document_title: History of the Russian Orthodox Church

question_text: who helped the rise of orthodox christianity in russia by converting to the religion

question_tokens: who helped the rise of orthodox christianity in russia by converting to the religion

text: History of the Russian Orthodox Church

text: Christianization of the Rus'. The Kievan period[edit]

text: Orthodox Christian Constantinople's greatest mission outreach was to areas known as Kievan Rus that are now the states of Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia. Christianity was introduced into Kievan Rus by Greek missionaries from Byzantium in the 9th century. In 863–869, Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius translated parts of the Bible into Old Church Slavonic language for the first time, paving the way for the Christianization of the Slavs. There is evidence that the first Christian bishop was sent to Novgorod from Constantinople either by Patriarch Photius or Patriarch Ignatius, circa 866-867 AD.[3]

text: By the mid-10th century, there was already a Christian community among Kievan nobility, under the leadership of Greek and Byzantine priests, although paganism remained the dominant religion. Princess Olga of Kiev was the first ruler of Kievan Rus to convert to Christianity, either in 945 or 957. Undoubtedly influenced by his Christian grandmother and by a proposed marriage alliance with the Byzantine imperial family, Olga's grandson Vladimir I (c. 956-1015) prince of Kiev, from among several options, chose the Byzantine rite. Baptized in 988, he led the Kievans to Christianity. This date is often considered the official birthday of the Russian Orthodox Church. Thus, in 1988, the Church celebrated its millennial anniversary.

text: The Kievan church was originally a metropolitanate of the Patriarchate of Constantinople and the Ecumenical patriarch along with the Emperor, appointed the metropolitan who governed the Church of Rus'. The Metropolitan's residence was originally located in Kiev. As Kiev was losing its political significance due to the Mongol invasion, Metropolitan Maximus moved to Vladimir in 1299; his successors, Metropolitan Peter and Theognostus, moved the residence to Moscow by the 14th century.

text: Under Mongol rule[edit]

text: While Russia lay under Mongol rule from the 13th (Genghis Khan's army entered Russia in 1220s) through the 15th century, the Russian church enjoyed a favoured position, obtaining immunity from taxation in 1270. This period saw a remarkable growth of monasticism. The Monastery of the Caves (Pecherska Lavra) in Kiev, founded in the mid-11th century by the ascetics St. Anthony and St. Theodosius, was superseded as the foremost religious centre by the Monastery of the Holy Trinity, which was founded in the mid-14th century by St. Sergius of Radonezh (in what is now the city of Sergiev Posad). Sergius, as well as the metropolitans St. Peter (1308–26) and St. Alexius (1354–78), supported the rising power of the principality of Moscow. The church enjoyed protection for its land and buildings as well as freedom from taxes. In addition it was guaranteed freedom from persecution in accordance with Islamic religious law. To that extent, there was even a legal relationship between the Golden Horde and the Russian Orthodox Church since these rights had been conceded in a formal document (jarlig). The church was only required to pray for the Khan. This continuation of the "symphony" corresponded with the Orthodox idea of a state that protected the Orthodox Church and, therefore could call for loyalty. Centuries later, the ecumenical patriarchs dealt hardly differently with the Ottoman rulers. In 1261, the Russian church established an eparchy in Sarai, the capital of the Golden Horde. The increasing importance of Moscow and the growing power of the political system also created ideas that contributed to a theological basis of the stature of Moscow. References have already been made regarding the perception of Moscow as a Third Rome. From that moment the sources began to use more the notion Tsarstvo, tsardom, representing a translation of the Greek basileia. The metropolitan of Moscow, Makariy (1483-–1563) contributed above all, to the strengthened emphasis of the Moscow idea of the state. He emphasized the Russian ecclesiastical tradition. He made brief readings available, Menaions, which were arranged according to the calendar so that they could be read continuously in the liturgy and in the monasteries. These had strong Russian features and supported a providential view of the Russian political system.

text: 15th century[edit]

text: During the 15th century the Russian Church was pivotal in the survival and life of the Russian state. Such holy figures as Sergius of Radonezh and Metropolitan Alexis helped the country to withstand years of Tartar oppression, and to expand both economically and spiritually.

text: At the Council of Florence 1439, a group of Orthodox Church leaders agreed upon terms of reunification with Papacy. The Moscow Prince Vasily II, however, rejected the concessions to the Roman Church and forbade the proclamation of the acts of the Council in Moscow in 1452. The Russian Metropolitan Isidore, who had signed the Union act, was in the same year expelled from his position as an apostate.

text: In 1448, the Russian Church in Moscow became effectively independent from the Patriarchate of Constantinople — when the Russian bishops in Moscow elected their own primate, Jonas, a Russian bishop, without recourse to Constantinople. The Russian church within the bounds of the Grand Duchy of Moscow was thenceforth effectively autocephalous.

text: Metropolitan Jonas was given the title of Metropolitan of Kiev and All Rus', but his successors styled themselves as Metropolitans of Moscow and All Rus'. Five years later, Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks. From this point onward the Russian Orthodox Church saw Moscow as the Third Rome, legitimate successor to Constantinople, and the metropolitan of Moscow as head of the Russian Church.

text: Changes and reforms[edit]

text: The reign of Ivan III and his successor was plagued by numerous heresies and controversies. One party, led by Nil Sorsky and Vassian Kosoy, called for secularisation of monastic properties. They were oppugned by the influential Joseph of Volotsk, who defended ecclesiastical ownership of land and property. The sovereign's position fluctuated, but eventually he threw his support to Joseph. New sects sprang up, some of which showed a tendency to revert to Mosaic law: for instance, the archpriest Aleksei converted to Judaism after meeting a certain Zechariah the Jew.

text: Monastic life flourished in Russia, focusing on prayer and spiritual growth. The disciples of St. Sergius left the Troitse-Sergiyeva Lavra to found hundreds of monasteries across Russia. Some of the most famous monasteries were located in the Russian North, in order to demonstrate how faith could flourish in the most inhospitable lands. The richest landowners of medieval Russia included Joseph Volokolamsk Monastery, Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery and the Solovetsky Monastery. In the 18th century, the three greatest monasteries were recognized as lavras, while those subordinated directly to the Synod were labelled stauropegic.

text: In the 1540s, Metropolitan Macarius convened a number of church councils, which culminated in the Hundred Chapter Council of 1551. This assembly unified Church ceremonies and duties in the whole territory of Russia. At the demand of the Church hierarchy the government canceled the tsar's jurisdiction over ecclesiastics.

text: Autocephaly and reorganization[edit]

text: The growing might of the Russian state contributed also to the growing authority of the Autocephalous Russian Church and during the reign of Tsar Fyodor I his brother-in-law Boris Godunov contacted the Ecumenical Patriarch, who "was much embarrassed for want of funds,"[4] with a view elevate the status of the Russian Orthodox Church to an independent autocephaly. On January 23, 1589 the Moscow Patriarchate was created, making the Russian Church autocephalous, and Job, Metropolitan of Moscow became the Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus'. During the next half a century, when the tsardom was weak, the patriarchs (notably Germogen and Philaret) would run the state along with (and sometimes instead of) the tsars.

text: 17th century[edit]

text: The beginning of the 17th century proved to be a hard time for Russia. The Poles and Swedes invaded Russia from the west. At this time of trouble the Russian Church fulfilled its patriotic duty before the people with honor, as it did before. Patriarch Germogen (1606–1612), the leader of an insurrection against invading Poles, and later starved to death imprisoned, was the spiritual leaders of the mass levy led by Minin and Pozharsky. The defense during the siege of Trinity-St. Sergius Lavra from a Polish-Lithuanian irregular army between 1608 and 1610 has been inscribed forever in the chronicle of the Russian state and the Russian Church.

text: Schism of the Old Believers[edit]

text: The main and tragic event in the 17th century was the great schism, the schism of the so-called Old Believers, who seceded from the main Church in protest against ecclesiastical reforms of Patriarch Nikon. In the period after the invaders were driven away from Russia, the Russian Church was engaged in one of the most important of its internal tasks, namely, introducing corrections into its service books and rites. A great contribution to this was made by Patriarch Nikon, a bright personality and outstanding church reformer. Some clergymen and lay people did not understand and did not accept the liturgical reforms introduced by Patriarch Nikon and refused to obey the church authority. This was how the Old Believers' schism emerged.

text: Nikon, pursuing the ideal of a theocratic state, attempted to establish the primacy of the Orthodox church over the state in Russia, and he also undertook a thorough revision of Russian Orthodox texts and rituals to bring them into accord with the rest of Eastern Orthodoxy.

text: In 1652 Nikon resolved to centralize power that had been distributed locally, while conforming Russian Orthodox rites and rituals to those of the Greek Orthodox Church. For instance he insisted that Russian Christians cross themselves with three fingers, rather than the then-traditional two. This aroused antipathy among a substantial section of the believers who saw the changed rites as heresy, although they had only a minor ritual significance. This group became known as the Old Ritual Believers or Old Believers, who rejected the teachings of the new patriarch. Tsar Aleksey (who was simultaneously centralizing political power) upheld Nikon's changes. During the so-called Raskol, the Old Ritual Believers were separated from the Orthodox Church. Avvakum Petrov, Boyarynya Morozova and many other dissidents were burned at the stake, either forcibly or voluntarily.

text: Millions seceded from the official church and were strongly persecuted by the state. In order to escape persecution, they migrated to more remote areas of the realm and even abroad. Many went to Siberia and other inhospitable lands, where they would live in semi-seclusion until the modern times. The schism peaked in 1666 when Nikon was deposed but the Russian church retained his reforms and anathematized those who continued to oppose them. The Old Believers had formed a vigorous body of dissenters within the Russian Orthodox church for the next two centuries.

text: Expansion[edit]

text: In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the Russian Orthodox Church experienced phenomenal geographic expansion. In 1684, Moscow Patriarchate requested Constantinople that the Metropolia of Kiev be made subordinate to Moscow but the request was declined.[citation needed]. Eventually, in 1686 after patriarch Parthenius IV was succeeded by Dionysius IV it was agreed to subordinate the Metropolia of Kiev to Moscow. But just a year later in 1687 such subordination was denounced[citation needed] by the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople and those in charge were defrocked because of the bribe.

