document_title: Alabama (American band)

question_text: how many number 1 hits did alabama have

question_tokens: how many number 1 hits did alabama have

text: Alabama (American band)

text: History[edit]

text: 1969–79: Formation and early years[edit]

text: Alabama was formed by guitarists Randy Owen and Jeff Cook, and bassist Teddy Gentry, three cousins born and raised near Fort Payne, Alabama, an area with strong country music roots.[4] Owen and Gentry grew up on separate cotton farms on Lookout Mountain (a plateau that stretches across northeastern Alabama, through northwest Georgia and into Tennessee), learning guitar together and singing in church before the age of six.[5] Gentry and Owen played in numerous groups during the 1960s, ranging from pop to bluegrass.[5] Cook joined the band in 1969 forming the group Young Country, which first jammed together around Christmas.[4] Cook also played in numerous bands and was a rock and roll disk jockey.[5] The three cousins all shared vocal duties, with another cousin, drummer Jackie Owen, completing the group's first lineup.[4] The band's first performance was at a high school talent contest (playing a Merle Haggard song), for which they won first prize and tickets to the Grand Ole Opry.[6][5] Despite this, all were busy with prior commitments to pursue music: Owen still in high school, Cook working for Western Electric, and Gentry laying carpets full-time.[4] The band grew further inactive when Cook went to college and Owen into the military.[5]

text: The group became a professional band in 1972, adding drummer Bennett Vartanian and changing their name to Wildcountry.[5] During this time, the group accepted a position playing at the nearby Canyonland theme park.[7][4] The park would bring in established stars, such as Jerry Wallace, Bobby Bare, and Narvel Felts, and the band would back them, afterwards performing a one-hour dance set.[4] After a while, with opportunities for the band slimmed, a discouraged Cook took a government job in Anniston, Alabama. Owen was studying English at Jacksonville State University, and Cook had an electronics job.[8] The trio shared at $56-a-month apartment in Anniston,[8] working to keep the band afloat with night and weekend gigs.[4] The group decided to become professional musicians in 1973, and began performing at bars throughout the Southeast.[5] In March, the band relocated to Myrtle Beach, South Carolina, performing six nights a week at a club named The Bowery for tips.[7][9] They made their best money performing cover songs of Lynyrd Skynyrd and Merle Haggard.[6] The group could not secure a record contract and began to self-finance recordings.[8] The group borrowed $4,000 from a Fort Payne bank to record and release their own albums to sell at shows.[5] Vartanian dropped out of the group, and following a rotation of four more drummers, they settled on Rick Scott in 1974.[5]

text: The group sent out demo tapes to record companies but received few responses until executives at GRT Records signed the band to a one-record contract,[5] issuing their debut single, "I Want to Be with You Tonight", in 1977.[4] GRT was more interested in the band as songwriters, and convinced the group to change their name to the Alabama Band, later shortened to Alabama.[10][7] The song only reached number 78 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs charts,[11] and GRT declared bankruptcy the following year. Due to a hidden clause in their contract, Alabama was forbidden from recording with another label.[5] For the next two years, the band raised money to buy out their contract and they began recording again in 1979.[5] Following self-recorded efforts Wildcountry (1976) and Deuces Wild (1977), Alabama Band No. 3 became the band's third album, and the band performed over 300 shows on the road that year.[5] The group hired independent radio promoters to receive radio play for the single "I Wanna Come Over", and they sent hand-written letters to program directors and DJs nationwide.[5] It received the attention of Dallas-based MDJ Records, who signed the band.[4] Scott left the group at this time, and was replaced by Mark Herndon, a rock drummer later credited with bringing the band their signature sound.[5] "I Wanna Come Over", became their first radio hit, reaching the top 40 in the Billboard country chart.[12]

text: 1980–87: Mainstream success and superstardom[edit]

text:
When it happened, it happened so fast we didn't have time to think ... One day we were in Myrtle Beach, and a few days later we were on Dick Clark's American Bandstand. We were scared to death. It was amazing. The next thing you know, you are Group of the Year on nationwide TV.
Randy Owen on the group's surprise success[10]

tag: div

text: The group's next single, "My Home's in Alabama", received an even better response, reaching the top 20.[12] Their early chart successes led to an invitation to appear at the "New Faces" show at Nashville's annual Country Radio Seminar, along with other new acts, such as Reba McEntire.[9] The band had to perform with studio musicians, rather than as a band, and left the session believing they had destroyed their chances. Despite this, the group drew interest from several labels, among those RCA Records,[10] with whom they signed in April 1980.[7] Their first single on RCA, "Tennessee River", was produced by Harold Shedd and was their first to hit number one on the Billboard country chart, beginning a streak of over 30 number one hits.[5] Cashbox named the band the New Vocal Group of the Year, marking the band's first award.[4] In July 1980, the band left their long-time gig at the Bowery,[10] promoting their single which they initially believed to be fluke.[9] The success took the band by surprise and soon became "all but consuming."[10]

text: Alabama enjoyed a great deal of creative freedom at RCA; they followed up "Tennessee River" with "Why Lady Why" despite the objections of executives and trade publications,[13] The song became their second number one on the charts.[12] They toured extensively, headlining small clubs and opening for bigger acts in major venues.[4] In addition, the group also received television exposure on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson and The Merv Griffin Show.[4] In February 1981, Alabama released its second major label album, Feels So Right; it peaked at number 16 on the Billboard 200 and stayed for more than three years, longer than any other Alabama album.[14] "Old Flame" was their next number one in February 1981, followed by "Feels So Right" in May, and "Love in the First Degree" that October.[12][15] That year, Alabama received a great deal of industry attention: Billboard named them New Group for the Year, Radio & Records called them Group of the Year, and the Academy of Country Music (ACM) deemed the band the Vocal Group of the Year.[4] The quintet performed on the 1981 Country Music Association Awards, where it received both Instrumental Group of the Year and Vocal Group of the Year.[4] Although the band received unprecedented success, Owen's personal life was falling apart: his father died while he was on the road, affecting him greatly.[9]

text:
"Love in the First Degree"

"Love in the First Degree" became Alabama's biggest crossover hit, peaking at number 15 on the Billboard Hot 100.[16]
Problems playing this file? See media help.

text: Mountain Music, released in February 1982, is considered their final release before a significant upgrade in production and sound.[17] All three of the album's singles reached number one: "Mountain Music" in May 1982, followed two months later by "Take Me Down" that July, and "Close Enough to Perfect" in October.[12] That year, both Mountain Music and Feels So Right would go quadruple platinum; by late 1982, the band had sold over six million albums, despite just two years on the national circuit.[12] "Christmas in Dixie", a seasonal song released in 1982, charted on two of Billboard magazine's music popularity charts in six different calendar years.[18] Alabama became the first group to win CMA's prestigious Entertainer of the Year award, which they collected three years in a row, from 1982 to 1984.[17] The group received a Grammy Award for Best Country Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal, for Mountain Music.[4]

text: The Closer You Get..., released in March 1983, was certified platinum within two months, and also won the Grammy for Best Country Performance.[19][4] Each of the album's singles—"Dixieland Delight", "The Closer You Get", and "Lady Down on Love"—were number ones in both the U.S. and Canada.[15] Roll On was Alabama's next LP, and its four singles,  "Roll On (Eighteen Wheeler)", "When We Make Love", "If You're Gonna Play in Texas (You Gotta Have a Fiddle in the Band)", "(There's A) Fire in the Night", all went to the top in both countries.[15] 40-Hour Week (1985) continued the band's string of multinational successes, with "40 Hour Week (For a Livin')" and "Can't Keep a Good Man Down" peaking at number one in both territories, with only the lead single, "There's No Way", falling short in Canada (although it peaked at number two).[15] 40-Hour Week was one of Alabama's most popular albums, crossing over in the pop album charts.[3] Alabama Christmas, a collection of nine holiday songs plus "Christmas in Dixie", became Alabama's debut on the compact disc that September; it was also the centerpiece of a retail and television promotion (sponsored by the Nashville Network).[20]

text: RCA issued an Alabama Greatest Hits compilation in January 1986, which went over five times platinum,[19] making the band the most successful country act of the 1980s.[5] The Touch followed in September 1986, and although considered one of the weakest in the band's catalogue,[5] it did have two number one hits: ""You've Got" the Touch" and "Touch Me When We're Dancing".[21] Their next record, Just Us, received a similar critical response, but produced two number ones: "Face to Face" and "Fallin' Again".[21]   They also contributed their vocals to "Deep River Woman", a single by Lionel Richie, from Richie's third solo album Dancing on the Ceiling.  Released in December 1986, the single peaked at number 10 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart and number 71 on the Hot 100.[22]

text: 1987–2004: Decline in popularity and Farewell tour[edit]

text: By the late 1980s, Alabama's sales slowed down considerably, with only their major albums going gold.[23] The group's popularity was mostly eclipsed by more traditional-sounding artists such as Ricky Skaggs, Randy Travis, George Strait, and Dwight Yoakam.[24] Despite this, they continued to be a popular touring act, and the band issued their first live album, Alabama Live, in 1988.[23] For 1989's Southern Star, the band decided to part ways with longtime producer Shedd, instead splitting production duties between Josh Leo and Larry Lee, and the other half with Barry Beckett.[5] "Song of the South" was another number one, and the album's remaining singles—"If I Had You", "High Cotton", and "Southern Star"—were number ones in both the U.S. and Canada.[15] That year, Alabama were named by Billboard the Country Artist of the 1980s and the ACA voted the band the Artist of the Decade.[23]

