document_title: Apple I

question_text: what was the cost of the first apple computer

text: Apple I

text: History[edit]

text: On March 5, 1975, Steve Wozniak attended the first meeting of the Homebrew Computer Club in Gordon French's garage. He was so inspired that he immediately set to work on what would become the Apple I computer.[7] After building it for himself and showing it at the Club, he and Steve Jobs gave out schematics (technical designs) for the computer to interested club members and even helped some of them build and test out copies. Then, Steve Jobs suggested that they design and sell a single etched and silkscreened circuit board—just the bare board, no electronic parts—that people could use to build the computers. Wozniak calculated that having the board design laid out would cost $1,000 and manufacturing would cost another $20 per board; he hoped to recoup his costs if 50 people bought the boards for $40 each. To fund this small venture, their first company, Jobs sold his van and Wozniak sold his HP-65 calculator. Very soon after, Steve Jobs arranged to sell "something like 50" completely built computers to the Byte Shop (a computer store in Mountain View, California) at $500 each. To fulfill the $25,000 order, they obtained $20,000 in parts at 30 days net and delivered the finished product in 10 days.[8]

text: The Apple I went on sale in July 1976 at a price of US$666.66,[9] because Wozniak "liked repeating digits" and because of a one-third markup on the $500 wholesale price.[10]

text: The first unit produced was used in a high school math class, and donated to Liza Loop's public access computer center.[11] About 200 units were produced and all but 25 were sold during nine or ten months.[8]

text: The Apple I's built-in computer terminal circuitry was distinctive. All one needed was a keyboard and a television set. Competing machines such as the Altair 8800 generally were programmed with front-mounted toggle switches and used indicator lights (red LEDs, most commonly) for output, and had to be extended with separate hardware to allow connection to a computer terminal or a teletypewriter machine. This made the Apple I an innovative machine for its day. In April 1977, the price was dropped to $475.[12] It continued to be sold through August 1977, despite the introduction of the Apple II in April 1977, which began shipping in June of that year.[13] In October 1977, the Apple I was officially discontinued and removed from Apple's price list.[14] As Wozniak was the only person who could answer most customer support questions about the computer, the company offered Apple I owners discounts and trade-ins for Apple IIs to persuade them to return their computers.[15] These recovered boards were then destroyed by Apple, contributing to their rarity today.[16]

text: Collectors' item[edit]

text: As of 2013, 63 Apple I computers have been confirmed to exist.  Only six have been verified to be in working condition.

text: The Apple-1 Registry lists all known Apple-1 computer. Including a list of all auctions since 2000.