text: In any case this brought millions of faithful and a half dozen dioceses under the pastoral and administrative care of the Russian Orthodox Patriarch. Leaders learned local languages and translated the gospels and the hymns. Sometimes those translations required the invention of new systems of transcription.[5]

text: However, the success was superficial and quickly reversed. Empress Catherine the Great issued an Edict of Religious Freedom in 1773, which allowed other religious organizations to operate in the Empire. The edict marked the end of significant missionary activity, and saw the rise of apostasy among the new Christian communities. In particular, areas that had previously been under Islamic influence reverted to Islam. Stephen Neill argues that:

text: In the 19th century, there were small-scale missionary efforts in Russian possessions in Asia and Alaska, as well as in Japan and China. The Japanese mission was the most successful, reaching about 35,000 baptized members in 1914. However, currently (2015) in Japan, there are only 30.000 Orthodox Christians.[7]

text: Reform and the Holy Synod[edit]

text: In 1700, following the death of Patriarch Adrian, Peter I prevented a successor from being named. In 1721, following the advice of Feofan Prokopovich, the patriarchate of Moscow was replaced with the Most Holy Governing Synod to govern the church. The Holy Governing Synod was modeled after the state-controlled synods of the Lutheran Church of Sweden and in Prussia and was tightly intertwined with the state. The chief procurator of the synod, a lay official who obtained ministerial rank in the first half of the 19th century, henceforth exercised effective control over the church's administration until 1917. This control, which was facilitated by the political subservience of most of the higher clergy, was especially marked during the procuratorship (1880–1905) of the archconservative Konstantin Pobedonostsev.

text: The Synod remained the supreme church body in the Russian Church for almost two centuries. In the Synodal period of its history from 1721 to 1917, the Russian Church paid a special attention to the development of religious education and mission in provinces. Old churches were restored and new churches were built. The beginning of the 19th century was marked by the work of brilliant theologians. Russian theologians also did much to develop such sciences as history, linguistics and Oriental studies.

text: In 1762 Peter III secularized all church land and serfs, henceforth state property. Catherine the Great promised to return the land if the church supported her coup, she reneged on the promise paying stipends with just 1/4 of the value of the seized land. She closed 569 out of 954 monasteries and only 161 got government money.[8] Only 400,000 rubles of church wealth was paid back. In 1785 the Orthodox clergy did not receive a single seat in Catherine's legislative commission.[9] By 1786, Catherine chose to simply exclude all religion and clerical studies programs from lay education.[10] In 1797 the Holy Synod banned the election of priests who were now appointed by bishops.[11]

text: The 18th century saw the rise of starchestvo under Paisius Velichkovsky and his disciples at the Optina Monastery. This marked a beginning of a significant spiritual revival in the Russian Church after a lengthy period of modernization.

text: Fin-de-siècle religious renaissance[edit]

text: During the final decades of the imperial order in Russia many educated Russians sought to return to the Church and revitalize their faith. No less evident were non-conformist paths of spiritual searching known as God-Seeking. Writers, artists, and intellectuals in large numbers were drawn to private prayer, mysticism, spiritualism, theosophy, and Eastern religions. A fascination with elemental feeling, with the unconscious and the mythic, proliferated along with visions of coming catastrophe and redemption. The visible forms of God-Seeking were extensive. A series of 'Religious–Philosophical Meetings' were held in Saint Petersburg in 1901–1903, bringing together prominent intellectuals and clergy to explore together ways to reconcile the Church with the growing if undogmatic desire among the educated for spiritual meaning in life. Especially after 1905, various religious societies arose, though much of this religious upheaval was informal: circles and salons, séances, private prayer. Some clergy also sought to revitalize Orthodox faith, most famously the charismatic Father John of Kronstadt, who, until his death in 1908 (though his followers remained active long after), emphasized Christian living and sought to restore fervency and the presence of the miraculous in liturgical celebration. In 1909, a sensation-creating volume of essays appeared under the title Vekhi (Landmarks or Signposts), authored by a group of leading left-wing intellectuals, mostly former Marxists, who bluntly repudiated the materialism and atheism that had dominated the thought of the intelligentsia for generations as leading inevitably to failure and moral disaster. One sees a similarly renewed vigor and variety in religious life and spirituality among the lower classes, especially after the upheavals of 1905. Among the peasantry we see widespread interest in spiritual-ethical literature and non-conformist moral-spiritual movements; an upsurge in pilgrimage and other devotions to sacred spaces and objects (especially icons); persistent beliefs in the presence and power of the supernatural (apparitions, possession, walking-dead, demons, spirits, miracles, and magic); the renewed vitality of local "ecclesial communities" actively shaping their own ritual and spiritual lives, sometimes in the absence of clergy, and defining their own sacred places and forms of piety; and the proliferation of what the Orthodox establishment branded as 'sectarianism', including both non-Orthodox Christian denominations, notably Baptists, and various forms of deviant popular Orthodoxy and mysticism.[12]

text: Russian revolution[edit]

text: In 1914 in Russia, there were 55,173 Russian Orthodox churches and 29,593 chapels, 112,629 priests and deacons, 550 monasteries and 475 convents with a total of 95,259 monks and nuns.

text: The year 1917 was a major turning point for the history of Russia, and also the Russian Orthodox Church. The Russian empire was dissolved and the Tsarist government - which had granted the Church numerous privileges – was overthrown. After a few months of political turmoil, the Bolsheviks took power in October 1917 and declared a separation of church and state. The government seized all church lands. Thus the Russian Orthodox Church found itself without official state backing for the first time in its history. One of the first decrees of the new Communist government (issued in January 1918) declared freedom of "religious and anti-religious propaganda". This led to a marked decline in the power and influence of the Church. The Church was also caught in the crossfire of the Russian Civil War that began later the same year, and many leaders of the Church supported what would ultimately turn out to be the losing side (the White movement).

text: The Russian Orthodox Church supported the White Army in the Russian Civil War (see White movement) after the October Revolution. This may have further strengthened the Bolshevik animus against the church. According to Lenin, a communist regime cannot remain neutral on the question of religion but must show itself to be merciless towards it. There was no place for the church in Lenin's classless society.

text: Even before the end of the civil war and the establishment of the Soviet Union, the Russian Orthodox Church came under persecution of the Communist government. The Soviet government stood on a platform of militant atheism, viewing the church as a "counter-revolutionary" organization and an independent voice with a great influence in society. While the Soviet Union officially claimed religious toleration, in practice the government discouraged organized religion and did everything possible to remove religious influence from Soviet society.

text: The Russian Orthodox Church supported tsarist Russia, therefore creating another reason the Bolsheviks would attempt to diminish their influence on the Russian people and government.

text: Under Communist rule[edit]

text: The three-barred cross of the Russian Orthodox Church

text: "As early as August 1920 Lenin wrote to E. M. Skliansky, President of the Revolutionary War Soviet: "We are surrounded by the greens (we pack it to them), we will move only about 10-20 versty and we will choke by hand the bourgeoisie, the clergy and the landowners. There will be an award of 100,000 rubles for each one hanged." He was speaking about the future actions in the countries neighboring Russia.[13]

text: The Soviets' official religious stance was one of "religious freedom or tolerance", though the state established atheism as the only scientific truth (see also the Soviet or committee of the All-Union Society for the Dissemination of Scientific and Political Knowledge or Znanie which was until 1947 called The League of the Militant Godless).[14][15][16] Criticism of atheism was strictly forbidden and sometimes led to imprisonment.[17]

text: The Soviet Union was the first state to have as an ideological objective the elimination of religion. Toward that end, the Communist regime confiscated church property, ridiculed religion, harassed believers, and propagated atheism in the schools. Actions toward particular religions, however, were determined by State interests, and most organized religions were never outlawed. The establishment of the gulags was an integral part of carrying out this objective as many Orthodox clergy and laymen were sent to camps like Svirlag and Solovki.

text: Some actions against Orthodox priests and believers along with execution included torture being sent to these prison camps and or labour camps or also mental hospitals.[18][19] Many Orthodox (along with peoples of other faiths) were also subjected to psychological punishment or torture and mind control experimentation, in order to force them give up their religious convictions (see Piteşti prison).[20][21]

text: Thousands of churches and monasteries were taken over by the government and either destroyed or used as warehouses, recreation centers, "museums of atheism", or even Gulags. It was impossible to build new churches.

text: Practicing Orthodox Christians were restricted from prominent careers and membership in communist organizations (the party, the Komsomol). Dmitri Egorov as an example, was removed from his prominent position and sent to the gulag, over his outspoken criticisms of the governments anti-Eastern Orthodox campaigns. Egorov later died in prison from complications caused by a protracted hungerstike. Anti-religious propaganda was openly sponsored (funded) and encouraged by the government, which the Church was not given an opportunity to publicly respond to. The government youth organization, the Komsomol, encouraged its members to vandalize Orthodox Churches and harass worshippers. Seminaries were closed down, and the church was restricted from using the press.

text: The history of Orthodoxy (and other religions) under Communism was not limited to this story of repression and secularization. Bolshevik policies toward religious belief and practice tended to vacillate over time between, on the one hand, a utopian determination to substitute secular rationalism for what they considered to be an unmodern, "superstitious" worldview and, on the other, pragmatic acceptance of the tenaciousness of religious faith and institutions. In any case, religious beliefs and practices did persist, in the domestic and private spheres but also in the scattered public spaces allowed by a state that recognized its failure to eradicate religion and the political dangers of an unrelenting culture war.[22]

text: In November 1917, following the collapse of the tsarist government, a council of the Russian Orthodox church reestablished the patriarchate and elected the metropolitan Tikhon as patriarch. But the new Soviet government soon declared the separation of church and state and nationalized all church-held lands. These administrative measures were followed by brutal state-sanctioned persecutions that included the wholesale destruction of churches and the arrest and execution of many clerics. The Russian Orthodox church was further weakened in 1922, when the Renovated Church, a reform movement supported by the Soviet government, seceded from Patriarch Tikhon's church, restored a Holy Synod to power, and brought division among clergy and faithful.

