document_title: World War II casualties

question_text: which country has the greatest loss of life in ww2

text: World War II casualties

text: Classification of casualties

text: Compiling or estimating the numbers of deaths and wounded caused during wars and other violent conflicts is a controversial subject. Historians often put forward many different estimates of the numbers killed and wounded during World War II.[13] The authors of the Oxford Companion to World War II maintain that "casualty statistics are notoriously unreliable."[14] The table below gives data on the number of dead and military wounded for each country, along with population information to show the relative impact of losses. When scholarly sources differ on the number of deaths in a country, a range of war losses is given, in order to inform readers that the death toll is disputed. Since casualty statistics are sometimes disputed the footnotes to this article present the different estimates by official governmental sources as well as historians. Military figures include battle deaths (KIA) and personnel missing in action (MIA), as well as fatalities due to accidents, disease and deaths of prisoners of war in captivity. Civilian casualties include deaths caused by strategic bombing, Holocaust victims, German war crimes, Japanese war crimes, population transfers in the Soviet Union, Allied war crimes, and deaths due to war related famine and disease.

text: The sources for the casualties of the individual nations do not use the same methods, and civilian deaths due to starvation and disease make up a large proportion of the civilian deaths in China and the Soviet Union. The losses listed here are actual deaths; hypothetical losses due to a decline in births are not included with the total dead. The distinction between military and civilian casualties caused directly by warfare and collateral damage is not always clear-cut. For nations that suffered huge losses such as the Soviet Union, China, Poland, Germany, and Yugoslavia, sources can give only the total estimated population loss caused by the war and a rough estimate of the breakdown of deaths caused by military activity, crimes against humanity and war-related famine. The casualties listed here include 19 to 25 million war-related famine deaths in the USSR, China, Indonesia, Vietnam, the Philippines, India that are often omitted from other compilations of World War II casualties.[15][16] The footnotes give a detailed breakdown of the casualties and their sources, including data on the number of wounded where reliable sources are available.

text: Human losses by country

text: Total deaths

text:
Death toll of World War II & military wounded by country

(when the number of deaths in a country is disputed, a range of war losses is given)

The details of the figures are provided in the footnotes

Country

Total population1/1/1939

Militarydeaths from all causes

Civilian deaths due tomilitary activity and crimes against humanity

Civilian deaths due towar-related famine and disease

Totaldeaths

Deaths as % of1939 population

Militarywounded

 AlbaniaA
1,073,000[17]
30,000[18]

30,000
2.80
NA

 AustraliaB
6,968,000[17]
39,700[19]
700[20]

40,400
0.58
39,803[21]

 Austria (German-controlled)C
6,653,000[17]
Included with Germany
Included with Germany

(see table below)S3
Included with Germany

 BelgiumD
8,387,000[17]
12,000[22]
76,000[22]

88,000
1.05
55,513[23]

 BrazilE
40,289,000[17]
1,000[24]
1,000[25]

2,000
0.00
4,222[26]

 BulgariaF
6,458,000[17]
18,500[24]
3,000[27]

21,500
0.33
21,878[28]

 Burma (British colony)G
16,119,000[17]
2,600[29]
250,000[29]

252,600
1.57
NA

 CanadaH
11,267,000[17]
42,000[30]
1,600[31]

43,600
0.38
53,174[32]

 China I (1937–1945)
517,568,000[17]
3,000,000[33]  to 3,750,000+[34]
7,357,000[35]  to 8,191,000[36]
5,000,000to 10,000,000
15,000,000[37]to 20,000,000[37]
2.90 to 3.86
1,761,335[38]

 CubaJ
4,235,000[17]

100[39]

100
0.00
NA

 Czechoslovakia (in postwar 1945–1992 borders)K
14,612,000[40]
46,000[41] to 35,000[42]
294,000[41] to320,000[42]

340,000 to 355,000
2.33 to 2.43
8,017[43]

 DenmarkL
3,795,000[17]

6,000[44]

6,000
0.16
2,000[45]

 Dutch East IndiesM
69,435,000[17]
11,500[46][47]
300,000[48]
2,400,000[49]to 4,000,000[50]
3,000,000to 4,000,000
4.3 to 5.76
NA

 EgyptMA
16,492,000[17]
1,100[51]

1,100
0.00
NA

 Estonia (within 1939 borders)N
1,134,000[17]
34,000 (in both Soviet & German armed forces)[52]
49,000[53]

83,000
7.3
NA

 EthiopiaO
17,700,000[17]
15,000[54]

85,000

100,000[54]
0.56
NA

 FinlandP
3,700,000[17]
83,000[55] to 95,000[56]

2,000[57]

85,000 to 95,000
2.30 to 2.57
50,000[58]

 FranceQ (including colonies)
41,680,000[57]
210,000[57]
390,000[57]

600,000
1.44
390,000[59]

 French IndochinaR
24,664,000[17]

1,000,000to 2,000,000[60]
1,000,000to 2,200,000
4.05 to 8.11
NA

 GermanyS
69,300,000[61]
4,440,000[62] to 5,318,000[63][64]
1,500,000S2to 3,000,000S1

6,900,000 to 7,400,000
(see table below)S3
7,300,000[65]

 GreeceT
7,222,000[17]
35,100[66]
171,800[66]
300,000[67]to 600,000[66]
507,000to 807,000
7.02 to 11.17
47,290[68]

 GuamTA
22,800[69]
1,000[70]to 2,000[71]

1,000to 2,000
4.39 to 8.77
NA

 HungaryU (figures in 1938 borders not including territories annexed in 1938–41)
9,129,000[69]
200,000[72]
264,000[73]

464,000
5.08
89,313[74]

 IcelandV
118,900[75]

200[76]

200
0.17
NA

 IndiaW
377,800,000[77]
87,000[78]

2,100,000[79]
2,200,000
0.58
64,354[80]

 IranX
14,340,000[81]
200[82]

200
0.00
NA

 IraqY
3,698,000[83]
500[82]
200[84]

700
0.01
NA

 IrelandZ
2,960,000[85]
Irish volunteers included with UK Armed Forces
100[86]

100
0.00
NA

 Italy (in postwar 1947 borders)AA
44,394,000[87]
319,200[88] to 341,000 Italian nationals and c. 20,000 Africans conscripted by Italy[89][90]
153,200[91]

492,400 to 514,000
1.11 to 1.16
225,000[92]-320,000[93] (incomplete data)

 JapanAB
71,380,000[94]
2,100,000[95] to2,300,000[96]
550,000[97] to800,000[98]

2,500,000[99]to 3,100,000[100]
3.50 to 4.34
326,000[101]

 Korea (Japanese colony)AC
24,326,000[69]
Included with Japanese military
483,000[102]to 533,000[103]

483,000 to 533,000
1.99 to 2.19
NA

 Latvia (within 1939 borders)AD
1,994,500[69]
30,000[104](in both Soviet and German Armies)
220,000[105]

250,000
12.5
NA

 Lithuania (within 1939 borders)AE
2,575,000[94]
25,000[106](in both Soviet and German Armies)
345,000[107]

370,000
14.36
NA

 LuxembourgAF
295,000[94]
Included with German & Belgian military
5,000[57]

5,000
1.69
NA

 Malaya & SingaporeAG
5,118,000[69]

100,000[108]

100,000
1.95
NA

 Malta (British)AH
269,000[69]
Included with U.K.
1,500[109]

1,500
0.55
NA

 MexicoAI
19,320,000[110]

100[111]

100
0.00
NA

 MongoliaAJ
819,000[112]
300[113]

300
0.04
NA

 Nauru (Australian)AK
3,400[69]

500[114]

500
14.7
NA

 NepalAL
6,087,000[69]
Included with British Indian Army

NA

 NetherlandsAM
8,729,000[69]
6,700[115]
187,300[115]
16,000[115]
210,000
2.41
2,860[116]

 Newfoundland (British)AN
320,000[117]
1,100[118] (included with the U.K. & Canada)
100[119]

1,200
0.03
(included with the/ U.K. & Canada)

 New ZealandAO
1,629,000[69]
11,700[120]

11,700
0.72
19,314[121]

 NorwayAP
2,945,000[122]
2,000[57]
8,200[123]

10,200
0.35
364[124]

 Papua and New Guinea (Australian)AQ
1,292,000[69]

15,000[125]

15,000
1.16
NA

 Philippines (U.S. Territory)AR
16,000,303[126]
57,000[127]
164,000[128]
336,000[128]
557,000
3.48
NA

 Poland (within 1939 borders)AS
34,849,000[129]

240,000[130]
5,620,000[131]to 5,820,000[132]

5,900,000[133] to 6,000,000[134]
16.93 to 17.22
766,606[135]

 Portuguese TimorAT
480,000[69]

40,000[136]to 70,000[136]

40,000to 70,000
8.33 to 14.58
NA

 Romania (in postwar 1945 borders)AU
15,970,000[57]
300,000[41]
200,000[41]

500,000[41]
3.13
332,769[137]

 Ruanda-Urundi (Belgian)AV
3,800,000[138]

36,000[139] and 50,000[140]
36,000–50,000
0.09–1.3
NA

 South AfricaAW
10,160,000[141]
11,900[142]

11,900
0.12
14,363[143]

 South Pacific Mandate (Japanese)AX
127,000[144]

10,000[145]

10,000
7.87
[146]

 Soviet Union (within 1946–91 borders[147])AY
188,793,000[148][149]
8,668,000[150][151][152] to 11,400,000[153][154][155][156]
4,500,000[157] to 10,000,000[158][159][160]
8,000,000 to 9,000,000[161][162][163]

20,000,000[164] to 27,000,000[165][166][167][168][169]
(see table below)AY4
14,685,593[170]

 SpainAZ
25,637,000[171]
Included with the German Army
Included with France,see footnote

NA

 SwedenBA
6,341,000[172]
100[173]
2,000[174]

2,100
0.03
NA

  SwitzerlandBB
4,210,000[175]

