document_title: Waitress (musical)

question_text: who has played jenna in waitress on broadway

text: Waitress (musical)

text: Background[edit]

text: The musical is based on the 2007 indie film[1] Waitress.[2] The film was produced on a budget of just $1.5 million, earning over $23 million in global box office receipts.[3] The film starred Keri Russell, and was written and directed by Adrienne Shelly. The film follows Jenna, a waitress and pie chef living in the American South, who unexpectedly becomes pregnant and feels trapped in an unhappy marriage.[4] Looking for a way out she sees a pie contest and its grand prize as her chance.[5]

text: Following the 2013 Tony Awards, producers Barry and Fran Weissler announced that a musical version of the film was in the works,[6] with Paula Vogel writing the book, music and lyrics by Sara Bareilles and direction by Diane Paulus.[7] The Weisslers purchased the stage rights to the film shortly after its release in 2007.[8] Paula Vogel withdrew from the project in January 2014.[9] On December 11, 2014, the musical was officially confirmed, and it was announced that the show would receive its world premiere at the American Repertory Theater, Cambridge, Massachusetts, as part of their 2015–2016 season, with Jessie Nelson now writing the book.[10][11] A workshop was held the same month in New York City, with Jessie Mueller, Keala Settle, Christopher Fitzgerald, Bryce Pinkham and Andy Karl, among others, taking part.[12] Nelson, with the blessing of the late Adrienne Shelly's husband, used some of Shelly's unfinished scripts to help bring "her voice" to the project.[13]

text: Productions[edit]

text: Cambridge (2015)[edit]

text: Waitress began previews on August 2, 2015, at the American Repertory Theater in Cambridge, Massachusetts, before the official opening on August 19, 2015, for a limited run to September 27, 2015.[14][15] Tickets for the world premiere production sold out.[16] The show has a book by Jessie Nelson, with direction by Diane Paulus,[17] choreography by Chase Brock,[18] set design by Scott Pask, costume design by Suttirat Anne Larlarb, lighting design by Kenneth Posner, musical direction by Nadia DiGiallonardo, and sound by Jonathan Deans.[19] The cast featured Jessie Mueller as Jenna, Drew Gehling as Jim, Joe Tippett as Earl, Jeanna de Waal as Dawn, Keala Settle as Becky, Dakin Matthews as Joe, Jeremy Morse as Ogie, and Eric Anderson as Cal.[20]

text: Broadway (2016–present)[edit]

text: During previews at the American Repertory Theater, it was announced that the production would transfer to Broadway in March 2016.[21] Previews began at the Brooks Atkinson Theatre, on March 25, 2016, with the official opening slated for April 24,[22] just in time for the 2015–2016 Tony Award cut-off date of April 28.[23] Tickets for the transfer went on sale on February 15.[24] Changes to the creative team for the Broadway run included Lorin Latarro replacing Chase Brock as choreographer[25] and Christopher Akerlind replacing Kenneth Posner as lighting designer.[26] For the Broadway production elements of the book were rewritten, new choreography developed, and a new song written by Bareilles.[8] Manhattan baker Stacy Donnelly and small business owner Dawn Mayo of Everythingdawn Bakery Candles & Treats were both hired for the project. Donnelly was hired to ensure the baking scenes were realistic. She taught the cast how to work and roll pie dough as the role of Jenna required Mueller to crack eggs, sift flour and roll out dough on stage.[27] Mayo was hired to create all of the realistic prop pies used throughout the show.

text: To help immerse audiences, real pies are warming as they enter the theater, creating the aroma of a pie shop, with slices of pie on sale.[28] Cast changes included Nick Cordero taking over the role of Earl,[29] Kimiko Glenn as Dawn, and Christopher Fitzgerald who took part in the New York workshop as Ogie.[30] During previews the production set the record for a single performance at the Brooks Atkinson Theatre, taking $145,532.[31] The production had required an initial investment of $12 million.[8] During a technical halt at a preview performance composer and lyricist Sara Bareilles performed two songs, including a song previously cut from the production called "Down at the Diner".[32]

text: With music and lyrics by Sara Bareilles, book by Jessie Nelson, choreography by Lorin Latarro, and direction by Diane Paulus, Waitress made history on Broadway with the four top creative spots in a show being filled by women.[33] In addition, the creative posts of costume design and musical direction were held by women.[26] Sara Bareilles said she was proud to be part of an all-female team: "It's really fun to be an example of the way it can look. We're a bunch of women who are deeply committed to finding a way to build a unified vision."[34] The only other musical with a similar history was the 1978 Broadway musical Runaways, which had a book, music, lyrics, choreography and direction solely by one woman, Elizabeth Swados.[26]

text: U.S. National Tour (2017–present)[edit]

text: A U.S. national tour began at Playhouse Square in Cleveland on October 20, 2017.[35]

text: West End (2019)[edit]

text: The production will debut in London's West End in February 2019 at the Adelphi Theatre.[36]

text: Australia (2020)[edit]

text: On 14 June 2018, the Gordon Frost Organisation announced that a production of Waitress will open in early 2020 at the Lyric Theatre in Sydney. Casting and further dates are to be announced.[37]

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: Act I[edit]

text: Jenna is a waitress and expert pie baker at Joe’s Diner in the American South who often rationalizes tough situations by conceptualizing them as pie ingredients (“What’s Inside”). One such fantasy is interrupted by Cal, her boss, and she begins another day at the diner along with Becky, a sassy and tough waitress, and Dawn, an anxious yet lovable waitress (“Opening Up”). On this particular day, Jenna is distracted by her potential unwanted pregnancy; she ducks into the restroom to try a home pregnancy test, where she reveals that she has an unloving relationship with her husband, Earl, and that the latent pregnancy was the result of a drunken night. She is dismayed to discover that the test is positive (“The Negative”). As the work day continues, Earl visits the diner, criticizes Jenna’s low-paying job, takes her tips, and suggests that he may make her quit in the coming days and give up her passion for baking. Jenna decides not to tell him about the pregnancy, and finds solace in baking her eccentric and at times experimental pies. She recalls her late mother, who, like Jenna, was trapped in an unhappy marriage and escaped through baking with her daughter (“What Baking Can Do”).

text: Jenna goes in for a physical, where in the waiting room she is greeted and taunted by fellow pregnant women (“Club Knocked Up”). She meets her new OB/GYN, the young and handsome Dr. Jim Pomatter, filling in for the woman who had been Jenna’s doctor since birth. Jenna is uncomfortable with this change, and bluntly tells Dr. Pomatter that she does not want her baby. She gives him the pie she had made specially for her old doctor, and while he initially rebuffs the offer, having cut sugar, he indulges himself in the pie when she leaves, clearly falling in love with the confection ("Pomatter Pie").

text: Back at the diner, word has spread of Jenna’s pregnancy to Joe, the curmudgeonly owner of the diner as well as a difficult regular customer, and he suggests that she enter a local pie contest with a high reward. Becky and Dawn also present Jenna with a gift of a baby book, complete with a spot for a letter to the baby, but Jenna is less than enthusiastic toward the book as she is still not looking forward to motherhood. Attention turns to Dawn, who has never had a boyfriend before and has recently begun filling out an online dating profile. Dawn’s profile soon yields a response, and she sets a five-minute date for the following night, clearly nervous but excited for the encounter (“When He Sees Me”).

text: After the working day has ended, Jenna runs into Dr. Pomatter at the bus stop. She tells him about her unhappy marriage, happy to be coming home on a night when Earl is out drinking with friends, and Dr. Pomatter heavily compliments her pie, telling her that he is intrigued by her compassion and resilience (“It Only Takes a Taste”). Jenna arrives home to find Earl, who tells her that he was fired. Already in a sour mood, his temper rises as he tells Jenna to make more money, and his anger almost turns physical until Jenna stops him by telling him that she is pregnant. Earl immediately calms down, though remains angry that she kept this from him, and makes her promise to never love the baby more than him (“You Will Still Be Mine”). At the diner the next day, Jenna reveals to Dawn and Becky that she plans on entering the pie contest and using the winnings to leave Earl and start a new life with the baby. She also helps a nervous Dawn prepare for her date by making her a special pie to give to the man and Becky does Dawn's makeup. The three waitresses softly express their now foreseeable dreams of better lives (“A Soft Place to Land”).

text: The next day, an odd man named Ogie arrives at the diner looking for Dawn, who reveals that he was the blind date, both of whom having very different ideas of how the date went. Dawn begs Ogie to leave her alone, but he refuses, insistent on getting to know her better (“Never Ever Getting Rid Of Me”). Dawn continues trying to get him to leave until Ogie reveals that he has taken part in American Revolution reenactments, which Dawn has done as well, and the two start to realize just how much they have in common. Meanwhile, Jenna has noticed she has started bleeding, and she calls Dr. Pomatter, who tells her to come in at 7 AM the next morning. She does so, but is irritated when he writes it off as a common symptom of early pregnancy, confronting him for calling her over before both of their typical work days over a minute detail. The encounter ultimately culminates in her impulsively kissing him, and they both frantically think over the situation. Ultimately, they both conclude that they could use a break from their frustrating lives, and they have sex in Dr. Pomatter's office (“Bad Idea”).

text: Act II[edit]

text: After her tryst with Dr. Pomatter, Jenna arrives at the diner for work to discover Becky and Cal having sex behind the counter. Jenna confronts Becky on the immorality of their affair, but Becky, aware of Jenna’s affair, defends herself, claiming that Jenna’s actions are no more moral simply because of her worse home situation (“I Didn’t Plan It”). Jenna and Dr. Pomatter continue their affair over the next few weeks, as do Becky and Cal, and Dawn and Ogie’s relationship progresses as well (“Bad Idea (Reprise)”). Jenna’s relationship with Dr. Pomatter, which has become apparent to many people, including Dr. Pomatter’s nurse and Joe, comes to a brief halt when Dr. Pomatter is out of town and does not show up to one of their appointments. When he shows up to the next one, Jenna confronts him over their failure to communicate and considers if the whole affair is a mistake, but they both assure each other of their importance in a world where neither of them is truly valued (“You Matter To Me”). Jenna begins writing a mental note to her baby, inspired by the happiness that Dr. Pomatter has instilled in her.