text: The result of state sponsored atheism was to transform the Church into a persecuted and martyred Church. In the first five years after the Bolshevik revolution, 28 bishops and 1,200 priests were executed.[23] This included people like the Grand Duchess Elizabeth Fyodorovna who was at this point a monastic. Along with her murder was Grand Duke Sergei Mikhailovich Romanov; the Princes Ioann Konstantinovich, Konstantin Konstantinovich, Igor Konstantinovich and Vladimir Pavlovich Paley; Grand Duke Sergei's secretary, Fyodor Remez; and Varvara Yakovleva, a sister from the Grand Duchess Elizabeth's convent. They were herded into the forest, pushed into an abandoned mineshaft and grenades were then hurled into the mineshaft. Her remains were buried in Jerusalem, in the Church of Maria Magdalene.

text: Russian Religious Renaissance[edit]

text: In the early 1920s, Lenin expelled the leading Russian religious thinkers. Forced to leave Russia, these intelligentsia settled in various European cities. The vessels which carried these intellectuals to Europe came to be known as the Philosophers' ships. With the establishment of the St. Sergius Orthodox Theological Institute in Paris in 1925, these émigré theologians began to teach and write about Orthodox theology in a distinctive new way. The Fin de siècle intellectual movement in theology and philosophy actually reached its full expression outside Russia in what is now called the Russian Religious Renaissance.

text: Theologian Paul L. Gavrilyuk explains that the Russian Religious Renaissance was an attempt to interpret all aspects of human existence: culture, politics, even economics, in Christian terms. This Renaissance was brought about by the generation of Nicholas Berdyaev, Sergius Bulgakov, Nicholas Lossky, and Lev Shestov. [24]

text: Anti-religious campaign and persecution in the 1920s and 1930s[edit]

text: The main target of the anti-religious campaign in the 1920s and 1930s was the Russian Orthodox Church, which had the largest number of faithful. Nearly all of its clergy, and many of its believers, were shot or sent to labor camps. Theological schools were closed, and church publications were prohibited.

text: The sixth sector of the OGPU, led by Yevgeny Tuchkov, aggressively arrested and executed bishops, priests, and devout worshippers, such as Metropolitan Veniamin in Petrograd in 1922 for refusing to accede to the demand to hand in church valuables (including sacred relics). Some 20,000 people were executed just outside Butovo, including many clergy, ascetics and laymen.[25]

text: The church survived underground, and Freeze argues that the persecution in some ways made it stronger:

text: The mass closure of churches continued until 1939, by which time there was only a few hundred left. According to the official data of the government Commission on Rehabilitation:[27] in 1937 136,900 Orthodox clerics were arrested, 85,300 of them were shot dead; in 1938 28,300 arrested, 21,500 of them shot dead; in 1939 1,500 arrested, 900 of them shot dead; in 1940 5,100 arrested, 1,100 of them shot dead.

text: The Solovki Special Purpose Camp was established in the monastery on the Solovetsky Islands in the White Sea.[28] Eight metropolitans, twenty archbishops, and forty-seven bishops of the Orthodox Church died there, along with tens of thousands of the laity. Of these, 95,000 were put to death, executed by firing squad.[citation needed] Father Pavel Florensky was one of the New-martyrs of this particular period as well as Metropolitan Joseph (Ivan Petrovykh).

text: Many thousands of victims of persecution were subsequently recognized in a special canon of saints known as the "new-martyrs and confessors of Russia".

text: Patriarch Tikhon[edit]

text: Patriarch Tikhon anathematized the communist government, which further antagonized relations.

text: The Soviet authorities sponsored I Renovationist (officially called II All-Russian Council) in Moscow from April 29 to May 8, 1923, which apart from confirming the decisions concerning changes in the canonical rules of ordinations and clerical marriage, put Patriarch Tikhon (then under house arrest, awaiting civil trial) on ecclesiastic trial in absentia, dethroned him, stripped him of his episcopacy, priesthood and monastic status. The Council then resolved to abolish the Patriarchate altogether and to return to the "collegial" form of church government. Tikhon refused to recognize the authority of the Council and the validity of the "court" decision. The Council's decisions had no effect on the life of the Patriarchal or "Tikhonite" Church, which continued to exist, albeit on an illegal footing.

text: Metropolitan Sergius[edit]

text: When Tikhon died in 1925, the Soviet authorities forbade patriarchal elections to be held.

text: Patriarchal Locum Tenens (acting Patriarch) Metropolitan Sergius (Stragorodsky, 1887–1944), going against the opinion of a part of the Church's parishes, in 1927 issued an Appeal to the faithful, widely known as The Declaration of Metropolitan Sergius, which proclaimed loyalty towards the Soviet state and condemned political dissent within the Church. The Appeal made it clear that its purpose was "legalisation" of the Patriarchal Church's structures, namely The Temporary Patriarchal Synod. The legalisation had been granted by the authorities shortly thitherto. Moreover, he demanded pledges of loyalty to the Soviet state from all Russian Orthodox clergy abroad.

text: This, as well as the fact that his actions were seen by many as usurpation of the power that he was not entitled to, being a deputy of imprisoned Metropolitan Peter (Polyansky) (according to the XXXIV Apostolic canon), solidified the already existing split with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia abroad and provoked another split with the Russian True Orthodox Church (Russian Catacomb Church) within the Soviet Union. The latter claimed to remain faithful to the Canons of the Apostles, declaring the part of the Church led by Metropolitan Sergius schism, sometimes coined as sergianism (сергианство). Due to this canonical disagreement it is disputed which church has been the legitimate successor to the Russian Orthodox Church that had existed before 1925.[29][30][31][32]

text: World War II rapprochement[edit]

text: After Nazi Germany's attack on the Soviet Union in 1941, Joseph Stalin revived the Russian Orthodox Church to intensify patriotic support for the war effort. On September 4, 1943, Metropolitans Sergius (Stragorodsky), Alexius (Simansky) and Nicholas (Yarushevich) were officially received by Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. They received a permission to convene a council on September 8, 1943, that elected Sergius Patriarch of Moscow and all Rus'. A new patriarch was elected, theological schools were opened, and thousands of churches began to function. The Moscow Theological Academy and Seminary which had been closed since 1918 was re-opened.

text: Postwar era[edit]

text: Between 1945 and 1959 the official organization of the church was greatly expanded, although individual members of the clergy were occasionally arrested and exiled. The number of open churches reached 25,000. By 1957 about 22,000 Russian Orthodox churches had become active. But in 1959 Nikita Khrushchev initiated his own campaign against the Russian Orthodox Church and forced the closure of about 12,000 churches. By 1985 fewer than 7,000 churches remained active. It is estimated that 50,000 clergy were executed by the end of the Khrushchev era.[23] Members of the church hierarchy were jailed or forced out, their places taken by docile clergy, many of whom had ties with the KGB.

text: In the postwar era, having changed its political orientation, the Orthodox Church reviewed its traditional positions. It went on to approve the accomplishments of the socialist state, and it called on believers to participate in the international peace movement. Modernist tendencies grew stronger, even in the religious aspects of ideology and practice. For example, the church no longer glorified senseless suffering, which it once considered as a road of "salvation."[33]

text: Relations between the church and state improved considerably. For his work, Patriarch Pimen was awarded testimonials and personal medals by the Soviet Peace Fund (1969 and 1971)[clarification needed] and the gold Fighter for Peace medal from the Soviet Peace Committee. His predecessor Patriarch Aleksy was awarded four Orders of the Red Banner of Labor and other medals of the USSR.[33]

text: By 1987 the number of functioning churches in the Soviet Union stood at 6893 and the number of functioning monasteries to 18.[34]

text: Citizens of the USSR were permitted to form religious societies for their religious needs if at least 20 believers reached the age of 18. Believers who composed an association performed religious rites, organized meetings for prayer, and other purposes connected to worship. They hired ministers and other persons to meet their needs, collected voluntary contributions in houses of worship for the support of their property. The Government granted the free use of houses of worship and other publicly owned property of the USSR. Russian Orthodox priests were trained at theological academies and seminaries[33]

text: In the Soviet Union the charitable and social work formerly done by ecclesiastical authorities were regulated by the government. Church owned property was nationalized. Places of worship were legally viewed as state property which the government permitted the church to use. After the advent of state funded universal education, the Church's influence on education declined. Outside of sermons during the celebration of the divine liturgy it was restricted from evangelizing.

text: Glasnost[edit]

text: Then, beginning in the late 1980s, under Mikhail Gorbachev, the new political and social freedoms resulted in many church buildings being returned to the church, to be restored by local parishioners. A pivotal point in the history of the Russian Orthodox Church came in 1988 with the 1000th anniversary of the Baptism of Kievan Rus': Throughout the summer of that year, major government-supported celebrations took place in Moscow and other cities. The 1988 Local Council of the Russian Orthodox Church met in Zagorsk; many older churches and some monasteries were reopened. An implicit ban on religious propaganda on state TV was finally lifted. For the first time in the history of Soviet Union, people could see live transmissions of church services on television.

