document_title: Rabies

question_text: when did they find a cure for rabies

question_tokens: when did they find a cure for rabies

text: Rabies

text: Signs and symptoms

text: The period between infection and the first symptoms (incubation period) is typically 1–3 months in humans.[14] Incubation periods as short as four days and longer than six years have been documented, depending on the location and severity of the contaminated wound and the amount of virus introduced.[14] Initial signs and symptoms of rabies are often nonspecific such as fever and headache.[14] As rabies progresses and causes inflammation of the brain and/or meninges, signs and symptoms can include slight or partial paralysis, anxiety, insomnia, confusion, agitation, abnormal behavior, paranoia, terror, and hallucinations, progressing to delirium, and coma.[4][14] The person may also have hydrophobia.[1] Death usually occurs 2 to 10 days after first symptoms. Survival is rare once symptoms have presented,[14] even with the administration of proper and intensive care.[15] Jeanna Giese, who in 2004 was the first patient treated with the Milwaukee protocol,[16] became the first person ever recorded to have survived rabies without receiving successful post-exposure prophylaxis. An intention-to-treat analysis has since found this protocol has a survival rate of about 8%.[17]

text: Hydrophobia

text: Hydrophobia ("fear of water") is the historic name for rabies.[18] It refers to a set of symptoms in the later stages of an infection in which the person has difficulty swallowing, shows panic when presented with liquids to drink, and cannot quench his or her thirst. Any mammal infected with the virus may demonstrate hydrophobia.[19]

text: Saliva production is greatly increased, and attempts to drink, or even the intention or suggestion of drinking, may cause excruciatingly painful spasms of the muscles in the throat and larynx. This can be attributed to the fact that the virus multiplies and assimilates in the salivary glands of the infected animal for the purpose of further transmission through biting. The ability to transmit the virus would decrease significantly if the infected individual could swallow saliva and water.[20]

text: Hydrophobia is commonly associated with furious rabies, which affects 80% of rabies-infected people. The remaining 20% may experience a paralytic form of rabies that is marked by muscle weakness, loss of sensation, and paralysis; this form of rabies does not usually cause fear of water.[19]

text: Cause

text: Rabies is caused by a number of lyssaviruses including the rabies virus and Australian bat lyssavirus.[2]

text: The rabies virus is the type species of the Lyssavirus genus, in the family Rhabdoviridae, order Mononegavirales. Lyssavirions have helical symmetry, with a length of about 180 nm and a cross-section of about 75 nm.[21] These virions are enveloped and have a single-stranded RNA genome with negative sense. The genetic information is packed as a ribonucleoprotein complex in which RNA is tightly bound by the viral nucleoprotein. The RNA genome of the virus encodes five genes whose order is highly conserved: nucleoprotein (N), phosphoprotein (P), matrix protein (M), glycoprotein (G), and the viral RNA polymerase (L).[22]

text: Once within a muscle or nerve cell, the virus undergoes replication. The trimeric spikes on the exterior of the membrane of the virus interact with a specific cell receptor, the most likely one being the acetylcholine receptor. The cellular membrane pinches in a procession known as pinocytosis and allows entry of the virus into the cell by way of an endosome. The virus then uses the acidic environment, which is necessary, of that endosome and binds to its membrane simultaneously, releasing its five proteins and single strand RNA into the cytoplasm.[23]

text: The L protein then transcribes five mRNA strands and a positive strand of RNA all from the original negative strand RNA using free nucleotides in the cytoplasm. These five mRNA strands are then translated into their corresponding proteins (P, L, N, G and M proteins) at free ribosomes in the cytoplasm. Some proteins require post-translative modifications. For example, the G protein travels through the rough endoplasmic reticulum, where it undergoes further folding, and is then transported to the Golgi apparatus, where a sugar group is added to it (glycosylation).[23]

text: Where there are enough proteins, the viral polymerase will begin to synthesize new negative strands of RNA from the template of the positive strand RNA. These negative strands will then form complexes with the N, P, L and M proteins and then travel to the inner membrane of the cell, where a G protein has embedded itself in the membrane. The G protein then coils around the N-P-L-M complex of proteins taking some of the host cell membrane with it, which will form the new outer envelope of the virus particle. The virus then buds from the cell.[23]

text: From the point of entry, the virus is neurotropic, traveling along the neural pathways into the central nervous system. The virus usually first infects muscle cells close to the site of infection, where they are able to replicate without being 'noticed' by the host's immune system. Once enough virus has been replicated, they begin to bind to acetylcholine receptors (p75NR) at the neuromuscular junction.[24] The virus then travels through the nerve cell axon via retrograde transport, as its P protein interacts with dynein, a protein present in the cytoplasm of nerve cells. Once the virus reaches the cell body it travels rapidly to the central nervous system (CNS), replicating in motor neurons and eventually reaching the brain.[4] After the brain is infected, the virus travels centrifugally to the peripheral and autonomic nervous systems, eventually migrating to the salivary glands, where it is ready to be transmitted to the next host.[25]:317

text: Transmission

text: All warm-blooded species, including humans, may become infected with the rabies virus and develop symptoms. Birds were first artificially infected with rabies in 1884; however, infected birds are largely, if not wholly, asymptomatic, and recover.[26] Other bird species have been known to develop rabies antibodies, a sign of infection, after feeding on rabies-infected mammals.[27][28]

text: The virus has also adapted to grow in cells of cold-blooded vertebrates.[29][30] Most animals can be infected by the virus and can transmit the disease to humans. Infected bats,[31][32] monkeys, raccoons, foxes, skunks, cattle, wolves, coyotes, dogs, mongooses (normally either the small Asian mongoose or the yellow mongoose)[33] and cats present the greatest risk to humans.

text: Rabies may also spread through exposure to infected bears, domestic farm animals, groundhogs, weasels, and other wild carnivorans. However, lagomorphs, such as hares and rabbits, and small rodents such as chipmunks, gerbils, guinea pigs, hamsters, mice, rats, and squirrels, are almost never found to be infected with rabies and are not known to transmit rabies to humans.[34] Bites from mice, rats, or squirrels rarely require rabies prevention because these rodents are typically killed by any encounter with a larger, rabid animal, and would, therefore, not be carriers.[35] The Virginia opossum is resistant but not immune to rabies.[36]

text: The virus is usually present in the nerves and saliva of a symptomatic rabid animal.[37][38] The route of infection is usually, but not always, by a bite. In many cases, the infected animal is exceptionally aggressive, may attack without provocation, and exhibits otherwise uncharacteristic behavior.[39] This is an example of a viral pathogen modifying the behavior of its host to facilitate its transmission to other hosts.

