document_title: Apollo 13 (film)

question_text: who played tom hanks daughter in apollo 13

root

text: Apollo 13 (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In July 1969, astronaut Jim Lovell hosts a house party where guests watch Neil Armstrong's televised first human steps on the Moon. Afterwards Lovell, who had orbited the Moon on Apollo 8, tells his wife Marilyn that he intends to return to the Moon to walk on its surface.

tag: p

text: Three months later, as Lovell conducts a VIP tour of NASA's Vertical Assembly Building, his boss Deke Slayton informs him that because of problems with Alan Shepard's crew, his crew will fly Apollo 13 instead of 14. Lovell, Ken Mattingly, and Fred Haise train for their new mission. A few days before launch, Mattingly is exposed to the measles, and the flight surgeon demands his replacement with Mattingly's backup, Jack Swigert. Lovell resists breaking up his team, but relents when Slayton threatens to bump his crew to a later mission. As the launch date approaches, Marilyn has a nightmare about her husband getting killed in space, but goes to the Kennedy Space Center the night before launch to see him off.

text: On April 11, 1970, Flight Director Gene Kranz gives the go-ahead from Houston's Mission Control Center for the Apollo 13 launch. As the Saturn V rocket climbs through the atmosphere, a second stage engine cuts off prematurely, but the craft reaches its Earth parking orbit. After the third stage fires to send Apollo 13 to the Moon, Swigert performs the maneuver to connect the Command/Service Module Odyssey to the Lunar Module Aquarius and pull it away from the spent rocket.

text: Three days into the mission, the crew makes a television transmission, which the networks decline to broadcast live. After Swigert turns on the liquid oxygen tank stirring fans as requested, one of the tanks explodes, emptying its contents into space and sending the craft tumbling. The other tank is soon found to be leaking. They attempt to stop the leak by shutting off fuel cells #1 and #3, but to no avail. With the fuel cells closed, the Moon landing must be aborted, and Lovell and Haise must hurriedly power up Aquarius to use as a "lifeboat" for the return home, as Swigert shuts down Odyssey before its battery power runs out. In Houston, Kranz rallies his team to come up with a plan to bring the astronauts home safely, declaring "failure is not an option". Controller John Aaron recruits Mattingly to help him invent a procedure to restart Odyssey for the landing on Earth.

text: As Swigert and Haise watch the Moon pass beneath them, Lovell laments his lost chance of walking on its surface, then turns their attention to the business of getting home. With Aquarius running on minimal electrical power, the crew suffers freezing conditions, and Haise contracts a urinary infection and a fever. Swigert suspects Mission Control is withholding their inability to get them home; Haise angrily blames Swigert's inexperience for the accident; and Lovell quickly squelches the argument. When carbon dioxide approaches dangerous levels, ground control must quickly invent a way to make the Command Module's square filters work in the Lunar Module's round receptacles. With the guidance systems on Aquarius shut down, the crew must make a difficult but vital course correction by manually igniting the Lunar Module's engine.

text: Mattingly and Aaron struggle to find a way to turn on the Command Module systems without drawing too much power, and finally transmit the procedure to Swigert, who restarts Odyssey by transferring extra power from Aquarius. When the crew jettisons the Service Module, they are surprised to see the extent of the damage. As they release Aquarius and re-enter the Earth's atmosphere, no one is sure that Odyssey's heat shield is intact. The tense period of radio silence due to ionization blackout is longer than normal, but the astronauts report all is well and splash down in the Pacific Ocean.

text: As helicopters bring the three men aboard the recovery ship USS Iwo Jima for a hero's welcome, Lovell's voice-over describes the subsequent investigation into the explosion, and the careers of Haise, Swigert, Mattingly, and Kranz. He wonders if and when mankind will return to the Moon.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Tom Hanks as Apollo 13 Commander Jim Lovell: Jim Lovell stated that before his book Lost Moon was even written, the movie rights were being shopped to potential buyers[5] and that his first reaction was that Kevin Costner would be a good choice to play him.[5][6] However, by the time Howard acquired the director's position, Costner's name never came up in serious discussion, and Hanks had already been interested in doing a film based on Apollo 13. When Hanks' representative informed him that a script was being passed around, he had the script sent to him.[5] John Travolta was initially offered the role of Lovell, but declined.[7]
Kevin Bacon as Apollo 13 backup Command Module Pilot Jack Swigert
Bill Paxton as Apollo 13 Lunar Module Pilot Fred Haise
Gary Sinise as Apollo 13 prime Command Module Pilot Ken Mattingly: Sinise was invited by Howard to read for any of the characters, and chose Mattingly.[5]
Ed Harris as White Team Flight Director Gene Kranz: Harris described the film as "cramming for a final exam." Harris described Gene Kranz as "corny and like a dinosaur", but was respected by the crew.[5] Apollo 13 would be Harris' second space travel-themed movie; he had starred as pioneering astronaut John Glenn in 1983's The Right Stuff.
Kathleen Quinlan as Marilyn Gerlach Lovell, Jim's wife
Chris Ellis as Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton
Joe Spano as "NASA Director", a composite character loosely based on Chris Kraft
Marc McClure as Black Team Flight Director Glynn Lunney
Clint Howard as White Team Electrical, Environmental and Consumables Manager (EECOM) Sy Liebergot
Ray McKinnon as White Team Flight Dynamics Officer Jerry Bostick
Todd Louiso as White Team Flight Activities Officer
Loren Dean as EECOM John Aaron
Xander Berkeley as "Henry Hurt", a fictional NASA Office of Public Affairs staff member[8]
David Andrews as Apollo 12 Commander Pete Conrad
Christian Clemenson as Flight Surgeon Dr. Charles Berry
Ben Marley as Apollo 13 backup Commander John Young
Brett Cullen as Capsule Communicator (CAPCOM) 1
Ned Vaughn as CAPCOM 2
Tracy Reiner as Haise's wife Mary
Mark Wheeler as Neil Armstrong Apollo 11 Commander
Larry Williams as Buzz Aldrin Apollo 11 Lunar Module Pilot
Mary Kate Schellhardt as Lovell's older daughter Barbara
Max Elliott Slade as Lovell's older son James (Jay), who attended military school at the time of the flight
Emily Ann Lloyd as Lovell's younger daughter Susan
Miko Hughes as Lovell's younger son Jeffrey

tag: ul

text: The real Jim Lovell appears as captain of the recovery ship USS Iwo Jima; Howard had intended to make him an admiral, but Lovell himself, having retired as a captain, chose to appear in his actual rank. Horror film director Roger Corman, a mentor of Howard, appears as a congressman being given a VIP tour by Lovell of the Vehicle Assembly Building, as it had become something of a tradition for Corman to make a cameo appearance in his protégés' films.[9][10] The real Marilyn Lovell appeared among the spectators during the launch sequence.[6] CBS News anchor Walter Cronkite appears in archive news footage and can be heard in newly recorded announcements, some of which he edited himself to sound more authentic.[6]

text: In addition to his brother, Clint Howard, several other members of Ron Howard's family appear in the movie:

text:
Rance Howard (his father) appears as the Lovell family minister.
Jean Speegle Howard (his mother) appears as Lovell's mother Blanch.
Cheryl Howard (his wife) and Bryce Dallas Howard (his daughter) appear as uncredited background performers in the scene where the astronauts wave goodbye to their families.[10]

text: Brad Pitt was offered a role in the film, but turned it down to star in Se7en.[11] Reportedly, the real Pete Conrad expressed interest in appearing in the film.[6]

text: Jeffrey Kluger appears as a television reporter.[10]

text: Production[edit]

text: Preproduction and props[edit]

text: The screenplay by William Broyles, Jr. and Al Reinert was rewritten by John Sayles after Hanks had been cast and construction of the spacecraft sets had begun.[12]

text: While planning the film, director Ron Howard decided that every shot of the film would be original and that no mission footage would be used.[13] The spacecraft interiors were constructed by the Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center's Space Works, which also restored the Apollo 13 Command Module. Two individual Lunar Modules and two Command Modules were constructed for filming. While each was a replica, composed of some of the original Apollo materials, they were built so that different sections were removable, which enabled filming to take place inside the capsules. Space Works also built modified Command and Lunar Modules for filming inside a Boeing KC-135 reduced-gravity aircraft, and the pressure suits worn by the actors, which are exact reproductions of those worn by the Apollo astronauts, right down to the detail of being airtight. When the actors put the suits on with their helmets locked in place, air was pumped into the suits to cool them down and allow them to breathe, exactly as in launch preparations for the real Apollo missions.[14]

