document_title: Carpool Karaoke

question_text: what was james corden's first carpool karaoke

question_tokens: what was james corden 's first carpool karaoke

text: Carpool Karaoke

text: Origin[edit]

text: Corden explained that the segment was inspired by a Gavin & Stacey-themed sketch he had participated in for the British charity television special Red Nose Day 2011, in which he sang along with George Michael in a car.[4]

text: For the 2014 documentary When Corden Met Barlow which aired on BBC One, Corden included a 6-minute 45 second Carpool Karaoke segment in the documentary with Take That singer Gary Barlow. The documentary was directed by Ben Winston.[5] Corden explained that "Ben Winston and I always thought there was something very joyful about someone very, very famous singing their songs in an ordinary situation. We just had this idea: Los Angeles, traffic, the carpool lane — maybe this is something we could pull off."

text: Guests[edit]

text: The segments, which have featured artists such as Mariah Carey, Justin Bieber, Bruno Mars, Britney Spears, Stevie Wonder, Demi Lovato, Katy Perry, Selena Gomez, One Direction, Adele,Shawn Mendes,Harry Styles,Ed Sheeran, Sia, Carrie Underwood and the Red Hot Chili Peppers, became viral videos on the Late Late Show's YouTube channel.[6][7][8] A January 2016 Carpool Karaoke segment featuring Adele reached 42 million YouTube views within 5 days, making it the most popular video originating from a late night program since 2013,[9] continuing on to gather 182 million as of 25 June 2018.[10] As of  25 June 2018[update], three other segments have received 100+ million YouTube views: Justin Bieber's first visit at 134.5 million views,[11] One Direction at 125.8 million[12] , Sia with 102 million.[13] and Bruno Mars with 89 million views.A segment featuring a non-musician, then-current First Lady Michelle Obama (eventually joined by Missy Elliott on one song) was released in 2016 and has reached over 62.7 million views as of 25 June 2018.[14]

text: On March 29, 2016, CBS aired a primetime special featuring highlights of the segment, and a new edition with Jennifer Lopez.[15] The special won a 2016 Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Special.[16] The Red Hot Chili Peppers appeared on the June 13, 2016 segment. During the filming, singer Anthony Kiedis saved the life of a baby. Kiedis later said, "A woman came out of her house, holding a child, saying, 'My baby, my baby, my baby can't breathe!' We all ran across the street, the woman thrust the baby into my arms, the baby was not breathing and I thought, 'I'm gonna try and do a little baby CPR real quick, see if I can get some air in this kid.' Tried to open the mouth, [it was] like locked shut. So I started rubbing the belly, bubbles came out of the mouth, the eyes rolled back into place, the ambulance showed up and I handed the baby over, who was now breathing and fine, and we went back to Carpool Karaoke."[17][18]

text: In May 2017, an Israeli version was launched on the Israeli TV channel KAN 11.[citation needed]

text: List[edit]

text: The guests in chronological order appearing on the Carpool Karaoke segment of the show.[citation needed]

text:
#

Episode

Guest(s)

Date of first broadcast

Songs

1

3

Mariah Carey

March 25, 2015

"Always Be My Baby"  "Fantasy"  "Vision of Love"  "Thirsty"

2

11

Jennifer Hudson

April 13, 2015

"Trouble"  "Spotlight"  "And I Am Telling You I'm Not Going"

3

34

Justin Bieber (1)

May 20, 2015

"Baby"  "Boyfriend"  "Where Are Ü Now"  "End of the Road"

4

46

Iggy Azalea

June 18, 2015

"Fancy"  "Black Widow"  "Trouble"  "Pretty Girls"

5

48

Rod Stewart
(featuring ASAP Rocky)

July 14, 2015

"The First Cut Is the Deepest"  "Everyday"  "Da Ya Think I'm Sexy?"  "Maggie May"  "Ooh La La"

6

75

Stevie Wonder

September 14, 2015

"Superstition"  "Sir Duke"  "I Just Called to Say I Love You"  "Isn't She Lovely"  "Signed, Sealed, Delivered I'm Yours"  "For Once in My Life"

7

101

Jason Derulo

November 4, 2015

"Talk Dirty"  "Want To Want Me"  "Wiggle"  "Talk Dirty" (Again)

8

109

Justin Bieber (2)

November 18, 2015

"Never Say Never"  "What Do You Mean?"  "Stronger"  "Ironic"  "Sorry"

9

116

Carrie Underwood

December 2, 2015

"Smoke Break"  "Jesus, Take the Wheel"  "Before He Cheats"  "Wake Me Up Before You Go-Go"

10

123

One Direction

December 15, 2015

"What Makes You Beautiful"  "Story of My Life"  "Best Song Ever"  "No Control"  "Perfect"  "Drag Me Down"

11

125

Christmas Carpool Karaoke

December 17, 2015

"Joy to the World"

text:
#

Episode

Guest(s)

Date of first broadcast

Songs

13

132

Adele

January 13, 2016

"Hello"  "Someone like You"  "Wannabe"  "All I Ask"  "Monster"  "Rolling in the Deep"

14

138

Chris Martin

February 2, 2016

"Adventure of a Lifetime"  "Yellow"  "Hymn for the Weekend"  "Viva la Vida"  "Heroes"  "Us Against the World"  "Paradise"

15

143

Elton John

February 7, 2016

"Your Song"  "I'm Still Standing"  "Crocodile Rock"  "Tiny Dancer"  "Looking Up"  "Circle of Life"  "Don't Let the Sun Go Down on Me"

16

147

Sia

February 16, 2016

"Chandelier"  "Diamonds"  "Elastic Heart"  "Alive"  "Titanium"

17

166

Jennifer Lopez (replay)

March 29, 2016

"Love Don't Cost a Thing"  "Booty"  "Jenny from the Block"  "Locked Out of Heaven"  "Qué Hiciste"  "On the Floor"

18

182

Gwen Stefani (eventually joined by George Clooney and Julia Roberts)

May 4, 2016

"Don't Speak"  "The Sweet Escape"  "Used to Love You"  "Rich Girl"  "Hollaback Girl"  "We Are the Champions"

19

188

Demi Lovato and Nick Jonas[19]

May 16, 2016

"Heart Attack"  "Chains"  "Stone Cold"  "Cake by the Ocean"  "Close"  "Jealous"  "Confident"

20

196

Carpool Karaoke featuring musical Hamilton with Lin-Manuel Miranda, Audra McDonald, Jesse Tyler Ferguson and Jane Krakowski

June 6, 2016

"On Broadway"  "Alexander Hamilton/Guns and Ships"  "Season of Love"  "Can't Take My Eyes Off You"  "One Day More"

21

199

Red Hot Chili Peppers

June 13, 2016

"Can't Stop"  "Give It Away"  "Californication"  "Dark Necessities"  "Under the Bridge"  "The Zephyr Song"  "By the Way"

22

203

Selena Gomez

June 20, 2016

"Same Old Love"  "Come and Get It"  "Hands to Myself"  "Kill Em with Kindness"  "Love You like a Love Song"  "Shake It Off"

23

209

Michelle Obama (eventually joined by Missy Elliott)

July 20, 2016

"Signed, Sealed, Delivered I'm Yours"  "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)"  "This Is For My Girls"  "Get Ur Freak On"

24

221

Britney Spears

August 25, 2016

"Oops!... I Did It Again"  "Womanizer"  "Make Me..."  "Toxic"  "Baby One More Time"

25

250

Lady Gaga

October 25, 2016

"Perfect Illusion"  "Bad Romance"  "The Edge of Glory"  "Born This Way"  "Poker Face"  "Million Reasons"

26

271

Madonna

December 7, 2016

"Vogue"  "Bitch I'm Madonna"  "Papa Don't Preach"  "Don't Cry for Me Argentina"  "Express Yourself"  "Ray of Light"  "Music"

27

274

Bruno Mars

December 13, 2016

"24K Magic"  "Locked Out of Heaven"  "Grenade"  "Versace on the Floor"  "If I Knew"  "Uptown Funk"  "Perm"

28

276

'All I Want for Christmas' Carpool Karaoke

December 15, 2016

"All I Want for Christmas Is You"

text:
#

Episode

Guest(s)

Date of first broadcast

Songs

29

277

George Michael from an earlier recording during Red Nose Day 2011Rebroadcast as part of a tribute segment to George Michael by James Corden

January 3, 2017

"I'm Your Man"  "Freedom"

30

287

Take That Recorded especially for Red Nose Day 2017

January 30, 2017

"Shine"  "Greatest Day"  "Babe"  "Giants"  "Never Forget"  "Back for Good"  "It Only Takes a Minute"  "Do What U Like"  "A Million Love Songs"  "Pray"

31

318

Stephen Curry Part of a Late Late Show NCAA Championship Special

April 3, 2017

"How Far I'll Go"  "Love Is an Open Door"

32

340

Harry Styles

May 18, 2017

"Sign of the Times"  "Sweet Creature"  "Hey Ya!"  "Endless Love"  "Kiwi"

33

341

Katy Perry (replay)

May 22, 2017

"Firework"  "I Kissed a Girl"  "Dark Horse"  "Bon Appétit"  "Swish Swish"  "Roar"

34

346

Ed Sheeran

June 6, 2017

"Shape of You"  "Sing"  "Thinking Out Loud"  "Love Yourself"  "What Makes You Beautiful"  "Castle on the Hill"

35

357

Usher

July 25, 2017

"Yeah!"  "So Fresh, So Clean"  "Burn"  "Caught Up"  "I Don't Mind"  "OMG"

36

382

Foo Fighters

September 20, 2017

"All My Life""Best of You""Learn to Fly""The Sky Is a Neighborhood""Never Gonna Give You Up"

37

393

Miley Cyrus

October 10, 2017

"We Can't Stop""The Climb""Party in the U.S.A.""Younger Now""Wrecking Ball""Malibu"

38

402

Sam Smith (eventually joined by Fifth Harmony)

November 1, 2017

"Too Good at Goodbyes""Lay Me Down""I'm Not the Only One""Money on My Mind""Stay with Me""Pray""Work from Home"

39

409

Pink

November 14, 2017

"What About Us"  "Get the Party Started"  "Beautiful Trauma"  "Raise Your Glass"  "Just like a Pill"

