document_title: Seat belt

question_text: when did seat belts start being put in cars

question_tokens: when did seat belts start being put in cars

text: Seat belt

text: Efficiency[edit]

text: An analysis conducted in the United States in 1984 compared a variety of seat belt types alone and in combination with air bags.[1] The range of fatality reduction for front seat passengers was broad, from 20% to 55%, as was the range of major injury, from 25% to 60%.[1] More recently, the CDC has summarized this data by stating "seat belts reduce serious crash-related injuries and deaths by about half."[2] Most seatbelt malfunctions are as a result of there being too much slack in the seatbelt at the time of the accident.[3]

text: History[edit]

text: Seat belts were invented by English engineer George Cayley in the mid-19th century,[4] though Edward J. Claghorn of New York, was granted the first patent (U.S. Patent 312,085, on February 10, 1885 for a safety belt).[5] Claghorn was granted United States Patent #312,085 for a Safety-Belt for tourists, painters, firemen, etc. who are being raised or lowered, described in the patent as "designed to be applied to the person, and provided with hooks and other attachments for securing the person to a fixed object."

text: In 1946, Dr. C. Hunter Shelden had opened a neurological practice at Huntington Memorial Hospital in Pasadena, California. In the early 1950s, Dr. Shelden had made a major contribution to the automotive industry with his idea of retractable seat belts. This came about greatly in part from the high number of head injuries coming through the emergency rooms.[6] He investigated the early seat belts whose primitive designs were implicated in these injuries and deaths. His findings were published in the November 5, 1955 Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) in which he proposed not only the retractable seat belt, but also recessed steering wheels, reinforced roofs, roll bars, door locks and passive restraints such as the air bag. Subsequently, in 1959, Congress passed legislation requiring all automobiles to comply with certain safety standards.[7]

text: American car manufacturers Nash (in 1949) and Ford (in 1955) offered seat belts as options, while Swedish Saab first introduced seat belts as standard in 1958.[8] After the Saab GT 750 was introduced at the New York Motor Show in 1958 with safety belts fitted as standard, the practice became commonplace.[9]

text: Glenn Sheren of Mason, Michigan submitted a patent application on March 31, 1955 for an automotive seat belt and was awarded US Patent 2,855,215 in 1958. This was a continuation of an earlier patent application that Mr. Sheren had filed on September 22, 1952.[10]

text: However, the first modern three point seat belt (the so-called CIR-Griswold restraint) used in most consumer vehicles today was patented in 1955 U.S. Patent 2,710,649 by the Americans Roger W. Griswold and Hugh DeHaven. Fatal car accidents were rapidly increasing in Sweden during the 1950s. When a study at Vattenfall of accidents among employees revealed that the majority of casualties came from car accidents, two Vattenfall engineers (Bengt Odelgard and Per-Olof Weman) started to develop the safety belt. Their work set the standard for safety belts in Swedish cars and was presented to Swedish manufacturer Volvo in the late 1950s.[11] The 3-point seatbelt was developed to its modern form by Swedish inventor Nils Bohlin for Volvo—who introduced it in 1959 as standard equipment. In addition to designing an effective three-point belt, Bohlin demonstrated its effectiveness in a study of 28,000 accidents in Sweden. Unbelted occupants sustained fatal injuries throughout the whole speed scale, whereas none of the belted occupants were fatally injured at accident speeds below 60 mph. No belted occupant was fatally injured if the passenger compartment remained intact.[12] Bohlin was granted U.S. Patent 3,043,625 for the device.[8]

text: The world's first seat belt law was put in place in 1970, in the state of Victoria, Australia, making the wearing of a seat belt compulsory for drivers and front-seat passengers. This legislation was enacted after trialing Hemco seatbelts, designed by Desmond Hemphill (1926–2001), in the front seats of police vehicles, lowering the incidence of officer injury and death.[13]

text: Types[edit]

text: Two-point[edit]

text: A 2-point belt attaches at its two endpoints, and was invented in the early 1900s by Jack Swearingen of Louisville, Kentucky.[citation needed]

text: Lap[edit]

text: A lap belt is a strap that goes over the waist. This was the most commonly installed type of belt prior to legislation requiring 3-point belts, and is primarily found in older cars. Coaches are equipped with lap belts (although many newer coaches have three-point belts), as are passenger aircraft seats.

text: University of Minnesota Professor James J. (Crash) Ryan was the inventor of and held the patent on the automatic retractable lap safety belt. Ralph Nader cited Ryan's work in Unsafe at Any Speed and in 1966 President Lyndon Johnson signed two bills requiring safety belts in all passenger vehicles starting in 1968.[14]

text: Until the 1980s, three-point belts were commonly available only in the front outboard seats of cars; the back seats were only often fitted with lap belts. Evidence of the potential of lap belts to cause separation of the lumbar vertebrae and the sometimes associated paralysis, or "seat belt syndrome", led to progressive revision of passenger safety regulations in nearly all developed countries to require 3-point belts first in all outboard seating positions and eventually in all seating positions in passenger vehicles. Since September 1, 2007, all new cars sold in the U.S. require a lap and shoulder belt in the center rear seat.[15] Besides regulatory changes, "seat belt syndrome" has led to tremendous liability for vehicle manufacturers. One Los Angeles case resulted in a $45 million jury verdict against the Ford Motor Company; the resulting $30 million judgment (after deductions for another defendant who settled prior to trial) was affirmed on appeal in 2006.[16]

text: Sash[edit]

text: A "sash" or shoulder harness is a strap that goes diagonally over the vehicle occupant's outboard shoulder and is buckled inboard of his or her lap. The shoulder harness may attach to the lap belt tongue, or it may have a tongue and buckle completely separate from those of the lap belt. Shoulder harnesses of this separate or semi-separate type were installed in conjunction with lap belts in the outboard front seating positions of many vehicles in the North American market starting at the inception of the shoulder belt requirement of the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration's Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 208 on 1 January 1968. However, if the shoulder strap is used without the lap belt, the vehicle occupant is likely to "submarine", or slide forward in the seat and out from under the belt, in a frontal collision. In the mid-1970s, 3-point belt systems such as Chrysler's "Uni-Belt" began to supplant the separate lap and shoulder belts in American-made cars, though such 3-point belts had already been supplied in European vehicles such as Volvos, Mercedes, and Saabs for some years.

text: Three-point[edit]

text: A 3-point belt is a Y-shaped arrangement, similar to the separate lap and sash belts, but unitized. Like the separate lap-and-sash belt, in a collision the 3-point belt spreads out the energy of the moving body over the chest, pelvis, and shoulders. Volvo introduced the first production three-point belt in 1959.[17] The first car with a three-point belt was a Volvo PV 544 that was delivered to a dealer in Kristianstad on August 13, 1959. However, the first car model to feature the three-point seat belt as a standard item was the 1959 Volvo 122, first outfitted with a two-point belt at initial delivery in 1958, replaced with the three-point seat belt the following year.[18] The three-point belt was developed by Nils Bohlin who had earlier also worked on ejection seats at Saab.[19] Volvo then made the new seat belt design patent open in the interest of safety and made it available to other car manufacturers for free.[20][21]

text: Belt-in-Seat (BIS)[edit]

text: The BIS is a three-point harness with the shoulder belt attached to the seat itself, rather than to the vehicle structure. The first car using this system was the Range Rover Classic. Fitment was standard on the front seats from 1970.[22] Some cars like the Renault Vel Satis use this system for the front seats. A General Motors assessment concluded seat-mounted 3-point belts offer better protection especially to smaller vehicle occupants,[23] though GM did not find a safety performance improvement in vehicles with seat-mounted belts versus body-mounted belts.[24]

text: BIS type belts have been used by automakers in convertibles and pillarless hardtops, where there is no "B" pillar to affix the upper mount of the belt. Chrysler and Cadillac are well known for using this design. Antique auto enthusiasts sometimes replace original seats in their cars with BIS-equipped front seats, providing a measure of safety not available when these cars were new. However, modern BIS systems typically use electronics that must be installed and connected with the seats and the vehicle's electrical system in order to function properly.[citation needed]

text: 4-, 5-, and 6-point[edit]

text: Five-point harnesses are typically found in child safety seats and in racing cars. The lap portion is connected to a belt between the legs and there are two shoulder belts, making a total of five points of attachment to the seat. A 4-point harness is similar, but without the strap between the legs, while a 6-point harness has two belts between the legs. In NASCAR, the 6-point harness became popular after the death of Dale Earnhardt, who was wearing a five-point harness when he suffered his fatal crash; as it was first thought that his belt had broken, and broke his neck at impact, some teams ordered a six-point harness in response.[25]

text: Seven-point[edit]

text: Aerobatic aircraft frequently use a combination harness consisting of a five-point harness with a redundant lap-belt attached to a different part of the aircraft. While providing redundancy for negative-g manoeuvres (which lift the pilot out of the seat); they also require the pilot to un-latch two harnesses if it is necessary to parachute from a failed aircraft.

