document_title: Mercedes-Benz

question_text: what does c class stand for in mercedes benz

question_tokens: what does c class stand for in mercedes benz

text: Mercedes-Benz

text: History[edit]

text: Mercedes-Benz traces its origins to Karl Benz's creation of the first petrol-powered car, the Benz Patent Motorwagen, financed by Bertha Benz[2] and patented in January 1886,[3] and Gottlieb Daimler and engineer Wilhelm Maybach's conversion of a stagecoach by the addition of a petrol engine later that year. The Mercedes automobile was first marketed in 1901 by Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft (Daimler Motors Corporation).

text: Emil Jellinek, an Austrian automobile entrepreneur who worked with DMG, created the trademark in 1902, naming the 1901 Mercedes 35 hp after his daughter Mercedes Jellinek. Jellinek was a businessman and marketing strategist who promoted "horseless" Daimler automobiles among the highest circles of society in his adopted home, which, at that time, was a meeting place for the "Haute Volée" of France and Europe, especially in winter. His customers included the Rothschild family and other well-known personalities. But Jellinek's plans went further: as early as 1901, he was selling Mercedes cars in the New World as well, including  US billionaires Rockefeller, Astor, Morgan and Taylor. At a race in Nice in 1899, Jellinek drove under the pseudonym "Monsieur Mercédès", a way of concealing the competitor's real name as was normal in those days. The race ranks as the hour of birth of the Mercedes-Benz brand. In 1901, the name "Mercedes" was registered by Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft (DMG) worldwide as a protected trademark.[4] The first Mercedes-Benz brand name vehicles were produced in 1926, following the merger of Karl Benz's and Gottlieb Daimler's companies into the Daimler-Benz company on 28 June of the same year.[3][5]

text: Gottlieb Daimler was born on 17 March 1834 in Schorndorf. After training as a gunsmith and working in France, he attended the Polytechnic School in Stuttgart from 1857 to 1859. After completing various technical activities in France and England, he started working as a draftsman in Geislingen in 1862. At the end of 1863, he was appointed workshop inspector in a machine tool factory in Reutlingen, where he met Wilhelm Maybach in 1865.[6]

text: Throughout the 1930s, Mercedes-Benz produced the 770 model, a car that was popular during Germany's Nazi period. Adolf Hitler was known to have driven these cars during his time in power, with bulletproof windshields.[7] Most of the surviving models have been sold at auctions to private buyers. One of them is currently on display at the War Museum in Ottawa, Ontario. The pontiff's Popemobile has often been sourced from Mercedes-Benz.[8] In 1944, 46,000 forced laborers were used in Daimler-Benz's factories to bolster Nazi war efforts. The company later paid $12 million in reparations to the laborers' families.[9] Mercedes-Benz has introduced many technological and safety innovations that later became common in other vehicles.[10] Mercedes-Benz is one of the best-known and established automotive brands in the world.

text: For information relating to the famous three-pointed star, see under the title Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft, including the merger into Daimler-Benz.

text: Subsidiaries and alliances[edit]

text: As part of the Daimler AG company, the Mercedes-Benz Cars division includes Mercedes-Benz and Smart car production.[11]

text: Mercedes-AMG[edit]

text: Mercedes-AMG became a majority owned division of Mercedes-Benz in 1999.[12]  The company was integrated into DaimlerChrysler in 1999,[13] and became Mercedes-Benz AMG beginning on 1 January 1999.[14]

text: Mercedes-Maybach[edit]

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text: Daimler's ultra-luxury brand Maybach was under Mercedes-Benz cars division until 2013, when the production stopped due to poor sales volumes.  It now exists under the Mercedes-Maybach name, with the models being ultra-luxury versions of Mercedes cars, such as the 2016 Mercedes-Maybach S600.

text: China[edit]

text: Daimler cooperates with BYD Auto to make and sell a battery-electric car called Denza in China.[15] In 2016, Daimler announced plans to sell Mercedes-Benz branded all-electric battery cars in China.[16]

text: Production[edit]

text: Factories[edit]

text: Beside its native Germany, Mercedes-Benz vehicles are also manufactured or assembled in:

text:
Sovereign state
Continent
Note

Algeria
Africa
Manufactures buses and trucks in cooperation with SNVI (Actros, Zetros, Unimog, and G-Class, Sprinter).

Argentina
South America
Manufactures buses, trucks, the Vito and the Sprinter van. This is the first Mercedes-Benz factory outside of Germany. Built in 1951.[17]

Australia
Australia
Various models were assembled at the Australian Motor Industries facility in Port Melbourne from 1959 to 1965.[18]

Austria
Europe
G-Class[19]

Bosnia and Herzegovina
Europe

Brazil
South America
Manufactures trucks and buses. Established in 1956. The A-Class (W168) was produced from 1999 to 2005 and the C-Class was produced until 2010 as well.[20]

Canada
North America
Fuel cell plant in Burnaby, British Columbia opened 2012.

Colombia
South America
Assembly of buses, Established in Soacha 2012 and Funza 2015

China
Asia

Egypt
Africa
Via Egyptian German Automotive Company E-Class, C-Class and GLK

Finland
Europe
Valmet Automotive, New A-series (W176) is manufactured in Uusikaupunki since late 2013, being the first M-B passenger car ever built in that country.

Hungary[21]
Europe
Manufacturing plant in Kecskemét, making B-class and CLA.

Jordan
Asia
Bus company factory, Elba House, Amman.

India
Asia
Bangalore (MBRDI), Pune (Passenger cars).[22] Chennai (Daimler India Commercial Vehicles Pvt. Ltd.) Buses, Trucks & Engine Manufacturing unit.

Indonesia[23]
Asia / Australia
Manufactures E250 Avantgarde and E300AMG E-class vehicles.

Iran [24]
Asia

Malaysia
Asia
Assembly of C, E and S class vehicles by DRB-HICOM.

Mexico
North America
Mercedes-Benz Mexico fully manufactures some Mercedes and Daimler vehicles completely from locally built parts (C-Class, E-Class, M-Class, International trucks, Axor, Atego, and Mercedes Buses), manufactures other models in complete knock down kits (CL-Class, CLK-Class, SL-Class, SLK-Class) and manufactures a select number of models in semi knockdown kits which use both imported components and locally sourced Mexican components (S-Class, CLS-Class, R-Class, GL-Class, Sprinter).

Nigeria
Africa
Assembly of buses, trucks, utility motors and the Sprinter van[25]

Russia
Eurasia
Joint venture Mercedes-Benz Car Trucks Vostok in Naberezhnye Chelny (jointly Kamaz). Available in trucks Actros, Axor, multi-purpose auto four wheel drive medium trucks Unimog. Mercedes-Benz Sprinter Classic is also produced in Russia.

Serbia
Europe
FAP produces Mercedes-Benz trucks under license.

Spain
Europe
Factory at Vitoria-Gasteiz Mercedes-Benz Vito, Viano and V-Class have been built there.

South Africa[26]
Africa
The assembly plant is located in East London, in the Eastern Cape province, where both right and left hand versions of the C-class are built.

