document_title: Parks and Recreation (season 6)

question_text: what episode of parks and rec does leslie find out she's pregnant

question_tokens: what episode of parks and rec does leslie find out she 's pregnant

text: Parks and Recreation (season 6)

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Amy Poehler as Leslie Knope, the councilwoman for the town of Pawnee who loves her home town. She has not let politics dampen her optimism; her ultimate goal is to become President of the United States.[4] Poehler departed from the NBC sketch comedy series Saturday Night Live, where she was a cast member for nearly seven years, to star in Parks and Recreation.[5][6] It was only after she was cast that Daniels and Schur established the general concept of the show and the script for the pilot was written.[7]
Rashida Jones as Ann Perkins, a nurse and political outsider who gradually becomes more involved in Pawnee government through her friendship with Leslie. Jones was among the first to be cast by Daniels and Schur in 2008, when the series was still being considered as a spin-off to The Office, where Jones had played Jim Halpert's girlfriend Karen Filippelli.[7][8]
Aziz Ansari as Tom Haverford, Leslie's sarcastic and underachieving subordinate,[9] who eventually begins to consider leaving his city hall job to pursue his own entrepreneurial interests.[10] As with Jones, Daniels and Schur had intended to cast Ansari from the earliest stages of the development of Parks and Recreation.[7][8]
Nick Offerman as Ron Swanson, the deadpan parks and recreation director who, as a libertarian, believes in as small a government as possible. As such, Ron strives to make his department as ineffective as possible, and favors hiring employees who do not care about their jobs or are poor at them.[9] Nevertheless, Ron consistently demonstrates that he secretly cares deeply about his fellow co-workers.[11]
Aubrey Plaza as April Ludgate, a cynical and uninterested parks department intern who eventually becomes the perfect assistant for Ron.[12] The role was written specifically for Plaza; after meeting her, casting director Allison Jones told Schur, "I just met the weirdest girl I've ever met in my life. You have to meet her and put her on your show."
Chris Pratt as Andy Dwyer, a goofy and dim-witted but lovable slacker. Pratt was originally intended to be a guest star and the character Andy was initially meant to appear only in the first season, but the producers liked Pratt so much that, almost immediately after casting him, they decided to make him a regular cast member starting with season two.[13]
Adam Scott as Ben Wyatt, Leslie's husband, a competent but socially awkward government official trying to redeem his past as a failed mayor in his youth.[14] Scott left his starring role on the Starz comedy series Party Down to join the show.[15]
Rob Lowe as Chris Traeger, an excessively positive and extremely health-conscious government official.[16] Unlike Scott, Lowe was originally expected to depart after a string of guest appearances,[17][18] but later signed a multi-year contract to become a regular cast member.[18][19]
Jim O'Heir as Jerry Gergich, a sweet-natured but painfully incompetent longtime city employee who is the main target of the office petty unkindness, yet enjoys his life as the husband of a gorgeous woman and the father of three beautiful daughters. He reached retirement with a full pension in season 5, but returned to the Parks office to work as an intern. As of season six, the other characters have taken to calling him "Larry Gengurch," after accidentally calling himself that name.
Retta as Donna Meagle, the confident and competent office manager for the Pawnee Parks and Recreation Department. She is now accepting of her coworkers, previously dismissing them as boring. She has little tolerance for stupidity, can sometimes be selfish, enjoys casual dating, and is irresistible to many men. Donna loves her car, a Mercedes-Benz M-Class SUV.

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
John Balma as Barney Varmn, an incredibly boring accountant. He regularly attempts to hire Ben as an employee.
Alison Becker as Shauna Malwae-Tweep, a newspaper journalist working for The Pawnee Journal.
Kristen Bell as Ingrid de Forest, an elitist city councilwoman from Eagleton.
Lucy Lawless as Diane Lewis, a middle school vice-principal and Ron's wife.
Richard Burch as Herman Lerpiss, the owner of the Pawnee Pawn Shop.
Andrew Burlinson as Wyatt "Burly" Burlison, the lead guitarist of Andy's band "Mouse Rat".
Mo Collins as Joan Callamezzo, a tabloid journalist and hostess of the local news/talk show Pawnee Today.
Billy Eichner as Craig Middlebrooks, the former office manager of Eagleton's parks department. After the Pawnee-Eagleton city merger, he is brought into the Pawnee parks department as the "associate administrator", and forms a strong friendship with Donna.
Sydney Endicott as Madison, a young intern at the parks department.
Mary Faber as Kathryn Pinewood, a representative for the Pawnee Restaurant Association.
Andy Forrest as Kyle, a government employee who is constantly ridiculed by Andy.
Jon Glaser as Councilman Jeremy Jamm, a member of the Pawnee city council and Leslie's nemesis.
James Greene as Councilman Fielding Milton, the longest serving member of the Pawnee city council.
Eric Isenhower as Orin, a creepy and disturbed friend of April.
Jay Jackson as Perd Hapley, a popular Pawnee television journalist and the host of news programs Ya Heard? With Perd! and The Final Word with Perd!.
Marc Evan Jackson as Trevor Nelsson, one of Pawnee's top attorneys in the employment of Dr. Saperstein.
Yvans Jourdain as Councilman Douglass Howser, the head of the Pawnee city council.
Richard Portnow as Mitch Savner, a local businessman and potential investor for Tom's restaurant.
Ben Schwartz as Jean-Ralphio Saperstein, Tom's dimwitted and cocky best friend.
Jenny Slate as Mona-Lisa Saperstein, Tom's crazy ex-girlfriend and Jean-Ralphio's sister.
Helen Slayton-Hughes as Ethel Beavers, an elderly government employee.
Brady Smith as Grant Larson, director of the Midwest branch of the National Parks Service.
Kevin Symons as Councilman Bill Dexhart, a member of the Pawnee city council who is frequently embroiled in outrageous sex scandals.
Cooper Thornton as Dr. Harris, a sarcastic doctor at Pawnee's hospital.
Jeff Tweedy as Scott Tanner, the former lead singer of a band called "Land Ho!".
Susan Yeagley as Jessica Wicks, the vain and superficial widow of Nick Newport Sr., one of the richest men in Pawnee.
Henry Winkler as Dr. Saperstein, a gynecologist and father of Jean-Ralphio and Mona-Lisa.

text: Guest stars[edit]

text:
Blake Anderson as Mike Bean, CEO of tech company "Gryzzl".
Matt Besser as Crazy Ira, one of the hosts of the radio show Crazy Ira and The Douche.
Dan Castellaneta as Derry Murbles, the host of the Pawnee radio show Thoughts for Your Thoughts.
The Decemberists as themselves.
Bo Burnham as Chip McCapp, a spoiled teenage country singer.
Sam Elliott as Ron Dunn, the former head of the Eagleton parks department.
Ginuwine as a fictional version of himself; he is Donna's cousin.
Kathryn Hahn as Jennifer Barkley, a successful political campaign manager and old acquaintance of Ben and Leslie.
Jon Hamm as Ed, an incompetent employee at the National Parks Service.
Kay Hanley as herself.
Erinn Hayes as Annabel Porter, a well-respected Pawnee lifestyle guru.
John Hodgman as August Clementine, an Eagleton radio host.
Rob Huebel as Harvey Spielyorm, the unlikable owner of a tent store.
Keegan-Michael Key as Joe, a school principal and Donna's ex-boyfriend.
Heidi Klum as Ulee Danssen, the mayor of a town in Denmark.
Nick Kroll as Howard "The Douche" Tuttleman, one of the hosts of the Pawnee radio show Crazy Ira and The Douche.
Andrew Luck as himself
Tatiana Maslany as Nadia Stasky, a doctor and love interest for Tom.
Robert Mathis as himself
Megan Mullally as Tammy Swanson (aka Tammy Two), Ron's sex-crazed ex-wife.
Michelle Obama as herself.
June Diane Raphael as Tynnyfer, a former employee of the Eagleton parks department.
Peter Serafinowicz as His Royal Excellence Lord Edgar Darby Covington, 14th Earl of Cornwall-Upon-Thames and 29th Baron of Hertfordshire, who also goes by the name "Eddie", the head of a British charitable organization.
Yo La Tengo as Bobby Knight Ranger, a fictional Night Ranger tribute band.
Adam Vinatieri as himself
Kaylie Smart as carnival attendee

text: Production[edit]

text: On July 31, 2013, it was reported by BuzzFeed that Rob Lowe and Rashida Jones would be leaving the series around the middle of the season.[20] Their final episode was episode 13, "Ann and Chris". Due to the departure of Jones and Lowe, longtime regulars Jim O'Heir and Retta were added to the show's opening credit sequence starting with episode 14, "Anniversaries". Jones appears as a special guest star in episode 16 when Ann has her baby.

text: Chris Pratt was absent for much of the early part of the season, due to him filming Guardians of the Galaxy in London. Executive producer Michael Schur stated the show went to London for the first two episodes in order for Pratt's character Andy to make an appearance. Pratt made a brief return in the sixth episode, with Schur adding that Pratt would return to the series in the tenth episode, the series' 100th episode.[21]

text: In February 2014, NBC announced a digital tie-in for the show, titled "The Hapley Group", which aired on February 20. Created "to help viewers remain engaged with their favorite programs" while NBC broadcasts the 2014 Winter Olympics, it featured Jay Jackson, Matt Besser, Nick Kroll and Mo Collins reprising their roles as Perd Hapley, Crazy Ira, The Douche, and Joan Callamezzo, respectively, with Seth Morris as Mike Patterson, a new character who recurred on the TV show as well.[22] The tie-in, directed by Morgan Sackett and written by Greg Levine, features the characters in a heated, political round-table discussion of Pawnee’s hot topics.[23]

text: Retta tweeted on February 27, 2014 that filming for the season had finished.[24]

text: Episodes[edit]

text: † denotes an extended episode. ‡ denotes an hour-long episode.

