document_title: Features new to Windows 7

question_text: where does the show desktop option available in windows 7

question_tokens: where does the show desktop option available in windows 7

text: Features new to Windows 7

text: Shell and user interface[edit]

text: Windows 7 retains the Windows Aero graphical user interface and visual style introduced in the operating system's predecessor, Windows Vista, but many areas have seen enhancements. Unlike Windows Vista, window borders and the taskbar do not turn opaque when a window is maximized when Windows Aero is active; instead, they remain translucent.

text: Desktop[edit]

text: Themes[edit]

text: Support for themes has been extended in Windows 7.[3] In addition to providing options to customize colors of window chrome and other aspects of the interface, including the desktop background, desktop icons, mouse cursors, and sound schemes, the operating system also includes a native desktop slideshow feature. A new theme pack extension has been introduced, .themepack, which are essentially cabinet files that consist of theme resources including background images, color preferences, desktop icons, mouse cursors, and sound schemes.[4] The new theme extension simplies sharing of themes, and can also display desktop wallpapers via RSS feeds provided by the Windows RSS Platform.[4] Microsoft provides additional themes for free through its website.[3]

text: The default theme included with Windows 7 is a namesake theme, and consists of a single desktop wallpaper named "Harmony" and the default desktop icons, mouse cursors, and sound scheme introduced in Windows Vista; however, none of the desktop backgrounds included with Windows Vista are present in Windows 7. Additional themes are also included: Architecture, Characters, Landscapes, Nature, and Scenes, and an additional country-specific theme that is determined based on the defined locale when the operating system is installed; all themes included in Windows 7, excluding the default theme, include six wallpaper images.[3] While only the theme for a user's home country is displayed within the user interface, the files for all of these other country-specific themes are included in the operating system.[5] A number of new sound schemes, each associated with an included theme, have also been introduced: Afternoon, Calligraphy, Characters, Cityscape, Delta, Festival, Garden, Heritage, Landscape, Quirky, Raga, Savana, and Sonata.[6][7] Though itself not a new feature, individual sound schemes can be used within custom themes as well.[8]

text: Desktop Slideshow[edit]

text: Windows 7 introduces a desktop slideshow feature which periodically changes the desktop wallpaper based on a designated interval specified by a user; the change is accompanied by a smooth fade transition with a duration that can be customized via the Windows Registry.[9] The desktop slideshow feature supports local images as well as images obtained via RSS.[10][11][12]

text: Gadgets[edit]

text: With Windows Vista, Microsoft introduced gadgets to display information, such as image slideshows and RSS feeds, on the user's desktop; the gadgets could optionally be displayed on a sidebar docked to a side of the screen.[13] In Windows 7, the sidebar has been removed, but gadgets can still be placed on the desktop.[13] Gadgets can be brought to the foreground on top of active applications by pressing ⊞ Win+G.[13] Several new features for gadgets were introduced, including new desktop context menu options to access gadgets and hide all active gadgets, high DPI support, and a feature that can automatically rearrange a gadget based on the position of other gadgets.[13][14] Additional new features include optimizations for touch-based devices, cached gadget content, and a new Windows Media Center gadget.[13]

text: Gadgets are more closely integrated with Windows Explorer, but the gadgets themselves continue to operate in a single sidebar.exe process, unlike in Windows Vista where gadgets could operate in multiple sidebar.exe processes. Active gadgets can also be hidden via a new desktop menu option; Microsoft has stated that this can result in power-saving benefits.[14]

text: Branding and customization[edit]

text: For original equipment manufacturers and enterprises, Windows 7 natively supports the ability to customize the wallpaper that is displayed during user login. Because the settings to change the wallpaper are available via the Windows Registry, users can also to customize the wallpaper that is displayed.[15] Additional options are also provided for the login UI, including the ability to customize the appearance of interface lighting and shadows.[16]

text: Windows Explorer[edit]

text: Libraries[edit]

text: Windows Explorer in Windows 7 supports file libraries that aggregate content from various locations – including shared folders on networked systems if the shared folder has been indexed by the host system – and present them in a unified view. The libraries hide the actual location the file is stored in. Searching in a library automatically federates the query to the remote systems, in addition to searching on the local system, so that files on the remote systems are also searched. Unlike search folders, Libraries are backed by a physical location which allows files to be saved in the Libraries. Such files are transparently saved in the backing physical folder. The default save location for a library may be configured by the user, as can the default view layout for each library. Libraries are generally stored in the Libraries special folder, which allows them to be displayed on the navigation pane.

text: By default, a new user account in Windows 7 contains four libraries for different file types: Documents, Music, Pictures, and Videos. They are configured to include the user's profile folders for these respective file types, as well as the computer's corresponding Public folders. The Public folder also contains a hidden Recorded TV library that appears in the Windows Explorer sidepane when TV is set up in Media Center for the first time.

text: In addition to aggregating multiple storage locations, Libraries enable Arrangement Views and Search Filter Suggestions. Arrangement Views allow you to pivot your view of the library's contents based on metadata. For example, selecting the "By Month" view in the Pictures library will display photos in stacks, where each stack represents a month of photos based on the date they were taken. In the Music library, the "By Artist" view will display stacks of albums from the artists in your collection, and browsing into an artist stack will then display the relevant albums.

text: Search Filter Suggestions are a new feature of the Windows 7 Explorer's search box. When the user clicks in the search box, a menu shows up below it showing recent searches as well as suggested Advanced Query Syntax filters that the user can type. When one is selected (or typed in manually), the menu will update to show the possible values to filter by for that property, and this list is based on the current location and other parts of the query already typed. For example, selecting the "tags" filter or typing "tags:" into the search box will display the list of possible tag values which will return search results.

text: Arrangement Views and Search Filter Suggestions are database-backed features which require that all locations in the Library be indexed by the Windows Search service. Local disk locations must be indexed by the local indexer, and Windows Explorer will automatically add locations to the indexing scope when they are included in a library. Remote locations can be indexed by the indexer on another Windows 7 machine, on a Windows machine running Windows Search 4 (such as Windows Vista or Windows Home Server), or on another device that implements the MS-WSP remote query protocol.[17]

text: Federated search[edit]

text: Windows Explorer also supports federating search to external data sources, such as custom databases or web services, that are exposed over the web and described via an OpenSearch definition. The federated location description (called a Search Connector) is provided as a .osdx file. Once installed, the data source becomes queryable directly from Windows Explorer. Windows Explorer features, such as previews and thumbnails, work with the results of a federated search as well.

text: Miscellaneous shell enhancements[edit]

text: Windows Explorer has received numerous minor enhancements that improve its overall functionality. The Explorer's search box and the address bar can be resized. Folders such as those on the desktop or user profile folders can be hidden in the navigation pane to reduce clutter. A new Content view is added, which shows thumbnails and metadata together. A new button to toggle the Preview Pane has been added to the toolbar. The button to create a new folder has been moved from the Organize menu and onto the toolbar. List view provides more space between items than in Windows Vista. Finally, storage space consumption bars that were only present for hard disks in Windows Vista are now shown for removable storage devices.

text: Other areas of the shell have also received similar fine-tunings: Progress bars and overlay icons may now appear on an application's button on the taskbar to better alert the user of the status of the application or the work in progress. File types for which property handlers or iFilters are installed are re-indexed by default. Previously, adding submenus to shell context menus or customizing the context menu's behavior for a certain folder was only possible by installing a form of plug-in known as shell extensions. In Windows 7 however, computer-savvy users can do so by editing Windows Registry and/or desktop.ini files.[18][19] Additionally, a new shell API was introduced designed to simplify the writing of context menu shell extensions by software developers.[20][21]

text: Windows 7 includes native support for burning ISO files. The functionality is available when a user selects the Burn disc image option within the context menu of an ISO file. Support for disc image verification is also included. In previous versions of Windows, users were required to install-third party software to burn ISO images.[22]

text: Start menu[edit]

text: The start orb now has a fade-in highlight effect when the user hovers the mouse cursor over it. The Start Menu's right column is now the Aero glass color. In Windows Vista, it was always black.

text: Windows 7's Start menu retains the two-column layout of its predecessors, with several functional changes:

text:
The "Documents", "Pictures" and "Music" buttons now link to the Libraries of the same name.
A "Devices and Printers" option has been added that displays a new device manager.
The "shut down" icon in Windows Vista has been replaced with a text link indicating what action will be taken when the icon is clicked. The default action to take is now configurable through the Taskbar and Start Menu Properties window.
Taskbar Jump Lists are presented in the Start Menu via a guillemet; when the user moves the mouse cursor over the guillemet, or presses the right-arrow key, the right-hand side of the Start menu is widened and replaced with the application's Jump List.
Links to the "Videos", "Downloads", and "Recorded TV" folders can now be added to the Start menu.