100[176]

100
0.00
NA

 ThailandBC
15,023,000[177]
5,600[178]
2,000[178]

7,600
0.05
NA

 TurkeyBD
17,370,000[179]
200[180]

200
0.00
NA

 United KingdomBE including British Colonies
47,760,000[181]
383,700[182]
67,200[183]

450,900
0.94
376,239[184]

 United StatesBF
131,028,000[185]
407,300BF1
12,100BF2

419,400
0.32
671,801[186]

 YugoslaviaBG
15,490,000[187]
300,000[188] to 446,000[189]
581,000[189] to 1,400,000[188]

1,027,000[189] to 1,700,000[188]
6.63 to 10.97
425,000[190]

Other nationsBH
300,000,000

NA

Approx. totals
2,300,000,000[1]
21,000,000to 25,500,000
29,000,000to 30,500,000
19,000,000to 28,000,000
70,000,000to 85,000,000
3.0 to 3.7
NA

text:
Figures are rounded to the nearest hundredth place.
Military casualties include deaths of regular military forces from combat as well as non-combat causes. Partisan and resistance fighter deaths are included with military losses. The deaths of prisoners of war in captivity and personnel missing in action are also included with military deaths. Whenever possible the details are given in the footnotes.
The armed forces of the various nations are treated as single entities, for example the deaths of Austrians, French and foreign nationals of German ancestry in eastern Europe in the Wehrmacht are included with German military losses. For example, Michael Strank is included with American not Czechoslovak war dead.
Civilian war dead are included with the nations where they resided. For example, German Jewish refugees in France who were deported to the death camps are included with French casualties in the published sources on the Holocaust.
The official casualty statistics published by the governments of the United States, France, and the UK do not give the details of the national origin, race and religion of the losses.
Civilian casualties include deaths caused by strategic bombing, Holocaust victims, German war crimes, Japanese war crimes, population transfers in the Soviet Union, Allied war crimes, and deaths due to war related famine and disease. The exact breakdown is not always provided in the sources cited.

text: Nazi Germany

text:
hideHuman losses of the Third Reich in World War II (included in above figures of total war dead) A detailed description is given in the footnotes for Germany and Austria.[11][12]^S3

Country

Population1939

Militarydeaths

Civilian deaths due toAllied Strategic Bombing

Civilian deaths due toNazi persecution

Civilian deaths due Expulsion of Germans

Totaldeaths

Deaths as% of 1939population

Austria
6,653,000[17]
250,000[191] to 261,000[63]
24,000[191][192]
100,000[193]

370,000[193]
5.56

Germany (within 1937 borders)[194]

69,300,000[61]

3,760,000[191] to 4,456,000[63]
353,000(1942 borders)[195] to 410,000[191][196]
300,000[197] to 500,000[198][199]
400,000[200] to 1,225,000[191]
5,700,000[201]
8.23

Foreign nationals of German ancestry in eastern Europe[202]
7,423,000[203]
430,000[204] to 538,000[63]

200,000[205] to 886,000[206]
738,000[63][205] to 1,316,000[207]
9.96 to 17.76

Foreign nationals in western Europe
215,000[208]
63,000[63]

63,000[63]
29.3

Approx. Totals
83,500,000
4,440,000[209] to 5,318,000[63]
353,000[195] to 434,000[210]
400,000[211][198] to 600,000[198][199][211]
600,000[212] to 2,111,000[213]
6,900,000 to 7,400,000
8.26 to 8.86

text: German sources do not provide figures for Soviet citizens conscripted by Germany. Russian historian Grigoriy Krivosheyev puts the losses of the "Vlasovites, Balts and Muslims etc." in German service at 215,000[214][215]

text: USSR

text: The estimated breakdown for each Soviet republic of total war dead[13]^AY4

text:
Soviet Republic
Population 1940 (within 1946–91 borders)
Military deaths
Civilian deaths due tomilitary activity and crimes against humanity
Civilian deaths due towar related famine and disease
Total
Deaths as % of 1940 population

Armenia
1,320,000
150,000

30,000
180,000
13.6%

Azerbaijan
3,270,000
210,000

90,000
300,000
9.1%

Belarus
9,050,000
620,000
1,360,000
310,000
2,290,000
25.3%

Estonia
1,050,000
30,000
50,000

80,000
7.6%

Georgia
3,610,000
190,000

110,000
300,000
8.3%

Kazakhstan
6,150,000
310,000

350,000
660,000
10.7%

Kyrgyzstan
1,530,000
70,000

50,000
120,000
7.8%

Latvia
1,890,000
30,000
190,000
40,000
260,000
13.7%

Lithuania
2,930,000
25,000
275,000
75,000
375,000
12.7%

Moldova
2,470,000
50,000
75,000
45,000
170,000
6.9%

Russia
110,100,000
6,750,000
4,100,000
3,100,000
13,950,000
12.7%

Tajikistan
1,530,000
50,000

70,000
120,000
7.8%

Turkmenistan
1,300,000
70,000

30,000
100,000
7.7%

Ukraine
41,340,000
1,650,000
3,700,000
1,500,000
6,850,000
16.3%

Uzbekistan
6,550,000
330,000

220,000
550,000
8.4%

Unidentified
–
165,000
130,000

295,000

Total USSR
194,090,000
10,600,000
10,000,000
6,000,000
26,600,000
13.7%

text: The source of the figures is Vadim Erlikman. Poteri narodonaseleniia v XX veke: spravochnik. Moscow, 2004. ISBN 5-93165-107-1. pp. 21–35. Erlikman, a Russian historian,  notes that these figures are his estimates.

text:
The population listed here of 194.090 million is taken from Soviet era sources. Recent studies published in Russia put the actual corrected population in 1940 at 192.598 million.[216][217]
According to Russian estimates the population in 1939 included 20.268 million in the territories annexed by the USSR from 1939 to 1940: the eastern regions of Poland 12.983 million; Lithuania 2.440 million; Latvia 1.951 million; Estonia 1.122 million; Romanian Bessarabia and Bukovina 3.7 million; less transfers out of (392,000) ethnic Germans deported during the Nazi–Soviet population transfers; the Anders Army (120,000); the First Polish Army (1944–45) (26,000) and Zakerzonia & the Belastok Region (1,392,000) which was returned to Poland in 1945.[216][218][219]
Russian sources estimate post war population transfers resulted in a net loss of (622,000). The additions were the annexation of the Carpatho-Ukraine 725,000; the Tuvan People's Republic 81,000; the remaining population on South Sakhalin 29,000 and in the Kaliningrad Oblast 5,000; and the deportation of Ukrainians from Poland to the USSR in 1944–47 518,000. The transfers out included the flight and expulsion of Poles from the USSR 1944–47 (1,529,000) and the post war emigration to the west (451,000)[216][220][221] According to Viktor Zemskov, 3/4 of the post war emigration to the west was of persons who were from the territories annexed in 1939–40[222]
Estimates in the west for the population transfers differ. According to Sergei Maksudov, a Russian demographer living in the west, the population of the territories annexed by the USSR was 23 million less the net population transfers out of 3 million persons who emigrated from the USSR including 2,136,000 Poles who left the USSR; 115,000 Polish soldiers of the Anders Army ; 392,000 Germans who left in the era of the Nazi-Soviet Pact and 400,000 Jews, Romanians, Germans Czech and Hungarians who emigrated after the war[223][4] The Polish government-in-exile put the population of the territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union  at 13.199 million[224]
Polish sources put the number of refugees from the territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union living in post war Poland at about 2.2 million, about 700,000 more than those listed in the Soviet sources of Poles repatriated. The difference is due to the fact that Poles from the eastern regions who were deported to Germany during the war or had fled Volhynia and Eastern Galicia were not included in the figures of the organized transfers in 1944–47.[225]
Figures for Belarus, Ukraine and Lithuania include about two million civilian dead that are also listed in Polish sources in the total war dead of Poland. Polish historian Krystyna Kersten estimated losses of about two million in the Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union.[226] The formal transfer of the territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union occurred with the Polish–Soviet border agreement of August 1945.
According to Erlikman, in addition to the war dead, there were 1,700,000 deaths due to Soviet repression. (200,000 executed; 4,500,000 sent to prisons and Gulag of whom 1,200,000 died; 2,200,000 deported of whom 300,000 died)[227]

text: Holocaust deaths

text: Included in the figures of total war dead for each nation are victims of the Holocaust.

text: Jewish deaths

text: The Holocaust is the term generally used to describe the genocide of approximately six million European Jews during World War II. Martin Gilbert estimates 5.7 million (78%) of the 7.3 million Jews in German occupied Europe were Holocaust victims.[228] Estimates of Holocaust deaths range between 4.9 and 5.9 million Jews.[229]

text: Statistical breakdown of Jewish dead:

text:
In Nazi extermination camps: according to Polish Institute of National Remembrance (IPN) researchers, 2,830,000 Jews were murdered in the Nazi death camps (500,000 Belzec; 150,000 Sobibor; 850,000 Treblinka; 150,000 Chełmno; 1,100,000 Auschwitz; 80,000 Majdanek).[230] Raul Hilberg puts the Jewish death toll in the death camps, including Romanian Transnistria, at 3.0 million.[231]
In the USSR by the Einsatzgruppen: Raul Hilberg puts the Jewish death toll in the area of the mobile killing groups at 1.4 million.[231]
Aggravated deaths in the Ghettos of Nazi-occupied Europe: Raul Hilberg puts the Jewish death toll in the Ghettos at 700,000.[231]
Yad Vashem has identified the names of four million Jewish Holocaust dead.[232]

text: The figures for the pre-war Jewish population and deaths in the table below are from The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust.[229] The low, high and average percentage figures for deaths of the pre-war population have been added.

text:
Country

Pre-war Jewish population[229] in 1933

Low estimate deaths[229]

High estimate deaths.[229]

Low %

High %

Average %

Austria

191,000 (see footnote)