text: Technology[edit]

text: Locking retractors[edit]

text: The purpose of locking retractors is to provide the seated occupant the convenience of some free movement of the upper torso within the compartment, while providing a method of limiting this movement in the event of a crash. Most modern seat belts are stowed on spring-loaded reels called "retractors" equipped with inertial locking mechanisms that stop the belt from extending off the reel during severe deceleration. There are two main types of inertial seat belt lock. A webbing-sensitive lock is based on a centrifugal clutch activated by rapid acceleration of the strap (webbing) from the reel. The belt can be pulled from the reel only slowly and gradually, as when the occupant extends the belt to fasten it. A sudden rapid pull of the belt—as in a sudden braking or collision event—causes the reel to lock, restraining the occupant in position.

text: A vehicle-sensitive lock is based on a pendulum swung away from its plumb position by rapid deceleration or rollover of the vehicle. In the absence of rapid deceleration or rollover, the reel is unlocked and the belt strap may be pulled from the reel against the spring tension of the reel. The vehicle occupant can move around with relative freedom while the spring tension of the reel keeps the belt taut against the occupant. When the pendulum swings away from its normal plumb position due to sudden deceleration or rollover, a pawl is engaged, the reel locks and the strap restrains the belted occupant in position. Dual-sensing locking retractors use both vehicle G-loading and webbing payout rate to initiate the locking mechanism.

text: Pretensioners and webclamps[edit]

text: Seatbelts in many newer vehicles are also equipped with "pretensioners" or "web clamps", or both.

text: Pretensioners preemptively tighten the belt to prevent the occupant from jerking forward in a crash. Mercedes-Benz first introduced pretensioners on the 1981 S-Class. In the event of a crash, a pretensioner will tighten the belt almost instantaneously. This reduces the motion of the occupant in a violent crash. Like airbags, pretensioners are triggered by sensors in the car's body, and many pretensioners have used explosively expanding gas to drive a piston that retracts the belt. Pretensioners also lower the risk of "submarining", which occurs when a passenger slides forward under a loosely fitted seat belt.

text: Some systems also pre-emptively tighten the belt during fast accelerations and strong decelerations, even if no crash has happened. This has the advantage that it may help prevent the driver from sliding out of position during violent evasive maneuvers, which could cause loss of control of the vehicle. These pre-emptive safety systems may prevent some collisions from happening, as well as reducing injury in the event an actual collision occurs.[26] Pre-emptive systems generally use electric pretensioners which can operate repeatedly and for a sustained period, rather than pyrotechnic pretensioners, which can only operate a single time.

text: Webclamps clamp the webbing in the event of an accident, and limit the distance the webbing can spool out (caused by the unused webbing tightening on the central drum of the mechanism). These belts also often incorporate an energy management loop ("rip stitching") in which a section of the webbing is looped and stitched with a special stitching. The function of this is to "rip" at a predetermined load, which reduces the maximum force transmitted through the belt to the occupant during a violent collision, reducing injuries to the occupant.

text: A study demonstrated that standard automotive 3-point restraints fitted with pyrotechnic or electric pretensioners were not able to eliminate all interior passenger compartment head strikes in rollover test conditions.[27] Electric pretensioners are often incorporated on vehicles equipped with precrash systems; they are designed to reduce seat belt slack in a potential collision and assist in placing the occupants in a more optimal seating position.[28] The electric pretensioners also can operate on a repeated or sustained basis, providing better protection in the event of an extended rollover or a multiple collision accident.

text: Inflatable[edit]

text: The inflatable seatbelt was invented by Donald Lewis and tested at the Automotive Products Division of Allied Chemical Corporation.[29] Inflatable seatbelts have tubular inflatable bladders contained within an outer cover. When a crash occurs the bladder inflates with a gas to increase the area of the restraint contacting the occupant and also shortening the length of the restraint to tighten the belt around the occupant, improving the protection.[30] The inflatable sections may be shoulder-only or lap and shoulder. The system supports the head during the crash better than a web only belt. It also provides side impact protection. In 2013, Ford began offering rear seat inflatable seat belts on a limited set of models, such as the Explorer and Flex.[31]

text: Automatic[edit]

text: Seatbelts that automatically move into position around a vehicle occupant once the adjacent door is closed and/or the engine is started were developed as a countermeasure against low usage rates of manual seat belts, particularly in the United States. The first car to feature automatic shoulder belts as standard equipment was the 1981 Toyota Cressida, but the history of such belts goes back further.[32]

text: The 1972 Volkswagen ESVW1 Experimental Safety Vehicle presented passive seat belts.[33] Volvo tried to develop a passive three point seatbelt. In 1973 Volkswagen announced they had a functional passive seat belt.[34] The first commercial car to use automatic seat belts was the 1975 Volkswagen Golf.[35]

text: Automatic seat belts received a boost in the United States in 1977 when Brock Adams, United States Secretary of Transportation in the Carter Administration, mandated that by 1983 every new car should have either airbags or automatic seat belts[36][37] despite strong lobbying from the auto industry.[38] Adams was attacked by Ralph Nader, who said that the 1983 deadline was too late.[39] Soon after, General Motors began offering automatic seat belts, first on the Chevrolet Chevette,[40][41] but by early 1979 the VW Rabbit and the Chevette were the only cars to offer the safety feature,[39] and GM was reporting disappointing sales.[42] By early 1978, Volkswagen had reported 90,000 Rabbits sold with automatic seat belts.[35] A study released in 1978 by the United States Department of Transportation claimed that cars with automatic seat belts had a fatality rate of .78 per 100 million miles, compared with 2.34 for cars with regular, manual belts.[43]

text: In 1981, Drew Lewis, the first Transportation Secretary of the Reagan Administration, influenced by studies done by the auto industry,[44] "killed"[45] the previous administration's mandate;[46] the decision was overruled in a federal appeals court the following year,[47] and then by the Supreme Court.[45] In 1984, the Reagan Administration reversed its course,[48] though in the meantime the original deadline had been extended; Elizabeth Dole, then Transportation Secretary, proposed that the two passive safety restraints be phased into vehicles gradually, from vehicle model year 1987 to vehicle model year 1990, when all vehicles would be required to have either automatic seat belts or driver side air bags.[45] Though more awkward for vehicle occupants, most manufacturers opted to use less expensive automatic belts rather than airbags during this time period.

text: When driver side airbags became mandatory on all passenger vehicles in model year 1995, most manufacturers stopped equipping cars with automatic seat belts. Exceptions include the 1995-1996 Ford Escort/Mercury Tracer and the Eagle Summit Wagon which had automatic safety belts along with dual airbags.[citation needed]

text: Systems[edit]

text:
Manual lap belt with automatic motorized shoulder belt — When the door is opened, the shoulder belt moves from a fixed point near the seat back on a track mounted in the door frame of the car to a point at the other end of the track near the windshield. Once the door is closed and the car is started, the belt moves rearward along the track to its original position, thus securing the passenger. The lap belt must be fastened manually.
Manual lap belt with automatic non-motorized shoulder belt — This system was used in American-market vehicles such as the Hyundai Excel and Volkswagen Jetta. The shoulder belt is fixed to the aft upper corner of the vehicle door, and is not motorized. The lap belt must be fastened manually.
Automatic shoulder and lap belts — This system was mainly used in General Motors vehicles, though it was also used on some Honda Civic hatchbacks and Nissan Sentra coupés. When the door is opened, the belts go from a fixed point in the middle of the car by the floor to retractors on the door. Passengers must slide into the car under the belts. When the door closes, the seat belt retracts into the door. The belts have normal release buttons that are supposed to be used only in an emergency, but in practice are routinely used in the same manner as manual seat belt clasps.[citation needed]

text: Disadvantages[edit]

text: Automatic belt systems generally offer inferior occupant crash protection.[49][50] In systems with belts attached to the door rather than a sturdier fixed portion of the vehicle body, a crash that causes the vehicle door to open leaves the occupant without belt protection. In such a scenario, the occupant may be thrown from the vehicle and suffer greater injury or death.[50]

text: Because many automatic belt system designs compliant with the US passive-restraint mandate did not meet the safety performance requirements of Canada—which were not weakened to accommodate automatic belts—vehicle models which had been eligible for easy importation in either direction across the US-Canada border when equipped with manual belts became ineligible for importation in either direction once the U.S. variants obtained automatic belts and the Canadian versions retained manual belts. Two particular models included the Dodge Spirit and Plymouth Acclaim.[51][52]

text: Automatic belt systems also present several operational disadvantages. Motorists who would normally wear seat belts must still fasten the manual lap belt, thus rendering redundant the automation of the shoulder belt. Those who do not fasten the lap belt wind up inadequately protected only by the shoulder belt; in a crash without a lap belt such a vehicle occupant is likely to "submarine" (be thrown forward under the shoulder belt) and be seriously injured. Motorized or door-affixed shoulder belts hinder access to the vehicle, making it difficult to enter and exit—particularly if the occupant is carrying items such as a box or a purse. Vehicle owners tend to disconnect the motorized or door-affixed shoulder belt to relieve the nuisance of entering and exiting the vehicle, leaving only a lap belt for crash protection. Also, many automatic seat belt systems are incompatible with child safety seats, or only compatible with special modifications.