text: The real Mission Control Center consisted of two control rooms located on the second and third floors of Building 30 at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. NASA offered the use of the control room for filming, but Howard declined, opting instead to make his own replica from scratch.[6][13] Production designer Michael Corenblith and set decorator Merideth Boswell were in charge of the construction of the Mission Control set at Universal Studios. The set was equipped with giant rear-screen projection capabilities and a complex set of computers with individual video feeds to all the flight controller stations. The actors playing the flight controllers were able to communicate with each other on a private audio loop.[14] The Mission Control room built for the film was on the ground floor.[13] One NASA employee, who was a consultant for the film, said that the set was so realistic that he would leave at the end of the day and look for the elevator before remembering he was not in Mission Control.[6] By the time the film was made, the USS Iwo Jima had been scrapped, so her sister ship, the USS New Orleans, was used as the recovery ship instead.[13]

text:
For actors, being able to actually shoot in zero gravity as opposed to being in incredibly painful and uncomfortable harnesses for special effects shots was all the difference between what would have been a horrible moviemaking experience as opposed to the completely glorious one that it actually was.

—Tom Hanks[14]

tag: div

text: Howard anticipated difficulty in portraying weightlessness in a realistic manner. He discussed this with Steven Spielberg, who suggested using a KC-135 airplane, which can be flown in such a way as to create about 23 seconds of weightlessness, a method NASA has always used to train its astronauts for space flight. Howard obtained NASA's permission and assistance in filming in the realistic conditions aboard multiple KC-135 flights.[15]

text: Cast training and filming[edit]

text: In Los Angeles, Ed Harris and all the actors portraying flight controllers enrolled in a Flight Controller School led by Gerry Griffin, an Apollo 13 flight director, and flight controller Jerry Bostick. The actors studied audiotapes from the mission, reviewed hundreds of pages of NASA transcripts, and attended a crash course in physics.[13][14] Astronaut Dave Scott was impressed with their efforts, stating that each actor was determined to make every scene technically correct, word for word.[5]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
Apollo 13: Music From The Motion Picture

Soundtrack album by James Horner

Released
June 27, 1995

Genre
Soundtrack

Length
77:41

Label
MCA

tag: table

text:
Professional ratings

Review scores

Source
Rating

AllMusic
[16]

Filmtracks.com
[17]

SoundtrackNet
[18]

Tracksounds
[19]

text: The score to Apollo 13 was composed and conducted by James Horner. The soundtrack was released in 1995 by MCA Records and has seven tracks of score, eight period songs used in the film, and seven tracks of dialogue by the actors at a running time of nearly seventy-eight minutes. The music also features solos by vocalist Annie Lennox and Tim Morrison on the trumpet. The score was a critical success and garnered Horner an Academy Award nomination for Best Original Score.[20]

text: All music composed by James Horner, except where noted.

text:
Apollo 13: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack

No.
Title
Length

1.
"Main Title"
1:32

2.
"One Small Step"
0:42

3.
"Night Train" (performed by James Brown)
3:27

4.
"Groovin'" (performed by The Young Rascals)
2:26

5.
"Somebody to Love" (performed by Jefferson Airplane)
2:55

6.
"I Can See for Miles" (performed by The Who)
4:09

7.
"Purple Haze" (performed by The Jimi Hendrix Experience)
2:48

8.
"Launch Control"
3:28

9.
"All Systems Go/The Launch"
6:39

10.
"Welcome to Apollo 13"
0:38

11.
"Spirit in the Sky" (performed by Norman Greenbaum)
3:50

12.
"House Cleaning/Houston, We Have a Problem"
1:34

13.
"Master Alarm"
2:54

14.
"What's Going On?"
0:34

15.
"Into the L.E.M."
3:43

16.
"Out of Time/Shut Her Down"
2:20

17.
"The Darkside of the Moon" (performed by Annie Lennox)
5:09

18.
"Failure is Not an Option"
1:18

19.
"Honky Tonkin'" (performed by Hank Williams)
2:42

20.
"Blue Moon" (performed by The Mavericks)
4:09

21.
"Waiting for Disaster/A Privilege"
0:43

22.
"Re-Entry & Splashdown"
9:05

23.
"End Titles" (performed by Annie Lennox)
5:34

text: Release[edit]

text: The film was released on June 30, 1995 in North America and on September 22, 1995 in the UK.

text: In September 2002 the film was re-released in IMAX. It was the first film to be digitally remastered using IMAX DMR technology.[21]

text: Box-office performance[edit]

text: The film was a box-office success, bringing in $355,237,933 worldwide.[2] The film's widest release was 2,347 theaters.[2] The film's opening weekend and the following two weeks placed it at #1 with a US gross of $25,353,380, which made up 14.7% of the total US gross.[2]

text:
Apollo 13 box office revenue

Source
Gross (US$)
% Total
All-time rank (unadjusted)

North America
$173,837,933[2]
48.9%
229[2]

Foreign
$181,400,000[2]
51.1%
N/A

Worldwide
$355,237,933[2]
100.0%
282[2]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that the film has an overall approval rating of 95%, based on 85 reviews, with a weighted average rating of 8.2/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "In recreating the troubled space mission, Apollo 13 pulls no punches: it's a masterfully told drama from director Ron Howard, bolstered by an ensemble of solid performances."[22] Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews from mainstream critics, gave the film an average score of 77 out of 100, based on 22 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[23]

text: Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times praised the film in his review saying: "A powerful story, one of the year's best films, told with great clarity and remarkable technical detail, and acted without pumped-up histrionics."[24] Richard Corliss from Time highly praised the film, saying: "From lift-off to splashdown, Apollo 13 gives one hell of a ride."[25] Edward Guthmann of San Francisco Chronicle gave a mixed review and wrote: "I just wish that Apollo 13 worked better as a movie, and that Howard's threshold for corn, mush and twinkly sentiment weren't so darn wide."[26] Peter Travers from Rolling Stone praised the film and wrote: "Howard lays off the manipulation to tell the true story of the near-fatal 1970 Apollo 13 mission in painstaking and lively detail. It's easily Howard's best film."[27] Movie Room Reviews said "This film is arguably one of the most dramatic and horrendous spaceflight stories ever told."[28]

text: Janet Maslin made the film an NYT Critics' Pick, calling it an "absolutely thrilling" film that "unfolds with perfect immediacy, drawing viewers into the nail-biting suspense of a spellbinding true story." According to Maslin, "like Quiz Show, Apollo 13 beautifully evokes recent history in ways that resonate strongly today. Cleverly nostalgic in its visual style (Rita Ryack's costumes are especially right), it harks back to movie making without phony heroics and to the strong spirit of community that enveloped the astronauts and their families. Amazingly, this film manages to seem refreshingly honest while still conforming to the three-act dramatic format of a standard Hollywood hit. It is far and away the best thing Mr. Howard has done (and Far and Away was one of the other kind)."[29] The academic critic Raymond Malewitz focuses on the DIY aspects of the "mailbox" filtration system to illustrate the emergence of an unlikely hero in late 20th-century American culture—"the creative, improvisational, but restrained thinker—who replaces the older prodigal cowboy heroes of American mythology and provides the country a better, more frugal example of an appropriate 'husband'."[30]

text: Ron Howard stated that, after the first test preview of the film, one of the comment cards indicated "total disdain"; the audience member had written that it was a "typical Hollywood" ending and that the crew would never have survived.[31] Marilyn Lovell praised Quinlan's portrayal of her, stating she felt she could feel what Quinlan's character was going through, and remembered how she felt in her mind.[5]

text: Home media[edit]

text: A 10th-anniversary DVD of the film was released in 2005; it included both the theatrical version and the IMAX version, along with several extras.[32] The IMAX version has a 1.66:1 aspect ratio.[33]

text: In 2006, Apollo 13 was released on HD DVD and on April 13, 2010 it was released on Blu-ray disc as the 15th-anniversary edition on the 40th anniversary of the Apollo 13 accident.[32] The Film was released on 4K UHD Blu-Ray on October 17, 2017.[34]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Recipient
Result
Ref.

