document_title: Penny (United States coin)

question_text: when did pennies stop being made of copper

text: Penny (United States coin)

text: History of composition[edit]

text:
Years
Material
Weight(grains)
Weight(grams)

1793–1795
~100% copper
208 grains
13.48

1795–1857
~100% copper
168 grains
10.89

1856–1864
88% copper, 12% nickel (also known as NS-12)
72 grains
4.67

1864–1942
bronze (95% copper, 5% tin and zinc)
48 grains
3.11

1943
zinc-coated steel (also known as 1943 steel cent)
42 grains
2.72

1944–1946
brass (shell case copper) (95% copper, 5% zinc)
48 grains
3.11

1947–1962
bronze (95% copper, 5% tin and zinc)
48 grains
3.11

1962–1981
brass (95% copper, 5% zinc)
48 grains
3.11

1982[7]
brass (95% copper, 5% zinc)
48 grains
3.11

copper-plated zinc (97.5% zinc, 2.5% copper)
38.6 grains
2.5

1983–present
copper-plated zinc (97.5% zinc, 2.5% copper)
38.6 grains
2.5

text: In honor of Lincoln's 200th anniversary, special 2009 cents were minted for collectors in the same composition as the 1909 coins.[8]

text: The isotope composition of early coins spanning the period 1828 to 1843 reflects that of copper from Cornish ores from England, while coins after 1850 that reflects that of Keweenaw Peninsula, Michigan ores, a finding consistent with historical records.[9]

text: In 1943, at the peak of World War II, zinc-coated steel cents were made for a short time because of war demands for copper. A few copper cents from 1943 were produced from the 1942 planchets remaining in the bins. Similarly, some 1944 steel cents have been confirmed. From 1944 to 1946, salvaged ammunition shells made their way into the minting process, and it was not uncommon to see coins featuring streaks of brass or having a considerably darker finish than other issues.

text: During the early 1970s, the price of copper rose to the point where the cent contained almost one cent's worth of copper. This led the Mint to test alternative metals, including aluminum and bronze-clad steel. Aluminum was chosen, and over 1.5 million of these pennies were struck and ready for public release before ultimately being rejected. The proposed aluminum pennies were rejected for two reasons: vending machine owners complained the coins would cause mechanical problems; and pediatricians and pediatric radiologists pointed out that the radiodensity of the metal inside the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts was close to that of soft tissue, and the coins would therefore be difficult to detect in X-ray imaging.[10] One aluminum cent was donated to the Smithsonian Institution.

text: The cent's composition was changed in 1982 because the value of the copper in the coin started to rise above one cent.[11] Some 1982 pennies used the 97.5% zinc composition, while others used the 95% copper composition. With the exception of 2009 bicentennial cents minted specifically for collectors, United States cents minted after 1982 have been zinc with copper plating. In Fiscal Year (FY) 2013, the average one-cent piece minted cost the U.S. Mint 1.83 cents, down from 2.41 cents apiece in FY 2011.[12]

text: The bronze and copper cents can be distinguished from the newer zinc cents by dropping the coins on a solid surface. The predominantly copper coins make a lower-pitched "clunk", while the zinc coins produce a higher-pitched ringing sound.[13] In addition, a full 50-cent roll of pre-1982/3 coins weighs 5.4 oz compared to a post-1982–83 roll which weighs 4.4 oz.

text: Mintage figures for the Lincoln cent can be found at Lincoln cent mintage figures.

text: Designs[edit]

text: The coin has gone through several designs over its two-hundred-year time frame. Until 1857 it was about the size of the current U.S. dollar coins (Susan B. Anthony through present dollars).

text: The following types of cents have been produced:

text: Large cents:

text:
Flowing Hair Chain 1793
Flowing Hair Wreath 1793
Liberty Cap 1793–1796
Draped bust 1796–1807
Classic Head 1808–1814
Coronet 1816–1839
Braided Hair 1839–1857, 1868 (not a regular issue)

text: Small cents:

text:
Flying Eagle cent (1856–1858)
Indian Head cent (1859–1909)
Lincoln cent (1909–present)
Lincoln Wheat (1909–1958)
Lincoln Memorial (1959–2008)
Lincoln Bicentennial 4 reverse designs (2009)
Lincoln Union Shield[14] (2010–present)

text:
Throughout its history, the Lincoln cent has featured several typefaces for the date, but most of the digits have been old-style numerals, except with the 4 and 8 neither ascending nor descending. The only significant divergence is that the small 3 was non-descending (the same size as a 0, 1, or 2) in the early history, before switching to a descending, large 3 for just one year in 1934 and then permanently (as of  2014[update]) in 1943. Similarly, the digit 5 was small and non-descending up to 1945, then from 1950 and on, it became a large descending 5.
From 1959 until 2008, the Lincoln Memorial was shown on the reverse of the United States cent. Because the Lincoln Memorial was shown in sufficient detail to discern the statue of Lincoln on the reverse of cent, Abraham Lincoln was at that time the only person to be depicted on both the obverse and reverse of the same United States coin. In 1999, the New Jersey state quarter was released, which depicts George Washington on both sides, crossing the Delaware River on the reverse side and in profile on the obverse. (The state quarter for South Dakota, released in 2006, also features Washington on both sides: the typical profile on the obverse, and Washington within Mount Rushmore on the reverse.) Some of the 2009 reverse design series no longer showed Abraham Lincoln, and the 2010 Lincoln Union Shield has removed the president from the coin reverse for the foreseeable future.

text: An additional design detail that is not readily visible to the naked eye is found on the obverse side of the 1918 onward United States cent. The letters "VDB" stamped on the bottom sleeve of Abraham Lincoln represent the initials of Victor David Brenner, the primary designer of the Wheat cent.

text: Lincoln cent[edit]

text: The Lincoln cent is the current one-cent coin of the U.S. It was adopted in 1909 (which would have been Lincoln's 100th birthday), replacing the Indian Head cent. Its reverse was changed in 1959 from a wheat-stalks design to a design which includes the Lincoln Memorial (to commemorate Lincoln's sesquicentennial) and was replaced again in 2009 with four new designs to commemorate Lincoln's bicentennial. There are more one-cent coins produced than any other denomination, which makes the Lincoln cent a familiar item. In its lifespan, this coin has weathered both world wars, one of which temporarily changed its composition as part of the war effort. The obverse is the longest design used for any circulating American currency.

text: History[edit]

text: When the Lincoln one-cent coin made its initial appearance in 1909, it marked a radical departure from the accepted styling of United States coinage, as it was the first regular coin to bear a portrait other than the mythical Liberty which appeared on most pre-1909 regular coins. Previously, a strong feeling had prevailed against using portraits on coins in the United States, but public sentiment stemming from the 100th anniversary celebration of Abraham Lincoln's birth proved stronger than the long-standing tradition.

text: A variety of privately minted tokens bearing Lincoln's image circulated as one-cent pieces during Lincoln's presidency; legitimate coinage had become scarce during the Civil War. These early tokens undoubtedly influenced the denomination, appearance, size, and composition of Lincoln cents.

text: Theodore Roosevelt, the 26th U.S. President, thought American coins were so common and uninspiring that he attempted to get the motto "In God We Trust" removed as offending religion. Roosevelt had the opportunity to pose for a young Lithuanian-born Jew, Victor David Brenner, who, since arriving nineteen years earlier in the United States had become one of the nation's premier medalists. Roosevelt had learned of Brenner's talents in a settlement house on New York City's Lower East Side and was immediately impressed with a bas-relief that Brenner had made of Lincoln, based on a Mathew Brady photograph. Roosevelt, who considered Lincoln the savior of the Union and the greatest Republican President, and who also considered himself Lincoln's political heir, ordered the new Lincoln cent to be based on Brenner's work and to be released just in time to commemorate Lincoln's 100th birthday in 1909. The likeness of President Lincoln on the obverse of the coin is an adaptation of a plaque Brenner created several years earlier which had come to the attention of President Roosevelt in New York.[15]

text: In addition to the prescribed elements on U.S. coins—LIBERTY and the date—the motto In God We Trust appeared for the first time on a coin of this denomination. The United States Congress passed the Act of March 3, 1865, authorizing the use of this motto on U.S. coins,[16] during Lincoln's tenure in office.

text: Even though no legislation was required for the new design, approval of the Secretary of the Treasury was necessary to make the change. Franklin MacVeagh gave his approval on July 14, 1909, and not quite three weeks later, on August 2, the new coin was released to the public.

text: In 1918, after the controversy over Brenner's name and initials on the reverse had died down, his initials were placed on the obverse with no further controversy. They are to be found in minute form on the rim of the bust, just under the shoulder of Lincoln.

text: In 1969, the design was revised to make Lincoln look more like Brenner's original sculptures.[citation needed]

text: Reverse design[edit]

text:
Reverses of theLincoln cent

 Wheat (1909–1958)

 Lincoln Memorial (1959–2008)

 Birth and early childhood in Kentucky (Lincoln Bicentennial, 2009)

 Formative Years in Indiana (Lincoln Bicentennial, 2009)