50,000

65,000

26.2%

34.0%

30.1%

Belgium

60,000 (see footnote)

25,000

29,000

41.7%

48.3%

45.0%

Czech Republic[233]

92,000

77,000

78,300

83.7%

85.1%

84.4%

Denmark

8,000

60

116

0.8 %

1.5%

1.1%

Estonia

4,600

1,500

2,000

32.6%

43.5%

38.0%

France

260,000 (see footnote)

75,000

77,000

28.8%

29.6%

29.2%

Germany

566,000 (see footnote)

135,000

142,000

23.9%

25.1%

24.5%

Greece

73,000

59,000

67,000

80.8%

91.8%

86.3%

Hungary (borders 1940)[234]

725,000

502,000

569,000

69.2%

78.5%

73.9%

Italy

48,000

6,500

9,000

13.5%

18.8%

16.1%

Latvia

95,000

70,000

72,000

73.7%

75.8%

74.7%

Lithuania

155,000

130,000

143,000

83.9%

92.3%

88.1%

Luxembourg

3,500

1,000

2,000

28.6%

57.1%

42.9%

Netherlands

112,000 (see footnote)

100,000

105,000

89.3%

93.8%

91.5%

Norway

1,700

800

800

47.1%

47.1%

47.1%

Poland (borders 1939)

3,250,000

2,700,000

3,000,000

83.1%

92.3%

87.7%

Romania (borders 1940)

441,000

121,000

287,000

27.4%

65.1%

46.3%

Slovakia

89,000

60,000

71,000

67.4%

79.8%

73.6%

Soviet Union (borders 1939)

2,825,000

700,000

1,100,000

24.8%

38.9%

31.9%

Yugoslavia

68,000

56,000

65,000

82.4%

95.6%

89.0%

Total

9,067,000

4,869,860

5,894,716

50.4% (avg.)

59.7% (avg.)

55.1% (avg.)

text:
The total population figures from 1933 listed here are taken from The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust.  From 1933 to 1939 about 400,000 Jews fled Germany, Austria, and Czechoslovakia. Some of these refugees were in western Europe when Germany occupied these countries in 1940. In 1940 there were 30,000 Jewish refugees in the Netherlands, 12,000 in Belgium, 30,000 in France, 2,000 in Denmark, 5,000 in Italy, and 2,000 in Norway[235]
Hungarian Jewish losses of 569,000 presented here include the territories annexed in 1939–41.[236] The number of Holocaust dead in 1938 Hungarian borders were 220,000.[73]According to Martin Gilbert. The Jewish population of Hungary in the 1941 borders was 764,000 (445,000 in the 1938 borders and 319,000 in the annexed territories). Holocaust deaths in the 1938 borders was 200,000 not including 20,000 men conscripted as forced labor for the military.[237]
Netherlands figure listed in the table of 112,000 Jews taken from The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust includes those Jews who were resident in Holland in 1933. By 1940 the Jewish population had increased to 140,000 with the inclusion of 30,000 Jewish refugees.[235] In the Netherlands 8,000 Jews in mixed marriages were not subject to deportation.[238] However an article in the Dutch periodical De Groene Amsterdammer maintains that some Jews in mixed marriages were deported before the practice was ended by Hitler.[239]
Hungarian Jewish Holocaust victims within the 1939 borders were 200,000.[240]
Romanian Jewish Holocaust victims totalled 469,000 within 1939 borders, which includes 300,000 in Bessarabia and Bukovina occupied by the U.S.S.R. in 1940.[240][241]
According to Martin Gilbert, Jewish Holocaust victims totalled 8,000 in Italy, and 562 in the Italian colony of Libya[242]

text: Non-Jews persecuted and killed by Nazi and Nazi-affiliated forces

text: Some scholars maintain that the definition of the Holocaust should also include the other victims persecuted and killed by the Nazis.[243][244]

text:
Donald L. Niewyk, professor of history at Southern Methodist University, maintains that the Holocaust can be defined in four ways: first, that it was the genocide of the Jews alone; second, that there were several parallel Holocausts, one for each of the several groups; third, the Holocaust would include Roma and the handicapped along with the Jews; fourth, it would include all racially motivated German crimes, such as the murder of Soviet prisoners of war, Polish and Soviet civilians, as well as political prisoners, religious dissenters, and homosexuals. Using this definition, the total number of Holocaust victims is between 11 million and 17 million people.[245]
According to the College of Education of the University of South Florida Approximately 11 million people were killed because of Nazi genocidal policy.[246]
R.J. Rummel estimated the death toll due to Nazi Democide at 20.9 million persons.[247]
Timothy Snyder put the victims of the Nazis killed only as result of deliberate policies of mass murder such as executions, deliberate famine and in death camps at 10.4 million persons including 5.4 million Jews.[248]
German scholar Hellmuth Auerbach puts the death toll in the Hitler era at 6 million Jews killed in the Holocaust and 7 million other victims of the Nazis.[249]
Dieter Pohl puts the total number of victims of the Nazi era at between 12 and 14 million persons, including 5.6–5.7 million Jews.[250]
Roma Included in the figures of total war dead are the Roma victims of the Nazi persecution; some scholars include the Roma deaths with the Holocaust. Most estimates of Roma (Gypsies) victims range from 130,000 to 500,000.[245][251] Ian Hancock, Director of the Program of Romani Studies and the Romani Archives and Documentation Center at the University of Texas at Austin, has argued in favour of a higher figure of between 500,000 and 1,500,000 Roma dead.[252] Hancock writes that, proportionately, the death toll equaled "and almost certainly exceed[ed], that of Jewish victims".[253] In a 2010 publication, Ian Hancock stated that he agrees with the view that the number of Romanis killed has been underestimated as a result of being grouped with others in Nazi records under headings such as "remainder to be liquidated", "hangers-on" and "partisans".[254]

text: The following figures are from The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust, the authors maintain that "statistics on Gypsy losses are especially unreliable and controversial. These figures (cited below) are based on necessarily rough estimates".[255]

text:
Country

Pre-war Roma population

Low estimate victims

High estimate victims

Austria

11,200

6,800

8,250

Belgium

600

350

500

Czech Republic[233]

13,000

5,000

6,500

Estonia

1,000

500

1,000

France

40,000

15,150

15,150

Germany

20,000

15,000

15,000

Greece

?

50

50

Hungary

100,000

1,000

28,000

Italy

25,000

1,000

1,000

Latvia

5,000

1,500

2,500

Lithuania

1,000

500

1,000

Luxembourg

200

100

200

Netherlands

500

215

500

Poland

50,000

8,000

35,000

Romania

300,000

19,000

36,000

Slovakia

80,000

400

10,000

Soviet Union (borders 1939)

200,000

30,000

35,000

Yugoslavia

100,000

26,000

90,000

Total

947,500

130,565

285,650

text:
Handicapped persons: 200,000 to 250,000 handicapped persons were killed.[256] A 2003 report by the German Federal Archive put the total murdered during the Action T4 and Action 14f13 programs at 200,000.[257][258]
Prisoners of War: POW deaths in Nazi captivity totalled 3.1 million[259] including 2.6 to 3 million Soviet prisoners of war.[260]
Ethnic Poles: According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum "It is estimated that the Germans killed at least 1.9 million non-Jewish Polish civilians during World War II."[261] They maintain that "Documentation remains fragmentary, but today scholars of independent Poland believe that 1.8 to 1.9 million Polish civilians (non-Jews) were victims of German Occupation policies and the war."[262] However the Polish government affiliated Institute of National Remembrance (IPN) in 2009 estimated 2,770,000 ethnic Polish deaths due to the German occupation[263] (see World War II casualties of Poland).
Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians: According to Nazi ideology, Slavs were useless sub-humans. As such, their leaders, the Soviet elite, were to be killed and the remainder of the population enslaved or expelled further eastward. As a result, millions of civilians in the Soviet Union were deliberately killed, starved, or worked to death.[264] Contemporary Russian sources use the terms "genocide" and "premeditated extermination" when referring to civilian losses in the occupied USSR. Civilians killed in reprisals during the Soviet partisan war and wartime-related famine account for a major part of the huge toll.[265] The Cambridge History of Russia puts overall civilian deaths in the Nazi-occupied USSR at 13.7 million persons including 2 million Jews. There were an additional 2.6 million deaths in the interior regions of the Soviet Union. The authors maintain "scope for error in this number is very wide". At least 1 million perished in the wartime GULAG camps or in deportations. Other deaths occurred in the wartime evacuations and due to war related malnutrition and disease in the interior. The authors maintain that both Stalin and Hitler "were both responsible but in different ways for these deaths", and "In short the general picture of Soviet wartime losses suggests a jigsaw puzzle. The general outline is clear: people died in colossal numbers but in many different miserable and terrible circumstances. But individual pieces of the puzzle do not fit well; some overlap and others are yet to be found".[266] Bohdan Wytwycky maintained that civilian losses of 3.0 million Ukrainians and 1.4 million Belarusians "were racially motivated".[267][268] According to Paul Robert Magocsi, between 1941 and 1945, approximately 3,000,000 Ukrainian and other non-Jewish victims were killed as part of Nazi extermination policies in the territory of modern Ukraine.[269] Dieter Pohl puts the total number of victims of the Nazi policies in the USSR at 500,000 civilians killed in the repression of partisans, 1.0 million victims of the Nazi Hunger Plan, c. 3.0 million Soviet POW and 1.0 million Jews (in pre-war borders).[270] Soviet author Georgiy A. Kumanev put the civilian death toll in the Nazi-occupied USSR at 8.2 million (4.0 million Ukrainians, 2.5 million Belarusians, and 1.7 million Russians).[271]  A report published by the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1995 put the death toll due to the German occupation at 13.7 million civilians (including Jews): 7.4 million victims of Nazi genocide and reprisals; 2.2 million persons deported to Germany for forced labor; and 4.1 million famine and disease deaths in occupied territory. Sources published in the Soviet Union were cited to support these figures.[272]
Homosexuals: According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum "Between 1933 and 1945 the police arrested an estimated 100,000 men as homosexuals. Most of the 50,000 men sentenced by the courts spent time in regular prisons, and between 5,000 and 15,000 were interned in concentration camps." They also noted that there are no known statistics for the number of homosexuals who died in the camps.[273]
Other victims of Nazi persecution: Between 1,000 and 2,000 Roman Catholic clergy,[274] about 1,000 Jehovah's Witnesses,[275] and an unknown number of Freemasons[276] perished in Nazi prisons and camps. "The fate of black people from 1933 to 1945 in Nazi Germany and in German-occupied territories ranged from isolation to persecution, sterilization, medical experimentation, incarceration, brutality, and murder."[277] During the Nazi era Communists, Socialists, Social Democrats, and trade union leaders were victims of Nazi persecution.[278]
Serbs: The numbers of Serbs murdered by the Ustaše is the subject of debate and estimates vary widely. Yad Vashem estimates over 500,000 murdered, 250,000 expelled and 200,000 forcibly converted to Catholicism.[279] The estimate of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum is that the Ustaše murdered between 320,000 and 340,000 ethnic Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia between 1941–45, with roughly 45,000 to 52,000 murdered at the Jasenovac concentration camp alone.[280] According to the Wiesenthal Center at least 90,000 Serbs, Jews, Gypsies and anti-fascist Croatians perished at the hands of the Ustashe at the camp at Jasenovac.[281] According to Yugoslav sources published in the Tito era the estimates of the number of Serb victims range from 200,000 to at least 600,000 persons.[282] See also World War II persecution of Serbs.