text: Post-Soviet recovery[edit]

text: The Russian Orthodox Church is the largest of the Eastern Orthodox churches in the world and has seen a resurgence in activity and vitality since the end of Soviet rule. Up to 90% of ethnic Russians and Belarusians identify themselves as Russian Orthodox (although to a large degree this is a cultural identification, rather than a religious one). In keeping with other Orthodox churches, which do not place a high importance on weekly church attendance, the number of people regularly attending services is relatively low, however it has grown significantly since the dissolution of the Soviet Union. In December 2006 the Church had over 27,000 parishes, 169 bishops, 713 monasteries, two universities, five theological academies and 75 theological schools in the territory of the former Soviet Union and has a well-established presence in many other countries all over the world. In recent years many church buildings have been officially returned to the Church, most of these being in a deteriorated condition.[citation needed]

text: There have been difficulties in the relationship between the Russian Orthodox Church and the Vatican, especially since 2002, when Pope John Paul II created a Catholic diocesan structure for Russian territory. The leadership of the Russian Church saw this action as a throwback to prior attempts by the Vatican to proselytize the Russian Orthodox faithful to become Roman Catholic. This point of view is based upon the stance of the Russian Orthodox Church (and the Eastern Orthodox Church) that the Church of Rome is but one of many equal Christian organizations, and that as such it is straying into territory that was already Christianized by the Orthodox Church. The Catholic Church, on the other hand, while acknowledging the primacy of the Russian Orthodox Church in Russia, believes that the small Catholic minority in Russia, in continuous existence since at least the 18th century, should be served by a fully developed church hierarchy with a presence and status in Russia, just as the Russian Orthodox Church is present in other countries (including constructing a cathedral in Rome, near the Vatican).[citation needed]

text: The issue of encroachment by other Christian denominations into Russia is a particularly sensitive one to many members of the Russian Orthodox Church. They argue that the Orthodox Church now finds itself in a weakened position as a result of decades of secular Communist rule, and is therefore unable to compete on an equal footing with Western Churches. Thus, proselytizing by mostly foreign-based Catholics, Protestant denominations, and by many non-traditional sects can be seen as taking unfair advantage of the still-recovering condition of the Russian Church. On the other hand, many of these groups have argued that the position of Russian Orthodoxy is today no weaker than that of most Western European Churches.[citation needed] Smaller religious movements, particularly Baptists and members of other Protestant denominations, that have become active in Russia in the past decade claim that the state provides unfair support to the Orthodox Church and suppresses others, referring to the 1997 Russian law, under which those religious organizations that could not provide official proof of their existence for the preceding 15 years were seriously restricted in their rights and ability to worship. The law was formally presented as a way to combat destructive cults, but was condemned by representatives of other religions and human rights organizations as being written in a manner that explicitly favored the Russian Orthodox Church, as the Soviet Union had prohibited the establishment of other religions. Consequently, this law gave full rights only to a small number of "first-rank" religions, such as Orthodox Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Judaism. The situation is expected to normalise as the 15-year window starts to slide over the post-Communist period.

text: Due to its deep cultural roots, many members of the Russian government are keen to display their respect for the Church. It is common for the President of Russia to publicly meet with the Patriarch on Church holidays such as Easter (Paskha or Пасха in Russian). Meetings with representatives of Islam and Buddhism occur less frequently.

text: The Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (also known as the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad), based in New York City, is a jurisdiction of the church which was separated from Moscow for several decades. The Russian Orthodox Church Abroad was formed in the 1920s by Russian communities outside Communist Russia who refused to recognize the authority of the Russian Orthodox Church, as they believed it had fallen under the influence of the Bolsheviks. Relations between the two churches began improving in the 1990s, and there was a formal reconciliation in 2007 through the Act of Canonical Communion with the Moscow Patriarchate This agreement made the Church Abroad a mostly self-governing branch of the Russian Orthodox Church.

text: In November 2013 large group of Russian entrepreneurs, public figures and scientists have called for defining a special role of Orthodoxy in the Constitution. The appeal has been submitted to the president, the two houses of the Russian Parliament and Russian regional parliaments. The petitioners say their address was the final document of the conference titled "The Triumph and Collapse of an Empire: Lessons from History". According to them "The state sovereignty of the Russian Federation is law. Our call is for backing up its spiritual sovereignty, too, by declaring the Orthodoxy's special role in the Russian Constitution".[35]

text: Mission in America[edit]

text: Russian traders settled in Alaska during the 18th century. In 1740, a Divine Liturgy was celebrated on board a Russian ship off the Alaskan coast. In 1794, the Russian Orthodox Church sent missionaries—among them Saint Herman of Alaska—to establish a formal mission in Alaska. Their missionary endeavors contributed to the conversion of many Alaskan natives to the Orthodox faith. A diocese was established, whose first bishop was Saint Innocent of Alaska. The headquarters of this North American Diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church was moved from Alaska to California around the mid-19th century.

text: It was moved again in the last part of the same century, this time to New York. This transfer coincided with a great movement of Uniates to the Orthodox Church in the eastern United States. This movement, which increased the numbers of Orthodox Christians in America, resulted from a conflict between John Ireland, the politically powerful Roman Catholic Archbishop of Saint Paul, Minnesota; and Alexis Toth, an influential Ruthenian Catholic priest. Archbishop Ireland's refusal to accept Fr. Toth's credentials as a priest induced Fr. Toth to return to the Orthodox Church of his ancestors, and further resulted in the return of tens of thousands of other Uniate Catholics in North America to the Orthodox Church, under his guidance and inspiration. For this reason, Ireland is sometimes ironically remembered as the "Father of the Orthodox Church in America." These Uniates were received into Orthodoxy into the existing North American diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church. At the same time large numbers of Greeks and other Orthodox Christians were also immigrating to America. At this time all Orthodox Christians in North America were united under the omophorion (Church authority and protection) of the Patriarch of Moscow, through the Russian Church's North American diocese. The unity was not merely theoretical, but was a reality, since there was then no other diocese on the continent. Under the aegis of this diocese, which at the turn of the 20th century was ruled by Bishop (and future Patriarch) Tikhon, Orthodox Christians of various ethnic backgrounds were ministered to, both non-Russian and Russian; a Syro-Arab mission was established in the episcopal leadership of Saint Raphael of Brooklyn, who was the first Orthodox bishop to be consecrated in America.

text: Churches in America[edit]

text: The Russian Orthodox Church was devastated by the Bolshevik Revolution. One of its effects was a flood of refugees from Russia to the United States, Canada, and Europe. The Revolution of 1917 severed large sections of the Russian church—dioceses in America, Japan, and Manchuria, as well as refugees in Europe—from regular contacts with the mother church.

text: In 1920 Patriarch Tikhon issued an ukase (decree) that dioceses of the Church of Russia that were cut off from the governance of the highest Church authority (i.e. the Patriarch) should continue independently until such time as normal relations with the highest Church authority could be resumed; and on this basis, the North American diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church (known as the "Metropolia") continued to exist in a de facto autonomous mode of self-governance. The financial hardship that beset the North American diocese as the result of the Russian Revolution resulted in a degree of administrative chaos, with the result that other national Orthodox communities in North America turned to the Churches in their respective homelands for pastoral care and governance.

text: A group of bishops outside the boundaries of Russia gathered in Sremski-Karlovci, Yugoslavia, and adopted a clearly political monarchist stand. The group claimed to speak as a synod for the entire "free" Russian church. This group, which to this day includes a sizable portion of the Russian emigration, was formally dissolved in 1922 by Patriarch Tikhon, who then appointed metropolitans Platon and Evlogy as ruling bishops in America and Europe, respectively. Both of these metropolitans continued to entertain relations intermittently with the synod in Karlovci, but neither of them accepted it as a canonical authority. Between the World Wars, the Metropolia coexisted and at times cooperated with this independent synod, later known as Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia (ROCOR), sometimes also called the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad. The two groups eventually went their separate ways. ROCOR, which moved its headquarters to North America after the Second World War, sought unsuccessfully to establish jurisdiction over all parishes of Russian origin in North America. The Metropolia, as a former diocese of the Russian Church, looked to the latter as its highest church authority, albeit one from which it was temporarily cut off under the conditions of the communist regime in Russia.

text: After World War II, the Patriarchate of Moscow made unsuccessful attempts to regain control over these groups. After resuming communication with Moscow in the early 1960s, and being granted autocephaly in 1970, the Metropolia became known as the Orthodox Church in America.[36][37] However, recognition of this autocephalous status is not universal, as the Ecumenical Patriarch (under whom is the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America) and some other jurisdictions have not officially accepted it. The reasons for this are complex; nevertheless the Ecumenical Patriarch and the other jurisdictions remain in communion with the OCA. The Patriarchate of Moscow, through its agreement with the OCA, renounced its former canonical claims in the United States and Canada; it also acknowledged an autonomous church established in Japan that same year, the Orthodox Church of Japan.

text: On 17 May 2007, the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia signed the Act of Canonical Communion with the Moscow Patriarchate. According to the provisions of the Act, the Moscow Patriarchate guarantees that ROCOR will maintain its independent hierarchy, continuing to be "an indissoluble, self-governing part of the Local Russian Orthodox Church," the only change being that when she elects a new First Hierarch, his election must be confirmed by the Patriarch of Moscow. In turn, ROCOR recognizes the Patriarch of Moscow as the head of the entire Russian Orthodox Church.


document_title: List of Peppa Pig characters

question_text: what is the dogs name in peppa pig

question_tokens: what is the dogs name in peppa pig

root

text: List of Peppa Pig characters

text: The Pigs[edit]

text:
Peppa Pig (voiced by Lily Snowden-Fine in series 1, Cecily Bloom in series 2, and Harley Bird in series 3-present) – A pig who is the main character. Peppa's hobbies include jumping in muddy puddles, playing with her teddy bear, Teddy, going to playgroup, and playing dress up. Peppa is four years old as shown in the episode My Birthday Party. She wears a red dress.
George Pig (voiced by Oliver and Alice May) – Peppa's younger brother. George is often seen in possession of his toy dinosaur, named "Mr. Dinosaur", but due to George's limited vocabulary, he pronounces it as "dine saur," which was given to him as a present by Grandpa and Granny Pig when he was born, as shown in the episode The Olden Days. George is two years old as shown in the episode George's Birthday. He is the only one in Peppa's playgroup whose name does not start with the same letter as his species. Also, in the series, he is referred to as just "George". He skipped a grade[dubious  – discuss] and is now a member of Peppa's class despite being only two years old. He wears a blue shirt.
Mummy Pig (voiced by Morwenna Banks) – Mummy Pig is Peppa and George's mother. She is home employed and works on a computer.[1] She also worked as a volunteer firefighter with the Mummies' Fire Service in series 3, she also has skill in literacy and worked as an author in season 5.
Daddy Pig (voiced by Richard Ridings) – Daddy Pig is Peppa and George's father. He works as an architectural engineer,[1] as shown in the episode "The New House". He wears glasses due to his poor eyesight. Unlike Mummy Pig's parents, Grandpa Pig and Granny Pig, Daddy Pig's parents have never been shown or heard of in the series. Daddy Pig also shows signs of illiteracy and has issues with map reading. Despite this,  he retains his jolly and never lets anything get him down, even when Mr. Potato openly insults him on his TV show, which the whole town appears to watch.
Grandpa Pig (voiced by Brian Blessed in early series, David Graham in later series) — Grandpa Pig is Mummy Pig's father. Although the two bicker and fight in a few episodes, he's best friends with Granddad Dog. He has a trackless train named Gertrude, and calling it a toy train quickly angers him, claiming that "Gertrude is not a toy, she is a miniature locomotive!". He loves sailing and gardening. Some garden features, however, such as chickens eating his lettuces, blackberry bushes looking at him, garden gnomes, and plastic wells tend to anger him.
Granny Pig (voiced by Frances White) – Granny Pig is Mummy Pig's mother. She is a fan of perfume. She grows apples in an orchard near her house along with vegetables in her own garden next to her house.
Uncle Pig (voiced by John Sparkes) – Uncle Pig is Daddy Pig's brother, and is Auntie Pig's husband and Chloe and Alexander's father. He has a "big tummy", like Daddy Pig. He has yet to appear in series 5.
Auntie Pig (voiced by Alison Snowden in series 1–2 and Judy Flynn in series 3–4) – Auntie Pig is Uncle Pig's wife and Chloe and Alexander's mother. She has yet to appear in series 5.
Chloe Pig (voiced by Eloise May in series 1–2, Abigail Daniels in series 3–4 and Zara Siddiqi in series 4) – Chloe is Peppa and George's cousin, and Alexander's older sister. Her best friends are Belinda Bear and Simon Squirrel, and they like to tease Peppa. She is 8 years old[citation needed], and wears a yellow dress. Since she is older than the other kids, she doesn't go to Peppa's playgroup and instead presumably goes to a different school. She has yet to appear in series 5.
Baby Alexander (voiced by Oliver May in series 2, Harley Bird in series 3 and Minnie Driver in series 4) – Alexander is Chloe's baby brother and Peppa and George's baby cousin. His first word was "puddle", taught to him by Peppa. He has yet to appear in series 5.
Auntie Dottie Pig— Auntie Dottie is Peppa and George's aunt who sent a toy horse, which Peppa and George call "Horsey Twinkle Toes". It is unknown what she looks like and does not have a voice actor since she is only mentioned and never seen or heard. It is unknown what side of the family she is on, since all is said about her is that she lives far away in another country.