40

415

Kelly Clarkson

November 29, 2017

"Since U Been Gone"  "Love So Soft"  "Stronger (What Doesn't Kill You)"  "Because of You"  "Whole Lotta Woman"

41

421

Santa Claus Is Comin' To Town' Carpool Karaoke

December 11, 2017

"Santa Claus Is Comin' to Town"

text:
#

Episode

Guest(s)

Date of first broadcast

Songs

42

471

Christina Aguilera (eventually joined by Melissa McCarthy)

April 23, 2018

"Fighter"  "Dirrty"  "Genie in a Bottle"  "Beautiful"

May 16, 2018

"Fall in Line"

43

490

Adam Levine

May 24, 2018

"Moves Like Jagger"  "This Love"  "She Will Be Loved"  "Sugar"  "Wait"

44

491

Shawn Mendes

June 4, 2018

"There's Nothing Holdin' Me Back"  "In My Blood"  "Mercy"  "Treat You Better"  "Lost in Japan"

45

502

Paul McCartney

June 21, 2018

"Drive My Car"  "Penny Lane"  "Let It Be"  "When I'm Sixty-Four"  "Blackbird"  "Come On To Me"  "A Hard Day's Night"  "Ob-La-Di, Ob-La-Da"  "Love Me Do"  "Back in the U.S.S.R."  "Hey Jude"

text: The Late Late Show Primetime Special[edit]

text: Special broadcasts on prime time (10 pm) highlighting the Carpool Karaoke segment of The Late Late Show. The first show broadcast on March 29, 2016 on CBS won the Primetime Emmy Awards 2016 for "Outstanding Variety Special" category.[15][16]

text:
Episode

Guest(s)

Date of first broadcast

1

Highlights from past segments, James Corden's favorite moments from his first year as host of the show Jennifer Lopez (new)

March 29, 2016

2

Bruno Mars, Crosswalk Musical,  Highlights from past segments, Dance skit with Jennifer Lopez, Katy Perry (new)

May 22, 2017

3

"Carpool Karaoke" with musician Christina Aguilera  "Crosswalk the Musical: The Sound of Music" with actors Kunal Nayyar, Iain Armitage and actresses Allison Janney and Anna Faris.

April 23, 2018

text: Apple Music series[edit]

text: In 2016, Apple Music announced that it would distribute a TV series, based on Corden's segment, called Carpool Karaoke: The Series.[20] The series premiered on August 8, 2017, with new episodes each Wednesday, available to Apple Music subscribers.[3] The Linkin Park - Ken Jeong episode was recorded less than a week before Chester Bennington's death, and is dedicated in his memory. On February 15, 2018, it was renewed for a second season.[21]

text:
Episode

Driver and Guest(s)

Date of first broadcast

Songs

Running Time

1

James Corden & Will Smith

August 9, 2017

"Gettin' Jiggy wit It""Boom! Shake the Room""The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air""Summertime""I Believe I Can Fly"

20m 49s

2

Alicia Keys & John Legendwith special guests James Corden and Taraji P. Henson

August 15, 2017

"Hollywood Swinging""Fallin'""No One""All of Me""Love Me Now""Blended Family (What You Do for Love)""I'll Be There for You/You're All I Need to Get By""Ordinary People"

22m 46s

3

Billy Eichner & Metallica

August 15, 2017

"Enter Sandman""Part of Your World""Now That We're Dead""Master of Puppets""Diamonds"

16m 18s

4

Sophie Turner & Maisie Williams

August 22, 2017

"Sorry""Wrecking Ball""Self Control""My Prerogative"

16m 50s

5[22]

Seth MacFarlane & Ariana Grande

August 22, 2017

"Suddenly Seymour""The Song That Goes Like This""What is this Feeling?""Ten Minutes Ago""Nothing in Common"

15m 13s

6

The Cyrus Family(Miley, Billy Ray, Tish, Braison, Brandi, Trace, and Noah)

August 29, 2017

"Malibu""Party in the U.S.A.""24K Magic""Stay Together""Shake It""Achy Breaky Heart"

16m 47s

7

Queen Latifah & Jada Pinkett-Smithwith special guests Regina Hall and Tiffany Haddish

August 29, 2017

"Ladies First""My Lovin' (You're Never Gonna Get It)""Nasty""Let's Go Crazy""Girls Just Want to Have Fun"

12m 55s

8

John Cena & Shaquille O'Neal

September 5, 2017

"Gin and Juice""(I Know I Got) Skillz""The Time Is Now""Mama Said Knock You Out""Africa" (a cappella)"True Colors" (a cappella)"Red Red Wine" (a cappella)"Conga" (a cappella)"Like a Virgin" (a cappella)"Papa Don't Preach" (a cappella)"Maneater"

16m 27s

9

Jeff Gordon & Michael Strahan

September 5, 2017

"Lovely Day""Physical""E.I.""Closer"

12m 29s

10

Shakira & Trevor Noah

September 19, 2017

"Whenever, Wherever""Zombie""Triumph""Chantaje""Waka Waka (This Time for Africa)""Hips Don't Lie""Try Everything"

14m 24s

11

Tracee Ellis Ross & Big Sean

September 19, 2017

"Bounce Back""Moves""Endless Love""Dance (Ass)" (spoken word)"Baby Got Back" (spoken word)"O.P.P." (spoken word)"I Don’t **** with You" (bleeped on both clean and explicit versions)

13m 22s

12

Gwyneth Paltrow, Jessica Alba & will.i.amwith special guest James Corden

September 26, 2017

"Let's Get It Started""It Takes Two""I Gotta Feeling""Country Strong""Forget You""Hot in Herre"

18m 04s

13

Sheryl Crow & Dierks Bentley

September 26, 2017

"All I Wanna Do""What Was I Thinkin'""Picture""Drunk on a Plane""If It Makes You Happy""Good Hearted Woman""Folsom Prison Blues""On the Road Again"

13m 02s

14

Tyrese Gibson & Ludacris

October 3, 2017

"Southern Hospitality""Poison""Sweet Lady""The Humpty Dance""Shame""All I Do Is Win"

16m 32s

15

Blake Shelton & Chelsea Handler

October 3, 2017

"Hillbilly Bone""Take On Me""Total Eclipse of the Heart""Austin""Tiny Bubbles" (a cappella)"Livin' on a Prayer"

13m 59s

16

Neil Patrick Harris & Tyler Perry

October 10, 2017

"Uptown Funk""You're Beautiful""Love Shack""(I've Had) The Time of My Life"

16m 36s

17

Joe Jonas & Camila Cabello

October 10, 2017

"Cake by the Ocean""Crying in the Club""Kissing Strangers""You're the One That I Want"

12m 34s

18

Linkin Park & Ken Jeong

October 12, 2017 (Facebook)October 18, 2017 (Apple Music)

"Hey Ya!""Numb""In the End""Talking to Myself""Under the Bridge""Sweet Home Alabama""I Don't Want to Miss a Thing"

23m 29s

19

LeBron James & James Cordenwith special guest Ice Cube

October 31, 2017

"Numb / Encore""Yeah!""Bad and Boujee""It Was a Good Day""Maniac"

19m 51s

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: Spike announced plans in 2016 to air a series inspired by the segment titled "Caraoke Showdown", to be hosted by Craig Robinson.[23][24] Dubai TV bought the Arabic version of "Carpool Karaoke” in 2017 and its first episode is planned to air in February 2018, to be hosted by Hisham Howaish.

text: In Israel, a local version of Carpool Karaoke was produced for channel 11 (Kan).


document_title: Boy Meets World

question_text: where do they live in boy meets world

question_tokens: where do they live in boy meets world

root

text: Boy Meets World

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: Series overview[edit]

tag: table

text: Season 1: Middle school[edit]

text: The first season begins with Cory Matthews (Ben Savage) and his best friend Shawn Hunter (Rider Strong), two average sixth-graders. They do not care about schoolwork, despite the efforts of their longtime teacher George Feeny (William Daniels). Initially, their main interest is sports, though later Shawn and then Cory begin to express an interest in girls. This season focuses specifically on Cory's relationships with the other characters in the show. He begins to understand his parents more and respect them for all that they do. His relationship with his elder brother Eric (Will Friedle) becomes confusing as Eric's constant obsession with girls is foreign to Cory, and he becomes more protective of his younger sister Morgan (Lily Nicksay from this season through the end of the second season). Cory begins to show interest in Topanga (Danielle Fishel), a smart outsider in his class, though he often hides this by insulting and berating her. Cory and Topanga have known each other since they were kids, making romance in their relationship even more predictable. Cory and Shawn's friendship is tested for the first time, and Cory must often choose between doing what Shawn wants him to do and doing what is best for their friendship.

tag: p

text: Seasons 2–5: High school[edit]

text: During the second season, Cory, Topanga, and Shawn start high school and meet Jonathan Turner (Anthony Tyler Quinn), an unconventional English teacher. Although they initially view Mr. Turner as cool, they soon realize that he is a teacher above all else, which earns him the nickname "Feeny with an earring" from Cory. Throughout the second season, Cory and Shawn try a variety of ways to become popular with their classmates. In doing so, they nearly get into fights with school bullies and in trouble with Mr. Feeny (now their high school principal). Eventually, though Shawn becomes more popular, he maintains his close friendship with the less popular Cory. Shawn’s mother Virna deserts her son and husband Chet (Blake Clark), which upsets Shawn greatly. Chet then leaves to find Virna. After this occurs, Shawn lives briefly with Cory and his parents, but soon figures out that it's just not the right fit for him, and later moves in with Mr. Turner. Cory tries at some points to begin a relationship with Topanga, but this is mostly because he does not want to be left out of the dating game. Sensing this, Topanga is wary of his advances, and despite the mutual attraction, the two do not date during this season.