text: Japanese war crimes

text: Included with total war dead are victims of Japanese war crimes.

text: R. J. Rummel estimates the civilian victims of Japanese democide at 5,424,000. Detailed by country: China 3,695,000; Indochina 457,000; Korea 378,000; Indonesia 375,000; Malaya-Singapore 283,000; Philippines 119,000, Burma 60,000 and Pacific Islands 57,000.

text: Werner Gruhl estimates the civilian deaths at 20,365,000. Detailed by country: China 12,392,000; Indochina 1,500,000; Korea 500,000; Dutch East Indies 3,000,000; Malaya and Singapore 100,000; Philippines 500,000; Burma 170,000; Forced laborers in Southeast Asia 70,000, 30,000 interned non-Asian civilians; Timor 60,000; Thailand and Pacific Islands 60,000.[284]

text:
Out of 60,000 Indian Army POWs taken at the Fall of Singapore, 11,000 died in captivity.[285]
There were 14,657 deaths among the total 130,895 western civilians interned by the Japanese due to famine and disease.[286][287]

text: Oppression in the Soviet Union

text: The total war dead in the USSR includes victims of Soviet oppression.  The number of deaths in the Gulag labor camps increased as a result of wartime overcrowding and food shortages.[288] The Stalin regime deported the entire populations of ethnic minorities considered to be potentially disloyal.[289] Since 1990 Russian scholars have been given access to the Soviet-era archives and have published data on the numbers of people executed and those who died in Gulag labor camps and prisons.[290] The Russian scholar Viktor Zemskov puts the death toll from 1941–1945 at about 1 million based on data from the Soviet archives.[291] The Soviet-era archive figures on the Gulag labor camps has been the subject of a vigorous academic debate outside Russia since their publication in 1991. J. Arch Getty and Stephen G. Wheatcroft maintain that Soviet-era figures more accurately detail the victims of the Gulag labor camp system in the Stalin era.[292][293] Robert Conquest and Steven Rosefielde have disputed the accuracy of the data from the Soviet archives, maintaining that the demographic data and testimonials by survivors of the Gulag labor camps indicate a higher death toll.[294][295] Rosefielde posits that the release of the Soviet Archive figures is disinformation generated by the modern KGB.[296] Rosefielde maintains that the data from the Soviet archives is incomplete; for example, he pointed out that the figures do not include the 22,000 victims of the Katyn massacre.[297] Rosefielde's demographic analysis puts the number of excess deaths due to Soviet repression at 2,183,000 in 1939–40 and 5,458,000 from 1941–1945.[298] Michael Haynes and Rumy Husun accept the figures from the Soviet archives as being an accurate tally of Stalin's victims, they maintain that the demographic data depicts an underdeveloped Soviet economy and the losses in World War Two rather than indicating a higher death toll in the Gulag labor camps.[299]

text: In August 2009 the Polish Institute of National Remembrance (IPN) researchers estimated 150,000 Polish citizens were killed due to Soviet repression. Since the collapse of the USSR, Polish scholars have been able to do research in the Soviet archives on Polish losses during the Soviet occupation.[226] Andrzej Paczkowski puts the number of Polish deaths at 90,000–100,000 of the 1.0 million persons deported and 30,000 executed by the Soviets.[300] In 2005 Tadeusz Piotrowski estimated the death toll in Soviet hands at 350,000.[301]

text: The Estonian State Commission for the Examination of Repressive Policies Carried out During the Occupations put civilian deaths due to the Soviet occupation in 1940–1941 at 33,900 including (7,800 deaths) of arrested people, (6,000) deportee deaths, (5,000) evacuee deaths, (1,100) people gone missing and (14,000) conscripted for forced labor. After the reoccupation by the U.S.S.R., 5,000 Estonians died in Soviet prisons during 1944–45.[302]

text:
The following is a summary of the data from the Soviet archives:
Reported deaths for the years 1939–1945 1,187,783, including: judicial executions 46,350; deaths in Gulag labor camps 718,804; deaths in labor colonies and prisons 422,629.[303]

text:
Deported to special settlements: (figures are for deportations to Special Settlements only, not including those executed, sent to Gulag labor camps or conscripted into the Soviet Army. Nor do the figures include additional deportations after the war).

Deported from annexed territories 1940–41 380,000 to 390,000 persons, including: Poland 309–312,000; Lithuania 17,500; Latvia 17,000; Estonia 6,000; Moldova 22,842.[304] In August 1941, 243,106 Poles living in the Special Settlements were amnestied and released by the Soviets.[305]

Deported during the War 1941–1945 about 2.3 million persons of Soviet ethnic minorities including: Soviet Germans 1,209,000; Finns 9,000; Karachays 69,000; Kalmyks 92,000;Chechens and Ingush 479,000; Balkars 37,000; Crimean Tatars 191,014; Meskhetian Turks 91,000; Greeks, Bulgarians and Armenians from Crimea 42,000; Ukrainian OUN members 100,000; Poles 30,000.[306]

A total of 2,230,500[307] persons were living in the settlements in October 1945 and 309,100 deaths were reported in special settlements for the years 1941–1948.[308]

text: Russian sources list Axis prisoner of war deaths of 580,589 in Soviet captivity based on data in the Soviet archives (Germany 381,067; Hungary 54,755; Romania 54,612; Italy 27,683; Finland 403, and Japan 62,069).[309] However some western scholars estimate the total at between 1.7 and 2.3 million.[310]

text: Military casualties by branch of service

text:
Country

Branch of service

Number served

Killed/missing

Wounded

Prisoners of war Captured

Percent killed

Germany
Army[311]
13,600,000
4,202,000

30.9

Germany
Air Force (including infantry units)[311]
2,500,000
433,000

17.3

Germany
Navy[311]
1,200,000
138,000

11.5

Germany
Waffen SS[311]
900,000
314,000

34.9

Germany
Volkssturm and other Paramilitary Forces[311]

231,000

Germany
Total (incl. conscripted foreigners)
18,200,000
5,318,000
6,035,000
11,100,000
29.2

Japan[312][313]
Army (1937–1945)
6,300,000
1,326,076
85,600
30,000
24.2

Japan
Navy (1941–1945)
2,100,000
414,879
8,900
10,000
19.8

Japan
POW dead after Surrender.[314][315][316]

381,000

Japan
Imperial Japan Total
8,400,000
2,121,955
94,500
40,000
25.3

Italy
Army
3,040,000
246,432

8.1

Italy
Navy
259,082[317]
31,347

12.0

Italy
Air Force
130,000[318]
13,210

10.2

Italy
Partisan forces
80,000[319] to 250,000[320][321]
35,828

14 to 44

Italy
RSI forces
520,000[322]
13,021 to 35,000

2.5 to 6.7

Italy
Total Italy
3,430,000[323][324]
319,207[325] to 341,000
320,000
1,300,000[326]
9.3 to 9.9

Soviet Union (1939–40)
All branches of service[327]

136,945
205,924

Soviet Union (1941–45)
All branches of service[328]
34,476,700
8,668,400
14,685,593
4,050,000
25.1

Soviet Union
Conscripted Reservists not yet in active service (see note below)[329]

500,000

Soviet Union
Civilians in POW camps (see note below)[330]

1,000,000

1,750,000

Soviet Union
Paramilitary and Soviet partisan units[331]

400,000

Soviet Union
Total Soviet Forces
34,476,700
10,725,345
14,915,517
5,750,000
31.1

British Empire and Commonwealth[332][333][334]
All branches of service
17,843,000
580,497
475,000
318,000
3.3

United States[335]
Army[336]
11,260,000
318,274
565,861
124,079[336][337]
2.8

United States
Air Force (included with Army)[336]
(3,400,000)
(88,119)
(17,360)

2.5

United States
Navy
4,183,446
62,614
37,778
3,848[338]
1.5

United States
Maritime Service
215,000
9,400
12,000
663[339]
4.5

United States
Marine Corps
669,100
24,511
68,207
2,274[340][341]
3.7

United States
Coast Guard[342]
241,093
1,917

0.8

United States
Public Health Service Commissioned Corps[343]
2,600
8[344]

0.3

United States
Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps[345]

3

United States
Total U.S. Armed Forces
16,353,639
407,316
671,846
130,201[346][347]