tag: ul

text: The Rabbits[edit]

text:
Rebecca Rabbit (voiced by Hazel Rudd in series 1, Bethan Lindsay in series 2, Alice May in series 3–4, and Arisha Couhdhury in series 5) – Rebecca is Peppa's friend from playgroup. She is the older sister of Richard and their twin baby sister and brother, Rosie and Robbie. She wears a turquoise dress.
Richard Rabbit (voiced by Zoe Baker in the UK; and Chloe Dolandis on Tickle-U[2]) – Rebecca's younger brother and the twins' big brother. He is George's best friend. He wears a dark blue shirt
Miss Rabbit (voiced by Sarah Ann Kennedy) – Miss Rabbit appears to have many jobs at the same time, including bus driver, supermarket assistant, librarian, helicopter pilot, firefighter, ice cream seller, shoe shop assistant, nurse, ticket seller, and more, but she loves her jobs. She is Mummy Rabbit's twin sister, and is Rebecca, Richard, Rosie, and Robbie's aunt. She wears a yellow dress, like her twin sister. Some people think there is more than one Miss Rabbit but this has not been said in the show, possibly because seeing many Miss Rabbits at the same time would be confusing for kids.
Mummy Rabbit (also voiced by Sarah Ann Kennedy) – Rebecca's, Richard's, Rosie's and Robbie's mother. She is also Miss Rabbit's twin sister.
Daddy Rabbit a.k.a. Mr. Rabbit (voiced by John Sparkes) – Rebecca's, Richard's, and the twins' father. He works with Daddy Pig and Mrs Cat in a top floor office. He appears to be a station master, manager of the museum and ice cream seller in some episodes. He has a Welsh accent, which is a pun on Welsh rarebit.
Grampy Rabbit (voiced by Brian Blessed) – Grampy Rabbit can play the banjo and runs a boat yard as shown in "Grampy Rabbit's Boatyard".
Rosie and Robbie Rabbit – Rebecca's and Richard's younger siblings who are twins. They were born in the episode "Mummy Rabbit's Bump"

text: The Sheep[edit]

text:
Suzy Sheep (voiced by Meg Hall in the UK version from series 1–4, Ava Lovell from series 5-present in the UK, and Elaine Torres[3] on the short-lived American version that aired on Tickle-U) – Suzy is Peppa's best friend. She wears a pink dress and has an imaginary friend named Leo Lion in one episode. In some episodes she wears a nurse costume. She is allegedly bossy and keeps telling people what to do but she thinks Peppa is the one who is telling people what to do. She is the only kid in the show who does not have a dad that is mentioned or seen.
Mummy Sheep (voiced by Debbie MacDonald) – Mummy Sheep is the mother of Suzy. She wears a dark pink dress. She is friends with Mummy Pig.

text: The Cats[edit]

text:
Candy Cat (voiced by Daisy Rudd in series 1, Emma Weston in series 2, Zara Siddiqi in series 3–4, and Madison Turner in series 5) – Candy is one of Peppa's friends. She wears a turquoise dress.
Mrs. Cat a.k.a. Mummy Cat (voiced by Morwenna Banks in series 2 and Leila Farzad in series 3–4) – Mrs. Cat is the mother of Candy and a co-worker of Daddy Pig. She is 33 according to the episode "Dr Hamster's Tortoise". She wears a light red dress. In "Daddy Pig's Office", it's revealed her job is graphic designing.
Mr. Cat a.k.a. Daddy Cat – Mr. Cat is the father of Candy. He is often seen in series 3 and 4. He wears an indigo shirt and has dark fur.

text: The Dogs[edit]

text:
Danny Dog (voiced by George Woolford in series 1–2, Jadon Mills in series 3–4 and Joshua Morris in series 5) – Danny is one of Peppa's friends. He wears purple clothes and has dark brown fur.
Mummy Dog a.k.a. Mrs. Dog (voiced by Debbie MacDonald in series 1, Claire Waxler in series 2, and Judy Flynn in series 4 & 5) – Mummy Dog is the mother of Danny Dog.
Granddad Dog (voiced by David Rintoul) – Granddad Dog is the grandfather of Danny Dog and the father of Captain Dog. He is a mechanic and is very good at fixing cars. Even though they sometimes bicker about whose boat is better, Granddad Dog and Grandpa Pig are best friends. Like Grampy Rabbit, his wife has never been shown, so he might be a widower.
Daddy Dog a.k.a. Captain Dog (voiced by Alexander Armstrong) – Captain Dog is the father of Danny Dog. He was once a sailor and sea captain who traveled the world to make his fortune and thus was gone from home for most of the series. He was one of the last characters make his debut on the show, not appearing until the middle of series four when he retires from sailing and returns home to be with his family. Despite being retired, he often misses his life as a sailor.

text: The Ponies[edit]

text:
Pedro Pony (voiced by Harrison Oldroyd in series 1–2, Stanley Nickless in series 3–4, Sammy Price in "The Golden Boots" and "Around the World with Peppa," and Rohal Soomro in series 5) – Pedro is one of Peppa's friends. He wears black eyeglasses and yellow clothes. Characterized by his love for sleep, Pedro can be occasionally forgetful or clumsy and slow to catch on but is otherwise knowledgeable in his areas of interest and always friendly. In many episodes he is late for playgroup. Peppa once kissed Pedro in her school's play (from "School Play"). He is known for often wearing the wrong costume, as in the episode "Gym Class," where he wears a superhero costume instead of his gym costume. He also is often found wearing a cowboy costume. He is the only kid in Peppa's playgroup who wears glasses -before Molly Mole debuts-.
Mummy Pony a.k.a. Mrs. Pony (voiced by Kate Gribble in series 1, Madeleine Moore in series 2, Layla Lewis in series 2, Jemima Williams in series 3, Leila Farzad in series 4 and Judy Flynn in series 4) – Mummy Pony is the mother of Pedro. She wears a dark yellow dress
Daddy Pony a.k.a. Mr. Pony (voiced by John Sparkes) – Daddy Pony is the father of Pedro, and he is an optician. He wears glasses and green clothes.

text: The Zebras[edit]

text:
Zoe Zebra (voiced by Sian Taylor in series 2–4 and Isla Gudgeon in series 5) – Zoe is one of Peppa's friends. She wears a light purple dress. In the episode "Teddy's Day Out," it is revealed that she has a stuffed monkey which is named Monkey. In the episode "Sleepover", Zoe mentions that she is taking piano lessons, likely from Mr. Zebra.
Mummy Zebra a.k.a. Mrs Zebra (voiced by Morwenna Banks) – Mummy Zebra is the mother of Zoe, Zuzu and Zaza Zebra. She wears a bright green dress and has shown to work with pottery in the episode "Pottery".
Daddy Zebra a.k.a. Mr. Zebra (voiced by David Graham) – Daddy Zebra is the father of Zoe, Zuzu and Zaza and is a postman. He can play the piano as shown in "Sleepover", and plays "Twinkle Twinkle Little Star" to make Peppa and her friends fall asleep.
Zuzu & Zaza Zebra (both voiced by Alice May from series 2–4, Matilda Green from series 5-present) – Zuzu and Zaza are Zoe's younger identical twin sisters. They are also George's friends. They both wear light pink dresses. They are somewhat younger than George, Richard, and Edmond, and they do not appear at playgroup. :(

text: The Elephants[edit]

text:
Emily Elephant (voiced by Julia Moss in the UK from series 2–6, Stara Bal in series 7-present and Chloe Dolandis on Cartoon Network[2]) – Peppa's friend from playgroup. She made her first appearance in the episode "Emily Elephant". She can make the loudest sound out of all the children and often uses her trunk as an extra hand. She wears a dark yellow dress and is shy most of the time.
Edmond Elephant (voiced by Jonny Butler from series 3–4 and Victor Wade in series 5–present) – Edmond is George's friend. He is 2 year old, like George and Richard. Unlike George, Richard, and the other toddlers, Edmond is highly intelligent and can speak in full sentences; his high intelligence comes from his father. Because of this, Edmond is a self-proclaimed clever clogs. He is voiced by Jonny Butler from series 3–4, and Victor Wade from series 5-present. Edmond's voice appears on the Peppa Pig Rocket kiddie ride. He wears a dark green outfit.
Doctor Elephant a.k.a. Mr. Elephant (voiced by Andy Hamilton) – Emily's and Edmond's father. His job is a dentist. He wears a white shirt and red bow tie.
Mummy Elephant a.k.a. Mrs. Elephant – She is Emily's and Edmond's mother and not much is known about her. She wears a light purple dress.

