document_title: Asthma

question_text: what is the definition of an asthma attack

question_tokens: what is the definition of an asthma attack

text: Asthma

text: Signs and symptoms

text:
Wheezing

The sound of wheezing as heard with a stethoscope.

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text: Asthma is characterized by recurrent episodes of wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness, and coughing.[22] Sputum may be produced from the lung by coughing but is often hard to bring up.[23] During recovery from an attack, it may appear pus-like due to high levels of white blood cells called eosinophils.[24] Symptoms are usually worse at night and in the early morning or in response to exercise or cold air.[25] Some people with asthma rarely experience symptoms, usually in response to triggers, whereas others may have marked and persistent symptoms.[26]

text: Associated conditions

text: A number of other health conditions occur more frequently in those with asthma, including gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD), rhinosinusitis, and obstructive sleep apnea.[27] Psychological disorders are also more common,[28] with anxiety disorders occurring in between 16–52% and mood disorders in 14–41%.[29] However, it is not known whether asthma causes psychological problems or psychological problems lead to asthma.[30] Those with asthma, especially if it is poorly controlled, are at high risk for radiocontrast reactions.[31]

text: Causes

text: Asthma is caused by a combination of complex and incompletely understood environmental and genetic interactions.[4][32] These factors influence both its severity and its responsiveness to treatment.[33] It is believed that the recent increased rates of asthma are due to changing epigenetics (heritable factors other than those related to the DNA sequence) and a changing living environment.[34] Onset before age 12 is more likely due to genetic influence, while onset after 12 is more likely due to environmental influence.[35]

text: Environmental

text: Many environmental factors have been associated with asthma's development and exacerbation including allergens, air pollution, and other environmental chemicals.[36] Smoking during pregnancy and after delivery is associated with a greater risk of asthma-like symptoms.[37] Low air quality from factors such as traffic pollution or high ozone levels[38] has been associated with both asthma development and increased asthma severity.[39] Over half of cases in children in the United States occur in areas with air quality below EPA standards.[40] Low air quality is more common in low-income and minority communities.[41]

text: Exposure to indoor volatile organic compounds may be a trigger for asthma; formaldehyde exposure, for example, has a positive association.[42] Also, phthalates in certain types of PVC are associated with asthma in children and adults.[43][44] While exposure to pesticides is linked to the development of asthma it is unclear if this is a cause and effect relationship.[45][46]

text: There is an association between acetaminophen (paracetamol) use and asthma.[47] The majority of the evidence does not, however, support a causal role.[48] A 2014 review found that the association disappeared when respiratory infections were taken into account.[49] Use by a mother during pregnancy is also associated with an increased risk as is psychological stress during pregnancy.[50][51]

text: Asthma is associated with exposure to indoor allergens.[52] Common indoor allergens include dust mites, cockroaches, animal dander (fragments of fur or feathers), and mold.[53][54] Efforts to decrease dust mites have been found to be ineffective on symptoms in sensitized subjects.[55][56] Certain viral respiratory infections, such as respiratory syncytial virus and rhinovirus,[21] may increase the risk of developing asthma when acquired as young children.[57] Certain other infections, however, may decrease the risk.[21]

text: Hygiene hypothesis

text: The hygiene hypothesis attempts to explain the increased rates of asthma worldwide as a direct and unintended result of reduced exposure, during childhood, to non-pathogenic bacteria and viruses.[58][59] It has been proposed that the reduced exposure to bacteria and viruses is due, in part, to increased cleanliness and decreased family size in modern societies.[60] Exposure to bacterial endotoxin in early childhood may prevent the development of asthma, but exposure at an older age may provoke bronchoconstriction.[61] Evidence supporting the hygiene hypothesis includes lower rates of asthma on farms and in households with pets.[60]

text: Use of antibiotics in early life has been linked to the development of asthma.[62] Also, delivery via caesarean section is associated with an increased risk (estimated at 20–80%) of asthma—this increased risk is attributed to the lack of healthy bacterial colonization that the newborn would have acquired from passage through the birth canal.[63][64] There is a link between asthma and the degree of affluence which may be related to the hygiene hypothesis as less affluent individuals often have more exposure to bacteria and viruses.[65]

text: Genetic

text:
CD14-endotoxin interaction based on CD14 SNP C-159T[66]

Endotoxin levels
CC genotype
TT genotype

High exposure
Low risk
High risk

Low exposure
High risk
Low risk

text: Family history is a risk factor for asthma, with many different genes being implicated.[67] If one identical twin is affected, the probability of the other having the disease is approximately 25%.[67] By the end of 2005, 25 genes had been associated with asthma in six or more separate populations, including GSTM1, IL10, CTLA-4, SPINK5, LTC4S, IL4R and ADAM33, among others.[68] Many of these genes are related to the immune system or modulating inflammation. Even among this list of genes supported by highly replicated studies, results have not been consistent among all populations tested.[68] In 2006 over 100 genes were associated with asthma in one genetic association study alone;[68] more continue to be found.[69]

text: Some genetic variants may only cause asthma when they are combined with specific environmental exposures.[4] An example is a specific single nucleotide polymorphism in the CD14 region and exposure to endotoxin (a bacterial product). Endotoxin exposure can come from several environmental sources including tobacco smoke, dogs, and farms. Risk for asthma, then, is determined by both a person's genetics and the level of endotoxin exposure.[66]

text: Medical conditions

text: A triad of atopic eczema, allergic rhinitis and asthma is called atopy.[70] The strongest risk factor for developing asthma is a history of atopic disease;[57] with asthma occurring at a much greater rate in those who have either eczema or hay fever.[71] Asthma has been associated with eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis (formerly known as Churg–Strauss syndrome), an autoimmune disease and vasculitis.[72] Individuals with certain types of urticaria may also experience symptoms of asthma.[70]

text: There is a correlation between obesity and the risk of asthma with both having increased in recent years.[73][74] Several factors may be at play including decreased respiratory function due to a buildup of fat and the fact that adipose tissue leads to a pro-inflammatory state.[75]

text: Beta blocker medications such as propranolol can trigger asthma in those who are susceptible.[76] Cardioselective beta-blockers, however, appear safe in those with mild or moderate disease.[77][78] Other medications that can cause problems in asthmatics are angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, aspirin, and NSAIDs.[79]

text: Exacerbation

text: Some individuals will have stable asthma for weeks or months and then suddenly develop an episode of acute asthma. Different individuals react to various factors in different ways.[80] Most individuals can develop severe exacerbation from a number of triggering agents.[80]

text: Home factors that can lead to exacerbation of asthma include dust, animal dander (especially cat and dog hair), cockroach allergens and mold.[80][81] Perfumes are a common cause of acute attacks in women and children. Both viral and bacterial infections of the upper respiratory tract can worsen the disease.[80] Psychological stress may worsen symptoms—it is thought that stress alters the immune system and thus increases the airway inflammatory response to allergens and irritants.[39][82]

text: Pathophysiology

text: Asthma is the result of chronic inflammation of the conducting zone of the airways (most especially the bronchi and bronchioles), which subsequently results in increased contractability of the surrounding smooth muscles. This among other factors leads to bouts of narrowing of the airway and the classic symptoms of wheezing. The narrowing is typically reversible with or without treatment. Occasionally the airways themselves change.[22] Typical changes in the airways include an increase in eosinophils and thickening of the lamina reticularis. Chronically the airways' smooth muscle may increase in size along with an increase in the numbers of mucous glands. Other cell types involved include: T lymphocytes, macrophages, and neutrophils. There may also be involvement of other components of the immune system including: cytokines, chemokines, histamine, and leukotrienes among others.[21]

text:
Figure A shows the location of the lungs and airways in the body. Figure B shows a cross-section of a normal airway. Figure C shows a cross-section of an airway during asthma symptoms.

Obstruction of the lumen of a bronchiole by mucoid exudate, goblet cell metaplasia, and epithelial basement membrane thickening in a person with asthma.