text: Homologation and testing[edit]

text: Starting in 1971 and ending in 1972, the United States conducted a research project on seat belt effectiveness on a total of 40,000 vehicle occupants using car accident reports collected during that time. Of these 40,000 occupants, 18% were reported wearing lap belts, or two-point safety belts, 2% were reported wearing a three-point safety belt, and the remaining 80% was reported as wearing no safety belt. The results concluded that users of the two-point lap belt had a 73% lower fatality rate, a 53% lower serious injury rate, and a 38% lower injury rate, when compared with the occupants that were reported unrestrained. Similarly, users of the three-point safety belt had a 60% lower serious injury rate and a 41% lower rate of all other injuries. Out of the 2% described as wearing a three-point safety belt, no fatalities were reported.[53]

text: This study and others led to the Restraint Systems Evaluation Program (RSEP), started by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration in 1975 to increase the reliability and authenticity of past studies. A study as part of this program used data taken from 15,000 tow-away accidents that involved only car models made between 1973 and 1975. The study found that for injuries considered “moderate” or worse, individuals wearing a three-point safety belt had a 56.5% lower injury rate than those wearing no safety belt. The study also concluded that the effectiveness of the safety belt did not differ with size of car.[53] It was determined that the variation among results of the many studies conducted in the 1960s and 70s was due to the use of different methodologies, and could not be attributed to any significant variation in the effectiveness of safety belts.[54]

text: Helping to improve safety apparatuses in vehicles, injury testing, and seat belt effectiveness are being tested today by Wayne State University’s Automotive Safety Research Group, as well as other researchers.[55] Wayne State’s Bioengineering Center uses human cadavers in their crash test research. Albert King, the Center’s director, wrote in his 1995 article titled "Humanitarian Benefits of Cadaver Research on Injury Prevention” that that use of cadavers in this type of research since 1987 has saved and will continue to save nearly 8,500 lives each year, due to the vehicle safety improvements made possible by human cadaver testing. He also indicates that due to the improvements made to three-point safety belts an average of 61 lives are saved per year.[56]

text: The New Car Assessment Program (NCAP) was put in place by the United States National Highway Traffic Safety Administration in 1979. The NCAP is a government program that evaluates vehicle safety designs and sets standards for foreign and domestic automobile companies. The agency has put in place a rating system and requires access to safety test results. As of September 2007[update], manufacturers are required to place a NCAP star rating on the automobile price sticker.[57]

text: Experimental[edit]

text: Research and development efforts are ongoing to improve the safety performance of vehicle seatbelts. Some experimental designs have included:

text:
Criss-cross Experimental safety belt presented in the Volvo SCC. It forms a cross-brace across the chest.[24]
3+2 Point Seatbelt: Experimental safety belt from Autoliv similar to the criss-cross. The 3+2 improves protection against rollovers and side impacts.[58]
Four point "belt and suspenders": An experimental design from Ford where the "suspenders" are attached to the backrest, not to the frame of the car.[59]
3 points Adjustable Seatbelt: Experimental safety belt from GWR Safety Systems that allowed the car Hiriko, designed by the MIT, to fold without compromising the safety and comfort of the occupants.[60]

text: In rear seats[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2014)

text: In 1955 (as a 1956 package), Ford offered lap only seat belts in the rear seats as an option within the Lifeguard safety package. In 1967, Volvo started to install lap belts in the rear seats. In 1972, Volvo upgraded the rear seat belts to a three-point belt.[61]

text: In crashes, unbelted rear passengers increase the risk of belted front seat occupants' death by nearly five times.[62][63]

text: Child occupants[edit]

text: As with adult drivers and passengers, the advent of seat belts was accompanied by calls for their use by child occupants, including legislation requiring such use. Generally children using adult seat belts suffer significantly lower injury risk when compared to non-buckled children.

text: The UK extended compulsory seatbelt wearing to child passengers under the age of 14 in 1989. It was observed that this measure was accompanied by a 10% increase in fatalities and a 12% increase in injuries among the target population.[64] In crashes, small children who wear adult seatbelts can suffer "seat-belt syndrome" injuries including severed intestines, ruptured diaphragms and spinal damage. There is also research suggesting that children in inappropriate restraints are at significantly increased risk of head injury,[65] one of the authors of this research has been quoted as claiming that: "The early graduation of kids into adult lap and shoulder belts is a leading cause of child-occupant injuries and deaths."[66]

text: As a result of such findings, many jurisdictions now advocate or require child passengers to use specially designed child restraints. Such systems include separate child-sized seats with their own restraints and booster cushions for children using adult restraints. In some jurisdictions children below a certain size are forbidden to travel in front car seats."[67]

text: Reminder chime and light[edit]

text: In Europe and some other parts of the world, most modern cars include a seat-belt reminder light for the driver and some also include a reminder for the passenger, when present, activated by a pressure sensor under the passenger seat. Some cars will intermittently flash the reminder light and sound the chime until the driver (and sometimes the front passenger, if present) fasten their seatbelts.[68]

text: In North America, cars sold since the early 1970s[vague] have included an audiovisual reminder system consisting of a tell-tale light on the dashboard and a buzzer or chime reminding the driver and passengers to fasten their belts. Originally, these lights were accompanied by a warning buzzer whenever the transmission was in any position except park[clarification needed] if either the driver was not buckled up or, as determined by a pressure sensor in the passenger's seat, if there was a passenger there not buckled up.[citation needed] However, this was considered by many to be a major annoyance, as the light would be on and the buzzer would sound continuously if front-seat passengers were not buckled up. Therefore, people who did not wish to buckle up would defeat this system by fastening the seat belts with the seat empty and leaving them that way.[citation needed]

text: To combat this dangerous habit, in 1971[citation needed] NHTSA amended Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard № 208 (FMVSS 208) to require a seat belt/starter interlock system to prevent passenger cars from being started with an unbelted front-seat occupant. This mandate applied to passenger cars built after August 1973, i.e., starting with the 1974 model year. The specifications required the system to permit the car to be started only if the belt of an occupied seat were fastened after the occupant sat down, so pre-buckling the belts would not defeat the system.[69][70] The interlock systems used logic modules complex enough to require special diagnostic computers, and were not entirely dependable—an override button was provided under the hood of equipped cars, permitting one (but only one) "free" starting attempt each time it was pressed.[71] However, the interlock system spurred severe backlash from an American public who largely rejected seat belts. In 1974, Congress acted to prohibit NHTSA from requiring or permitting a system that prevents a vehicle from starting or operating with an unbelted occupant, or that gives an audible warning of an unfastened belt for more than 8 seconds after the ignition is turned on.[70] This prohibition took effect on 27 October 1974, shortly after the 1975 model year began.[72]

text: In response to the Congressional action, NHTSA once again amended FMVSS 208, requiring vehicles to come with a seat belt reminder system that gives an audible signal for 4 to 8 seconds and a warning light for at least 60 seconds after the ignition is turned on if the driver's seat belt is not fastened.[70] This is called a seat belt reminder (SBR) system. In the mid-1990s, an insurance company from Sweden called Folksam worked with Saab and Ford to determine the requirements for the most efficient seat belt reminder. One characteristic of the optimal SBR, according to the research, is that the audible warning becomes increasingly penetrating the longer the seat belt remains unfastened.[73]

text: In 2003, the Transportation Research Board Committee, chaired by two psychologists, reported that ESBRs could save an additional 1,000 lives a year.[74] Research by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety found that Ford's ESBR, which provides an intermittent chime for up to five minutes if the driver is unbelted, sounding for 6 seconds then pausing for 30, increased seat belt use by 5 percent.[74] Farmer and Wells found that driver fatality rates were 6% lower for vehicles with ESBR compared with otherwise-identical vehicles without.[75]

text: Efficacy[edit]

text: In 2001, Congress directed NHSTA to study the benefits of technology meant to increase the use of seat belts. NHSTA found that seat belt usage had increased to 73% since the initial introduction of the SBR system.[70] In 2002, Ford demonstrated that seat belts were used more in Fords with seat belt reminders than in those without: 76% and 71% respectively. In 2007, Honda conducted a similar study and found that 90% of people who drove Hondas with seat belt reminders used a seat belt, while 84% of people who drove Hondas without seat belt reminders used a seat belt.[73]

text: Legislation[edit]

text: Observational studies of car crash morbidity and mortality,[76][77][78] experiments using both crash test dummies and human cadavers indicate that wearing seat belts greatly reduces the risk of death and injury in the majority of car crashes.