text:
An Apple I reportedly sold for $50,000 USD at auction in 1999.[17]
In 2008, the website "Vintage Computing and Gaming" reported that Apple I owner Rick Conte was looking to sell his unit and was "expecting a price in excess of $15,000 U.S."  The site later reported Conte had donated the unit to the Maine Personal Computer Museum in 2009.[18]
A unit was sold in September 2009 for $17,480 on eBay.[19]
A unit belonging to early Apple Computer engineers Dick and Cliff Huston was sold on March 23, 2010, for $42,766 on eBay.[20]
In November 2010, an Apple I sold for £133,250 ($210,000) at Christie's auction house in London. The high price was likely due to the rare documents and packaging offered in the sale in addition to the computer, including the original packaging (with the return label showing Steve Jobs' parents' address, the original Apple Computer Inc 'headquarters' being their garage), a personally typed and signed letter from Jobs (answering technical questions about the computer), and the original invoice showing 'Steven' as the salesman. The computer was brought to Polytechnic University of Turin where it was fixed and used to run the BASIC programming language.[21][22][23]
On June 15, 2012, a working Apple I was sold at auction by Sotheby's for a then-record $374,500, more than double the expected price.[24] This unit is on display at the Nexon Computer Museum in Jeju City, South Korea.
 Living Computers: Museum + Labs Apple I, working and available for visitors to use.In October 2012, a non-working Apple I from the estate of former Apple Computer employee Joe Copson was put up for auction by Christie's, but found no bidder who was willing to pay the starting price of US$80,000 (£50,000).[25]  Copson's board had previously been listed on eBay in December 2011, with a starting bid of $170,000 and failed to sell.  Following the Christie's auction, the board was restored to working condition by computer historian Corey Cohen.[26]  Copson's Apple I was once again listed on eBay, where it sold for US$236,100.03 on April 23, 2015.[27]
On November 24, 2012, a working Apple I was sold at auction by Auction Team Breker for €400,000 (US$515,000).[28]
On May 25, 2013, a functioning 1976 model was sold for a then-record €516,000 (US$668,000) in Cologne.[29] Auction Team Breker said "an unnamed Asian client" bought the Apple I. This particular unit has Wozniak's signature. An old business transaction letter from Jobs also was included, as well as the original owner's manual.[30]
On June 24, 2013, an Apple I was listed by Christie's as part of a special on-line only auction lot called, "First Bytes: Iconic Technology From the Twentieth Century." Bidding ran through July 9, 2013. The unit sold for $390,000.[31][32]
In November 2013, a working unit speculated to have been part of the original lot of 50 boards delivered to the Byte Shop was listed by Auction Team Breker for €180,000 ($242,820), but failed to sell during the auction. Immediately following the close of bidding, a private collector purchased it for €246,000 ($330,000). This board was marked "01-0046," matching the numbering placed on other units sold to the Byte Shop and included the original operation manuals, software cassettes, and shipping box autographed by Steve Wozniak. The board also bears Wozniak's signature.[33]
In October 2014, a working, early Apple 1 was sold at auction for $905,000 to the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan. The sale included the keyboard, monitor, cassette decks and a manual. The auction was run by Bonhams.[34]
On December 13, 2014, a fully functioning, early Apple I was sold at auction for $365,000 by auction house Christie's. The sale included a keyboard, custom case, original manual and a check labeled "Purchased July 1976 from Steve Jobs in his parents' garage in Los Altos".[35]
On May 30, 2015, a woman reportedly dropped off boxes of electronics for disposal at an electronics recycling center in the Silicon Valley of Northern California, and they would now like to contact her. Included in the items removed from her garage after the death of her husband was an original Apple I computer, which the recycling firm sold for $200,000 to a private collector. It is the company's practice to give back 50% of the proceeds to the original owner when an item is sold, so they want to find the mystery donor.[36][37]
On September 21, 2015, an Apple I bearing the Byte Shop number 01-0059 was listed by Bonhams Auctions as part of their "History of Science and Technology" auction with a starting bid of US$300,000. The machine was described as, "in near perfect condition." The owner, Tom Romkey, "...only used the Apple-1 once or twice, and ...set it on a shelf, and did not touch it again."[38] The machine did not sell.[39] However, Glenn and Shannon Dellimore, the co-founders of GLAMGLOW, a beauty company which they sold to Estee Lauder Companies, bought it after the auction through Bonhams Auction house. On the 40th Anniversary of Apple Computers 2016 the Dellimore's working Apple-1 went on loan and on display in 'Artifact'  at the V&A Museum in London, England. https://www.artfund.org/what-to-see/exhibitions/2016/09/10/ .
On August 26, 2016, (the 40th Anniversary year of Apple Computers), the rarest Apple-1 in existence, an Apple-I prototype made and hand-built by Steve Jobs himself (according to Apple-1 expert Corey Cohen) and dubbed the 'Holy Grail' of computers was sold for $815,000 to winning bidders Glenn and Shannon Dellimore, the co-founders of cosmetics firm Glamglow,[40] in an auction by Charitybuzz. The for-profit internet company that raises funds for nonprofit organizations declared that ten percent of the proceeds will go to the Leukemia and Lymphoma Society, based in New York.[41]
On April 15, 2017, an Apple I removed from Steve Jobs's office by Apple quality control engineer Don Hutmacher was placed on display at Living Computers: Museum + Labs.[42] This Apple I was modified by Dan Kottke and Bill Fernandez. This previously unknown unit was purchased from Hutmacher's heirs for an undisclosed amount.[citation needed]

tag: ul

text: Serial numbers[edit]

text: Both Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak have stated that Apple did not assign serial numbers to the Apple l. Several boards have been found with numbered stickers affixed to them, which appear to be inspection stickers from the PCB manufacturer/assembler. A batch of boards is known to have numbers hand-written in black permanent marker on the back; these usually appear as "01-00##" and anecdotal evidence suggests they are inventory control numbers added by the Byte Shop to the batch Apple sold them. These Byte Shop numbers have often erroneously been described as serial numbers by auction houses and in related press coverage.[43]

text: U.S. Museums displaying an original Apple 1 Computer[edit]

text:
American Computer & Robotics Museum in Bozeman, Montana
Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California
Smithsonian Museum of American History in Washington DC
Living Computers: Museum + Labs in Seattle, WA

text: Clones and replicas[edit]

text: Several Apple I clones and replicas have been released in recent years. These are all created by hobbyists and marketed to the hobbyist/collector community. Availability is usually limited to small runs in response to demand.