text: The Start Search field, introduced in Windows Vista, has been extended to support searching for keywords of Control Panel items. For example, clicking the Start button then typing "wireless" will show Control Panel options related to configuring and connecting to wireless network, adding Bluetooth devices, and troubleshooting. Group Policy settings for Windows Explorer provide the ability for administrators of an Active Directory domain, or an expert user to add up to five Internet web sites and five additional "search connectors" to the Search Results view in the Start menu. The links, which appear at the bottom of the pane, allow the search to be executed again on the selected web site or search connector. Microsoft suggests that network administrators could use this feature to enable searching of corporate Intranets or an internal SharePoint server.[23]

text: Taskbar[edit]

text: The Windows Taskbar has seen its most significant revision since its introduction in Windows 95 and combines the previous Quick Launch functionality with open application window icons. The taskbar is now rendered as an Aero glass element whose color can be changed via the Personalization Control Panel. It is 10 pixels taller than in Windows Vista to accommodate touch screen input and a new larger default icon size (although a smaller taskbar size is available), as well as maintain proportion to newer high resolution monitor modes.[24] Running applications are denoted by a border frame around the icon. Within this border, a color effect (dependent on the predominant RGB value of the icon) that follows the mouse cursor also indicates the opened status of the application. The glass taskbar is more translucent than in Windows Vista. Taskbar buttons show icons by default, not application titles, unless they are set to 'not combine', or 'combine when taskbar is full.' In this case, only icons are shown when the application is not running. Programs running or pinned on the taskbar can be rearranged. Items in the notification area can also be rearranged.

text: Pinned applications[edit]

text: The Quick Launch toolbar has been removed from the default configuration, but may be easily added.[25] The Windows 7 taskbar is more application-oriented than window-oriented, and therefore doesn't show window titles (these are shown when an application icon is clicked or hovered over). Applications can now be pinned to the taskbar allowing the user instant access to the applications they commonly use. There are a few ways to pin applications to the taskbar. Icons can be dragged and dropped onto the taskbar, or the application’s icon can be right-clicked to pin it to the taskbar.

text: Thumbnail previews[edit]

text: Thumbnail previews which were introduced in Windows Vista have been expanded to not only preview the windows opened by the application in a small-sized thumbnail view, but to also interact with them. The user can close any window opened by clicking the X on the corresponding thumbnail preview. The name of the window is also shown in the thumbnail preview. A "peek" at the window is obtained by hovering over the thumbnail preview. Peeking brings up only the window of the thumbnail preview over which the mouse cursor hovers, and turns any other windows on the desktop transparent. This also works for tabs in Internet Explorer: individual tabs may be peeked at in the thumbnail previews. Thumbnail previews integrate Thumbnail Toolbars [26] which can control the application from the thumbnail previews themselves. For example, if Windows Media Player is opened and the mouse cursor is hovering on the application icon, the thumbnail preview will allow the user the ability to Play, Stop, and Play Next/Previous track without having to switch to the Windows Media Player window.

text: Jump lists[edit]

text: Jump lists are menu options available by right-clicking a taskbar icon or holding the left mouse button and sliding towards the center of the desktop on an icon. Each application has a jump list corresponding to its features, Microsoft Word's displaying recently opened documents; Windows Media Player's recent tracks and playlists; Internet Explorer's recent browsing history and options for opening new tabs or starting InPrivate Browsing; Windows Live Messenger's common tasks such as instant messaging, signing off, and changing online status. Up to 10 menu items may appear on a list, partially customizable by user.[27]

text: Task progress[edit]

text: Progress bar in taskbar's tasks allows users to know the progress of a task without switching to the pending window.[28] Task progress is used in Windows Explorer, Internet Explorer and third-party software.

text: Notification area[edit]

text: The notification area has been redesigned; the standard Volume, Network, Power and Action Center status icons are present, but no other application icons are shown unless the user has chosen them to be shown. A new "Notification Area Icons" control panel has been added which replaces the "Customize Notification Icons" dialog box in the "Taskbar and Start Menu Properties" window first introduced in Windows XP. In addition to being able to configure whether the application icons are shown, the ability to hide each application's notification balloons has been added. The user can then view the notifications at a later time.

text: A triangle to the left of the visible notification icons displays the hidden notification icons. Unlike Windows Vista and Windows XP, the hidden icons are displayed in a window above the taskbar, instead of on the taskbar. Icons can be dragged between this window and the notification area.

text: Aero Peek[edit]

text: In previous versions of Windows, the taskbar ended with the notification area on the right-hand side. Windows 7, however, introduces a show desktop button on the far right side of the taskbar which can initiate an Aero Peek feature that makes all open windows translucent when hovered over by a mouse cursor. Clicking this button shows the desktop, and clicking it again brings all windows to focus. The new button replaces the show desktop shortcut located in the Quick Launch toolbar in previous versions of Windows.[29]

text: On touch-based devices, Aero Peek can be initiated by pressing and holding the show desktop button; touching the button itself shows the desktop. The button also increases in width to accommodate being pressed by a finger.[30]

text: Window management mouse gestures[edit]

text: Aero Snap[edit]

text: Windows can be dragged to the top of the screen to maximize them and dragged away to restore them. Dragging a window to the left or right of the screen makes it take up half the screen, allowing the user to tile two windows next to each other. Also, resizing the window to the bottom of the screen or its top will extend the window to full height but retain its width.[31] These features can be disabled via the Ease of Access Center if users do not wish the windows to automatically resize.[32]

text: Aero Shake[edit]

text: Aero Shake allows users to clear up any clutter on their screen by shaking (dragging back and forth) a window of their choice with the mouse. All other windows will minimize, while the window the user shook stays active on the screen.[33] When the window is shaken again, they are all restored, similar to desktop preview. Use when you have many open windows on your desktop. This feature will minimize all windows except the one you shake. Click and hold on the title bar of the window you need open and shake the mouse. The window you shake will maximize and all others will be minimized. To restore all windows, shake the mouse again whilst holding on to the title bar of the open window.

text: Keyboard shortcuts[edit]

text: A variety of new keyboard shortcuts have been introduced.[34][35] [36]

text: Global keyboard shortcuts:

text:
⊞ Win+Space bar operates as a keyboard shortcut for Aero Peek.
⊞ Win+↑ maximizes the current window.
⊞ Win+↓ if current window is maximized, restores it; otherwise minimizes current window.
⊞ Win+⇧ Shift+↑ makes upper and lower edge of current window nearly touch the upper and lower edge of the Windows desktop environment, respectively.
⊞ Win+⇧ Shift+↓ restores the original size of the current window.
⊞ Win+← snaps the current window to the left edge of the screen.
⊞ Win+→ snaps the current window to the right half of the screen.
⊞ Win+⇧ Shift+← and ⊞ Win+⇧ Shift+→ move the current window to the left or right display.
⊞ Win++ functions as zoom in command wherever applicable.
⊞ Win+− functions as zoom out command wherever applicable.
⊞ Win+ESC turn off zoom once enabled.
⊞ Win+Home operates as a keyboard shortcut for Aero Shake.
⊞ Win+Tab ↹ View opened application and windows in 3D stack view.
⊞ Win+P Opens Connect to a Network Projector, which has been updated from previous versions of Windows, and allows one to dictate where the desktop is displayed: on the main monitor, an external display, both; or allows one to display two independent desktops on two separate monitors.

text: Taskbar:

text:
Shift + Click, or Middle click starts a new instance of the application, regardless of whether it's already running.
Ctrl + Shift + Click starts a new instance with Administrator privileges; by default, a User Account Control prompt will be displayed.
Shift + Right-click (or right-clicking the program's thumbnail) shows the titlebar's context menu which, by default, contains "Restore", "Move", "Size", "Maximize", "Minimize" and "Close" commands. If the icon being clicked on is a grouped icon, a specialized context menu with "Restore All", "Minimize All", and "Close All" commands is shown.
Ctrl + Click on a grouped icon cycles between the windows (or tabs) in the group.