text: During the third season, Cory finally admits that he wants to ask out Topanga but cannot work up the courage to do it. Consequently, his best friend Shawn asks her out. Although Cory was hurt, he soon realized Shawn set the whole thing up so he could unite Cory and Topanga and make Cory confess his feelings for her. He tells her how he feels, and they become a couple. Later in the third season, Cory and Topanga are worried that their relationship has hit a rut, and decide it would be best to break up while they are still able to keep the friendship. They get back together a few months later when Cory follows her to Disney World to win her back. Eric spends this season desperately trying to make up for his first three years of slacking off in high school. He makes progress, but it is not enough; he is not acceptable to any universities as of his high school graduation. He decides then to take a year off and figure things out, beginning with a summer road trip. After finding out in the season finale that Cory feels estranged from him, Eric invites Cory along for the ride. Shawn nearly makes several life-changing blunders this season, but Cory and then Mr. Turner help him to make the right choices. Cory endures several tests of character this season—everything from being credited for a great deed (which he did not deserve), to being insistently pursued by another girl while he is with Topanga. Sometimes Cory makes the right decision, and sometimes the wrong one, but he learns from each.

text: The fourth season opens with Cory and Eric's return from their road trip. In this season, Eric finds himself confronted with life after high school. After having a couple of jobs and meeting people that teach him some interesting lessons, Eric decides to retake the SAT and give college another try. The Matthews' patriarch Alan (William Russ) decides to quit his job and open a sporting goods store with Eric as his partner. Topanga’s mother is transferred at her job to Pittsburgh, which is over 300 miles (480 km) from Philadelphia. The news devastates Cory, but Topanga runs away from her new house and returns to Philadelphia. Topanga’s parents decide that she can live with Aunt Prudence (Olivia Hussey) in Philadelphia until she graduates. Shawn's mother returns for a brief period but then leaves again under unknown circumstances at some point between season 4 and season 6.

text: Later that school year, Mr. Turner gets into a severe motorcycle accident in which he almost dies. The next year Eric moves out of his parents’ house and begins college at the fictional Pennbrook University (a pastiche of local Philadelphia schools including Saint Joseph's University and the University of Pennsylvania). He moves into an apartment with Jack (Matthew Lawrence), who turns out to be Shawn’s half-brother. Shawn clearly shows his hatred toward Jack and refuses to live with him because he was upset that Jack never called or checked to see if Shawn and his dad were doing okay (Shawn eventually discovers that Jack never received any of Shawn's letters, or he would have come to see him immediately). However, after being convinced by his father and others around him, Shawn moves in with them but finds he has nothing in common with Jack, which causes a lot of tension. A new student, Angela (Trina McGee), moves to Philadelphia and begins to date Shawn. Over winter break, the students go skiing on a school trip. Cory sprains his ankle and Lauren (Linda Cardellini), a ski-lodge employee, takes care of him. The two kiss, but Cory lies to Topanga. When Topanga finds out that he lied, they break up. Cory, upset about the break-up, gets drunk and is arrested, along with Shawn. The two agree never to drink again, but Shawn breaks the promise and shows up at school drunk. With the help of Angela and Jack, Shawn realizes that alcoholism runs in his family and that he needs to stop drinking.

text: Topanga forgives Cory after encountering her own kiss with an old friend from grade school. She realizes no kiss means more than the ones she shares with Cory. Cory and Topanga reunite and attend the prom together, where they are named King and Queen. On prom night, Cory's mother Amy (Betsy Randle) announces that she is pregnant. Mr. Feeny decides to retire at the end of the school year and move to Wyoming; however, he soon returns from retirement and goes back to teaching. Topanga is accepted to Yale, but Cory does not want her to leave him. At graduation, Topanga tells Cory that she decided not to go to Yale because she wants to be with him; then she proposes. The couple's parents are upset that they got engaged so young, but Cory and Topanga decide to elope. However, at the last minute, they decide that they want to get married "the right way," in front of family and friends.

text: Seasons 6–7: College[edit]

text: Shawn, Cory, Topanga, and Angela join Jack and Eric at Pennbrook. Rachel McGuire (Maitland Ward), a new student from Texas, moves in with Eric and Jack, causing tension as both boys have crushes on her. Angela and Shawn break up due to his claim that they should meet new people and, despite Cory’s efforts, decide to stay just friends. They eventually are brought back together by way of Angela's father during his visit to the college, recruiting students for his R.O.T.C. program of basic training in the army. Mr. Feeny returns to take some classes but then is offered a teaching job at the university. During their freshman year, Stuart (played by Ben Savage's older brother Fred Savage), one of their professors, makes inappropriate—and unwelcome—sexual advances towards Topanga, causing Cory to shove him through a glass door at the Student Union. Cory is suspended but for only one day; the Dean (Bonnie Bartlett) believes that Stuart had crossed the line. Mr. Feeny and the Dean eventually gain feelings for one another and begin dating.

text: Cory and Topanga face a major obstacle in their marriage plans when Topanga’s parents go through a divorce, and she decides to call off the wedding. She breaks up with Cory completely and tells him that she doesn’t believe in love. Topanga is convinced that she is doing what is best for herself and Cory until her mother comes to explain everything and tell her that love is worth the risk.

text: Chet dies of a heart attack, and Jack reacts by admitting feelings for Rachel. They start dating, which causes problems for Jack and Eric. Crushed, Eric decides to move out of the apartment so that he doesn't get in the way of Jack and Rachel and later sleeps in Mr. Feeny’s car. Shawn goes on a road trip to deal with his father's death, saying he won't come back. He does return however when the new Matthews baby, Joshua, is born prematurely and has a small chance of survival. Shawn receives a letter from his mother, confessing she is not his biological parent. Shawn unsuccessfully searches for his biological mother. Alan offers to adopt Shawn, but he decides that it was not necessary because Shawn knows that he is already part of the family.

text: Shawn and Cory have challenges in their relationship throughout the season, including on the day of Cory’s wedding. Shawn admits that he is no longer Cory’s best friend and gives him away to Topanga. Despite this, their friendship remains intact, but Topanga sometimes feels left out. Cory and Topanga get married and move into a shabby apartment for married couples on campus. They struggle for a while, wondering why Alan and Amy refuse to help them, but Alan later admits that he didn't want to deprive of them of the joy and bonding that comes with building a life together when you're new to marriage. They eventually make it a wonderful home and realize that they are capable of doing things on their own as a married couple. The group is growing up—they have to start thinking about what to do with their lives. In one episode, the newer friends get involved in a prank war with the originals (Jack, Rachel, and Angela vs. Cory, Shawn, and Topanga) which ultimately results in an ill-considered prank that exposes a very private secret of Rachel's. The friends are almost completely torn apart by all of this, until Eric and Mr. Feeny intervene by reminding them of the importance of their relationships and, as a result, everyone makes up.

text: In the series finale, Cory, Topanga, Shawn, and Eric all head to New York City, where Topanga has been offered a dream internship at a law firm. Angela decides to move overseas with her father, and Jack and Rachel join the Peace Corps in Guatemala. The final scene has Cory, Topanga, and Shawn having a final meeting with Mr. Feeny in their old sixth-grade classroom, along with Eric, with each one telling him how important he is in their lives and to cherish each other forever.

text: Characters[edit]

text:
Cory Matthews (Ben Savage)
George Feeny (William Daniels)
Amy Matthews (Betsy Randle)
Eric Matthews (Will Friedle)
Shawn Hunter (Rider Strong)
Stuart Minkus (Lee Norris)
Morgan Matthews (Lily Nicksay (seasons 1–2), Lindsay Ridgeway (seasons 3–7))
Alan Matthews (William Russ)
Topanga Lawrence (Danielle Fishel)
Jonathan Turner (Anthony Tyler Quinn)
Eli Williams (Alex Désert)
Jack Hunter (Matthew Lawrence)
Angela Moore (Trina McGee-Davis)
Rachel McGuire (Maitland Ward)

tag: ul

text: Production notes[edit]

text: Theme music and introductions[edit]

text: Boy Meets World used a number of theme songs and opening title sequences over its seven-year run. Season one was the only season of the series that incorporated the names of the main cast and series creators within the opening title sequence, while those credits were shown along with the credits for producers and that episode's director and writers during the show's cold open for the remainder of the series. Every episode of seasons one and four through seven utilized a single theme song for every episode; however, the entire second season and part of season three used various instrumental themes composed by Ray Colcord (who also composed the incidental music used between scenes and commercial breaks throughout the show's run). This practice ended with "The Last Temptation of Cory" (season 3, episode 9) as one of the cycled themes became the sole opening title music for the rest of that season. The final theme, written and performed by Phil Rosenthal, of the band Twenty Cent Crush[8] remained for seasons five through seven, though the visuals changed from seasons 5 to 6 to include Trina McGee-Davis (when she moved from recurring cast member in season 5 to series regular cast member in season 6) and Maitland Ward (who was added as a regular cast member in season 6).

text: ABC Family was the first network since ABC to show all the accurate introductions for each of the show's seven seasons. For the broadcast syndication and Disney Channel airings between 1997 and 2007, the opening title sequence from season four (along with a slightly modified version of the theme music from that season) anachronistically replaced the title sequences for the first three seasons, while the opening titles for seasons four through seven were kept intact.

text: Philadelphia references[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: It is one of many television shows to take place primarily in the Philadelphia area and makes multiple local references. These include Cory's love for the Phillies and Morgan often wearing a Philadelphia Eagles jacket. Eric mentions that he and his father always talk about the Eagles, 76ers, Flyers, and Phillies, the four major sports teams in Philadelphia, and his attempts to be accepted into Swarthmore College—finally ending with Cory and most of the cast attending Pennbrook, an institution that appears to be a pastiche of Penn and Saint Joseph's University. In the episode "Starry Night," Cory and Topanga visit the Philadelphia Museum of Art for a Vincent van Gogh exhibition. In the episode "Singled Out" in season 4, Eric meets with one of the producers of Singled Out and the producer makes reference to Eric living in and around Philadelphia.

text: The name of John Adams High School is an homage to William Daniels' long-running role in the Tony-award-winning Broadway play (and later film) 1776, in which Daniels played Founding Father John Adams.

text: Syndication[edit]

text: Disney–ABC Domestic Television (sister company to Touchstone Television, now ABC Studios) currently handles the syndication rights to the series.

