document_title: Apple I

question_text: what business first ordered products from apple computer

text: Apple I

text: History[edit]

text: On March 5, 1975, Steve Wozniak attended the first meeting of the Homebrew Computer Club in Gordon French's garage. He was so inspired that he immediately set to work on what would become the Apple I computer.[7] After building it for himself and showing it at the Club, he and Steve Jobs gave out schematics (technical designs) for the computer to interested club members and even helped some of them build and test out copies. Then, Steve Jobs suggested that they design and sell a single etched and silkscreened circuit board—just the bare board, no electronic parts—that people could use to build the computers. Wozniak calculated that having the board design laid out would cost $1,000 and manufacturing would cost another $20 per board; he hoped to recoup his costs if 50 people bought the boards for $40 each. To fund this small venture, their first company, Jobs sold his van and Wozniak sold his HP-65 calculator. Very soon after, Steve Jobs arranged to sell "something like 50" completely built computers to the Byte Shop (a computer store in Mountain View, California) at $500 each. To fulfill the $25,000 order, they obtained $20,000 in parts at 30 days net and delivered the finished product in 10 days.[8]

text: The Apple I went on sale in July 1976 at a price of US$666.66,[9] because Wozniak "liked repeating digits" and because of a one-third markup on the $500 wholesale price.[10]

text: The first unit produced was used in a high school math class, and donated to Liza Loop's public access computer center.[11] About 200 units were produced and all but 25 were sold during nine or ten months.[8]

text: The Apple I's built-in computer terminal circuitry was distinctive. All one needed was a keyboard and a television set. Competing machines such as the Altair 8800 generally were programmed with front-mounted toggle switches and used indicator lights (red LEDs, most commonly) for output, and had to be extended with separate hardware to allow connection to a computer terminal or a teletypewriter machine. This made the Apple I an innovative machine for its day. In April 1977, the price was dropped to $475.[12] It continued to be sold through August 1977, despite the introduction of the Apple II in April 1977, which began shipping in June of that year.[13] In October 1977, the Apple I was officially discontinued and removed from Apple's price list.[14] As Wozniak was the only person who could answer most customer support questions about the computer, the company offered Apple I owners discounts and trade-ins for Apple IIs to persuade them to return their computers.[15] These recovered boards were then destroyed by Apple, contributing to their rarity today.[16]

text: Collectors' item[edit]

text: As of 2013, at least 63 Apple I computers have been confirmed to exist. Only six have been verified to be in working condition.

text:
An Apple I reportedly sold for $50,000 USD at auction in 1999.[17]
In 2008, the website "Vintage Computing and Gaming" reported that Apple I owner Rick Conte was looking to sell his unit and was "expecting a price in excess of $15,000 U.S." The site later reported Conte had donated the unit to the Maine Personal Computer Museum in 2009.[18]
A unit was sold in September 2009 for $17,480 on eBay.[19]
A unit belonging to early Apple Computer engineers Dick and Cliff Huston was sold on March 23, 2010, for $42,766 on eBay.[20]
In November 2010, an Apple I sold for £133,250 ($210,000) at Christie's auction house in London. The high price was likely due to the rare documents and packaging offered in the sale in addition to the computer, including the original packaging (with the return label showing Steve Jobs' parents' address, the original Apple Computer Inc 'headquarters' being their garage), a personally typed and signed letter from Jobs (answering technical questions about the computer), and the original invoice showing 'Steven' as the salesman. The computer was brought to Polytechnic University of Turin where it was fixed and used to run the BASIC programming language.[21][22][23]
On June 15, 2012, a working Apple I was sold at auction by Sotheby's for a then-record $374,500, more than double the expected price.[24] This unit is on display at the Nexon Computer Museum in Jeju City, South Korea.

Living Computers: Museum + Labs Apple I, working and available for visitors to use.

In October 2012, a non-working Apple I from the estate of former Apple Computer employee Joe Copson was put up for auction by Christie's, but found no bidder who was willing to pay the starting price of US$80,000 (£50,000).[25] Copson's board had previously been listed on eBay in December 2011, with a starting bid of $170,000 and failed to sell. Following the Christie's auction, the board was restored to working condition by computer historian Corey Cohen.[26] Copson's Apple I was once again listed on eBay, where it sold for US$236,100.03 on April 23, 2015.[27]
On November 24, 2012, a working Apple I was sold at auction by Auction Team Breker for €400,000 (US$515,000).[28]
On May 25, 2013, a functioning 1976 model was sold for a then-record €516,000 (US$668,000) in Cologne.[29] Auction Team Breker said "an unnamed Asian client" bought the Apple I. This particular unit has Wozniak's signature. An old business transaction letter from Jobs also was included, as well as the original owner's manual.[30]
On June 24, 2013, an Apple I was listed by Christie's as part of a special on-line only auction lot called, "First Bytes: Iconic Technology From the Twentieth Century." Bidding ran through July 9, 2013. The unit sold for $390,000.[31][32]
In November 2013, a working unit speculated to have been part of the original lot of 50 boards delivered to the Byte Shop was listed by Auction Team Breker for €180,000 ($242,820), but failed to sell during the auction. Immediately following the close of bidding, a private collector purchased it for €246,000 ($330,000). This board was marked "01-0046," matching the numbering placed on other units sold to the Byte Shop and included the original operation manuals, software cassettes, and shipping box autographed by Steve Wozniak. The board also bears Wozniak's signature.[33]
In October 2014, a working, early Apple 1 was sold at auction for $905,000 to the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan. The sale included the keyboard, monitor, cassette decks and a manual. The auction was run by Bonhams.[34]
On December 13, 2014, a fully functioning, early Apple I was sold at auction for $365,000 by auction house Christie's. The sale included a keyboard, custom case, original manual and a check labeled "Purchased July 1976 from Steve Jobs in his parents' garage in Los Altos".[35]
On May 30, 2015, a woman reportedly dropped off boxes of electronics for disposal at an electronics recycling center in the Silicon Valley of Northern California, and they would now like to contact her. Included in the items removed from her garage after the death of her husband was an original Apple I computer, which the recycling firm sold for $200,000 to a private collector. It is the company's practice to give back 50% of the proceeds to the original owner when an item is sold, so they want to find the mystery donor.[36][37]
On September 21, 2015, an Apple I bearing the Byte Shop number 01-0059 was listed by Bonhams Auctions as part of their "History of Science and Technology" auction with a starting bid of US$300,000. The machine was described as, "in near perfect condition." The owner, Tom Romkey, "...only used the Apple-1 once or twice, and ...set it on a shelf, and did not touch it again."[38] The machine did not sell.[39] However, Glenn and Shannon Dellimore, the co-founders of GLAMGLOW, a beauty company which they sold to Estee Lauder Companies, bought this rare working Apple-1 after the auction through Bonhams Auction house. On the 40th Anniversary of Apple Computers 2016 the Dellimore's working Apple-1 went on loan and on display at world-famous V&A 'Artifact' Museum in London, England. https://www.artfund.org/what-to-see/exhibitions/2016/09/10/you-say-you-want-a-revolution-records-and-rebels-1966-70-exhibition
On August 26, 2016, (the 40th Anniversary year of Apple Computers), the rarest Apple-1 in existence, an Apple-I prototype made and hand-built by Steve Jobs himself (according to Apple-1 expert Corey Cohen) and dubbed the 'Holy Grail' of computers was sold for $815,000 to winning bidders Glenn and Shannon Dellimore, the co-founders of cosmetics firm Glamglow,[40] in an auction by Charitybuzz. The for-profit internet company that raises funds for nonprofit organizations declared that ten percent of the proceeds will go to the Leukemia and Lymphoma Society, based in New York.[41]
On April 15, 2017, an Apple I removed from Steve Jobs's office by Apple quality control engineer Don Hutmacher was placed on display at Living Computers: Museum + Labs. This Apple I was modified by Dan Kottke and Bill Fernandez. This previously unknown unit was purchased from Hutmacher's heirs for an undisclosed amount.