text: Font management[edit]

text: The user interface for font management has been overhauled in Windows 7. As with Windows Vista, the collection of installed fonts is displayed in a Windows Explorer window, but fonts that originate from the same font family appear as icons that are represented as stacks that display font previews within the interface. Windows 7 also introduces the option to hide installed fonts; certain fonts are automatically removed from view based on a user's regional settings.[37] An option to manually hide installed fonts is also available. Hidden fonts remain installed but are not enumerated when an application asks for a list of available fonts, thus reducing the amount of fonts to scroll through within the interface and also reducing memory usage.[38] Windows 7 includes over 40 new fonts,[39] including a new "Gabriola" font.[38][40]

text: The dialog box for fonts in Windows 7 has also been updated to display font previews within the interface, which allows users to preview fonts before selecting them. Previous versions of windows only displayed the name of the font.[41][42]

text: The ClearType Text Tuner which was previously available as a Microsoft Powertoy for earlier Windows versions has been integrated into, and updated for Windows 7.

text: Microsoft would later backport Windows 8 Emoji features to Windows 7.[43]

text: Devices[edit]

text: There are two major new user interface components for device management in Windows 7, "Devices and Printers" and "Device Stage". Both of these are integrated with Windows Explorer, and together provide a simplified view of what devices are connected to the computer, and what capabilities they support.

text: Devices and Printers[edit]

text: Devices and Printers is a new Control Panel interface that is directly accessible from the Start menu. Unlike the Device Manager Control Panel applet, which is still present, the icons shown on the Devices and Printers screen are limited to components of the system that a non-expert user will recognize as plug-in devices. For example, an external monitor connected to the system will be displayed as a device, but the internal monitor on a laptop will not. Device-specific features are available through the context menu for each device; an external monitor's context menu, for example, provides a link to the "Display Settings" control panel.

text: This new Control Panel applet also replaces the "Printers" window in prior versions of Windows; common printer operations such as setting the default printer, installing or removing printers, and configuring properties such as paper size are done through this control panel.

text: Windows 7 and Server 2008 R2 introduce print driver isolation, which improves the reliability of the print spooler by running printer drivers in a separate process to the spooler service. If a third party print driver fails while isolated, it does not impact other drivers or the print spooler service.

text: Device Stage[edit]

text: Device Stage provides a centralized location for an externally connected multi-function device to present its functionality to the user. When a device such as a portable music player is connected to the system, the device appears as an icon on the task bar, as well as in Windows Explorer.

text: Windows 7 ships with high-resolution images of a number of popular devices, and is capable of connecting to the Internet to download images of devices it doesn't recognize. Opening the icon presents a window that displays actions relevant to that device. Screenshots of the technology presented by Microsoft suggest that a mobile phone could offer options for two-way synchronization, configuring ring-tones, copying pictures and videos, managing the device in Windows Media Player, and using Windows Explorer to navigate through the device.[44] Other device status information such as free memory and battery life can also be shown. The actual per-device functionality is defined via XML files that are downloaded when the device is first connected to the computer, or are provided by the manufacturer on an installation disc.[45]

text: Mobility enhancements[edit]

text: Multi-touch support[edit]

text: Hilton Locke, who worked on the Tablet PC team at Microsoft, reported on December 11, 2007 that Windows 7 will have new touch features on devices supporting multi-touch. An overview and demonstration of the multi-touch capabilities, including a virtual piano program, a mapping and directions program and a touch-aware version of Microsoft Paint, was given at the All Things Digital Conference on May 27, 2008; a video of the multi-touch capabilities was made available on the web later the same day.[46]

text: Sensors[edit]

text: Windows 7 introduces native support for sensors, including accelerometer sensors, ambient light sensors, and location-based sensors;[47] the operating system also provides a unified driver model for sensor devices.[48] A notable use of this technology in Windows 7 is the operating system's adaptive display brightness feature, which automatically adjusts the brightness of a compatible computer's display based on environmental light conditions and factors.[49] Gadgets developed for Windows 7 can also display location-based information.[50] Applications for certain sensor capabilities can be developed without the requisite hardware.[51]

text: Because data acquired by some sensors can be considered personally identifiable information, all sensors are disabled by default in Windows 7, and an account in Windows 7 requires administrative permissions to enable a sensor. Sensors also require user consent to share location data.[48]

text: Power management[edit]

text: Battery notification messages[edit]

text: Unlike previous versions of Windows, Windows 7 is able to report when a laptop battery is in need of a replacement. The operating system works with design capabilities present in modern laptop batteries to report this information.[52]

text: Hibernation improvements[edit]

text: The powercfg command enables the customization of the hibernation file size. By default, Windows 7 automatically sets the size of the hibernation file to 75% of a computer's total physical memory. The operating system also compresses the contents of memory during the hibernate process to minimize the possibility that the contents exceeds the default size of the hibernation file.[53]

text: Power analysis and reporting[edit]

text: Windows 7 introduces a new /Energy parameter for the powercfg command, which generates an HTML report of a computer's energy efficiency and displays information related to devices or settings.[54]

text: USB suspension[edit]

text: Windows 7 can individually suspend USB hubs and supports selective suspend for all in-box USB class drivers.[55]

text: Graphics[edit]

text: DirectX[edit]

text:
Direct3D 11 is included with Windows 7. It is a strict super-set of Direct3D 10.1, which was introduced in Windows Vista Service Pack 1 and Windows Server 2008.
Direct2D and DirectWrite, new hardware-accelerated vector graphics and font rendering APIs built on top of Direct3D 10 that are intended to replace GDI/GDI+ for screen-oriented native-code graphics and text drawing. They can be used from managed applications with the Windows API Code Pack
Windows Advanced Rasterization Platform (WARP), a software rasterizer component for DirectX that provides all of the capabilities of Direct3D 10.0 and 10.1 in software.[56]
DirectX Video Acceleration-High Definition (DXVA-HD)[57]

text: Direct3D 11, Direct2D, DirectWrite, DXGI 1.1, WARP and several other components are currently available for Windows Vista SP2 and Windows Server 2008 SP2 by installing the Platform Update for Windows Vista.[58]

text: Desktop Window Manager[edit]

text: First introduced in Windows Vista, the Desktop Window Manager (DWM) in Windows 7 has been updated to use version 10.1 of Direct3D API, and its performance has been improved significantly.[59]

text: The Desktop Window Manager still requires at least a Direct3D 9-capable video card (supported with new D3D10_FEATURE_LEVEL_9_n [60] device type introduced with the Direct3D 11 runtime).

text: With a video driver conforming to Windows Display Driver Model v1.1, DXGI kernel in Windows 7 provides 2D hardware acceleration to APIs such as GDI, Direct2D and DirectWrite (though GDI+ was not updated to use this functionality). This allows DWM to use significantly lower amounts of system memory, which do not grow regardless of how many windows are opened, like it was in Windows Vista.[61] Systems equipped with a WDDM 1.0 video card will operate in the same fashion as in Windows Vista, using software-only rendering.

text: The Desktop Window Manager in Windows 7 also adds support for systems using multiple heterogeneous graphics cards from different vendors.[62]

text: Other changes[edit]

text: Support for color depths of 30 and 48 bits is included, along with the wide color gamut scRGB (which for HDMI 1.3 can be converted and output as xvYCC). The video modes supported in Windows 7 are 16-bit sRGB, 24-bit sRGB, 30-bit sRGB, 30-bit with extended color gamut sRGB, and 48-bit scRGB.[63][64]

text: Each user of Windows 7 and Server 2008 R2 has individual DPI settings, rather than the machine having a single setting as in previous versions of Windows. DPI settings can be changed by logging on and off, without needing to restart.[65]

text: File system[edit]

text: Solid state drives[edit]

text: Over time, several technologies have been incorporated into subsequent versions of Windows to improve the performance of the operating system on traditional hard disk drives (HDD) with rotating platters. Since Solid state drives (SSD) differ from mechanical HDDs in some key areas (no moving parts, write amplification, limited number of erase cycles allowed for reliable operation), it is beneficial to disable certain optimizations and add others, specifically for SSDs.

text: Windows 7 incorporates many engineering changes to reduce the frequency of writes and flushes, which benefit SSDs in particular since each write operation wears the flash memory.

text: Windows 7 also makes use of the TRIM command. If supported by the SSD (not implemented on early devices), this optimizes when erase cycles are performed, reducing the need to erase blocks before each write and increasing write performance.

text: Several tools and techniques that were implemented in the past to reduce the impact of the rotational latency of traditional HDDs, most notably disk defragmentation, SuperFetch, ReadyBoost, and application launch prefetching, involve reorganizing (rewriting) the data on the platters. Since SSDs have no moving platters, this reorganization has no advantages, and may instead shorten the life of the solid state memory. Therefore, these tools are by default disabled on SSDs in Windows 7, except for some early generation SSDs that might still benefit.