text: This has led many countries to adopt mandatory seat belt wearing laws. It is generally accepted that, in comparing like-for-like accidents, a vehicle occupant not wearing a properly fitted seat belt has a significantly and substantially higher chance of death and serious injury. One large observation studying using US data showed that the odds ratio of crash death is 0.46 with a three-point belt, when compared with no belt.[79] In another study that examined injuries presenting to the ER pre- and post-seat belt law introduction, it was found that 40% more escaped injury and 35% more escaped mild and moderate injuries.[80]

text: The effects of seat belt laws are disputed by those who observe that their passage did not reduce road fatalities. There was also concern that instead of legislating for a general protection standard for vehicle occupants, laws that required a particular technical approach would rapidly become dated as motor manufacturers would tool up for a particular standard which could not easily be changed. For example, in 1969 there were competing designs for lap and 3-point seat belts, rapidly tilting seats, and air bags being developed. But as countries started to mandate seat belt restraints the global auto industry invested in the tooling and standardized exclusively on seat belts, and ignored other restraint designs such as air bags for several decades[81]

text: As of 2016, seat belt laws can be divided into two categories: primary and secondary. A primary seat belt law allows an officer to issue a citation for lack of seatbelt use without any other citation, whereas a secondary seat belt law allows an officer to issue a seat belt citation only in the presence of a different violation. In the United States, fifteen states enforce secondary laws, while 34 states, as well as the District of Columbia, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, enforce primary seat belt laws. New Hampshire lacks both a primary and secondary seat belt law.[82]

text: Risk compensation[edit]

text: Some have proposed that the number of deaths was influenced by the development of risk compensation, which says that drivers adjust their behavior in response to the increased sense of personal safety wearing a seat belt provides.

text: In one trial subjects were asked to drive go-karts around a track under various conditions. It was found that subjects who started driving unbelted drove consistently faster when subsequently belted.[83] Similarly, a study of habitual non-seatbelt wearers driving in freeway conditions found evidence that they had adapted to seatbelt use by adopting higher driving speeds and closer following distances.[84] A 2001 analysis of US crash data aimed to establish the effects of seatbelt legislation on driving fatalities[85] and found that previous estimates of seatbelts effectiveness had been significantly overstated. According to the analysis used, seatbelts were claimed to have decreased fatalities by 1.35% for each 10% increase in seatbelt use. The study controlled for endogenous motivations of seat belt use, which it is claimed creates an artificial correlation between seat belt use and fatalities, leading to the conclusion that seatbelts cause fatalities. For example, drivers in high risk areas are more likely to use seat belts, and are more likely to be in accidents, creating a non-causal correlation between seatbelt use and mortality. After accounting for the endogeneity of seatbelt usage, Cohen and Einav found no evidence that the risk compensation effect makes seatbelt wearing drivers more dangerous, a finding at variance with other research.

text: Increased traffic[edit]

text: Other statistical analyses have included adjustments for factors such as increased traffic, and other factors such as age, and based on these adjustments, a reduction of morbidity and mortality due to seat belt use has been claimed.[76] However, Smeed's law predicts a fall in accident rate with increasing car ownership and has been demonstrated independently of seat belt legislation.

text: Mass transit considerations[edit]

text: Buses[edit]

text: School buses[edit]

text: In the US, six states—California, Florida, Louisiana, New Jersey, New York, and Texas—require seat belts on school buses.[86]

text: Pros[87][88][89] and cons[90][91][92] had been alleged about the use of seatbelts in school buses. School buses which are much bigger in size than the average vehicle allow for the mass transportation of students from place to place. The American School Bus Council states in a brief article saying that, “The children are protected like eggs in an egg carton – compartmentalized, and surrounded with padding and structural integrity to secure the entire container.” (ASBC). Although school buses are considered safe for mass transit of students this will not guarantee that the students will be injury free if an impact were to occur. Seatbelts in buses are sometimes believed to make recovering from a roll or tip harder for students and staff as they could be easily trapped in their own safety belt.[93]

text: In 2015, for the first time, NHTSA endorsed seat belts on school buses.[94]

text: Motor coaches[edit]

text: In the European Union, all new long distance buses and coaches must be fitted with seat belts.[95]

text: Australia has required lap/sash seat belts in new coaches since 1994. These must comply with Australian Design Rule 68, which requires the seat belt, seat and seat anchorage to withstand 20g deceleration and an impact by an unrestrained occupant to the rear.[96]

text: In the United States, NHTSA has now required lap-shoulder seat belts in new "over-the-road" buses (includes most coaches) starting in 2016.[97]

text: Trains[edit]

text: The use of seatbelts in trains has been investigated. Concerns about survival space intrusion in train crashes and increased injuries to unrestrained or incorrectly restrained passengers led the researchers to discourage the use of seat belts in trains.

text: Airplanes[edit]

text: Lap belts are found on all passenger aircraft. Many civil aviation authorities require a "fasten seat belt" sign in passenger aircraft that can be activated by a pilot during takeoff, turbulence, and landing.[99][100] The International Civil Aviation Organization recommends the use of child restraints.[101]


document_title: Reading (legislature)

question_text: where is the first reading held for a bill

root

text: Reading (legislature)

text: First reading[edit]

text: A first reading is when a bill is introduced to a legislature. Typically, in the United States, the title of the bill is read and immediately assigned to a committee. The bill is then considered by committee between the first and second readings. In the United States Senate and most British-influenced legislatures, the committee consideration occurs between second and third readings. In Israel, the committee consideration occurs between first and second readings and (for private member bills) between preliminary and first readings.

tag: p

text: In the Oireachtas of Ireland, the "First Stage" of a bill is by either of two methods:[1]

text:
introduction by a private member moving a motion "that leave be given to introduce" the bill — the bill goes to second stage if the motion is carried
presentation on behalf of either the government (unlimited numbers) or a parliamentary group (one at a time per group in the Dáil, three in the Seanad) — the bill automatically goes to second stage

tag: ul

text: In New Zealand, once a bill passes first reading it is normally referred to a Select Committee. However, a Government can have a bill skip the select committee stage by a simple majority vote in Parliament.

text: A bill can be defeated on first reading if a member introduces it and no one seconds it.

text: Second reading[edit]

text: A second reading is the stage of the legislative process where a draft of a bill is read a second time. In most Westminster systems, a vote is taken on the general outlines of the bill before being sent to committee.

text: In the Oireachtas of Ireland, it is referred to as "Second Stage", though the subheading "second reading" is used Dáil standing orders, and the motion at second stage is still "that the Bill is to be read a second time". A bill introduced in one house enters the other house at Second Stage, except that the Seanad second stage is waived for Dáil consolidation bills. Once the bill passes second stage it is referred to a Select Committee of that house or taken in Committee Stage by the whole house.[2]

text: In the United States Senate, a bill is either referred to committee or placed on the Calendar of Business after second reading. No vote is held on whether to read the bill a second time. In U.S. legislatures where consideration in committee precedes second reading, the procedure varies as to how a bill reaches second reading. In Illinois, for example, legislation is automatically read a second time, after which amendments are in order.

text: In New Zealand, once a bill passes a Second Reading it is then considered clause by clause by the whole Parliament. If a majority of Parliament agree, the bill can be considered part by part, saving considerable time. Because most bills must have majority support to pass a second reading, it is now very rare for a bill to be considered clause by clause.

text: Third reading[edit]

text: A third reading is the stage of a legislative process in which a bill is read with all amendments and given final approval by a legislative body. In legislatures whose procedures are based on those of the Westminster system, the third reading occurs after the bill has been amended by committee and considered for amendment at report stage.

text: In bicameral legislatures, if the bill passes the third reading, it is then sent to the other chamber of parliament to start the process again at first reading in that chamber. Once the bill has passed third reading in both chambers, it is sent on for promulgation, such as Royal Assent in the Westminster system or signing by the president or governor in the U.S. model. In a unicameral legislature, after passing third reading in the sole chamber, the bill goes on directly for promulgation.

text: In the United States Senate, after the third reading has been ordered, a bill may be amended with a two-thirds majority vote for adoption.[3] There is still a vote on final passage.

text: In the Oireachtas of Ireland, the equivalent of the third reading is referred to as the "Fifth Stage" or "Final Stage". The motion is "That the Bill do now pass", except that the Seanad motion for a money bill is "That the Bill be returned to the Dáil". When a bill passes one house, it is sent to the other house and enters at Second Stage. After both houses have passed the bill, it is sent to the President of Ireland to be signed into law.[4]


document_title: List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States

question_text: who is the most recent member of the supreme court

text: Current justices of the Supreme Court[edit]

text: There are currently nine justices serving on the Supreme Court; listed in order of seniority, they are:

text: John Roberts,Chief Justicesince September 29, 2005Age 7004232860000000000♠63[12]

text:
Clarence Thomas,Associate Justicesince October 23, 1991Age 7004256950000000000♠70[13]

Ruth Bader Ginsburg,Associate Justicesince August 10, 1993Age 7004312740000000000♠85[14]

Stephen Breyer,Associate Justicesince August 3, 1994Age 7004292950000000000♠80[15]

Samuel Alito,Associate Justicesince January 31, 2006Age 7004250480000000000♠68[16]

text:
Sonia Sotomayor,Associate Justicesince August 8, 2009Age 7004235020000000000♠64[17]

