document_title: Tufa

question_text: tufa towers in mono lake form by the process of

text: Tufa

text: Classification and features[edit]

text: Modern and fossil tufa deposits abound with wetland plants;[2] as such many tufa deposits are characterised by their large macrobiological component and are highly porous. Tufa forms either in fluvial channels or in lacustrine settings. Ford and Pedley (1996)[3] provide a review of tufa systems worldwide.

text: Fluvial deposits[edit]

text: Deposits can be classified by their depositional environment (or otherwise by vegetation or petrographically). Pedley (1990)[4] provides an extensive classification system, which includes the following classes of fluvial tufa:

text:
Spring – Deposits form on emergence from a spring/seep. Morphology can vary from mineratrophic wetlands to spring aprons (see calcareous sinter)
Braided channel – Deposits form within a fluvial channel, dominated by oncoids (see oncolite)
Cascade – Deposits form at waterfalls, deposition is focussed here due to accelerated flow (see Geochemistry)
Barrage – Deposits form as a series of phytoherm barrages across a channel, which may grow up to several metres in height. Barrages often contain a significant detrital component, composed of organic material (leaf litter, branches etc.).

text: Lacustrine deposits[edit]

text: Lacustrine tufas are generally formed at the periphery of lakes and build up phytoherms (freshwater reefs) and stromatolites. Oncoids are also common in these environments.

text: Other deposits[edit]

text: While fluvial and lacustrine systems make up the bulk of tufa systems worldwide, there are several other important tufa environments.

text: Calcareous sinter[edit]

text: Although sometimes regarded as a distinct carbonate deposit, calcareous sinter formed from ambient temperature water can be considered a sub-type of tufa.

text: Speleothems[edit]

text: Calcareous speleothems may be regarded as a form of calcareous sinter. They lack any significant macrophyte component due to the absence of light, and for this reason they are often morphologically closer to travertine or calcareous sinter.

text: Tufa columns[edit]

text: Tufa columns are an unusual form of tufa typically associated with saline lakes. They are distinct from most tufa deposits in that they lack any significant macrophyte component; this is due to the salinity excluding mesophilic organisms.[3] Some tufa columns may actually form from hot-springs and therefore actually be a form of travertine. It is generally thought that such features form from CaCO3 precipitated when carbonate rich source waters emerge into alkaline soda lakes. They have also been found in marine settings in the Ikka fjord of Greenland where the Ikaite columns can reach up to 18 m (59 ft) in height.[5]

text: Biology[edit]

text: Tufa deposits form an important habitat for a diverse flora. Bryophytes (non-vascular land plants) and diatoms are well represented. The porosity of the deposits creates a wet habitat ideal for these plants.

text: Geochemistry[edit]

text: Modern tufa is formed from alkaline waters, supersaturated with calcite. On emergence, waters degas CO2 due to the lower atmospheric pCO2 (see partial pressure), resulting in an increase in pH. Since carbonate solubility decreases with increased pH,[6] precipitation is induced. Supersaturation may be enhanced by factors leading to a reduction in pCO2, for example increased air-water interactions at waterfalls may be important,[7] as may photosynthesis.[8]

text: Recently it has been demonstrated that microbially induced precipitation may be more important than physico-chemical precipitation. Pedley et al. (2009)[9] showed with flume experiments that precipitation does not occur unless a biofilm is present, despite supersaturation.

text: Calcite is the dominant mineral precipitate found; however, the polymorph aragonite is also found.

text: Occurrence[edit]

text: Tufa is common in many parts of the world. Some notable deposits include:

text:
Pyramid Lake, Nevada, US – tufa formations
Mono Lake, California, US – tufa columns
Trona Pinnacles, California, US – tufa columns
Matlock Bath, Derbyshire, United Kingdom
North Dock Tufa, United Kingdom
Plitvice Lakes National Park, Croatia
Various parts of Armenia, such as Artik
The southwestern coastline of Western Australia
Near Groot Marico in the North West Province, South Africa
The Kadishi Tufa, Blyde River Canyon, Mpumalanga Province, South Africa

text: Some sources suggest that "tufa" was used as the primary building material for most of the châteaux of the Loire Valley, France. This results from a mis-translation of the terms "tuffeau jaune" and "tuffeau blanc", which are porous varieties of the Late Cretaceous marine limestone known as chalk.[10][11][not in citation given]

text: Uses[edit]

text: Tufa is today occasionally shaped into a planter. Its porous consistency makes tufa ideal for alpine gardens. A concrete mixture called hypertufa is used for similar purposes.


document_title: Fall of Constantinople

question_text: after capturing constantinople in 1453 what did the ottomans rename it

root

text: Fall of Constantinople

text: State of the Byzantine Empire[edit]

text: Constantinople had been an imperial capital since its consecration in 330 under Roman Emperor, Constantine the Great. In the following eleven centuries, the city had been besieged many times but was captured only once: during the Fourth Crusade in 1204.[29]:304 The crusaders established an unstable Latin state in and around Constantinople while the remaining empire splintered into a number of Byzantine successor states, notably Nicaea, Epirus and Trebizond. They fought as allies against the Latin establishments, but also fought among themselves for the Byzantine throne.

tag: p

text: The Nicaeans eventually reconquered Constantinople from the Latins in 1261. Thereafter there was little peace for the much-weakened empire as it fended off successive attacks by the Latins, the Serbians, the Bulgarians, and, most importantly, the Ottoman Turks.[29][page needed] [30][31][32][page needed] The Black Plague between 1346 and 1349 killed almost half of the inhabitants of Constantinople.[33] The city was severely depopulated due to the general economic and territorial decline of the empire, and by 1453 consisted of a series of walled villages separated by vast fields encircled by the fifth-century Theodosian walls.

text: By 1450 the empire was exhausted and had shrunk to a few square miles outside the city of Constantinople itself, the Princes' Islands in the Sea of Marmara, and the Peloponnese with its cultural center at Mystras. The Empire of Trebizond, an independent successor state that formed in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade, also survived on the coast of the Black Sea.

text: Preparations[edit]

text: When Sultan Mehmed II succeeded his father in 1451, it was widely believed that the young ruler, then 19 years old, would prove incapable—and that he would pose no great threat to Christian possessions in the Balkans and the Aegean.[5]:60 This optimism was reinforced by friendly assurances made by Mehmed to envoys sent to his new court.[29]:373 But Mehmed's actions spoke far louder than his mild words. Beginning early in 1452, he built a second Ottoman fortress on the Bosphorus,[34] on the European side several miles north of Constantinople, set directly across the strait from the similar fortress, Anadolu Hisarı, which his great-grandfather Bayezid I had previously built on the Asian side. This pair of fortresses gave the Turks complete control of sea traffic on the Bosphorus;[29]:373 specifically, it prevented help from the north, the Genoese colonies on the Black Sea coast, from reaching Constantinople. (The new fortress was also known as Boğazkesen, which held the dual meanings 'strait-blocker' or 'throat-cutter', emphasizing its strategic position.) In October 1452, Mehmed ordered Turakhan Beg to lead a large force into the Peloponnese and remain there to keep Thomas and Demetrios from assisting their brother Constantine XI Palaiologos during the impending siege of Constantinople.[nb 1]

text: Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI swiftly understood Mehmed's true intentions and turned to Western Europe for help; but now the price of centuries of war and enmity between the eastern and western churches had to be paid. Since the mutual excommunications of 1054, the Pope in Rome was committed to establishing authority over the eastern church. Nominal union had been negotiated in 1274, at the Second Council of Lyon, and indeed, some Palaiologoi emperors (Latin, Palaeologan) had since been received into the Latin church. Emperor John VIII Palaiologos had also recently negotiated union with Pope Eugene IV, with the Council of Florence of 1439 proclaiming a Bull of Union. These events, however, stimulated a propaganda initiative by anti-unionist Orthodox partisans in Constantinople; the population, as well as the laity and leadership of the Byzantine Church, became bitterly divided. Latent ethnic hatred between Greeks and Italians, stemming from the events of the Massacre of the Latins in 1182 by the Greeks and the sack of Constantinople in 1204 by the Latins, played a significant role. Finally, the attempted Union failed, greatly annoying Pope Nicholas V and the hierarchy of the Roman church.

text: In the summer of 1452, when Rumelı Hisari was completed and the threat had become imminent, Constantine wrote to the Pope, promising to implement the Union, which was declared valid by a half-hearted imperial court on 12 December 1452.[29]:373 Although he was eager for an advantage, Pope Nicholas V did not have the influence the Byzantines thought he had over the Western kings and princes, some of whom were wary of increasing Papal control, and these had not the wherewithal to contribute to the effort, especially in light of the weakened state of France and England from the Hundred Years' War, Spain being in the final part of the Reconquista, the internecine fighting in the German Principalities, and Hungary and Poland's defeat at the Battle of Varna of 1444. Although some troops did arrive from the mercantile city states in the north of Italy, the Western contribution was not adequate to counterbalance Ottoman strength. Some Western individuals, however, came to help defend the city on their own account. Cardinal Isidore, funded by the pope, arrived in 1452 with 200 archers[36] One of these was an accomplished soldier from Genoa, Giovanni Giustiniani, who arrived with 400 men from Genoa and 300 men from Genoese Chios, in January 1453.[5]:83-84 As a specialist in defending walled cities, he was immediately given the overall command of the defense of the land walls by the emperor. Around the same time, the captains of the Venetian ships that happened to be present in the Golden Horn offered their services to the Emperor, barring contrary orders from Venice, and Pope Nicholas undertook to send three ships laden with provisions, which set sail near the end of March.[5]:81

text: In Venice, meanwhile, deliberations were taking place concerning the kind of assistance the Republic would lend to Constantinople. The Senate decided upon sending a fleet in February 1453, but there were delays, and when it finally set out late in April, it was already too late for it to be able to take part in the battle.[4][page needed][5]:85 Further undermining Byzantine morale, seven Italian ships with around 700 men slipped out of the capital at the moment when Giustiniani arrived, men who had sworn to defend the capital. At the same time, Constantine's attempts to appease the Sultan with gifts ended with the execution of the Emperor's ambassadors — even Byzantine diplomacy could not save the city.[29]:373

text: Fearing a possible naval attack along the shores of the Golden Horn, Emperor Constantine XI ordered that a defensive chain be placed at the mouth of the harbour. This chain, which floated on logs, was strong enough to prevent any Turkish ship from entering the harbour. This device was one of two that gave the Byzantines some hope of extending the siege until the possible arrival of foreign help.[4]:380 This strategy was enforced because in 1204 the armies of the Fourth Crusade successfully circumvented Constantinople's land defenses by breaching the Golden Horn Wall. Another strategy employed by the Byzantines was the repair and fortification of the Land Wall (Theodosian Walls). Emperor Constantine deemed it necessary to ensure that the Blachernae district's wall were the most fortified because that section of the wall protruded northwards. The land fortifications comprised a 60 ft (18 m) wide moat fronting inner and outer crenellated walls studded with towers every 45–55 metres.[37]

text: Strength[edit]

text: The army defending Constantinople was relatively small, totaling about 7,000 men, 2,000 of whom were foreigners.[nb 2] At the onset of the siege, probably fewer than 50,000 people were living within the walls, including the refugees from the surrounding area.[10]:32 [nb 3] Turkish commander Dorgano, who was in Constantinople in the pay of the Emperor, was also guarding one of the quarters of the city on the seaward side with the Turks in his pay. These Turks kept loyal to the Emperor and perished in the ensuing battle. The defending army's Genoese corps were well trained and equipped, while the rest of the army consisted of small numbers of well-trained soldiers, armed civilians, sailors and volunteer forces from foreign communities, and finally monks. The garrison used a few small-calibre artillery bullets, which nonetheless proved ineffective. The rest of the city repaired walls, stood guard on observation posts, collected and distributed food provisions, and collected gold and silver objects from churches to melt down into coins to pay the foreign soldiers.