text: Finally, partitions made with Windows 7’s partition-creating tools are created with the SSD’s alignment needs in mind, avoiding unwanted systematic write amplification.[66]

text: Virtual hard disks[edit]

text: The Enterprise and Ultimate editions of Windows 7 incorporate support for the Virtual Hard Disk (VHD) file format. VHD files can be mounted as drives, created, and booted from, in the same way as WIM files.[67] Furthermore, an installed version of Windows 7 can be booted and run from a VHD drive, even on non-virtual hardware, thereby providing a new way to multi boot Windows. Some features such as hibernation and BitLocker are not available when booting from VHD.

text: Disk partitioning[edit]

text: By default, a computer's disk is partitioned into two partitions: one of limited size for booting, BitLocker and running the Windows Recovery Environment and the second with the operating system and user files.[68]

text: Removable media[edit]

text: Windows 7 has also seen improvements to the Safely Remove Hardware menu, including the ability to eject just one camera card at the same time (from a single hub) and retain the ports for future use without reboot; and the labels of removable media are now also listed, rather than just the drive letter.[69] Windows Explorer now by default only shows memory card reader ports in My Computer if they contain a card.[69]

text: BitLocker to Go[edit]

text: BitLocker brings encryption support to removable disks such as USB drives. Such devices can be protected by a passphrase, a recovery key, or be automatically unlocked on a computer.[70]

text: Boot performance[edit]

text: According to data gathered from the Microsoft Customer Experience Improvement Program (CEIP), 35% of Vista SP1 installations boot up in 30 seconds or less. The more lengthy boot times on the remainder of the machines are mainly due to some services or programs that are loaded but are not required when the system is first started. Microsoft's Mike Fortin, a distinguished engineer on the Windows team, noted in August 2008 that Microsoft has set aside a team to work solely on the issue, and that team aims to "significantly increase the number of systems that experience very good boot times". They "focused very hard on increasing parallelism of driver initialization". Also, Microsoft aims to "dramatically reduce" the number of system services, along with their demands on processors, storage, and memory.[71]

text: Multimedia[edit]

text: Windows Media Center[edit]

text: Windows Media Center in Windows 7 has retained much of the design and feel of its predecessor, but with a variety of user interface shortcuts and browsing capabilities.[72] Playback of H.264 video both locally and through a Media Center Extender (including the Xbox 360) is supported.

text: Some notable enhancements in Windows 7 Media Center include a new mini guide, a new scrub bar, the option to color code the guide by show type, and internet content that is more tightly integrated with regular TV via the guide. All Windows 7 versions now support up to four tuners of each type (QAM, ATSC, CableCARD, NTSC, etc.).

text: When browsing the media library, items that don't have album art are shown in a range of foreground and background color combinations instead of using white text on a blue background. When the left or right remote control buttons are held down to browse the library quickly, a two-letter prefix of the current album name is prominently shown as a visual aid. The Picture Library includes new slideshow capabilities, and individual pictures can be rated.

text: Also, while browsing a media library, a new column appears at the top named "Shared." This allows users to access shared media libraries on other Media Center PCs from directly within Media Center.

text: For television support, the Windows Media Center "TV Pack" released by Microsoft in 2008 is incorporated into Windows Media Center. This includes support for CableCARD and North American (ATSC) clear QAM tuners, as well as creating lists of favorite stations.[73]

text: A gadget for Windows Media Center is also included.[13]

text: Format support[edit]

text: Windows 7 includes AVI, WAV, AAC/ADTS file media sinks to read the respective formats,[74] an MPEG-4 file source to read MP4, M4A, M4V, MP4V MOV and 3GP container formats[75] and an MPEG-4 file sink to output to MP4 format.[76] Windows 7 also includes a media source to read MPEG transport stream/BDAV MPEG-2 transport stream (M2TS, MTS, M2T and AVCHD) files.[citation needed]

text: Transcoding (encoding) support is not exposed through any built-in Windows application but codecs are included as Media Foundation Transforms (MFTs).[74] In addition to Windows Media Audio and Windows Media Video encoders and decoders, and ASF file sink and file source introduced in Windows Vista,[74] Windows 7 includes an H.264 encoder with Baseline profile level 3 and Main profile support[77] and an AAC Low Complexity (AAC-LC) profile encoder.[78]

text: For playback of various media formats, Windows 7 also introduces an H.264 decoder with Baseline, Main, and High profiles support, up to level 5.1,[79] AAC-LC and HE-AAC v1 (SBR) multichannel, HE-AAC v2 (PS) stereo decoders,[80] MPEG-4 Part 2 Simple Profile and Advanced Simple Profile decoders[81] which includes decoding popular codec implementations such as DivX, Xvid and Nero Digital as well as MJPEG[74] and DV[82] MFT decoders for AVI. Windows Media Player 12 uses the built-in Media Foundation codecs to play these formats by default.

text: Windows 7 also updates the DirectShow filters introduced in Windows Vista for playback of MPEG-2 and Dolby Digital to decode H.264, AAC, HE-AAC v1 and v2[83] and Dolby Digital Plus[84] (including downmixing to Dolby Digital).

text: Security[edit]

text: Action Center, formerly Windows Security Center, now encompasses both security and maintenance. (It was called Windows Health Center and Windows Solution Center in earlier builds[citation needed]).

text: A new user interface for User Account Control has been introduced, which provides the ability to select four different levels of notifications, one of these notification settings, Default, is new to Windows 7.[85] Geo-tracking capabilities are also available in Windows 7. The feature will be disabled by default. When enabled the user will only have limited control as to which applications can track their location.[86]

text: The Encrypting File System supports Elliptic-curve cryptographic algorithms (ECC) in Windows 7. For backward compatibility with previous releases of Windows, Windows 7 supports a mixed-mode operation of ECC and RSA algorithms. EFS self-signed certificates, when using ECC, will use 256-bit key by default. EFS can be configured to use 1K/2k/4k/8k/16k-bit keys when using self-signed RSA certificates, or 256/384/512-bit keys when using ECC certificates.

text: In Windows Vista, the Protected User-Mode Audio (PUMA) content protection facilities are only available to applications that are running in a Protected Media Path environment. Because only the Media Foundation application programming interface could interact with this environment, a media player application had to be designed to use Media Foundation. In Windows 7, this restriction is lifted.[87] PUMA also incorporates stricter enforcement of "Copy Never" bits when using Serial Copy Management System (SCMS) copy protection over an S/PDIF connection, as well as with High-bandwidth Digital Content Protection (HDCP) over HDMI connections.

text: Biometrics[edit]

text: Windows 7 includes the new Windows Biometric Framework.[88] This framework consists of a set of components that standardizes the use of fingerprint biometric devices. In prior releases of Microsoft Windows, biometric hardware device manufacturers were required to provide a complete stack of software to support their device, including device drivers, software development kits, and support applications. Microsoft noted in a white paper on the Windows Biometric Framework that the proliferation of these proprietary stacks resulted in compatibility issues, compromised the quality and reliability of the system, and made servicing and maintenance more difficult. By incorporating the core biometric functionality into the operating system, Microsoft aims to bring biometric device support on par with other classes of devices.

text: A new Control Panel called Biometric Device Control Panel is included which provides an interface for deleting stored biometrics information, troubleshooting, and enabling or disabling the types of logins that are allowed using biometrics. Biometrics configuration can also be configured using Group Policy settings.

