document_title: New France

question_text: where did the french attempt to make their first settlement in north america

question_tokens: where did the french attempt to make their first settlement in north america

text: New France

text: Early exploration (1523–1650s)[edit]

text: Around 1523, the Florentine navigator Giovanni da Verrazzano convinced King Francis I, to commission an expedition to find a western route to Cathay (China).[7] Late that year, Verrazzano set sail in Dieppe, crossing the Atlantic on a small caravel with 50 men.[8] After exploring the coast of the present-day Carolinas early the following year, he headed north along the coast, eventually anchoring in the Narrows of New York Bay.[8]

text: The first European to discover the site of present-day New York, he named it Nouvelle-Angoulême in honour of the king, the former count of Angoulême.[9] Verrazzano's voyage convinced the king to seek to establish a colony in the newly discovered land. Verrazzano gave the names Francesca and Nova Gallia to that land between New Spain (Mexico) and English Newfoundland.[10]

text: In 1534, Jacques Cartier planted a cross in the Gaspé Peninsula and claimed the land in the name of King Francis I.[11] It was the first province of New France. However, initial French attempts at settling the region met with failure.[11]

text: French fishing fleets continued to sail to the Atlantic coast and into the St. Lawrence River, making alliances with First Nations that became important once France began to occupy the land. French merchants soon realized the St. Lawrence region was full of valuable fur-bearing animals, especially the beaver, which were becoming rare in Europe. Eventually, the French crown decided to colonize the territory to secure and expand its influence in America.

text: Another early French attempt at settlement in North America took place in 1564 at Fort Caroline, now Jacksonville, Florida. Intended as a haven for Huguenots, Caroline was founded under the leadership of René Goulaine de Laudonnière and Jean Ribault. It was sacked by the Spanish led by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés who then established the settlement of St. Augustine on 20 September 1565.

text: Acadia and Canada (New France) were inhabited by indigenous nomadic Algonquian peoples and sedentary Iroquoian peoples. These lands were full of unexploited and valuable natural resources, which attracted all of Europe. By the 1580s, French trading companies had been set up, and ships were contracted to bring back furs. Much of what transpired between the natives and their European visitors around that time is not known, for lack of historical records.[11]

text: Early attempts at establishing permanent settlements were failures. In 1598, a French trading post was established on Sable Island, off the coast of Acadia, but was unsuccessful. In 1600, a trading post was established at Tadoussac, but only five settlers survived the winter.[11] In 1604, a settlement was founded at Île-Saint-Croix on Baie François (Bay of Fundy), which was moved to Port-Royal in 1605.[11] It was abandoned in 1607, re-established in 1610, and destroyed in 1613, after which settlers moved to other nearby locations, creating settlements that were collectively known as Acadia, and the settlers as Acadians.[11]

text: Foundation of Quebec City (1608)[edit]

text: In 1608, sponsored by Henry IV, Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons and Samuel de Champlain founded the city of Quebec with 28 men, the second permanent French settlement in the colony of Canada.[12][13][14] Colonization was slow and difficult. Many settlers died early because of harsh weather and diseases. In 1630, there were only 103 colonists living in the settlement, but by 1640, the population had reached 355.[15]

text: Champlain allied himself as soon as possible with the Algonquin and Montagnais peoples in the area, who were at war with the Iroquois. In 1609, Champlain, along with two other French companions, accompanied by his Algonquin, Montagnais and Huron allies, travelled south from the St. Lawrence valley to Lake Champlain, where he participated decisively in a battle against the Iroquois, killing two Iroquois chiefs with the first shot of his arquebus. This military engagement against the Iroquois solidified Champlain's status with New France's Huron and Algonquin allies, enabling him to maintain bonds that were essential to New France's interests in the fur trade.[16]

text: Champlain also arranged to have young French men live with the natives, to learn their language and customs and help the French adapt to life in North America. These men, known as coureurs des bois (runners of the woods) (such as Étienne Brûlé), extended French influence south and west to the Great Lakes and among the Huron tribes who lived there. For the better part of a century the Iroquois and French clashed in a series of attacks and reprisals.[16]

text: During the first decades of the colony's existence, the French population numbered only a few hundred, while the English colonies to the south were much more populous and wealthy. Cardinal Richelieu, adviser to Louis XIII, wished to make New France as significant as the English colonies. In 1627, Richelieu founded the Company of One Hundred Associates to invest in New France, promising land parcels to hundreds of new settlers and to turn Canada into an important mercantile and farming colony.[17] Champlain was named Governor of New France and Richelieu forbade non-Roman Catholics from living there. Protestants were required to renounce their faith prior to settling in New France; many therefore chose instead to move to the English colonies.[17]

text: The Roman Catholic Church, and missionaries such as the Recollets and the Jesuits, became firmly established in the territory. Richelieu also introduced the seigneurial system, a semi-feudal system of farming that remained a characteristic feature of the St. Lawrence valley until the 19th century. While Richelieu's efforts did little to increase the French presence in New France, they did pave the way for the success of later efforts.[17]

text: At the same time the English colonies to the south began to raid the St. Lawrence valley and, in 1629, Quebec itself was captured and held by the English until 1632.[18] Champlain returned to Canada that year, and requested that Sieur de Laviolette found another trading post at Trois-Rivières, which he did in 1634. Champlain died in 1635.

text: Jesuit missions[edit]

text: The French Catholic Church, which after Champlain's death was the dominant force in New France, wanted to establish a utopian Christian community in the colony.[19] In 1642, they sponsored a group of settlers, led by Paul Chomedey de Maisonneuve, who founded Ville-Marie, precursor to present-day Montreal, farther up the St. Lawrence.[20] Throughout the 1640s, Jesuit missionaries penetrated the Great Lakes region and converted many of the Huron natives. The missionaries came into conflict with the Iroquois, who frequently attacked Montreal.

text: The presence of Jesuit missionaries in Huron society was nonnegotiable. The Huron natives relied on French goods to facilitate life and warfare. Because the French would refuse trade to all Native American societies that denied relations with missionaries, the Huron natives had more of a propensity towards Christian conversion.[21] The Huron natives heavily relied on European goods to perform burial ceremonies known as The Huron Feast of the Dead. Trading with the French allowed for larger amounts of decorative goods to be buried during ceremonies as opposed to only a bare minimum.[21] With the growing epidemics and high number of deaths, the Huron natives could not afford to lose relations with the French, fearing to anger their ancestors.[21]

text: Jesuit missionaries explored the Mississippi River, in the territory of the Illinois. Father Jacques Marquette and explorer Louis Jolliet traveled in a small party, starting from Green Bay down the Wisconsin River to the Mississippi River, communicating with the tribes they met en route. Although Spanish trade goods had reached most of the native peoples, these were the first Frenchmen to connect in the area named for the Illinois, including the Kaskaskia. They kept detailed records of what they saw and the people they met, sketching what they could, and mapped the Mississippi River in 1673.[22] Their travels were described as first contacts with the native tribes, though evidence of contact with Spanish from the south was clear.[22]

text: Subsequent to the arrival of French children in Quebec in 1634, measles was also brought along with them, which quickly spread among the Native American people.[23] Jesuit priest Jean de Brébeuf described the symptoms as being severe. Brebeuf stated that the Native American's fearlessness towards death upon this disease made them perfect candidates for conversion to Christianity.[23] The Native Americans believed that if they did not convert to Christianity, they would be exposed to the evil magic of the priests that caused the illness.[21]

text: Jesuit missionaries were troubled by the absence of patriarchy in Native American communities. Native American women were highly regarded within their societies and participated in political and military decisions.[24] Jesuits attempted to eliminate the matriarchy and shift the powers of men and women to accommodate those of European societies. "In France, women are to be obedient to their masters, their husbands."[25] Jesuits would attempt to justify this to the native women in hopes to enlighten them on proper European behavior. In response, Native American women grew worrisome of the presence of these missionaries fearing they would lose power and freedom within their communities.[25]

text: By 1649, both the Jesuit mission and the Huron society were almost destroyed by Iroquois invasions (see Canadian Martyrs). In 1653, a peace invitation was extended by the Onondaga Nation to New France and an expedition of Jesuits, led by Simon Le Moyne, established Sainte Marie de Ganentaa in 1656. The Jesuits were forced to abandon the mission by 1658, as hostilities with the Iroquois resumed.

text: The transport infrastructure in New France was almost nonexistent, with few roads and canals. The canals would be up to three miles long at times and boats were thin and simple. Thus people used the waterways, especially the St. Lawrence River, as the main form of transportation, by canoes. In the winter, when the lakes froze, both the poor and the rich travelled by sleds pulled by dogs or horses. A land transportation system was not developed in the region until the 1830s, when stretches of road were built along the river, and the Rideau Canal project was not completed until 1840.

text: Royal takeover and attempts to settle[edit]

text: In 1650, New France had seven hundred colonists and Montreal had only a few dozen settlers. Because the First Nations people did most of the work of beaver hunting, the company needed few French employees. The severely underpopulated New France almost fell completely to hostile Iroquois forces. In 1660, settler Adam Dollard des Ormeaux led a Canadian and Huron militia against a much larger Iroquois force; none of the Canadians survived, but they succeeded in turning back the Iroquois invasion. In 1627, Quebec had only eighty-five French colonists and was easily overwhelmed two years later when three English privateers plundered the settlement. In 1663, New France finally became more secure when Louis XIV made it a royal province, taking control away from the Company of One Hundred Associates. In the same year the Société Notre-Dame de Montréal ceded its possessions to the Seminaire de Saint-Sulpice.[26] The crown stimulated emigration to New France by paying for transatlantic passages and offering other incentives to those willing to move, and the population of New France grew to three thousand.[27]

text: In 1665, Louis XIV sent a French garrison, the Carignan-Salières Regiment, to Quebec. The government of the colony was reformed along the lines of the government of France, with the Governor General and Intendant subordinate to the Minister of the Marine in France. In 1665, Jean Talon was sent by Minister of the Marine Jean-Baptiste Colbert to New France as the first Intendant. These reforms limited the power of the Bishop of Quebec, who had held the greatest amount of power after the death of Champlain.

text: The 1666 census of New France was conducted by France's intendant, Jean Talon, in the winter of 1665–66. It showed a population of 3,215 habitants in New France, many more than there had been only a few decades earlier, but also a great difference in the number of men (2,034) and women (1,181).[28]

text: Talon tried to reform the seigneurial system, forcing the seigneurs to actually reside on their land, and limiting the size of the seigneuries, in an attempt to make more land available to new settlers. These schemes were ultimately unsuccessful. Very few settlers arrived, and the various industries established by Talon did not surpass the importance of the fur trade.

text: Settlers and their families[edit]

text: The first settler was brought to Quebec by Champlain – the apothecary Louis Hébert and his family, of Paris. They came expressly to settle, stay in one place to make the New France settlement function. Waves of recruits came in response to the requests for men with specific skills, like farming, apothecaries, blacksmiths. As couples married, cash incentives to have large families were put in place, and were effective.