text: Serial numbers[edit]

text: Both Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak have stated that Apple did not assign serial numbers to the Apple l. Several boards have been found with numbered stickers affixed to them, which appear to be inspection stickers from the PCB manufacturer/assembler. A batch of boards is known to have numbers hand-written in black permanent marker on the back; these usually appear as "01-00##" and anecdotal evidence suggests they are inventory control numbers added by the Byte Shop to the batch Apple sold them. These Byte Shop numbers have often erroneously been described as serial numbers by auction houses and in related press coverage.[42]

text: U.S. Museums displaying an original Apple 1 Computer[edit]

text:
American Computer & Robotics Museum in Bozeman, Montana
Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California
Smithsonian Museum of American History in Washington DC
Living Computers: Museum + Labs in Seattle, WA

text: Clones and replicas[edit]

text: Several Apple I clones and replicas have been released in recent years. These are all created by hobbyists and marketed to the hobbyist/collector community. Availability is usually limited to small runs in response to demand.

text:
Replica 1: Created by Vince Briel. A software-compatible clone, produced using modern components, released in 2003 at a price of around $200.[43][44][45][46]
A-One: Created by Frank Achatz, also using modern components.[47]
Obtronix Apple I reproduction: Created by Steve Gabaly, using original components or equivalents thereof. Sold through eBay.[48]
Mimeo 1: Created by Mike Willegal. A hardware kit designed to replicate a real Apple I as accurately possible. Buyers are expected to assemble the kits themselves.[49]
Newton 1: Created by Michael Ng and released in 2012. Similar to the Mimeo 1, but is said to be made using the same obsolete processing technique commonly used in the 1970s. Boards, kits and assembled boards are sold through eBay occasionally. There are both Newton NTI and non-NTI versions available.[50][51]
Brain Board, a plug in firmware board for the Apple II that, with the optional "Wozanium Pack" program, can emulate a functional Apple-1.[52]

text: Emulation[edit]

text:
Apple 1js, a web-based Apple I emulator written in JavaScript.[53]
MESS, a multi-system emulator able to emulate the Apple I.
OpenEmulator, an accurate emulator of the Apple I, the ACI (Apple Cassette Interface) and CFFA1 expansion card.
Pom1, an open source Apple I emulator for Microsoft Windows, Arch Linux and Android devices.[54]
Apple 1 Emulator, an emulator for the SAM Coupé home computer.[55]
CocoaPom, a Java-based emulator with a Cocoa front end for Macintosh.[56]
Sim6502, an Apple I emulator for Macintosh.[57]


document_title: List of past presumed highest mountains

question_text: before mt everest what was the tallest mountain in the world

root

text: List of past presumed highest mountains

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (September 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The following is a list of mountains that have been presumed, at one time, to be the highest mountain in the world. How general were the following presumptions is unclear. Before the age of exploration, no geographer could make any plausible assumption.

tag: p

text:
Chimborazo, 6,267 metres (20,561 ft). Presumed highest from sixteenth century until the beginning of the 19th century. Not in the top 100 highest mountains when measured from sea level, however due to the earth's equatorial bulge this is the farthest point from the Earth's center.
Nanda Devi, 7,816 metres (25,643 ft). Presumed highest in the world before Kangchenjunga was sighted in an era when Nepal was still closed to the outside world. Now known to be the 23rd highest mountain in the world.
Dhaulagiri, 8,167 metres (26,795 ft). Presumed highest from 1808[1] until 1847.[2] Now known to be the 7th highest mountain in the world.
Kangchenjunga, 8,586 metres (28,169 ft). Presumed highest from 1847 until 1852. Now known to be the 3rd highest mountain in the world.[2]
Mount Everest, 8,848 metres (29,029 ft). Established as highest in 1852 and officially confirmed in 1856.[3]
K2, 8,611 metres (28,251 ft). Discovered in 1856 before Mt. Everest was officially confirmed, K2's elevation became something of an enigma until it was officially resolved at a later date.[2] News media reported in 1986 that satellite measurements by the University of Washington during an expedition to K2 by George Wallenstein had given a height between 29,064 feet (8,859 m) and 29,228 feet (8,909 m).[4] This erroneous figure was quickly retracted, and K2's status as second highest was reaffirmed.[4]

tag: ul


document_title: Sabbath in Christianity

question_text: when did the day of worship changed from saturday to sunday

question_tokens: when did the day of worship changed from saturday to sunday

text: Sabbath in Christianity

text: History[edit]

text: Sabbath timing[edit]

text: The Hebrew Sabbath, the seventh day of the week, is often spoken of loosely as "Saturday". In fact, in the Hebrew calendar, a day begins at sunset, and not at midnight. The Sabbath therefore coincides with what the Gregorian calendar identifies as Friday sunset to Saturday sunset. Similarly, the first day of the week ("Sunday") coincides with Gregorian Saturday sunset to Sunday sunset. The Sabbath continued to be observed on the seventh day in the early Christian church.[note 1] To this day, the Sabbath continues to be observed in line with the Hebrew Sabbath timing in the church calendars in Eastern Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodoxy.[7]

text: On the other hand, the current canons of the Roman Catholic Church (Canon 202 §1) define a day as beginning at midnight.[8]

text: Early Christianity[edit]

text: Early Christians continued to pray and rest on the seventh day.[9] By the 2nd century AD some Christians also observed Sunday, the day of the week on which Jesus had risen from the dead and on which the Holy Spirit had come to the apostles.[9] Paul and the Christians of Troas, for example, gathered on Sunday "to break bread," [10] Soon Christians were observing only Sunday and not the Sabbath.[9] Patristic writings attest that by the second century, it had become commonplace to celebrate the Eucharist in a corporate day of worship on the first day.[11] A Church Father, Eusebius, stated that for Christians, "the sabbath had been transferred to Sunday".[12]

text: In his noteworthy[13] book From Sabbath to Sunday, Adventist theologian Samuele Bacchiocchi contended that the transition from the Saturday Sabbath to Sunday in the early Christian church was due to pagan and political factors, and the decline of standards for the Sabbath day.[14]

text: Corporate worship[edit]

text: While the Lord's Day observance of the Eucharist was established separately from the Jewish Sabbath, the centrality of the Eucharist itself made it the commonest early observance whenever Christians gathered for worship. In many places and times as late as the 4th century, they did continue to gather weekly on the Sabbath, often in addition to the Lord's Day, celebrating the Eucharist on both days.[15][16][17] No disapproval of Sabbath observance of the Christian festival was expressed at the early church councils that dealt with Judaizing. The Council of Laodicea (363-364), for example, mandated only that Sabbath Eucharists must be observed in the same manner as those on the first day.[17] Neander has suggested that Sabbath Eucharists in many places were kept "as a feast in commemoration of the Creation".[17]

text: The issues about Hebrew practices that continued into the 2nd century tended to relate mostly to the Sabbath. Justin Martyr, who attended worship on the first day,[18] wrote about the cessation of Hebrew Sabbath observance and stated that the Sabbath was enjoined as a temporary sign to Israel to teach it of human sinfulness (Gal. 3:24-25),[19] no longer needed after Christ came without sin.[20] He rejected the need to keep literal seventh-day Sabbath, arguing instead that "the new law requires you to keep the sabbath constantly."[21] With Christian corporate worship so clearly aligned with the Eucharist and allowed on the seventh day, Hebrew Sabbath practices primarily involved the observance of a day of rest.