 Professional life in Illinois (Lincoln Bicentennial, 2009)

 Presidency in DC (Lincoln Bicentennial, 2009)

 Union shield (2010–present)

text: Wheat cent (1909–1958)[edit]

text: A study of three potential reverses resulted in the approval of a very simple design bearing two wheatheads in memorial style. Between these, in the center of the coin, are the denomination and UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, while curving around the upper border is the national motto, E Pluribus Unum, Latin for "From Many, One."

text: The original model bore Brenner's name on the reverse, curving along the rim below UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Before the coins were issued, however, the initials "VDB" were substituted because officials at the United States Mint felt the name was too prominent. After the coin was released, many protested that even the initials were conspicuous and detracted from the design. Because the coin was in great demand, and because to make a change would have required halting production, the decision was made to eliminate the initials entirely.

text: Thus in 1909 the U.S. had six different cents: the 1909 and 1909-S Indian Head cents, and four Lincoln coins: 1909 VDB, 1909-S VDB, 1909 and 1909-S. In all cases the Philadelphia mintages far exceeded the San Francisco issues. While the smallest mintage is the '09-S Indian, the '09-S VDB is the key Lincoln date, and hence is most valuable. Its mintage of 484,000 is only 1.7% of the plain V.D.B.

text: Lincoln Memorial cent (1959–2008)[edit]

text: On February 12, 1959, a revised reverse design was introduced as part of the 150th anniversary of Lincoln's birth. No formal competition was held. Frank Gasparro, then Assistant Engraver at the Philadelphia Mint, prepared the winning entry, selected from a group of 23 models that the engraving staff at the Mint had been asked to present for consideration. Again, only the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury was necessary to make the change because the design had been in use for more than the required 25 years. The imposing marble Lincoln Memorial provides the central motif, with the legends E Pluribus Unum and UNITED STATES OF AMERICA completing the design, together with the denomination. The initials "FG" appear on the right, near the shrubbery.

text: Lincoln Bicentennial cents (2009)[edit]

text: The Presidential $1 Coin Act of 2005 required that the cent's reverse be redesigned in 2009. This resulted in the mintage of four different coins showing scenes from Abraham Lincoln's life in honor of the bicentennial of his birth.

text: These four designs, unveiled September 22, 2008 at a ceremony held at the Lincoln Memorial on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., are:

text:
Birth and early childhood in Kentucky: this design features a log cabin and Lincoln's birth year 1809. It was designed by Richard Masters and sculpted by Jim Licaretz. This cent was released into circulation on Lincoln's 200th birthday, February 12, 2009, at a special ceremony at LaRue County High School in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln's birthplace.[17] The mintage was extremely low compared to prior years (see Lincoln cent mintage figures). It has been nicknamed the "Log Cabin Penny".
Formative years in Indiana: this design features a young Lincoln reading while taking a break from rail splitting. It was designed and sculpted by Charles Vickers. Nicknamed the "Indiana Penny", it was released on May 14, 2009.[18]
Professional life in Illinois: this design features a young professional Lincoln standing before the Springfield Illinois State Capitol. It was designed by Joel Iskowitz and sculpted by Don Everhart. Nicknamed the "Illinois Penny", it was released on August 13, 2009.[18]
Presidency in Washington, D.C.: this design features the half-completed Capitol dome. It was designed by Susan Gamble and sculpted by Joseph Menna. This fourth cent was released to the public on November 12, 2009.[18] U.S. Mint released collector's sets containing this design in copper prior to the public launch of this design in zinc.

text: Special 2009 cents struck for sale in sets to collectors had the metallic copper content of cents minted in 1909 (95% copper, 5% tin and zinc). Those struck for circulation retained the normal composition of a zinc core coated with copper.

text: Union shield cent (2010–present)[edit]

text: The 2005 act that authorized the redesign for the Bicentennial stated that another redesigned reverse for the Lincoln cent will be minted which "shall bear an image emblematic of President Lincoln's preservation of the United States of America as a single and united country".[19] Eighteen designs were proposed for the reverse of the 2010 cent.[20] On April 16, 2009 the Commission of Fine Arts (CFA) met and selected a design that showed 13 wheat sheaves bound together with a ring symbolizing American unity as one nation.[21] Later this design was withdrawn because it was similar to coinage issued in Germany in the 1920s.[22] The Citizens Coinage Advisory Committee later met and chose a design showing a Union shield with ONE CENT superimposed in a scroll; E Pluribus Unum was also depicted in the upper portion of the shield.[22][23] In June 2009 the CFA met again and chose a design featuring a modern rendition of the American flag.[24] As a part of the release ceremony for the last of the 2009 cents on November 12, the design for the 2010 cent was announced.[25] The design chosen was the one that was chosen earlier by the CCAC.[25] According to the Mint, the 13 stripes on the shield "represent the states joined in one compact union to support the Federal government, represented by the horizontal bar above."[26] The Mint also noted that a shield was commonly used in paintings in the Capitol hallways painted by Constantino Brumidi, an artist in the Capitol active during the Lincoln Presidency.[26] The obverse of the cent was also changed to a modern rendition of Brenner's design.[27][25] The new Union Shield design replaces the Lincoln memorial in use since 1959.[25] The coin was designed by artist Lyndall Bass and sculpted by U.S. Mint sculptor-engraver Joseph Menna.[28] In January 2010, the coins were released early in Puerto Rico;[29] this was caused by a shortage of 2009-dated pennies on the island.[27] The new design was released at a ceremony at the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library in Springfield, Illinois on February 11, 2010.[30] In 2017, cents minted in Philadelphia were struck with a "P" mintmark to celebrate the 225th anniversary of the U.S. Mint. 2017 is the only year that Philadelphia cents have had a mintmark.[31]

text: "Capped cents"[edit]

text:
To commemorate the Fire at the SS Morro Castle, local coin dealer Louis Werner made copper caps depicting the Morro Castle surrounded by the legend "The Morro Castle Fire" These would then be encased over one side of a Lincoln cent.
According to "Mrs. Astor's Horse" by Stanley Walker:

text: Concessionaires inside the hall carried on a lively business. A man at a stamping machine put copper caps on pennies with the head of Lincoln on one side and the inscription ff Morro Castle Fire, September, 1934, Asbury Park" on the other. Postcard sellers in the hall disposed of 150,000 pictures of the burning ship during the first few days after the disaster. As soon as they came off the press, heart-rending poems and ballads about the fire were hawked about.[32]

text: Later, to commemorate the trial of Bruno Richard Hauptmann, Werner made another design depicting the Hunterdon County Courthouse, where the trial was held, and surrounded by the legend "HAUPTMANN TRIAL, Flemington, NJ."[33] Another part of the text in "Mrs. Astor's Horse" states:

text: A man with a metal press did a fair sort of business. He set up for business on the porch of the hotel. He had constructed a die depicting the Hunterdon County courthouse, surrounded by the legend, Hauptmann Trial, Flemington, N.J. On the stand beside the press lay several hundred bright new pennies and several fine strips of copper. By running the copper strips through the press, together with the pennies, he turned out Lincoln heads backed by the courthouse and the legend. The pieces sold for five cents each, three for a dime.[32]

text: Also, from 1935 to 1938, during the Christmas season, Werner made a design depicting Santa Claus. By donating 10 cents, shoppers in Manhattan would receive these. Additionally, if they donated an extra 5 cents, their cent would come in a greeting card holder.[34] Other capped cents by Werner include commemoratives for Admiral Richard E. Byrd's expedition to the South Pole and Joe Louis. There was also a design featuring the Lord's prayer.

text: Composition[edit]

text: Bronze, 1909–1942. Initially the alloy of the Lincoln cent followed that established for this denomination with the Indian Head design in 1864, 95% copper and 2.5% tin and 2.5% zinc.

text: Wartime zinc-plated steel, 1943. The composition of the Lincoln cent was changed in 1943.

text: Production of the war-time cent was provided for in an Act of Congress approved on December 18, 1942, which also set as the expiration date of the authority December 31, 1946. Low-grade carbon steel formed the base of these coins, to which a zinc coating 0.0005-inch (0.013 mm) thick was deposited on each side electrolytically as a rust preventive. This coating was applied to the steel before the blanks were made, leaving the rims of these coins extremely susceptible to rust. The same size was maintained, but the weight was reduced from the standard 48 grains (3.1 g) to 42 grains (2.7 g), by using a lighter alloy. Production commenced on February 27, 1943, and by December 31 of that year, the three Mint facilities had produced 1,093,838,670 of the one-cent coins. The copper released for the war effort was enough to meet the combined needs of two cruisers, two destroyers, 1,243 Flying Fortresses, 120 field guns and 120 howitzers, or enough for 1,250,000 shells for large field guns.[35][36]

text: Wartime brass, 1944–1946. Numerous complaints about the gray color of the 1943 cents, especially that they could be mistaken for dimes, led to a change in composition of the wartime cent. On January 1, 1944, the Mint was able to adopt a modified alloy, the supply being derived from expended shell casings which, when melted, furnished a composition similar to the original, but with a much smaller trace of tin.[citation needed] The original weight of 48 grains (3.1 g) was also restored.