Diagram of asthma

text: Diagnosis

text: While asthma is a well-recognized condition, there is not one universal agreed upon definition.[21] It is defined by the Global Initiative for Asthma as "a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways in which many cells and cellular elements play a role. The chronic inflammation is associated with airway hyper-responsiveness that leads to recurrent episodes of wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness and coughing particularly at night or in the early morning. These episodes are usually associated with widespread but variable airflow obstruction within the lung that is often reversible either spontaneously or with treatment".[22]

text: There is currently no precise test for the diagnosis, which is typically based on the pattern of symptoms and response to therapy over time.[5][21] A diagnosis of asthma should be suspected if there is a history of recurrent wheezing, coughing or difficulty breathing and these symptoms occur or worsen due to exercise, viral infections, allergens or air pollution.[83] Spirometry is then used to confirm the diagnosis.[83] In children under the age of six the diagnosis is more difficult as they are too young for spirometry.[84]

text: Spirometry

text: Spirometry is recommended to aid in diagnosis and management.[85][86] It is the single best test for asthma. If the FEV1 measured by this technique improves more than 12% and increases by at least 200 milliliters following administration of a bronchodilator such as salbutamol, this is supportive of the diagnosis. It however may be normal in those with a history of mild asthma, not currently acting up.[21] As caffeine is a bronchodilator in people with asthma, the use of caffeine before a lung function test may interfere with the results.[87] Single-breath diffusing capacity can help differentiate asthma from COPD.[21] It is reasonable to perform spirometry every one or two years to follow how well a person's asthma is controlled.[88]

text: Others

text: The methacholine challenge involves the inhalation of increasing concentrations of a substance that causes airway narrowing in those predisposed. If negative it means that a person does not have asthma; if positive, however, it is not specific for the disease.[21]

text: Other supportive evidence includes: a ≥20% difference in peak expiratory flow rate on at least three days in a week for at least two weeks, a ≥20% improvement of peak flow following treatment with either salbutamol, inhaled corticosteroids or prednisone, or a ≥20% decrease in peak flow following exposure to a trigger.[89] Testing peak expiratory flow is more variable than spirometry, however, and thus not recommended for routine diagnosis. It may be useful for daily self-monitoring in those with moderate to severe disease and for checking the effectiveness of new medications. It may also be helpful in guiding treatment in those with acute exacerbations.[90]

text: Classification

text:
Clinical classification (≥ 12 years old)[11]

Severity
Symptom frequency
Night-time symptoms
 %FEV1 of predicted
FEV1 variability
SABA use

Intermittent
≤2/week
≤2/month
≥80%
<20%
≤2 days/week

Mild persistent
>2/week
3–4/month
≥80%
20–30%
>2 days/week

Moderate persistent
Daily
>1/week
60–80%
>30%
daily

Severe persistent
Continuously
Frequent (7/week)
<60%
>30%
≥twice/day

text: Asthma is clinically classified according to the frequency of symptoms, forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1), and peak expiratory flow rate.[11] Asthma may also be classified as atopic (extrinsic) or non-atopic (intrinsic), based on whether symptoms are precipitated by allergens (atopic) or not (non-atopic).[12] While asthma is classified based on severity, at the moment there is no clear method for classifying different subgroups of asthma beyond this system.[91] Finding ways to identify subgroups that respond well to different types of treatments is a current critical goal of asthma research.[91]

text: Although asthma is a chronic obstructive condition, it is not considered as a part of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, as this term refers specifically to combinations of disease that are irreversible such as bronchiectasis, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema.[92] Unlike these diseases, the airway obstruction in asthma is usually reversible; however, if left untreated, the chronic inflammation from asthma can lead the lungs to become irreversibly obstructed due to airway remodeling.[93] In contrast to emphysema, asthma affects the bronchi, not the alveoli.[94]

text: Asthma exacerbation

text:
Severity of an acute exacerbation[95]

Near-fatal
High PaCO2, or requiring mechanical ventilation, or both

Life-threatening
(any one of)

Clinical signs
Measurements

Altered level of consciousness
Peak flow < 33%

Exhaustion
Oxygen saturation < 92%

Arrhythmia
PaO2 < 8 kPa

Low blood pressure
"Normal" PaCO2

Cyanosis

Silent chest

Poor respiratory effort

Acute severe
(any one of)

Peak flow 33–50%

Respiratory rate ≥ 25 breaths per minute

Heart rate ≥ 110 beats per minute

Unable to complete sentences in one breath

Moderate
Worsening symptoms

Peak flow 50–80% best or predicted

No features of acute severe asthma

text: An acute asthma exacerbation is commonly referred to as an asthma attack. The classic symptoms are shortness of breath, wheezing, and chest tightness.[21] The wheezing is most often when breathing out.[96] While these are the primary symptoms of asthma,[97] some people present primarily with coughing, and in severe cases, air motion may be significantly impaired such that no wheezing is heard.[95] In children, chest pain is often present.[98]

text: Signs occurring during an asthma attack include the use of accessory muscles of respiration (sternocleidomastoid and scalene muscles of the neck), there may be a paradoxical pulse (a pulse that is weaker during inhalation and stronger during exhalation), and over-inflation of the chest.[99] A blue color of the skin and nails may occur from lack of oxygen.[100]

text: In a mild exacerbation the peak expiratory flow rate (PEFR) is ≥200 L/min, or ≥50% of the predicted best.[101] Moderate is defined as between 80 and 200 L/min, or 25% and 50% of the predicted best, while severe is defined as ≤ 80 L/min, or ≤25% of the predicted best.[101]

text: Acute severe asthma, previously known as status asthmaticus, is an acute exacerbation of asthma that does not respond to standard treatments of bronchodilators and corticosteroids.[102] Half of cases are due to infections with others caused by allergen, air pollution, or insufficient or inappropriate medication use.[102]

text: Brittle asthma is a kind of asthma distinguishable by recurrent, severe attacks.[95] Type 1 brittle asthma is a disease with wide peak flow variability, despite intense medication. Type 2 brittle asthma is background well-controlled asthma with sudden severe exacerbations.[95]

text: Exercise-induced

text: Exercise can trigger bronchoconstriction both in people with or without asthma.[103] It occurs in most people with asthma and up to 20% of people without asthma.[103] Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction is common in professional athletes. The highest rates are among cyclists (up to 45%), swimmers, and cross-country skiers.[104] While it may occur with any weather conditions, it is more common when it is dry and cold.[105] Inhaled beta2-agonists do not appear to improve athletic performance among those without asthma,[106] however, oral doses may improve endurance and strength.[107][108]

text: Occupational

text: Asthma as a result of (or worsened by) workplace exposures is a commonly reported occupational disease.[109] Many cases, however, are not reported or recognized as such.[110][111] It is estimated that 5–25% of asthma cases in adults are work-related. A few hundred different agents have been implicated, with the most common being: isocyanates, grain and wood dust, colophony, soldering flux, latex, animals, and aldehydes. The employment associated with the highest risk of problems include: those who spray paint, bakers and those who process food, nurses, chemical workers, those who work with animals, welders, hairdressers and timber workers.[109]

text: Aspirin-induced asthma

text: Aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease, also known as aspirin-induced asthma, affects up to 9% of asthmatics.[112] Reactions may also occur to other NSAIDs.[113] People affected often also have trouble with nasal polyps.[113] In people who are affected, low doses paracetamol or COX-2 inhibitors are generally safe.[114]

text: Alcohol-induced asthma

text: Alcohol may worsen asthmatic symptoms in up to a third of people.[115] This may be even more common in some ethnic groups such as the Japanese and those with aspirin-induced asthma.[115] Other studies have found improvement in asthmatic symptoms from alcohol.[115]

text: Nonallergic asthma

text: Nonallergic asthma, also known as intrinsic or nonatopic asthma, makes up between 10 and 33% of cases. There is negative skin test to common inhalant allergens and normal serum concentrations of IgE. Often it starts later in life, and women are more commonly affected than men. Usual treatments may not work as well.[116]

text: Differential diagnosis

text: Many other conditions can cause symptoms similar to those of asthma. In children, other upper airway diseases such as allergic rhinitis and sinusitis should be considered as well as other causes of airway obstruction including foreign body aspiration, tracheal stenosis, laryngotracheomalacia, vascular rings, enlarged lymph nodes or neck masses.[117] Bronchiolitis and other viral infections may also produce wheezing.[118] In adults, COPD, congestive heart failure, airway masses, as well as drug-induced coughing due to ACE inhibitors should be considered. In both populations vocal cord dysfunction may present similarly.[117]

text: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease can coexist with asthma and can occur as a complication of chronic asthma. After the age of 65, most people with obstructive airway disease will have asthma and COPD. In this setting, COPD can be differentiated by increased airway neutrophils, abnormally increased wall thickness, and increased smooth muscle in the bronchi. However, this level of investigation is not performed due to COPD and asthma sharing similar principles of management: corticosteroids, long-acting beta-agonists, and smoking cessation.[119] It closely resembles asthma in symptoms, is correlated with more exposure to cigarette smoke, an older age, less symptom reversibility after bronchodilator administration, and decreased likelihood of family history of atopy.[120][121]

text: Prevention

text: The evidence for the effectiveness of measures to prevent the development of asthma is weak.[122] The World Health Organization recommends decreasing risk factors such as tobacco smoke, air pollution, and the number of lower respiratory infections.[123] Other efforts that show promise include: limiting smoke exposure in utero, breastfeeding, and increased exposure to daycare or large families, but none are well supported enough to be recommended for this indication.[122]

text: Early pet exposure may be useful.[124] Results from exposure to pets at other times are inconclusive[125] and it is only recommended that pets be removed from the home if a person has allergic symptoms to said pet.[126]

text: Dietary restrictions during pregnancy or when breast feeding have not been found to be effective and thus are not recommended.[126] Reducing or eliminating compounds known to sensitive people from the work place may be effective.[109] It is not clear if annual influenza vaccinations affects the risk of exacerbations.[127] Immunization; however, is recommended by the World Health Organization.[128] Smoking bans are effective in decreasing exacerbations of asthma.[129]