text: To strengthen the colony and make it the centre of France's colonial empire, Louis XIV decided to send single women, aged between 15 and 30 known as the King's Daughters or in French, les filles du roi, to New France, paying for their passage and granting goods or money as a dowry. Approximately 800 arrived during 1663–1673. The King's Daughters found husbands among the male settlers within a year or two, as well as a new life for themselves. They came on their own choice, many because they could not make a favorable marriage in the social hierarchy in France. They were from commoner families in the Paris area, Normandy and the central-western regions of France. By 1672, the population of New France had risen to 6,700, from 3,200 in 1663.[29]

text: At the same time, marriages with the natives were encouraged, and indentured servants, known as engagés, were also sent to New France. The women played a major role in establishing family life, civil society, and enabling rapid demographic growth.[30] There was a high demand for children, for they contributed to the prosperity of the farm from an early age, and there was plenty of food for them. Women bore about 30% more children than comparable women who remained in France. Landry says, "Canadians had an exceptional diet for their time. This was due to the natural abundance of meat, fish, and pure water; the good food conservation conditions during the winter; and an adequate wheat supply in most years."[30]

text: Besides household duties, some women participated in the fur trade, the major source of cash in New France. They worked at home alongside their husbands or fathers as merchants, clerks and provisioners. Some were widows who took over their husband's roles. A handful were active entrepreneurs in their own right.[31]

text: Growth of the settlements[edit]

text: After the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, New France began to prosper. Industries such as fishing and farming, which had failed under Talon, began to flourish. A "King's Highway" (Chemin du Roy) was built between Montreal and Quebec to encourage faster trade. The shipping industry also flourished as new ports were built and old ones were upgraded. The number of colonists greatly increased. By 1720, Canada had become a self-sufficient colony with a population of 24,594 people.[32] The Church, although now less powerful than it had originally been, controlled education and social welfare. These years of peace are often referred to by French Canadians as New France's "Golden Age".[citation needed]

text: Settlements in Louisiana[edit]

text: The French extended their territorial claim to the south and to the west of the American colonies late in the 17th century, naming it for King Louis XIV, as La Louisiane. In 1682, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle explored the Ohio River Valley and the Mississippi River Valley, and he claimed the entire territory for France as far south as the Gulf of Mexico.[33] La Salle attempted to establish the first southern colony in the new territory in 1685, but inaccurate maps and navigational issues led him to instead establish his Fort Saint Louis in what is now Texas. The colony was devastated by disease, and the surviving settlers were killed in 1688, in an attack by the area's indigenous population.[34] Other parts of Louisiana were settled and developed with success, such as New Orleans and southern Illinois, leaving a strong French influence in these areas long after the Louisiana Purchase.

text: Many strategic forts were built there, under the orders of Governor Louis de Buade de Frontenac. Forts were also built in the older portions of New France that had not yet been settled.[35] Many of these forts were garrisoned by the Troupes de la Marine, the only regular soldiers in New France between 1683 and 1755.[36]

text: Fur trade and economy[edit]

text: According to the staples thesis, the economic development of New France was marked by the emergence of successive economies based on staple commodities, each of which dictated the political and cultural settings of the time. During the 16th and early 17th centuries New France's economy was heavily centered on its Atlantic fisheries. This would change in the later half of the 17th and 18th centuries as French settlement penetrated further into the continental interior.[37] Here French economic interests would shift and concentrate itself on the development of the North American fur trade. It would soon become the new staple good that would strengthen and drive New France's economy, in particular that of Montreal, for the next century.

text: The trading post of Ville-Marie, established on the current island of Montreal, quickly became the economic hub for the French fur trade. It achieved this in great part due to its particular location along the St. Lawrence River. From here a new economy emerged, one of size and density that provided increased economic opportunities for the inhabitants of New France. In December 1627 the Company of New France was recognized and given commercial rights to the gathering and export of furs from French territories.[39] By trading with native populations and securing the main markets its power grew steadily for the next decade. As a result, it was able to set specific price points for furs and other valuable goods, often doing so to protect its economic hegemony over other trading partners and other areas of the economy.

text: The fur trade itself was based on a commodity of small bulk but yet high value. Because of this it managed to attract increased attention and/or input capital that would otherwise be intended for other areas of the economy. The Montreal area witnessed a stagnant agricultural sector; it remained for the most part subsistence orientated with little or no trade purposes outside of the French colony. This was a prime example of the handicapping effect the fur trade had on its neighbouring areas of the economy.[40]

text: Nonetheless, by the beginning of the 1700s the economic prosperity the fur trade stimulated slowly transformed Montreal. Economically, it was no longer a town of small traders or of fur fairs but rather a city of merchants and of bright lights. The primary sector of the fur trade, the act of acquiring and the selling of the furs, quickly promoted the growth of complementary second and tertiary sectors of the economy. For instance a small number of tanneries was established in Montreal as well as a larger number of inns, taverns and markets that would support the growing number of inhabitants whose livelihood depended on the fur trade. Already by 1683 there were well over 140 families and there may have been as many as 900 people living in Montreal.

text: The founding of the Compagnie des Indes in 1718, once again highlighted the economic importance of the fur trade.[41] This merchant association, like its predecessor the Compagnie des Cent Associes, regulated the fur trade to the best of its abilities imposing price points, supporting government sale taxes and combating black market practices. However, by the middle half of the 18th century the fur trade was in a slow decline.[42]

text: The natural abundance of furs had passed and it could no longer meet market demand. This eventually resulted in the repeal of the 25 percent sales tax that had previously aimed at curbing the administrative costs New France had accumulated. In addition, dwindling supply increased black market trading. A greater number of natives and fur traders began circumventing Montreal and New France altogether; many began trading with either British or Dutch merchants to the south.[42]

text: By the end of French rule in New France in 1763, the fur trade had significantly lost its importance as the key stable good that supported much of New France's economy for more than the last century. Even so, it did serve as the fundamental force behind the establishment and vast growth of Montreal and the French colony.

text: Coureurs des bois and voyageurs[edit]

text: The coureurs des bois were responsible for starting the flow of trade from Montreal, carrying French goods into upper territories while the aboriginals were bringing down their furs. The coureurs traveled with intermediate trading tribes, and found that they were anxious to prevent French access to the more distant fur-hunting tribes. Still, the coureurs kept thrusting outwards using the Ottawa River as their initial step upon the journey and keeping Montreal as their starting point.[43] The Ottawa River was significant because it offered a route that was practical for Europeans, by taking the traders northward out of the territory dominated by the Iroquois. It was for this reason that Montreal and the Ottawa River was a central location of aboriginal warfare and rivalry.

text: Montreal faced difficulties by having too many coureurs out in the woods. The furs coming down were causing an oversupply on the markets of Europe. This challenged the coureurs trade because they so easily evaded controls, monopolies, and taxation, and additionally because the coureurs trade was held to debauch both French and aboriginals. The coureur debauched Frenchmen by accustoming them to fully live with aboriginals, and aboriginals by trading on their desire for alcohol.[43]

text: The issues caused a great rift in the colony, and in 1678, it was confirmed by a General Assembly that the trade was to be made in public so as to better assure the safety of aboriginals. It was also forbidden to take spirits inland to trade with aboriginals. However these restrictions on the coureurs, for a variety of reasons, never worked. The fur trade remained dependent on spirits, and increasingly in the hands of the coureurs who journeyed north in search of furs.[43]

text: As time passed, the Coureurs des bois were partially replaced by licensed fur trading endeavors, and the main canoe travel workers of those endeavors were called voyageurs.

text: Indigenous peoples[edit]

text: The French were interested in exploiting the land through the fur trade as well as the timber trade later on. Despite having tools and guns, the French settlers were dependent on Indigenous people to survive in the difficult climate in this part of North America. Many settlers did not know how to survive through the winter; the Indigenous people showed them how to survive in the New World. They showed the settlers how to hunt for food and to use the furs for clothing that would protect them during the winter months.[44]

text: As the fur trade became the dominant economy in the New World, French voyageurs, trappers and hunters often married or formed relationships with Indigenous women. This allowed the French to develop relations with their wives' Indigenous nations, which in turn provided protection and access to their hunting and trapping grounds.

text: The fur trade benefited Indigenous people as well. They traded furs for metal tools and other European made items that made their lives easier. Knives, pots and kettles, nets, firearms and hatchets made provided improvements in the general welfare. At the same time, while their everyday lives were made easier, some traditional ways of doing things were abandoned or altered, and while Indigenous people embraced many of these implements and tools, they also were exposed to less vital trade goods, such as alcohol and sugar.[45]

text: Formal entry of England in New France area fur trade[edit]

text: Since Henry Hudson had claimed Hudson Bay, and the surrounding lands for England in 1611, English colonists had begun expanding their boundaries across what is now the Canadian north beyond the French-held territory of New France. In 1670, King Charles II of England issued a charter to Prince Rupert and "the Company of Adventurers of England trading into Hudson Bay" for an English monopoly in harvesting furs in Rupert's Land, a portion of the land draining into Hudson Bay. This is the start of the Hudson's Bay Company, ironically aided by French coureurs des bois, Pierre-Esprit Radisson and Médard des Groseilliers, frustrated with French license rules.[46][47][48] Now both France and England were formally in the Canadian fur trade.[49]

text: The economy of La Louisiane[edit]

text: The major commercial importance of the Louisiana Purchase territory was the Mississippi River. New Orleans, the largest and most important city in the territory, was the most commercial city in the United States until the Civil War, with most jobs there being related to trade and shipping; there was little manufacturing. The first commercial shipment to come down the Mississippi River was of deer and bear hides in 1705.[50] The area, always loosely defined in those early times of European claims and settlements, extended as far east as the city that is now Mobile, Alabama, begun by French settlers in 1702.

text: The French (later Spanish) Louisiana Territory was owned by France for a number of years before the money-losing territory was transferred to French banker Antoine Crozat in 1713 for 15 years. After losing four times his investment, Crozat gave up his charter in 1717. Control of Louisiana and its 700 inhabitants was given to the Company of the Indies in 1719. The company conducted a major settlement program by recruiting European settlers to locate in the territory. Unemployed persons, convicts and prostitutes were also sent to the Louisiana Territory. After the bankruptcy of the company in 1720, control was returned to the king.[50][51]

text: Louis XV saw no value in Louisiana, and in order to bring about an end to the Seven Years' War, he transferred Louisiana to his cousin Charles III of Spain in 1763. Louisiana remained under the control of Spain until it was demanded to be turned over to France by Napoleon. Although Louisiana was property of France by the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1800, Louisiana continued to be administered by Spain until the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. Following the Louisiana purchase, the population of the subsequently divided territory that contained most of present-day Louisiana tripled between 1803 and Louisiana statehood in 1812.

text: Judicial branch of New France[edit]

text: Early history in New France (pre-1663)[edit]

text: In the early stage of French settlement, legal matters fell within the Governor of New France's purview.[52] Under this arrangement, legal disputes were settled in an incoherent fashion due to the Governor's arbitrariness in issuing verdicts.

