document_title: Whiskey Rebellion

question_text: who was the leader who put down the whiskey rebellion

text: Whiskey Rebellion

text: Whiskey tax

text: A new U.S. federal government began operating in 1789, following the ratification of the United States Constitution. The previous central government under the Articles of Confederation had been unable to levy taxes; it had borrowed money to meet expenses and fund the Revolution, accumulating $54 million in debt. The state governments had amassed an additional $25 million in debt.[5] Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton sought to use this debt to create a financial system that would promote American prosperity and national unity. In his Report on Public Credit, he urged Congress to consolidate the state and national debts into a single debt that would be funded by the federal government. Congress approved these measures in June and July 1790.[6]

text: A source of government revenue was needed to pay the respectable amount due to the previous bondholders to whom the debt was owed. By December 1790, Hamilton believed that import duties, which were the government's primary source of revenue, had been raised as high as feasible.[7] He therefore promoted passage of an excise tax on domestically produced distilled spirits. This was to be the first tax levied by the national government on a domestic product.[8] Whiskey was by far the most popular distilled beverage in late 18th-century America, so the excise became known as the "whiskey tax." Taxes were politically unpopular, and Hamilton believed that the whiskey excise was a luxury tax and would be the least objectionable tax that the government could levy.[9] In this, he had the support of some social reformers, who hoped that a "sin tax" would raise public awareness about the harmful effects of alcohol.[10] The whiskey excise act, sometimes known as the "Whiskey Act", became law in March 1791.[11] George Washington defined the revenue districts, appointed the revenue supervisors and inspectors, and set their pay in November 1791.[12]

text: Western grievances

text: The population of Western Pennsylvania was 17,000 in 1790.[13] Among the farmers in the region, the whiskey excise was immediately controversial, with many people on the frontier arguing that it unfairly targeted westerners.[14] Whiskey was a popular drink, and farmers often supplemented their incomes by operating small stills.[15] Farmers living west of the Appalachian Mountains distilled their excess grain into whiskey, which was easier and more profitable to transport over the mountains than the more cumbersome grain. A whiskey tax would make western farmers less competitive with eastern grain producers.[16] Additionally, cash was always in short supply on the frontier, so whiskey often served as a medium of exchange. For poorer people who were paid in whiskey, the excise was essentially an income tax that wealthier easterners did not pay.[17]

text: Small-scale farmers also protested that Hamilton's excise effectively gave unfair tax breaks to large distillers, most of whom were based in the east. There were two methods of paying the whiskey excise: paying a flat fee or paying by the gallon. Large distillers produced whiskey in volume and could afford the flat fee. The more efficient they became, the less tax per gallon they would pay (as low as 6 cents, according to Hamilton). Western farmers who owned small stills did not usually operate them year-round at full capacity, so they ended up paying a higher tax per gallon (9 cents), which made them less competitive.[18] The regressive nature of the tax was further compounded by an additional factor: whiskey sold for considerably less on the cash-poor Western frontier than in the wealthier and more populous East. This meant that, even if all distillers had been required to pay the same amount of tax per gallon, the small-scale frontier distillers would still have to remit a considerably larger proportion of their product's value than larger Eastern distillers. Small-scale distillers believed that Hamilton deliberately designed the tax to ruin them and promote big business, a view endorsed by some historians.[19] However, historian Thomas Slaughter argued that a "conspiracy of this sort is difficult to document".[20] Whether by design or not, large distillers recognized the advantage that the excise gave them and they supported it.[21]

text: Other aspects of the excise law also caused concern. The law required all stills to be registered, and those cited for failure to pay the tax had to appear in distant Federal, rather than local courts. The only Federal courthouse was in Philadelphia, some 300 miles away from the small frontier settlement of Pittsburgh. From the beginning, the Federal government had little success in collecting the whiskey tax along the frontier. Many small western distillers simply refused to pay the tax. Federal revenue officers and local residents who assisted them bore the brunt of the protester's ire. Tax rebels harassed several whiskey tax collectors and threatened or beat those who offered them office space or housing. As a result, many western counties never had a resident Federal tax official.[22]

text: In addition to the whiskey tax, westerners had a number of other grievances with the national government, chief among which was the perception that the government was not adequately protecting the residents living in western frontier.[22] The Northwest Indian War was going badly for the United States, with major losses in 1791. Furthermore, westerners were prohibited by Spain (which then owned Louisiana) from using the Mississippi River for commercial navigation. Until these issues were addressed, westerners felt that the government was ignoring their security and economic welfare. Adding the whiskey excise to these existing grievances only increased tensions on the frontier.[23]

text: Resistance

text: Many residents of the western frontier petitioned against passage of the whiskey excise. When that failed, some western Pennsylvanians organized extralegal conventions to advocate repeal of the law.[24] Opposition to the tax was particularly prevalent in four southwestern counties: Allegheny, Fayette, Washington, and Westmoreland.[25] A preliminary meeting held on July 27, 1791 at Redstone Old Fort in Fayette County called for the selection of delegates to a more formal assembly, which convened in Pittsburgh in early September 1791. The Pittsburgh convention was dominated by moderates such as Hugh Henry Brackenridge, who hoped to prevent the outbreak of violence.[26] The convention sent a petition for redress of grievances to the Pennsylvania Assembly and the U.S House of Representatives, both located in Philadelphia.[27] As a result of this and other petitions, the excise law was modified in May 1792. Changes included a 1-cent reduction in the tax that was advocated by William Findley, a congressman from western Pennsylvania, but the new excise law was still unsatisfactory to many westerners.[28]

text: Appeals to nonviolent resistance were unsuccessful. On September 11, 1791, a recently appointed tax collector named Robert Johnson was tarred and feathered by a disguised gang in Washington County.[29] A man sent by officials to serve court warrants to Johnson's attackers was whipped, tarred, and feathered.[30] Because of these and other violent attacks, the tax went uncollected in 1791 and early 1792.[31] The attackers modeled their actions on the protests of the American Revolution. Supporters of the excise argued that there was a difference between taxation without representation in colonial America, and a tax laid by the elected representatives of the American people.[32]

text: Older accounts of the Whiskey Rebellion portrayed it as being confined to western Pennsylvania, yet there was opposition to the whiskey tax in the western counties of every other state in Appalachia (Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia).[33] The whiskey tax went uncollected throughout the frontier state of Kentucky, where no one could be convinced to enforce the law or prosecute evaders.[34][35] In 1792, Hamilton advocated military action to suppress violent resistance in western North Carolina, but Attorney General Edmund Randolph argued that there was insufficient evidence to legally justify such a reaction.[36]

text: In August 1792, a second convention was held in Pittsburgh to discuss resistance to the whiskey tax. This meeting was more radical than the first convention; moderates such as Brackenridge and Findley were not in attendance. Future Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin was one moderate who did attend, to his later regret.[37] A militant group known as the Mingo Creek Association dominated the convention and issued radical demands. As some of them had done in the American Revolution, they raised liberty poles, formed committees of correspondence, and took control of the local militia. They created an extralegal court and discouraged lawsuits for debt collection and foreclosures.[38]

text: Hamilton regarded the second Pittsburgh convention as a serious threat to the operation of the laws of the federal government. In September 1792, he sent Pennsylvania tax official George Clymer to western Pennsylvania to investigate. Clymer only increased tensions with a clumsy attempt at traveling in disguise and attempting to intimidate local officials. His somewhat exaggerated report greatly influenced the decisions made by the Washington administration.[39] Washington and Hamilton viewed resistance to federal laws in Pennsylvania as particularly embarrassing, since the national capital was then located in the same state. On his own initiative, Hamilton drafted a presidential proclamation denouncing resistance to the excise laws and submitted it to Attorney General Randolph, who toned down some of the language. Washington signed the proclamation on September 15, 1792, and it was published as a broadside and printed in many newspapers.[40]

text: Federal tax inspector for western Pennsylvania General John Neville was determined to enforce the excise law.[41] He was a prominent politician and wealthy planter—and also a large-scale distiller. He had initially opposed the whiskey tax, but subsequently changed his mind, a reversal that angered some western Pennsylvanians.[42] In August 1792, Neville rented a room in Pittsburgh for his tax office, but the landlord turned him out after being threatened with violence by the Mingo Creek Association.[43] From this point on, tax collectors were not the only people targeted in Pennsylvania; those who cooperated with federal tax officials also faced harassment. Anonymous notes and newspaper articles signed by "Tom the Tinker" threatened those who complied with the whiskey tax.[44] Those who failed to heed the warnings might have their barns burned or their stills destroyed.[45]

text: Resistance to the excise tax continued through 1793 in the frontier counties of Appalachia. Opposition remained especially strident in western Pennsylvania.[46] In June, Neville was burned in effigy by a crowd of about 100 people in Washington County.[47] On the night of November 22, 1793, men broke into the home of tax collector Benjamin Wells in Fayette County. Wells was, like Neville, one of the wealthier men in the region.[48] At gunpoint, the intruders forced him to surrender his commission.[46] President Washington offered a reward for the arrest of the assailants, to no avail.[49]

text: Insurrection

text: The resistance came to a climax in 1794. In May of that year, federal district attorney William Rawle issued subpoenas for more than 60 distillers in Pennsylvania who had not paid the excise tax.[50] Under the law then in effect, distillers who received these writs would be obligated to travel to Philadelphia to appear in federal court. For farmers on the western frontier, such a journey was expensive, time-consuming, and beyond their means.[51] At the urging of William Findley, Congress modified this law on June 5, 1794, allowing excise trials to be held in local state courts.[52] But by that time, U.S. marshal David Lenox had already been sent to serve the writs summoning delinquent distillers to Philadelphia. Attorney General William Bradford later maintained that the writs were meant to compel compliance with the law, and that the government did not actually intend to hold trials in Philadelphia.[53]

text: The timing of these events later proved to be controversial. Findley was a bitter political foe of Hamilton, and he maintained in his book on the insurrection that the treasury secretary had deliberately provoked the uprising by issuing the subpoenas just before the law was made less onerous.[54] In 1963, historian Jacob Cooke, an editor of Hamilton's papers, regarded this charge as "preposterous", calling it a "conspiracy thesis" that overstated Hamilton's control of the federal government.[55] In 1986, historian Thomas Slaughter argued that the outbreak of the insurrection at this moment was due to "a string of ironic coincidences", although "the question about motives must always remain".[56] In 2006, William Hogeland argued that Hamilton, Bradford, and Rawle intentionally pursued a course of action that would provoke "the kind of violence that would justify federal military suppression".[57] According to Hogeland, Hamilton had been working towards this moment since the Newburgh Crisis in 1783, where he conceived of using military force to crush popular resistance to direct taxation for the purpose of promoting national unity and enriching the creditor class at the expense of common taxpayers.[58] Historian S. E. Morison believed that Hamilton, in general, wished to enforce the excise law "more as a measure of social discipline than as a source of revenue".[59]

