document_title: List of Presidents of the United States by education

question_text: who is the only president that has a ph.d

text: List by degree[edit]

text: Did not graduate from college[edit]

text:
George Washington (The death of his father ended Washington's formal schooling; however, he believed strongly in formal education. In his will, he left money and/or stocks to support three educational institutions.[1])
James Monroe
Andrew Jackson
Martin Van Buren
William Henry Harrison (attended college but never received a degree)
Zachary Taylor
Millard Fillmore (founded the University at Buffalo, The State University of New York)
Abraham Lincoln (had only about a year of formal schooling of any kind)
Andrew Johnson (no formal schooling of any kind)
Grover Cleveland
William McKinley (attended Allegheny College (did not graduate) and Albany Law School (did not graduate))
Harry S Truman (went to business college and law school but did not receive a degree)

text: J.D. (earned)[edit]

text:
School
Location
President(s)

Duke University Law School
Durham, North Carolina

Richard Nixon

Yale Law School
New Haven, Connecticut

Gerald Ford

Yale Law School
New Haven, Connecticut

Bill Clinton

Harvard Law School
Cambridge, Massachusetts

Barack Obama

text: Note: Nixon and Ford were awarded LL.B. degrees.[2][3] When U.S. law schools began to use the J.D. as the professional law degree in the 1960s, previous graduates had their LL.B. degrees converted to J.D.[4] Duke University Law School made the change in 1968,[5] and Yale Law School in 1971.[6]

text: Ph.D.[edit]

text:
School
Location
President(s)

Johns Hopkins University
Baltimore, Maryland

Woodrow Wilson

text: Undergraduate[edit]

text: Some Presidents attended more than one institution. George Washington never attended college, though The College of William & Mary did issue him a surveyor's certificate. Only three Presidents attended foreign colleges at the undergraduate level: John F. Kennedy at the London School of Economics and John Quincy Adams at Leiden University (with both transferring to Harvard College), and Bill Clinton who was a Rhodes Scholar at Oxford University. Three Presidents have attended the United States Service academies: Ulysses S. Grant and Dwight D. Eisenhower graduated from the United States Military Academy at West Point, while Jimmy Carter graduated from the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, Maryland. No Presidents have graduated from the much newer U.S. Air Force Academy. Eisenhower also graduated from the Command and General Staff College, Army Industrial College and Army War College. These were not degree granting institutions when Eisenhower attended, but were part of his professional education as a career soldier.

text:
School
Location
President(s)

Allegheny College
Meadville, Pennsylvania

William McKinley (withdrew)

Amherst College
Amherst, Massachusetts

Calvin Coolidge

Bowdoin College
Brunswick, Maine

Franklin Pierce

The College of William & Mary
Williamsburg, Virginia

Thomas Jefferson
James Monroe (withdrew)
John Tyler

Columbia University
New York, New York

Barack Obama

Davidson College
Davidson, North Carolina

Woodrow Wilson (transferred to Princeton University)

Dickinson College
Carlisle, Pennsylvania

James Buchanan

Eureka College
Eureka, Illinois

Ronald Reagan

Fordham University
The Bronx, New York City

Donald Trump (transferred to University of Pennsylvania)

Georgetown University
Washington, D.C.

Bill Clinton

Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, Georgia

Jimmy Carter (transferred to United States Naval Academy)

Georgia Southwestern State University
Americus, Georgia

Jimmy Carter (transferred to Georgia Institute of Technology)

Hampden–Sydney College
Hampden Sydney, Virginia

William Henry Harrison (withdrew)

Harvard University
Cambridge, Massachusetts

John Adams
John Quincy Adams
Theodore Roosevelt
Franklin D. Roosevelt
John F. Kennedy (transferred from Princeton University)

Hiram College
Hiram, Ohio

James A. Garfield (transferred to Williams College)

Kenyon College
Gambier, Ohio

Rutherford B. Hayes

London School of Economics
London, United Kingdom

John F. Kennedy (transferred to Princeton University)

Miami University
Oxford, Ohio

Benjamin Harrison

Mount Union College
Alliance, Ohio

William McKinley (withdrew)

Occidental College
Los Angeles, California

Barack Obama (transferred to Columbia University)

Ohio Central College
Iberia, Ohio

Warren G. Harding

Princeton University
Princeton, New Jersey

John F. Kennedy (transferred to Harvard University)
James Madison
Woodrow Wilson

University of Pennsylvania
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

William Henry Harrison (withdrew)
Donald Trump

Texas State University
San Marcos, Texas

Lyndon B. Johnson

Spalding's Commercial College (Kansas City, Missouri)
Kansas City, Missouri

Harry S. Truman (Withdrew)

Stanford University
Stanford, California

Herbert Hoover

Leiden University
Leiden, Netherlands

John Quincy Adams (transferred to Harvard University)

Union College
Schenectady, New York

Chester A. Arthur

University of Michigan
Ann Arbor, Michigan

Gerald Ford

University of North Carolina
Chapel Hill, North Carolina

James K. Polk

United States Military Academy
West Point, New York

Ulysses S. Grant
Dwight D. Eisenhower

United States Army Command and General Staff College
Fort Leavenworth, Kansas

Dwight D. Eisenhower

United States Army Industrial College
Washington, D.C.

Dwight D. Eisenhower

United States Army War College
Carlisle, Pennsylvania

Dwight D. Eisenhower

United States Naval Academy
Annapolis, Maryland

Jimmy Carter

Whittier College
Whittier, California

Richard Nixon

Williams College
Williamstown, Massachusetts

James A. Garfield

Yale University
New Haven, Connecticut

William Howard Taft
George H. W. Bush
George W. Bush

text: List by specialization[edit]

text: Business school[edit]

text:
School
Location
President(s)

Harvard Business School
Boston, Massachusetts

George W. Bush (MBA)

Stanford Graduate School of Business
Stanford, California

John F. Kennedy (withdrew)

The Wharton School
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Donald Trump (BS)

text: Law school[edit]

text:
School
Location
President(s)

Albany Law School
Albany, New York

William McKinley (withdrew)

Columbia Law School
New York, New York

Theodore Roosevelt (withdrew) (awarded J.D. in 2008, class of 1882)
Franklin D. Roosevelt (withdrew) (awarded J.D. in 2008, class of 1907)

Duke University School of Law
Durham, North Carolina

Richard Nixon

Georgetown University Law Center
Washington, D.C.

Lyndon B. Johnson (withdrew)

Harvard Law School
Cambridge, Massachusetts

Rutherford B. Hayes
Barack Obama

University of Michigan Law School
Ann Arbor, Michigan

Gerald Ford (transferred)

Northampton Law School
Northampton, Massachusetts

Franklin Pierce (did not graduate)

State and National Law School
Ballston Spa, New York

Chester A. Arthur (did not graduate)

University of Cincinnati College of Law
Cincinnati, Ohio

William Howard Taft

University of Kansas City School of Law
Kansas City, Missouri

Harry S. Truman (withdrew)

University of Virginia School of Law
Charlottesville, Virginia

Woodrow Wilson (withdrew)

Yale Law School
New Haven, Connecticut

Gerald Ford
Bill Clinton

text: Several Presidents who were lawyers did not attend law school, but became lawyers after independent study. Some had attended college before beginning their legal studies, and several studied law without first having attended college. It was customary to study under established lawyers.[7] Presidents who were lawyers but did not attend law school include: John Adams; Thomas Jefferson; James Madison; James Monroe; John Quincy Adams; Andrew Jackson; Martin Van Buren; John Tyler; James K. Polk; Millard Fillmore; James Buchanan; Abraham Lincoln; James A. Garfield; Grover Cleveland; Benjamin Harrison; and Calvin Coolidge.

text: Presidents who were admitted to the bar after a combination of law school and independent study include; Franklin Pierce; Chester A. Arthur; William McKinley; and Woodrow Wilson.

text: Medical school[edit]

text:
School
Location
President(s)

University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

William Henry Harrison (withdrew)

text: List by presidents[edit]

text:
President
High school or equivalent
Undergraduate school
Graduate school

George Washington
Lower Church School

did not attend college

none

John Adams
Braintree Latin School
Harvard University
none

Thomas Jefferson
James Maury's School
The College of William and Mary
none

James Madison
Donald Robertson's School
Princeton University
none

James Monroe
Campbelltown Academy
The College of William and Mary (did not graduate)
none

John Quincy Adams
Passy Academy
Leiden University (transferred)
Harvard University
none

Andrew Jackson
William Humphries' Academy
James White Stephenson's Academy
none
none

Martin Van Buren
Kinderhook Academy
Washington Seminary
none
none

William Henry Harrison
Millfield Academy
Hampden–Sydney College (withdrew)
University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine (withdrew)

John Tyler
College of William and Mary Preparatory School
The College of William and Mary
none

James K. Polk
Zion Presbyterian Church Academy
Bradley Academy
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
none

Zachary Taylor
Kean O'Hara's Academy[8]
none
none

Millard Fillmore
New Hope Academy
none
none

Franklin Pierce
Phillips Exeter Academy
Bowdoin College
Northampton Law School

James Buchanan
Old Stone Academy
Dickinson College
none

Abraham Lincoln
none
none
none

Andrew Johnson
none
none
none

Ulysses S. Grant
Maysville Academy
United States Military Academy
none

Rutherford B. Hayes
Norwalk Seminary
The Webb School
Kenyon College
Harvard Law School

James Garfield
Geauga Seminary
Hiram College (transferred)
Williams College
none

Chester A. Arthur
Schenectady Lyceum and Academy
Union College
State and National Law School (did not graduate)

Grover Cleveland
Clinton Academy
none
none

Benjamin Harrison
Farmers' College
Miami University
none

William McKinley
Poland Academy
Allegheny College (withdrew)
Mount Union College (withdrew)
Albany Law School (withdrew)

Theodore Roosevelt
none
Harvard University
Columbia Law School (withdrew) (awarded J.D. in 2008, class of 1882)[9]

William Howard Taft
Woodward High School
Yale University
University of Cincinnati College of Law

Woodrow Wilson
none
Davidson College (transferred)
Princeton University
University of Virginia School of Law (withdrew)
Johns Hopkins University (Ph.D.)