text: Since 1640, a Seneschal (sénéchal), a Judge (juge d'épée, which literally means 'sword-bearing judge'), and a jurisdiction in Trois-Rivières were created.[52] However, the Seneschal was under the oversight by the Governor, hence the Governor still had rather extensive control over legal matters in New France.[52] In 1651, the Company of New France made the Great Seneschal (Grand Sénéchal) the chief justice.[52] However, the Island of Montreal had its special Governor at that time, who also administered justice on the Island, and had not handed over justice to the Grand Seneschal until 1652.[53]

text: In practice, though, the Great Seneschal was awarded as an honorary title to the son of Jean de Lauson, then Governor of New France; judicial functions were in fact carried out by the Seneschal's deputies.[54] These deputies included such officials as the civil and criminal lieutenant general (lieutenant général civil et criminel), the special lieutenant (lieutenant particulier, acting as assistant royal judge), and the lieutenant fiscal (lieutenant fiscal, acting as tax magistrate).[54]

text: The Civil and Criminal Lieutenant General sat as judge in trials at first instance, whereas appeals would be adjudicated by the Governor, who held the sovereign right to settle final appeals on behalf of the French king. The Great Seneschal also had a magistrate in Trois-Rivières, as well as a bailiff formed by the Society of Priests of Saint Sulpice on the Island of Montreal.[55]

text: Apart from judicial responsibilities, the Great Seneschal was also in charge of convening local nobility in New France, as well as issuing declarations of war if necessary.[53] However, such alternative role of the Great Seneschal was much weakened soon after by having the rights to declare war and to administer finances stripped off from the office because the French crown feared that colonial officers held too much authority.[53]

text: Legal Reforms 1663[edit]

text: Royal judges and the Sovereign Council[edit]

text: On 13 October 1663, the royal court replaced the Seneschal Office (sénéchaussée). Canada was divided into three districts: the district of Quebec City, the district of Trois-Rivières, and the district of Montreal.[56] Each district had its own separate jurisdiction with a judge appointed by the Crown, known as the civil and criminal lieutenants general.[56] They were responsible for all legal matters, civil and criminal, in each of the districts.[56]

text: In addition to the royal judges, there were other judicial officers in each district. The clerk of court (registrar) was responsible for transcribing all court proceedings as well as other documents relevant to each of the cases.[55] The king's attorney (procureur du roi) was responsible for inquiring into the facts and preparing the case against the accused.[57] In the districts of Quebec City and Montreal, the royal judges had special lieutenants to substitute them whenever they were absent or sick.[57] Feudal courts heard minor cases.[58][59]

text: The reform also brought the Sovereign Council of New France (Conseil souverain) into existence, which was later renamed the Superior Council (Conseil supérieur). The Sovereign Council effectively acted as the functional equivalent of a Council of State (Conseil d'État) for New France, having the authority to hand down verdicts on final appeal.[60] Initially, the Council convened once every week, and the quorum of the Sovereign Council was seven for criminal matters, or five for civil cases.[60] The Council's practices evolved over time. At the Sovereign Council there was a king's attorney-general (procureur général du roi) in charge of the similar tasks as the district king's attorneys.[61] He was also responsible for supervising the king's attorneys' daily operations as well as execution of royal edicts and regulations passed by the Council in their respective districts.[62]

text: The Custom of Paris[edit]

text: In 1664, the Custom of Paris (coutume de Paris) was formally set as the main source of law for civil law in France's overseas empire. All royal judges and king's attorneys in New France had to be thoroughly familiar with this compilation of rules.[60] The Custom governed various civil aspects of the daily life in New France, including property, marriage, inheritance, and so on.

text: Montreal Island: transition from feudal justice to royal justice[edit]

text: The Island of Montreal was a special case because its judiciary had been previously held by the Society of St-Sulpice. In 1663, Governor-General of New France Augustin de Saffray de Mésy originally considered appointing Paul de Chomedey, Sieur de Maisonneuve the Governor of the Island of Montreal and consolidating a royal jurisdiction on the island, but the plan garnered the St-Sulpicians' disapproval, who held the Island as its own fiefdom and effectively acted as the island's governor.[63] In other words, the Sovereign Council had not been able to seize effective control over the legal matters of the Island; instead, the St-Sulpicians administered justice on the island.

text: It was not until 16 September 1666, that the St-Sulpicians finally handed over the justice of the Island of Montreal to the Intendant of New France.[64] In 1693, the French king commanded the replacement of the ecclesiastical courts in Montreal with a royal court composed of one royal judge, with appeals going to the Sovereign Council. The introduction of a royal court on the Montreal Island also resulted in the abolition of the feudal court in the fief of Trois-Rivières (then held by the Jesuits).[65]

text: Quebec: founding of the Provostry of Quebec[edit]

text: In the Quebec City district, the lower court (tribunal antérieur) was established in 1664 and had jurisdiction to try cases at first instance, but then it was abolished in 1674.[66] The Sovereign Council appointed trial judges (juges inférieurs) to adjudicate cases at first instance until the Provostry of Quebec (prévôté de Québec) was created in May 1677.

text: The Provostry of Quebec was located in the Hall of Justice (palais de justice) in Quebec City and had only one royal judge, also known as the civil and criminal lieutenant general of Quebec City, who heard both civil and criminal cases, as well as district police.[66] Additionally, a court clerk and a king's attorney were appointed to the court; if either of these two officers could not attend the trials due to illness or other untenable circumstances, the Intendant would appoint a temporary substitute.[66]

text: Criminal Justice[edit]

text: In the early stages of French colonization, the execution of criminal justice in New France were rather arbitrary. The Governor of New France served as the judge to the colonists as well as soldiers. He would announce his verdict at the presence of the chiefs of the Company of One Hundred Associates and that would be final.[67]

text: After the Sovereign Council was established in Quebec in 1663, the Council carried out criminal justice according to the general ordinances of France.[67] In 1670, the Criminal Ordinance was enacted in New France by order of the French king as a codification of the previous criminal laws passed by the Sovereign Council.[68]

text: Special courts[edit]

text: Ecclesiastical court[edit]

text: The ecclesiasitical court (tribunal ecclésiastique, or Officialité) was a special court for hearing first instance trials on both religious and secular affairs involving members of the Church.[69] It first appeared in around 1660 but was not officially recognized by state authorities for it was not administered by a bishop, until 1684.[69] Appeals from this court lay with the Sovereign Council.[69]

text: Admiralty court[edit]

text: The court of admiralty was created in 12 January 1717 and was the last judicial body set up in Canada during the French colonial period.[70] The court had a judge (also known as the lieutenant-general of the court) appointed by the French admiralty, a king's attorney, a clerk of court, and one or two bailiffs (hussiers).[71] The admiralty court was located in Quebec City and had jurisdiction over all of New France except Louisiana and Louisbourg.[69] The court heard first instance trials on maritime affairs, including commerce and seamen's conduct.[69] During wartime, it also commanded maritime police.[69] Before 1717, the Quebec Provostry performed the duties of the admiralty court.[69]

text: Acadia[edit]

text: Unlike Canada, Acadia's judicial system was somewhat under-developed during the New France period. Prior to 1670, Acadia was in a state of being torn between various European colonists. None of countries—France, England, the Netherlands—were able to put in place a stable jurisdiction there.

text: In 1670, France regained control of Acadia and appointed Mathieu de Goutin as the Civil and Criminal Lieutenant (lieutenant civil et criminel) of Acadia.[72] Simultaneously, the Governor of Acadia was set up and his job was primarily the defense of Acadia from English invasion.[73] The Civil and Criminal Lieutenant was essentially supervised by the Governor, who held superior judicial authority over the Lieutenant, but for most of the time would let the Lieutenant mediate and decide legal affairs.[74]

text: Due to the situation in Acadia as a small settlement of around 399 settlers in 1670-71, vulnerable to foreign invasion, courts were minimal, consisting of only a Civil and Criminal Lieutenant and a king's attorney.[73] There was not an official court in Acadia, although the king's attorney of Acadia performed very similar duties as his counterpart in New France.[75] Yet since Acadia never actually had a court, there was no clerk of court; instead, trials were recorded by a local notary.[75] It is difficult to trace the judicial history of French Acadia as the relevant archives were destroyed in a fire in 1708.[75]

text: Military conflicts[edit]

text: The presence of settlers, of businesses from several European countries harvesting furs, along with the interests of the indigenous people in this new competition for North American resources set the scene for significant military conflicts among all parties in New France beginning in 1642, and ending with the Seven Years' War, 1756–1763.

text: Iroquois attacks against Montreal[edit]

text: Ville-Marie was a noteworthy site for it was the center of defense against the Iroquois, the point of departure for all western and northern journeys, and the meeting point to which the trading Indians brought their annual furs. This placed Ville-Marie, later known as Montreal, at the forefront against the Iroquois, which resulted in its trade being easily and frequently interrupted. The Iroquois were in alliance with the Dutch and English,[76] which allowed them to interrupt the French fur trade and send the furs down the Hudson River to the Dutch and English traders.[43]

text: This also put the Iroquois at warfare against the Hurons, the Algonquians, and any other tribes that were in alliance with the French. If the Iroquois could destroy New France and its Indian allies, they would be able to trade freely and profitably with the Dutch and English on the Hudson River.[77] The Iroquois formally attacked the settlement at today's Quebec City in its foundation year of 1642, and in almost every subsequent year thereafter.[78] A militant theocracy maintained Montreal. In 1653 and 1654, reinforcements arrived at Montreal, which allowed the Iroquois to be halted.[79][self-published source] In that year the Iroquois made peace with the French.[43]

text: Adam Dollard des Ormeaux, a colonist and soldier of New France, was a notable figure regarding the Iroquois attacks against Montreal. The Iroquois soon resumed their assaults against Montreal, and the few settlers of Montreal fell almost completely to hostile Iroquois forces. In the spring of 1660, Adam Dollard des Ormeaux led a small militia consisting of 16 men from Montreal against a much larger Iroquois force at the Battle of Long Sault on the Ottawa River.[80] They succeeded in turning back the Iroquois invasion and are responsible for saving Montreal from destruction.[81] The encounter between Ormeaux and the Iroquois is of significance because it dissuaded the Iroquois from further attacks against Montreal.[82]

text: King William's War[edit]

text: In 1688, King William's War began and the English and Iroquois launched a major assault on New France, after many years of small skirmishes throughout the English and French territories. New France and the Wabanaki Confederacy were able to thwart New England expansion into Acadia, whose border New France defined as the Kennebec River in southern Maine.[83][84][85] King William's War ended in 1697, but a second war (Queen Anne's War) broke out in 1702. Quebec survived the English invasions of both these wars, and during the wars France seized many of the English Hudson's Bay Company fur trading centres on Hudson Bay including York Factory, which the French renamed Fort Bourbon.