text: Several months have passed and Jenna’s pregnancy has progressed. Dawn and Ogie are married, in a ceremony complete with catering from Jenna and an impromptu poem from Ogie (“I Love You Like a Table”). At the reception, Jenna asks Cal if, in spite of his affair, he is truly happy, and he responds that he is “happy enough.” Joe also shares a dance with Jenna and, in a rare tender moment for him, expresses his sincere hope and faith in her (“Take it From an Old Man”). Jenna’s happiness is interrupted by Earl’s sudden presence, and he drags her away from the reception and back to their home, where he angrily reveals that he has found the money that she has been stashing away to save up for the pie contest. When he asks what she has been saving the money for, Jenna meekly tells him that the money is for the baby, and that she was saving up to buy the baby a new crib. Earl leaves and takes the money (“Dear Baby”). When he leaves, Jenna breaks down, lamenting her long-lost control over her own life (“She Used To Be Mine”).

text: Soon afterward, Jenna goes into labor. She is visited briefly in the hospital by Joe, who is about to have surgery in the same hospital, and who, knowing he is dying, gives her an envelope which he tells her to open once she has the baby. The presence of Earl, Becky and Dawn, and even Dr. Pomatter’s wife, makes the delivery room incredibly crowded, and Jenna eventually grows so stressed that she cries out. The stage goes silent and dark, until suddenly the cries of the newborn baby are heard. Jenna names the baby girl “Lulu,” and falls in love with her immediately. Earl, disappointed that the baby is a girl, tells her to make good on her promise not to love Lulu more than him, but Jenna bluntly tells him that she hasn’t loved him in years and wants a divorce. When he reacts poorly, Becky escorts him out of the hospital, and she and Dawn give Jenna space so she can have a moment with Dr. Pomatter. While he would like to continue their relationship indefinitely, Jenna tells him it would complicate things too much and, refusing anymore to be simply "happy enough," she ends the affair. Still, she thanks him for the positive impact he had on her life during her pregnancy, and in lieu of a homemade pie, gives him a moon pie as a final gift. Jenna remarks on how her outlook has changed with the presence of Lulu in her life (“Everything Changes”).

text: As she leaves the hospital, Jenna remembers the note from Joe, and she opens it to read that he has left her the diner, asking her to name a pie after him. Some two years later, it is business as usual at the diner, now called “Lulu’s Pies,” and Jenna, now the owner and head chef, is content, her life finally turned around ("Opening Up (Finale)").

text: Music[edit]

text: Waitress features an original score, with music and lyrics by American singer-songwriter Sara Bareilles.[38] The musical uses a six-member orchestra consisting of keyboard, piano, cello, guitar, bass and drums.[39] In addition to the show's musical numbers Bareilles also recorded the Broadway production's turn off your cellphone message, rewriting part of her original song "Cassiopeia".[40]

text: Musical numbers[edit]

text:
Act I
"What's Inside" – Jenna and Company
"Opening Up" – Jenna, Becky, Dawn, Cal and Company
"The Negative" – Jenna, Becky and Dawn
"Door Number Three" – Jenna
"Waiting Room" – Patients
"When He Sees Me" – Dawn and Company
"It Only Takes a Taste" – Dr. Pomatter and Jenna
"A Soft Place to Land" – Jenna, Becky and Dawn
"You Will Still Be Mine" – Earl and Jenna
"Never Ever Getting Rid of Me" – Ogie and Company
"Bad Idea" – Jenna, Dr. Pomatter and Company

Act II
"Bad Idea" (Reprise) – Company
"I Love You Like a Table" – Ogie and Company
"I Didn't Plan It" – Becky
Take It From an Old Man" – Joe and Company
"She Used to Be Mine" – Jenna
"You Matter to Me" – Dr. Pomatter and Jenna
"Everything Changes" – Jenna and Company
"Lulu's Pie Song" – Lulu and Jenna
"Opening Up" (Reprise) – Company

text:
Act I[41]
"What's Inside" – Jenna and Company
"Opening Up" – Jenna, Becky, Dawn, Cal and Company
"The Negative" – Becky, Dawn and Jenna
"What Baking Can Do" – Jenna and Company
"Club Knocked Up" – Nurse Norma and Female Ensemble
"Pomatter Pie" – Band †
"When He Sees Me" – Dawn, Jenna, Becky and Company
"It Only Takes a Taste" – Dr. Pomatter and Jenna
"You Will Still Be Mine" – Earl and Jenna
"A Soft Place to Land" – Jenna, Becky and Dawn
"Never Ever Getting Rid of Me" – Ogie, Dawn and Company
"Bad Idea" – Jenna, Dr. Pomatter and Company

Act II[41]
"I Didn't Plan It" – Becky
"Bad Idea" (Reprise) – Jenna, Dr. Pomatter, Becky, Cal, Dawn, Ogie and Company
"You Matter to Me" – Dr. Pomatter and Jenna
"I Love You Like a Table" – Ogie, Dawn and Company
"Take It From an Old Man" – Joe and Company
"Dear Baby" – Jenna †
"She Used to Be Mine" – Jenna
"Contraction Ballet" – Jenna and Company †
"Everything Changes" – Jenna, Becky, Dawn and Company
"Opening Up" (Finale) – Company

text: † Not included on original Broadway playbill.

text: Recordings[edit]

text: Sara Bareilles recorded her fifth studio album called What's Inside: Songs from Waitress, featuring songs from the musical. It was released on November 6, 2015, through Epic Records.[42] The album debuted at number ten on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart with 30,000 equivalent album units in its first week of release, giving Barellies her fifth Top ten album.[43] The lead single from the album, "She Used to Be Mine", was released digitally on September 25, 2015.[44] Speaking about the release of the album Bareilles stated that her decision to record an album of the songs came because it "proved impossible for me to imagine handing over the songs to the show before selfishly finding a way to sing them myself."[45]

text: In April 2016, it was announced that a cast album would be recorded the following month.[46] The original Broadway cast recording was released as a digital download on June 3, and the physical release followed on July 1, 2016.[46] The album was produced by Bareilles, alongside Neal Avron and was recorded by DMI Soundtracks.[47]

text: Track listing[edit]

text: No.TitlePerformer(s)Length1."What's Inside"Jessie Mueller, Ensemble1:322."Opening Up"Mueller, Keala Settle, Kimiko Glenn, Eric Anderson, Ensemble2:323."The Negative"Settle, Glenn, Mueller2:284."What Baking Can Do"Mueller, Ensemble3:305."Club Knocked Up"Aisha Jackson, Stephanie Torns, Molly Hager, Charity Angél Dawson0:466."Pomatter Pie"The Waitress Band1:017."When He Sees Me"Glenn, Mueller, Settle, Ensemble3:438."It Only Takes a Taste"Drew Gehling, Mueller3:099."You Will Still Be Mine"Nick Cordero, Mueller2:1810."A Soft Place to Land"Mueller, Settle, Glenn2:5711."Never Ever Getting Rid of Me"Christopher Fitzgerald, Glenn, Ensemble2:1612."Bad Idea"Mueller, Gehling, Ensemble3:0713."I Didn't Plan It"Settle2:4014."Bad Idea (Reprise)"Gehling, Mueller, Settle, Anderson, Glenn, Fitzgerald, Ensemble1:0315."You Matter to Me"Gehling, Mueller4:2116."I Love You Like a Table"Fitzgerald, Glenn, Ensemble1:5617."Take It from an Old Man"Dakin Matthews, Ensemble2:3718."Dear Baby"Mueller0:3719."She Used to Be Mine"Mueller4:2720."Contraction Ballet"Mueller, Ensemble1:0221."Everything Changes"Mueller, Settle, Glenn, Ensemble3:0222."Opening Up (Finale)"Company1:44

text: Casts[edit]

text: The characters and casts:

text:
Character

Workshop 2014

American Repertory Theater 2015

Original Broadway Cast 2016[29]

US Tour Cast 2017

Jenna Hunterson

Jessie Mueller

Desi Oakley

Dr. Jim Pomatter

Bryce Pinkham

Drew Gehling

Bryan Fenkart

Earl Hunterson

Andy Karl

Joe Tippett

Nick Cordero

Nick Bailey

Becky

Keala Settle

Charity Angel Dawson

Dawn Williams

Barrett Wilbert Weed

Jeanna de Waal

Kimiko Glenn

Lenne Klingaman

Joe

Dakin Matthews

Larry Marshall

Ogie Anhorn

Christopher Fitzgerald

Jeremy Morse

Christopher Fitzgerald

Jeremy Morse

Cal

Eric Anderson

Ryan G. Dunkin

Nurse Norma

Amber Iman

Charity Angel Dawson

Maiesha McQueen

Lulu

N/A

Giana Ribeiro  Addison Oken

Claire Keane  McKenna Keane

Harper Schmid  Meredith Wakefield  Vienna Maas  Liana Gurevich

text: Notable replacements[edit]

text:
Jenna Hunterson: Sara Bareilles, Betsy Wolfe, Katharine McPhee
Dr. Jim Pomatter: Chris Diamantopoulos, Jason Mraz,[48] Erich Bergen, Henry Gottfried
Earl Hunterson: Will Swenson, Joe Tippet, Ben Thompson
Dawn: Jenna Ushkowitz, Katie Lowes
Joe: Larry Marshall, John Cullum[49]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The show garnered generally mixed-to-positive reviews in both runs. Frank Rizzo, reviewing the Boston production for Variety, wrote: "...making Earl so relentlessly horrible makes Jenna’s inability to leave him not just indecisive but something more worrisome... Meanwhile, there’s little evidence for the good doctor being Jenna’s lost soulmate, despite his loving bedside manner,...Mueller’s performance transcends the show’s imperfections. She’s funny, frisky and likable. She sings Bareilles’ songs beautifully... director Diane Paulus fills the production with clever touches — a scalloped pie-crust proscenium, a fluid and easygoing flow and a natural truthfulness in the performances."[50]

text: For the Broadway production, many critics found Bareilles' score and Mueller's performance to be the highlights of the show. Charles Isherwood of the New York Times gave a mixed review of the show but called Mueller's performance "a high point of the Broadway season."[51] Time Out New York gave the production four stars and said "...Waitress has an excellent ratio of sweet to tart; supporting characters who provide crustiness (Dakin Matthews’s grumbly store owner) and flakiness (Christopher Fitzgerald’s loony admirer of another waitress); and cooked-to-perfection staging by Diane Paulus. The whole dish is—please forgive me—love at first bite."[52]  David Rooney of The Hollywood Reporter said "...the material is anchored at every step by Bareilles' melodious pop score and Mueller's supremely natural performance as Jenna. While the stock characters that surround her may be familiar, they're a winsome bunch played by sterling performers" though the choreography and direction by Latarro and Paulus respectively were borderline cheesy.[53]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year