text: The Ottomans had a much larger force. Recent studies and Ottoman archival data state that there were about 50,000–80,000 Ottoman soldiers including between 5,000 and 10,000 Janissaries,[3][page needed][10][page needed][11][page needed] an elite infantry corps, and thousands of Christian troops, notably 1,500 Serbian cavalry that the Serbian lord Đurađ Branković was forced to supply as part of his obligation to the Ottoman sultan—just a few months before, he had supplied the money for the reconstruction of the walls of Constantinople. Contemporaneous Western witnesses of the siege, who tend to exaggerate the military power of the Sultan, provide disparate and higher numbers ranging from 160,000 to 200,000 and to 300,000[3][page needed](Niccolò Barbaro: 160,000;[38] the Florentine merchant Jacopo Tedaldi[39] and the Great Logothete George Sphrantzes:[13][page needed] 200,000; the Cardinal Isidore of Kiev[40] and the Archbishop of Mytilene Leonardo di Chio:[41] 300,000).[42] At this time cannons were being made.

text: Ottoman dispositions and strategies[edit]

text: Mehmed built a fleet to besiege the city from the sea (partially manned by Greek sailors from Gallipoli).[10][page needed]Contemporary estimates of the strength of the Ottoman fleet span between about 100 ships (Tedaldi),[39] 145 (Barbaro),[38] 160 (Ubertino Pusculo),[43] 200–250 (Isidore of Kiev,[40], Leonardo di Chio[44]) to 430 (Sphrantzes).[13][page needed] A more realistic modern estimate predicts a fleet strength of 126 ships comprising 6 large galleys, 10 ordinary galleys, 15 smaller galleys, 75 large rowing boats, and 20 horse-transports.[10]:44

text: Before the siege of Constantinople, it was known that the Ottomans had the ability to cast medium-sized cannons, but the range of some pieces they were able to field far surpassed the defenders' expectations. Instrumental to this Ottoman advancement in arms production was a somewhat mysterious figure by the name of Orban (Urban), a Hungarian (though some suggest he was German).[29]:374 One cannon designed by Orban was named "Basilica" and was 27 feet (8.2 m) long, and able to hurl a 600 lb (272 kg) stone ball over a mile (1.6 km).[45]

text: The master founder initially tried to sell his services to the Byzantines, who were unable to secure the funds needed to hire him. Orban then left Constantinople and approached Mehmed II, claiming that his weapon could blast 'the walls of Babylon itself'. Given abundant funds and materials, the Hungarian engineer built the gun within three months at Edirne, from which it was dragged by sixty oxen to Constantinople. In the meantime, Orban also produced other cannons for the Turkish siege forces.[5]:77-8

text: Orban's cannon had several drawbacks: it took three hours to reload; cannonballs were in very short supply; and the cannon is said to have collapsed under its own recoil after six weeks (this is disputed,[3][page needed] however, given that it was only reported in the letter of Archbishop Leonardo di Chio[41] and in the later and often unreliable Russian chronicle of Nestor Iskander).[nb 4] Having previously established a large foundry about 150 miles (240 km) away, Mehmed now had to undergo the painstaking process of transporting his massive artillery pieces. Orban's giant cannon was said to have been accompanied by a crew of 60 oxen and over 400 men.[29]:374

text: In preparation for the final assault, Mehmed had an artillery train of seventy large pieces dragged from his headquarters at Edirne, in addition to the bombards cast on the spot.[46]

text: Mehmed planned to attack the Theodosian Walls, the intricate series of walls and ditches protecting Constantinople from an attack from the West, the only part of the city not surrounded by water. His army encamped outside the city on the Monday after Easter, 2 April 1453.

text: The bulk of the Ottoman army were encamped south of the Golden Horn. The regular European troops, stretched out along the entire length of the walls, were commanded by Karadja Pasha. The regular troops from Anatolia under Ishak Pasha were stationed south of the Lycus down to the Sea of Marmara. Mehmed himself erected his red-and-gold tent near the Mesoteichion, where the guns and the elite regiments, the Janissaries, were positioned. The Bashi-bazouks were spread out behind the front lines. Other troops under Zagan Pasha were employed north of the Golden Horn. Communication was maintained by a road that had been constructed over the marshy head of the Horn.[5]:94-5

text: Byzantine dispositions and strategies[edit]

text: The city had about 20 km of walls (land walls: 5.5 km; sea walls along the Golden Horn: 7 km; sea walls along the Sea of Marmara: 7.5 km), one of the strongest sets of fortified walls in existence. The walls had recently been repaired (under John VIII) and were in fairly good shape, giving the defenders sufficient reason to believe that they could hold out until help from the West arrived. [10]:39In addition, the defenders were relatively well-equipped with a fleet of 26 ships: 5 from Genoa, 5 from Venice, 3 from Venetian Crete, 1 from Ancona, 1 from Aragon, 1 from France, and about 10 Byzantine.[10]:45

text: On 5 April, the Sultan himself arrived with his last troops, and the defenders took up their positions. As their numbers were insufficient to occupy the walls in their entirety, it had been decided that only the outer walls would be manned. Constantine and his Greek troops guarded the Mesoteichion, the middle section of the land walls, where they were crossed by the river Lycus. This section was considered the weakest spot in the walls and an attack was feared here most. Giustiniani was stationed to the north of the emperor, at the Charisian Gate (Myriandrion); later during the siege, he was shifted to the Mesoteichion to join Constantine, leaving the Myriandrion to the charge of the Bocchiardi brothers. Minotto and his Venetians were stationed in the Blachernae palace, together with Teodoro Caristo, the Langasco brothers, and Archbishop Leonardo of Chios.[5] :92

text: To the left of the emperor, further south, were the commanders Cataneo, with Genoese troops, and Theophilus Palaeologus, who guarded the Pegae Gate with Greek soldiers. The section of the land walls from the Pegae Gate to the Golden Gate (itself guarded by a certain Genoese called Manuel) was defended by the Venetian Filippo Contarini, while Demetrius Cantacuzenus had taken position on the southernmost part of the Theodosian wall.[5] :92

text: The sea walls were manned more sparsely, with Jacobo Contarini at Stoudion, a makeshift defense force of Greek monks to his left hand, and prince Orhan at the Harbour of Eleutherius. Pere Julià was stationed at the Great Palace with Genoese and Catalan troops; Cardinal Isidore of Kiev guarded the tip of the peninsula near the boom. The sea walls at the southern shore of the Golden Horn were defended by Venetian and Genoese sailors under Gabriele Trevisano.[5] :93

text: Two tactical reserves were kept behind in the city, one in the Petra district just behind the land walls and one near the Church of the Holy Apostles, under the command of Loukas Notaras and Nicephorus Palaeologus, respectively. The Venetian Alviso Diedo commanded the ships in the harbor.[5] :94

text: Although the Byzantines also had cannons, they were much smaller than those of the Ottomans and the recoil tended to damage their own walls.[41]

text: According to David Nicolle, despite many odds, the idea that Constantinople was inevitably doomed is wrong, and the overall situation was not as one-sided as a simple glance at a map might suggest.[10]:40It has also been claimed that Constantinople was "the best-defended city in Europe" at that time.[47]

text: Siege[edit]

text: At the beginning of the siege, Mehmed sent out some of his best troops to reduce the remaining Byzantine strongholds outside the city of Constantinople. The fortress of Therapia on the Bosphorus and a smaller castle at the village of Studius near the Sea of Marmara were taken within a few days. The Princes' Islands in the Sea of Marmara were taken by Admiral Baltoghlu's fleet.[5]:96-7 Mehmed's massive cannon fired on the walls for weeks, but due to its imprecision and extremely slow rate of reloading the Byzantines were able to repair most of the damage after each shot, limiting the cannon's effect.[29]:376

text: Meanwhile, despite some probing attacks, the Ottoman fleet under Suleiman Baltoghlu could not enter the Golden Horn due to the chain the Byzantines had previously stretched across the entrance. Although one of the fleet's main tasks was to prevent any ships from outside from entering the Golden Horn, on 20 April a small flotilla of four Christian ships[nb 5] managed to slip in after some heavy fighting, an event which strengthened the morale of the defenders and caused embarrassment to the Sultan.[29]:376 Baltoghlu's life was spared after his subordinates testified to his bravery during the conflict.

text: Mehmed ordered the construction of a road of greased logs across Galata on the north side of the Golden Horn, and dragged his ships over the hill, directly into the Golden Horn on 22 April, bypassing the chain barrier.[29]:376 This seriously threatened the flow of supplies from Genoese ships from the — nominally neutral — colony of Pera, and demoralized the Byzantine defenders. On the night of 28 April, an attempt was made to destroy the Ottoman ships already in the Golden Horn using fire ships, but the Ottomans had been warned in advance and forced the Christians to retreat with heavy losses. Forty Italians escaped their sinking ships and swam to the northern shore. On orders of Mehmed, they were impaled on stakes, in sight of the city's defenders on the sea walls across the Golden Horn. In retaliation, the defenders brought their Ottoman prisoners, 260 in all, to the walls, where they were executed, one by one, before the eyes of the Ottomans.[5]:108[48] With the failure of their attack on the Ottoman vessels, the defenders were forced to disperse part of their forces to defend the sea walls along the Golden Horn.