text: Boy Meets World reruns began airing on various FOX, WB, UPN, and independent affiliates from 1997 to 2000. During the latter month, Disney Channel assumed syndication rights, with the series running on the cable channel until 2007. To the consternation of some longtime fans of the show, Disney Channel edited many episodes that contained scenes with suggestive content deemed inappropriate for the channel's target audience of 7- to 14-year-olds. All 158 episodes aired during the series' initial run on the Disney Channel, however, due to the adult subject matter and complaints from parents, Disney Channel omitted three episodes from later airings: season five's "If You Can't Be with the One You Love..." (due to its depictions of underage drinking) and "Prom-ises, Prom-ises" (whose main storyline involves Cory and Topanga contemplating losing their virginity on the night of their prom), and season six's "The Truth About Honesty" (due to its sexual references).[9] On May 5, 2014, the show temporarily returned to the network after a seven-year absence to promote Girl Meets World.[10]

text: ABC Family has aired Boy Meets World from June 21, 2004 to August 31, 2007 and again from April 12, 2010 to December 2, 2015.[11] Though the network in a way inherited the syndication rights to the show from Disney Channel, the episode prints broadcast by ABC Family differed from those seen on Disney Channel and in broadcast syndication as it incorporated scenes cut from the Disney Channel broadcasts (though small portions of certain scenes from episodes during the earlier seasons were cut due to time constraints) and featured the three episodes that Disney chose not to air, incorporated each season's corresponding opening title sequence, and restored the placement of the teaser scenes during the season one episodes to running before the opening titles in the manner that they were shown in the original ABC telecasts (instead of having the cast and creators' names shown during the teasers). However, the program was dropped once ABC Family was rebranded as Freeform. The series also began airing on MTV2 since November 14, 2011, again with the original opening title sequences intact.[12]

text: On April 18, 2016, Nickelodeon's sister channel TeenNick began airing the series. The series, TeenNick's only acquired program as of 2017, airs as a lead-in to the channel's classic programming block, NickSplat.

text: Internationally, reruns of the series have been broadcast on Canada's YTV, Family Channel, and ABC Spark; the Canadian version of ABC Family. In Brazil, the show was aired by SBT (terrestrial television) and Disney Channel Brazil (cable television) until 2005.

text: On September 29, 2017, Boy Meets World became available for streaming on Hulu along with fellow Disney–ABC television properties Dinosaurs and Home Improvement, in addition to fellow TGIF programs Family Matters, Full House, Hangin' with Mr. Cooper, Perfect Strangers and Step by Step.[13]

text: Cultural impact[edit]

text: Angela's interracial relationship with Shawn was a relative rarity for a major network television show targeting youths at the time. Trina McGee-Davis once remarked that the typical reaction she received from young fans regarding the relationship was overwhelmingly positive and encouraging, often inquiring as to when the characters would reconcile after a breakup. She expressed her personal wish that her character's relationship would serve as an example of color blindness for the world, in lieu of a less positive reaction a similar relationship had received on Ally McBeal at the time.[14]

text: Eric and Shawn both wore a popular 1990s hairstyle called curtained hair.

text: The show also addresses the cultural issues of child abuse ("Dangerous Secret"'), sexual harassment ("Chick Like Me"), and underage drinking/alcohol abuse ("If You Can't Be With the One You Love…").

text: Home media[edit]

text: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment (as Buena Vista Home Entertainment) released the first three seasons of Boy Meets World on DVD between 2004 and 2005.[15] Because the sales figures did not meet the company's expectations, no further seasons were released. As of 2009, these releases have been discontinued and are out of print.

text: On August 4, 2008, it was announced that Lionsgate Home Entertainment had acquired the rights to the series. They subsequently re-released the first three seasons on DVD on September 7, 2010, with the same special features from the original releases.[16] Season 4 was released on December 7, 2010.[17] Season 5 was released on May 3, 2011.[18] Season 6 was released on July 5, 2011.[19] Season 7 was released on October 4, 2011, completing the series' run on DVD.[20] Ultimately, Lionsgate was able to release all seven seasons in almost a year's time. All seven seasons of the series are available for download at the iTunes Store.

text: On November 5, 2013, Lionsgate released Boy Meets World: The Complete Collection on DVD in Region 1.[21] The 22-disc set features all 158 episodes of the series as well as new and previously included bonus features from the original sets.

text:
DVD name
Ep#
Release date
Bonus features

The Complete First Season

22

August 24, 2004Re-release: September 7, 2010

Bonus Episode from Season 4: Hair Today, Gone Tomorrow (Disc 3) & Audio Commentary with Cast and Crew

The Complete Second Season

23

November 23, 2004Re-release: September 7, 2010

Bonus Feature: "Fear Strikes Out" Video Commentary (Disc 2) & Audio Commentary with Cast and Crew

The Complete Third Season

22

August 23, 2005Re-release: September 7, 2010

"The World According to Boy" Pop Quiz – Answer these quiz questions correctly and you'll graduate from John Adams High with honors (Disc 3)

The Complete Fourth Season

22

December 7, 2010

The Complete Fifth Season

24

May 3, 2011

The Complete Sixth Season

22

July 5, 2011

The Complete Seventh Season

23

October 4, 2011

The Complete Collection

158

November 5, 2013

Boy Meets World: Back to the Beginning featurette, Boy Meets... World Fandom Featurette (Bonus disc)

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Nominee(s)
Result

1994
Young Artist Award
Best Youth Comedian
Rider Strong
Nominated

Best Youth Actor Leading Role in a Television Series
Ben Savage
Nominated

Best New Television Series
Boy Meets World
Nominated

Best Actress Under Ten in a Television Series or Show
Lily Nicksay
Nominated

1995
Young Artist Award
Best Performance: Young Actor in a TV Comedy Series
Will Friedle
Nominated

Jason Marsden
Nominated

1996
Young Artist Award
Best Performance by a Young Actress: TV Comedy Series
Danielle Fishel
Nominated

Best Performance by a Young Actress: Guest Starring Role TV Series
Erin J. Dean
Nominated

Best Performance by a Young Actor: Guest Starring Role TV Series
Justin Thomson
Won

1997
Young Artist Award
Best Performance in a TV Comedy: Supporting Young Actress
Danielle Fishel
Nominated

Best Performance in a TV Comedy: Supporting Young Actor
Rider Strong
Nominated

Best Performance in a TV Comedy: Leading Young Actor
Ben Savage
Nominated

1998
Young Artist Award
Best Performance in a TV Comedy Series: Leading Young Performer
Ben Savage
Nominated

YoungStar Award
Best Performance by a Young Actor in a Comedy TV Series
Ben Savage
Nominated

Best Young Actress/Performance in a Comedy TV Series
Danielle Fishel
Won

1999
Kids' Choice Award
Favorite Television Show
Boy Meets World
Nominated

Young Artist Award
Best Performance in a TV Comedy Series: Guest Starring Young Actor
Jarrett Lennon
Won

2000
Kids' Choice Award
Favorite Television Show
Boy Meets World
Nominated

Favorite Television Friends
Ben Savage & Rider Strong
Won

Young Artist Award
Best Performance in a TV Comedy Series: Guest Starring Young Performer
J. B. Gaynor
Won

YoungStar Award
Best Young Actress/Performance in a Comedy TV Series
Danielle Fishel
Nominated

text: Spin-off[edit]

text: In November 2012, Disney Channel announced that it had ordered a pilot for a spin-off series, Girl Meets World. The story exists in the same continuity as the original series and follows Riley Matthews (Rowan Blanchard), the daughter of Cory and Topanga Matthews, as she navigates the challenges of her early teenage years. Michael Jacobs returned as showrunner, while Ben Savage and Danielle Fishel reprise their roles as Cory and Topanga. Philadelphia area native Sabrina Carpenter plays Riley's best friend Maya Hart. Several cast members from Boy Meets World appear in recurring guest roles. Most prominently: Rider Strong (Shawn Hunter), Will Friedle (Eric Matthews), Danny McNulty (Harley Keiner), Lee Norris (Stuart Minkus), and William Daniels (Mr. Feeny). Girl Meets World ran three seasons before being canceled in 2017.[22]


document_title: DNA profiling

question_text: when was dna first used in a criminal case

question_tokens: when was dna first used in a criminal case

text: DNA profiling

text: Background[edit]

text: The modern process of DNA profiling was developed in 1984[4] by Sir Alec Jeffreys[5][6][7][8] while working in the Department of Genetics at the University of Leicester.[9]

text: Although 99.9% of human DNA sequences are the same in every person, enough of the DNA is different that it is possible to distinguish one individual from another, unless they are monozygotic ("identical") twins.[10] DNA profiling uses repetitive ("repeat") sequences that are highly variable,[10] called variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs), in particular short tandem repeats (STRs), also known as microsatellites, and minisatellites. VNTR loci are very similar between closely related individuals, but are so variable that unrelated individuals are extremely unlikely to have the same VNTRs.

text: DNA profiling process[edit]

text: Developed by Professor of Genetics Sir Alec Jeffreys,[11] the process begins with a sample of an individual's DNA (typically called a "reference sample"). A common method of collecting a reference sample is the use of a buccal swab, which is easy, non-invasive and cheap. When this is not available (e.g. because a court order is needed but not obtainable) other methods may need to be used to collect a sample of blood, saliva, semen, vaginal lubrication, or other appropriate fluid or tissue from personal items (e.g. a toothbrush, razor) or from stored samples (e.g. banked sperm or biopsy tissue). Samples obtained from blood relatives (related by birth, not marriage) can provide an indication of an individual's profile, as could human remains that had been previously profiled.

text: A reference sample is then analyzed to create the individual's DNA profile using one of a number of techniques, discussed below. The DNA profile is then compared against another sample to determine whether there is a genetic match.

text: RFLP analysis[edit]

text: The first methods for finding out genetics used for DNA profiling involved RFLP analysis. DNA is collected from cells, such as a blood sample, and cut into small pieces using a restriction enzyme (a restriction digest). This generates thousands of DNA fragments of differing sizes as a consequence of variations between DNA sequences of different individuals. The fragments are then separated on the basis of size using gel electrophoresis.