text: Bronze, 1947–1962. Shell casings were no longer used after 1946 and the original copper-tin-zinc "bronze" composition was again used.

text: Brass, 1962–1982. The composition of the coin was changed again slightly in 1962. Mint officials felt that deletion of the tin content would have no adverse effect on the wearing qualities of the coin, whereas the manufacturing advantages to be gained with the alloy stabilized at 95% copper and 5% zinc would be of much benefit. Congressional authority for this modification is contained in an Act of Congress approved on September 5, 1962.

text: Experimental aluminum cents, 1974. During the early 1970s, the price of copper rose to a point where the cent almost contained one cent's worth of copper. This led the Mint to test alternate metals, including aluminum and bronze-clad steel. Aluminum was chosen, and in 1973, a total of 1,579,324 such coins were struck (dated 1974) and ready for public release. A few were distributed to members of the U.S. Congress, but aluminum was ultimately rejected for a variety of reasons. About a dozen aluminum cents are believed to still be in the hands of collectors, although they are now considered illegal to own.[37] One aluminum cent was donated to the Smithsonian Institution. Another is in the hands of the family of a deceased U.S. Capitol police officer, known as the Toven Specimen, and was certified as authentic in 2005.[38]

text: Copper-plated zinc, 1982–present. In mid-1982, the coin's composition was changed again, this time to copper-plated zinc. The last mostly-copper cents (95% copper metal composition) were produced by the Denver Mint on October 22, 1982. The copper-plated zinc cent coins are still being produced today. They are composed of an inner core alloy of 99.2% zinc and 0.8% copper with an outer plating of pure copper, for an overall composition of 97.5% zinc and 2.5% copper, and are minted on blanks produced for the Mint by an outside manufacturer (Jarden Zinc Products). Except for the new lighter total coin weight of 2.5 grams each, these newer coins are identical in diameter and thickness, and nearly in appearance, to the mostly copper (95%) cents issued before mid-1982, which weighed 3.11 grams each. A few pennies were struck by error in brass dated 1983 and are extremely rare.[39]

text: Matte Proof Lincolns 1909 to 1916[edit]

text: When the Lincoln Cent was introduced in 1909, it was discovered that the coining dies and their curved fields were unable to be polished to proof coining condition by existing Mint equipment. To produce Proof coinage for collectors, the U.S. Mint adopted the French technique of the Matte Proof, which was thought to highlight the design, while leaving the details of the coin as the designer intended. This was done by a sandblasting of the dies prior to use. When struck by the high pressure hydraulic press of the Philadelphia Mint Medal Room, the result was a semi-rough surface, a gentle luster and strongly defined wide square rims. These coins were produced in very small numbers, and the dies quickly developed small marks, known as diagnostics. These marks are used today by Third Party Graders and Collectors to authenticate the coin. Sold for mere pennies over face during the years of production, they were not popular with collectors. When new, the coins were wrapped in a tarnish-proof tissue, which over time proved to be anything but. Since many of these coins sat for decades unsold, vivid colors and toning developed. It is not unusual to see vivid blues, greens, lavender, coppery orange, deep reds and purple hues on these coins. Eagerly collected by numismatists today, they are among the most valuable Lincoln cents. Unencapsulated coins are easily identified by wide, square outer rims, quite unlike the rounded edges of business strikes.

text: Mint errors specific to Lincoln cents[edit]

text: Through mint errors, a number of rare and valuable Lincoln Cents have been produced. Some random errors, such as an off-center strike, slightly increase the value of the coin, and are sought after by niche collectors. However some errors were systemic, and produced a number of coins with exactly the same problem in the same year. These have become recognized varieties that are often extremely valuable and sought after by mainstream collectors.

text: The first Doubled Die error occurred during the production of the 1909 VDB. Not identified until the 1970s, it shows the RTY in Liberty and the 190 of the date slightly doubled. This coin is extremely rare in high grades.

text: In 1922, no one-cent coins were produced by the Philadelphia Mint. However, three of the four pairs of Denver Mint worn and overly polished dies then produced the Weak D and No D varieties, making them appear as if they had been produced in Philadelphia. These varieties are known as the 1922 plain cents or 1922 no "D" cents. Collectors must be wary of removed mint marks.

text: There are a few 1943 cents that were produced in bronze, as opposed to the steel/zinc composition used that year. There are 10 to 12 known to exist.[40] Likewise, a few 1944 cents were produced in steel/zinc.

text: In 1955, a hubbing error caused some cents to get struck with an obverse die which showed doubling in all of the obverse devices, producing a prominent doubling of the date, and to a less noticeable degree, the rest of the obverse. This is known as the 1955 doubled die cent. A similar die error occurred in 1969 on dies used at the San Francisco Mint. While the 1955 doubled die cent is well-known and widely collected, the 1969-S doubled die is far rarer, with an uncirculated specimen selling for as much as $126,500 in a 2008 Heritage auction.[41] The same mechanism produced 1972, 1983, 1984, and 1995 Doubled die cents. Doubled Dies are known for practically every date in the Lincoln cent series, but most are minor, and less impressive compared to the 1955 and the other Doubled Die varieties mentioned here.

text: In 1990, 3,055 proof cents were struck at the San Francisco Mint without the "S" mint mark, making them appear as if they had been struck at the Philadelphia Mint. However, as no proof cents were struck in Philadelphia that year, they are easily distinguishable as errors, and highly valuable.

text: The reverse of some Lincoln cents minted in 1992 at the Philadelphia and Denver mints and some of those minted in 1998 and 1999 at the San Francisco mint feature a smaller-than-normal gap between the first two letters of AMERICA. These coins, known as the Close AM variety are valued at $20,000 and $5,000 for the 1992 specimens in gem uncirculated condition and $3,000 and $1,000 for the San Francisco specimens in gem proof condition.

text: The reverse of some Lincoln cents minted in 1998, 1999, and 2000 in Philadelphia feature a larger-than-normal gap between the first two letters of AMERICA. These coins, known as the Wide AM variety are valued at $10, $500, and $5, respectively, in gem uncirculated condition. These reverse die errors are technically "mule" errors, as the reverse error dies were the same as normal proof coins of the same date.

text: Toxicity[edit]

text: Zinc, a major component of U.S. cents minted after mid-1982, is toxic in large quantities. Swallowing such a coin, which is 97.5% zinc, can cause damage to the stomach lining because of the high solubility of the zinc ion in the acidic stomach.[42] Coins are the most commonly ingested foreign body in children but generally are allowed to pass spontaneously unless the patient is symptomatic.[43] Zinc toxicity, mostly in the form of the ingestion of U.S. pennies minted after 1982, is commonly fatal in dogs where it causes a severe hemolytic anemia.[44] It is also highly toxic in pet parrots and can often be fatal.[45]

text: Numismatics and regulations[edit]

text: It has been suggested that the cent should be eliminated as a unit of currency for several reasons including that many Americans do not actually spend them, but rather only receive them in change at stores and proceed to return them to a bank for higher denomination currencies, or cash them in at coin counting kiosks. Most modern vending machines do not accept pennies, further diminishing their utility, and the production cost (figured in U.S. Dollars) now exceeds the face value of the coin, caused by increasing inflation.[46] In 2001 and 2006, for example, United States Representative Jim Kolbe (R) of Arizona introduced bills which would have stopped production of pennies (in 2001, the Legal Tender Modernization Act, and in 2006, the Currency Overhaul for an Industrious Nation [COIN] Act).[47]

text: In anticipation of the business of melting down U.S. pennies and U.S. nickels for profit, the U.S. Mint, which is a part of the US Department of the Treasury, implemented new regulations[48] on December 14, 2006, which criminalize the melting of pennies and nickels and place limits on export of the coins. Violators can be punished with a fine of up to $10,000 USD and/or imprisoned for a maximum of five years.[49]

text: Metal content and manufacturing costs[edit]

text: The U.S. Mint reported that in fiscal year 2010 the unit cost of producing and shipping one-cent coins was 1.79 cents, which is more than the face value of the coin.[50] After reaching a peak cost of 2.41 cents in 2011 due to the significant rise in global metal demand and prices, recently the cost has declined to 1.83 cents for 2013.[6] In the 2014 fiscal year, the cost to produce a penny declined even further to 1.70 cents.[51]

text: When copper reached a record high in February 2011,[52] the melt value of a 95% copper penny was more than three times its face value. As of January 21, 2014, a pre-1982 penny contained 2.20325 cents' worth of copper and zinc, making it an attractive target for melting by people wanting to sell the metals for profit. In comparison, post-1982 copper-plated zinc cents have a metallurgical value of only 0.55152 cents.[53]

text: The Secretary of the Treasury has authority to alter the percentage of copper and zinc in the one-cent coin if needed due to cost fluctuations.[50]


document_title: The Goonies

question_text: who played mikey's brother in the goonies

question_tokens: who played mikey 's brother in the goonies

root

text: The Goonies

text: Plot[edit]

text: Facing foreclosure of their homes in the Goon Docks area of Astoria, Oregon to an expanding country club, a group of children who call themselves "the Goonies", gather for a final weekend together. The Goonies include optimist Mikey Walsh, his older brother, Brandon, the inventive Data, the talkative Mouth, and the overweight klutz Chunk. While rummaging through the Walshes' attic, they come across a 1632 doubloon and an old treasure map purporting to lead to the famous pirate "One-Eyed" Willy's hoard located nearby. Evading Brandon for one last adventure together, the kids find themselves at a derelict restaurant near the coast, which coincides with the doubloon and the map. They encounter the Fratellis, a family of criminals hiding out at the restaurant. Evading detection by returning outside, the kids run into Brandon and two girls: the popular cheerleader Andy, who has a mutual crush on Brandon, and Stef, Andy's nerdy, tough-talking best friend.