text: Transmission between humans is extremely rare. A few cases have been recorded through transplant surgery.[40] The only well-documented cases of rabies caused by human-to-human transmission occurred among eight recipients of transplanted corneas and among three recipients of solid organs.[41] In addition to transmission from cornea and organ transplants, bite and non-bite exposures inflicted by infected humans could theoretically transmit rabies, but no such cases have been documented, since infected humans are usually hospitalized and necessary precautions taken. Casual contact, such as touching a person with rabies or contact with non-infectious fluid or tissue (urine, blood, feces) does not constitute an exposure and does not require post-exposure prophylaxis. Additionally, as the virus is present in sperm or vaginal secretions, spread through sex may be possible.[42]

text: After a typical human infection by bite, the virus enters the peripheral nervous system. It then travels along the afferent nerves toward the central nervous system.[43] During this phase, the virus cannot be easily detected within the host, and vaccination may still confer cell-mediated immunity to prevent symptomatic rabies. When the virus reaches the brain, it rapidly causes encephalitis, the prodromal phase, which is the beginning of the symptoms. Once the patient becomes symptomatic, treatment is almost never effective and mortality is over 99%. Rabies may also inflame the spinal cord, producing transverse myelitis.[44][45]

text: Diagnosis

text: Rabies can be difficult to diagnose, because, in the early stages, it is easily confused with other diseases or with aggressiveness.[46] The reference method for diagnosing rabies is the fluorescent antibody test (FAT), an immunohistochemistry procedure, which is recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO).[47] The FAT relies on the ability of a detector molecule (usually fluorescein isothiocyanate) coupled with a rabies-specific antibody, forming a conjugate, to bind to and allow the visualisation of rabies antigen using fluorescent microscopy techniques. Microscopic analysis of samples is the only direct method that allows for the identification of rabies virus-specific antigen in a short time and at a reduced cost, irrespective of geographical origin and status of the host. It has to be regarded as the first step in diagnostic procedures for all laboratories. Autolysed samples can, however, reduce the sensitivity and specificity of the FAT.[48] The RT PCR assays proved to be a sensitive and specific tool for routine diagnostic purposes,[49] particularly in decomposed samples[50] or archival specimens.[51] The diagnosis can be reliably made from brain samples taken after death. The diagnosis can also be made from saliva, urine, and cerebrospinal fluid samples, but this is not as sensitive and reliable as brain samples.[48] Cerebral inclusion bodies called Negri bodies are 100% diagnostic for rabies infection but are found in only about 80% of cases.[21] If possible, the animal from which the bite was received should also be examined for rabies.[52]

text: Some light microscopy techniques may also be used to diagnose rabies at a tenth of the cost of traditional fluorescence microscopy techniques, allowing identification of the disease in less-developed countries.[53]

text: Differential diagnosis

text: The differential diagnosis in a case of suspected human rabies may initially include any cause of encephalitis, in particular infection with viruses such as herpesviruses, enteroviruses, and arboviruses such as West Nile virus. The most important viruses to rule out are herpes simplex virus type one, varicella zoster virus, and (less commonly) enteroviruses, including coxsackieviruses, echoviruses, polioviruses, and human enteroviruses 68 to 71.[54]

text: New causes of viral encephalitis are also possible, as was evidenced by the 1999 outbreak in Malaysia of 300 cases of encephalitis with a mortality rate of 40% caused by Nipah virus, a newly recognized paramyxovirus.[55] Likewise, well-known viruses may be introduced into new locales, as is illustrated by the outbreak of encephalitis due to West Nile virus in the eastern United States.[56] Epidemiologic factors, such as season, geographic location, and the patient's age, travel history, and possible exposure to bites, rodents, and ticks, may help direct the diagnosis.

text: Prevention

text: Almost all human cases of rabies were fatal until a vaccine was developed in 1885 by Louis Pasteur and Émile Roux. Their original vaccine was harvested from infected rabbits, from which the virus in the nerve tissue was weakened by allowing it to dry for five to ten days.[57] Similar nerve tissue-derived vaccines are still used in some countries, as they are much cheaper than modern cell culture vaccines.[58]

text: The human diploid cell rabies vaccine was started in 1967. Less expensive purified chicken embryo cell vaccine and purified vero cell rabies vaccine are now available.[52] A recombinant vaccine called V-RG has been used in Belgium, France, Germany, and the United States to prevent outbreaks of rabies in undomesticated animals.[59] Immunization before exposure has been used in both human and nonhuman populations, where, as in many jurisdictions, domesticated animals are required to be vaccinated.[60]

text: The Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services Communicable Disease Surveillance 2007 Annual Report states the following can help reduce the risk of contracting rabies:[61]

text:
Vaccinating dogs, cats, and ferrets against rabies
Keeping pets under supervision
Not handling wild animals or strays
Contacting an animal control officer upon observing a wild animal or a stray, especially if the animal is acting strangely
If bitten by an animal, washing the wound with soap and water for 10 to 15 minutes and contacting a healthcare provider to determine if post-exposure prophylaxis is required

text: September 28 is World Rabies Day, which promotes the information, prevention, and elimination of the disease.[62]

text: Vaccinating other animals

text: In Asia and in parts of the Americas and Africa, dogs remain the principal host. Mandatory vaccination of animals is less effective in rural areas. Especially in developing countries, pets may not be privately kept and their destruction may be unacceptable. Oral vaccines can be safely distributed in baits, a practice that has successfully reduced rabies in rural areas of Canada, France, and the United States. In Montreal, Quebec, Canada, baits are successfully used on raccoons in the Mount-Royal Park area. Vaccination campaigns may be expensive, and cost-benefit analysis suggests baits may be a cost-effective method of control.[63] In Ontario, a dramatic drop in rabies was recorded when an aerial bait-vaccination campaign was launched.[64]

text: The number of recorded human deaths from rabies in the United States has dropped from 100 or more annually in the early 20th century to one or two per year due to widespread vaccination of domestic dogs and cats and the development of human vaccines and immunoglobulin treatments. Most deaths now result from bat bites, which may go unnoticed by the victim and hence untreated.[65]

text: Treatment

text: Treatment after exposure can prevent the disease if administered promptly, generally within 10 days of infection.[21] Thoroughly washing the wound as soon as possible with soap and water for approximately five minutes is effective in reducing the number of viral particles.[66] Povidone-iodine or alcohol is then recommended to reduce the virus further.[67]

text: In the US, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends people receive one dose of human rabies immunoglobulin (HRIG) and four doses of rabies vaccine over a 14-day period.[68] The immunoglobulin dose should not exceed 20 units per kilogram body weight. HRIG is expensive and constitutes most of the cost of post exposure treatment, ranging as high as several thousand dollars.[69] As much as possible of this dose should be injected around the bites, with the remainder being given by deep intramuscular injection at a site distant from the vaccination site.[23]

text: The first dose of rabies vaccine is given as soon as possible after exposure, with additional doses on days 3, 7 and 14 after the first. Patients who have previously received pre-exposure vaccination do not receive the immunoglobulin, only the postexposure vaccinations on days 0 and 3.[70]

text: The pain and side effects of modern cell-based vaccines are similar to flu shots. The old nerve-tissue-based vaccinations that require multiple painful injections into the abdomen with a large needle are inexpensive, but are being phased out and replaced by affordable World Health Organization intradermal-vaccination regimens.[52]

text: Intramuscular vaccination should be given into the deltoid, not the gluteal area, which has been associated with vaccination failure due to injection into fat rather than muscle. In infants, the lateral thigh is recommended.[71]

text: Awakening to find a bat in the room, or finding a bat in the room of a previously unattended child or mentally disabled or intoxicated person, is an indication for post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP). The recommendation for the precautionary use of PEP in bat encounters where no contact is recognized has been questioned in the medical literature, based on a cost–benefit analysis.[72] However, a 2002 study has supported the protocol of precautionary administering of PEP where a child or mentally compromised individual has been alone with a bat, especially in sleep areas, where a bite or exposure may occur without the victim being aware.[73] Begun with little or no delay, PEP is 100% effective against rabies.[16] In the case in which there has been a significant delay in administering PEP, the treatment should be administered regardless, as it may still be effective.[23] Every year, more than 15 million people get vaccination after potential exposure. While this works well, the cost is significant.[74]

text: Milwaukee protocol

text: The Milwaukee protocol, sometimes referred to as the Wisconsin protocol,[75][76] is a method of attempted treatment of rabies infection in a human being. The treatment involves putting the person into a chemically induced coma and giving antiviral drugs. The protocol is not an effective treatment for rabies and its use is not recommended.[77]

text: Prognosis

text: In unvaccinated humans, rabies is almost always fatal after neurological symptoms have developed.[78]