text: The Ottoman army had made several frontal assaults on the land wall, but were always repelled with heavy losses.[49] Venetian surgeon Niccolò Barbaro, describing in his diary one of such frequent land attacks especially by the Janissaries, wrote:

text:
“
They found the Turks coming right up under the walls and seeking battle, particularly the Janissaries ... and when one or two of them were killed, at once more Turks came and took away the dead ones ... without caring how near they came to the city walls. Our men shot at them with guns and crossbows, aiming at the Turk who was carrying away his dead countryman, and both of them would fall to the ground dead, and then there came other Turks and took them away, none fearing death, but being willing to let ten of themselves be killed rather than suffer the shame of leaving a single Turkish corpse by the walls.[38]
”

tag: table

text: After these inconclusive frontal offensives, the Ottomans sought to break through the walls by constructing underground tunnels in an effort to mine them from mid-May to 25 May. Many of the sappers were miners of Serbian origin sent from Novo Brdo by the Serbian despot. They were placed under the command of Zagan Pasha. However, an engineer named Johannes Grant, a German[nb 6] who came together with the Genoese contingent, had counter-mines dug, allowing Byzantine troops to enter the mines and kill the workers. The Byzantines intercepted the first Serbian tunnel on the night of 16 May. Subsequent tunnels were interrupted on 21, 23, and 25 May, and destroyed with Greek fire and vigorous combat. On 23 May, the Byzantines captured and tortured two Turkish officers, who revealed the location of all the Turkish tunnels, which were then destroyed.[51]

text: On 21 May, Mehmed sent an ambassador to Constantinople and offered to lift the siege if they gave him the city. He promised he would allow the Emperor and any other inhabitants to leave with their possessions. Moreover, he would recognize the Emperor as governor of the Peloponnese. Lastly, he guaranteed the safety of the population that might choose to remain in the city. Constantine XI only agreed to pay higher tributes to the sultan and recognized the status of all the conquered castles and lands in the hands of the Turks as Ottoman possession.

text:
“
Giving you though the city depends neither on me nor on anyone else among its inhabitants; as we have all decided to die with our own free will and we shall not consider our lives.[nb 7]
”

text: Around this time, Mehmed had a final council with his senior officers. Here he encountered some resistance; one of his Viziers, the veteran Halil Pasha, who had always disapproved of Mehmed's plans to conquer the city, now admonished him to abandon the siege in the face of recent adversity. Zagan Pasha argued against Halil Pasha, and insisted on an immediate attack. Mehmed planned to overpower the walls by sheer force, expecting that the weakened Byzantine defense by the prolonged siege would now be worn out before he ran out of troops and started preparations for a final all-out offensive.

text: Final assault[edit]

text: Preparations for the final assault were started in the evening of 26 May and continued to the next day.[29]:378 For 36 hours after the war council decision to attack, the Ottomans extensively mobilized their manpower in order to prepare for the general offensive.[29]:378 Prayer and resting would be then granted to the soldiers on the 28th, and then the final assault would be launched. On the Byzantine side, a small Venetian fleet of 12 ships, after having searched the Aegean, reached the Capital on May 27 and reported to the Emperor that no large Venetian relief fleet was on its way.[29]:377 On May 28, as the Ottoman army prepared for the final assault, large-scale religious processions were held in the city. In the evening a last solemn ceremony was held in the Hagia Sophia, in which the Emperor and representatives of both the Latin and Greek church partook, together with nobility from both sides.[2]:651-2

text: Shortly after midnight on May 29 the all-out offensive began. The Christian troops of the Ottoman Empire attacked first, followed by the successive waves of the irregular azaps, who were poorly trained and equipped, and Anatolians who focused on a section of the Blachernae walls in the northwest part of the city, which had been damaged by the cannon. This section of the walls had been built earlier, in the eleventh century, and was much weaker. The Anatolians managed to breach this section of walls and entered the city but were just as quickly pushed back by the defenders. Finally, as the battle was continuing, the last wave, consisting of elite Janissaries, attacked the city walls. The Genoese general in charge of the land troops,[3][page needed][40][41] Giovanni Giustiniani, was grievously wounded during the attack, and his evacuation from the ramparts caused a panic in the ranks of the defenders.[nb 8]

text: With Giustiniani's Genoese troops retreating into the city and towards the harbor, Constantine and his men, now left to their own devices, kept fighting and managed to successfully hold off the Janissaries for a while, but eventually they could not stop them from entering the city. The defenders were also being overwhelmed at several points in Constantine's section. When Turkish flags were seen flying above a small postern gate, the Kerkoporta, which was left open, panic ensued, and the defense collapsed, as Janissary soldiers, led by Ulubatlı Hasan pressed forward. Many Greek soldiers ran back home to protect their families, the Venetians ran over to their ships, and a few of the Genoese got over to Galata. The rest committed suicide by jumping off the city walls or surrendered.[4][page needed] The Greek houses nearest to the walls were the first to suffer from the Ottomans. It is said that Constantine, throwing aside his purple regalia, led the final charge against the incoming Ottomans, perishing in the ensuing battle in the streets just like his soldiers. On the other hand, Nicolò Barbaro, a Venetian eyewitness to the siege, wrote in his diary that it was said that Constantine hanged himself at the moment when the Turks broke in at the San Romano gate, although his ultimate fate remains unknown.[nb 9]

text: After the initial assault, the Ottoman Army fanned out along the main thoroughfare of the city, the Mese, past the great forums, and past the Church of the Holy Apostles, which Mehmed II wanted to provide a seat for his newly appointed patriarch which would help him better control his Christian subjects. Mehmed II had sent an advance guard to protect key buildings such as the Church of the Holy Apostles.

text: A small few lucky civilians managed to escape. When the Venetians retreated over to their ships, the Ottomans had already taken the walls of the Golden Horn. Luckily for the occupants of the city, the Ottomans were not interested in killing them, but rather in the loot they could get from raiding the city's houses, so they decided to attack the city instead. The Venetian captain ordered his men to break open the gate of the Golden Horn. Having done so, the Venetians left in ships filled with soldiers and refugees. Shortly after the Venetians left, a few Genoese ships and even the Emperor's ships followed them out of the Golden Horn. This fleet narrowly escaped prior to the Ottoman navy assuming control over the Golden Horn, which was accomplished by midday.[4][page needed] The Army converged upon the Augusteum, the vast square that fronted the great church of Hagia Sophia whose bronze gates were barred by a huge throng of civilians inside the building, hoping for divine protection. After the doors were breached, the troops separated the congregation according to what price they might bring in the slave markets.

text: Ottoman casualties are unknown but they are believed by most historians to be very heavy due to several unsuccessful Ottoman attacks made during the siege and final assault. Barbaro described blood flowing in the city "like rainwater in the gutters after a sudden storm", and bodies of the Turks and Christians floating in the sea "like melons along a canal".[38]

text: Plundering phase[edit]

text: Mehmed II had promised to his soldiers three days to plunder the city, to which they were entitled.[5]:145[54] Soldiers fought over the possession of some of the spoils of war.[55]:283 According to the Venetian surgeon Nicolò Barbaro "all through the day the Turks made a great slaughter of Christians through the city". According to Philip Mansel, widespread persecution of the city's civilian inhabitants took place, resulting in thousands of murders and rapes and 30,000 civilians being enslaved or forcibly deported.[56]

text: The looting was extremely thorough in certain parts of the city. Weeks later on 2 June, the Sultan would find the city largely deserted and half in ruins; churches had been desecrated and stripped, houses were no longer habitable and stores and shops were emptied. He is famously reported to have been moved to tears by this, speaking "What a city we have given over to plunder and destruction."[5]:152

text: Aftermath[edit]

text: On the third day of the conquest, Mehmed II ordered all looting to stop and issued a proclamation that all Christians who had avoided capture or who had been ransomed could return to their homes without further molestation, although many had no homes to return to, and many more had been taken captive and not ransomed.[5]:150-51 Byzantine historian George Sphrantzes, an eyewitness to the fall of Constantinople, described the Sultan's actions:[57][58]

text:
“
On the third day after the fall of our city, the Sultan celebrated his victory with a great, joyful triumph. He issued a proclamation: the citizens of all ages who had managed to escape detection were to leave their hiding places throughout the city and come out into the open, as they were to remain free and no question would be asked. He further declared the restoration of houses and property to those who had abandoned our city before the siege. If they returned home, they would be treated according to their rank and religion, as if nothing had changed.
”

text: The Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque, but the Greek Orthodox Church was allowed to remain intact and Gennadius Scholarius was appointed Patriarch of Constantinople. This was once thought to be the origin of the Ottoman millet system, however, it is now considered a myth and no such system existed in the fifteenth century.[59][60]

text: After the sack, many feared other European Christian kingdoms would suffer the same fate as Constantinople. Two possible responses emerged amongst the humanists and churchmen of that era: Crusade or dialogue. Pope Pius II strongly advocated for another Crusade, while Nicholas of Cusa supported engaging in a dialogue with the Ottomans.[61]

text: The Morean (Peloponnesian) fortress of Mystras, where Constantine's brothers Thomas and Demetrius ruled, constantly in conflict with each other and knowing that Mehmed would eventually invade them as well, held out until 1460. Long before the fall of Constantinople, Demetrius had fought for the throne with Thomas, Constantine, and their other brothers John and Theodore.[62]:446Thomas escaped to Rome when the Ottomans invaded Morea while Demetrius expected to rule a puppet state, but instead was imprisoned and remained there for the rest of his life. In Rome, Thomas and his family received some monetary support from the Pope and other Western rulers as Byzantine emperor in exile, until 1503. In 1461 the independent Byzantine state in Trebizond fell to Mehmed.[62]:446

text: Constantine XI had died without producing an heir, and had Constantinople not fallen he likely would have been succeeded by the sons of his deceased elder brother, who were taken into the palace service of Mehmed after the fall of Constantinople. The oldest boy, renamed to Murad, became a personal favorite of Mehmed and served as Beylerbey (Governor-General) of Rumeli (the Balkans). The younger son, renamed Mesih Pasha, became Admiral of the Ottoman fleet and Sancak Beg (Governor) of the Province of Gallipoli. He eventually served twice as Grand Vizier under Mehmed's son, Bayezid II.[63]

text: With the capture of Constantinople, Mehmed II had acquired the "natural" capital of its kingdom, albeit one in decline due to years of war. The loss of the city was a crippling blow to Christendom, and it exposed the Christian west to a vigorous and aggressive foe in the east. The Christian re-conquest of Constantinople remained a goal in Western Europe for many years after its fall to the House of Osman. Rumors of Constantine XI's survival and subsequent rescue by an angel led many to hope that the city would one day return to Christian hands. Pope Nicholas V called for an immediate counter-attack in the form of a crusade.[citation needed] When no European monarch was willing to lead the crusade, the Pope himself decided to go, but his early death stopped this plan. As Western Europe entered the 16th century, the age of Crusading began to come to an end.