Award Ceremony

Category

Nominee

Result

Ref

2016

Tony Award

Best Musical

Nominated

[54]

Best Original Score

Sara Bareilles

Nominated

Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Musical

Jessie Mueller

Nominated

Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Musical

Christopher Fitzgerald

Nominated

Drama Desk Award

Outstanding Musical

Nominated

[55]

Outstanding Actress in a Musical

Jessie Mueller

Nominated

Outstanding Featured Actor in a Musical

Christopher Fitzgerald

Won

Outstanding Outstanding Book of a Musical

Jessie Nelson

Nominated

Outstanding Music

Sara Bareilles

Nominated

Outstanding Lyrics

Nominated

Drama League Award

Outstanding Production of a Broadway or Off-Broadway Musical

Nominated

[56]

Distinguished Performance Award

Jessie Mueller

Nominated

Outer Critics Circle Award

Outstanding New Broadway Musical

Nominated

[57]

Outstanding Actress in a Musical

Jessie Mueller

Nominated

Outstanding Featured Actor in a Musical

Christopher Fitzgerald

Won

Outstanding New Score (Broadway or off-Broadway)

Sara Bareilles

Nominated

Broadway.com Audience Awards

Favorite Musical

Nominated

[58]

Favorite Actress in a Musical

Jessie Mueller

Nominated

2017

Grammy Award

Best Musical Theater Album

Nominated

[59]


document_title: Telecommunications in India

question_text: when did cell phones become popular in india

root

text: Telecommunications in India

text: History[edit]

text: The beginning[edit]

text: Telecommunications in India began with the introduction of the telegraph. The Indian postal and telecom sectors are one of the worlds oldest. In 1850, the first experimental electric telegraph line was started between Calcutta and Diamond Harbour. In 1851, it was opened for the use of the British East India Company. The Posts and Telegraphs department occupied a small corner of the Public Works Department,[16] at that time.

tag: p

text: The construction of 4,000 miles (6,400 km) of telegraph lines was started in November 1853. These connected Kolkata (then Calcutta) and Peshawar in the north; Agra, Mumbai (then Bombay) through Sindwa Ghats, and Chennai (then Madras) in the south; Ootacamund and Bangalore. William O'Shaughnessy, who pioneered the telegraph and telephone in India, belonged to the Public Works Department, and worked towards the development of telecom throughout this period. A separate department was opened in 1854 when telegraph facilities were opened to the public.

text: In 1880, two telephone companies namely The Oriental Telephone Company Ltd. and The Anglo-Indian Telephone Company Ltd. approached the Government of India to establish telephone exchange in India. The permission was refused on the grounds that the establishment of telephones was a Government monopoly and that the Government itself would undertake the work. In 1881, the Government later reversed its earlier decision and a licence was granted to the Oriental Telephone Company Limited of England for opening telephone exchanges at Calcutta, Bombay, Madras and Ahmedabad and the first formal telephone service was established in the country.[17] On 28 January 1882, Major E. Baring, Member of the Governor General of India's Council declared open the Telephone Exchanges in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. The exchange in Calcutta named the "Central Exchange" had a total of 93 subscribers in its early stage. Later that year, Bombay also witnessed the opening of a telephone exchange.[18]

text: Further developments and milestones[edit]

text:
Pre-1902 – Cable telegraph
1902 – First wireless telegraph station established between Sagar Island and Sandhead.
1907 – First Central Battery of telephones introduced in Kanpur.
1913–1914 – First Automatic Exchange installed in Shimla.
1927 – Radio-telegraph system between the UK and India, with Imperial Wireless Chain beam stations at Khadki and Daund. Inaugurated by Lord Irwin on 23 July by exchanging greetings with King George V.
1933 – Radiotelephone system inaugurated between the UK and India.
1953 – 12 channel carrier system introduced.
1960 – First subscriber trunk dialling route commissioned between Lucknow and Kanpur.[citation needed]
1975 – First PCM system commissioned between Mumbai City and Andheri telephone exchanges.
1976 – First digital microwave junction.
1979 – First optical fibre system for local junction commissioned at Pune.
1980 – First satellite earth station for domestic communications established at Sikandarabad, U.P..
1983 – First analogue Stored Programme Control exchange for trunk lines commissioned at Mumbai.
1984 – C-DOT established for indigenous development and production of digital exchanges.
1995 – First mobile telephone service started on non-commercial basis on 15 August 1995 in Delhi.
1995 – Internet Introduced in India starting with Laxmi Nagar, Delhi 15 August 1995[19]

tag: ul

text: Development of Broadcasting: Radio broadcasting was initiated in 1927 but became state responsibility only in 1930. In 1937 it was given the name All India Radio and since 1957 it has been called Akashvani.[20] Limited duration of television programming began in 1959, and complete broadcasting followed in 1965. The Ministry of Information and Broadcasting owned and maintained the audio-visual apparatus—including the television channel Doordarshan—in the country prior to the economic reforms of 1991. In 1997, an autonomous body was established in the name of Prasar Bharti to take care of the public service broadcasting under the Prasar Bharti Act. All India Radio and Doordarshan, which earlier were working as media units under the Ministry of I&B became constituents of the body.[14]

text: Pre-liberalisation statistics: While all the major cities and towns in the country were linked with telephones during the British period, the total number of telephones in 1948 numbered only around 80,000. Post independence, growth remained slow because the telephone was seen more as a status symbol rather than being an instrument of utility. The number of telephones grew leisurely to 980,000 in 1971, 2.15 million in 1981 and 5.07 million in 1991, the year economic reforms were initiated in the country.

text: Liberalisation and privatisation[edit]

text: Liberalisation of Indian telecommunication in industry started in 1981 when Prime Minister Indira Gandhi signed contracts with Alcatel CIT of France to merge with the state owned Telecom Company (ITI), in an effort to set up 5,000,000 lines per year. But soon the policy was let down because of political opposition.[21] Attempts to liberalise the telecommunication industry were continued by the following government under the prime-minister-ship of Rajiv Gandhi. He invited Sam Pitroda, a US-based Non-resident Indian NRI and a former Rockwell International executive to set up a Centre for Development of Telematics(C-DOT) which manufactured electronic telephone exchanges in India for the first time.[22] Sam Pitroda had a significant role as a consultant and adviser in the development of telecommunication in India.[23]

text: In 1985, the Department of Telecom(DoT) was separated from Indian Post & Telecommunication Department. DoT was responsible for telecom services in entire country until 1986 when Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited (MTNL) and Videsh Sanchar Nigam Limited (VSNL) were carved out of DoT to run the telecom services of metro cities(Delhi and Mumbai) and international long distance operations respectively.[22]

text: The demand for telephones was ever increasing and in the 1990s Indian government was under increasing pressure to open up the telecom sector for private investment as a part of Liberalisation-Privatisation-Globalisation policies that the government had to accept to overcome the severe fiscal crisis and resultant balance of payments issue in 1991. Consequently, private investment in the sector of Value Added Services (VAS) was allowed and cellular telecom sector were opened up for competition from private investments. It was during this period that the Narsimha Rao-led government introduced the National Telecommunications policy (NTP) in 1994 which brought changes in the following areas: ownership, service and regulation of telecommunications infrastructure. The policy introduced the concept of telecommunication for all and its vision was to expand the telecommunication facilities to all the villages in India.[24] Liberalisation in the basic telecom sector was also envisaged in this policy.[25] They were also successful in establishing joint ventures between state owned telecom companies and international players. Foreign firms were eligible to 49% of the total stake. The multi-nationals were just involved in technology transfer, and not policy making.[21]

text: During this period, the World Bank and ITU had advised the Indian Government to liberalise long distance services to release the monopoly of the state owned DoT and VSNL and to enable competition in the long distance carrier business which would help reduce tariff's and better the economy of the country. The Rao run government instead liberalised the local services, taking the opposite political parties into confidence and assuring foreign involvement in the long distance business after 5 years. The country was divided into 20 telecommunication circles for basic telephony and 18 circles for mobile services. These circles were divided into category A, B and C depending on the value of the revenue in each circle. The government threw open the bids to one private company per circle along with government owned DoT per circle. For cellular service two service providers were allowed per circle and a 15 years licence was given to each provider. During all these improvements, the government did face oppositions from ITI, DoT, MTNL, VSNL and other labour unions, but they managed to keep away from all the hurdles.[21]

text: In 1997, the government set up TRAI (Telecom Regulatory Authority of India) which reduced the interference of Government in deciding tariffs and policy making. The political powers changed in 1999 and the new government under the leadership of Atal Bihari Vajpayee was more pro-reforms and introduced better liberalisation policies. In 2000, the Vajpayee government constituted the Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal (TDSAT) through an amendment of the TRAI Act, 1997.[26][27] The primary objective of TDSAT's establishment was to release TRAI from adjudicatory and dispute settlement functions in order to strengthen the regulatory framework. Any dispute involving parties like licensor, licensee, service provider and consumers are resolved by TDSAT. Moreover, any direction, order or decision of TRAI can be challenged by appealing in TDSAT.[28] The government corporatised the operations wing of DoT on 1 October 2000 and named it as Department of Telecommunication Services (DTS) which was later named as Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL). The proposal of raising the stake of foreign investors from 49% to 74% was rejected by the opposite political parties and leftist thinkers. Domestic business groups wanted the government to privatise VSNL. Finally in April 2002, the government decided to cut its stake of 53% to 26% in VSNL and to throw it open for sale to private enterprises. TATA finally took 25% stake in VSNL.[21]

text: This was a gateway to many foreign investors to get entry into the Indian Telecom Markets. After March 2000, the government became more liberal in making policies and issuing licences to private operators. The government further reduced licence fees for cellular service providers and increased the allowable stake to 74% for foreign companies. Because of all these factors, the service fees finally reduced and the call costs were cut greatly enabling every common middle-class family in India to afford a cell phone. Nearly 32 million handsets were sold in India. The data reveals the real potential for growth of the Indian mobile market.[29] Many private operators, such as Reliance Communications, Jio, Tata Indicom, Vodafone, Loop Mobile, Airtel, Idea etc., successfully entered the high potential Indian telecom market.