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

91

92
1

2
"London"‡
Dean Holland
Michael Schur
September 26, 2013 (2013-09-26)
3.27[25]

Diane tells Ron that she's pregnant, Ron proposes, and they get married in the municipal building. Leslie wins an international award that takes her, Ben, Andy, April and Ron to London, while Tom learns who his business competitor is. Ann and Chris progress in their relationship.

93
3
"The Pawnee-Eagleton Tip Off Classic"
Nicole Holofcener
Alan Yang
October 3, 2013 (2013-10-03)
3.14[26]

Leslie, Ben and Chris go to Eagleton on government business, while Ann takes April to her veterinary school orientation in Bloomington. Ron attempts to destroy every piece of evidence of his existence after receiving a junk mail flier, and Ann suggests that she and Chris move away from Pawnee after their baby is born.

94
4
"Doppelgängers"
Jay Karas
Donick Cary
October 10, 2013 (2013-10-10)
3.23[27]

Leslie pairs the Pawnee Parks Department with their Eagleton counterparts, however, none of them seem to get along. Jerry (now known as Larry) comes out of retirement to become the Parks' department filer. Ann tells Leslie that she and Chris are planning to move away from Pawnee to Michigan, which Leslie does not take well.

95
5
"Gin It Up!"
Jorma Taccone
Matt Murray
October 17, 2013 (2013-10-17)
3.27[28]

When Donna uses the department's Twitter account instead of her own, Leslie helps calm the over reaction to the sex-themed tweet. Elsewhere, Tom tries to impress someone who stops by the Parks Department by making her simple request take extra long, and Ron meets with a lawyer to craft his last will.

96
6
"Filibuster"
Morgan Sackett
Harris Wittels
November 14, 2013 (2013-11-14)
3.03[29]

Andy returns briefly from London, while Ron takes Donna hunting after failing at a computer version. Leslie plans an 1990s themed birthday party for Ben, only to miss it in order to attend a filibuster to fight for the rights of former Eagletonians to vote.

97
7
"Recall Vote"
Wendey Stanzler
Aisha Muharrar
November 14, 2013 (2013-11-14)
3.03[29]

Leslie prepares Halloween festivities at town hall on the day of her recall vote, while Ron convinces Tom to sell his business in order to gain money through the deal.

98
8
"Fluoride"
Michael Trim
Matt Hubbard
November 21, 2013 (2013-11-21)
2.81[30]

Leslie accepts that she has been recalled, and attempts to introduce Eagleton's water fluoridation to Pawnee, using a new attitude as a lame duck, but Jamm ruins it with fear-mongering. Tom counters with T-Dazzle, a rebrand, but Jamm decides to introduce Drink-ems, an unhealthy drink to replace water. Leslie berates Sweetums for the Drink-ems idea, which costs Ben his job. Needing Ben to have a job, Leslie decides to apologize, but through encouragement from Ben, she gets Tom to once again rebrand fluoride as H2-Flow, which successfully works. Meanwhile, Chris tries to learn parenting techniques from a reluctant Ron, who is really just showing him how to build a crib. Elsewhere, Donna gets upset with April for choosing spirit dogs for the department, and choosing hers under basic explanations.

99
9
"The Cones of Dunshire"
Julie Anne Robinson
Dave King
November 21, 2013 (2013-11-21)
2.81[30]

Leslie faces off with Councilman Jamm on a park proposal. Laid-off Ben gets a new hobby, before accepting a job offer from an accounting firm that has been courting him for two years. Tom, April and Donna help Ron sell his cabin. Chris gets Leslie to finally come to terms with his and Ann's move to Michigan.

100
10
"Second Chunce"†
Dean Holland
Amy Poehler & Michael Schur
January 9, 2014 (2014-01-09)
3.43[31]

Leslie comes to terms on her last days in office, when Councilmen Dexhart gets into another scandal, she tries to convince the department to run again. Meanwhile, Ann and Chris find out that they are having a boy. Andy comes home from London.

101
11
"New Beginnings"
Alan Yang
Sam Means
January 16, 2014 (2014-01-16)
3.05[32]

Leslie returns to her old job and Ben becomes City Manager after Chris stepped down. April and Andy pull pranks on Ben.

102
12
"Farmers Market"
Adam Scott
Joe Mande
January 23, 2014 (2014-01-23)
2.98[33]

Leslie fights with Ben over the ways the new Farmers Market is being handled. The department gets annoyed with Ann's pregnancy aspects. April supports Andy on playing music for children.

103
13
"Ann and Chris"
Dean Holland
Aisha Muharrar & Michael Schur
January 30, 2014 (2014-01-30)
3.03[34]

Leslie throws a goodbye party for Ann and Chris, and tries to fulfill a promise by finally beginning to break ground on Pawnee Commons (the project that got her and Ann together). The guys search for a going-away gift for Chris. Ann and Chris say their goodbyes and leave Pawnee.

104
14
"Anniversaries"
Morgan Sackett
Megan Amram
February 27, 2014 (2014-02-27)
2.52[35]

Ben tries to surprise Leslie with an anniversary gifts, but ends up spending more time with Larry. Donna doesn't show up for work, so April tries to discipline her using the internet which backfires. Leslie tries to put a spin on the Pawnee-Eagleton merger. Andy and Tom come up with an idea to hold a concert to celebrate the merger. Meanwhile, Ron writes letters to all the things he hates.

105
15
"The Wall"
Ken Whittingham
Jen Statsky
March 6, 2014 (2014-03-06)
2.95[36]

Ben and Tom try to get sponsors for the Pawnee/Eagleton unity concert and Tom ends up getting an investment offer for one of his ideas; Leslie tries to tear down the wall dividing the two towns, only to release bees, causing Jamm to propose a secede bill; Leslie also gets an offer to run a new National Parks office out of Chicago. Meanwhile, Ron begins to bring his newborn son, John, to the office, as he rebuilds an abandoned floor in Town Hall.

106
16
"New Slogan"
Dean Holland
Alan Yang & Sam Means
March 13, 2014 (2014-03-13)
2.72[37]

Ben revamps the Pawnee website, on which Leslie solicits suggestions for a new town slogan, but The Douche convinces his radio listeners to write in obscene slogans. April tries to keep Tom from leaving by saying bad things about potential restaurant locations. She realizes Donna was doing the same thing by showing him awful locations, so they both try to make things right. Andy discovers Ron is Duke Silver and tries to convince him to play the unity concert.

107
17
"Galentine's Day"
Beth McCarthy-Miller
Emma Fletcher & Rachna Fruchbom
March 20, 2014 (2014-03-20)
3.05[38]

Leslie throws a Galentine's Day brunch in an effort to find a new best friend. Ben, Tom and Larry search for tents for the Unity Concert. With new parental instincts Ron looks after Andy. Meanwhile, Leslie visits Ann after she gives birth to her baby, Oliver.

108
18
"Prom"
Ken Whittingham
Matt Murray & Harris Wittels
April 3, 2014 (2014-04-03)
2.67[39]

After it is cut from the budget, Leslie brings back the senior prom, and asks Ben and Tom to be DJs. Andy tries everything to get April, who hates prom, to go with him.

109
19
"Flu Season 2"†
Nick Offerman
Megan Amram & Dave King
April 10, 2014 (2014-04-10)
2.56[40]

Leslie and Andy try to find music for the unity concert while battling the flu; Donna, Tom and April go wine tasting for Tom's new restaurant. Ron and Ben have a bonding session. Later, Ben realizes he wants to start a family, and Leslie announces that she is pregnant.

110
20
"One in 8,000"
Dean Holland
Donick Cary & Joe Mande
April 17, 2014 (2014-04-17)
2.39[41]

Leslie and Ben try to keep Leslie's pregnancy a secret, which proves a problem when they realize she is having triplets. Meanwhile, Donna seeks Ron's help dealing with her ex-boyfriend at a school, and April organizes Andy's schedule while trying to learn his secret. Leslie and Ben eventually tell the office, with everyone offering some form of help to them once the babies arrive.

111

112
21

22
"Moving Up"†‡
Michael Schur
Aisha Muharrar & Alan Yang
April 24, 2014 (2014-04-24)
2.71[42]

Leslie, Ben and Andy visit San Francisco for a National Parks Conference, where Ben (with the help of First Lady Michelle Obama) convinces Leslie to take the job in Chicago. Tom opens his restaurant early, which backfires and the investor pulls out. The Parks Department holds the Pawnee/Eagleton Unity Concert, which is a success. Tom reopens his restaurant the night of the concert, having better luck this time and gaining another investor. Later, Leslie convinces her National Parks boss to bring her job to Pawnee, using the City Hall building's third floor that Ron has finished renovating. Three years in the future, Leslie is shown being stressed but successful at her new job, while she and Ben raise their triplets.


document_title: Virginia Company

question_text: the virginia company founded jamestown for this reason

root

text: Virginia Company

text: The Plymouth Company[edit]

text: The Plymouth Company was permitted to establish settlements between the 38th and 45th parallels, roughly between the upper reaches of the Chesapeake Bay and the current U.S.-Canada border. On 13 August 1607, the Plymouth Company established the Popham Colony along the Kennebec River in present-day Maine. However, it was abandoned after about a year and the Plymouth Company became inactive. A successor company eventually established a permanent settlement in 1620 when the Pilgrims arrived in Plymouth, Massachusetts aboard the Mayflower.[citation needed]

tag: p

text: The London Company[edit]

text: By the terms of the charter, the London Company was permitted to establish a colony of 100 miles square between the 34th and 41st parallels, approximately between Cape Fear and Long Island Sound. It also owned a large portion of Atlantic Ocean and inland Canada.