text: For some time Greek scholars had gone to Italian city-states, a cultural exchange begun in 1396 by Coluccio Salutati, chancellor of Florence, who had invited Manuel Chrysoloras, a Byzantine scholar to lecture at the University of Florence.[64] After the conquest many Greeks, such as John Argyropoulos and Constantine Lascaris, fled the city and found refuge in the Latin West, bringing with them knowledge and documents from the Greco-Roman tradition to Italy and other regions that further propelled the Renaissance.[65][66] Those Greeks who stayed behind in Constantinople mostly lived in the Phanar and Galata districts of the city. The Phanariotes, as they were called, provided many capable advisers to the Ottoman rulers.

text: Third Rome[edit]

text: Byzantium is a term used by modern historians to refer to the later Roman Empire. In its own time, the Empire ruled from Constantinople (or "New Rome" as some people call it, although this was a laudatory expression that was never an official title) was considered simply as "the Roman Empire." The fall of Constantinople led competing factions to lay claim to being the inheritors of the Imperial mantle. Russian claims to Byzantine heritage clashed with those of the Ottoman Empire's own claim. In Mehmed's view, he was the successor to the Roman Emperor, declaring himself Kayser-i Rum, literally "Caesar of Rome", that is, of the Roman Empire, though he was remembered as "the Conqueror". He founded a political system that survived until 1922 with the establishment of the Republic of Turkey.

text: Stefan Dušan, Tsar of Serbia, and Ivan Alexander, Tsar of Bulgaria both made similar claims, regarding themselves as legitimate heirs to the Roman Empire. Other potential claimants, such as the Republic of Venice and the Holy Roman Empire have disintegrated into history.[67]

text: Impact on the Churches[edit]

text: In 17th century Russia, the Fall of Constantinople had a role in the fierce theological and political controversy between adherents and opponents of the reforms in the Russian Orthodox Church, carried out by Patriarch Nikon and intended to bring the Russian Church closer to the norms and practices of other Orthodox churches. Avvakum and other of the "Old Believers" saw these reforms as a corruption of the Russian Church, which they considered to be the "true" Church of God. As the other Churches were more closely related to Constantinople in their liturgies, Avvakum argued that Constantinople fell to the Turks because of these heretical beliefs and practices.

text: Cultural references[edit]

text: Legends[edit]

text: There are many legends in Greece surrounding the Fall of Constantinople. It was said that the partial lunar eclipse that occurred on 22 May 1453 represented a fulfillment of a prophecy of the city's demise.[68] Four days later, the whole city was blotted out by a thick fog, a condition unknown in that part of the world in May. When the fog lifted that evening, a strange light was seen playing about the dome of the Hagia Sophia, which some interpreted as the Holy Spirit departing from the city. "This evidently indicated the departure of the Divine Presence, and its leaving the City in total abandonment and desertion, for the Divinity conceals itself in cloud and appears and again disappears." [69] For others, there was still a distant hope that the lights were the campfires of the troops of John Hunyadi who had come to relieve the city.[nb 10]

text: Another legend holds that two priests saying divine liturgy over the crowd disappeared into the cathedral's walls as the first Turkish soldiers entered. According to the legend, the priests will appear again on the day that Constantinople returns to Christian hands.[5]:147 Another legend refers to the Marble King (Constantine XI), holding that an angel rescued the emperor when the Ottomans entered the city, turning him into marble and placing him in a cave under the earth near the Golden Gate, where he waits to be brought to life again (a variant of the sleeping hero legend).[71][23]

text: Cultural impact[edit]

text: Guillaume Dufay composed several songs lamenting the fall of the Eastern church, and the duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, avowed to take up arms against the Turks. However, as the growing Ottoman power from this date on coincided with the Protestant Reformation and subsequent Counter-Reformation, the recapture of Constantinople became an ever-distant dream. Even France, once a fervent participant of the Crusades, became an ally of the Ottomans.

text: Nonetheless, depictions of Christian coalitions taking the city and of the late Emperor's resurrection by Leo the Wise persisted.[32]:280

text: Impact on the Renaissance[edit]

text: The migration waves of Byzantine scholars and émigrés in the period following the sacking of Constantinople and the fall of Constantinople in 1453 is considered by many scholars key to the revival of Greek and Roman studies that led to the development of the Renaissance humanism[66][dead link][better source needed] and science. These émigrés were grammarians, humanists, poets, writers, printers, lecturers, musicians, astronomers, architects, academics, artists, scribes, philosophers, scientists, politicians and theologians.[72][better source needed] They brought to Western Europe the far greater preserved and accumulated knowledge of their own (Greek) civilization.

text: Megali idea[edit]

text: Between 1919 and 1922, Greek politician Eleftherios Venizelos attempted to implement the Megali Idea (recapture of Constantinople from the Ottoman Empire) in the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922) since the Ottoman Empire was severely weakened by its defeat in World War I and by the occupation of Constantinople by the British and French.[clarification needed] However, in the course of the war Venizelos lost the election of 1920 and went into exile and Greece was defeated in the war by Turkey.

text: Renaming of the city[edit]

text: Ottomans used the Arabic transliteration of the city's name "Kostantiniyye," (القسطنطينية), as can be seen in numerous Ottoman documents. Islambol ( اسلامبول, Full of Islam) or Islambul (find Islam) or Islam(b)ol (old Turkic: be Islam), both in Turkish Language, were folk-etymological adaptations of Istanbul created after the Ottoman conquest of 1453 to express the city's new role as the capital of the Islamic Ottoman Empire. It is first attested shortly after the conquest, and its invention was ascribed by some contemporary writers to Sultan Mehmed II himself.[73]

text: The name of Istanbul is thought to be derived from the Greek phrase īs tīmbolī(n) (Greek: εἰς τὴν πόλιν, translit. eis tēn pólin, "to the City"), and it is claimed that it had already spread among the Turkish populace of the Ottoman Empire before the conquest. However, Istanbul only became the official name of the city in 1930 by the revised Turkish Postal Law as part of Atatürk's reforms.[74][75][76]

text: In historical fiction[edit]

text:
Lew Wallace, The Prince of India; or, Why Constantinople Fell. New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1893. 2 volumes
Mika Waltari, The Dark Angel (Original title Johannes Angelos) 1952. Translated from the Finnish by Naomi Walford and pub. in English edition, New York: Putnam, 1953
Muharem Bazdulj, "The Bridge on Land" from The Second Book, 2000. Translated from Bosnian by Oleg Andric and Andrew Wachtel and pub. in English edition, Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2005
Andrew Novo, Queen of Cities, Seattle: Coffeetown Press, 2009
Jack Hight, Siege. London: John Murray Publisher Ltd, 2010
James Shipman, "Constantinopolis", Amazon Digital Services, 2013
C.C. Humphreys, A Place called Armageddon. London: Orion, 2011
Emanuele Rizzardi, L'ultimo Paleologo. PubMe Editore, 2017

tag: ul


document_title: Child and Youth Care

question_text: where do child and youth care workers work

text: Child and Youth Care

text: Global Network[edit]

text: The International Child and Youth Care Network promotes reading, discussion, and networking among Child and Youth Care Practitioners through a monthly journal, 4000 member discussion group, and an archive of writing by and for Child and Youth Care Workers.

text: The Child and Youth Care Association of Newfoundland Labrador hosted the first Child and Youth Care World Conference in June 2013 in St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador. The second Child and Youth Care World Conference was held in August 2016 in Vienna, Austria. The third Child and Youth Care World Conference will be held in January 2018 in Ventura, California (USA).

text: Scope of Practice[edit]

text: Child and Youth Care practice includes skills in developing relationships, assessing needs and strengths, supporting children and families in the life space, and participating in systems interventions through direct care, supervision, administration, teaching, research, consultation and advocacy.

text: This springs from what used to be known as children's homes or children's institutions which in turn used to part of a city's "charitable" work for children and families who had no access to professional services. Resources for this were always extremely limited and minimally staffed and the service could seldom see beyond a bed with a bedside locker and minimal food and adult attention. There was little or no staff training, with child-staff ratios often being as poor as 1:30.

text: It was those same staff members who originally bootstrapped their own training programs by soliciting the help of well-intentioned social workers and teachers into voluntary training opportunities, and rudimentary syllabi were developed into shared coursework. Similar grassroots efforts led to the formation, for example, of the National Association of Child Care Workers in South Africa, who over the years took over much of the organisation and work of this (largely voluntary) corps of teachers and child care workers, and who established further connections with helpful professionals.

text: Practitioners work in a variety of settings, such as early care and education, community-based child and youth development programs, parent education and family support, school-based programs, community mental health, group homes, residential centers, rehabilitation programs, pediatric health care, and juvenile justice programs.

text: The scope of practice from the Council of Canadian Child and Youth Care Associations provides a helpful definition of the field:

text: "Child and youth care practitioners work with children, youth and families with complex needs. They can be found in a variety of settings such as group homes and residential treatment centres, hospitals and community mental health clinics, community-based outreach and school-based programs, parent education and family support programs, as well as in private practice and juvenile justice programs. Child and youth care workers specialize in the development and implementation of therapeutic programs and planned environments and the utilization of daily life events to facilitate change. At the core of all effective child and youth care practice is a focus on the therapeutic relationship; the application of theory and research about human growth and development to promote the optimal physical, psycho-social, spiritual, cognitive, and emotional development of young people towards a healthy and productive adulthood; and a focus on strengths and assets rather than pathology." [2]

text: Public Recognition[edit]

text: The first week of May is International Child and Youth Care Week with the first Thursday being Thank a Youth Worker Day.