2.5

text: Germany

text:
The number killed in action was 2,303,320; died of wounds, disease or accidents 500,165; 11,000 sentenced to death by court martial; 2,007,571 missing in action or unaccounted for after the war; 25,000 suicides; 12,000 unknown;[348] 459,475 confirmed POW deaths, of whom 77,000 were in the custody of the U.S., UK and France; and 363,000 in Soviet custody. POW deaths includes 266,000 in the post-war period after June 1945, primarily in Soviet captivity.[349]
Rüdiger Overmans writes "It seems entirely plausible, while not provable, that one half of the 1.5 million missing on the eastern front were killed in action, the other half (700,000) however in fact died in Soviet custody".[350]
Soviet sources list the deaths of 474,967 of the 2,652,672 German Armed Forces POW taken in the war.[351]

tag: ol

text: USSR

text:
Estimated total Soviet military war dead in 1941–45 on the Eastern Front (World War II) including missing in action, POWs and Soviet partisans range from 8.6 to 10.6 million.[331] There were an additional 127,000 war dead in 1939–40 during the Winter War with Finland.[352]
The official figures for military war dead and missing in 1941–45 are 8,668,400 comprising 6,329,600 combat related deaths, 555,500 non-combat deaths.[353] 500,000 missing in action and 1,103,300 POW dead and another 180,000 liberated POWs who most likely emigrated to other countries.[354][355][356] Figures include Navy losses of 154,771.[357] Non-combat deaths include 157,000 sentenced to death by court martial.[358]
Casualties in 1939–40 include the following dead and missing: Battle of Khalkhin Gol in 1939 (8,931), Invasion of Poland of 1939 (1,139), Winter War with Finland (1939–40) (126,875).[327]
The number of wounded includes 2,576,000 permanently disabled.[359]
The official Russian figure for total POW held by the Germans is 4,059,000; the number of Soviet POW who survived the war was 2,016,000, including 180,000 who most likely emigrated to other countries, and an additional 939,700 POW and MIA who were redrafted as territory was liberated. This leaves 1,103,000 POW dead. However, western historians put the number of POW held by the Germans at 5.7 million and about 3 million as dead in captivity (in the official Russian figures 1.1 million are military POW and remaining balance of about 2 million are included with civilian war dead).[354][360]
Conscripted reservists is an estimate of men called up, primarily in 1941, who were killed in battle or died as POWs before being listed on active strength. Soviet and Russian sources classify these losses as civilian deaths.[361]

text: British Commonwealth

text:
Number served: UK and Crown Colonies (5,896,000); India-(British colonial administration) (2,582,000), Australia (993,000); Canada (1,100,000); New Zealand (295,000); South Africa (250,000).[362]
Total war related deaths reported by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission: UK and Crown Colonies (383,786); India-(British colonial administration) (87,032), Australia (40,464); Canada (45,383); New Zealand (11,929); South Africa (11,903).[363]
Total military dead for the United Kingdom alone(according to preliminary 1945 figures): 264,443. Royal Navy (50,758); British Army (144,079); Royal Air Force (69,606).[364][365]
Wounded: UK and Crown Colonies (284,049); India-(British colonial administration) (64,354), Australia (39,803); Canada (53,174); New Zealand (19,314); South Africa (14,363).[333][366][367]
Prisoner of war: UK and Crown Colonies (180,488); India-(British colonial administration) (79,481); Australia (26,358); South Africa (14,750); Canada (9,334); New Zealand (8,415).[333][366][367]
The Debt of Honour Register from the Commonwealth War Graves Commission lists the 1.7m men and women of the Commonwealth forces who died during the two world wars.[368]

text: U.S.

text:
Battle deaths (including POWs who died in captivity, does not include those who died of disease and accidents)[336] were 292,131: Army 234,874 (including Army Air Forces 52,173); Navy 36,950; Marine Corps 19,733; and Coast Guard 574 (185,924 deaths occurred in the European/Atlantic theater of operations and 106,207 deaths occurred in Asia/Pacific theater of operations).[336][369]
During World War II, 14,059 American POWs died in enemy captivity throughout the war (12,935 held by Japan and 1,124 held by Germany).[370]
During World War II, 1.2 million African Americans served in the U.S. Armed Forces and 708 were killed in action. 350,000 American women served in the Armed Forces during World War II and 16 were killed in action.[371] During World War II, 26,000 Japanese-Americans served in the Armed Forces and over 800 were killed in action.[372]

text: Commonwealth military casualties

text: The Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) Annual Report 2014–2015[373] is the source of the military dead for the British Empire. The war dead totals listed in the report are based on the research by the CWGC to identify and commemorate Commonwealth war dead. The statistics tabulated by the CWGC are representative of the number of names commemorated for all servicemen/women of the Armed Forces of the Commonwealth and former UK Dependencies, whose death was attributable to their war service. Some auxiliary and civilian organizations are also accorded war grave status if death occurred under certain specified conditions. For the purposes of CWGC the dates of inclusion for Commonwealth War Dead are 3 September 1939 to 31 December 1947.


document_title: Mayflower

question_text: where did the mayflower land in the us

question_tokens: where did the mayflower land in the us

root

text: Mayflower

text: Mayflower structure and layout

text: The Pilgrim ship Mayflower was a typical English merchant ship of the early 17th century, square-rigged and beak-bowed with high, castle-like structures fore and aft that served to protect the ship's crew and the main deck from the elements. Her stern carried a 30-foot high, square aft-castle which made the ship extremely difficult to sail against the wind and unable to sail well against the North Atlantic's prevailing Westerlies, especially in the Fall and Winter of 1620. This was the direct cause of the voyage from England to America taking more than two months. The Mayflower's return trip to London in April–May 1621 took less than half that time, with the same strong winds following.[4][5]

tag: p

text: By 1620, the Mayflower was aging, nearing the end of the usual working life of an English merchant ship in that era, some 15 years. No dimensions of her hull can be stated exactly, since this was many years before such measurements were standardized. She probably measured about 100 feet (30 m) in length from the forward end at the beak of her prow to the tip of her stern superstructure aft. She was about 25 feet (7.6 m) at her widest point, with the bottom of her keel about 12 feet (3.6 m) below the waterline. Although William Bradford was not a mariner, he estimated that Mayflower had a cargo capacity of 180 tons. What is known on the basis of surviving records from that time is that she could certainly accommodate 180 casks of wine in her cargo hold. The casks were great barrels that each held hundreds of gallons of claret wine.[5]

text: This was a ship that traditionally was heavily armed while on trading routes around Europe, due to the possibility of encountering pirates and privateers of all types. And with its armament, the ship and crew could easily be conscripted by the English monarch at any time in case of conflict with other nations.[6]

text: General layout

text: The general layout of the ship was as follows:

text:
Three masts: mizzen (aft), main (midship), and fore, and also a spritsail in the bow area.[7]
Three primary levels: main deck, gun deck, and cargo hold.

tag: ul

text: Main deck

text: Aft on the main deck in the stern was the cabin for Master Christopher Jones, measuring about ten by seven feet (3 m × 2.1 m). Forward of that was the steerage room, which housed a whipstaff (tiller extension) for sailing control; not a wheel, as in later ships. Also here was the ship's compass and probably also berths for the ship's officers. Forward of the steerage room was the capstan, a vertical axle used to pull in ropes or cables. Far forward on the main deck, just aft of the bow, was the forecastle space where the ship's cook prepared meals for the crew; it may also have been where the ship's sailors slept.[6]

text: The poop deck was above the cabin of Master Jones, on the ship's highest level above the stern on the aft castle. The poop house was on this deck, which may have been for passengers' use either for sleeping or cargo. On normal merchant ships, this space was probably a chart room or a cabin for the master's mates.[8][9]

text: Gun deck

text: The gun deck was where the passengers resided during the voyage, in a space measuring about 50 by 25 feet (15.2 m × 7.6 m) with a five-foot (1.5 m) overhead (ceiling). But it was also a dangerous place in conflict, as it had port and starboard gun ports from which cannon could be run out to fire on the enemy. The gun room was in the stern area of the gun deck, to which passengers had no access due to it being the storage space for powder and ammunition for the ship's cannons and any other weapons belonging to the ship. The gun room might also house a pair of stern chasers, small cannons used to fire out the stern of the ship. Forward on the gun deck in the bow area was a windlass, equipment similar in function to the capstan in steerage, which was used to raise and lower the ship's main anchor. There were no stairs for the passengers on the gun deck to go up through the gratings to the main deck. To get up to the main deck, passengers were required to climb a wooden or rope ladder.[8][9]

text: There was no facility for a latrine or privy on the Mayflower, and ship's crew had to fend for themselves in that regard. Gun deck passengers most likely used a bucket as a chamber pot, affixed to the deck or bulkhead to keep it from being jostled at sea.[9][10]

text: Gun deck armament

text: The largest gun was a minion cannon which was brass, weighed about 1,200 pounds (545 kg), and could shoot a 3.5 pound (1.6 kg) cannonball almost a mile (1,600 m). The Mayflower also had on board a saker cannon of about 800 pounds (360 kg), and two base cannons that weighed about 200 pounds (90 kg) which shot a 3 to 5 ounce ball (85–140 g). She carried at least ten pieces of ordnance on the port and starboard sides of her gun deck: seven cannons for long range purposes, and three smaller guns often fired from the stern at close quarters that were filled with musket balls. Later at New Plymouth, Mayflower Master Jones unloaded four of the pieces to help fortify the colony against invaders, and would not have done so unless he was comfortable with the armament that he still had on board.[5]

text: Cargo hold

text: Below the gun deck was the cargo hold where the passengers kept most of their food stores and other supplies. Other items included most of their clothing and bedding. The hold also stored the passengers' personal weapons and military equipment – armor, muskets, gunpowder, and shot, as well as swords and bandoliers. It also stored all the tools that the Pilgrims would need, as well as all the equipment and utensils needed to prepare meals in the New World. It is also known that some Pilgrims loaded trade goods on board, including Isaac Allerton, William Mullins, and possibly others; these also most likely were stored in the cargo hold.[10]