Warren G. Harding
Caledonia High School
Ohio Central College
none

Calvin Coolidge
Black River Academy
St. Johnsbury Academy
Amherst College
none

Herbert Hoover
Did not attend high school
Stanford University
none

Franklin D. Roosevelt
Groton School
Harvard University
Columbia Law School (withdrew) (awarded J.D. in 2008, class of 1907)[10]

Harry S. Truman
Independence High School
Spalding's Commercial College (withdrew)
University of Kansas City School of Law (withdrew)

Dwight D. Eisenhower
Abilene High School
U.S. Military Academy (West Point)
United States Army Command and General Staff College
United States Army Industrial College
United States Army War College

John F. Kennedy
The Choate School
London School of Economics (General Course Program)
Princeton University (transferred)
Harvard University
Stanford Graduate School of Business (withdrew)

Lyndon B. Johnson
Johnson City High School
Southwest Texas State College (now Texas State University)
Georgetown University Law Center (withdrew)

Richard Nixon
Whittier High School
Whittier College
Duke University School of Law

Gerald Ford
Grand Rapids South High School
University of Michigan
Yale Law School

Jimmy Carter
Plains High School
Georgia Southwestern College (transferred)
Georgia Institute of Technology (transferred)
U.S. Naval Academy
Union College (Postgraduate Nuclear Physics Course Program)

Ronald Reagan
Dixon High School
Eureka College
none

George H. W. Bush
Phillips Academy
Yale University
none

Bill Clinton
Hot Springs High School
Georgetown University
University of Oxford (Rhodes Scholar; withdrew)
Yale Law School

George W. Bush
Phillips Academy
Yale University
Harvard Business School

Barack Obama
Punahou School
Occidental College (transferred)
Columbia University
Harvard Law School

Donald Trump
New York Military Academy
Fordham University (transferred)
Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania
None

text: Other academic associations[edit]

text: Faculty member[edit]

text:
President(s)
School
Position
Years

James A. Garfield
Hiram College
Professor of Latin, Greek, Mathematics, History, Philosophy, Rhetoric and English literature
1857–1861[11]

William Howard Taft
University of Cincinnati College of Law
Dean
1896–1900[12]

William Howard Taft
Yale Law School
Kent Professor of Law
1913–1921

William Howard Taft
Boston University School of Law
Lecturer on Legal Ethics[13]
1918–1921

Woodrow Wilson
Bryn Mawr College
Professor of Politics and History
1885–1888[14]

Woodrow Wilson
Wesleyan University
Professor of Politics
1888–1890[14]

Woodrow Wilson
Princeton University
Professor of Jurisprudence and Political Economy, President
1902–1910

Harry S. Truman
Yale University
Chubb Fellow Visiting Lecturer
1958[15]

Harry S. Truman
Canisius College
Visiting Lecturer
1962[16]

Richard Nixon
Whittier College
Adjunct lecturer, taught undergraduate legal studies class
1937–1942

Jimmy Carter
Emory University
University Distinguished Professor
1982–Present

George H. W. Bush
Rice University
Part-Time Professor of Administrative Science
1978

Bill Clinton
University of Arkansas
Assistant Professor of Law[17]
1973–1977

Barack Obama
University of Chicago Law School
Senior Lecturer[18]
1992–2004

text: School rector or president[edit]

text:
President(s)
School
Position
Years

Thomas Jefferson
University of Virginia
1st Rector
1819–1826

James Madison
University of Virginia
2nd Rector
1826–1836

James A. Garfield
Hiram College
President
1857–1860

Millard Fillmore
University of Buffalo
Chancellor
1846–1874

Woodrow Wilson
Princeton University
President
1902–1910

Dwight D. Eisenhower
Columbia University
President
1948–1953

text: School trustee or governor[edit]

text:
President(s)
School
Position
Years

George Washington
College of William and Mary
Chancellor
1788–1799

George Washington
Washington College
Allowed use of his name, Benefactor, Board of Governors
1782-1799

George Washington
Washington and Lee University
Benefactor[19]
1796

Thomas Jefferson
University of Virginia
Board of Visitors
1819–1826

James Madison
University of Virginia
Board of Visitors
1819–1836

James Madison
Madison College (Pennsylvania)
Allowed use of his name, Benefactor (contributed funds - $2000 in 1827 dollars - towards founding)[20]
1827

James Monroe
University of Virginia
Board of Visitors
1826–1831

John Quincy Adams
Harvard University
Board of Overseers
1830–1848

Andrew Jackson
University of Nashville
Board of Trustees
1806–1845[21]

Martin Van Buren
University of the State of New York
Board of Regents
1816–1829

John Tyler
College of William and Mary
Chancellor
1859–1862

Millard Fillmore
University at Buffalo
Chancellor
1846–1874

Franklin Pierce
Norwich University
Board of Trustees
1841–1859

James Buchanan
Franklin & Marshall College
President, Board of Trustees
1853–1865

Rutherford B. Hayes
The Ohio State University
Board of Trustees
1881–1893

Rutherford B. Hayes
Western Reserve University
Chairman of the Board of Trustees
1881–1893

Rutherford B. Hayes
Ohio Wesleyan University
Board of Trustees
1884–1893

James A. Garfield
Hiram College
Board of Trustees
1866–1881

James A. Garfield
Hampton University
Board of Trustees
1877–1881

Benjamin Harrison
Purdue University
Board of Trustees
1895–1901

Grover Cleveland
Princeton University
Board of Trustees
1901–1908

William McKinley
American University
Board of Trustees
1899–1901

Theodore Roosevelt
American University
Board of Trustees
1900–1919

Theodore Roosevelt
Harvard University
Board of Overseers
1895–1901, 1915–1916

William Howard Taft
Yale University
Member of the Yale Corporation
1901–1913

William Howard Taft
Hampton University
Board of Trustees
1909–1930

Warren G. Harding
American University
Board of Trustees
1921–1923

Calvin Coolidge
Amherst College
Board of Trustees (life member)
1921–1933

Herbert Hoover
Stanford University
Board of Trustees
1923–1960

Herbert Hoover
American University
Board of Trustees
1945–1950

Franklin D. Roosevelt
Harvard University
Board of Overseers
1917–1923

Franklin D. Roosevelt
Vassar College
Board of Trustees
1923–1945

Dwight Eisenhower
Eisenhower College
Namesake, fundraiser
1965–1969

John F. Kennedy
Harvard University
Board of Overseers
1957–1958

Jimmy Carter
Mercer University
Board of Trustees
2012– present

Ronald Reagan
Eureka College
Board of Trustees
1947–1953, 1967–1973, 1974–1980.


document_title: Showdown (poker)

question_text: when do you have to show cards in poker

question_tokens: when do you have to show cards in poker

root

text: Showdown (poker)

text: In poker, the showdown is a situation when, if more than one player remains after the last betting round, remaining players expose and compare their hands to determine the winner or winners.

tag: p

text: To win any part of a pot if more than one player has a hand, a player must show all of his cards faceup on the table, whether they were used in the final hand played or not. Cards speak for themselves: the actual value of a player's hand prevails in the event a player mis-states the value of his hand. Because exposing a losing hand gives information to an opponent, players may be reluctant to expose their hands until after their opponents have done so and will muck their losing hands without exposing them. Robert's Rules of Poker state that the last player to take aggressive action by a bet or raise is the first to show the hand—unless everyone checks (or is all-in) on the last round of betting, then the first player to the left of the dealer button is the first to show the hand.[1]

text: If there is a side pot, players involved in the side pot should show their hands before anyone who is all-in for only the main pot.[1] To speed up the game, a player holding a probable winner is encouraged to show the hand without delay.  Any player who has been dealt in may request to see any hand that is eligible to participate in the showdown, even if the hand has been mucked.  This option is generally only used when a player suspects collusion or some other sort of cheating by other players.  When the privilege is abused by a player (i.e. the player does not suspect cheating, but asks to see the cards just to get insight on another player's style or betting patterns), he may be warned by the dealer, or even removed from the table.[1]

text: There has been a recent trend in public cardroom rules to limit the ability of players to request to see mucked losing hands at the showdown. Specifically, some cardrooms only grant the right to view a mucked losing hand if the requesting player articulates a concern about possible collusion. Under such rules, players do not have an inherent right to view mucked hands.[2][3][4][5]


document_title: Captain America's shield

question_text: where did they get the vibranium to make captain america's shield

question_tokens: where did they get the vibranium to make captain america 's shield

text: Captain America's shield

text: Abilities[edit]

text: Vibranium Steel alloy[edit]