text: Queen Anne's War[edit]

text: While Acadia survived the English invasion during King William's War, the colony fell during Queen Anne's War. The final Conquest of Acadia happened in 1710. In 1713, peace came to New France with the Treaty of Utrecht.[86] Although the treaty turned Hudson Bay, Newfoundland and part of Acadia (peninsular Nova Scotia) over to Great Britain, France remained in control of Île Royale (Cape Breton Island) (which also administered Île Saint-Jean (Prince Edward Island)). The northern part of Acadia, what is today New Brunswick and Maine, remained contested territory. Construction of Fortress Louisbourg on Île Royale, a French military stronghold intended to protect the approaches to the St. Lawrence River settlements, began in 1719.[87]

text: Father Rale's War[edit]

text: In Acadia, however, war continued. Father Rale's War (1722–1725) was a series of battles between New England and the Wabanaki Confederacy, who were allied with New France. New France and the Wabanaki Confederacy defended against the expansion of New England settlements into Acadia, whose border New France defined as the Kennebec River in southern Maine.[83][84][85] After the New England Conquest of Acadia in 1710, mainland Nova Scotia was under the control of New England, but both present-day New Brunswick and virtually all of present-day Maine remained contested territory between New England and New France. To secure New France's claim to the region, it established Catholic missions among the three largest native villages in the region: one on the Kennebec River (Norridgewock); one further north on the Penobscot River (Penobscot) and one on the Saint John River (Medoctec).[88][89]

text: The war began on two fronts: when New England pushed its way through Maine and when New England established itself at Canso, Nova Scotia. As a result of the war, Maine fell to the New Englanders with the defeat of Father Sébastien Rale at Norridgewock and the subsequent retreat of the native population from the Kennebec and Penobscot rivers to St. Francis and Becancour, Quebec.[a]

text: King George's War[edit]

text: Peace lasted in Canada until 1744, when news of the outbreak of the War of the Austrian Succession (King George's War in North America) reached Fort Louisbourg. The French forces went on the attack first in a failed attempt to capture Annapolis Royal, the capital of the British Nova Scotia. In 1745, William Shirley, governor of Massachusetts, led a counterattack on Louisbourg. Both France and New France were unable to relieve the siege, and Louisbourg fell to the British. With the famed Duc d'Anville Expedition, France attempted to retake Acadia and the fortress in 1746 but failed. The fortress was returned to France under the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, but the peace treaty, which restored all colonial borders to their pre-war status, did little to end the lingering enmity between France, Britain, and their respective colonies, nor did it resolve any territorial disputes.

text: Father Le Loutre's War[edit]

text: Within Acadia and Nova Scotia, Father Le Loutre's War (1749–1755) began with the British founding of Halifax. During Father Le Loutre's War, New France established three forts along the border of present-day New Brunswick to protect it from a New England attack from Nova Scotia. The war continued until British victory at Fort Beausejour, which dislodged Father Le Loutre from the region, thereby ending his alliance with the Maliseet, Acadians and Mi'kmaq.[89]

text: French and Indian War[edit]

text: Fort Duquesne, located at the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers at the site of present-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, guarded the most important strategic location in the west at the time of the Seven Years' War. It was built to ensure that the Ohio River valley remained under French control. A small colonial force from Virginia began a fort here, but a French force under Claude-Pierre Pécaudy de Contrecœur drove them off in April 1754. New France claimed this as part of their colony, and the French were anxious to keep the British from encroaching on it. The French built Fort Duquesne here to serve as a military stronghold and as a base for developing trade and strengthening military alliances with the Aboriginal peoples of the area.

text: In 1755, General Edward Braddock led an expedition against Fort Duquesne, and although they were numerically superior to the French militia and their Indian allies, Braddock's army was routed and Braddock was killed.[90] Later that same year at the Battle of Lake George, the British General William Johnson with a force of 1700 American and Iroquois troops defeated a French force of 2800 French and Canadians and 700 Native Americans led by Baron Dieskau (Military commander of New France).

text: The fight for control over Ohio Country led to the French and Indian War, which began as the North American phase of the Seven Years' War (which did not technically begin in Europe until 1756). The war began with the defeat of a Virginia militia contingent led by Colonel George Washington by the French troupes de la marine in the Ohio valley. As a result of that defeat, the British decided to prepare the conquest of Quebec City, the capital of New France. The British defeated France in Acadia in the Battle of Fort Beausejour (1755) and then Île Royale (Cape Breton Island) (which also administered Île Saint-Jean (Prince Edward Island) with the Siege of Louisbourg (1758). Throughout the war, the British removed the Acadians from the region, which the Mi'kmaq and Acadian militias resisted.

text: These British military successes were resisted, with successes by the French and Native Americans. In 1756, a large force of French, Canadians, and their Native American allies led by Marquis de Montcalm launched an attack against the key British post at Fort Oswego on Lake Ontario from Fort Frontenac and forced the garrison to surrender. The following year Montcalm with a huge force of 7200 French and Canadians and 2400 Native Americans laid siege to Fort William Henry on the southern shores of Lake George, and after three weeks of fighting the British commander Monroe surrendered. Montcalm gave him honorable terms to return to England and not to fight for 18 months. But many of the Native Americans were hungry for scalps and loot, so when the British force with civilians were three miles from the fort they massacred about 1100 of the 1500 strong force.

text: The following year the French had one victory and one defeat. The defeat was at the French fortress city of Louisbourg. The victory was at the strip of land between Lake Champlain and Lake George at the French fortress of Fort Carillon. The British force sent to capture Fort Carillon (held by just 3400 French regulars and marines with almost no militia or aboriginal support) was the largest ever seen in America at that time: 16,200 British, American, and Iroquois troops under the command of the dull political General James Abercrombie (called Mrs. Nabbycrombie by his troops and aunt aubbie by his officers). This battle cost the British 2200 troops, several artillery pieces, and most of the morale of that British army; meanwhile French losses were around 200 killed or wounded.

text: While the British Conquest of Acadia happened in 1710, the French continued to remain a significant force in the region with Fort Beausejour and Fortress Louisbourg. The dominant population in the region remained Acadian. In 1755, the British were successful in the Battle of Beausejour and immediately after began the expulsion of the Acadians. The intent of the expulsion, in military terms, was to neutralize the supposed military threat posed by the Acadian people and stop the vital supply lines they maintained for Louisbourg.

text: In the meantime the French continued to explore westwards and expand their trade alliances with indigenous peoples. Fort de la Corne was built in 1753, by Louis de la Corne, Chevalier de la Corne just east of the Saskatchewan River Forks in what is today the Canadian province of Saskatchewan. This was the furthest westward outpost of the French Empire in North America to be established before its fall.

text: Treaties of cession[edit]

text: In 1758, British forces again captured Louisbourg, allowing them to blockade the entrance to the St. Lawrence River. This proved decisive in the war. In 1759, the British besieged Quebec by sea, and an army under General James Wolfe defeated the French under General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham in September. The garrison in Quebec surrendered on 18 September, and by the next year New France had been conquered by the British after the attack on Montreal, which had refused to acknowledge the fall of Canada. The last French governor-general of New France, Pierre François de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnal, surrendered to British Major General Jeffrey Amherst on 8 September 1760. France formally ceded Canada to the British in the Treaty of Paris, signed 10 February 1763.[91]

text: Aftermath[edit]

text: By the mid 1700s the French settlers were well established with a population around 70,000, mainly due to natural increase.[5][6] The European population had grown slowly under French rule.[92][93][94] The British Thirteen Colonies to the south along the Atlantic coast grew in population from natural increase and more new settlers from Europe. By 1760, almost 1.6 million people lived in the British colonies, a ratio of approximately twenty-three to one compared to New France.[95] The population of the New England colonies in 1760, was just shy of 450,000, a ratio 6.5 to 1.

text: French culture and religion remained dominant in most of the former territory of New France until the arrival of British settlers led to the later creation of Upper Canada (today Ontario) and New Brunswick. The Louisiana Territory, under Spanish control since the end of the Seven Years' War, remained off-limits to settlement from the thirteen American colonies.

text: Twelve years after the British defeated the French, the American Revolutionary War broke out in Britain's lower thirteen colonies. Many Québécois would take part in the war, including Major Clément Gosselin and Admiral Louis-Philippe de Vaudreuil. After the British surrender at Yorktown in 1781, the Treaty of Versailles gave all former British claims in New France below the Great Lakes into the possession of the nascent United States. A Franco-Spanish alliance treaty returned Louisiana to France in 1801, but French leader Napoleon Bonaparte sold it to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, ending French colonial efforts in North America.

text: The portions of the former New France that remained under British rule were administered as Upper Canada and Lower Canada, 1791–1841, and then those regions were merged as the Province of Canada during 1841–1867, when the passage of the British North America Act of 1867 instituted home rule for most of British North America and established French-speaking Quebec (the former Lower Canada) as one of the original provinces of the Dominion of Canada. The former French colony of Acadia was first designated the Colony of Nova Scotia but shortly thereafter the Colony of New Brunswick, which then included Prince Edward Island, was split off from it.

text: In Canada, institutional bilingualism and strong Francophone identities are arguably the most enduring legacy of New France.

text: The only remnant of the former colonial territory of New France that remains under French control to this day is the French overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon (French: Collectivité territoriale de Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon), consisting of a group of small islands 25 kilometres (16 mi) off the coast of Newfoundland, Canada.

text: Political divisions of New France[edit]

text: The territory of New France was divided into five colonies, each with its own administration: Canada, Hudson's Bay, Acadia, Newfoundland (Plaisance), and Louisiana.[1][2][96] The Treaty of Utrecht resulted in the relinquishing of French claims to mainland Acadia, the Hudson Bay and Newfoundland, and the establishment of the colony of Île Royale, now called Cape Breton Island, where the French built the Fortress of Louisbourg.[3][4] Acadia had a difficult history, with the Great Upheaval, remembered on July 28 each year since 2003. The descendants are dispersed in the Maritime Provinces of Canada, in Maine and Louisiana in the United States, with small populations in Chéticamp, Nova Scotia and the Magdalen Islands.

text: In terms of 21st century political divisions and nations, New France included Acadia (eastern Quebec, the coastal territories, and claims to New England as far as Philadelphia, Canada (modern eastern Canada and the Canadian plains in central Canada to the edge of modern-day Alberta), and Louisiana (a vast territory stretching across much of the east half of modern Midwestern United States).

text:
Province of Acadia
Canada

Illinois Country (before 1717)