South Korea
Asia
Mercedes-Benz Musso and MB100; Ssangyong Rexton models manufactured by SsangYong Motor Company.

Taiwan

Asia

Assembly of Actros by the Shung Ye Group[27]

Thailand
Asia
Completely Knocked Down (CKD) production of C, E, S Classes and Semi-Knocked Down (SKD) production of CLA, GLA, C-coupe, C43 AMG, GLC, GLC-coupe, GLC-coupe 43 AMG, GLE and CLS.[28] It has been unofficial regarded as the largest Mercedes-Benz factory by number of class produced under one roof. The factory is operated by contract manufacture the Thonburi Group[29]

Turkey
Eurasia
Mercedes-Benz Türk A.Ş.[30]

United Kingdom
Europe
The SLR sports car was built at the McLaren Technology Centre in Woking. Brackley, Northamptonshire, is home to the Mercedes Grand Prix factory, and Brixworth, Northamptonshire is the location of Mercedes-Benz HighPerformanceEngines

United States
North America
The Mercedes-Benz GLE-Class Sport Utility, the full-sized GL-Class Luxury Sport Utility and the Mercedes-Benz C-Class vehicles are all built at the Mercedes-Benz U.S. International production facility near Tuscaloosa, Alabama.[31] Trucks (6,000 per year in the early eighties) were once assembled in Hampton, VA.[32]

Vietnam
Asia
Assembly of E-Class, C-Class, S-Class, GLK-Class and Sprinter. Established in 1995.[33]

text: Quality rankings[edit]

text: Since its inception, Mercedes-Benz has maintained a reputation for its quality and durability. Objective measures looking at passenger vehicles, such as J. D. Power surveys, demonstrated a downturn in reputation in these criteria in the late 1990s and early 2000s. By mid-2005, Mercedes temporarily returned to the industry average for initial quality, a measure of problems after the first 90 days of ownership, according to J. D. Power.[34]  In J. D. Power's Initial Quality Study for the first quarter of 2007, Mercedes showed dramatic improvement by climbing from 25th to 5th place and earning several awards for its models.[35] For 2008, Mercedes-Benz's initial quality rating improved by yet another mark, to fourth place.[36]  On top of this accolade, it also received the Platinum Plant Quality Award for its Mercedes’ Sindelfingen, Germany assembly plant.[36]  J. D. Power's 2011 US Initial Quality and Vehicle Dependability Studies both ranked Mercedes-Benz vehicles above average in build quality and reliability.[37][38] In the 2011 UK J. D. Power Survey, Mercedes cars were rated above average.[39] A 2014 iSeeCars.com study for Reuters found Mercedes to have the lowest vehicle recall rate.[40]

text: Models[edit]

text: Current model range[edit]

text: Mercedes-Benz offers a full range of passenger, light commercial and heavy commercial equipment. Vehicles are manufactured in multiple countries worldwide. The Smart marque of city cars are also produced by Daimler AG.

text:
A-Class – Subcompact luxury Hatchback / Sedan/Saloon
B-Class – Subcompact luxury Multi Purpose Vehicle (MPV)
C-Class – Compact executive Sedan/Saloon, Estate, Coupé and Cabriolet
CLA-Class – Subcompact luxury 4 Door Coupé and Estate
CLS-Class – Mid-size luxury 4 Door Coupé and Estate
E-Class – Executive Sedan/Saloon, Estate, Coupé and Cabriolet
G-Class – Mid-size luxury Sports Utility Vehicle (SUV)
GLA-Class – Subcompact luxury Sports Utility Vehicle (SUV)
GLC-Class – Compact luxury Sports Utility Vehicle (SUV)
GLE-Class – Mid-size luxury Sports Utility Vehicle (SUV)
GLS-Class – Full-size luxury Sports Utility Vehicle (SUV)
S-Class – Full-size luxury Sedan/Saloon, Coupé & Cabriolet
SL-Class – Grand Tourer
SLC-Class – Roadster
V-Class – Multi Purpose Vehicle (MPV)/ Van
AMG GT – Sports car
X-Class - Luxury Pickup Truck

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text: Vans[edit]

text: Mercedes-Benz produces a range of vans; Citan, Vito, Sprinter and X-Class.

text: Trucks[edit]

text: Mercedes-Benz Trucks is now part of the Daimler Trucks division, and includes companies that were part of the DaimlerChrysler merger. Gottlieb Daimler sold the world's first truck in 1886.[41] The first factory to be built outside Germany after WWII was in Argentina. It originally built trucks, many of which were modified independently to buses, popularly named Colectivo. Today, it builds buses, trucks, the Vito and the Sprinter van.[citation needed]

text: Buses[edit]

text: Mercedes-Benz produces a wide range of buses and coaches, mainly for Europe and Asia. The first model was produced by Karl Benz in 1895.

text: Significant models produced[edit]

text:
1928: SSK racing car
1930: 770 "Großer Mercedes" state and ceremonial car
1934: 500 K
1936: 260 D World's first diesel production car
1936: 170
1938: W125 Record-breaking experimental
1939: 320A A military vehicle
1951: 300, known as the "Adenauer Mercedes"
1953: "Ponton" models
1954: 300SL "Gullwing"
1956: 190SL
1959: "Fintail" models
1960: 220SE Cabriolet
1963: 600 "Grand Mercedes"
1963: 230SL "Pagoda"
1965: S-Class
1966: 300SEL 6.3
1968: W114 "new generation" compact cars
1969: C111 experimental vehicle
1972: W107 350SL
1974: 450SEL 6.9
1977: W123- Mercedes' first station wagon
1978: 300SD - Mercedes' first turbo diesel
1979: 500SEL and G-Class
1983: 190E 2.3–16
1989: 300SL, 500SL
1990: 500E
1991: 600SEL
1993: C-Class
1995: C43 AMG
1995: SL73 AMG, 7.3 V12
1996: SLK
1997: A-Class and M-Class
2004: SLR McLaren and CLS-Class
2007: BlueTec E320, GL320 Bluetec, ML320 Bluetec, R320 Bluetec
2010: SLS AMG
2013: CLA-Class
2016: AMG GT

text: The Mercedes-Benz 600 or 600S Pullman Guard limousines offer the option of armour-plating and have been used by diplomats worldwide.[42]

text: Car nomenclature[edit]

text: Until 1994, Mercedes-Benz utilized an alphanumeric system for categorizing their vehicles, consisting of a number sequence approximately equal to the engine's displacement in liters multiplied by 100, followed by an arrangement of alphabetical suffixes, indicating body style and engine type.