1996
Academy Awards (1996)
Best Film Editing
Mike Hill and Daniel Hanley
Won
[4]

Best Sound
Rick Dior, Steve Pederson, Scott Millan, and David MacMillan
Won

Best Actor in a Supporting Role
Ed Harris (lost to Kevin Spacey in The Usual Suspects)
Nominated

Best Actress in a Supporting Role
Kathleen Quinlan (lost to Mira Sorvino in Mighty Aphrodite)
Nominated

Best Art Direction
Art Direction: Michael Corenblith; Set Decoration: Merideth Boswell (lost to Restoration)
Nominated

Best Original Dramatic Score
James Horner (lost to Il Postino)
Nominated

Best Picture
Brian Grazer (lost to Braveheart)
Nominated

Best Visual Effects
Robert Legato, Michael Kanfer, Leslie Ekker, and Matt Sweeney (lost to Babe)
Nominated

Best Adapted Screenplay
William Broyles Jr. and Al Reinert (lost to Sense & Sensibility)
Nominated

American Cinema Editors (Eddies)
Best Edited Feature Film
Mike Hill, Daniel P. Hanley
Nominated

American Society of Cinematographers
Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography in Theatrical Releases
Dean Cundey
Nominated

BAFTA Film Awards
Best Production Design
Michael Corenblith
Won

Outstanding Achievement in Special Visual Effects
Robert Legato, Michael Kanfer, Matt Sweeney, Leslie Ekker
Won

Best Cinematography
Dean Cundey
Nominated

Best Editing
Mike Hill, Daniel Hanley
Nominated

Best Sound
David MacMillan, Rick Dior, Scott Millan, Steve Pederson
Nominated

Casting Society of America (Artios)
Best Casting for Feature Film, Drama
Jane Jenkins, Janet Hirshenson
Nominated

Chicago Film Critics Association Awards
Best Picture
Apollo 13
Won

Directors Guild of America
Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures
Ron Howard, Carl Clifford, Aldric La'Auli Porter, Jane Paul
Won

Golden Globe Awards
Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture
Ed Harris as Gene Kranz
Nominated

Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture
Kathleen Quinlan as Marilyn Lovell
Nominated

Best Director – Motion Picture
Ron Howard
Nominated

Best Motion Picture – Drama
Apollo 13
Nominated

Heartland Film Festival
Studio Crystal Heart Award
Jeffrey Kluger
Won

Hugo Awards
Best Dramatic Presentation
Apollo 13
Nominated

MTV Movie Awards
Best Male Performance
Tom Hanks as Jim Lovell
Nominated

Best Movie
Apollo 13
Nominated

PGA Awards
Motion Picture Producer of the Year Award
Brian Grazer, Todd Hallowell
Won

Saturn Awards
Best Action / Adventure / Thriller Film
Apollo 13
Nominated

Screen Actors Guild Awards
Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role
Ed Harris as Gene Kranz
Won

Outstanding Performance by a Cast
Kevin Bacon, Tom Hanks, Ed Harris, Bill Paxton, Kathleen Quinlan, and Gary Sinise
Won

Space Foundation's Douglas S. Morrow Public Outreach Award
Best Family Feature – Drama
Apollo 13
Won
[35]

Writers Guild of America Awards
Best Screenplay Adapted from Another Medium
William Broyles Jr., Al Reinert
Nominated

Young Artist Awards
Best Family Feature – Drama
Apollo 13
Nominated

2005
American Film Institute
AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes
"Houston, we have a problem." (#50)
Won
[36]

2006
American Film Institute
AFI's 100 Years... 100 Cheers
Apollo 13 (#12)
Won
[36]

text: Technical and historical accuracy[edit]

text: The film depicts the crew hearing a bang quickly after Swigert followed directions from mission control to stir the oxygen and hydrogen tanks. In reality, the crew heard the bang 93 seconds later.[37]

text: The film portrays the Saturn V launch vehicle being rolled out to the launch pad two days before launch. In reality, the launch vehicle was rolled out on the mobile launch platform using the crawler-transporter weeks before the launch date.

text: The movie depicts Swigert and Haise arguing about who was at fault. The show The Real Story: Apollo 13 broadcast on the Smithsonian Channel includes Haise stating that no such argument took place and that there was no way anyone could have foreseen that stirring the tank would cause problems.[38]

text: The dialogue between ground control and the astronauts was taken nearly verbatim from transcripts and recordings, with the exception of one of the taglines of the film, "Houston, we have a problem." (This quote was voted #50 on the list "AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes".) According to the mission transcript, the actual words uttered by Jack Swigert were "Hey, we've got a problem here" (talking over Haise, who had started "Okay, Houston"). Ground control responded by saying "This is Houston, say again please." Jim Lovell then repeated, "Houston, we've had a problem."[39]

text: One other incorrect dialogue is after the re-entry blackout. In the movie, Tom Hanks (as Lovell) says "Hello Houston... this is Odyssey... it's good to see you again." In the actual re-entry, the Command Module's transmission was finally acquired by a Sikorsky SH-3D Sea King recovery aircraft which then relayed communications to Mission Control. CAPCOM and fellow astronaut Joe Kerwin (not Mattingly, who serves as CAPCOM in this scene in the movie) then made a call to the spacecraft "Odyssey, Houston standing by. Over." Jack Swigert, not Lovell, replied "Okay, Joe," and unlike in the movie, this was well before the parachutes deployed; the celebrations depicted at Mission Control were triggered by visual confirmation of their deployment.[40]

text: The tagline "Failure is not an option", stated in the film by Gene Kranz, also became very popular, but was not taken from the historical transcripts. The following story relates the origin of the phrase, from an e-mail by Apollo 13 Flight Dynamics Officer Jerry Bostick:

text: As far as the expression "Failure is not an option," you are correct that Kranz never used that term. In preparation for the movie, the script writers, Al Reinart and Bill Broyles, came down to Clear Lake to interview me on "What are the people in Mission Control really like?" One of their questions was "Weren't there times when everybody, or at least a few people, just panicked?" My answer was "No, when bad things happened, we just calmly laid out all the options, and failure was not one of them. We never panicked, and we never gave up on finding a solution." I immediately sensed that Bill Broyles wanted to leave and assumed that he was bored with the interview. Only months later did I learn that when they got in their car to leave, he started screaming, "That's it! That's the tag line for the whole movie, Failure is not an option. Now we just have to figure out who to have say it." Of course, they gave it to the Kranz character, and the rest is history.[41]

text: In the film, Flight Director Gene Kranz and his White Team are portrayed as managing all of the essential parts of the flight, from liftoff to landing. Consequently, the actual role of the other flight directors and teams, especially Glynn Lunney and his Black Team, were neglected. In fact, it was Flight Director Lunney and his Black Team who got Apollo 13 through its most critical period in the hours immediately after the explosion, including the mid-course correction that sent Apollo 13 on a "free return" trajectory around the Moon and back to the Earth. Astronaut Ken Mattingly, who was replaced as Apollo 13 Command Module Pilot at the last minute by Jack Swigert, later said:

text: If there was a hero, Glynn Lunney was, by himself, a hero, because when he walked in the room, I guarantee you, nobody knew what the hell was going on. Glynn walked in, took over this mess, and he just brought calm to the situation. I've never seen such an extraordinary example of leadership in my entire career. Absolutely magnificent. No general or admiral in wartime could ever be more magnificent than Glynn was that night. He and he alone brought all of the scared people together. And you've got to remember that the flight controllers in those days were—they were kids in their thirties. They were good, but very few of them had ever run into these kinds of choices in life, and they weren't used to that. All of a sudden, their confidence had been shaken. They were faced with things that they didn't understand, and Glynn walked in there, and he just kind of took charge.[42]

text: A DVD commentary track, recorded by Jim and Marilyn Lovell and included with both DVD versions,[32] mentions several inaccuracies included in the film, all done for reasons of artistic license:

text:
We were working and watching the controls during that time. Because we came in shallow, it took us longer coming through the atmosphere where we had ionization. And the other thing was that we were just slow in answering.