text: Management

text: While there is no cure for asthma, symptoms can typically be improved.[130] A specific, customized plan for proactively monitoring and managing symptoms should be created. This plan should include the reduction of exposure to allergens, testing to assess the severity of symptoms, and the usage of medications. The treatment plan should be written down and advise adjustments to treatment according to changes in symptoms.[131]

text: The most effective treatment for asthma is identifying triggers, such as cigarette smoke, pets, or aspirin, and eliminating exposure to them. If trigger avoidance is insufficient, the use of medication is recommended. Pharmaceutical drugs are selected based on, among other things, the severity of illness and the frequency of symptoms. Specific medications for asthma are broadly classified into fast-acting and long-acting categories.[132][133]

text: Bronchodilators are recommended for short-term relief of symptoms. In those with occasional attacks, no other medication is needed. If mild persistent disease is present (more than two attacks a week), low-dose inhaled corticosteroids or alternatively, an leukotriene antagonist or a mast cell stabilizer by mouth is recommended. For those who have daily attacks, a higher dose of inhaled corticosteroids is used. In a moderate or severe exacerbation, corticosteroids by mouth are added to these treatments.[7]

text: Lifestyle modification

text: Avoidance of triggers is a key component of improving control and preventing attacks. The most common triggers include allergens, smoke (tobacco and other), air pollution, non selective beta-blockers, and sulfite-containing foods.[134][135] Cigarette smoking and second-hand smoke (passive smoke) may reduce the effectiveness of medications such as corticosteroids.[136] Laws that limit smoking decrease the number of people hospitalized for asthma.[137] Dust mite control measures, including air filtration, chemicals to kill mites, vacuuming, mattress covers and others methods had no effect on asthma symptoms.[55] Overall, exercise is beneficial in people with stable asthma.[138] Yoga could provide small improvements in quality of life and symptoms in people with asthma.[139]

text: Medications

text: Medications used to treat asthma are divided into two general classes: quick-relief medications used to treat acute symptoms; and long-term control medications used to prevent further exacerbation.[132] Antibiotics are generally not needed for sudden worsening of symptoms.[140]

text: Fast–acting

text:
Short-acting beta2-adrenoceptor agonists (SABA), such as salbutamol (albuterol USAN) are the first line treatment for asthma symptoms.[7] They are recommended before exercise in those with exercise induced symptoms.[141]
Anticholinergic medications, such as ipratropium bromide, provide additional benefit when used in combination with SABA in those with moderate or severe symptoms.[7] Anticholinergic bronchodilators can also be used if a person cannot tolerate a SABA.[92] If a child requires admission to hospital additional ipratropium does not appear to help over a SABA.[142]
Older, less selective adrenergic agonists, such as inhaled epinephrine, have similar efficacy to SABAs.[143] They are however not recommended due to concerns regarding excessive cardiac stimulation.[144]

text: Long–term control

text:
Corticosteroids are generally considered the most effective treatment available for long-term control.[132] Inhaled forms such as beclomethasone are usually used except in the case of severe persistent disease, in which oral corticosteroids may be needed.[132] It is usually recommended that inhaled formulations be used once or twice daily, depending on the severity of symptoms.[145]
Long-acting beta-adrenoceptor agonists (LABA) such as salmeterol and formoterol can improve asthma control, at least in adults, when given in combination with inhaled corticosteroids.[146] In children this benefit is uncertain.[146][147] When used without steroids they increase the risk of severe side-effects[148] and even with corticosteroids they may slightly increase the risk.[149][150]
Leukotriene receptor antagonists (such as montelukast and zafirlukast) may be used in addition to inhaled corticosteroids, typically also in conjunction with a LABA.[16][132] Evidence is insufficient to support use in acute exacerbations.[151][152] In children they appear to be of little benefit when added to inhaled steroids,[153] and the same applies in adolescents and adults.[154] They are useful by themselves.[155] In those under five years of age, they were the preferred add-on therapy after inhaled corticosteroids by the British Thoracic Society in 2009.[156] A similar class of drugs, 5-LOX inhibitors, may be used as an alternative in the chronic treatment of mild to moderate asthma among older children and adults.[16][157] As of 2013 there is one medication in this family known as zileuton.[16]
Mast cell stabilizers (such as cromolyn sodium) are another non-preferred alternative to corticosteroids.[132]

text: Delivery methods

text: Medications are typically provided as metered-dose inhalers (MDIs) in combination with an asthma spacer or as a dry powder inhaler. The spacer is a plastic cylinder that mixes the medication with air, making it easier to receive a full dose of the drug. A nebulizer may also be used. Nebulizers and spacers are equally effective in those with mild to moderate symptoms. However, insufficient evidence is available to determine whether a difference exists in those with severe disease.[158]

text: Adverse effects

text: Long-term use of inhaled corticosteroids at conventional doses carries a minor risk of adverse effects.[159] Risks include thrush, the development of cataracts, and a slightly slowed rate of growth.[159][160][161] Higher doses of inhaled steroids may result in lower bone mineral density.[162]

text: Others

text: When asthma is unresponsive to usual medications, other options are available for both emergency management and prevention of flareups. For emergency management other options include:

text:
Oxygen to alleviate hypoxia if saturations fall below 92%.[163]
Corticosteroid by mouth are recommended with five days of prednisone being the same 2 days of dexamethasone.[164] One review recommended a seven-day course of steroids.[165]
Magnesium sulfate intravenous treatment increases bronchodilation when used in addition to other treatment in moderate severe acute asthma attacks.[17][166][167] In adults it results in a reduction of hospital admissions.[168]
Heliox, a mixture of helium and oxygen, may also be considered in severe unresponsive cases.[17]
Intravenous salbutamol is not supported by available evidence and is thus used only in extreme cases.[163]
Methylxanthines (such as theophylline) were once widely used, but do not add significantly to the effects of inhaled beta-agonists.[163] Their use in acute exacerbations is controversial.[169]
The dissociative anesthetic ketamine is theoretically useful if intubation and mechanical ventilation is needed in people who are approaching respiratory arrest; however, there is no evidence from clinical trials to support this.[170]
For those with severe persistent asthma not controlled by inhaled corticosteroids and LABAs, bronchial thermoplasty may be an option.[171] It involves the delivery of controlled thermal energy to the airway wall during a series of bronchoscopies.[171][172] While it may increase exacerbation frequency in the first few months it appears to decrease the subsequent rate. Effects beyond one year are unknown.[173]
Evidence suggests that sublingual immunotherapy in those with both allergic rhinitis and asthma improve outcomes.[174]
Omalizumab may also be useful in those with poorly controlled allergic asthma.[175]
It is unclear if non-invasive positive pressure ventilation in children is of use as it has not been sufficiently studied.[176]

text: Alternative medicine

text: Many people with asthma, like those with other chronic disorders, use alternative treatments; surveys show that roughly 50% use some form of unconventional therapy.[177][178] There is little data to support the effectiveness of most of these therapies. Evidence is insufficient to support the usage of Vitamin C.[179] There is tentative support for its use in exercise induced bronchospasm.[180] In people with mild to moderate asthma, treatment with vitamin D supplementation is likely to reduce the risk of asthma exacerbations.[181]

text: Acupuncture is not recommended for the treatment as there is insufficient evidence to support its use.[182][183] Air ionisers show no evidence that they improve asthma symptoms or benefit lung function; this applied equally to positive and negative ion generators.[184]

text: Manual therapies, including osteopathic, chiropractic, physiotherapeutic and respiratory therapeutic maneuvers, have insufficient evidence to support their use in treating asthma.[185] The Buteyko breathing technique for controlling hyperventilation may result in a reduction in medication use; however, the technique does not have any effect on lung function.[133] Thus an expert panel felt that evidence was insufficient to support its use.[182]

text: Prognosis

text:
no data
  <100
  100–150
  150–200
  200–250
  250–300
  300–350

  350–400
  400–450
  450–500
  500–550
  550–600
  >600

text: The prognosis for asthma is generally good, especially for children with mild disease.[187] Mortality has decreased over the last few decades due to better recognition and improvement in care.[188] In 2010 the death rate was 170 per million for males and 90 per million for females.[189] Rates vary between countries by 100 fold.[189]

text: Globally it causes moderate or severe disability in 19.4 million people as of 2004 (16 million of which are in low and middle income countries).[190] Of asthma diagnosed during childhood, half of cases will no longer carry the diagnosis after a decade.[67] Airway remodeling is observed, but it is unknown whether these represent harmful or beneficial changes.[191] Early treatment with corticosteroids seems to prevent or ameliorates a decline in lung function.[192] Asthma in children also has negative effects on quality of life of their parents.[193]