text:
"C" indicates a coupe or cabriolet body style (for example, the CL and CLK models, though the C-Class is an exception, since it is also available as a sedan or station wagon).
"D" indicates the vehicle is equipped with a diesel engine.
"E" (for "Einspritzung") indicates the vehicle's engine is equipped with a petrol fuel injection. Also used for electric models and plug-in hybrids.
"G" was originally used for the Geländewagen off-road vehicle, but is now applied to Mercedes SUVs in general (G, GLA, GLC, GLE and GLS).
"K" was used in the 1930s, indicating a supercharger ("Kompressor") equipped engine. Two exceptions : the SSK and CLK, where K indicates "Kurz" (short-wheelbase) (though the SSK had a supercharger).
"L" indicates "Leicht" (lightweight) for sporting models, and "Lang" (long-wheelbase) for sedan models.
"R" indicates "Rennen" (racing), used for racing cars (for example, the 300SLR).
"S" Sonderklasse "Special class" for flagship models, including the S-Class, and the SL-Class, SLR McLaren and SLS sports cars.
"T" indicates "Touring" and an estate (or station wagon) body style.

text: Some models in the 1950s also had lower-case letters (b, c, and d) to indicate specific trim levels. For other models, the numeric part of the designation does not match the engine displacement. This was done to show the model's position in the model range independent of displacement or in the price matrix. For these vehicles, the actual displacement in liters is suffixed to the model designation. An exception was the 190-class with the numeric designation of "190" as to denote its entry level in the model along with the displacement label on the right side of the boot (190E 2.3 for 2.3-litre 4-cylinder petrol motor, 190D 2.5 for 2.5-litre 5-cylinder diesel motor, and so forth). Some older models (such as the SS and SSK) did not have a number as part of the designation at all.

text: For the 1994 model year, Mercedes-Benz revised the naming system. Models were divided into "classes" denoted by an arrangement of up to three letters (see "Current model range" above), followed by a three-digit (or two-digit for AMG models, with the number approximately equal to the displacement in litres multiplied by 10) number related to the engine displacement as before. Variants of the same model such as an estate version or a vehicle with a diesel engine are no longer given a separate letter. The SLR and SLS supercars do not carry a numerical designation.

text: Today, many numerical designations no longer reflect the engine's actual displacement, but more of the relative performance and marketing position. Despite its engine displacement in two litres, the powerplant in the A45 AMG produces 355 brake horsepower so the designation is higher as to indicate the greater performance. Another example is the E250 CGI having greater performance than the E200 CGI due to the different engine tuning even though both have 1.8-litre engines. From the marketing perspective, E200 seems more "upscale" than E180. Recent AMG models use the "63" designation (in honor of the 1960s 6.3-litre M100 engine) despite being equipped with either a 6.2-litre (M156), a 5.5-litre (M157) or even a 4.0-litre engine.

text: Some models carry further designations indicating special features:

text:
"4MATIC" indicates the vehicle is equipped with all-wheel-drive.
"BlueTEC" indicates a diesel engine with selective catalytic reduction exhaust aftertreatment.
"BlueEFFICIENCY" indicates special fuel economy features (direct injection, start-stop system, aerodynamic modifications, etc.)
"CGI" (Charged Gasoline Injection) indicates direct gasoline injection.
"CDI" (Common-rail Direct Injection) indicates a common-rail diesel engine.
"Hybrid" indicates a petrol- or diesel-electric hybrid.
"NGT" indicates a natural gas-fueled engine.
"Kompressor" indicates a supercharged engine.
"Turbo" indicates a turbocharged engine, only used on A-, B-,E- and GLK-Class models.
"AMG Line" indicates the interior or engine, depending which car, has been fitted with the luxuries of their AMG sports cars

text: Model designation badges can be removed at the request of the customer.

text: 2015 and beyond[edit]

text: Rationalisation of the model nomenclature was announced in November 2014 for future models.[43][44] The changes consolidate many confusing nomenclature and their placements in the model range such as CL-Class is now called the S-Class Coupé. The naming structure is divided into four categories: core, off-road vehicle/SUV, 4-door coupé, and roadster. AMG GT, and V-Class are unaffected by the change. In October 2016, Mercedes unveiled the X-Class; a pickup truck built on the Nissan Navara.[45][46] At the 2016 Paris Motor Show, the company announced the EQ, a family of upcoming battery electric vehicles based on a modular platform, expected to represent up to 25% of its global sales by 2025.[47]

text:
Core

Off-Road Vehicles/SUV

4-Door Coupé

Roadster

A

GLA

CLA

B

C

GLC

SLC

E

GLE

CLS

S

GLS

SL

N/A

G

N/A

N/A

text: Note: The CLA is positioned between the A- and B-Class models, while the CLS sits between the E- and S-Classes.

text: In addition to the revised nomenclature, Mercedes-Benz has new nomenclature for the drive systems.

text:
Current

New

Example

Natural Gas Drive

c for "compressed natural gas"

B 200 c

BlueTec
CDI

d for "diesel"

E 350 d
GLA 200 d

PLUG-IN HYBRID
Electric Drive

e for "electric"

S 500 e
B 250 e

Fuel Cell

f for "fuel cell"

B 200 f

HYBRID
BlueTEC HYBRID

h for "hybrid"

S 400 h
E 300 h

4MATIC

4MATIC

E 400 4MATIC

text: The revised A45 AMG for 2016 model year on has shifted the model designation to the right side while AMG is on the left side.[48] This trend commenced with Mercedes-Maybach with MAYBACH on the left and S500/S600 on the right.[49]

text: Environmental record[edit]

text: Mercedes-Benz has developed multi concept cars with alternative propulsion, such as hybrid-electric, fully electric, and fuel-cell powertrains. At the 2007 Frankfurt motor show, Mercedes-Benz showed seven hybrid models, including the F700 concept car, powered by a hybrid-electric drivetrain featuring the DiesOtto engine.[50] In 2009, Mercedes-Benz displayed three BlueZERO concepts at the North American International Auto Show. Each car features a different powertrain - battery-electric, fuel-cell electric, and gasoline-electric hybrid.[51][52] In the same year, Mercedes also showed the Vision S500 PHEV concept with a 19 miles (31 km) all-electric range and CO2 emissions of 74 grams/km in the New European Driving Cycle.[53]

text: Since 2002, Mercedes-Benz has developed the F-Cell fuel cell vehicle. The current version, based on the B-Class, has a 250-mile range and is available for lease, with volume production scheduled to begin in 2014. Mercedes has also announced the SLS AMG E-Cell, a fully electric version of the SLS sports car, with deliveries expected in 2013.[54] The Mercedes-Benz S400 BlueHYBRID[55] was launched in 2009, and is the first production automotive hybrid in the world to use a lithium-ion battery.[56][57][58] In mid-2010, production commenced on the Vito E-Cell all-electric van. Mercedes expects 100 vehicles to be produced by the end of 2010 and a further 2000 by the end of 2011.[59]

text: In 2008, Mercedes-Benz announced that it would have a demonstration fleet of small electric cars in two to three years.[60] Mercedes-Benz and Smart are preparing for the widespread uptake of electric vehicles (EVs) in the UK by beginning the installation of recharging points across their dealer networks. So far 20 Elektrobay recharging units, produced in the UK by Brighton-based Elektromotive, have been installed at seven locations as part of a pilot project, and further expansion of the initiative is planned later in 2010.[61]