—Jim Lovell, on the real reason for the delay in replying after Apollo 13's four-minute re-entry into Earth's atmosphere[43]

text:
In the film, Mattingly plays a key role in solving a power consumption problem that Apollo 13 was faced with as it approached re-entry. Lovell points out in his commentary that Mattingly was a composite of several astronauts and engineers—including Charles Duke (whose rubella led to Mattingly's grounding)—all of whom played a role in solving that problem.[6]
When Jack Swigert is getting ready to dock with the LM, a concerned NASA technician says: "If Swigert can't dock this thing, we don't have a mission." Lovell and Haise also seem worried. In his DVD commentary, the real Jim Lovell says that if Swigert had been unable to dock with the LM, he or Haise could have done it. He also says that Swigert was a well-trained Command Module Pilot and that no one was really worried about whether he was up to the job,[43] but he admitted that it made a nice subplot for the film. What the astronauts were really worried about, Lovell says, was the expected rendezvous between the Lunar Module and the Command Module after Lovell and Haise left the surface of the Moon.[6]
A scene set the night before the launch, showing the astronauts' family members saying their goodbyes while separated by a road, to reduce the possibility of any last-minute transmission of disease, depicted a tradition not begun until the Space Shuttle program.[6]
The film depicts Marilyn Lovell dropping her wedding ring down a shower drain. According to Jim Lovell, this did occur,[43] but the drain trap caught the ring and his wife was able to retrieve it.[6] Lovell has also confirmed that the scene in which his wife had a nightmare about him being "sucked through an open door of a spacecraft into outer space" also occurred, though he believes the nightmare was prompted by her seeing a scene in Marooned, a 1969 film they saw three months before Apollo 13 launched.[43]


document_title: Xylem

question_text: water rises in the xylem tubes due to

question_tokens: water rises in the xylem tubes due to

text: Xylem

text: Structure[edit]

text: The most distinctive xylem cells are the long tracheary elements that transport water. Tracheids and vessel elements are distinguished by their shape; vessel elements are shorter, and are connected together into long tubes that are called vessels.[6]

text: Xylem also contains two other cell types: parenchyma and fibers.[7]

text: Xylem can be found:

text:
in vascular bundles, present in non-woody plants and non-woody parts of woody plants
in secondary xylem, laid down by a meristem called the vascular cambium in woody plants
as part of a stelar arrangement not divided into bundles, as in many ferns.

text: In transitional stages of plants with secondary growth, the first two categories are not mutually exclusive, although usually a vascular bundle will contain primary xylem only.

text: The branching pattern exhibited by xylem follows Murray's law.[8]

text: Primary and secondary xylem[edit]

text: Primary xylem is formed during primary growth from procambium. It includes protoxylem and metaxylem. Metaxylem develops after the protoxylem but before secondary xylem. Metaxylem has wider vessels and tracheids than protoxylem.

text: Secondary xylem is formed during secondary growth from vascular cambium. Although secondary xylem is also found in members of the gymnosperm groups Gnetophyta and Ginkgophyta and to a lesser extent in members of the Cycadophyta, the two main groups in which secondary xylem can be found are:

text:
conifers (Coniferae): there are some six hundred species of conifers. All species have secondary xylem, which is relatively uniform in structure throughout this group. Many conifers become tall trees: the secondary xylem of such trees is used and marketed as softwood.
angiosperms (Angiospermae): there are some quarter of a million to four hundred thousand species of angiosperms. Within this group secondary xylem is rare in the monocots.[9] Many non-monocot angiosperms become trees, and the secondary xylem of these is used and marketed as hardwood.

tag: ol

text: Main function – upwards water transport[edit]

text: The xylem, vessels and tracheids of the roots, stems and leaves are interconnected to form a continuous system of water conducting channels reaching all parts of the plants. It transports water and soluble mineral nutrients from the roots throughout the plant. It is also used to replace water lost during transpiration and photosynthesis. Xylem sap consists mainly of water and inorganic ions, although it can contain a number of organic chemicals as well. The transport is passive, not powered by energy spent by the tracheary elements themselves, which are dead by maturity and no longer have living contents. Transporting sap upwards becomes more difficult as the height of a plant increases and upwards transport of water by xylem is considered to limit the maximum height of trees.[10] Three phenomena cause xylem sap to flow:

text:
Pressure flow hypothesis: Sugars produced in the leaves and other green tissues are kept in the phloem system, creating a solute pressure differential versus the xylem system carrying a far lower load of solutes- water and minerals. The phloem pressure can rise to several MPa,[11] far higher than atmospheric pressure. Selective inter-connection between these systems allows this high solute concentration in the phloem to draw xylem fluid upwards by negative pressure.
Transpirational pull: Similarly, the evaporation of water from the surfaces of mesophyll cells to the atmosphere also creates a negative pressure at the top of a plant. This causes millions of minute menisci to form in the mesophyll cell wall. The resulting surface tension causes a negative pressure or tension in the xylem that pulls the water from the roots and soil.
Root pressure: If the water potential of the root cells is more negative than that of the soil, usually due to high concentrations of solute, water can move by osmosis into the root from the soil. This causes a positive pressure that forces sap up the xylem towards the leaves. In some circumstances, the sap will be forced from the leaf through a hydathode in a phenomenon known as guttation. Root pressure is highest in the morning before the stomata open and allow transpiration to begin. Different plant species can have different root pressures even in a similar environment; examples include up to 145 kPa in Vitis riparia but around zero in Celastrus orbiculatus.[12]

text: The primary force that creates the capillary action movement of water upwards in plants is the adhesion between the water and the surface of the xylem conduits.[13][14] Capillary action provides the force that establishes an equilibrium configuration, balancing gravity. When transpiration removes water at the top, the flow is needed to return to the equilibrium.

text: Transpirational pull results from the evaporation of water from the surfaces of cells in the leaves. This evaporation causes the surface of the water to recess into the pores of the cell wall. By capillary action, the water forms concave menisci inside the pores. The high surface tension of water pulls the concavity outwards, generating enough force to lift water as high as a hundred meters from ground level to a tree's highest branches.

text: Transpirational pull requires that the vessels transporting the water be very small in diameter; otherwise, cavitation would break the water column. And as water evaporates from leaves, more is drawn up through the plant to replace it. When the water pressure within the xylem reaches extreme levels due to low water input from the roots (if, for example, the soil is dry), then the gases come out of solution and form a bubble – an embolism forms, which will spread quickly to other adjacent cells, unless bordered pits are present (these have a plug-like structure called a torus, that seals off the opening between adjacent cells and stops the embolism from spreading).

text: Cohesion-tension theory[edit]

text: The cohesion-tension theory is a theory of intermolecular attraction that explains the process of water flow upwards (against the force of gravity) through the xylem of plants. It was proposed in 1894 by John Joly and Henry Horatio Dixon.[15] Despite numerous objections,[16][17] this is the most widely accepted theory for the transport of water through a plant's vascular system based on the classical research of Dixon-Joly (1894), Askenasy (1895),[18] and Dixon (1914,1924).[19][20]

text: Water is a polar molecule. When two water molecules approach one another, the slightly negatively charged oxygen atom of one forms a hydrogen bond with a slightly positively charged hydrogen atom in the other. This attractive force, along with other intermolecular forces, is one of the principal factors responsible for the occurrence of surface tension in liquid water. It also allows plants to draw water from the root through the xylem to the leaf.

text: Water is constantly lost through transpiration from the leaf. When one water molecule is lost another is pulled along by the processes of cohesion and tension. Transpiration pull, utilizing capillary action and the inherent surface tension of water, is the primary mechanism of water movement in plants. However, it is not the only mechanism involved. Any use of water in leaves forces water to move into them.