text: Although their popularity continued to decline during the 1990s, their albums still reached gold and platinum status.[5][23] The 1990 album Pass It on Down featured three number one singles: "Jukebox in My Mind", "Forever's as Far as I'll Go", and "Down Home".[21] According to AllMusic, by the time the band released 1992's American Pride, "they were among the genre's aging veterans."[25] Richard Carlin of Country Music: A Biographical Dictionary, suggested that the group's harmonies sounded dated to the new audience.[26] "I'm in a Hurry (And Don't Know Why)" became the album's biggest hit, reaching number one; the album's other singles still fared very well, with "Take a Little Trip", "Once Upon a Lifetime", and "Hometown Honeymoon" peaking within the top three.[21][27] Cheap Seats followed in 1993, with "Reckless" becoming Alabama's final number one, although most of the band's singles afterward peaked within the top ten.[21][27] The band's 1995 album, In Pictures, represented their eighteenth gold album, more than the total for any other country act to that point.[28] In 1996, the group remained finalists in the Vocal Group of the Year at the Country Music Association Awards.[28] The band released Dancin' on the Boulevard in 1997, exploring R&B and beach music.[29] Singles "Sad Lookin' Moon" and "Dancin', Shaggin' on the Boulevard" were top five hits in the U.S. and Canada.[27] The following year, the group released For the Record, a two-disc greatest hits compilation that contained two new singles — "How Do You Fall in Love" and "Keepin' Up". Both new tracks were hits on the Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart, peaking at number two and fourteen, respectively.[21]

text: For their fifteenth studio release, Twentieth Century (1999), the band recorded a cover of "(God Must Have Spent) A Little More Time on You" by the boy band 'N Sync in 1999, in a move that was considered an attempt to "stay relevant."[26] The single nonetheless hit number one in Canada, number three on the US country charts, and number 29 on the Billboard Hot 100.[16][27] When It All Goes South (2001) followed in 2001. "If I never did another CD, this is the one I will always point to as the one that I was happy with the most," said Owen at the time of its release.[30] Despite this, the album's singles did not fare well in comparison to past successes, with only the title track becoming a top 15 hit, representing the band's last career peak.[21]

text: Alabama announced the American Farewell tour in May 2002 at the Country Music Association Awards (CMAs), encompassing 40 tour dates, sponsorships, special events, and a TV special. Owen spoke then on the decision to part ways: "When you get down to it, there are many, many factors involved — some of them very personal. It's really about the integrity of the group, the dignity of the group."[31] Owen later admitted the group was exhausted after twenty years of nonstop touring and recording, and "everybody needed some time."[9] The tour collected $15 million in box office before it even began, and Alabama performed to packed arenas from June to November 2003.[32][33] Due to "extraordinary fan response and overwhelming ticket demand," the tour was extended for an additional 30 shows, running between February and June 2004.[34] The group performed their "final" show in October 2004 in Bismarck, North Dakota, with Herndon jokingly declaring "I need a job" as the concert closed.[35]

text: 2004–present: Reunions[edit]

text: In the ensuing years, Owen stayed active as a solo act, Cook with his Allstar Goodtime Band and Gentry as a producer and with his band Rockit City.[6] Herndon and the other group members had had a difficult relationship during the band's career.[36] While he was present in each press photo and a photo of him once hung at Alabama's fan club and museum, Owen contended that he was never an official member of the group. He claimed his inclusion in photos was the label's idea, and that Herndon was a paid employee of the band, rather than a member.[36] In May 2008, the other members of the group sued drummer Mark Herndon for $202,670 in money allegedly overpaid to him three years earlier after the band's farewell tour concluded.[37] This money was factored into the net profit and given to Herndon before accounting was completed, an allegation Herndon has denied. The band did not sue Herndon until he requested money from the multiple live albums and songs that the band had released but never paid Herndon for playing on.[37] Owen stated that RCA desired Herndon in the band so their image could be comparable to the Beatles.[9] Despite their troubles, he stated they had no hard feelings in an interview years later: "I don’t have one thing against him in any way in the world."[9]

text: Owen was diagnosed with prostate cancer in 2010, but he was later given a clean bill of health, which led to the band's reunion, without Herndon.[9] Following a series of tornadoes destroying homes and businesses throughout their state in 2011, Alabama assembled a benefit concert in Birmingham, called Bama Rising.[9] Featuring the band's first set since 2004, alongside Luke Bryan, Sheryl Crow and Brad Paisley, the concert raised $2.1 million. "I guess we realized that maybe we missed the playing ... and five or six years had gone by and we were like, 'Maybe that wasn't as bad as we remember it being,'" said Gentry.[9] In celebration of the group's 40th anniversary, Alabama resumed touring in 2013 for the Back to the Bowery tour, referencing the Myrtle Beach club where they first became professional musicians.[6] They also undertook a short cruise, The Alabama & Friends Festival at Sea, which left for the Bahamas on Norwegian Cruise Line's Norwegian Pearl ship.[38] In addition, the band released Alabama & Friends, a tribute album encompassing covers from newer artists such as Jason Aldean and Florida Georgia Line, in addition to two new tracks by Alabama.[9]

text: The band released their first new studio album in 14 years, Southern Drawl, on September 18, 2015 via BMG Chrysalis.[39] In 2016, Alabama were selected as one of 30 artists to perform on "Forever Country", a mash-up track of "Take Me Home, Country Roads", "On the Road Again", and "I Will Always Love You" that celebrates 50 years of the CMA Awards.[40]

text: In April 2017, guitarist Jeff Cook announced in a video that he would reduce the number of shows he would be in attendance for while the band was on tour, due to his struggle with Parkinson's. He had been diagnosed four years prior, and this was his first public announcement about his condition. [41]

text: Musical style and influences[edit]

text: Alabama's music mixes both country, rock, and pop, particularly evident in their musical concept: the band was one of the first country bands to achieve significant airplay.[42] Despite their influences from other genres, the band was most inspired by country music, which is most evident in their "harmonies, songwriting, and approach."[42] Stephen Thomas Erlewine writes that the band is "indebted to country, particularly the Bakersfield sound of Merle Haggard, and the sound of Nashville pop."[42] The band echoed its country upbringing in one of its first trade articles: "We're country first and crossover second. If crossovers come, that's great, but we'd rather have a No. 1. country song than be lost in the middle of both country and pop charts," said Owen.[13]

text: By the mid-1980s, the band increasingly moved toward a general pop-rock sound, "going for splashier productions with a more heavily amplified sound."[26] Alabama's lyrics often centered on their homeland. Their first hit single, "Tennessee River", recounts being "born across the river in the mountains I call home," while "Dixieland Delight" chronicles cruising down a rural Tennessee byway.[9]

text: Chart records, sales, and awards[edit]

text: Multiplatinum certifications[edit]

text: Alabama is among the world's best-selling bands of all time, having sold a combined 75 million records worldwide.[43] Alabama's best-selling studio album is Mountain Music (1982), while two greatest hits albums — Greatest Hits (1986) and For the Record (1998) — are among their highest in individual sales, with all three totaling five million in sales.[19] Alabama received multiplatinum success for several albums; albums currently certified quadruple platinum include Feels So Right, The Closer You Get..., and Roll On, while Alabama's double platinum albums include My Home's in Alabama, 40-Hour Week, Alabama Christmas and Greatest Hits Volume III.[19]

text: Awards[edit]

text: Alabama is the most awarded band in the history of country music, with over 200 awards from a variety of organizations.[10] In 1981, Alabama won both the Vocal Group of the Year and Instrumental Group of the Year honors from the CMAs. It also won the ACM's Vocal Group of the Year award, and Billboard's New Group of the Year honors. The group won the CMA's prestigious Entertainer of the Year award for three consecutive years (1982–84), and the ACM's Entertainer of the Year award five times (1982–86).[10] In 1989, Alabama was named Artist of the Decade by the ACM. In addition, Alabama has also received the NARM Gift of Music award, the Alabama Hall of Fame Distinguished Service award, the Country Radio Broadcasters Humanitarian Award, the Prince Matchabelli National Hero Award, the Bob Hope Humanitarian Award, and a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.[10]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: Impact[edit]

text: Alabama has been credited with "substantially broadening country's audience while becoming one of the most popular acts in American musical history" by Michael McCall of The Encyclopedia of Country Music.[7] The band was notable for its three-person lead (as "most other country acts focused on a soloist accompanied by an anonymous band"), their collective hair length and facial hair (which would have been deemed unacceptable just a decade earlier), and their prominent electric bass and drums.[26] They had a slightly edgier sound than other groups, and both played their own instruments and wrote their own songs.[9] Alabama mostly appealed to a younger audience, although their clean-cut image appealed to the more conservative, older country audience as well.[26] Kurt Wolff described the band's appeal: "They're just rebel enough for the young folks, but their parents also dig the boys' pretty harmonies, sentimental soft spots, and old-fashioned family values."[17] Alabama gave prominence to their hometown of Fort Payne, and also raised awareness for environmental issues.[23]

text: The band's incorporation of rock and roll into their sound was an inspiration for groups such as Restless Heart, Shenandoah, Exile, Diamond Rio, Lonestar, Ricochet, and the Mavericks.[7][10] According to Irwin Stambler and Grelun Landon, authors of Country Music: The Encyclopedia, the group's diminishing sales in the late 1980s reflected competition from country bands that would not have received recognition had it not been for Alabama paving the way. For their part, these groups credited Alabama with providing a massive influence on their careers.[23] Prior to Alabama's unprecedented chart success, most country hit singles belonged to solo artists or duets.[4] Many Alabama singles and albums represented crossover appeal on the pop charts.[44]

