have had on you when you were six or seven. But try to remember. At that age, kids take the events on the screen seriously, and they identify fiercely with the hero. When the hero is killed, that's not an unhappy ending but a tragic one: Nobody got out alive. It's just over, that's all.

text: Response from Variety after the initial release reflects the outrage generated by Romero's film: "Until the Supreme Court establishes clear-cut guidelines for the pornography of violence, Night of the Living Dead will serve nicely as an outer-limit definition by example. In [a] mere 90 minutes this horror film (pun intended) casts serious aspersions on the integrity and social responsibility of its Pittsburgh-based makers, distributor Walter Reade, the film industry as a whole and [exhibitors] who book [the picture], as well as raising doubts about the future of the regional cinema movement and about the moral health of film goers who cheerfully opt for this unrelieved orgy of sadism..."[57]

text: One commentator asserts that the film garnered little attention from critics, "except to provoke argument about censoring its grisly scenes".[51]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: Despite the controversy, five years after the premiere Paul McCullough of Take One observed that Night of the Living Dead was the "most profitable horror film ever [...] produced outside the walls of a major studio".[58] The film had earned between $12 and $15 million at the American box office after a decade. It was translated into more than 25 languages and released across Europe, Canada and Australia.[51] Night of the Living Dead grossed $30 million internationally, and the Wall Street Journal reported that it was the top-grossing film in Europe in 1969.[59][c]

text: Almost 50 years after its release, the film enjoys a reputation as a classic and still receives positive reviews; review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes retrospectively collected 52 reviews and gave Night of the Living Dead a 96% "Certified Fresh",[60] and it is regarded by many as one of the best films of 1968.[61][62][63] In 2008, the film was ranked by Empire magazine No. 397 of The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time.[64] The New York Times also placed the film on their Best 1000 Movies Ever list.[65] In January 2010, Total Film included the film on its list of The 100 Greatest Movies of All Time.[66] Rolling Stone magazine named Night of the Living Dead one of The 100 Maverick Movies in the Last 100 Years.[67] Reader's Digest found it to be the 12th scariest movie of all time.[68]

text: Night of the Living Dead was also awarded two distinguished honors decades after its debut. The Library of Congress added the film to the National Film Registry in 1999 with other films deemed "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant".[3][13][69] In 2001, the film was ranked No. 93 by the American Film Institute on their AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills list, a list of America's most heart-pounding movies.[70] The zombies in the picture were also a candidate for AFI's AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains, in the villains category, but failed to make the official list.[71] The Chicago Film Critics Association named it the 5th scariest film ever made.[72] The film also ranked No. 9 on Bravo's The 100 Scariest Movie Moments.[73]

text: Some reviewers disliked the film's gory special effects. Variety labeled Night of the Living Dead an "unrelieved orgy of sadism" and questioned the "integrity and social responsibility of its Pittsburgh-based makers".[d] The New York Times critic Vincent Canby referred to the film as a "junk movie" as well as "spare, uncluttered, but really silly".[74]

text: Some reviewers cited the film as groundbreaking. Pauline Kael called the film "one of the most gruesomely terrifying movies ever made – and when you leave the theatre you may wish you could forget the whole horrible experience. . . . The film's grainy, banal seriousness works for it – gives it a crude realism".[75] A Film Daily critic commented, "This is a pearl of a horror picture that exhibits all the earmarks of a sleeper."[e] While Roger Ebert criticized the matinée screening, he admitted that he "admires the movie itself".[56] Critic Rex Reed wrote, "If you want to see what turns a B movie into a classic [...] don't miss Night of the Living Dead. It is unthinkable for anyone seriously interested in horror movies not to see it."[76]

text: Revisions[edit]

text: The first revisions of Night of the Living Dead involved colorization by home video distributors. Hal Roach Studios released a colorized version in 1986 that featured ghouls with pale green skin.[77][78] Another colorized version appeared in 1997 from Anchor Bay Entertainment with grey-skinned zombies.[79] In 2004, Legend Films produced a new colorized version. Technology critic Gary W. Tooze wrote that "The colorization is damn impressive", but noticed the print used was not as sharp as other releases of the film.[80] In 2009, Legend Films coproduced a colorized 3D version of the film with PassmoreLab, a company that converts 2-D film into 3-D format.[81] The film was theatrically released on October 14, 2010.[82] According to Legend Films founder Barry Sandrew, Night of the Living Dead is the first entirely live action 2-D film to be converted to 3-D.[83]

text: In 1999, co-writer John A. Russo released a modified version called Night of the Living Dead: 30th Anniversary Edition.[84] He filmed additional scenes and recorded a revised soundtrack composed by Scott Vladimir Licina. In an interview with Fangoria magazine, Russo explained that he wanted to "give the movie a more modern pace."[85] Russo took liberties with the original script. The additions are neither clearly identified nor even listed. However, Entertainment Weekly reported "no bad blood" between Russo and Romero. The magazine quoted Romero as saying, "I didn't want to touch Night of the Living Dead".[86] Critics panned the revised film, notably Harry Knowles of Ain't It Cool News. Knowles promised to permanently ban anyone from his publication who offered positive criticism of the film.[87][88]