text: Battle of Bower Hill

text: Federal Marshal Lenox delivered most of the writs without incident. On July 15, he was joined on his rounds by General Neville, who had offered to act as his guide in Allegheny County.[60] That evening, warning shots were fired at the men at the Miller farm, about 10 mi (16 km) south of Pittsburgh. Neville returned home while Lenox retreated to Pittsburgh.[61]

text: On July 16, at least 30 Mingo Creek militiamen surrounded Neville's fortified home of Bower Hill.[62] They demanded the surrender of the federal marshal, whom they believed to be inside. Neville responded by firing a gunshot that mortally wounded Oliver Miller, one of the "rebels".[63] The rebels opened fire but were unable to dislodge Neville, who had his slaves' help to defend the house.[64] The rebels retreated to nearby Couch's Fort to gather reinforcements.[65]

text: The next day, the rebels returned to Bower Hill. Their force had swelled to nearly 600 men, now commanded by Major James McFarlane, a veteran of the Revolutionary War.[66] Neville had also received reinforcements: 10 U.S. Army soldiers from Pittsburgh under the command of Major Abraham Kirkpatrick, Neville's brother-in-law.[67] Before the rebel force arrived, Kirkpatrick had Neville leave the house and hide in a nearby ravine. David Lenox and General Neville's son Presley Neville also returned to the area, though they could not get into the house and were captured by the rebels.[68]

text: Following some fruitless negotiations, the women and children were allowed to leave the house, and then both sides began firing. After about an hour, McFarlane called a ceasefire; according to some, a white flag had been waved in the house. As McFarlane stepped into the open, a shot rang out from the house, and he fell mortally wounded. The enraged rebels then set fire to the house, including the slave quarters, and Kirkpatrick surrendered.[69] The number of casualties at Bower Hill is unclear; McFarlane and one or two other militiamen were killed; one U.S. soldier may have died from wounds received in the fight.[70] The rebels sent the U.S. soldiers away. Kirkpatrick, Lenox, and Presley Neville were kept as prisoners, but they later escaped.[71]

text: March on Pittsburgh

text: McFarlane was given a hero's funeral on July 18. His "murder", as the rebels saw it, further radicalized the countryside.[72] Moderates such as Brackenridge were hard-pressed to restrain the populace. Radical leaders emerged, such as David Bradford, urging violent resistance. On July 26, a group headed by Bradford robbed the U.S. mail as it left Pittsburgh, hoping to discover who in that town opposed them and finding several letters that condemned the rebels. Bradford and his band called for a military assembly to meet at Braddock's Field, about 8 mi (13 km) east of Pittsburgh.[73]

text: On August 1, about 7,000 people gathered at Braddock's Field.[74] The crowd consisted primarily of poor people who owned no land, and most did not own whiskey stills. The furor over the whiskey excise had unleashed anger about other economic grievances. By this time, the victims of violence were often wealthy property owners who had no connection to the whiskey tax.[75] Some of the most radical protesters wanted to march on Pittsburgh, which they called "Sodom", loot the homes of the wealthy, and then burn the town to the ground.[76] Others wanted to attack Fort Fayette. There was praise for the French Revolution and calls for bringing the guillotine to America. David Bradford, it was said, was comparing himself to Robespierre, a leader of the French Reign of Terror.[77]

text: At Braddock's Field, there was talk of declaring independence from the United States and of joining with Spain or Great Britain. Radicals flew a specially designed flag that proclaimed their independence. The flag had six stripes, one for each county represented at the gathering: the Pennsylvania counties of Allegheny, Bedford, Fayette, Washington, and Westmoreland, and Virginia's Ohio County.[78]

text: Pittsburgh citizens helped to defuse the threat by banishing three men whose intercepted letters had given offense to the rebels, and by sending a delegation to Braddock's Field that expressed support for the gathering.[79] Brackenridge prevailed upon the crowd to limit the protest to a defiant march through the town. In Pittsburgh, Major Kirkpatrick's barns were burned, but nothing else.[80]

text: Meeting at Whiskey Point

text:
Whiskey Point

Pennsylvania Historical Marker signification

Location
Main Street between First Street & Park Avenue
Monongahela

Coordinates
40°12′01″N 79°55′21″W / 40.2002°N 79.9226°W / 40.2002; -79.9226

PA marker dedicated
May 26, 1949[81]

text: A convention was held on August 14 of 226 whiskey rebels from the six counties, held at Parkison's Ferry (now known as Whiskey Point) in present-day Monongahela. The convention considered resolutions which were drafted by Brackenridge, Gallatin, David Bradford, and an eccentric preacher named Herman Husband, a delegate from Bedford County. Husband was a well-known local figure and a radical champion of democracy who had taken part in the Regulator movement in North Carolina 25 years earlier.[82] The Parkison's Ferry convention also appointed a committee to meet with the peace commissioners who had been sent west by President Washington.[83] There, Gallatin presented an eloquent speech in favor of peace and against proposals from Bradford to further revolt.[81]

text: Federal response

text: President Washington was confronted with what appeared to be an armed insurrection in western Pennsylvania, and he proceeded cautiously while determined to maintain governmental authority. He did not want to alienate public opinion, so he asked his cabinet for written opinions about how to deal with the crisis. The cabinet recommended the use of force, except for Secretary of State Edmund Randolph who urged reconciliation.[84] Washington did both: he sent commissioners to meet with the rebels while raising a militia army. Washington privately doubted that the commissioners could accomplish anything, and believed that a military expedition would be needed to suppress further violence.[85] For this reason, historians have sometimes charged that the peace commission was sent only for the sake of appearances, and that the use of force was never in doubt.[86] Historians Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick argued that the military expedition was "itself a part of the reconciliation process", since a show of overwhelming force would make further violence less likely.[87]

text: Meanwhile, Hamilton began publishing essays under the name of "Tully" in Philadelphia newspapers, denouncing mob violence in western Pennsylvania and advocating military action. Democratic-Republican Societies had been formed throughout the country, and Washington and Hamilton believed that they were the source of civic unrest. "Historians are not yet agreed on the exact role of the societies" in the Whiskey Rebellion, wrote historian Mark Spencer in 2003, "but there was a degree of overlap between society membership and the Whiskey Rebels".[88]

text: Before troops could be raised, the Militia Act of 1792 required a justice of the United States Supreme Court to certify that law enforcement was beyond the control of local authorities. On August 4, 1794, Justice James Wilson delivered his opinion that western Pennsylvania was in a state of rebellion.[89] On August 7, Washington issued a presidential proclamation announcing, with "the deepest regret", that the militia would be called out to suppress the rebellion. He commanded insurgents in western Pennsylvania to disperse by September 1.[90]

text: Negotiations

text: In early August 1794, Washington dispatched three commissioners to the west, all of them Pennsylvanians: Attorney General William Bradford, Justice Jasper Yeates of the Pennsylvania Supreme Court, and Senator James Ross. Beginning on August 21, the commissioners met with a committee of westerners that included Brackenridge and Gallatin. The government commissioners told the committee that it must unanimously agree to renounce violence and submit to U.S. laws, and that a popular referendum must be held to determine if the local people supported the decision. Those who agreed to these terms would be given amnesty from further prosecution.[91]

text: The committee was divided between radicals and moderates, and narrowly passed a resolution agreeing to submit to the government's terms. The popular referendum was held on September 11 and also produced mixed results. Some townships overwhelmingly supported submitting to U.S. law, but opposition to the government remained strong in areas where poor and landless people predominated.[92] The final report of the commissioners recommended the use of the military to enforce the laws.[93] The trend was towards submission, however, and westerners dispatched representatives William Findley and David Redick to meet with Washington and to halt the progress of the oncoming army. Washington and Hamilton declined, arguing that violence was likely to re-emerge if the army turned back.[92]

text: Militia expedition

text: Under the authority of the recently passed federal militia law, the state militias were called up by the governors of New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia, and Pennsylvania. The federalized militia force of 12,950 men was a large army by American standards of the time, comparable to Washington's armies during the Revolution.[94] Relatively few men volunteered for militia service, so a draft was used to fill out the ranks. Draft evasion was widespread, and conscription efforts resulted in protests and riots, even in eastern areas. Three counties in eastern Virginia were the scenes of armed draft resistance. In Maryland, Governor Thomas Sim Lee sent 800 men to quash an antidraft riot in Hagerstown; about 150 people were arrested.[95]

text: Liberty poles were raised in various places as the militia was recruited, worrying federal officials. A liberty pole was raised in Carlisle, Pennsylvania on September 11, 1794.[96] The federalized militia arrived in that town later that month and rounded up suspected pole-raisers. Two civilians were killed in these operations. On September 29, an unarmed boy was shot by an officer whose pistol accidentally fired. Two days later, an "Itinerant Person" was "Bayoneted" to death by a soldier while resisting arrest (the man had tried to wrest the rifle from the soldier he confronted; it is possible he had been a member of a 500-strong Irish work crew nearby who were "digging, a canal into the Sculkill" [sic]; at least one of that work gang's members protested the killing so vigorously that he was "put under guard").[97] President Washington ordered the arrest of the two soldiers and had them turned over to civilian authorities. A state judge determined that the deaths had been accidental, and the soldiers were released.[98]

text: In October 1794, Washington traveled west to review the progress of the military expedition. According to historian Joseph Ellis, this was "the first and only time a sitting American president led troops in the field".[99] Jonathan Forman led the Third Infantry Regiment of New Jersey troops against the Whiskey Rebellion, he wrote about his encounter with Washington:[100]

text: October 3d Marched early in the morning for Harrisburgh, where we arrived about 12 O'clock. About 1 O'Clock recd. information of the Presidents approach on which, I had the regiment paraded, timely for his reception, & considerably to my satisfaction. Being afterwards invited to his quarters he made enquiry into the circumstances of the man [an incident between an "Itinerant Person" and "an Old Soldier" mentioned earlier in the journal (p. 3)] & seemed satisfied with the information.[97]

text: Washington met with the western representatives in Bedford, Pennsylvania on October 9 before going to Fort Cumberland in Maryland to review the southern wing of the army.[101] He was convinced that the federalized militia would meet little resistance, and he placed the army under the command of the Virginia Governor Henry "Lighthorse Harry" Lee, a hero of the Revolutionary War. Washington returned to Philadelphia; Hamilton remained with the army as civilian adviser.[102]

text: Daniel Morgan, a general key to the winning of the American Revolution, was called up to lead a force to suppress the protest. It was at this time (1794) that Morgan was promoted to Major General. Serving under General "Light-Horse Harry" Lee, Morgan led one wing of the militia army into Western Pennsylvania.[103] The massive show of force brought an end to the protests without a shot being fired. After the uprising had been suppressed, Morgan commanded the remnant of the army that remained until 1795 in Pennsylvania, some 1,200 militiamen, one of whom was Meriwether Lewis.[104]