text: On 14 May 1607, the London Company established the Jamestown Settlement about 40 miles inland along the James River, a major tributary of the Chesapeake Bay in present-day Virginia. In 1620, George Calvert asked King James I for a charter for English Catholics to add the territory of the Plymouth Company. Also in 1609, a much larger Third Supply mission was organized. A new purpose-built ship named the Sea Venture was rushed into service without the customary sea trials. She became flagship of a fleet of nine ships, with most of the leaders, food, and supplies aboard. Notable persons aboard the Sea Venture included fleet Admiral George Somers, Vice-Admiral Christopher Newport, the new governor for the Virginia Colony Sir Thomas Gates, future author William Strachey, and businessman John Rolfe with his pregnant wife.

text: The Third Supply convoy encountered a hurricane which lasted three days and separated the ships from one another. The Sea Venture was leaking through its new caulking, and Admiral Somers had it driven aground on a reef to avoid sinking, saving 150 men and women and several dogs, but destroying their ship.[6] The uninhabited archipelago was officially named "The Somers Isles" after Admiral Somers, though it was known as Bermuda.[7] The survivors built two smaller vessels from salvaged parts of the Sea Venture which they named Deliverance and Patience.[8] Ten months later, they continued on to Jamestown, arriving at Jamestown on 23 May 1610 but leaving several men behind on the archipelago to establish possession of it. At Jamestown, they found that over 85% of the 500 colonists had perished during what became known as the "Starving Time". The Sea Venture passengers had anticipated finding a thriving colony at Jamestown and had brought little food or supplies with them. The colonists at Jamestown were saved only by the timely arrival three weeks later of a supply mission headed by Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, better known as "Lord Delaware".

text: In 1612, The London Company's Royal Charter was officially extended to include the Somers Isles as part of the Virginia Colony. However, the isles passed to the London Company of the Somers Isles in 1615, which had been formed by the same shareholders as the London Company.

text: To the disappointment of its investors, the Virginia Company of London failed to discover gold or silver in Virginia. However, the company did establish trade of various types. The biggest trade breakthrough came when colonist John Rolfe introduced several sweeter strains of tobacco[9] from the Caribbean,[10] rather than the harsh-tasting kind native to Virginia.[11] Rolfe's new tobacco strains led to a strong export for the London Company and other early English colonies, and helped balance a trade deficit with Spain.

text: The Jamestown Massacre which devastated that colony in 1622 brought on unfavorable attention, particularly from King James I who had originally chartered the Company.  There was a period of debate in Britain between Company officers who wished to guard the original charter, and those who wanted the Company to be disbanded.  In 1624, the King dissolved the Company and made Virginia a royal colony.[12]

text: Heraldry[edit]

text: The armorials of the "Virginian Merchants" were: Argent, a cross gules, between four escutcheons, each regally crowned proper, the first escutcheon in the dexter chief, the arms of France and England, quarterly; the second in the sinister chief, the arms of Scotland; the third the arms of Ireland; the fourth as the first.  The crest was: On a wreath of the colours, a maiden queen couped below the shoulders proper, her hair dishevelled of the last, vested and crowned with an Eastern crown or. The supporters were: Two men in complete armour, with their visors open, on their helmets three ostrich feathers argent, each charged on the breast with a cross throughout gules, and each holding a lance proper in his exterior hand.  The Latin motto was: En dat Virginia quartam[13] (quintam[14]) ("Behold, Virginia gives a fourth (fifth) (dominion)"), recognizing the colony's status alongside the king's other three (four) dominions of England, Ireland, Scotland,  and France (a heraldic fiction), and the Kingdom of Great Britain after the Acts of Union 1707.[15]


document_title: List of Presidents of India

question_text: which indian president had shortest term of office

text: List of Presidents of India

text: Presidents

text: This list is numbered based on Presidents elected after winning an Indian Presidential election. The terms of Varahagiri Venkata Giri, Mohammad Hidayatullah, and Basappa Danappa Jatti, who served as Acting President, are therefore not numbered or counted as actual terms in office. The President of India does not represent any political party. The colours used in the table indicate the following:

text:
№
Name
(birth–death)
Photograph
Elected
Took office
Left office
Term
(in months)
Vice President
Candidate of[12]
Notes

1
Rajendra Prasad
(1884–1963)

1952
1957
26 January 1950
12 May 1962
120
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan

Indian National Congress
Prasad, from Bihar, was the first President of independent India and also the longest-serving President, as the only president to serve two terms in office.[6][13][14] He was also a freedom fighter during the Indian independence movement.[15]

2
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
(1888–1975)

1962
13 May 1962
13 May 1967
60
Zakir Husain

Independent
Radhakrishnan was a prominent philosopher and writer and also held the position of vice-chancellor of the Andhra University and Banaras Hindu University.[16] He received the Bharat Ratna award in 1954 before becoming the President.[17] He was the first President from South India.[18]

3
Zakir Husain
(1897–1969)

1967
13 May 1967
3 May 1969
24
Varahagiri Venkata Giri

Independent
Husain was vice-chancellor of the Aligarh Muslim University and a recipient of Padma Vibhushan and Bharat Ratna.[19] He died in office, the first to do so. He was also the shortest-serving President. He was also the first Muslim President.[20]

–
Varahagiri Venkata Giri*
(1894–1980)

–
3 May 1969
20 July 1969
3
–

–
He was elected Vice President of India in 1967. Following the death of President Zakir Husain, Giri was appointed as Acting President.[21] He resigned after a few months to take part in the presidential elections.[8]

–
Mohammad Hidayatullah*
(1905–1992)

–
20 July 1969
24 August 1969
1
–

–
Hidayatullah served as the Chief Justice of India and was also a recipient of the Order of the British Empire.[22] He served as Acting President until the election of Giri as the President of India.[23]

4
Varahagiri Venkata Giri
(1894–1980)

1969
24 August 1969
24 August 1974
60
Gopal Swarup Pathak

Independent
Giri was the first person to have served as both an acting president and president of India. He was a recipient of the Bharat Ratna, and served as Indian Minister of Labour and High Commissioner to Ceylon (Sri Lanka).[24]

5
Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed
(1905–1977)

1974
24 August 1974
11 February 1977
36
Gopal Swarup Pathak (1974)

Basappa Danappa Jatti (1974–1977)

Indian National Congress
Ahmed served as a Minister before being elected as president. He died in 1977 before his term of office ended, and was the second Indian president to die in office.[25] He was also president during Emergency.[26]

–
Basappa Danappa Jatti*
(1912–2002)

–
11 February 1977
25 July 1977
6
–

–
Jatti was the vice president of India during Ahmed's term of office, and was sworn in as Acting President upon Ahmed's death. He earlier served as the Chief Minister for the State of Mysore State.[25][27]

6
Neelam Sanjiva Reddy
(1913–1996)

1977
25 July 1977
25 July 1982
60
Basappa Danappa Jatti (1977–1979)

Mohammad Hidayatullah (1979–1982)

Janata Party
Reddy was the first Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh. Reddy was the only Member of Parliament from the Janata Party to get elected from Andhra Pradesh.[28] He was unanimously elected Speaker of the Lok Sabha on 26 March 1977 and relinquished this office on 13 July 1977 to become the 6th President of India.[23]

7
Zail Singh
(1916–1994)

1982
25 July 1982
25 July 1987
60
Mohammad Hidayatullah (1982–1984)

Ramaswamy Venkataraman (1984–1987)

Indian National Congress
In March 1972, Singh assumed the position of Chief Minister of Punjab, and in 1980, he became Union Home Minister. He was also secretary general to Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) from 1983 to 1986[29]

8
Ramaswamy Venkataraman
(1910–2009)

1987
25 July 1987
25 July 1992
60
Shankar Dayal Sharma

Indian National Congress
In 1942, Venkataraman was jailed by the British for his involvement in the Indian independence movement.[30] After his release, he was elected to independent India’s Provisional Parliament as a member of the Congress Party in 1950 and eventually joined the central government, where he first served as Minister of Finance and Industry and later as Minister of Defence.[31]

9
Shankar Dayal Sharma
(1918–1999)

1992
25 July 1992
25 July 1997
60
Kocheril Raman Narayanan

Indian National Congress
Sharma was Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh, and the Indian Minister for Communications. He also served as the Governor of Andhra Pradesh, Punjab and Maharashtra.[32]

10
Kocheril Raman Narayanan
(1920–2005)

1997
25 July 1997
25 July 2002
60
Krishan Kant

Independent
Narayanan served as India's ambassador to Thailand, Turkey, China and United States of America. He received doctorates in Science and Law and was also a chancellor in several universities.[33] He was also the vice-chancellor of Jawaharlal Nehru University.[34] He was the first Dalit President.[35]

11
Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam
(1931–2015)

2002
25 July 2002
25 July 2007
60
Krishan Kant (2002)

Bhairon Singh Shekhawat (2002–2007)

Independent
Kalam was an educator and engineer who played a leading role in the development of India's ballistic missile and nuclear weapons programs.[36] He also received the Bharat Ratna. Kalam died following a heart attack while delivering a speech in Shillong.[37][38][39]

12
Pratibha Patil
(1934–)

2007
25 July 2007
25 July 2012
60
Mohammad Hamid Ansari

Indian National Congress
Patil was the first woman to become the President of India. She was also the first female governor of Rajasthan.[40][41]

13
Pranab Mukherjee
(1935–)

2012
25 July 2012
25 July 2017
60
Mohammad Hamid Ansari

Indian National Congress
Mukherjee held various posts in the cabinet ministry for the Government of India such as Finance Minister, Foreign Minister, Defence Minister and Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission.[42]