Elena Kagan,Associate Justicesince August 7, 2010Age 7004213680000000000♠58[18]

Neil Gorsuch,Associate Justicesince April 10, 2017Age 7004186890000000000♠51[19]

Brett Kavanaugh,Associate Justicesince October 6, 2018Age 7004196170000000000♠53[20]

text: All justices of the Supreme Court[edit]

text: Since the Supreme Court was established in 1789, 114 persons have served on the Court. The length of service on the Court for the 105 non-incumbent justices ranges from William O. Douglas's 36 years, 211 days to the 163-day tenure of Thomas Johnson. As of October 29, 2018, the length of service for the nine incumbent justices ranges from Clarence Thomas' 7003986800000000000♠27 years, 6 days to Brett Kavanaugh's 7001230000000000000♠23 days. Five individuals were confirmed for associate justice, and later appointed chief justice separately: John Rutledge,[a] Edward Douglass White,[b] Charles Evans Hughes,[a] Harlan F. Stone,[b] and William Rehnquist.[b] While listed twice, each of them has been assigned only one index number. The justices of the Supreme Court are:[21][22]

text:
Justice

State[c]

Position

Replacing

Date confirmed(Vote)

Tenure

Tenure length[d]

Appointed by

1

John Jay(1745–1829)

NY

ChiefJustice

New seat

September 26, 1789(Acclamation)

October 19, 1789–June 29, 1795(Resigned)

7003207900000000000♠5 years, 253 days

George Washington

2

John Rutledge(1739–1800)

SC

AssociateJustice

New seat

September 26, 1789(Acclamation)

February 15, 1790–March 4, 1791(Resigned)

7002382000000000000♠1 year, 17 days

3

William Cushing(1732–1810)

MA

AssociateJustice

New seat

September 26, 1789(Acclamation)

February 2, 1790–September 13, 1810(Died)

7003752700000000000♠20 years, 223 days

4

James Wilson(1742–1798)

PA

AssociateJustice

New seat

September 26, 1789(Acclamation)

October 5, 1789–August 21, 1798(Died)

7003324200000000000♠8 years, 320 days

5

John Blair(1732–1800)

VA

AssociateJustice

New seat

September 26, 1789(Acclamation)

February 2, 1790–October 25, 1795(Resigned)

7003209100000000000♠5 years, 265 days

6

James Iredell(1751–1799)

NC

AssociateJustice

New seat

February 10, 1790(Acclamation)

May 12, 1790–October 20, 1799(Died)

7003344800000000000♠9 years, 161 days

7

Thomas Johnson(1732–1819)

MD

AssociateJustice

J. Rutledge

November 7, 1791(Acclamation)

August 6, 1792[e]–January 16, 1793(Resigned)

7002163000000000000♠163 days

8

William Paterson(1745–1806)

NJ

AssociateJustice

T. Johnson

March 4, 1793(Acclamation)

March 11, 1793–September 8, 1806(Died)

7003492800000000000♠13 years, 181 days

2

John Rutledge(1739–1800)

SC

ChiefJustice

Jay

December 15, 1795(10–14)[f]

August 12, 1795[e]–December 28, 1795(Resigned, nomination having been rejected)

7002138000000000000♠138 days

9

Samuel Chase[g](1741–1811)

MD

AssociateJustice

Blair

January 27, 1796(Acclamation)

February 4, 1796–June 19, 1811(Died)

7003561300000000000♠15 years, 135 days

10

Oliver Ellsworth(1745–1807)

CT

ChiefJustice

J. Rutledge

March 4, 1796(21–1)

March 8, 1796–December 15, 1800(Resigned)

7003174200000000000♠4 years, 282 days

11

Bushrod Washington(1762–1829)

VA

AssociateJustice

Wilson

December 20, 1798(Acclamation)

November 9, 1798[e]–November 26, 1829(Died)

7004113390000000000♠31 years, 17 days

John Adams

12

Alfred Moore(1755–1810)

NC

AssociateJustice

Iredell

December 9, 1799(Acclamation)

April 21, 1800–January 26, 1804(Resigned)

7003137500000000000♠3 years, 280 days

13

John Marshall(1755–1835)

VA

ChiefJustice

Ellsworth

January 27, 1801(Acclamation)

February 4, 1801–July 6, 1835(Died)

7004125700000000000♠34 years, 152 days

14

William Johnson(1771–1834)

SC

AssociateJustice

Moore

March 24, 1804(Acclamation)

May 7, 1804–August 4, 1834(Died)

7004110460000000000♠30 years, 89 days

Thomas Jefferson

15

Henry Brockholst Livingston(1757–1823)

NY

AssociateJustice

Paterson

December 17, 1806(Acclamation)

January 20, 1807–March 18, 1823(Died)

7003590100000000000♠16 years, 57 days

16

Thomas Todd(1765–1826)

KY

AssociateJustice

New seat

March 2, 1807(Acclamation)

March 3, 1807–February 7, 1826(Died)

7003691600000000000♠18 years, 341 days

17

Gabriel Duvall(1752–1844)

MD

AssociateJustice

S. Chase

November 18, 1811(Acclamation)

November 23, 1811–January 12, 1835(Resigned)

7003845100000000000♠23 years, 50 days

James Madison

18

Joseph Story(1779–1845)

MA

AssociateJustice

Cushing

November 18, 1811(Acclamation)

February 3, 1812–September 10, 1845(Died)

7004122730000000000♠33 years, 219 days

19

Smith Thompson(1768–1843)

NY

AssociateJustice

Livingston

December 9, 1823(Acclamation)

September 1, 1823[e]–December 18, 1843(Died)

7003741300000000000♠20 years, 108 days

James Monroe

20

Robert Trimble(1776–1828)

KY

AssociateJustice

Todd

May 9, 1826(25–5)

June 16, 1826–August 25, 1828(Died)

7002801000000000000♠2 years, 70 days

John Quincy Adams

21

John McLean(1785–1861)

OH

AssociateJustice

Trimble

March 7, 1829(Acclamation)

January 11, 1830–April 4, 1861(Died)

7004114060000000000♠31 years, 83 days

Andrew Jackson

22

Henry Baldwin(1780–1844)

PA

AssociateJustice

Washington

January 6, 1830(41–2)

January 18, 1830–April 21, 1844(Died)

7003520700000000000♠14 years, 94 days

23

James Moore Wayne(1790–1867)

GA

AssociateJustice

W. Johnson

January 9, 1835(Acclamation)

January 14, 1835–July 5, 1867(Died)

7004118600000000000♠32 years, 172 days

24

Roger B. Taney(1777–1864)

MD

ChiefJustice

J. Marshall

March 15, 1836(29–15)

March 28, 1836–October 12, 1864(Died)

7004104250000000000♠28 years, 198 days

25

Philip Pendleton Barbour(1783–1841)

VA

AssociateJustice

Duvall

March 15, 1836(30–11)

May 12, 1836–February 25, 1841(Died)

7003175000000000000♠4 years, 289 days

26

John Catron(1786–1865)

TN

AssociateJustice

New seat

March 8, 1837(28–15)

May 1, 1837–May 30, 1865(Died)

7004102560000000000♠28 years, 29 days

27

John McKinley(1780–1852)

AL

AssociateJustice

New seat

September 25, 1837(Acclamation)

January 9, 1838–July 19, 1852(Died)

7003530500000000000♠14 years, 192 days

Martin Van Buren

28

Peter Vivian Daniel(1784–1860)

VA

AssociateJustice

Barbour

March 2, 1841(25–5)

January 10, 1842–May 31, 1860(Died)

7003671600000000000♠18 years, 142 days

29

Samuel Nelson(1792–1873)

NY

AssociateJustice

Thompson

February 14, 1845(Acclamation)

February 27, 1845–November 28, 1872(Retired)

7004101360000000000♠27 years, 275 days

John Tyler

30

Levi Woodbury(1789–1851)

NH

AssociateJustice

Story

January 31, 1846(Acclamation)

September 23, 1845[e]–September 4, 1851(Died)

7003217200000000000♠5 years, 346 days

James K. Polk

31

Robert Cooper Grier(1794–1870)

PA

AssociateJustice

Baldwin

August 4, 1846(Acclamation)

August 10, 1846–January 31, 1870(Retired)

7003857500000000000♠23 years, 174 days

32

Benjamin Robbins Curtis(1809–1874)

MA

AssociateJustice

Woodbury

December 20, 1851(Acclamation)

October 10, 1851[e]–September 30, 1857(Resigned)

7003218200000000000♠5 years, 355 days

Millard Fillmore

33

John Archibald Campbell(1811–1889)

AL

AssociateJustice

McKinley

March 22, 1853(Acclamation)

April 11, 1853–April 30, 1861(Resigned)

7003294100000000000♠8 years, 19 days

Franklin Pierce

34

Nathan Clifford(1803–1881)

ME

AssociateJustice

Curtis

January 12, 1858(26–23)

January 21, 1858–July 25, 1881(Died)