text:
Replica 1: Created by Vince Briel. A software-compatible clone, produced using modern components, released in 2003 at a price of around $150.[44][45][46][47]
PE6502: Created by Jason Putnam.  A single board computer kit made with all through-hole and current production components.  Runs Apple 1 "Integer BASIC", a clone of AppleSoft BASIC (floating point capable), Wozmon and Krusader- all built-in ROM.  32k of RAM, and a Parallax Propeller terminal.  Software compatible with the Apple 1. putnamelectronics.com[48]
A-One: Created by Frank Achatz, also using modern components.[49]
Obtronix Apple I reproduction: Created by Steve Gabaly, using original components or equivalents thereof.  Sold through eBay.[50]
Mimeo 1: Created by Mike Willegal. A hardware kit designed to replicate a real Apple I as accurately possible.  Buyers are expected to assemble the kits themselves.[51]
Newton 1: Created by Michael Ng and released in 2012. Similar to the Mimeo 1, but is made using the same materials and same obsolete processing technique commonly used in the 1970s. Over 400 bare boards, kits and assembled boards were sold. There are Newton NTI and non-NTI versions available.[52][53]
Brain Board, a plug in firmware board for the Apple II that, with the optional "Wozanium Pack" program, can emulate a functional Apple-1.[54]
Replica by MDesk. An accuracy PCB copy of original Apple 1 was researched in 2012 — 14[55]. A few PCBs without components were sold for $26 in 2014.

text: Emulation[edit]

text:
Apple 1js, a web-based Apple I emulator written in JavaScript.[56]
MESS, a multi-system emulator able to emulate the Apple I.
OpenEmulator, an accurate emulator of the Apple I, the ACI (Apple Cassette Interface) and CFFA1 expansion card.
Pom1, an open source Apple I emulator for Microsoft Windows, Arch Linux and Android devices.[57]
Apple 1 Emulator, an emulator for the SAM Coupé home computer.[58]
CocoaPom, a Java-based emulator with a Cocoa front end for Macintosh.[59]
Sim6502, an Apple I emulator for Macintosh.[60]
Green Delicious Apple-1, an emulator for the Commodore 64.[61]


document_title: NY SAFE Act

question_text: how many rounds can you have in a handgun in new york

root

text: NY SAFE Act

text: Legislative history[edit]

text: The New York State Senate approved the act on a 43–18 vote on January 14, 2013.[1] The vote was bipartisan,[2] with nine Senate Republicans voting in favor.[3] State Senator Jeffrey D. Klein sponsored the legislation.[4]

tag: p

text: The following day (the second full day of the 2013 legislative session), the New York State Assembly approved the legislation by a 104–43 vote, and Governor Andrew Cuomo signed the bill into law less than one hour later.[1] The passage of the law made New York the first to pass restrictions on gun laws since the Sandy Hook massacre.[5][6] Cuomo described the law as the toughest gun control law in the United States.[6][7]

text: The bill passed under the "message of necessity" procedure, a device in the New York State Constitution by which the governor may expedite a vote on a bill, bypassing a usual three-day waiting period. Although nominally used for emergencies, the "message of necessity" procedure has been frequently used in New York to pass many pieces of legislation (it has been used at least 415 times since 1938).[8]

text: Provisions[edit]

text: The NY SAFE Act includes the following provisions:[9]