14
Ram Nath Kovind
(1945–)

2017
25 July 2017
Incumbent

–

Venkaiah Naidu

Bharatiya Janata Party
Kovind was governor of Bihar from 2015 to 2017 and a Member of Parliament from 1994 to 2006. He is the second Dalit president (after K. R. Narayanan) and is the first President from the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and is an active member of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) since his youth.[43]

tag: table

text:
-Died in office
-Did not complete assigned term
*-Acting President


document_title: Surface tension

question_text: state the relationship between the surface tension and the temperature of water

question_tokens: state the relationship between the surface tension and the temperature of water

text: Surface tension

text: Causes[edit]

text: The cohesive forces a molecule is pulled equally in every direction by neighboring liquid molecules, resulting in a net force of zero. The molecules at the surface do not have the same molecules on all sides of them and therefore are pulled inward. This creates some internal pressure and forces liquid surfaces to contract to the minimal area. The forces of attraction acting between the molecules of same type are called cohesive forces while those acting between the molecules of different types are called adhesive forces. When cohesive forces are stronger than adhesives forces, the liquid acquires a convex meniscus(as mercury in a glass container). On the other hand, when adhesive forces are stronger, the surface of the liquid curves up (as water in a glass)

text: Surface tension is responsible for the shape of liquid droplets. Although easily deformed, droplets of water tend to be pulled into a spherical shape by the imbalance in cohesive forces of the surface layer. In the absence of other forces, including gravity, drops of virtually all liquids would be approximately spherical. The spherical shape minimizes the necessary "wall tension" of the surface layer according to Laplace's law.

text: Another way to view surface tension is in terms of energy. A molecule in contact with a neighbor is in a lower state of energy than if it were alone (not in contact with a neighbor). The interior molecules have as many neighbors as they can possibly have, but the boundary molecules are missing neighbors (compared to interior molecules) and therefore have a higher energy. For the liquid to minimize its energy state, the number of higher energy boundary molecules must be minimized. The minimized number of boundary molecules results in a minimal surface area.[2] As a result of surface area minimization, a surface will assume the smoothest shape it can (mathematical proof that "smooth" shapes minimize surface area relies on use of the Euler–Lagrange equation). Since any curvature in the surface shape results in greater area, a higher energy will also result. Consequently, the surface will push back against any curvature in much the same way as a ball pushed uphill will push back to minimize its gravitational potential energy.

text: Effects of surface tension[edit]

text: Water[edit]

text: Several effects of surface tension can be seen with ordinary water:

text:
Beading of rain water on a waxy surface, such as a leaf. Water adheres weakly to wax and strongly to itself, so water clusters into drops. Surface tension gives them their near-spherical shape, because a sphere has the smallest possible surface area to volume ratio.
Formation of drops occurs when a mass of liquid is stretched. The animation (below) shows water adhering to the faucet gaining mass until it is stretched to a point where the surface tension can no longer keep the drop linked to the faucet. It then separates and surface tension forms the drop into a sphere. If a stream of water was running from the faucet, the stream would break up into drops during its fall. Gravity stretches the stream, then surface tension pinches it into spheres.[3]
Flotation of objects denser than water occurs when the object is nonwettable and its weight is small enough to be borne by the forces arising from surface tension.[2] For example, water striders use surface tension to walk on the surface of a pond in the following way. The nonwettability of the water strider's leg means there is no attraction between molecules of the leg and molecules of the water, so when the leg pushes down on the water, the surface tension of the water only tries to recover its flatness from its deformation due to the leg. This behavior of the water pushes the water strider upward so it can stand on the surface of the water as long as its mass is small enough that the water can support it. The surface of the water behaves like an elastic film: the insect's feet cause indentations in the water's surface, increasing its surface area[4] and tendency of minimization of surface curvature (so area) of the water pushes the insect's feet upward.
Separation of oil and water (in this case, water and liquid wax) is caused by a tension in the surface between dissimilar liquids. This type of surface tension is called "interface tension", but its chemistry is the same.
Tears of wine is the formation of drops and rivulets on the side of a glass containing an alcoholic beverage. Its cause is a complex interaction between the differing surface tensions of water and ethanol; it is induced by a combination of surface tension modification of water by ethanol together with ethanol evaporating faster than water.

tag: ol

text:
A. Water beading on a leaf

B. Water dripping from a tap

C. Water striders stay atop the liquid because of surface tension

D. Lava lamp with interaction between dissimilar liquids: water and liquid wax

E. Photo showing the "tears of wine" phenomenon.

tag: ul

text: Surfactants[edit]

text: Surface tension is visible in other common phenomena, especially when surfactants are used to decrease it:

text:
Soap bubbles have very large surface areas with very little mass. Bubbles in pure water are unstable. The addition of surfactants, however, can have a stabilizing effect on the bubbles (see Marangoni effect). Note that surfactants actually reduce the surface tension of water by a factor of three or more.
Emulsions are a type of colloid in which surface tension plays a role. Tiny fragments of oil suspended in pure water will spontaneously assemble themselves into much larger masses. But the presence of a surfactant provides a decrease in surface tension, which permits stability of minute droplets of oil in the bulk of water (or vice versa).

text: Physics[edit]

text: Physical units[edit]

text: Surface tension, usually represented by the symbol σ, is measured in force per unit length. Its SI unit is newton per meter but the cgs unit of dyne per centimeter is also used.[5]

text: Surface area growth[edit]

text: This section may be confusing or unclear to readers. In particular, this whole section is not clear. Please help us clarify the section. There might be a discussion about this on the talk page. (May 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Surface tension can be defined in terms of force or energy.

text: In terms of force: surface tension γ of a liquid is the force per unit length. In the illustration on the right, the rectangular frame, composed of three unmovable sides (black) that form a "U" shape, and a fourth movable side (blue) that can slide to the right. Surface tension will pull the blue bar to the left; the force F required to hold the immobile side is proportional to the length L of the movable side. Thus the ratio F/L depends only on the intrinsic properties of the liquid (composition, temperature, etc.), not on its geometry. For example, if the frame had a more complicated shape, the ratio F/L, with L the length of the movable side and F the force required to stop it from sliding, is found to be the same for all shapes. We therefore define the surface tension as

text: The reason for the 1/2 is that the film has two sides, each of which contributes equally to the force; so the force contributed by a single side is γL = F/2.

text: In terms of energy: surface tension γ of a liquid is the ratio of the change in the energy of the liquid, and the change in the surface area of the liquid (that led to the change in energy). This can be easily related to the previous definition in terms of force:[6] if F is the force required to stop the side from starting to slide, then this is also the force that would keep the side in the state of sliding at a constant speed (by Newton's Second Law). But if the side is moving to the right (in the direction the force is applied), then the surface area of the stretched liquid is increasing while the applied force is doing work on the liquid. This means that increasing the surface area increases the energy of the film. The work done by the force F in moving the side by distance Δx is W = FΔx; at the same time the total area of the film increases by ΔA = 2LΔx (the factor of 2 is here because the liquid has two sides, two surfaces). Thus, multiplying both the numerator and the denominator of γ = 1/2F/L by Δx, we get

text: This work W is, by the usual arguments, interpreted as being stored as potential energy. Consequently, surface tension can be also measured in SI system as joules per square meter and in the cgs system as ergs per cm2. Since mechanical systems try to find a state of minimum potential energy, a free droplet of liquid naturally assumes a spherical shape, which has the minimum surface area for a given volume. The equivalence of measurement of energy per unit area to force per unit length can be proven by dimensional analysis.[7]

text: Surface curvature and pressure[edit]

text: If no force acts normal to a tensioned surface, the surface must remain flat. But if the pressure on one side of the surface differs from pressure on the other side, the pressure difference times surface area results in a normal force. In order for the surface tension forces to cancel the force due to pressure, the surface must be curved. The diagram shows how surface curvature of a tiny patch of surface leads to a net component of surface tension forces acting normal to the center of the patch. When all the forces are balanced, the resulting equation is known as the Young–Laplace equation:[8]

text: where:

text:
Δp is the pressure difference, known as the Laplace pressure.[9]
γ is surface tension.
Rx and Ry are radii of curvature in each of the axes that are parallel to the surface.

text: The quantity in parentheses on the right hand side is in fact (twice) the mean curvature of the surface (depending on normalisation). Solutions to this equation determine the shape of water drops, puddles, menisci, soap bubbles, and all other shapes determined by surface tension (such as the shape of the impressions that a water strider's feet make on the surface of a pond). The table below shows how the internal pressure of a water droplet increases with decreasing radius. For not very small drops the effect is subtle, but the pressure difference becomes enormous when the drop sizes approach the molecular size. (In the limit of a single molecule the concept becomes meaningless.)

text:
Δp for water drops of different radii at STP

Droplet radius
1 mm
0.1 mm
1 μm
10 nm

Δp (atm)
0.0014
0.0144
1.436
143.6

text: Floating objects[edit]

text: When an object is placed on a liquid, its weight Fw depresses the surface, and if surface tension and downward force becomes equal than is balanced by the surface tension forces on either side Fs, which are each parallel to the water's surface at the points where it contacts the object. Notice that small movement in the body may cause the object to sink. As the angle of contact decreases surface tension decreases the horizontal components of the two Fs arrows point in opposite directions, so they cancel each other, but the vertical components point in the same direction and therefore add up[2] to balance Fw. The object's surface must not be wettable for this to happen, and its weight must be low enough for the surface tension to support it.

text: Liquid surface[edit]

text: To find the shape of the minimal surface bounded by some arbitrary shaped frame using strictly mathematical means can be a daunting task. Yet by fashioning the frame out of wire and dipping it in soap-solution, a locally minimal surface will appear in the resulting soap-film within seconds.[7][10]

text: The reason for this is that the pressure difference across a fluid interface is proportional to the mean curvature, as seen in the Young–Laplace equation. For an open soap film, the pressure difference is zero, hence the mean curvature is zero, and minimal surfaces have the property of zero mean curvature.