text: In the United States, Mercedes-Benz was assessed a record US$30.66 million fine for their decision to not meet the federal corporate average fuel economy standard in 2009.[62]  Certain Mercedes-Benz cars, including the S550 and all AMG models sold in the United States, also face an additional gas guzzler tax.[63] However, newer AMG models fitted with the M157 engine will not be subject to the gas-guzzler tax, due to improved fuel economy,[64] and newer models powered by the M276 and M278 engines will have better fuel economy. In 2008, Mercedes also had the worst CO2 average of all major European manufacturers, ranking 14th out of 14 manufacturers.[65] Mercedes was also the worst manufacturer in 2007 and 2006 in terms of average CO2 levels, with 181 g and 188 g of CO2 emitted per km, respectively.[66]

text: In May 2017, Mercedes partnered with Vivint Solar to develop a solar-energy home storage battery.[67]

text: In February 2018, it was announced that Mercedes cabin air filters earned the Asthma and Allergy Friendly Certification.[68]

text: Bicycles[edit]

text: Mercedes-Benz Accessories GmbH introduced three new bicycles in 2005,[69] and the range has developed to include the patent pending Foldingbike in 2007.[70] Other models include the Mercedes-Benz Carbon Bike,[71] Trekking Bike,[72] Fitness Bike[73] and the Trailblazer Bike.[74]

text: Electric cars[edit]

text: Mercedes is to open its sixth battery factory in 2018, which makes it a tough competitor to Tesla, Inc. The six factories will be established across 3 continents.

text: The brand has also planned to launch its electric EQ brand with the EQC SUV being set for production in the year 2019. In September 2018, Mercedes unveiled the EQC, its first fully electric car, at an event in Stockholm.[75][76]

text: 2022 will be the year in which Daimler has said that the company will have invested $11 billion to ensure that every Mercedes-Benz has a fully electric or hybrid version available on the market.[77]

text: While releasing details of the project, Markus Schäfer said,

text: "Our electric vehicles will be built in six plants on three continents. We address every market segment: from the smart fortwo seater, to the large SUV. The battery is the key component of e-mobility. As batteries are the heart of our electric vehicles we put a great emphasis on building them in our own factories. With our global battery network we are in an excellent position: As we are close to our vehicle plants we can ensure the optimal supply of production. In case of a short-term high demand in another part of the world our battery factories are also well prepared for export. The electric initiative of Mercedes-Benz Cars is right on track. Our global production network is ready for e-mobility. We are electrifying the future."[78]

text: Motorsport[edit]

text: The two companies which were merged to form the Mercedes-Benz brand in 1926 had both already enjoyed success in the new sport of motor racing throughout their separate histories. A single Benz competed in the world's first motor race, the 1894 Paris–Rouen, where Émile Roger finished 14th in 10 hours 1 minute. Throughout its long history, the company has been involved in a range of motorsport activities, including sports car racing and rallying. On several occasions Mercedes-Benz has withdrawn completely from motorsport for a significant period, notably in the late 1930s, and after the 1955 Le Mans disaster, where a Mercedes-Benz 300 SLR rammed another car (An Austin-Healey), took off into the stands, and killed more than 80 spectators. Stirling Moss and co-driver Denis Jenkinson made history by winning the 1955 Mille Miglia road race in Italy during a record-breaking drive with an average speed of almost 98 mph in a Mercedes-Benz 300 SLR.[79]

text: Although there was some activity in the intervening years, it was not until 1987 that Mercedes-Benz returned to front line competition, returning to Le Mans, Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft (DTM), and Formula One with Sauber. The 1990s saw Mercedes-Benz purchase British engine builder Ilmor (now Mercedes-Benz High Performance Engines), and campaign IndyCars under the USAC/CART rules, eventually winning the 1994 Indianapolis 500 and 1994 CART IndyCar World Series Championship with Al Unser, Jr. at the wheel. The 1990s also saw the return of Mercedes-Benz to GT racing, and the Mercedes-Benz CLK GTR, both of which took the company to new heights by dominating the FIA's GT1 class.

text: Mercedes-Benz is currently active in four motorsport categories, Formula Three, DTM, Formula One and GT3.

text: Formula One[edit]

text: Mercedes-Benz took part in the world championship in 1954 and 1955, but despite being successful with two championship titles for Juan-Manuel Fangio,[80] the company left the sport after just two seasons. Fangio is considered by many to be the best F1 driver in history.[81]

text: Mercedes-Benz returned as an engine supplier in the 1990s and part-owned Team McLaren for some years, to which it has supplied engines engineered by Ilmor[82] since 1995. This partnership brought success, including drivers championships for Mika Häkkinen in 1998 and 1999, and for Lewis Hamilton in 2008, as well as a constructors championship in 1998. The collaboration with McLaren had been extended into the production of road-going cars such as the Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren.

text: In 2007, McLaren-Mercedes was fined a record US$100 million for stealing confidential Ferrari technical data.[83]

text: In 2009, Ross Brawn's newly conceived Formula One team, Brawn GP used Mercedes engines to help win the constructor's championship, and Jenson Button to become champion in the F1 drivers' championship. At the end of the season, Mercedes-Benz sold its 40% stake in McLaren to the McLaren Group and bought 70% of the Brawn GP team jointly with an Abu Dhabi-based investment consortium. Brawn GP was renamed Mercedes GP for the 2010 season and is, from this season on, a works team for Mercedes-Benz. As of 2017, the company currently provides engines to Williams Martini Racing and Sahara Force India F1 Team.[84]

text: In 2014, Mercedes clinched its first F1 Constructor's title with drivers Lewis Hamilton and Nico Rosberg with 3 races to go, after dominating much of the season. Mercedes repeated its dominance in 2015 in similar fashion, losing only 3 races out of 19 once again. Mercedes yet again dominated in 2016, losing only 2 races out of 21. In 2017, Mercedes secured a 4th title. In these four years of dominance, Lewis Hamilton won the F1 drivers' championship in 2014, 2015, and 2017 while Nico Rosberg won in 2016.[citation needed]

text: Logo history[edit]

text: In June 1909, Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft (DMG) registered both a three-pointed and a four-pointed star as trademarks, but only the three-pointed star was used. To DMG, the star symbolized Gottlieb Daimler's aims for universal motorization: on land, water and in the air.[85]

text:
1902–1909

1909–1916

1916–1926

1926–current

1980–current

1990–current

text: Noted employees[edit]