text: Despite their successes, Alabama's career was loathed by music critics of the day, citing the "vacuous songs and watered-down, middle-of-the-road arrangements" that blurred lines between country and pop.[44] The Baltimore Sun once argued the band "render[s] country music all but indistinguishable from pop" and thus "trivializes some of country's most hallowed traditions."[29] Indeed, reviewers such as Wolff consider the band's "overriding problem" their calculated sound, which leads many contemporary music critics to label the band mediocre.[17]

text: Philanthropy[edit]

text: Beginning in 1982 and continuing until 1997, Alabama sponsored the June Jam, a music festival in Fort Payne, which at its peak drew 60,000 fans and raised millions for local charities.[44] The group also held "Fan Appreciation Days," weekend events that included a golf tournament and a songwriters concert that raised money for charities in Fort Payne.[10] Owen spearheaded "Country Cares for Kids," an annual country radiothon that raised over $70 million for St. Jude Children's Research Hospital in Memphis, Tennessee.[10]

text: Band members[edit]

text: Current members[edit]

text:
Randy Owen – lead vocals, rhythm guitar (1969–2004, 2006–07, 2010–present)
Teddy Gentry – bass guitar, background vocals (1969–2004, 2006–07, 2010–present)
Jeff Cook – lead guitar, background vocals, fiddle, keyboards (1969–2004, 2006–07, 2010–present)
Mike Shawcross - Drums (2016 - present)

tag: ul

text: Former members[edit]

text:
Mark Herndon – drums, percussion (1979–2004)
Rick Scott – drums, percussion (1974–79)
Bennett Vartanian – drums, percussion (1972–74)
Jackie Owen – drums, percussion (1969–72)

text: Timeline[edit]

text: Discography[edit]

text: Albums[edit]

text:
Wild Country (1976)
Deuces Wild (1977)
Alabama Band No. 3 (1979)
My Home's in Alabama (1980)
Feels So Right (1981)
Mountain Music (1982)
The Closer You Get... (1983)
Roll On (1984)
40-Hour Week (1985)
The Touch (1986)
Just Us (1987)
Southern Star (1989)
Pass It On Down (1990)
American Pride (1992)
Cheap Seats (1993)
In Pictures (1995)
Dancin' on the Boulevard (1997)
Twentieth Century (1999)
When It All Goes South (2001)
Songs of Inspiration (2006)
Songs of Inspiration II (2007)
Angels Among Us: Hymns and Gospel Favorites (2014)
Southern Drawl (2015)

text: Number one singles[edit]

text: Alabama amassed over 40 number one hit singles (on a variety of industry charts) and 12 top-10 albums, including ten that peaked at number one on Billboard's Top Country Albums chart. The group had 33 number ones on Billboard's Hot Country Songs chart,[45] which are as follows:[46]

text:
1980 : "Tennessee River"; "Why Lady Why"
1981 : "Old Flame"; "Feels So Right"; "Love in the First Degree"
1982 : "Mountain Music"; "Take Me Down"; "Close Enough to Perfect"
1983 : "Dixieland Delight"; "The Closer You Get"; "Lady Down on Love"
1984 : "Roll On (Eighteen Wheeler)"; "When We Make Love"; "If You're Gonna Play in Texas (You Gotta Have a Fiddle in the Band)"
1985 : "(There's A) Fire in the Night"; "There's No Way"; "40 Hour Week (For a Livin')"; "Can't Keep a Good Man Down"
1986 : "She and I"; "Touch Me When We're Dancing"
1987 : "'You've Got' the Touch"
1988 : "Face to Face" (duet with K.T. Oslin); "Fallin' Again"
1989 : "Song of the South"; "If I Had You"; "High Cotton"
1990 : "Southern Star"; "Jukebox in My Mind"
1991 : "Forever's as Far as I'll Go"; "Down Home"
1992 : "I'm in a Hurry (And Don't Know Why)"
1993 : "Reckless"[45]
2011 : "Old Alabama" (with Brad Paisley)[45]


document_title: Fingerprint powder

question_text: what kind of powder is used for fingerprinting

root

text: Fingerprint powder

text: Application[edit]

text: Powders may be applied with a fingerprint brush, a brush with extremely fine fibers designed to hold powder, and deposit it gently on the fingerprint to be revealed, without rubbing away the often delicate residue of the fingerprint itself. They may also be applied by blowing the powder across the fingerprint, or by pouring the powder onto the print, and then blowing away the excess.

tag: p

text: Magnetic powders are also used, where a fine magnetic powder is held by a magnetic applicator, which may then be gently moved across the fingerprint. As no bristles touch the surface, this often damages the print less than other methods of developing the print.

text: Composition[edit]

text: Modern fingerprint powders have a variety of compositions, and are often a matter of personal choice by the expert using them or down to the standard procedure of the department or agency. Many agencies use proprietary powders produced by independent companies, and so the exact formulation of these powders is not revealed.

text: Some surfaces, such as organic ones, do not take to fingerprint powders at all and use of alternate methods is necessary. Other media, such as certain types of glue, can be "smoked" over these surfaces with fair results.

text: Historically, Lycopodium powder, the spores of Lycopodium and related plants, was used as a fingerprint powder.

text: Factor influencing fingerprint powder quality[edit]

text: There are several factors influencing the effectiveness of fingerprint powders.

text: As these various qualities are not normally all present in any one material, compositions of various materials are generally used. For example, lampblack is particularly black in color, absorbing around 98% of incident visible light, but other materials may have greater adhesion, or flow more effectively, producing a better overall powder than either alone.

text: Examples of materials[edit]

text: Metal powders

text: Of these, one of the more common powders in current use is aluminum powder, as it will show up on a variety of surfaces.


document_title: Asbestos

question_text: the types of asbestos known as 'blue' and 'brown' asbestos were banned in the uk in what year

question_tokens: the types of asbestos known as ' blue ' and ' brown ' asbestos were banned in the uk in what year

text: Asbestos

text: Etymology[edit]

text: Asbestos derives from the ancient Greek ἄσβεστος, meaning unquenchable or inextinguishable.[1][8][9] The word is pronounced /æsˈbɛstəs/, /æzˈbɛstəs/ or /æzˈbɛstɒs/.

text: Types and associated fibers[edit]

text: Six mineral types are defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as "asbestos" including those belonging to the serpentine class and those belonging to the amphibole class. All six asbestos mineral types are known to be human carcinogens.[10][11] The visible fibers are themselves each composed of millions of microscopic "fibrils" that can be released by abrasion and other processes.[2]

text:
Chrysotile asbestos

Asbestos fibers

Asbestos

Asbestos

Blue asbestos (crocidolite). The ruler is 1 cm.

Blue asbestos, teased to show the fibrous nature of the mineral

text: Serpentine[edit]

text: Serpentine class fibers are curly. Chrysotile is the only member of the serpentine class.

text: Chrysotile[edit]

text: Chrysotile, CAS No. 12001-29-5, is obtained from serpentinite rocks which are common throughout the world. Its idealized chemical formula is Mg3(Si2O5)(OH)4.[12] Chrysotile appears under the microscope as a white fiber.

text: Chrysotile has been used more than any other type and accounts for about 95% of the asbestos found in buildings in America.[13] Chrysotile is more flexible than amphibole types of asbestos, and can be spun and woven into fabric. The most common use was corrugated asbestos cement roofing primarily for outbuildings, warehouses and garages. It may also be found in sheets or panels used for ceilings and sometimes for walls and floors. Chrysotile has been a component in joint compound and some plasters. Numerous other items have been made containing chrysotile including brake linings, fire barriers in fuseboxes, pipe insulation, floor tiles, residential shingles, and gaskets for high temperature equipment.[citation needed]

text: Amphibole[edit]

text: Amphibole class fibers are needle-like. Amosite, crocidolite, tremolite, anthophyllite and actinolite are members of the amphibole class.

text: Amosite[edit]

text: Amosite, CAS No. 12172-73-5, often referred to as brown asbestos, is a trade name for the amphiboles belonging to the cummingtonite-grunerite solid solution series, commonly from South Africa, named as a partial acronym for "Asbestos Mines of South Africa". One formula given for amosite is Fe7Si8O22(OH)2. Amosite is seen under a microscope as a grey-white vitreous fiber. It is found most frequently as a fire retardant in thermal insulation products, asbestos insulating board and ceiling tiles.[13]

text: Crocidolite[edit]

text: Crocidolite, CAS No. 12001-28-4, is the fibrous form of the amphibole riebeckite, found primarily in southern Africa, but also in Australia and Bolivia. One formula given for crocidolite is Na2Fe2+3Fe3+2Si8O22(OH)2. Crocidolite is seen under a microscope as a blue fiber.

text: Crocidolite commonly occurs as soft friable fibers. Asbestiform amphibole may also occur as soft friable fibers but some varieties such as amosite are commonly straighter. All forms of asbestos are fibrillar in that they are composed of fibers with breadths less than 1 micrometer in bundles of very great widths. Asbestos with particularly fine fibers is also referred to as "amianthus".

text: Other materials[edit]

text: Other regulated asbestos minerals, such as tremolite asbestos, CAS No. 77536-68-6, Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2; actinolite asbestos, CAS No. 77536-66-4, Ca2(Mg, Fe)5(Si8O22)(OH)2; and anthophyllite asbestos, CAS No. 77536-67-5, (Mg, Fe)7Si8O22(OH)2; are less commonly used industrially but can still be found in a variety of construction materials and insulation materials and have been used in a few consumer products.