French Louisiana

Illinois Country (after 1717)

text: Historiography[edit]

text: The Conquest has always been a central and contested theme of Canadian memory—as exemplified by an episode in 2009, when re-enactors were prevented from restaging the decisive 1759 battles in Quebec. Cornelius Jaenen argues that "The Conquest has remained a difficult subject for French-Canadian historians" who were divided in viewing it. One group sees it as a highly negative economic, political and ideological disaster that threatened a way of life with materialism and Protestantism. At the other pole are those historians who see the positive benefit of enabling the preservation of language, and religion and traditional customs under British rule.[97] French Canadian debates have escalated since the 1960s, as the conquest is seen as a pivotal moment in the history of Québec's nationalism. Historian Jocelyn Létourneau suggested in 2009, that today, "1759 does not belong primarily to a past that we might wish to study and understand, but, rather, to a present and a future that we might wish to shape and control."[98]

text: Anglophone historians, on the other hand, portray the Conquest as a victory for British military, political and economic superiority that was a permanent benefit to the French.[97]


document_title: Skunk

question_text: where does the smell of the skunk go

question_tokens: where does the smell of the skunk go

root

text: Skunk

text: Etymology[edit]

text:
1630s, squunck, from a southern New England Algonquian language (probably Abenaki) seganku, from Proto-Algonquian */šeka:kwa/, from */šek-/ "to urinate" + */-a:kw/ "fox." "Skunk" has historic use as an insult, attested from 1841. Skunk cabbage is attested from 1751; earlier skunkweed (1738).[5]
In 1634, a skunk was described in the Jesuit Relations:

tag: p

text: The other is a low animal, about the size of a little dog or cat. I mention it here, not on account of its excellence, but to make of it a symbol of sin. I have seen three or four of them. It has black fur, quite beautiful and shining; and has upon its back two perfectly white stripes, which join near the neck and tail, making an oval which adds greatly to their grace. The tail is bushy and well furnished with hair, like the tail of a Fox; it carries it curled back like that of a Squirrel. It is more white than black; and, at the first glance, you would say, especially when it walks, that it ought to be called Jupiter's little dog. But it is so stinking, and casts so foul an odor, that it is unworthy of being called the dog of Pluto. No sewer ever smelled so bad. I would not have believed it if I had not smelled it myself. Your heart almost fails you when you approach the animal; two have been killed in our court, and several days afterward there was such a dreadful odor throughout our house that we could not endure it. I believe the sin smelled by Saint Catherine de Sienne must have had the same vile odor.[6]

text: Physical description[edit]

text: Skunk species vary in size from about 15.6 to 37 in (40 to 94 cm) long and in weight from about 1.1 lb (0.50 kg) (spotted skunks) to 18 lb (8.2 kg) (hog-nosed skunks). They have moderately elongated bodies with relatively short, well-muscled legs and long front claws for digging.

text: Although the most common fur color is black and white, some skunks are brown or grey and a few are cream-colored. All skunks are striped, even from birth. They may have a single thick stripe across back and tail, two thinner stripes, or a series of white spots and broken stripes (in the case of the spotted skunk). Some also have stripes on their legs.

text: Diet[edit]

text: Skunks are omnivorous, eating both plant and animal material and changing their diets as the seasons change. They eat insects and larvae, earthworms, grubs, rodents, lizards, salamanders, frogs, snakes, birds, moles and eggs. They also commonly eat berries, roots, leaves, grasses, fungi and nuts.

text: In settled areas, skunks also seek garbage left by humans. Less often, skunks may be found acting as scavengers, eating bird and rodent carcasses left by cats or other animals. Pet owners, particularly those of cats, may experience a skunk finding its way into a garage or basement where pet food is kept. Skunks commonly dig holes in lawns in search of grubs and worms.

text: Skunks are one of the primary predators of the honeybee, relying on their thick fur to protect them from stings. The skunk scratches at the front of the beehive and eats the guard bees that come out to investigate. Mother skunks are known to teach this behavior to their young.  In addition, In California, skunks dig up yellow-jacket (small hornet) nests in summer, after the compacted soil under oak trees dries out and cracks open, which allows the yellow-jackets to build their nests underground.[citation needed]

text: Behavior[edit]

text: Skunks are crepuscular and solitary animals when not breeding, though in the colder parts of their range, they may gather in communal dens for warmth. During the day, they shelter in burrows which they can dig with their powerful front claws. Males and females occupy overlapping home ranges through the greater part of the year, typically 2 to 4 km2 (0.77 to 1.54 sq mi) for females and up to 20 km2 (7.7 sq mi) for males.

text: Skunks are not true hibernators in the winter, but do den up for extended periods of time. However, they remain generally inactive and feed rarely, going through a dormant stage. Over winter, multiple females (as many as 12) huddle together; males often den alone. Often, the same winter den is repeatedly used.

text: Although they have excellent senses of smell and hearing, they have poor vision, being unable to see objects more than about 3 m (10 ft) away, making them vulnerable to death by road traffic. They are short-lived; their lifespan in the wild can reach seven years, with most living only up to a year.[7][8] In captivity, they may live for up to 10 years.[7][8]

text: Reproduction[edit]

text: Skunks mate in early spring and are polygynous, meaning that successful males mate with more than one female. Before giving birth (usually in May), the female excavates a den to house her litter of four to seven kits. They are placental, with a gestation period of about 66 days.[9]

text: When born, skunk kits are blind, deaf, and covered in a soft layer of fur. About three weeks after birth, their eyes open. The kits are weaned about two months after birth, but generally stay with their mother until they are ready to mate, at about one year of age.

text: The mother is protective of her kits, spraying at any sign of danger. The male plays no part in raising the young.[citation needed]

text: Anal scent glands[edit]

text: Skunks are notorious for their anal scent glands, which they can use as a defensive weapon. They are similar to, though much more developed than, the glands found in species of the family Mustelidae. Skunks have two glands, one on each side of the anus. These glands produce the skunk's spray, which is a mixture of sulfur-containing chemicals such as thiols (traditionally called mercaptans), which have an offensive odor. A skunk's spray is powerful enough to ward off bears and other potential attackers.[citation needed] Muscles located next to the scent glands allow them to spray with a high degree of accuracy, as far as 3 m (10 ft).  The smell aside, the spray can cause irritation and even temporary blindness, and is sufficiently powerful to be detected by a human nose up to 5.6 km (3.5 miles) down wind.[citation needed] Their chemical defense is effective, as illustrated by this extract from Charles Darwin's Voyage of the Beagle:

text: We saw also a couple of Zorrillos, or skunks—odious animals, which are far from uncommon. In general appearance, the Zorrillo resembles a polecat, but it is rather larger and much thicker in proportion. Conscious of its power, it roams by day about the open plain, and fears neither dog nor man. If a dog is urged to the attack, its courage is instantly checked by a few drops of the fetid oil, which brings on violent sickness and running at the nose. Whatever is once polluted by it, is for ever useless. Azara says the smell can be perceived at a league distant; more than once, when entering the harbour of Monte Video, the wind being off shore, we have perceived the odour on board the Beagle. Certain it is, that every animal most willingly makes room for the Zorrillo.[10]

text: Skunks are reluctant to use this weapon, as they carry just enough of the chemical for five or six uses – about 15 cc – and require some ten days to produce another supply.[11] Their bold black and white coloration makes their appearance memorable. It is to a skunk's advantage to warn possible predators off without expending scent: black and white aposematic warning coloration aside, threatened skunks will go through an elaborate routine of hisses, foot-stamping, and tail-high deimatic or threat postures before resorting to spraying. Skunks usually do not spray other skunks, except among males in the mating season. If they fight over den space in autumn, they do so with teeth and claws.[citation needed]

text: Most predators of the Americas, such as wolves, foxes and badgers, seldom attack skunks, presumably out of fear of being sprayed. The exceptions are reckless predators whose attacks fail once they are sprayed, dogs, and the great horned owl[12], which is the skunk's only regular predator.[13] In one case, the remains of 57 striped skunks were found in a single owl nest.[14]

text: Skunks are common in suburban areas. Frequent encounters with dogs and other domestic animals, and the release of the odor when a skunk is run over, have led to many myths about the removal of skunk odor. Due to the chemical composition of the spray, most of these household remedies are ineffective.[15] The Humane Society of the United States recommends treating dogs using a mixture of dilute hydrogen peroxide (3%), baking soda, and dishwashing liquid.[16]

text: Skunk spray is composed mainly of three low-molecular-weight thiol compounds, (E)-2-butene-1-thiol, 3-methyl-1-butanethiol, and 2-quinolinemethanethiol, as well as acetate thioesters of these.[17][18][19][20][21] These compounds are detectable by the human nose at concentrations of only 10 parts per billion.[22][23]

text: Bites[edit]

text: It is rare for a healthy skunk to bite a human. While a tame skunk with its scent glands removed may defend itself by biting, there are few recorded incidents. The most prevalent cause of skunks biting humans is the rabies virus. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) recorded 1,494 cases of rabies in skunks in the United States for the year 2006—about 21.5% of reported cases in all species.[24][25] Skunks trail raccoons as vectors of rabies, although this varies regionally (in the United States, raccoons dominate along the Atlantic coast and eastern Gulf of Mexico, skunks throughout the Midwest and down to the western Gulf, and in California).

text: As pets[edit]

text:
Mephitis mephitis, the striped skunk species, is the most social skunk and the one most commonly tamed. When a skunk is kept as a pet, its scent glands are often surgically removed.
Skunks can legally be kept as pets in the UK, but the Animal Welfare Act 2006[26] has made it illegal to remove their scent glands. The legality of keeping skunks as pets in the US varies by state, with it being illegal in a majority of them.[27]

text: Classification[edit]

text: In alphabetical order, the living species of skunks are:[28]

text:
Family Mephitidae
Genus: Conepatus
Conepatus chinga – Molina's hog-nosed skunk
Conepatus humboldtii – Humboldt's hog-nosed skunk
Conepatus leuconotus – American hog-nosed skunk
Conepatus semistriatus – striped hog-nosed skunk
Genus: Mephitis
Mephitis macroura – hooded skunk
Mephitis mephitis – striped skunk
Genus: Spilogale
Spilogale angustifrons – southern spotted skunk
Spilogale gracilis – western spotted skunk
Spilogale putorius – eastern spotted skunk
Spilogale pygmaea – pygmy spotted skunk

tag: ul


document_title: List of longest novels

question_text: which is longer war and peace or les miserables

text: List of longest novels

text: Comparison of methods[edit]

text: Three possible ways to determine length exist and each has its own method for determining length. Character counts are at best estimations of spaces, written characters and punctuation; Guinness World Records uses this criterion.[2] Word counts is another method that counts each word and omits punctuation, but still considered an estimation for length. Using computer software to count words is the currently preferred method for academia and publications.[3] An arbitrary way is to assume that a standard formatted page with 12 pt Courier font and double-spaced lines is 250 words.[4] Due to formatting, page counts are subject to change from font, style, formatting or paper size of the published work and cannot be considered a measure of length despite it being the easiest physical indicator of length. For the purposes of this list, word counts are ideal. Page counts are a relative indicator of length; for proper comparison the page size will be included.

text: Some difficulty is created when comparing word counts across different writing systems. The logographic Chinese characters used to write East Asian languages each represent one morpheme and are not separated by spaces. The same character may at times stand for one word, and other times form part of a larger word. For instance the characters zhong 中 and guo 囯 can be used independently to mean "middle" and "kingdom", respectively, but can also be combined into Zhongguo 中囯, "China" (i.e. "The Middle Kingdom"). One could theoretically construct a noun phrase Zhongguo zhong guo 中囯中囯 meaning "kingdoms in the middle of China". The absence of any formal marking of word boundaries means that it would be difficult to mechanically determine if such a phrase consists of two, three, or four words without knowing Chinese. East Asian bibliographies therefore generally give only the character count without attempting any word count.