text: Aftermath

text: The insurrection collapsed as the federal army marched west into western Pennsylvania in October 1794. Some of the most prominent leaders of the insurrection, such as David Bradford, fled westward to safety. It took six months for those who were charged to be tried. Most were acquitted due to mistaken identity, unreliable testimony and lack of witnesses. The only two convicted of treason and sentenced to hang were John Mitchell and Philip Wigle. They were later pardoned by Washington.[105][106]

text: Immediately before the arrests "... as many as 2,000 of [the rebels] – had fled into the mountains, beyond the reach of the militia. It was a great disappointment to Hamilton, who had hoped to bring rebel leaders such as David Bradford to trial in Philadelphia – and possibly see them hanged for treason. Instead, when the militia at last turned back, out of all the suspects they had seized a mere twenty were selected to serve as examples, They were at worst bit players in the uprising, but they were better than nothing."[105]

text: The captured participants and the Federal militia arrived in Philadelphia on Christmas Day. Some artillery was fired and church bells were heard as "... a huge throng lined Broad Street to cheer the troops and mock the rebels ... [Presley] Neville said he 'could not help feeling sorry for them. The captured rebels were paraded down Broad Street being 'humiliated, bedragged, [and] half-starved ...' "[105]

text: Other accounts describe the indictment of 24 men for high treason.[107] Most of the accused had eluded capture, so only ten men stood trial for treason in federal court.[108] Of these, only Philip Wigle[111] and John Mitchell were convicted. Wigle had beaten up a tax collector and burned his house; Mitchell was a simpleton who had been convinced by David Bradford to rob the U.S. mail. Both men were sentenced to death by hanging, but they were pardoned by President Washington.[112] Pennsylvania state courts were more successful in prosecuting lawbreakers, securing numerous convictions for assault and rioting.[113] While violent opposition to the whiskey tax ended, political opposition to the tax continued. Opponents of internal taxes rallied around the candidacy of Thomas Jefferson and helped him defeat President John Adams in the election of 1800. By 1802, Congress repealed the distilled spirits excise tax and all other internal Federal taxes. Until the War of 1812, the Federal government would rely solely on import tariffs for revenue, which quickly grew with the Nation's expanding foreign trade.[22]

text: Legacy

text: The Washington administration's suppression of the Whiskey Rebellion met with widespread popular approval.[114] The episode demonstrated that the new national government had the willingness and ability to suppress violent resistance to its laws. It was, therefore, viewed by the Washington administration as a success, a view that has generally been endorsed by historians.[115] The Washington administration and its supporters usually did not mention, however, that the whiskey excise remained difficult to collect, and that many westerners continued to refuse to pay the tax.[33] The events contributed to the formation of political parties in the United States, a process already underway.[116] The whiskey tax was repealed after Thomas Jefferson's Republican Party came to power in 1801, which opposed the Federalist Party of Hamilton and Washington.[117]

text: The Rebellion raised the question of what kinds of protests were permissible under the new Constitution. Legal historian Christian G. Fritz argued that there was not yet a consensus about sovereignty in the United States, even after ratification of the Constitution. Federalists believed that the government was sovereign because it had been established by the people; radical protest actions were permissible during the American Revolution but were no longer legitimate, in their thinking. But the Whiskey Rebels and their defenders believed that the Revolution had established the people as a "collective sovereign", and the people had the collective right to change or challenge the government through extra-constitutional means.[118]

text: Historian Steven Boyd argued that the suppression of the Whiskey Rebellion prompted anti-Federalist westerners to finally accept the Constitution and to seek change by voting for Republicans rather than resisting the government. Federalists, for their part, came to accept the public's role in governance and no longer challenged the freedom of assembly and the right to petition.[119]

text: In popular culture

text: Soon after the Whiskey Rebellion, actress-playwright Susanna Rowson wrote a stage musical about the insurrection entitled The Volunteers, with music by composer Alexander Reinagle. The play is now lost, but the songs survive and suggest that Rowson's interpretation was pro-Federalist. The musical celebrates as American heroes the militiamen who put down the rebellion, the "volunteers" of the title.[120] President Washington and Martha Washington attended a performance of the play in Philadelphia in January 1795.[121]

text: W. C. Fields recorded a comedy track in Les Paul's studio in 1946, shortly before his death, entitled "The Temperance Lecture" for the album W. C. Fields ... His Only Recording Plus 8 Songs by Mae West. The bit discussed Washington and his role in putting down the Whiskey Rebellion, and Fields wondered aloud whether "George put down a little of the vile stuff too."[122]

text: L. Neil Smith wrote the alternate history novel The Probability Broach in 1980 as part of his North American Confederacy Series. In it, Albert Gallatin joins the rebellion in 1794 to benefit the farmers, rather than the fledgling US Government as he did in reality. This results in the rebellion becoming a Second American Revolution. This eventually leads to George Washington being overthrown and executed for treason, the abrogation of the Constitution, and Gallatin being proclaimed the second president and serving as president until 1812.[123][124]

text: David Liss' 2008 novel The Whiskey Rebels covers many of the circumstances during 1788-92 that led to the 1794 Rebellion. The fictional protagonists are cast against an array of historical persons, including Alexander Hamilton, William Duer, Anne Bingham, Hugh Henry Brackenridge, Aaron Burr, and Philip Freneau.

text: In 2011, the Whiskey Rebellion Festival was started in Washington, Pennsylvania. This annual event is held in July and includes live music, food, and historic reenactments, featuring the "tar and feathering" of the tax collector.[125][126]

text: Other works which include events of the Whiskey Rebellion:

text:
The Latimers: A Tale of the Western Insurrection of 1794 by clergyman Henry Christopher McCook (1898)
The Delectable Country by Leland Baldwin (1939)
"Copper Kettle", a song attributed to A.F.Beddoes[127], and performed on record by Chet Atkins, Joan Baez, Bob Dylan, and Gillian Welch
Margery Evendern's young adult novel Wilderness Boy (1955)

text: Research materials

text: Much primary source historical material has been preserved and exists in archives. A list of institutions that possess holdings and examples are:

text:
The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History papers of Alexander Hamilton regarding the rebellion.
National Archives Founders Online a large collection containing correspondence to and from George Washington, Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson regarding the rebellion.
Pennsylvania Commonwealth Archives Pennsylvania Archives, Second Series, Vol. IV., Reprinted under direction of Charles Warren Stone, Pennsylvania Archives, Second Series, Vol. IV. Reprinted under direction of Charles Warren Stone, Pennsylvania Archives, Second Series, Vol. IV.Reprinted under direction of Charles Warren Stone, Secretary of the Commonwealth. Edited by John B. Linn and Wm. H. Egle, M. D. Harrisburg: E. K. Meyers, State Printer, 1890. Secretary of the Commonwealth. Edited by John B. Linn and Wm. H. Egle, M. D. Harrisburg: E. K. Meyers, State Printer, 1890. Secretary of the Commonwealth Hundreds of documents that include correspondence to and from William Rawle, William Bingham, and George Turner.
University of Pittsburgh, Alexander Addison A federal judge in western Pennsylvania during the Whiskey Rebellion with moderate views.
University of Pittsburgh. Jonathan Forman Papers A federal militia soldier's diary.


document_title: Organ of Corti

question_text: where are the basilar membrane and the organ of corti located

root

text: Organ of Corti

text: Structure[edit]

text: The organ of Corti is located in the scala media of the cochlea of the inner ear between the vestibular duct and the tympanic duct and is composed of mechanosensory cells, known as hair cells.[2] Strategically positioned on the basilar membrane of the organ of Corti are three rows of outer hair cells (OHCs) and one row of inner hair cells (IHCs).[4] Separating these hair cells are supporting cells: Deiters cells, also called phalangeal cells, which separate and support both the OHCs and the IHCs.[4]

tag: p

text: Projecting from the tops of the hair cells are tiny finger like projections called stereocilia, which are arranged in a graduated fashion with the shortest stereocilia on the outer rows and the longest in the center. This gradation is thought to be the most important anatomic feature of the organ of Corti because this allows the sensory cells superior tuning capability.[5]

text: If the cochlea were uncoiled it would roll out to be about 33 mm long in women and 34mm in men, with about 2.28 mm of standard deviation for the population.[6] The cochlea is also tonotopically organized, meaning that different frequencies of sound waves interact with different locations on the structure. The base of the cochlea, closest to the outer ear, is the most stiff and narrow and is where the high frequency sounds are transduced. The apex, or top, of the cochlea is wider and much more flexible and loose and functions as the transduction site for low frequency sounds.[7]

text: Function[edit]

text: The function of the organ of Corti is to transduce auditory signals and maximize the hair cells’ extraction of sound energy.[2] It is the auricle and middle ear that act as mechanical transformers and amplifiers so that the sound waves end up with amplitudes 22 times greater than when they entered the ear.

text: Auditory transduction[edit]

text: In normal hearing subjects, the majority of the auditory signals that reach the organ of Corti in the first place come from the outer ear. Sound waves enter through the auditory canal and vibrate the tympanic membrane, also known as the eardrum, which vibrates three small bones called the ossicles. As a result, the attached oval window moves and causes movement of the round window, which leads to displacement of the cochlear fluid.[8] However, the stimulation can happen also via direct vibration of the cochlea from the skull. The latter is referred to as Bone Conduction (or BC) hearing, as complementary to the first one described, which is instead called Air Conduction (or AC) hearing. Both AC and BC stimulate the basilar membrane in the same way (Békésy, G.v., Experiments in Hearing. 1960).

text: The basilar membrane on the tympanic duct presses against the hair cells of the organ as perilymphatic pressure waves pass. The stereocilia atop the IHCs move with this fluid displacement and in response their cation, or positive ion selective, channels are pulled open by cadherin structures called tip links that connect adjacent stereocilia. The organ of Corti, surrounded in potassium rich fluid endolymph, lies on the basilar membrane at the base of the scala media. Under the organ of Corti is the scala tympani and above it, the scala vestibuli. Both structures exist in a low potassium fluid called perilymph.[8] Because those stereocilia are in the midst of a high concentration of potassium, once their cation channels are pulled open, potassium ions as well as calcium ions flow into the top of the hair cell. With this influx of positive ions the IHC becomes depolarized, opening voltage-gated calcium channels at the basolateral region of the hair cells and triggering the release of the neurotransmitter glutamate. An electrical signal is then sent through the auditory nerve and into the auditory cortex of the brain as a neural message.

text: Cochlear amplification[edit]

text: The organ of Corti is also capable of modulating the auditory signal.[7] The outer hair cells (OHCs) can amplify the signal through a process called electromotility where they increase movement of the basilar and tectorial membrases and therefore increase deflection of stereocilia in the IHCs.[8][9][10]

text: A crucial piece to this cochlear amplification is the motor protein prestin, which changes shape based on the voltage potential inside of the hair cell. When the cell is depolarized prestin shortens, and because it is located on the membrane of OHCs it then pulls on the basilar membrane and increasing how much the membrane is deflected, creating a more intense effect on the inner hair cells (IHCs). When the cell hyperpolarizes prestin lengthens and eases tension on the IHCs, which decreases the neural impulses to the brain. In this way, the hair cell itself is able to modify the auditory signal before it even reaches the brain.

text: Development[edit]

text: The organ of Corti, in between the scala tympani and the scala media, develops after the formation and growth of the cochlear duct.[7] The inner and outer hair cells then differentiate into their appropriate positions and are followed by the organization of the supporting cells. The topology of the supporting cells lends itself to the actual mechanical properties that are needed for the highly specialized sound-induced movements within the organ of Corti.[7]

text: Development and growth of the organ of Corti relies on specific genes, many of which have been identified in previous research (SOX2, GATA3, EYA1, FOXG1, BMP4, RAC1 and more),[7] to undergo such differentiation. Specifically, the cochlear duct growth and the formation of hair cells within the organ of Corti.

text: Mutations in the genes expressed in or near the organ of Corti before the differentiation of hair cells will result in a disruption in the differentiation, and potential malfunction of, the organ of Corti.