text: Transpiration in leaves creates tension (differential pressure) in the cell walls of mesophyll cells. Because of this tension, water is being pulled up from the roots into the leaves, helped by cohesion (the pull between individual water molecules, due to hydrogen bonds) and adhesion (the stickiness between water molecules and the hydrophilic cell walls of plants). This mechanism of water flow works because of water potential (water flows from high to low potential), and the rules of simple diffusion.[21]

text: Over the past century, there has been a great deal of research regarding the mechanism of xylem sap transport; today, most plant scientists continue to agree that the cohesion-tension theory best explains this process, but multiforce theories that hypothesize several alternative mechanisms have been suggested, including longitudinal cellular and xylem osmotic pressure gradients, axial potential gradients in the vessels, and gel- and gas-bubble-supported interfacial gradients.[22][23]

text: Measurement of pressure[edit]

text: Until recently, the differential pressure (suction) of transpirational pull could only be measured indirectly, by applying external pressure with a pressure bomb to counteract it.[24] When the technology to perform direct measurements with a pressure probe was developed, there was initially some doubt about whether the classic theory was correct, because some workers were unable to demonstrate negative pressures. More recent measurements do tend to validate the classic theory, for the most part. Xylem transport is driven by a combination[citation needed] of transpirational pull from above and root pressure from below, which makes the interpretation of measurements more complicated.

text: Evolution[edit]

text: Xylem appeared early in the history of terrestrial plant life. Fossil plants with anatomically preserved xylem are known from the Silurian (more than 400 million years ago), and trace fossils resembling individual xylem cells may be found in earlier Ordovician rocks. The earliest true and recognizable xylem consists of tracheids with a helical-annular reinforcing layer added to the cell wall. This is the only type of xylem found in the earliest vascular plants, and this type of cell continues to be found in the protoxylem (first-formed xylem) of all living groups of plants. Several groups of plants later developed pitted tracheid cells, it seems, through convergent evolution. In living plants, pitted tracheids do not appear in development until the maturation of the metaxylem (following the protoxylem).

text: In most plants, pitted tracheids function as the primary transport cells. The other type of tracheary element, besides the tracheid, is the vessel element. Vessel elements are joined by perforations into vessels. In vessels, water travels by bulk flow, as in a pipe, rather than by diffusion through cell membranes. The presence of vessels in xylem has been considered to be one of the key innovations that led to the success of the angiosperms.[25] However, the occurrence of vessel elements is not restricted to angiosperms, and they are absent in some archaic or "basal" lineages of the angiosperms: (e.g., Amborellaceae, Tetracentraceae, Trochodendraceae, and Winteraceae), and their secondary xylem is described by Arthur Cronquist as "primitively vesselless". Cronquist considered the vessels of Gnetum to be convergent with those of angiosperms.[26] Whether the absence of vessels in basal angiosperms is a primitive condition is contested, the alternative hypothesis states that vessel elements originated in a precursor to the angiosperms and were subsequently lost.

text: To photosynthesize, plants must absorb CO2 from the atmosphere. However, this comes at a price: while stomata are open to allow CO2 to enter, water can evaporate.[27] Water is lost much faster than CO2 is absorbed, so plants need to replace it, and have developed systems to transport water from the moist soil to the site of photosynthesis.[27] Early plants sucked water between the walls of their cells, then evolved the ability to control water loss (and CO2 acquisition) through the use of stomata. Specialized water transport tissues soon evolved in the form of hydroids, tracheids, then secondary xylem, followed by an endodermis and ultimately vessels.[27]

text: The high CO2 levels of Silurian-Devonian times, when plants were first colonizing land, meant that the need for water was relatively low. As CO2 was withdrawn from the atmosphere by plants, more water was lost in its capture, and more elegant transport mechanisms evolved.[27] As water transport mechanisms, and waterproof cuticles, evolved, plants could survive without being continually covered by a film of water. This transition from poikilohydry to homoiohydry opened up new potential for colonization.[27] Plants then needed a robust internal structure that held long narrow channels for transporting water from the soil to all the different parts of the above-soil plant, especially to the parts where photosynthesis occurred.

text: During the Silurian, CO2 was readily available, so little water needed expending to acquire it. By the end of the Carboniferous, when CO2 levels had lowered to something approaching today's, around 17 times more water was lost per unit of CO2 uptake.[27] However, even in these "easy" early days, water was at a premium, and had to be transported to parts of the plant from the wet soil to avoid desiccation. This early water transport took advantage of the cohesion-tension mechanism inherent in water. Water has a tendency to diffuse to areas that are drier, and this process is accelerated when water can be wicked along a fabric with small spaces. In small passages, such as that between the plant cell walls (or in tracheids), a column of water behaves like rubber – when molecules evaporate from one end, they pull the molecules behind them along the channels. Therefore, transpiration alone provided the driving force for water transport in early plants.[27] However, without dedicated transport vessels, the cohesion-tension mechanism cannot transport water more than about 2 cm, severely limiting the size of the earliest plants.[27] This process demands a steady supply of water from one end, to maintain the chains; to avoid exhausting it, plants developed a waterproof cuticle. Early cuticle may not have had pores but did not cover the entire plant surface, so that gas exchange could continue.[27] However, dehydration at times was inevitable; early plants cope with this by having a lot of water stored between their cell walls, and when it comes to it sticking out the tough times by putting life "on hold" until more water is supplied.[27]

text: To be free from the constraints of small size and constant moisture that the parenchymatic transport system inflicted, plants needed a more efficient water transport system. During the early Silurian, they developed specialized cells, which were lignified (or bore similar chemical compounds)[27] to avoid implosion; this process coincided with cell death, allowing their innards to be emptied and water to be passed through them.[27] These wider, dead, empty cells were a million times more conductive than the inter-cell method, giving the potential for transport over longer distances, and higher CO2 diffusion rates.

text: The earliest macrofossils to bear water-transport tubes are Silurian plants placed in the genus Cooksonia.[28] The early Devonian pretracheophytes Aglaophyton and Horneophyton have structures very similar to the hydroids of modern mosses. Plants continued to innovate new ways of reducing the resistance to flow within their cells, thereby increasing the efficiency of their water transport. Bands on the walls of tubes, in fact apparent from the early Silurian onwards,[29] are an early improvisation to aid the easy flow of water.[30] Banded tubes, as well as tubes with pitted ornamentation on their walls, were lignified[31] and, when they form single celled conduits, are considered to be tracheids. These, the "next generation" of transport cell design, have a more rigid structure than hydroids, allowing them to cope with higher levels of water pressure.[27] Tracheids may have a single evolutionary origin, possibly within the hornworts,[32] uniting all tracheophytes (but they may have evolved more than once).[27]

text: Water transport requires regulation, and dynamic control is provided by stomata.[33] By adjusting the amount of gas exchange, they can restrict the amount of water lost through transpiration. This is an important role where water supply is not constant, and indeed stomata appear to have evolved before tracheids, being present in the non-vascular hornworts.[27]

text: An endodermis probably evolved during the Silu-Devonian, but the first fossil evidence for such a structure is Carboniferous.[27] This structure in the roots covers the water transport tissue and regulates ion exchange (and prevents unwanted pathogens etc. from entering the water transport system). The endodermis can also provide an upwards pressure, forcing water out of the roots when transpiration is not enough of a driver.

text: Once plants had evolved this level of controlled water transport, they were truly homoiohydric, able to extract water from their environment through root-like organs rather than relying on a film of surface moisture, enabling them to grow to much greater size.[27] As a result of their independence from their surroundings, they lost their ability to survive desiccation – a costly trait to retain.[27]

text: During the Devonian, maximum xylem diameter increased with time, with the minimum diameter remaining pretty constant.[30] By the middle Devonian, the tracheid diameter of some plant lineages (Zosterophyllophytes) had plateaued.[30] Wider tracheids allow water to be transported faster, but the overall transport rate depends also on the overall cross-sectional area of the xylem bundle itself.[30] The increase in vascular bundle thickness further seems to correlate with the width of plant axes, and plant height; it is also closely related to the appearance of leaves[30] and increased stomatal density, both of which would increase the demand for water.[27]

text: While wider tracheids with robust walls make it possible to achieve higher water transport pressures, this increases the problem of cavitation.[27] Cavitation occurs when a bubble of air forms within a vessel, breaking the bonds between chains of water molecules and preventing them from pulling more water up with their cohesive tension. A tracheid, once cavitated, cannot have its embolism removed and return to service (except in a few advanced angiosperms[verification needed] which have developed a mechanism of doing so). Therefore, it is well worth plants' while to avoid cavitation occurring. For this reason, pits in tracheid walls have very small diameters, to prevent air entering and allowing bubbles to nucleate. Freeze-thaw cycles are a major cause of cavitation. Damage to a tracheid's wall almost inevitably leads to air leaking in and cavitation, hence the importance of many tracheids working in parallel.[27]

text: Cavitation is hard to avoid, but once it has occurred plants have a range of mechanisms to contain the damage.[27] Small pits link adjacent conduits to allow fluid to flow between them, but not air – although ironically these pits, which prevent the spread of embolisms, are also a major cause of them.[27] These pitted surfaces further reduce the flow of water through the xylem by as much as 30%.[27] Conifers, by the Jurassic, developed an ingenious improvement, using valve-like structures to isolate cavitated elements. These torus-margo structures have a blob floating in the middle of a donut; when one side depressurizes the blob is sucked into the torus and blocks further flow.[27] Other plants simply accept cavitation; for instance, oaks grow a ring of wide vessels at the start of each spring, none of which survive the winter frosts. Maples use root pressure each spring to force sap upwards from the roots, squeezing out any air bubbles.