text: Epidemiology

text:
no data
  <1%
  1–2%
  2–3%
  3–4%
  4–5%
  5–6%

  6–7%
  7–8%
  8–10%
  10–12.5%
  12.5–15%
  >15%

text: As of 2011, 235–330 million people worldwide are affected by asthma,[194][195][196] and approximately 250,000–345,000 people die per year from the disease.[22][197] Rates vary between countries with prevalences between 1 and 18%.[22] It is more common in developed than developing countries.[22] One thus sees lower rates in Asia, Eastern Europe and Africa.[21] Within developed countries it is more common in those who are economically disadvantaged while in contrast in developing countries it is more common in the affluent.[22] The reason for these differences is not well known.[22] Low and middle income countries make up more than 80% of the mortality.[198]

text: While asthma is twice as common in boys as girls,[22] severe asthma occurs at equal rates.[199] In contrast adult women have a higher rate of asthma than men[22] and it is more common in the young than the old.[21] In children, asthma was the most common reason for admission to the hospital following an emergency department visit in the US in 2011.[200]

text: Global rates of asthma have increased significantly between the 1960s and 2008[19][201] with it being recognized as a major public health problem since the 1970s.[21] Rates of asthma have plateaued in the developed world since the mid-1990s with recent increases primarily in the developing world.[202] Asthma affects approximately 7% of the population of the United States[148] and 5% of people in the United Kingdom.[203] Canada, Australia and New Zealand have rates of about 14–15%.[204]

text: Economics

text: From 2000 to 2010, the average cost per asthma-related hospital stay in the United States for children remained relatively stable at about $3,600, whereas the average cost per asthma-related hospital stay for adults increased from $5,200 to $6,600.[205] In 2010, Medicaid was the most frequent primary payer among children and adults aged 18–44 years in the United States; private insurance was the second most frequent payer.[205] Among both children and adults in the lowest income communities in the United States there is a higher rate of hospital stays for asthma in 2010 than those in the highest income communities.[205]

text: History

text: Asthma was recognized in Ancient Egypt and was treated by drinking an incense mixture known as kyphi.[20] It was officially named as a specific respiratory problem by Hippocrates circa 450 BC, with the Greek word for "panting" forming the basis of our modern name.[21] In 200 BC it was believed to be at least partly related to the emotions.[29] In the 12th century the Jewish physician-philosopher Maimonides wrote a treatise on asthma in Arabic, based partly on Arabic sources, in which he discussed the symptoms, proposed various dietary and other means of treatment, and emphasized the importance of climate and clean air.[206]

text: In 1873, one of the first papers in modern medicine on the subject tried to explain the pathophysiology of the disease while one in 1872, concluded that asthma can be cured by rubbing the chest with chloroform liniment.[207][208] Medical treatment in 1880, included the use of intravenous doses of a drug called pilocarpin.[209] In 1886, F.H. Bosworth theorized a connection between asthma and hay fever.[210] Epinephrine was first referred to in the treatment of asthma in 1905.[211] Oral corticosteroids began to be used for this condition in the 1950s while inhaled corticosteroids and selective short acting beta agonist came into wide use in the 1960s.[212][213]

text: A notable and well-documented case in the 19th century was that of young Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919). At that time there was no effective treatment. Roosevelt's youth was in large part shaped by his poor health partly related to his asthma. He experienced recurring nighttime asthma attacks that caused the experience of being smothered to death, terrifying the boy and his parents.[214]

text: During the 1930s to 1950s, asthma was known as one of the "holy seven" psychosomatic illnesses. Its cause was considered to be psychological, with treatment often based on psychoanalysis and other talking cures.[215] As these psychoanalysts interpreted the asthmatic wheeze as the suppressed cry of the child for its mother, they considered the treatment of depression to be especially important for individuals with asthma.[215]


document_title: Timeline of the introduction of color television in countries

question_text: when did color tv come out in canada

question_tokens: when did color tv come out in canada

root

text: This is a list of when the first color television broadcasts were transmitted to the general public. Non-public field tests and closed-circuit demonstrations are not included.

tag: p

text: Countries and territories which never had black and white television (i.e. the first broadcasts were in color), such as Zanzibar, Brunei, Botswana, Laos, South Africa, Namibia, Macau, Sri Lanka, Papua New Guinea, Fiji, Palau, Bhutan, Vanuatu, Faroe Islands, Malawi, The Gambia, Tonga, Liechtenstein, San Marino, Somalia, Cameroon, Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Tanzania and Nepal are not included in this list.

text:
Country
Year
Network or channel
Color system
Notes

 Afghanistan
1977/1983
RTA
PAL
First experimental color broadcasts in late 1977 and stalled in 1979 due to the Soviet War in Afghanistan. Returned by at least 1983 in full service.

 Albania
1981
RTSH
PAL
Color broadcasts had been available from Yugoslavia since 1971, and Italy since 1977, Frequencies have been occasionally jammed due to censorship of some programs in Albania in that time.

 Algeria
1973
RTA
PAL
RTA was transmitted in the older French 819-line standard System E, until 1973 when it started broadcasting in 625-line standard System B.[1]

 American Samoa
1969
KVZK-2
NTSC
KVZK-2 was a National Educational Television affiliate.

 Angola
1983
TPA
PAL

 Argentina
1978/1980
LS 82 Canal 7
PAL-N
Introduced for the 1978 FIFA World Cup (regular full color transmission began at midnight on Thursday 1 May 1980). In 1969, Canal 13 made experimental transmissions in NTSC, but did not receive government approval. Subsequently, the project was cancelled.

 Armenian SSR
1973/1978
Armenia 1
SECAM/
PAL
First transmission was the May Day Parade in Yerevan. Full-time color transmissions since Christmas Eve 1978.

 Australia
1967/1975
ATV-0 (now ATV-10).
PAL
Full-time color transmissions since Saturday, March 1, 1975. First closed-circuit color test broadcast on Thursday, June 15, 1967 with live coverage of the Pakenham races.[2] Many television shows were produced and broadcast in color between 1972–1974, with limited color transmissions from mid-1974 on.

 Austria
1969/1975
ORF
PAL
First transmission was the Eurovision broadcast of New Year Concert from Vienna on Wednesday, January 1, 1969. Full-time color transmissions since January 15, 1975.

 Azerbaijan SSR
1983
AzTV
SECAM/
PAL

 Bahamas
1983
ZNS-TV
NTSC
Color transmissions had been available from Miami since 1954 (WTVJ) and West Palm Beach since the late-1950s[3]

 Bahrain
1972
Bahrain TV
PAL

 Bangladesh
1980
BTV
PAL

 Barbados
1971
CBC
NTSC

 Belize
1984
Channel 7
NTSC

 Benin
1982
OTRB
PAL

 Byelorussian SSR
1961/1979
Belteleradio
SECAM
The first Soviet Bloc country and first country in Eastern Europe to introduce color television in 1961. Full color service came around 1979.

 Belgium
1967/1971
RTB/BRT
PAL
Color broadcasts from France (SECAM), Germany and Netherlands (PAL) were available since 1967. Early receivers were very costly owing to multiple standards: PAL/SECAM/625 lines and monochrome/819 lines

 Bermuda
1968
ZBM-TV
NTSC
ZBM was an affiliate of the U.S. network CBS. Color broadcasts have been available from the United States since 1958.

 Bolivia
1977/1980
TV Boliviana
NTSC
Experimental color broadcasts began in 1977. Full-time color arrived in 1980. Color broadcasts have been available from Brazil since 1970, but were PAL.

 Bosnia and Herzegovina
1971/1972/1973–1978
Televizija Sarajevo
PAL
First color transmission came from Belgrade in 1971, local service began in 1972 to 1973 1978.

 Brazil
1970/1972/1973–1978
Bandeirantes/Globo
PAL-M
First transmissions (unofficial and just for specific programs) were made between 1962 and 1963 using NTSC. Tests for the regular transmissions begins in 1970 with the Mexico's FIFA World Cup, and the first official transmission being the coverage of the 12th Caxias do Sul Grape Festival in February 1972. Full-time color transmissions since 1973 to 1978.

 Bulgaria
1970/1977
BNT
SECAM
Full color transmissions achieved by 1977.

 Burma
1984
MRTV
NTSC
The last country in Southeast Asia to introduce color television.

 Burundi
1983
RTNB
SECAM

 Kampuchea
1981/1985
National Television of Kampuchea
SECAM/
PAL
Full-time color transmissions started in 1985, switched to PAL from 1991.

 Canada
1966/1974/1976–1977
(CBC, SRC), CTV
NTSC
First test transmissions on CBC in September 1966, CTV began color broadcasts a year later. Color broadcasts from the United States had been available since the mid-1950s. A mandatory transition to color for all transmitters took place between 1969 and 1976 on all English and French channels. CBC began Full-time color broadcasts in 1974. Full-time color officially achieved between 1976–1977.

 Central African Republic
1982
RTC
SECAM

 Chad
1982
Télé Tchad
SECAM

 Chile
1978
TVN, Canal 13
NTSC
First transmission in color was in the 13th Viña del Mar Festival, but only for export until the 18th edition. First nationwide color show transmitted was Esta noche fiesta of Canal 13 on Monday, April 10, 1978.[4] First news report in color was shown at Teletrece on April 12, 1978.[5] Full-time color transmissions since mid 1979.