text: A collaborative animated project known as Night of the Living Dead: Reanimated was screened at several film festivals[89][90][91][92] and was released onto DVD on July 27, 2010 by Wild Eye Releasing.[93][94] This project aims to "reanimate" the 1968 film by replacing Romero's celluloid images with animation done in a wide variety of styles by artists from around the world, laid over the original audio from Romero's version.[95] Night of the Living Dead: Reanimated premiered theatrically on October 10, 2009 in Ramsey, New Jersey[96] at the Zombie Encounter and Film Festival.[97] Night of the Living Dead: Reanimated was nominated in the category of Best Independent Production (film, documentary or short) for the 8th Annual Rondo Hatton Classic Horror Awards, but lost to American Scary, a documentary on television horror movie hosts.[98]

text: In 2009, Mike Nelson of Mystery Science Theater 3000 provided commentary in the form of a single-person "riff" for the Legend Films colorized DVD. Nelson along with Bill Corbett and Kevin Murphy who had previously worked with Nelson on Mystery Science Theater 3000 released a humorous commentary track which is available as downloadable video file or as a DVD through the group's website RiffTrax.[99]

text: On September 16, 2015, comic publisher Double Take, a subsidiary of Take Two Interactive, headed by former Marvel executive Bill Jemas released 10 comic book series based upon the 1968 film entitled "Ultimate Night of the Living Dead".[100]

text: Related works[edit]

text: Romero's Dead films[edit]

text: Night of the Living Dead is the first of six ...of the Dead films directed by George Romero. Following the 1968 film, Romero released Dawn of the Dead, Day of the Dead, Land of the Dead, Diary of the Dead and Survival of the Dead. Each film traces the evolution of the living dead epidemic in the United States and humanity's desperate attempts to cope with it. As in Night of the Living Dead, Romero peppered the other films in the series with critiques specific to the periods in which they were released.

text: Return of the Living Dead series[edit]

text: The same year Day of the Dead premiered, Night of the Living Dead co-writer John Russo released a film titled The Return of the Living Dead that offers an alternate continuity to the original film than Dawn of the Dead. Russo's film spawned four sequels. Return of the Living Dead sparked a legal battle with Romero, who believed Russo marketed his film in direct competition with Day of the Dead as a sequel to the original film. In the case Dawn Associates v. Links, Romero accused Russo of "appropriat[ing] part of the title of the prior work", plagiarizing Dawn of the Dead's advertising slogan ("When there is no more room in hell [...] the dead will walk the earth"), and copying stills from the original 1968 film. Romero was ultimately granted a restraining order that forced Russo to cease his advertising campaign. Russo, however, was allowed to retain his title.[101]

text: Origins[edit]

text: George Cameron Romero, the son of director George A. Romero, has developed a prelude to his father's classic with the current working title, "Origins." The film tracks a six year period leading up to the story told by his father. George Cameron Romero's script is intended to be an homage to his father's work, a terrifying glimpse into the political hot bed that was the mid-to-late 1960s and a bookend piece to his father's original story. Despite raising funds for the film on Indiegogo in 2014, the film has yet to go into production as of September 2017.

text: Restoration[edit]

text: Starting in 2015, and working from the original camera negatives and audio track elements, a 4K digital restoration of Night of the Living Dead was undertaken by the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) and The Film Foundation.[102] The fully restored version was shown at MoMA in November 2016 as part of To Save and Project: The 14th MoMA International Festival of Film Preservation.[103][104]

text: Remakes and other related films[edit]

text: The first remake, debuting in 1990, was directed by special effects artist Tom Savini. It was based on the original screenplay, but included more gore and a revised plot that portrayed Barbra (Patricia Tallman) as a capable and active heroine. Tony Todd played the role of Ben. Film historian Barry Grant saw the new Barbra as a corrective on the part of Romero. He suggests that the character was made stronger to rectify the depiction of female characters in the original film.[105]

text: The second remake was in 3-D and released in September 2006 under the title Night of the Living Dead 3D, directed by Jeff Broadstreet. Unlike Savini's 1990 film, Broadstreet's project was not affiliated with Romero.[106] Broadstreet's film was followed in 2012 by the prequel Night of the Living Dead 3D: Re-Animation.[107]

text: On September 15, 2009, it was announced that Simon West was producing a 3D animated retelling of the original movie, originally titled Night of the Living Dead: Origins 3D and later re-titled Night of the Living Dead: Darkest Dawn.[108][109] The movie is written and directed by Zebediah de Soto. The voice cast includes Tony Todd as Ben, Danielle Harris as Barbra, Joseph Pilato as Harry Cooper, Alona Tal as Helen Cooper, Bill Moseley as Johnny, Tom Sizemore as Chief McClellan and newcomers Erin Braswell as Judy and Michael Diskint as Tom.[110][111][112][113][114][115]

text: Director Doug Schulze's 2011 film Mimesis: Night of the Living Dead relates the story of a group of horror film fans who become involved in a "real-life" version of the 1968 film.[116][117]

text: Due to the film's perceived public domain status, several independent film companies have also done remakes of the film.