text: Networking[edit]

text:
DirectAccess, a VPN tunnel technology based on IPv6 and IPsec. DirectAccess requires domain-joined machines, Windows Server 2008 R2 on the DirectAccess server, at least Windows Server 2008 domain controllers and a PKI to issue authentication certificates.[89]
BranchCache, a WAN optimization technology.[90]
The Bluetooth stack includes improvements introduced in the Windows Vista Feature Pack for Wireless, namely, Bluetooth 2.1+EDR support and remote wake from S3 or S4 support for self-powered Bluetooth modules.[91]
NDIS 6.20[92] (Network Driver Interface Specification)
WWAN (Mobile broadband) support (driver model based on NDIS miniport driver for CDMA and GSM device interfaces, Connection Manager support and Mobile Broadband COM and COM Interop API).
Wireless Hosted Network capabilities: The Windows 7 wireless LAN service supports two new functions – Virtual Wi-Fi, that allows a single wireless network adapter to act like two client devices,[93] or a software-based wireless access point (SoftAP) to act as both a wireless hotspot in infrastructure mode and a wireless client at the same time.[94] This feature is not exposed through the GUI; however the Virtual WiFi Miniport adapter can be installed and enabled for wireless adapters with drivers that support a hosted network by using the command netsh wlan set hostednetwork mode=allow "ssid=<network SSID>" "key=<wlan security key>" keyusage=persistent|temporary at an elevated command prompt.[95] The wireless SoftAP can afterwards be started using the command netsh wlan start hostednetwork. Windows 7 also supports WPA2-PSK/AES security for the hosted network, but DNS resolution for clients requires it to be used with Internet Connection Sharing or a similar feature.
SMB 2.1, which includes minor performance enhancements over SMB2, such as a new opportunistic locking mechanism.[96]
RDP 7.0[97]
Background Intelligent Transfer Service 4.0[98]

text: HomeGroup[edit]

text: Alongside the workgroup system used by previous versions, Windows 7 adds a new ad hoc home networking system known as HomeGroup. The system uses a password to join computers into the group, and allows users' libraries, along with individual files and folders, to be shared between multiple computers. Only computers running Windows 7 or later can create or join a HomeGroup.[99]

text: HomeGroup as a concept is very similar to a feature slated for Windows Vista, known as Castle, which would have made it possible to have an identification service for all members on the network, without a centralized server.

text: HomeGroup is created in response to the need for a simple sharing model for inexperienced users who need to share files without wrestling with user accounts, Security descriptors and share permissions.[100] To that end, Microsoft previously created Simple File Sharing mode in Windows XP that once enabled, caused all connected computers to be authenticated as Guest. Under this model, either a certain file or folder was shared with anyone who connects to the network (even unauthorized parties who are in range of the wireless network) or was not shared at all.[101] In a HomeGroup, however:

text:
Communication between HomeGroup computers is encrypted with a pre-shared password.[100]
A certain file or folder can be shared with the entire HomeGroup (anyone who joins) or a certain person only.[100]
HomeGroup computers can also be a member of a Windows domain or Windows workgroup at the same time and take advantage of those file sharing mechanisms.[102]
Only computers that support HomeGroup (Windows 7 and later) can join the network.[102]

tag: ol

text: Windows Firewall[edit]

text: Windows 7 adds support for multiple firewall profiles. The Windows Firewall in Windows Vista dynamically changes which network traffic is allowed or blocked based on the location of the computer (based on which network it is connected to). This approach falls short if the computer is connected to more than one network at the same time (as for a computer with both an Ethernet and a wireless interface). In this case, Vista applies the profile that is more secure to all network connections. This is often not desirable; Windows 7 resolves this by being able to apply a separate firewall profile to each network connection.

text: DNSSEC[edit]

text: Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 introduce support for Domain Name System Security Extensions (DNSSEC),[103] a set of specifications for securing certain kinds of information provided by the Domain Name System (DNS) as used on Internet Protocol (IP) networks. DNSSEC employs digital signatures to ensure the authenticity of DNS data received from a DNS server, which protect against DNS cache poisoning attacks.

text: Management features[edit]

text: Windows 7 contains Windows PowerShell 2.0 out-of-the-box, which is also available as a download to install on older platforms:[104]

text:
Windows Troubleshooting Platform
Windows PowerShell Integrated Scripting Environment
PowerShell Remoting

text: Other new management features include:

text:
AppLocker (a set of Group Policy settings that evolved from Software Restriction Policies, to restrict which applications can run on a corporate network, including the ability to restrict based on the application's version number or publisher)
Group Policy Preferences (also available as a download for Windows XP and Windows Vista).
The Windows Automation API (also available as a download for Windows XP and Windows Vista).

text: Upgraded components[edit]

text: Windows 7 includes Internet Explorer 8,[105] .NET Framework 3.5 SP1,[106] Internet Information Services (IIS) 7.5,[107] Windows Installer 5.0 and a standalone XPS Viewer.[108][109] Paint, Calculator, Resource Monitor and WordPad have also been updated.

text: Paint features a Ribbon interface similar to the one introduced in Office 2007, and also sports several new features.

text: Calculator has been rewritten, with multiline capabilities including Programmer and Statistics modes, unit conversion, and date calculations. Calculator was also given a graphical facelift, the first since Windows 95 in 1995 and Windows NT 4.0 in 1996.

text: WordPad also features the new Ribbon user interface. WordPad supports Office Open XML and ODF file formats.[110]

text: Resource Monitor includes an improved RAM usage display and supports display of TCP/IP ports being listened to, filtering processes using networking, filtering processes with disk activity and listing and searching process handles (e.g. files used by a process) and loaded modules (files required by an executable file, e.g. DLL files).

text: Microsoft Magnifier, an accessibility utility for low vision users has been dramatically improved. Magnifier now supports the full screen zoom feature, whereas previous Windows versions had the Magnifier attached to the top of the screen in a dock layout. The new full screen feature is enabled by default, however, it requires Windows Aero for the advantage of the full screen zoom feature. If Windows is set to the Windows 7 Basic, Windows Classic, or High Contrast themes, Magnifier will still function like it did in Windows Vista and earlier.

text: Windows Installer 5.0 supports installing and configuring Windows Services,[111] and provides developers with more control over setting permissions during software installation.[112] Neither of these features will be available for prior versions of Windows; custom actions to support these features will continue to be required for Windows Installer packages that need to implement these features.

text: Other features[edit]

text:
Windows 7 improves the Tablet PC Input Panel to make faster corrections using new gestures, supports text prediction in the soft keyboard and introduces a new Math Input Panel for inputting math into programs that support MathML.[113] It recognizes handwritten math expressions and formulas. Additional language support for handwriting recognition can be gained by installing the respective MUI pack for that language (also called language pack).
Windows 7 introduces a new Problem Steps Recorder tool that enables users to record their interaction with software for analysis and support. The feature can be used to replicate a problem to show support when and where a problem occurred.[114]
As opposed to the blank start-up screen in Windows Vista, Windows 7's start-up screen consists of an animation featuring four colored light balls (one red, one yellow, one green, and one blue). They twirl around for a few seconds and then join together to form a glowing Windows logo. This only occurs on displays with a vertical resolution of 768 pixels or higher, as the animation is 1024x768. Any screen with a resolution below this displays the same startup screen that Vista used.
The Starter Edition of Windows 7 can run an unlimited number of applications, compared to only 3 in Windows Vista Starter. Microsoft had initially intended to ship Windows 7 Starter Edition with this limitation, but announced after the release of the Release Candidate that this restriction would not be imposed in the final release.[115]