text:
Paul Bracq – major designer of automobiles in the 20th century
Adolf Daimler – chief engineer, COO and member of the board of directors 1899-1913. Son of Gottlieb Daimler and developer of the brand logo.[86]
Béla Barényi – car safety pioneer (rigid passenger safety shell), joined Daimler-Benz in 1937[87]
Wilhelm Maybach – automotive pioneer, first met Gottlieb Daimler in 1865[88]
Ferdinand Porsche – founder of Porsche, joined Mercedes in 1923 and developed the Kompressor [89]
Bruno Sacco – joined Daimler-Benz as a designer in 1958. Head of Design in 1975, retired in 1999[90]
Rudolf Uhlenhaut – joined Daimler-Benz in 1931, his designs included the Silver Arrows, the 300 SL and 300SLR[91]
Adolf Eichmann – former Nazi criminal. Worked in Argentina's factory after WWII[92]
Rudolf Caracciola – one of the greatest GP drivers in history drove MB Silver Arrows in competition.
Josef Ganz - Technical consultant and "Godfather" of the *Mercedes-Benz W136, with the revolutionary Independent suspension, Swing axle layout.
Juan Manuel Fangio - Five time Formula 1 World Champion, honorary president of Mercedes-Benz Argentina from 1987 until his death in 1995.
Michael Schumacher - Seven time Formula 1 World Champion, drove for Mercedes in the World Endurance Championship in the 80s and then in their Formula One Team from 2010 till 2012.
Lewis Hamilton - Five-time Formula 1 World Champion, current driver for in their Formula One Team since2013 who holds the record for most pole positions in F1 since the 2017 Italian Grand Prix. Despite being a Mercedes driver since 2013, Hamilton has competed his entire career using Mercedes engines since 2007 and has been affiliated with Mercedes since he was 13 years old.
Nico Rosberg - 2016 Formula 1 World Champion, drove for Mercedes in their Formula One Team from 2010 till 2016. Rosberg won all his races and achieved all his pole positions with Mercedes and is currently a brand ambassador for Mercedes.

text: Innovations[edit]

text: Numerous technological innovations have been introduced on Mercedes-Benz automobiles throughout the many years of their production, including:

text:
The internal combustion engine automobile was developed independently by Benz and Daimler & Maybach in 1886
Daimler invented the honeycomb radiator of the type still used on all water-cooled vehicles today
Daimler invented the float carburetor which was used until replaced by fuel injection
The "drop chassis" – the car originally designated the "Mercedes" by Daimler was also the first car with a modern configuration, having the carriage lowered and set between the front and rear wheels, with a front engine and powered rear wheels. All earlier cars were "horseless carriages", which had high centres of gravity and various engine/drive-train configurations
The first passenger road car to have brakes on all four wheels (1924)[93]
In 1936, the Mercedes-Benz 260 D was the first diesel-powered passenger car.
Mercedes-Benz were the first to offer direct fuel injection on the Mercedes-Benz 300SL Gullwing
The "safety cage" or "safety cell" construction with front and rear crumple zones was first developed by Mercedes-Benz in 1951. This is considered by many as the most important innovation in automobile construction from a safety standpoint[10][verification needed]
In 1959, Mercedes-Benz patented a device that prevents drive wheels from spinning by intervening at the engine, transmission, or brakes. In 1987, Mercedes-Benz applied its patent by introducing a traction control system that worked under both braking and acceleration
an Anti-Lock Brake system (ABS) was first offered on the W116 450SEL 6.9. They became standard on the W126 S-Class starting production in 1979 and first sold in most markets in 1980.
Airbags were first introduced in the European market, beginning with model year 1981 S-Class.
Mercedes-Benz was the first to introduce pre-tensioners to seat belts on the 1981 S-Class. In the event of a crash, a pre-tensioner will tighten the belt instantaneously, removing any 'slack' in the belt, which prevents the occupant from jerking forward in a crash
In September 2003, Mercedes-Benz introduced the world's first seven-speed automatic transmission called '7G-Tronic'
Electronic Stability Programme (ESP), brake assist,[94] and many other types of safety equipment were all developed, tested, and implemented into passenger cars – first – by Mercedes-Benz. Mercedes-Benz has not made a large fuss about its innovations, and has even licensed them for use by competitors – in the name of improving automobile and passenger safety. As a result, crumple zones and anti-lock brakes (ABS) are now standard on all modern vehicles.[10][verification needed]

text:
The (W211) E320 CDI which has a variable geometry turbocharger (VGT) 3.0-litre V6 common rail diesel engine (producing 224 hp or 167 kW), set three world endurance records. It covered 100,000 miles (160,000 km) in a record time, with an average speed of 224.823 km/h (139.70 mph). Three identical cars did the endurance run (one set above record) and the other two cars set world records for time taken to cover 100,000 kilometres (62,137 mi) and 50,000 miles (80,000 km) respectively. After all three cars had completed the run, their combined distance was 300,000 miles (480,000 km) (all records were FIA approved).[95][clarification needed]
Mercedes-Benz pioneered a system called Pre-Safe to detect an imminent crash – and prepares the car's safety systems to respond optimally. It also calculates the optimal braking force required to avoid an accident in emergency situations, and makes it immediately available for when the driver depresses the brake pedal. Occupants are also prepared by tightening the seat belt, closing the sunroof and windows, and moving the seats into the optimal position.
At 181 horsepower per litre, the M133 engine installed in Mercedes-Benz A45 AMG is the most powerful series production four-cylinder turbocharged motor (as of June 2013) and has one of the highest power density for a passenger vehicle.[96]

text: Half a century of vehicle safety innovation helped win Mercedes-Benz the Safety Award at the 2007 What Car? Awards.[93]

text: Robot cars[edit]

text: In the 1980s, Mercedes built the world's first robot car, together with the team of Professor Ernst Dickmanns at Bundeswehr University Munich.[97] Encouraged in part by Dickmanns' success, in 1987 the European Union's EUREKA programme initiated the Prometheus Project on autonomous vehicles, funded to the tune of nearly €800 million. In 1995 Dickmanns' re-engineered autonomous S-Class Mercedes took a long trip from Munich in Bavaria to Copenhagen in Denmark, and back. On highways, the robot achieved speeds exceeding 175 km/h (109 mph) (permissible in some areas of the German Autobahn).

text: In October 2015, the company introduced the Vision Tokyo, a five-seat self-driving electric van powered by a hybrid hydrogen fuel-cell system.  The super-sleek van is touted as "a chill-out zone in the midst of megacity traffic mayhem." [98]

text: Tuners[edit]

text:
Several companies have become car tuners (or modifiers) of Mercedes Benz, in order to increase performance and/or luxury to a given model.
AMG is Mercedes-Benz's in-house performance-tuning division, specialising in high-performance versions of most Mercedes-Benz cars. AMG engines are all hand-built,[99] and each completed engine receives a tag with the signature of the engineer who built it. AMG has been wholly owned by Mercedes-Benz since 1999.[100]  The 2009 SLS AMG, a revival of the 300SL Gullwing, is the first car to be entirely developed by AMG.

text: There are numerous independent tuners, including Brabus, Carlsson, Kleemann and Renntech.