text: Other natural asbestiform minerals, such as richterite, Na(CaNa)(Mg, Fe++)5(Si8O22)(OH)2, and winchite, (CaNa)Mg4(Al, Fe3+)(Si8O22)(OH)2, though not regulated, are said by some to be no less harmful than tremolite, amosite, or crocidolite.[14] They are termed "asbestiform" rather than asbestos. Although the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has not included them in the asbestos standard, NIOSH and the American Thoracic Society have recommended them for inclusion as regulated materials because they may also be hazardous to health.[14]

text: Production[edit]

text: In 2009, about 9% of world's asbestos production was mined in Canada.[15] In late 2011, Canada's remaining two asbestos mines, both located in the Province of Quebec, halted operations.[16] In September 2012, the government in the Province of Quebec halted asbestos mining.[17]

text: In 2015, 2 million tonnes of asbestos were mined worldwide. The Russian Federation was the largest producer with about 55% world share followed by China (20%), Brazil (15.6%), and Kazakhstan (10.8%).[18]

text: History of use[edit]

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tag: table

text: Early uses[edit]

text: Asbestos use dates back at least 4,500 years, when the inhabitants of the Lake Juojärvi region in East Finland strengthened earthenware pots and cooking utensils with the asbestos mineral anthophyllite (see Asbestos-ceramic).[19] One of the first descriptions of a material that may have been asbestos is in Theophrastus, On Stones, from around 300 BC, although this identification has been questioned.[20] In both modern and ancient Greek, the usual name for the material known in English as "asbestos" is amiantos ("undefiled", "pure"), which was adapted into the French amiante and Portuguese amianto. In modern Greek, the word ἀσβεστος or ασβέστης stands consistently and solely for lime.

text: The term asbestos is traceable to Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder's manuscript Natural History, and his use of the term asbestinon, meaning "unquenchable".[1][8][19] While Pliny or his nephew Pliny the Younger is popularly credited with recognising the detrimental effects of asbestos on human beings,[21] examination of the primary sources reveals no support for either claim.[22]

text: Wealthy Persians amazed guests by cleaning a cloth by exposing it to fire. For example, according to Tabari, one of the curious items belonging to Khosrow II Parviz, the great Sassanian king (r. 531–579), was a napkin (Persian: منديل) that he cleaned simply by throwing it into fire. Such cloth is believed to have been made of asbestos imported over the Hindu Kush.[23] According to Biruni in his book, Gems, any cloths made of asbestos (Persian: آذرشست, āzarshost) were called shostakeh (Persian: شستكه).[24] Some Persians believed the fiber was the fur of an animal, called the samandar (Persian: سمندر), which lived in fire and died when exposed to water,[25][26] which was where the former belief that the salamander could tolerate fire originated.[27]

text: Charlemagne, the first Holy Roman Emperor (800–814), is said to have had a tablecloth made of asbestos.[28]

text: Marco Polo recounts having been shown, in a place he calls Ghinghin talas, "a good vein from which the cloth which we call of salamander, which cannot be burnt if it is thrown into the fire, is made ..."[29]

text: Some archaeologists believe that ancients made shrouds of asbestos, wherein they burned the bodies of their kings, in order to preserve only their ashes, and prevent them being mixed with those of wood or other combustible materials commonly used in funeral pyres.[30][31] Others assert that the ancients used asbestos to make perpetual wicks for sepulchral or other lamps.[25] A famous example is the golden lamp asbestos lychnis, which the sculptor Callimachus made for the Erechtheion.[32] In more recent centuries, asbestos was indeed used for this purpose. Although asbestos causes skin to itch upon contact, ancient literature indicates that it was prescribed for diseases of the skin, and particularly for the itch. It is possible that they used the term asbestos for soapstone, because the two terms have often been confused throughout history.[30][page needed]

text: Industrial era[edit]

text: The large scale asbestos industry began in the mid-19th century. Early attempts at producing asbestos paper and cloth in Italy began in the 1850s, but were unsuccessful in creating a market for such products. Canadian samples of asbestos were displayed in London in 1862, and the first companies were formed in England and Scotland to exploit this resource. Asbestos was first used in the manufacture of yarn, and German industrialist Louis Wertheim adopted this process in his factories in Germany. [33] In 1871, the Patent Asbestos Manufacturing Company was established in Glasgow, and within the following decades, the Clydebank area became a centre for the nascent industry.[34]

text: Industrial scale mining began in the Thetford hills, Quebec from the 1870s. Sir William Edmond Logan was the first to notice the large deposits of chrysotile in the hills in his capacity as head of Geological Survey of Canada. Samples of the minerals from here were displayed in London, and excited much interest.[33] With the opening up of the Quebec Central Railway in 1876, mining entrepreneurs, such as Andrew Stuart Johnson established the asbestos industry in the province.[35] The 50 ton output of the mines in 1878 rose to over 10,000 tons in the 1890s with the adoption of machine technologies and expanded production.[33][36] For a long time, the world's largest asbestos mine was the Jeffrey mine in the town of Asbestos, Quebec.[37]

text: Asbestos production began in the Urals of the Russian Empire in the 1880s, and in the Alpine regions of Northern Italy with the formation in Turin of the Italo-English Pure Asbestos Company in 1876, although this was soon swamped by the greater production levels from the Canadian mines. Mining also took off in South Africa from 1893 under the aegis of the British businessman Francis Oates, the Director of the De Beers company.[38] It was in South Africa that the production of amosite began in 1910. The U.S. asbestos industry had an early start in 1858, when fibrous anthophyllite was mined for use as asbestos insulation by the Johns Company, a predecessor to the current Johns Manville, at a quarry at Ward's Hill on Staten Island, New York.[39] US production began in earnest in 1899, with the discovery of large deposits in the Belvidere Mountain.

text: The use of asbestos became increasingly widespread towards the end of the 19th century, when its diverse applications included fire retardant coatings, concrete, bricks, pipes and fireplace cement, heat, fire, and acid resistant gaskets, pipe insulation, ceiling insulation, fireproof drywall, flooring, roofing, lawn furniture, and drywall joint compound. In 2011 it was reported that over 50% of UK houses still contained asbestos, despite a ban on asbestos products some years earlier.[40]

text: In Japan, particularly after World War II, asbestos was used in the manufacture of ammonium sulfate for purposes of rice production, sprayed upon the ceilings, iron skeletons, and walls of railroad cars and buildings (during the 1960s), and used for energy efficiency reasons as well. Production of asbestos in Japan peaked in 1974 and went through ups and downs until about 1990, when production began to drop dramatically.[41]

text: Discovery of toxicity[edit]

text: In 1899, Dr. Montague Murray noted the negative health effects of asbestos.[42] The first documented death related to asbestos was in 1906.[43]

text: In the early 1900s researchers began to notice a large number of early deaths and lung problems in asbestos-mining towns. The first such study was conducted by Dr. H. Montague Murray at the Charing Cross Hospital, London, in 1900, in which a postmortem investigation of a young man who had died from pulmonary fibrosis after having worked for 14 years in an asbestos textile factory, discovered asbestos traces in the victim's lungs. Adelaide Anderson, the Inspector of Factories in Britain, included asbestos in a list of harmful industrial substances in 1902. Similar investigations were conducted in France and Italy, in 1906 and 1908, respectively.[44]

text: The first diagnosis of asbestosis was made in the UK in 1924.[43][45][46] Nellie Kershaw was employed at Turner Brothers Asbestos in Manchester, England from 1917, spinning raw asbestos fibre into yarn.[46][47] Her death in 1924 led to a formal inquest. Pathologist Dr William Edmund Cooke testified that his examination of the lungs indicated old scarring indicative of a previous, healed, tuberculosis infection, and extensive fibrosis, in which were visible "particles of mineral matter ... of various shapes, but the large majority have sharp angles."[45] Having compared these particles with samples of asbestos dust provided by Dr S.A. Henry, His Majesty's Medical Inspector of Factories, Cooke concluded that they "originated from asbestos and were, beyond a reasonable doubt, the primary cause of the fibrosis of the lungs and therefore of death".[46][48]

text: As a result of Cooke's paper, parliament commissioned an inquiry into the effects of asbestos dust by Dr E. R. A. Merewether, Medical Inspector of Factories, and C. W. Price, a factory inspector and pioneer of dust monitoring and control.[2] Their subsequent report, Occurrence of Pulmonary Fibrosis & Other Pulmonary Affections in Asbestos Workers, was presented to parliament on 24 March 1930.[49] It concluded that the development of asbestosis was irrefutably linked to the prolonged inhalation of asbestos dust, and included the first health study of asbestos workers, which found that 66% of those employed for 20 years or more suffered from asbestosis.[2] The report led to the publication of the first Asbestos Industry Regulations in 1931, which came into effect on 1 March 1932.[50] These regulated ventilation and made asbestosis an excusable work-related disease.[12] The term mesothelioma was first used in medical literature in 1931; its association with asbestos was first noted sometime in the 1940s. Similar legislation followed in the U.S. about ten years later.