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Hearing loss[edit]

text: The organ of Corti can be damaged by excessive sound levels, leading to noise-induced impairment.

text: The most common kind of hearing impairment, sensorineural hearing loss, includes as one major cause the reduction of function in the organ of Corti. Specifically, the active amplification function of the outer hair cells is very sensitive to damage from exposure to trauma from overly-loud sounds or to certain ototoxic drugs. Once outer hair cells are damaged, they do not regenerate, and the result is a loss of sensitivity and an abnormally large growth of loudness (known as recruitment) in the part of the spectrum that the damaged cells serve.[11]

text: While hearing loss has always been considered irreversible in mammals, fish and birds routinely repair such damage. A 2013 study has shown that the use of particular drugs may reactivate genes normally expressed only during hair cell development. The research was carried out at Harvard Medical School, the Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, and the Keio University School of Medicine in Japan.[12]

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
Transverse section of the cochlear duct of a fetal cat.

Diagrammatic longitudinal section of the cochlea.

Floor of ductus cochlearis.

Limbus laminæ spiralis and membrana basilaris.

Section through the spiral organ of Corti. Magnified.

tag: ul

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Hudspeth, A (2014). "Integrating the active process of hair cells with cochlear function". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 15: 600–614. doi:10.1038/nrn3786. PMID 25096182.
^ Jump up to: a b c The Ear Pujol, R., Irving, S., 2013
Jump up ^ Betlejewski, S (2008). "Science and life – the history of Marquis Alfonso Corti". Otolaryngologia Polska. 62 (3): 344–347. doi:10.1016/S0030-6657(08)70268-3. PMID 18652163.
^ Jump up to: a b Malgrange, B; Van de Water, T.R; Nguyen, L; Moonen, G; Lefebvre, P.P (2002). "Epithelial supporting cells can differentiate into outer hair cells and Deiters' cells in the cultured organ of Corti". Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 59 (10): 1744–1757. doi:10.1007/pl00012502. PMID 12475185.
Jump up ^ Lim, D (1986). "Functional structure of the organ of Corti: a review". Hearing Research. 22: 117–146. doi:10.1016/0378-5955(86)90089-4. PMID 3525482.
Jump up ^ Miller, J. D. (2007). "Sex differences in the length of the organ of Corti in humans". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 121 (4): EL151–5. doi:10.1121/1.2710746. PMID 17471760.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Fritzsch, B; Jahan, I; Pan, N; Kers, J; Duncan, J; Kopecky, B (2012). "Dissecting the molecular basis of organ of Corti development: where are we now?". Hearing Research. 276 (1–2): 16–26. doi:10.1016/j.heares.2011.01.007. PMC 3097286 . PMID 21256948.
^ Jump up to: a b c Nichols, J.G; Martin, A.R.; Fuchs, P.A; Brown, D.A; Diamond, M.E; Weisblat, D.A (2012). From Neuron to Brain, 5th Edition. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc. pp. 456–459. ISBN 978-0-87893-609-0.
Jump up ^ Ashmore, Jonathan Felix (1987). "A fast motile response in guinea-pig outer hair cells: the cellular basis of the cochlear amplifier". The Journal of Physiology. 388 (1): 323–347. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1987.sp016617. ISSN 1469-7793. PMC 1192551 . PMID 3656195.
Jump up ^ Ashmore, Jonathan (2008). "Cochlear Outer Hair Cell Motility". Physiological Reviews. 88 (1): 173–210. doi:10.1152/physrev.00044.2006. ISSN 0031-9333. PMID 18195086.
Jump up ^ Robert A. Dobie (2001). Medical-Legal Evaluation of Hearing Loss. Thomson Delmar Learning. ISBN 0-7693-0052-9.
Jump up ^ "Cochlear hair cells - Beyond the Dish". wordpress.com.

tag: ol


document_title: Valence electron

question_text: where are valence electrons in the periodic table

text: Valence electron

text: The number of valence electrons[edit]

text: The number of valence electrons of an element can be determined by the periodic table group (vertical column) in which the element is categorized. With the exception of groups 3–12 (the transition metals), the units digit of the group number identifies how many valence electrons are associated with a neutral atom of an element listed under that particular column.

text:
Periodic table group
Valence electrons

Group 1 (I) (alkali metals)
1

Group 2 (II) (alkaline earth metals)
2

Groups 3-12 (transition metals)
3–12*

Group 13 (III) (boron group)
3

Group 14 (IV) (carbon group)
4

Group 15 (V) (pnictogens or nitrogen group)
5

Group 16 (VI) (chalcogens or oxygen group)
6

Group 17 (VII) (halogens)
7

Group 18 (VIII or 0) (noble gases)
8**

tag: table

text: * Consists of ns and (n-1)d electrons. Alternatively, the d electron count is used.

text: ** Except for helium, which has only two valence electrons.

text: Electron configuration[edit]

text: The electrons that determine how an atom reacts chemically are those whose average distance from the nucleus is greatest; that is, those with the highest energy.

text: For a main group element, the valence electrons are defined as those electrons residing in the electronic shell of highest principal quantum number n.[1] Thus, the number of valence electrons that it may have depends on the electron configuration in a simple way. For example, the electronic configuration of phosphorus (P) is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3 so that there are 5 valence electrons (3s2 3p3), corresponding to a maximum valence for P of 5 as in the molecule PF5; this configuration is normally abbreviated to [Ne] 3s2 3p3, where [Ne] signifies the core electrons whose configuration is identical to that of the noble gas neon.

text:
However, transition elements have partially filled (n − 1)d energy levels, that are very close in energy to the ns level.[2] So as opposed to main group elements, a valence electron for a transition metal is defined as an electron that resides outside a noble-gas core.[3] Thus, generally, the d electrons in transition metals behave as valence electrons although they are not in the valence shell. For example, manganese (Mn) has configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d5; this is abbreviated to [Ar] 4s2 3d5, where [Ar] denotes a core configuration identical to that of the noble gas argon. In this atom, a 3d electron has energy similar to that of a 4s electron, and much higher than that of a 3s or 3p electron. In effect, there are possibly seven valence electrons (4s2 3d5) outside the argon-like core; this is consistent with the chemical fact that manganese can have an oxidation state as high as +7 (in the permanganate ion: MnO−
4).

text: The farther right in each transition metal series, the lower the energy of an electron in a d subshell and the less such an electron has the properties of a valence electron. Thus, although a nickel atom has, in principle, ten valence electrons (4s2 3d8), its oxidation state never exceeds four. For zinc, the 3d subshell is complete and behaves similarly to core electrons.

text: Because the number of valence electrons which actually participate in chemical reactions is difficult to predict, the concept of the valence electron is less useful for a transition metal than for a main group element; the d electron count is an alternative tool for understanding the chemistry of a transition metal.

text: Chemical reactions[edit]

text: The number of electrons in an atom's outermost valence shell governs its bonding behavior. Therefore, elements whose atoms can have the same number of valence electrons are grouped together in the periodic table of the elements. As a general rule, a main group element (except hydrogen or helium) tends to react to form a closed shell, corresponding to the electron configuration s2p6. This tendency is called the octet rule, because each bonded atom has eight valence electrons including shared electrons.

text: The most reactive kind of metallic element is an alkali metal of group 1 (e.g., sodium or potassium); this is because such an atom has only a single valence electron; during the formation of an ionic bond which provides the necessary ionization energy, this one valence electron is easily lost to form a positive ion (cation) with a closed shell (e.g., Na+ or K+). An alkaline earth metal of Group 2 (e.g., magnesium) is somewhat less reactive, because each atom must lose two valence electrons to form a positive ion with a closed shell (e.g., Mg2+).

text: Within each group (each periodic table column) of metals, reactivity increases with each lower row of the table (from a light element to a heavier element), because a heavier element has more electron shells than a lighter element; a heavier element's valence electrons exist at higher principal quantum numbers (they are farther away from the nucleus of the atom, and are thus at higher potential energies, which means they are less tightly bound).

text: A nonmetal atom tends to attract additional valence electrons to attain a full valence shell; this can be achieved in one of two ways: An atom can either share electrons with a neighboring atom (a covalent bond), or it can remove electrons from another atom (an ionic bond). The most reactive kind of nonmetal element is a halogen (e.g., fluorine (F) or chlorine (Cl)). Such an atom has the following electron configuration: s2p5; this requires only one additional valence electron to form a closed shell. To form an ionic bond, a halogen atom can remove an electron from another atom in order to form an anion (e.g., F−, Cl−, etc.). To form a covalent bond, one electron from the halogen and one electron from another atom form a shared pair (e.g., in the molecule H–F, the line represents a shared pair of valence electrons, one from H and one from F).

text: Within each group of nonmetals, reactivity decreases with each lower rows of the table (from a light element to a heavy element) in the periodic table, because the valence electrons are at progressively higher energies and thus progressively less tightly bound. In fact, oxygen (the lightest element in group 16) is the most reactive nonmetal after fluorine, even though it is not a halogen, because the valence shell of a halogen is at a higher principal quantum number.

text: In these simple cases where the octet rule is obeyed, the valence of an atom equals the number of electrons gained, lost, or shared in order to form the stable octet. However, there are also many molecules which are exceptions, and for which the valence is less clearly defined.