text: Growing to height also employed another trait of tracheids – the support offered by their lignified walls. Defunct tracheids were retained to form a strong, woody stem, produced in most instances by a secondary xylem. However, in early plants, tracheids were too mechanically vulnerable, and retained a central position, with a layer of tough sclerenchyma on the outer rim of the stems.[27] Even when tracheids do take a structural role, they are supported by sclerenchymatic tissue.

text: Tracheids end with walls, which impose a great deal of resistance on flow;[30] vessel members have perforated end walls, and are arranged in series to operate as if they were one continuous vessel.[30] The function of end walls, which were the default state in the Devonian, was probably to avoid embolisms. An embolism is where an air bubble is created in a tracheid. This may happen as a result of freezing, or by gases dissolving out of solution. Once an embolism is formed, it usually cannot be removed (but see later); the affected cell cannot pull water up, and is rendered useless.

text: End walls excluded, the tracheids of prevascular plants were able to operate under the same hydraulic conductivity as those of the first vascular plant, Cooksonia.[30]

text: The size of tracheids is limited as they comprise a single cell; this limits their length, which in turn limits their maximum useful diameter to 80 μm.[27] Conductivity grows with the fourth power of diameter, so increased diameter has huge rewards; vessel elements, consisting of a number of cells, joined at their ends, overcame this limit and allowed larger tubes to form, reaching diameters of up to 500 μm, and lengths of up to 10 m.[27]

text: Vessels first evolved during the dry, low CO2 periods of the late Permian, in the horsetails, ferns and Selaginellales independently, and later appeared in the mid Cretaceous in angiosperms and gnetophytes.[27] Vessels allow the same cross-sectional area of wood to transport around a hundred times more water than tracheids![27] This allowed plants to fill more of their stems with structural fibers, and also opened a new niche to vines, which could transport water without being as thick as the tree they grew on.[27] Despite these advantages, tracheid-based wood is a lot lighter, thus cheaper to make, as vessels need to be much more reinforced to avoid cavitation.[27]

text: Development[edit]

text: Xylem development can be described by four terms: centrarch, exarch, endarch and mesarch. As it develops in young plants, its nature changes from protoxylem to metaxylem (i.e. from first xylem to after xylem). The patterns in which protoxylem and metaxylem are arranged is important in the study of plant morphology.

text: Protoxylem and metaxylem[edit]

text: As a young vascular plant grows, one or more strands of primary xylem form in its stems and roots. The first xylem to develop is called 'protoxylem'. In appearance protoxylem is usually distinguished by narrower vessels formed of smaller cells. Some of these cells have walls which contain thickenings in the form of rings or helices. Functionally, protoxylem can extend: the cells are able to grow in size and develop while a stem or root is elongating. Later, 'metaxylem' develops in the strands of xylem. Metaxylem vessels and cells are usually larger; the cells have thickenings which are typically either in the form of ladderlike transverse bars (scalariform) or continuous sheets except for holes or pits (pitted). Functionally, metaxylem completes its development after elongation ceases when the cells no longer need to grow in size.[34][35]

text: Patterns of protoxylem and metaxylem[edit]

text: There are four main patterns to the arrangement of protoxylem and metaxylem in stems and roots.

text: Centrarch refers to the case in which the primary xylem forms a single cylinder in the center of the stem and develops from the center outwards. The protoxylem is thus found in the central core and the metaxylem in a cylinder around it.[36] This pattern was common in early land plants, such as "rhyniophytes", but is not present in any living plants.[citation needed]

text: The other three terms are used where there is more than one strand of primary xylem.

text:
Exarch is used when there is more than one strand of primary xylem in a stem or root, and the xylem develops from the outside inwards towards the center, i.e. centripetally. The metaxylem is thus closest to the center of the stem or root and the protoxylem closest to the periphery. The roots of vascular plants are normally considered to have exarch development.[34]
Endarch is used when there is more than one strand of primary xylem in a stem or root, and the xylem develops from the inside outwards towards the periphery, i.e. centrifugally. The protoxylem is thus closest to the center of the stem or root and the metaxylem closest to the periphery. The stems of seed plants typically have endarch development.[34]
Mesarch is used when there is more than one strand of primary xylem in a stem or root, and the xylem develops from the middle of a strand in both directions. The metaxylem is thus on both the peripheral and central sides of the strand with the protoxylem between the metaxylem (possibly surrounded by it). The leaves and stems of many ferns have mesarch development.[34]


document_title: United States House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology

question_text: ranking member of the house committee on science space and technology

text: History[edit]

text: In the wake of the Soviet Sputnik program in the late 1950s, Congress created the Select Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration in 1958, chaired by majority leader John William McCormack. This select committee drafted the National Aeronautics and Space Act that created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). A staff report of the committee, the Space Handbook: Astronautics and its Applications, provided non-technical information about spaceflight to U.S. policy makers.[1]

text: The committee also chartered the permanent House Committee on Science and Astronautics, which officially began on January 3, 1959, and was the first new standing committee established in the House since 1946. The name was changed in 1974 to the House Committee on Science and Technology. The name was changed again in 1987 to the House Committee on Science, Space and Technology. After the Republican Party gained a majority in Congress in 1994, the name of the committee was changed to the House Committee on Science. With the return of control to the Democrats in 2007, the committee's name was changed back to the House Committee on Science and Technology.

text: In the 112th Congress, Committee Chairman Ralph Hall added “Space” back into the committee’s name: “The Committee on Science, Space, and Technology” – a nod to the committee’s history, broad jurisdiction, and the importance of space exploration in maintaining American innovation and competitiveness.[2]

text: On December 1, 2016, the committee's Twitter account posted a link to an article on Breitbart which argued that climate change was the result of natural weather processes.[3] The tweet was criticized by members of the scientific community on Twitter for promoting an unscientific and misleading article.[4] The Committee's Ranking Member Eddie Bernice Johnson also criticized the tweet, writing, "False news & false facts put us all in danger."[5]

text: Members[edit]

text: 115th Congress[edit]

text:
Majority[6]
Minority[7]

Lamar Smith, Texas, Chair
Dana Rohrabacher, California
Frank Lucas, Oklahoma, Vice Chair
Mo Brooks, Alabama
Randy Hultgren, Illinois
Bill Posey, Florida
Thomas Massie, Kentucky
Jim Bridenstine, Oklahoma
Randy Weber, Texas
Steve Knight, California
Brian Babin, Texas
Barbara Comstock, Virginia
Gary Palmer, Alabama
Barry Loudermilk, Georgia
Ralph Abraham, Louisiana
Darin LaHood, Illinois
Daniel Webster, Florida
Jim Banks, Indiana
Andy Biggs, Arizona
Roger Marshall, Kansas
Neal Dunn, Florida
Clay Higgins, Louisiana
Ralph Norman, South Carolina

Eddie Bernice Johnson, Texas, Ranking Member
Zoe Lofgren, California
Dan Lipinski, Illinois
Suzanne Bonamici, Oregon
Ami Bera, California
Elizabeth Esty, Connecticut
Marc Veasey, Texas
Don Beyer, Virginia, Vice Ranking Member
Jacky Rosen, Nevada
Jerry McNerney, California
Ed Perlmutter, Colorado
Paul Tonko, New York
Bill Foster, Illinois
Mark Takano, California
Colleen Hanabusa, Hawaii
Charlie Crist, Florida

text: Subcommittees[edit]

text: There are five subcommittees in the 115th Congress.