text: Vaccination after exposure, PEP, is highly successful in preventing the disease if administered promptly, in general within 6 days of infection. Begun with little or no delay, PEP is 100% effective against rabies.[16] In the case of significant delay in administering PEP, the treatment still has a chance of success.[23]

text: Epidemiology

text: In 2010, an estimated 26,000 people died from rabies, down from 54,000 in 1990.[79] The majority of the deaths occurred in Asia and Africa.[78] As of 2015[update], India, followed by China (approximately 6,000), and Democratic Republic of the Congo (5,600) had the most cases.[80] A 2015 collaboration between the World Health Organization, World Organization of Animal Health (OIE), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation (FAO), and Global Alliance for Rabies Control has a goal of eliminating deaths from rabies by 2030.[81]

text: India

text: India has the highest rate of human rabies in the world, primarily because of stray dogs,[82] whose number has greatly increased since a 2001 law forbade the killing of dogs.[83] Effective control and treatment of rabies in India is also hindered by a form of mass hysteria known as puppy pregnancy syndrome (PPS). Dog bite victims with PPS (both male and female) become convinced that puppies are growing inside them, and often seek help from faith healers rather than from conventional medical services.[84] An estimated 20,000 people die every year from rabies in India — more than a third of the global toll.[83]

text: Australia

text: The rabies virus survives in widespread, varied, rural animal reservoirs. Despite Australia's official rabies-free status,[85] Australian bat lyssavirus (ABLV), discovered in 1996, is a strain of rabies prevalent in native bat populations. There have been three human cases of ABLV in Australia, all of them fatal.

text: North America

text: While canine-specific rabies does not circulate among dogs, about a hundred dogs become infected from other wildlife per year in the US.[86][87] Rabies is common among wild animals in the United States. Bats, raccoons, skunks and foxes account for almost all reported cases (98% in 2009). Rabid bats are found in all 48 contiguous states. Other reservoirs are more limited geographically; for example, the raccoon rabies virus variant is only found in a relatively narrow band along the East Coast. Due to a high public awareness of the virus, efforts at vaccination of domestic animals and curtailment of feral populations, and availability of postexposure prophylaxis, incidents of rabies in humans are very rare. A total of 49 cases of the disease was reported in the country between 1995 and 2011; of these, 11 are thought to have been acquired abroad. Almost all domestically acquired cases are attributed to bat bites.[88]

text: Europe

text: In Switzerland, the disease has been virtually eliminated after scientists placed chicken heads laced with live attenuated vaccine in the Swiss Alps.[64] The foxes of Switzerland, proven to be the main source of rabies in the country, ate the chicken heads and immunized themselves.[64]

text: Italy, after being declared rabies-free from 1997 to 2008, has witnessed a reemergence of the disease in wild animals in the Triveneto regions (Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, Veneto and Friuli-Venezia Giulia), due to the spreading of an epidemic in the Balkans that hit Austria too. An extensive wild animals vaccination campaign eliminated the virus from Italy again, and it regained the rabies-free country status in 2013, the last reported case of rabies being reported in a red fox in early 2011.[89][90]

text: History

text: Rabies has been known since around 2000 B.C.[91] The first written record of rabies is in the Mesopotamian Codex of Eshnunna (circa 1930 BC), which dictates that the owner of a dog showing symptoms of rabies should take preventive measure against bites. If another person were bitten by a rabid dog and later died, the owner was heavily fined.[92]

text: Ineffective folk remedies abounded in the medical literature of the ancient world. The physician Scribonius Largus prescribed a poultice of cloth and hyena skin; Antaeus recommended a preparation made from the skull of a hanged man.[93]

text: Rabies appears to have originated in the Old World, the first epizootic in the New World occurring in Boston in 1768.[94] It spread from there, over the next few years, to various other states, as well as to the French West Indies, eventually becoming common all across North America.

text: Rabies was considered a scourge for its prevalence in the 19th century. In France and Belgium, where Saint Hubert was venerated, the "St Hubert's Key" was heated and applied to cauterize the wound. By an application of magical thinking, dogs were branded with the key in hopes of protecting them from rabies. The fear of rabies was almost irrational, due to the number of vectors (mostly rabid dogs) and the absence of any efficacious treatment. It was not uncommon for a person bitten by a dog but merely suspected of being rabid to commit suicide or to be killed by others.[95] This gave Louis Pasteur ample opportunity to test postexposure treatments from 1885.[14] In ancient times, the attachment of the tongue (the lingual frenulum, a mucous membrane) was cut and removed as this was where rabies was thought to originate. This practice ceased with the discovery of the actual cause of rabies.[25]

text: In modern times, the fear of rabies has not diminished, and the disease and its symptoms, particularly agitation, have served as an inspiration for several works of zombie or similarly-themed fiction, often portraying rabies as having mutated into a stronger virus which fills humans with murderous rage or uncurable illness, bringing about a devastating, widespread pandemic.[96]

text: Etymology

text: The term is derived from the Latin rabies, "madness".[97] This, in turn, may be related to the Sanskrit rabhas, "to rage".[98] The Greeks derived the word lyssa, from lud or "violent"; this root is used in the genus name of the rabies virus, Lyssavirus.[95]

text: Other animals

text: Rabies is infectious to mammals; three stages of central nervous system infection are recognized. The first stage is a one- to three-day period characterized by behavioral changes and is known as the prodromal stage. The second is the excitative stage, which lasts three to four days. This stage is often known as "furious rabies" for the tendency of the affected animal to be hyper-reactive to external stimuli and bite at anything near. The third is the paralytic stage and is caused by damage to motor neurons. Incoordination is seen, owing to rear limb paralysis, and drooling and difficulty swallowing is caused by paralysis of facial and throat muscles. Death is usually caused by respiratory arrest.[99]

text: Research

text: The outer shell of the rabies virus, stripped of its RNA contents and thus unable to cause disease, may be used as a vector for the delivery of unrelated genetic material in a research setting. It has the advantage over other pseudotyping methods for gene delivery that the cell targeting (tissue tropism) is more specific for the central nervous system, a difficult-to-reach site, obviating the need for invasive delivery methods. It is also capable of infecting neighboring "upstream" cells, moving from one cell to axons of the next at synapses, and is thus used for retrograde tracing in neuronal circuits.[100]

text: Evidence indicates artificially increasing the permeability of the blood–brain barrier, which normally does not allow most immune cells across, promotes viral clearance.[101][102]


document_title: Christine (1983 film)

question_text: how many cars were used to film christine

root

text: Christine (1983 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: In 1978, Arnold "Arnie" Cunningham (Keith Gordon) is an awkward and unpopular teenager, in Rockbridge, California, with only one friend, Dennis Guilder (John Stockwell). Arnie's life begins to change when he buys a used, badly battered red-and-white 1958 Plymouth Fury, named "Christine," in need of extensive repairs. Arnie begins to restore Christine at a local repair shop and junkyard, Darnell's Autobody, but as he spends more of his time working on the car, he discards his glasses, dresses more like a 1950s greaser, and develops an arrogant personality. Dennis and Arnie's new girlfriend, Leigh Cabot (Alexandra Paul), discover the car's previous owner was obsessed with Christine and committed suicide in it by carbon monoxide poisoning.

tag: p

text: A group of bullies at school—angry with Arnie after a shop class confrontation results in the lead bully, Buddy Repperton (William Ostrander), being expelled—vandalize Christine. Arnie is devastated and determined to repair Christine. As he examines the ruined car, he hears the creaking of metal and notices the engine is now fully restored. Arnie tells the car, "Show me." Christine flips on its lights and restores itself to showroom quality, then, driving itself, seeks out the vandals. Moochie Wells (Malcolm Danare) is targeted first and crushed to death in an alley. Richie and Don are caught in a gas station explosion (which sets Christine on fire); and Buddy is run over and burned by the flaming car. Darnell (Robert Prosky), owner of the garage and junkyard where Arnie restored and keeps his Plymouth Fury, is killed in the garage when he sits in the car and is crushed between the seat the steering wheel.