text: Electrical conductivity[edit]

text: Valence electrons are also responsible for the electrical conductivity of an element; as a result, an element may be classified as a metal, a nonmetal, or a semiconductor (or metalloid).

text: Metallic elements generally have high electrical conductivity when in the solid state. In each row of the periodic table, the metals occur to the left of the nonmetals, and thus a metal has fewer possible valence electrons than a nonmetal. However, a valence electron of a metal atom has a small ionization energy, and in the solid state this valence electron is relatively free to leave one atom in order to associate with another nearby. Such a "free" electron can be moved under the influence of an electric field, and its motion constitutes an electric current; it is responsible for the electrical conductivity of the metal. Copper, aluminium, silver, and gold are examples of good conductors.

text: A nonmetallic element has low electrical conductivity; it acts as an insulator. Such an element is found toward the right of the periodic table, and it has a valence shell that is at least half full (the exception is boron). Its ionization energy is large; an electron cannot leave an atom easily when an electric field is applied, and thus such an element can conduct only very small electric currents. Examples of solid elemental insulators are diamond (an allotrope of carbon) and sulfur.

text: A solid compound containing metals can also be an insulator if the valence electrons of the metal atoms are used to form ionic bonds. For example, although elemental sodium is a metal, solid sodium chloride is an insulator, because the valence electron of sodium is transferred to chlorine to form an ionic bond, and thus that electron cannot be moved easily.

text: A semiconductor has an electrical conductivity that is intermediate between that of a metal and that of a nonmetal; a semiconductor also differs from a metal in that a semiconductor's conductivity increases with temperature. The typical elemental semiconductors are silicon and germanium, each atom of which has four valence electrons. The properties of semiconductors are best explained using band theory, as a consequence of a small energy gap between a valence band (which contains the valence electrons at absolute zero) and a conduction band (to which valence electrons are excited by thermal energy).


document_title: Dancing with the Stars (U.S. season 1)

question_text: who won the first dancing with the stars

text: Dancing with the Stars (U.S. season 1)

text: Couples[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The six professionals and celebrities that competed were:[3]

text:
Celebrity
Notability (known for)
Professional partner
Status

Trista Sutter
Reality television star
Louis Van Amstel
Eliminated 1st
on June 8, 2005

Evander Holyfield
Professional boxer
Edyta Sliwinska
Eliminated 2nd
on June 15, 2005

Rachel Hunter
Supermodel & actress
Jonathan Roberts
Eliminated 3rd
on June 22, 2005

Joey McIntyre
New Kids on the Block singer
Ashly DelGrosso
Third place
on June 29, 2005

John O'Hurley
Actor & game show host
Charløtte Jorgensen
Runner-up
on July 6, 2005

Kelly Monaco
Actress
Alec Mazo
Winner
on July 6, 2005

text: Scoring chart[edit]

text:
Couple
Place
1
2
1+2
3
4
5
6

Kelly & Alec
1
13
17
30
21
26
22+25=47
25+30=55

John & Charløtte
2
20
26
46
24
21
27+27=54
27+27=54

Joey & Ashly
3
20
21
41
22
20
20+25=45

Rachel & Jonathan
4
20
24
44
26
25

Evander & Edyta
5
18
14
32
13

Trista & Louis
6
18
19
37

text: Average chart[edit]

text: This table only counts for dances scored on a traditional 30-point scale.

text:
Rank by
average
Place
Couple
Total
Number of
dances
Average

1
2
John & Charløtte
199
8
24.9

2
4
Rachel & Jonathan
95
4
23.8

3
1
Kelly & Alec
179
8
22.4

4
3
Joey & Ashly
128
6
21.3

5
6
Trista & Louis
37
2
18.5

6
5
Evander & Edyta
45
3
15.0

text: Pro's average chart[edit]

text:
Rank by
average
Place
Couple
Average

1
2
Charlotte Jorgensen
24.9

2
6
Louis van Amstel
21.8

3
1
Alec Mazo
20.6

4
4
Jonathan Roberts
19.4

5
5
Edyta Sliwinska
19.1

6
3
Ashly DelGrosso
16.7

text: Highest and lowest scoring performances[edit]

text:
Dance
Highest scored dancer(s)
Highest score
Lowest scored dancer(s)
Lowest score

Cha-cha-cha
John O'Hurley
Joey McIntyre
20
Evander Holyfield
18

Waltz
Rachel Hunter
20
Kelly Monaco
13

Rumba
Rachel Hunter
24
Kelly Monaco
17

Quickstep
John O'Hurley
27
Evander Holyfield
14

Jive
Joey McIntyre
22
Evander Holyfield
13

Tango
Rachel Hunter
26
John O'Hurley
24

Samba
Kelly Monaco
26
Joey McIntyre
20

Paso doble
John O'Hurley
27
Kelly Monaco
Joey McIntyre
25

Foxtrot
John O'Hurley
27
Joey McIntyre
20

Freestyle
Kelly Monaco
30
John O'Hurley
27

text: Trista Sutter is the only star to not land on this list

text: Couples' highest and lowest scoring performances[edit]

text: According to the traditional 30-point scale.

text:
Couples
Highest Scoring Dances
Lowest Scoring Dances

Kelly & Alec
Freestyle (30)
Waltz (13)

John & Charløtte
Foxtrot, Paso doble, Quickstep & Freestyle (27)
Cha-cha-cha (20)

Joey & Ashly
Paso doble (25)
Cha-cha-cha, Samba and Foxtrot (20)

Rachel & Jonathan
Tango (26)
Waltz (20)

Evander & Edyta
Cha-cha-cha (18)
Jive (13)

Trista & Louis
Rumba (19)
Waltz (18)

text: Weekly scores and songs[edit]

text: Unless indicated otherwise, individual judges scores given in the charts below (given in parentheses) are listed in this order from left to right: Carrie Ann Inaba, Len Goodman, Bruno Tonioli.

text: Week 1[edit]

text:
Couple
Score
Dance
Music

Joey & Ashly
20 (7, 7, 6)
Cha-cha-cha
"Crazy in Love"—Beyoncé

Rachel & Jonathan
20 (7, 6, 7)
Waltz
"Three Times A Lady"—Lionel Richie

Evander & Edyta
18 (5, 7, 6)
Cha-cha-cha
"Respect"—Aretha Franklin

Kelly & Alec
13 (5, 4, 4)
Waltz
"I Have Nothing"—Whitney Houston

John & Charløtte
20 (7, 7, 6)
Cha-cha-cha
"September"—Earth, Wind & Fire

Trista & Louis
18 (6, 6, 6)
Waltz
"Come Away with Me"—Norah Jones

text: Week 2[edit]

text:
Couple
Score
Dance
Music
Result

Rachel & Jonathan
24 (8, 8, 8)
Rumba
"I Don't Wanna Miss a Thing"—Aerosmith from Armageddon
Bottom two

Joey & Ashly
21 (8, 7, 6)
Quickstep
"You're The One That I Want"—John Travolta and Olivia Newton-John
Safe

Trista & Louis
19 (6, 7, 6)
Rumba
"Endless Love"—Diana Ross and Lionel Richie
Eliminated

John & Charløtte
26 (8, 9, 9)
Quickstep
"Let's Face The Music and Dance"—Irving Berlin
Safe

Kelly & Alec
17 (5, 6, 6)
Rumba
"Hero"—Enrique Iglesias
Safe

Evander & Edyta
14 (5, 4, 5)
Quickstep
"It Don't Mean a Thing"—Duke Ellington
Safe

text: Week 3[edit]

text:
Couple
Score
Dance
Music
Result

Evander & Edyta
13 (5, 4, 4)
Jive
"Reet Petite"—Jackie Wilson
Eliminated

Rachel & Jonathan
26 (8, 9, 9)
Tango
"Toxic"—Britney Spears
Safe

Kelly & Alec
21 (6, 7, 8)
Jive
"Footloose"—Kenny Loggins
Safe

John & Charløtte
24 (9, 8, 7)
Tango
"Dance with Me"—Debelah Morgan
Safe

Joey & Ashly
22 (7, 7, 8)
Jive
"I'm Still Standing"—Elton John
Bottom two

text: Week 4[edit]

text:
Couple
Score
Dance
Music
Result

Joey & Ashly
20 (7, 6, 7)
Samba
"Tequila"—The Champs
Safe

Rachel & Jonathan
25 (7, 9, 9)
Samba
"Soul Bossa Nova"—Quincy Jones
Eliminated

John & Charløtte
21 (7, 8, 6)
Samba
"Just The Two of Us"—Grover Washington, Jr. and Bill Withers
Bottom two

Kelly & Alec
26 (9, 9, 8)
Samba
"Bailamos"—Enrique Iglesias
Safe

John & Charløtte
Rachel & Jonathan
Kelly & Alec
Joey & Ashly
N/A
Viennese Waltz
"I Got You Babe"—Sonny & Cher

text: Week 5[edit]

text:
Couple
Score
Dance
Music
Result

John & Charløtte
27 (9, 9, 9)
Foxtrot
"Let There Be Love"—Nat King Cole
Safe

27 (9, 9, 9)
Paso doble
"España cañí"—Mexicana Aleque la-Band

Kelly & Alec
22 (8, 7, 7)
Foxtrot
"Don't Know Why"—Norah Jones
Bottom two

25 (9, 8, 8)
Paso doble
"Bamboleo"—Gipsy Kings

Joey & Ashly
20 (8, 6, 6)
Foxtrot
"Big Spender"—Shirley Bassey from Sweet Charity
Third place

25 (9, 8, 8)
Paso doble
"Eye of the Tiger"—Survivor

text: Week 6: Finale[edit]

text:
Couple
Score
Dance
Music
Result

John & Charløtte
27 (9, 9, 9)
Quickstep
"Let's Face The Music and Dance"—Irving Berlin
Runner-up

27 (9, 9, 9)
Freestyle
"I'm So Excited"—The Pointer Sisters

Kelly & Alec
25 (7, 9, 9)
Samba
"Bailamos"—Enrique Iglesias
Winner

30 (10, 10, 10)
Freestyle
"Let's Get Loud"—Jennifer Lopez

text: Dance off[edit]

text:
Couple
Score
Style
Music
Result

Kelly & Alec
25 (7, 9, 9)
Cha-cha-cha
"Lady Marmalade"—All Saints
Runner-up

24 (9, 7, 8)
Quickstep
"Diamonds are a Girl's Best Friend"—Marilyn Monroe

25 (8, 8, 9)
Freestyle
"Get The Party Started"—Pink

John & Charløtte
22 (7, 8, 7)
Rumba
"The Look of Love"—Anita Baker
Winner

30 (10, 10, 10)
Waltz
"You Light Up My Life"—Whitney Houston

25 (8, 8, 9)
Freestyle
"I Am What I Am"—Gloria Gaynor

text: Dance chart[edit]

text:
Couple
1
2
3
4
5
6

Kelly and Alec
Waltz
Rumba
Jive
Samba
Viennese Waltz
Foxtrot
Paso doble
Samba
Freestyle