text: Day of rest[edit]

text: A common theme in criticism of Hebrew Sabbath rest was idleness, found not to be in the Christian spirit of rest. Irenaeus (late 2nd c.), also citing continuous Sabbath observance, wrote that the Christian "will not be commanded to leave idle one day of rest, who is constantly keeping sabbath",[22] and Tertullian (early 3rd century) argued "that we still more ought to observe a sabbath from all servile work always, and not only every seventh-day, but through all time".[23] This early metaphorical interpretation of Sabbath applied it to the entire Christian life.[24]

text: Ignatius, cautioning against "Judaizing" in his letter to the Magnesians,[25] contrasts the Jewish Sabbath practices with the Christian life which includes the Lord's Day: "Let us therefore no longer keep the Sabbath after the Jewish manner, and rejoice in days of idleness .... But let every one of you keep the Sabbath after a spiritual manner, rejoicing in meditation on the law, not in relaxation of the body, admiring the workmanship of God, and not eating things prepared the day before, nor using lukewarm drinks, and walking within a prescribed space, nor finding delight in dancing and plaudits which have no sense in them. And after the observance of the Sabbath, let every friend of Christ keep the Lord's [Day, Dominicam] as a festival, the resurrection-day, the queen and chief of all the days."[26]

text: The 2nd and 3rd centuries solidified the early church's emphasis upon Sunday worship and its rejection of a Jewish (Mosaic Law-based) observation of the Sabbath and manner of rest. Christian practice of following Sabbath after the manner of the Hebrews declined, prompting Tertullian to note "to [us] Sabbaths are strange" and unobserved.[27] Even as late as the 4th century, Judaizing was still sometimes a problem within the Church, but by this time it was repudiated strongly as heresy.[28][29][30]

text: Sunday was another work day in the Roman Empire. On March 7, 321, however, Roman Emperor Constantine I issued a civil decree making Sunday a day of rest from labor, stating:[31]

text: All judges and city people and the craftsmen shall rest upon the venerable day of the sun. Country people, however, may freely attend to the cultivation of the fields, because it frequently happens that no other days are better adapted for planting the grain in the furrows or the vines in trenches. So that the advantage given by heavenly providence may not for the occasion of a short time perish.

text: While established only in civil law rather than religious principle, the Church welcomed the development as a means by which Christians could the more easily attend Sunday worship and observe Christian rest. At Laodicea also, the Church encouraged Christians to make use of the day for Christian rest where possible,[30] without ascribing to it any of the regulation of Mosaic Law, and indeed, anathematizing Hebrew observance on the Sabbath. The civil law and its effects made possible a pattern in Church life that has been imitated throughout the centuries in many places and cultures, wherever possible.

text: From ancient times to Middle Ages[edit]

text: Augustine of Hippo followed the early patristic writers in spiritualizing the meaning of the Sabbath commandment, referring it to eschatological rest rather than observance of a literal day. Such writing, however, did serve to deepen the idea of Christian rest on Sunday, and its practice increased in prominence throughout the early Middle Ages.[32]

text: Thomas Aquinas taught that the Decalogue is an expression of natural law which binds all men, and therefore the Sabbath commandment is a moral requirement along with the other nine. Thus in the west, Sunday rest became more closely associated with a Christian application of the Sabbath, a development towards the idea of a "Christian Sabbath" rather than a Hebrew one.[32] While Sunday worship and Sunday rest combined powerfully to relate to Sabbath commandment precepts, the application of the commandment to Christian life was nevertheless a response within the law of liberty, not restricted to a single day but continuous, and not a displacement of the Sabbath in time.

text: Continuations of Hebrew practices[edit]

text: Seventh-day Sabbath was observed at least sporadically by a minority of groups during the Middle Ages.

text: In the early church in Ireland, there is evidence that a sabbath-rest on Saturday may have been kept along with mass on Sunday as the 'Lord's day'. It appears that many of the canon laws in Ireland from that period were derived from parts of the laws of Moses. In Adomnan of Iona's biography of St Columba it describes Columba's death by having Columba say on a Saturday 'Today is truly my sabbath, for it is my last day in this wearisome life, when I shall keep the Sabbath after my troublesome labours. At midnight this Sunday, as Scripture saith, "I shall go the way of my fathers"' and he then dies that night. The identification of this sabbath day as a Saturday in the narrative is clear in the context, because Columba is recorded as seeing an angel at the mass on the previous Sunday and the narrative claims he dies in the same week, on the sabbath day at the end of the week, during the 'Lord's night' (referring to Saturday night-Sunday morning).[33]

text: An Eastern body of Christian Sabbath-keepers mentioned from the 8th century to the 12th is called Athenians ("touch-not") because they abstained from uncleanness and intoxicating drinks, called Athinginians in Neander: "This sect, which had its principal seat in the city of Armorion, in upper Phrygia, where many Jews resided, sprung out of a mixture of Judaism and Christianity. They united baptism with the observance of all the rites of Judaism, circumcision excepted. We may perhaps recognize a branch of the older Judaizing sects.[34]

text: Cardinal Hergenrother says that they stood in intimate relation with Emperor Michael II (AD 821-829), and testifies that they observed Sabbath.[35] As late as the 11th century Cardinal Humbert still referred to the Nazarenes as a Sabbath-keeping Christian body existing at that time. But in the 10th and 11th centuries, there was a great extension of sects from the East to the West. Neander states that the corruption of the clergy furnished a most important vantage-ground on which to attack the dominant church. The abstemious life of these Christians, the simplicity and earnestness of their preaching and teaching, had their effect. "Thus we find them emerging at once in the 11th century, in countries the most diverse, and the most remote from each other, in Italy, France, and even in the Harz districts in Germany." Likewise, also, "traces of Sabbath-keepers are found in the times of Gregory I, Gregory VII, and in the 12th century in Lombardy."[36]

text: Oriental Orthodoxy[edit]

text: The Orthodox Tewahedo churches celebrate the Sabbath, a practice proselytised in the Oriental Orthodox church in Ethiopia in the 1300s by Ewostatewos (Ge'ez: ዮስጣቴዎስ, Ancient Greek: Ευστάθιος.[37] In response to colonial pressure by missionaries of the Catholic Church in the 1500s, the emperor Saint Gelawdewos wrote his Confession, an apologia of traditional beliefs and practices including observation of the Sabbath and a theological defense of the Miaphysitism of Oriental Orthodoxy.[38]

text: Protestant Reformation[edit]

text: Protestant reformers, beginning in the 16th century, brought new interpretations of Christian law to the west. According to Bauckham, while Martin Luther and John Calvin repudiated the idea that Christians are bound to obey the Mosaic law, including the fourth of the Ten Commandments concerning Sabbath, they did follow Aquinas's concept of natural law. They viewed Sunday rest as a civic institution established by human authority, which provided an occasion for bodily rest and public worship.[39] In his work against the Antinomians, Luther rejected the idea that he had taught the abolition of the Ten Commandments.[40] Another Protestant, John Wesley, stated "This 'handwriting of ordinances' our Lord did blot out, take away, and nail to His cross (Col. 2:14). But the moral law contained in the Ten Commandments, and enforced by the prophets, He did not take away .... The moral law stands on an entirely different foundation from the ceremonial or ritual law .... Every part of this law must remain in force upon all mankind and in all ages."[41]

text: Sabbatarianism arose and spread among both the continental and English Protestants during the 17th and 18th centuries. The Puritans of England and Scotland brought a new rigorism into the observance of the Christian Lord's Day, in reaction to the customary Sunday observance of the time, which they regarded as lax. They appealed to Sabbath ordinances with the idea that only the Bible can bind men's consciences in whether or how they will take a break from work, or to impose an obligation to meet at a particular time. Their influential reasoning spread to other denominations also, and it is primarily through their influence that "Sabbath" has become the colloquial equivalent of "Lord's Day" or "Sunday". Sunday Sabbatarianism is enshrined in its most mature expression, the Westminster Confession of Faith (1646), in the Calvinist theological tradition. Chapter 21, Of Religious Worship, and the Sabbath Day, sections 7-8 read:

text:
7. As it is the law of nature, that, in general, a due proportion of time be set apart for the worship of God; so, in his Word, by a positive, moral, and perpetual commandment binding all men in all ages, he hath particularly appointed one day in seven, for a Sabbath, to be kept holy unto him: which, from the beginning of the world to the resurrection of Christ, was the last day of the week; and, from the resurrection of Christ, was changed into the first day of the week, which, in Scripture, is called the Lord's day, and is to be continued to the end of the world, as the Christian Sabbath.
8. This Sabbath is then kept holy unto the Lord, when men, after a due preparing of their hearts, and ordering of their common affairs beforehand, do not only observe a holy rest, all the day, from their own works, words, and thoughts about their worldly employments and recreations, but also are taken up, the whole time, in the public and private exercises of his worship, and in the duties of necessity and mercy.[citation needed]

text: The confession holds that not only is work forbidden in Sunday, but also "works, words, and thoughts" about "worldly employments and recreations." Instead, the whole day should be taken up with "public and private exercises of [one's] worship, and in the duties of necessity and mercy."[citation needed]

text: Strict Sunday Sabbatarianism is sometimes called "Puritan Sabbath", which may be contrasted with "Continental Sabbath".[42] The latter follows the reformed confessions of faith of Continental Europe such as the Heidelberg Catechism, which emphasize rest and worship on the Lord's Day, but do not explicitly forbid recreational activities.[43] However, in practice, many continental Reformed Christians also abstain from recreation on the Sabbath, following the admonition by the Heidelberg Catechism's author Zacharaias Ursinus that "To keep holy the Sabbath, is not to spend the day in slothfulness and idleness".[44]

text: Though first-day Sabbatarian practice declined in the 18th century, the First Great Awakening in the 19th century led to a greater concern for strict Sunday observance. The founding of the Day One Christian Ministries in 1831 was influenced by the teaching of Daniel Wilson.[39]

text: Common theology[edit]

text: Many Christian theologians believe that Sabbath observance is not binding for Christians today,[45][46] citing for instance Col. 2:16-17.[47]

text: Some Christian non-Sabbatarians advocate physical Sabbath rest on any chosen day of the week,[48] and some advocate Sabbath as a symbolic metaphor for rest in Christ; the concept of "Lord's Day" is usually treated as synonymous with "Sabbath". This non-Sabbatarian interpretation usually states that Jesus's obedience and the New Covenant fulfilled the laws of Sabbath, the Ten Commandments, and the Law of Moses, which are thus considered not to be binding moral laws, and sometimes considered abolished or abrogated. While Sunday is often observed as the day of Christian assembly and worship, in accordance with church tradition, Sabbath commandments are dissociated from this practice.

text: Non-Sabbatarian Christians also cite 2 Cor. 3:2-3, in which believers are compared to "a letter from Christ, the result of our ministry, written ... not on tablets of stone but on tablets of human hearts"; this interpretation states that Christians accordingly no longer follow the Ten Commandments with dead orthodoxy ("tablets of stone"), but follow a new law written upon "tablets of human hearts". 3:7-11 adds that "if the ministry that brought death, which was engraved in letters on stone, came with glory ..., will not the ministry of the Spirit be even more glorious? .... And if what was fading away came with glory, how much greater is the glory of that which lasts!" This is interpreted as teaching that New Covenant Christians are not bound by the Mosaic Law, and that Sabbath-keeping is not required. Further, because "love is the fulfillment of the law" (Rom. 13:10), the new-covenant "law" is considered to be based entirely upon love and to rescind Sabbath requirements.

text: Spiritual rest[edit]

text: Non-Sabbatarians who affirm that Sabbath-keeping remains for God's people (as in Heb. 3:7-4:11) frequently regard this as present weeklong spiritual rest or future heavenly rest rather than as physical weekly rest. For instance, Irenaeus saw Sabbath rest from secular affairs for one day each week as a sign of the way that Christians were called to permanently devote themselves to God[49] and an eschatological symbol.[50] One such interpretation of Hebrews states that seventh-day Sabbath is no longer relevant as a regular, literal day of rest, but instead is a symbolic metaphor for the eternal salvation "rest" that Christians enjoy in Christ, which was in turn prefigured by the promised land of Canaan.

text: "The NT indicates that the sabbath followed its own channel and found its goal in Christ's redemptive work [John 5:17, cf. 7:23, Colossians 2:16, Matthew 11:28–12:14, Hebrews 3:7–4:11]. It is true to the NT to say that the Mosaic sabbath as a legal and weekly matter was a temporary symbol of a more fundamental and comprehensive salvation, epitomized by and grounded in God's own creation sabbath, and brought to fulfillment (in already–not yet fashion) in Christ's redemptive work. Believers are indeed to 'keep sabbath,' no longer by observance of a day of the week but now by the upholding of that to which it pointed: the gospel of the [Kingdom of God]."[51]

text: Weekly rest[edit]

text: Lutheran writer Marva Dawn keeps a whole day as Sabbath, advocating for rest during any weekly complete 24-hour period[48] and favoring rest from Saturday sunset to Sunday sunset,[52] but regarding corporate worship as "an essential part of God's Sabbath reclamation."[53]

text: Non-sabbatarian churches[edit]

text: Much of Western Christianity came to view Sunday as a transference of Sabbath observance to the first day, identifying Sunday with a first-day "Christian Sabbath". While first-day Sabbatarian practice declined during the 18th century, leaving few modern followers, its concern for stricter Sunday observances did have influence in the west, shaping the origin of the Christian Sabbath. The term no longer applies to a specific set of practices, but tends to be used to describe the general establishment of Sunday worship and rest observances within Christianity. It does not necessarily imply the displacement of the Sabbath itself, which is often recognized as remaining on Saturday. As such, the Christian Sabbath generally represents a reinterpretation of the meaning of the Sabbath in the light of Christian law, emphases of practice, and values.

text: Roman Catholicism[edit]

text: In 1998 Pope John Paul II wrote an apostolic letter Dies Domini,[54] "on keeping the Lord's day holy". He encourages Catholics to remember the importance of keeping Sunday holy, urging that it not lose its meaning by being blended with a frivolous "weekend" mentality.

text: Going beyond the traditional Catholic position and seeing to uphold the Lord's Day Act in French Quebec, the Catholic Sunday League was formed in 1923 to promote first-day sabbatarian restrictions in the province, especially against movie theaters.[55]

text: In the Latin Church, Sunday is kept in commemoration of the resurrection of Jesus and celebrated with the Eucharist (Catholic Catechism 2177).[56] It is also the day of leisure. The Lord's Day is considered both the first day and the 'eighth day' of the week, symbolizing both first creation and new creation (2174).[56] Roman Catholics view the first day as a day for assembly for worship (2178, Heb. 10:25),[56] but consider a day of rigorous rest not obligatory on Christians (Rom. 14:5, Col. 2:16).[57] Catholic recommendations to rest on Sunday do not hinder participation in "ordinary and innocent occupations".[58] In the spirit of the Sabbath, Catholics ought to observe a day of rest from servile work, which also becomes "a day of protest against the servitude of work and the worship of money" (Catholic Catechism 2172). This day is often (traditionally) observed on Sunday in conjunction with the Lord's Day (Catholic Catechism 2176).[59]

text: Cardinal James Gibbons affirmed Sunday observances as one of the examples of the Roman Catholic Church's sufficiency as guide:

text: Now the Scriptures alone do not contain all the truths which a Christian is bound to believe, nor do they explicitly enjoin all the duties which he is obliged to practice. Not to mention other examples, is not every Christian obliged to sanctify Sunday and to abstain on that day from unnecessary servile work? Is not the observance of this law among the most prominent of our sacred duties? But you may read the Bible from Genesis to Revelation, and you will not find a single line authorizing the sanctification of Sunday. The Scriptures enforce the religious observance of Saturday, a day which we never sanctify.