text: In March 2008 the total GSM and CDMA mobile subscriber base in the country was 375 million, which represented a nearly 50% growth when compared with previous year.[30] As the unbranded Chinese cell phones which do not have International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) numbers pose a serious security risk to the country, Mobile network operators therefore suspended the usage of around 30 million mobile phones (about 8% of all mobiles in the country) by 30 April. Phones without valid IMEI cannot be connected to cellular operators.[31] 5–6 years the average monthly subscribers additions were around 0.05 to 0.1 million only and the total mobile subscribers base in December 2002 stood at 10.5 millions. However, after a number of proactive initiatives taken by regulators and licensors, the total number of mobile subscribers has increased rapidly to over 929 million subscribers as of May 2012.

text: India has opted for the use of both the GSM (global system for mobile communications) and CDMA (code-division multiple access) technologies in the mobile sector. In addition to landline and mobile phones, some of the companies also provide the WLL service. The mobile tariffs in India have also become the lowest in the world. A new mobile connection can be activated with a monthly commitment of US$0.15 only. In 2005 alone additions increased to around 2 million per month in 2003–04 and 2004–05.[citation needed]

text: Telephony[edit]

text:
Airtel: 280.64 million (23.6%)
  Vodafone: 211.93 million (17.9%)
  Idea: 196.28 million (16.5%)
  Jio: 123.36 million (10.4%)
  BSNL: 104.16 million (8.8%)
  Aircel: 90.32 million (7.6%)
  RCom: 81.34 million (6.9%)
  Telenor: 47.34 million (4.0%)
  Tata Docomo: 43.7 million (3.7%)
  MTS: 4.13 million (0.3%)
  MTNL: 3.62 million (0.3%)

text:
BSNL: 13.5 million (55.6%)
  Airtel: 3.87 million (15.9%)
  MTNL: 3.45 million (14.2%)
  Tata Docomo: 1.83 million (7.5%)
  RCom: 1.17 million (4.8%)
  Others: 0.46 million (1.9%)

text: The telephony segment is dominated by private-sector and two state-run businesses. Most companies were formed by a recent revolution and restructuring launched within a decade, directed by Ministry of Communications and IT, Department of Telecommunications and Minister of Finance. Since then, most companies gained 2G, 3G and 4G licences and engaged fixed-line, mobile and internet business in India. On landlines, intra-circle calls are considered local calls while inter-circle are considered long distance calls. Foreign Direct Investment policy which increased the foreign ownership cap from 49% to 74%.Now it is 100%. The Government is working to integrate the whole country in one telecom circle. For long distance calls, the area code prefixed with a zero is dialled first which is then followed by the number (i.e., to call Delhi, 011 would be dialled first followed by the phone number). For international calls, "00" must be dialled first followed by the country code, area code and local phone number. The country code for India is 91. Several international fibre-optic links include those to Japan, South Korea, Hong Kong, Russia, and Germany. Some major telecom operators in India include Airtel, Vodafone, Idea, Aircel, BSNL, MTNL, Reliance Communications, TATA Teleservices, Infotel, MTS, Uninor, TATA DoCoMo, Videocon, Augere, Tikona Digital.

text: Landline[edit]

text: Hitherto the New Telecom Policy was announced in 1999, only the Government-owned BSNL and MTNL were allowed to provide land-line phone services through copper wire in India with MTNL operating in Delhi and Mumbai and BSNL servicing all other areas of the country. Due to the rapid growth of the cellular phone industry in India, landlines are facing stiff competition from cellular operators. This has forced land-line service providers to become more efficient and improve their quality of service. Land-line connections are now also available on demand, even in high density urban areas. India has over 31 million main line customers.

text: Mobile telephony[edit]

text: In August 1995, then Chief Minister of West Bengal, Jyoti Basu made the first mobile phone call in India to then Union Telecom Minister Sukhram.[32] Sixteen years later 4th generation services were launched in Kolkata.[33]

text: With a subscriber base of more than 929 million, the Mobile telecommunications system in India is the second largest in the world and it was thrown open to private players in the 1990s. GSM was comfortably maintaining its position as the dominant mobile technology with 80% of the mobile subscriber market, but CDMA seemed to have stabilised its market share at 20% for the time being. By May 2012 the country had 929 million mobile subscribers, up from 350 million just 40 months earlier. The mobile market was continuing to expand at an annual rate in excess of 40% coming into 2010.

text: The country is divided into multiple zones, called circles (roughly along state boundaries). Government and several private players run local and long distance telephone services. Competition has caused prices to drop and calls across India are one of the cheapest in the world.[34] The rates are supposed to go down further with new measures to be taken by the Information Ministry.[35] Call drop fine: Telcos warn of raising tariff.[36] In September 2004, the number of mobile phone connections crossed the number of fixed-line connections and presently dwarfs the wireline segment by a ratio of around 20:1. The mobile subscriber base has grown by a factor of over a hundred and thirty, from 5 million subscribers in 2001 to over 929 million subscribers as of May 2012. India primarily follows the GSM mobile system, in the 900 MHz band. Recent operators also operate in the 1800 MHz band. The dominant players are Airtel, Reliance Infocomm, Vodafone, Idea cellular and BSNL/MTNL. There are many smaller players, with operations in only a few states. International roaming agreements exist between most operators and many foreign carriers. The government allowed Mobile number portability (MNP) which enables mobile telephone users to retain their mobile telephone numbers when changing from one mobile network operator to another.[37]

text: Frequency bands[edit]

text: As of 2016, India has deployed telecom operations in a total of 8 radio frequency bands.[38]

text: Subscriber base by circle[edit]

text: This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (June 2017)

tag: table

text: India is divided into 22 telecom circles:

text:
Telecom circle
Landline subscriber base in million (April 2017)[2]
Wireless subscriber base in million (April 2017)[2]
Teledensity (September 2014)[39]

Andhra Pradesh & Telangana
1.62
85.37
81.06

Assam
0.15
21.88
50.41

Bihar & Jharkhand
0.31
84.93
47.66

Delhi
3.22
53.74
232.22

Gujarat & Daman & Diu
1.32
72.14
93.34

Haryana
0.34
25.07
80.31

Himachal Pradesh
0.14
10.42
109.55

Jammu and Kashmir
0.12
12.01
69.98

Karnataka
2.27
69.02
94.20

Kerala & Lakshadweep
2.09
39.31
95.96

Kolkata(including West Bengal )
0.85
29.36
73.0

Madhya Pradesh & Chhattisgarh
1.01
70.15
57.04

Maharashtra & Goa (including Mumbai )
1.88
94.43
92.20 *

Mumbai*
3.04
36.62
Not available *

North East ^**
0.11
12.47
72.00

Orissa
0.28
34.45
63.41

Punjab
0.99
36.32
103.49

Rajasthan
0.72
67.25
76.18

Tamil Nadu(including Chennai since 2005)[40]
2.52
89.42
114.71

Uttar Pradesh(East)
0.49
105.01
58.09(Combined)*

Uttar Pradesh(West) & Uttarakhand
0.38
66.64
58.09(Combined)*

West Bengal(including Kolkata)***
0.32
58.47
73.40 *

text: ^* Population statistics are available state-wise only. ^** North east circle includes Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, & Tripura ^*** West Bengal circle includes Andaman-Nicobar and Sikkim

text: Internet[edit]

text: The history of the Internet in India started with launch of services by VSNL on 15 August 1995.[41] They were able to add about 10,000 Internet users within 6 months.[42] However, for the next 10 years the Internet experience in the country remained less attractive with narrow-band connections having speeds less than 56 kbit/s (dial-up). In 2004, the government formulated its broadband policy which defined broadband as "an always-on Internet connection with download speed of 256 kbit/s or above."[43] From 2005 onward the growth of the broadband sector in the country accelerated, but remained below the growth estimates of the government and related agencies due to resource issues in last-mile access which were predominantly wired-line technologies. This bottleneck was removed in 2010 when the government auctioned 3G spectrum followed by an equally high-profile auction of 4G spectrum that set the scene for a competitive and invigorated wireless broadband market. Now Internet access in India is provided by both public and private companies using a variety of technologies and media including dial-up (PSTN), xDSL, coaxial cable, Ethernet, FTTH, ISDN, HSDPA (3G), WiFi, WiMAX, etc. at a wide range of speeds and costs. As per IAMAI India will have the world's second largest number of Internet users with over 300 million by December 2014.[44]

text: According to the Internet And Mobile Association of India (IAMAI), the Internet user base in the country stood at 190 million at the end of June, 2013.[45] As of October, 2013 report, it is over 205 million.[44] The number of broadband subscribers at the end of May 2013 was 15.19 million.[46] Cumulative Annual Growth rate (CAGR) of broadband during the five-year period between 2005 and 2010 was about 117 per cent.[43] DSL, while holding slightly more than 75% of the local broadband market, was steadily losing market share to other non-DSL broadband platforms, especially to wireless broadband.