text: While a rough approximation might seemingly be gotten from citing the word count of a translation into a Latin alphabet language like English, this is hazardous as the great grammatical and stylistic differences between the languages might cause one to require more words to convey the same meaning as the other. Citing a translation only indicates how many words are required to convey the same meaning in the target text, not how many words the source text actually consists of.

text: Definitions[edit]

text: What counts as a novel is another variable. A Novel (Noun) is a "Long Fictitious story in book form or a Novel (adjective) "Fresh New or Original" i.e. Unique. For the purposes of the list, a "novel" is defined as a "single work" in print or electronic form that has been published through a mainstream publisher, one that has acquired publishing rights from authors. A "single work" includes works thought of as one novel by the author, but published in multiple volumes for reasons of convenience.

text: Excluded are self-published, printed-on-demand, vanity works, unpublished novels like Henry Darger's, novel sequences like the Chronicles of Barsetshire, novel cycles such as those set in the James Bond universe, and record-grabbing stunts.[clarification needed]

text: List[edit]

text:
Book title
Author
Edition/publisher
Page count
Page size
Word count
Language
Notes
−

Men of Goodwill
Jules Romains
Calmann Lévy (Paris), 1932-46
7003800000000000000♠8,000 pages, 27 volumes in original edition

7006207000000000000♠2,070,000
French
Twenty-seven volumes. Explicitly considered a "roman" (novel) by its author and not a "cycle".[5]

Artamène ou le Grand Cyrus
ScuderyGeorges and/or[6] Madeleine de Scudéry
Augustin Courbé, 1649–53
7004130950000000000♠13,095 pages, ten volumes[7]

7006195430000000000♠1,954,300[8]
French

Het Bureau
J. J. Voskuil
Van Oorschot, 1996-2000
7003505800000000000♠5,058 pages, seven volumes
7.85 inches (19.9 cm) x 4.95 inches (12.6 cm)
7006159000000000000♠1,590,000[9]
Dutch

Venmurasu
Jeyamohan
Narrinai/Kizhakku
7003924700000000000♠9,247 pages, Eleven volumes[10]
[11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20]

8.25 inches (21.0 cm) x 5.85 inches (14.9 cm)
1,556,028 (as of August 9, 2016)
Tamil
Ongoing version of Mahabaratham in novel form - written so far 12 volumes and published as books.

Gordana
Marija Jurić Zagorka
Školska knjiga, 2007
7003876800000000000♠8,768 pages, twelve volumes[21][22][23]

7006140000000000000♠1,400,000 (estimated)
Croatian
The longest Croatian novel.

A La Recherche À la recherche du temps perdu
ProustMarcel Proust
Gallimard (Collection Folio edition, 1988–1990)
7003303100000000000♠3,031 pages, seven volumes[24]
7 inches (17.8 cm) x 5 inches (12.7 cm)[25]
7006126706900000000♠1,267,069[26]
French
Guinness World Record holder for longest novel. Uses estimated character count of 9,609,000 characters.[27]

Zettels Traum
SchmidtArno Schmidt
Suhrkamp Verlag (2010 edition)
7003153600000000000♠1,536 pages
14.1 inches (35.8 cm) x 10.8 inches (27.4 cm)[28]
7006110000000000000♠1,100,000 (estimated)
German
6,800,000 characters;[29] longest novel published in one volume

Min Kamp
Karl Ove Knausgård
Forlaget Oktober
3,600 pages, six volumes

1,000,000
Norwegian

Ponniyin Selvan
Kalki Krishnamurthy
(1950 edition)
7003240000000000000♠2,400 pages, five volumes

7005900000000000000♠900,000
Tamil
Released in five volumes, this historical novel, originally written in Tamil, tells the story of Arulmozhivarman (Raja Raja Chola I), one of the kings of the Chola Dynasty

Clarissa, or, the History of a Young Lady
RichardsonSamuel Richardson
Penguin Classics (1986)
7003153400000000000♠1,534 pages, seven volumes
9.2 inches (23.4 cm) x 5.8 inches (14.7 cm)[30]
7005943000000000000♠943,000 and 984,870
English
Word count obtained through Project Guttenberg digitization and 1964 estimate by The New York Times[31]

Kelidar
Mahmoud Dowlatabadi
Farhang Moaaser
7003283600000000000♠2,836 pages, ten volumes [32]

7005950000000000000♠950,000 [32]
Persian
The longest Persian novel

Poor Fellow My Country
HerbertXavier Herbert
HarperCollins Publishers (Australia)
7003146600000000000♠1,466 pages, hardcover
8.1 inches (20.6 cm) x 5.6 inches (14.2 cm)[33]
7005852000000000000♠852,000[34]
English
1975 winner of the Miles Franklin Award[35]

Women and Men
McelroyJoseph McElroy
Knopf (1987)
7003119200000000000♠1,192 pages, hardcover
9 inches (22.9 cm) x 6 inches (15.2 cm)[36]
7005850000000000000♠850,000 (estimated[37])
700,000 (estimated[38])

English

Story Of The Stone紅樓夢 (The Story of the Stone)
Cao Xueqin
Penguin Classics
7003233900000000000♠2,339
7.75 inches (19.7 cm) x 5 inches (13 cm)
7005845000000000000♠845,000 (estimated)
Chinese to English translation
(see this page's "Talk" tab for the detailed calculation)

Sironia, Texas
CooperMadison Cooper
Houghton Mifflin (1952)
7003173100000000000♠1,731 pages, two volumes[39]

7005840000000000000♠840,000 (estimated[40][41])
English

Romancxe三國演義 (Romance of the Three Kingdoms)
GuanzhongLuo Guanzhong
Foreign Languages Press (1995)
7003234000000000000♠2,340 pages, four volumes
7.2 inches (18.3 cm) x 4.5 inches (11.4 cm)[42]
7005800000000000000♠800,000 (estimate[43])
Chinese to English translation

Miss MacIntosh, My Darling
YoungMarguerite Young
Scribners (1965)
7003119800000000000♠1,198 pages

7005750000000000000♠750,000 (estimated[44]) 576,000 (estimated[45])
English

Sir Charles Grandison
Samuel Richardson
Oxford World's Classics (1986)
7003164700000000000♠1,647 pages
7.2 inches (18.3 cm) x 4.6 inches (11.7 cm)
7005750000000000000♠750,000 (estimated)
English

Les Misérables
HugoVictor Hugo
Gutenberg ebook edition

7005655478000000000♠655,478[46]
French

Varney the Vampire
RymerJames Malcolm Rymer and Thomas Peckett Prest
Edward Lloyd (1845–47)
7002866000000000000♠866 pages

7005667000000000000♠667,000[47]
English
Originally published anonymously, in serial "penny dreadful" pamphlets. Present-day opinions are divided regarding its authorship.

Atlas Shrugged
RandAyn Rand
Signet Books (1996 edition)
7003108800000000000♠1,088 pages, paperback
6.9 inches (17.5 cm) x 4.1 inches (10.4 cm)[48]
7005645000000000000♠645,000 (estimate by the publisher and by The New York Times[49] and by the author herself quoting printer's word count[50])
English

Jean-Christophe
RollandRomain Rolland
Henry Holt (1910,1911,1913)
7003166600000000000♠1,666 pages, three volumes

7005610000000000000♠610,000 (estimated)
French to English translation
Author received the 1915 Nobel Prize for Literature.

Jerusalem
Moore Alan Moore
Knockabout (2016)
7003126600000000000♠1,266 pages
9.6 inches (24.4 cm) x 6.6 inches (16.8 cm)
7005600000000000000♠600,000 (estimated[51])
English

And ladies"...And Ladies of the Club"
SantmyerHelen Hooven Santmyer
Ohio State University Press (1982)
7003134400000000000♠1,344 pages

7005600000000000000♠600,000 (newspaper estimate)[52]
English
1984 surprise bestseller

Suitable A Suitable Boy
SethVikram Seth
Penguin Books
7003136800000000000♠1,368 pages, paperback
8 inches (20.3 cm) x 5.5 inches (14 cm)[53]
7005593674000000000♠593,674[53]
English
Word count obtained from Amazon digitization (eBook) word count.

F. L. Věk
JirasekAlois Jirásek
CeskoslovenskyČeskoslovenský spisovatel (last printed edition, 1976–1977)
7003187000000000000♠1,870 pages (1972 ed.)

7005571350000000000♠571,350
Czech
Word count obtained from 2011 eBook.[54]

War And PeaceВойна и мир (War and Peace)
TolstoyLeo Tolstoy
Oxford World's Classics
7003144000000000000♠1,440 pages, paperback
7.6 inches (19.3 cm) x 5.1 inches (13.0 cm)[55]
7005587287000000000♠587,287 New American Library Version[56] and 561,093 Oxford World's Classics[57]
Russian to English translation
Edition and translation largely account for differences in word count.

MulinoIl mulino del Po
BacchelliRiccardo Bacchelli
Arnoldo Mondadori Editore
7003211300000000000♠2,113 pages, paperback
8 inches (20.3 cm) x 5.4 inches (13.7 cm)[58]
7005559830000000000♠559,830[citation needed]
Italian

Infinite Jest
WallaceDavid Foster Wallace
Back Bay Books
7003110400000000000♠1,104 pages, paperback
9.2 inches (23.4 cm) x 6 inches (15.2 cm)[59]
7005543709000000000♠543,709
English

Remembrance Rock
SandburgCarl Sandburg
Mariner Books
7003108800000000000♠1,088 pages, paperback
9 inches (22.9 cm) x 6 inches (15.2 cm)[60]
7005532030000000000♠532,030[60] and 673,000[61]
English
Word counts obtained from Amazon digitization (eBook) word count, and author's own count.

To Green Angel Tower
WilliamsTad Williams
DAW Books
7003108300000000000♠1,083 pages, hardcover

7005520000000000000♠520,000[62]
English
Word counts obtained from Amazon digitization (eBook) word count.