text: Eastern Orthodoxy[edit]

text: Orthodox Sunday worship is not a direct Sabbath observance. The Eastern Orthodox Church observes the first day (liturgical Sunday, beginning Saturday evening) as a weekly feast, the remembrance of Christ's resurrection, and a mini-Pascha. As such, it tends to hold the first place within a week's observances, sharing that place only with other major feasts which occur from time to time. The Divine Liturgy is always celebrated, joining the participants on earth with those who offer the worship in God's kingdom, and hence joining the first day to the eighth day, wherein the communion of the whole Church with Christ is fully realized. As such, it is never surpassed as a time for the Orthodox to assemble in worship.

text: The Church affirms its authority to appoint the time of this feast (and all observances) as deriving from the authority given to the apostles and passed to the bishops through the laying-on of hands, for the sake of the governance of the Church on earth, and under the guidance of the Holy Spirit (John 20:22, John 14:26, Rom. 6:14-18, Rom. 7:6). It does not treat Sunday worship as a transference of Sabbath worship, but identifies the Sabbath, still on Saturday, as a Biblical "type", a precursor, realized fully only after Christ's fulfillment of the Mosaic Law (Mat. 5:17-18). Thus, the Sabbath and the Mosaic Law both remain as a teacher, reminding Christians to worship in holiness, but now according to grace, in Christian observations and Sunday worship.

text: The grace received in baptism binds the Church to Christ, Who has given his people the freedom to seek him directly in relationship, not to pursue whatever suits one's fancy. The goal of that freedom is always union with Christ in theosis, and the maintenance of that union all the time, throughout this life and into the next, which is sometimes described as the "sanctification of time". Grace therefore never permits of whatever is sinful or unhelpful to salvation, such as laziness or hedonistic revelry. Rather, it becomes a stricter guide for behavior than any legal code, even the Mosaic, and disciplines the believer in some degree of ascetic endeavor (Rom. 6:14-18).[61]

text: Orthodoxy recognizes no mandated time for rest, a day or any other span, but the Church leads the individual to holiness in different ways, and recognizes the need for economy and for rest. Activities such as sleep, relaxation, and recreation become a matter of balance and proper handling, and acceptance of God's mercy. St. Basil the Great expresses thanks for this in a prayer often said by Orthodox Christians in the morning, after rising: "You do we bless, O Most High God and Lord of mercy, ... Who has given unto us sleep for rest from our infirmity, and for repose of our much-toiling flesh."[62] In recognition of God's gifts, therefore, the Church welcomes and supports civil laws that provide a day away from labor, which then become opportunities for Christians to pray, rest, and engage in acts of mercy. In grace do Christians respond, remembering both the example of the Sabbath rest, and Christ's lordship (Mk. 2:21-28).

text: Eastern Christianity and Saturday vs. Sunday observances[edit]

text: Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches distinguish between the "Sabbath" (Saturday) and the "Lord's Day" (Sunday), and both continue to play a special role for the faithful. Many parishes and monasteries will serve the Divine Liturgy on both Saturday morning and Sunday morning. The church never allows strict fasting on any Saturday (except Holy Saturday) or Sunday, and the fasting rules on those Saturdays and Sundays which fall during one of the fasting seasons (such as Great Lent, Apostles' Fast, etc.) are always relaxed to some degree. During Great Lent, when the celebration of the Liturgy is forbidden on weekdays, there is always Liturgy on Saturday as well as Sunday. The church also has a special cycle of Bible readings (Epistle and Gospel) for Saturdays and Sundays which is different from the cycle of readings allotted to weekdays. However, the Lord's Day, being a celebration of the Resurrection, is clearly given more emphasis. For instance, in the Russian Orthodox Church Sunday is always observed with an all-night vigil on Saturday night, and in all of the Eastern Churches it is amplified with special hymns which are chanted only on Sunday. If a feast day falls on a Sunday it is always combined with the hymns for Sunday (unless it is a Lord's Great Feast). Saturday is celebrated as a sort of afterfeast for the previous Sunday, on which several of the hymns from the previous Sunday are repeated.

text: In part, Eastern Christians continue to celebrate Saturday as Sabbath because of its role in the history of salvation: it was on a Saturday that Jesus "rested" in the cave tomb after the Passion. For this reason also, Saturday is a day for general commemoration of the departed, and special requiem hymns are often chanted on this day. Orthodox Christians make time to help the poor and needy as well on this day.

text: Lutheranism[edit]

text: Lutheran founder Martin Luther stated "I wonder exceedingly how it came to be imputed to me that I should reject the law of Ten Commandments...Whosoever abrogates the law must of necessity abrogate sin also."[63] The Lutheran Augsburg Confession, speaking of changes made by Roman Catholic pontiffs, states: "They refer to the Sabbath-day as having been changed into the Lord's Day, contrary to the Decalog, as it seems. Neither is there any example whereof they make more than concerning the changing of the Sabbath-day. Great, say they, is the power of the Church, since it has dispensed with one of the Ten Commandments!"[64] Lutheran church historian Augustus Neander[65] states "The festival of Sunday, like all other festivals, was always only a human ordinance".[66]

text: Lutheran writer Marva Dawn keeps a whole day as Sabbath, advocating for rest during any weekly complete 24-hour period[67] and favoring rest from Saturday sunset to Sunday sunset,[68] but regarding corporate worship as "an essential part of God's Sabbath reclamation."[69]

text: Latter Day Saints[edit]

text: In 1831, Joseph Smith published a revelation commanding his related movement, the formative Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, to go to the house of prayer, offer up their sacraments, rest from their labors, and pay their devotions on the Lord's day (D&C 59:9–12). Mormons believe this means performing no labor that would keep them from giving their full attention to spiritual matters (Ex. 20:10). LDS prophets have described this as meaning they should not shop, hunt, fish, attend sports events, or participate in similar activities on that day. Elder Spencer W. Kimball wrote in his The Miracle of Forgiveness that mere idle lounging on the Sabbath does not keep the day holy, and that it calls for constructive thoughts and acts.[70]

text: Mormons are encouraged to prepare their meals with "singleness of heart" on the Sabbath [71](D&C 59:13) and believe the day is only for righteous activities (Is. 58:13.) In most areas of the world, Mormons worship on Sunday.[72]

text: First-day sabbatarian churches and organizations[edit]

text: The observance of the Lord's Day (Sunday) as the Christian Sabbath is known as first-day Sabbatarianism and this view was historically heralded by nonconformist denominations, such as Congregationalists, Presbyterians, Methodists, and Baptists, as well as many Episcopalians.[73][74][75][76] First-day sabbatarianism impacted popular Western Christian culture, with influences remaining to the present day, e.g. Sunday laws.[77]

text: For example, The Westminster Confession, historically upheld by Presbyterians, commands the belief of first-day Sabbatarian doctrine:[78]

text:
As it is the law of nature, that, in general, a due proportion of time be set apart for the worship of God; so, in his Word, by a positive, moral, and perpetual commandment binding all men in all ages, he hath particularly appointed one day in seven, for a Sabbath, to be kept holy unto him: which, from the beginning of the world to the resurrection of Christ, was the last day of the week; and, from the resurrection of Christ, was changed into the first day of the week, which, in Scripture, is called the Lord’s day, and is to be continued to the end of the world, as the Christian Sabbath.
This Sabbath is then kept holy unto the Lord, when men, after a due preparing of their hearts, and ordering of their common affairs beforehand, do not only observe a holy rest, all the day, from their own works, words, and thoughts about their worldly employments and recreations, but also are taken up, the whole time, in the public and private exercises of his worship, and in the duties of necessity and mercy.