John and Charløtte
Cha-cha-cha
Quickstep
Tango
Samba
Viennese Waltz
Foxtrot
Paso doble
Quickstep
Freestyle

Joey and Ashly
Cha-cha-cha
Quickstep
Jive
Samba
Viennese Waltz
Foxtrot
Paso doble

Rachel and Jonathan
Waltz
Rumba
Tango
Samba
Viennese Waltz

Evander and Edyta
Cha-cha-cha
Quickstep
Jive

Trista and Louis
Waltz
Rumba


document_title: Polo

question_text: in which india state did the game of polo originate

question_tokens: in which india state did the game of polo originate

text: Polo

text: History[edit]

text: Origins[edit]

text: This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. The specific problem is: awkward phrasing and incorrect grammar Please help improve this article if you can. (January 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Polo originates from ancient Persia.[4][5] Its invention is dated variously from the 6th century BC to the 1st century AD.[6][7] Persian Emperor Shapur II learnt to play polo when he was seven years old in 316 AD. The game was learnt by the neighbouring Byzantine Empire at an early date. A tzykanisterion (stadium for playing tzykanion, the Byzantine name for polo) was built by emperor Theodosius II (r. 408–450) inside the Great Palace of Constantinople.[8] Emperor Basil I (r. 867–886) excelled at it; Emperor Alexander (r. 912–913) died from exhaustion while playing and John I of Trebizond (r. 1235–1238) died from a fatal injury during a game.[9] Naqsh-i Jahan Square in Isfahan is a polo field which was built by king Abbas I in the 17th century.

text: Qutubuddin Aibak, the Turkic slave from Central Asia who later became the Sultan of Delhi in Northern India, ruled as a Sultan for only four years, from 1206 to 1210, dying an accidental death during a game of polo when his horse fell and he was impaled on the pommel of his saddle.

text: After the Muslim conquests to the Ayyubid and Mameluke dynasties of Egypt and the Levant, their elites favoured it above all other sports. Notable sultans such as Saladin and Baybars were known to play it and encourage it in their court.[11] Polo sticks were features on the Mameluke precursor to modern day playing cards.

text: Later on, polo was passed from Persia to other parts of Asia including the Indian subcontinent, especially in the Northern Areas of present-day Pakistan (including Gilgit, Chitral, Hunza and Baltistan) since at least the 15th-16th century[12] and China, where it was popular in the Chinese Tang dynasty capital of Chang'an, and also played by women, who wore male dress to do so; many Tang dynasty tomb figures of female players survive.[13]Valuable for training cavalry, the game was played from Constantinople to Japan by the Middle Ages. It is known in the East as the Game of Kings.[14] The name polo is said to have been derived from the Balti word "pulu", meaning ball.[15]

text: Modern game[edit]

text: India and Britain[edit]

text: The modern game of polo is derived from Manipur, India, where the game was known as 'Sagol Kangjei', 'Kanjai-bazee', or 'Pulu'.[16][17] It was the anglicised form of the last, referring to the wooden ball that was used, which was adopted by the sport in its slow spread to the west. The first polo club was established in the town of Silchar in Assam, India, in 1833.

text: The origins of the game in Manipur are traced to early precursors of Sagol Kangjei.[18] This was one of three forms of hockey in Manipur, the other ones being field hockey (called Khong Kangjei) and wrestling-hockey (called Mukna Kangjei). Local rituals such as those connected to the Marjing, the Winged-Pony God of Polo and the creation-ritual episodes of the Lai Haraoba festival enacting the life of his son, Khori-Phaba, the polo-playing god of sports. These may indicate an origin earlier than the historical records of Manipur. Later, according to Chaitharol-Kumbaba, a Royal Chronicle of Manipur King Kangba who ruled Manipur much earlier than Nongda Lairen Pakhangba (33 AD) introduced Sagol Kangjei (Kangjei on horse back). Further regular playing of this game commenced in 1605 during the reign of King Khagemba under newly framed rules of the game. However it was the first Mughal emperor, Babur, who popularised the sport in India and ultimately made a significant influence on England.

text: In Manipur, polo is traditionally played with seven players to a side. The players are mounted on the indigenous Manipuri pony, which stands less than 13 hands (52 inches, 132 cm). There are no goal posts, and a player scores simply by hitting the ball out of either end of the field. Players strike the ball with the long side of the mallet head, not the end.[19] Players are not permitted to carry the ball, although blocking the ball with any part of the body except the open hand is permitted.[20] The sticks are made of cane, and the balls are made from the roots of bamboo. Players protected their legs by attaching leather shields to their saddles and girths.[21]

text: In Manipur, the game was played even by commoners who owned a pony.[15] The kings of Manipur had a royal polo ground within the ramparts of their Kangla Fort. Here they played Manung Kangjei Bung (literally, "Inner Polo Ground"). Public games were held, as they are still today, at the Mapan Kangjei Bung (literally "Outer Polo Ground"), a polo ground just outside the Kangla. Weekly games called Hapta Kangjei (Weekly Polo) were also played in a polo ground outside the current Palace.

text: The oldest polo ground in the world is the Imphal Polo Ground in Manipur State. The history of this pologround is contained in the royal chronicle "Cheitharol Kumbaba" starting from AD 33. Lieutenant (later Major General) Joseph Ford Sherer, the father of modern polo visited the state and played on this polo ground in the 1850s. Lord Curzon, the Viceroy of India visited the state in 1901 and measured the polo ground as 225 by 110 yards (206 by 101 m).[citation needed]

text: In 1862 the oldest polo club still in existence, Calcutta Polo Club, was established by two British soldiers, Sherer and Captain Robert Stewart.[22] Later they spread the game to their peers in England. The British are credited with spreading polo worldwide in the late 19th century and the early 20th century. Military officers imported the game to Britain in the 1860s. The establishment of polo clubs throughout England and western Europe followed after the formal codification of rules.[21] The 10th Hussars at Aldershot, Hants, introduced polo to England in 1834. The game's governing body in the United Kingdom is the Hurlingham Polo Association, which drew up the first set of formal British rules in 1874, many of which are still in existence.

text: This version of polo played in the 19th century was different from the faster form that was played in Manipur. The game was slow and methodical, with little passing between players and few set plays that required specific movements by participants without the ball. Neither players nor horses were trained to play a fast, nonstop game. This form of polo lacked the aggressive methods and equestrian skills to play. From the 1800s to the 1910s, a host of teams representing Indian principalities dominated the international polo scene.[21]

text: New Avatar Of Polo[edit]

text: The Champions polo league was launched in Jaipur, 2016. There was the new version of polo matches, as in t20 format of cricket, the ground was made smaller and accommodated a huge audience. The First Event of the World Champions Polo League took place in Bhavnagar, Gujarat, India. It saw response of 10,000 people watching polo match at a time. The rules were changed and the duration was made shorter. Officially played on 7th, 8th, 9th April in Bhavnagar, where the India's most decorated polo player Samir Suhag, Shamsher Ali, The foreign players Richard, Henriques from Ireland and South Africa and others participated. Six teams were launched and Iscon Hemvijaya emerged the winner, while IPCL were runners up.

text: Argentina[edit]

text: British settlers in the Argentine pampas started practicing polo during their free time. Among them, David Shennan is credited with having organised the first formal polo game of the country in 1875, at Estancia El Negrete, located in the province of Buenos Aires.

text: The sport spread quickly between the skilful gauchos, and several clubs opened in the following years in the towns of Venado Tuerto, Cañada de Gómez, Quilmes, Flores and later (1888) Hurlingham. In 1892 The River Plate Polo Association was founded and constituted the basis for the current Asociación Argentina de Polo. In the Olympic Games held in Paris in 1924 a team composed by Juan Miles, Enrique Padilla, Juan Nelson, Arturo Kenny, G. Brooke Naylor and A. Peña obtained the first gold medal for the country's olympic history; this also occurred in Berlín 1936 with players Manuel Andrada, Andrés Gazzotti, Roberto Cavanagh, Luis Duggan, Juan Nelson, Diego Cavanagh and Enrique Alberdi.

text: The game spread across the country, and Argentina is credited globally as the capital of polo, and Argentina is notably the country with the largest number ever of 10 handicap players in the world.

text: Five teams were able to gather four 10 handicap players each, to make 40 handicap teams: Coronel Suárez, 1975, 1977–1979 (Alberto Heguy, Juan Carlos Harriott, Alfredo Harriot and Horacio Heguy); La Espadaña, 1989–1990 (Carlos Gracida, Gonzalo Pieres, Alfonso Pieres y Ernesto Trotz Jr.); Indios Chapaleufú, 1992–1993 (Bautista Heguy, Gonzalo Heguy, Horacio Heguy Jr. and Marcos Heguy); La Dolfina, 2009–2010 (Adolfo Cambiaso Jr., Lucas Monteverde, Mariano Aguerre y Bartolomé Castagnola); Ellerstina, 2009 (Facundo Pieres, Gonzalo Pieres Jr., Pablo Mac Donough and Juan Martín Nero).

text: Argentina was host of the ninth edition of the World Polo Championship (for teams of up to 14 goals) at the Estancia Grande Polo Club, in the province of San Luis in October 2011.[23]

text: The three major polo tournaments in Argentina, known as "Triple Corona" ("Triple Crown"), are Hurlingham Polo Open, Tortugas Polo Open, Palermo Polo Open. Polo season usually last from October to December.[24]

text: Polo has found popularity throughout the rest of the Americas, including Brazil, Chile, Mexico, and the United States of America.[25][26]

text: United States[edit]

text: James Gordon Bennett, Jr. on 6 May 1876 organised what was billed as the first polo match in the United States at Dickel's Riding Academy at 39th Street and Fifth Avenue in New York City. The historical record states that James Gordon Bennett established the Westchester Polo Club on 6 May 1876 and on 13 May 1876 the Jerome Park Racetrack in Westchester County was the site of the "first" American outdoor polo match.

text: H.L. Herbert, James Gordon Bennett and August Belmont financed the original New York Polo Grounds. Herbert stated in a 1913 article[27] that they formed the Westchester Club after the "first" outdoor game was played on 13 May 1876. This contradicts the historical record of the club being established before the Jerome Park game..