tag: p

text: Mikey convinces Brandon to return to the restaurant to explore after the Fratellis leave, discovering that the criminals are running a counterfeiting operation. As the Fratellis return, the group finds a tunnel beneath the restaurant and hides in there, sending Chunk to notify the authorities. They explore the tunnel and find the remains of a previous explorer, who also searched for the treasure, and Mikey is sure they are on the right trail. Evading various booby traps, set up by Willy, they find themselves under an old wishing well. The kids have a chance to be pulled out of the tunnel by Andy's obnoxious boyfriend Troy, whose family owns the country club, but Mikey convinces the group to continue on their journey. Meanwhile, Chunk, who has escaped the restaurant, tries to flag down several passing cars, but is intercepted and kidnapped by Jake and Francis Fratelli. When the Fratellis threaten to shred his hands with an electric blender, a terrified Chunk reveals not only where his friends are, but also the existence of the treasure. The Fratellis tie Chunk to a chair and lock him in the basement next to Sloth, their deformed younger brother kept chained to the wall. While the Fratellis pursue both the Goonies and the treasure, Chunk befriends Sloth, and Sloth is able to break their bonds; they form a third party headed into the tunnel.

text: Mikey and the others discover the Fratellis on their trail, and hasten through the remaining traps. They ultimately find an enclosed grotto and Willy's pirate ship, the Inferno, which has been sealed in the cave for centuries. They explore the ship, finding a hoard of treasure in front of the skeletal remains of Willy and his crew. Mikey gives a sober speech to Willy, naming him as the first "Goonie", then he and the others fill their pockets with riches; Mikey insists that the coins directly in front of Willy remain untouched, as Willy's tribute. As they leave, however, the Fratellis have already caught up with them. They make them drop the treasure before threatening to kill them by forcing them to walk the plank, when suddenly Sloth and Chunk arrive. Sloth, angered by how the other Fratellis have treated him in the past, easily subdues them and helps the rest of the Goonies to escape the boat. Though Mikey insists they go back for the treasure, Brandon worries more for their lives, and the group escapes through a hole in the grotto, eventually arriving on a nearby beach shore. Police quickly come to their help and reunite them with their families.

text: Meanwhile, the Fratellis free themselves and begin to loot the boat. When they take the coins that Mikey had left earlier, they trigger another booby trap that causes the grotto to start to cave in. The Fratellis are forced to abandon the loot and flee to the beach, where police quickly take them into custody. As the Goonies are taken care of by their families, including Chunk offering to bring Sloth into his family, the owners of the country club show up and demand that Mr. Walsh sign away their homes and the Goon Docks. As he is about to do so, their housekeeper, Rosalita, finds Mikey's marble bag in his wet clothes, filled with gems that the Fratellis had neglected to confiscate. Mr. Walsh triumphantly tears up the paperwork, as the gems are more than enough to negate the foreclosure. As the Goonies celebrate, the attention of all on the beach is caught by the sight of the unmanned Inferno, now clear of the grotto, and the Goonies wave her goodbye as she sets off once more upon the sea.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Sean Astin as Michael "Mikey" Walsh
Corey Feldman as Clark "Mouth" Devereaux
Jeff Cohen as Lawrence "Chunk" Cohen
Jonathan Ke Huy Quan as Richard "Data" Wang
Josh Brolin as Brandon "Brand" Walsh
Kerri Green as Andrea "Andy" Carmichael
Martha Plimpton as Stephanie "Stef" Steinbrenner
Anne Ramsey as Agatha "Mama" Fratelli
Joe Pantoliano as Francis Fratelli
Robert Davi as Jake Fratelli
John Matuszak as Lotney "Sloth" Fratelli
Mary Ellen Trainor as Irene Walsh
Keith Walker as Irving Walsh
Lupe Ontiveros as Rosalita
Steve Antin as Troy Perkins
Curtis F. Hanson as Mr. Perkins
Paul Tuerpe as the Sheriff

tag: ul

text: Director Richard Donner makes a cameo appearance as a deputy.[3]

text: Production[edit]

text: Principal photography on The Goonies began on October 22, 1984 and lasted five months. There was an additional six weeks of audio dubbing recording.[4] The shooting script was lengthy, at more than 120 pages, and several sequences were eventually cut from the final theatrical version. During the film's dénouement, mention is made of an octopus which refers to a scene that was excised from the final cut.

text: In The Making of The Goonies, director Richard Donner notes the difficulties and pleasures of working with so many child actors. Donner praises them for their energy and excitement, but says that they were unruly when brought together. The documentary frequently shows him coaching the young actors and reveals some techniques he used to get realistic performances. One of these tricks involved One-Eyed Willy's ship, which was actually a full-sized mock-up of a pirate ship created under the direction of production designer J. Michael Riva. Donner restricted the child actors from seeing the ship until they filmed the scene wherein it is revealed to their characters. The characters' first glimpse of the ship was thus also the actors' first view of it, bringing about a more realistic performance. However, that particular scene in the movie is actually the second take, as the cast was so overwhelmed at first sight that the scene had to be re-shot. It was later noted that the entire set was scrapped after shooting because they could not find anyone who wanted it.[5]

text: In his book There and Back Again, Sean Astin claims that Richard Donner and Steven Spielberg were "like codirectors" on the film as he compares and contrasts their styles when directing scenes.[6]

text: Some of the on-location filming was done in Astoria, Oregon. The interior and exterior of the old Clatsop County Jail features as the holding place of Jake Fratelli at the start of the film. (The building was later converted into the Oregon Film Museum, which opened on the 25th anniversary of The Goonies with memorabilia from this and other local films.)[7] The museum where Mikey's father works is, in reality, the Captain George Flavel House Museum. The Walsh family home is a real home on the eastern end of the town.[7] The scenes along the coast were filmed in Oregon, but they were a considerable distance from Astoria. The Goonies bicycle to Ecola State Park (in reality, over 26 miles south of Astoria) and then find the starting location of the map using Haystack Rock as a guide. Underground scenes were filmed at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank, California, including the cavernous set where the Goonies find One-Eyed Willy's ship, which was in Stage 16, one of the largest sound stages in America.[8] The final scene was shot at Goat Rock State Beach in Sonoma County, California. [9][10][11]

text: The film marked Wes Takahashi's first major motion picture as an animation supervisor for Industrial Light & Magic.[12]

text: Music and soundtrack[edit]

text: The Goonies: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack features music by Cyndi Lauper, REO Speedwagon, The Bangles, and others. The cast members (except Kerri Green) appeared alongside professional wrestlers "Rowdy" Roddy Piper and "Captain" Lou Albano in the 12 minute "The Goonies 'R' Good Enough" music video. Steven Spielberg makes a cameo appearance. Lauper also has a cameo in the film, performing the song on TV, although the song was not completed until after filming.

text: Dave Grusin's score was unavailable for 25 years. The main theme, "Fratelli Chase", has been used in numerous trailers, such as Innerspace and Guarding Tess, and was re-recorded by Grusin and the London Symphony Orchestra for the album Cinemagic. The score makes liberal use of the Max Steiner-composed theme from Adventures of Don Juan.[13]

text: Soundtrack label Varèse Sarabande released the score in March 2010 in a limited edition of 5000 copies.