text: The Savoy Declaration, upheld by Puritan Congregationalists,[79] as well as the Second London Baptist Confession, upheld by Reformed Baptists, advanced first-day Sabbatarian views identical to those expressed in the Westminster Confession.[80] General Baptists also advocate first-day Sabbatarian doctrine in their confessions of faith; for example, the Treatise on the Faith and Practice of the Free Will Baptists states:[81]

text: This is one day in seven, which from the creation of the world God has set apart for sacred rest and holy service. Under the former dispensation, the seventh day of the week, as commemorative of the work of creation, was set apart for the Lord's Day. Under the gospel, the first day of the week, in commemoration of the resurrection of Christ, and by authority of Christ and the apostles, is observed as the Christian Sabbath. On this day all men are required to refrain from secular labor and devote themselves to the worship and service of God.[81]

text: In keeping with historic Methodism,[82] the Discipline of the Bible Methodist Connection of Churches enshrines first-day Sabbatarianism:[83]

text: We believe that the Lord’s Day, celebrated on Sunday, the first day of the week, throughout the Christian church, is the Christian sabbath, which we reverently observe as a day of rest and worship and as the continuing memorial of our Savior’s resurrection. For this reason, we abstain from secular work and from all merchandising on this holy day, except that required by mercy or necessity.[83]

text: Organizations that promote Sunday Sabbatarianism include Day One Christian Ministries (formerly known as the Lord's Day Observance Society) in the UK. With unwavering support by mainstream Christian denominations, Sabbatarian organizations were formed, such as the American Sabbath Union (also known as the Lord's Day Alliance) and the Sunday League of America, following the American Civil War, to preserve the importance of Sunday as the Christian Sabbath.[6] Founded in 1888, the Lord's Day Alliance continues to "encourage all people to recognize and observe a day of Sabbath rest and to worship the risen Lord Jesus Christ, on the Lord’s Day, Sunday".[84] The Board of Managers of the Lord's Day Alliance is composed of clergy and laity from Christian churches, including Baptist, Catholic, Episcopalian, Friends, Lutheran, Methodist, Non-Denominationalist, Orthodox, Presbyterian, and Reformed traditions.[84] The Woman's Christian Temperance Union also supports Sabbatarian views and worked to reflect these in the public sphere.[85] In Canada, the Lord's Day Alliance (renamed the People for Sunday Association of Canada) was founded there and it lobbied successfully to pass in 1906 the Lord's Day Act, which was not repealed until 1985.[86] Throughout their history, Sabbatarian organizations, such as the Lord's Day Alliance, have mounted campaigns, with support in both Canada and Britain from labour unions with the goals of preventing secular and commercial interests from hampering freedom of worship and preventing them from exploiting workers.[87]

text: The founder of the Moody Bible Institute declares, "Sabbath was binding in Eden, and it has been in force ever since. This fourth commandment begins with the word 'remember,' showing that the Sabbath already existed when God wrote the law on the tables of stone at Sinai. How can men claim that this one commandment has been done away with when they will admit that the other nine are still binding?"[88]

text: Seventh-day sabbatarian churches[edit]

text: Seventh-day Protestants regard Sabbath as a day of rest for all mankind and not Israel alone, based on Jesus's statement, "the Sabbath was made for man" (i.e., purposed for humankind at the time of its creation, Mark 2:27, cf. Heb. 4), and on early-church Sabbath meetings. Seventh-day Sabbatarianism has been criticized as an effort to combine Old Testament laws, practiced in Judaism, with Christianity, or to revive the Judaizers of the Epistles or the Ebionites.

text: Seventh-day Sabbatarians practice a strict seventh-day Sabbath observance, similar to Shabbat in Judaism. John Traske (1586–1636) and Thomas Brabourne first advocated seventh-day Sabbatarianism in England. Their ideas gave rise to the Seventh Day Baptists, formed in early 17th-century in England. Samuel and Tacy Hubbard began the first American congregation on Rhode Island in 1671.

text: Grace Communion International (Armstrongism) taught seventh-day Sabbath observance. The United Church of God teaches seventh-day Sabbath observance.

text: Seventh-day Adventist Church[edit]

text: The Seventh-day Adventist Church arose in the mid-19th century in America after Rachel Oakes, a Seventh Day Baptist, gave a tract about the Sabbath to an Adventist Millerite, who passed it on to Ellen G. White.

text: Fundamental Belief # 20 of the Seventh-day Adventist Church states:

text: The beneficent Creator, after the six days of Creation, rested on the seventh day and instituted the Sabbath for all people as a memorial of Creation. The fourth commandment of God's unchangeable law requires the observance of this seventh-day Sabbath as the day of rest, worship, and ministry in harmony with the teaching and practice of Jesus, the Lord of the Sabbath. The Sabbath is a day of delightful communion with God and one another. It is a symbol of our redemption in Christ, a sign of our sanctification, a token of our allegiance, and a foretaste of our eternal future in God's kingdom. The Sabbath is God's perpetual sign of His eternal covenant between Him and His people. Joyful observance of this holy time from evening to evening, sunset to sunset, is a celebration of God's creative and redemptive acts. (Gen. 2:1-3; Ex. 20:8-11; Luke 4:16; Isa. 56:5, Isa. 6; Isa. 58:13, Isa. 14 ; Matt. 12:1-12; Ex. 31:13-17; Eze. 20:12, Eze. 20; Deut. 5:12-15; Heb. 4:1-11; Lev. 23:32; Mark 1:32.)

text: Other definitions[edit]

text: By synecdoche the term "Sabbath" in the New Testament may also mean simply a "se'nnight"[90] or seven-day week, namely, the interval between two Sabbaths. Jesus's parable of the Pharisee and the Publican describes the Pharisee as fasting "twice a week" (Greek dis tou sabbatou, literally, "twice of the Sabbath").

text: Seven annual Biblical festivals, called by the name miqra ("called assembly") in Hebrew and "High Sabbath" in English, serve as supplemental testimonies to Sabbath. These are recorded in the books of Exodus and Deuteronomy and do not necessarily occur on the Sabbath. They are observed by Jews and a minority of Christians. Three of them occur in spring: the first and seventh days of Passover, and Pentecost. Four occur in fall, in the seventh month, and are also called Shabbaton: the Feast of Trumpets; Yom Kippur, "Sabbath of Sabbaths"; and the first and eighth days of Tabernacles.

text: The year of Shmita (Hebrew שמיטה, literally, "release"), also called Sabbatical Year, is the seventh year of the seven-year agricultural cycle mandated by the Torah for the Land of Israel. During Shmita, the land is to be left to lie fallow. A second aspect of Shmita concerns debts and loans: when the year ends, personal debts are considered nullified and forgiven.

text: Jewish Shabbat is a weekly day of rest cognate to Christian Sabbath, observed from sundown on Friday until the appearance of three stars in the sky on Saturday night; it is also observed by a minority of Christians. Customarily, Shabbat is ushered in by lighting candles shortly before sunset, at halakhicallly calculated times that change from week to week and from place to place.

text: The new moon, occurring every 29 or 30 days, is an important separately sanctioned occasion in Judaism and some other faiths. It is not widely regarded as Sabbath, but some Hebrew Roots and Pentecostal churches, such as the native New Israelites of Peru and the Creation Seventh Day Adventist Church, do keep the day of the new moon as Sabbath or rest day, from evening to evening. New-moon services can last all day.

text: In South Africa, Christian Boers have celebrated December 16, now called the Day of Reconciliation, as annual Sabbath (holy day of thanksgiving) since 1838, commemorating a famous Boer victory over the Zulu Kingdom.