text: There is ample evidence that the first to play polo in America was actually the English Texans. The Galveston News reported on 2 May 1876[28] that Denison Texas had a Polo Club which was before James Gordon Bennett established his Westchester Club or attempted to play the "first" game. The Denison team sent a letter to James Gordon Bennett challenging him to a match game. The challenge was published 2 June 1876 in The Galveston Daily News. By the time the article came out on 2 June the Denison Club had already received a letter from Bennett indicating the challenge was offered before the "first" games in New York.[29]

text: There is also an urban legend that the first game of polo in America was played in Boerne, Texas at retired British officer Captain Glynn Turquand's famous Balcones Ranch[30] The Boerne, Texas legend also has plenty of evidence pointing to the fact that polo was played in Boerne before James Gordon Bennett Jr. ever picked up a polo mallet.[31]

text: During the early part of the 20th century, under the leadership of Harry Payne Whitney, polo changed to become a high-speed sport in the United States, differing from the game in England, where it involved short passes to move the ball towards the opposition's goal. Whitney and his teammates used the fast break, sending long passes downfield to riders who had broken away from the pack at a full gallop.

text: In the late 1950s, champion polo player and Director of the Long Island Polo Association, Walter Scanlon, introduced the "short form", or "European" style, four period match, to the game of polo.[32]

text: Rules[edit]

text: The rules of polo are written and used to provide for the safety of both players and horses. The rules are enforced in the game by the umpires who blow whistles when a penalty occurs. Strategic plays in polo are based on the "line of the ball", an imaginary line created by the ball as it travels down the field. This line traces the ball's path and extends past the ball along that trajectory. The line of the ball defines rules for players to approach the ball safely. The "line of the ball" changes each time the ball changes direction. The player who hit the ball generally has the right of way, and other players cannot cross the line of the ball in front of that player. As players approach the ball, they ride on either side of the line of the ball giving each access to the ball. A player can cross the line of the ball when it does not create a dangerous situation. Most fouls and penalty shots are related to players improperly crossing the line of the ball or the right of way. When a player has the line of the ball on his right, he has the right of way. A "ride-off" is when a player moves another player off the line of the ball by making shoulder-to-shoulder contact with the other players’ horses.

text: The defending player has a variety of opportunities for his team to gain possession of the ball. He can push the opponent off the line or steal the ball from the opponent. Another common defensive play is called "hooking." While a player is taking a swing at the ball, his opponent can block the swing by using his mallet to hook the mallet of the player swinging at the ball. A player may hook only if he is on the side where the swing is being made or directly behind an opponent. A player may not purposely touch another player, his tack or pony with his mallet. Unsafe hooking is a foul that will result in a penalty shot being awarded. For example, it is a foul for a player to reach over an opponent's mount in an attempt to hook.

text: The other basic defensive play is called the bump or ride-off. It's similar to a body check in hockey. In a ride-off, a player rides his pony alongside an opponent's mount in order to move an opponent away from the ball or to take him out of a play. It must be executed properly so that it does not endanger the horses or the players. The angle of contact must be safe and can not knock the horses off balance, or harm the horses in any way. Two players following the line of the ball and riding one another off have the right of way over a single man coming from any direction.

text: Like in hockey or basketball, fouls are potentially dangerous plays that infringe on the rules of the game. To the novice spectator, fouls may be difficult to discern. There are degrees of dangerous and unfair play and penalty shots are awarded depending based on the severity of the foul and where the foul was committed on the polo field. White lines on the polo field indicate where the mid-field, sixty, forty and thirty yard penalties are taken.

text: The official set of rules and rules interpretations are reviewed and published annually by each country's polo association. Most of the smaller associations follow the rules of the Hurlingham Polo Association, the national governing body of the sport of polo in the United Kingdom, and the United States Polo Association[33].

text: Outdoor polo[edit]

text: Outdoor or field polo consists of four to eight 7-minute chukkas, between or during which players change mounts. At the end of each 7 minute chukka, play continues for an additional 30 seconds or until a stoppage in play, whichever comes first. There is a four-minute interval between chukkas and a ten-minute halftime. Play is continuous and is only stopped for penalties, broken tack (equipment) or injury to horse or player. The object is to score goals by hitting the ball between the goal posts, no matter how high in the air. If the ball goes wide of the goal, the defending team is allowed a free 'knock-in' from the place where the ball crossed the goal line, thus getting ball back into play[34].

text: Indoor and Arena Polo[edit]

text: Arena polo has rules similar to the field version, and is less strenuous for the player. It is played in a 300 by 150 feet (91 by 46 m) enclosed arena, much like those used for other equestrian sports; the minimum size is 150 by 75 feet (46 by 23 m). There are many arena clubs in the United States, and most major polo clubs, including the Santa Barbara Polo & Raquet Club, have active arena programmes. The major differences between the outdoor and indoor games are: speed (outdoor being faster), physicality/roughness (indoor/arena is more physical), ball size (indoor is larger), goal size (because the arena is smaller the goal is smaller), and some penalties. In the United States and Canada, collegiate polo is arena polo; in the UK, collegiate polo is both.

text: Forms of arena polo include beach polo, played in many countries between teams of three riders on a sand surface,[35] and cowboy polo, played almost exclusively in the western United States by teams of five riders on a dirt surface.

text: Another modern variant is snow polo, which is played on compacted snow on flat ground or a frozen lake. The format of snow polo varies depending on the space available. Each team generally consists of three players and a bright coloured light plastic ball is preferred.[36][37][38]

text: Snow polo is not the same sport as ice polo, which was popular in the US in the late 1890s. The sport resembled ice hockey and bandy but died out entirely in favour of the Canadian ice hockey rules.

text: A popular combination of the sports of polo and lacrosse is the game of polocrosse, which was developed in Australia in the late 1930s.

text: These sports are considered as separate sports because of the differences in the composition of teams, equipment, rules, game facilities etc.

text: Polo is not played exclusively on horseback. Such polo variants are mostly played for recreational or tourist purposes; they include canoe polo, cycle polo, camel polo, elephant polo, golfcart polo, Segway polo and yak polo. In the early 1900s in the United States, cars were used instead of horses in the sport of Auto polo.[39] Hobby Horse Polo is using hobby horses instead of ponies. It uses parts of the polo rules but has its own specialities, as e.g. 'punitive sherries'. The Hobby Horse variant started 1998 as a fun sport in south western Germany and lead 2002 to the foundation of the First Kurfürstlich-Kurpfälzisch Polo-Club in Mannheim. In the meantime it gained further interest in other German cities.[40]

text: Polo Clubs[edit]

text: All tournaments and levels of play and players are organized within and between polo clubs, including membership, rules, safety, fields and arenas.

text: Club Polo (or County Polo in the UK) is usually overseen by qualified mounted instructors or umpires. In the UK the original County Polo Association was formed in 1898* to look after the interests of the country clubs and to run the County Cup Tournaments), the three London polo clubs—Hurlingham, Ranelagh and Roehampton—and from all associations within the Empire where polo was being played.[41]

text: Polo ponies[edit]

text: The mounts used are called 'polo ponies', although the term pony is purely traditional and the mount is actually a full-sized horse. They range from 14.2 to 16 hands (58 to 64 inches, 147 to 163 cm) high at the withers, and weigh 900–1,100 pounds (410–500 kg). The polo pony is selected carefully for quick bursts of speed, stamina, agility and manoeuvrability. Temperament is critical; the horse must remain responsive under pressure and not become excited or difficult to control. Many are Thoroughbreds or Thoroughbred crosses. They are trained to be handled with one hand on the reins, and to respond to the rider's leg and weight cues for moving forward, turning and stopping. A well trained horse will carry its rider smoothly and swiftly to the ball and can account for 60 to 75 percent of the player's skill and net worth to his team.[citation needed]

text: Polo pony training generally begins at age three and lasts from about six months to two years. Most horses reach full physical maturity at about age five, and ponies are at their peak of athleticism and training at around age 6 or 7. However, without any accidents, polo ponies may have the ability to play until they are 18 to 20 years of age.

text: Each player must have more than one horse, to allow for tired mounts to be replaced by fresh ones between or even during chukkas. A player's "string" of polo ponies may number 2 or 3 in Low Goal matches (with ponies being rested for at least a chukka before reuse), 4 or more for Medium Goal matches (at least one per chukka), and even more for the highest levels of competition.

text: Players[edit]

text: Each team consists of four mounted players, which can be mixed teams of both men and women.

text: Each position assigned to a player has certain responsibilities:

text:
Number One is the most offence-oriented position on the field. The Number One position generally covers the opposing team's Number Four.
Number Two has an important role in offence, either running through and scoring themselves, or passing to the Number One and getting in behind them. Defensively, they will cover the opposing team's Number Three, generally the other team's best player. Given the difficulty of this position, it is not uncommon for the best player on the team to play Number Two so long as another strong player is available to play Three.
Number Three is the tactical leader and must be a long powerful hitter to feed balls to Number Two and Number One as well as maintaining a solid defence. The best player on the team is usually the Number Three player, usually wielding the highest handicap.
Number Four is the primary defence player. They can move anywhere on the field, but they usually try to prevent scoring. The emphasis on defence by the Number Four allows the Number Three to attempt more offensive plays, since they know that they will be covered if they lose the ball.

text: Polo must be played right-handed.

text: Equipment[edit]

text: The basic dress of a player is a protective equestrian helmet (usually of a distinctive colour, to be distinguished at the considerable distance from which onlookers are watching the game), riding boots to just below the knees, white trousers (often ordinary denim jeans), and a coloured shirt bearing the number of the player's position. Optional equipment includes one or two gloves, wristbands, kneepads (mandatory in some clubs), spurs, face mask, and a whip. The only piece of equipment required by the United States Polo Association (USPA) rules is the helmet or cap with a chin strap.[42].

text: Ball[edit]

text: The modern outdoor polo ball is made of a high-impact plastic. Historically they have been made of bamboo, leather covered cork, hard rubber, and for many years willow root. Originally the British used a white painted leather covered cricket ball [43].

text: The regulation outdoor polo ball is 3 inches (7.6 cm) to 3 1⁄2 inches (8.9 cm) in diameter and weighs 3 1⁄2 ounces (99 g) to 4 1⁄2 ounces (130 g)[44].

text: Plastic balls were introduced in the 1970s. They are less prone to breakage and much cheaper[45].

text: The indoor and arena polo ball is leather-covered and inflated, and is about 4 1⁄2 inches (11 cm) in diameter.

text: It must be not less than 12.5 inches (32 cm) or more than 15 inches (38 cm) in circumference. The weight must be not less than 170 grams (6.0 oz) or more than 182 grams (6.4 oz). In a bounce test from 9 feet (2.7 m) on concrete at 70 °F (21 °C), the rebound should be a minimum of 54 inches (140 cm) and a maximum of 64 inches (160 cm) at the inflation rate specified by the manufacturer. This provides for a hard and lively ball.