text: The separated fragments are then transferred to a nitrocellulose or nylon filter; this procedure is called a Southern blot. The DNA fragments within the blot are permanently fixed to the filter, and the DNA strands are denatured. Radiolabeled probe molecules are then added that are complementary to sequences in the genome that contain repeat sequences. These repeat sequences tend to vary in length among different individuals and are called variable number tandem repeat sequences or VNTRs. The probe molecules hybridize to DNA fragments containing the repeat sequences and excess probe molecules are washed away. The blot is then exposed to an X-ray film. Fragments of DNA that have bound to the probe molecules appear as fluoresent bands on the film.

text: The Southern blot technique is laborious, and requires large amounts of undegraded sample DNA. Also, Karl Brown's original technique looked at many minisatellite loci at the same time, increasing the observed variability, but making it hard to discern individual alleles (and thereby precluding paternity testing). These early techniques have been supplanted by PCR-based assays.

text: Polymerase Chain Reaction(PCR) analysis[edit]

text: Developed by Kary Mullis in 1983, a process was reported by which specific portions of the sample DNA can be amplified almost indefinitely (Saiki et al. 1985, 1988). This has revolutionized the whole field of DNA study. The process, the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), mimics the biological process of DNA replication, but confines it to specific DNA sequences of interest. With the invention of the PCR technique, DNA profiling took huge strides forward in both discriminating power and the ability to recover information from very small (or degraded) starting samples.

text: PCR greatly amplifies the amounts of a specific region of DNA. In the PCR process, the DNA sample is denatured into the separate individual polynucleotide strands through heating. Two oligonucleotide DNA primers are used to hybridize to two corresponding nearby sites on opposite DNA strands in such a fashion that the normal enzymatic extension of the active terminal of each primer (that is, the 3’ end) leads toward the other primer. PCR uses replication enzymes that are tolerant of high temperatures, such as the thermostable Taq polymerase. In this fashion, two new copies of the sequence of interest are generated. Repeated denaturation, hybridization, and extension in this fashion produce an exponentially growing number of copies of the DNA of interest. Instruments that perform thermal cycling are readily available from commercial sources. This process can produce a million-fold or greater amplification of the desired region in 2 hours or less.

text: Early assays such as the HLA-DQ alpha reverse dot blot strips grew to be very popular due to their ease of use, and the speed with which a result could be obtained. However, they were not as discriminating as RFLP analysis. It was also difficult to determine a DNA profile for mixed samples, such as a vaginal swab from a sexual assault victim.

text: However, the PCR method was readily adaptable for analyzing VNTR, in particular STR loci. In recent years, research in human DNA quantitation has focused on new "real-time" quantitative PCR (qPCR) techniques. Quantitative PCR methods enable automated, precise, and high-throughput measurements. Inter-laboratory studies have demonstrated the importance of human DNA quantitation on achieving reliable interpretation of STR typing and obtaining consistent results across laboratories.

text: STR analysis[edit]

text: The system of DNA profiling used today is based on PCR and uses simple sequences[12] or short tandem repeats (STR). This method uses highly polymorphic regions that have short repeated sequences of DNA (the most common is 4 bases repeated, but there are other lengths in use, including 3 and 5 bases). Because unrelated people almost certainly have different numbers of repeat units, STRs can be used to discriminate between unrelated individuals. These STR loci (locations on a chromosome) are targeted with sequence-specific primers and amplified using PCR. The DNA fragments that result are then separated and detected using electrophoresis. There are two common methods of separation and detection, capillary electrophoresis (CE) and gel electrophoresis.

text: Each STR is polymorphic, but the number of alleles is very small. Typically each STR allele will be shared by around 5 - 20% of individuals. The power of STR analysis comes from looking at multiple STR loci simultaneously. The pattern of alleles can identify an individual quite accurately. Thus STR analysis provides an excellent identification tool. The more STR regions that are tested in an individual the more discriminating the test becomes.

text: From country to country, different STR-based DNA-profiling systems are in use. In North America, systems that amplify the CODIS 20[13] core loci are almost universal, whereas in the United Kingdom the DNA-17 17 loci system (which is compatible with The National DNA Database) is in use, and Australia uses 18 core markers[14]. Whichever system is used, many of the STR regions used are the same. These DNA-profiling systems are based on multiplex reactions, whereby many STR regions will be tested at the same time.

text: The true power of STR analysis is in its statistical power of discrimination. Because the 20 loci that are currently used for discrimination in CODIS are independently assorted (having a certain number of repeats at one locus does not change the likelihood of having any number of repeats at any other locus), the product rule for probabilities can be applied. This means that, if someone has the DNA type of ABC, where the three loci were independent, we can say that the probability of having that DNA type is the probability of having type A times the probability of having type B times the probability of having type C. This has resulted in the ability to generate match probabilities of 1 in a quintillion (1x1018) or more. However, DNA database searches showed much more frequent than expected false DNA profile matches.[15] Moreover, since there are about 12 million monozygotic twins on Earth, the theoretical probability is not accurate.

text: In practice, the risk of contaminated-matching is much greater than matching a distant relative, such as contamination of a sample from nearby objects, or from left-over cells transferred from a prior test. The risk is greater for matching the most common person in the samples: Everything collected from, or in contact with, a victim is a major source of contamination for any other samples brought into a lab. For that reason, multiple control-samples are typically tested in order to ensure that they stayed clean, when prepared during the same period as the actual test samples. Unexpected matches (or variations) in several control-samples indicates a high probability of contamination for the actual test samples. In a relationship test, the full DNA profiles should differ (except for twins), to prove that a person was not actually matched as being related to their own DNA in another sample.

text: AmpFLP[edit]

text: Another technique, AmpFLP, or amplified fragment length polymorphism was also put into practice during the early 1990s. This technique was also faster than RFLP analysis and used PCR to amplify DNA samples. It relied on variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) polymorphisms to distinguish various alleles, which were separated on a polyacrylamide gel using an allelic ladder (as opposed to a molecular weight ladder). Bands could be visualized by silver staining the gel. One popular focus for fingerprinting was the D1S80 locus. As with all PCR based methods, highly degraded DNA or very small amounts of DNA may cause allelic dropout (causing a mistake in thinking a heterozygote is a homozygote) or other stochastic effects. In addition, because the analysis is done on a gel, very high number repeats may bunch together at the top of the gel, making it difficult to resolve. AmpFLP analysis can be highly automated, and allows for easy creation of phylogenetic trees based on comparing individual samples of DNA. Due to its relatively low cost and ease of set-up and operation, AmpFLP remains popular in lower income countries.

text: DNA family relationship analysis[edit]

text: Using PCR technology, DNA analysis is widely applied to determine genetic family relationships such as paternity, maternity, siblingship and other kinships.

text: During conception, the father’s sperm cell and the mother’s egg cell, each containing half the amount of DNA found in other body cells, meet and fuse to form a fertilized egg, called a zygote. The zygote contains a complete set of DNA molecules, a unique combination of DNA from both parents. This zygote divides and multiplies into an embryo and later, a full human being.

text: At each stage of development, all the cells forming the body contain the same DNA—half from the father and half from the mother. This fact allows the relationship testing to use all types of all samples including loose cells from the cheeks collected using buccal swabs, blood or other types of samples.

text: There are predictable inheritance patterns at certain locations (called loci) in the human genome, which have been found to be useful in determining identity and biological relationships. These loci contain specific DNA markers that scientists use to identify individuals. In a routine DNA paternity test, the markers used are Short Tandem Repeats (STRs), short pieces of DNA that occur in highly differential repeat patterns among individuals.

text: Each person’s DNA contains two copies of these markers—one copy inherited from the father and one from the mother. Within a population, the markers at each person’s DNA location could differ in length and sometimes sequence, depending on the markers inherited from the parents.

text: The combination of marker sizes found in each person makes up his/her unique genetic profile. When determining the relationship between two individuals, their genetic profiles are compared to see if they share the same inheritance patterns at a statistically conclusive rate.

text: For example, the following sample report from this commercial DNA paternity testing laboratory Universal Genetics signifies how relatedness between parents and child is identified on those special markers:

text:
DNA Marker
Mother
Child
Alleged father

D21S11
28, 30
28, 31
29, 31

D7S820
9, 10
10, 11
11, 12

TH01
14, 15
14, 16
15, 16

D13S317
7, 8
7, 9
8, 9

D19S433
14, 16.2
14, 15
15, 17

text: The partial results indicate that the child and the alleged father’s DNA match among these five markers. The complete test results show this correlation on 16 markers between the child and the tested man to enable a conclusion to be drawn as to whether or not the man is the biological father.

text: Each marker is assigned with a Paternity Index (PI), which is a statistical measure of how powerfully a match at a particular marker indicates paternity. The PI of each marker is multiplied with each other to generate the Combined Paternity Index (CPI), which indicates the overall probability of an individual being the biological father of the tested child relative to a randomly selected man from the entire population of the same race. The CPI is then converted into a Probability of Paternity showing the degree of relatedness between the alleged father and child.

text: The DNA test report in other family relationship tests, such as grandparentage and siblingship tests, is similar to a paternity test report. Instead of the Combined Paternity Index, a different value, such as a Siblingship Index, is reported.

text: The report shows the genetic profiles of each tested person. If there are markers shared among the tested individuals, the probability of biological relationship is calculated to determine how likely the tested individuals share the same markers due to a blood relationship.

text: Y-chromosome analysis[edit]

text: Recent innovations have included the creation of primers targeting polymorphic regions on the Y-chromosome (Y-STR), which allows resolution of a mixed DNA sample from a male and female or cases in which a differential extraction is not possible. Y-chromosomes are paternally inherited, so Y-STR analysis can help in the identification of paternally related males. Y-STR analysis was performed in the Sally Hemings controversy to determine if Thomas Jefferson had sired a son with one of his slaves. The analysis of the Y-chromosome yields weaker results than autosomal chromosome analysis. The Y male sex-determining chromosome, as it is inherited only by males from their fathers, is almost identical along the patrilineal line. This leads to a less precise analysis than if autosomal chromosomes were testing, because of the random matching that occurs between pairs of chromosomes as zygotes are being made.[16]

text: Mitochondrial analysis[edit]

text: For highly degraded samples, it is sometimes impossible to get a complete profile of the 13 CODIS STRs. In these situations, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is sometimes typed due to there being many copies of mtDNA in a cell, while there may only be 1-2 copies of the nuclear DNA. Forensic scientists amplify the HV1 and HV2 regions of the mtDNA, and then sequence each region and compare single-nucleotide differences to a reference. Because mtDNA is maternally inherited, directly linked maternal relatives can be used as match references, such as one's maternal grandmother's daughter's son. In general, a difference of two or more nucleotides is considered to be an exclusion. Heteroplasmy and poly-C differences may throw off straight sequence comparisons, so some expertise on the part of the analyst is required. mtDNA is useful in determining clear identities, such as those of missing people when a maternally linked relative can be found. mtDNA testing was used in determining that Anna Anderson was not the Russian princess she had claimed to be, Anastasia Romanov.