text:
The Act broadened the legal definition of assault weapon to include those semi-automatic rifles, semi-automatic pistols (handguns), and semi-automatic shotguns with one or more "military-style features, such as a telescoping stock, bayonet mount, flash suppressor, grenade launcher and others."[10][11] This "one-feature test" was a change from the previous "two-feature test," enacted in New York in 2000, which barred such weapons if they had two or more of the enumerated features.[12] The bill provided a "grandfathering" provision allowing those with an assault weapon (under the newer, broader definition), to keep the weapon, but required that it be registered with the New York State Police (with a thirteen-month period to register and a deadline of April 15, 2014).[11][12] There is no fee to register.[11] Alternatively, owners of such weapons could avoid registration by selling the weapon to a New York State dealer or to someone out-of-state by January 15, 2014, or by permanently removing the design characteristics that make the weapon an assault weapon under the Act.[11] Under the Act, the registry of assault weapons is confidential and not subject to public disclosure.[11] The constitutionality of the assault-weapon prohibition was upheld by Chief U.S. District Judge William M. Skretny in 2013,[10][13] and this ruling was affirmed by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit in 2015.[10]
The Act included a high-capacity magazine provision, provided that beginning on April 15, 2013, only magazines with a capacity of seven rounds could legally be sold in New York.[11] The Act allowed ten-round magazines purchased before that date, but made it illegal to load more than seven rounds of ammunition into a ten-round magazine, except "at an incorporated firing range or competition recognized by the National Rifle Association or International Handgun Metallic Silhouette Association."[11] Historic or antique guns (defined as those manufactured more than fifty years ago) were exempt from this requirement.[11] The magazine provisions were struck down by Judge Skretny in 2013,[13] and this ruling was upheld by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit in 2015, making it so "gun owners can legally load 10 rounds in a 10-round magazine."[10] Neither the Act nor the subsequent court cases affected New York's pre-existing ten-round magazine limit.[11] The Act does not place a limit on the number of magazines that individuals could purchase at any one time.[11]
The Act requires ammunition dealers to conduct background checks (similar to those for gun buyers) for purchases, and bans on direct Internet sales of ammunition.[14][15] (Under the Act, online sales to New Yorkers are still legal, but the buyer must go through a licensed dealer in the state and pick up the ammunition in person).[16] In 2015, Governor Cuomo and Senate entered into an unusual "memorandum of understanding" suspending the ammunition portions of the Act, citing "the lack of adequate technology." The memo states that the database "cannot be established and/or function in the manner originally intended at this time." The memo does not formally amend the Act or have legal effect, but according to the governor's office it "provides assurances to all that the database will not be implemented until it is ready and tested."[14][15]
The Act amended the New York Mental Hygiene Law to add a new reporting requirement for mental health professionals (including physicians, psychologists, registered nurses and licensed clinical social workers).[17] Under this provision, which went into effect on March 16, 2013, mental health professionals currently providing treatment services to an individual must make a report to authorities, "if they conclude, using reasonable professional judgment, that the individual is likely to engage in conduct that would result in serious harm to self or others."[17] The reports are sent first sent to county officials, and "if they agree with the assessments, the officials then input the names into the state database. The information is retained for five years. If the authorities find a person in the database has a gun permit—necessary to purchase a handgun in New York—they are required to revoke the license and seize any guns. The people in the database are barred from obtaining a permit until their names are purged."[18]
The Act requires owners to report lost or stolen guns and ammunition to authorities, and makes it a misdemeanor to fail to report the theft such a loss or theft within 24 hours.[19]
The Act created a universal background check provision, requiring all sellers or other transferors of firearms and ammunition to conduct background checks (through the National Instant Criminal Background Check System, or NICS[11]) of the prospective purchaser or other transferees, in "all sales, exchanges or disposals of firearms, rifles or shotguns" or ammunition, except those between immediate family members, provided that the transferring family member does not know that the transferee "is prohibited by law from possessing a firearm."[20] The Act requires that a prospective firearm transferor and transferee process the sale via an federally licensed dealer (FFL), but "does not mandate that FFLs play this processing role."[20] "An FFL, who does elect to provide the service, may not charge the parties more than $10 per transaction. The seller may leave the gun with the licensed dealer, but the purchaser must appear in person to show identification and fill out an ATF Form 4473," which is retained by the FFL.[20]
The Act requires those who live with a household member "who has been convicted of a felony or domestic violence crime, has been involuntarily committed, or is currently under an order of protection" to "safely store" any guns, using "an appropriate locking device including a trigger lock, a gun safe, or a secure gun cabinet."[11] Failure to do so is made a misdemeanor.[21]
The Act amended New York Penal Law to establish "tougher penalties for those who use illegal guns as well as measures to help combat gang violence."[11]