text: Captain America's shield is virtually indestructible under normal conditions;[1] while cosmic and magical or godly opponents have broken the shield, the shield proves strong enough to absorb Hulk's strength, and repel an attack from Thor's mystical hammer Mjölnir without any visible damage. As it is made of vibranium, it is able to absorb all kinetic energy and transfers very little energy from each impact, meaning Captain America does not feel recoil or transferred impact forces from blocking attacks. These physical properties also means the shield can bounce off of most smooth surfaces, ricocheting multiple times with minimal loss in aerodynamic stability or velocity. The shield can also absorb the kinetic impact of a fall, allowing Captain America to land safely even when jumping off of several stories, as can be seen in Captain America: Winter Soldier movie when he escaped from the S.H.I.E.L.D.'s STRIKE squad by jumping off an elevator.[volume & issue needed]

text: Ricochet ballistics[edit]

text: A common misconception is that the shield can "magically" return to Captain America[citation needed]. The "superhuman serum" that enhanced Captain America's physical attributes also improved his mental faculties—such as cognition, perception, balance, aim, and reflexes—to near genius-level. This allows him to instantly calculate ballistic-physics and predict the probable trajectory of objects in motion. This makes him a perfect shot. He can dodge or deflect bullets with his shield without collateral ricochet to civilians, to calculate where or how the shield will bounce and when it will return to his location, or trip a running person to cause them to fall into a specific position.[citation needed] In Avengers: Age of Ultron, he pulls the shield back to him after it is stuck, but this is through an electromagnet fastened on his arm. After his memories are altered to make him believe that he is a Hydra sleeper agent, Rogers uses his precise knowledge of the shield to put Sam Wilson, its current wielder, in a position where he will fail to save a senator from Flag-Smasher by arranging for Wilson to be forced to throw the shield in a manner that Rogers knows from his own experience will miss its target by mere millimetres, as part of his agenda to undermine Sam's status as Captain America.[2]

text: Original shield[edit]

text: In his debut, Captain America (secretly U.S. Army Private Steve Rogers) is equipped with a triangular, badge-shaped shield made from vibranium. After complaints by rival comic-book publisher MLJ that the design was too similar to that of its own patriotic hero the Shield,[3] Timely Comics replaced the triangular shield with a disc-shaped one.

text: While the origin and fate of the original shield were not described in the original comics from the 1940s, the shield's fate was revealed decades later in 2001 through a retconned story. According to the tale, King T'Chaka of the African nation Wakanda met Captain America in early 1941 and gave him a second sample of vibranium, an alien metal with unique vibration absorption properties and found only in Wakanda and the Savage Land.[4] The new Vibranium sample was used to make Captain America's circular shield and his triangular one was retired.

text: Captain America received a second triangular shield that he used until given his disc-shaped shield, which was personally presented to him by President Franklin Roosevelt.[5] This second triangular shield would be kept in storage with Rogers' other personal effects after the war. It was recovered at some point after Rogers joined the superhero team the Avengers in The Avengers #4, and was kept at Avengers Mansion. It was destroyed by the supervillain Mr. Hyde during a raid on the mansion by Baron Zemo's Masters of Evil, and later "plucked from time" and restored by Zemo in Thunderbolts #105 (Oct. 2006). The shield (along with other sentimental items thought destroyed) was returned to Captain America. A third triangular shield is kept in the Smithsonian Institution. It was used by Captain America when he foiled a terrorist attack on the museum itself after the loss of his usual shield; it was then given to him in gratitude. This shield is destroyed several issues later by a Kree alien warrior.

text: The shield destroyed by Hydra and restored by Zemo was eventually passed on to Elijah Bradley, the teenage hero known as the Patriot and leader of the Young Avengers.

text: Revised history[edit]

text: In 2010, the history of the original shield was revised. In the limited series Captain America/Black Panther: Flags of Our Fathers, Captain America, Sergeant Nick Fury and the Howling Commandos meet Azzari (grandfather of T'Challa) -- the Black Panther and king of Wakanda during World War II. Aided by Wakandan military forces, they successfully repel a series of Nazi assaults led by the Red Skull and Baron Strucker. During the battle, the Red Skull (wearing a battle-suit) crushes the triangular shield, and Captain America uses a circular vibranium shield provided by T'Chaka to incapacitate the Skull. The weapon serves as the inspiration for the circular shield that the super-soldier begins using upon his return to America, and the encounter marks the beginning of friendly relations between the United States and Wakanda.[6]

text: Circular shield[edit]

text: The circular shield most associated with Captain America made its debut in Captain America Comics #2 (April 1941). A concavo-convex metal disc approximately 2.5 feet (0.76 m) in diameter, is indestructible and has remained his most constant shield over the decades.[citation needed]

text: In Captain America #255 (March 1981), it is established that the shield was presented to Rogers by President Franklin D. Roosevelt.[7] The shield is created by a fictional American metallurgist named Myron MacLain, who had been commissioned by the US government to create an indestructible armor material to aid the war effort. MacLain experiments with the indestructible vibration-absorbing metal vibranium.[4]

text: During one of his experiments to fuse vibranium with an experimental iron alloy [8] MacLain falls asleep and awakens to find that the resulting alloy had set in a tank hatch mold. It was then painted to become Captain America's symbol. MacLain would later attempt to recreate the shield's metal to no avail, his experiments instead eventually yielding the super-metal adamantium.[citation needed]

text: Rogers' indestructible shield is more durable than regular adamantium and one of the most indestructible objects in The Marvel Universe. Carl "Crusher" Creel, The Absorbing Man, once absorbed the properties the shield while battling The Avengers. The vibranium grants the shield unusual properties, allowing it to absorb all of the kinetic impact and vibrations from any blows that the shield receives without injuring Rogers in the process. The vibranium is also a factor in the way Rogers throws his shield: he often uses it to ricochet and strike multiple opponents or stationary objects with little loss of velocity in its forward movement after each impact.[citation needed]

text: When Rogers returns from suspended animation, Tony Stark "improves" the shield by incorporating electronic and magnetic components in it so that Rogers can even control it in flight. Rogers soon discards the additional components because he finds that it upsets the balance of the shield when thrown.[citation needed]

text: After Rogers' death, Stark takes over custody of the shield, with one replica on display in a museum, and another replica buried with Rogers. The real one is kept by Stark to be used by the new Captain America, whenever they deem it appropriate to train a new one. After failing to find a S.H.I.E.L.D. agent capable of throwing it properly, Stark offers the shield to Clint Barton (known at that time as Ronin), who does manage to throw it. During a confrontation involving the Young Avengers, he scolds Kate Bishop for using the Hawkeye name. She tells him that the "Real Cap" gave her that name in honor of his at the time dead friend, so this leads Barton to refuse to be Captain America.[9] The shield is subsequently stolen by the Winter Soldier, who did not want anyone else to carry the shield. Inevitably, in an effort to honor Rogers' last wishes, Stark offers to let the Winter Soldier (Bucky Barnes) keep the shield, and to serve as the new Captain America. Bucky accepts. This offer is made "off the books", and only the two of them, the Black Widow, and the Falcon, are aware of the situation.[10]

text: Although Bucky attempted to return the shield to Rogers after his resurrection, Rogers let Bucky keep it as he felt that he could do more good in his new role as Commander Steve Rogers rather than Captain America, using a photonic shield in its place when circumstances called for him to go into combat. He reclaimed the shield for good after Bucky was apparently killed during the Fear Itself event- Bucky really going underground after his past as the Winter Soldier was exposed-, which also resulted in the shield being broken and reassembled by Asgardian blacksmiths, who add some of the mystical metal Uru to the reconstructed shield, making it even stronger than before, although it is left with a noticeable scar that Rogers decided to keep to give the shield character.[11] This premise was not observed in subsequent storylines, or considered canon, as artists have not continued depicting the shield with the scar.[12]

text: JLA/Avengers[edit]

text: In the 2003-2004 Marvel Comics/DC Comics inter-company crossover limited series JLA/Avengers, Superman is given the shield by Captain America to wield in battle in the final confrontation with Krona, and is impressed with its might. When he asks where he could get one just like it while battling foes, Thor replies, "Enjoy it while thou canst, Superman. There is none other like it in all the worlds". Throughout the final battle, the shield changes forms between the pointed shield and the circular shield due to various temporal ripples caused by Krona's equipment, and Superman even loses the shield altogether at one point when he morphs into his energy form while Cap reacquires the photonic shield, although the metal shield reappears on Superman's arm after he morphs back into his regular form.