text: mtDNA can be obtained from such material as hair shafts and old bones/teeth. Control mechanism based on interaction point with data. This can be determined by tooled placement in sample.[citation needed]

text: DNA databases[edit]

text: An early application of a DNA database was the compilation of a Mitochondrial DNA Concordance,[17] prepared by Kevin W. P. Miller and John L. Dawson at the University of Cambridge from 1996 to 1998[18] from data collected as part of Miller's PhD thesis. There are now several DNA databases in existence around the world. Some are private, but most of the largest databases are government-controlled. The United States maintains the largest DNA database, with the Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) holding over 9 million records as of 2011.[19] The United Kingdom maintains the National DNA Database (NDNAD), which is of similar size, despite the UK's smaller population. The size of this database, and its rate of growth, are giving concern to civil liberties groups in the UK, where police have wide-ranging powers to take samples and retain them even in the event of acquittal.[20] The Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition partially addressed these concerns with part 1 of the Protection of Freedoms Act 2012, under which DNA samples must be deleted if suspects are acquitted or not charged, except in relation to certain (mostly serious and/or sexual) offences.

text: The U.S. Patriot Act of the United States provides a means for the U.S. government to get DNA samples from other countries if they[clarification needed] are either a division of or a head office of a company operating in the U.S. Under the act; the American offices of the company may not divulge to their subsidiaries/offices in other countries the reasons that these DNA samples are sought or by whom.[citation needed]

text: When a match is made from a national DNA databank to link a crime scene to an offender having provided a DNA sample to a databank, that link is often referred to as a cold hit. A cold hit is of value in referring the police agency to a specific suspect but is of less evidential value than a DNA match made from outside the DNA Databank.[21]

text: FBI agents cannot legally store DNA of a person not convicted of a crime. DNA collected from a suspect not later convicted must be disposed of and not entered into the database. In 1998, a man residing in the UK was arrested on accusation of burglary. His DNA was taken and tested, and he was later released. Nine months later, this man's DNA was accidentally and illegally entered in the DNA database. New DNA is automatically compared to the DNA found at cold cases and, in this case, this man was found to be a match to DNA found at a rape and assault case one year earlier. The government then prosecuted him for these crimes. During the trial the DNA match was requested to be removed from the evidence because it had been illegally entered into the database. The request was carried out.[22]

text: The DNA collected from victims of rape is often stored for years until matched with the perpetrator's, usually when committing another crime. In 2014, Congress extended a bill that helps states deal with "a backlog" of unexamined evidence.[23]

text: Considerations when evaluating DNA evidence[edit]

text: In the early days of the use of genetic fingerprinting as criminal evidence, juries were often swayed by spurious statistical arguments by defense lawyers along these lines: Given a match that had a 1 in 5 million probability of occurring by chance, the lawyer would argue that this meant that in a country of say 60 million people there were 12 people who would also match the profile. This was then translated to a 1 in 12 chance of the suspect's being the guilty one. This argument is not sound unless the suspect was drawn at random from the population of the country. In fact, a jury should consider how likely it is that an individual matching the genetic profile would also have been a suspect in the case for other reasons. Also, different DNA analysis processes can reduce the amount of DNA recovery if the procedures are not properly done. Therefore, the number of times a piece of evidence is sampled can diminish the DNA collection efficiency. Another spurious statistical argument is based on the false assumption that a 1 in 5 million probability of a match automatically translates into a 1 in 5 million probability of innocence and is known as the prosecutor's fallacy.

text: When using RFLP, the theoretical risk of a coincidental match is 1 in 100 billion (100,000,000,000), although the practical risk is actually 1 in 1000 because monozygotic twins are 0.2% of the human population.[citation needed] Moreover, the rate of laboratory error is almost certainly higher than this, and often actual laboratory procedures do not reflect the theory under which the coincidence probabilities were computed. For example, the coincidence probabilities may be calculated based on the probabilities that markers in two samples have bands in precisely the same location, but a laboratory worker may conclude that similar—but not precisely identical—band patterns result from identical genetic samples with some imperfection in the agarose gel. However, in this case, the laboratory worker increases the coincidence risk by expanding the criteria for declaring a match. Recent studies have quoted relatively high error rates, which may be cause for concern.[24] In the early days of genetic fingerprinting, the necessary population data to accurately compute a match probability was sometimes unavailable. Between 1992 and 1996, arbitrary low ceilings were controversially put on match probabilities used in RFLP analysis rather than the higher theoretically computed ones.[25] Today, RFLP has become widely disused due to the advent of more discriminating, sensitive and easier technologies.

text: Since 1998, the DNA profiling system supported by The National DNA Database in the UK is the SGM+ DNA profiling system that includes 10 STR regions and a sex-indicating test. STRs do not suffer from such subjectivity and provide similar power of discrimination (1 in 1013 for unrelated individuals if using a full SGM+ profile). Figures of this magnitude are not considered to be statistically supportable by scientists in the UK; for unrelated individuals with full matching DNA profiles a match probability of 1 in a billion is considered statistically supportable. However, with any DNA technique, the cautious juror should not convict on genetic fingerprint evidence alone if other factors raise doubt. Contamination with other evidence (secondary transfer) is a key source of incorrect DNA profiles and raising doubts as to whether a sample has been adulterated is a favorite defense technique. More rarely, chimerism is one such instance where the lack of a genetic match may unfairly exclude a suspect.

text: Evidence of genetic relationship[edit]

text: It is possible to use DNA profiling as evidence of genetic relationship, although such evidence varies in strength from weak to positive. Testing that shows no relationship is absolutely certain. Further, while almost all individuals have a single and distinct set of genes, ultra-rare individuals, known as "chimeras", have at least two different sets of genes. There have been two cases of DNA profiling that falsely suggested that a mother was unrelated to her children.[26] This happens when two eggs are fertilized at the same time and fuse together to create one individual instead of twins.

text: Fake DNA evidence[edit]

text: In one case, a criminal planted fake DNA evidence in his own body: John Schneeberger raped one of his sedated patients in 1992 and left semen on her underwear. Police drew what they believed to be Schneeberger's blood and compared its DNA against the crime scene semen DNA on three occasions, never showing a match. It turned out that he had surgically inserted a Penrose drain into his arm and filled it with foreign blood and anticoagulants.

text: The functional analysis of genes and their coding sequences (open reading frames [ORFs]) typically requires that each ORF be expressed, the encoded protein purified, antibodies produced, phenotypes examined, intracellular localization determined, and interactions with other proteins sought.[27] In a study conducted by the life science company Nucleix and published in the journal Forensic Science International, scientists found that an in vitro synthesized sample of DNA matching any desired genetic profile can be constructed using standard molecular biology techniques without obtaining any actual tissue from that person. Nucleix claims they can also prove the difference between non-altered DNA and any that was synthesized.[28]

text: In the case of the Phantom of Heilbronn, police detectives found DNA traces from the same woman on various crime scenes in Austria, Germany, and France—among them murders, burglaries and robberies. Only after the DNA of the "woman" matched the DNA sampled from the burned body of a male asylum seeker in France did detectives begin to have serious doubts about the DNA evidence. It was eventually discovered that DNA traces were already present on the cotton swabs used to collect the samples at the crime scene, and the swabs had all been produced at the same factory in Austria. The company's product specification said that the swabs were guaranteed to be sterile, but not DNA-free.

text: DNA evidence as evidence in criminal trials[edit]

text:
Evidence

Part of the common law series

Types of evidence

Testimony
Documentary
Real (physical)
Digital
Exculpatory
Inculpatory
Demonstrative
Eyewitness identification
Genetic (DNA)
Lies

Relevance

Burden of proof
Laying a foundation
Materiality
Public policy exclusions
Spoliation
Character
Habit
Similar fact

Authentication

Chain of custody
Judicial notice
Best evidence rule
Self-authenticating document
Ancient document
Hague Evidence Convention

Witnesses

Competence
Privilege
Direct examination
Cross-examination
Redirect
Impeachment
Recorded recollection
Expert witness
Dead Man's Statute

Hearsay and exceptions

in English law
in United States law
Confessions
Business records
Excited utterance
Dying declaration
Party admission
Ancient document
Declaration against interest
Present sense impression
Res gestae
Learned treatise
Implied assertion

Other common law areas

Contract
Tort
Property
Wills, trusts and estates
Criminal law

v
t
e

text: Familial DNA searching[edit]

text: Familial DNA searching (sometimes referred to as "familial DNA" or "familial DNA database searching") is the practice of creating new investigative leads in cases where DNA evidence found at the scene of a crime (forensic profile) strongly resembles that of an existing DNA profile (offender profile) in a state DNA database but there is not an exact match.[29][30] After all other leads have been exhausted, investigators may use specially developed software to compare the forensic profile to all profiles taken from a state's DNA database to generate a list of those offenders already in the database who are most likely to be a very close relative of the individual whose DNA is in the forensic profile.[31] To eliminate the majority of this list when the forensic DNA is a man's, crime lab technicians conduct Y-STR analysis. Using standard investigative techniques, authorities are then able to build a family tree. The family tree is populated from information gathered from public records and criminal justice records. Investigators rule out family members' involvement in the crime by finding excluding factors such as sex, living out of state or being incarcerated when the crime was committed. They may also use other leads from the case, such as witness or victim statements, to identify a suspect. Once a suspect has been identified, investigators seek to legally obtain a DNA sample from the suspect. This suspect DNA profile is then compared to the sample found at the crime scene to definitively identify the suspect as the source of the crime scene DNA.