text: Many early Christian writers from the 2nd century, such as pseudo-Barnabas, Irenaeus, Justin Martyr and Hippolytus of Rome followed rabbinic Judaism (the Mishna) in interpreting Sabbath not as a literal day of rest, but as a thousand-year reign of Jesus Christ, which would follow six millennia of world history.[24]

text: Secular use of "Sabbath" for "rest day", while it usually refers to Sunday, is often stated in North America to refer to different purposes for the rest day than those of Christendom. In McGowan v. Maryland (1961), the Supreme Court of the United States held that contemporary Maryland blue laws (typically, Sunday rest laws) were intended to promote the secular values of "health, safety, recreation, and general well-being" through a common day of rest, and that this day coinciding with majority Christian Sabbath neither reduces its effectiveness for secular purposes nor prevents adherents of other religions from observing their own holy days.

text: Notes[edit]

text: Christianity portal

text: Jump up ^ The civil calendar of the ancient Roman Empire, the Julian calendar (founded in 45 BC), marked days loosely in general practice, since the timing of midnight was difficult to determine widely at that time. Thus, the early church easily adopted for its own use the Hebrew calendar's sunset-to-sunset formula for marking the days, even after it began to calculate Easter according to the Julian calendar. Its daily cycle of church services began with Vespers, which was often celebrated just after sunset, in the early evening. This pattern made its way into both Roman and Eastern liturgical practice, and continues in use in the Eastern Orthodox Church to this day.

tag: ol


document_title: The Lone Ranger (TV series)

question_text: where was the 1950's lone ranger filmed

question_tokens: where was the 1950 's lone ranger filmed

text: The Lone Ranger (TV series)

text: Series premise[edit]

text: The fictional story line maintains that a patrol of six Texas Rangers is massacred, with only one member surviving. The "lone" survivor thereafter disguises himself with a black mask and travels with Tonto throughout Texas and the American West to assist those challenged by the lawless elements. A silver mine supplies The Lone Ranger with the name of his horse as well as the funds required to finance his wandering life-style and the raw material for his signature bullets. At the end of most episodes, after the Lone Ranger and Tonto leave, someone asks the sheriff or other person of authority who the masked man was. The person then responds that it was the Lone Ranger, who is then heard yelling "Hi-Yo Silver, away!" as he and Tonto ride away on their horses.

text: Production[edit]

text: George W. Trendle retained the title of producer, although he recognized that his experience in radio was not adequate for producing the television series. For this, he hired veteran MGM film producer Jack Chertok. Chertok served as the producer for the first 182 episodes.

text: The first 78 episodes were produced and broadcast for 78 consecutive weeks without any breaks or reruns. Then the entire 78 episodes were shown again before any new episodes were produced. All were shot in Kanab, Utah and California. Much of the series was filmed on the former Iverson Movie Ranch in Chatsworth, California, including the iconic opening sequence to each episode, in which the cry of "Hi-yo Silver" is heard before the Lone Ranger and Silver gallop to a distinctive rock and Silver rears up on his hind legs. The rock seen next to Silver is known as Lone Ranger Rock and remains in place today on the site of the former movie ranch.

text: When it came time to produce another batch of 52 episodes, there was a wage dispute with Clayton Moore (until his death, the actor insisted that the problem was creative differences), and John Hart was hired to play the role of the Lone Ranger.[4] Once again, the 52 new episodes were aired in sequence followed by 52 weeks rerunning them. Despite expectations that the mask would make the switch workable, Hart was not accepted in the role, and his episodes were not seen again until the 1980s.[5][6][7][8]

text: At the end of the fifth year of the television series, Trendle sold the Lone Ranger rights to Jack Wrather, who bought them on August 3, 1954. Wrather immediately rehired Clayton Moore to play the Lone Ranger, and another 52 episodes were produced. Once again, they were broadcast as a full year of new episodes followed by a full year of reruns.

text: The final season saw a number of changes, including an episode count of 39, which had become the industry standard. Wrather invested money from his own pocket to film in color, although ABC telecast only in black and white. Wrather also went outdoors for action footage. Otherwise, the series was mostly filmed on a studio sound stage. Another big change, not readily detectable by the viewers, was replacing Jack Chertok with producer Sherman A. Harris. By this time, Chertok had established his own television production company and was busy producing other programs.

text: Wrather decided not to negotiate further with the network and took the property to the big screen and cancelled television production. The last new episode of the color series was broadcast on June 6, 1957, and the series ended September 12, 1957, although ABC reaped the benefits of daytime reruns for several more years. Wrather's company produced two modestly budgeted theatrical features, The Lone Ranger (1956) and The Lone Ranger and the Lost City of Gold (1958). The cast included former child actress Bonita Granville, who had married Wrather after his divorce from a daughter of former Texas Governor W. Lee O'Daniel.

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Clayton Moore as The Lone Ranger (169 episodes; 1949–1951, 1954–1957)[9][10]
John Hart as The Lone Ranger (52 episodes; 1952–1953)[11]
Jay Silverheels as Tonto (217 episodes; 1949–1957)
Chuck Courtney as Dan Reid (Lone Ranger's nephew) (14 episodes; 1950–1955)

text: Guest stars[edit]