text: Early history

text: It is not known when and where the Mayflower was built, but it is likely that she was launched at Harwich in the county of Essex, England. She was designated as "of Harwich" in the Port Books of 1609–11, although later known as "of London". Harwich was also the birthplace of Mayflower master Christopher Jones about 1570.[11]

text: Captain Jones became master of the Mayflower 11 years prior to the Pilgrims' voyage, sailing the ship cross-Channel taking English woolens to France and bringing French wine to London. In addition, he had also transported hats, hemp, Spanish salt, hops, and vinegar to Norway, and may have taken the Mayflower whaling in the North Atlantic in the Greenland area. She had traveled to Mediterranean ports, being then owned by Christopher Nichols, Robert Child, Thomas Short, and Christopher Jones, the ship's master. In 1620, Jones and Robert Child still owned their quarter shares in the ship, and it was from them that Thomas Weston chartered her in the summer of 1620 to undertake the Pilgrim voyage. Weston had a significant role in the Mayflower voyage, due to his membership in the Company of Merchant Adventurers, and he eventually traveled to the Plymouth Colony himself.[4][12][13]

text: There were 26 vessels bearing the same name as the Pilgrim ship in the Port Books of England in the reign of James I (1603–1625), and the reason for this popularity of the name has never been found.[14] One particular Mayflower that has caused historical confusion is a Mayflower erroneously identified as one of the 1620 Pilgrims. This ship was partly owned by John Vassall and was outfitted for Queen Elizabeth in 1588, during the time of the Spanish Armada, a war for which Vassall outfitted several ships. However, there are no records of Vassall's Mayflower after 1594.[15] The identity of Captain Jones's Mayflower is based on records of the time of her home port, her tonnage (est. 180–200 tons), and the master's name in 1620 in order to avoid confusion with the many other Mayflower ships.[14]

text: Records dating from August 1609 first note Christopher Jones as master and part owner of the Mayflower when his ship was chartered for a voyage from London to Trondheim in Norway and back to London. The ship lost an anchor on her return, due to bad weather, and made short delivery of her cargo of herrings. Litigation resulted, and this was still proceeding in 1612.

text: Christopher Jones is described in a document of January 1611 as being "of Harwich", and his ship is called the Mayflower of Harwich (in the county of Essex). Records of Jones's ship Mayflower show that the ship was twice on the Thames at London in 1613, once in July and again in October and November. Records of 1616 again state that Jones's ship was on the Thames, carrying a cargo of wine, which suggests that the ship had recently been on a voyage to France, Spain, Portugal, the Canaries, or some other wine-producing land.

text: After 1616, there is no further record which specifically relates to Jones's Mayflower until 1624. This is unusual for a ship trading to London, as it would not usually disappear from the records for such a long time. And no Admiralty court document can be found relating to the pilgrim fathers' voyage of 1620, although this might be due to the unusual way in which the transfer of the pilgrims was arranged from Leyden to New England. Or some of the records of the period may have been lost.

text: Voyage

text: Speedwell and Mayflower

text: About 65 passengers embarked the Mayflower in London at its homeport in the Rotherhithe district on the Thames about the middle of July in 1620. She then proceeded down the Thames into the English Channel and then on to the south coast to anchor at Southampton Water. The Mayflower waited there for seven days for a rendezvous on July 22 with the Speedwell, coming with Leiden church members from Delfshaven in Holland.

text: The two ships set sail about August 5, but the unseaworthy Speedwell sprang a leak shortly after, and the ships were put into Dartmouth for repairs. The two ships made a new start after the repairs, and they were more than 200 miles (320 km) beyond Land's End at the southwestern tip of England when Speedwell sprang another leak. It was now early September, and they had no choice but to abandon the Speedwell and make a determination on her passengers. This was a dire event, as the ship had wasted vital funds and was considered very important to the future success of their settlement in America. Speedwell was sold soon after the Mayflower continued on her voyage to America. According to Bradford, she was refitted and "made many voyages... to the great profit of her owners." Bradford later assumed that Speedwell master Reynolds's "cunning and deceit" (in causing what may have been man-made leaks in the ship) had been motivated by a fear of starving to death in America.[16]

text: In addition to the 102 passengers, the officers and crew consisted of about 25–30 persons, bringing the total persons on board the Mayflower to approximately 130.[17]

text: Mayflower sets sail

text: In early September, western gales begin to make the North Atlantic a dangerous place for sailing. The Mayflower's provisions were already quite low when departing Southampton, and they became lower still by delays of more than a month. The passengers had been on board the ship for this entire time, and they were quite worn out and in no condition for a very taxing, lengthy Atlantic journey cooped up in cramped spaces in a small ship. But the Mayflower sailed from Plymouth on September 6, 1620 with what Bradford called "a prosperous wind".[18]

text: The last port in England for the Mayflower was traditionally thought to be Plymouth; however, there is continued controversy that the ship had to stop at Newlyn in Cornwall on the Land's End peninsula before sailing west. It was believed that the water picked up at Plymouth had caused fever and cholera in the city, so Newlyn provided fresh water to the ship. Newlyn has a plaque to this effect on the side of a building on its quay, erected in remembrance of Plymouth historian Bill Best Harris, whose research is believed to have uncovered this little-known detail about the voyage.[19][20]

text: Aboard the Mayflower were many stores that supplied the pilgrims with the essentials needed for their journey and future lives. It is assumed that they carried tools and weapons, including cannon, shot, and gunpowder, as well as some live animals, including dogs, sheep, goats, and poultry. Horses and cattle came later. The Mayflower also carried two boats: a long boat and a "shallop", a 21-foot boat powered by oars or sails. She also carried 12 artillery pieces (eight minions and four sakers), as the Pilgrims feared that they might need to defend themselves against enemy European forces, as well as the natives.[21]

text: The passage was a miserable one, with huge waves constantly crashing against the ship's topside deck until a key structural support timber fractured. The passengers had already suffered agonizing delays, shortages of food, and other shortages, and were now called upon to provide assistance to the ship's carpenter in repairing the fractured main support beam. This was repaired with the use of a metal mechanical device called a jackscrew, which had been loaded on board to help in the construction of settler homes. It was now used to secure the beam to keep it from cracking further, making the ship seaworthy enough.[21][22]

text: The crew of the Mayflower had some devices to assist them en route, such as a compass for navigation, as well as a log and line system to measure speed in nautical miles per hour (knots). Time was measured with the ancient method of an hour glass.

text: There were two deaths, but this was only a precursor of what happened after their arrival on Cape Cod.

text: Arrival in America

text: On November 9, 1620, they sighted present-day Cape Cod. They spent several days trying to sail south to their planned destination of the Colony of Virginia, where they had obtained permission to settle from the Company of Merchant Adventurers. However, strong winter seas forced them to return to the harbor at Cape Cod hook, well north of the intended area, where they anchored on November 11. The settlers wrote and signed the Mayflower Compact after the ship dropped anchor at Cape Cod, in what is now Provincetown Harbor, in order to establish legal order and to quell increasing strife within the ranks.[23][24][25][26]

text: On Monday, November 27, an exploring expedition was launched under the direction of Capt. Christopher Jones to search for a suitable settlement site. As master of the Mayflower, Jones was not required to assist in the search, but he apparently thought it in his best interest to assist the search expedition. There were 34 persons in the open shallop: 24 passengers and 10 sailors. They were obviously not prepared for the bitter winter weather which they encountered on their reconnoiter, the Mayflower passengers not being accustomed to winter weather much colder than back home. They were forced to spend the night ashore due to the bad weather which they encountered, ill-clad in below-freezing temperatures with wet shoes and stockings that became frozen. Bradford wrote, "Some of our people that are dead took the original of their death here" on that expedition.[27]

text: The settlers explored the snow-covered area and discovered an empty native village, now known as Corn Hill in Truro. The curious settlers dug up some artificially made mounds, some of which stored corn, while others were burial sites. Nathaniel Philbrick claims that the settlers stole the corn and looted and desecrated the graves,[28] sparking friction with the locals.[29] Philbrick goes on to say that they explored the area of Cape Cod for several weeks as they moved down the coast to what is now Eastham, and he claims that the Pilgrims were looting and stealing native stores as they went.[30] He then writes about how they decided to relocate to Plymouth after a difficult encounter with the Nausets at First Encounter Beach in December 1620.

text: However, Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation steadfastly denies such revisionist theories. Bradford records that they took "some" of the corn to show the others back at the boat, leaving the rest. They later took what they needed from another store of grain, paying the locals back in six months, and it was gladly received.

text: Also there was found more of their corn and of their beans of various colors; the corn and beans they brought away, purposing to give them full satisfaction when they should meet with any of them as, about some six months afterward they did, to their good content.[31]

text: First winter

text: During the winter, the passengers remained on board the Mayflower, suffering an outbreak of a contagious disease described[by whom?] as a mixture of scurvy, pneumonia, and tuberculosis. When it ended, only 53 passengers remained—just over half; half of the crew died, as well. In the spring, they built huts ashore, and the passengers disembarked from the Mayflower on March 21, 1621.

text: The settlers decided to mount "our great ordnances" on the hill overlooking the settlement in late February 1621, due to the fear of attack by the natives. Christopher Jones supervised the transportation of the "great guns"—about six iron cannons that ranged between four and eight feet (1.2 to 2.4 m) in length and weighed almost half a ton. The cannon were able to hurl iron balls 3.5 inches (8.9 cm) in diameter as far as 1,700 yards (1.5 km). This action made what was no more than a ramshackle village almost into a well-defended fortress.[32]

text: Jones had originally planned to return to England as soon as the Pilgrims found a settlement site. But his crew members began to be ravaged by the same diseases that were felling the Pilgrims, and he realized that he had to remain in Plymouth Harbor "till he saw his men began to recover."[33] The Mayflower lay in New Plymouth harbor through the winter of 1620–21, then set sail for England on April 5, 1621, her empty hold ballasted with stones from the Plymouth Harbor shore. As with the Pilgrims, her sailors had been decimated by disease. Jones had lost his boatswain, his gunner, three quartermasters, the cook, and more than a dozen sailors.