text:
Night of the Living Dead: Resurrection (2012): British director James Plumb made this remake set in Wales.[118]
A Night of the Living Dead (2014): Shattered Images Films and Cullen Park Productions released a remake with new twists and characters, written and directed by Chad Zuver.[119]
Night of the Living Dead: Genesis (2017): Director Matt Cloude initially announced this remake project in 2011.[120] The film has undergone several transitions in the ensuing years. It brings back several alumni of Romero's initial trilogy, including Judith O'Dea as the Barbra character.
Night of the Living Dead: Rebirth (2017): Rising Pulse Productions is set to release an updated take on the classic film that brings to light present issues that impact modern society such as religious bigotry, homophobia, and the influence of social media.[121]

text: Copyright status[edit]

text: Night of the Living Dead entered the public domain in the United States because the original theatrical distributor, the Walter Reade Organization, neglected to place a copyright indication on the prints.[122] In 1968, United States copyright law required a proper notice for a work to maintain a copyright.[123] Image Ten displayed such a notice on the title frames of the film beneath the original title, Night of the Flesh Eaters. The distributor removed the statement when it changed the title.[50][124]

text: Because of its public domain status, the film is sold on home video by many distributors. As of 2017, Amazon.com lists copies of Night of the Living Dead numbering 18 on VHS, 219 on DVD, 10 on Blu-ray and 44 on Amazon Video.[125] The original film is available to view or download free on Internet sites, such as Internet Archive, Hulu, and YouTube.[126][127][128] As of January 22, 2017, it is the Internet Archive's most-downloaded film, with over 2.8 million downloads.[129]

text: Critical analysis[edit]

text: Since its release, some critics and film historians have interpreted Night of the Living Dead as a subversive film that critiques 1960s American society, international Cold War politics and domestic racism. Elliot Stein of The Village Voice saw the film as an ardent critique of American involvement in the Vietnam War, arguing that it "was not set in Transylvania, but Pennsylvania – this was Middle America at war, and the zombie carnage seemed a grotesque echo of the conflict then raging in Vietnam."[130] Film historian Sumiko Higashi concurs, arguing that Night of the Living Dead was a film about the horrors of the Vietnam era. While she admits that "there are no Vietnamese in Night of the Living Dead, [...] they constitute an absent presence whose significance can be understood if narrative is construed". She points to aspects of the Vietnam War paralleled in the film: grainy black-and-white newsreels, search and destroy operations, helicopters, and graphic carnage.[131] In the 2009 documentary film Nightmares in Red, White and Blue, the zombies in the film are compared to the "silent majority" of the U.S. in the late 1960s.[132]

text: While George Romero denies he hired Duane Jones simply because he was black, reviewer Mark Deming notes that "the grim fate of Duane Jones, the sole heroic figure and only African-American, had added resonance with the assassinations of Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X fresh in the minds of most Americans".[6][133] Stein adds, "In this first-ever subversive horror movie, the resourceful black hero survives the zombies only to be killed by a redneck posse".[130] The deaths of Ben, Barbra and the supporting cast offered audiences an uncomfortable, nihilistic glimpse unusual for the genre.[134]

text: Other prevalent themes included "disillusionment with government and patriarchal nuclear family"[130] and "the flaws inherent in the media, local and federal government agencies, and the entire mechanism of civil defense".[135] Film historian Linda Badley explains that the film was so horrifying because the monsters were not creatures from outer space or some exotic environment, "They're us."[136] Romero confessed that the film was designed to reflect the tensions of the time: "It was 1968, man. Everybody had a 'message'. The anger and attitude and all that's there is just because it was the Sixties. We lived at the farmhouse, so we were always into raps about the implication and the meaning, so some of that crept in."[6]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: Romero revolutionized the horror film genre with Night of the Living Dead; according to Almar Haflidason of the BBC, the film represented "a new dawn in horror film-making".[137] The film has also effectively redefined the use of the term "zombie". While the word "zombie" itself is never used—the word used in the film is ghoul—Romero's film introduced the theme of zombies as reanimated, flesh-eating cannibals.[53][138][139] Romero himself didn't initially consider the antagonists in the film zombies, later saying "I never thought of my guys as zombies, when I made the first film...To me, zombies were still those boys in the Caribbean doing the wetwork for [Bela] Lugosi."[140] The film and its successors spawned countless imitators, in cinema, television and video gaming, which borrowed elements invented by Romero.[4] Night of the Living Dead ushered in the splatter film subgenre. As one film historian points out, horror prior to Romero's film had mostly involved rubber masks and costumes, cardboard sets, or mysterious figures lurking in the shadows. They were set in locations far removed from rural and suburban America.[141] Romero revealed the power behind exploitation and setting horror in ordinary, unexceptional locations and offered a template for making an "effective and lucrative" film on a "minuscule budget".[142] Slasher films of the 1970s and 80s such as John Carpenter's Halloween (1978), Sean S. Cunningham's Friday the 13th (1980), and Wes Craven's A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984) "owe much to the original Night of the Living Dead", according to author Barry Keith Grant.[105]


document_title: Ex on the Beach

question_text: where was ex on the beach season 4 filmed

text: Ex on the Beach

text: Series[edit]

text:
Year
Series
Predominant Location
Number of Episodes
Average MTV viewers 1

2014

Series 1

Marbella, Spain

8

764,000

2015

Series 2

Marbella, Spain

8

712,000

Series 3

Cancun, Mexico

10

777,000

2016

Series 4

Algarve, Portugal

8

896,000

Series 5

Koh Samui, Thailand

10

800,000

2017

Series 6

Crete, Greece

10

805,000

Series 7

Bali, Indonesia

10

525,000

2018

Series 8

Marbella, Spain

8

484,000

Series 9

Cancun, Mexico

12

TBA

text: Series 1 (2014)[edit]

text: The first series of the show was announced in February 2014[1] and premiered on MTV on 22 April 2014.[2] The series ran for eight episodes and concluded on 10 June 2014. The official list of cast members was released on 13 March 2014 and includes four single boys: Ashley Cain, Jack Lomax, Liam Lewis and Marco Alexandre; as well as four single girls: Chloe Goodman, Emily Gillard, Farah Sattaur and Vicky Pattison.[5] It was announced that Geordie Shore star Vicky Pattison would be taking part in the series; she was joined by ex-fiancé and former Geordie Shore co-star Ricci Guarnaccio as well as Australian fling Daniel Conn who featured briefly in series 6 of Geordie Shore.[6] On 7 January 2015, cast member Chloe Goodman entered the Celebrity Big Brother house to compete in the fifteenth series. However she became the first Housemate to be evicted. Ashley later returned for Series 2 as an ex, while Vicky returned in the third series. Liam and Chloe both returned again for Series 5, while Ashley and Joss made appearances as exes. Ross was another cast member from this series to make a return, this time during Series 6.