 China
1973/1984
CCTV
PAL
Urban areas began color broadcasts in 1973. Full-time color transmissions since 1984 nationwide.

 Colombia
1979[6]
Inravisión
NTSC
Test broadcasts in SECAM were held in 1966.[7] Test for the regular transmissions began in 1971 with the coverage of that year's Pan American Games held in Cali. In 1974, the inauguration of West Germany's FIFA World Cup was aired in color in closed circuit at two colosseums in Bogota and Cali.[8] Full-time color transmissions since Saturday, December 1, 1979.[6]

 Congo (Brazzaville)
1975
TeleCongo
SECAM

 Costa Rica
1973
TICA-TV
NTSC

 Croatia
1972
Televizija Zagreb
PAL

 Cuba
1958/1975
Tele-Color, S.A.
Tele Rebelde (1975)
NTSC
Ended in 1959 as a result of the Cuban Revolution; returned in 1975.

 Cyprus
1976
CyBC
SECAM

 Czechoslovakia/ Czech Republic
1973
ČST
SECAM PAL
Regular colour broadcasts started in May 9, 1973 on second channel and in May 9, 1975 on first channel. Full color transition in late 1970's, switched to PAL broadcasting in 1993. ČST started color experiments in late 60's in PAL. After Russian invasion in 1968 SECAM was chosen for broadcasting, but not for production. TV studios worked in PAL and than it was transcoded for SECAM broadcasting till 1993.

 Denmark
1968/1970[9]
Danmarks Radio
PAL
First introduced for the 1968 Winter Olympics in Grenoble, France.[9] The national broadcaster's programming transitioned to color throughout 1969 and "color tests" were officially ended on Wednesday, April 1, 1970.[9] Color broadcasts had been available from Germany since 1967.

 Djibouti
1974
RTD
SECAM

 Dominican Republic
1969
Color Visión
NTSC

 Ecuador
1974
Ecuavisa
Teleamazonas
NTSC

 Egypt
1973
ETV
PAL

 Equatorial Guinea
1976
RNGE
SECAM

 El Salvador
1973
YSU-TV
NTSC

 Estonian SSR
1967/1972
ETV
SECAM/
PAL
First color broadcasts came from Moscow; first local color program was transmitted on Saturday, December 30, 1972. Transitioned from SECAM to PAL 1992–1999.

 Ethiopia
1979
ETV
PAL

 Finland
1970/1977
YLE/MTV
PAL
First test broadcast in color was the President Urho Kekkonen's New Year speech in 1969. First experimental color broadcast in 1970. Full-time color broadcasts since 1977. Color Broadcasts have been available from the Åland Islands since 1969 where there is a Sveriges Television AB (Sweden Television) transmitter on the islands, and the Soviet Union since 1967 but transmissions were in SECAM.

 France
1967/1976/1983
ORTF
SECAM
Introduced on La Deuxième Chaîne at 2:15pm (14:15) on Sunday, October 1, 1967. The first channel TF1 remained B&W for years due to being transmitted in the older 819-line standard: its transition to color 625-line began on Thursday, January 1, 1976 and the full nationwide color coverage was only achieved in 1983.[10]

 French Polynesia
1971
RFO (1erè Radio Tahiti)
SECAM

 French Guiana
1974
RFO (Guyane RFO TV)
SECAM

 Gabon
1973
RTG
SECAM

 Georgian SSR
1975–1976/1984
Georgian Public Broadcaster
SECAM
Early color broadcasts came from Moscow since at least 1975 and 1976 during certain events.

 East Germany
1969
DFF
SECAM
Introduced on Friday, October 3, 1969 on the new second television channel launched for that purpose with a symbolic launch button pressed by Walter Ulbricht on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of the GDR on Tuesday, October 7. The television tower in East Berlin was also opened that day.

 West Germany
1967
ARD/ZDF
PAL
Introduced on both channels simultaneously at 9:30am on Friday, August 25, 1967 with a symbolic launch button pressed by Willy Brandt on the International Radio and Television Fair in West Berlin.

 Ghana
1980
GTV
PAL

 Gibraltar
1969
GBC
PAL

 Greece
1976/1977–1979
ERT
SECAM
Test color broadcasts began in 1976. Full color broadcasts started on 1977 to 1979. ERT switched to PAL in 1992.

 Greenland
1984/1987/1990
KNR
PAL
Color broadcasts from Canada had been available since 1972, but were NTSC and Iceland since 1976. Private transmitters were built to receive TV signals from those countries long before Greenland had their native TV service which came into broadcast in 1982. Full-time color service came in 1984, remote areas continued to broadcast in black and white until c. 1987–1990.

 Guadeloupe
1972
RFO (Guadeloupe 1erè)
SECAM

 Guinea
1971
RTG
PAL
Color broadcasts from the Ivory Coast had been available since 1970, but were SECAM.

 Guinea-Bissau
1981
RTGB
PAL

 Guatemala
1970
RTG
NTSC
First Central American country to introduce color television; color broadcasts available from Mexico since 1967.

 Guam
1970
KUAM-TV
NTSC
KUAM was a primary NBC affiliate that also carried some programming from ABC and CBS.

 Haiti
1971
Télé Haïti[11]
NTSC

 Honduras
1973
Canal 3 Honduras
NTSC

 Hong Kong
1969/1975
TVB
PAL
Introduced for the Festival of Hong Kong in December 1969. Color broadcasts have been available from PR China since 1973. Full-time color broadcasts since 1975.

 Hungary
1971/1975
Magyar Televízió
SECAM
Full color broadcasts introduced in 1975.

 Iceland
1974–1976
RÚV (Sjónvarpið)
PAL
Full-time color broadcasts since 1974 to 1976.

 India
1978/1979–1981/1982
Doordarshan
PAL
Experimental color broadcasts began in 1978. Color broadcasts from Pakistan had been available since 1977. Full color broadcasts were introduced in 1979 and 1981 to 1982.

 Indonesia
1977
TVRI
PAL
Full-time color broadcasts began on Tuesday 24 August 1982.

 Iran
1973
NIRT
SECAM

 Iraq
1968
RTI
SECAM
First Muslim country to introduce color television.

 Ireland
1971
RTÉ
PAL
Introduced for the Eurovision Song Contest 1971 in Dublin on Saturday, April 3, 1971; color broadcasts from United Kingdom available since 1967–69.
Full-time color broadcasts began in 1976.

 Israel
1977/1978/1979–1983
IBA/IETV
PAL
Introduced for the coverage of the Egyptian president's visit to Israel in November 1977, then reintroduced for the Eurovision Song Contest 1979 in Jerusalem on Saturday, March 31, 1979. Gradual transition to full-time color transmissions from 1980 to 1983. Full-time color transmissions since February 1983. Color broadcasts from Jordan and Egypt had been available since 1974 and Lebanon since 1975. Since color TVs were considered more expensive, the government ordered removing the color signals, in the name of public equality. Engineers have managed to produce a device that extrapolates the colors from programs that were originally shot in color, and such devices were sold to the thousands.

 Italy
1972/1977
RAI
PAL
Introduction temporarily stalled by political turmoil. Color broadcasts from France (SECAM) had been available since 1967, and from Austria (PAL) since 1969. Privately operated transmitter chains made these signals available as far as Rome. First color test was in 1972 Summer Olympic Games. The Sanremo Music Festival began to be broadcast in color in 1973, as well as, in the same year, the Jeux Sans Frontières. Full-time color transmissions started on Tuesday, February 1, 1977.

 Ivory Coast
1970
RTI
SECAM

 Jamaica
1975
JBC
NTSC

 Japan
1960/1968/1971
NHK/NTV
TBS
YTV
ABC
NTSC-J
The first Asian country to introduce color television, on Saturday, September 10, 1960. Full-time color since 1968 to 1971.[12]

 Jordan
1974
JTV
PAL

 Kazakh SSR
1977
Kazakhstan
SECAM/
PAL
Full color transmissions introduced in the 1980s.

 Kenya
1978
KBC
PAL

 North Korea
1977–1980
KCTV
PAL
Full color broadcasts were introduced by 1977 to 1980.

 South Korea
1975/1981
KBS/MBC
NTSC
Test color broadcasts began in 1975. Full-time color broadcasts since 1981. Color broadcasts have been available from North Korea since 1974.

 Kuwait
1974
KTV
PAL

 Kirghiz SSR
1981
Kyrgyz Television
SECAM
Experimental color broadcast for the 1980 Summer Olympics.

 Latvian SSR
1968/1974
LTV
SECAM/
PAL
First color broadcasts came from Moscow. First local color program was transmitted on Monday, January 28, 1974. Switched from SECAM to PAL on February 2, 1998.

 Lebanon
1967/1975
CLT/Télé Liban
SECAM
In 1967, CLT became the third television station in the world after the Soviet Union and France to broadcast in color, utilizing the French SECAM technology. [13]

 Liberia
1975
LBS
PAL

 Libya
1976
Al-Libyah TV
PAL

 Lithuanian SSR
1968
LRT
SECAM/
PAL
Used SECAM as part of the USSR 1968–1990, and 1990–1997. PAL has been in use since 1997.