text: The Mayflower made excellent time on her voyage back to England. The westerly winds that had buffeted her coming out pushed her along going home, and she arrived at the home port of Rotherhithe in London on May 6, 1621,[34] less than half the time that it had taken her to sail to America."[35]

text: Jones died after coming back from a voyage to France on March 5, 1622, at about age 52. For the next two years, the Mayflower lay at her berth in Rotherhithe, not far from Jones' grave at St. Mary's church. By 1624, she was no longer useful as a ship; her subsequent fate is unknown, but she was probably broken up about that time.[36]

text: Passengers

text: Some families traveled together, while some men came alone, leaving families in England and Leiden. Two wives on board were pregnant; Elizabeth Hopkins gave birth to son Oceanus while at sea, and Susanna White gave birth to son Peregrine in late November while the ship was anchored in Cape Cod Harbor. He is historically recognized as the first European child born in the New England area. One child died during the voyage, and there was one stillbirth during the construction of the colony.

text: According to the Mayflower passenger list, just over a third of the passengers were Puritan Separatists who sought to break away from the established Church of England and create a society along the lines of their religious ideals. Others were hired hands, servants, or farmers recruited by London merchants, all originally destined for the Colony of Virginia. Four of this latter group of passengers were small children given into the care of Mayflower pilgrims as indentured servants. The Virginia Company began the transportation of children in 1618.[37] Until relatively recently, the children were thought to be orphans, foundlings, or involuntary child labor. At that time, children were routinely rounded up from the streets of London or taken from poor families receiving church relief to be used as laborers in the colonies. Any legal objections to the involuntary transportation of the children were overridden by the Privy Council.[38][39] In 1959, it was conclusively shown[40] that the four More children were sent to America because they were deemed illegitimate. Three of the four More children died in the first winter in the New World, but Richard lived to be approximately 81, dying in Salem, probably in 1695 or 1696.[41]

text: The passengers mostly slept and lived in the low-ceilinged great cabins and on the main deck, which was 75 by 20 (23 m × 6 m) at most. The cabins were thin-walled and extremely cramped, and the total area was 25 ft by 15 ft (7.6 m × 4.5 m) at its largest. Below decks, any person over five feet (150 cm) tall would be unable to stand up straight. The maximum possible space for each person would have been slightly less than the size of a standard single bed.[42]

text: Passengers would pass the time by reading by candlelight or playing cards and games such as Nine Men's Morris.[21] Meals on board were cooked by the firebox, which was an iron tray with sand in it on which a fire was built. This was risky because it was kept in the waist of the ship. Passengers made their own meals from rations that were issued daily and food was cooked for a group at a time.[42]

text: Upon arrival late in the year, the harsh climate and scarcity of fresh food caused many more deaths, and provisions were short due to the delay in departure. Living in these extremely close and crowded quarters, several passengers experienced scurvy, a disease caused by a lack of the essential nutrient vitamin C. There was no way to store fruits or vegetables without their becoming rotten, so many passengers did not receive enough nutrients in their diets. Passengers with scurvy experienced symptoms such as rotten teeth which would fall out, bleeding gums, and stinking breath.[43]

text: Passengers consumed large amounts of alcohol such as beer with meals which was known to be safer than water, which often came from polluted sources causing diseases. All food and drink was stored in barrels known as "hogsheads".[43]

text: William Mullins took 126 pairs of shoes and 13 pairs of boots. These clothes included oiled leather and canvas suits, stuff gowns and leather and stuff breeches, shirts, jerkins, doublets, neckcloths, hats and caps, hose, stockings, belts, piece goods, and haberdasherie. At his death, his estate consisted of extensive footwear and other items of clothing, and made his daughter Priscilla and her husband John Alden quite prosperous.[21][44][45]

text: No cattle or beasts of draft or burden were brought on the journey, but there were pigs, goats, and poultry. Some passengers brought family pets such as cats and birds. Peter Browne took his large bitch mastiff, and John Goodman brought along his spaniel.[21]

text: Mayflower officers, crew, and others

text: According to author Charles Banks, the officers and crew of the Mayflower consisted of a captain, four mates, four quartermasters, surgeon, carpenter, cooper, cooks, boatswains, gunners, and about 36 men before the mast, making a total of about 50. The entire crew stayed with the Mayflower in Plymouth through the winter of 1620–1621, and about half of them died during that time. The remaining crewmen returned to England on the Mayflower, which sailed for London on April 5, 1621.[46][47]

text: Crew members per various sources

text: Banks states that the crew totaled 36 men before the mast and 14 officers, making a total of 50. Nathaniel Philbrick estimates between 20 and 30 sailors in her crew whose names are unknown. Nick Bunker states that Mayflower had a crew of at least 17 and possibly as many as 30. Caleb Johnson states that the ship carried a crew of about 30 men, but the exact number is unknown.[2][48][49][50]

text: Officers and crew

text:
Captain: Christopher Jones. About age 50, of Harwich, a seaport in Essex, England, which was also the port of his ship Mayflower. He and his ship were veterans of the European cargo business, often carrying wine to England, but neither had ever crossed the Atlantic. By June 1620, he and the Mayflower had been hired for the Pilgrims voyage by their business agents in London, Thomas Weston of the Merchant Adventurers and Robert Cushman.[51][52]
Masters Mate: John Clark (Clarke), Pilot. By age 45 in 1620, Clark already had greater adventures than most other mariners of that dangerous era. His piloting career began in England about 1609. In early 1611, he was pilot of a 300-ton ship on his first New World voyage, with a three-ship convoy sailing from London to the new settlement of Jamestown in Virginia. Two other ships were in that convoy, and the three ships brought 300 new settlers to Jamestown, going first to the Caribbean islands of Dominica and Nevis. While in Jamestown, Clark piloted ships in the area carrying various stores. During that time, he was taken prisoner in a confrontation with the Spanish; he was taken to Havana and held for two years, then transferred to Spain where he was in custody for five years. In 1616, he was finally freed in a prisoner exchange with England. In 1618, he was back in Jamestown as pilot of the ship Falcon. Shortly after his return to England, he was hired as pilot for the Mayflower in 1620.[49][53][54][55]
Masters Mate: Robert Coppin, Pilot. Coppin had prior New World experience; he previously hunted whales in Newfoundland and sailed the coast of New England.[49][53][56] He was an early investor in the Virginia Company, being named in the Second Virginia Charter of 1609. He was possibly from Harwich in Essex, the hometown of Captain Jones.
Masters Mate: Andrew Williamson
Masters Mate: John Parker[53]
Surgeon: Doctor Giles Heale. The surgeon on board the Mayflower was never mentioned by Bradford, but his identity was well established. He was essential in providing comfort to all who died or were made ill that first winter. He was a young man from Drury Lane in the parish of St. Giles in the Field, London who had completed his apprenticeship with the Barber-Surgeons in the previous year. On February 21, 1621, he was a witness to the death-bed will of William Mullins. He survived the first winter and returned to London on the Mayflower in April 1621, where he began his medical practice and worked as a surgeon until his death in 1653.[57][58][59]
Cooper: John Alden. Alden was a 21-year-old from Harwich in Essex and a distant relative of Captain Jones. He hired on apparently while the Mayflower was anchored at Southampton Waters. He was responsible for maintaining the ship's barrels, known as hogsheads, which were critical to the passengers' survival and held the only source of food and drink while at sea; tending them was a job which required a crew member's attention. Bradford noted that Alden was "left to his own liking to go or stay" in Plymouth rather than return with the ship to England. He decided to remain.[60][61]
Quartermaster: (names unknown), 4 men. These men were in charge of maintaining the ship's cargo hold, as well as the crew's hours for standing watch. Some of the "before the mast" crewmen may also have been in this section. These quartermasters were also responsible for fishing and maintaining all fishing supplies and harpoons. The names of the quartermasters are unknown, but it is known that three of the four men died the first winter.[53][55]
Cook: (name unknown). He was responsible for preparing the crew's meals and maintaining all food supplies and the cook room, which was typically located in the ship's forecastle (front end). The unnamed cook died the first winter.[62]
Master Gunner: (name unknown). He was in charge of the ship's guns, ammunition, and powder. Some of those "before the mast" were likely in his charge. He is recorded as going on an exploration on December 6, 1620, and was "sick unto death and so remained all that day, and the next night". He died later that winter.[63]
Boatswain: (name unknown). He was the person in charge of the ship's rigging and sails, the anchors, and the ship's longboat. The majority of the crew members "before the mast" were most likely under his supervision, working the sails and rigging. The operation of the ship's shallop was also probably under his control, a light open boat with oars or sails (see seaman Thomas English). William Bradford made this comment about the boatswain: "the boatswain... was a proud young man, who would often curse and scoff at the passengers, but when he grew weak they had compassion on him and helped him." But despite such assistance, the unnamed boatswain died the first winter.[62]
Carpenter: (name unknown). He was responsible for making sure that the hull was well-caulked and the masts were in good order. He was the person responsible for maintaining all areas of the ship in good condition and being a general repairman. He also maintained the tools and all necessary items to perform his carpentry tasks. His name is unknown, but his tasks were quite important to the safety and seaworthiness of the ship.[53][64]
Swabber: (various crewmen). This was the lowliest position on the ship, responsible for cleaning (swabbing) the decks. The swabber usually had an assistant who was responsible for cleaning the ship's beakhead (extreme front end), which was also the crew's toilet.[65]