text: Sponsorships[edit]

text: In football (soccer), Mercedes-Benz sponsors the Germany national team. Mercedes-Benz sponsors Bundesliga club VfB Stuttgart and provides the naming rights for their stadium, the Mercedes-Benz Arena. The company also holds the naming rights to the Mercedes-Benz Superdome, an American football stadium in New Orleans, Louisiana, United States.[101] On 24 August 2015, Mercedes-Benz was announced as the naming rights sponsor for the Atlanta Falcons' new home, Mercedes-Benz Stadium, (Mercedes-Benz's US headquarters are in Greater Atlanta) which opened in August 2017.[102]


document_title: Terrace (geology)

question_text: when do stream terraces form when do stream terraces form

root

text: Terrace (geology)

text: Fluvial terraces[edit]

text: Fluvial terraces are remnants of the former floodplain of a stream or river. They are formed by the downcutting of a river or stream channel into and the abandonment and lateral erosion of its former floodplain. The downcutting, abandonment, and lateral erosion of a former floodplain can be the result of either changes in sea level, local or regional tectonic uplift; changes in local or regional climate; changes the amount of sediment being carried by the river or stream; change in discharge of the river; or a complex mixture of these and other factors. The most common sources of the variations in rivers and streams that create fluvial terraces are vegetative, geomorphic, and hydrologic responses to climate. More recently, the direct modification of rivers and streams and their watersheds by cultural processes have result in the development of terraces along many rivers and streams.[1][3]

tag: p

text: Kame terraces[edit]

text: Kame terraces are formed on the side of a glacial valley and are the deposits of meltwater streams flowing between the ice and the adjacent valley side.

text: Marine terraces[edit]

text: A marine terrace represents the former shoreline of a sea or ocean. It can be formed by marine abrasion or erosion of materials comprising the shoreline (marine-cut terraces or wave-cut platforms); the accumulations of sediments in the shallow-water to slightly emerged coastal environments (marine-built terraces or raised beach); or the bioconstruction by coral reefs and accumulation of reef materials (reef flats) in intertropical regions.[4]

text: The formation of a marine terrace follows this general process: A wave cut platform must be carved into bedrock (high wave energy is needed for this process). Although this is the first step to the process for the formation of a marine terrace, not all wave cut platforms will become a marine terrace. After the wave cut platform is formed it must be removed from interaction with the high wave energy. This process happens by either change in sea level due to glacial-interglacial cycles or tectonically rising landmasses. When the wave cut has been raised above sea level it is preserved. The terraces are most commonly preserved in flights along the coastline.[5]

text: Lacustrine terraces[edit]

text: A lake (lacustrine) terrace represents the former shoreline of either a nonglacial, glacial, or proglacial lake. As in case of marine terraces, a lake terrace can be formed by either the abrasion or erosion of materials comprising the shoreline, the accumulations of sediments in the shallow-water to slightly emerged environments, or some combination of these. Given the smaller size of lakes relative to the size of typical marine water bodies, lake terraces are overall significantly narrower and less well developed than marine terraces.[6][7] However, not all lake terraces are relict shorelines. In case of the lake terraces of ancient ice-walled lakes, some proglacial lakes, and alluvium-dammed (slackwater) lakes, they often represent the relict bottom of these lakes.[8][9][10] Finally, glaciolacustrine kame terraces are either the relict deltas or bottoms of ancient ice marginal lakes.[11]

text: Structural terraces[edit]

text: In geomorphology, a structural terrace is a terrace created by the differential erosion of flat-lying or nearly flat-lying layered strata. The terrace results from preferential stripping by erosion of a layer of softer strata from an underlying layer of harder strata. The preferential removal of softer material exposes the flat surface of the underlying harder layer creating the tread of a structural terrace. Structural terraces are commonly paired and not always associated with river valleys.[1]

text: Travertine terraces[edit]

text: A travertine terrace is formed when geothermally heated supersaturated alkaline waters emerge to the surface and form waterfalls of precipitated carbonates.


document_title: Miniskirt

question_text: who popularized the mini skirt in the 60s

text: Miniskirt

text: While very short skirts have existed for a long time, they were generally not called "mini" until the 1960s. Figurines produced by the Vinča culture (c. 5700–4500 BCE) have been interpreted by archaeologists as representing women in miniskirt-like garments.[2] One of the oldest surviving garments resembling a miniskirt is the short woollen skirt with bronze ornaments worn by the Egtved Girl for her burial in the Nordic Bronze Age (c. 1390–1370 BCE).[3][4]

text: One of the earliest known cultures where women regularly wore clothing resembling miniskirts was a subgroup of the Miao people of China, the Duan Qun Miao (Chinese: 短裙苗; pinyin: duǎn qún miáo, literally "short skirt Miao").[5] In albums produced during the Qing dynasty (1644–1912) from the early eighteenth century onwards to illustrate the various types of Miao, the Duan Qun Miao women were depicted wearing "mini skirts that barely cover the buttocks."[5] At least one of the "One Hundred Miao Pictures" albums contains a poem that specifically describes how the women's short skirts and navel-baring styles were an identifier for this particular group.[6][7]

text: In the early 20th century, the dancer Josephine Baker's banana skirt that she wore for her mid-1920s performances in the Folies Bergère was subsequently likened to a miniskirt.[8][9]

text: Mid-20th century science fiction[edit]

text: Extremely short skirts became a staple of 20th-century science fiction, particularly in 1940s pulp artwork such as that by Earle K. Bergey who depicted futuristic women in a "stereotyped combination" of metallic miniskirt, bra and boots.[10][11] The "sci-fi miniskirt" was seen in genre films and television programmes as well as on comic book covers.[10] The very short skirts worn by regular female characters Carol and Tonga (played by Virginia Hewitt and Nina Bara) in the 1950–55 television series Space Patrol have been suggested as probably the first 'micro-minis' to have been seen on American television.[10] It was later seen as remarkable that only one formal complaint relating to the skirts could be recalled, and that by an ad agency in relation to an upwards shot of Carol climbing a ladder.[10] Hewitt pointed out that even though the complainant claimed they could see up her skirt, her matching tights rendered her effectively clothed from neck to ankle.[10] Otherwise, Space Patrol was applauded for being wholesome and family-friendly, even though the women's short skirts would have been unacceptable in other contexts.[10] Although the 30th-century women in Space Patrol were empowered, experts in their field, and largely treated as equals, "it was the skirts that fuelled indelible memories."[12] The Space Patrol skirts were not the shortest to be broadcast at the time – the German-made American 1954 series Flash Gordon showed Dale Arden (played by Irene Champlin) in an even shorter skirt.[13]

text: The manager of an unnamed shop in London's Oxford Street began experimenting in 1960 with skirt hemlines an inch above the knees of window mannequins, and noted how positively his customers responded.[14] Hemlines were just above the knee in 1961, and gradually climbed upward over the next few years. By 1966, some designs had the hem at the upper thigh. Stockings with suspenders (American English: "garters") were not considered practical with miniskirts and were replaced with coloured tights.[15] Towards the end of the 1960s, an even shorter version, called the microskirt or micro-mini, emerged.[16][17]

text: Extremely short skirts, some as much as eight inches above the knee, were observed in Britain in the summer of 1962.[18] The young women who wore these short skirts were called "Ya-Ya girls," a term derived from "yeah, yeah" which was a popular catcall at the time.[18] One retailer noted that the fashion for layered net crinoline petticoats raised the hems of short skirts even higher.[18] The designer Mary Quant was quoted as saying that "short short skirts" indicated youthfulness which was seen as desirable, fashion-wise.[18]