text: Destruction of the shield[edit]

text: Over time the shield has been damaged or destroyed several times within the confines of the Earth-616 continuity, though they are not considered canon:

text: In The Avengers #215–216, the Molecule Man used his total control over matter to disintegrate the shield, along with Thor's hammer, Iron Man's armor, and the Silver Surfer's board. After he does so, he comments that the board's molecules are "weird", and while there are "odd forces interweaving" among the hammer's molecules, the shield is "weirdest of all". He later reassembles these items, with the exception of the armor, as the electronic circuits are too complicated for him to understand at that time.[13]

text: During the 1984-1985 Secret Wars limited series, the shield is partially destroyed by Doctor Doom, who has stolen the power of the godlike being known as the Beyonder. Even broken, Rogers is able to wield what is left as an effective weapon, with the shield largely retaining its balance when thrown. When the Beyonder reclaims its power, the heroes are temporarily granted the ability to realize their wishes. Rogers uses this to reconstruct the shield.[14]

text: During the 1991 miniseries The Infinity Gauntlet, Thanos, who possesses near-omnipotence via the Infinity Gauntlet, shatters the shield with a blow of his fist while in combat with Captain America. The shield is soon restored by Thanos' alleged granddaughter, Nebula, when she obtains the Gauntlet and uses it to undo the events of Thanos's temporary godhood, resulting in her erasing the death and destruction that Thanos had caused over the previous 24 hours.[15]

text: Due to a stray molecule being out of place when Rogers reconstructed the shield using the Beyonder's residual power, a vibranium 'cancer' was introduced to the shield, spreading with each subsequent impact until it finally shattered after it was retrieved from the bottom of the ocean. Learning that the vibranium cancer would require the destruction of the shield in order to cure it, Rogers took the shield to the main vibranium deposit in Wakanda so that he could use a device created by Tony Stark to halt the 'cancer' before it could contaminate the Wakandan vibranium and destroy the world, only to be intercepted by the villain Klaw, who sought to absorb the power and become stronger. Fortunately, the amount of energy Klaw had absorbed was released when he struck the shattered shield with full force after Rogers picked it up on reflex, resulting in Klaw unintentionally restoring the shield to its original state, realigning its molecules and destroying the cancer.[16]

text: In Avengers Vol. 3 #63 (March 2003), an enraged Thor, wielding the Odinforce, scrapes the shield. Thor later repairs it.[17]

text: In Thor Vol. 2 #73 (January 2004) an enraged King Thor with Rune Magic, destroyed the shield, killing Steve Rogers with it.[18] This timeline was later erased in Thor Vol. 2 #79.[19]

text: During the 2011 miniseries Fear Itself, the Serpent, the Asgardian god of fear and brother to Odin, breaks it in half with his bare hands.[20] After the battle, the shield is repaired by Asgardian dwarves and Tony Stark with added Asgardian uru-infused enhancements and Stark's own technology to make it stronger, though a scar is left, and the dwarves are unable to repair it. Stark offers a solution to the scar, but Rogers declines, saying that it "gave the old girl a little bit of character". This premise was not observed in subsequent storylines, or considered canon, as artists have not continued depicting the shield with the scar.

text: Other shields[edit]

text:
While Rogers was asleep in suspended animation, three other men used the identity of Captain America, all using steel replicas of the discus shield. The 1950s Captain America was placed in suspended animation after becoming mentally unstable. By the time he was revived years later, Rogers had returned. When the two clashed, the 1950s Captain America's shield was broken.[volume & issue needed]
In the 1980s, in a story written by Mark Gruenwald, Rogers chose to resign his identity rather than submit to the orders of the United States government and took the alias of "The Captain" instead. During this period, the role of Captain America was assumed by John Walker, the former Super-Patriot, who used both the costume and the indestructible shield.[21] In his new identity of "The Captain", Rogers initially used a pure adamantium shield provided by Tony Stark, but a falling out between the two as a result of the "Armor Wars" storyline led Rogers to return it. He then began to use a pure vibranium shield provided by the Black Panther. When Rogers returned to his Captain America identity, Walker became the U.S. Agent and returned the shield to him. Walker would go on to have his own array of different shields over the years, the first of which appeared to be the last vibranium shield Rogers was using as the Captain. The U.S. Agent used shields with an eagle motif and one in the shape of a star, as well as a photonic energy shield.[volume & issue needed]
At one point, when Rogers was exiled from the United States and was briefly unable to use his shield, Sharon Carter provided him with a photonic energy shield designed to mimic a vibranium matrix. This shield was also able to turn into an energy staff that could be used as a weapon.[volume & issue needed]
During the time when the shield was lost in the Atlantic, Rogers tried using a pure adamantium shield, but was unable to get used to the balance. He also tried fighting without a shield but also found it awkward. While up against HYDRA agents in the Smithsonian, he picked up the triangular shield that was being exhibited there and used it for a time before it was crushed by a Kree warrior.[volume & issue needed]
Sharon Carter next provided him with another photonic shield, but one whose shape could be controlled to morph the energy field into a wider force field, a bo staff or even fire a projection of the shield. While he enjoyed the versatility, Rogers noticed a number of drawbacks, particularly its inability to ricochet. Rogers gave one of the energy shield gloves to a freedom fighter in an oppressive future he traveled to and received a replacement from S.H.I.E.L.D. when he got back to his own time. The photonic shield was eventually lost again in a confrontation with Ultron when Hank Pym's use of vibranium resulted in the destruction of the generator that created the shield,[22] leading to Rogers finally reacquiring his original shield.[volume & issue needed]
In Secret Avengers, he uses a new energy shield which could be generated on either arm, or both, and was able to be thrown and ricochet off surfaces to hit targets before it dissipates, preventing enemies from using it against him. A new shield would be generated moments later. Moon Knight, who had acquired a copy of the technology, had it described to him as a "zero point energy shield".[23]
A British analogue, Captain Midlands, wields a golden circular shield in the design of the traditional lion symbol of Britain and coated in an Anti-Magic nanominium gloss.[24]
In Captain America: Steve Rogers, Steve wields a new version of the triangular shield that can deploy an energy blade on its pointy end and can be divided in two, allowing him to use both halves in combat.[25]

tag: ul

text: Other versions[edit]

text:
In the 1998-1999 time travel mini-series Avengers Forever, various future and alternate versions of Captain America are shown with many different variations of the shield.[26]
Cable claims to have borne the shield into battle many times during his early adulthood, far in the future. In another version, Cable claims that the origin of his techno-organic arm was because his original one was lost when he attempted to retrieve the shield as a symbol for morale in the future war against Apocalypse.[27]
In the future timeline of the Guardians of the Galaxy, the shield is used by Major Victory in battle.[28]
In the Future Imperfect setting, where the Hulk becomes the Maestro and is both the last surviving superbeing and a despotic ruler, an ancient Rick Jones assembles a trophy room as a tribute to the fallen heroes, with the shield among them. Jones uses the shield to defend against one of the Maestro's blows, but the wheelchair used by the disabled Jones was not sturdy enough for such an impact. Jones is sent flying back and is impaled on Wolverine's skeleton. When the Hulk, plucked from the past, throws the shield to attack his future self, he manages to injure the Maestro, causing a large gash on his chest as he attempts to cut the Maestro in half. Throwing the Hulk off, the Maestro attempts to hit Hulk with the shield himself, commenting that Rogers could never throw the shield hard enough to do him any damage, but the Hulk deflects it with the Silver Surfer's old board. After the battle, Jones is cremated and the Hulk poured Jones' ashes over the shield, affixing it with an epoxy. The Hulk then throws it into space, hoping that it will land somewhere exciting.[29]
In the Marvel manga stories, Captain America uses a photonic shield before his death in Volumes 1 and 2, and his bodyguards use shields of metal. The shield also appears in the Rings of Fate mini-series, having been acquired by Carol Danvers after Elektra stole it from Avengers Mansion when she uses the costume of Captain America.
In the Colonel America reality of Marvel Zombies, the shield is held by the last humans, who have formed a new society. As part of a self-defense program, the shield is used by the semi-sentient body/mind configuration of Colonel America's body and the son of Black Panther. It is also used by Forge, who is fighting in Iron Man's old armor. The shield and many zombie allies of the humans are lost in the dimensions due to a traitor.[30]
Captain Mexical is an alternate world version of Captain America from a dimension where the Aztec empire never fell. He is kept in the mainstream Marvel universe. His shield is used by Machine Man as a weapon during a zombie incursion; Mexical himself is slain.[31]
In Mark Millar's 2008-2009 "Old Man Logan" storyline in Wolverine, the Red Skull has a trophy room filled with artifacts belonging to the heroes of the Marvel Universe. Captain America's shield is at the center of the trophy room, and is later used by Wolverine to decapitate the Red Skull.[32]
Within the third and fourth issues of Avengers and Power Pack Assemble! miniseries, the Power Pack were thrown ten years into the future and met older versions of themselves, including a 25-year-old Alex Power. In those issues he shows greater control over his powers, (such as being able to deconstruct an enemy powered-armor suit), and now wields Captain America's shield.[33]
In the Age of Ultron story, Captain America is shown sitting in a storeroom in the base of the last remaining active heroes, with the shattered fragments of his shield around him.[34]

text: In issue #7 of the Marvel series Strikeforce: Morituri the shield is stored in a trophy room belonging to the alien "Horde" invaders.[35]

text:
Ultimate Captain America uses a shield of pure adamantium, although that metal may not possess the same properties in the Ultimate Marvel universe as it does in the mainstream Marvel Universe.[36] The shield was destroyed when Gregory Stark smashed it with Thor's hammer, though Captain America would wield another later.[37]

In Ultimate Nightmare, Ultimate Captain America encounters his Russian counterpart, who has been driven mad due to being trapped in an underground complex for many years. He has created a "replica" of the shield, which turns out to be made out of scrap metal and human remains and grafted directly onto his forearm, and which proves far less powerful than Captain America's own shield.[38]