text: Professional Associations[edit]

text: There are a number of professional associations for Child and Youth Care Workers around the world.

text: Canada[edit]

text:
Ontario Association of Child and Youth Care
Child and Youth Care Association Newfoundland Labrador
Nova Scotia Child and Youth Care Workers Association
Child and Youth Care Workers Association of Prince Edward Island
Child and Youth Care Association of New Brunswick
Quebec Association of Educators
Child and Youth Care Workers Association of Manitoba
Child and Youth Care Association of Alberta
Child and Youth Care Association of British Columbia

text: United States[edit]

text:
Association of Children's Residential Centers
Association for Child & Youth Care Practice

text: South Africa[edit]

text: Scotland[edit]

text:
Scottish Residential Childcare Workers Association
Centre for Excellence for Looked After Children in Scotland

text: Education[edit]

text: Education for Child and Youth Care Practitioners varies around the world. Some have formal education in Child and Youth Care while others may enter the field through another discipline or specialty.

text: Some countries, such as Canada, have opportunities to complete a four-year programme in a university or a college leading to an advanced diploma in child and youth care which includes coursework and field placement. Some individuals enter the child and youth care field with a college diploma or university degree in a related field, such as psychology, sociology, addictions, or social service worker training.

text: Some CYW's further their education specifically in child and youth care and hold bachelors, masters and doctoral degrees in child and youth care. The University of Victoria in Canada offers a doctoral programme for child and youth workers. In the fall of 2016, Ryerson University [3] will begin offering a Master's of CYC program.

text: A partial list of schools offering degrees or programs in Child and Youth Care includes:

text:
Ryerson University, School of Child and Youth Care
University of Victoria, School of Child and Youth Care
University of the Fraser Valley
Flemming College, Child and Youth Care Program
Centennial College
Fanshawe College
Lambton College
Monash South Africa

text: Professional Certification[edit]

text: Professional certification is available to Child and Youth Workers through the Child and Youth Care Certification Board.

text: Certification involves an assessment process and demonstration of high standards of care and commitment to ongoing professional development. Certification is awarded to candidates who successfully demonstrate their professional practice through:

text:
Minimum requirements of education, experience & training
Passing score on a situational judgement exam
Provision of colleague references & supervisor assessment
Membership in a professional association
Agreement to abide by ethical practice
Completion of a written portfolio

text: Journals[edit]

text: http://udayancare.org/iceb-journal/home_iceb.html] Institutionalised Children and Beyond] Published by Udayan Care

text: Child & Youth Care Online (ISSN 1605-7406) Editors: Thom Garfat & James Freeman

text:
Relational Child & Youth Care Practice (ISSN 0840-982X) Editors: Heather Snell, MES CYC (c) (Professor & Program Coordinator, Bachelor of Child and Youth Care, Humber College, Ontario, Canada) & Rika Swanzen, PhD (Associate Professor, Section Head: Child and Youth Development, Monash South Africa)
Scottish Journal of Residential Child Care (ISSN 1478-1840) Editors: Graham Connelly & Laura Steckley
Child & Youth Services (ISSN 0145-935X) Editors: Ben Anderson-Nathe (Child and Family Studies, Portland State University, Portland, OR) & Kiaras Gharabaghi (School of Child and Youth Care, Ryerson University, Toronto)
International Journal of Social Pedagogy (ISSN 2051-5804) Jointly published by ThemPra Social Pedagogy and the Centre for Understanding Social Pedagogy, UCL Institute of Education, London

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Adapted from Stuart, C. (2013). Foundations of child and youth care. Dubuque: Kendall Hunt.
Jump up ^ Council of Canadian Child and Youth Care Associations
Jump up ^ Ryerson University School of Child and Youth Care

tag: ol


document_title: Home Alone

question_text: where does the movie home alone take place

text: Home Alone

text: Plot[edit]

text: The McCallister family is preparing to spend Christmas in Paris, gathering at Peter and Kate's home outside of Chicago on the night before their departure. Peter and Kate's youngest son, eight-year-old Kevin, is being ridiculed by his siblings and cousins. A fight with his older brother, Buzz, results in Kevin getting sent to the third floor of the house for punishment, where he wishes that his family would disappear. During the night, heavy winds cause damage to power lines, which causes a temporary power outage and resets the alarm clocks, causing the entire family to oversleep. In the confusion and rush to get to the airport, Kevin is accidentally left behind.

text: Kevin wakes up to find the house empty and, thinking his wish has come true, is overjoyed with his new-found freedom. However, Kevin soon becomes frightened by his next door neighbor, "Old Man" Marley, who is rumored to have murdered his family with a snow shovel in 1958; as well as the "Wet Bandits", Harry and Marv, a pair of burglars who have been breaking into other vacant houses in the neighborhood and have targeted the McCallisters' house. Kevin tricks the pair into thinking his entire family is home, forcing them to put their plans on hold.

text: Kate discovers mid-flight that Kevin is missing and, upon arrival in Paris, the family discovers that all flights for the next two days are booked. Peter and the rest of the family go to his brother Rob's apartment in the city while Kate manages to get a flight back to the United States only to get as far as Scranton, Pennsylvania. She attempts to book a flight to Chicago but again, everything is booked. Unable to accept this, Kate is overheard by Gus Polinski, the lead member of a traveling polka band, who offers to let her travel with them to Chicago on their way to Milwaukee in a moving van, which she graciously accepts.

text: Meanwhile, Harry and Marv realize that Kevin is home alone, and on Christmas Eve, Kevin overhears them discussing plans to break into his house that night. Kevin goes to church and watches a choir perform. He meets Old Man Marley, who sits with Kevin and they briefly speak; he learns that Marley is actually a nice man and that the rumors about him are false. He tells Kevin he is watching the choir because his granddaughter is singing, but he never gets to see her because he and his son are estranged and have not been on speaking terms for some time; Kevin suggests that he try to reconcile with his son.

text: Kevin returns home and rigs the house with numerous booby traps. Harry and Marv break in, springing the traps and suffering various injuries. While the duo pursues Kevin around the house, he calls the police and flees the house, luring the duo into a neighboring vacant home. Harry and Marv manage to catch him and discuss how they will get their revenge, but Marley sneaks in and knocks them unconscious with his snow shovel before they can do anything to Kevin. The police arrive and arrest Harry and Marv, having identified all the houses they burgled due to the latter's habit of flooding them.

text: On Christmas Day, Kevin is disappointed to find that his family is still gone. He then hears Kate enter the house and call for him; they reconcile and are soon joined by the rest of the McCallisters, who waited in Paris until they could get a direct flight to Chicago. Kevin keeps silent about his encounter with Harry and Marv, although Peter finds Harry's missing gold tooth. Kevin then observes Marley reuniting with his son and his family. Marley notices Kevin and the pair wave to each other before Marley and his family go inside his house. Buzz suddenly calls out, "Kevin, what did you do to my room?!" at which point Kevin runs off.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Macaulay Culkin as Kevin McCallister
Joe Pesci as Harry Lime
Daniel Stern as Marv Merchants
Catherine O'Hara as Kate
John Heard as Peter
Terrie Snell as Aunt Leslie
Gerry Bamman as Uncle Frank
Devin Ratray as Buzz
Mike Maronna as Jeff
Hillary Wolf as Megan
Angela Goethals as Linnie
Jedidiah Cohen as Rod
Senta Moses as Tracy
Daiana Campeanu as Sondra
Kieran Culkin as Fuller
Anna Slotky as Brooke
Kristin Minter as Heather
Roberts Blossom as Old Man Marley
John Candy as Gus Polinski, "the Polka King of the Midwest"

text: Production[edit]

text: Home Alone was initially a Warner Bros. production; when 20th Century Fox took over the project, the budget grew from $14 to $17 million.[5] Columbus' work with Home Alone began several years earlier when Hughes helped him secure the directing job for National Lampoon's Christmas Vacation. That project ended poorly when a personality clash between Columbus and Chevy Chase led to Columbus leaving the movie. Hughes then gave him the script to Home Alone, which he accepted.[6]

text: Hughes suggested to Columbus that they cast Macaulay Culkin in the main role because of his experience with the child actor while shooting Uncle Buck. Columbus met with other actors for the part, by his count "hundreds and hundreds", as he felt it was his "directorial responsibility".[7] Columbus finally met with Culkin and agreed he was the right choice for the role. Due to Culkin's age, he could only work until 10 PM which created shooting problems for the crew because of the movie's many night-time scenes.[7] The film's stunts also created tension for the crew during shooting. Columbus said, "Every time the stunt guys did one of those stunts it wasn’t funny. We’d watch it, and I would just pray that the guys were alive." [7] Stunts were originally prepared with safety harnesses, but because of their visibility on camera, the film's final stunts were performed without them.[7]

text: Some scenes were shot in a three-story single-family house located at 671 Lincoln Avenue[8] in the village of Winnetka.[9] The kitchen in the film was shot in the house, along with the main staircase, basement, attic and most of the first floor landing. The house's dining room, and all the downstairs rooms (excluding the kitchen) were duplicated on a sound stage to allow more room for equipment and crew.[10] The house was built in 1920 and features five bedrooms, a fully converted attic, a detached double garage and a greenhouse.[11] The tree house in the back yard was built specifically for the film and dismantled after filming ended.[12]

text: The scenes inside of the church were shot at Grace Episcopal Church, Oak Park, Illinois.[13]

text: For the film within a film, Angels with Filthy Souls, shooting took only one day. To create the illusion that the film was a 1940s gangster film, the scene was filmed with black-and-white negative film and Johnny's office used authentic items from that era.[14]

text: In May 2011, the house was listed for sale at $2.4 million;[15] it sold in March 2012 for $1.585 million.[8] The house is promoted as a tourist attraction and cited as an example of "How to Get Your Home in the Movies."[16]

text: Music[edit]

text: Initially Columbus hoped to have Bruce Broughton score the films, and early posters listed him as the composer. However, Broughton was busy with The Rescuers Down Under and he had to cancel at the last minute.[7] From there Columbus was able to get in touch with Steven Spielberg who helped him contact John Williams to produce the final score.[7] Christmas songs, such as "O Holy Night" and "Carol of the Bells", are featured prominently in the film, as well as the film's theme song "Somewhere in My Memory". The soundtrack was released by Sony Classical in cassette on December 4, 1990[17] and in CD on May 27, 2015.[18]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Home Alone grossed $285.8 million in the United States and Canada and $190.9 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $476.7 million, against a production budget of $18 million.[2]