text:
Subcommittee
Chair[8]
Ranking Member

Energy
Randy Weber (R-TX)
Marc Veasey (D-TX)

Environment
Andy Biggs (R-AZ)
Suzanne Bonamici (D-OR)

Oversight
Darin Lahood (R-IL)
Don Beyer (D-VA)

Research and Technology
Barbara Comstock (R-VA)
Dan Lipinski (D-IL)

Space
Brian Babin (R-TX)
Ami Bera (D-CA)

text: Committee chairmen, 1959-present[edit]

text: Chairmen since 1959.[2]

text:
Overton Brooks, 1959–1961
George P. Miller, 1961–1973
Olin E. Teague, 1973–1978
Don Fuqua, 1979–1987
Robert A. Roe, 1987–1991
George Brown, Jr., 1991–1995
Robert S. Walker, 1995–1997
Jim Sensenbrenner, 1997–2001
Sherwood Boehlert, 2001–2007
Bart Gordon, 2007–2011
Ralph Hall, 2011–2013
Lamar Smith, 2013–present


document_title: Harappa

question_text: the eastern limit of the harappa culture was

text: Harappa

text: History[edit]

text: The Harappan Civilization  has its earliest roots in cultures such as that of Mehrgarh, approximately 6000 BC. The two greatest cities, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, emerged circa 2600 BC along the Indus River valley in Punjab and Sindh.[5] The civilization, with a possible writing system, urban centers, and diversified social and economic system, was rediscovered in the 1920s also after excavations at Mohenjo-daro in Sindh near Larkana, and Harappa, in west Punjab south of Lahore. A number of other sites stretching from the Himalayan foothills in east Punjab, India in the north, to Gujarat in the south and east, and to Pakistani Balochistan in the west have also been discovered and studied. Although the archaeological site at Harappa was damaged in 1857[6] when engineers constructing the Lahore-Multan railroad (as part of the Sind and Punjab Railway), used brick from the Harappa ruins for track ballast, an abundance of artifacts have nevertheless been found.[7] The bricks discovered were made of red sand, clay, stones and were baked at very high temperature. As early as 1826 Harappa, located in west Punjab, attracted the attention of a British officer in India, who gets credit for preliminary excavations in Harappa.

text: Culture and economy[edit]

text: The Indus Valley civilization was mainly an urban culture sustained by surplus agricultural production and commerce, the latter including trade with Sumer in southern Mesopotamia. Both Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa are generally characterized as having "differentiated living quarters, flat-roofed brick houses, and fortified administrative or religious centers."[8] Although such similarities have given rise to arguments for the existence of a standardized system of urban layout and planning, the similarities are largely due to the presence of a semi-orthogonal type of civic layout, and a comparison of the layouts of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa shows that they are in fact, arranged in a quite dissimilar fashion.

text: The weights and measures of the Indus Valley Civilization, on the other hand, were highly standardized, and conform to a set scale of gradations. Distinctive seals were used, among other applications, perhaps for identification of property and shipment of goods. Although copper and bronze were in use, iron was not yet employed. "Cotton was woven and dyed for clothing; wheat, rice, and a variety of vegetables and fruits were cultivated; and a number of animals, including the humped bull, were domesticated,"[8] as well as "fowl for fighting".[9]  Wheel-made pottery—some of it adorned with animal and geometric motifs—has been found in profusion at all the major Indus sites. A centralized administration for each city, though not the whole civilization, has been inferred from the revealed cultural uniformity; however, it remains uncertain whether authority lay with a commercial oligarchy. Harappans had many trade routes along the Indus River that went as far as the Persian Gulf, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. Some of the most valuable things traded were carnelian and lapis lazuli.[10]

text: What is clear is that Harappan society was not entirely peaceful, with the human skeletal remains demonstrating some of the highest rates of injury (15.5%) found in South Asian prehistory.[11] Paleopathological analysis demonstrated that leprosy and tuberculosis were present at Harappa, with the highest prevalence of both disease and trauma present in the skeletons from Area G (an ossuary located south-east of the city walls).[12] Furthermore, rates of cranio-facial trauma and infection increased through time demonstrating that the civilization collapsed amid illness and injury. The bioarchaeologists who examined the remains have suggested that the combined evidence for differences in mortuary treatment and epidemiology indicate that some individuals and communities at Harappa were excluded from access to basic resources like health and safety, a basic feature of hierarchical societies worldwide.[12]

text: Archaeology[edit]

text: The excavators of the site have proposed the following chronology of Harappa's occupation:[3]

text:
Ravi Aspect of the Hakra phase, c. 3300 – 2800 BC.
Kot Dijian (Early Harappan) phase, c. 2800 – 2600 BC.
Harappan Phase, c. 2600 – 1900 BC.
Transitional Phase, c. 1900 – 1800 BC.
Late Harappan Phase, c. 1800 – 1300 BC.

text:
By far the most exquisite and obscure artifacts unearthed to date are the small, square steatite (soapstone) seals engraved with human or animal motifs. A large number of seals have been found at such sites as Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. Many bear pictographic inscriptions generally thought to be a form of writing or script.[citation needed] Despite the efforts of philologists from all parts of the world, and despite the use of modern cryptographic analysis, the signs remain undeciphered. It is also unknown if they reflect proto-Dravidian or other non-Vedic language(s). The ascription of Indus Valley Civilization iconography and epigraphy to historically known cultures is extremely problematic, in part due to the rather tenuous archaeological evidence of such claims, as well as the projection of modern South Asian political concerns onto the archaeological record of the area. This is especially evident in the radically varying interpretations of Harappan material culture as seen from both Pakistan- and India-based scholars.
In February 2006 a school teacher in the village of Sembian-Kandiyur in Tamil Nadu discovered a stone celt (tool) with an inscription estimated to be up to 3,500 years old.[13]
[14] Indian epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan postulated that the four signs were in the Indus script and called the find "the greatest archaeological discovery of a century in Tamil Nadu".[13] Based on this evidence he goes on to suggest that the language used in the Indus Valley was of Dravidian origin. However, the absence of a Bronze Age in South India, contrasted with the knowledge of bronze making techniques in the Indus Valley cultures, calls into question the validity of this hypothesis.

text: Early symbols similar to Indus script[edit]

text: Clay and stone tablets unearthed at Harappa, which were carbon dated 3300–3200 BC., contain trident-shaped and plant-like markings. "It is a big question as to if we can call what we have found true writing, but we have found symbols that have similarities to what became Indus script" said Dr. Richard Meadow of Harvard University, Director of the Harappa Archeological Research Project.[15] This primitive writing is placed slightly earlier than primitive writings of the Sumerians of Mesopotamia, dated c.3100 BC.[15] These markings have similarities to what later became Indus Script.[15]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
The earliest radiocarbon dating mentioned on the web is 2725±185 BC (uncalibrated) or 3338, 3213, 3203 BC calibrated, giving a midpoint of 3251 BC. Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991) Urban process in the Indus Tradition: A preliminary report. In Harappa Excavations, 1986–1990: A multidisciplinary approach to Second Millennium urbanism, edited by Richard H. Meadow: 29–59. Monographs in World Archaeology No.3. Prehistory Press, Madison Wisconsin.
Periods 4 and 5 are not dated at Harappa. The termination of the Harappan tradition at Harappa falls between 1900 and 1500 BC.
Mohenjo-daro is another major city of the same period, located in Sindh province of Pakistan. One of its most well-known structures is the Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro.


document_title: Tony Montana

question_text: who killed tony at the end of scarface

question_tokens: who killed tony at the end of scarface

text: Tony Montana

text: Overview[edit]

text: Scarface (1983)[edit]

text: In May 1980, Tony is one of the 125,000 Cubans who after seeking refuge in the Peruvian Embassy, wound up on the Mariel Boatlift to Miami. When he gets there, he is questioned by U.S. officials; he says that he was a "political prisoner" and that because he had an American father, he has the right to a green card. However, because of a trident-style tattoo on his right hand, which indicates that he was an assassin in prison, his request is denied.