The murder of a first responder engaged in official duties was made a Class A-1 felony, with a mandatory life-without-parole sentence.[11] This was the "Webster provision," named for the 2012 Webster, New York shooting, in which two firefighters were fatally shot by an arsonist.[22][23]
The Act increases illegal possession of an unloaded gun and possession of a firearm on school grounds or a school from misdemeanors to a Class E felonies.[11]
The Act provided that recklessly injuring a child by a firearm, as well as selling or transferring a gun to an individual known to be prohibited from possessing a gun, was a Class D felony.[11]
The Act provided that "sharing a gun with an individual who is not authorized to possess a gun and commits a crime" was criminal facilitation.[11]
The Act made straw purchasing (buying a gun "for someone the buyer knows to be disqualified because of a conviction of a crime, an involuntary commitment or other disqualifier") a Class D felony (it was previously a misdemeanor).[11]
The Act created a mandatory minimum sentence of for using or carrying a firearm in drug trafficking or in committing a violent felony – a minimum of five years if loaded, and three if unloaded, with some discretion for the court to impose lower sentences in drug trafficking cases if mitigating factors are present.[11]
The Act allows prosecutors to seek a sentence of 25 years in prison to life imprisonment (an increase from the previous 15 years) in prosecuting gang members when the gang is involved in murder.

The Act requires the holders of handgun permits to be re-certified every five years with the local county clerk or sheriff.[24]
The Act permits the holders of handgun permit "to request that their application information be made exempt from disclosure under state Freedom of Information Law."[24] This was in response to a controversial website set up in 2010 that published the names of permit holders.[24]

text: Support[edit]

text: Support for the SAFE Act was strongly polarized by region, with strong support in New York City and its suburbs, but opposition in upstate New York.[25] Fourteen months after its passage, a Siena College poll showed that 63% of registered New York voters statewide said that they support the SAFE Act, but only 45% Upstate voters did.[26] The New York Times reported that in Upstate New York, "Counties, towns and villages have passed resolutions denouncing the laws, and some counties have even demanded that their official seals not be used on any paperwork relating to them. In response to an open records request, the governor's office shared hundreds of pages of such resolutions, from far-flung places like the Adirondack town of North Hudson, with 238 residents, to more populous areas like Erie County."[25] By contrast, Manhattan District Attorney Cyrus R. Vance, Jr. strongly supported the law, saying that would "provide law enforcement with stronger tools to protect our communities from gun violence, including provisions that better enable us to combat gun trafficking and violent gangs, and others that close the state gun show loophole and regulate large-quantity sales of ammunition and firearms."[27]

text: Following the passage of the Act, the New York State Sheriff's Association (NYSSA) wrote a letter offering a mixed opinion on the SAFE Act. The NYSSA favored the parts of the law that enhanced sentences for violent offenses committed with a gun, expanded background checks, and mandated safe storage of guns in households that included a member ineligible to legally use guns. The NYSSA opposed the parts of the law that expanded the definition of assault weapons, limited magazine usage, and limited ammunition sales via the Internet.[28]

text: Criticisms[edit]

text: A number of anti-SAFE Act rallies have been held at the New York State Capitol in Albany; one in 2014 featured Donald Trump, Rob Astorino, and Carl Paladino, and drew some 3,000 gun enthusiasts.[29][30] Pro-NY SAFE Act rallies have also occurred in Albany.[31]

text: The law was criticized as "rushed through" by the state legislature without consideration of whether it would criminalize police and other law enforcement officers who carry firearms with magazines with a larger capacity than those allowed for civilians.[32]

text: Republicans in the New York Legislature have made a number of unsuccessful efforts over a series of years to repeal the Act; these efforts have been led by State Senator Kathleen A. Marchione[33][34][35] and State Assemblyman Marc Butler.[36][37][38]

text: Some mental health experts expressed concerns that the law might interfere with their treatment of potentially dangerous individuals, or discourage such people from seeking treatment.[39] The United States Veterans Health Administration (VA) has already said they will not comply with the provision requiring release of certain mental health records as it violates federal patient confidentiality laws.[40]