text: On New Year's Eve, Dennis and Leigh reason that the only way to stop Christine and save Arnie is to destroy the car. Dennis scratches "Darnell's Tonight"—referencing the name of the junkyard—into Christine's hood, then makes his way there with Leigh. Dennis waits in a bulldozer while Leigh heads to the office so that she can shut the door after Christine arrives, trapping the car. Christine, who has been lying in wait the entire time, shines the headlights from under a pile of trash and the car charges after Leigh. Christine crashes into Darnell's office in an attempt to kill Leigh, and Arnie (revealed to have been driving the car himself) is thrown through Christine's windshield. He is impaled on a shard of glass and dies, reaching out to touch Christine one last time. Christine continues to attack Dennis and Leigh, repeatedly sustaining damage and regenerating. Dennis pulls Leigh into the cab of the bulldozer; the two then smash Christine, driving back and forth over the car with the bulldozer as it mocks them by playing "Rock and Roll Is Here To Stay" over the radio until at last it is too shredded to regenerate again.

text: Dennis and Leigh survive and leave behind the remains of the car. The closing shot of the film is of Christine, now having been crushed into a cube by a car crusher, as a piece of the grille slowly begins to straighten.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Keith Gordon as Arnold "Arnie" Cunningham
John Stockwell as Dennis Guilder
Alexandra Paul as Leigh Cabot
Robert Prosky as Will Darnell
Harry Dean Stanton as Detective Rudolph "Rudy" Junkins
Christine Belford as Regina Cunningham
Roberts Blossom as George LeBay
Kelly Preston as Roseanne
William Ostrander as Clarence "Buddy" Repperton
Malcolm Danare as Peter "Moochie" Wells
Steven Tash as Richard "Richie" Trelawney
Stuart Charno as Donald "Don" Vandenberg
David Spielberg as Mr. Casey

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: Conception[edit]

text: Producer Richard Kobritz had previously produced the miniseries Salem's Lot, also based on a Stephen King novel; through producing the miniseries, Kobritz became acquainted with King, who sent him manuscripts of two of his novels, Cujo, and Christine.[4] Kobritz purchased the rights to Christine after finding himself attracted to the novel's "celebration of America's obsession with the motorcar."[4]

text: According to John Carpenter, Christine was not a film he had planned on directing, saying that he directed the film as "a job" as opposed to a "personal project."[5] He had previously directed The Thing (1982), which had done poorly at the box office and led to critical backlash.[4] In retrospect, Carpenter stated that upon reading Christine, he felt that "It just wasn't very frightening. But it was something I needed to do at that time for my career."[5]

text: King's novel, the source material for Carpenter's film, made it clear that the car was possessed by the evil spirit of its previous owner, Roland D. LeBay, whereas the film version of the story shows that the evil spirit surrounding the car was present on the day it was built.[6] Other elements from the novel were altered for the film, particularly the execution of the death scenes, which the filmmakers opted for a more "cinematic approach."[7]

text: Casting[edit]

text: Initially, Columbia Pictures had wanted to cast Brooke Shields in the role of Leigh due to her publicity after the release of The Blue Lagoon (1980), and Scott Baio as Arnie.[4] The filmmakers declined the suggestion, opting to cast young actors who were still fairly unknown. Kevin Bacon auditioned for the role, but opted out when offered a part in Footloose (1984).[4] Carpenter cast Keith Gordon in the role of Arnie after an audition in New York City; Gordon had some experience in film, and was also working in theater at the time; John Stockwell was cast at an audition in Los Angeles.[4]

text: Nineteen-year-old Alexandra Paul was cast in the film after audition in New York City; according to Carpenter, Paul was an "untrained, young actress" at the time, but brought a "great quality" about the character of Leigh.[4] According to Paul, she had not read any of King's books or seen Carpenter's films, and read the novel in preparation.[4]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Christine was shot largely in Los Angeles, California, while the location for Darnell's garage was located in Santa Clarita.[7] Filming began in April 1983, merely days after the King novel had been published.[8] The film's stunts were primarily completed by stunt coordinator Terry Leonard, who was behind the wheel of the car during the high-speed chase scenes, as well as the scene in which the car drives down a highway engulfed in flames.[7]

text: The car[edit]

text: Although the car in the film is identified as a 1958 Plymouth Fury[9]—and in 1983 radio ads promoting the film, voiceover artists announced, "she's a '57 Fury"—two other Plymouth models, the Belvedere and the Savoy, were also used to portray the malevolent automobile onscreen. John Carpenter placed ads throughout Southern California searching for models of the car, and was able to purchase twenty-four of them in various states of disrepair, which were used to build a total of seventeen models of the Fury.[8]

text: Total production for the 1958 Plymouth Fury was only 5,303, and they were difficult to find and expensive to buy at the time. In addition, the real-life Furys only came in one color, "Buckskin Beige", seen on the other Furys on the assembly line during the initial scenes of the movie.[10] The Fury also got anodized gold trim on the body and Fury script on the rear fender. In order to bypass the problem of obtaining the rare trim, the cars featured the more common Belvedere "Dartline" trim. Several vehicles were destroyed during filming, but most of the cars were Savoy and Belvedere models dressed to look like the Fury. At least one '57 Savoy was used, its front end modified to look like a '58.

text: Originally, Carpenter had not planned to film the car's regeneration scenes, but decided after the shoot had finished to include them. The shots of the car regenerating itself were shot in post-production and done using hydraulics.[7]

text: Of the twenty cars used in the film, only two still exist. One is a stunt vehicle with a manual transmission and now resides in the hands of a private California collector.[11] The other vehicle was rescued from a junkyard and restored by collector Bill Gibson of Pensacola, Florida.[12]

text: Release[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Christine was released in North America on December 9, 1983, to 1,045 theaters.[13]

text: In its opening weekend Christine brought in $3,408,904 landing at #4. The film dropped 39.6% in its second weekend, grossing $2,058,517 slipping from fourth to eighth place. In its third weekend, it grossed $1,851,909 dropping to #9. The film remained at #9 its fourth weekend, grossing $2,736,782. In its fifth weekend, it returned to #8, grossing $2,015,922. Bringing in $1,316,835 it its sixth weekend, the film dropped out of the box office top ten to twelfth place. In its seventh and final weekend, the film brought in $819,972 landing at #14, bringing the total gross for Christine to $21,017,849.[2]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: Based on 25 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes, Christine has an overall 68% approval rating from critics and an average score of 5.9 out of 10.[14] Variety gave the film a negative review, stating: "Christine seems like a retread. This time it’s a fire-engine red, 1958 Plymouth Fury that’s possessed by the Devil, and this deja-vu premise [from the novel by Stephen King] combined with the crazed-vehicle format, makes Christine appear pretty shop worn."[15]

text: Roger Ebert gave the movie three out of four stars, saying: "by the end of the movie, Christine has developed such a formidable personality that we are actually taking sides during its duel with a bulldozer. This is the kind of movie where you walk out with a silly grin, get in your car, and lay rubber halfway down the Eisenhower."[16] Janet Maslin of The New York Times gave the film a middling review, saying: "The early parts of the film are engaging and well acted, creating a believable high-school atmosphere. Unfortunately, the later part of the film is slow in developing, and it unfolds in predictable ways."[17] Time Out said of the film: "Carpenter and novelist Stephen King share not merely a taste for genre horror but a love of '50's teenage culture; and although set in the present, Christine reflects the second taste far more effectively than the first."[18]

text: Home media[edit]

text: The film was released on VHS by Columbia Pictures, and later in a special edition DVD in 2004.[19] On March 12, 2013, Twilight Time video released the film on Blu-ray for the first time in a limited edition run numbered at 3,000 copies.[20] On September 29, 2015, Sony Pictures Home Entertainment re-released the film on Blu-ray.[21]

text: Soundtrack [edit]

text: Two soundtracks were released, one consisting purely of the music written and composed by John Carpenter and Alan Howarth, the other consisting of the contemporary pop songs used in the film.[22]

text: Score[edit]

text:
Christine: Music from the Motion Picture

Film score by John Carpenter & Alan Howarth

Released
June 1, 1990

Genre

Electronic
film score

Length
33:14

Label
Varèse Sarabande

Producer
John Carpenter, Alan Howarth

John Carpenter & Alan Howarth chronology

They Live
(1988)They Live1988
Christine
(1990)