text: Contact angles[edit]

text: The surface of any liquid is an interface between that liquid and some other medium.[note 1] The top surface of a pond, for example, is an interface between the pond water and the air. Surface tension, then, is not a property of the liquid alone, but a property of the liquid's interface with another medium. If a liquid is in a container, then besides the liquid/air interface at its top surface, there is also an interface between the liquid and the walls of the container. The surface tension between the liquid and air is usually different (greater than) its surface tension with the walls of a container. And where the two surfaces meet, their geometry must be such that all forces balance.[7][8]

text: Forces at contact point shown for contact angle greater than 90° (left) and less than 90° (right)

text: Where the two surfaces meet, they form a contact angle, θ, which is the angle the tangent to the surface makes with the solid surface. Note that the angle is measured through the liquid, as shown in the diagrams above. The diagram to the right shows two examples. Tension forces are shown for the liquid–air interface, the liquid–solid interface, and the solid–air interface. The example on the left is where the difference between the liquid–solid and solid–air surface tension, γls − γsa, is less than the liquid–air surface tension, γla, but is nevertheless positive, that is[dubious – discuss]

text: In the diagram, both the vertical and horizontal forces must cancel exactly at the contact point, known as equilibrium. The horizontal component of fla is canceled by the adhesive force, fA.[7]

text: The more telling balance of forces, though, is in the vertical direction. The vertical component of fla must exactly cancel the force, fls.[7]

text:
Liquid
Solid
Contact angle

water

soda-lime glass

lead glass

fused quartz

0°

ethanol

diethyl ether

carbon tetrachloride

glycerol

acetic acid

water
paraffin wax
107°

silver
90°

methyl iodide
soda-lime glass
29°

lead glass
30°

fused quartz
33°

mercury
soda-lime glass
140°

Some liquid–solid contact angles[7]

text: Since the forces are in direct proportion to their respective surface tensions, we also have:[8]

text: where

text:
γls is the liquid–solid surface tension,
γla is the liquid–air surface tension,
γsa is the solid–air surface tension,
θ is the contact angle, where a concave meniscus has contact angle less than 90° and a convex meniscus has contact angle of greater than 90°.[7]

text: This means that although the difference between the liquid–solid and solid–air surface tension, γls − γsa, is difficult to measure directly, it can be inferred from the liquid–air surface tension, γla, and the equilibrium contact angle, θ, which is a function of the easily measurable advancing and receding contact angles (see main article contact angle).

text: This same relationship exists in the diagram on the right. But in this case we see that because the contact angle is less than 90°, the liquid–solid/solid–air surface tension difference must be negative:

text: Special contact angles[edit]

text: Observe that in the special case of a water–silver interface where the contact angle is equal to 90°, the liquid–solid/solid–air surface tension difference is exactly zero.

text: Another special case is where the contact angle is exactly 180°. Water with specially prepared Teflon approaches this.[8] Contact angle of 180° occurs when the liquid–solid surface tension is exactly equal to the liquid–air surface tension.

text: Methods of measurement[edit]

text: Because surface tension manifests itself in various effects, it offers a number of paths to its measurement. Which method is optimal depends upon the nature of the liquid being measured, the conditions under which its tension is to be measured, and the stability of its surface when it is deformed.

text:
Du Noüy ring method: The traditional method used to measure surface or interfacial tension. Wetting properties of the surface or interface have little influence on this measuring technique. Maximum pull exerted on the ring by the surface is measured.[11]
Du Noüy–Padday method: A minimized version of Du Noüy method uses a small diameter metal needle instead of a ring, in combination with a high sensitivity microbalance to record maximum pull. The advantage of this method is that very small sample volumes (down to few tens of microliters) can be measured with very high precision, without the need to correct for buoyancy (for a needle or rather, rod, with proper geometry). Further, the measurement can be performed very quickly, minimally in about 20 seconds. First commercial multichannel tensiometers [CMCeeker] were recently built based on this principle.
Wilhelmy plate method: A universal method especially suited to check surface tension over long time intervals. A vertical plate of known perimeter is attached to a balance, and the force due to wetting is measured.[12]
Spinning drop method: This technique is ideal for measuring low interfacial tensions. The diameter of a drop within a heavy phase is measured while both are rotated.
Pendant drop method: Surface and interfacial tension can be measured by this technique, even at elevated temperatures and pressures. Geometry of a drop is analyzed optically. For pendant drops the maximum diameter and the ratio between this parameter and the diameter at the distance of the maximum diameter from the drop apex has been used to evaluate the size and shape parameters in order to determine surface tension.
Bubble pressure method (Jaeger's method): A measurement technique for determining surface tension at short surface ages. Maximum pressure of each bubble is measured.
Drop volume method: A method for determining interfacial tension as a function of interface age. Liquid of one density is pumped into a second liquid of a different density and time between drops produced is measured.[13]
Capillary rise method: The end of a capillary is immersed into the solution. The height at which the solution reaches inside the capillary is related to the surface tension by the equation discussed below.[14]
Stalagmometric method: A method of weighting and reading a drop of liquid.
Sessile drop method: A method for determining surface tension and density by placing a drop on a substrate and measuring the contact angle (see Sessile drop technique).[15]
Vibrational frequency of levitated drops: The natural frequency of vibrational oscillations of magnetically levitated drops has been used to measure the surface tension of superfluid 4He. This value is estimated to be 0.375 dyn/cm at T = 0 K.[16]
Resonant oscillations of spherical and hemispherical liquid drop: The technique is based on measuring the resonant frequency of spherical and hemispherical pendant droplets driven in oscillations by a modulated electric field. The surface tension and viscosity can be evaluated from the obtained resonant curves.[17][18][19]

text: Effects[edit]

text: Liquid in a vertical tube[edit]

text: An old style mercury barometer consists of a vertical glass tube about 1 cm in diameter partially filled with mercury, and with a vacuum (called Torricelli's vacuum) in the unfilled volume (see diagram to the right). Notice that the mercury level at the center of the tube is higher than at the edges, making the upper surface of the mercury dome-shaped. The center of mass of the entire column of mercury would be slightly lower if the top surface of the mercury were flat over the entire cross-section of the tube. But the dome-shaped top gives slightly less surface area to the entire mass of mercury. Again the two effects combine to minimize the total potential energy. Such a surface shape is known as a convex meniscus.

text: We consider the surface area of the entire mass of mercury, including the part of the surface that is in contact with the glass, because mercury does not adhere to glass at all. So the surface tension of the mercury acts over its entire surface area, including where it is in contact with the glass. If instead of glass, the tube was made out of copper, the situation would be very different. Mercury aggressively adheres to copper. So in a copper tube, the level of mercury at the center of the tube will be lower than at the edges (that is, it would be a concave meniscus). In a situation where the liquid adheres to the walls of its container, we consider the part of the fluid's surface area that is in contact with the container to have negative surface tension. The fluid then works to maximize the contact surface area. So in this case increasing the area in contact with the container decreases rather than increases the potential energy. That decrease is enough to compensate for the increased potential energy associated with lifting the fluid near the walls of the container.

text: If a tube is sufficiently narrow and the liquid adhesion to its walls is sufficiently strong, surface tension can draw liquid up the tube in a phenomenon known as capillary action. The height to which the column is lifted is given by Jurin's law:[7]

text: where

text:
h is the height the liquid is lifted,
γla is the liquid–air surface tension,
ρ is the density of the liquid,
r is the radius of the capillary,
g is the acceleration due to gravity,
θ is the angle of contact described above. If θ is greater than 90°, as with mercury in a glass container, the liquid will be depressed rather than lifted.

text: Puddles on a surface[edit]

text: Pouring mercury onto a horizontal flat sheet of glass results in a puddle that has a perceptible thickness. The puddle will spread out only to the point where it is a little under half a centimetre thick, and no thinner. Again this is due to the action of mercury's strong surface tension. The liquid mass flattens out because that brings as much of the mercury to as low a level as possible, but the surface tension, at the same time, is acting to reduce the total surface area. The result of the compromise is a puddle of a nearly fixed thickness.

text: The same surface tension demonstration can be done with water, lime water or even saline, but only on a surface made of a substance to which water does not adhere. Wax is such a substance. Water poured onto a smooth, flat, horizontal wax surface, say a waxed sheet of glass, will behave similarly to the mercury poured onto glass.

text: The thickness of a puddle of liquid on a surface whose contact angle is 180° is given by:[8]

text: where

text:
h is the depth of the puddle in centimeters or meters.
γ is the surface tension of the liquid in dynes per centimeter or newtons per meter.
g is the acceleration due to gravity and is equal to 980 cm/s2 or 9.8 m/s2
ρ is the density of the liquid in grams per cubic centimeter or kilograms per cubic meter

text: In reality, the thicknesses of the puddles will be slightly less than what is predicted by the above formula because very few surfaces have a contact angle of 180° with any liquid. When the contact angle is less than 180°, the thickness is given by:[8]

text: For mercury on glass, γHg = 487 dyn/cm, ρHg = 13.5 g/cm3 and θ = 140°, which gives hHg = 0.36 cm. For water on paraffin at 25 °C, γ = 72 dyn/cm, ρ = 1.0 g/cm3, and θ = 107° which gives hH2O = 0.44 cm.

text: The formula also predicts that when the contact angle is 0°, the liquid will spread out into a micro-thin layer over the surface. Such a surface is said to be fully wettable by the liquid.

text: The breakup of streams into drops[edit]

text: In day-to-day life all of us observe that a stream of water emerging from a faucet will break up into droplets, no matter how smoothly the stream is emitted from the faucet. This is due to a phenomenon called the Plateau–Rayleigh instability,[8] which is entirely a consequence of the effects of surface tension.

text: The explanation of this instability begins with the existence of tiny perturbations in the stream. These are always present, no matter how smooth the stream is. If the perturbations are resolved into sinusoidal components, we find that some components grow with time while others decay with time. Among those that grow with time, some grow at faster rates than others. Whether a component decays or grows, and how fast it grows is entirely a function of its wave number (a measure of how many peaks and troughs per centimeter) and the radii of the original cylindrical stream.