text: The Foxes[edit]

text:
Freddy Fox (voiced by Max Miller in half of series 3 and then Jamie Oram onwards) – is a friend of Peppa who has a very good sense of smell. His first appearance was in the episode "Freddy Fox ".  He wears a dark red shirt.
Mr. Fox (voiced by John Sparkes) – is Freddy's father and is the owner of a shop that sells everything, usually in boxes of five, but sometimes as matching sets of three.
Mrs. Fox— is Freddy's mother. She works as a nurse as shown in the episode "Hospital". She wears a light blue dress.

text: The Kangaroos[edit]

text:
Kylie Kangaroo (voiced by Macey Danger in the episode of the same name, then Finley Grieg-Byrne, as seen in the credits for series 5)— Kylie Kangaroo is a friend of Peppa and appears in the episode of same name. Since she is a kangaroo, she can jump higher than the other characters.
Joey Kangaroo (voiced by Jazlyn Jago, as seen in the credits for series 5) — Joey Kangaroo is Kylie's younger brother. He stays in Mummy Kangaroo's pouch and is presumably younger than George, Richard, and Edmond.
Mummy Kangaroo a.k.a. Mrs Kangaroo (voiced by Morwenna Banks in the episode, then Elise Grieg, as seen in the credits for series 5)— Mummy Kangaroo is Kylie and Joey's mother.
Daddy Kangaroo a.k.a. Mr Kangaroo (voiced by Alexander Armstrong in the episode, then Tony Byrne, as seen in the credits for series 5)— Daddy Kangaroo is Kylie and Joey's father. He likes barbecuing corn on the cob.

text: The Wolves[edit]

text:
Mr. Wolf (voiced by Alexander Armstrong, as seen in the credits for series 4) — Mr. Wolf is the father of Wendy Wolf and Mrs. Wolf's husband. Not much is known about him compared to the other parents.
Mrs. Wolf (voiced by Jen Pringle) – Mrs. Wolf is the mother of Wendy Wolf and Mr. Wolf's wife. Like Mr. Wolf not much is known about her.
Wendy Wolf (voiced by Chaniya Mahon) – Wendy Wolf is Peppa's friend after Daddy Pig designs a house for the wolves and Mr. Bull builds it. She also becomes a new student in Peppa's playgroup later in the series.
Granny Wolf (voiced by Morwenna Banks as credited as Jen Pringle)— She appeared in the S5 episode "Wendy Wolf's Birthday"

text: The Goats[edit]

text:
Gabriella Goat (voiced by Sonia Arapi) — A friend of Peppa's who lives in Italy. She gives Peppa and her family a tour of the village where she lives.
Signor Goat (voiced by Andrea Tran) – He takes care of the holiday house Peppa's family stays for their holiday and is the father of Gabriella Goat.
Uncle Goat (voiced by John Sparkes — He is a pizza baker in Gabriella's village and Gabriella's uncle.
Auntie Goat (voiced by Morwenna Banks) – She runs a store in Gabriella's town.

text: The Giraffes[edit]

text:
Gerald Giraffe (voiced by Leo Templer) – The newest member of Peppa's playgroup who appears in "Gerald Giraffe". Being a giraffe makes him the tallest child in the playgroup. He also measures at the top of his ears making Rebecca Rabbit's ears be short.
Mr. Giraffe (voiced by Zeus Jahn-Vilnur) – Gerald's father.
Mrs. Giraffe (voiced by Posher Ra Ra) – Gerald's mother.

text: The Moles[edit]

text:
Molly Mole (voiced by Rosie van Hulzen) – Appears in the S5 episode "Molly Mole"
Mummy Mole (voiced by Jen Pringle) – Molly's mother
Daddy Mole (voiced by John Sparkes) – Molly's father

text: The Bears[edit]

text:
Dr. Brown Bear (voiced by David Rintoul) – the doctor. In "Pedro's Cough", he claims he never gets sick, but he does when he caught Pedro's cough. According to the British Medical Journal, Dr Bear shows clear signs of "burnout" and begins falling short of the high standards of service he aims to provide to his patients, which include "prompt and direct telephone access, continuity of care, extended hours, and a low threshold for home visits", including using a "green light car ... with sirens" to attend a playgroup where a 3 year old pony has coughed 3 times.[1]
Belinda Bear (voiced by Zara Siddiqi in her episode debut, then Charlotte Potterton, as seen in the credits for series 5) – One of Chloe's friends. In the episode "Chloe's Big Friends", she calls herself "Bea" for short. She might be related to Dr. Brown Bear, but it is unknown as she only appeared in one episode.

text: The Donkeys[edit]

text:
Delphine Donkey (voiced by Nzilani Franq) – Peppa's pen pal from France.
Didier Donkey (voiced by Aurélie Charbonnier) – Delphine's younger brother. He has a toy dragon, similar to how George has a toy dinosaur.
Monsieur Donkey (voiced by Jerome Haupert in series 2 and 3, then David Rintoul, as seen in the credits for series 5) – Delphine and Didier's father.
Mama Donkey – Delphine and Didier's mother.

text: Other characters[edit]

text:
Madame Gazelle (voiced by Morwenna Banks) – Madame Gazelle is the teacher at Peppa's playgroup. She has a French accent, which is a pun on "mademoiselle". She once played in a rock band called "The Rocking Gazelles" with two other gazelles who may be her sisters, as evidenced in "Madame Gazelle's Leaving Party". She taught Peppa's parents when they were children. "In Pumpkin Party" it is implied that she is a vampire because she has no reflection in the mirror, and seeing Suzy dressed as a vampire reminds her of the old country. In the episode "Madame Gazelle's Leaving Party", her first name is revealed to be Gigi. She is the only seen adult character whose first name was revealed (but only once). She can play both electric and acoustic guitars, as shown in many episodes.
Mr. Bull (voiced by David Rintoul) – Mr. Bull is a garbage man, a construction worker, a nurse (as seen in "Mummy Rabbit's Bump") and a tuba player. Mr Bull is also a taxi driver (as seen in the "Flying on Holiday" episode). It is implied that Mr. Bull is related to Mrs. Cow, as bulls are male cows.
Mr. Potato (voiced by John Sparkes) – Mr Potato is Peppa's favorite character from a TV show. It is unknown if he is a real potato or someone wearing a costume. He encourages the kids to exercise and eat healthy. His friends are Mrs. Carrot, Sweet Cranberry and Little Sprout who are also real fruit and vegetables, as evidenced in "Mr Potato's Christmas Show". There is also a Mrs. Potato, appearing only on Peppa's television with Mr. Potato from series one until the beginning of series 3.
Mrs. Cow (voiced by Judy Flynn) – A member of the "Mummies' Fire Service". She might be related to Mr. Bull, as bulls are the male counterpart to cows, but this has not been said in the show.
Mr Rhino — He works with Mr. Bull in the building/construction jobs.
Dr. Hamster (voiced by Morwenna Banks) – Dr. Hamster is the vet and has a tortoise named Tiddles who gets stuck in trees a lot. She flies an airplane on "The Flying Vet".
Mr. Labrador — He works with Mr. Bull in the building/construction jobs. He also runs the archery competition at the fair (as seen in "Funfair"). His name is never said in the show.
Captain Emergency (voiced by Dominic Byrne) – The pilot on the plane Peppa and her family fly on in the episode "Flying On Holiday".
Simon Squirrel (voiced by Preston Nyman) – One of Chloe's friends. In the episode "Chloe's Big Friends", he calls himself "Sy" for short. His parents have never appeared in the show but it is assumed that they are squirrels, like him.
Policeman Stag (voiced by Fernando Tiberini) – He appears in "Around the World with Peppa" to return Teddy to Peppa who kept losing it. He is a dark brown otter.
Police Officer Panda (voiced by David Mitchell (Comedian)) – Appears in S5 episode "The Police"
Police Officer Squirrel (voiced by Judy Flynn) – Appears in S5 episode "The Police"
Santa – He appears in episodes "Santa's Grotto", "Santa's Visit" and "Mr. Potato's Christmas Show". He is one of 2 human characters in the show, the other one being the Queen.
The Queen (voiced by Morwenna Banks) – She appears in the episode "The Queen And London". She is human and based on Queen Elizabeth II.
Mr Lion (voiced by Colin McFarlane) – Appears in S5 episode "The Zoo"
Mrs Crocodile (voiced by Jo Brand) – Appears in S5 episode "The Zoo"
Mr Wallaby (voiced by Sam Simmons) – Appears in S5 episode "Boomerang"
Singing Fish (voiced by Tomas Gisby) – A plastic fish that Mr. Fox sells in the S5 episode "The Market"
Mummy Rat – Appears in the episodes "London" and "The Market"
Female Rat – Appears in the episodes "London" and "The Market"
Mr Stallion – He is one of Grandpa Pig's friends. He appears in S5 episode "Sailing Boat"
Mrs Corgi – She is another one of Grandpa Pig's friends. She appears in S5 episode "Sailing Boat"

text: Pets and animals[edit]