Horcynus Orca
DarrigoStefano D'Arrigo
Arnoldo Mondadori Editore
7003125700000000000♠1,257 pages, hardcover
8.2 inches (20.8 cm) x 5.6 inches (14.2 cm)[63]
7005508751000000000♠508,751[64][citation needed]
Italian

tag: table


document_title: List of athletes who competed in both the Summer and Winter Olympic games

question_text: who is the only canadian athlete who won medals in both the summer and winter games

text: Athletes who competed in both Summer and Winter Olympics[edit]

text: Denotes athlete who has won medals in both the Summer and Winter Olympics

text:
Athlete
Nation
Summer Games
Summer Sport
Winter Games
Winter Sport
Number of Summer Games
Number of Winter Games
Total Number of Games

Déván, IstvánIstván Déván
 Hungary
1912
Athletics
1924
Cross-country skiing/Nordic combined
1
1
2[6]

Bremer, VäinöVäinö Bremer
 Finland
1924
Modern pentathlon
1924
Military patrol at the Winter Olympics
1
1
2[7]

Collin, AntonAnton Collin
 Finland
1924
Cycling
1924
Cross-country skiing
1
1
2[8]

Plūme, RobertsRoberts Plūme
 Latvia
1924/1928
Cycling
1924
Cross-country skiing
2
1
3[9]

Stoffel, CharlesCharles Stoffel
 Switzerland
1924/1928
Equestrian
1924/1928
Bobsleigh
2
2
4 [4]

Crivelli, GiuseppeGiuseppe Crivelli
 Italy
1924
Rowing
1928
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[10]

Houben, MaxMax Houben
 Belgium
1920
Athletics
1928/1932/1936/1948
Bobsleigh
1
4
5[4]

Tom, LéonLéon Tom
 Belgium
1912/1920/1924/1928
Fencing
1928
Bobsleigh
4
1
5[11]

Omorovicza, Tibor Heinrich vonTibor Heinrich von Omorovicza
 Hungary
1928/1936
Sailing
1928
Ice hockey
2
1
3[12]

Schäfer, KarlKarl Schäfer
 Austria
1928
Swimming
1928/1932/1936
Figure skating
1
3
4[13]

Støa, JohanJohan Støa
 Norway
1928
Athletics
1928
Cross-country skiing
1
1
2[14]

Szepes, BélaBéla Szepes
 Hungary
1928
Athletics
1924
Cross-country skiing/Nordic combined
1
1
2[15]

Van den Driessche, CarlosCarlos Van den Driessche
 Belgium
1928
Fencing
1924/1936
Ice hockey
1
2
3[16]

Van Volckxsom, PhilippePhilippe Van Volckxsom
 Belgium
1928
Rowing
1920/1924
Ice hockey/Speed skating
1
2
3[17]

Eagan, EddieEddie Eagan
 United States
1920/1924
Boxing
1932
Bobsleigh
2
1
3[2][18]

Van Hege, LouisLouis Van Hege
 Belgium
1920/1924
Football
1932
Bobsleigh
2
1
3[19]

Poplimont, AndréAndré Poplimont
 Belgium
1932
Fencing
1924
Ice hockey
1
1
2[20]

Farkas, MátyásMátyás Farkas
 Hungary
1928
Athletics
1936
Ice hockey
1
1
2[21]

Jurgens, ArvīdsArvīds Jurgens
 Latvia
1924
Football
1936
Ice hockey
1
1
2[22]

Legard, PercyPercy Legard
 Great Britain
1932/1936
Athletics
1936/1948
Nordic Combined
2
2
4[23]

Van Schelle, MartialMartial Van Schelle
 Belgium
1920/1924/1928
Swimming
1936
Bobsleigh
3
1
4[24]

Bergqvist, SvenSven Bergqvist
 Sweden
1936
Football
1936
Ice hockey
1
1
2[25]

Csák, IstvánIstván Csák
 Hungary
1936
Field Hockey
1936
Ice hockey
1
1
2[26]

Gudenus, Johann BaptistJohann Baptist Gudenus
 Austria
1936
Athletics
1932/1936
Bobsleigh
1
2
3[4]

Haraldsen, HarryHarry Haraldsen
 Norway
1936
Cycling
1936
Speed skating
1
1
2[27]

Háray, BélaBéla Háray
 Hungary
1936
Field Hockey
1936
Ice hockey
1
1
2[28]

Leban, KarlKarl Leban
 Austria
1936
Modern pentathlon
1936
Speed skating
1
1
2[29]

Moser, FritzFritz Moser
 Austria
1936
Rowing
1928
Speed skating
1
1
2[30]

Thams, Jacob TullinJacob Tullin Thams
 Norway
1936
Sailing
1924/1928
Ski jumping
1
2
3[2][18]

Szamosi, FerencFerenc Szamosi
 Hungary
1936
Field Hockey
1936
Ice hockey
1
1
2[31]

Zacharias, WilliWilli Zacharias
 Romania
1936
Handball
1936
Alpine Skiing/Cross-country skiing
1
1
2[32]

Frick, XaverXaver Frick
 Liechtenstein
1936
Athletics
1948
Cross-country skiing
1
1
2[33]

Elmsäter, ErikErik Elmsäter
 Sweden
1948
Athletics
1948/1952
Cross-country skiing/Nordic combined/
1
2
3[34]

Musy, PierrePierre Musy
 Switzerland
1948
Equestrian
1936
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[35]

Nowak, OskarOskar Nowak
 Austria
1948
Field hockey
1936/1948
Ice hockey
1
2
3[36]

Casteleyns, AlbertAlbert Casteleyns
 Belgium
1936
Water Polo
1952/1956
Bobsleigh
1
2
3[37]

Guðmundsson, AriAri Guðmundsson
 Iceland
1948
Swimming
1952
Ski jumping
1
1
2[38]

Stokken, MartinMartin Stokken
 Norway
1948/1952
Athletics
1952/1956
Cross-country skiing
2
2
4[39]

Stöckli, FritzFritz Stöckli
 Switzerland
1948
Wrestling
1952
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[40]

Askersrud Tangen, JorunJorun Askersrud Tangen
 Norway
1952
Athletics
1952
Cross-country skiing
1
1
2[41]

Kuusela, KeijoKeijo Kuusela
 Finland
1952
Field hockey
1952
Ice hockey
1
1
2[42]

Mannsbarth, ArthurArthur Mannsbarth
 Austria
1952
Cycling
1952/1956
Speed skating
1
2
3[43]

Bobrov, VsevolodVsevolod Bobrov
 Soviet Union
1952
Football
1956
Ice hockey
1
1
2[44]

Keller, RuediRuedi Keller
 Switzerland
1952
Field hockey
1956
Ice hockey
1
1
2[45]

Knoll, HermannHermann Knoll
 Austria
1952
Field Hockey
1956/1964
Ice hockey
1
2
3[46]

Gulbrandsen, Bjørn OscarBjørn Oscar Gulbrandsen
 Norway
1956
Sailing
1952
Ice hockey
1
1
2[47]

Longsjo, ArtArt Longsjo
 United States
1956
Cycling
1956
Speed skating
1
1
2[48]

Kortelainen, JormaJorma Kortelainen
 Finland
1960
Rowing
1956
Cross-country skiing
1
1
2[49]

Posti, HannuHannu Posti
 Finland
1952
Athletics
1964
Biathlon
1
1
2[50]

Buisset, Jean-MarieJean-Marie Buisset
 Belgium
1964/1968/1972
Field hockey
1964
Bobsleigh
3
1
4[51]

Uhrlass, ArnoldArnold Uhrlass
 United States
1964
Cycling
1960
Speed skating
1
1
2[52]

Omedes, LuisLuis Omedes
 Spain
1952
Rowing
1968
Luge
1
1
2[53]

Boucher, BobBob Boucher
 Canada
1968
Cycling
1968
Speed skating
1
1
2[54]

Bouvy, CharlyCharly Bouvy
 Belgium
1968/1972
Field hockey
1964
Bobsleigh
2
1
3[55]

Hubacher, EdyEdy Hubacher
 Switzerland
1968
Athletics
1972
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[4]

Campbell, ColinColin Campbell
 Great Britain
1968/1972
Athletics
1976
Bobsleigh
2
1
3[23]

Schumann, ManfredManfred Schumann
 West Germany
1972
Athletics
1976
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[56]

Gilman, DavidDavid Gilman
 United States
1976/1984
Canoeing
1976
Luge
2
1
3[57]

Holloway, SueSue Holloway
 Canada
1976/1984
Canoeing
1976
Cross-country skiing
2
1
3 [58]

Beckman, RunaldRunald Beckman
 Sweden
1976
Athletics
1980
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[59]

Davenport, WillieWillie Davenport
 United States
1964/1968/1972/1976
Athletics
1980
Bobsleigh
4
1
5[4]

Röppänen, MauriMauri Röppänen
 Finland
1980/1984
Shooting
1972
Biathlon
2
1
3[60]

Harvey, PierrePierre Harvey
 Canada
1976/1984
Cycling
1984/1988
Cross-country skiing
2
2
4[61]

Strittmatter, RolfRolf Strittmatter
 Switzerland
1980
Athletics
1984
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[62]

Carpenter-Phinney, ConnieConnie Carpenter-Phinney
 United States
1984
Cycling
1972
Speed skating
1
1
2[63]

Johansson, TommyTommy Johansson
 Sweden
1984
Athletics
1984
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[64]

Lindner, JohannJohann Lindner
 Austria
1984/1988/1992
Athletics
1984
Bobsleigh
3
1
4[65]

Foster, JohnJohn Foster
 Virgin Islands
1972/1976/1984/1988/1992
Sailing
1988
Bobsleigh
5
1
6[66]

Guss, LloydLloyd Guss
 Canada
1984
Athletics
1988
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[67]

Masson, AlainAlain Masson
 Canada
1984
Cycling
1988/1992
Cross-country skiing
1
2
3[68]

Bessi, GilbertGilbert Bessi
 Monaco
1988
Athletics
1988/1992/1994/1998
Bobsleigh
1
4
5[69]

Harris, MadonnaMadonna Harris
 New Zealand
1988
Cycling
1988
Cross-country skiing
1
1
2[70]

Hashimoto, SeikoSeiko Hashimoto
 Japan
1988/1992/1996
Cycling
1984/1988/1992/1994
Speed skating
3
4
7[71]

Luding-Rothenburger, ChristaChrista Luding-Rothenburger
 East Germany
 Germany
1988
Cycling
1984/1988/1992
Speed skating
1
3
4[2][18]

Paraskevin-Young, ConnieConnie Paraskevin-Young
 United States
1988/1992/1996
Cycling
1984
Speed skating
3
1
4[72]

Seki, NatsueNatsue Seki
 Japan
1988
Cycling
1988
Speed skating
1
1
2[73]

Bonnet, JorgeJorge Bonnet
 Puerto Rico
1984/1988
Judo
1992/1994/1998
Bobsleigh
2
3
5[74]

Elizondo, MiguelMiguel Elizondo
 Mexico
1988
Athletics
1992
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[75]

Hrabaň, RomanRoman Hrabaň
 Czechoslovakia
1988
Athletics
1992
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[76]

Narracott, PaulPaul Narracott
 Australia
1984
Athletics
1992
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[77]

Haringa, IngridIngrid Haringa
 Netherlands
1992/1996
Cycling
1988
Speed skating
2
1
3[78]

Milenković, AleksandarAleksandar Milenković
 Yugoslavia
 Independent Olympic Athletes
 Serbia and Montenegro
1992
Cycling
1992/2006
Biathlon skiing
Cross-country skiing
1
2
3[79]

Nicholson, ChrisChris Nicholson
 New Zealand
1992
Cycling
1992/1994
Short track speed skating
1
2
3[80]