text: Familial DNA database searching was first used in an investigation leading to the conviction of Jeffrey Gafoor of the murder of Lynette White in the United Kingdom on 4 July 2003. DNA evidence was matched to Gafoor's nephew, who at 14 years old had not been born at the time of the murder in 1988. It was used again in 2004[32] to find a man who threw a brick from a motorway bridge and hit a lorry driver, killing him. DNA found on the brick matched that found at the scene of a car theft earlier in the day, but there were no good matches on the national DNA database. A wider search found a partial match to an individual; on being questioned, this man revealed he had a brother, Craig Harman, who lived very close to the original crime scene. Harman voluntarily submitted a DNA sample, and confessed when it matched the sample from the brick.[33] Currently, familial DNA database searching is not conducted on a national level in the United States, where states determine how and when to conduct familial searches. The first familial DNA search with a subsequent conviction in the United States was conducted in Denver, Colorado, in 2008, using software developed under the leadership of Denver District Attorney Mitch Morrissey and Denver Police Department Crime Lab Director Gregg LaBerge.[34] California was the first state to implement a policy for familial searching under then Attorney General, now Governor, Jerry Brown.[35] In his role as consultant to the Familial Search Working Group of the California Department of Justice, former Alameda County Prosecutor Rock Harmon is widely considered to have been the catalyst in the adoption of familial search technology in California. The technique was used to catch the Los Angeles serial killer known as the "Grim Sleeper" in 2010.[36] It wasn't a witness or informant that tipped off law enforcement to the identity of the "Grim Sleeper" serial killer, who had eluded police for more than two decades, but DNA from the suspect's own son. The suspect's son was arrested and convicted in a felony weapons charge and swabbed for DNA last year. When his DNA was entered into the database of convicted felons, detectives were alerted to a partial match to evidence found at the "Grim Sleeper" crime scenes. David Franklin Jr., also known as the Grim Sleeper, was charged with ten counts of murder and one count of attempted murder.[37] More recently, familial DNA, led to the arrest of 21-year-old Elvis Garcia on charges of sexual assault and false imprisonment of a woman in Santa Cruz in 2008.[38] In March 2011 Virginia Governor Bob McDonnell announced that Virginia would begin using familial DNA searches.[39] Other states are expected to follow.

text: At a press conference in Virginia on March 7, 2011, regarding the East Coast Rapist, Prince William County prosecutor Paul Ebert and Fairfax County Police Detective John Kelly said the case would have been solved years ago if Virginia had used familial DNA searching. Aaron Thomas, the suspected East Coast Rapist, was arrested in connection with the rape of 17 women from Virginia to Rhode Island, but familial DNA was not used in the case.[40]

text: Critics of familial DNA database searches argue that the technique is an invasion of an individual's 4th Amendment rights.[41] Privacy advocates are petitioning for DNA database restrictions, arguing that the only fair way to search for possible DNA matches to relatives of offenders or arrestees would be to have a population-wide DNA database.[22] Some scholars have pointed out that the privacy concerns surrounding familial searching are similar in some respects to other police search techniques,[42] and most have concluded that the practice is constitutional.[43] The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals in United States v. Pool (vacated as moot) suggested that this practice is somewhat analogous to a witness looking at a photograph of one person and stating that it looked like the perpetrator, which leads law enforcement to show the witness photos of similar looking individuals, one of whom is identified as the perpetrator.[44] Regardless of whether familial DNA searching was the method used to identify the suspect, authorities always conduct a normal DNA test to match the suspect's DNA with that of the DNA left at the crime scene.

text: Critics also claim that racial profiling could occur on account of familial DNA testing. In the United States, the conviction rates of racial minorities are much higher than that of the overall population. It is unclear whether this is due to discrimination from police officers and the courts, as opposed to a simple higher rate of offence among minorities. Arrest-based databases, which are found in the majority of the United States, lead to an even greater level of racial discrimination. An arrest, as opposed to conviction, relies much more heavily on police discretion.[22]

text: For instance, investigators with Denver District Attorney's Office successfully identified a suspect in a property theft case using a familial DNA search. In this example, the suspect's blood left at the scene of the crime strongly resembled that of a current Colorado Department of Corrections prisoner.[45] Using publicly available records, the investigators created a family tree. They then eliminated all the family members who were incarcerated at the time of the offense, as well as all of the females (the crime scene DNA profile was that of a male). Investigators obtained a court order to collect the suspect's DNA, but the suspect actually volunteered to come to a police station and give a DNA sample. After providing the sample, the suspect walked free without further interrogation or detainment. Later confronted with an exact match to the forensic profile, the suspect pleaded guilty to criminal trespass at the first court date and was sentenced to two years probation.

text: In Italy a familiar DNA search has been done to solve the case of the murder of Yara Gambirasio whose body was found in the bush[clarification needed] three months after her disappearance. A DNA trace was found on the underwear of the murdered teenage near and a DNA sample was requested from a person who lived near the municipality of Brembate di Sopra and a common male ancestor was found in the DNA sample of a young man not involved in the murder. After a long investigation the father of the supposed killer was identified as Giuseppe Guerinoni, a deceased man, but his two sons born from his wife were not related to the DNA samples found on the body of Yara. After three and a half years the DNA found on the underwear of the deceased girl was matched with Massimo Giuseppe Bosetti who was arrested and accused of the murder of the 13-year-old girl.In the summer of 2016 Bosetti was found guilty and sentenced to life by the Corte d'assise of Bergamo.

text: Partial matches[edit]

text: Partial DNA matches are not searches themselves, but are the result of moderate stringency CODIS searches that produce a potential match that shares at least one allele at every locus.[46] Partial matching does not involve the use of familial search software, such as those used in the UK and United States, or additional Y-STR analysis, and therefore often misses sibling relationships. Partial matching has been used to identify suspects in several cases in the UK and United States,[47] and has also been used as a tool to exonerate the falsely accused. Darryl Hunt was wrongly convicted in connection with the rape and murder of a young woman in 1984 in North Carolina.[48] Hunt was exonerated in 2004 when a DNA database search produced a remarkably close match between a convicted felon and the forensic profile from the case. The partial match led investigators to the felon’s brother, Willard E. Brown, who confessed to the crime when confronted by police. A judge then signed an order to dismiss the case against Hunt. In Italy, partial matching has been used in the controversial murder of Yara Gambirasio Murder_of_Yara_Gambirasio, a child found dead about a month after her presumed kidnapping. In this case, the partial match has been used as the only incriminating element against the defendant, Massimo Bossetti, who has been subsequently condemned for the murder (waiting appeal by the Italian Supreme Court).

text: Surreptitious DNA collecting[edit]

text: Police forces may collect DNA samples without a suspect's knowledge, and use it as evidence. The legality of the practice has been questioned in Australia.[citation needed]

text: In the United States, it has been accepted, courts often ruling that there is no expectation of privacy, citing California v. Greenwood (1985), in which the Supreme Court held that the Fourth Amendment does not prohibit the warrantless search and seizure of garbage left for collection outside the curtilage of a home. Critics of this practice underline that this analogy ignores that "most people have no idea that they risk surrendering their genetic identity to the police by, for instance, failing to destroy a used coffee cup. Moreover, even if they do realize it, there is no way to avoid abandoning one's DNA in public."[49]

text: The United States Supreme Court ruled in Maryland v. King (2013) that DNA sampling of prisoners arrested for serious crimes is constitutional.[50][51][52]

text: In the UK, the Human Tissue Act 2004 prohibits private individuals from covertly collecting biological samples (hair, fingernails, etc.) for DNA analysis, but exempts medical and criminal investigations from the prohibition.[53]

text: England and Wales[edit]

text: Evidence from an expert who has compared DNA samples must be accompanied by evidence as to the sources of the samples and the procedures for obtaining the DNA profiles.[54] The judge must ensure that the jury must understand the significance of DNA matches and mismatches in the profiles. The judge must also ensure that the jury does not confuse the match probability (the probability that a person that is chosen at random has a matching DNA profile to the sample from the scene) with the probability that a person with matching DNA committed the crime. In 1996 R v. Doheny[55] Phillips LJ gave this example of a summing up, which should be carefully tailored to the particular facts in each case:

text: Members of the Jury, if you accept the scientific evidence called by the Crown, this indicates that there are probably only four or five white males in the United Kingdom from whom that semen stain could have come. The Defendant is one of them. If that is the position, the decision you have to reach, on all the evidence, is whether you are sure that it was the Defendant who left that stain or whether it is possible that it was one of that other small group of men who share the same DNA characteristics.

text: Juries should weigh up conflicting and corroborative evidence, using their own common sense and not by using mathematical formulae, such as Bayes' theorem, so as to avoid "confusion, misunderstanding and misjudgment".[56]

text: Presentation and evaluation of evidence of partial or incomplete DNA profiles[edit]

text: In R v Bates,[57] Moore-Bick LJ said:

text: We can see no reason why partial profile DNA evidence should not be admissible provided that the jury are made aware of its inherent limitations and are given a sufficient explanation to enable them to evaluate it. There may be cases where the match probability in relation to all the samples tested is so great that the judge would consider its probative value to be minimal and decide to exclude the evidence in the exercise of his discretion, but this gives rise to no new question of principle and can be left for decision on a case by case basis. However, the fact that there exists in the case of all partial profile evidence the possibility that a "missing" allele might exculpate the accused altogether does not provide sufficient grounds for rejecting such evidence. In many there is a possibility (at least in theory) that evidence that would assist the accused and perhaps even exculpate him altogether exists, but that does not provide grounds for excluding relevant evidence that is available and otherwise admissible, though it does make it important to ensure that the jury are given sufficient information to enable them to evaluate that evidence properly.[58]

text: DNA testing in the United States[edit]

text: There are state laws on DNA profiling in all 50 states of the United States.[59] Detailed information on database laws in each state can be found at the National Conference of State Legislatures website.[60]

text: Development of artificial DNA[edit]

text: In August 2009, scientists in Israel raised serious doubts concerning the use of DNA by law enforcement as the ultimate method of identification. In a paper published in the journal Forensic Science International: Genetics, the Israeli researchers demonstrated that it is possible to manufacture DNA in a laboratory, thus falsifying DNA evidence. The scientists fabricated saliva and blood samples, which originally contained DNA from a person other than the supposed donor of the blood and saliva.[61]