John Carpenter chronology

They Live
(1988) They Live1988
Christine
(1990) Christine1990
Body Bags
(1993) Body Bags1993

tag: table

text:
Christine: Music from the Motion Picture (by John Carpenter and Alan Howarth)

No.
Title
Length

1.
"Arnie's Love Theme"
1:15

2.
"Obsessed with the Car"
2:07

3.
"Football Run/Kill Your Kids"
2:42

4.
"The Rape"
1:10

5.
"The Discovery"
1:30

6.
"Show Me"
2:36

7.
"Moochie's Death"
2:25

8.
"Junkins"
3:33

9.
"Buddy's Death"
1:27

10.
"Nobody's Home/Restored"
1:44

11.
"Car Obsession Reprise"
1:53

12.
"Christine Attacks (Plymouth Fury)"
2:30

13.
"Talk on the Couch"
1:23

14.
"Regeneration"
1:25

15.
"Darnell's Tonight"
0:13

16.
"Arnie"
1:01

17.
"Undented"
1:54

18.
"Moochie Mix Four"
2:26

text: Songs appearing in film[edit]

text: The soundtrack album containing songs used in the film was entitled Christine: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack and was released on LP and cassette on Motown Records.[23] It contained 10 (of the 15) songs listed in the film's credits, plus one track from John Carpenter and Alan Howarth's own score. The track listing was as follows:

text:
George Thorogood and the Destroyers - "Bad to the Bone"
Buddy Holly & the Crickets - "Not Fade Away"
Johnny Ace - "Pledging My Love"
Robert & Johnny - "We Belong Together"
Little Richard - "Keep A-Knockin'"
Dion and The Belmonts - "I Wonder Why"
The Viscounts - "Harlem Nocturne"
Thurston Harris - "Little Bitty Pretty One"
Danny & The Juniors - "Rock n' Roll is Here to Stay"
John Carpenter & Alan Howarth - "Christine Attacks (Plymouth Fury)"
Larry Williams - "Bony Moronie"

tag: ol

text: The following tracks were not included on this LP release, but were used in the film and listed in the film's credits:

text:
ABBA - "The Name of the Game"
Bonnie Raitt - "Runaway"
Ritchie Valens - "Come on, Let's Go"
Tanya Tucker - "Not Fade Away"
The Rolling Stones - "Beast of Burden"


document_title: List of heads of state of India

question_text: who is the head of the nation in india

question_tokens: who is the head of the nation in india

text: List of heads of state of India

text: Monarch (1947–1950)[edit]

text: The succession to the throne was the same as the succession to the British throne.

text:
№
Monarch
(Birth–Death)
Portrait
Reign
Royal House
Prime Minister

Reign start
Reign end

1
King George VI
(1895–1952)

15 August 1947
26 January 1950
Windsor
Nehru

text: Governor-General[edit]

text: The Governor-General was the representative of the Monarch in India and exercised most of the powers of the Monarch. The Governor-General was appointed for an indefinite term, serving at the pleasure of the Monarch. After the passage of the Statute of Westminster 1931, the Governor-General was appointed solely on the advice of the Cabinet of India without the involvement of the British government. In the event of a vacancy the Chief Justice served as Officer Administering the Government.

text:
№
Governor-General
(Birth–Death)
Portrait
Tenure
Monarch
Prime Minister

Took office
Left office

1
The Rt. Hon. The Earl Mountbatten of Burma
(1900–1979)

15 August 1947
21 June 1948
George VI
Nehru

2
Chakravarti Rajagopalachari
(1878–1972)

21 June 1948
26 January 1950
George VI
Nehru

text: President of India[edit]

text: Under the Constitution, of the Republic of India, the President replaced the Monarch as ceremonial head of state. The President was elected by the Electoral College for a five-year term. In the event of a vacancy the Vice-President served as Acting President.

text:
№
President
(Birth–Death)
Portrait
Tenure
Elected
Political affiliation
(at time of appointment)
Prime Minister

Took office
Left office

1
Rajendra Prasad
(1884–1963)

26 January 1950
13 May 1962
1952
1957

Indian National Congress
Nehru

2
Sir Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
(1888–1975)

13 May 1962
13 May 1967
1962

Independent
Nehru
Nanda
Shastri
Nanda
Gandhi

3
Zakir Husain
(1897–1969)

13 May 1967
3 May 1969
(died in office.)
1967

Independent
Gandhi

–
V. V. Giri
(1894–1980)

3 May 1969
20 July 1969
–

Independent
Gandhi

–
Mohammad Hidayatullah
(1905–1992)

20 July 1969
24 August 1969
–

[1]
Gandhi

4
V. V. Giri
(1894–1980)

24 August 1969
24 August 1974
1969

Independent
Gandhi

5
Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed
(1905–1977)

24 August 1974
11 February 1977
(died in office.)
1974

Indian National Congress
Gandhi

–
B. D. Jatti
(1912–2002)

11 February 1977
25 July 1977
–

Indian National Congress
Gandhi
Desai

6
Neelam Sanjiva Reddy
(1913–1996)

25 July 1977
25 July 1982
1977

Janata Party
Desai
Singh
Gandhi

7
Giani Zail Singh
(1916–1994)

25 July 1982
25 July 1987
1982

Indian National Congress
Gandhi
Gandhi

8
R. Venkataraman
(1910–2009)

25 July 1987
25 July 1992
1987

Indian National Congress
Gandhi
Singh
Shekhar
Rao

9
Shankar Dayal Sharma
(1918–1999)

25 July 1992
25 July 1997
1992

Indian National Congress
Rao
Vajpayee
Deve Gowda
Gujral

10
K. R. Narayanan
(1920–2005)

25 July 1997
25 July 2002
1997

Indian National Congress
Gujral
Vajpayee

11
A. P. J. Abdul Kalam
(1931–2015)

25 July 2002
25 July 2007
2002

Independent
Vajpayee
Singh

12
Pratibha Patil
(1934–)

25 July 2007
25 July 2012
2007

Indian National Congress
Singh

13
Pranab Mukherjee
(1935–)

25 July 2012
25 July 2017
2012

Indian National Congress
Singh
Modi

13
Ram Nath Kovind
(1945–)

25 July 2017
Incumbent
2017

Bharatiya Janata Party
Modi

text: Standards[edit]

text:
Governor-General's Standard

Presidential Standard

text: Living former heads of state[edit]

text: There are two living former Indian Head of State:

text:
Image
Name
Term/Reign
Office
Date of birth

Pratibha Patil
2007–2012
President of India
(1934-12-19) 19 December 1934 (age 83)