text: Known Mayflower seamen

text:
John Allerton: A Mayflower seaman who was hired by the company as labor to help in the Colony during the first year, then to return to Leiden to help other church members seeking to travel to America. He signed the Mayflower Compact. He was a seaman on ship's shallop with Thomas English on exploration of December 6, 1620, and died sometime before the Mayflower returned to England in April 1621.[66][67]
____ Ely: A Mayflower seaman who was contracted to stay for a year, which he did. He returned to England with fellow crewman William Trevor on the Fortune in December 1621. Genealogist Dr. Jeremy Bangs believes that his name was either John or Christopher Ely (or Ellis), both of whom are documented in Leiden, Holland.[68]
Thomas English: A Mayflower seaman who was hired to be the master of the shallop (see Boatswain) and to be part of the company. He signed the Mayflower Compact. He was a seaman on the ship's shallop with John Allerton on exploration of December 6, 1620, and died sometime before the departure of the Mayflower for England in April 1621. He appeared in Leiden records as "Thomas England".[69][70]
William Trevore (Trevor): A Mayflower seaman who was hired to remain in Plymouth for one year. One reason for his hiring was his prior New World experience. He was one of those seamen to crew the shallop used in coastal trading. He returned to England with _____ Ely and others on the Fortune in December 1621. In 1623, Robert Cushman noted that Trevor reported to the Adventurers about what he saw in the New World. He did at some time return as master of a ship and was recorded living in Massachusetts Bay Colony in April 1650.[71][72][73]

text: Unidentified passenger

text: "Master" Leaver: Another passenger not mentioned by Bradford is a person called "Master" Leaver. He was named in Mourt's Relation, London 1622, under a date of January 12, 1621 as a leader of an expedition to rescue Pilgrims lost in the forest for several days while searching for housing-roof thatch. It is unknown in what capacity he came to the Mayflower and his given name is unknown. The title of "Master" indicates that he was a person of some authority and prominence in the company. He may have been a principal officer of the Mayflower. No more is known of him; he may have returned to England on the Mayflower's April 1621 voyage or died of the illnesses that affected so many that first winter.[74]

text: Later history

text: Three of Mayflower's owners applied to the Admiralty court for an appraisal of the ship on May 4, 1624, two years after Captain Jones' death in 1622; one of these applicants was Jones' widow Mrs. Josian (Joan) Jones. This appraisal probably was made to determine the valuation of the ship for the purpose of settling the estate of its late master. The appraisal was made by four mariners and shipwrights of Rotherhithe, home and burial place of Captain Jones, where the Mayflower was apparently then lying in the Thames at London. The appraisement is extant and provides information on ship's gear on board at that time, as well as equipment such as muskets and other arms. The ship may have been laid up since Jones' death and allowed to get out of repair, as that is what the appraisal indicates.[14][75] The vessel was valued at one hundred and twenty-eight pounds, eight shillings, and fourpence.[76]

text: What finally became of the Mayflower is an unsettled issue. Charles Edward Banks, an English historian of the Pilgrim ship, claims that the ship was finally broken up, with her timbers used in the construction of a barn at Jordans village in Buckinghamshire. Tradition claims that this barn still exists as the Mayflower Barn, located within the grounds of Old Jordan in South Buckinghamshire. In 1624, Thomas Russell supposedly added to part of a farmhouse already there with timbers from a ship, believed to be from the Pilgrim ship Mayflower, bought from a shipbreaker's yard in Rotherhithe. The well-preserved structure was a tourist attraction, receiving visitors each year from all over the world and particularly from America, but it is now privately owned and not open to the public.[14]

text: Second Mayflower

text: Another ship called the Mayflower made a voyage from London to Plymouth Colony in 1629 carrying 35 passengers, many from the Pilgrim congregation in Leiden that organized the first voyage. This was not the same ship that made the original voyage with the first settlers. This voyage began in May and reached Plymouth in August. This ship also made the crossing from England to America in 1630 (as part of the Winthrop Fleet), 1633, 1634, and 1639. It attempted the trip again in 1641, departing London in October of that year under master John Cole, with 140 passengers bound for Virginia. It never arrived. On October 18, 1642, a deposition was made in England regarding the loss.[77]

text: Place in history

text: The Pilgrim ship Mayflower has a famous place in American history as a symbol of early European colonization of the future United States.[78]

text: The main record for the voyage of the Mayflower and the disposition of the Plymouth Colony comes from the letters and journal of William Bradford, who was a guiding force and later the governor of the colony.

text: The 400th anniversary of the Mayflower sailing will take place in 2020. The Harwich Mayflower Project is hoping to build a replica of the ship at Harwich, England.[79]


document_title: Bicarbonate transporter protein

question_text: how does bicarbonate gets transported across the cell membrane

text: Bicarbonate transporter protein

text:
HCO3- transporter family

a low energy structure for the final cytoplasmic loop of band 3, nmr, minimized average structure

Identifiers

Symbol
HCO3_cotransp

Pfam
PF00955

Pfam clan
CL0062

InterPro
IPR011531

PROSITE
PDOC00192

SCOP
1btr

SUPERFAMILY
1btr

TCDB
2.A.31

[show]Available protein structures:

Pfam
structures

PDB
RCSB PDB; PDBe; PDBj

PDBsum
structure summary

tag: table

text:
Band 3 cytoplasmic domain

crystal structure of the cytoplasmic domain of human erythrocyte band-3 protein

Identifiers

Symbol
Band_3_cyto

Pfam
PF07565

Pfam clan
CL0340

InterPro
IPR013769

SCOP
1hyn

SUPERFAMILY
1hyn

TCDB
2.A.31

OPM superfamily
336

OPM protein
1btq

[show]Available protein structures:

Pfam
structures

PDB
RCSB PDB; PDBe; PDBj

PDBsum
structure summary

text: In molecular biology, bicarbonate transporter proteins are proteins which transport bicarbonate. Bicarbonate (HCO3 −) transport mechanisms are the principal regulators of pH in animal cells. Such transport also plays a vital role in acid-base movements in the stomach, pancreas, intestine, kidney, reproductive organs and the central nervous system. Functional studies have suggested four different HCO3 − transport modes. Anion exchanger proteins exchange HCO3 − for Cl− in a reversible, electroneutral manner.[1] Na+/HCO3 − co-transport proteins mediate the coupled movement of Na+ and HCO3 − across plasma membranes, often in an electrogenic manner.[2] Na+ driven Cl−/HCO3 − exchange and K+/HCO3 − exchange activities have also been detected in certain cell types, although the molecular identities of the proteins responsible remain to be determined.

text: Sequence analysis of the two families of HCO3 − transporters that have been cloned to date (the anion exchangers and Na+/HCO3 − co-transporters) reveals that they are homologous. This is not entirely unexpected, given that they both transport HCO3 − and are inhibited by a class of pharmacological agents called disulphonic stilbenes.[3] They share around ~25-30% sequence identity, which is distributed along their entire sequence length, and have similar predicted membrane topologies, suggesting they have ~10 transmembrane (TM) domains.

text: A conserved domain is found at the C terminus of many bicarbonate transport proteins. It is also found in some plant proteins responsible for boron transport.[4] In these proteins it covers almost the entire length of the sequence.

text: The Band 3 anion exchange proteins that exchange bicarbonate are the most abundant polypeptide in the red blood cell membrane, comprising 25% of the total membrane protein. The cytoplasmic domain of band 3 functions primarily as an anchoring site for other membrane-associated proteins. Included among the protein ligands of this domain are ankyrin, protein 4.2, protein 4.1, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), phosphofructokinase, aldolase, hemoglobin, hemichromes, and the protein tyrosine kinase (p72syk).[5]


document_title: The Prophet of Yonwood

question_text: third book in the city of ember series

question_tokens: third book in the city of ember series

text: The Prophet of Yonwood

text:
The Prophet of Yonwood

First edition cover

Author
Jeanne DuPrau

Country
United States

Language
English

Series
The Book of Ember series

Genre
Young adult, Science fiction novel

Publisher
Random House

Publication date

May 9, 2006

Media type
Print (hardcover and paperback)

Pages
289

ISBN
0-375-87526-3

OCLC
61295777

LC Class
PZ7.D927 Pro 2006

Preceded by
The People of Sparks

Followed by
The Diamond of Darkhold

text: The Prophet of Yonwood is an apocalyptic science fiction novel by Jeanne DuPrau[1] that was published in 2006. It is the third "Book of Ember" of the series, and a sequel to The City of Ember. It is set about fifty years before the Disaster and the establishment of Ember, and approximately three hundred years before the events of The City of Ember, The People of Sparks and The Diamond of Darkhold.

text: Characters[edit]

text:
Nickie Randolph
Grover Persons
Althea Tower
Brenda Beeson
Crystal
Amanda Stokes
Otis
Hoyt McCoy
Martin
Police Chief Ralph Gurney
Mayor Orville

text: Themes[edit]

text: Community Crisis. As with all books in the Ember series, there is an underlying crisis within the wider community, nation, or, in the case of The Prophet of Yonwood, world. The tension between the US and the "Phalanx Nations" is a major contributing factor to the behaviour and motivations of the characters, especially Mrs. Beeson and Hoyt McCoy.

text: Loss of Civil Rights. The coming crisis (i.e. war) serves as justification to implement Mrs. Beeson's "war against evil." The book explores how rights can be voluntarily given up in the name of a safer community, even to the point of creating a rigid, dictatorial society where individual rights are subordinated.

text: Outsiders. In addition to Nickie, Hoyt McCoy is seen as an outsider. His position differs from Nickie's in that he regularly voices his opposition to the "war against evil." Both Nickie and Hoyt are, however, able to see the error in the way Yonwood is governed and it is through their actions (i.e. the actions of an external party) that the community is reformed. McCoy's actions are credited with providing the impetus to avert the coming war.

text: Absent Parents. Again, in common with the rest of the Ember series, the protagonist is deprived of at least one parent. Nickie is in the temporary care of her aunt, Crystal, and as with DuPrau's other lead characters, she develops a surrogate parental relationship in order to obtain support and guidance.