text: Thermodynamics[edit]

text: Thermodynamic theories of surface tension[edit]

text: J.W. Gibbs developed the thermodynamic theory of capillarity based on the idea of surfaces of discontinuity.[20] He introduced and studied thermodynamics of two-dimensional objects – surfaces. These surfaces have area, mass, entropy, energy and free energy. As stated above, the mechanical work needed to increase a surface area A is dW = γ dA. Hence at constant temperature and pressure, surface tension equals Gibbs free energy per surface area:[8]

text: where G is Gibbs free energy and A is the area.

text: Thermodynamics requires that all spontaneous changes of state are accompanied by a decrease in Gibbs free energy.

text: From this it is easy to understand why decreasing the surface area of a mass of liquid is always spontaneous (G < 0), provided it is not coupled to any other energy changes. It follows that in order to increase surface area, a certain amount of energy must be added.

text: Gibbs free energy is defined by the equation[21] G = H − TS, where H is enthalpy and S is entropy. Based upon this and the fact that surface tension is Gibbs free energy per unit area, it is possible to obtain the following expression for entropy per unit area:

text: Kelvin's equation for surfaces arises by rearranging the previous equations. It states that surface enthalpy or surface energy (different from surface free energy) depends both on surface tension and its derivative with temperature at constant pressure by the relationship.[22]

text:
Fifteen years after Gibbs, J.D. van der Waals developed the theory of capillarity effects based on the hypothesis of a continuous variation of density.[23] He added to the energy density the term

c
(
∇
ρ

)

2

,

{\displaystyle c(\nabla \rho )^{2},}

 where c is the capillarity coefficient and ρ is the density. For the multiphase equilibria, the results of the van der Waals approach practically coincide with the Gibbs formulae, but for modelling of the dynamics of phase transitions the van der Waals approach is much more convenient.[24][25] The van der Waals capillarity energy is now widely used in the phase field models of multiphase flows. Such terms are also discovered in the dynamics of non-equilibrium gases.[26]

text: Thermodynamics of soap bubbles[edit]

text: The pressure inside an ideal (one surface) soap bubble can be derived from thermodynamic free energy considerations. At constant temperature and particle number, dT = dN = 0, the differential Helmholtz energy is given by

text: where P is the difference in pressure inside and outside of the bubble, and γ is the surface tension. In equilibrium, dF = 0, and so,

text: For a spherical bubble, the volume and surface area are given simply by

text: and

text: Substituting these relations into the previous expression, we find

text: which is equivalent to the Young–Laplace equation when Rx = Ry. For real soap bubbles, the pressure is doubled due to the presence of two interfaces, one inside and one outside.

text: Influence of temperature[edit]

text: Surface tension is dependent on temperature. For that reason, when a value is given for the surface tension of an interface, temperature must be explicitly stated. The general trend is that surface tension decreases with the increase of temperature, reaching a value of 0 at the critical temperature. For further details see Eötvös rule. There are only empirical equations to relate surface tension and temperature:

text: Here V is the molar volume of a substance, TC is the critical temperature and k is a constant valid for almost all substances.[11] A typical value is k = 6993210000000000000♠2.1×10−7 J K−1 mol−2⁄3.[11][27] For water one can further use V = 18 ml/mol and TC = 647 K (374 °C).[28]

text: A variant on Eötvös is described by Ramay and Shields:[21]

text: where the temperature offset of 6 kelvins provides the formula with a better fit to reality at lower temperatures.

text: γ° is a constant for each liquid and n is an empirical factor, whose value is 11/9 for organic liquids. This equation was also proposed by van der Waals, who further proposed that γ° could be given by the expression

text: where K2 is a universal constant for all liquids, and PC is the critical pressure of the liquid (although later experiments found K2 to vary to some degree from one liquid to another).[22]

text: Both Guggenheim–Katayama and Eötvös take into account the fact that surface tension reaches 0 at the critical temperature, whereas Ramay and Shields fails to match reality at this endpoint.

text: Influence of solute concentration[edit]

text: Solutes can have different effects on surface tension depending on the nature of the surface and the solute:

text:
Little or no effect, for example sugar at water|air, most organic compounds at oil|air
Increase surface tension, most inorganic salts at water|air
Non-monotonic change, most inorganic acids at water|air
Decrease surface tension progressively, as with most amphiphiles, e.g., alcohols at water|air
Decrease surface tension until certain critical concentration, and no effect afterwards: surfactants that form micelles

text: What complicates the effect is that a solute can exist in a different concentration at the surface of a solvent than in its bulk. This difference varies from one solute–solvent combination to another.

text: Gibbs isotherm states that:

text:
Γ is known as surface concentration, it represents excess of solute per unit area of the surface over what would be present if the bulk concentration prevailed all the way to the surface. It has units of mol/m2
C is the concentration of the substance in the bulk solution.
R is the gas constant and T the temperature

text: Certain assumptions are taken in its deduction, therefore Gibbs isotherm can only be applied to ideal (very dilute) solutions with two components.

text: Influence of particle size on vapor pressure[edit]

text: The Clausius–Clapeyron relation leads to another equation also attributed to Kelvin, as the Kelvin equation. It explains why, because of surface tension, the vapor pressure for small droplets of liquid in suspension is greater than standard vapor pressure of that same liquid when the interface is flat. That is to say that when a liquid is forming small droplets, the equilibrium concentration of its vapor in its surroundings is greater. This arises because the pressure inside the droplet is greater than outside.[21]

text:
Pv° is the standard vapor pressure for that liquid at that temperature and pressure.
V is the molar volume.
R is the gas constant
rk is the Kelvin radius, the radius of the droplets.

text: The effect explains supersaturation of vapors. In the absence of nucleation sites, tiny droplets must form before they can evolve into larger droplets. This requires a vapor pressure many times the vapor pressure at the phase transition point.[21]

text: This equation is also used in catalyst chemistry to assess mesoporosity for solids.[29]

text: The effect can be viewed in terms of the average number of molecular neighbors of surface molecules (see diagram).

text: The table shows some calculated values of this effect for water at different drop sizes:

text:
P/P0 for water drops of different radii at STP[22]

Droplet radius (nm)
1000
100
10
1

P/P0
1.001
1.011
1.114
2.95

text: The effect becomes clear for very small drop sizes, as a drop of 1 nm radius has about 100 molecules inside, which is a quantity small enough to require a quantum mechanics analysis.

text: Surface tension of water and of seawater[edit]

text: The two most abundant liquids on Earth are fresh water and seawater. This section gives correlations of reference data for the surface tension of both.

text: Surface tension of water[edit]

text: The surface tension of pure liquid water in contact with its vapor has been given by IAPWS[30] as

text: where both T and the critical temperature TC = 647.096 K are expressed in kelvins. The region of validity the entire vapor–liquid saturation curve, from the triple point (0.01 °C) to the critical point. It also provides reasonable results when extrapolated to metastable (supercooled) conditions, down to at least −25 °C. This formulation was originally adopted by IAPWS in 1976 and was adjusted in 1994 to conform to the International Temperature Scale of 1990.

text: The uncertainty of this formulation is given over the full range of temperature by IAPWS.[30] For temperatures below 100 °C, the uncertainty is ±0.5%.

text: Surface tension of seawater[edit]

text: Nayar et al.[31] published reference data for the surface tension of seawater over the salinity range of 20 ≤ S ≤ 131 g/kg and a temperature range of 1 ≤ t ≤ 92 °C at atmospheric pressure. The uncertainty of the measurements varied from 0.18 to 0.37 mN/m with the average uncertainty being 0.22 mN/m. This data is correlated by the following equation

text: where γsw is the surface tension of seawater in mN/m, γw is the surface tension of water in mN/m, S is the reference salinity[32] in g/kg, and t is temperature in degrees Celsius. The average absolute percentage deviation between measurements and the correlation was 0.19% while the maximum deviation is 0.60%.

text: The range of temperature and salinity encompasses both the oceanographic range and the range of conditions encountered in thermal desalination technologies.

text: Data table[edit]

text:
Surface tension of various liquids in dyn/cm against air[33]
Mixture compositions denoted "%" are by mass
dyn/cm is equivalent to the SI units of mN/m (millinewton per meter)

Liquid
Temperature (°C)
Surface tension, γ

Acetic acid
20
27.60

Acetic acid (40.1%) + Water
30
40.68

Acetic acid (10.0%) + Water
30
54.56

Acetone
20
23.70

Diethyl ether
20
17.00

Ethanol
20
22.27

Ethanol (40%) + Water
25
29.63

Ethanol (11.1%) + Water
25
46.03

Glycerol
20
63.00

n-Hexane
20
18.40

Hydrochloric acid 17.7 M aqueous solution
20
65.95

Isopropanol
20
21.70

Liquid helium II
−273
0.37[34]

Liquid nitrogen
−196
8.85

Mercury
15
487.00

Methanol
20
22.60

n-Octane
20
21.80

Sodium chloride 6.0 M aqueous solution
20
82.55

Sucrose (55%) + water
20
76.45

Water
0
75.64

Water
25
71.97

Water
50
67.91

Water
100
58.85

Toluene
25
27.73

text: Gallery of effects[edit]

text:
Breakup of a moving sheet of water bouncing off of a spoon.

Photo of flowing water adhering to a hand. Surface tension creates the sheet of water between the flow and the hand.

A soap bubble balances surface tension forces against internal pneumatic pressure.

Surface tension prevents a coin from sinking: the coin is indisputably denser than water, so it must be displacing a volume greater than its own for buoyancy to balance mass.

A daisy. The entirety of the flower lies below the level of the (undisturbed) free surface. The water rises smoothly around its edge. Surface tension prevents water filling the air between the petals and possibly submerging the flower.

A metal paper clip floats on water. Several can usually be carefully added without overflow of water.

An aluminium coin floats on the surface of the water at 10 °C. Any extra weight would drop the coin to the bottom.