text: Approximately 100,000 people in the United States have died, or are terminally ill, from asbestos exposure related to ship building. In the Hampton Roads area, a shipbuilding center, mesothelioma occurrence is seven times the national rate.[51] Thousands of tons of asbestos were used in World War II ships to insulate piping, boilers, steam engines, and steam turbines. There were approximately 4.3 million shipyard workers in the United States during WWII; for every 1,000 workers about 14 died of mesothelioma and an unknown number died from asbestosis.[52]

text: The United States government and asbestos industry have been criticized for not acting quickly enough to inform the public of dangers, and to reduce public exposure. In the late 1970s, court documents proved that asbestos industry officials knew of asbestos dangers since the 1930s and had concealed them from the public.[52]

text: In Australia, asbestos was widely used in construction and other industries between 1946 and 1980. From the 1970s there was increasing concern about the dangers of asbestos, and its use was phased out. Mining ceased in 1983. The use of asbestos was phased out in 1989 and banned entirely in December 2003. The dangers of asbestos are now well known in Australia and there is help and support for sufferers from asbestosis or mesothelioma.[53]

text: Usage by industry and product type[edit]

text: Serpentine group[edit]

text: Serpentine minerals have a sheet or layered structure. Chrysotile is the only asbestos mineral in the serpentine group. In the United States, chrysotile has been the most commonly used type of asbestos. According to the U.S. EPA Asbestos Building Inspectors Manual, chrysotile accounts for approximately 95% of asbestos found in buildings in the United States.[citation needed] Chrysotile is often present in a wide variety of products and materials, including:

text:
Chlor Alkali diaphragm membranes used to make chlorine (currently in the USA) [54]
Drywall and joint compound
Plaster
Gas mask filters pre-1960s and gas mask filters from the USSR
Mud and texture coats
Vinyl floor tiles, sheeting, adhesives
Roofing tars, felts, siding, and shingles[55]
"Transite" panels, siding, countertops, and pipes
Popcorn ceilings, also known as acoustic ceilings
Fireproofing

text:
Caulk
Industrial and marine gaskets
Brake pads and shoes
Stage curtains
Fire blankets
Interior fire doors
Fireproof clothing for firefighters
Thermal pipe insulation
Filters for removing fine particulates from chemicals, liquids and wine
Dental cast linings
HVAC flexible duct connectors
Drilling fluid additives

text: In the European Union and Australia it has recently been banned as a potential health hazard[56] and is not used at all. Japan is moving in the same direction, but at a slower pace.

text: Amphibole group[edit]

text: Amphiboles including amosite (brown asbestos) and crocidolite (blue asbestos) were formerly used in many products until the early 1980s.[citation needed] Tremolite asbestos constituted a contaminant of many if not all naturally occurring chrysotile deposits. The use of all types of asbestos in the amphibole group was banned in much of the Western world by the mid-1980s, and in Japan by 1995.[citation needed] Some products that included amphibole types of asbestos included the following:

text:
Low density insulating board (often referred to as AIB or asbestos insulating board) and ceiling tiles;
Asbestos-cement pipe (made until the early 1990s by at least one manufacturer);
Asbestos-cement sheets and pipes for construction, casing for water and electrical/telecommunication services;
Thermal and chemical insulation (e.g., fire rated doors, limpet spray, lagging and gaskets).

text: Cigarette manufacturer Lorillard (Kent's filtered cigarette) used crocidolite asbestos in its "Micronite" filter from 1952 to 1956.[57]

text: While mostly chrysotile asbestos fibers were once used in automobile brake pads, shoes, and clutch discs, contaminants of amphiboles were present. Since approximately the mid-1990s, brake pads, new or replacement, have been manufactured instead with linings made of ceramic, carbon, metallic and aramid fiber (Twaron or Kevlar—the same material used in bulletproof vests).

text: Artificial Christmas snow, known as flocking, was previously made with asbestos.[58] It was used as an effect in films including The Wizard of Oz and department store window displays and it was marketed for use in private homes under brand names that included "Pure White", "Snow Drift" and "White Magic".[59]

text: Construction[edit]

text: Developed countries[edit]

text: The use of asbestos in new construction projects has been banned for health and safety reasons in many developed countries or regions, including the European Union, Australia, Hong Kong, Japan, and New Zealand. A notable exception is the United States, where asbestos continues to be used in construction such as cement asbestos pipes. The 5th Circuit Court prevented the EPA from banning asbestos in 1991 because EPA research showed the ban would cost between $450 and 800 million while only saving around 200 lives in a 13-year timeframe, and that the EPA did not provide adequate evidence for the safety of alternative products.[60] Until the mid-1980s, small amounts of white asbestos were used in the manufacture of Artex, a decorative stipple finish,[61] however, some of the lesser-known suppliers of Artex were still adding white asbestos until 1999.[62]

text: Prior to the ban, asbestos was widely used in the construction industry in thousands of materials. Some are judged to be more dangerous than others due to the amount of asbestos and the material's friable nature. Sprayed coatings, pipe insulation and Asbestos Insulating Board (AIB) are thought to be the most dangerous due to their high content of asbestos and friable nature. Many older buildings built before the late 1990s contain asbestos. In the United States, there is a minimum standard for asbestos surveys as described by ASTM Standard E 2356–04. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency includes some but not all asbestos-contaminated facilities on the Superfund National Priorities list (NPL). Renovation and demolition of asbestos contaminated buildings is subject to EPA NESHAP and OSHA Regulations. Asbestos is not a material covered under CERCLA's innocent purchaser defense. In the UK, the removal and disposal of asbestos and of substances containing it are covered by the Control of Asbestos Regulations 2006.[63]

text: U.S. asbestos consumption hit a peak of 804,000 tons in 1973; world asbestos demand peaked around 1977, with 25 countries producing nearly 4.8 million metric tons annually.[64]

text: In older buildings (e.g. those built prior to 1999 in the UK, before white asbestos was banned), asbestos may still be present in some areas. Being aware of asbestos locations reduces the risk of disturbing asbestos.[65]

text: Removal of asbestos building components can also remove the fire protection they provide, therefore fire protection substitutes are required for proper fire protection that the asbestos originally provided.[65][66]

text: Outside Europe and North America[edit]

text: Some countries, such as India, Indonesia, China, Russia and Brazil, have continued widespread use of asbestos. The most common is corrugated asbestos-cement sheets or "A/C sheets" for roofing and for side walls. Millions of homes, factories, schools or sheds and shelters continue to use asbestos. Cutting these sheets to size and drilling holes to receive 'J' bolts to help secure the sheets to roof framing is done on-site. There has been no significant change in production and use of A/C sheets in developing countries following the widespread restrictions in developed nations[citation needed].

text: 11 September 2001 attacks[edit]

text: As New York City's World Trade Center collapsed following the September 11 attacks, Lower Manhattan was blanketed in a mixture of building debris and combustible materials. This complex mixture gave rise to the concern that thousands of residents and workers in the area would be exposed to known hazards in the air and in the dust, such as asbestos, lead, glass fibers, and pulverized concrete.[67] More than 1,000 tons of asbestos are thought to have been released into the air following the buildings' destruction.[68] Inhalation of a mixture of asbestos and other toxicants is thought to be linked to the unusually high death rate from cancer of emergency service workers since the disaster.[68] Thousands more are now thought to be at risk of developing cancer due to this exposure with those who have died so far being only the 'tip of the iceberg'.[68] Some commentators have criticised authorities for using asbestos in the buildings' construction.

text: In May 2002, after numerous cleanup, dust collection, and air monitoring activities were conducted outdoors by EPA, other federal agencies, New York City and the state of New York, New York City formally requested federal assistance to clean and/or test residences in the vicinity of the World Trade Center site for airborne asbestos.[67]

text: Asbestos contaminants in other products[edit]

text: Vermiculite[edit]

text: Vermiculite is a hydrated laminar magnesium-aluminum-iron silicate which resembles mica. It can be used for many industrial applications and has been used as insulation. Some deposits of vermiculite have been found to be contaminated with small amounts of asbestos.[69]

text: One vermiculite mine operated by W. R. Grace and Company in Libby, Montana exposed workers and community residents to danger by mining vermiculite contaminated with asbestos, typically richterite, winchite, actinolite or tremolite.[70] Vermiculite contaminated with asbestos from the Libby mine was used as insulation in residential and commercial buildings through Canada and the United States. W. R. Grace and Company's loose-fill vermiculite was marketed as Zonolite but was also used in sprayed-on products such as Monokote.