text: There were 161 Internet Service Providers (ISPs) offering broadband services in India as of 31 May 2013. The top five ISPs in terms subscriber base were BSNL (9.96 million), Bharti Airtel (1.40 million), MTNL (1.09 million), Hathway (0.36 million) and You Broadband (0.31 million).[46] Cyber cafes remain the major source of Internet access. In 2009, about 37 per cent of the users access the Internet from cyber cafes, 30 per cent from an office, and 23 per cent from home. However, the number of mobile Internet users increased rapidly from 2009 on and there were about 274 million mobile users at the end of September 2010, with a majority using 2G mobile networks.[43] Mobile Internet subscriptions as reported by the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) in March 2011 increased to 381 million.

text: One of the major issues facing the Internet segment in India is the lower average bandwidth of broadband connections compared to that of developed countries. According to 2007 statistics, the average download speed in India hovered at about 40 KB per second (256 kbit/s), the minimum speed set by TRAI, whereas the international average was 5.6 Mbit/s during the same period. In order to attend this infrastructure issue the government declared 2007 as "the year of broadband".[47][48] To compete with international standards of defining broadband speed the Indian Government has taken the aggressive step of proposing a $13 billion national broadband network to connect all cities, towns and villages with a population of more than 500 in two phases targeted for completion by 2012 and 2013. The network was supposed to provide speeds up to 10 Mbit/s in 63 metropolitan areas and 4 Mbit/s in an additional 352 cities. Also, the Internet penetration rate in India is one of the lowest in the world and only accounts for 8.4% of the population compared to the rate in OECD counties, where the average is over 50%.[12][49][50] Another issue is the digital divide where growth is biased in favour of urban areas; according to 2010 statistics, more than 75 per cent of the broadband connections in the country are in the top 30 cities.[43] Regulators have tried to boost the growth of broadband in rural areas by promoting higher investment in rural infrastructure and establishing subsidised tariffs for rural subscribers under the Universal service obligation scheme of the Indian government.

text: As of May 2014, the Internet was delivered to India mainly by 9 different undersea fibres, including SEA-ME-WE 3, Bay of Bengal Gateway and Europe India Gateway, arriving at 5 different landing points.[51]

text: Net neutrality[edit]

text: As of 2015[update], India had no laws governing net neutrality and there have been violations of net neutrality principles by some service providers. While the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) guidelines for the Unified Access Service license promote net neutrality, they are not enforced. The Information Technology Act, 2000 does not prohibit companies from throttling their service in accordance with their business interests.[52]

text: In March 2015, the TRAI released a formal consultation paper on Regulatory Framework for Over-the-top (OTT) services, seeking comments from the public. The consultation paper was criticised for being one sided and having confusing statements. It was condemned by various politicians and internet users.[53][54][55] By 18 April 2015, over 800,000 emails had been sent to TRAI demanding net neutrality.[55][56][57]

text: Television broadcasting[edit]

text: Television broadcasting began in India in 1959 by Doordarshan, a state run medium of communication, and had slow expansion for more than two decades.[58] The policy reforms of the government in the 1990s attracted private initiatives in this sector, and since then, satellite television has increasingly shaped popular culture and Indian society. However, still, only the government owned Doordarshan has the licence for terrestrial television broadcast. Private companies reach the public using satellite channels; both cable television as well as DTH has obtained a wide subscriber base in India. In 2012, India had about 148 million TV homes of which 126 million has access to cable and satellite services.[59]

text: Following the economic reforms in the 1990s, satellite television channels from around the world—BBC, CNN, CNBC, and other private television channels gained a foothold in the country.[14] There are no regulations to control the ownership of satellite dish antennas and also for operating cable television systems in India, which in turn has helped for an impressive growth in the viewership. The growth in the number of satellite channels was triggered by corporate business houses such as Star TV group and Zee TV. Initially restricted to music and entertainment channels, viewership grew, giving rise to several channels in regional languages, especially Hindi. The main news channels available were CNN and BBC World. In the late 1990s, many current affairs and news channels sprouted, becoming immensely popular because of the alternative viewpoint they offered compared to Doordarshan. Some of the notable ones are Aaj Tak (run by the India Today group) and STAR News, CNN-IBN, Times Now, initially run by the NDTV group and their lead anchor, Prannoy Roy (NDTV now has its own channels, NDTV 24x7, NDTV Profit and NDTV India). Over the years, Doordarshan services also have grown from a single national channel to six national and eleven regional channels. Nonetheless, it has lost the leadership in market, though it underwent many phases of modernisation in order to contain tough competition from private channels.[14]

text: Today, television is the most penetrative media in India with industry estimates indicating that there are over 554 million TV consumers, 462 million with satellite connections, compared to other forms of mass media such as radio or internet.[60] Government of India has used the popularity of TV and radio among rural people for the implementation of many social-programmes including that of mass-education. On 16 November 2006, the Government of India released the community radio policy which allowed agricultural centres, educational institutions and civil society organisations to apply for community based FM broadcasting licence. Community Radio is allowed 100 watts of Effective Radiated Power (ERP) with a maximum tower height of 30 metres. The licence is valid for five years and one organisation can only get one licence, which is non-transferable and to be used for community development purposes.

text: Radio[edit]

text: As of March 2016, there are 345 radio stations in India.[6]

text: Next-generation networks (NGN)[edit]

text: Historically, the role of telecommunication has evolved from that of plain information exchange to a multi-service field, with Value Added Services (VAS) integrated with various discrete networks like PSTN, PLMN, Internet Backbone etc. However, with decreasing ARPU and increasing demand for VAS has become a compelling reason for the service providers to think of the convergence of these parallel networks into a single core network with service layers separated from network layer.[61] Next-generation networking is such a convergence concept which according to ITU-T is:[62]

text: A next-generation network (NGN) is a packet-based network which can provide services including Telecommunication Services and able to make use of multiple broadband, quality of Service-enabled transport technologies and in which service-related functions are independent from underlying transport-related technologies. It offers unrestricted access by users to different service providers. It supports generalised mobility which will allow consistent and ubiquitous provision of services to users.

text: Access network: The user can connect to the IP-core of NGN in various ways, most of which use the standard Internet Protocol (IP). User terminals such as mobile phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs) and computers can register directly on NGN-core, even when they are roaming in another network or country. The only requirement is that they can use IP and Session Initiation Protocol (SIP). Fixed access (e.g., Digital Subscriber Line (DSL), cable modems, Ethernet), mobile access (e.g. W-CDMA, CDMA2000, GSM, GPRS) and wireless access (e.g.WLAN, WiMAX) are all supported. Other phone systems like plain old telephone service and non-compatible VoIP systems, are supported through gateways. With the deployment of the NGN, users may subscribe to many simultaneous access-providers providing telephony, internet or entertainment services. This may provide end-users with virtually unlimited options to choose between service providers for these services in NGN environment.[61]

text: The hyper-competition in telecom market, which was effectively caused by the introduction of Universal Access Service (UAS) licence in 2003 became much tougher after 3G and 4G competitive auction. About 670,000 route-kilometer (419,000-mile) of optical fibres has been laid in India by the major operators, including in the financially nonviable rural areas and the process continues.[citation needed] Keeping in mind the viability of providing services in rural areas, the government of India also took a proactive role to promote the NGN implementation in the country; an expert committee called NGN eCO was constituted in order to deliberate on the licensing, interconnection and Quality of Service (QoS) issues related to NGN and it submitted its report on 24 August 2007. Telecom operators found the NGN model advantageous, but huge investment requirements have prompted them to adopt a multi-phase migration and they have already started the migration process to NGN with the implementation of IP-based core-network.[61]

text: Regulatory environment[edit]

text: LIRNEasia's Telecommunications Regulatory Environment (TRE) index, which summarises stakeholders' perception on certain TRE dimensions, provides insight into how conducive the environment is for further development and progress. The most recent survey was conducted in July 2008 in eight Asian countries, including Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Pakistan, Thailand, and the Philippines. The tool measured seven dimensions: i) market entry; ii) access to scarce resources; iii) interconnection; iv) tariff regulation; v) anti-competitive practices; and vi) universal services; vii) quality of service, for the fixed, mobile and broadband sectors.

text: The results for India, point out to the fact that the stakeholders perceive the TRE to be most conducive for the mobile sector followed by fixed and then broadband. Other than for Access to ScarceResources the fixed sector lags behind the mobile sector. The fixed and mobile sectors have the highest scores for Tariff Regulation. Market entry also scores well for the mobile sector as competition is well entrenched with most of the circles with 4–5 mobile service providers. The broadband sector has the lowest score in the aggregate. The low penetration of broadband of mere 3.87 against the policy objective of 9 million at the end of 2007 clearly indicates that the regulatory environment is not very conducive.[63]

text: In 2013 the home ministry stated that legislation must ensure that law enforcement agencies are empowered to intercept communications.[64]

text: Revenue and growth[edit]

text: The total revenue in the telecom service sector was ₹867.2 billion (US$13.5 billion) in 2005–06 as against ₹716.74 billion (US$11.2 billion) in 2004–2005, registering a growth of 21% with estimated revenue of FY'2011 of ₹8.35 billion (US$130 million). The total investment in the telecom services sector reached ₹2,006 billion (US$31.3 billion) in 2005–06, up from ₹1,788 billion (US$27.9 billion) in the previous fiscal.[65] Telecommunication is the lifeline of the rapidly growing Information Technology industry. Internet subscriber base has risen to more than a 121 million in 2011.[66] Out of this 11.47 million were broadband connections. More than a billion people use the Internet globally. Under the Bharat Nirman, the Government of India will ensure that 66,822 revenue villages in the country, which have not yet been provided with a Village Public Telephone (VPT), will be connected. However doubts have been raised about what it would mean for the poor in the country.[67]

text: It is difficult to ascertain fully the employment potential of the telecom sector but the enormity of the opportunities can be gauged from the fact that there were 3.7 million Public Call Offices in December 2005[68] up from 2.3 million in December 2004.