text: Series 2 (2015)[edit]

text: The second series of the show began airing on 27 January 2015[7] and ran for eight episodes, concluding on 17 March 2015. This was confirmed on 23 July 2014 when it was announced that filming would begin soon, with the series airing in 2015.[8] The official list of cast members was released on 6 January 2015.[9] It included four single boys: Connor Hunter, Luke Goodfellow, Morgan Evans and Rogan O'Connor, as well as four single girls: Anita Kaushik, Kayleigh Morris, Loren Green and Melissa Reeves. It was also announced that Geordie Shore stars Charlotte Crosby and Gary Beadle would be taking part in the series.[10] Ahead of the launch of the new series, it was confirmed that Series 1 cast member Ashley Cain would be returning for the second series as an ex.[11] Rogan later returned for the third series, while Jess and Gary both returned for the fifth series as main cast, with Kayleigh and Melissa appearing as exes. Kayleigh also went on to appear in the eighteenth series of Big Brother in 2017,[12] but was removed from the house on Day 13 due to threatening behaviour.[13] In 2018, Jess Impiazzi, an ex during this series went onto appear in the twenty-first series of Celebrity Big Brother.[14]

text: Series 3 (2015)[edit]

text: The third series of the show began on 11 August 2015.[15] The official list of cast members was released on 14 July 2015. This series was filmed in Cancun, Mexico, making this the first series to be filmed outside of Europe. They include four boys: Graham Griffiths, Jayden Robins, Kirk Norcross and Stephen Bear, and four girls: Amy Paige Cooke, Laura Alicia Summers, Megan McKenna and Megan Rees.[16] With the announcement of the line-up it was confirmed that former Geordie Shore cast member and star of the first series, Vicky Pattison, would be making her return as an ex alongside Series 2 star Rogan O'Connor. The Only Way Is Essex cast member Kirk Norcross was also confirmed to be taking part in the series, with his ex-fiancée and Celebrity Big Brother star Cami-Li featuring as his ex. Star of Magaluf Weekender Jordan Davies was also revealed to be taking part in the series, also featuring as an ex.[17] Megan McKenna and Jordan later returned for the fourth series. On 5 January 2016, cast member Megan McKenna entered the Celebrity Big Brother house to compete in the seveneeth series, and on 28 July 2016, Stephen Bear entered the house to compete in the eighteenth series where he left as the winner. Jordan Davies made another return to the show, this time during the fifth series with Jemma and Bear, and Holly also returning as an ex again. In August 2017, both Jemma Lucy and Jordan Davies took part in the twentieth series of Celebrity Big Brother.

text: Series 4 (2016)[edit]

text: The fourth series of the show began on 19 January 2016.[18] This series was filmed in Portugal.[19] The official cast list was revealed on 15 December 2015 and includes four girls: Helen Briggs, Nancy-May Turner, Naomi Hedman and Olivia Walsh, as well as four boys: Joe Delaney, Lewis Good, Youssef Hassane and Geordie Shore star Scotty T. Megan McKenna and Magaluf Weekender cast member Jordan Davies would be returning to the series as exes, having previously appeared during the previous series.[20] Olivia later returned to the beach for the fifth series, while Kieran Lee went onto appear in the eighteenth series of Big Brother, but was evicted during the final week.

text: Series 5 (2016)[edit]

text: The fifth series of the show began on 16 August 2016. This series took place in Koh Samui, Thailand. The series was confirmed on 8 March 2016 after the finale of the fourth series. It was also announced that faces from the past would return for this series with "unfinished business".[21] The official list of cast members were released on 5 July 2016.[22] It features four boys and four girls from previous series. From the first series it includes Chloe Goodman and Liam Lewis. Geordie Shore star Gary Beadle and Jess Impiazzi return having previously appeared in the second series, while Jemma Lucy, Jordan Davies and Stephen Bear from the third series all return. Finally Olivia Walsh returns having previously appeared in series 4. Over the course of the series they will be joined by their exes, which also include familiar faces. Series 1's Ashley Cain will be making his third appearance on the show, while Joss Mooney also returns. Kayleigh Morris and Melissa Reeves will be back having already appeared in the second series. Holly Rickwood from Series 3 will also be back on the beach. New cast members include Lillie Lexie Gregg, Charlotte Dawson, David Hawley, Aimee Kimber, Conor Scurlock and Alex Stewart.[23] While the series was airing, Stephen Bear took part in the eighteenth series of Celebrity Big Brother. He later went on to win the series.[24] Kayleigh also went on to appear in the eighteenth series of Big Brother in 2017,[25] but was removed from the house on Day 13 due to threatening behaviour.[26] Later in the year, in August 2017, both Jemma Lucy and Jordan Davies took part in the twentieth series of Celebrity Big Brother, who were both followed by Jess Impiazzi, who later went onto appear in the twenty-first series.[27]

text: Series 6 (2017)[edit]

text: The sixth series of the show began on 17 January 2017. This series was filmed on location in Crete, Greece. The series was confirmed on 2 November 2016.[28] The official list of cast members were released on 13 December 2016.[29] They include four boys; Alex Leslie, Josh Ritchie, Ross Worsick and Sean Pratt, and four girls; Harriette Harper, Maisie Gillespie, Zahida Allen and ZaraLena Jackson. Ross has previously appeared in the first series of the show whereas Josh featured in the first series of Love Island. With the announcement of the line-up it was also confirmed that Geordie Shore star Aaron Chalmers would be arriving on the beach as an ex as well as former The Only Way Is Essex cast member Nicole Bass. Chanelle McCleary, an ex from this series, later went onto appear in the eighteenth series of Big Brother but was evicted a week before the final.