7003858600000000000♠23 years, 185 days

James Buchanan

35

Noah Haynes Swayne(1804–1884)

OH

AssociateJustice

McLean

January 24, 1862(38–1)

January 27, 1862–January 24, 1881(Retired)

7003693700000000000♠18 years, 363 days

Abraham Lincoln

36

Samuel Freeman Miller(1816–1890)

IA

AssociateJustice

Daniel

July 16, 1862(Acclamation)

July 21, 1862–October 13, 1890(Died)

7004103110000000000♠28 years, 84 days

37

David Davis(1815–1886)

IL

AssociateJustice

Campbell

December 8, 1862(Acclamation)

December 10, 1862[e]–March 4, 1877(Resigned)

7003519800000000000♠14 years, 84 days

38

Stephen Johnson Field(1816–1899)

CA

AssociateJustice

New seat

March 10, 1863(Acclamation)

May 10, 1863–December 1, 1897(Retired)

7004126240000000000♠34 years, 205 days

39

Salmon P. Chase(1808–1873)

OH

ChiefJustice

Taney

December 6, 1864(Acclamation)

December 15, 1864–May 7, 1873(Died)

7003306500000000000♠8 years, 143 days

40

William Strong(1808–1895)

PA

AssociateJustice

Grier

February 18, 1870(No vote recorded)

March 14, 1870–December 14, 1880(Retired)

7003392800000000000♠10 years, 275 days

Ulysses S. Grant

41

Joseph Philo Bradley(1813–1892)

NJ

AssociateJustice

New seat

March 21, 1870(46–9)

March 23, 1870–January 22, 1892(Died)

7003797500000000000♠21 years, 305 days

42

Ward Hunt(1810–1886)

NY

AssociateJustice

Nelson

December 11, 1872(Acclamation)

January 9, 1873–January 27, 1882(Retired)

7003330500000000000♠9 years, 18 days

43

Morrison Waite(1816–1888)

OH

ChiefJustice

S. P. Chase

January 21, 1874(63–0)

March 4, 1874–March 23, 1888(Died)

7003513300000000000♠14 years, 19 days

44

John Marshall Harlan(1833–1911)

KY

AssociateJustice

Davis

November 29, 1877(Acclamation)

December 10, 1877–October 14, 1911(Died)

7004123600000000000♠33 years, 308 days

Rutherford B. Hayes

45

William Burnham Woods(1824–1887)

GA

AssociateJustice

Strong

December 21, 1880(39–8)

January 5, 1881–May 14, 1887(Died)

7003232000000000000♠6 years, 129 days

46

Stanley Matthews(1824–1889)

OH

AssociateJustice

Swayne

May 12, 1881(24–23)

May 17, 1881–March 22, 1889(Died)

7003286600000000000♠7 years, 309 days

James Garfield

47

Horace Gray(1828–1902)

MA

AssociateJustice

Clifford

December 20, 1881(51–5)

January 9, 1882–September 15, 1902(Died)

7003755300000000000♠20 years, 249 days

Chester A. Arthur

48

Samuel Blatchford(1820–1893)

NY

AssociateJustice

Hunt

March 22, 1882(Acclamation)

April 3, 1882–July 7, 1893(Died)

7003411300000000000♠11 years, 95 days

49

Lucius QuintusCincinnatus Lamar II(1825–1893)

MS

AssociateJustice

Woods

January 16, 1888(32–28)

January 18, 1888–January 23, 1893(Died)

7003183200000000000♠5 years, 5 days

Grover Cleveland

50

Melville Fuller(1833–1910)

IL

ChiefJustice

Waite

July 20, 1888(41–20)

October 8, 1888–July 4, 1910(Died)

7003793800000000000♠21 years, 269 days

51

David Josiah Brewer(1837–1910)

KS

AssociateJustice

Matthews

December 18, 1889(53–11)

January 6, 1890–March 28, 1910(Died)

7003738500000000000♠20 years, 81 days

Benjamin Harrison

52

Henry Billings Brown(1836–1913)

MI

AssociateJustice

Miller

December 29, 1890(Acclamation)

January 5, 1891–May 28, 1906(Retired)

7003598600000000000♠16 years, 143 days

53

George Shiras, Jr.(1832–1924)

PA

AssociateJustice

Bradley

July 26, 1892(Acclamation)

October 10, 1892–February 23, 1903(Retired)

7003378700000000000♠10 years, 136 days

54

Howell Edmunds Jackson(1832–1895)

TN

AssociateJustice

L. Lamar

February 18, 1893(Acclamation)

March 4, 1893–August 8, 1895(Died)

7002887000000000000♠2 years, 157 days

55

Edward Douglass White(1845–1921)

LA

AssociateJustice

Blatchford

February 19, 1894(Acclamation)

March 12, 1894–December 18, 1910(Continued as chief justice)

7003612400000000000♠16 years, 281 days

Grover Cleveland

56

Rufus Wheeler Peckham(1838–1909)

NY

AssociateJustice

H. Jackson

December 9, 1895(Acclamation)

January 6, 1896–October 24, 1909(Died)

7003503900000000000♠13 years, 291 days

57

Joseph McKenna(1843–1926)

CA

AssociateJustice[h]

Field

January 21, 1898(Acclamation)

January 26, 1898–January 5, 1925(Retired)

7003984000000000000♠26 years, 345 days

William McKinley

58

Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.(1841–1935)

MA

AssociateJustice[i]

Gray

December 4, 1902(Acclamation)

December 8, 1902–January 12, 1932(Retired)

7004106270000000000♠29 years, 35 days

Theodore Roosevelt

59

William R. Day(1849–1923)

OH

AssociateJustice

Shiras

February 23, 1903(Acclamation)

March 2, 1903–November 13, 1922(Retired)

7003719600000000000♠19 years, 256 days

60

William Henry Moody(1853–1917)

MA

AssociateJustice

Brown

December 12, 1906(Acclamation)

December 17, 1906–November 20, 1910(Retired)

7003143400000000000♠3 years, 338 days

61

Horace Harmon Lurton(1844–1914)

TN

AssociateJustice

Peckham

December 20, 1909(Acclamation)

January 3, 1910–July 12, 1914(Died)

7003166500000000000♠4 years, 204 days

William Howard Taft

62

Charles Evans Hughes(1862–1948)

NY

AssociateJustice

Brewer

May 2, 1910(Acclamation)

October 10, 1910–June 10, 1916(Resigned)

7003207000000000000♠5 years, 244 days

55

Edward Douglass White(1845–1921)

LA

ChiefJustice

Fuller

December 12, 1910(Acclamation)

December 19, 1910–May 19, 1921(Died)

7003380400000000000♠10 years, 151 days

63

Willis Van Devanter(1859–1941)

WY

AssociateJustice

E. D. White

December 15, 1910(Acclamation)

January 3, 1911[j]–June 2, 1937(Retired)

7003964700000000000♠26 years, 150 days

64

Joseph Rucker Lamar(1857–1916)

GA

AssociateJustice

Moody

December 15, 1910(Acclamation)

January 3, 1911[j]–January 2, 1916(Died)

7003182500000000000♠4 years, 364 days

65

Mahlon Pitney(1858–1924)

NJ

AssociateJustice

J. Harlan

March 13, 1912(50–26)

March 18, 1912–December 31, 1922(Resigned)

7003394000000000000♠10 years, 288 days

66

James Clark McReynolds(1862–1946)

TN

AssociateJustice

Lurton

August 29, 1914(44–6)

October 12, 1914–January 31, 1941(Retired)

7003960800000000000♠26 years, 111 days

Woodrow Wilson

67

Louis Brandeis(1856–1941)

KY

AssociateJustice

J. Lamar

June 1, 1916(47–22)

June 5, 1916–February 13, 1939(Retired)

7003828800000000000♠22 years, 253 days

68

John Hessin Clarke(1857–1945)

OH

AssociateJustice

Hughes

July 24, 1916(Acclamation)

October 9, 1916–September 18, 1922(Retired)

7003217000000000000♠5 years, 344 days

69

William Howard Taft(1857–1930)

CT

ChiefJustice

E. D. White

June 30, 1921(Acclamation)

July 11, 1921–February 3, 1930(Retired)

7003312900000000000♠8 years, 207 days

Warren G. Harding

70

George Sutherland(1862–1942)

UT

AssociateJustice

Clarke

September 5, 1922(Acclamation)

October 2, 1922–January 17, 1938(Retired)

7003558600000000000♠15 years, 107 days

71

Pierce Butler(1866–1939)

MN

AssociateJustice

Day

December 21, 1922(61–8)

January 2, 1923–November 16, 1939(Died)

7003616200000000000♠16 years, 318 days

72

Edward Terry Sanford(1865–1930)

TN

AssociateJustice

Pitney

January 29, 1923(Acclamation)

February 19, 1923–March 8, 1930(Died)

7003257400000000000♠7 years, 17 days

73

Harlan F. Stone(1872–1946)

NY

AssociateJustice[k]

McKenna

February 5, 1925(71–6)