text: The Total Revenue of Indian Telecom Services company is likely to exceed ₹2,000 billion (US$31 billion) ( US$44 Bn approx) for FY 11–12 based on FY 10–11 nos and latest quarterly results. These are consolidated numbers including foreign operation of Bharti Airtel. The major contributions to this revenue are as follows:[69]

text:
Airtel ₹65,060 (US$1,000)
Reliance Communications ₹31,468 (US$490)
Idea ₹16,936 (US$260)
Tata Communications ₹11,931 (US$190)
MTNL ₹4,380 (US$68)
TTML ₹2,248 (US$35)
BSNL ₹32,045 (US$500)
Vodafone India ₹18,376 (US$290)
Tata Teleservices ₹9,200 (US$140)
Aircel ₹7,968 (US$120)
SSTL ₹600 (US$9.40)
Uninor ₹660 (US$10)
Loop ₹560 (US$8.70)
Stel ₹60 (94¢ US)
HFCL ₹204 (US$3.20)
Videocon Telecom ₹254 (US$4.00)
DB Etisalat/ Allianz ₹47 (73¢ US)
Grand Total ₹2,019 billion (US$31 billion)

text: International[edit]

text:
Nine satellite earth stations – 8 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) and 1 Inmarsat (Indian Ocean region).
Nine gateway exchanges operating from Mumbai, New Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Jalandhar, Kanpur, Gandhinagar, Hyderabad and Ernakulam.

text: Submarine cables[edit]

text:
LOCOM linking Chennai to Penang, Malaysia
India-UAE cable linking Mumbai to Al Fujayrah, UAE.
SEA-ME-WE 2 (South East Asia-Middle East-Western Europe 2)
SEA-ME-WE 3 (South East Asia-Middle East-Western Europe 3) – Landing sites at Cochin and Mumbai. Capacity of 960 Gbit/s.
SEA-ME-WE 4 (South East Asia-Middle East-Western Europe 4) – Landing sites at Mumbai and Chennai. Capacity of 1.28 Tbit/s.
Fibre-Optic Link Around the Globe (FLAG-FEA) with a landing site at Mumbai (2000). Initial design capacity 10 Gbit/s, upgraded in 2002 to 80 Gbit/s, upgraded to over 1 Tbit/s (2005).
TIISCS (Tata Indicom India-Singapore Cable System), also known as TIC (Tata Indicom Cable), Chennai to Singapore. Capacity of 5.12 Tbit/s.
i2i – Chennai to Singapore. Capacity of 8.4 Tbit/s.
SEACOM From Mumbai to the Mediterranean, via South Africa. It joins with SEA-ME-WE 4 off the west coast of Spain to carry traffic onward to London (2009). Capacity of 1.28 Tbit/s.
I-ME-WE (India-Middle East-Western Europe) with two landing sites at Mumbai (2009). Capacity of 3.84 Tbit/s.
EIG (Europe-India Gateway), landing at Mumbai (due Q2 2010).
MENA (Middle East North Africa).
TGN-Eurasia (Announced) Landing at Mumbai (due 2010?), Capacity of 1.28 Tbit/s
TGN-Gulf (Announced) Landing at Mumbai (due 2011?), Capacity Unknown.


document_title: History of Texas (1865–99)

question_text: opened its doors in 1876 as the first publicly supported college in texas

text: History of Texas (1865–99)

text: Reconstruction[edit]

text: During the American Civil War, Texas had joined the Confederate States. The Confederacy was defeated, and U.S. Army soldiers arrived in Texas on June 19, 1865 to take possession of the state, restore order, and enforce the emancipation of slaves. The date is now commemorated as the holiday Juneteenth. On June 25, troops raised the American flag in Austin, the state capital.[1]

text: U.S. President Andrew Johnson appointed Union General Andrew J. Hamilton, a prominent politician before the war, as the provisional governor on June 17. He granted amnesty to ex-Confederates if they promised to support the Union in the future, appointing some to office. Angry returning veterans seized state property and Texas went through a period of extensive violence and disorder. Most outrages took place in northern Texas and were committed by outlaws who had their headquarters in the Indian Territory and plundered and murdered without distinction of party.

text: On March 30, 1870, the United States Congress readmitted Texas into the Union, although Texas did not meet all the formal requirements for readmission. Like other Southern states, by the late 1870s white Democrats regained control, often with a mix of intimidation and terrorism by paramilitary groups operating for the Democratic Party. They passed a new constitution in 1876 that segregated schools and established a poll tax to support them, but it was not originally required for voting.[2] In 1901 the Democratic-dominated legislature imposed a poll tax as a requirement for voting, and succeeded in disfranchising most blacks. The number of voters decreased from 100,000 in the 1890s to 5,000 by 1906.[3]

text: Establishment of publicly funded higher education[edit]

text: On February 11, 1858, the Seventh Texas Legislature approved O.B. 102, an act to establish the University of Texas, which set aside $100,000 in United States bonds toward construction of the state's first publicly funded university[4] (the $100,000 was an allocation from the $10 million the state received pursuant to the Compromise of 1850 and Texas' relinquishing claims to lands outside its present boundaries). In addition, the legislature designated land previously reserved for the encouragement of railroad construction toward the university's endowment. The state's involvement in the Civil War precluded further efforts to establish publicly funded higher education in Texas.

text: In 1866, there were discussions in the legislature concerning the establishment of two separate universities in Texas, one styled "The University of Texas" (as set forth in 1858), the other styled "East Texas University."[5] On November 12, 1866 the legislature considered a bill to amend the Act of 1858 that established the University of Texas, to provide for a second public university. No action was ever taken to establish a second public university and the Seventeenth Legislature, with the agreement of the State Teachers' Association of Texas, would later clarify that the intent of the legislature was to establish but one public university.[6] On April 17, 1871, 13 years after the establishment the University of Texas, the legislature took advantage of the Morrill Act and obtained funding for a land grant college styled the "Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas," and known as "Texas A.M.C." (and later as "Texas A&M University).[7] Section 5 of the 1871 act establishing the Agricultural and Mechanical College specifically stated the control, management and supervision of the agricultural college was to be subject to the Act of 1858 that established the University of Texas.

text: Article 7, Section 10 of the Texas Constitution of 1876 directed the legislature to "establish, organize and provide for the maintenance, support and direction of a university of the first class, to be located by a vote of the people of this State, and styled "The University of Texas."[8] Article 7, Section 10 also specifically mandated the establishment of an Agricultural and Mechanical Department within the university. While Section 7, Article 13 of the Constitution mandated the Agricultural and Mechanical College would be a branch of the university, the fact that the college was constitutionally mandated as a distinct department lead to the college being governed by a Board of Directors that was independent of the university Board of Regents in almost all aspects. The Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas opened its doors in 1876 as the state's first public institution of higher education to begin operation.

text: On March 30, 1881 the legislature set forth the structure and organization of the state university and called for an election to establish its location.[9] By popular election on September 6, 1881, Austin (with 30,913 votes) was chosen as the site of the main university. Galveston, having come in second in the election (20,741 votes) was designated the location of the medical department (Houston was third with 12,586 votes).[10] The University of Texas officially opened its doors on September 15, 1883.

text: Land use issues[edit]

text: In the 1880s, Governor John Ireland reformulated the policy for selling public lands. While "this policy at first increased the state's revenues...[it] eventually led to large accumulations of land in the form of cattle ranches."[11] The ranchers soon began running barbed wire around their own land and the public lands that they used, without permission, for grazing. This practice often cut farmers and other ranchers off from water. During a large drought in 1882, people began cutting the barbed wire, leading to violence between the ranchers and farmers. Ireland called a special session of the legislature in 1884 to pass a law allowing the Texas Rangers to intervene in these disputes. The Rangers were able to quell some, but not all, of the violence.[11]

text: Former Confederate general Lawrence Sullivan Ross became the 19th Texas governor in 1886.[12] His campaign had focused on land use reform, as most of the frontier issues now resulted from disagreements over the use of public land, especially between farmers and ranchers concerned with water rights and grazing issues. At Ross's urging the legislature passed laws to restore the power of the Land Office Commissioner, provide punishments for those using state lands illegally, and to catalog existing public lands.[13] In May 1888, Ross presided over the dedication of the new Texas State Capitol building.[14]

text: In March 1890, the U.S. Attorney General launched a suit in the Supreme Court against Texas to determine ownership of a disputed 1,500,000-acre (6,100 km2) plot of land in Greer County.[15] Determined to meet personally with the Attorney General, Ross and his wife traveled to Washington, D.C., where they visited President Benjamin Harrison at the White House. Following that visit, they traveled to New York, where they met with former president Grover Cleveland. While in New York, Ross was extremely popular with journalists. He was interviewed by several large northeastern newspapers, which recounted in detail many of his exploits along the frontier. According to his biographer Judith Brenner, the trip and the resulting exposure for Ross, "excited much interest in Texas among easterners, an interest that would eventually bear fruit in increased investment, tourism, and immigration".[16]

text: Racial issues[edit]

text: The Freedmen's Bureau was set up to help manage the transition for freedmen and oversee their labor contracts under the free labor system. During Reconstruction, incidents of white violence against blacks increased as whites struggled to reassert white supremacy. By the late 1870s, the Democratic-dominated legislature passed laws to impose legal segregation in public facilities and other "Jim Crow" laws. Nonetheless, freedmen organized, joined the Republican Party, and started to participate in politics.