Pranab Mukherjee
2012–2017
President of India
(1935-12-11) 11 December 1935 (age 82)


document_title: List of Padma Shri award recipients (1954–1959)

question_text: who was the first athlete to be awarded padmashree award

text: List of recipients[edit]

text:
Award recipients by year[1]

Year
Number of recipients

1954

17

1955

14

1956

9

1957

16

1958

19

1959

20

Award recipients by field[1]

Field
Number of recipients

Arts

9

Civil Service

19

Literature & Education

11

Medicine

13

Public Affairs

9

Science & Engineering

15

Social Work

13

Sports

4

Trade & Industry

2

text:
List of Padma Shri award recipients, showing the year, field, and state/country[1]

Year
Recipient
Field
State

1954
Aryanayakam, Asha DeviAsha Devi Aryanayakam
Public Affairs
Maharashtra

1954
Bhatia, Bir BhanBir Bhan Bhatia
Medicine
Delhi

1954
Captain, PerinPerin Captain
Public Affairs
Maharashtra

1954
Chakravorty, K. R.K. R. Chakravorty
Science & Engineering
West Bengal

1954
Das, AmalpravaAmalprava Das
Public Affairs
Assam

1954
Das, MathuraMathura Das
Medicine
Assam

1954
Dey, Surinder KumarSurinder Kumar Dey
Civil Service
West Bengal

1954
Khanolkar, Ramji VasantRamji Vasant Khanolkar
Medicine
Maharashtra

1954
Mathai, AchammaAchamma Mathai
Public Affairs
Maharashtra

1954
Mehta, BhagBhag Mehta
Civil Service
Gujarat

1954
Mitra, Akhil ChandraAkhil Chandra Mitra
Science & Engineering
Uttar Pradesh

1954
Pant, Apa Saheb Bala SahebApa Saheb Bala Saheb Pant
Civil Service
Maharashtra

1954
Pillai, K. ShankarK. Shankar Pillai
Literature & Education
Delhi

1954
Ray, MirnamayeeMirnamayee Ray
Public Affairs
Andhra Pradesh

1954
Singh, TarlokTarlok Singh
Civil Service
Punjab

1954
Somappa, MachaniMachani Somappa
Public Affairs
Andhra Pradesh

1954
Thorat, S. P. PatilS. P. Patil Thorat
Civil Service
Maharashtra

1955
Benjamin, Perakath VerghesePerakath Verghese Benjamin
Medicine
Kerala

1955
Choudhary, Kewal SinghKewal Singh Choudhary
Civil Service
Punjab

1955
Currimbhoy, ZarinaZarina Currimbhoy
Social Work
Maharashtra

1955
Handique, Krishna KantaKrishna Kanta Handique
Literature & Education
Assam

1955
Jadhav, Mary ClubwalaMary Clubwala Jadhav
Social Work
Tamil Nadu

1955
Joglekar, Digamber VasudevDigamber Vasudev Joglekar
Civil Service
Maharashtra

1955
Kaul, Sidda NathSidda Nath Kaul
Medicine
Delhi

1955
Maneckji, Manak Jehangir BhickajiManak Jehangir Bhickaji Maneckji
Civil Service
Maharashtra

1955
Mehray, Mahesh PrasadMahesh Prasad Mehray
Medicine
Uttar Pradesh

1955
Mirza, HumayunHumayun Mirza
Civil Service
Karnataka

1955
Rahman, HabiburHabibur Rahman
Science & Engineering
Delhi

1955
Sahu, LaxminarayanLaxminarayan Sahu
Literature & Education
Odisha

1955
Shastri, RatanRatan Shastri
Literature & Education
Rajasthan

1955
Thakur, OmkarnathOmkarnath Thakur
Arts
Gujarat

1956
Bhakna, Sohan SinghSohan Singh Bhakna
Medicine
Punjab

1956
Bhuyan, Surya KumarSurya Kumar Bhuyan
Literature & Education
Assam

1956
Lal, MohanMohan Lal
Medicine
Uttar Pradesh

1956
Majumdar, Satish ChandraSatish Chandra Majumdar
Science & Engineering
West Bengal

1956
Modi, Murugappa ChannaveerappaMurugappa Channaveerappa Modi
Medicine
Karnataka

1956
Pande, SukhdavSukhdav Pande
Literature & Education
Uttarakhand

1956
Pandit, Chintaman GovindChintaman Govind Pandit
Medicine
Gujarat

1956
Rao, Sthanam NarasimhaSthanam Narasimha Rao
Arts
Andhra Pradesh

1956
Santra, IsaacIsaac Santra
Medicine
West Bengal

1957
Anjaria, Jaswantrai JayantilalJaswantrai Jayantilal Anjaria
Civil Service
Maharashtra

1957
Chellani, Atmaram RamchandAtmaram Ramchand Chellani
Civil Service
Andhra Pradesh

1957
Chitale, Laxman MahadeoLaxman Mahadeo Chitale
Science & Engineering
Maharashtra

1957
Devi, Nalini BalaNalini Bala Devi
Literature & Education
Assam

1957
Dharmarajan, Narayan SwamiNarayan Swami Dharmarajan
Civil Service
Tamil Nadu

1957
Dhillon, Gurbaksh SinghGurbaksh Singh Dhillon
Civil Service
Tamil Nadu

1957
Gehlote, Ram PrakashRam Prakash Gehlote
Science & Engineering
Delhi

1957
Jagadisan, Thackkadu NatesasastrigalThackkadu Natesasastrigal Jagadisan
Social Work
Tamil Nadu

1957
Khastgir, SudhirSudhir Khastgir
Arts
Uttar Pradesh

1957
Khathing, RalengnaoRalengnao Khathing
Public Affairs
Manipur

1957
Naidu, Dwaram VenkataswamyDwaram Venkataswamy Naidu
Arts
Andhra Pradesh

1957
Ramiah, KrishnaswamiKrishnaswami Ramiah
Science & Engineering
Andhra Pradesh

1957
Ranganathan, S. R.S. R. Ranganathan
Literature & Education
Karnataka

1957
Sen, SamarendranathSamarendranath Sen
Civil Service
West Bengal

1957
Singh, BalbirBalbir Singh
Sports
Chandigarh

1957
Singh, KhushdevaKhushdeva Singh
Medicine
Punjab

1958
Bose, DebakiDebaki Bose
Arts
West Bengal

1958
Ekambaranathan, PunamalaiPunamalai Ekambaranathan
Social Work
Tamil Nadu

1958
Ismail, FatimaFatima Ismail
Social Work
Maharashtra

1958
Maharaj, ShambhuShambhu Maharaj
Arts
Uttar Pradesh

1958
Nargis, Nargis
Arts
Maharashtra

1958
Nijhawan, Bal RajBal Raj Nijhawan
Science & Engineering
Australia

1958
Pal, Benjamin PearyBenjamin Peary Pal
Science & Engineering
Delhi

1958
Parthasarthy, NavalpakkamNavalpakkam Parthasarthy
Science & Engineering
 – [a]

1958
Puri, Balwant SingBalwant Sing Puri
Social Work
Punjab

1958
Ramdas, Lakshminarayana Pulram AnanthakrishnanLakshminarayana Pulram Ananthakrishnan Ramdas
Science & Engineering
Delhi