Gilbert, GlenroyGlenroy Gilbert
 Canada
1988/1992/1996/2000
Athletics
1994
Bobsleigh
4
1
5[81]

Herbert, JohnJohn Herbert
 Great Britain
1984
Athletics
1994
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[23]

de Wit, RobertRobert de Wit
 Netherlands
1988/1992
Athletics
1994
Bobsleigh
2
1
3[82]

Schützenauer, MartinMartin Schützenauer
 Austria
1996
Athletics
1992/1994/1998/2002
Bobsleigh
1
4
5[83]

Neumannová, KateřinaKateřina Neumannová
 Czechoslovakia
 Czech Republic
1996
Cycling
1992/1994/1998/2002/2006
Cross-country skiing
1
5
6[84]

McHugh, TerryTerry McHugh
 Ireland
1988/1992/1996/2000
Athletics
1998/2002
Bobsleigh
4
2
6[85]

Nash, KateřinaKateřina Nash
 Czech Republic
1996/2012
Cycling
1998/2002
Cross-country skiing
2
2
4[86]

Voss, TorstenTorsten Voss
 East Germany
 Germany
1988
Athletics
1998
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[4]

Gyulai, MiklósMiklós Gyulai
 Hungary
2000
Athletics
1994
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[87]

Lunde, JeanetteJeanette Lunde
 Norway
2000
Sailing
1994
Alpine Skiing
1
1
2[88]

Wickenheiser, HayleyHayley Wickenheiser
 Canada
2000
Softball
1998/2002/2006/2010/2014
Ice hockey
1
5
6[89]

Villeneuve, SophieSophie Villeneuve
 France
2000
Cycling
1992/1994/1998
Cross-country skiing
1
3
4[90]

Witty, ChrisChris Witty
 United States
2000
Cycling
1994/1998/2002/2006
Speed skating
1
4
5[91]

Adam, MarcusMarcus Adam
 Great Britain
1992
Athletics
2002
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[92]

Bellutti, AntonellaAntonella Bellutti
 Italy
1996/2000
Cycling
2002
Bobsleigh
2
1
3[93]

da Silva, ClaudineiClaudinei da Silva
 Brazil
1996/2000
Athletics
2002
Bobsleigh
2
1
3[94]

Harries, PhilPhil Harries
 Great Britain
1988
Athletics
2002
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[23]

Hughes, ClaraClara Hughes
 Canada
1996/2000/2012
Cycling
2002/2006/2010
Speed skating
3
3
6[2][18]

Vanderka, MariánMarián Vanderka
 Slovakia
2000
Athletics
2002
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[95]

Beck, TimothyTimothy Beck
 Netherlands
2004
Athletics
2002
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[96]

Bos, JanJan Bos
 Netherlands
2004
Cycling
1998/2002/2006/2010
Speed skating
1
4
5 [97]

Gattuso, SébastienSébastien Gattuso
 Monaco
2004/2008
Athletics
2002/2010/2014
Bobsleigh
2
3
5[98]

Inocêncio, Matheus FachoMatheus Facho Inocêncio
 Brazil
2004
Athletics
2002
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[99]

Kürti, ÉvaÉva Kürti
 Hungary
2004
Athletics
2002
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[100]

Osuga, SayuriSayuri Osuga
 Japan
2004
Cycling
2002/2006
Speed skating
1
2
3[101]

Radanova, EvgeniaEvgenia Radanova
 Bulgaria
2004
Cycling
1994/1998/2002/2006/2010
Short track speed skating
1
5
6[102]

Straathof, JeroenJeroen Straathof
 Netherlands
2004
Cycling
1994
Speed skating
1
1
2[103][Note 1]

Aoto, ShinjiShinji Aoto
 Japan
1988/1992
Athletics
2006
Bobsleigh
2
1
3[104]

Grabušić, JuricaJurica Grabušić
 Croatia
2004/2008
Athletics
2006
Bobsleigh
2
1
3[105]

Krajačić, SlavenSlaven Krajačić
 Croatia
2000
Athletics
2006/2010
Bobsleigh
1
2
3[106]

Kürtösi, ZsoltZsolt Kürtösi
 Hungary
1996/2000
Athletics
2006
Bobsleigh
2
1
3[107]

Margl, TamásTamás Margl
 Hungary
2004
Athletics
2006
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[108]

Mourão, JaquelineJaqueline Mourão
 Brazil
2004/2008
Cycling
2006/2010/2014
Cross-country skiing
2
3
5[109]

Vojnović, DejanDejan Vojnović
 Croatia
2000
Athletics
2006
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[110]

Gyenesei, LeilaLeila Gyenesei
 Hungary
2008
Modern pentathlon
2006
Cross-country skiing
1
1
2[111]

Condon, AllynAllyn Condon
 Great Britain
2000
Athletics
2010
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[23]

Haklits, AndrásAndrás Haklits
 Croatia
2000/2004/2008/2012
Athletics
2010
Bobsleigh
4
1
5[112]

Lopuchovský, MarcelMarcel Lopuchovský
 Slovakia
2000
Athletics
2010
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[113]

Stulneva, OlgaOlga Stulneva
 Russia
2008
Athletics
2010/2014
Bobsleigh
1
2
3[114]

Tešovič, MartinMartin Tešovič
 Slovakia
1996/2004/2012
Weightlifting
2010
Bobsleigh
3
1
4[115]

Barnett, BryanBryan Barnett
 Canada
2008
Athletics
2014
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[116]

Jones, LoloLolo Jones
 United States
2008/2012
Athletics
2014
Bobsleigh
2
1
3[2][18]

Mariën, HannaHanna Mariën
 Belgium
2008
Athletics
2014
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[117]

Pittman, JanaJana Pittman
 Australia
2000/2004
Athletics
2014
Bobsleigh
2
1
3[118]

Williams, LaurynLauryn Williams
 United States
2004/2008/2012
Athletics
2014
Bobsleigh
3
1
4[119]

Simmerling, GeorgiaGeorgia Simmerling
 Canada
2016
Cycling
2006/2010/2014
Alpine skiing/Freestyle skiing
1
3
4[120]

van Riessen, LaurineLaurine van Riessen
 Netherlands
2016
Cycling
2010/2014
Speed skating
1
2
3[121]

Vrabcová-Nývltová, EvaEva Vrabcová-Nývltová
 Czech Republic
2016
Athletics
2006/2010/2014
Cross-country skiing
1
3
4[122]

Adigun, SeunSeun Adigun
 Nigeria
2012
Athletics
2018
Bobsleigh
1
1
2[123]

Taufatofua, PitaPita Taufatofua
 Tonga
2016
Taekwondo
2018
Cross-country skiing
1
1
2[124]

text: Athletes who competed in both Summer and Winter Olympics in the same sport[edit]

text:
Athlete
Nation
Summer Games
Summer Sport
Winter Games
Winter Sport
Number of Summer Games
Number of Winter Games
Total Number of Games

Arwe, WilhelmWilhelm Arwe
 Sweden
1920
Ice hockey
1924
Ice hockey
1
1
2[125]

Burman, EricEric Burman
 Sweden
1920
Ice hockey
1924
Ice hockey
1
1
2[126]

Charpentier, PierrePierre Charpentier
 France
1920
Ice hockey
1924
Ice hockey
1
1
2[127]

de Rauch, AlfredAlfred de Rauch
 France
1920
Ice hockey
1924/1928
Ice hockey
1
2
3[128]

Drury, HerbHerb Drury
 United States
1920
Ice hockey
1924
Ice hockey
1
1
2[129]

Dufour, LouisLouis Dufour
 Switzerland
1920
Ice hockey
1924/1928
Ice hockey
1
2
3[130]

Grafström, GillisGillis Grafström
 Sweden
1920
Figure skating
1924/1928/1932
Figure skating
1
3
4[2][18]

Herbos, GeorgetteGeorgette Herbos
 Belgium
1920
Figure skating
1924
Figure skating
1
1
2[131]

Jaccard, MariusMarius Jaccard
 Switzerland
1920
Ice hockey
1924
Ice hockey
1
1
2[132]

Jakobsson-Eilers, LudovikaLudovika Jakobsson-Eilers
 Finland
1920
Figure skating
1924/1928
Figure skating
1
2
3[133]

Jakobsson, WalterWalter Jakobsson
 Finland
1920
Figure skating
1924/1928
Figure skating
1
2
3[134]

Leuzinger, BrunoBruno Leuzinger
 Switzerland
1920
Ice hockey
1924
Ice hockey
1
1
2[135]

Loos, VilémVilém Loos
 Czechoslovakia
1920
Ice hockey
1924
Ice hockey
1
1
2[136]

Molandern, NilsNils Molandern
 Sweden
1920
Ice hockey
1924
Ice hockey
1
1
2[137]

Muckelt, EthelEthel Muckelt
 Great Britain
1920
Figure skating
1924/1928
Figure skating
1
2
3[138]

Niles, NathanielNathaniel Niles
 United States
1920
Figure skating
1924/1928
Figure skating
1
2
3[139]

Palouš, JanJan Palouš
 Czechoslovakia
1920
Ice hockey
1924
Ice hockey
1
1
2[140]

Peka, JanJan Peka
 Czechoslovakia
1920
Ice hockey
1924/1928/1936
Ice hockey
1
3
4[141]

Pešek, KarelKarel Pešek
 Czechoslovakia
1920
Ice hockey
1924
Ice hockey
1
1
2[142]

Quaglia, LéonhardLéonhard Quaglia
 France
1920
Ice hockey
1924/1928
Ice hockey/Speed skating
1
2
3[143]

Sabouret, CharlesCharles Sabouret
 France
1920
Figure skating
1924
Figure skating
1
1
2[144]

Sabouret, SimoneSimone Sabouret
 France
1920
Figure skating
1924
Figure skating
1
1
2[145]

Savoie, RenéRené Savoie
 Switzerland
1920
Ice hockey
1924
Ice hockey
1
1
2[146]

Šroubek, JosefJosef Šroubek
 Czechoslovakia
1920
Ice hockey
1924/1928
Ice hockey
1
2
3[147]

Synnott, FrankFrank Synnott
 United States
1920
Ice hockey
1924
Ice hockey
1
1
2[148]

Vindyš, OtakarOtakar Vindyš
 Czechoslovakia
1920
Ice hockey
1924
Ice hockey
1
1
2[149]

Van Volckxsom, PhilippePhilippe Van Volckxsom
 Belgium
1920
Ice hockey
1924
Ice hockey
1
1
2[17]

Wagemans, GeorgesGeorges Wagemans
 Belgium
1920
Figure skating
1924
Figure skating
1
1
2[150]

Weld, TheresaTheresa Weld
 United States
1920
Figure skating
1924/1928
Figure skating
1
2
3[151]

text: Notes[edit]

text: Jump up ^ Straathof also joined the 2000 Paralympics, where he won a gold medal, and is the only athlete to compete at summer, winter, and Paralympics.

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