text: During his second term, Ross was forced to intervene in the Jaybird-Woodpecker War in Fort Bend County. Sheriff Jim Garvey (a Woodpecker) feared that there would be armed battles between the State's Rights Democrats (the Jaybirds) and the black Federalist Republicans who had retained political power (with their white Federalist Democrat supporters, known as Woodpeckers) for 22 years. At Garvey's request, Ross sent two militia companies, which managed to impose a four-month peace. In August 1889, Ross sent four Texas Rangers, including Sergeant Ira Aten, to quell the unrest. Violence erupted, leaving four people dead and injuring six, including a Ranger. Aten wired Ross for help. The following morning, the Houston Light Guard arrived and instituted martial law; that evening, Ross arrived with an Assistant Attorney General and another militia company. Ross fired all the local Woodpecker and Republican civil officials and called together representatives from both factions. On his suggestion, the two groups agreed to choose a mutually acceptable sheriff to replace Garvey, who had been killed in the firefight. When they could not agree on a candidate, Ross suggested Aten; both groups finally agreed, thus halting the conflict.[17][18]

text: Hogg governorship[edit]

text: Jim Hogg served two terms as governor, from 1891 through 1895. In 1894, Texas filed a lawsuit against John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company and its Texas subsidiary, the Waters-Pierce Oil Company of Missouri. Hogg and his attorney general argued that the companies were engaged in rebates, price fixing, consolidation, and other tactics prohibited by the state's 1889 antitrust act. The investigation resulted in a number of indictments, including one for Rockefeller. Hogg requested that Rockefeller be extradited from New York, but the New York governor refused, as Rockefeller had not fled from Texas. Rockefeller was never tried, but other employees of the company were found guilty.[19]


document_title: National Child Labor Committee

question_text: when was the national child labor committee established

text: National Child Labor Committee

text: Formation[edit]

text: Edgar Gardner Murphy, an American clergyman and author, is credited with proposing the National Child Labor Committee following a conference between Murphy's Alabama Child Labor Committee, and the New York Child Labor Committee.[5] The conference culminated on April 25, 1904 at a mass meeting held in Carnegie Hall, New York City. At the meeting, both men and women concerned with the plight of working children overwhelmingly supported the formation of the National Child Labor Committee, and Felix Adler was elected its first Chairman.[6]

text: The new organization moved swiftly in procuring the support of prominent Americans. In November, 1904, barely half a year after its conception, the NCLC boasted the membership of leading politicians, philanthropists, clergymen, and intellectuals including: former president Grover Cleveland, Senator Benjamin Tillman of South Carolina, and the president of Harvard University, Charles W. Eliot.[7]

text: In 1907 the NCLC was chartered by an act of Congress with a board of directors originally  including prominent Progressive reformers such as Jane Addams, Florence Kelley, Edward T. Devine, Deborah Donalds, and Lillian Wald. With the leadership of such prominent reformers, the organization quickly began to attract additional support and moved towards action and advocacy.[8]

text: Exposing child labor[edit]

text: According to the 1900 US Census, a total of 1,752,187 (about 1 in every 6) children between the ages of five and ten were engaged in "gainful occupations" in the United States. This number represents a fifty percent increase from the 1,118,356 children working for wages in 1880.[9] This trend alarmed Americans who, while supporting the traditional role of children in agriculture, found the idea of American youth laboring for meager wages in industrial factories appalling. From 1909 to 1921 the NCLC capitalized on this moral outrage by making it the focal point of the NCLC campaign against child labor.[10]

text: Lewis Hine and the National Child Labor Committee[edit]

text: In 1908 the National Child Labor Committee hired Lewis Hine, a teacher and professional photographer trained in sociology, who advocated photography as an educational medium, to document child labor in American industry. Over the next ten years Hine would publish thousands of photographs designed to pull at the nation's heartstrings.[11]

text: Hine's subjects included both boys and girls employed by mills and factories and other occupations all over the United States. For the average American, Hine provided an otherwise unavailable window into the somber working conditions facing America's youth. When asked about his work on the subject Hine simply stated that he "wanted to show things that had to be corrected." Hine's work resulted in a wave of popular support for federal child labor regulations put forward by the NCLC. In effect, Hine's photographs became the face of the National Child Labor Committee, and are among the earliest examples of documentary photography in America.[12]

text: Lewis Hine was an influential photo journalist in the years leading up to the First World War. It was during those years that the American economy was doing well, and the need for labor was at an all-time high. Cheap labor was necessary, and American businesses were not only looking for immigrant workers but also child labor as well. The factory-oriented jobs were very specific, and a child was a perfect candidate for the work that was necessary. Their small hands and energy were beneficial to the assembly line.[13]

text: There was a shift in thinking in the early 1900s towards an end to child labor. The argument from reformers, as they were called, was that child labor was a sick cycle that was inevitably going to end in a future of poverty for the children in the work force. The long hours were robbing children of not only an education but a childhood as well.[14]

text: Lewis Hine became an investigative photojournalist for the National Child Labor Committee in the early 1900s.[15] Hine took many pictures of workers under the age of 16 in the field. His pictures are the ones that appear in many books on the history of child labor. His photographs were taken in high risk situations in order to capture the negative side of child labor. His photographs also helped make the National Child Labor Committee investigate the child labor that was taking place in many of America's factories. "Hine was clever enough to bluff his way into many plants. He searched where he was not welcome, snapped scenes that were meant to be hidden from the public. At times, he was in real danger, risking physical attack when factory managers realized what he was up to…he put his life in the line in order to record a truthful picture of working children in early twentieth-century America".[16] Today, there is a Lewis Hine awards that awards 10 honorees in their outstanding work in servicing young people. Each winner wins 1,000 dollars and a trip to New York to attend the awards ceremony.[17]

text: Fighting against child labor[edit]

text: Immediately after its conception in 1904, the National Child Labor Committee (NCLC) began advocating for child labor reform on the state level. A number of state-centered campaigns were organized by the NCLS's two regional leaders, Owen Lovejoy in the northern states and Alexander McKelway in the southern states. Both Lovejoy and McKelway actively organized investigations of child labor conditions and lobbied state legislatures for labor regulations.[18]

text: Although the NCLC made some strides in the north, by 1907, McKelway and the NCLC had achieved little success in enlisting the support of the southern people and had failed to pass any far-reaching reforms in the south's important mill states. Consequently, the NCLC decided to refocus its state-by-state attack on child labor and endorsed the first national anti-child labor bill, introduced to congress by Senator Albert J. Beveridge of Indiana in 1907.[19] Although the bill was later defeated, it convinced many opponents of child labor that a solution lay in the cooperation and solidarity between the states.

text: In response, the NCLC called for the establishment of a federal children's bureau that would investigate and report on the circumstances of all American children.[20] In 1912 the NCLC succeeded in passing an act establishing a United States Children's Bureau in the Department of Commerce and Labor. On April 9 President William Taft signed the act into law, and over the next thirty years the Children's Bureau would work closely with the NCLC to promote child labor reforms on both the state and national level.[21]

text: In 1915, the NCLC, facing the varied success and inherent limitations of its efforts at the state level, decided to move its efforts to the federal level. On its behalf, Pennsylvania Congressman A Mitchell Palmer (later Attorney General) introduced a bill to end child labor in most American mines and factories.[22] President Wilson found it constitutionally unsound and after the House voted 232 to 44 in favor on February 15, 1915,[23] he allowed it to die in the Senate. Nevertheless, Arthur Link has called it "a turning point in American constitutional history" because it attempted to establish for the first time "the use of the Commerce Clause commerce power to justify almost any form of federal control over working conditions and wages."[24]

text: In 1916, Senator Robert L. Owen of Oklahoma and Representative Edward Keating of Colorado introduced the NCLC backed Keating-Owen Act which prohibited shipment in interstate commerce of goods manufactured or processed by child labor.[25] The bill passed by a margin of 337 to 46 in the House and 50 to 12 in the Senate and was signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson as the centerpiece of The New Freedom Program. However, in 1918 the law was deemed unconstitutional by the United States Supreme Court in a five-to-four decision in Hammer v. Dagenhart. The court, although acknowledging child labor as a social evil, felt that the Keating-Owen Act overstepped congress' power to regulate trade. The bill was immediately revised and again deemed unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.[26]

text: The NCLC then switched its strategy to passing of a federal constitutional amendment. In 1924 Congress passed the Child Labor Amendment with a vote of 297 to 69 (with 64 abstaining) in the house and 61 to 23 (12 abstaining) in the senate. However, by 1932 only six states had voted for ratification, while twenty-four had rejected the measure. Today, the amendment is technically still-pending and has been ratified by a total of twenty-eight states, requiring the ratification of ten more for its incorporation into the Constitution.

text: In 1938 the National Child Labor Committee threw its support behind the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) which included child labor provisions designed by the NCLC. The act prohibits any interstate commerce of goods produced through oppressive child labor. The act defines "oppressive child labor" as any form of employment for children under age sixteen and any particularly hazardous occupation for children ages sixteen to eighteen. This definition excludes agricultural labor and instances in which the child is employed by his or her guardians.[27] On June 25, 1938, after the approval of Congress, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the bill into law; the FLSA remains the primary federal child labor law to this day.[28]

text: For the entirety of World War II, the NCLC served as a watchdog to ensure that employment shortages caused by the war did not weaken the newly passed and implemented child labor laws, and that children were not drawn back into the mines, mills and streets.[29]

text: Promoting vocational skills and workplace education[edit]

text: After WWII, the National Child Labor Committee significantly broadened its scope of involvement by placing a new emphasis on the importance of educating children about the working world as well as advocating programs designed to advance the education and health of migrant farmworkers throughout the America. Today the NCLC's four main goals include:[30]

text:
Educating children about the world of work
Preventing the exploitation of children and youth in the labor market
Improving the health and education opportunities for the children of the migrant farmworkers
Increasing public awareness of the work done day-in and day-out on behalf of the nation's children

text: During the 1950s and 60s the NCLC advocated and contributed to the various bills including the Manpower Development and Training Act, the Economic Opportunity Act and the Vocational Education Act.[31]

text: In 1979 NCLC collaborated with the Opportunities Industrialization Centers of America to found the National Youth Employment Coalition(NYEC). The NYEC was formed in order to provide support to organizations that help youth become productive private citizens. The NCLC provided the original housing for the NYEC and shared an Executive Director from 1983-1987.[32]