text:
For developers, Windows 7 includes a new networking API with support for building SOAP-based web services in native code (as opposed to .NET-based WCF web services),[116] new features to shorten application install times, reduced UAC prompts, simplified development of installation packages,[117] and improved globalization support through a new Extended Linguistic Services API.[118]
If an application crashes twice in a row, Windows 7 will automatically attempt to apply a shim. If an application fails to install a similar self-correcting fix, a tool that asks some questions about the application launches.[119]
Windows 7 includes an optional TIFF IFilter that enables indexing of TIFF documents by reading them with optical character recognition (OCR), thus making their text content searchable. TIFF iFilter supports Adobe TIFF Revision 6.0 specifications and four compression schemes: LZW, JPEG, CCITT v4, CCITT v6[120]
The Windows Console now adheres to the current Windows theme, instead of showing controls from the Windows Classic theme.
Games Internet Spades, Internet Backgammon and Internet Checkers, which were removed from Windows Vista, were restored in Windows 7.
Users can disable many more Windows components than was possible in Windows Vista. The new components which can now be disabled include: Handwriting Recognition, Internet Explorer, Windows DVD Maker, Windows Fax and Scan, Windows Gadget Platform Windows Media Center, Windows Media Player, Windows Search, and the XPS Viewer (with its services).[121]
Windows XP Mode is a fully functioning copy of 32-bit Windows XP Professional SP3 running in a virtual machine in Windows Virtual PC (as opposed to Hyper-V) running on top of Windows 7. Through the use of the RDP protocol, it allows applications incompatible with Windows 7 to be run on the underlying Windows XP virtual machine, but still to appear to be part of the Windows 7 desktop,[122] thereby sharing the native Start Menu of Windows 7 as well as participating in file type associations. It is not distributed with Windows 7 media, but is offered as a free download to users of the Professional, Enterprise and Ultimate editions from Microsoft's web site. Users of Home Premium who want Windows XP functionality on their systems can download Windows Virtual PC free of charge, but must provide their own licensed copy of Windows XP. XP Mode is intended for consumers rather than enterprises, as it offers no central management capabilities. Microsoft Enterprise Desktop Virtualization (Med-V) is available for the enterprise market.
Native support for Hyper-V virtual machines through the inclusion of VMBus integration drivers.[123]
The memory manager is optimized to mitigate the problem of total memory consumption in the event of excessive cached read operations, which occurred on earlier releases of 64-bit Windows.[124]
AVCHD camera support and Universal Video Class 1.1
Protected Broadcast Driver Architecture (PBDA) for TV tuner cards, first implemented in Windows Media Center TV Pack 2008 for Windows Vista.
Support for up to 256 logical processors[125]
Fewer hardware locks and greater parallelism[126]
Timer coalescing: modern processors and chipsets can switch to very low power usage levels while the CPU is idle. In order to reduce the number of times the CPU enters and exits idle states, Windows 7 introduces the concept of "timer coalescing"; multiple applications or device drivers which perform actions on a regular basis can be set to occur at once, instead of each action being performed on their own schedule. This facility is available in both kernel mode, via the KeSetCoalesableTimer API (which would be used in place of KeSetTimerEx), and in user mode with the SetWaitableTimerEx Windows API call (which replaces SetWaitableTimer).[127]
Multi-function devices and Device Containers: Prior to Windows 7, every device attached to the system was treated as a single functional end-point, known as a devnode, that has a set of capabilities and a "status". While this is appropriate for single-function devices (such as a keyboard or scanner), it does not accurately represent multi-function devices such as a combined printer, fax machine, and scanner, or web-cams with a built-in microphone. In Windows 7, the drivers and status information for multi-function device can be grouped together as a single "Device Container", which is presented to the user in the new "Devices and Printers" Control Panel as a single unit. This capability is provided by a new Plug and Play property, ContainerID, which is a Globally Unique Identifier that is different for every instance of a physical device. The Container ID can be embedded within the device by the manufacturer, or created by Windows and associated with each devnode when it is first connected to the computer. In order to ensure the uniqueness of the generated Container ID, Windows will attempt to use information unique to the device, such as a MAC address or USB serial number. Devices connected to the computer via USB, IEEE 1394 (FireWire), eSATA, PCI Express, Bluetooth, and Windows Rally's PnP-X support can make use of Device Containers.[128]

text: User-Mode Scheduling: The 64-bit versions of Windows 7 and Server 2008 R2 introduce a user-mode scheduling framework.[129] On Microsoft Windows operating systems, scheduling of threads inside a process is handled by the kernel. While for most applications this is sufficient, applications with large concurrent threading requirements, such as a database server, can benefit from having a thread scheduler in-process. This is because the kernel no longer needs to be involved in context switches between threads, and it obviates the need for a thread pool mechanism as threads can be created and destroyed much more quickly when no kernel context switches are required.

text: Windows 7 will also contain a new FireWire (IEEE 1394) stack that fully supports IEEE 1394b with S800, S1600 and S3200 data rates.[130][131]

text:
The ability to join a domain offline.[132]
Service Control Manager in conjunction with the Windows Task Scheduler supports trigger-start services.[133]


document_title: List of states in India by past population

question_text: which state of india has recorded the highest rate of population growth in the last census

root

text: Census of India[edit]

text: The first population census in India was conducted in 1872. Since then the a decennial census has been conducted in 1881, 1891, 1901, 1911, 1921, 1931, and 1941 by the Government. Since India's independence in 1947, a census has been carried out every 10 years by the Indian Government, starting from 1951.[4] The census in India is carried out by the Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner under the Ministry of Home Affairs, and is one of the largest administrative tasks conducted by a federal government.[5]

tag: p

text: Latest population figures are based on data from the 2011 census of India.[6] During the decade of 2001–2011, India's annual population rising rate has slowed down from 2.15 to 1.76.[6][6] Based on decennial census data, Dadra and Nagar Haveli shows the highest growth rate of 55.5 percent. It is followed by Daman and Diu (53.5 percent), Meghalaya (27.8 percent) and Arunachal Pradesh (25.9 percent). Nagaland recorded the lowest growth rate of -0.5 percent.[6]

text: India has 641,000 inhabited villages and 72.2 percent of the total population reside in these rural areas.[6] Of them 145,000 villages have population size of 500–999 persons; 130,000 villages have population size of 1000–1999 and 128,000 villages have population size of 200–499. There are 3,961 villages that have a population of 10,000 persons or more.[2] India's 27.8 percent urban population lives in more than 5,100 towns and over 380 urban agglomerations.[7] In the decade of 1991–2001, migration to major cities caused rapid increase in urban population.[8][9] On the basis of net migrants by last residence during the past decade, Maharashtra had most immigration with 2.3 million, followed by National Capital Territory of Delhi (1.7 million), Gujarat (0.68 million) and Haryana (0.67 million). Uttar Pradesh (−2.6 million) and Bihar (−1.7 million) topped the list for interstate emigration.[10] The four states of Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal and account for almost half (48.89 percent) of the total Indian population.[6]

text: States and union territories of India by past population (1947–2011)[edit]

text: The total geographical area of India is 3,287,240 square kilometres (1,269,210 sq mi)α.[2]

text: As per census data 2011, the total population of India is: 1,210,193,422.[6]

text:
Rank
State or union territory
Population (1951 Census)[11]
Population (1961 Census)[11]
Population (1971 Census)[11]
Population (1981 Census)[11]
Population (1991 Census)[11]
Population (2001 Census)[11]
Population (2011 Census)[11]

1
Uttar Pradesh
60,274,800
70,144,160
83,849,775
105,113,300
132,062,800
166,053,600
199,581,477

2
Maharashtra
32,002,500
39,554,900
50,412,240
62,782,820
78,937,190
96,752,500
112,372,972

3
Bihar
29,085,900
34,841,490
42,126,800
52,303,000
64,531,200
82,879,910
103,804,630

4
West Bengal
26,300,670
34,926,000
44,312,017
54,580,650
68,077,970
80,221,300
91,347,736

5
Madhya Pradesh
18,615,700
23,218,950
30,017,180
38,169,500
48,566,800
60,385,090
72,597,565

6
Tamil Nadu
30,119,680
33,687,100
41,199,170
48,408,080
55,859,300
62,111,390
72,138,958

7
Rajasthan
15,971,130
20,156,540
25,765,810
34,361,860
44,005,990
56,473,300
68,621,012

8
Karnataka
19,402,500
23,587,910
29,299,015
37,135,710
44,977,200
52,734,986
61,130,704

9
Gujarat
16,263,700
20,633,305
26,697,488
34,085,800
41,309,580
50,597,200
60,383,628

10
Andhra Pradesh
31,115,000
35,983,480
43,502,710
53,551,030
66,508,170
75,728,400
49,665,533

11
Odisha
14,646,100
17,549,500
21,944,625
26,370,270
31,659,740
36,707,900
41,947,358

12
Telangana
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
35,193,978

13
Kerala
13,549,000
16,904,560
21,347,300
25,453,680
29,098,523
31,839,000
33,387,677

14
Jharkhand
9,697,300
11,606,504
14,227,493
17,612,000
21,844,550
26,946,070
32,966,238

15
Assam
8,029,100
10,837,700
14,625,157
18,041,250
22,414,320
26,638,600
31,169,272

16
Punjab
9,160,990
11,135,404
13,551,069
16,788,920
20,281,971
24,289,130
27,704,236

17
Haryana
5,674,400
7,591,190
10,036,430
12,922,122
16,464,600
21,083,900
25,753,081

18
Chhattisgarh
7,457,700
9,154,330
11,637,800
14,010,110
17,615,600
20,834,530
25,540,196

19
Jammu and Kashmir
3,254,650
3,561,100
4,616,632
5,987,389
7,718,700
10,070,300
12,548,926

20
Uttarakhand
2,946,900
3,611,200
4,493,800
5,726,550
7,051,600
8,489,100
10,116,752

21
Himachal Pradesh
2,386,940
2,812,300
3,460,434
4,280,818
5,170,877
6,077,453
6,856,509

22
Tripura
639,984
1,142,282
1,556,342
2,053,058
2,757,205
3,191,880
3,671,032

23
Meghalaya
606,300
769,990
1,011,699
1,335,819
1,774,778
2,306,540
2,964,007

24
Manipurβ
578,060
780,340
1,073,509
1,421,290
1,837,900
2,294,480
2,721,756

25
Nagaland
213,700
369,309
516,110
775,570
1,210,492
1,990,275
1,980,602

26
Goa
547,000
590,875
795,997
1,008,373
1,170,115
1,348,900
1,457,723

27
Arunachal Pradesh
NA
337,300
468,885
632,502
865,900
1,098,328
1,382,611

28
Mizoram
196,970
266,200
332,190
494,440
690,963
889,690
1,091,014

29
Sikkim
138,093
162,863
210,205
316,840
406,000
541,902
607,688

UT1
Delhi
1,744,500
2,659,990
4,066,400
6,220,973
9,421,311
13,851,503
16,753,235