text: Series 7 (2017)[edit]

text: The seventh series of the show began on 20 June 2017.[30] This series was filmed on location on the island of Bali in Indonesia. The series was confirmed on 26 February 2017.[31] The cast members for the series were confirmed on 23 May 2017[32] which include Geordie Shore stars Chloe Ferry and Marty McKenna, Love Island contestants Max Morley and Josh Ritchie, as well as Beauty School Cop Outs cast member Savannah Kemplay. Marty and Josh had previously appeared in the third and sixth series of the show respectively. Shortly after the series it was announced that Dean Ralph and Jordan Wright had joined the cast of The Only Way Is Essex for the twenty-second series.[33]

text: Series 8 (2018)[edit]

text: The eighth series of the show is expected to begin on 20 March 2018, and was filmed in Spain. The series was confirmed in August 2017.[34] The cast for this series was revealed on 20 February 2018, and includes Geordie Shore star Marnie Simpson as well as The X Factor contestant, and Stereo Kicks and Union J singer Casey Johnson.[35]

text: Series 9 (2018)[edit]

text: The ninth series began on 15 August 2018,[36] The series was confirmed at the end of the eighth series final episode in May 2018. The cast members for this series were confirmed on 23 July 2018, and features former Made in Chelsea cast member Daisy Robins, as well as The Valleys star Natalee Harris. The series was filmed in Cancun, Mexico.

text: Cast[edit]

text: Other appearances[edit]

text: In addition to appearing on Ex on the Beach, some of the cast members went on to compete in other reality TV shows including Celebrity Big Brother, Big Brother, and The Challenge.

text:
Celebrity Big Brother
Chloe Goodman – Series 15 (2015) – Evicted
Megan McKenna – Series 17 (2016) - Evicted
Stephen Bear – Series 18 (2016) – Winner
Jemma Lucy – Series 20 (2017) – Sixth
Jordan Davies – Series 20 (2017) – Evicted
Jess Impiazzi – Series 21 (2018) – Fourth
Big Brother
Chanelle McCleary - Series 18 (2017) – Evicted
Kayleigh Morris – Series 18 (2017) – Ejected
Kieran Lee – Series 18 (2017) – Evicted
The Challenge

text:
Cast Member

The Challenges

Challenges Won

Total Money Earned

Ashley Cain

Season 33 TBD

None

$0

Joss Mooney

Vendettas, Final Reckoning

None

$0

Kayleigh Morris

Vendettas, Final Reckoning

None

$0

Melissa Reeves

Vendettas, Final Reckoning

None

$0

Rogan O'Connor

Vendettas

None

$0

Stephen Bear

Season 33 TBD

None

$0

Zahida Allen

Season 33 TBD

None

$0

text: Challenges in bold indicate the cast member was a finalist on the Challenge.

text: Ex on the Beach: Body SOS[edit]

text: On 12 December 2017 it was announced that Vicky Pattison would host a spin-off show entitled "Ex on the Beach: Body SOS" where she will attempt to help members of the public to get into shape.[37] The first series began airing on 17 January 2018 and features Joss Mooney, who rose to fame by appearing in the first series of Ex on the Beach.

text: International versions[edit]

text:
Country
Local title
Original Channel
# of Seasons
Premiere date
Ref

 Brazil

De Férias com o Ex

MTV

3

October 13, 2016–

[38]

 Denmark

Ex on the Beach

Kanal 4

1

August 20, 2018

[39]

 Finland

Exiä rannalla

Sub

1

September 7, 2016 – 26 October 2016

[40]

 France

La Revanche des ex

NRJ 12

1

August 22, 2016 – October 21, 2016

[41]

 Hungary

Exek az Édenben

Viasat 3

1

April 18, 2017 – May 25, 2017

[42]

 Italy

Ex on the Beach

MTV

1

September 26, 2018

[43]

 Mexico

La Venganza de los Ex

MTV

1

August 21, 2018 –

[44]

 Netherlands Flanders

Ex on the Beach: Double Dutch!

MTV

3

August 28, 2016–

[45]

 Norway

Ex on the Beach

TVNorge

1

August 14, 2018

[46]

 Poland

Ex on the Beach

MTV

4

November 7, 2016–

[47]

 Russia

Экс на пляже

Friday!