1958
Rani, DevikaDevika Rani
Arts
Karnataka

1958
Rao, Argula NagarajaArgula Nagaraja Rao
Trade & Industry
Andhra Pradesh

1958
Ray, SatyajitSatyajit Ray
Arts
West Bengal

1958
Satyanarayana, MoturiMoturi Satyanarayana
Public Affairs
Tamil Nadu

1958
Singh, Brig. RamBrig. Ram Singh
Civil Service
Punjab

1958
Singh, Kunwar DigvijaiKunwar Digvijai Singh
Sports
Uttar Pradesh

1958
Subbalakshmi, R. S.R. S. Subbalakshmi
Social Work
Tamil Nadu

1958
Varma, Ram ChandraRam Chandra Varma
Literature & Education
Uttar Pradesh

1958
Vyas, Magan Lal TribhuvandasMagan Lal Tribhuvandas Vyas
Literature & Education
Gujarat

1959
Chandrasekharan, K. S.K. S. Chandrasekharan
Literature & Education
Tamil Nadu

1959
Das, SailabalaSailabala Das
Social Work
Odisha

1959
Diwan, Manchar BalvantManchar Balvant Diwan
Social Work
Maharashtra

1959
Issac, Mary RatnammaMary Ratnamma Issac
Social Work
Karnataka

1959
Jangpangi, Lakshman SinghLakshman Singh Jangpangi
Social Work
Odisha

1959
Kar, SurendranathSurendranath Kar
Science & Engineering
West Bengal

1959
Karkhanis, Ganesh GobindGanesh Gobind Karkhanis
Social Work
Karnataka

1959
Majumdar, Parixitalal Lallu BhaiParixitalal Lallu Bhai Majumdar
Social Work
Gujarat

1959
Mathulla, Mathew KandathilMathew Kandathil Mathulla
Civil Service
Karnataka

1959
Mathur, Om PrakashOm Prakash Mathur
Science & Engineering
West Bengal

1959
Mehta, Pratapri Girdhari LalPratapri Girdhari Lal Mehta
Public Affairs
Maharashtra

1959
Murthy, Onkar SrinivasaOnkar Srinivasa Murthy
Civil Service
Tamil Nadu

1959
Nag, Balwant SinghBalwant Singh Nag
Civil Service
Punjab

1959
Panikkar, Parameswaran KuttappParameswaran Kuttapp Panikkar
Civil Service
Kerala

1959
Patwardhan, Shivaji GaneshShivaji Ganesh Patwardhan
Medicine
Maharashtra

1959
Ram, AtmaAtma Ram
Trade & Industry
West Bengal

1959
Sen, MihirMihir Sen
Sports
West Bengal

1959
Sethna, HomiHomi Sethna
Science & Engineering
Maharashtra

1959
Singh, MilkhaMilkha Singh
Sports
Chandigarh

1959
Uppal, Badri NathBadri Nath Uppal
Science & Engineering
Chandigarh


document_title: Beer measurement

question_text: what does ibu stand for in beer making

question_tokens: what does ibu stand for in beer making

text: Beer measurement

text: Colour[edit]

text: "Degrees Lovibond" or "°L" scale is a measure of the colour of a substance, usually beer,  whiskey, or sugar solutions. The determination of the degrees Lovibond takes place by comparing the colour of the substance to a series of amber to brown glass slides, usually by a colorimeter. The scale was devised by Joseph Williams Lovibond.[1] The Standard Reference Method (SRM) and European Brewery Convention (EBC) methods have largely replaced it, with the SRM giving results approximately equal to the °L.

text: The Standard Reference Method or SRM[2] is a system modern brewers use to measure colour intensity, roughly darkness (but see Tristimulus Colour below), of a beer or wort. The method involves the use of a spectrophotometer or photometer to measure the attenuation of light of a particular wavelength, 430 nanometres, as it passes through a sample contained in a cuvette located in the light path of the instrument.

text: The EBC convention also measures beer and wort colour, as well as quantifying turbidity (also known as haze) in beer.

text:
SRM/Lovibond

Example

Beer color

EBC

2

Pale lager, Witbier, Pilsener, Berliner Weisse

4

3

Maibock, Blonde Ale

6

4

Weissbier

8

6

American Pale Ale, India Pale Ale

12

8

Weissbier, Saison

16

10

English Bitter, ESB

20

13

Biere de Garde, Double IPA

26

17

Dark lager, Vienna lager, Marzen, Amber Ale

33

20

Brown Ale, Bock, Dunkel, Dunkelweizen

39

24

Irish Dry Stout, Doppelbock, Porter

47

29

Stout

57

35

Foreign Stout, Baltic Porter

69

40+

Imperial Stout

79

text: Strength[edit]

text: Beer strength is the alcohol content measured by volume expressed as a percentage, that is to say, the number of millilitres of absolute alcohol in 100 ml of beer.

text: The most accurate method of determining the strength of a beer would be to take a quantity of beer and distill off a spirit that contains all of the alcohol that was in the beer. The alcohol content of the spirit can then be measured using a hydrometer and tables of density of alcohol and water mixtures. A simple calculation would then yield the strength of the beer. This method is accurate, but is time, energy and beer consuming.

text: A second method is the ebulliometer method, which uses the difference between the boiling temperature of pure water and the boiling temperature of the liquor (beer) being tested. This method is also accurate and time-consuming, but uses less energy and beer.

text: The most common method of estimating the strength of a beer is to measure the density of the wort before fermentation and then to measure the density once the fermentation is completed, and to use these two data points in an empirical formula which estimates the alcohol content or strength of the beer.

text: Density[edit]

text: The most common method measuring the density of a liquid is with a hydrometer; hydrometers can be calibrated with a number of scales. A common scale is that of specific gravity (SG); that is to say the density of a liquid relative to the density of pure water (at a standard temperature). Specific gravity can also be measured by a pycnometer or oscillating U-tube electronic meter. Water has a SG of 1.000, absolute alcohol has a SG of 0.789. Other density scales are discussed below.

text: The density of the wort depends on the sugar content in the wort: the more sugar the higher the density. The fermented beer will have some residual sugar which will raise the SG, the alcohol content will lower the SG. The difference between the SG of the wort before fermentation and the SG of the beer after fermentation gives an indication of how much sugar was converted to alcohol by the yeast. A basic formula[3] to calculate beer strength based on the difference between the original and final SG is:

text:
A
B
V
=
131.25
(
O
G
−
F
G
)

{\displaystyle ABV=131.25(OG-FG)}

text: The formula below[4] is an alternate equation which provides more accurate estimates at higher alcohol percentages (it is typically used for beers above 6 or 7%).

text:
A
B
V
=
133
(
O
G
−
F
G
)

/

F
G

{\displaystyle ABV=133(OG-FG)/FG}

text: where OG is the original gravity, or the specific gravity before fermentation and FG is the final gravity or SG after fermentation.

text: "Original Extract" (OE) is a synonym for original gravity. The OE is often referred to as the "size" of the beer and is, in Germany, often printed on the label as Stammwürze or sometimes just as a percent. In the Czech Republic, for example, people speak of "10 degree beers", "12 degree beers" and so on.

text: Gravity measurements are used to determine the "size" of the beer, its alcoholic strength, and how much of the available sugar the yeast were able to consume (a given strain can be expected, under proper conditions, to ferment a wort of a particular composition to within a range of attenuation; that is, they should be able to consume a known percentage of the extract).

text: Historically gravity was measured and recorded in brewer's pounds (also known as just "pounds").  If a wort was said to be "26 lbs. gravity per barrel"[5] it meant that a standard barrel of 36 imperial gallons  of the wort weighted 26 pounds more than a barrel of pure water.[5]  The actual measurement was by saccharometer (i.e. hydrometer) correcting for temperature by a calibration scale or else by a special brewer's slide rule.[6]

text: Other density scales[edit]

text: Three common scales used in fermentation are:

text:
Balling
Brix
Plato

text: The oldest scale, Balling, was developed in 1843 by Bohemian scientist Karl Joseph Napoleon Balling (1805-1868) as well as Simon Ack.  In the 1850s German engineer-mathematician Adolf Ferdinand Wenceslaus Brix (1798-1870) corrected some of the calculation errors in the Balling scale and introduced the Brix scale. In the early 1900s German chemist Fritz Plato (1858-1938) and his collaborators made further improvements, introducing the Plato scale. Essentially they are the same; the tables differ in their conversion from weight percentage to specific gravity in the fifth and sixth decimal places.