March 2, 1925–July 2, 1941(Continued as chief justice)

7003596600000000000♠16 years, 122 days

Calvin Coolidge

62

Charles Evans Hughes(1862–1948)

NY

ChiefJustice

Taft

February 13, 1930(52–26)

February 24, 1930–June 30, 1941(Retired)

7003414400000000000♠11 years, 126 days

Herbert Hoover

74

Owen Josephus Roberts(1875–1955)

PA

AssociateJustice

Sanford

May 20, 1930(Acclamation)

June 2, 1930–July 31, 1945(Resigned)

7003553800000000000♠15 years, 59 days

75

Benjamin N. Cardozo(1870–1938)

NY

AssociateJustice

Holmes

February 24, 1932(Acclamation)

March 14, 1932–July 9, 1938(Died)

7003230800000000000♠6 years, 117 days

76

Hugo Black(1886–1971)

AL

AssociateJustice[l]

Van Devanter

August 17, 1937(63–16)

August 19, 1937–September 17, 1971(Retired)

7004124470000000000♠34 years, 29 days

Franklin D. Roosevelt

77

Stanley Forman Reed(1884–1980)

KY

AssociateJustice

Sutherland

January 25, 1938(Acclamation)

January 31, 1938–February 25, 1957(Retired)

7003696500000000000♠19 years, 25 days

78

Felix Frankfurter(1882–1965)

MA

AssociateJustice

Cardozo

January 17, 1939(Acclamation)

January 30, 1939–August 28, 1962(Retired)

7003861100000000000♠23 years, 210 days

79

William O. Douglas(1898–1980)

CT

AssociateJustice

Brandeis

April 4, 1939(62–4)

April 17, 1939–November 12, 1975(Retired)

7004133600000000000♠36 years, 211 days

80

Frank Murphy(1890–1949)

MI

AssociateJustice

Butler

January 16, 1940(Acclamation)

February 5, 1940–July 19, 1949(Died)

7003345200000000000♠9 years, 164 days

73

Harlan F. Stone(1872–1946)

NY

ChiefJustice

Hughes

June 27, 1941(Acclamation)

July 3, 1941–April 22, 1946 (Died)

7003175400000000000♠4 years, 293 days

81

James F. Byrnes(1882–1972)

SC

AssociateJustice

McReynolds

June 12, 1941(Acclamation)

July 8, 1941–October 3, 1942(Resigned)

7002452000000000000♠1 year, 87 days

82

Robert H. Jackson(1892–1954)

NY

AssociateJustice

Stone

July 7, 1941(Acclamation)

July 11, 1941–October 9, 1954(Died)

7003483800000000000♠13 years, 90 days

83

Wiley Blount Rutledge(1894–1949)

IA

AssociateJustice

Byrnes

February 8, 1943(Acclamation)

February 15, 1943–September 10, 1949(Died)

7003239900000000000♠6 years, 207 days

84

Harold Hitz Burton(1888–1964)

OH

AssociateJustice

O. Roberts

September 19, 1945(Acclamation)

October 1, 1945–October 13, 1958(Retired)

7003476000000000000♠13 years, 12 days

Harry S. Truman

85

Fred M. Vinson(1890–1953)

KY

ChiefJustice

Stone

June 20, 1946(Acclamation)

June 24, 1946–September 8, 1953 (Died)

7003263300000000000♠7 years, 76 days

86

Tom C. Clark(1899–1977)

TX

AssociateJustice

Murphy

August 18, 1949(73–8)

August 24, 1949–June 12, 1967(Retired)

7003650100000000000♠17 years, 292 days

87

Sherman Minton(1890–1965)

IN

AssociateJustice

W. Rutledge

October 4, 1949(48–16)

October 12, 1949–October 15, 1956(Retired)

7003256000000000000♠7 years, 3 days

88

Earl Warren(1891–1974)

CA

ChiefJustice

Vinson

March 1, 1954(Acclamation)

October 5, 1953[e]–June 23, 1969(Retired)

7003574000000000000♠15 years, 261 days

Dwight D. Eisenhower

89

John Marshall Harlan II(1899–1971)

NY

AssociateJustice

R. Jackson

March 16, 1955(71–11)

March 28, 1955–September 23, 1971(Retired)

7003602300000000000♠16 years, 179 days

90

William J. Brennan(1906–1997)

NJ

AssociateJustice

Minton

March 19, 1957(Acclamation)

October 16, 1956[e]–July 20, 1990(Retired)

7004123300000000000♠33 years, 277 days

91

Charles Evans Whittaker(1901–1973)

MO

AssociateJustice

Reed

March 19, 1957(Acclamation)

March 25, 1957–March 31, 1962(Resigned)

7003183200000000000♠5 years, 6 days

92

Potter Stewart(1915–1985)

OH

AssociateJustice

Burton

May 5, 1959(70–17)

October 14, 1958[e]–July 3, 1981(Retired)

7003829800000000000♠22 years, 262 days

93

Byron White(1917–2002)

CO

AssociateJustice

Whittaker

April 11, 1962(Acclamation)

April 16, 1962–June 28, 1993(Retired)

7004113960000000000♠31 years, 73 days

John F. Kennedy

94

Arthur Goldberg(1908–1990)

IL

AssociateJustice

Frankfurter

September 25, 1962(Acclamation)

October 1, 1962–July 25, 1965(Resigned)

7003103100000000000♠2 years, 300 days

95

Abe Fortas(1910–1982)

TN

AssociateJustice

Goldberg

August 11, 1965(Acclamation)

October 4, 1965–May 14, 1969(Resigned)

7003131800000000000♠3 years, 222 days

Lyndon B. Johnson

96

Thurgood Marshall(1908–1993)

NY

AssociateJustice

Clark

August 30, 1967(69–11)

October 2, 1967–October 1, 1991(Retired)

7003876500000000000♠23 years, 364 days

97

Warren E. Burger(1907–1995)

VA

ChiefJustice

Warren

June 9, 1969(74–3)

June 23, 1969–September 26, 1986(Retired)

7003630400000000000♠17 years, 95 days

Richard Nixon

98

Harry Blackmun(1908–1999)

MN

AssociateJustice

Fortas

May 12, 1970(94–0)

June 9, 1970–August 3, 1994(Retired)

7003882100000000000♠24 years, 55 days

99

Lewis F. Powell Jr.(1907–1998)

VA

AssociateJustice

Black

December 6, 1971(89–1)

January 7, 1972[m]–June 26, 1987(Retired)

7003564900000000000♠15 years, 170 days

100

William Rehnquist(1924–2005)

AZ

AssociateJustice

J. Harlan II

December 10, 1971(68–26)

January 7, 1972[m]–September 26, 1986(Continued as chief justice)

7003537600000000000♠14 years, 262 days

101

John Paul Stevens(born 1920)

IL

AssociateJustice[n]

Douglas

December 17, 1975(98–0)

December 19, 1975–June 29, 2010(Retired)

7004126110000000000♠34 years, 192 days

Gerald Ford

102

Sandra Day O'Connor(born 1930)

AZ

AssociateJustice

Stewart

September 21, 1981(99–0)

September 25, 1981–January 31, 2006(Retired)

7003889400000000000♠24 years, 128 days

Ronald Reagan

100

William Rehnquist(1924–2005)

VA

ChiefJustice

Burger

September 17, 1986(65–33)

September 26, 1986–September 3, 2005(Died)

7003691700000000000♠18 years, 342 days

103

Antonin Scalia(1936–2016)

VA

AssociateJustice

Rehnquist

September 17, 1986(98–0)

September 26, 1986–February 13, 2016(Died)

7004107320000000000♠29 years, 140 days

104

Anthony Kennedy(born 1936)

CA

AssociateJustice

Powell

February 3, 1988(97–0)

February 18, 1988–July 31, 2018(Retired)

7004111210000000000♠30 years, 163 days

105

David Souter(born 1939)

NH

AssociateJustice

Brennan

October 2, 1990(90–9)

October 9, 1990–June 29, 2009(Retired)

7003683800000000000♠18 years, 263 days

George H. W. Bush

106

Clarence Thomas(born 1948)

GA

AssociateJustice

T. Marshall

October 15, 1991(52–48)

October 23, 1991–Incumbent

7003986800000000000♠27 years, 6 days[o]

107

Ruth Bader Ginsburg(born 1933)

NY

AssociateJustice

B. White

August 3, 1993(96–3)

August 10, 1993–Incumbent

7003921100000000000♠25 years, 80 days[o]

Bill Clinton

108

Stephen Breyer(born 1938)

MA

AssociateJustice

Blackmun

July 29, 1994(87–9)

August 3, 1994–Incumbent

7003885300000000000♠24 years, 87 days[o]

109

John Roberts(born 1955)

MD

ChiefJustice

Rehnquist

September 29, 2005(78–22)

September 29, 2005–Incumbent

7003477800000000000♠13 years, 30 days[o]

George W. Bush

110

Samuel Alito(born 1950)

NJ

AssociateJustice

O'Connor

January 31, 2006(58–42)

January 31, 2006–Incumbent

7003465400000000000♠12 years, 271 days[o]

111

Sonia Sotomayor(born 1954)

NY

AssociateJustice

Souter

August 6, 2009(68–31)

August 8, 2009–Incumbent

7003336900000000000♠9 years, 82 days[o]

Barack Obama

112

Elena Kagan(born 1960)

MA

AssociateJustice

Stevens

August 5, 2010(63–37)

August 7, 2010–Incumbent

7003300500000000000♠8 years, 83 days[o]

113

Neil Gorsuch(born 1967)

CO

AssociateJustice

Scalia

April 7, 2017(54–45)

April 10, 2017–Incumbent

7002567000000000000♠1 year, 202 days[o]

Donald Trump

114

Brett Kavanaugh(born 1965)

MD

AssociateJustice

Kennedy

October 6, 2018(50–48)

October 6, 2018–Incumbent

7001230000000000000♠23 days[o]

Justice

State[c]

Position

Replacing

Date confirmed(Vote)

Tenure

Tenure length

Appointed by

tag: table

text: Notes[edit]

text:
^ Jump up to: a b Served on the Supreme Court twice, first as associate justice, and then, after a period of years off the Court, as chief justice.