text: The earliest known reference to the miniskirt is in a humorous 1962 article datelined Mexico City and describing the "mini-skirt" or "Ya-Ya" as a controversial item of clothing that was the latest thing on the production line there. The article characterized the miniskirt as stopping eight inches above the knee. It referred to a writing by a psychiatrist, whose name it did not provide, who had argued that the miniskirt was a youthful protest of international threats to peace. Much of the article described the reactions of men, who were said to favor the fashion on young women to whom they were unrelated, but to oppose it on their own wives and fiancés.[19]

text: In the UK, by shortening the skirts to less than 24 inches (610 mm) they were classed as children's garments rather than adult clothes. Children's clothing was not subject to purchase tax whereas adult clothing was.[20] The avoidance of tax meant that the price was correspondingly less.[21][22]

text: Designer claims[edit]

text: Several designers have been credited with the invention of the 1960s miniskirt, most significantly the London-based designer Mary Quant and the Parisian André Courrèges. Although Quant reportedly named the skirt after her favourite make of car, the Mini,[23][24] there is no consensus as to who designed it first. Valerie Steele has noted that the claim that Quant was first is more convincingly supported by evidence than the equivalent Courrèges claim.[25] However, the contemporary fashion journalist Marit Allen, who edited the influential "Young Ideas" pages for UK Vogue, firmly stated that the British designer John Bates was the first to offer fashionable miniskirts.[26] Other designers, including Pierre Cardin and Yves Saint Laurent, had also been raising hemlines at the same time.[27]

text: The miniskirt is one of the garments most widely associated with Mary Quant.[28] Quant herself is ambivalent about the claim that she invented the miniskirt, stating that her customers should take credit, as she herself wore very short skirts, and they requested even shorter hemlines for themselves.[29] Regardless of whether or not Quant invented the miniskirt, it is widely agreed that she was one of its highest-profile champions.[25][27][30] Quant loved Mini Cooper cars and named the garment after them, saying that car and skirt were both "optimistic, exuberant, young, flirty," and complemented each other.[23]

text: Quant had started experimenting with shorter skirts in the late 1950s, when she started making her own designs up to stock her boutique on the King's Road.[29] Among her inspirations was the memory of seeing a young tap-dancer wearing a "tiny skirt over thick black tights," influencing her designs for young, active women who did not wish to resemble their mothers.[23][29] In addition to the miniskirt, Quant is often credited with inventing the coloured and patterned tights that tended to accompany the garment, although their creation is also attributed to the Spanish couturier Cristóbal Balenciaga who offered harlequin-patterned tights in 1962[31][32] or to Bates.[33]

text: In 2009, a Mary Quant minidress was among the 10 British "design classics" featured on a series of Royal Mail stamps, alongside the Tube map, the Spitfire, and the red telephone box.[23]

text: Courrèges explicitly claimed that he invented the mini, and accused Quant of only "commercialising" it.[25] He presented short skirts measuring four inches above the knee in January 1965 for that year's Spring/Summer collection,[27] although some sources claim that Courrèges had been designing miniskirts as early as 1961, the year he launched his couture house.[25] The collection, which also included trouser suits and cut-out backs and midriffs, was designed for a new type of athletic, active young woman.[27] Courrèges had presented "above-the-knee" skirts in his August 1964 haute couture presentation which was proclaimed the "best show seen so far" for that season by The New York Times.[34] The Courrèges look, featuring a knit bodystocking with a gabardine miniskirt slung around the hips, was widely copied and plagiarised, much to the designer's chagrin, and it would be 1967 before he again held a press showing for his work.[27] Steele has described Courrèges's work as a "brilliant couture version of youth fashion" whose sophistication far outshone Quant's work, although she champions the Quant claim.[25] Others, such as Jess Cartner-Morley of The Guardian explicitly credit him, rather than Quant, as the miniskirt's creator.[31]

text: The idea that John Bates, rather than Quant or Courrèges, innovated the miniskirt had an influential champion in Marit Allen, who as editor of the influential "Young Ideas" pages for UK Vogue, kept track of up-and-coming young designers.[26] In 1966 she chose Bates to design her mini-length wedding outfit in white gabardine and silver PVC.[26] In January 1965 Bates's "skimp dress" with its "short-short skirt" was featured in Vogue, and would later be chosen as the Dress of the Year.[36][37][38] Bates was also famous for having designed mini-coats and dresses and other outfits for Emma Peel (played by Diana Rigg) in the TV series The Avengers, although the manufacturers blocked his request for patterned tights to enable Emma Peel to fight in skirts if necessary.[26][33]

text: An alternative origin story for the miniskirt came from Barbara Hulanicki of the London boutique Biba, who recalled that in 1966 she received a delivery of stretchy jersey skirts that had shrunk drastically in transit. Much to her surprise, the ten-inch long garments rapidly sold out.[39]

text: In 1967 Rudi Gernreich was among the first American designers to offer miniskirts, in the face of strongly worded censure and criticism from American couturiers James Galanos and Norman Norell.[40] Criticism of the miniskirt also came from the Paris couturier Coco Chanel,who declared the style "disgusting" despite being herself famed for supporting shorter skirts in the 1920s.[25]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Owing to Quant's position in the heart of fashionable "Swinging London", the miniskirt was able to spread beyond a simple street fashion into a major international trend. The style came into prominence when Jean Shrimpton wore a short white shift dress, made by Colin Rolfe, on 30 October 1965 at Derby Day, first day of the annual Melbourne Cup Carnival in Australia, where it caused a sensation. According to Shrimpton, who claimed that the brevity of the skirt was due mainly to Rolfe's having insufficient material, the ensuing controversy was as much as anything to do with her having dispensed with a hat and gloves, seen as essential accessories in such a conservative society.[41][42]

text: Upper garments, such as rugby shirts, were sometimes adapted as mini-dresses. With the rise in hemlines, the wearing of tights or pantyhose, in place of stockings, became more common. Some European countries banned mini-skirts from being worn in public, claiming they were an invitation to rapists. In response, Quant retorted that there was clearly no understanding of the tights worn underneath.[43]

text: The response to the miniskirt was particularly harsh in Africa, where many state governments saw them as an un-African garment and part of the corrupting influence of the West.[44] Young city-dwelling African women who wore Western clothing such as the miniskirt were particularly at risk of attack based on their clothing, although Robert Ross notes that gender roles and politics were also a key factor.[44] The urban woman earning her own living and independence was seen as a threat to masculine authority, particularly if she wore clothing seen as un-African.[44] Short skirts were seen as indicating that their wearer was a prostitute, and by conflation, a witch who drained male-dominated society of its vitality and energy.[44] In addition to prostitute and witch, miniskirts also became associated with secretaries, schoolgirls and undergraduates, and young women with "sugar daddies" as lovers or boyfriends.[45] Andrew M. Ivaska has noted that these various tropes boiled down to a basic fear of female power, fear that a woman would use her education or sexual power to control men and/or achieve her own independence, and that the miniskirt therefore became a tangible object of these fears.[45]

text: In 1968 the Youth League of Tanzania's ruling TANU party launched Operation Vijana.[44] Organised and run by young men, Vijana was a morality campaign targeting indecent clothing, which led to attacks on women with at least one stoning reportedly triggered by the victim's miniskirt.[44] Gangs of youths patrolled bus stations and streets looking for women dressed "inappropriately," and dealing out physical attacks and beatings.[45] In Ethiopia, an attack on women wearing miniskirts triggered a riot in which a hundred cars were set on fire and fifty people injured.[44]