UT2
Puducherry
317,407
369,355
472,836
604,281
808,117
974,820
1,244,464

UT3
Chandigarh
24,948
120,480
257,100
452,960
642,374
901,080
1,054,686

UT4
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
31,480
64,160
115,874
189,496
281,990
356,650
379,944

UT5
Dadra and Nagar Haveli
42,846
58,020
74,880
104,300
138,290
220,963
342,853

UT6
Daman and Diu
49,482
37,587
63,000
79,842
102,110
158,080
242,911

UT7
Lakshadweep
21,000
24,370
32,900
40,250
52,820
61,300
64,429

Total
India
361,088,400
439,235,720
548,160,050
683,329,900
846,421,830
1,028,737,690
1,210,193,422

tag: table


document_title: Crassulacean acid metabolism

question_text: a plant that uses cam photosynthesis would most likely be found

text: Crassulacean acid metabolism

text: Historical background[edit]

text: CAM was first suspected by de Saussure in 1804 in his Recherches Chimiques sur la Vegetation, confirmed and refined by Aubert, E. in 1892 in his Recherches physiologiques sur les plantes grasses and expounded upon by Richards, H. M. 1915 in Acidity and Gas Interchange in Cacti, Carnegie Institution. The term CAM may have been coined by Ranson and Thomas in 1940, but they were not the first to discover this cycle. It was observed by the botanists Ranson and Thomas, in the succulent family Crassulaceae (which includes jade plants and Sedum).[2] Its name refers to acid metabolism in Crassulaceae, not the metabolism of "crassulacean acid".

text: Overview: a two-part cycle[edit]

text: CAM is an adaptation for increased efficiency in the use of water, and so is typically found in plants growing in arid conditions.[3]

text: During the night[edit]

text: During the night, a plant employing CAM has its stomata open, allowing CO2 to enter and be fixed as organic acids that are stored in vacuoles. During the day the stomata are closed (thus preventing water loss), and the carbon is released to the Calvin cycle so that photosynthesis may take place.

text: The carbon dioxide is fixed in the cytoplasm of mesophyll cells by a PEP reaction similar to that of C4 pathway. But, unlike the C4 mechanism, the resulting organic acids are stored in vacuoles for later use; that is, they are not immediately passed on to the Calvin cycle. The latter cannot operate during the night because the light reactions that provide it with ATP and NADPH cannot take place.

text: During the day[edit]

text: During the day, the CO2-storing organic acids are released from the vacuoles of the mesophyll cells and enter the stroma of the chloroplasts where an enzyme releases the CO2, which then enters into the Calvin cycle.

text: Benefits[edit]

text: The most important benefit of CAM to the plant is the ability to leave most leaf stomata closed during the day.[4] Plants employing CAM are most common in arid environments, where water comes at a premium. Being able to keep stomata closed during the hottest and driest part of the day reduces the loss of water through evapotranspiration, allowing such plants to grow in environments that would otherwise be far too dry. Plants using only C3 carbon fixation, for example, lose 97% of the water they uptake through the roots to transpiration - a high cost avoided by plants able to employ CAM.[5][What percentage is lost in CAM plants?]

text: Comparison with C4 metabolism[edit]

text: The C4 pathway bears resemblance to CAM; both act to concentrate CO2 around RuBisCO, thereby increasing its efficiency. CAM concentrates it temporally, providing CO2 during the day, and not at night, when respiration is the dominant reaction. C4 plants, in contrast, concentrate CO2 spatially, with a RuBisCO reaction centre in a "bundle sheath cell" being inundated with CO2. Due to the inactivity required by the CAM mechanism, C4 carbon fixation has a greater efficiency in terms of PGA synthesis

text: Biochemistry[edit]

text: Plants with CAM must control storage of CO2 and its reduction to branched carbohydrates in space and time.

text: At low temperatures (frequently at night), plants using CAM open their stomata, CO2 molecules diffuse into the spongy mesophyll's intracellular spaces and then into the cytoplasm. Here, they can meet phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), which is a phosphorylated triose. During this time, the plants are synthesizing a protein called PEP carboxylase kinase (PEP-C kinase), whose expression can be inhibited by high temperatures (frequently at daylight) and the presence of malate. PEP-C kinase phosphorylates its target enzyme PEP carboxylase (PEP-C). Phosphorylation dramatically enhances the enzyme's capability to catalyze the formation of oxaloacetate, which can be subsequently transformed into malate by NAD+ malate dehydrogenase. Malate is then transported via malate shuttles into the vacuole, where it is converted into the storage form malic acid. In contrast to PEP-C kinase, PEP-C is synthesized all the time but almost inhibited at daylight either by dephosphorylation via PEP-C phosphatase or directly by binding malate. The latter is not possible at low temperatures, since malate is efficiently transported into the vacuole, whereas PEP-C kinase readily inverts dephosphorylation.

text: In daylight, plants using CAM close their guard cells and discharge malate that is subsequently transported into chloroplasts. There, depending on plant species, it is cleaved into pyruvate and CO2 either by malic enzyme or by PEP carboxykinase. CO2 is then introduced into the Calvin cycle, a coupled and self-recovering enzyme system, which is used to build branched carbohydrates. The by-product pyruvate can be further degraded in the mitochondrial citric acid cycle, thereby providing additional CO2 molecules for the Calvin Cycle. Pyruvate can also be used to recover PEP via pyruvate phosphate dikinase, a high-energy step, which requires ATP and an additional phosphate. During the following cool night, PEP is finally exported into the cytoplasm, where it is involved in fixing carbon dioxide via malate.

text: Use by plants[edit]

text: Plants use CAM to different degrees. Some are "obligate CAM plants", i.e. they use only CAM in photosynthesis, although they vary in the amount of CO2 they are able to store as organic acids; they are sometimes divided into "strong CAM" and "weak CAM" plants on this basis. Other plants show "inducible CAM", in which they are able to switch between using either the C3 or C4 mechanism and CAM depending on environmental conditions. Another group of plants employ "CAM-cycling", in which their stomata do not open at night; the plants instead recycle CO2 produced by respiration as well as storing some CO2 during the day.[3]

text: Plants showing inducible CAM and CAM-cycling are typically found in conditions where periods of water shortage alternate with periods when water is freely available. Periodic drought – a feature of semi-arid regions – is one cause of water shortage. Plants which grow on trees or rocks (as epiphytes or lithophytes) also experience variations in water availability. Salinity, high light levels and nutrient availability are other factors which have been shown to induce CAM.[3]

text: Since CAM is an adaptation to arid conditions, plants using CAM often display other xerophytic characters, such as thick, reduced leaves with a low surface-area-to-volume ratio; thick cuticle; and stomata sunken into pits. Some shed their leaves during the dry season; others (the succulents[verification needed]) store water in vacuoles. CAM also causes taste differences: plants may have an increasingly sour taste during the night yet become sweeter-tasting during the day. This is due to malic acid being stored in the vacuoles of the plants' cells during the night and then being used up during the day.[6]

text: Aquatic CAM[edit]

text: CAM photosynthesis is also found in aquatic species in at least 4 genera, including: Isoetes, Crassula, Littorella, Sagittaria, and possibly Vallisneria,[7] being found in a variety of species e.g. Isoetes howellii, Crassula aquatica.

text: These plants follow the same nocturnal acid accumulation and daytime deacidification as terrestrial CAM species.[8] However, the reason for CAM in aquatic plants is not due to a lack of available water, but a limited supply of CO2.[7] CO2 is limited due to slow diffusion in water, 10000x slower than in air. The problem is especially acute under acid pH, where the only inorganic carbon species present is CO2, with no available bicarbonate or carbonate supply.

text: Aquatic CAM plants capture carbon at night when it is abundant due to a lack of competition from other photosynthetic organisms.[8] This also results in lowered photorespiration due to less photosynthetically generated oxygen.