2

November 7, 2016 - December 15, 2017

[48]

 Sweden

Ex on the Beach

Kanal 5

4

April 6, 2016–

[49]

 United States

Ex on the Beach

MTV

1

April 19, 2018 –

[50]


document_title: Speeds and feeds

question_text: what is meant by feed in lathe machine

question_tokens: what is meant by feed in lathe machine

text: Speeds and feeds

text: Cutting speed[edit]

text: Cutting speed may be defined as the rate at the workpiece surface, irrespective of the machining operation used. A cutting speed for mild steel of 100 ft/min is the same whether it is the speed of the cutter passing over the workpiece, such as in a turning operation, or the speed of the cutter moving past a workpiece, such as in a milling operation. The cutting conditions will affect the value of this surface speed for mild steel.

text: Schematically, speed at the workpiece surface can be thought of as the tangential speed at the tool-cutter interface, that is, how fast the material moves past the cutting edge of the tool, although "which surface to focus on" is a topic with several valid answers. In drilling and milling, the outside diameter of the tool is the widely agreed surface. In turning and boring, the surface can be defined on either side of the depth of cut, that is, either the starting surface or the ending surface, with neither definition being "wrong" as long as the people involved understand the difference. An experienced machinist summed this up succinctly as "the diameter I am turning from" versus "the diameter I am turning to."[3] He uses the "from", not the "to", and explains why, while acknowledging that some others do not. The logic of focusing on the largest diameter involved (OD of drill or end mill, starting diameter of turned workpiece) is that this is where the highest tangential speed is, with the most heat generation, which is the main driver of tool wear.[3]

text: There will be an optimum cutting speed for each material and set of machining conditions, and the spindle speed (RPM) can be calculated from this speed. Factors affecting the calculation of cutting speed are:

text:
The material being machined (steel, brass, tool steel, plastic, wood) (see table below)
The material the cutter is made from (Carbon steel, high speed steel (HSS), carbide, ceramics)
The economical life of the cutter (the cost to regrind or purchase new, compared to the quantity of parts produced)

text: Cutting speeds are calculated on the assumption that optimum cutting conditions exist. These include:

text:
Metal removal rate (finishing cuts that remove a small amount of material may be run at increased speeds)
Full and constant flow of cutting fluid (adequate cooling and chip flushing)
Rigidity of the machine and tooling setup (reduction in vibration or chatter)
Continuity of cut (as compared to an interrupted cut, such as machining square section material in a lathe)
Condition of material (mill scale, hard spots due to white cast iron forming in castings)

text: The cutting speed is given as a set of constants that are available from the material manufacturer or supplier. The most common materials are available in reference books or charts, but will always be subject to adjustment depending on the cutting conditions. The following table gives the cutting speeds for a selection of common materials under one set of conditions. The conditions are a tool life of 1 hour, dry cutting (no coolant), and at medium feeds, so they may appear to be incorrect depending on circumstances. These cutting speeds may change if, for instance, adequate coolant is available or an improved grade of HSS is used (such as one that includes cobalt).

text:
Cutting speeds for various materials using a plain high speed steel cutter

Material type
Meters per min (MPM)
Surface feet per min (SFM)

Steel (tough)
15–18
50–60

Mild Steel
30–38
100–125

Mild Steel (with coolant)
60-76
200-250

Cast Iron (medium)
18–24
60–80

Alloy Steels (1320–9262)
20–37
65–120[4]

Carbon Steels (C1008–C1095)
21–40
70–130[5]

Free Cutting Steels (B1111–B1113 & C1108–C1213)
35–69
115–225[5]

Stainless Steels (300 & 400 series)
23–40
75–130[6]

Bronzes
24–45
80–150

Leaded Steel (Leadloy 12L14)
91
300[7]

Aluminium
75–105
250–350

Aluminum (with coolant)
150-210
500-700

Brass
90–210
300–700[8]

Machinable Wax

200

Acetal Copolymer (Delrin)

350

Polyethylene

400

Acrylic (with coolant)

500

Wood

600-1000

text: Machinability rating[edit]

text: The machinability rating of a material attempts to quantify the machinability of various materials. It is expressed as a percentage or a normalized value. The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) determined machinability ratings for a wide variety of materials by running turning tests at 180 surface feet per minute (sfpm). It then arbitrarily assigned 160 Brinell B1112 steel a machinability rating of 100%. The machinability rating is determined by measuring the weighed averages of the normal cutting speed, surface finish, and tool life for each material. Note that a material with a machinability rating less than 100% would be more difficult to machine than B1112 and material and a value more than 100% would be easier.

text: Machinability ratings can be used in conjunction with the Taylor tool life equation, VTn = C in order to determine cutting speeds or tool life. It is known that B1112 has a tool life of 60 minutes at a cutting speed of 100 sfpm. If a material has a machinability rating of 70%, it can be determined, with the above knowns, that in order to maintain the same tool life (60 minutes), the cutting speed must be 70 sfpm (assuming the same tooling is used).

text: When calculating for copper alloys, the machine rating is arrived at by assuming the 100 rating of 600 SFM. For example, phosphorus bronze (grades A–D) has a machinability rating of 20. This means that phosphor bronze runs at 20% the speed of 600 SFM or 120 SFM. However, 165 SFM is generally accepted as the basic 100% rating for "grading steels".[9]

text: Spindle speed[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The spindle speed is the rotational frequency of the spindle of the machine, measured in revolutions per minute (RPM). The preferred speed is determined by working backward from the desired surface speed (sfm or m/min) and incorporating the diameter (of workpiece or cutter).

text: The spindle may hold the:

text:
Material (as in a screw machine)
Drill bit in a drill
Milling cutter in a milling machine
Router bit in a wood router
Shaper cutter or knife in a wood shaper or spindle moulder
Grinding wheel on a grinding machine.
Or it may hold the chuck, which then holds the workpiece in a lathe. In these cases the tool is often a stationary tool bit, although there are plenty of exceptions, such as in thread milling.

text: Excessive spindle speed will cause premature tool wear, breakages, and can cause tool chatter, all of which can lead to potentially dangerous conditions. Using the correct spindle speed for the material and tools will greatly enhance tool life and the quality of the surface finish.