In the alternate reality shown in What If...? #114, where the heroes and villains are unable to leave Battleworld at the conclusion of the Secret Wars, the shield is passed on to the daughter of Captain America and Rogue.[39]

text: In other media[edit]

text: Television[edit]

text:
In the 1970s Captain America TV movies, Steve Rogers is given a transparent plexiglass shield painted with concentric stripes (red and clear transparent) and a central star. The shield was designed to act as the windscreen for his motorcycle, but could be detached and used in its traditional offensive / defensive role when Rogers goes on foot. Furthermore, the shield can apparently return to Rogers in a smooth arc when thrown without needing to be ricocheted and with enough force to knock a man down in the return path.
In 2003, the company Factory X released a line of licensed prop replicas of items from the Marvel Universe. An aluminum replica of Captain America's shield was among their initial line up of props, and was limited to a production of 2,525 pieces.
In the closing of the March 12, 2007 episode of The Colbert Report, Stephen Colbert read a letter from Joe Quesada in response to Colbert's earlier comments toward Captain America. He was then presented with what was said to be Captain America's indestructible shield, reportedly willed to Colbert in the event of Cap's "death". The shield was originally credited to be one of the Factory X replicas, but this is not the case. The shield given to Colbert was originally acquired by the long-time writer and editor (and late) Mark Gruenwald, who either commissioned it or received it as a gift. It eventually found its way into the hands of Marvel Editor Tom Brevoort, and was kept in his office until being passed on to Colbert. In a pre-show conversation with a studio audience, Colbert, speaking out of character, said that when his wife saw the shield and the accompanying note, she started crying. He confessed he was a little bemused by her reaction to a fictional character sending a prop shield to a fictional version of himself. The shield was put on display hanging on the wall along with other trophies on The Colbert Report set for every episode afterwards. After The Colbert Report ended, the shield was moved to the set of Colbert's next talk show, The Late Show with Stephen Colbert where it was put on display since.
In the animated movie Ultimate Avengers, based loosely on The Ultimates, Captain America uses a shield made from vibranium and adamantium compound. Captain America used his triangular shield throughout World War II, only gaining the disc-shaped vibranium-bearing shield after he awoke in the present day. The composition of the triangular shield remains unrevealed. It did prove to be effective against the bullets of German soldiers, but was dented by the punch of a Chitauri taking the form of Herr Kleiser.
In the 2010 iOS game Infinity Blade, the player has the option to purchase a shield called The Patriot. The design of the shield, featuring three concentric rings, a star in the center, and what appears to be red, white, and blue paint all but completely worn off, closely resembles Captain America's shield.
In the video game Marvel Heroes, Captain America is a playable character and uses the shield defensively and offensively, blocking attacks and attacking with it as a bludgeoning and thrown weapon.
In the Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes episode "A Day Unlike Any Other", Loki uses his magic to shatter Captain America's shield while taunting him. In the episode "Behold... The Vision!", Captain America's shield is restored by the Black Panther and scientists in Wakanda using the Vibranium machine that fused the pieces back together.
The adamantium-vibranium alloy version of the shield becomes the main plot device for the story in the Ultimate Spider-Man episode "Not a Toy".

text: Film[edit]

text: Captain America's shield is a recurring image throughout the Marvel Cinematic Universe franchise:

text:
In the 2008 film Iron Man, a partially completed replica of Captain America’s shield appears approximately 1 hour 25 minutes into the movie at the point where Pepper Potts comes in on Tony Stark trying to get out of his damaged armor; the shield is visible in the distance below Tony's right arm. According to a tie-in comic, Tony's father Howard Stark created the shield. Tony subsequently used the alloy of a prototype to create his armor.[40]
In the 2008 film The Incredible Hulk, a deleted opening scene features the shield and Captain America buried in ice. However, the 2011 film Captain America: The First Avenger reveals this scene, or at least the appearance of Captain America to be non-canon.
In the 2010 film Iron Man 2, Tony Stark is building a particle accelerator in his home to create a new element for his arc reactor when S.H.I.E.L.D. Agent Phil Coulson finds the replica of Captain America's shield that was seen on Tony's work table in the first Iron Man film and asks if it is what he thinks it is. Stark ignores the question and asks him to hand the shield over, using it as a shim to level the accelerator.
In the 2011 film Captain America: The First Avenger, the round shield (along with Rogers himself) is found by S.H.I.E.L.D. agents in the Arctic within a crashed aircraft in the present day. During World War II, Steve Rogers uses an ornamental version of the triangular shield during a musical tour promoting War Bonds, which he then uses in his first field mission and is rendered useless when Johann Schmidt punches a large dent in it. He later notices an unadorned vibranium shield among Howard Stark's proposed weapons, which Stark says is stronger than steel and weighs only one third as much. Although it is merely a prototype that Stark did not intend for one of Rogers' weapons, Rogers decides to use it after it is painted into the familiar red, white and blue pattern. The shield is later on board the Valkyrie when Rogers crashing the bomber, and becomes frozen along with him in the Arctic.
In the 2012 film The Avengers, Captain America wields the same shield as the one seen in Captain America: The First Avenger.[41] While described in the prequel film as being vibration-absorbent, it is shown here as being rather vibration-reflecting, as the kinetic force from Mjolnir striking the shield rebounds as a powerful shockwave, leveling a small section of heavily forested area in the process. It is also capable of deflecting Iron Man's repulsor blasts against a band of Chitauri invaders.
In the teaser trailer for the 2013 film Iron Man 3, Trevor Slattery has a tattoo resembling the shield on the back of his neck. Slattery's tattoo is visible in the Marvel One-Shot short film All Hail the King.
In the 2014 film Captain America: The Winter Soldier, Rogers takes advantage of the vibranium's properties by jumping out of a building a few dozen stories up, and landing on the shield, thereby surviving without any serious injuries. During his street battle with the Winter Soldier, Rogers temporarily loses the shield to his adversary, with the Winter Soldier wielding it momentarily. Near the end of a confrontation with the Winter Soldier, the shield falls into the Potomac River, but appears again next to the Captain's bed as he is recovering in a hospital.
A 2014 promo for the television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. features the show's logo superimposed over Captain America's shield.[42]
The shield appears in the season finale of Agent Carter when Howard Stark was being hypnotized by Johann Fennhoff and sees Peggy Carter holding Captain America's shield, asking him to bring Steve home.
In the 2015 film Avengers: Age of Ultron, the handles of the shield have been replaced with magnetic elements, allowing Captain America to control the shield and call it back to his gauntlets. Its status as a vibranium construct is referenced when the Avengers determine that Ultron is heading to Wakanda, as vibranium is the only thing from Wakanda that Ultron could want. During his later fight with Ultron, Rogers briefly loses his shield when it is thrown from the top of the truck where he was fighting Ultron, but Black Widow grabs it and returns it to its owner. When Wanda Maximoff triggers a vision of Tony Stark's greatest fear, he sees all of the other Avengers dead and the shield broken next to Rogers.
In the Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. episode "The Singularity", Coulson, now director of S.H.I.E.L.D. has an energy shield attached to his prosthetic hand, which is similar to Captain America's energy shield in the comics.[43]
In the 2016 film Captain America: Civil War, Captain America continues to use his shield, although it is confiscated when he is apprehended for aiding the Winter Soldier in violation of the Sokovia Accords. Sharon Carter returns the shield to him, and he uses it in combat with Iron Man and his allies. Black Panther, whose weapons feature vibranium as well, scratches the shield in combat with Captain America. During the final battle featuring Captain America and the Winter Soldier fighting Iron Man, Rogers uses the shield to severely damage Tony Stark's armor, breaking open the helmet and destroying the suit's arc reactor. Ultimately, Captain America leaves his shield behind when Stark berates him for not being deserving of it, since Rogers kept the knowledge of the Winter Soldier killing his parents from him.
In Avengers: Infinity War, T'Challa and Shuri present Rogers new dual-retractable vibranium shields in order to replace his traditional circular one he left behind at the conclusion of Civil War.


document_title: List of default file systems

question_text: which file system is used by windows 2000 and xp

text: List of default file systems

text: Default file system used in various operating systems.

text:
Release year
Operating system
File system

1968
George 3
George 3

1971
OS/8
DECtape / OS/8

1972
RSX-11
ODS-1

1974
CP/M
CP/M file system

1980
86-DOS
FAT12, but logically format incompatible with MS-DOS/PC DOS.

1981
PC DOS 1.0
FAT12

1982
MS-DOS 1.25
FAT12

1982
Commodore 64 / 1541
Commodore DOS (CBM DOS)

1984
PC DOS 3.0 / MS-DOS 3.0
FAT16

1984
Classic Mac OS
Macintosh File System (MFS)

1985
Atari TOS
Modified FAT12

1985
Classic Mac OS
Hierarchical File System (HFS)

1987
Compaq MS-DOS 3.31
FAT16B

1988
AmigaOS v1.3
Amiga Fast File System (FFS)

1989
OS/2 v1.2
High Performance File System (HPFS)

1989
SCO UNIX
HTFS

1990
Windows 3.0 / 3.1x
FAT16B

1993
Slackware
ext2

1993
Debian GNU/Linux
ext2

1993
FreeBSD v1-v5.0
UFS1

1994
Windows NT 3.5
NTFS

1995
Windows 95
FAT16B with VFAT

1996
Windows NT 4.0
NTFS

1998
Mac OS 8.1 / macOS
HFS Plus (HFS+)

1998
Windows 98
FAT32 with VFAT

2000
SUSE Linux Enterprise 6.4
ReiserFS[1][2]

2000
Windows Me
FAT32 with VFAT

2000
Windows 2000
NTFS

2000
Ututo GNU/Linux
ext4

2000
Knoppix
ext3

2000
RHEL
ext3

2001
Windows XP
NTFS but FAT32 was also common

2002
Arch Linux
ext4

2002
Gentoo Linux
ext4

2003
FreeBSD v5.1-v9
UFS2

2003
Windows Server 2003
NTFS

2003
Fedora core
ext3

2004
Ubuntu 4.10
ext3

2004
OpenWrt
OverlayFS combining SquashFS + JFFS2

2004
CentOS 3
ext3

2005
Debian GNU/Linux 3.1
ext3

2005
dyne
SquashFS

2006
OpenDOS 7.01.08
FAT32+

2006
gNewSense
ext4

2006
Windows Vista
NTFS

2006
SUSE Linux Enterprise 11
openSUSE 10.2

ext3[3][4]