 Luxembourg
1972
Compangnie Luxembourgeoise de Télédiffusion
PAL
SECAM
The then only channel for audiences in Luxembourg, France and Belgium originally used the French/Belgian 819-line B&W standard. After Belgium and France opted for different color systems, Luxembourg broadcast two versions of the same channel. All later RTL channels aimed at French-, German- and Dutch-speaking audiences in Europe adopted the standards of their target markets.

 Macedonia
1974
Televizija Skopje
PAL

 Madagascar
1977
MBS
SECAM

 Malaysia
1978/1979–1981/1982
RTM
PAL
Introduced in Peninsular Malaysia on Thursday 28 December 1978 and in Sabah and Sarawak on Sunday 31 August 1980. Color had been available from Southern Thailand since 1972 and Singapore since 1974. Full-time color broadcasts began on 1979 to 1981 to Friday 1 January 1982.

 Maldives
1984
TVM
PAL
Color had been available from India since 1982.

 Mali
1984
ORTM
SECAM

 Malta
1981
TVM
PAL
Color broadcasts from Italy had been available since 1977, full color service began in 1981

 Martinique
1969
RFO (Martinique 1erè)
SECAM

 Mauritania
1984
TV de Mauritanie
PAL

 Mauritius
1978
MBC
SECAM
Color television arrived on a full-time schedule in 1978.

 Mexico
1963/1964/1965–1968
Canal 5 Telesistema Mexicano (now Televisa)
NTSC
Launched Friday, February 8, 1963 with the program Paraiso Infantil. Color had been available previously in a few border cities from the United States, on a limited basis. Full-time color transmissions started with the 1968 Summer Olympic Games. Curiously, Mexico had its own system of color television, invented by Guillermo González, prior to NTSC adoption, which would be used in the 1964 Olympic Games.

 Moldavian SSR
1978
TeleRadio-Moldova
SECAM/
PAL

 Monaco
1973
TMC
PAL /
SECAM
Color broadcasts from France had been available since 1967.

 Mongolia
1975
MNB
SECAM

 Montenegro
1974
JRT/Televizija Titograd (now TV CG 1)
PAL

 Morocco
1973
RTM
SECAM
First test transmission was in 1972.

 Mozambique
1984
TVM
PAL

 Netherlands
1967
NPO
PAL
Introduced on both national channels on Thursday, September 21, 1967.

 Netherlands Antilles
1973
TeleCuraçao
NTSC

 New Caledonia
1972–1973–1978
RFO (France Ô - New Caledonia)
SECAM
New Caledonia first broadcast in color for the 1972 Munich Olympic Games and a Chinese program in 1973, full color broadcasts became official in 1978.[citation needed]

 New Zealand
1973/1975
NZBC
PAL
Introduced in November 1973, as part of preparations for the 1974 British Commonwealth Games, held in Christchurch in February 1974.[14] Full-time color was achieved by December 1975.[15] Color broadcasts have been available from Australia in parts of New Zealand since the early 1970s.

 Nicaragua
1973
Televicentro Canal 2
NTSC

 Niger
1979
Télé Sahel
SECAM
Color broadcasts had been available from Nigeria from 1974, but were PAL.

 Nigeria
1974
WNTV (now called the NTA)
PAL

 Norway
1972/1975
NRK
PAL
Experimental color broadcasts introduced for the 1968 Winter Olympics in Grenoble, France. Regular test transmissions from Saturday, January 1, 1972. Full-time color broadcasts since Wednesday, January 1, 1975. Color broadcasts had been available from Sweden since 1970, in parts of Norway and Finland since 1969.

 Oman
1984
Oman TV
PAL

 Pakistan
1977–1982
PTV
PAL
Full-time color transmissions arrived in 1977 to 1982.

 Panama
1972
NTP
NTSC

 Paraguay
1979
TV Cerro Corá
PAL-N

 Peru
1978
TV Perú
América Televisión
Panamericana Televisión
NTSC
First color test transmission was done in 1967 by Panamericana Televisión for a soap opera but for economic and political reasons the project was canceled. Channel 7 made test broadcasts with their own content since 1977 that became official on January 17, 1978 when color standard adopted and official broadcasts were authorised. The first color broadcast was the coverage of the 1978 election. América Televisión and Panamericana Televisión began their regular color broadcasting with the broadcast of the 1978 Argentina's FIFA World Cup. Transition completed on October 1, 1980.

 Philippines
1963/1966/1971
ABS-CBN
NTSC
First Southeast Asian Country color test transmission was in 1963. Commercial launch in June 1966 using RCA color; and full-time color transmissions began in 1971 when color sets became more widespread in the Manila area and suburbs.

 Poland
1971
TVP
SECAM
First time color program was broadcast on March 16, 1971 & regular broadcasting began on December 6, 1971 for 6th PUWP congress. The 1972 Munich Olympic Games Use Color in SECAM. Transitioned to PAL on January 1, 1994 for all TVP channels except for TVP1 which transitioned on January 1, 1995.

 Portugal
1976/1980
RTP
PAL
First experimental broadcasts for the coverage of the 1976 election and The 1976 Montreal Olympic Games. Introduced for the Portuguese version of Jeux Sans Frontières on Wednesday, September 5, 1979; color broadcasts from Spain available since 1972. Full-color transmissions started on 1977 to Monday, March 10, 1980.

 Puerto Rico
1966
WAPA
NTSC

 Qatar
1974
QBS
PAL
Color broadcasts from Bahrain had been available since 1973.

 Réunion
1972
RFO (1erè Rèunion)
SECAM
The 1972 Munich Olympic Games Use SECAM System

 Romania
1985–1990
TVR
PAL
Despite being in the Eastern Bloc, Romania used PAL for the first testing of the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games and chose not to adopt SECAM, unlike the other Warsaw Pact countries. Full-time color broadcasts since 1984 and 1985 to 1990. Romania became the last country to introduce color television.

 Rwanda
1982
ORINFOR
SECAM

 Saint Christopher-Nevis-Anguilla
1982
ZIZ-TV
NTSC
Full-time color transmissions introduced in 1982. Color broadcasts have been available from Guadeloupe since 1972, but were SECAM and the Netherlands Antilles since 1973.

 Saint Pierre and Miquelon
1971
RFO (1eré SPM TV; Previously known as ORTF)
SECAM
Color transmissions had been available from Newfoundland and Labrador since 1967, but were NTSC. There are transmitters in SPM that can carry a signal from Newfoundland and Labrador which converts it to SECAM from NTSC and in some cases, In Fortune, Newfoundland, 1eré is converted to NTSC by a transmitter that is placed there.

 Saudi Arabia
1973
SAGTS
SECAM

 Senegal
1975
RTS
SECAM

 Sierra Leone
1978[16]
SLBS
PAL

 Singapore
1974–1975
Radio Television Singapore (RTS)
PAL
First Testing The 1974 Tehran Asian Games, Full-time color broadcasts began on 1 November 1975 and 1976 to 1977.

 Slovakia
1970/1973
ČST
SECAM PAL
First color transmission in 1970 during World Ski Championship which was broadcast in PAL. Adopted SECAM in 1973 with full color transition in late 1970s. Switched to PAL in 1993.

 Slovenia
1976/1976
Televizija Ljubljana
PAL
First Testing The 1976 Montreal Olympic Games, Full Tine Color Transition in 1977

 Spain
1972/1978
RTVE
PAL
Color broadcasts had been available from France since 1967, but were SECAM and Gibraltar since 1969. First color test was in 1972. Full-time color broadcasts since 1973 to 1977, although monochrome commercials continued to be made until 1978. The Eurovision Song Contest 1969 in Madrid was a color production, but it was televised in black-and-white to the local audience.

 Sudan
1976
Sudan TV
PAL

 Suriname
1977
STVS
NTSC

 Sweden
1970
Sveriges Radio TV
PAL
Test transmissions started on Wednesday, December 14, 1966. Regular color service and color license fee introduced Wednesday, April 1, 1970.

  Switzerland
1968
SBC
PAL
Switzerland used PAL to broadcast the 1968 Mexico City Olympic Games, color transmissions had been available from France and Germany since 1967.

 Syria
1980
STV
PAL

 Taiwan
1975
CTV
NTSC
Full-time color transmissions since 1975.

 Tajik SSR
1982
TVT
SECAM
Experimental color broadcast for the 1980 Summer Olympics.

 Thailand
1975
Channel 7
PAL
Although television in Thailand originally employed a 525-line screen (System M, US standard at the time), the country opted for PAL color, which necessitated a conversion to system B (625 lines), starting with Channel 7 in November 1967. Regional stations converted between 1972 and 1975.

 Togo
1979
TVT
SECAM

 Trinidad and Tobago
1969
TTT
NTSC

 Tunisia
1976
RTT
PAL

 Turkey
1984[17]
TRT
PAL
Test transmissions started with the New Year's Eve celebrations on Thursday, December 31, 1981 and 1 January 1982; full color television did not start until Sunday, July 1, 1984. Color broadcasts from Greece had been available since 1976 and Bulgaria since at least 1971.