text: Release[edit]

text: Warner Bros. released the film in cinemas in the United States on June 7, 1985. The Goonies grossed US$9 million in its opening weekend in the US, second on the charts behind Rambo: First Blood Part II.[14] It grossed more than US$61 million that year, placing it among the top ten highest-grossing films of 1985 in the US.[15]

text: The Goonies was first released on VHS and Betamax video in the United States in March 1986 and the LaserDisc and CED versions also debuted that year. Warner Home Video released a theatrical widescreen laserdisc on January 29, 1992. Warner Home Video released The Goonies in widescreen on Region 1 DVD on August 21, 2001.[16] Warner Home Video released The Goonies on Blu-ray Disc in October 2008 in Europe and November 2010 in North America. The video is in 1080p high definition VC-1 and accompanied by a Dolby TrueHD soundtrack.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 70% of critics have given the film a positive review based on 46 reviews; the average rating is 6.1/10. The critical consensus: "An energetic, sometimes noisy mix of Spielbergian sentiment and funhouse tricks that will appeal to kids and nostalgic adults alike."[17] At Metacritic it has a rating score of 60, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[18] Several reviewers noted that the film appeared to be enjoyable for children and teens, but not so much for adults.[19]

text: Awards[edit]

text: Ramsey won a Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress for her role.[20] At the 7th Youth in Film Awards (now known as Young Artist Awards), Astin's portrayal of Mikey won the award for Best Starring Performance By a Young Actor in a Motion Picture. Cohen, Feldman, and Plimpton were also nominated for awards for their performances in The Goonies. The film itself was nominated for best adventure motion picture.[21]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: The city of Astoria has hosted special anniversary events for the film, with around 10,000 to 15,000 visitors coming to the city to celebrate the film during these events.[22] The home used for the Walsh family had become a tourist attraction, receiving between 1,200 and 1,500 visitors a day during the summer of the 30th anniversary, and in August 2015 the residents and owners of the home, their neighbors, and the city of Astoria have taken steps to limit public access to the home due to this.[23]

text: Video games[edit]

text: Datasoft produced a Goonies video game for Commodore 64, Atari 8-bit family and Apple II in 1985, which was later ported to the ZX Spectrum and Amstrad CPC by U.S. Gold.[24][25] This game features eight screens in which a player had to use two members of the Goonies group to solve puzzles and reach an exit to advance to the next stage. The screens were largely inspired by actual sets and puzzles seen in the film. A reference to the aforementioned "octopus scene" is included, as the seventh level.

text: In 1986, Japanese game developer Konami created two versions of The Goonies for the MSX (The Goonies) in Japan and Europe, and Family Computer (The Goonies) in Japan. The Goonies II was also released on the Famicom (and its international counterpart, the Nintendo Entertainment System). The Goonies II was released in North America, Europe and Australia, although the original was one of the NES games released as part of the Nintendo VS. System arcade machine in the 1980s. The Goonies II has little to do with the film. In it, the Fratellis have kidnapped all the Goonies (except Mikey, whom the player guides) and have hidden them in cage across a terrain of caverns, mazes and abandoned buildings. As Mikey, the player must rescue them all and ultimately free a mermaid named Annie.

text: In February 2007, Chrysler's Jeep division sponsored The Goonies: Return to Astoria, a Flash-based game, developed by Fuel Industries. The player's goal is to collect map pieces and doubloons, and then race the Fratellis to One-Eyed Willy's treasure.[26][27]

text: A Goonies level pack for Lego Dimensions was released on May 9, 2017. The pack includes a Sloth minifigure and constructable Pirate Ship and Skeleton Organ, and unlocks a bonus level that adapts the plot of the film.[28]

text: Proposed sequels and adaptations[edit]

text:
We tried really hard, and Steven (Spielberg) said, 'Let's do it.' We had a lot of young writers submit work, but it just didn't seem to call for it.

—Richard Donner[29]

tag: div

text: The possibility of a film sequel has been confirmed and denied many times in recent years by the original cast and crew. Donner said that he had a story he liked and Spielberg behind him, but in 2004 several of the actors from the original revealed that Warner Bros., the film's owner, had shown no interest in a sequel.[30] Sean Astin told MTV in October 2007 that Goonies 2 "is an absolute certainty ... The writing's on the wall when they're releasing the DVD in such numbers."[31] Donner has expressed doubt that the sequel will ever happen, as many of the actors had not shown interest in returning for a sequel.[32] Corey Feldman stated in his November 25, 2008 blog post, "NO! There is no Goonies 2! I'm sorry but it's just not gonna happen .... Course now that I've said that, they'll do it."[33] However, on the July 2010 release of The Making of a Cult Classic: The Unauthorized Story of The Goonies DVD,[34] Richard Donner states a sequel to The Goonies is a "definite thing" and will involve as much of the old cast as possible. "It will happen," says Donner. "We've been trying for a number of years."[35] On April 5, 2014, Richard Donner revealed a sequel is in the works, and he hopes to bring back the entire cast.[36]

text: Rumors of adaptations and sequels in other media took off in 2007, including a comic book miniseries,[37] an animated television series, and a musical adaptation of the film. Corey Feldman said he was asked to reprise the role of Mouth in a cartoon series that would feature the original Goonies characters as adults and focus on the adventures of a new set of kids.[38] Apparently this project was briefly in the works for Cartoon Network before being shelved.[39] Entertainment Weekly reported in March 2007 on a potential musical adaptation of the film. "Steven and I have discussed it, and it's something that I'm fairly passionate about right now," Donner says.[40] Variety reported in October 2008 that Donner had met with Broadway entertainment attorney John Breglio, and is "confident things are moving in the right direction."[29] As of May 2011, the musical was still in the beginning stages, but Donner was hopeful that an "irreverent" script would be completed by October.[41]


document_title: Large intestine

question_text: the last section of the large intestine is called

text: Large intestine

text: Structure[edit]

text: The colon is the last part of the digestive system. It extracts water and salt from solid wastes before they are eliminated from the body and is the site in which flora-aided (largely bacterial) fermentation of unabsorbed material occurs. Unlike the small intestine, the colon does not play a major role in absorption of foods and nutrients. About 1.5 litres or 45 ounces of water arrives in the colon each day.[9]

text: The length of the adult human male colon is 166 cm (range of 80 to 313 cm), on average, for females it is 155 cm (range of 80 to 214 cm).[10] The average inner diameter of sections of the colon in centimeters (with ranges in parentheses) are cecum 8.7 (8.0-10.5), ascending colon 6.6 (6.0-7.0), transverse colon 5.8 (5.0-6.5), descending/sigmoid colon 6.3 (6.0-6.8) and rectum near rectal/sigmoid junction 5.7 (4.5-7.5).[11]

text: Sections[edit]

text: In mammals, the colon consists of five sections: the cecum plus the ascending colon, the transverse colon, the descending colon, the sigmoid colon and the rectum.[1]

text: Sections of the colon are:

text:
The ascending colon including the cecum and appendix
The transverse colon including the colic flexures and transverse mesocolon
The descending colon
The sigmoid colon – the s-shaped region of the large intestine

text: The parts of the colon are either intraperitoneal or behind it in the retroperitoneum. Retroperitoneal organs in general do not have a complete covering of peritoneum, so they are fixed in location. Intraperitoneal organs are completely surrounded by peritoneum and are therefore mobile.[12] Of the colon, the ascending colon, descending colon and rectum are retroperitoneal, while the cecum, appendix, transverse colon and sigmoid colon are intraperitoneal.[13] This is important as it affects which organs can be easily accessed during surgery, such as a laparotomy.

text: Cecum and appendix[edit]

text: The cecum is the first section of the colon and involved in the digestion, while the appendix which develops embryologically from it, is a structure of the colon, not involved in digestion and considered to be part of the gut-associated lymphoid tissue. The function of the appendix is uncertain, but some sources believe that the appendix has a role in housing a sample of the colon's microflora, and is able to help to repopulate the colon with bacteria if the microflora has been damaged during the course of an immune reaction.

text: Ascending colon[edit]

text: The ascending colon is the first of four sections of the large intestine. It is connected to the small intestine by a section of bowel called the cecum. The ascending colon runs upwards through the abdominal cavity toward the transverse colon for approximately eight inches (20 cm).

text: One of the main functions of the colon is to remove the water and other key nutrients from waste material and recycle it. As the waste material exits the small intestine through the ileocecal valve, it will move into the cecum and then to the ascending colon where this process of extraction starts. The unwanted waste material is moved upwards toward the transverse colon by the action of peristalsis. The ascending colon is sometimes attached to the appendix via Gerlach's valve. The appendix, traditionally seen as a vestigial organ, has been shown to have a high concentration of lymphatic cells. In ruminants, the ascending colon is known as the spiral colon.[14][15][16] Taking into account all ages and sexes, colon cancer occurs here most often (41%).[17]

text: Transverse colon[edit]

text: The transverse colon is the part of the colon from the hepatic flexure to the splenic flexure (the turn of the colon by the spleen). The transverse colon hangs off the stomach, attached to it by a large fold of peritoneum called the greater omentum. On the posterior side, the transverse colon is connected to the posterior abdominal wall by a mesentery known as the transverse mesocolon.

text: The transverse colon is encased in peritoneum, and is therefore mobile (unlike the parts of the colon immediately before and after it).

text: The proximal two-thirds of the transverse colon is perfused by the middle colic artery, a branch of the superior mesenteric artery (SMA), while the latter third is supplied by branches of the inferior mesenteric artery (IMA). The "watershed" area between these two blood supplies, which represents the embryologic division between the midgut and hindgut, is an area sensitive to ischemia.

text: Descending colon[edit]

text: The descending colon is the part of the colon from the splenic flexure to the beginning of the sigmoid colon. One function of the descending colon in the digestive system is to store feces that will be emptied into the rectum. It is retroperitoneal in two-thirds of humans. In the other third, it has a (usually short) mesentery.[18] The arterial supply comes via the left colic artery. The descending colon is also called the distal gut, as it is further along the gastrointestinal tract than the proximal gut. Gut flora are very dense in this region.