text: Kamuzu Banda, president of Malawi, described miniskirts as a "diabolic fashion which must disappear from the country once and for all."[44] It is also reported that Kenneth Kaunda, president of Zambia, cited apartheid and the miniskirt as his two primary hates.[44] By the mid-1970s the Zanzibar revolutionary party had forbidden both women and men from wearing a long list of garments, hairstyles and cosmetics, including miniskirts.[44]

text: From 1969 onwards, the fashion industry largely returned to longer skirts such as the midi and the maxi. Journalist Christopher Booker gave two reasons for this reaction: firstly, that "there was almost nowhere else to go ... the mini-skirts could go no higher"; and secondly, in his view, "dressed up in mini-skirts and shiny PVC macs, given such impersonal names as 'dolly birds', girls had been transformed into throwaway plastic objects".[46] Certainly this lengthening of hemlines coincided with the growth of the feminist movement. However, in the 1960s the mini had been regarded as a symbol of liberation, and it was worn by some, such as Germaine Greer and, in the following decade, Gloria Steinem,.[47] Greer herself wrote in 1969 that:

text: The women kept on dancing while their long skirts crept up, and their girdles dissolved, and their nipples burst through like hyacinth tips and their clothes withered away to the mere wisps and ghosts of draperies to adorn and glorify ...[48]

text: Indeed, miniskirts never entirely went away and, for example, were often worn by Deborah Harry, of the group Blondie, during the "new wave" of the late 70s. The song "(I Don't Want to Go to) Chelsea" (1978), by new wave artist Elvis Costello, contained the line: "There's no place here for the mini-skirt waddle".[citation needed]

text: 1980s and 1990s[edit]

text: In spring of 1982, (see June Time Magazine) short skirts began to re-emerge, notably in the form of "rah-rahs", which were modeled on those worn by female cheerleaders at sporting and other events. In 1985, the British designer Vivienne Westwood offered her first "mini-crini," an abbreviated version of the Victorian crinoline.[49] Its mini-length, bouffant silhouette inspired the puffball skirts widely presented by more established designers such as Christian Lacroix.[50][51] In 1989, Westwood's mini-crini was described as having combined two conflicting ideals – the crinoline, representing a "mythology of restriction and encumbrance in woman's dress", and the "equally dubious mythology of liberation" associated with the miniskirt.[52]

text: From the 1980s, many women began to incorporate the miniskirt into their business attire, a trend which grew during the remainder of the century. The titular character of the 1990s television program Ally McBeal, a lawyer portrayed by Calista Flockhart, has been credited with popularising micro-skirts.[53]

text: The very short skirt is an element of Japanese school uniform, which since the 1990s has been exploited by young women who are part of the kogal (or gyaru) subculture as part of their look.[54] Gyaru deliberately wear their skirts short enough to reveal panties (actually a second pair worn over actual knickers) as a form of exhibitionism known as panchira.[55]

text: 21st century[edit]

text: In the early 21st century micro-minis were once again revived.[16][56] In 2003 Tom Ford, at that time described as one of the few designers able to effortlessly dictate changes in fashion, stated that micro-skirts would be the height of fashion for Spring/Summer 2003.[57] For fashionable wear, early 21st century microskirts were often worn with leggings or tights in order to avoid revealing too much.[53][56] At this time, an even briefer version of the micro-mini emerged, creating a garment sometimes described as a "belt-skirt."[56]

text: A BBC article in 2014 wrote that miniskirts remained as contemporary a garment as ever, retaining their associations with youth.[23] In an early 2010s study the department store Debenhams found that women continued buying miniskirts up to the age of 40, whilst 1983 studies showed that 33 years old was when the average woman had stopped buying them.[23] Debenham's report concluded that by the 2020s, miniskirts would be seen as a wardrobe staple for British women in their 40s and early 50s.[23]

text: Despite this, in the early 21st century, miniskirts are still seen as controversial, and remain subject to bans and regulation.[23] Valerie Steele told the BBC in 2014 that even though miniskirts no longer had the power to shock in most Western cultures, she would hesitate to wear one in most parts of the world.[23] She described the garment as symbolic of looking forward to future freedom and backwards to a "much more restricted past." and noted that international rises in extreme conservatism and religious fundamentalism had led to an anti-women backlash, some of which was shown through censure and criticism of women wearing "immodest" clothing.[23] In 2010 the mayor of Castellammare di Stabia in Italy ordered that police fine women for wearing "very short" miniskirts.[23][58] In the 2000s, a ban on miniskirts at a teacher's college in Kemerovo was claimed by lawyers to be against the terms of equality and human rights as laid out by the Russian constitution, whilst in Chile, the women's minister, Carolina Schmidt, described a regional governor's ban on public employees wearing minis and strapless tops as "absolute nonsense" and challenged their right to regulate other people's clothing.[58] In July 2010, Southampton city council also tried to regulate their female employees's wardrobes, telling them to avoid miniskirts and dress "appropriately."[58]

text: Miniskirts regularly appear in Africa as part of controversies, something that has continued since the 1960s.[59] In the early 21st century alone, instances have included a proposed ban on miniskirts in Uganda justified by claiming that they were a dangerous distraction to drivers and would cause road accidents, and in 2004, a leaflet campaign in Mombasa instructed women to dress modestly and "shun miniskirts", leading to the Kenyan government denying that they wanted a ban.[58] Since the 1990s, women perceived to be "indecently dressed" might be stripped in public often by gangs of men, but sometimes by other women.[59] These acts took place in Kenya, Zambia and elsewhere, including incidents in Johannesburg in 2008 and 2011 which led to similar attacks in various states including Sudan, Malawi, Zimbabwe and elsewhere.[59] The President of Malawi, Bingu wa Mutharika, was forced to make a statement in 2012 after male gangs forcibly stripped women in Lilongwe and Mzuzu.[59] By this point, "miniskirt protests" regularly followed these acts of violence, with the protesters defiantly wearing miniskirts.[59] In late February 2010, a group of about 200 Ugandan women demonstrated against a so-called "miniskirt law," an anti-pornography legislation which specifically forbade women to dress "in a manner designed to sexually excite," or from wearing clothing that revealed their thighs and/or other body parts.[58] Uganda revisited their proposed ban in 2013, with Simon Lokodo, Minister of Ethics and Integrity, proposing another anti-pornography bill which would outlaw revealing "intimate parts," defined as "anything above the knee," and vowing that women who wore miniskirts would be arrested.[60] While most of these proposed bans come from male politicians, in 2009 Joice Mujuru, Zimbabwe's Vice President, had to deal with rumours that she intended to ban miniskirts and trousers for women.[59] In Africa, one of the main issues with the miniskirt since the 1960s is that it is seen as representative of protest against predominantly male authority, an accusation also applied to trousers for women which are perceived as blurring the gender divide.[44][45][59]