text: Aquatic CAM is most marked in the summer months when there is increased competition for CO2, compared to the winter months. However, in the winter months CAM still has a significant role.[9]

text: Ecological and taxonomic distribution of CAM-using plants[edit]

text: The majority of plants possessing CAM are either epiphytes (e.g., orchids, bromeliads) or succulent xerophytes (e.g., cacti, cactoid Euphorbias), but CAM is also found in hemiepiphytes (e.g., Clusia); lithophytes (e.g., Sedum, Sempervivum); terrestrial bromeliads; wetland plants (e.g., Isoetes, Crassula (Tillaea), Lobelia;[10] and in one halophyte, Mesembryanthemum crystallinum; one non-succulent terrestrial plant, (Dodonaea viscosa) and one mangrove associate (Sesuvium portulacastrum).

text: Plants which are able to switch between different methods of carbon fixation include Portulacaria afra, better known as Dwarf Jade Plant, which normally uses C3 fixation but can use CAM if it is drought-stressed,[11] and Portulaca oleracea, better known as Purslane, which normally uses C4 fixation but is also able to switch to CAM when drought-stressed.[12]

text: CAM has evolved convergently many times.[13] It occurs in 16,000 species (about 7% of plants), belonging to over 300 genera and around 40 families, but this is thought to be a considerable underestimate.[14] It is found in quillworts (relatives of club mosses), in ferns, and in Gnetopsida, but the great majority of plants using CAM are angiosperms (flowering plants).

text: The following list summarizes the taxonomic distribution of plants with CAM:

text:
Division
Class/Angiosperm group
Order
Family
Plant Type
Clade involved

Lycopodiophyta
Isoetopsida
Isoetales
Isoetaceae
hydrophyte
Isoetes[15] (the sole genus of class Isoetopsida) - I. howellii (seasonally submerged), I. macrospora, I. bolanderi, I. engelmanni, I. lacustris, I. sinensis, I. storkii, I. kirkii

Pteridophyta
Polypodiopsida
Polypodiales
Polypodiaceae
epiphyte, lithophyte
CAM is recorded from Microsorium, Platycerium and Polypodium,[16] Pyrrosia and Drymoglossum[17] and Microgramma

Pteridopsida
Polypodiales
Pteridaceae[18]
epiphyte
Vittaria[19]
Anetium citrifolium[20]

Cycadophyta
Cycadopsida
Cycadales
Zamiaceae

Dioon edule[21]

Pinophyta
Gnetopsida
Welwitschiales
Welwitschiaceae
xerophyte
Welwitschia mirabilis[22] (the sole species of the order Welwitschiales)

Magnoliophyta
magnoliids
Magnoliales
Piperaceae
epiphyte
Peperomia camptotricha[23]

eudicots
Caryophyllales
Aizoaceae
xerophyte
widespread in the family; Mesembryanthemum crystallinum is a rare instance of an halophyte that displays CAM[24]

Cactaceae
xerophyte
Almost all cacti have obligate Crassulacean Acid Metabolism in their stems; the few cacti with leaves may have C3 Metabolism in those leaves;[25] seedlings have C3 Metabolism.[26]

Portulacaceae
xerophyte
recorded in approximately half of the genera (note: Portulacaceae is paraphyletic with respect to Cactaceae and Didiereaceae)[27]

Didiereaceae
xerophyte

Saxifragales
Crassulaceae
hydrophyte, xerophyte, lithophyte
CAM is widespread in the family

eudicots (rosids)
Vitales
Vitaceae[28]

Cissus,[29] Cyphostemma

Malpighiales
Clusiaceae
hemiepiphyte
Clusia[29][30]

Euphorbiaceae[28]

CAM is found is some species of Euphorbia[29][31] including some formerly placed in the sunk genera Monadenium,[29] Pedilanthus[31] and Synadenium. C4 photosynthesis is also found in Euphorbia (subgenus Chamaesyce).

Passifloraceae[18]
xerophyte
Adenia[32]

Geraniales
Geraniaceae

CAM is found in some succulent species of Pelargonium,[33] and is also reported from Geranium pratense[citation needed]

Cucurbitales
Cucurbitaceae

Xerosicyos danguyi,[34] Dendrosicyos socotrana[citation needed], Momordica[citation needed]

Celastrales
Celastraceae[citation needed]

Oxalidales
Oxalidaceae[35]

Oxalis carnosa var. hirta[35]

Brassicales
Moringaceae

Moringa[citation needed]

Salvadoraceae[35]

CAM is found in Salvadora persica.[35] Salvadoraceae were previously placed in order Celastrales, but are now placed in Brassicales.

Sapindales
Sapindaceae

Dodonaea viscosa

Fabales
Fabaceae[35]

CAM is found in Prosopis juliflora (listed under the family Salvadoraceae in Sayed's (2001) table,[35]) but is currently in the family Fabaceae (Leguminosae) according to The Plant List[36]).

Zygophyllaceae

Zygophyllum[citation needed]

eudicots (asterids)
Ericales
Ebenaceae

Solanales
Convolvulaceae

Ipomoea[citation needed] (Some species of Ipomoea are C3[29][37] - a citation is needed here.)

Gentianales
Rubiaceae
epiphyte
Hydnophytum and Myrmecodia

Apocynaceae

CAM is found in subfamily Asclepidioideae (Hoya,[29] Dischidia, Ceropegia, Stapelia,[31] Caralluma negevensis, Frerea indica,[38] Adenium, Huernia), and also in Carissa[citation needed] and Akocanthera[citation needed]

Lamiales
Gesneriaceae
epiphyte
CAM was found Codonanthe crassifolia, but not in 3 other genera[39]

Lamiaceae

Plectranthus marrubioides, Coleus[citation needed]

Plantaginaceae
hydrophyte
Littorella uniflora[15]

Apiales
Apiaceae
hydrophyte
Lilaeopsis lacustris

Asterales
Asteraceae[28]

some species of Senecio[40]

Magnoliophyta
monocots
Alismatales
Hydrocharitaceae
hydrophyte
Hydrilla,[28] Vallisneria

Alismataceae
hydrophyte
Sagittaria

Araceae

Zamioculcas zamiifolia is the only CAM plant in Araceae, and the only non-aquatic CAM plant in Alismatales[41]

Poales
Bromeliaceae
epiphyte
Bromelioideae (91%), Puya (24%), Dyckia and related genera (all), Hechtia (all), Tillandsia (many)[42]

Cyperaceae
hydrophyte
Scirpus,[28] Eleocharis

Asparagales
Orchidaceae
epiphyte
Orchidaceae has more CAM species than any other family (CAM Orchids)

Agavaceae[30]
xerophyte
Agave,[29] Hesperaloe, Yucca and Polianthes[32]

Asphodelaceae[28]
xerophyte
Aloe,[29] Gasteria,[29] and Haworthia

Ruscaceae[28]

Sansevieria[29][35] (This genus is listed under the family Dracaenaceae in Sayed's (2001) table, but currently in the family Asparagaceae according to The Plant List), Dracaena[citation needed]

Commelinales
Commelinaceae

Callisia,[29] Tradescantia, Tripogandra


document_title: Like Father

question_text: where was the netflix movie like father filmed

text: Like Father

text: Plot[edit]

text: When a workaholic young executive (Kristen Bell) is left at the altar, she ends up on her Caribbean honeymoon cruise with the last person she ever expected: her estranged and equally work-obsessed father (Kelsey Grammer). The two arrive as strangers, but over the course of a few hilarious adventures, a couple of umbrella-clad cocktails and a whole lot of soul-searching, they return with a renewed appreciation for family and life.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Kristen Bell as Rachel Hamilton, Harry’s daughter
Kelsey Grammer as Harry Hamilton, Rachel’s father
Seth Rogen as Jeff, Rachel’s love interest
Paul W. Downs as Jim
Zach Appelman as Steve
Leonard Ouzts as Dan
Blaire Brooks as Beth
Anthony Laciura as Leonard
Mary Looram as Shirley
Brett Gelman as Frank Lerue
Lauren Miller Rogen as Tired Woman
Jon Foster as Owen
Kimiko Glenn as Geena

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: In July 2017, it was announced that Kristen Bell and Kelsey Grammer would star in Like Father, the directorial debut of Lauren Miller Rogen, who also wrote the screenplay.[1] In June 2018, a trailer for the film was released, which that Seth Rogen would co-star. Lauren Miller Rogen produced the film with Molly Conners, Anders Bard, and Amanda Bowers.[2]

text: Principal photography took place in New York and the Caribbean in August 2017.[1] Some of the flim was filmed on Royal Caribbean’s Harmony of the Seas.

text: Release[edit]

text: Like Father was released on Netflix on August 3, 2018.[3]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 49% based on 35 reviews, with an average rating of 5.3/10.[4] On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 52 out of 100, based on reviews from 15 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[5]