text:
Tiddles – Dr. Hamster's pet tortoise. He is 33 as shown the episode "Dr. Hamster's Tortoise". He is known to climb trees as shown in "Naughty Tortoise", "Miss Rabbit's Helicopter", and "Gerald Giraffe".
Steven – Pedro Pony's pet stick insect who is shown in "The Pet Competition".
Goldie the goldfish – Goldie is Peppa's goldfish.
Ginger the goldfish – Ginger is Miss Rabbit's goldfish and is shown in "The Aquarium" where she befriends Peppa's fish Goldie.
Hemydatulus Fanardus – is Edmond Elephant's pet gecko and is shown the episode "The Pet Competition". His name is the scientific name for gecko. Edmond named him this because he is smart.
Polly Parrot (voiced by Alison Snowden, as seen in the credits for her episode debut) – Granny and Grandpa Pig's parrot. Like most parrots, Polly copies what others say. She has yet to appear in series 5.
Mrs. Duck – A wild duck who lives in the duck pond with the other ducks. She and her fellow ducks have a habit of always showing up at picnics, usually in the hope of receiving food scraps. She appears in the "Golden Boots" special when she takes Peppa's golden boots.
Mr. Skinny Legs – A friendly little spider who lives in and around Peppa's house.
Teddy – Peppa's toy bear. Peppa is known for leaving him behind by mistake. In "The Holiday House", "Holiday in the Sun", and "The End of the Holiday", there is a running gag where Peppa leaves Teddy behind and a police dog on a motorcycle returns it while they are driving. Another running gag is that Daddy Pig walks into the pool with his pajamas on.
Mr Dinosaur - George's toy dinosaur
Mr Scarecrow - Granny and Grandpa's scarecrow. It has been seen on "Mr Scarecrow" and "Granny Pig's Chickens"
Jemima, Sarah, Vanessa, and Neville - They are Granny Pig's chickens. They were first seen on "Granny Pig's Chickens" and they appear on "Spring"
Monkey - Zoe's toy monkey
Frog - Emily's toy frog, appears on Sleepover
Owl - Suzy's toy owl also appears on Sleepover
Carrot - Rebecca's toy carrot also appears on Sleepover
Mrs Dinosaur Richard Rabbit’s toy dinosaur
Dino-Rawr Replaced Mr. Dinosaur after he lost his tail. Dino-Rawr cannot be played with as much as Mr. Dinosaur due to electronic components. One day after his batteries fell out, Peppa collected them and found Mr. Dinosaur's tail, and Daddy Pig managed to put the tail back on. It is unknown what happened to Dino-Rawr afterwards.
Penguin - Suzy's toy penguin. It talks. Her penguin appears in The Doll Hospital.


document_title: Lymphatic system

question_text: what are the main organs in the lymphatic system

text: Lymphatic system

text: Structure[edit]

text: The lymphatic system consists of lymphatic organs, a conducting network of lymphatic vessels, and the circulating lymph.

tag: p

text: The primary  or central lymphoid organs generate lymphocytes from immature progenitor cells.

text: The thymus and the bone marrow constitute the primary lymphoid organs involved in the production and early clonal selection of lymphocyte tissues. Bone marrow is responsible for both the creation of T cells and the production and maturation of B cells. From the bone marrow, B cells immediately join the circulatory system and travel to secondary lymphoid organs in search of pathogens. T cells, on the other hand, travel from the bone marrow to the thymus, where they develop further. Mature T cells join B cells in search of pathogens. The other 95% of T cells begin a process of apoptosis, a form of programmed cell death.

text: Secondary or peripheral lymphoid organs, which include lymph nodes and the spleen, maintain mature naive lymphocytes and initiate an adaptive immune response. The peripheral lymphoid organs are the sites of lymphocyte activation by antigens. Activation leads to clonal expansion and affinity maturation. Mature lymphocytes recirculate between the blood and the peripheral lymphoid organs until they encounter their specific antigen.

text: Secondary lymphoid tissue provides the environment for the foreign or altered native molecules (antigens) to interact with the lymphocytes. It is exemplified by the lymph nodes, and the lymphoid follicles in tonsils, Peyer's patches, spleen, adenoids, skin, etc. that are associated with the mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT).

text: In the gastrointestinal wall the appendix has mucosa resembling that of the colon, but here it is heavily infiltrated with lymphocytes.

text: The tertiary lymphoid tissue[clarification needed] typically contains far fewer lymphocytes, and assumes an immune role only when challenged with antigens that result in inflammation. It achieves this by importing the lymphocytes from blood and lymph.[6]

text: Lymphoid tissue[edit]

text: Thymus[edit]

text: The thymus is a primary lymphoid organ and the site of maturation for T cells, the lymphocytes of the adaptive immune system. The thymus increases in size from birth in response to postnatal antigen stimulation, then to puberty and regresses thereafter.[7] The loss or lack of the thymus results in severe immunodeficiency and subsequent high susceptibility to infection.[7] In most species, the thymus consists of lobules divided by septa which are made up of epithelium and is therefore an epithelial organ. T cells mature from thymocytes, proliferate and undergo selection process in the thymic cortex before entering the medulla to interact with epithelial cells.

text: The thymus provides an inductive environment for development of T cells from hematopoietic progenitor cells.  In addition, thymic stromal cells allow for the selection of a functional and self-tolerant T cell repertoire. Therefore, one of the most important roles of the thymus is the induction of central tolerance.

text: The thymus is largest and most active during the neonatal and pre-adolescent periods. By the early teens, the thymus begins to atrophy and thymic stroma is mostly replaced by adipose tissue. Nevertheless, residual T lymphopoiesis continues throughout adult life.

text: Spleen[edit]

text: The main functions of the spleen are:

text:
to produce immune cells to fight antigens
to remove particulate matter and aged blood cells, mainly erythrocytes
to produce blood cells during fetal life

tag: ol

text: The spleen synthesizes antibodies in its white pulp and removes antibody-coated bacteria and antibody-coated blood cells by way of blood and lymph node circulation. A study published in 2009 using mice found that the spleen contains, in its reserve, half of the body's monocytes within the red pulp.[8] These monocytes, upon moving to injured tissue (such as the heart), turn into dendritic cells and macrophages while promoting tissue healing.[8][9][10] The spleen is a center of activity of the mononuclear phagocyte system and can be considered analogous to a large lymph node, as its absence causes a predisposition to certain infections.

text: Like the thymus, the spleen has only efferent lymphatic vessels. Both the short gastric arteries and the splenic artery supply it with blood.[11]

text: The germinal centers are supplied by arterioles called penicilliary radicles.[12]

text: Up to the fifth month of  prenatal development the spleen creates red blood cells. After birth the bone marrow is solely responsible for hematopoiesis. As a major lymphoid organ and a central player in the reticuloendothelial system, the spleen retains the ability to produce lymphocytes. The spleen stores red blood cells and lymphocytes. It can store enough blood cells to help in an emergency. Up to 25% of lymphocytes can be stored at any one time.[13]

text: Lymph nodes[edit]

text: A lymph node is an organized collection of lymphoid tissue, through which the lymph passes on its way back to the blood. Lymph nodes are located at intervals along the lymphatic system. Several afferent lymph vessels bring in lymph, which percolates through the substance of the lymph node, and is then drained out by an efferent lymph vessel. There are between five and six hundred lymph nodes in the human body, many of which are grouped in clusters in different regions as in the underarm and abdominal areas. Lymph node clusters are commonly found at the base of limbs (groin, armpits) and in the neck, where lymph is collected from regions of the body likely to sustain pathogen contamination from injuries.

text: The substance of a lymph node consists of lymphoid follicles in an outer portion called the cortex. The inner portion of the node is called the medulla, which is surrounded by the cortex on all sides except for a portion known as the hilum. The hilum presents as a depression on the surface of the lymph node, causing the otherwise spherical lymph node to be bean-shaped or ovoid. The efferent lymph vessel directly emerges from the lymph node at the hilum. The arteries and veins supplying the lymph node with blood enter and exit through the hilum.

text: The region of the lymph node called the paracortex immediately surrounds the medulla. Unlike the cortex, which has mostly immature T cells, or thymocytes, the paracortex has a mixture of immature and mature T cells. Lymphocytes enter the lymph nodes through specialised high endothelial venules found in the paracortex.

text: A lymph follicle is a dense collection of lymphocytes, the number, size and configuration of which change in accordance with the functional state of the lymph node. For example, the follicles expand significantly when encountering a foreign antigen. The selection of B cells, or B lymphocytes, occurs in the germinal centre of the lymph nodes.

text: Lymph nodes are particularly numerous in the mediastinum in the chest, neck, pelvis, axilla, inguinal region, and in association with the blood vessels of the intestines.[4]

text: Other lymphoid tissue[edit]

text: Lymphoid tissue associated with the lymphatic system is concerned with immune functions in defending the body against infections and the spread of tumours. It consists of connective tissue formed of reticular fibers, with various types of leukocytes, (white blood cells), mostly lymphocytes enmeshed in it, through which the lymph passes.[14] Regions of the lymphoid tissue that are densely packed with lymphocytes are known as lymphoid follicles. Lymphoid tissue can either be structurally well organized as lymph nodes or may consist of loosely organized lymphoid follicles known as the mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue.

text: The central nervous system also has lymphatic vessels, as discovered by the University of Virginia Researchers. The search for T-cell gateways into and out of the meninges uncovered functional meningeal lymphatic vessels lining the dural sinuses, anatomically integrated into the membrane surrounding the brain.[15]

text: Lymphatic vessels[edit]

text: The lymphatic vessels, also called lymph vessels, conduct lymph between different parts of the body. They include the tubular vessels of the lymph capillaries, and the larger collecting vessels–the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct (the left lymphatic duct). The lymph capillaries are mainly responsible for the absorption of interstitial fluid from the tissues, while lymph vessels propel the absorbed fluid forward into the larger collecting ducts, where it ultimately returns to the bloodstream via one of the subclavian veins. These vessels are also called the lymphatic channels or simply lymphatics.[16]

text:
The lymphatics are responsible for maintaining the balance of the body fluids. Its network of capillaries and collecting lymphatic vessels work to efficiently drain and transport extravasated fluid, along with proteins and antigens, back to the circulatory system. Numerous intraluminal valves in the vessels ensure a unidirectional flow of lymph without reflux.[17] Two valve systems are used to achieve this one directional flow—a primary and a secondary valve system.[18]
The capillaries are blind-ended, and the valves at the ends of capillaries use specialised junctions together with anchoring filaments to allow a unidirectional flow to the primary vessels. The collecting lymphatics, however, act to propel the lymph by the combined actions of the intraluminal valves and lymphatic muscle cells.[19]

text: Development[edit]

text: Lymphatic tissues begin to develop by the end of the fifth week of embryonic development.[20] Lymphatic vessels develop from lymph sacs that arise from developing veins, which are derived from mesoderm.

text: The first lymph sacs to appear are the paired jugular lymph sacs at the junction of the internal jugular and subclavian veins.[20] From the jugular lymph sacs, lymphatic capillary plexuses spread to the thorax, upper limbs, neck and head.[20] Some of the plexuses enlarge and form lymphatic vessels in their respective regions. Each jugular lymph sac retains at least one connection with its jugular vein, the left one developing into the superior portion of the thoracic duct.