text: Sigmoid colon[edit]

text: The sigmoid colon is the part of the large intestine after the descending colon and before the rectum. The name sigmoid means S-shaped (see sigmoid; cf. sigmoid sinus). The walls of the sigmoid colon are muscular, and contract to increase the pressure inside the colon, causing the stool to move into the rectum.

text: The sigmoid colon is supplied with blood from several branches (usually between 2 and 6) of the sigmoid arteries, a branch of the IMA. The IMA terminates as the superior rectal artery.

text: Sigmoidoscopy is a common diagnostic technique used to examine the sigmoid colon.

text: Rectum[edit]

text: The rectum is the last section of the large intestine. It holds the formed feces awaiting elimination via defecation.

text: Appearance[edit]

text: The cecum – the first part of the large intestine

text:
Taeniae coli – three bands of smooth muscle
Haustra – bulges caused by contraction of taeniae coli
Epiploic appendages – small fat accumulations on the viscera

text: The taenia coli run the length of the large intestine. Because the taenia coli are shorter than the large bowel itself, the colon becomes sacculated, forming the haustra of the colon which are the shelf-like intraluminal projections.[19]

text: Blood supply[edit]

text: Arterial supply to the colon comes from branches of the superior mesenteric artery (SMA) and inferior mesenteric artery (IMA). Flow between these two systems communicates via a "marginal artery" that runs parallel to the colon for its entire length. Historically, it has been believed that the arc of Riolan, or the meandering mesenteric artery (of Moskowitz), is a variable vessel connecting the proximal SMA to the proximal IMA that can be extremely important if either vessel is occluded. However, recent studies conducted with improved imaging technology have questioned the actual existence of this vessel, with some experts calling for the abolition of the terms from future medical literature.[citation needed]

text: Venous drainage usually mirrors colonic arterial supply, with the inferior mesenteric vein draining into the splenic vein, and the superior mesenteric vein joining the splenic vein to form the hepatic portal vein that then enters the liver.

text: Lymphatic drainage[edit]

text: Lymphatic drainage from the ascending colon and proximal two-thirds of the transverse colon is to the colic lymph nodes and the superior mesenteric lymph nodes, which drain into the cisterna chyli.[20] The lymph from the distal one-third of the transverse colon, the descending colon, the sigmoid colon, and the upper rectum drain into the inferior mesenteric and colic lymph nodes.[20] The lower rectum to the anal canal above the pectinate line drain to the internal iliac nodes.[21] The anal canal below the pectinate line drains into the superficial inguinal nodes.[21] The pectinate line only roughly marks this transition.

text: Nerve supply[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2017)

tag: table

text: Development[edit]

text: Variation[edit]

text: One variation on the normal anatomy of the colon occurs when extra loops form, resulting in a colon that is up to five metres longer than normal. This condition, referred to as redundant colon, typically has no direct major health consequences, though rarely volvulus occurs, resulting in obstruction and requiring immediate medical attention.[22][23] A significant indirect health consequence is that use of a standard adult colonoscope is difficult and in some cases impossible when a redundant colon is present, though specialized variants on the instrument (including the pediatric variant) are useful in overcoming this problem.[24]

text: Microanatomy[edit]

text: Colonic crypts[edit]

text: The wall of the large intestine is lined with simple columnar epithelium with invaginations. The invaginations are called the intestinal glands or colonic crypts.

text: The colon crypts are shaped like microscopic thick walled test tubes with a central hole down the length of the tube (the crypt lumen). Four tissue sections are shown here, two cut across the long axes of the crypts and two cut parallel to the long axes. In these images the cells have been stained by immunohistochemistry to show a brown-orange color if the cells produce a mitochondrial protein called cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (CCOI). The nuclei of the cells (located at the outer edges of the cells lining the walls of the crypts) are stained blue-gray with haematoxylin. As seen in panels C and D, crypts are about 75 to about 110 cells long. Baker et al.[26] found that the average crypt circumference is 23 cells. Thus, by the images shown here, there are an average of about 1,725 to 2530 cells per colonic crypt. Nooteboom et al.[27] measuring the number of cells in a small number of crypts reported a range of 1500 to 4900 cells per colonic crypt. Cells are produced at the crypt base and migrate upward along the crypt axis before being shed into the colonic lumen days later.[26] There are 5 to 6 stem cells at the bases of the crypts.[26]

text: As estimated from the image in panel A, there are about 100 colonic crypts per square millimeter of the colonic epithelium.[11] Since the average length of the human colon is 160.5 cm[10] and the average inner circumference of the colon is 6.2 cm.[11] the inner surface epithelial area of the human colon has an average area of about 995 sq cm, which includes 9,950,000 (close to 10 million) crypts.

text: In the four tissue sections shown here, many of the intestinal glands have cells with a mitochondrial DNA mutation in the CCOI gene and appear mostly white, with their main color being the blue-gray staining of the nuclei. As seen in panel B, a portion of the stem cells of three crypts appear to have a mutation in CCOI, so that 40% to 50% of the cells arising from those stem cells form a white segment in the cross cut area.

text: Overall, the percent of crypts deficient for CCOI is less than 1% before age 40, but then increases linearly with age.[25] Colonic crypts deficient for CCOI in women reaches, on average, 18% in women and 23% in men by 80–84 years of age.[25]

text: Crypts of the colon can reproduce by fission, as seen in panel C, where a crypt is fissioning to form two crypts, and in panel B where at least one crypt appears to be fissioning. Most crypts deficient in CCOI are in clusters of crypts (clones of crypts) with two or more CCOI-deficient crypts adjacent to each other (see panel D).[25]

text: Mucosa[edit]

text: About 150 of the many thousands of protein coding genes expressed in the large intestine, some are specific to the mucous membrane in different regions and include CEACAM7.[28]

text: Function[edit]

text: The large intestine absorbs water and any remaining absorbable nutrients from the food before sending the indigestible matter to the rectum. The colon absorbs vitamins that are created by the colonic bacteria, such as vitamin K (especially important as the daily ingestion of vitamin K is not normally enough to maintain adequate blood coagulation), vitamin B12, thiamine and riboflavin. It also compacts feces, and stores fecal matter in the rectum until it can be discharged via the anus in defecation. The large intestine also secretes K+ and Cl-. Chloride secretion increases in cystic fibrosis. Recycling of various nutrients takes place in colon. Examples include fermentation of carbohydrates, short chain fatty acids, and urea cycling.[29][citation needed]

text: The appendix is attached to the inferior surface of the cecum, and contains a small amount of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue which gives the appendix an undetermined role in immunity. However, the appendix is known to be important in fetal life as it contains endocrine cells that release biogenic amines and peptide hormones important for homeostasis during early growth and development.[30] The appendix can be removed with no apparent damage or consequence to the patient.[citation needed]

text: By the time the chyme has reached this tube, most nutrients and 90% of the water have been absorbed by the body. At this point some electrolytes like sodium, magnesium, and chloride are left as well as indigestible parts of ingested food (e.g., a large part of ingested amylose, starch which has been shielded from digestion heretofore, and dietary fiber, which is largely indigestible carbohydrate in either soluble or insoluble form). As the chyme moves through the large intestine, most of the remaining water is removed, while the chyme is mixed with mucus and bacteria (known as gut flora), and becomes feces. The ascending colon receives fecal material as a liquid. The muscles of the colon then move the watery waste material forward and slowly absorb all the excess water, causing the stools to gradually solidify as they move along into the descending colon.[31]

text: The bacteria break down some of the fiber for their own nourishment and create acetate, propionate, and butyrate as waste products, which in turn are used by the cell lining of the colon for nourishment.[32] No protein is made available. In humans, perhaps 10% of the undigested carbohydrate thus becomes available, though this may vary with diet;[33] in other animals, including other apes and primates, who have proportionally larger colons, more is made available, thus permitting a higher portion of plant material in the diet. The large intestine[34] produces no digestive enzymes — chemical digestion is completed in the small intestine before the chyme reaches the large intestine. The pH in the colon varies between 5.5 and 7 (slightly acidic to neutral).[35]

text: Standing gradient osmosis[edit]

text: Water absorption at the colon typically proceeds against a transmucosal osmotic pressure gradient. The standing gradient osmosis is the reabsorption of water against the osmotic gradient in the intestines. Cells occupying the intestinal lining pump sodium ions into the intercellular space, raising the osmolarity of the intercellular fluid. This hypertonic fluid creates an osmotic pressure that drives water into the lateral intercellular spaces by osmosis via tight junctions and adjacent cells, which then in turn moves across the basement membrane and into the capillaries, while more sodium ions are pumped again into the intercellular fluid.[36] Although water travels down an osmotic gradient in each individual step, overall, water usually travels against the osmotic gradient due to the pumping of sodium ions into the intercellular fluid. This allows the large intestine to absorb water despite the blood in capillaries being hypotonic compared to the fluid within the intestinal lumen.