text: Others claimed that this is a backdoor ban on handgun sales, noting that seven-round magazines simply do not exist for many popular models.[41][42] After realizing seven-round magazines do not exist for most firearms, New York governor Andrew Cuomo reversed his position on the seven-round limit, stating, "There is no such thing as a seven-bullet magazine [sic]. That doesn't exist, so you really have no practical option." He went on to say the state needs to allow the sale of handguns and rifles with ten-round magazines, but requires the people of New York only load seven rounds in them, except at shooting ranges and competitions. He claimed the law is still enforceable.[43][44] Cuomo and New York State Senate leaders planned an indefinite suspension of the seven-round magazine limit until they could rewrite the measure.[45] In March 2013 during budget negotiations, Cuomo and lawmakers agreed to continue to allow 10-round magazines to be sold, but could still only be loaded with 7 cartridges.[46]

text: Legal challenges[edit]

text: On March 11, 2013, the United States Department of Veterans Affairs announced that it would not follow the provision of the NY SAFE Act requiring mental health professionals to report patients who seem more likely to hurt themselves or others. A Department spokesman stated that federal laws protecting the privacy of veterans take precedence over state laws. Advocates for military veterans had expressed concern that the reporting requirement would deter some people from seeking needed treatment.[47]

text: Robert L. Schulz and several hundred other gun-rights activists pursued a legal challenge against the NY SAFE Act in New York state court, arguing that the act was unconstitutional as Governor Cuomo's use of a "message of necessity" to waive the usual three-day waiting period had violated the New York State Constitution. Judge Thomas J. McNamara of the New York Supreme Court denied the plaintiffs' request for an injunction and later dismissed the challenge, finding no constitutional violation.[48]

text: A separate challenge took place in federal court. In December 2013, Chief U.S. District Judge William M. Skretny, of the Federal District Court in Buffalo, upheld most of the New York SAFE Act, saying that its provisions "further the state's important interest in public safety.... it does not totally disarm New York's citizens; and it does not meaningfully jeopardize their right to self-defense".[13] However he struck down the provision that only seven rounds of ammunition could be loaded into a ten-round magazine, calling it "an arbitrary restriction" that violated the Second Amendment, and saying that it could result in "pitting the criminal with a fully-loaded magazine against the law-abiding citizen limited to seven rounds."[13]

text: The New York State Rifle and Pistol Association dropped its suit in March 2016. Following the death of Justice Antonin Scalia, it decided it was unlikely to win a favorable Supreme Court opinion.[49]

text: Subsequent amendments[edit]

text: The NY SAFE Act as originally passed did not explicitly exempt police officers from some of the law's provisions, such as the seven-round limit, although older law (not repealed by the NY SAFE Act) did provide such an exemption. This prompted some initial confusion, but the office of Governor Andrew Cuomo said soon after passage that "Police officers possessing ammunition clip [sic] with more than seven bullets are not in violation of this law and they never will be, period."[50] In July 2013, Cuomo signed into law a measure that expressly exempted qualified retired law enforcement officers from some of the provisions of the Act. The exemption allows retired officers (who served for at least ten years and left in good standing) to retain guns and magazines purchased as part of official duty, so long as registered with the state within 60 days of retiring.[51][52][53]

text: Impact on gun manufacturers[edit]

text: In 2013, Moon Kook-jin's Kahr Arms of Pearl River, a gun manufacturer, announced that it would be moving its headquarters from New York to Pennsylvania after the passing of the NY SAFE Act. The company also announced that it would be building a manufacturing facility in Pennsylvania, rather than Orange County, New York, as it had looked into.[54]

text: In 2014, the Remington Arms Co. decided to open a manufacturing plant in Huntsville, Alabama. The president of United Mine Workers Local 717, which represents workers at Remington's existing plant in Ilion, New York expressed fears about the future of the New York facility and blaming the NY SAFE Act for the company's decision to expand in Alabama rather than New York. However, "Remington has not given any public indications that it is planning to move out of Ilion. In fact, it has spent more than $20 million on new equipment for its factory in Ilion and added 560 jobs at the plant" in the few years before 2014.[55] Subsequently, about 100 Remington jobs were shifted from New York to Alabama; a Remington Outdoor Company CEO said that the SAFE Act (alongside other factors such as "workforce quality, business environment, tax and economic incentives, and existing infrastructure") to the shift.[56]