text: In its opening weekend, Home Alone grossed $17 million from 1,202 theaters, averaging $14,211 per site and just 6% of the final total and added screens over the next six weeks, with a peak screen count of 2,174 during its eighth weekend at the start of January 1991. Home Alone proved so popular that it stayed in theaters well past the Christmas season. It was the No. 1 film at the box office for 12 straight weeks, from its release weekend of November 16–18, 1990 through the weekend of February 1–3, 1991.[19][20] It was finally dethroned from the top spot when Sleeping with the Enemy opened with $13 million.[20] It nevertheless remained a top ten draw at the box office until the weekend of April 26 that year, which was well past Easter weekend. It made two more appearances in the top ten (the weekend of May 31–June 2 and the weekend of June 14–16) before finally falling out of the top ten.[21] After over nine months into its run, the film had earned 16x its debut weekend and ended up making a final gross of $285,761,243, the top-grossing film of its year in North America.[22] The film is listed in the Guinness World Records as the highest-grossing live-action comedy ever.[23]

text: By the time it had run its course in theaters, Home Alone was the third-highest-grossing film of all time worldwide, as well as in the United States and Canada behind only Star Wars ($322 million at the time) and E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial ($399 million at that time), according to the home video box. In total, its cinema run grossed $477,561,243 worldwide.[20][24] Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 67.7 million tickets in the US.[25]

text: According to William Goldman, the film's success prompted the creation of a Hollywood verb: "to be Home Aloned", meaning to have a film's box office reduced by the impact of Home Alone.[26]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, Home Alone holds an approval rating of 56% based on 43 reviews, with an average rating of 5.2/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "Home Alone is frequently funny and led by a terrific starring turn from Macaulay Culkin, but an uneven script and a premise stretched unreasonably thin make it hard to wholeheartedly recommend."[27] On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, it has a score of 63 out of 100, based on 9 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[28] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.[29]

text: Variety magazine praised the film for its cast.[30] Jeanne Cooper of The Washington Post praised the film for its comedic approach.[31] Hal Hinson, also of The Washington Post, praised Chris Columbus's direction and Culkin's acting.[32] Although Caryn James of The New York Times complained that the film's first half is "flat and unsurprising as its cute little premise suggests", she praised the second half for its slapstick humor. She also praised the conversation between Kevin and Marley, as well as the film's final scenes.[33]

text: Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film a  2 1⁄2 out of 4-star rating. He compared the elaborate booby-traps in the film to Rube Goldberg machines, writing "they're the kinds of traps that any 8-year-old could devise, if he had a budget of tens of thousands of dollars and the assistance of a crew of movie special effects people" and criticized the plot as "so implausible that it makes it hard for [him] to really care about the plight of the kid [Kevin]". However, he praised Culkin's performance.[34] Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly magazine gave the film a "D" grade, criticizing the film for its "sadistic festival of adult-bashing". Gleiberman said that "[John] Hughes is pulling our strings as though he'd never learn to do anything else".[35]

text: Home Alone has become a holiday classic among audiences and is often ranked as one of the best Christmas films of all time.[36][37][38][39]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: The film was nominated for two Academy Awards, one for Best Original Score, which was written by John Williams, and the other for Best Original Song for "Somewhere in My Memory", music by Williams and lyrics by Leslie Bricusse.[40]

text:
AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs – Nominated[41]
AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes & Villains:

Harry Lime & Marv Merchants – Nominated Villains[42]

text: Sequels[edit]

text: The film was followed by a commercially successful sequel in 1992, Lost in New York, which brings back the first film's cast. The film within a film, Angels with Filthy Souls, had a sequel in Home Alone 2, Angels with Even Filthier Souls. Both Angels meta-films featured character actor Ralph Foody as stereotypical 1930s mobster Johnny.[43]

text: Home Alone 3, released in 1997, has completely different actors, and a different storyline with Hughes writing the screenplay.

text: A fourth made-for-TV film followed in 2002, Home Alone 4. This entry features some of the same characters who were in the first two films, but with a new cast and a storyline that does not fall into the same continuity. Hughes did not write the screenplay for the TV film.

text: On November 25, 2012, a fifth film, The Holiday Heist premiered during ABC Family's 25 Days of Christmas programming event.[44]

text: In December 2015, Culkin reprised his role as an adult Kevin McCallister in the inaugural episode of the Jack Dishel web series, "DRYVRS", where a visibly disturbed Kevin recounts his experience of being left home alone by his family.[45] In response to Culkin's video, Daniel Stern appeared in a short video reprising his role as Marv, released in conjunction with Stern's Reddit AMA, where he pleads for Harry to return to help protect him against Kevin's cunning traps.[46]

text: Novelization[edit]

text: Home Alone (ISBN 0-590-55066-7) was novelized by Todd Strasser and published by Scholastic in 1990 to coincide with the film.

text: Among the differences from the film the McCallisters live in Oak Park, Illinois, the Wet Bandits are named as Harry Lyme and Marv Murchens and Buzz's tarantula is named as Axl.

text: On October 6, 2015, to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the movie, an illustrated book by Kim Smith and Quirk Books was released.[47][48]


document_title: List of National Football League career passing yards leaders

question_text: who has passed for the most yards in nfl history

text: Players with at least 30,000 passing yards[edit]

text:
Key

^
Inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame

*
Denotes player who is still active in the NFL

text: Through end of 2017 season.

text:
Rank
Player
Team(s) by season
Yards

1
Manning, PeytonPeyton Manning
Indianapolis Colts (1998–2011)
Denver Broncos (2012–2015)
71,940

2
Favre, BrettBrett Favre^
Atlanta Falcons (1991)
Green Bay Packers (1992–2007)
New York Jets (2008)
Minnesota Vikings (2009–2010)
71,838

3
Brees, DrewDrew Brees*
San Diego Chargers (2001–2005)
New Orleans Saints (2006–present)
70,445

4
Brady, TomTom Brady*
New England Patriots (2000–present)
66,159

5
Marino, DanDan Marino^
Miami Dolphins (1983–1999)
61,361

6
Manning, EliEli Manning*
New York Giants (2004–present)
51,682

7
Elway, JohnJohn Elway^
Denver Broncos (1983–1998)
51,475

8
Roethlisberger, BenBen Roethlisberger*
Pittsburgh Steelers (2004–present)
51,065

9
Rivers, PhilipPhilip Rivers*
San Diego/Los Angeles Chargers (2004–present)
50,348

10
Moon, WarrenWarren Moon^
Houston Oilers (1984–1993)
Minnesota Vikings (1994–1996)
Seattle Seahawks (1997–1998)
Kansas City Chiefs (1999–2000)
49,325

11
Tarkenton, FranFran Tarkenton^
Minnesota Vikings (1961–1966, 1972–1978)
New York Giants (1967–1971)
47,003

12
Palmer, CarsonCarson Palmer
Cincinnati Bengals (2003–2010)
Oakland Raiders (2011–2012)
Arizona Cardinals (2013–2017)
46,247

13
Testaverde, VinnyVinny Testaverde
Tampa Bay Buccaneers (1987–1992)
Cleveland Browns (1993–1995)
Baltimore Ravens (1996–1997)
New York Jets (1998–2003, 2005)
Dallas Cowboys (2004)
New England Patriots (2006)
Carolina Panthers (2007)
46,233

14
Bledsoe, DrewDrew Bledsoe
New England Patriots (1993–2001)
Buffalo Bills (2002–2004)
Dallas Cowboys (2005–2006)
44,611

15
Fouts, DanDan Fouts^
San Diego Chargers (1973–1987)
43,040

16
Ryan, MattMatt Ryan*
Atlanta Falcons (2008–present)
41,796

17
Collins, KerryKerry Collins
Carolina Panthers (1995–1998)[a])
New Orleans Saints (1998)
New York Giants (1999–2003)
Oakland Raiders (2004–2005)
Tennessee Titans (2006–2010)
Indianapolis Colts (2011)
40,922

18
Montana, JoeJoe Montana^
San Francisco 49ers (1979–1992)
Kansas City Chiefs (1993–1994)
40,551

19
Unitas, JohnnyJohnny Unitas^
Baltimore Colts (1956–1972)
San Diego Chargers (1973)
40,239

20
Rodgers, AaronAaron Rodgers*
Green Bay Packers (2005–present)
38,502

21
Krieg, DaveDave Krieg
Seattle Seahawks (1980–1991)
Kansas City Chiefs (1992–1993)
Detroit Lions (1994)
Arizona Cardinals (1995)
Chicago Bears (1996)
Tennessee Oilers (1997–1998)
38,147

22
Esiason, BoomerBoomer Esiason
Cincinnati Bengals (1984–1992)
New York Jets (1993–1995)
Arizona Cardinals (1996)
Cincinnati Bengals (1997)
37,920

23
McNabb, DonovanDonovan McNabb
Philadelphia Eagles (1999–2009)
Washington Redskins (2010)
Minnesota Vikings (2011)
37,276

24
Hasselbeck, MattMatt Hasselbeck
Green Bay Packers (1998–2000)
Seattle Seahawks (2001–2010)
Tennessee Titans (2011–2012)
Indianapolis Colts (2013–2015)
36,638

25
Flacco, JoeJoe Flacco*
Baltimore Ravens (2008–present)
35,780

26
Kelly, JimJim Kelly^
Buffalo Bills (1986–1996)
35,467

27
Cutler, JayJay Cutler
Denver Broncos (2006–2008)
Chicago Bears (2009–2016)
Miami Dolphins (2017)
35,133

28
Everett, JimJim Everett
Los Angeles Rams (1986–1993)
New Orleans Saints (1994–1996)
San Diego Chargers (1997)
34,837

29
Stafford, MatthewMatthew Stafford*
Detroit Lions (2009–present)
34,749

30
Hart, JimJim Hart
St. Louis Cardinals (1966–1983
Washington Redskins 1984)
34,665

31
DeBerg, SteveSteve DeBerg
San Francisco 49ers (1978–1980)
Denver Broncos (1981–1983)
Tampa Bay Buccaneers (1984–1987, 1992–1993[b])
Kansas City Chiefs (1988–1991)
Miami Dolphins (1993)
Atlanta Falcons (1998)
34,241