text: Gut flora[edit]

text: The large intestine houses over 700 species of bacteria that perform a variety of functions, as well as fungi, protozoa, and archaea. Species diversity varies by geography and diet.[37] The microbes in a human distal gut often number in the vicinity of 100 trillion, and can weigh around 200 grams (0.44 pounds). This mass of mostly symbiotic microbes has recently been called the latest human organ to be "discovered" or in other words, the "forgotten organ".[38]

text: The large intestine absorbs some of the products formed by the bacteria inhabiting this region. Undigested polysaccharides (fiber) are metabolized to short-chain fatty acids by bacteria in the large intestine and absorbed by passive diffusion. The bicarbonate that the large intestine secretes helps to neutralize the increased acidity resulting from the formation of these fatty acids.[39]

text: These bacteria also produce large amounts of vitamins, especially vitamin K and biotin (a B vitamin), for absorption into the blood. Although this source of vitamins, in general, provides only a small part of the daily requirement, it makes a significant contribution when dietary vitamin intake is low. An individual who depends on absorption of vitamins formed by bacteria in the large intestine may become vitamin-deficient if treated with antibiotics that inhibit the vitamin producing species of bacteria as well as the intended disease-causing bacteria.[40]

text: Other bacterial products include gas (flatus), which is a mixture of nitrogen and carbon dioxide, with small amounts of the gases hydrogen, methane, and hydrogen sulfide. Bacterial fermentation of undigested polysaccharides produces these. Some of the fecal odor is due to indoles, metabolized from the amino acid tryptophan. The normal flora is also essential in the development of certain tissues, including the cecum and lymphatics.[citation needed]

text: They are also involved in the production of cross-reactive antibodies. These are antibodies produced by the immune system against the normal flora, that are also effective against related pathogens, thereby preventing infection or invasion.

text: The two most prevalent phyla of the colon are firmicutes and bacteroides. The ratio between the two seems to vary widely as reported by the Human Microbiome Project.[41] Bacteroides are implicated in the initiation of colitis and colon cancer. Bifidobacteria are also abundant, and are often described as 'friendly bacteria'.[42][43]

text: A mucus layer protects the large intestine from attacks from colonic commensal bacteria.[44]

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Disease[edit]

text: Following are the most common diseases or disorders of the colon:

text:
Angiodysplasia of the colon
Appendicitis
Chronic functional abdominal pain
Colitis
Colorectal cancer
Colorectal polyp
Constipation
Crohn's disease
Diarrhea
Diverticulitis
Diverticulosis
Hirschsprung's disease (aganglionosis)
Ileus
Intussusception
Irritable bowel syndrome
Pseudomembranous colitis
Ulcerative colitis and toxic megacolon

text: Colonoscopy[edit]

text: Colonoscopy is the endoscopic examination of the large intestine and the distal part of the small bowel with a CCD camera or a fiber optic camera on a flexible tube passed through the anus. It can provide a visual diagnosis (e.g. ulceration, polyps) and grants the opportunity for biopsy or removal of suspected colorectal cancer lesions. Colonoscopy can remove polyps as small as one millimetre or less. Once polyps are removed, they can be studied with the aid of a microscope to determine if they are precancerous or not. It takes 15 years or less for a polyp to turn cancerous.

text: Colonoscopy is similar to sigmoidoscopy—the difference being related to which parts of the colon each can examine. A colonoscopy allows an examination of the entire colon (1200–1500 mm in length). A sigmoidoscopy allows an examination of the distal portion (about 600 mm) of the colon, which may be sufficient because benefits to cancer survival of colonoscopy have been limited to the detection of lesions in the distal portion of the colon.[45][46][47]

text: A sigmoidoscopy is often used as a screening procedure for a full colonoscopy, often done in conjunction with a fecal occult blood test (FOBT). About 5% of these screened patients are referred to colonoscopy.[48]

text: Virtual colonoscopy, which uses 2D and 3D imagery reconstructed from computed tomography (CT) scans or from nuclear magnetic resonance (MR) scans, is also possible, as a totally non-invasive medical test, although it is not standard and still under investigation regarding its diagnostic abilities. Furthermore, virtual colonoscopy does not allow for therapeutic maneuvers such as polyp/tumour removal or biopsy nor visualization of lesions smaller than 5 millimeters. If a growth or polyp is detected using CT colonography, a standard colonoscopy would still need to be performed. Additionally, surgeons have lately been using the term pouchoscopy to refer to a colonoscopy of the ileo-anal pouch.

text: Other animals[edit]

text: The large intestine is truly distinct only in tetrapods, in which it is almost always separated from the small intestine by an ileocaecal valve. In most vertebrates, however, it is a relatively short structure running directly to the anus, although noticeably wider than the small intestine. Although the caecum is present in most amniotes, only in mammals does the remainder of the large intestine develop into a true colon.[49]

text: In some small mammals, the colon is straight, as it is in other tetrapods, but, in the majority of mammalian species, it is divided into ascending and descending portions; a distinct transverse colon is typically present only in primates. However, the taeniae coli and accompanying haustra are not found in either carnivorans or ruminants. The rectum of mammals (other than monotremes) is derived from the cloaca of other vertebrates, and is, therefore, not truly homologous with the "rectum" found in these species.[49]

text: In fish, there is no true large intestine, but simply a short rectum connecting the end of the digestive part of the gut to the cloaca. In sharks, this includes a rectal gland that secretes salt to help the animal maintain osmotic balance with the seawater. The gland somewhat resembles a caecum in structure, but is not a homologous structure.[49]

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
Intestines

Colon. Deep dissection. Anterior view.


document_title: Messi–Ronaldo rivalry

question_text: who has the most goals between ronaldo and messi

text: Messi–Ronaldo rivalry

text: History[edit]

text:
It's only the media, the press, who wants us to be at loggerheads but I've never fought with Cristiano.
—Messi addresses his perceived rivalry with Ronaldo[27]

text:
I like to see all good players, and Messi is one of them. He is a player, I really enjoy seeing him on the pitch, and all the great players.
—Ronaldo talks about Messi in an interview with Fox Sports Argentina[28]

text: In 2007, Ronaldo and Messi finished as runners-up to A.C. Milan's Kaká in both the Ballon d'Or, an award rewarded to the player voted as the best in the world by an international panel of sports journalists; and the FIFA World Player of the Year, an award voted for by coaches and captains of international teams. In an interview that year, Messi was quoted as saying "Cristiano Ronaldo is an extraordinary player and it would be brilliant to be in the same team as him".[29][30]

text: They first played in a game together when Manchester United were drawn to play Barcelona in the 2007–08 UEFA Champions League semi-finals and were immediately pitted as major rivals.[31][32][33] Ronaldo missed a penalty in the first leg,[34] but United eventually advanced to the final via a Paul Scholes goal.[35] At the end of the year, Ronaldo was awarded the Ballon d'Or and vowed that he would win the award again.[36][37]

text: The 2009 UEFA Champions League Final was contested between Manchester United and Barcelona on 27 May 2009 at Stadio Olimpico in Rome, Italy. The match, described as a "dream clash",[38] was again hyped as the latest battle between the two, this time to settle who was the best player in the world;[39][40] Ronaldo claimed he was the better of the two[41] while Messi's club-mate Xavi sided with him.[42] United manager Alex Ferguson was more diplomatic, praising both players as being amongst the world's elite talents.[43][44] Messi, playing in a central role he was unaccustomed to so he would avoid a direct battle with United left-back Patrice Evra,[45] scored Barcelona's second in a 2–0 victory with a header in the 70th minute.[46] Meanwhile, Ronaldo was subdued for much of the game despite some early chances to score and his frustration eventually showed when he was booked for a rash tackle on Carles Puyol.[47][48]

text: Relationship between Messi and Ronaldo[edit]

text: In a 2015 interview, Ronaldo commented on the rivalry by saying that "I think we push each other sometimes in the competition, this is why the competition is so high"[49] while Ronaldo's manager during his time at Manchester United Alex Ferguson opined that "I don't think the rivalry against each other bothers them. I think they have their own personal pride in terms of wanting to be the best".[50] Messi has denied any rivalry, saying that it was "only the media, the press, who wants us to be at loggerheads but I've never fought with Cristiano".[51]

text: However, it is widely argued and documented that there's an atmosphere of tension between the duo, with Guillem Balagué claiming in Messi that Ronaldo refers to the Argentine counterpart as "motherfucker" behind his back,[52][53] and Luca Caioli saying in his book, Ronaldo: The Obsession for Perfection, that according to his sources, Ronaldo heats up when watching Messi play.[54] In response to claims that he and Messi do not get on well on a personal level, Ronaldo commented: "We don't have a relationship outside the world of football, just as we don't with a lot of other players", before adding that in years to come he hopes they can laugh about it together, stating: "We have to look on this rivalry with a positive spirit, because it's a good thing".[55] On 13 November 2014, Ronaldo also threatened to take legal action over the remarks made by Balagué.[56]

text: Awards and records[edit]

text: Throughout the existence of the rivalry, the pair have dominated awards ceremonies and broken a multitude of goalscoring records for both club and country, feats which have been described as "incredible", "ridiculous" and "remarkable".[57][58][59] The rivalry itself has been described as one about records and reputation of the players, rather than one based in loathing.[60][61]