^ Jump up to: a b c Elevated from associate justice to chief justice while serving on the Supreme Court. Such appointments are subject to a separate confirmation process.

^ Jump up to: a b State of residence at the time of appointment. For example, in 1971, Rehnquist was appointed from Arizona, but in 1986, when elevated to chief justice, he was appointed from Virginia.[23]

Jump up ^ The start date given for each justice is the day he or she took the prescribed judicial oath of office, with the end date being the date of the justice's death, resignation, or retirement.[22]

^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Recess appointment

Jump up ^ This was the first Supreme Court nomination to be rejected by the Senate. Rutledge remains the only "recess appointed" justice not to be subsequently confirmed by the Senate.

Jump up ^ Was impeached, but not convicted, and remained in office.

Jump up ^ Acted as chief justice under 36 Stat. 1152, May 19 – July 11, 1921.

Jump up ^ Acted as chief justice under 36 Stat. 1152, February 3–24, 1930.

^ Jump up to: a b While Willis Van Devanter and Joseph Rucker Lamar were sworn in as associate justice on the same date, their seniority (precedence) on the Supreme Court was determined by the seniority of their commissions—Van Devanter received and accepted his first—in accordance with XIII Rev. Stat. 9 § 674.

Jump up ^ Acted as chief justice under 36 Stat. 1152, June 30 – July 3, 1941.

Jump up ^ Acted as chief justice under 36 Stat. 1152, April 22 – June 24, 1946, and again, under 62 Stat. 869, September 8 – October 5, 1953.

^ Jump up to: a b While  Lewis Powell and William Rehnqust were sworn in as associate justice on the same date, their seniority (precedence) on the Supreme Court was determined by the seniority of their commissions—Powell received and accepted his first—in accordance with 62 Stat. 869.

Jump up ^ Acted as chief justice under 62 Stat. 869, September 3–29, 2005.

^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i As of October 29, 2018.

tag: ol

text: Timeline of justices[edit]

text: This graphical timeline depicts the progression of the justices on the Supreme Court. Information regarding each justice's predecessors, successors and fellow justices, as well as their tenure on the court can be gleaned (and comparisons between justices drawn) from it. Additionally, The progression of presidents, along with the number of justices each nominated, is shown at the top of the timeline to give a more detailed historical context. There are no formal names or numbers for the individual seats of the associate justices, which are listed in the table below simply by number. Note that, due to the several changes in the size of the Court since 1789, two of the seats chronicled—"5" and "7"—have been abolished, both as a result of the Judicial Circuits Act of 1866.


document_title: That's So Raven (soundtrack)

question_text: who sang the that so raven theme song

question_tokens: who sang the that so raven theme song

text: That's So Raven (soundtrack)

text: Critical reception[edit]

text:
Professional ratings

Review scores

Source
Rating

Allmusic
[3]

ParentCenter
(mixed)[4]

text: A mixed review by the ParentCenter Family Entertainment Guide called the album both "fun" and "predictable".[4]

text: Track listing[edit]

text:
"Supernatural" - Raven-Symoné (Matthew Gerrard, Michelle Lewis) – 02:58
"Shine" - Raven-Symoné (Ray Cham, Charlene Licera) – 03:07
"Beautiful Soul" - Jesse McCartney (Andy Dodd, Adam Watts) – 03:55
"Got to Be Real" - Cheryl Lynn (David Foster, Cheryl Lynn, David Paich) – 03:49
"(There's Gotta Be) More to Life" - Stacie Orrico (Sabelle Breer, Kevin Kadish, Harvey Mason Jr., Damon Thomas, Lucy Woodward) – 03:22
"We Are Family" - Jump5 (Bernard Edwards, Nile Rodgers) – 03:40
"Superstar" -Jamelia (Joe Belmaati, Michael Hansen, Marchell Remeeus) – 03:35
"Ultimate" - Lindsay Lohan (Jeffrey Coplan, Robert Ellis Orrall) – 03:07
"You Gotta Be" - Des'ree (Ashley Ingram, Des'ree) – 04:06
"I'm Every Woman" - Chaka Khan (Nickolas Ashford, Valerie Simpson) – 04:08
"Where You Belong" - Huckapoo (Dana Calitri, Mattias Gustafsson, Nina Ossoff) – 03:23
"Jungle Boogie" - Kool & the Gang (Ronald Bell, Kool & the Gang) – 03:05
"Future Is Clear" - Jeannie Ortega (Jimmy Harry, Elliot Lurie) – 03:00
"That's So Raven! (Theme Song)" - Raven-Symoné, Anneliese van der Pol and Orlando Brown (John Coda) – 00:51
"Supernatural (Crystal Ball Mix)" - Raven-Symoné (Matthew Gerrard, Michelle Lewis) – 05:22

text: Charts[edit]

text:
Chart
Peak
position

Canadian Albums Chart[5]
18

U.S. Billboard 200[6]
44

U.S. Billboard Top Kid Audio[6]
1

U.S. Billboard Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums[6]
54

U.S. Billboard Top Soundtracks[6]
2

text: Disney Karaoke Series[edit]

text:
Disney Karaoke Series: That's So Raven

Compilation album (Karaoke) by Various artists

Released
March 1, 2005 (U.S.)

Genre
Pop

Label
Walt Disney

Producer
Ted Kryczko (executor), Steven Morrell (associate producer)[7]

text: The Disney Karaoke Series: That's So Raven is a karaoke album featuring songs from the Disney series That's So Raven.

text: Track listing[edit]

text:
"Supernatural"
"Shine"
"We Are Family"
"Ultimate"
"(There's Gotta Be) More to Life"
"Jungle Boogie"
"You Gotta Be"
"That's So Raven (Theme Song)"
"Supernatural"
"Shine" (vocal)
"We Are Family" (vocal)
"Ultimate" (vocal)
"(There's Gotta Be) More to Life" (vocal)
"Jungle Boogie" (vocal)
"You Gotta Be" (vocal)
"That's So Raven (Theme Song)" (vocal)


document_title: The Little Mermaid (2018 film)

question_text: who's going to be the little mermaid

question_tokens: who 's going to be the little mermaid

text: The Little Mermaid (2018 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: The story begins with an old grandmother telling her two granddaughters the story of The Little Mermaid. Despite their young ages, the girls don't believe in the story, until their grandmother tells them a tale of her own. Many years ago, a young reporter named Cam Harrison who had failed to earn a living sets out in search of a good story accompanied by his young niece, Elle. There, they go to a circus and encounter a beautiful mermaid trapped in a glass tank. They are further amazed when the mermaid appears before them as a young woman with legs. The duo soon learn of a prophecy about a little girl born on land but blessed with the heart of a mermaid. With this prophecy come to life in Elle, they are further entangled in a sinister plot of a wizard who wishes to keep the mermaid's soul and convert it to power.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
William Moseley as Cam Harrison, a reporter.[2]
Loreto Peralta as Elle, an orphan and Cam's niece.[3]
Poppy Drayton  as Elizabeth, the mermaid.[4]
Armando Gutierrez as Locke, the wizard who has enslaved the little mermaid.[3]
Shirley MacLaine as Eloise, an eccentric woman who has intimate knowledge of the story of The Little Mermaid[5]
Shanna Collins as Thora, a fortune teller who possesses paranormal powers, including telekinesis and the ability to stop time.[6]
Diahann Carroll[2]
William Forsythe[2]
Gina Gershon[2]
Claire Crosby[7]

text: Production[edit]

text: The film was originally titled A Little Mermaid.[2][4][5] Filming took place in Savannah, Georgia,[4] in 2016.[8]

text: Marketing and release[edit]

text: A trailer for the film debuted in March 2017 and generated over 30 million views in two weeks time.[9]

text: In May 2017, it was reported that the film had been picked up for distribution by Netflix but for unexplained reasons was never released .[10]