text: The next lymph sac to appear is the unpaired retroperitoneal lymph sac at the root of the mesentery of the intestine. It develops from the primitive vena cava and mesonephric veins. Capillary plexuses and lymphatic vessels spread from the retroperitoneal lymph sac to the abdominal viscera and diaphragm. The sac establishes connections with the cisterna chyli but loses its connections with neighbouring veins.

text: The last of the lymph sacs, the paired posterior lymph sacs, develop from the iliac veins. The posterior lymph sacs produce capillary plexuses and lymphatic vessels of the abdominal wall, pelvic region, and lower limbs. The posterior lymph sacs join the cisterna chyli and lose their connections with adjacent veins.

text: With the exception of the anterior part of the sac from which the cisterna chyli develops, all lymph sacs become invaded by mesenchymal cells and are converted into groups of lymph nodes.

text: The spleen develops from mesenchymal cells between layers of the dorsal mesentery of the stomach.[20] The thymus arises as an outgrowth of the third pharyngeal pouch.

text: Function[edit]

text: The lymphatic system has multiple interrelated functions:[21]

text:
It is responsible for the removal of  interstitial fluid from tissues
It absorbs and transports fatty acids and fats as chyle from the digestive system
It transports white blood cells to and from the lymph nodes into the bones
The lymph transports antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic cells, to the lymph nodes where an immune response is stimulated.

text: Fat absorption[edit]

text: Lymph vessels called lacteals are at the beginning of the gastrointestinal tract, predominantly in the small intestine. While most other nutrients absorbed by the small intestine are passed on to the portal venous system to drain via the portal vein into the liver for processing, fats (lipids) are passed on to the lymphatic system to be transported to the blood circulation via the thoracic duct. (There are exceptions, for example medium-chain triglycerides are fatty acid esters of glycerol that passively diffuse from the GI tract to the portal system.) The enriched lymph originating in the lymphatics of the small intestine is called chyle. The nutrients that are released into the circulatory system are processed by the liver, having passed through the systemic circulation.

text: Immune function[edit]

text: The lymphatic system plays a major role in the body's immune system, as the primary site for cells relating to adaptive immune system including T-cells and B-cells. Cells in the lymphatic system react to antigens presented or found by the cells directly or by other dendritic cells. When an antigen is recognized, an immunological cascade begins involving the activation and recruitment of more and more cells, the production of antibodies and cytokines and the recruitment of other immunological cells such as macrophages.

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: The study of lymphatic drainage of various organs is important in the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of cancer.  The lymphatic system, because of its closeness to many tissues of the body, is responsible for carrying cancerous cells between the various parts of the body in a process called metastasis. The intervening lymph nodes can trap the cancer cells.  If they are not successful in destroying the cancer cells the nodes may become sites of secondary tumours.

text: Enlarged lymph nodes[edit]

text: Lymphadenopathy refers to one or more enlarged lymph nodes. Small groups or individually enlarged lymph nodes are generally reactive in response to infection or inflammation. This is called local lymphadenopathy. When many lymph nodes in different areas of the body are involved, this is called generalised lymphadenopathy. Generalised lymphadenopathy may be caused by infections such as infectious mononucleosis, tuberculosis and HIV, connective tissue diseases such as SLE and rheumatoid arthritis, and cancers, including both cancers of tissue within lymph nodes, discussed below, and metastasis of cancerous cells from other parts of the body, that have arrived via the lymphatic system.[22]

text: Lymphedema[edit]

text: Lymphedema is the swelling caused by the accumulation of lymph, which may occur if the lymphatic system is damaged or has malformations. It usually affects limbs, though the face, neck and abdomen may also be affected. In an extreme state, called elephantiasis, the edema progresses to the extent that the skin becomes thick with an appearance similar to the skin on elephant limbs.[23]

text: Causes are unknown in most cases, but sometimes there is a previous history of severe infection, usually caused by a parasitic disease, such as lymphatic filariasis.

text: Lymphangiomatosis is a disease involving multiple cysts or lesions formed from lymphatic vessels.[relevant to this paragraph?  – discuss]

text: Lymphedema can also occur after surgical removal of lymph nodes in the armpit (causing the arm to swell due to poor lymphatic drainage) or groin (causing swelling of the leg). Treatment is by manual lymphatic drainage. There is no evidence to suggest that the effects of manual lymphatic drainage are permanent.[24]

text: Cancer[edit]

text: Cancer of the lymphatic system can be primary or secondary. Lymphoma refers to cancer that arises from lymphatic tissue. Lymphoid leukaemias and lymphomas are now considered to be tumours of the same type of cell lineage. They are called "leukaemia" when in the blood or marrow and "lymphoma" when in lymphatic tissue. They are grouped together under the name "lymphoid malignancy".[25]

text: Lymphoma is generally considered as either Hodgkin lymphoma or non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Hodgkin lymphoma is characterised by a particular type of cell, called a Reed–Sternberg cell, visible under microscope. It is associated with past infection with the Epstein-Barr Virus, and generally causes a painless "rubbery" lymphadenopathy. It is staged, using Ann Arbor staging. Chemotherapy generally involves the ABVD and may also involve radiotherapy.[22] Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is a cancer characterised by increased proliferation of B-cells or T-cells, generally occurs in an older age group than Hodgkin lymphoma. It is treated according to whether it is high-grade or low-grade, and carries a poorer prognosis than Hodgkin lymphoma.[22]

text: Lymphangiosarcoma is a malignant soft tissue tumour, whereas lymphangioma is a benign tumour occurring frequently in association with Turner syndrome. Lymphangioleiomyomatosis is a benign tumour of the smooth muscles of the lymphatics that occurs in the lungs.

text: Lymphoid leukaemia is another form of cancer where the host is devoid of different lymphatic cells.

text: Other[edit]

text:
Castleman's disease
Chylothorax
Kawasaki disease
Kikuchi disease
Lipedema
Lymphangitis
Lymphatic filariasis
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis
Solitary lymphatic nodule

text: History[edit]

text: Hippocrates, in the 5th century BC, was one of the first people to mention the lymphatic system. In his work On Joints, he briefly mentioned the lymph nodes in one sentence. Rufus of Ephesus, a Roman physician, identified the axillary, inguinal and mesenteric lymph nodes as well as the thymus during the 1st to 2nd century AD.[26] The first mention of lymphatic vessels was in the 3rd century BC by Herophilos, a Greek anatomist living in Alexandria, who incorrectly concluded that the "absorptive veins of the lymphatics," by which he meant the lacteals (lymph vessels of the intestines), drained into the hepatic portal veins, and thus into the liver.[26] The findings of Ruphus and Herophilos were further propagated by the Greek physician Galen, who described the lacteals and mesenteric lymph nodes which he observed in his dissection of apes and pigs in the 2nd century AD.[26][27]

text: In the mid 16th century, Gabriele Falloppio (discoverer of the fallopian tubes), described what is now known as the lacteals as "coursing over the intestines full of yellow matter."[26] In about 1563 Bartolomeo Eustachi, a professor of anatomy, described the thoracic duct in horses as vena alba thoracis.[26] The next breakthrough came when in 1622 a physician, Gaspare Aselli, identified lymphatic vessels of the intestines in dogs and termed them venue alba et lacteal, which is now known as simply the lacteals. The lacteals were termed the fourth kind of vessels (the other three being the artery, vein and nerve, which was then believed to be a type of vessel), and disproved Galen's assertion that chyle was carried by the veins. But, he still believed that the lacteals carried the chyle to the liver (as taught by Galen).[28] He also identified the thoracic duct but failed to notice its connection with the lacteals.[26] This connection was established by Jean Pecquet in 1651, who found a white fluid mixing with blood in a dog's heart. He suspected that fluid to be chyle as its flow increased when abdominal pressure was applied. He traced this fluid to the thoracic duct, which he then followed to a chyle-filled sac he called the chyli receptaculum, which is now known as the cisternae chyli; further investigations led him to find that lacteals' contents enter the venous system via the thoracic duct.[26][28] Thus, it was proven convincingly that the lacteals did not terminate in the liver, thus disproving Galen's second idea: that the chyle flowed to the liver.[28] Johann Veslingius drew the earliest sketches of the lacteals in humans in 1647.[27]

text: The idea that blood recirculates through the body rather than being produced anew by the liver and the heart was first accepted as a result of works of William Harvey—a work he published in 1628. In 1652, Olaus Rudbeck (1630–1702), a Swede, discovered certain transparent vessels in the liver that contained clear fluid (and not white), and thus named them hepatico-aqueous vessels. He also learned that they emptied into the thoracic duct and that they had valves.[28] He announced his findings in the court of Queen Christina of Sweden, but did not publish his findings for a year,[29] and in the interim similar findings were published by Thomas Bartholin, who additionally published that such vessels are present everywhere in the body, not just in the liver. He is also the one to have named them "lymphatic vessels."[28] This had resulted in a bitter dispute between one of Bartholin's pupils, Martin Bogdan,[30] and Rudbeck, whom he accused of plagiarism.[29]

text: Galen's ideas prevailed in medicine until the 17th century. It was thought that blood was produced by the liver from chyle contaminated with ailments by the intestine and stomach, to which various spirits were added by other organs, and that this blood was consumed by all the organs of the body. This theory required that the blood be consumed and produced many times over. Even in the 17th century, his ideas were defended by some physicians.[27]

text: Alexander Monro, of the University of Edinburgh Medical School, was the first to describe the function of the lymphatic system in detail.[31]

text:
"Claude Galien". Lithograph by Pierre Roche Vigneron. (Paris: Lith de Gregoire et Deneux, ca. 1865)

Gabriele Falloppio

Portrait of Eustachius

Olaus Rudbeck in 1696.

Thomas Bartholin

text: Etymology[edit]

text: Lymph originates in the Classical Latin word lympha "water",[32] which is also the source of the English word limpid. The spelling with y and ph was influenced by folk etymology with Greek νύμϕη (nýmphē) "nymph".[33]

text: The adjective used for the lymph-transporting system is lymphatic. The adjective used for the tissues where lymphocytes are formed is lymphoid. Lymphatic comes from the Latin word lymphaticus, meaning "connected to water."