text: For a given machining operation, the cutting speed will remain constant for most situations; therefore the spindle speed will also remain constant. However, facing, forming, parting off, and recess operations on a lathe or screw machine involve the machining of a constantly changing diameter. Ideally this means changing the spindle speed as the cut advances across the face of the workpiece, producing constant surface speed (CSS). Mechanical arrangements to effect CSS have existed for centuries, but they were never applied commonly to machine tool control. In the pre-CNC era, the ideal of CSS was ignored for most work. For unusual work that demanded it, special pains were taken to achieve it. The introduction of CNC-controlled lathes has provided a practical, everyday solution via automated CSS. By means of the machine's software and variable speed electric motors, the lathe can increase the RPM of the spindle as the cutter gets closer to the center of the part.

text: Grinding wheels are designed to be run at a maximum safe speed, the spindle speed of the grinding machine may be variable but this should only be changed with due attention to the safe working speed of the wheel. As a wheel wears it will decrease in diameter, and its effective cutting speed will be reduced. Some grinders have the provision to increase the spindle speed, which corrects for this loss of cutting ability; however, increasing the speed beyond the wheels rating will destroy the wheel and create a serious hazard to life and limb.

text: Generally speaking, spindle speeds and feed rates are less critical in woodworking than metalworking. Most woodworking machines including power saws such as circular saws and band saws, jointers, Thickness planers rotate at a fixed RPM. In those machines, cutting speed is regulated through the feed rate. The required feed rate can be extremely variable depending on the power of the motor, the hardness of the wood or other material being machined, and the sharpness of the cutting tool.

text: In woodworking, the ideal feed rate is one that is slow enough not to bog down the motor, yet fast enough to avoid burning the material. Certain woods, such as black cherry and maple are more prone to burning than others. The right feed rate is usually obtained by "feel" if the material is hand fed, or by trial and error if a power feeder is used. In thicknessers (planers), the wood is usually fed automatically through rubber or corrugated steel rollers. Some of these machines allow varying the feed rate, usually by changing pulleys. A slower feed rate usually results in a finer surface as more cuts are made for any length of wood.

text: Spindle speed becomes important in the operation of routers, spindle moulders or shapers, and drills. Older and smaller routers often rotate at a fixed spindle speed, usually between 20,000 and 25,000 rpm. While these speeds are fine for small router bits, using larger bits, say more than 1-inch (25 mm) or 25 millimeters in diameter, can be dangerous and can lead to chatter. Larger routers now have variable speeds and larger bits require slower speed. Drilling wood generally uses higher spindle speeds than metal, and the speed is not as critical. However, larger diameter drill bits do require slower speeds to avoid burning.

text: Cutting feeds and speeds, and the spindle speeds that are derived from them, are the ideal cutting conditions for a tool. If the conditions are less than ideal then adjustments are made to the spindle's speed, this adjustment is usually a reduction in RPM to the closest available speed, or one that is deemed (through knowledge and experience) to be correct.

text: Some materials, such as machinable wax, can be cut at a wide variety of spindle speeds, while others, such as stainless steel require much more careful control as the cutting speed is critical, to avoid overheating both the cutter and workpiece. Stainless steel is one material that work hardens very easily, therefore insufficient feed rate or incorrect spindle speed can lead to less than ideal cutting conditions as the work piece will quickly harden and resist the tool's cutting action. The liberal application of cutting fluid can improve these cutting conditions; however, the correct selection of speeds is the critical factor.

text: Spindle speed calculations[edit]

text: Most metalworking books have nomograms or tables of spindle speeds and feed rates for different cutters and workpiece materials; similar tables are also likely available from the manufacturer of the cutter used.

text: The spindle speeds may be calculated for all machining operations once the SFM or MPM is known. In most cases we are dealing with a cylindrical object such as a milling cutter or a workpiece turning in a lathe so we need to determine the speed at the periphery of this round object. This speed at the periphery (of a point on the circumference, moving past a stationary point) will depend on the rotational speed (RPM) and diameter of the object.

text: One analogy would be a skateboard rider and a bicycle rider travelling side by side along the road. For a given surface speed (the speed of this pair along the road) the rotational speed (RPM) of their wheels (large for the skater and small for the bicycle rider) will be different. This rotational speed (RPM) is what we are calculating, given a fixed surface speed (speed along the road) and known values for their wheel sizes (cutter or workpiece).

text: The following formulae[10] may be used to estimate this value.

text: Approximation[edit]

text:
The exact RPM is not always needed, a close approximation will work (using 3 for the value of

π

{\displaystyle {\pi }}

).

text: e.g. for a cutting speed of 100 ft/min (a plain HSS steel cutter on mild steel) and diameter of 10 inches (the cutter or the work piece)

text: and, for an example using metric values, where the cutting speed is 30 m/min and a diameter of 10 mm,

text: Accuracy[edit]

text: However, for more accurate calculations, and at the expense of simplicity, this formula can be used:

text: and using the same example

text: and using the same example as above

text: where:

text:
RPM is the rotational speed of the cutter or workpiece.
Speed is the recommended cutting speed of the material in meters/minute or feet/min
Diameter in millimeters or inches.

text: Feed rate[edit]

text: Feed rate is the velocity at which the cutter is fed, that is, advanced against the workpiece. It is expressed in units of distance per revolution for turning and boring (typically inches per revolution [ipr] or millimeters per revolution). It can be expressed thus for milling also, but it is often expressed in units of distance per time for milling (typically inches per minute [ipm] or millimeters per minute), with considerations of how many teeth (or flutes) the cutter has then determining what that means for each tooth.