A metal paperclip floating on water. A grille in front of the light has created the 'contour lines' which show the deformation in the water surface caused by the metal paper clip.


document_title: Steve Smith (American Dad!)

question_text: who does the singing voice for steve on american dad

text: Steve Smith (American Dad!)

text: Personality[edit]

text: Steve Smith is the baby of the family, Stan and Francine's high-school aged son. He attends Pearl Bailey High School. Steve is portrayed as an enthusiastic, ambitious, and wimpy nerd.[3] In the official series, he is not presented as nerdy as he is in the show's unaired precursory pilot when his appearance, voice and manner greatly contrasted from what they would eventually become. In the precursory pilot, Steve was also gawkier, scrawnier and voiced by Ricky Blitt (as opposed to Scott Grimes). In the official series, he's become emphasized as soft, emotional, cute and endearing. As part of his emotional and sensitive character, Steve is combined with a screechy wail. Despite his wimpy and nerdy characteristics, Steve is particularly conceited and obnoxious. He is all too often a showman, always ready to put on a performance and show off his "talents", typically singing/dance wise.[4][5] Steve is usually accompanied by his equally uncool friends: "Snot", Steve's closest friend with whom he shares a bromance,[6] the two once even having shared in a kiss together (in the episode "License to Till"); Toshi, who is an Asian American and only speaks Japanese; and Barry, who is morbidly obese with an inarticulate, strident, and sloppy vocal quality. Steve possesses a keen interest in the opposite sex and has had an obese girlfriend, Debbie, to which Stan disapproved. Steve's relationship with his father is strained with Stan often behaving judgmentally and intolerantly over Steve's nerdiness, immaturity and sensitivity. Steve has been known to cop attitude, sometimes rightfully so at Stan over his offensive acts.

text: Steve was born on April 6, making him an Aries. He is portrayed as a stereotypical nerd: he is somewhat of a social outcast, wears thick glasses due to hyperopia, and is rather unathletic.[7][8] More typically geeky traits of Steve's include his interests in Dungeons & Dragons, Harry Potter and Star Wars.[9] Like most unpopular students, Steve is often physically and verbally picked on by the bullies of the more popular social circle. Stan is often annoyed with Steve, as he would prefer that Steve engage in activities that would improve his social standing, like sports, a conflict that was first explored in the first season episode "All About Steve".[10] Stan sometimes attempts to change Steve, usually unsuccessfully, as when he once gave Steve an experimental performance enhancer. The steroid caused Steve to grow female breasts but also ironically made him more popular at school.[11] Steve looks up to his dad as a role model but his naïvete often leads him to follow his dad's advice or convictions, seemingly blindly. This led him to once openly display homophobia.[12] Another time Steve received a failing grade on a presentation about fossils using information he got from Stan because he thought his dad was intelligent, despite Roger's attempts to convince him otherwise.[13]

text: Francine, on the other hand, does not care that Steve is a nerd,[10] and is more protective of him, seeing him as her "baby", a status she once attempted to prolong by using a special drug to keep him from reaching puberty.[14] Steve's red hair comes from Francine, who actually dyes her hair blonde.[15]

text: Steve does not share many interests with his sister, Hayley, but has occasionally collaborated with her on schemes, such as when they tried to break up a young couple so Hayley could get the guy and Steve the girl, which ended up backfiring on both of them getting the couple killed.[16] They have also tried to teach both of their parents individual lessons, like when they tried to teach Francine not to be racist, only to learn that she was actually prejudiced against left-handed people,[17] or when they exacted revenge against Stan for turning a homeless shelter into a bumfight business.[18]

text: Steve and Roger play video games together, get advice from each other and come up with schemes together.[19] For example, he once planned to make a Girls Gone Wild-type video and market it in order to generate money to buy a video game console.[18] In another scheme, Steve and Roger ran away to New York City to make their fortunes, while the rest of the family thought killed when lightning set the family's treehouse on fire.[13] Steve's tendency to inflate his own ego, combined with Roger's easily irritated and vindictive nature, often leads the latter to physically abuse or play a prank on Steve because of a real or perceived slight or insult. Occasionally, Steve gets even, like when he once conned Roger out of $50,000.[20] Despite their love-hate relationship, Steve considers Roger his best friend, even once intervening to rescue the alien from an abusive relationship.[7]

text: A freshman at Pearl Bailey High School, Steve is also a amateur but talented musician, having taken up the cello to once impress a girl.[21] In a later episode, however, Steve says that he has been playing the cello since he was nine.[22] Steve also plays guitar and sings, which he did as part of a band in the episode "American Dream Factory." In fact, both of the songs Steve's band rehearses ("Livin' on the Run" and "Sunset Blvd"), were originally recorded by Scott Grimes, who voices Steve.[23]

text: Despite being academically skilled - the character is a straight-A student with a fondness for science, particularly chemistry - [10] Steve is also gullible and not socially savvy. For example, he knows more about the New York Stock Exchange than about prostitution.[13] As a result, he can sometimes be tricked into believing outrageously implausible lies. Roger typically takes advantage of this, especially when he is upset with Steve or when he is simply bored. Once Roger made Steve believe he was not really Stan and Francine's biological child.[24] Another time Roger tricked Steve into believing he was an adolescent wizard, and took him to a drug dealer's house, telling him it was secretly a wizard's school, and the drug lab inside a Potions class.[25]

text: Although normally even-tempered, Steve cries when he is notably upset, but he has also had uncontrolled bursts of rage, during which he breaks nearby objects and screams very loudly.[26] If pressed hard enough, Steve will also hit or attack people, such as when he beat up Beauregard La Fontaine for insulting his father, even though he is generally not aggressive or an adept fighter, as he was unable to even make a fist in "Bully for Steve", for example.[13] He also uses childhood paraphernalia that teenagers have typically outgrown, such as the teddy bear he is implied to sleep with in "Live and Let Fry", and the Care Bears towel he is revealed to use in "Camp Refoogee".

text: Steve has also been shown to occasionally struggle with both substance abuse and an addiction to power. In An Apocalypse to Remember, Steve claims to be hooked on "hallucinogenic berries", which ultimately turn out to be poisonous.[27] In a later episode, Steve develops an addiction to the energy drink Cougar Boost, at one point going as far as to defraud his friends with fake tickets in order to obtain money to procure more of the beverage.[28] In the episode Virtual In-Stanity, Francine derides Stan for picking up a drug bunny as a last minute gift, in the process reminding Stan that they just barely got Steve off the heroin from Stan's previous last second gift.[29] In both the pilot episode and You Debt Your Life, Steve demonstrates an addiction to power; in the former case by taking over the school after being turned down by a girl he was trying to impress,[30] in the latter case due to his obsession with making the morning announcements and deciding what is worth broadcasting to the high school.[31] Furthermore, as shown in the episode Jenny Fromdabloc, it is revealed that among his four friends Steve is considered to be the leader of the group going as far back as elementary school, prompting Roger to call Steve the "King of the Nerds".[32] In most cases when his role as the leader of the group is threatened Steve's drive to maintain this position of power results in erratic behavior such as humiliating his friends with personal or compromising information[32] or threats of physical violence against himself or others.[30] In nearly every case outside of his immediate circle of friends, Steve's position of power or authority ends up stripped or removed from him,[31] or in rare cases, remains with him in a curtailed capacity, as was the case in I am the Walrus.[33]

text: In Hurricane!, it appeared that Steve might have a fetish for Asians and pregnant women, either separately or even both, when Francine found multiple magazines in Steve's bedroom. "Stanny Slickers II: The Legend of Ollie's Gold" and "Stan Time" also imply that Steve has a fetish for robotic women (in the former episode, he tried to build a date out of a vacuum cleaner and was shown to have a fully functioning female robot in Stan's vision of the future where Stan is famous after death, but everyone makes rude comments about his children being freaks. In the later episode, one of Steve's porno movie ideas depicts two women making out and turning into robots in a hot tub). Steve has pursued many women but he is said to become "super gay" in the future in the episode Roger Passes the Bar.

text: Friends[edit]

text: Steve has a small group of friends from school that he regularly spends time with. The boys frequently engage in activities which most teenage boys have outgrown, such as slumber parties.[34] The group includes:

text:
Snot (real name Shmuel), a teenager with curly hair, some noticeable stubble and acne, he is Steve's best friend. His character appears to be based on Booger from Revenge of the Nerds; he is even voiced by Curtis Armstrong. Snot who is Jewish, once had an affair with Steve's then-girlfriend, Gretchen.[35] It is implied in "Roger Passes The Bar" that Snot has joined the army and turned gay, marrying his commanding officer, LT Randall Santana.
Barry, a morbidly obese and apparently simple-minded boy, he has an inarticulate, strident, and sloppy vocal quality. In the episode "With Friends Like Steve's" he is revealed to be a maniacal, demonic genius made to take special "vitamins" to inhibit these evil tendencies, and cause mental retardation. Without taking the pills, he also speaks in an English accent. It is implied in "Roger Passes The Bar" that he grows up to become a gay poet working at Ithaca College, dating his male students.[36]
Toshi, a multilingual Japanese teenager. Although he seems to understand English, he has yet to speak it, with the exception of "Finances with Wolves", in which he yells "Werewolf!" in unison with Snot and Barry, and "Francine's Flashback", in which he yells "Godzilla!". When he speaks Japanese (generally with a very condescending tone), Steve believes he can understand him, though he really does not. In the season 9 episode "Independent Movie" he says "Go on without me" in Japanese, then saying "please go" in perfect English. Toshi has spoken Russian[37] and speaks Spanish when talking on the phone to Francine (though that could be Francine ignorantly thinking Toshi's Japanese is Spanish).[13] Though they are friends, Toshi's greatest wish is to one day kill Steve.[38] Toshi's parents speak perfect English,[39] as does his younger sister, Akiko, who acts as Toshi's translator in episodes such as "Weiner of Our Discontent" and "The Best Little Horror House in Langley Falls". Toshi apparently knows of Roger Smith being an alien as he once called him "that alien in the wig". It is implied in "Roger Passes The Bar", that he has moved to Kyoto, Japan to become an exotic dancer.