text: A rough conversion between Brix, degrees Plato or degrees Balling and specific gravity can be made by dividing the number behind the decimal point in the SG (which is often referred to as gravity points) by 4. So a specific gravity of 1.048 has 48 gravity points. 48 divided by 4 is 12 degrees Plato, Balling or Brix. This conversion method is pretty accurate up to a specific gravity of 1.070 at which point the approximation begins to deviate from the actual conversion.

text: Winemakers as well as the sugar and juice industry typically use degrees Brix. British and continental European beer brewers generally use degrees Plato. American brewers use a mixture of degrees Balling, degrees Plato and specific gravity. Home wine, mead, cider, and beer makers typically use specific gravity.

text: In some countries, alcohol by volume is referred to as degrees Gay-Lussac (after the French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac). France, Spain and the United Kingdom use the system to determine alcohol content. Belgium, Norway, and Sweden use a modified table to calculate taxes on alcoholic beverages.

text: XXX marks[edit]

text: The letter "X" is used on some beers, and was traditionally a mark of beer strength, with more exes indicating a higher alcoholic content. Some sources suggest that the origin of the mark was in the breweries of medieval monasteries, where the X served as a guarantee of quality for beers of increasing strength.[7]

text: Another explanation for the X marks may be rooted in the duty taxes of alcoholic beverages beginning in 1643. The "X" mark on a cask of beer was originally used to indicate that the contents were stronger than legal small beer limits, and were subject to a ten shillings per barrel tax.  Later, brewers added additional (superfluous) X marks to signify progressively stronger beers: "the present quack-like denominations of XX (double X) and XXX (treble X), which appear, unnecessarily, on the casks and in the accounts of the strong-ale brewers".[8]

text: In mid-19th century England, the use of "X" and other letters had evolved into a standardized grading system for the strength of beer.[9] Today, it is used as a trade mark by a number of brewers in the United Kingdom, the Commonwealth and the United States.

text: Bitterness[edit]

text: Bitterness scales attempt to rate the relative bitterness of beer. The bitterness of beer is provided by compounds such as humulones, or alpha acids  from hops used during brewing. During the brewing process, humulone undergoes isomerization to form both cis- and trans- isohumulone which are responsible for the bitter taste of the beer.[10] Likewise, hops contain lupulones, or beta acids.[10] These beta acids are not considered in the initial bittering of the wort as much as their alpha acid counterparts since they do not isomerize through boiling, and therefore do not dissolve in the wort.[11] However, beta acids can undergo oxidation and slowly contribute to the bitterness of the beer. This bitterness is harsher than the bitterness of the alpha acids and this flavor can be undesirable. The oxidation occurs over time through fermentation, storage, and aging. At the same time, isomerized alpha acids undergo degradation and reduce the bitterness of the beer.[12]

text:
IBUs of some common styles[13]

Beer style
IBUs

Lambic
0-10

Wheat beer
8-18

American lager
8-26

Kölsch
20-30

Pilsner
24-44

Porter
18-50

Bitter
24-50

Pale ale
30-50

Stout
30-90

Barleywine
34-120

India pale ale
40-120

text: Since the quantities of alpha and beta acids range among hops, the variety of hop should be considered when targeting a specific amount of bitterness in the beer. To maximize bitterness, hops with large alpha acid concentrations should be used.[10] Such varieties include Chinook, Galena, Horizon, Tomahawk, and Warrior hops, and these contain alpha acid concentrations up to 16% by mass. Since the bitterness is not influenced by beta acids, beta acids are not considered when selecting the variety of hop. Also, the amount of time that the hops are boiled impacts the bitterness of the beer. Since heat is needed to isomerize alpha acids, applying heat for longer amounts of time increases the conversion to the isomerized form.

text:
The International Bittering Units scale, or simply IBU scale, is used to approximately quantify the bitterness of beer. This scale is not measured on the perceived bitterness of the beer, but rather the amount of iso-alpha acids.[14] There are several methods to measure IBU. The most common and widely used way is through spectrophotometry.[15] In this process, hops are boiled in wort to promote isomerization. Since the iso-alpha acids are slightly hydrophobic, a reduction of the pH by adding acid increases the hydrophobicity of the iso-alpha acids. At this point, an organic solution is added and the iso-alpha acids shift to the organic layer out of the aqueous wort. This new solution is then placed in a spectrophotometer and the absorbance is read at 275 nm. At this wavelength, the iso-alpha acids have their highest absorbance which allows for the calculation of the concentration of these bittering molecules. This technique was adopted at the same time as another method based on measuring the concentration (in milligrams per litre; parts per million w/v) of isomerized α acids (IAA) in a beer, causing some confusion among small-scale brewers.[16]
The American Society of Brewing Chemists, in the introduction to its methods on measuring bitterness, points out some differences between the results of the two methods:

text: While the results of the IAA methods are practically identical to those obtained by the [I]BU method for beer brewed with fresh hops, the IAAs of beer brewed with old or poorly stored hops, and with certain special hop extracts, can be significantly lower than the [I]BU figure.[17]

text: Additionally, HPLC, mass spectrometry, and fluorescence spectroscopy can be employed to measure the amount of iso-alpha acids in a beer.[18][19][20]

text: The European Bitterness Units scale, often abbreviated as EBU, is a bitterness scale[21] in which lower values are generally "less bitter" and higher values "more bitter". The scale and method are defined by the European Brewery Convention, and the numerical value should be the same as of the International Bittering Units scale (IBU), defined in co-operation with the American Society of Brewing Chemists.[22] However, the exact process of determining EBU and IBU values differs slightly, which may in theory result with slightly smaller values for EBU than IBU.[23]

text: IBU isn't determined by the perceived bitterness of the taste of the beer. For example, the bittering effect of hops is less noticeable in beers with roasted malts or strong flavours, so a higher proportion of hops would be required in strong flavoured beers to achieve the same perceived bitterness in moderately flavoured beers. For example, an imperial stout may have an IBU of 50, but will taste less bitter than a pale lager with an IBU of 30, because the pale lager has a lower flavour intensity. After around 100 IBU, hop utilization is so poor that the number ceases to be meaningful in regard to taste, although continued hop additions will increase bitterness. Light lagers without much bitterness will generally have 8-20 IBU, while an India pale ale may have 60-100 IBU or more.[24]

text: Automated combined systems[edit]

text:
For high throughput applications (as in quality control labs of big breweries for example), automated systems are available.
Simple systems work with adjustment data blocks for each kind of beer, high-end systems are matrix-independent and give correct results for e.g. alcohol strength, extract content, pH, colour, turbidity, CO2 and O2 without any product-specific calibration.

text: Latest innovations are packaged beverage analyzers, that measure directly out of the package (glass bottle, PET bottle or can) and give several parameters in one measuring cycle without any sample preparation (no degassing, no filtering, no temperature conditioning).[25]

text: Oxidative degradation measurement[edit]

text: Oxidative deterioration of beer can be measured by the way of chemiluminescence[26] or by electron spin resonance.[27]  Automated systems exist to determine the lag time of beer related to the antioxidant capacity to resist oxidative spoilage of flavours.[28]

text: Software[edit]

text: Software tools are available to brewers to formulate and adapt recipes with a view to accurately measure the various values in brewing. Data can be exchanged in formats such as BeerXML to allow for accurate replication of recipes at remote sites or the adaptation of recipes to account for variations in locally available water, mash ingredients, hops etc.