2007
Slackware 12
ext3

2007
Trisquel
ext4

2008
Windows Server 2008
NTFS

2008
Musix GNU/Linux
ext4

2008
Nexenta OS
ZFS

2009
Windows 7
NTFS

2009
Parabola GNU/Linux
ext4

2009
openSUSE 11
ext4

2009
Slackware 13
ext4

2009
Ubuntu 9.10
ext4

2010
LibreWRT
SquashFS

2011
Fedora 16
Btrfs

2011
CentOS 6
ext4

2011
Debian GNU/kFreeBSD
UFS1

2011
Arch Hurd
ext2

2012
Windows 8
NTFS

2013
Debian GNU/Linux 7.0
ext4

2013
Debian GNU/Hurd
ext2

2014
libreCMC
OverlayFS combining SquashFS + JFFS2

2014
RHEL 7
XFS

2014
CentOS 7
XFS

2015
Windows 10
NTFS

2015
OpenSUSE 42.1
Combination: Btrfs (for system) and XFS (for home).

2016
iOS 10.3
APFS

tag: table


document_title: The Parting Glass

question_text: who sings parting glass in assassin's creed 4

question_tokens: who sings parting glass in assassin 's creed 4

text: The Parting Glass

text: History[edit]

text: Text[edit]

text: The earliest known printed version was as a broadside in the 1770s and it first appeared in book form in "Scots Songs" by Herd.[1] An early version is sometimes attributed to Sir Alex Boswell. The text is doubtless older than its 1770 appearance in broadside, as it was recorded in the Skene Manuscript, a collection of Scottish airs written at various dates between 1615 and 1635.[2] It was known at least as early as 1605, when a portion of the first stanza was written in a farewell letter, as a poem now known as "Armstrong's Goodnight", by one of the Border Reivers executed that year for the murder in 1600 of Sir John Carmichael, Warden of the Scottish West March.[3]

text: Exact lyrics vary between arrangements, but they include most, if not all, of the following stanzas appearing in different orders:

text:
The Parting Glass Lyrics[4][5]

1
Of all the money that e'er I had
I spent it in good company
And all the harm I've ever done
Alas it was to none but me
And all I've done for want of wit
To mem'ry now I can't recall
So fill to me the parting glass
Good night and joy be to you all

2
So fill to me the parting glass
And drink a health whate’er befall,
And gently rise and softly call
Good night and joy be to you all

3
Of all the comrades that e'er I had
They're sorry for my going away
And all the sweethearts that e'er I had
They'd wish me one more day to stay

4
But since it fell unto my lot
That I should rise and you should not
I gently rise and softly call
Good night and joy be to you all

5
A man may drink and not be drunk
A man may fight and not be slain
A man may court a pretty girl
And perhaps be welcomed back again
But since it has so ought to be
By a time to rise and a time to fall
Come fill to me the parting glass
Good night and joy be with you all
Good night and joy be with you all

text: Tune[edit]

text: The earliest known appearance of the tune today associated with this text is as a fiddle tune called "The Peacock", included in James Aird's A Selection of Scots, English, Irish and Foreign Airs, vol. 2 (1782).[6]

text: Patrick Weston Joyce, in his Old Irish Folk Music and Songs (1909), gives the tune with a different text under the name "Sweet Cootehill Town," noting, "The air seems to have been used indeed as a general farewell tune, so that—from the words of another song of the same class—it is often called 'Good night and joy be with you all.'"[7] The celebrated Irish folk song collector Colm O Lochlainn has taken note of this identity of melodies between "The Parting Glass" and "Sweet Cootehill Town".[8] "Sweet Cootehill Town" is another traditional farewell song, this time involving a man leaving Ireland to go to America.

text: The tune appeared, with sacred lyrics, in 19th century American tunebooks. "Shouting Hymn" in Jeremiah Ingalls's Christian Harmony (1805) is a related tune.[9] The tune achieved wider currency among shape note singers with its publication, associated with a text first known in the 1814 Collection of Hymns and Spiritual Songs, "Come Now Ye Lovely Social Band", in William Walker's Southern Harmony (1835), and in The Sacred Harp (1844).[10] This form of the song is still widely sung by Sacred Harp singers under the title "Clamanda".

text: Modern adaptations[edit]

text: The song Restless Farewell written by Bob Dylan and featured on The Times They Are a-Changin' from 1964 is heavily based on The Parting Glass.

text: In 1998, the traditional words were set to a new, slightly different melody by Irish composer Shaun Davey. In 2002, he orchestrated this version for orchestra, choir, pipes, fiddle, and percussion to commemorate the opening of the Helix Concert Hall, Dublin, Ireland.

text: Ed Sheeran did a cover as a hidden track at the end of the last song "Give Me Love" on his album +.

text: Trey Anastasio Band started performing the song live in 2017.

text: Recordings[edit]

text:
Year
Artist
Release
Notes and/or Peak Chart Position

1959
The Clancy Brothers and Tommy Makem
Come Fill Your Glass with Us

1968
The Dubliners
Drinkin' and Courtin'

1979
Ronnie Drew (of The Dubliners)
Together Again

1981
Robin Williamson
Songs of Love and Parting

1982
Ryan's Fancy
Irish Love Songs

1985
The Pogues
"The Parting Glass" (single); 2004 re-release of Rum Sodomy & the Lash

1994
John McDermott
Old Friends
A cappella

1994
Father, Son and Friends
"Rebels, Rogues & Rascals"

1996
Poxy Boggards
Bawdy Parts - Original and Traditional Songs of Drinking and Revelry

1998
Steeleye Span
Horkstow Grange

1998
Liam O'Maonlai and The Voice Squad

Recording with an original melody by Shaun Davey for the closing titles of the movie Waking Ned Devine

2002
Sinéad O'Connor
Sean-Nós Nua

2003
The Tossers
Purgatory
Hidden track

2003
Voice Male
Approved
Belgian all-male a cappella group

2004
The Wailin' Jennys
40 Days

2007
Mark Seymour
Titanic

2008
The Holy Sea
A Beginner's Guide to the Sea

2008
The High Kings
The High Kings

2008
Cara Dillon
Hill of Thieves

2009
The Spooky Men's Chorale
Deep

2010
Luke Macfarlane

Brothers & Sisters – Season 4, Episode 23

2010
Loreena McKennitt
The Wind That Shakes the Barley

2011
Hannah Peel
The Broken Wave

2011
Celtic Woman
Celtic Woman: Believe

2011
Ed Sheeran
+
Hidden track

2011
The Felice Brothers
God Bless You Amigo

2011
Bruce Guthro
Celtic Crossing

2012
Emily Kinney and Lauren Cohan
The Walking Dead: Original Soundtrack – Vol. 1
Recorded for The Walking Dead – Season 3, Episode 1[11]

2013
UCD Choral Scholars
The Parting Glass (EP)

2013
Face Vocal Band
How Was the Show Last Night

2013
Celtic Woman
Celtic Woman: Emerald - Musical Gems

2013
Sarah Greene
Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag
Sung by Anne Bonny (played by Sarah Greene) during the game's end credits.[12]

2014
Gregory Page
Gregory Page – One Way Journey Home

2014
Peter Hollens
Self-Titled

2014
Glen Hansard and guests
Céilúradh at Royal Albert Hall

2014
Sven-Bertil Taube
Hommage
as "Ett sista glas", Swedish translation by Lars Forssell

2015
Damien Leith
Songs From Ireland
No.11 album in Australia

2015
Scythian
Old Tin Can

2015
MacPiet
Listen and RePiet

2015
Miriam Bryant
Så Mycket Bättre 2015
as "Ett sista glas", Swedish translation by Lars Forssell

2016
Paul Kelly (Australian musician)
Death's Dateless Night

2016
Siobhan Owen
Entwined

2016
Alexander Armstrong
Upon a Different Shore

2017
Trey Anastasio Band
Live Phish Series
various 2017 live shows

2017
Ye Banished Privateers
First Night Back in Port
Hidden track


document_title: Dynasties in Chinese history

question_text: the last two major chinese dynasties in its history were the

text: Dynasties in Chinese history

text: Background[edit]

text: One might incorrectly infer from viewing historical timelines that transitions between dynasties occur abruptly and smoothly. Rather, dynasties were often established before the complete overthrow of an existing reign, or continued for a time after they had been effectively defeated. For example, the conventional date 1645 marks the year in which the Qing dynasty armies overthrew the preceding Ming dynasty, according to the dynastic cycle of China. However, the Qing dynasty was established in 1636 (or even 1616, albeit under a different name), while the last Ming dynasty pretender was not deposed until 1663. This change of ruling houses was a messy and prolonged affair, and the Qing took almost twenty years to extend their control over the whole of China. It is therefore inaccurate to assume China changed suddenly and all at once in the year 1645.

text: In addition, China was divided for short periods of its history, with different regions being ruled by different groups. During such periods, there was not any single dynasty ruling a unified China. As a case in point, there is much dispute about times in and after the Western Zhou period. In the Chinese historiographical tradition, each new dynasty would write the history of the dynasty which preceded it. This cycle was disrupted, however, when the Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty in favor of a republic. Even an attempt by Republicans to draft the history of the Qing was disrupted by the Chinese Civil War, which resulted in the division of China into the People's Republic of China on mainland China and the Republic of China on Taiwan.[1]

text: Dynasties of China[edit]

text:
Dynasty

Rulers

Ruling house or clan of houses

From

To

Term

Name

Chinese
(Traditional
/Simplified)