text: Mallet[edit]

text: The polo mallet comprises cane shaft with a rubber-wrapped grip, and a webbed thong, called a sling, for wrapping around the thumb, and a wooden cigar shaped head. The shaft is made of manau-cane (not bamboo, which is hollow) although a small number of mallets today are made from Composite materials. Composite materials are usually not preferred by top players, because the shaft of composite mallets can't absorb vibrations as well as traditional cane mallets. The mallet head is generally made from a hardwood called tipa, approximately 9 1⁄4" inches long. The mallet head weighs from 160 grams (5.6 ounces) to 240 grams (8.4 ounces), depending on player preference and the type of wood used, and the shaft can vary in weight and flexibility depending on the player's preference. The weight of the mallet head is of important consideration for the more seasoned players. Female players often use lighter mallets than male players. For some polo players, the length of the mallet depends on the size of the horse: the taller the horse, the longer the mallet. However, some players prefer to use a single length of mallet regardless of the height of the horse. Either way, playing horses of differing heights requires some adjustment by the rider. Variable lengths of the mallet typically range from 50 inches (127 centimetres) to 53 inches (134 centimetres). The term mallet is used exclusively in US English; British English prefers the term polo stick. The ball is struck with the broad sides of the mallet head rather than its round and flat tips.

text: Saddle[edit]

text: Polo saddles are English-style, close contact, similar to jumping saddles; although most polo saddles lack a flap under the billets. Some players will not use a saddle blanket. The saddle has a flat seat and no knee support; the rider adopting a forward-leaning seat and closed knees dissimilar to a classical dressage seat. A breastplate is added, usually attached to the front billet. A standing martingale must be used: so, a breastplate is a necessity for safety. The tie-down is usually supported by a neck strap. Many saddles also have an overgirth. The stirrup irons are heavier than most, and the stirrup leathers are wider and thicker, for added safety when the player stands in the stirrups. The legs of the pony are wrapped with polo wraps from below the knee to the fetlock to minimize pain. Jumping (open front) or gallop boots are sometimes used along with the polo wraps for added protection. Often, these wraps match the team colours. The pony's mane is most often roached (hogged), and its tail is docked or braided so that it will not snag the rider's mallet.

text: Polo is ridden with double reins for greater accuracy of signals. The bit is frequently a gag bit or Pelham bit. In both cases, the gag or shank rein will be the bottom rein in the rider's hands, while the snaffle rein will be the top rein. If a gag bit is used, there will be a drop noseband in addition to the cavesson, supporting the tie-down. One of the rein sets may alternately be draw reins.

text: The Field[edit]

text: The playing field is 300 by 160 yards (270 by 150 m), the area of approximately six soccer fields, while arena polo is 96 x 46 metres. The playing field is carefully maintained with closely mowed turf providing a safe, fast playing surface. Goals are posts which are set eight yards apart, centred at each end of the field. The surface of a polo field requires careful and constant grounds maintenance to keep the surface in good playing condition. During half-time of a match, spectators are invited to go onto the field to participate in a polo tradition called "divot stamping", which has developed not only to help replace the mounds of earth (divots) that are torn up by the horses' hooves, but also to afford spectators the opportunity to walk about and socialise.

text: Contemporary sport[edit]

text: Polo is now an active sport in 77 countries, and although its tenure as an Olympic sport was limited to 1900–1939, in 1998 the International Olympic Committee recognised it as a sport with a bona fide international governing body, the Federation of International Polo. The World Polo Championship is held every three years by the Federation of International Polo.

text: Polo is, however, played professionally in only a few countries, notably Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Dominican Republic, France, Germany, Iran, India, New Zealand, Mexico, Pakistan, Jamaica, Spain, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the United States.[46] Polo is unique among team sports in that amateur players, often the team patrons, routinely hire and play alongside the sport's top professionals.

text: The most important tournaments of the world, in a clubs level, are Abierto de Tortugas, Abierto de Hurlingham and Abierto Argentino de Polo, all of them in Argentina (la Triple Corona).

text: The United States Polo Association (USPA) is the governing body for polo in the U.S. The U.S. is the only country that has separate women's polo, run by the United States Women's Polo Federation.

text: East and Southeast Asia[edit]

text: Polo has been played in Malaysia and Singapore, both of which are former British colonies, since being introduced to Malaya in during the late 19th century. Royal Johor Polo Club was formed in 1884 and Singapore Polo Club was formed in 1886. The oldest polo club in the modern country of Malaysia is Selangor Polo Club, founded in 1902.[47] It was largely played by royalty and the political and business elite.[48]

text: Polo was played at the 2007 Southeast Asian Games and 2017 Southeast Asian Games. Nations that competed in the tournament were Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand and Philippines (2007) and Brunei, Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand (2017). The 2007 tournament's gold medal was won by the Malaysian team, followed by Singapore with silver and Thailand with bronze while the 2017 tournament's gold medal was won by Malaysia, followed by Thailand with silver and Brunei with bronze.

text: The traditional or 'free style' Polo or Pulu of Northern Pakistan is still played very avidly in its native region, and the annual Shandur Polo Festival at Shandur Top in Chitral District. It is an internationally famed event attended by many enthusiasts from all over the world.[49] The Shandur polo ground is said to be the highest polo ground in the world, at approximately 3,734 metres,[50]

text: The recent surge of excitement in south-east Asia around the game has resulted in its popularity in cities such as Pattaya, Kuala Lumpur and Jakarta. In Pattaya alone, there are 3 active polo clubs: Polo Escape, Siam Polo Park and Thai Polo and Equestrian Club. Indonesia, a country without royal ruling, has a polo club (Nusantara Polo Club). More recently, Janek Gazecki and Ruki Baillieu have organised polo matches in parks "around metropolitan Australia, backed by wealthy sponsors."[51]

text: A new Chinese Equestrian Association has been formed and two new clubs have been formed in China itself: the Beijing Sunny Time Polo Club, founded by Xia Yang in 2004[52] and the Nine Dragons Hill Polo Club in Shanghai, founded in 2005.[53]

text: West Asia[edit]

text: Polo is not widely spread in West Asia, but still counts 5 active clubs in Iran, 4 active polo clubs in the UAE, one club in Bahrain [54] and The Royal Jordanian Polo Club, in Amman, Jordan.[55]

text: Polo in Iran is governed by the Polo Federation of Iran. There are five polo clubs in Iran: Ghasr-e Firoozeh, Nowroozabad, Army Ground Forces, Kanoon-e Chogan and Nesf-e Jahan. Iran possesses some of the best grass polo fields in the region. The country currently has over 100 registered players of which approximately 15% are women. Historically, Kurdish and Persian Arabian horses were the most widely used for polo. This was probably also the case in ancient times. Today Thoroughbreds are being increasingly used alongside the Kurdish and Persian Arabian horses. Some players have also been experimenting with Anglo-Arabians. Iranians still refer to the game of polo by its original Persian name of "Chogan", which means mallet. Iranians still maintain some of the ancient rituals of the game in official polo matches.

text: Ireland[edit]

text: Polo first began its Irish history in 1870 with the first official game played on Gormanstown Strand, Co. Meath. Three years later the All Ireland Polo Club was founded by Mr. Horace Rochford in the Phoenix Park.[56] Since then the sport has continued to grow with a further seven clubs opening around the country. The sport has also been made more accessible by these clubs by the creation of more affordable training programmes such as from beginner to pro programme at Polo Wicklow.[57]

text: Notable players / 10 handicap players[edit]

text: Variants[edit]

text: Sagol Kangjei, discussed above, is arguably a version of polo though it can also be seen as the precursor of modern outdoor polo.

text: Related sports[edit]

text:
Buzkashi involves two teams of horse riders, a dead goat and few rules. It is played in Central Asia, and has a variant known as kokpar which is quite similar.
Cowboy polo uses rules similar to regular polo, but riders compete with western saddles, usually in a smaller arena, using an inflatable rubber medicine ball.
Horseball is a game played on horseback where a ball is handled and points are scored by shooting it through a high net. The sport is a combination of polo, rugby, and basketball.
Pato was played in Argentina for centuries, but is much different than modern polo. No mallets are used, and it is not played on grass.
Polocrosse is another game played on horseback, a cross between polo and lacrosse.
Water polo shares a name with polo, but more closely resembles handball.

text: Polo on other means of transportation[edit]

text:
Auto polo was a motorsport invented in the United States with rules and equipment similar to polo but using automobiles instead of horses.
Cycle polo is a similar game played on bicycles instead of horses.
Elephant polo is played in South Asia.
Motoball (Motorcycle Polo) was invented in the United States.
Segway polo originated in the United States.
Yak polo is played in Mongolia.
Canoe polo is played around the world in kayaks and governed by the International Canoe Federation


document_title: Speed of the Sound of Loneliness

question_text: who wrote the speed of the sound of loneliness

text: Speed of the Sound of Loneliness

text: This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: "Speed of the Sound of Loneliness" is a song written by John Prine. It was released as a track on Prine's 1986 album German Afternoons.

text: The song gained further fame with a duet recording by Prine and American singer Nanci Griffith in the latter's 1993 album Other Voices, Other Rooms and the release of the track as a single.

text: The song has been covered by many, notably Kim Carnes who released it as a single from her 1988 album View from the House and by the English band Alabama 3 on their 1997 album Exile on Coldharbour Lane and American singer/songwriter Jeffrey Foucault in 2009 in his Prine tribute album Shoot the Moon Right Between the Eyes. Scottish singer Roddy Woomble recorded a live version in 2014 in his album Live at Kings Place.

text:
[hide]

v
t
e

John Prine

Studio albums

John Prine (1971)
Diamonds in the Rough (1972)
Sweet Revenge (1973)
Common Sense (1975)
Bruised Orange (1978)
Pink Cadillac (1979)
Storm Windows (1980)
Aimless Love (1984)
German Afternoons (1986)
The Missing Years (1991)
A John Prine Christmas (1994)
Lost Dogs and Mixed Blessings (1995)
In Spite of Ourselves (1999)
Souvenirs (2000)
Fair & Square (2005)
Standard Songs for Average People (with Mac Wiseman) (2007)
For Better, or Worse (2016)

Live albums

John Prine Live (1988)
Live on Tour (1997)
In Person & On Stage (2010)

Compilation albums

Prime Prine: The Best of John Prine (1976)
Great Days: The John Prine Anthology (1993)

Songs

"Sam Stone"
"Paradise"
"Your Flag Decal Won't Get You Into Heaven Anymore"
"Angel from Montgomery"
"The Great Compromise"
"Speed of the Sound of Loneliness"

Related

Oh Boy Records
John Prine - Live from Sessions at West 54th
Broken Hearts & Dirty Windows: Songs of John Prine

text: 1986 songs1993 singlesJohn Prine songsNanci Griffith songsSongs written by John Prine

text: Articles lacking sources from September 2016All articles lacking sources