32
Romo, TonyTony Romo
Dallas Cowboys (2003–2016)
34,183

33
Hadl, JohnJohn Hadl
San Diego Chargers (1962–1972)
Los Angeles Rams (1973–1974[c])
Green Bay Packers (1974–1975)
Houston Oilers (1976–1977)
33,503

34
Simms, PhilPhil Simms
New York Giants (1979–1993)
33,462

35
Young, SteveSteve Young^
Tampa Bay Buccaneers (1985–1986
San Francisco 49ers (1987–1999)
33,124

36
Aikman, TroyTroy Aikman^
Dallas Cowboys (1989–2000)
32,942

37
Anderson, KenKen Anderson
Cincinnati Bengals (1971–1986)
32,838

38
Warner, KurtKurt Warner^
St. Louis Rams (1998–2003)
New York Giants (2004)
Arizona Cardinals (2005–2009)
32,344

39
Jurgensen, SonnySonny Jurgensen^
Philadelphia Eagles (1957–1963)
Washington Redskins (1964–1974)
32,224

40
Brunell, MarkMark Brunell
Green Bay Packers (1993–1994)
Jacksonville Jaguars (1995–2003)
Washington Redskins (2004–2006)
New Orleans Saints (2008–2009)
New York Jets (2010–2011)
32,072

41
Smith, AlexAlex Smith*
San Francisco 49ers (2005–2012)
Kansas City Chiefs (2013–2017)
Washington Redskins (2018–present)
31,888

42
Brodie, JohnJohn Brodie
San Francisco 49ers (1957–1973)
31,548

43
McNair, SteveSteve McNair
Houston / Tennessee Oilers / Titans (1995–2005)
Baltimore Ravens (2006–2007)
31,304

44
Snead, NormNorm Snead
Washington Redskins (1961–1963)
Philadelphia Eagles (1964–1970)
Minnesota Vikings (1971)
New York Giants (1972–1974, 1976)
San Francisco 49ers (1974–1975)
30,797

text: Note: Y. A. Tittle passed for 33,070 yards in his professional career. However, 4,731 of those yards came in the All-America Football Conference (AAFC). The NFL does not recognize statistics and records accrued in the AAFC.[1][2] As such, his career passing yards total in the NFL stands at 28,339.[3]

text: Active players with 25,000–29,999 yards[edit]

text: Through end of 2017 season; numbers in yards

text:
Ryan Fitzpatrick, 26,991
Andy Dalton, 25,756
Cam Newton, 25,254

text: Historical passing yards leaders[edit]

text: Nine players are recognized as having held the record as the NFL's career passing yardage leader.[4] The longest record holder was Fran Tarkenton who held the record for 19 years.

text:
Reign
Player
Team(s) by season
Yards

1932–1943
(11 years)
Arnie Herber^
Green Bay Packers (1930–1940)
New York Giants (1944–1945)
8,041

1943–1959
(16 years)
Sammy Baugh^
Washington Redskins (1937-1952)
21,886

1959–1964
(5 years)
Bobby Layne^
Chicago Bears (1948)
New York Bulldogs (1949)
Detroit Lions (1950–1958)
Pittsburgh Steelers (1958–1962)
26,768

1964–1967
(3 years)
Y. A. Tittle^
Baltimore Colts (1948–1950)
San Francisco 49ers (1951–1960)
New York Giants (1961–1964)
28,339

1967–1976
(9 years)
Johnny Unitas^
Baltimore Colts (1956–1972)
San Diego Chargers (1973)
40,239

1976–1995
(19 years)
Fran Tarkenton^
Minnesota Vikings (1961–1966)
New York Giants (1967–1971)
Minnesota Vikings (1972–1978)
47,003

1995–2007
(12 years)
Dan Marino^
Miami Dolphins (1983–1999)
61,361

2007–2015
(8 years)
Brett Favre^
Atlanta Falcons (1991)
Green Bay Packers (1992–2007)
New York Jets (2008)
Minnesota Vikings (2009–2010)
71,838

2015–present
(2 years)
Peyton Manning
Indianapolis Colts (1998–2011)
Denver Broncos (2012–2015)
71,940


document_title: St. Patrick's Cathedral (Manhattan)

question_text: what is the largest catholic church in new york city

text: St. Patrick's Cathedral (Manhattan)

text: History[edit]

text: Purchase of the property[edit]

text: The land on which the present cathedral stands was purchased in 1810.[5][6] The Jesuit community built a college on the site,[7] three miles north of the city. It contained a "fine old house" which was fitted with a chapel of St. Ignatius.[8] The school closed in 1814 and the Jesuits sold the lot to the diocese. In 1813, the diocese gave use of the property to Dom Augustin LeStrange, abbot of a community of Trappists (from the original monastery of La Trappe) who came to America fleeing persecution by French authorities. In addition to a small monastic community, they also looked after some thirty-three orphans. With the downfall of Napoleon in that year, the Trappists returned to France in 1815, abandoning the property. The property at this point was designated for a future cemetery. The neighboring orphanage was maintained by the diocese into the late nineteenth century. Some of the Trappists resettled to Canada and eventually founded St. Joseph's Abbey in Spencer, Massachusetts.[9]

text: Bishop DuBois reopened the chapel in 1840 for Catholics employed at the Deaf and Dumb Asylum and in the general neighborhood.[8] A modest frame church was built for the parish of St. John the Evangelist and dedicated May 9, 1841 by the Rev. John Hughes, administrator of the diocese. Tickets were sold to the dedication to ease the parish's debt level, managed by a lay Board of Trustees, but to no avail and the property mortgage was finally foreclosed on and the church sold at auction in 1844.[8] The stress is said to have contributed to the death that year of the church's pastor, the Rev. Felix Larkin.[8] The experience was blamed on the management of the trustees and this incident is said to have played a significant role in the abolishment of the lay trusteeship, which occurred shortly thereafter.[8] The young and energetic Rev. Michael A. Curran was appointed to raise funds for the devastated parish, and shortly fitted up an old college hall as a temporary church.[8] Fr. Curran continued raising funds to buy back the church during the Great Famine in Ireland, eventually succeeding and taking the deed in his own name.[8] "The site of St. Patrick's Cathedral, hence, came to the Church through the labors of this young priest and the self-denial of his countrymen and not by the gift of the city."[8] The debt was finally all paid for by 1853 when it was clear a large church was needed and the site was selected as appropriate for the new cathedral.[8]

text: Construction of the cathedral[edit]

text: The Diocese of New York, created in 1808, was made an archdiocese by Pope Pius IX on July 19, 1850. In 1853, Archbishop John Joseph Hughes announced his intention to erect a new cathedral to replace the Old Saint Patrick's Cathedral in Lower Manhattan. The new cathedral was designed by James Renwick Jr. in the Gothic Revival style. On August 15, 1858, the cornerstone was laid, just south of the diocese's orphanage. At that time, present-day midtown Manhattan was far north of the populous areas of New York City.[10]

text: Work began in 1858 but was halted during the Civil War and resumed in 1865. The cathedral was completed in 1878 and dedicated on May 25, 1879, its huge proportions dominating the midtown of that time. The archbishop's house and rectory were added in 1880, both by James Renwick Jr., and an adjacent school (no longer in existence) opened in 1882.[11] The spires were added in 1888, and at 329 feet and 6 inches (100.4 meters) were the tallest structures in New York City and the second highest in the United States.[1] An addition on the east, including a Lady chapel, designed by Charles T. Matthews, was constructed from 1901 to 1906.[11] The Lady Chapel's stained-glass windows were made between 1912 and 1930 by English stained glass artist and designer Paul Vincent Woodroffe.[12] In 1927 and 1931, the cathedral was renovated, which included enlarging the sanctuary and installing the great organ.[13] The cathedral and associated buildings were declared a National Historic Landmark in 1976.[5][14][15]

text: Restoration[edit]

text: An extensive restoration of the cathedral was begun in 2012 and lasted 3 years at a cost of $177 million.[16] The restoration was completed by September 17, 2015, before Pope Francis visited the cathedral on September 24 and 25, 2015.[17] The restoration cleaned the exterior marble, repaired stained glass windows, and painted the ceiling, repaired the flooring and steps, among many restorations.[18]

text: Terrorism[edit]

text: On October 13, 1914, a bomb exploded on the Northwest corner of St. Patrick's Cathedral. It caused a panic, but not severe damage, splintering some and tearing an 18-inch hole in the floor. Despite a full church that day, there was only one victim – a young boy – whose head was grazed by a flying piece of metal. Authorities believed this event was linked to another bombing earlier that day, downtown at St. Alphonsus Church on West Broadway.[19] The Communists reportedly celebrated bombings at this and other churches, while police suspected an Industrial Workers of the World plot.[20] There were no arrests made that day.

text: In March 1915, Italian anarchists, Frank Abarno, and Carmine Carbone were arrested for attempting to detonate a bomb in the cathedral. Arbarno and Carbone were under the influence of Luigi Galleani. Abarno was in St. Patrick's ready to light the bomb fuse when Amedeo Polignani, a New York City police detective, who had gone undercover to infiltrate the group, intervened. Polignani had been operating under the direction of the head of the bomb squad, Thomas Tunney. Arbano was arrested at the scene and Carbone was arrested at his home. The two defendants claimed entrapment, but were nonetheless convicted and given sentences of between 6 and 12 years.[21][22][23]

text: In the 1950s, starting in January 1951, a letter threatened that a bomb would be set off at a Sunday mass, and there would be five more threats between December 1951 and July 1952. On July 12, a voice over the telephone warned "your beautiful cathedral will be blown up before midnight."[24]

text: Architectural features[edit]

text: St. Patrick's Cathedral is the largest decorated Neo-Gothic-style Catholic cathedral in North America. The cathedral, which can accommodate 3,000 people, is built of brick clad in marble, quarried in Massachusetts and New York. The main block of the cathedral is made of Tuckahoe marble.[25] It takes up a whole city block, between 50th and 51st streets, Madison Avenue and Fifth Avenue. At the transepts it is 174 feet (53.0 meters) wide and 332 feet (101.2 meters) long. The spires rise 330 feet (100.6 meters) from street level. The slate for the roof came from Monson, Maine.[12]

text: Stained glass[edit]

text: The windows were made by artists in Boston, Massachusetts, and European artists from Chartres, France, and Birmingham, England. Charles Connick created the rose window.[12]

text: Altar[edit]

text: The Roman artist Paolo Medici designed the Saint Elizabeth altar. The Saint Jean-Baptiste de La Salle altar, one of the few original side-chapel altars, was sculpted by Dominic Borgia. The Papal bull is featured in the adjoining stained-glass window. Tiffany & Co. designed the Saint Louis and the Saint Michael altar.[12]

text: In the late 1930s and early 1940s, there was a renovation of the cathedral's main altar area under the guidance of Archbishop Francis Spellman, who later became cardinal. The previous high altar and reredos were removed and are now located at Spellman's alma mater, Fordham University, in the University Church. The new items include the sanctuary bronze baldachin and the rose stained glass window. The altar was further renovated in the 1980s, under the direction of Cardinal John Joseph O'Connor. To be more visible to the congregation, a stone altar was built from sections of the side altars and added to the middle of the sanctuary.[12] However, this altar was removed in 2013.