text: Ronaldo is the UEFA Champions League all-time top goalscorer while Messi is second. The two had broken each other's record over the course of 2015 after Messi surpassed the previous record holder Raúl in November 2014.[62] Ronaldo opened a gap in the 2015–16 season when he became the first player to score double figures in the group stage of the Champions League, setting the record at 11 goals.[63] They are the first two players to score 100 goals in UEFA Champions League history.[64]

text: Player statistics[edit]

text:
Lionel Messi

Season
League
Cup
Europe
Other
Total

Apps
Goals
Apps
Goals
Apps
Goals
Apps
Goals
Apps
Goals

2004–05
7
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
9
1

2005–06
17
6
2
1
6
1
0
0
25
8

2006–07
26
14
2
2
5
1
3
0
36
17

2007–08
28
10
3
0
9
6
0
0
40
16

2008–09
31
23
8
6
12
9
0
0
51
38

2009–10
35
34
3
1
11
8
4
4
53
47

2010–11
33
31
7
7
13
12
2
3
55
53

2011–12
37
50
7
3
11
14
5
6
60
73

2012–13
32
46
5
4
11
8
2
2
50
60

2013–14
31
28
6
5
7
8
2
0
46
41

2014–15
38
43
6
5
13
10
0
0
57
58

2015–16
33
26
5
5
7
6
4
4
49
41

2016–17
34
37
7
5
9
11
2
1
52
54

2017–18
36
34
6
4
10
6
2
1
54
45

Total

418
383
68
48
125
100
26
21
637
552

Cristiano Ronaldo

Season
League
Cup
Europe
Other
Total

Apps
Goals
Apps
Goals
Apps
Goals
Apps
Goals
Apps
Goals

2002–03
25
3
3
2
3
0
0
0
31
5

2003–04
29
4
6
2
5
0
0
0
40
6

2004–05
33
5
9
4
8
0
0
0
50
9

2005–06
33
9
6
2
8
1
0
0
47
12

2006–07
34
17
8
3
11
3
0
0
53
23

2007–08
34
31
3
3
11
8
1
0
49
42

2008–09
33
18
6
3
12
4
2
1
53
26

2009–10
29
26
0
0
6
7
0
0
35
33

2010–11
34
40
8
7
12
6
0
0
54
53

2011–12
38
46
5
3
10
10
2
1
55
60

2012–13
34
34
7
7
12
12
2
2
55
55

2013–14
30
31
6
3
11
17
0
0
47
51

2014–15
35
48
2
1
12
10
5
2
54
61

2015–16
36
35
0
0
12
16
0
0
48
51

2016–17
29
25
2
1
13
12
2
4
46
42

2017–18
27
26
0
0
13
15
4
3
44
44

Total

513
398
71
41
159
121
18
13
761
573

text:
Lionel Messi[65]

Season
Tournament
Qualifiers
Friendlies
Total

Apps
Goals
Apps
Goals
Apps
Goals
Apps
Goals

2005–06
3
1
3
0
4
1
10
2

2006–07
6
2
0
0
4
2
10
4

2007–08
0
0
6
2
4
1
10
3

2008–09
0
0
8
2
1
1
9
3

2009–10
5
0
4
0
2
1
11
1

2010–11
4
0
0
0
7
4
11
4

2011–12
0
0
4
3
5
7
9
9

2012–13
0
0
8
5
4
4
12
9

2013–14
7
4
1
2
3
1
11
7

2014–15
6
1
0
0
4
3
10
4

2015–16
5
5
2
1
3
3
10
9

2016–17
0
0
4
3
1
0
5
3

2017–18
4
1
5
3
0
0
9
4

Total

36
13
44
21
42
27
128
65

Cristiano Ronaldo[66]

Season
Tournament
Qualifiers
Friendlies
Total

Apps
Goals
Apps
Goals
Apps
Goals
Apps
Goals

2003–04
6
2
0
0
7
0
13
2

2004–05
0
0
8
7
2
0
10
7

2005–06
6
1
4
0
5
2
15
3

2006–07
0
0
6
5
2
0
8
5

2007–08
3
1
7
3
2
0
12
4

2008–09
0
0
4
0
3
1
7
1

2009–10
4
1
3
0
4
0
11
1

2010–11
0
0
3
2
2
1
5
3

2011–12
5
3
5
5
4
1
14
9

2012–13
0
0
6
1
3
3
9
4

2013–14
3
1
4
7
3
3
10
11

2014–15
0
0
4
5
2
0
6
5

2015–16
7
3
2
0
4
3
13
6

2016–17
4
2
5
11
1
1
10
14

2017–18
4
4
4
4
2
2
10
10

Total

38
14
65
50
46
17
154
85

text: Head-to-head[edit]

text: In recent years, it has been said that the rivalry between Real Madrid and Barcelona has been "encapsulated" by the individual rivalry between Ronaldo and Messi,[67][68] with neither player ever participating in a goalless El Clásico.[69]

text:
Legend

Final

Semi-final

text:
No.
Date
Competition
Home team
Away team
Score
Goals scored by the duo

1

23 April 2008

Champions League

Barcelona

Manchester United

0–0

2

29 April 2008

Champions League

Manchester United

Barcelona

1–0

3

27 May 2009

Champions League

Barcelona

Manchester United

2-0

Messi ( 70')

4

29 November 2009

La Liga

Barcelona

Real Madrid

1–0

5

10 April 2010

La Liga

Real Madrid

Barcelona

0–2

Messi ( 33')

6

29 November 2010

La Liga

Barcelona

Real Madrid

5–0

7

9 February 2011

Friendly

Argentina

Portugal

2–1

Ronaldo ( 53'), Messi ( 83' (pen.))

8

16 April 2011

La Liga

Real Madrid

Barcelona

1–1

Messi ( 51' (pen.)), Ronaldo ( 81' (pen.))

9

20 April 2011

Copa del Rey

Real Madrid

Barcelona

1–0 (a.e.t.)

Ronaldo ( 103')

10

27 April 2011

Champions League

Real Madrid

Barcelona

0–2

Messi ( 76', 87')

11

3 May 2011

Champions League

Barcelona

Real Madrid

1–1

12

14 August 2011

Supercopa de España

Real Madrid

Barcelona

2–2

Messi ( 45')

13

17 August 2011

Supercopa de España

Barcelona

Real Madrid

3–2

Ronaldo ( 20'), Messi ( 53', 88')

14

10 December 2011

La Liga

Real Madrid

Barcelona

1–3

15

18 January 2012

Copa del Rey

Real Madrid

Barcelona

1–2

Ronaldo ( 11')

16

25 January 2012

Copa del Rey

Barcelona

Real Madrid

2–2

Ronaldo ( 68')

17

21 April 2012

La Liga

Barcelona

Real Madrid

1–2

Ronaldo ( 73')

18

23 August 2012

Supercopa de España

Barcelona

Real Madrid

3–2

Ronaldo ( 55'), Messi ( 70' (pen.))

19

29 August 2012

Supercopa de España

Real Madrid

Barcelona

2–1

Ronaldo ( 19'), Messi ( 45')

20

7 October 2012

La Liga

Barcelona

Real Madrid

2–2

Ronaldo ( 23', 66'), Messi ( 31', 61')

21

30 January 2013

Copa del Rey

Real Madrid

Barcelona

1–1

22

26 February 2013

Copa del Rey

Barcelona

Real Madrid

1–3

Ronaldo ( 12', 57')

23

2 March 2013

La Liga

Real Madrid

Barcelona

2–1

Messi ( 18')

24

26 October 2013

La Liga

Barcelona

Real Madrid

2–1

25

23 March 2014

La Liga

Real Madrid

Barcelona

3–4

Messi ( 42', 65' (pen.), 84' (pen.)), Ronaldo ( 55' (pen.))

26

25 October 2014

La Liga

Real Madrid

Barcelona

3–1

Ronaldo ( 35' (pen.))

27

18 November 2014

Friendly

Argentina

Portugal

0–1

28

22 March 2015

La Liga

Barcelona

Real Madrid

2–1

Ronaldo ( 31')

29

21 November 2015

La Liga

Real Madrid

Barcelona

0–4

30

2 April 2016

La Liga

Barcelona

Real Madrid

1–2

Ronaldo ( 85')

31

3 December 2016

La Liga

Barcelona

Real Madrid

1–1

32

23 April 2017

La Liga

Real Madrid

Barcelona

2–3

Messi ( 33', 90+2')

33

13 August 2017

Supercopa de España

Barcelona

Real Madrid

1–3

Messi ( 77' (pen.)), Ronaldo ( 80')

34

23 December 2017

La Liga

Real Madrid

Barcelona

0–3

Messi ( 64' (pen.))

35

6 May 2018

La Liga

Barcelona

Real Madrid

2–2

Ronaldo ( 14'), Messi ( 52')

text: Results[edit]

text:
Competition

Games played

Messi wins

Draws

Ronaldo wins

Messi goals

Ronaldo goals

La Liga

18
10
4
4
12
9

Champions League

5
2
2
1
3
0

Copa del Rey

5
1
2
2
0
5

Supercopa de España

5
2
1
2
6
4

Friendly

2
1
0
1
1
1

Total official matches
35
16
9
10
22
19

text: Last updated 6 May 2018