Pinyin

Meaning

Feudal dynasties

Xia dynasty

夏

Xià

Tribe name

(list)

Sì (姒)

2070 BC

1600 BC

470 years

Shang dynasty

商

Shāng

Toponym

(list)

Zǐ (子)

1600 BC

1046 BC

554 years

Western Zhou dynasty

西周

Xī Zhōu

Toponym

(list)

Jī (姬)

1046 BC

771 BC

275 years

Eastern Zhou dynasty

東周 / 东周

Dōng Zhōu

Toponym

(list)

Jī (姬)

770 BC

256 BC

514 years

Spring and Autumn period

春秋

Chūn Qiū

As English

770 BC

476 BC

294 years

Warring States period

戰國 / 战国

Zhàn Guó

As English

476 BC

221 BC

255 years

Imperial dynasties

Qin dynasty

秦

Qín

Toponym

(list)

Yíng (嬴)

221 BC

207 BC

14 years

Western Han dynasty

西漢 / 西汉

Xī Hàn

Toponym

(list)

Liú (劉)

202 BC

AD 9

210 years

Xin dynasty

新

Xīn

"New"

(list)

Wáng (王)

AD 9

AD 23

14 years

Eastern Han dynasty

東漢 / 东汉

Dōng Hàn

Toponym

(list)

Liú (劉)

AD 25

AD 220

195 years

Three Kingdoms

三國 / 三国

Sān Guó

As English

(list)

Cáo (曹)Liú (劉 / 刘)Sūn (孫 / 孙)

AD 220

AD 280

60 years

Western Jin dynasty

西晉 / 西晋

Xī Jìn

Toponym

(list)

Sīmǎ (司馬)

AD 266

AD 316

50 years

Eastern Jin dynasty

東晉 / 东晋

Dōng Jìn

Toponym

(list)

Sīmǎ (司馬)

AD 317

AD 420

103 years

Southern and Northern dynasties

南北朝

Nán Běi Cháo

As English

(list)

various

AD 420

AD 589

169 years

Sui dynasty

隋

Suí

Ducal title(随 homophone)

(list)

Yáng (楊)

AD 581

AD 618

37 years

Tang dynasty

唐

Táng

Ducal title

(list)

Lǐ (李)

AD 618

AD 907

289 years

Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms

五代十國
/ 五代十国

Wǔ Dài Shí Guó

As English

(list)

various

AD 907

AD 960

53 years

Northern Song dynasty

北宋

Běi Sòng

Toponym

(list)

Zhào (趙)

AD 960

AD 1127

167 years

Southern Song dynasty

南宋

Nán Sòng

Toponym

(list)

Zhào (趙)

AD 1127

AD 1279

152 years

Liao dynasty

遼 / 辽

Liáo

"Vast" or "Iron"(Khitan homophone)

(list)

Yelü (; 耶律)

AD 907

AD 1125

218 years

Jin dynasty

金

Jīn

"Gold"

(list)

Wanggiya(; 完顏)

AD 1115

AD 1234

119 years

Western Xia

西夏

Xī Xià

Toponym

(list)

Li (𘝾; 李)

AD 1038

AD 1227

189 years

Western Liao

西遼 / 西辽

Xī Liáo

"Vast" or "Iron"(Khitan homophone)

(list)

Yelü (; 耶律)

AD 1124

AD 1218

94 years

Yuan dynasty

元

Yuán

"Great" or "Primacy"

(list)

Borjigin(ᠪᠣᠷᠵᠢᠭᠢᠨ; 孛兒只斤)

AD 1271

AD 1368

97 years

Ming dynasty

明

Míng

"Bright"

(list)

Zhū (朱)

AD 1368

AD 1644

276 years

Qing dynasty

清

Qīng

"Pure"

(list)

Aisin Gioro(ᠠᡳᠰᡳᠨ ᡤᡳᠣᡵᠣ; 愛新覺羅)

AD 1636

AD 1912

276 years

Modern China

Republic of China

中華民國
/ 中华民国

Zhōnghuá Mínguó

"Chinese Republic"

(list)

various

AD 1912

until AD 1949 controlled Chinese mainland, after AD 1949 de facto controls Taiwan only

controlled Chinese mainland for 37 years, de facto controls Taiwan only for 69 years, total length is 106 years

People's Republic of China

中華人民共和國 /
中华人民共和国

Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó

"Chinese People's Republic"

(list)

various

AD 1949

present

69 years


document_title: Economy of India under Company rule

question_text: what commodity formed the economic backbone of bengal in the eighteenth century

text: Economy of India under Company rule

text: Economic impact[edit]

text: A number of historians point to the colonization of India as a major factor in both India's deindustrialization and Britain's Industrial Revolution.[1][2][3] The capital amassed from Bengal following its 1757 conquest helped to invest in British industries such as textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution as well as increase British wealth, while contributing to deindustrialization and famines in Bengal;[1][2][3] following the British conquest, a devastating famine broke out in Bengal in the early 1770s, killing a third of the Bengali population and 5 percent of the overall Indian population.[4] British colonization forced open the large Indian market to British goods, which could be sold in India without any tariffs or duties, compared to local Indian producers who were heavily taxed, while in Britain protectionist policies such as bans and high tariffs were implemented to restrict Indian textiles from being sold there, whereas raw cotton was imported from India without tariffs to British factories which manufactured textiles from Indian cotton and sold them back to the Indian market. British economic policies gave them a monopoly over India's large market and cotton resources.[5][6][7] India served as both a significant supplier of raw goods to British manufacturers and a large captive market for British manufactured goods.[8]

text: Indian textiles had maintained a competitive advantage over British textiles up until the 19th century, when Britain eventually overtook India as the world's largest cotton textile manufacturer.[6] In 1811, Bengal was still a major exporter of cotton cloth to the Americas and the Indian Ocean. However, Bengali exports declined over the course of the early 19th century, as British imports to Bengal increased, from 25% in 1811 to 93% in 1840.[9] India, which was previously the world's largest economy under the Mughal Empire in 1700, had by 1820 fallen to become the second largest economy, behind Qing China.[10]

text: Land revenue[edit]

text: In the remnant of the Mughal revenue system existing in pre-1765 Bengal, zamindars, or "land holders," collected revenue on behalf of the Mughal emperor, whose representative, or diwan supervised their activities.[11] In this system, the assortment of rights associated with land were not possessed by a "land owner," but rather shared by the several parties with stake in the land, including the peasant cultivator, the zamindar, and the state.[12] The zamindar served as an intermediary who procured economic rent from the cultivator, and after withholding a percentage for his own expenses, made available the rest, as revenue to the state.[12] Under the Mughal system, the land itself belonged to the state and not to the zamindar, who could transfer only his right to collect rent.[12] On being awarded the diwani or overlordship of Bengal following the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the East India Company found itself short of trained administrators, especially those familiar with local custom and law; tax collection was consequently farmed out. This uncertain foray into land taxation by the Company, may have gravely worsened the impact of a famine that struck Bengal in 1769–70 in which between seven and ten million people—or between a quarter and third of the presidency's population—may have died.[13] However, the company provided little relief either through reduced taxation or by relief efforts,[14] and the economic and cultural impact of the famine was felt decades later, even becoming, a century later, the subject of Bankim Chandra Chatterjee's novel Anandamath.[13]

text: In 1772, under Warren Hastings, the East India Company took over revenue collection directly in the Bengal Presidency (then Bengal and Bihar), establishing a Board of Revenue with offices in Calcutta and Patna, and moving the existing Mughal revenue records from Murshidabad to Calcutta.[15] In 1773, after Oudh ceded the tributary state of Benaras, the revenue collection system was extended to the territory with a Company Resident in charge.[15] The following year—with a view to preventing corruption—Company district collectors, who were then responsible for revenue collection for an entire district, were replaced with provincial councils at Patna, Murshidabad and Calcutta and with Indian collectors working within each district.[15] The title, "collector," reflected "the centrality of land revenue collection to government in India: it was the government's primary function and it moulded the institutions and patterns of administration."[16]

text:
A riverside scene in rural east Bengal (present-day Bangladesh), 1860.

Lord Cornwallis, the Governor-General who established the Permanent Settlement in Bengal.