text: Art works[edit]

text: The Pietà, sculpted by William Ordway Partridge, is three times larger than Michelangelo's Pietà. The cathedral's Stations of the Cross won an 1893 artistry prize at Chicago's World's Columbian Exposition. Commemorating his visit to the city in 1979, Pope John Paul II's bust is located in the rear of the cathedral.[12]

text: Music[edit]

text: Organs[edit]

text: St. Patrick’s Cathedral has two pipe organs. The Gallery Organ is located in the Choir Gallery below the Rose Window over the Fifth Avenue entrance and in the Triforium, near the South Transept. The Chancell Organ is located in the North Ambulatory next to the Chapel of St. Joseph.

text: First organs[edit]

text: The first organ in the Cathedral was built by George Jardine & Son, one of New York's most distinguished organ builders, and installed in 1879. It was composed of 4 manuals with 51 stops and 56 ranks.

text: In 1880, J.H. & C.S. Odell, then also from New York City, installed an organ in the chancel. It was composed of 2 manuals with 20 stops and 23 ranks.

text: Kilgen organs[edit]

text: With the addition to the music staff of Pietro Yon in 1927, plans were initiated to replace the organs. The firm of George Kilgen & Son of St. Louis, Missouri, was engaged to build two new instruments according to designs which were heavily influenced by the Cathedral's world-renowned organist.

text: During the building period it was determined that the Gallery would need to be extended to accommodate the new Gallery Organ. In the late 1920s, a concrete reinforced extension to the original Gallery was constructed.

text: The Chancel Organ was dedicated on January 30, 1928. It is encased in a carved oak screen ornamented with Gothic elements of design and symbolism. It had 1,480 pipes; located on the opposite side of the Ambulatory, diagonally across from the console.

text: The Gallery Organ, dedicated on February 11, 1930, required three years to build at a cost of $250,000. It has one of the nation's most glorious wood facades. It was designed by Robert J. Reiley, consulting architect of the Cathedral, and is adorned with angels and Latin inscriptions. It contained 7,855 pipes ranging in length from thirty-two feet to one-half inch. The longest pipes run horizontally across the North and South Triforia.

text: In the 1940s and 1950s tonal changes were made. In the 1970s and 1980s additional renovations were made by Jack Steinkampf of Yonkers, New York, particularly in the revoicing of flutes and reeds, and the addition of the Trumpette en Chamade.

text: Peragallo restoration[edit]

text: In 1993, it was decided that the organs need to undergo major restoration. The first and most essential part of the restoration project was to acquire new consoles for both the Gallery and Chancel Organs to replace the original ones which had deteriorated beyond repair. Twin five-manual consoles were constructed by Robert Turner of Hacienda Heights, California. Solid State Logic, Ltd. of England designed and engineered the combination action. The use of fiber-optic wiring enables both consoles to control the Gallery, Chancel and Nave Organs at the same time. Installation of the Gallery console was finished in time for Christmas Midnight Mass in 1993. The Chancel console was installed in early 1994.

text: For six weeks in January and February 1994, scaffolding filled the Gallery to provide access for wood craftsmen to begin the arduous process of cleaning, repairing, and oiling the hand-carved organ facade. Meanwhile, the Peragallo Pipe Organ Company of Paterson, New Jersey had been awarded the contract to clean and restore all of the pipework as well as the chests and wind systems. Their first task was to remove all the facade pipes for cleaning and refinishing. It was decided to return the pipework to its original zinc finish, only adding a protective coating to avoid oxidation in the future. After completing work on the facade, Peragallo moved to the interior of the instrument for the purpose of restoring the Great, Choir, Swell, Solo, String and Pedal divisions. The entire Chancel Organ was restored in 1995. Finally, the Echo Organ, situated in the triforium near the center crossing, underwent tonal modifications, making it more useful as the Nave Organ. The organ work was finished in 1997.

text: The Organs were blessed on September 15, 2007 celebrating the 10th anniversary of their renovations and inaugurating the Bicentennial Concert Series with a performance James E. Goettsche, the Vatican Organist.

text: The Organs consist of more than 9,000 pipes, 206 stops, 150 ranks and 10 divisions.

text: Organists and music directors[edit]

text:
Name
Title
Years

William F. Pecher
Organist (and Director of Music)
1879–1904

Jacques C. Ungerer
Assistant Organist and Director of Chancel Choir
Organist (and Director of Music)
1893-1904
1904–1929

Pietro A. Yon
Assistant Organist
Director of Music
1927–1929
1929–1943

Msgr. Joseph I. Rostagno
Vice-Director of Music
1929–1935

Paolo Giaquinto
First Assistant Organist
1930–1933

Edward Rivetti
Assistant Organist
1933–1972

Dr. Charles M. Courboin
Director of Music
1943–1970

John Grady
Director of Music and Organist
1970–1990

Donald Dumler
Associate Organist
Principal Organist
Principal Organist Emeritus
1970–1990
1990–2014
Named 2014

John-Michael Caprio
Director of Music
1990–1997

Alan Davis
Associate Organist
1991–1995

Stephen J. Tharp
Associate Organist
1995–1996

Stanley H. Cox
Associate Organist
1997–2007

Robert Long
Director of Music
1999–2001

Don Stefano Concordia
Director of Music
2001

Johannes Somary
Director of Music
2001–2003

Jennifer Pascual
Director of Music
2003–present

Christopher Berry
Assistant Organist
2006–2007

Daniel Brondel
Assistant Organist
Associate Director of Music and Organist
2007–2008
2008–present

Stephen Fraser
Assistant Organist
2008–2011

Stephen Rapp
Assistant Organist
2012–present

Michael Hey
Assistant Director of Music and Organist
2015–present

text: Burials and funeral Masses[edit]

text: Located underneath the high altar is a crypt in which notable Catholic figures that served the Archdiocese are entombed. They include:

text: The nine past deceased Archbishops of New York:

text:
Archbishop John Joseph Hughes (interred 1883)
John Cardinal McCloskey (interred 1885)
Archbishop Michael Augustine Corrigan (interred 1902)
John Murphy Cardinal Farley (interred 1918)
Patrick Joseph Cardinal Hayes (interred 1938)
Francis Joseph Cardinal Spellman (interred 1967)
Terence James Cardinal Cooke (interred 1983)
John Joseph Cardinal O'Connor (interred 2000)
Edward Michael Cardinal Egan (interred 2015)

text: Other interments:

text:
Michael J. Lavelle (Cathedral Rector and Vicar General; interred 1939)
Joseph F. Flannelly (Auxiliary Bishop, 1948–1969; interred 1973)
Fulton J. Sheen (Auxiliary Bishop, 1951–1965, later bishop of Rochester; interred 1979)
John Maguire (Coadjutor Archbishop, 1965–1980; interred 1989)
Pierre Toussaint (interred 1990)

text: In the above list, Cardinal O'Connor declared Pierre Toussaint and Cardinal Cooke to be servants of God, a step in process of being declared a saint of the Catholic Church. Toussaint was declared venerable in 1996 by Pope John Paul II and Archbishop Sheen was declared venerable by Pope Benedict XVI on June 28, 2012.

text: Four of the Cardinals' galeros (those of Cardinals McCloskey, Farley, Hayes, and Spellman) are located high above the crypt at the back of the sanctuary. Cardinal Spellman's galero was also worn by Pope Pius XII (as Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli) until the latter's election to the papacy at the 1939 Papal conclave. In 1965, the ceremony of the consistory was revised by Pope Paul VI and therefore no galero was presented to Cardinal Cooke or any of his successors.

text: Some notable people whose Requiem Masses were said at the cathedral include New York Yankees greats Babe Ruth, Roger Maris, and Billy Martin; legendary football coach Vince Lombardi, New York City Police Department officer Steven McDonald, singer Celia Cruz, entertainer and host Ed Sullivan, actor and dancer George M. Cohan, former Attorney General and U.S. Senator from New York Robert F. Kennedy, New York Giants owner Wellington Mara, and former Governor of New York Hugh Carey. Special memorial Masses were also held at the cathedral following the deaths of artist Andy Warhol, baseball player Joe DiMaggio, and noted author William F. Buckley Jr.

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: This article appears to contain trivial, minor, or unrelated references to popular culture. Please reorganize this content to explain the subject's impact on popular culture rather than simply listing appearances; add references to reliable sources if possible. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2017)

text:
The underground ruins were the setting for the climax of Beneath the Planet of the Apes (1970) where Taylor destroyed Earth with the Alpha-Omega bomb. Centuries earlier, mutant humans surviving a nuclear holocaust founded a religion on the bomb (later depicted in Battle for the Planet of the Apes), reconsecrated the cathedral to their new religion, and installed the bomb in front of the organ pipes in place of the crucifix. This was spoofed in a scene from the TV show Futurama where Fry, Leela, et al. are visiting the sewer mutants beneath the ruins of Old New York. Fry sticks his head in the cathedral, sees the bomb, and says, "So you guys worship an unexploded atomic bomb?" A mutant replies, "Not really, it's mostly a Christmas and Easter thing."
Nelson DeMille's 1981 novel, Cathedral, concerns a fictional seizure and threatened destruction of the cathedral by members of the Irish Republican Army on Saint Patrick's Day. Much of the novel is set in and around the cathedral and details of the cathedral's structure contribute important elements to the plot.
The cathedral is also featured in the 1990 film Gremlins 2: The New Batch.
In Giannina Braschi's novel, Empire of Dreams (1994), the ringing of the church bells at the cathedral marks a pastoral revolution in New York City.
The cathedral is mentioned to have been destroyed and its rubble dumped into the Hudson River in Hulu's original series The Handmaid's Tale, adapted from Margaret Atwood's novel of the same name.