text: In 1985 the NCLC introduced the Lewis Hine Awards for Service to Children and Youth, which honor unheralded Americans for their work with young people, and give special awards to better-known leaders for their extraordinary efforts. Over the past two decades the awards have developed into an annual event of national notoriety with awards given out to a diverse range of professionals and volunteers.[33] Some past recipients include Gene Bowen of Warwick, New York in 2008 who co-founded Road Recovery, a clinically acclaimed skills program designed for teens recovering from drug addiction[34] and Stacy Maciuk of Brentwood, Tennessee in 2007 for her relentless advocacy of kids in foster care and organizing a suitcase collection drive to provide foster children with a place to pack their clothes and possessions other than a garbage bag.[35]

text: From 1991 to today, the National Child Labor Committee created and expanded the Kids and the Power of Work (KAPOW) program. KAPOW exists as a network of private business and elementary school partnerships which introduces students to the world of work through lessons taught by private sector volunteers. Today, KAPOW servers as a model for similar programs, runs operations in over thirty communities from Florida to California, and serves over 50,000 students.[36]

text: Demise[edit]

text: During its final years fundraising failed to produce the income it needed, and it finally ran out of money. The social ill it had been funded to combat, had ended. The NCLC is a rare example of on organization which succeeded in its mission and was no longer needed. After more that a century of fighting child-labor—in fields, in sweatshops, and in well-known corporations—it shut down in 2017. There was no announcement of its end. Jeffrey Newman, the last president of the New York-based committee, said the NCLC board decided to “declare victory and just move out.”[2]


document_title: Fresh water

question_text: approximately how much of earth’s water is freshwater

question_tokens: approximately how much of earth 's water is freshwater

text: Fresh water

text: Definitions[edit]

text: Numerical definition[edit]

text: Fresh water can be defined as water with less than 500 parts per million (ppm) of dissolved salts.[1]

text:
Part of a series onWater salinity
Salinity levels
Fresh water (< 0.05%)Brackish water (0.05–3%)Saline water (3–5%)Brine (> 5%)

Bodies of water
Seawater • Salt lake • Hypersaline lake • Salt pan • Brine pool • Bodies by salinity
vte

text:
Other sources give higher upper salinity limits for fresh water, e.g. 1000 ppm[2]
or 3000 ppm.[3]

text: Systems[edit]

text: Fresh water habitats are divided into lentic systems, which are the stillwaters including ponds, lakes, swamps and mires; lotic, or running-water systems; and groundwater which flows in rocks and aquifers. There is, in addition, a zone which bridges between groundwater and lotic systems, which is the hyporheic zone, which underlies many larger rivers and can contain substantially more water than is seen in the open channel. It may also be in direct contact with the underlying underground water.

text: The majority of fresh water on Earth is in ice caps.

text: Sources[edit]

text: The source of almost all fresh water is precipitation from the atmosphere, in the form of mist, rain and snow. Fresh water falling as mist, rain or snow contains materials dissolved from the atmosphere and material from the sea and land over which the rain bearing clouds have traveled.  In industrialized areas rain is typically acidic because of dissolved oxides of sulfur and nitrogen formed from burning of fossil fuels in cars, factories, trains and aircraft and from the atmospheric emissions of industry. In some cases this acid rain results in pollution of lakes and rivers.

text: In coastal areas fresh water may contain significant concentrations of salts derived from the sea if windy conditions have lifted drops of seawater into the rain-bearing clouds. This can give rise to elevated concentrations of sodium, chloride, magnesium and sulfate as well as many other compounds in smaller concentrations.

text: In desert areas, or areas with impoverished or dusty soils, rain-bearing winds can pick up sand and dust and this can be deposited elsewhere in precipitation and causing the freshwater flow to be measurably contaminated both by insoluble solids but also by the soluble components of those soils. Significant quantities of iron may be transported in this way including the well-documented transfer of iron-rich rainfall falling in Brazil derived from sand-storms in the Sahara in north Africa.

text: Water distribution[edit]

text: Out of all the water on Earth, saline water in oceans, seas and saline groundwater make up about 97% of it. Only 2.5–2.75% is fresh water, including 1.75–2% frozen in glaciers, ice and snow, 0.5–0.75% as fresh groundwater and soil moisture, and less than 0.01% of it as surface water in lakes, swamps and rivers.[5][6] Freshwater lakes contain about 87% of this fresh surface water, including 29% in the African Great Lakes, 22% in Lake Baikal in Russia, 21% in the North American Great Lakes, and 14% in other lakes. Swamps have most of the balance with only a small amount in rivers, most notably the Amazon River. The atmosphere contains 0.04% water.[7] In areas with no fresh water on the ground surface, fresh water derived from precipitation may, because of its lower density, overlie saline ground water in lenses or layers. Most of the world's fresh water is frozen in ice sheets. Many areas suffer from lack of distribution of fresh water, such as deserts.

text: Aquatic organisms[edit]

text: Water is a critical issue for the survival of all living organisms. Some can use salt water but many organisms including the great majority of higher plants and most mammals must have access to fresh water to live. Some terrestrial mammals, especially desert rodents appear to survive without drinking but they do generate water through the metabolism of cereal seeds and they also have mechanisms to conserve water to the maximum degree.

text: Fresh water creates a hypotonic environment for aquatic organisms. This is problematic for some organisms with pervious skins or with gill membranes, whose cell membranes may burst if excess water is not excreted. Some protists accomplish this using contractile vacuoles, while freshwater fish excrete excess water via the kidney.[8] Although most aquatic organisms have a limited ability to regulate their osmotic balance and therefore can only live within a narrow range of salinity, diadromous fish have the ability to migrate between fresh water and saline water bodies. During these migrations they undergo changes to adapt to the surroundings of the changed salinities; these processes are hormonally controlled. The eel (Anguilla anguilla) uses the hormone prolactin,[9] while in salmon (Salmo salar) the hormone cortisol plays a key role during this process.[10]

text: Many sea birds have special glands at the base of the bill through which excess salt is excreted. Similarly the marine iguanas on the Galápagos Islands excrete excess salt through a nasal gland and they sneeze out a very salty excretion.

text: Freshwater molluscs include freshwater snails and freshwater bivalves. Freshwater crustaceans include freshwater crabs and crayfish.

text: Problems[edit]

text: Limited resource[edit]

text: Fresh water is a renewable and variable, but finite natural resource.  Fresh water can only be replenished through the process of the water cycle, in which water from seas, lakes, forests, land, rivers, and reservoirs evaporates, forms clouds, and returns as precipitation. Locally however, if more fresh water is consumed through human activities than is naturally restored, this may result in reduced fresh water availability from surface and underground sources and can cause serious damage to surrounding and associated environments.

text: Fresh and unpolluted water accounts for 0.003% of total water available globally.[11]

text: The increase in the world population and the increase in per capita water use puts increasing strains on the finite resources availability of clean fresh water. The World Bank adds that the response by freshwater ecosystems to a changing climate can be described in terms of three interrelated components: water quality, water quantity or volume, and water timing. A change in one often leads to shifts in the others as well.[12] Water pollution and subsequent eutrophication  also reduces the availability of fresh water.[13]

text: Many areas of the world are already experiencing stress on water availability (or water scarcity). Due to the accelerated pace of population growth and an increase in the amount of water a single person uses, it is expected that this situation will continue to get worse. A shortage of water in the future would be detrimental to the human population as it would affect everything from sanitation, to overall health and the production of grain.[14]

text: Minimum streamflow[edit]

text: An important concern for hydrological ecosystems is securing minimum streamflow, especially preserving and restoring instream water allocations.[15] Fresh water is an important natural resource necessary for the survival of all ecosystems.  The use of water by humans for activities such as irrigation and industrial applications can have adverse impacts on down-stream ecosystems.

text:
Fresh water withdrawal is the quantity of water removed from available sources for use in any purpose, excluding evaporation losses.
Water drawn off is not necessarily entirely consumed and some portion may be returned for further use downstream.

text: Water pollution[edit]

text: Pollution from human activity, including oil spills and also presents a problem for freshwater resources.  The largest petroleum spill that has ever occurred in fresh water was caused by a Royal Dutch Shell tank ship in Magdalena, Argentina, on 15 January 1999, polluting the environment, drinkable water, plants and animals.[16] Chemical contamination of fresh water can also seriously damage eco-systems.

text: Human uses[edit]

text: Agriculture[edit]

text: Changing landscape for the use of agriculture has a great effect on the flow of fresh water. Changes in landscape by the removal of trees and soils changes the flow of fresh water in the local environment and also affects the cycle of fresh water. As a result, more fresh water is stored in the soil which benefits agriculture. However, since agriculture is the human activity that consumes the most fresh water,[17] this can put a severe strain on local freshwater resources resulting in the destruction of local ecosystems.

text: In Australia,  over-abstraction of fresh water for intensive irrigation activities has caused 33% of the land area to be at risk of salination.[17] With regards to agriculture, the World Bank targets food production and water management as an increasingly global issue that will foster debate.[18]

text: Examples[edit]

text: One in eight people in the world do not having access to safe water[19] Innapropriate use of water may contribute to this problem. The following tables provide some indicators of water use.

text: Table 1 Recommended basic water requirements for human needs (per person) [20]

text:
Activity
Minimum, litres / day
Range / day

Drinking Water
5
2–5

Sanitation Services
20
20–75

Bathing
15
5–70

Cooking and Kitchen
10
10–50

text: Table 2. Water Requirements of different classes of livestock [21]

text:
Animal
Average / day
Range / day

Dairy cow
76 L (20 US gal)
57 to 95 L (15 to 25 US gal)

Cow-calf pair
57 L (15 US gal)
8 to 76 L (2 to 20 US gal)

Yearling cattle
38 L (10 US gal)
23 to 53 L (6 to 14 US gal)

Horse
38 L (10 US gal)
30 to 53 L (8 to 14 US gal)

Sheep
8 L (2 US gal)
8 to 11 L (2 to 3 US gal)

text: Table 3 Approximate values of seasonal crop water needs [22]

text:
Crop
Crop water needs mm / total growing period

Sugar Cane

1500–2500

Banana
1200–2200

Citrus

900–1200

Potato

500–700

Tomato

400–800

Barley/Oats/Wheat
450–650

Cabbage
350–500

Onions
350–550

Pea
350–500