text: Tony and his friend Manolo "Manny" Ribera are sent to "Freedomtown", a refugee camp that holds Cuban immigrants without green cards. After one month in the camp, Frank Lopez, head of a Miami drug cartel, offers to obtain them green cards in return for murdering Emilio Rebenga. Soon after Rebenga arrives at the camp, Manny and Tony and friend take advantage of the August 11 riot, where Tony stabs Rebenga. Tony and Manny are granted green cards and released, and the two get jobs as dishwashers for a small food stand in Little Havana. In August 1980, Frank sends his right-hand man, Omar Suarez, to offer them a deal smuggling marijuana, offering $500, a small amount of pay but with low risk of arrest or gun battles. Tony demands more pay, and he and Omar quarrel. On the advice of his compatriot, Omar then offers Tony and Manny $5000 to buy cocaine from a new supplier, which is riskier than the marijuana deal but will pay much more, as it is dealing with violent Colombians.

text: A few days later, Tony, Manny, and their associates Angel and Chi Chi drive to a hotel in Miami Beach to make the deal with a group of Colombians. The deal goes bad; a couple of Colombian enforcers handcuff Tony and Angel to a shower pole at gunpoint, threatening to kill them with a chainsaw if Tony does not reveal the location of the drug money. Tony refuses to talk, and Hector, the enforcers' leader, dismembers Angel. Before Hector can do the same to Tony, Manny bursts in the room, shooting an SMG. A short gunfight ensues in which Manny is shot in the arm, and Tony kills the Colombians. Tony, Manny, and Chi Chi escape with the cocaine and the money. Tony, who no longer trusts Omar, takes it to Frank personally, and he and Manny end up working for him. Meanwhile, Tony takes an interest in Frank's girlfriend, Elvira Hancock.

text: Three months later, Tony pays a visit to his mother Georgina and younger sister Gina, neither of whom he has seen for five years. Gina is excited to see Tony, but his mother is ashamed of him, having long ago learned of his life of crime. When he gives his mother $1,000, his mother angrily rejects the gift and throws him out. Tony leaves, but Gina runs after him and hugs him, telling Tony she has been going to hairdressing school and helping out Mama. Tony says that a poor girl like Gina deserves to have a little fun; he slips her the $1,000 secretly and orders her not to tell Mama about it, only that Mama gets a little bit of it from time to time, through using some of it for grocery shopping or paying a utility bill.

text: Later, while in Bolivia, Tony and Omar go on Frank's behalf to see drug cartel lord Alejandro Sosa. Sosa has Omar killed for being a police informant, and makes Tony his business partner. At The Babylon nightclub, Tony is shaken down by corrupt narcotics detective Mel Bernstein, who informs him he has evidence linking Tony to the murders of Rebenga and the Colombian drug dealers. Bernstein proposes to "tax" Tony on his transactions in return for police protection and information. Tony is convinced Frank sent Bernstein because only Frank would know details about the murders. While talking to Bernstein, Tony sees Gina dancing with a low-level drug dealer. Enraged, Tony beats the dealer and slaps Gina, stopping only after Manny calms him down. Manny drives Gina home and tells her she can do better than those low lives and that Tony is only looking out for her. However, when Gina admits an interest in Manny, he freezes, fearing Tony's wrath.

text: That night, two men attempt to kill Tony. He escapes, and becomes convinced that Frank ordered his death. Armed with silenced pistols, Tony and Manny track Frank down to his car dealership, killing him and Bernstein. Afterward, Tony goes to Frank's house, telling Elvira that her lover is dead and that he wants her. Over the next year-and-a-half, Tony makes $75 million off of 2,000 kilograms of cocaine that he brings to America, and is soon making $10–15 million every month in profits from his business relationship with Sosa. He marries Elvira and takes over Frank's empire, purchasing a large mansion as well as ornate luxuries such as a pet tiger. Tony also creates many legal businesses as fronts, including a hairdresser's managed by Gina. However, cracks in Tony's "American dream" begin to form as both he and Elvira become addicted to cocaine. Meanwhile, Manny and Gina begin dating behind her brother's back, afraid of Tony's wrath should he find out.

text: In February 1983, Tony is arrested for tax evasion and money laundering. Tony's lawyer, George Sheffield, tells him that although he can plea bargain away most of the time Tony faces, he will still end up serving at least three years in prison. Sosa calls Tony down to Bolivia and asks him for help assassinating a Bolivian anti-government activist, who is exposing Sosa's dealings with Bolivian leaders. In exchange, Sosa will use his contacts in the U.S. Justice Department in Washington, D.C., to keep Tony out of prison. After returning to Miami, Tony does not tell Manny about the hit, although tries to talk Tony out of going to New York, simply citing a bad premonition he has about it. Not long after, Elvira leaves Tony for good after he insults her in a local restaurant. An intoxicated Tony starts yelling at the patrons: he tells them that they need people like him to blame—a "bad guy".

text: Tony and Sosa's associate Alberto travel to New York to assassinate the activist. Alberto plants a bomb under the activist's car, planning to detonate it as he drives to the United Nations Building to give a speech about his activist work. On the day the assassination is to take place, Tony orders Alberto not to set off the bomb because the activist's wife and children are in the car as well, something which is of no concern to Alberto. When Alberto tries to detonate the bomb anyway, Tony attempts to persuade him using logic and stories from his childhood in Cuba. When this does not work, Tony shoots and kills Alberto, thus double-crossing Sosa.

text: On December 9, 1983 Tony returns to Florida and receives a telephone call from a furious Sosa, who admonishes him for the hit's failure. Tony attempts to locate Manny, and finds him and Gina together, both wearing nothing but bathrobes. Tony shoots and kills him in a cocaine-fueled rage, before Gina reveals that they had just married and were going to announce their matrimony to Tony. Tony and his men take a distraught Gina back to his mansion. Meanwhile, a large group of assassins sent by Sosa surround the mansion. While a distraught Tony sits in his office, snorting vast quantities of cocaine, the gunmen begin killing his guards outside. Gina enters Tony's office wielding a Smith & Wesson Model 36, accusing him of wanting her for himself, before shooting him in the leg. Tony attempts to calm her down, before one of the assassins enters the office through the window and opens fire, killing Gina. Tony immediately kills the assassin, creating a commotion.

text: Deprived of the element of surprise, Sosa's gunmen directly attack Tony's mansion. Tony bursts from his office wielding a M16 assault rifle with a M203 grenade launcher attachment. He yells "Say hello to my little friend!" and opens fire on the henchmen, killing dozens of them despite being heavily wounded himself by return fire. The carnage continues until Sosa's top assassin, the Skull, sneaks up behind him and shoots him in the back. Tony falls from his balcony into a fountain in the lobby below, floating face-down dead in a pool of blood and water beneath a statue of the globe carrying the inscription "The World Is Yours".

text: Scarface: The World Is Yours[edit]

text: The video game titled Scarface: The World Is Yours, a quasi-sequel to the film, features an alternate ending in which Tony kills the Skull and survives the assassination attempt, but still loses most of his possessions. Tony detects his would-be assassin and shoots him before escaping his mansion. The end of the first mission shows that he lost $65,884,703 (which is how much Scarface made in box office) and 25,000 kilos of cocaine.

text: For the next three months, he goes into hiding in a small shack near Virginia Key Beach Park in Miami where he only had basic necessities, his trademark 1963 Cadillac Series 62, $1,000, and a M1911 pistol. His mansion is seized by undercover police officers, but he is able to move back in by bribing them with $10,000 that he makes in a single day of selling drugs.

text: During this quest for vengeance, Tony takes down several rivals who are eager to take over his empire after the assassination attempt. Alejandro Sosa and Gaspar Gomez have since teamed up to form a drug monopoly, and set their prices unreasonably high. George Sheffield (James Woods), his former lawyer, betrays him to Gomez and Sosa.

text: Tony first reclaims Little Havana, which had been taken over by the Diaz brothers. This included the "Lopez Motors" dealership where he bought his Porsche 928 in the film, which the brothers since renamed "Diaz Motors". The game allows the player to venture outside Miami to the Caribbean, where he takes down Nacho Contreras. Tony also meets a bartender named Venus, who becomes one of his girlfriends at the end of the game. At the end of the game, Tony single-handedly takes on a small army at Sosa's home in Bolivia, where he kills Sheffield, Gomez and Sosa.