A Kochh Mandai woman of east Bengal (present-day Bangladesh) shown with a broad-bladed agricultural knife and carrying a freshly harvested jackfruit. (1860)

Paddy fields in the Madras Presidency, ca. 1880. Two-thirds of the presidency fell under the Ryotwari system.

text: The Company inherited a revenue collection system from the Mughals in which the heaviest proportion of the tax burden fell on the cultivators, with one-third of the production reserved for imperial entitlement; this pre-colonial system became the Company revenue policy's baseline.[17] There was vast variation across India in the methods by which the revenues were collected; with this complication in mind, a Committee of Circuit toured the districts of expanded Bengal presidency in order to make a five-year settlement, consisting of five-yearly inspections and temporary tax farming.[18] In their overall approach to revenue policy, Company officials were guided by two goals: preserving as much as possible the balance of rights and obligations that were traditionally claimed by the farmers who cultivated the land and the various intermediaries who collected tax on the state's behalf and who reserved a cut for themselves and identifying those sectors of the rural economy that would maximize both revenue and security.[17] Although their first revenue settlement turned out to be essentially the same as the more informal previous Mughal one, the Company had created a foundation for the growth of both information and bureaucracy.[17]

text: In 1793, the new Governor-General, Lord Cornwallis, promulgated the permanent settlement of land revenues in the presidency, the first socio-economic regulation in colonial India.[15] It was named permanent because it fixed the land tax in perpetuity in return for landed property rights for zamindars; it simultaneously defined the nature of land ownership in the presidency and gave individuals and families separate property rights in occupied land. Since the revenue was fixed in perpetuity, it was fixed at a high level, which in Bengal amounted to £3 million at 1789–90 prices.[19] According to one estimate,[20] this was 20% higher than the revenue demand before 1757. Over the next century, partly as a result of land surveys, court rulings and property sales, the change was given practical dimension.[21] An influence on the development of this revenue policy were economic theories which regarded agriculture as the engine of economic development and consequently stressed the fixing of revenue demands in order to encourage growth.[22] The expectation behind the permanent settlement was that knowledge of a fixed government demand would encourage the zamindars to increase both their average outcrop and the land under cultivation, since they would be able to retain the profits from the increased output; in addition, it was envisaged that land would become a marketable form of property that could be purchased, sold or mortgaged.[17] A feature of this economic rationale was the additional expectation that the zamindars, recognizing their own best interest, would not make unreasonable demands on the peasantry.[23]

text: However, these expectations were not realised in practice and in many regions of Bengal, the peasants bore the brunt of the increased demand, there being little protection for their traditional rights in the new legislation.[23] Forced labor of the peasants by the zamindars became more prevalent as cash crops were cultivated to meet the Company revenue demands.[17] Although commercialized cultivation was not new to the region, it had now penetrated deeper into village society and made it more vulnerable to market forces.[17] The zamindars themselves were often unable to meet the increased demands that the Company had placed on them; consequently, many defaulted, and by one estimate, up to one-third of their lands were auctioned during the first three decades following the permanent settlement.[24] The new owners were often Brahmin and Kayastha employees of the Company who had a good grasp of the new system, and in many cases, had prospered under it.[25]

text: Since the zamindars were never able to undertake costly improvements to the land envisaged under the Permanent Settlement, some of which required the removal of the existing farmers, they soon became rentiers who lived off the rent from their tenant farmers.[25] In many areas, especially northern Bengal, they had to increasingly share the revenue with intermediate tenure holders, called Jotedar, who supervised farming in the villages.[25] Consequently, unlike the contemporaneous Enclosure movement in Britain, agriculture in Bengal remained the province of the subsistence farming of innumerable small paddy fields.[25]

text: The zamindari system was one of two principal revenue settlements undertaken by the Company in India.[26] In southern India, Thomas Munro, who would later become Governor of Madras, promoted the ryotwari system, in which the government settled land-revenue directly with the peasant farmers, or ryots.[14] This was, in part, a consequence of the turmoil of the Anglo-Mysore Wars, which had prevented the emergence of a class of large landowners; in addition, Munro and others felt that ryotwari was closer to traditional practice in the region and ideologically more progressive, allowing the benefits of Company rule to reach the lowest levels of rural society.[14] At the heart of the ryotwari system was a particular theory of economic rent—and based on David Ricardo's Law of Rent—promoted by utilitarian James Mill who formulated the Indian revenue policy between 1819 and 1830. "He believed that the government was the ultimate lord of the soil and should not renounce its right to 'rent', i.e. the profit left over on richer soil when wages and other working expenses had been settled."[27] Another keystone of the new system of temporary settlements was the classification of agricultural fields according to soil type and produce, with average rent rates fixed for the period of the settlement.[28] According to Mill, taxation of land rent would promote efficient agriculture and simultaneously prevent the emergence of a "parasitic landlord class."[27] Mill advocated ryotwari settlements which consisted of government measurement and assessment of each plot (valid for 20 or 30 years) and subsequent taxation which was dependent on the fertility of the soil.[27] The taxed amount was nine-tenths of the "rent" in the early 19th century and gradually fell afterwards.[27] However, in spite of the appeal of the ryotwari system's abstract principles, class hierarchies in southern Indian villages had not entirely disappeared—for example village headmen continued to hold sway—and peasant cultivators sometimes came to experience revenue demands they could not meet.[29] In the 1850s, a scandal erupted when it was discovered that some Indian revenue agents of the Company were using torture to meet the Company's revenue demands.[14]

text: Land revenue settlements constituted a major administrative activity of the various governments in India under Company rule.[30] In all areas other than the Bengal Presidency, land settlement work involved a continually repetitive process of surveying and measuring plots, assessing their quality, and recording landed rights, and constituted a large proportion of the work of Indian Civil Service officers working for the government.[30] After the Company lost its trading rights, it became the single most important source of government revenue, roughly half of overall revenue in the middle of the 19th century;[30] even so, between the years 1814 and 1859, the government of India ran debts in 33 years.[30] With expanded dominion, even during non-deficit years, there was just enough money to pay the salaries of a threadbare administration, a skeleton police force, and the army.[30]

text: Trade[edit]

text:
"It was stated in evidence (in 1813) that the cotton and silk goods of India, up to this period, could be sold for a profit in the British market at a price from 50 to 60 per cent. lower than those fabricated in England. It consequently became necessary to protect the latter by duties of 70 or 80 per cent. on their value, or by positive prohibition. Had this not been the case, had not such prohibitory duties and decrees existed, the mills of Paisley and of Manchester would have been stopped in their outset, and could hardly have been again set in motion, even by the powers of steam. They were created by the sacrifice of the Indian manufactures. Had India been independent, she would have retaliated; would have imposed preventive duties upon British goods, and would thus have preserved her own productive industry from annihilation. This act of self-defence was not permitted her; she was at the mercy of the stranger. British goods were forced upon her without paying any duty; and the foreign manufacturer employed the arm of political injustice to keep down and ultimately strangle a competitor with whom he could not contend on equal terms."

 — James Mill in The History of British India[31]

tag: div

text: After gaining the right to collect revenue in Bengal in 1765, the East India Company largely ceased importing gold and silver, which it had hitherto used to pay for goods shipped back to Britain.[32] In addition, as under Mughal rule, land revenue collected in the Bengal Presidency helped finance the Company's wars in other parts of India.[32] Consequently, in the period 1760–1800, Bengal's money supply was greatly diminished; furthermore, the closing of some local mints and close supervision of the rest, the fixing of exchange rates, and the standardization of coinage, paradoxically, added to the economic downturn.[32] During the period, 1780–1860, India changed from being an exporter of processed goods for which it received payment in bullion, to being an exporter of raw materials and a buyer of manufactured goods.[32] More specifically, in the 1750s, mostly fine cotton and silk was exported from India to markets in Europe, Asia, and Africa; by the second quarter of the 19th century, raw materials, which chiefly consisted of raw cotton, opium, and indigo, accounted for most of India's exports.[33] Also, from the late 18th century British cotton mill industry began to lobby the government to both tax Indian imports and allow them access to markets in India.[33] Starting in the 1830s, British textiles began to appear in—and soon to inundate—the Indian markets, with the value of the textile imports growing from £5.2 million in 1850 to £18.4 million in 1896.[34] The American Civil War too would have a major impact on India's cotton economy: with the outbreak of the war, American cotton was no longer available to British manufacturers; consequently, demand for Indian cotton soared, and the prices soon quadrupled.[35] This led many farmers in India to switch to cultivating cotton as a quick cash crop; however, with the end of the war in 1865, the demand plummeted again, creating another downturn in the agricultural economy.[33]

text: At this time, the East India Company's trade with China began to grow as well. In the early 19th century demand for Chinese tea had greatly increased in Britain; since the money supply in India was restricted and the Company was indisposed to shipping bullion from Britain, it decided upon opium, which had a large underground market in China and which was grown in many parts of India, as the most profitable form of payment.[36] However, since the Chinese authorities had banned the importation and consumption of opium, the Company engaged them in the First Opium War, and at its conclusion, under the Treaty of Nanjing, gained access to five Chinese ports, Guangzhou, Xiamen, Fuzhou, Shanghai, and Ningbo; in addition, Hong Kong was ceded to the British Crown.[36] Towards the end of the second quarter of the 19th century, opium export constituted 40% of India's exports.[37]

text:
Photograph of East India Company factory in Painam, Sonargaon, Bangladesh, a major producer of the celebrated Dhaka muslins.

"Mellor Mill" in Marple, Greater Manchester, England, was constructed in 1790–93 for manufacturing muslin cloth.

Opium Godown (Storehouse) in Patna, Bihar (c. 1814). Patna was the centre of the Company opium industry.

Indigo dye factory in Bengal. Bengal was the world's largest producer of natural indigo in the 19th century.

text: Another major, though erratic, export item was indigo dye, which was extracted from natural indigo, and which came to be grown in Bengal and northern Bihar.[38] In late 17th and early 18th century Europe, blue apparel was favoured as a fashion, and blue uniforms were common in the military; consequently, the demand for the dye was high.[39] In 1788, the East India Company offered advances to ten British planters to grow indigo; however, since the new (landed) property rights defined in the Permanent Settlement, didn't allow them, as Europeans, to buy agricultural land, they had to in turn offer cash advances to local peasants, and sometimes coerce them, to grow the crop.[40] The European demand for the dye, however, proved to be unstable, and both creditors and cultivators bore the risk of the market crashes in 1827 and 1847.[38] The peasant discontent in Bengal eventually led to the Indigo rebellion in 1859–60 and to the end of indigo production there.[41] In Bihar, however, indigo production continued well into the 20th century; the centre of indigo production there, Champaran district, became the staging ground, in 1917, for Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi's first experiment in non-violent resistance against the British Raj.[39]