text: In 1999 the EPA began cleanup efforts in Libby and now the area is a Superfund cleanup area.[71] The EPA has determined that harmful asbestos is released from the mine as well as through other activities that disturb soil in the area.[72]

text: Talc[edit]

text: Talc can sometimes be contaminated with asbestos due to the proximity of asbestos ore (usually tremolite) in underground talc deposits.[73] By 1973, US federal law required all talc products to be asbestos-free,[74] and today there is strict quality control in the production of talc products, separating cosmetic-grade talc (e.g. talcum powder) from industrial-grade talc (often used in friction products) has largely eliminated this issue for consumers.[75]

text: In 2000, tests in a certified asbestos-testing laboratory found the tremolite form of amphibole asbestos in three out of eight bigger brands of children's crayons that are made partly from talc: Crayola, Prang, and RoseArt.[76] In Crayola crayons, the tests found asbestos levels from 0.05% in Carnation Pink to 2.86% in Orchid; in Prang crayons, the range was from 0.3% in Periwinkle to 0.54% in Yellow; in Rose Art crayons, it was from 0.03% in Brown to 1.20% in Orange. Overall, 32 different types of crayons from these brands contained more than trace amounts of asbestos, and eight others contained trace amounts. The Art and Creative Materials Institute, a trade association which tests the safety of crayons on behalf of the makers, initially insisted the test results must be incorrect, although they later said they do not test for asbestos.[76] In May 2000, Crayola said tests by Richard Lee, a materials analyst whose testimony on behalf of the asbestos industry has been accepted in lawsuits over 250 times, found two of its crayons tested negative for asbestos.[77] In June 2000, Binney & Smith, the maker of Crayola, and the other makers agreed to stop using talc in their products, and changed their product formulations in the United States.[77]

text: The mining company, R T Vanderbilt Co of Gouverneur, New York, which supplied the talc to the crayon makers, states that "to the best of our knowledge and belief" there is no asbestos in its talc.[78] However media reports claim that the United States Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) had found asbestos in four talc samples tested in 2000.[76] The Assistant Secretary for Mine Safety and Health subsequently wrote to the news reporter, stating that "In fact, the abbreviation ND (non detect) in the laboratory report – indicates no asbestos fibers actually were found in the samples",[79] and multiple studies by both mineral studies laboratories[80][81][82][83][84][85][86][87][88] and biological cell studies[89][90][91] do not report asbestos. These findings have been rejected by other health reports and studies which advocate a "same as" asbestos risk.[92][93]

text: Health impact[edit]

text: All types of asbestos fibers are known to cause serious health hazards in humans.[94][95][96] Amosite and crocidolite are considered the most hazardous asbestos fiber types;[citation needed] however, chrysotile asbestos has also produced tumors in animals and is a recognized cause of asbestosis and malignant mesothelioma in humans,[97] and mesothelioma has been observed in people who were occupationally exposed to chrysotile, family members of the occupationally exposed, and residents who lived close to asbestos factories and mines.[98]

text: During the 1980s and again in the 1990s it was suggested at times that the process of making asbestos cement could "neutralize" the asbestos, either via chemical processes or by causing cement to attach to the fibers and changing their physical size; subsequent studies showed that this was untrue, and that decades-old asbestos cement, when broken, releases asbestos fibers identical to those found in nature, with no detectable alteration.[99]

text: Exposure to asbestos in the form of fibers is always considered dangerous. Working with, or exposure to, material that is friable, or materials or works that could cause release of loose asbestos fibers, is considered high risk. However, in general, people who become ill from inhaling asbestos have been regularly exposed in a job where they worked directly with the material.

text: The most common diseases associated with chronic exposure to asbestos are asbestosis and mesothelioma.[100]

text: Substitutes for asbestos in construction[edit]

text: Fiberglass insulation was invented in 1938 and is now the most commonly used type of insulation material. The safety of this material is also being called into question due to similarities in material structure.[101] However, the International Agency for Research on Cancer removed fiberglass from its list of possible human carcinogens in 2001[102] and a scientific review article from 2011 claimed epidemiology data was inconsistent and concluded that the IARC's decision to downgrade the carcinogenic potential of fiberglass was valid (however, this study was funded by sponsored research contract from the North American Insulation Manufacturer’s Association).[103]

text: In 1978, a highly texturized fiberglass fabric was invented by Bal Dixit, called Zetex. This fabric is lighter than asbestos, but offers the same bulk, thickness, hand, feel, and abrasion resistance as asbestos. The fiberglass was texturized to eliminate some of the problems that arise with fiberglass, such as poor abrasion resistance and poor seam strength.[104]

text: In Europe mineral wool and glass wool are the main insulators in houses.

text: Many companies that produced asbestos-cement products that were reinforced with asbestos fibers have developed products incorporating organic fibers. One such product was known as "Eternit" and another "Everite" now use "Nutec" fibers which consist of organic fibers, portland cement and silica. Cement-bonded wood fiber is another substitute. Stone fibers are used in gaskets and friction materials.

text: Another potential fiber is polybenzimidazole or PBI fiber. Polybenzimidazole fiber is a synthetic fiber with high melting point of 760 °C (1,400 °F) that also does not ignite. Because of its exceptional thermal and chemical stability, it is often used by fire departments and space agencies.

text: Recycling and disposal[edit]

text: Asbestos alternatives for industrial use include sleeves, rope, tape, fabric, textiles and insulation batt materials made from fiberglass and silica.

text: In most developed countries, asbestos is typically disposed of as hazardous waste in landfill sites.

text: The demolition of buildings containing large amounts of asbestos based materials pose particular problems for builders and property developers – such buildings often have to be deconstructed piece by piece, or the asbestos has to be painstakingly removed before the structure can be razed by mechanical or explosive means. One such example is the Red Road Flats in Glasgow, Scotland which used huge amounts of asbestos cement board for wall panelling – here British health and safety regulations stipulate that asbestos material has to be removed to a landfill site via an approved route at certain times of the day in specially adapted vehicles.

text: Asbestos can be recycled by transforming it into harmless silicate glass. A process of thermal decomposition at 1000–1250 °C produces a mixture of non-hazardous silicate phases, and at temperatures above 1250 °C it produces silicate glass.[105] Microwave thermal treatment can be used in an industrial manufacturing process to transform asbestos and asbestos-containing waste into porcelain stoneware tiles, porous single-fired wall tiles, and ceramic bricks.[106]

text: The combination of oxalic acid with ultrasound fully degrades chrysotile asbestos fibers.[107]


document_title: Private (rank)

question_text: what is a private in the british army

question_tokens: what is a private in the british army

text: Private (rank)

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The term derives from the medieval term "private soldiers" (a term still used in the British Army), denoting individuals who were either hired, conscripted, or mustered into service by a feudal nobleman commanding a battle group of an army. The usage of "private" dates from the 18th century.

text: Asia[edit]

text: Israel[edit]

text: In the Israel Defense Forces, טוראי Turai ("private") refers to the lowest enlisted rank. After 7–10 months of service (7 for combatants, 8 for combat support and 10 for non-combatants) soldiers are promoted from private to corporal (rav-turai or rabat), if they performed their duties appropriately during this time. Soldiers who take a commander's course, are prisoner instructors or practical engineers become corporals earlier. An IDF private wears no uniform insignia and is sometimes described as having a "slick sleeve" for this reason.

text:
Israel Defense Forces ranks : נגדים חוגרים hogrim - enlisted

IDF NCO
Rank
טוראי
Turai
רב טוראי
Rav turai
סמל
Samal
סמל ראשון
Samal rishon

NATO
OR–2
OR–3
OR–4

Abbreviation
טוראי
Turai
רב"ט
Rabat
סמל
Samal
סמ"ר
Samar

Corresponding
Rank
Private
Corporal
Sergeant
Staff sergeant

Insignia

More details at Israel Defense Forces ranks & IDF 2012 - Ranks (idf.il, English)

text: Korea[edit]

text: The equivalent ranks to privates within the North and South Korean armies are il-byong(private first class) and e-byong(private second class). The symbol for this rank is 1 line ( | ) or 2 lines ( || ). Private second class is known by 1 line, while private first class is 2 lines.

text: Singapore[edit]

text: Once recruits complete their Basic Military Training (BMT) or Basic Rescue Training (BRT), they attain the rank of private (PTE). Privates (列兵) do not wear ranks on their rank holder. PTEs who performed well are promoted to the rank of Private First Class (PFC). The PFC rank insignia is a single chevron pointing downward.[1]

text: Indonesia[edit]

text: In Indonesia, this rank is referred to as Tamtama (specifically Prajurit), which is the lowest rank in the Indonesian Armed Forces and special Police Force. In the Indonesian Army, "Private" has three levels, which are: Private (Prajurit Dua), Private First Class (Prajurit Satu), and Master Private (Prajurit Kepala). After this rank, it is promoted the rank: Corporal.

text:
Private (Prajurit Dua)

Private First Class (Prajurit Satu)

Master Private (Prajurit Kepala)

text: Commonwealth[edit]

text: Australia[edit]

text: In the Australian Army, a soldier of private rank wears no insignia.[2] Like its British Army counterpart, the Australian Army rank of private (PTE) has other titles, depending on the corps and specification of that service member.

text: The following alternative ranks are available for privates in the Australian Army:

text:
Craftsman (CFN) – Royal Australian Electrical and Mechanical Engineers
Gunner (GNR) – Royal Australian Artillery
Sapper (SPR) – Royal Australian Engineers;
Musician (MUSN) – Australian Army Band Corps
Signalman (SIG) – Royal Australian Corps of Signals
Trooper (TPR) – Royal Australian Armoured Corps, Australian Army Aviation and the Australian Special Air Service Regiment

text: Canada[edit]

text: Private is the lowest rank in the Canadian Forces for members who wear army uniform. There are three levels of private: private (recruit), private (basic), and private (trained). All persons holding the rank of private are referred to as such and the qualifier shown in brackets is used on employment records only. A private is considered an "apprentice" in their trade, and there are no pay raises between the various levels of private except for time in rank raise.

text: For members who wear air force uniform, the rank is called aviator and is also broken into three levels: aviator (recruit), aviator (basic) and aviator (trained). The insignia for aviator (trained) is a propeller.

text:
Private (recruit) (Pte(R)) / aviator (recruit) (Avr(R))– fresh recruit, untrained; holds this rank through recruit training.
Private (basic) (Pte(B)) / aviator (basic) (Avr(B)) – after finishing recruit training, a member becomes a private (basic). This rank is held through training and beyond.
Private (trained) (Pte(T)) / aviator (trained) (Avr(T)) – A private (basic) becomes a private (trained) a year after completion of their trades training depending on their regiment; some regiments may promote them right away. Typically in the Regular Force, this rank is awarded after two and a half years of service, not a year after completion of one's trade qualifications. A private (trained) is the only private to wear rank insignia, a single chevron. An aviator (trained) is the only aviator to wear rank insignia, a propeller. This can be awarded well beyond two years as the training is longer than the armies. It would normally be up to the squadrons.

text: Army privates may be known by other titles, depending on unit and personnel branch:

text:
Craftsman – Corps of Royal Canadian Electrical and Mechanical Engineers
Fusilier – Royal Canadian Infantry Corps (RCIC) members of fusilier regiments
Guardsman – RCIC members of foot guards regiments
Gunner – Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery
Rifleman – RCIC members of rifle regiments
Sapper – Corps of Royal Canadian Engineers
Signaller – Royal Canadian Corps of Signals
Trooper – Royal Canadian Armoured Corps

text: For members who wear navy uniform the equivalents are:

text:
Ordinary seaman (OS) – private (recruit/basic)
Able seaman (AB) – private (trained)

text: India and Pakistan[edit]

text: In the Indian Army and Pakistan Army the lowest enlisted rank is sepoy (/ˈsiːpɔɪ/), literally meaning "soldier" derived from Persian. A sepoy does not wear any rank insignia on his uniform.