text: Romance[edit]

text: Lisa Silver – a cheerleader whom Steve asks out in the "Pilot" episode. He then runs for school president and when he wins, she starts dating him because of his power. When Steve tries to kiss her, she rejects him by calling him repulsive, leaving Steve heartbroken. Steve then has Stan deport Lisa and her family. Later, in "1600 Candles", Steve asks her out to the school dance. When Stan injects Steve with an aging formula, Steve shows up to meet Lisa as an old man and a little kid. She is about to dump him but gives him another chance. Steve then shows up at the dance normal and they dance. Then Roger arrives and pulls Steve's pants down, revealing his one pubic hair, causing some bullies including a member of the football team to give him a swirly.

text: Kim – In "Stan Knows Best", Steve has Roger dress up like Hayley and pretend to be a burn victim to get a date with Kim. But when Kim spends more time with Roger, Steve calls Roger ugly, causing Kim to leave.

text: Lindsay Coolidge – a girl that Steve asks out in "Francine's Flashback". She only agrees to go out with him if he can find a date for Lindsay's ugly friend, Jewel. Steve tricks Roger to go on a double date with him. When Jewel finds out that Roger is an alien, she tells Lindsay, causing Roger to knock them out. Then Stan has their memories of the date erased. Lindsay returns in "Big Trouble in Little Langley", where she becomes attracted to Steve after he blows things up with the fireworks his grandparents gave him. She said that if he blew up a person, she'd let him touch her boobs. Steve then tries to blow up Roger, but it fails and blasts his fingers off. Paramedics arrive and reattach Steve's fingers, after which Lindsay lets Steve touch her breasts but because of the medication the paramedics gave him, Steve couldn't feel her breasts. Lindsay takes it as an insult and leaves. She next appears in "Choosy Wives Choose Smith", where Steve begins playing the cello to impress her. After his recital, Steve rejects Lindsay and chooses Simon, a stray cat that got run over because of Steve.

text: Betsy White – the daughter of Chuck and Christie White, whom Steve develops a crush on in "Deacon Stan, Jesus Man". Later, Betsy (who had herself become interested in Steve) kisses Steve and because Steve was pregnant with Roger's baby at the time, the baby transferred into Betsy. It causes her parents to disown her and send her to her aunt's farm in Iowa. She became happy to be a teenage mother because it freed her from gymnastics. It is implied that she still loves Steve.

text: Svetlana – a Russian mail-order bride that Steve and his friends accidentally receive in "Of Ice and Men". They later planned on skinny-dipping with her until Hayley shows up and tells them that one of them must marry her. The boys hold a contest to see who will marry Svetlana and Snot wins. But later at the wedding, Toshi woos her over by learning Russian.

text: Gretchen Grossbard – an old woman that Steve meets after Steve's fake grandpa, Lou, dies. The two make out and start dating. Later, when Steve goes to visit her, he finds out she made out with Snot and they break up.

text: Makeva – an African girl that Steve falls in love with when he and Stan get sent to a refugee camp in "Camp Refoogee". Later, Makeva gets kidnapped by the men keeping them hostage. Steve defeats the leader in a race and wins back Makeva, only to find out she has developed Stockholm syndrome and fallen in love with her captor.

text: Hayley Smith – Steve's sister, whom he lusts after. In "Stannie Get Your Gun", Roger tricks Steve into thinking he's adopted so he French kisses Hayley. Then, in "Meter Made", Steve masturbates to a painting of Hayley nude but he was unaware it was her because her face wasn't shown on the painting. This shows that he finds his sister's body attractive.

text: Debbie Hyman – an overweight, goth girl that Steve meets in "The American Dad After-School Special". Steve later asks her out but when Stan meets Debbie, he develops anorexia. Steve thinks Debbie is the cause of his father's condition and breaks up with her. Later, Steve tells Stan that Debbie was the best thing that ever happened to him. Debbie was in the room and heard so the two got back together. She next appears in "Iced, Iced Babies", where she breaks up with Steve. They get back together in "Escape from Pearl Bailey". When Lisa Silver and her friends make fun of Debbie, Steve gets revenge on them. When Debbie finds out, she breaks up with Steve, but Steve claims he was defending her honor and they get back together. Later, in "Bar Mitzvah Hustle", she dumps Steve for Snot's bar mitzvah study partner, Etan, for being more mature. When Steve exposes Etan's true immaturity, she dumps Etan and gets back together with Steve. Later, she finds out Steve was the one who stole Etan's presents and ends her relationship with him again.

text: Jenny Bowen – a girl that Steve flirts with in "Failure is Not a Factory-Installed Option". Jenny only dates guys with cars and when a salesman tricks Stan into buying eight cars, he and his friends invite Jenny and her friends over. When Roger accidentally shows a movie on the neighbor's house, Steve tells her it's a drive-in movie and they watch the movie together. Jenny is disappointed when Steve doesn't make a move. The next night, Steve invites her over but a repo man shows up and takes the cars away. Jenny and her friends later drive off with the repo man.

text: Becky Arangino – a cruise director that Steve meets in "The Vacation Goo", when the Smiths go on vacation. She likes young guys and taking their virginity causing Steve to like her. When Francine jumps overboard, Becky helps the family find her but a storm strands them on a deserted island. When they go in a cave, a cave-in occurs and kills Becky. The Smith are then forced to eat her corpse to survive.

text: Carmen Selectra – when Roger's alter ego Scotch Bingeington hosts a Spring Break party in "Spring Breakup", Carmen comes over to crown him as King of Spring Break. Steve then asks her to take his virginity. She agrees, but when Steve asks for her medical records, she leaves. She then gives Steve her medical records but when Steve finds out she has breast implants, Steve rejects her. When Carmen is about to crown Roger, she tells Steve that she had flown her doctor over to get rid of the implants and is ready to take his virginity. Then the stage collapses and kills her; tragically, if she had kept her implants, she would have survived.

text: Jewel – an ugly girl that Steve makes out with when he gets drunk in "Daddy Queerest".

text: Jeanine Winthrop – a girl that Steve meets in class in "A Jones for a Smith". The two become attracted to each other and when he goes over to her house. They were about to have sex when Jeanine's father steps in. He tells Steve that he's on board with Steve having sex with Jeanine and gives him a condom. Steve then has his family meet Jeanine's family. Stan was addicted to crack at the time and ruined the dinner, causing Jeanine's father to kick them out.

text: Amy – a girl in Steve's science class in "Merlot Down Dirty Shame". When Hayley and Klaus convince Steve is in a dream, he goes to school, kisses Amy then convinces her to jump out the window with him. She is then impaled on a fencepost but she survives.

text: Akiko Yoshida – Toshi's sister that Steve develops a crush on. When Akiko slaps Steve in "Weiner of Our Discontent", Steve gets an erection. Later, Steve goes trick-or-treating with Akiko and flirts with her in "Best Little Horror House in Langley Falls" but she rejects him for a guy named Doug. In the episode "Spelling Bee My Baby", Steve and Akiko are shown openly flirting when an argument between Francine and Mrs. Yoshida turns them into rivals in the national spelling bee. Later, they meet and kiss, and Akiko convinces Steve to sneak out before the bee to meet, but she is kidnapped by Francine and imprisoned, and when Steve goes to meet with Akiko, he reads a note (left by Francine) that shoots him down. Heartbroken, Steve becomes more ruthless when he next sees Akiko at the Spelling Bee (having been released by Mrs. Yoshida) and the two face off. Akiko misspells a word and is eliminated from contention, but after finding out from Francine that she had kidnapped her, Steve intentionally misspells a word to keep Akiko in the competition after she is reprimanded for misspelling her word by her mother. The two continue to misspell words romantically the rest of the night back and forth, to the chagrin of the judges but to the satisfaction of their parents (until they resume their violent confrontation).

text: Ashley – a crazy girl that Steve meets in "Stan's Food Restaurant". Steve begins dating her so she will have sex with him. When he and Snot go on a double date with her, Ashley's friend turns out to be a doll named Julia. Steve is about to say something until Ashley kisses him. When Ashley accuses Snot of raping Julia, the date ends. Steve decides he can't take it anymore and hangs Julia and forges a suicide note. Ashley doesn't buy it and goes to find her murderer and puts off having sex with Steve. Steve leaves her and calls her weird.

text: Reshma – the nicest girl in school that Steve beats up in "License to Till" to become popular, but it backfires. Later, at Vince Chung's party, she kisses Steve and says that when her breasts mature, they're all his.

text: Phyllis – a virtual avatar that Stan creates to bond with Steve in "Virtual In-Stanity". Steve later goes on a date with her to a baseball game; she refuses to kiss him so Steve thinks she wants to be friends and decides to hook up with Chelsea. Stan is determined not to lose Steve so he has Phyllis offer Steve to have sex with her. When Francine finds out, she convinces Stan to accept his life with Steve as it is. Stan then has Phyllis break-up with Steve.

text: Chelsea – a girl that Steve meets in the above episode. When Steve's date with Phyllis is a bust, he finds out Chelsea speaks Orc and he becomes attracted to her and is about to ask her out, but then Phyllis offers Steve to have sex with her and he jumps at the chance. When Francine snaps him out of it, he decides to go out with Chelsea who rejects him for his superficiality.

text: Alicia Wilkner – A girl Steve met at a spin-the-bottle party, who turns out to be Roger in a disguise. Steve dated "Alicia" seven times, though it was actually nine, as Roger drugged Steve with Rohypnol for two of those dates and sarcastically claimed that "nothing happened".

text: In the episode "Roger Passes The Bar", after noting where the three of his friends are in the future, he states that he is "very gay", bringing speculation that he will eventually swing the other way at some point.