text: Feed rate is dependent on the:

text:
Type of tool (a small drill or a large drill, high speed or carbide, a boxtool or recess, a thin form tool or wide form tool, a slide knurl or a turret straddle knurl).
Surface finish desired.
Power available at the spindle (to prevent stalling of the cutter or workpiece).
Rigidity of the machine and tooling setup (ability to withstand vibration or chatter).
Strength of the workpiece (high feed rates will collapse thin wall tubing)
Characteristics of the material being cut, chip flow depends on material type and feed rate. The ideal chip shape is small and breaks free early, carrying heat away from the tool and work.
Threads per inch (TPI) for taps, die heads and threading tools.
Cut Width. Any time the width of cut is less than half the diameter, a geometric phenomenon called Chip Thinning reduces the actual chipload. Feedrates need to be increased to offset the effects of chip thinning, both for productivity and to avoid rubbing which reduces tool life.

text: When deciding what feed rate to use for a certain cutting operation, the calculation is fairly straightforward for single-point cutting tools, because all of the cutting work is done at one point (done by "one tooth", as it were). With a milling machine or jointer, where multi-tipped/multi-fluted cutting tools are involved, then the desirable feed rate becomes dependent on the number of teeth on the cutter, as well as the desired amount of material per tooth to cut (expressed as chip load). The greater the number of cutting edges, the higher the feed rate permissible: for a cutting edge to work efficiently it must remove sufficient material to cut rather than rub; it also must do its fair share of work.

text: The ratio of the spindle speed and the feed rate controls how aggressive the cut is, and the nature of the swarf formed.

text: Formula to determine feed rate[edit]

text: This formula[11] can be used to figure out the feed rate that the cutter travels into or around the work. This would apply to cutters on a milling machine, drill press and a number of other machine tools. This is not to be used on the lathe for turning operations, as the feed rate on a lathe is given as feed per revolution.

text:
F
R
=

R
P
M
×
T
×
C
L

{\displaystyle FR={RPM\times T\times CL}}

text: Where:

text:
FR = the calculated feed rate in inches per minute or mm per minute.
RPM = is the calculated speed for the cutter.
T = Number of teeth on the cutter.
CL = The chip load or feed per tooth. This is the size of chip that each tooth of the cutter takes.

text: Depth of cut[edit]

text: Cutting speed and feed rate come together with depth of cut to determine the material removal rate, which is the volume of workpiece material (metal, wood, plastic, etc.) that can be removed per time unit

text: Interrelationship of theory and practice[edit]

text: Speed-and-feed selection is analogous to other examples of applied science, such as meteorology or pharmacology, in that the theoretical modeling is necessary and useful but can never fully predict the reality of specific cases because of the massively multivariate environment. Just as weather forecasts or drug dosages can be modeled with fair accuracy, but never with complete certainty, machinists can predict with charts and formulas the approximate speed and feed values that will work best on a particular job, but cannot know the exact optimal values until running the job. In CNC machining, usually the programmer programs speeds and feedrates that are as maximally tuned as calculations and general guidelines can supply. The operator then fine-tunes the values while running the machine, based on sights, sounds, smells, temperatures, tolerance holding, and tool tip lifespan. Under proper management, the revised values are captured for future use, so that when a program is run again later, this work need not be duplicated.

text: As with meteorology and pharmacology, however, the interrelationship of theory and practice has been developing over decades as the theory part of the balance becomes more advanced thanks to information technology. For example, an effort called the Machine Tool Genome Project is working toward providing the computer modeling (simulation) needed to predict optimal speed-and-feed combinations for particular setups in any internet-connected shop with less local experimentation and testing.[12] Instead of the only option being the measuring and testing of the behavior of its own equipment, it will benefit from others' experience and simulation; in a sense, rather than 'reinventing a wheel', it will be able to 'make better use of existing wheels already developed by others in remote locations'.

text: Academic research examples[edit]

text: Speeds and feeds have been studied scientifically since at least the 1890s. The work is typically done in engineering laboratories, with the funding coming from three basic roots: corporations, governments (including their militaries), and universities. All three types of institution have invested large amounts of money in the cause, often in collaborative partnerships. Examples of such work are highlighted below.

text: In the 1890s through 1910s, Frederick Winslow Taylor performed turning experiments[13] that became famous (and seminal). He developed Taylor's Equation for Tool Life Expectancy.

text: Scientific study by Holz and De Leeuw of the Cincinnati Milling Machine Company[14] did for milling cutters what F. W. Taylor had done for single-point cutters.

text: "Following World War II, many new alloys were developed. New standards were needed to increase [U.S.] American productivity. Metcut Research Associates, with technical support from the Air Force Materials Laboratory and the Army Science and Technology Laboratory, published the first Machining Data Handbook in 1966. The recommended speeds and feeds provided in this book were the result of extensive testing to determine optimum tool life under controlled conditions for every material of the day, operation and hardness."[3]

text: Flórez-Orrego et al. 2010, studied the effect of the variation of cutting parameters in the surface integrity in turning of an AISI 304 stainless steel. They found that the feed rate has the greatest impairing effect on the quality of the surface, and that besides the achievement of the desired roughness profile, it is necessary to analyze the effect of speed and feed on the creation of micropits and microdefects on the machined surface. Moreover, they found that the conventional empirical relation that relates feed rate to roughness value does not fit adequately for low cutting speeds.