 Turkmen SSR
1970
Turkmen Television
SECAM
First Central Asian country to introduce color television. Introduced on Saturday, October 31, 1970 in preparation for the start of Ramadan.

 Uganda
1975
UTV
PAL

 Ukrainian SSR
1967/1975
UT-1
SECAM/
PAL
First transmission came from Moscow in 1967, Ukraine uses SECAM in for the 1968 Mexico City Olympic Games. Local color broadcasts began in 1968 and 1969 to 1975.

 United Arab Emirates
1974
UAE-TV
PAL

 United Kingdom
1967/1969/1976
BBC 2 (1967) BBC 1 (1969) ITV (1969)
PAL
Introduced on BBC 2 for Wimbledon coverage on Saturday, July 1, 1967. The launch of the BBC 2 "full" color service took place on December 2, 1967. Some British TV programs, however, had been produced in color even before the introduction of color television in 1967, for the purpose of sales to American, Canadian, and Filipino networks. Full-time color broadcasts since 1969.[18] Full nationwide color broadcasting achieved in 1976, when BBC East (Norwich) became the last region to adopt colour for regional broadcasts and locally-produced programmes.

 United States
1950
CBS
CBS
Field-sequential color system; experimental; ended 1951.[19] The first country with black and white transmission to introduce color television.

 United States
1953
NBC
CBS
NTSC
Dot sequential system.[20] The US began a gradual transition to color in late 1953. The first color TV sets were very expensive and the audience for color was accordingly very small, so only specials and a handful of regularly scheduled shows aired in color during the 1950s. Market penetration slowly increased as more affordable sets and more color programming became available. A tipping point came in 1965, when the commercial networks first aired the majority of their prime-time shows in color. By the end of 1966, prime-time was all-color, but an ever-dwindling number of daytime, local and educational programs continued in black-and-white for a few more years.

 United States - Alaska
1966
KENI-TV (now KTUU)
NTSC
First program in color, on Monday, September 19, 1966, was the premiere episode of That Girl, an ABC show. KENI was a primary affiliate of both NBC and ABC. Transitioned to full color service by 1972. Color broadcasts have been available from the USSR since 1967 but were SECAM.

 United States - Hawaii
1965
KONA-TV, now KHON-TV; KHVH-TV, now KITV; KGMB
NTSC
KHVH was an ABC affiliate, KGMB was CBS, and KONA was NBC. Transitioned to full color service around 1969.

 Soviet Union
 Russia
1967/1975
Soviet Central Television (Now Channel One (Russia))
SECAM
Introduced specifically for the 50th Golden Jubilee Anniversary of the October Revolution. Full-time colorcasts began with the Revolution's 58th anniversary, in 1975. Some parts of the USSR received color from Alaska since 1966 in some circumstances when signals were not jammed in some parts and was received by contraband receivers to pick up signals.

 Upper Volta
1976
Volta Vision
SECAM
This country is now known as Burkina Faso.

 Uruguay
1981
CXB-10
PAL-N
Introduced for the 1980 Mundialito but locally broadcast in B&W. Local color broadcasting started in 1981.

 Uzbek SSR
1984
MTRK
SECAM
Experimental color broadcast for the 1980 Summer Olympics. The last Central Asian country to introduce color television.

 Venezuela
1974–1980
RCTV
Venevision
NTSC
Color tests were made during the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich, West Germany. Color television arrived on a full-time schedule on Monday 1 January 1973 and 1974 to Saturday 1 December 1979 by TVN5. Transition completed on Sunday 1 June 1980. Color broadcasts have been available from Trinidad and Tobago since 1969.

 Vietnam
1977
VTV
SECAM/
PAL
The first color television program aired on Tết.[21] Color televisions were available only in big cities until the late 1980s. Switched to PAL from 1990.

 U.S. Virgin Islands
1968
WBNB-TV
NTSC
WBNB was a CBS affiliate whose first color broadcasts took place during the 1968 Summer Olympic Games in Mexico City, Mexico. This station was destroyed by Hurricane Hugo in 1989.

 North Yemen
1979
NYRTC
PAL

 South Yemen
1981
SYRTC
PAL
Color broadcasts had been available from North Yemen since 1979.

 Yugoslavia
 Serbia
1971
JRT/Televizija Beograd (now RTS1)
PAL
Introduced on the launch of the second TVB channel (TVB 2), as it was the first Yugoslav channel to start in color. From the late 1970s, TVB 1 switches to color, thus making all channels broadcast in color. (both TVB 1 and TVB 2, as they were only the channels available in that time) Full-time color broadcasts in SR Serbia began on May 25, 1979.

 Zaire
1980
OZRT
SECAM

 Zambia
1977
ZNBC
PAL

 Zimbabwe
1984[22]
ZBC
PAL
The last country in Africa to introduce color television. Color broadcasts have been available from Zambia since 1977 and South Africa since 1976.

tag: table


document_title: Antonov

question_text: ukraine starts liquidation of legendary aircraft manufacturer antonov

text: Antonov

text: History[edit]

text: Soviet era[edit]

text: Foundation and relocation[edit]

text: The company was established in 1946 at the Novosibirsk Aircraft Production Association as the top-secret Soviet Research and Design Bureau No. 153. It was headed by Oleg Antonov and specialised in turboprop military transport aircraft. The An-2 biplane was a major achievement of this period, with hundreds of these aircraft still operating as of 2013.[4] In 1952, the Bureau was relocated to Kiev, a city with a rich aviation history and an aircraft-manufacturing infrastructure restored after the destruction caused by World War II.

text: First serial aircraft and expansion[edit]

text: The 1957 introduction of the An-10/An-12 family of mid-range turboprop aeroplanes began the successful production of thousands of these aircraft. Their use for both heavy combat and civilian purposes around the globe continues to the present; the An-10/An-12 were used most notably in the Vietnam War, the Soviet war in Afghanistan and the Chernobyl disaster relief megaoperation.

text: In 1959, the bureau began construction of the separate Flight Testing and Improvement Base in suburban Hostomel (now the Antonov Airport).

text: In 1965, the Antonov An-22 heavy military transport entered serial production to supplement the An-12 in major military and humanitarian airlifts by the Soviet Union. The model became the first Soviet wide-body aircraft, and it remains the world's largest turboprop-powered aircraft. Antonov designed and presented a nuclear-powered version of the An-22. It was never flight tested.

text: In 1966, after the major expansion in the Sviatoshyn neighbourhood of the city, the company was renamed to another disguise name: "Kiev Mechanical Plant". Two independent aircraft production and repair facilities, under engineering-supervision of the Antonov Bureau, also appeared in Kiev during this period.

text: Prominence and Antonov's retirement[edit]

text: In the 1970s and early 1980s, the company established itself as USSR's main designer of military transport aircraft with dozens of new modifications in development and production. After Oleg Antonov's death in 1984, the company was officially renamed as the Research and Design Bureau named after O.K. Antonov (Russian: Опытно-конструкторское бюро имени О.К. Антонова) while continuing the use of "Kiev Mechanical Plant" alias for some purposes.

text: Late Soviet-era: superlarge projects and first commercialisation[edit]

text: In the late 1980s, the Antonov Bureau achieved global prominence after the introduction of its extra large aeroplanes. The An-124 "Ruslan" (1982) became the Soviet Union's mass-produced strategic airlifter under the leadership of Chief Designer Viktor Tolmachev.[citation needed] The Bureau enlarged the "Ruslan" design even more for the Soviet space shuttle programme logistics, creating the An-225 "Mriya" in 1989. "Mriya" is still the world's largest and heaviest aeroplane.

text: The end of the Cold War and perestroika allowed the Antonov company's first step to commercialisation and foreign expansion. In 1989, the Antonov Airlines subsidiary was created for its own aircraft maintenance and cargo projects.

text: Independent Ukraine[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2013)

text: Antonov Design Bureau remained a state-owned company after Ukraine achieved its independence in 1991 and is since regarded as a strategic national asset.

text: Expansion to free market[edit]

text: Since independence, Antonov has certified and marketed both Soviet-era and newly developed models for sale in new markets outside of the former soviet-sphere of influence. New models introduced to serial production and delivered to customers include the Antonov An-140, Antonov An-148 and Antonov An-158 regional airliners.

text: Among several modernisation projects, Antonov received orders for upgrading "hundreds" of its legendary An-2 utility planes still in operation in Azerbaijan, Cuba and Russia to the An-2-100 upgrade version.[4]

text: In 2014, following the annexation of the Crimea by Russia, Ukraine cancelled contracts with Russia, leading to an 80% income reduction in Ukraine’s defence and aviation industries.[5]

text: Production facilities' consolidation[edit]

text: During the Soviet period, not all Antonov-designed aircraft were manufactured by the company itself. This was a result of Soviet industrial strategy that split military production between different regions of the USSR to minimise potential war loss risks. As a result, Antonov aeroplanes are often assembled by the specialist contract manufacturers.