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: In the British Army, a private (Pte) equates to both OR-1 and OR-2 on the NATO scale, although there is no difference in rank. Privates wear no insignia. Many regiments and corps use other distinctive and descriptive names instead of private, some of these ranks have been used for centuries, others are less than 100 years old.[3] In the contemporary British Armed Forces, the army rank of private is broadly equivalent to able seaman in the Royal Navy, aircraftman, leading aircraftman and senior aircraftman in the Royal Air Force, and marine (Mne) or bandsman, as appropriate equivalent rank in the Royal Marines. Also in the Boys Brigade the rank of private is used when a boy moves from the junior section to the company section.

text: Notably, both Sir Fitzroy Maclean and Enoch Powell are examples of rare, rapid career progression with the British Army, both rising from the rank of private to at least brigadier during World War II.

text: Distinctive equivalents for private include:

text:
Airtrooper (AirTpr) – Army Air Corps
Bugler (Bgr) – buglers in The Rifles and formerly also in other Rifle regiments
Craftsman (Cfn) – Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers (women as well as men use this rank)
Drummer (Dmr) – drummers in infantry regiments
Fusilier (Fus) – Fusilier regiments
Gunner (Gnr) – Royal Artillery
Guardsman (Gdsm) – Foot Guards
Highlander (Hldr) – The Highlanders
Kingsman (Kgn) – Duke of Lancaster's Regiment
Musician (Musn) – military bands (formerly if a military band had a Bandmaster, they would be known as Bandsman (Bdsm))
Piper (Ppr) – bagpipers in Scottish and Irish regiments
Ranger (Rgr) – Royal Irish Regiment and Royal Irish Rangers
Rifleman (Rfn) – Rifle regiments
Sapper (Spr) – Royal Engineers
Signaller (Sig) – Royal Corps of Signals (formerly called signalman)
Trooper (Tpr) – Household Cavalry, Royal Armoured Corps, Special Air Service and Honourable Artillery Company
Trumpeter (Tptr) – trumpeters in the Household Cavalry (and formerly in all cavalry regiments)

text: Europe and Latin America[edit]

text: Austria[edit]

text: The lowest rank in the Austrian Armed Forces is the Rekrut (literally Recruit). For recruits in training to become non-commissioned or commissioned officers the rank bears an additional silver crossbar.

text: Up until 1998 the rank was called Wehrmann. In 2017 the silver crossbar was removed, as the system of the 'officers career' changed.

text: Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Mexico and Spain[edit]

text: The equivalent rank to private in the Spanish, Mexican, Colombian, Dominican and Argentinian army is the soldado raso meaning "rankless soldier" or simply soldado.

text: Belgium[edit]

text: On enlistment in the Belgian army one is given the rank of soldaat (Dutch) or soldat (French), whether one wishes to be a volunteer, non-commissioned officer or officer. Subsequent rank depends on the branch of the service: for example, at the Royal Military Academy (for officer training) one is soon promoted to the rank of corporaal (Dutch) or caporal (French) i.e. "corporal". The insignia is a simple black mark.

text: Brazil and Portugal[edit]

text: Soldado is the rank equivalent to private in the Brazilian and Portuguese Armed Forces. Soldado means "soldier" in Portuguese.

text: Finland[edit]

text: The Finnish equivalent rank is sotamies (literally "war man"), although since 1973 this has been purely a paper term as all infantry troopers were renamed as jääkäri troops, previously reserved only to mobile light infantry. As in the British army, the various branches use different names:

text:
Infantry – jääkäri ("jaeger")
Military engineers – pioneeri ("pioneer")
Signal corps – viestimies ("message man")
Cavalry – rakuuna ("dragoon")
Artillery – tykkimies ("cannon man")
Tank corps – panssarimies ("tank man")

text: In the Finnish Air Force, the basic rank is lentosotamies ("flight war man"). In the Finnish Navy, the basic rank is matruusi ("seaman").

text: Special corps troopers may be referred by their function or unit, such as kaartinjääkäri (Guards jaeger), panssarijääkäri (panzerjäger), laskuvarjojääkäri (paratroop jaeger), rajajääkäri (border jaeger) or rannikkojääkäri (coastal jaeger).

text: France[edit]

text: In the French army soldat de seconde classe is the lowest military rank. This rank is also referred to as recrue ("recruit").

text: Germany[edit]

text: The German Bundeswehr modern-day equivalent of the private rank (NATO-standard code OR-2) is Gefreiter.

text: The equivalent of the lowest rank (NATO-standard code OR-1) is either Schütze (rifleman), Kanonier (gunner) or Jäger (light-infantryman otherwise ranger), and sometimes in general simply Soldat (soldier), as well as other unit-specific distinctions.[4] Up until 1918 it was Gemeine[5] (Ordinary [soldier]) as well as unit-specific distinctions such as Musketier (musketeer), Infanterist (infantryman), Kürassier (cuirassier), Jäger (light-infantryman otherwise ranger), Füsilier (fusilier) etc., until 1945 Soldat (soldier) and unit-specific distinctions such as Schütze (rifleman), Grenadier (grenadier) etc. The navy equivalent of the OR-1 rank is known as Matrose[4] (sailor or seaman), and the German Air Force equivalent is Flieger[4] (aviator or airman) which is also used by army aviators.

text:
Bundeswehr OR-1-rank: Soldat (Heer), Flieger (German Air Force) and Matrose (German Navy)

Schütze, Kanonier, Jäger rank
shoulder epaulette
Army (Heer) uniform jacket

Schütze, Kanonier, Jäger rank
Army (Heer) combat uniform

Flieger rank
Air Force (Luftwaffe) combat uniform

Schütze, Kanonier, Jäger Unteroffizieranwärter (UA) NCO-candidate rank
Army (Heer) combat uniform

Matrose rank
Navy service uniform

text: Hungary[edit]

text: The name of the lowest rank in the Hungarian army (Magyar Honvédség) is the honvéd which means "homeland defender". The word is also used informally for a soldier in general of any rank (i.e. "our honvéds" or an officer referred as a honvédtiszt, honvéd officer). This is because Hungarian military traditions are strictly defensive, despite the Hungarian army participating in offensives on foreign soil in both world wars. The word honvéd has been in use since the Hungarian Revolution of 1848.

text: Ireland[edit]

text:
2* private

3* private

text: Private (Pte) (saighdiúr singil in Irish), is the lowest enlisted rank in the Irish Army. Soldiers enlist as recruits then undergo a basic course of instruction. There are three grades of private in the army. After basic training the soldier is upgraded (rather than promoted) from recruit to private 2 star (Pte 2*) (saighdiúr singil, 2 réalta). After more corps-specific training (usually lasting eight weeks) the soldier is upgraded to private 3 star (Pte 3*) (saighdiúr singil, 3 réalta). All are usually just addressed as "private", although before being upgraded, recruits may be addressed as "recruit".

text: In corps units, the rank designation changes. In the artillery, the rank is known as gunner (Gnr), but usually only after the completion of a gunners' course, and in the cavalry it is known as trooper (Tpr). Communications and Information Services privates are known as signalman or signalwoman. Medical orderlies are sometimes referred to as medic, although this can apply to privates and corporals.

text: Italy[edit]

text: In the Italian Army soldato is the lowest military rank. This rank is also referred to as recluta (meaning recruit). Soldato is the generic term for private. But in many specialized corps this term is never used, as a more specific, corp related, term is preferred. For instance the lowest rank in Alpine troops is alpino, and the lowest rank in the artillery is artigliere. In the air force this is ranked as aviere and in the navy as marinaio.

text: Netherlands[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (September 2008)

text: In the Royal Netherlands Army, the Landmacht, the equivalent ranks are soldaat (soldier), similar to the original French, with different classes:

text:
Soldaat der derde klasse (soldier/private 3rd class), for soldiers in Algemene Militaire Opleiding or AMO (General Military Training), with insignia.
Soldaat der tweede klasse (soldier/privat 2nd class), the basic infantry rank, an insignia single striped red band, obtained after AMO but before completion of Initiële Functie Opleiding or IFO (initial job training).
Soldaat der eerste klasse (soldier/privat 1st class), comparable to private first class, with an insignia with two neighbouring striped red bands, obtained automatically a year after completion of IFO.

text: Depending on where the soldaat serves, he may be deemed a kanonnier (gunner in the artillery), huzaar (hussar in the cavalry) or fuselier (rifleman in the rifles) as well as commando, jager or rijder. There is less differentiation than in other countries between different armed forces. A soldaat can be promoted to korporaal (corporal).