text: The researchers also showed that, using a DNA database, it is possible to take information from a profile and manufacture DNA to match it, and that this can be done without access to any actual DNA from the person whose DNA they are duplicating. The synthetic DNA oligos required for the procedure are common in molecular laboratories.[61]

text: The New York Times quoted the lead author, Daniel Frumkin, saying, "You can just engineer a crime scene ... any biology undergraduate could perform this".[61] Frumkin perfected a test that can differentiate real DNA samples from fake ones. His test detects epigenetic modifications, in particular, DNA methylation. Seventy percent of the DNA in any human genome is methylated, meaning it contains methyl group modifications within a CpG dinucleotide context. Methylation at the promoter region is associated with gene silencing. The synthetic DNA lacks this epigenetic modification, which allows the test to distinguish manufactured DNA from genuine DNA.[61]

text: It is unknown how many police departments, if any, currently use the test. No police lab has publicly announced that it is using the new test to verify DNA results.[62]

text: Cases[edit]

text:
In 1986, Richard Buckland was exonerated, despite having admitted to the rape and murder of a teenager near Leicester, the city where DNA profiling was first developed. This was the first use of DNA fingerprinting in a criminal investigation, and the first to prove a suspect's innocence.[63] The following year Colin Pitchfork was identified as the perpetrator of the same murder, in addition to another, using the same techniques that had cleared Buckland.[64]
In 1987, genetic fingerprinting was used in criminal court for the first time in the trial of a man accused of unlawful intercourse with a mentally handicapped 14-year-old female who gave birth to a baby.[65]
In 1987, Florida rapist Tommie Lee Andrews was the first person in the United States to be convicted as a result of DNA evidence, for raping a woman during a burglary; he was convicted on November 6, 1987, and sentenced to 22 years in prison.[66][67]
In 1988, Timothy Wilson Spencer was the first man in Virginia to be sentenced to death through DNA testing, for several rape and murder charges. He was dubbed "The South Side Strangler" because he killed victims on the south side of Richmond, Virginia. He was later charged with rape and first-degree murder and was sentenced to death. He was executed on April 27, 1994. David Vasquez, initially convicted of one of Spencer's crimes, became the first man in America exonerated based on DNA evidence.
In 1989, Chicago man Gary Dotson was the first person whose conviction was overturned using DNA evidence.
In 1991, Allan Legere was the first Canadian to be convicted as a result of DNA evidence, for four murders he had committed while an escaped prisoner in 1989. During his trial, his defense argued that the relatively shallow gene pool of the region could lead to false positives.
In 1992, DNA evidence was used to prove that Nazi doctor Josef Mengele was buried in Brazil under the name Wolfgang Gerhard.
In 1992, DNA from a palo verde tree was used to convict Mark Alan Bogan of murder. DNA from seed pods of a tree at the crime scene was found to match that of seed pods found in Bogan's truck. This is the first instance of plant DNA admitted in a criminal case.[68][69][70]
In 1993, Kirk Bloodsworth was the first person to have been convicted of murder and sentenced to death, whose conviction was overturned using DNA evidence.
The 1993 rape and murder of Mia Zapata, lead singer for the Seattle punk band The Gits, was unsolved nine years after the murder. A database search in 2001 failed, but the killer's DNA was collected when he was arrested in Florida for burglary and domestic abuse in 2002.
The science was made famous in the United States in 1994 when prosecutors heavily relied on DNA evidence allegedly linking O. J. Simpson to a double murder. The case also brought to light the laboratory difficulties and handling procedure mishaps that can cause such evidence to be significantly doubted.
In 1994, Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) detectives successfully tested hairs from a cat known as Snowball, and used the test to link a man to the murder of his wife, thus marking for the first time in forensic history the use of non-human animal DNA to identify a criminal (plant DNA was used in 1992, see above).
In 1994, the claim that Anna Anderson was Grand Duchess Anastasia Nikolaevna of Russia was tested after her death using samples of her tissue that had been stored at a Charlottesville, Virginia hospital following a medical procedure. The tissue was tested using DNA fingerprinting, and showed that she bore no relation to the Romanovs.[71]
In 1994, Earl Washington, Jr., of Virginia had his death sentence commuted to life imprisonment a week before his scheduled execution date based on DNA evidence. He received a full pardon in 2000 based on more advanced testing.[72] His case is often cited by opponents of the death penalty.
In 1995, the British Forensic Science Service carried out its first mass intelligence DNA screening in the investigation of the Naomi Smith murder case.
In 1998, Richard J. Schmidt was convicted of attempted second-degree murder when it was shown that there was a link between the viral DNA of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) he had been accused of injecting in his girlfriend and viral DNA from one of his patients with AIDS. This was the first time viral DNA fingerprinting had been used as evidence in a criminal trial.
In 1999, Raymond Easton, a disabled man from Swindon, England, was arrested and detained for seven hours in connection with a burglary. He was released due to an inaccurate DNA match. His DNA had been retained on file after an unrelated domestic incident some time previously.[73]
In 2000 Frank Lee Smith was proved innocent by DNA profiling of the murder of an eight-year-old girl after spending 14 years on death row in Florida, USA. However he had died of cancer just before his innocence was proven.[74] In view of this the Florida state governor ordered that in future any death row inmate claiming innocence should have DNA testing.[72]
In May 2000 Gordon Graham murdered Paul Gault at his home in Lisburn, Northern Ireland. Graham was convicted of the murder when his DNA was found on a sports bag left in the house as part of an elaborate ploy to suggest the murder occurred after a burglary had gone wrong. Graham was having an affair with the victim's wife at the time of the murder. It was the first time Low Copy Number DNA was used in Northern Ireland.[75]
In 2001, Wayne Butler was convicted for the murder of Celia Douty. It was the first murder in Australia to be solved using DNA profiling.[76][77]
In 2002, the body of James Hanratty, hanged in 1962 for the "A6 murder", was exhumed and DNA samples from the body and members of his family were analysed. The results convinced Court of Appeal judges that Hanratty's guilt, which had been strenuously disputed by campaigners, was proved "beyond doubt".[78] Paul Foot and some other campaigners continued to believe in Hanratty's innocence and argued that the DNA evidence could have been contaminated, noting that the small DNA samples from items of clothing, kept in a police laboratory for over 40 years "in conditions that do not satisfy modern evidential standards", had had to be subjected to very new amplification techniques in order to yield any genetic profile.[79] However, no DNA other than Hanratty's was found on the evidence tested, contrary to what would have been expected had the evidence indeed been contaminated.[80]
In 2002, DNA testing was used to exonerate Douglas Echols, a man who was wrongfully convicted in a 1986 rape case. Echols was the 114th person to be exonerated through post-conviction DNA testing.
In August 2002, Annalisa Vincenzi was shot dead in Tuscany. Bartender Peter Hamkin, 23, was arrested, in Merseyside in March 2003 on an extradition warrant heard at Bow Street Magistrates' Court in London to establish whether he should be taken to Italy to face a murder charge. DNA "proved" he shot her, but he was cleared on other evidence.[81]
In 2003, Welshman Jeffrey Gafoor was convicted of the 1988 murder of Lynette White, when crime scene evidence collected 12 years earlier was re-examined using STR techniques, resulting in a match with his nephew.[82] This may be the first known example of the DNA of an innocent yet related individual being used to identify the actual criminal, via "familial searching".
In March 2003, Josiah Sutton was released from prison after serving four years of a twelve-year sentence for a sexual assault charge. Questionable DNA samples taken from Sutton were retested in the wake of the Houston Police Department's crime lab scandal of mishandling DNA evidence.
In June 2003, because of new DNA evidence, Dennis Halstead, John Kogut and John Restivo won a re-trial on their murder conviction, their convictions were struck down and they were released.[83] The three men had already served eighteen years of their thirty-plus-year sentences.
The trial of Robert Pickton (convicted in December 2003) is notable in that DNA evidence is being used primarily to identify the victims, and in many cases to prove their existence.
In 2004, DNA testing shed new light into the mysterious 1912 disappearance of Bobby Dunbar, a four-year-old boy who vanished during a fishing trip. He was allegedly found alive eight months later in the custody of William Cantwell Walters, but another woman claimed that the boy was her son, Bruce Anderson, whom she had entrusted in Walters' custody. The courts disbelieved her claim and convicted Walters for the kidnapping. The boy was raised and known as Bobby Dunbar throughout the rest of his life. However, DNA tests on Dunbar's son and nephew revealed the two were not related, thus establishing that the boy found in 1912 was not Bobby Dunbar, whose real fate remains unknown.[84]
In 2005, Gary Leiterman was convicted of the 1969 murder of Jane Mixer, a law student at the University of Michigan, after DNA found on Mixer's pantyhose was matched to Leiterman. DNA in a drop of blood on Mixer's hand was matched to John Ruelas, who was only four years old in 1969 and was never successfully connected to the case in any other way. Leiterman's defense unsuccessfully argued that the unexplained match of the blood spot to Ruelas pointed to cross-contamination and raised doubts about the reliability of the lab's identification of Leiterman.[85][86][87]
In December 2005, Evan Simmons was proven innocent of a 1981 attack on an Atlanta woman after serving twenty-four years in prison. Mr. Clark is the 164th person in the United States and the fifth in Georgia to be freed using post-conviction DNA testing.
In November 2008, Anthony Curcio was arrested for masterminding one of the most elaborately planned armored car heists in history. DNA evidence linked Curcio to the crime.[88]
In March 2009, Sean Hodgson—convicted of 1979 killing of Teresa De Simone, 22, in her car in Southampton—was released after tests proved DNA from the scene was not his. It was later matched to DNA retrieved from the exhumed body of David Lace. Lace had previously confessed to the crime but was not believed by the detectives. He served time in prison for other crimes committed at the same time as the murder and then committed suicide in 1988.[89]

text: DNA evidence as evidence to prove rights of succession to British titles[edit]

text: DNA testing is used to establish the right of succession to British titles.[90]

text: Cases:

text:
Baron Moynihan
Pringle baronets