text: In 2009, the once-independent "Aviant" aeroplane-assembling plant in Kiev became part of the Antonov State Company, facilitating a full serial manufacturing cycle of the company. However, the old tradition of co-manufacturing with contractors is continued, both with Soviet-time partners and with new licensees like Iran's HESA.[6]

text: In 2014, the Antonov State Company produced and delivered only 2 An-158 airplanes.[7] This trend continued onto 2015, producing one An-148 and one An-158.[8] In 2016, no aircraft were produced or delivered to clients, though the company has plans to start up production in 2017.[8]

text: In June 2016, Ukraine's major state-owned arms manufacturer Ukroboronprom announced the creation of the Ukrainian Aircraft Corporation within its structure, thereby combining all aircraft manufacturing enterprises, including the assets of Antonov State Company into a single cluster, according to Ukroboronprom's press service.[9]

text: On 19 July 2017, the Ukrainian government approved the liquidation of Antonov's assets,[10][11][12] starting with closing down three factories in Kiev and Kharkiv[citation needed]. The State Concern "Antonov" (a business group, created in 2005 from the merger of several legally independent companies into a single economic entity under unified management) will be liquidated as a residual corporate entity. Antonov State Company, Kharkiv State Aviation Manufacturing Enterprise and Plant №410 of Civil Aviation were transferred under the management of another state-owned concern Ukroboronprom in 2015. Antonov State Company continues to function as an enterprise.[13]

text: Products and activities[edit]

text: Fields of commercial activity of Antonov ASTC include:

text:
Aircraft design and manufacturing
Cargo air transport (Antonov Airlines)
Aircraft maintenance, testing, certification and upgrading
Aerospace-related research and engineering

"Aerial Launch": a joint Russian-Ukrainian project of midair spacecraft space launch from aboard a modified version of the An-225.[14]

Operation of the Gostomel airport (Antonov Airport)
Medium-capacity rail transport system RADAN
Construction of LT-10 trams
Construction and manufacturing of Kiev-12 trolley buses (a spin-off, using existing technical expertise).[15]

tag: ul

text: Major contractors and partners[edit]

text: Contract and licensee manufacturers[edit]

text:
Kharkiv State Aviation Manufacturing Enterprise – Kharkiv, Ukraine
Tashkent Aviation Production Association (formerly Tashkent State Aviation Plant) – Tashkent, Uzbekistan
Iran Aircraft Manufacturing Industrial Company (HESA) – Shahin Shahr, Iran[6]
Voronezh Aircraft Production Association (VASO) – Voronezh, Russia

text: Chief designers[edit]

text:
Oleg Antonov: 1946–1984
Petro Balabuiev: 1984–2005
Dmytro Kiva: since 2005

text: Aircraft[edit]

text: Antonov's aeroplanes (design office prefix An) range from the rugged An-2 biplane (which itself is comparatively large for a biplane) through the An-28 reconnaissance aircraft to the massive An-124 Ruslan and An-225 Mriya strategic airlifters (the latter being the world's heaviest aircraft with only one currently in service). Whilst less famous, the An-24, An-26, An-30 and An-32 family of twin turboprop, high winged, passenger/cargo/troop transport aircraft are important for domestic/short-haul air services particularly in parts of the world once led by communist governments. The An-72/An-74 series of small jetliners is slowly replacing that fleet, and a larger An-70 freighter is under certification.

text: The Antonov An-148 is a new regional airliner of twin-turbofan configuration. Over 150 aircraft have been ordered since 2007. A stretched version is in development, the An-158 (from 60–70 to 90–100 passengers).

text:
Aircraft
Name
Maiden flight
Remarks

A-40
Krylaty Tank
2 September 1942
Winged tank

An-2
Kukuruznik
31 August 1947
multi-purpose, biplane, single-engine utility transport.

An-2-100
Kukuruznik
10 July 2013
An-2 upgrade version refitted with Motor Sich kerosene-fueled engine (instead of original avgas).[4]

An-3

13 May 1980
turboprop conversion of An-2

An-4

31 July 1951
float-equipped An-2

An-6
Meteo
21 March 1948
weather reconnaissance aircraft based on An-2

An-8

11 February 1956
medium military transport

An-10
Ukraina
7 March 1957
medium turboprop-powered airliner

An-11

Motorised variant of the A-11 glider

An-12

16 December 1957
military turboprop-powered transport, developed from An-10

An-13

1962
Light aircraft developed from the A-13M motor glider

An-14
Pchelka
14 March 1958
light twin-engine transport

An-20

light turbocharged piston engine aircraft, developed from Cessna 210[citation needed]

An-22
Antei
27 February 1965
extremely large turboprop transport

An-24

20 October 1959
twin-turboprop airliner

An-26

21 May 1969
twin-turboprop transport, derived from An-24

An-28

September 1974
twin-turboprop light transport, developed from An-14

An-30

21 August 1967
An-24 adapted for aerial photography and mapping

An-32

9 July 1976
twin-turboprop hot-and-high transport, up-engined An-26 airframe

An-34

4 September 1961
military transport developed from An-24

An-38

23 June 1994
twin-turboprop light transport, stretched An-28

An-40

cancelled
military transport developed from An-12

An-44

cargo aircraft project developed from An-24

An-50

cancelled
airliner project, developed from An-24V

An-51

civil piston utility aircraft

An-52

light twin-piston aircraft

An-70

16 December 1994
large military transport, powered by four propfan engines, to replace An-12

An-71

12 July 1985
naval AWACS development of An-72

An-72
Cheburashka
31 August 1977
STOL transport, utilising the Coandă effect

An-74
Cheburashka
29 November 1983
civil version of An-72; version with engines below wings is called An-74TK-300[16]

An-88

AWACS project, not completed

An-91

Twin-engined cabin monoplane development of Cessna 310

An-102

light agricultural aircraft

An-122

further development of An-22

An-124
Ruslan
26 December 1982
strategic airlifter; largest aircraft ever mass-produced

An-126

heavy transport aircraft project

An-132

31 March 2017
transport aircraft based on An-32

An-140

17 September 1997
short-range turboprop airliner, to replace An-24

An-148

17 December 2004
regional jet for 68–85 passengers

An-158

28 April 2010
stretched version of An-148 for 99 passengers

An-168

business variant of An-148

An-171

stretched An-70

An-174

enlarged An-74 with engines below wings

An-178

7 May 2015
military transport based on the An-158

An-180

cancelled
medium propfan airliner, around 175 passengers

An-188

transport aircraft based on An-70

An-218

postponed
propfan- or turbofan-powered widebody airliner

An-225
Mriya
21 December 1988
An-124 derived strategic airlifter; largest aircraft ever built; only one has been put into service

An-325

cancelled
planned improvement of An-225

An-714

20 October 1970
modification of An-14 with air cushion landing gear

GPS

small twin-engined utility transport

OKA-38
Aist

Copy of Fieseler Fi 156

Li-2V

high-altitude research aircraft, converted from Lisunov Li-2

SKV
Partizanskii

Basis for An-14

T-2M
Maverick

ultralight trike for recreational club use and special forces requirements

VP
Utka

experimental air trailer (tow glider)

text: Gliders[edit]

text:
Aircraft
Name
Maiden flight
Remarks

A-1

1930
single-seat training glider

A-2

1936
two-seat training glider derived from the A-1

A-3
Molodv

A-6

A-7

1942
military glider

A-9

1948
single-seat sailplane developed from the RF-7

A-10

1952
two-seat sailplane developed from the A-9

A-11

12 May 1958

A-13

1958

A-15

26 March 1960

BS-3

1934
training glider

BS-4

1935
training glider

BS-5 (OKA-31)

1936
training glider

DIP (OKA-14)
Dognat i peregna
1932
record glider developed from OKA-6

IP

LEM-2 (OKA-37)

1937
motor glider

M-1

1933

M-2

M-3 (OKA-24)

1934

M-4 (OKA-29)

M-5 (OKA-30)

1936

OKA-1
Golub
1924

OKA-2

1925

OKA-3

1928

OKA-5
Standard-2
1930

OKA-6
Gorod Lenina
1930

OKA-7
Bubik
1930

OKA-13
Chest Uslovii Stalina
1932

OKA-21

1933
training glider based on DIP

PS-1 (OKA-11)

training glider

PS-2 (OKA-12)

training glider

RF-1 (OKA-17)

1933

RF-2 (OKA-18)

1933

RF-3 (OKA-19)

1933

RF-4 (OKA-20)

1933

RF-5 (OKA-23)

1934

RF-6 (OKA-28)

RF-7

1937
sports glider

RF-8

1941
troop glider, enlarged RF-7; redesignated A-7

US-1

1931
training glider

US-2

1931
training glider

US-3

1932
training glider, first mass-produced Soviet glider

US-4

training glider, redesignated A-1

US-5 (OKA-32)

1936
training glider

US-6

training glider, redesignated A-2