text: Switzerland[edit]

text: In the Swiss Armed Forces a recruit is given the rank of Soldat when he finishes basic training, mostly after 13 weeks.

text: Turkey[edit]

text: In the Turkish Land Forces, Turkish Air Force and Turkish Naval Forces; Er (Private) is the lowest rank possible. This rank does not have any insignia.

text: United States[edit]

text: United States Army[edit]

text: In the U.S. Army, private is used for the two lowest enlisted ranks, just below private first class. The lowest rank is "private E-1" (PV1) and sometimes referred to as recruit, but also held by some soldiers after punishment through the Uniform Code of Military Justice or prisoners after conviction until they are discharged. A PV1 wears no uniform insignia; since the advent of the Army Combat Uniform, the term "fuzzy" has come into vogue, referring to the blank velcro patch on the ACU where the rank would normally be placed. The second rank, private E-2 (PV2), wears a single chevron, known colloquially as "mosquito wings". Advancement to the PV2 is automatic after six months' time in service, but may get shortened to four months if given a waiver. A person who earned the Eagle Scout award, the Gold Award, or completed at least two years of JROTC may enlist at any time at the rank of PV2.[6] The term of address, "Private", may be properly applied to any Army soldier E-1 (PV1) to E-3 (PFC). It should also be noted that while a soldier is currently in Initial Enlistment Training, he or she will often be referred to as "Private" by the training cadre, regardless of actual rank, even if the soldier enlisted as a Specialist/E-4.

text: United States Marine Corps[edit]

text: In the U.S. Marine Corps, private (Pvt) refers only to the lowest enlisted rank, just below private first class. A Marine Corps private wears no uniform insignia and is sometimes described as having a "slick sleeve" for this reason. Most new, non-officer Marines begin their military career as a private. In the Marine Corps, privates first class are not referred to as "private"; it is more appropriate to use either "private first class" or "PFC".


document_title: Surface Book

question_text: when did the surface book 1 come out

question_tokens: when did the surface book 1 come out

text: Surface Book

text: History[edit]

text: Surface Book was announced at the Windows 10 Devices Event by Microsoft at October 6, 2015, alongside the Surface Pro 4.[7] It was available for a pre-order the following day and was released and shipped to customers beginning on October 26, 2015.

text: When unveiling the Surface Book to the press, Panos Panay, corporate vice president for Surface Computing at Microsoft, initially presented the device as being a laptop (using part of a promotional video which shows the screen remaining attached to the keyboard base) and positioned it as a competitor to the MacBook Pro, before revealing its true nature as a hybrid device by showing the rest of the video where the screen is revealed as detachable and compatible with the Surface Pen.[8][9]

text: On October 26, 2016, Microsoft announced an updated Surface Book with a new Nvidia GeForce GTX 965M GPU and additional battery life over the original model.

text: On October 17, 2017, Microsoft revealed the successor to the Surface Book, the Surface Book 2[10]

text: Features[edit]

text: Design[edit]

text: The Surface Book's design was influenced by a goal to design a 2-in-1 convertible tablet that could be folded like a laptop, and not require the keyboard to be heavier than the tablet portion in order to support and balance the tablet portion.[8] To reach this goal, the Surface development team developed a special hinge on the keyboard that would increase the footprint of the device when opened, thus maintaining the balance without increasing the weight differential between the two parts.[8][9] The hinge is accompanied by muscle wire locks that secure the tablet portion to the keyboard.[11] They are constructed from nickel titanium—an alloy that contracts when exposed to an electrical current; pressing a release button on the keyboard sends an electrical impulse through the wires that attach or release the clips.[8][9][12] The team also worked with the Microsoft team developing Windows 10 to implement a switchable graphics system, where the tablet would be able to switch to a discrete graphics card located within the keyboard when docked, and revert to internal graphics when undocked.[8][9]

text: The Surface Book's use cases are reflected by several design decisions, such as referring to the tablet portion as being a clipboard. Additionally, while the device as a whole is rated as having 12 hours of battery life, this capacity is divided between two separate batteries within the clipboard and keyboard portions: the clipboard has a 4-hour battery, while the base has 8-hour.[8][9] The Surface Book's keyboard is considered a major component of the device, and is bundled with all models.[13]

text: The device consists of a tablet portion with a 13.5 inches (34 cm), 3000×2000 resolution display,[1] and a keyboard attachment.[8] That allows it to function similarly to a traditional laptop. Both components are constructed from machined magnesium.[13][14] The Surface Book's keyboard utilizes a dynamic fulcrum hinge, which compresses when closed, and expands outwards when opened. The hinge design allows the tablet portion to be held up at an angle resembling a traditional laptop screen without the use of a kickstand, a supporting part found in Surface-series devices, and increases the physical room between the keyboard and the tablet.[12][15]

text: Hardware[edit]

text: Surface Book is a first-time Surface-family 2-in-1 to be shipped with a keyboard. Contrary to a Type Cover optional keyboard accessory of other Surface tablets, Surface Book's keyboard is a thick and sturdy part, capable of folding back behind the display. It contains two USB 3.0 ports, full-size SD card slot on the left, Mini DisplayPort and SurfaceConnect port on the right, has an integrated additional battery and an optional Nvidia discrete GPU with 1 GB of video memory.[13] It can be used for non-demanding tasks such as web browsing without the connected keyboard part, and when laptop convenience, extended connectivity, performance, and battery life are needed — with the keyboard attached.

text: The 2-in-1's display features the same 3:2 aspect ratio and 10-point multi-touch display, found in other Surface tablets starting from Surface Pro 3, but its size and resolution are significantly increased at 13.5 inches (34 cm) and 3000×2000 (267 PPI) respectively.[13]

text: Surface Book models are built with a 6th generation Skylake Intel Core i5 or i7 processors. The top CPU option, i7-6600U, has a clock rate of 2.6 GHz, with up to 3.4 GHz in Turbo Boost mode.[3]

text: There is an Intel HD Graphics 520 GPU available, integrated in all processor options, however it is possible to order a Surface Book with an additional custom variant of Nvidia GeForce 940M[4][5] Maxwell-architecture discrete GPU for the improved operation of GPU performance-demanding programs such as Adobe Premiere Pro.[16] During the presentation it was stated that the models with Nvidia GPU can comfortably run games with a performance footprint of League of Legends.[17] The Surface Book is able to connect and disconnect the discrete GPU automatically, on-the-fly and without an OS reboot needed, when user attaches and detaches the keyboard part.[1]

text: Two system memory options available are: 8 or 16 GB and four SSD options: 128, 256, 512 GB, or 1 TB, but the higher SSD option is not available in some countries.[13]

text: The front camera contains an infrared sensor that supports logging in with Windows Hello.[18]

text: Surface Book with Performance Base[edit]

text: At the Microsoft Windows 10 event on October 26, 2016, Microsoft announced a version of the Surface Book that contained an updated Nvidia GeForce GTX 965M discrete GPU along with an additional 1 GB of GDDR5 video memory (meaning the new Surface Book now has 2 GB of vRAM instead of 1 GB). The base of this updated Surface Book is also thicker than the original in order to incorporate an additional cooling fan for the new GPU and more internal batteries, allowing for an additional 4 hours of video playback - upping the total claimed runtime of the device to 16 hours. This model is also 0.3 pounds (0.14 kg) heavier and is available only with an Intel Core i7 processor. There are no upgrades to the processors, RAM, or storage in the Surface Book with Performance Base over the original.[19]

text: Software[edit]

text: Surface Book models ship with a pre-installed 64-bit version of Windows 10 Pro and a 30-day trial Microsoft Office suite.[13]

text: Accessories[edit]

text: A Surface Dock was announced alongside the Surface Book and Surface Pro 4, and is compatible with both devices. It is also backward compatible with the Surface Pro 3. The Surface Dock adds two Mini DisplayPorts, one Gigabit Ethernet, four USB 3.0 and one audio out port to the 2-in-1.[20]

text: Just like the Surface Pro devices, Surface Book includes a Surface Pen.[21] Surface Book ships with the latest version of the pen with 1024 levels of pressure. A Surface Pen Tip Kit is also available for order, which includes a set of pen tips of various diameter aimed for artists and illustrators.

text: Reception and issues[edit]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: Upon release the Surface Book received critical acclaim for its design and functionality, as well as its integration of a secondary GPU into the keyboard. However, the lack of certain features, such as LTE connectivity and USB-C ports, was noted along with the price of the highest-specs model (US$3,200 for one with 1 TB of storage and a Core i7).[1][22] In addition, many reviewers had pre-release issues with the hinge undocking mechanism and graphics display drivers, both of which Microsoft resolved at a later date through a Windows software update.[23] The first review versions of the hardware did not initially have Windows Hello enabled, but after a firmware update enabled it reception of the feature was positive.[24][18]  The "teardown" site iFixit scored the Surface Book 1/10 for repairability due to the use of glue instead of screws to hold the unit together.[25]

text: Issues[edit]

text: The Windows Hello driver included in a firmware update failed to properly reinitialize the infrared camera after waking from sleep mode, causing Windows Hello to fail until a reboot.[26] Firmware updates were issued in April and May 2016 to fix the camera.[27] The device had a battery life issue where it failed to sleep properly, draining the battery very quickly.[28] Microsoft developed a fix that was available on February 17, 2016.[29]

text: Return rates[edit]

text: The Surface Book has had a very high return rate since its launch because of the issues it had.[30]

text: Timeline[edit]