text:
Michael Ansara - Angry Horse in episode 74 - "Trouble at Black Rock" (1951).
James Arness - Deputy Bud Titus in episode 33 - "Matter of Courage" (1950).
John Banner - Von Baden in episode 39 - "Damsels in Distress" (1950)
Frances Bavier - Aunt Maggie Sawtelle in episode 159 - "Sawtelle Saga's End" (1955).
Hugh Beaumont - Reverend Randy Roberts in episode 99- "The Godless Men" (1953).
Lane Bradford - Jake in episode 4 - "The Legion of Old Timers" (1949), Slick in episode 19 - "Greed for Gold" (1950), Sergeant Pala in episode 44 - "White Man's Magic" (1950), Lige Watkin in episode 58 - "Crime in Time" (1950), Joe in episode 64 - "Desert Adventure" (1950), Gat Towson in episode 71 - "The Outcast" (1951), Dusty in episode 76 - "The Hooded Men" (1951), Rufe in episode 84 - "Jeb's Gold Mine" (1952), Zeke in episode 105 - "A Stage for Mademoiselle" (1953), Smiley Hawks in episode 111 - "The Deserter" (1953), Gus in episode 133 - "Message to Fort Apache" (1954), Matt Rusk in episode 138 - "Stage to Teshimingo" (1954), Jed in episode 187 - "The Cross of Santo Domingo" (1956), George Stark in episode 197 - "Christmas Story" (1956), and Duke Wade in episode 216 - "Mission for Tonto" (1957).
Robert Bray - Al Davis in episode 84 - "Jeb's Gold Mine" (1952), Ben in episode 98 - "Bandits in Uniform" (1953), Dan Glick in episode 125 - "The Perfect Crime" (1953), Joe Tarbuck in episode 137 - "Outlaw's Trail" (1954), Mace in episode 146 - "Two for Juan Ringo" (1954), and Mike Barty in episode 163 - "False Accusation" (1955).
Harry Carey, Jr. - Jay Thomasson in episode 174 - "The Return of Dice Dawson" (1955).
Harry Cheshire - Judge Wells in episode 90 - "Word of Honor" (1952), Doc Wilson in episode 123 - "The Midnight Rider" (1953).
Phyllis Coates - Ann Wyman in episode 124 - "Stage to Estacado" (1953) Naomi Courtwright in episode 125 - "The Perfect Crime" (1953) and Jane Johnson in 166 - "Woman in the White Mask" (1955).
Christopher Dark - Dr. William Hubbard in episode 139 - "Texas Draw" (1954), Kat-Kem in episode 176 - "The Return" (1955)
Gail Davis - episodes 25 - "Buried Treasure" and 38 - "Spanish Gold" (both 1950).
John Doucette - Dirk in episode 14 - "The Masked Rider" (1949), Ox Martin in episode 31 - "Gold Fever" (1950), Rocky Hanford in episode 46 - "Sheriff of Gunstock" (1950), Pierre Dumont in episode 60 - "Thieves' Money" (1950), Flack in episode 76 - "The Hooded Men" (1951), Andrew Gage in episode 98 - "Bandits in Uniform" (1953), Blaze in episode 131 - "The Fugitive" (1954), Kelso in episode 140 - "Rendezvous at Whipsaw" (1954), Lew Cates in episode 150 - "The School Story" (1955), Deputy Sawyer in episode 178 - "Trapped" (1955), and Beau Slate in episode 181 - "Counterfeit Redskins" (1955)
Frank Ferguson - episode 149 - "Enfield Rifle" (1955).
Margaret Field - episode 19 - "Greed for Gold" (1950).
John Hart - episodes 34 - "Rifles and Renegades" and 46 - "Sheriff at Gunstock" (both 1950). Hart would return to the series in the title role for one season in 1952-1953.
Percy Helton - episode 148 - "Dan Reid's Sacrifice" (1955).
Dwayne Hickman, along with his brother Darryl Hickman - episode 75 - "Two Gold Lockets" (1951).
David Holt - episode 30 - the prison warden's kidnapped son in "Never Say Die" (1950).
I. Stanford Jolley - Asa Jones in episode 34 - "Rifles and Renegades" (1950), Stark Durfee in episode 42 - "Eye for an Eye" (1950), Seth in episode 67 - "Lady Killer" (1950), Will Motter in episode 97 - "Trader Boggs" (1953), Don Esteban in episode 98 - "Bandits in Uniform" (1953), and Dave in episode 119 - "Hidden Fortune" (1953).
Dick Jones - episode 40 - "Man Without a Gun" (1950).
Stacy Keach, Sr. - episode 168 - "Showdown at Sand Creek" (1955).
DeForest Kelley - three episodes: 4 - "The Legion of Old Timers" (1949), 27 - "Gold Trains" (1950), and 117 - "Death in the Forest" (1953).
Douglas Kennedy - Curley Bates in episode 41 - "A Pardon for Curley" (1950), Slim Roberts in episode 82 - "Desperado at Large" (1952), Bull Gunderson in episode 86 - "Ranger in Danger" (1952), George Milliner in episode 101 - "Right to Vote" (1953), Sheriff Tom Lowell in episode 136 - "Six Gun Sanctuary" (1954), and John Trent in episode 161 - "Trigger Finger" (1955).
Nan Leslie - Nancy Barton in episode 14 - "The Masked Rider" (1949), Alicia Scoville in episode 47 - "The Wrong Man" (1950), Leia Anson in episode 67 - "Lady Killer" (1950), Martha Neal in episode 81 - "Special Edition" (1952), Molly O'Connel in episode 110 - "The Durango Kid" (1953), Kitty Martin in episode 118 - "Gentleman from Julesburg" (1953), Jean Scott in episode 143 - "A Broken Match" (1954), and Susan Starr in episode 175 - "Adventure at Arbuckle" (1956). "The Masked Rider" was her television debut.
Marjorie Lord - episode 155 - "The Law Lady" (1955).
Tyler MacDuff - Brad Stanton in episode 182 - "One Nation, Indivisible" (1955), Clint Harkey in episode 194 - "The Twisted Track" (1956), Kip Holloway in episode 216 - "Mission for Tonto" (1957) Is the only television actor to have spoken both of the lines "Who was that masked man?" and "That was the Lone Ranger!"[12]
David McMahon - Clay Durfee in episode 42 - "Eye for an Eye" (1950), Jim Collins in episode 60 - "Thieves' Money" (1950), Mr. Herbert in episode 78 - "Mr. Trouble" (1951), and Bert in episode 90 - "Word of Honor" (1952)
Martin Milner - episode 28 - "Pay Dirt" (1950).
Ewing Mitchell - Major in episode 201 - "The Courage of Tonto" and Tom Bryan in 218 - "The Banker's Son" (both 1957).
Noel Neill - episode 69 - "Letter of the Law" (1951).
John M. Pickard - Smokey Baines in episode 79 - "Outlaw's Son" (1952), Jeff Seaton in episode 94 - "Best Laid Plans" (1952), Henry Flack in episode 126 - "The Ghost of Coyote Canyon" (1953), Matt Coleman in episode 158 - "Sunstroke Mesa" (1955), Moose Miller in episode 169 - "Heart of a Cheater" (1955), Jess Tyler in episode 196 - "Trouble at Tylerville" (1956), and Lem Hollister in episode 221 - "Outlaws in Grease Paint" (1957).
Slim Pickens - episode 184 - "The Sheriff of Smoke Tree" (1956).episode 192 - "The Letter Bride" (1956).
Denver Pyle - episodes 71 - "The Outcast" and 72 - "Backtrail" (1951), episode 166 - "The Woman in the White Mask" (1955), and episodes 187 - "The Cross of Santo Domingo" and 190 - "Quicksand" (both 1956).
Mike Ragan - Curly in episode 21 - "Barnaby Boggs, Esquire" (1950), Pike Lane in episode 34 - "Bullets for Ballots" (1950), Crane in episode 50 - "The Black Widow" (1950), Al in episode 57 - "Danger Ahead" (1950), Chad Hackett in episode 70 - "Silent Voice" (1951), Jeff Durbin in episode 83 - "Through the Wall" (1952), Dave in episode 188 - "White Hawk's Decision" (1956), Slim Wiley in episode 191 - "Quarter Horse War" (1956), Sloat in episode 198 - "Ghost Canyon" (1956).
Marion Ross - episode 139 - "Texas Draw" (1954).
Victor Sen Yung - episode 192 - "The Letter Bride" (1956).
Kim Spalding - Moose in episode 53 - "Million Dollar Wallpaper" (1950), Ed in episode 72 - "Backtrail" (1951), and Joe in episode 103 - "Tumblerock Law" (1953).
Glenn Strange - played Butch Cavendish in episodes 1 - "Enter the Lone Ranger" (1949), 2 - "The Lone Ranger Fights On" (1949), 3 - "The Lone Ranger's Triumph" (1949), and 30 - "Never Say Die" (1950). Also appeared as Bart Walton in episode 95 - "Indian Charlie" (1953), Tom Casley in episode 122 - "Gunpowder Joe" (1953), and as a stagecoach driver in episodes 132 - "Ex-Marshal" (1954) and 160 - "The Too-Perfect Signature" (1955).
William Tannen - Curly in episode 20 - "Man of the House" (1950), Major Halliday in episode 191 - "Quarter Horse War" (1956), and Seth McKeever in episode 195 - "Decision for Chris McKeever" (1956)
Carol Thurston - Beata in episode 13 - "Finders Keepers" (1949) and Mary Turner in 62 - "Masked Deputy" (1950).
Minerva Urecal - episode 29 - "Ghost Town Fury" (1950) and episode 145 - "Homer With a High Hat" (1954).
Lee Van Cleef - episode 82 - "Desperado at Large" (1952), and episodes 114 - "The Brown Pony" and 124 - "Stage to Estacado" (both 1953).
Eddy Waller - Jules in episode 118 - "The Gentleman from Julesburg" (1953), Jim Haskell in episode 169 - "Heart of a Cheater" (1955), and Hardrock Hazen in episode 170 - "The Swami" (1955).
Frank Wilcox - Ross Colby in episode 88 - "The Map" (1952), Samuel DeWitt in episode 105 - "A Stage for Mademoiselle" (1953), Slate Corbaley in episode 128 - "Prisoner in Jeopardy" (1953), and Bradford in episode 176 - "The Return" (1955).
Guy Williams - played a love-struck sheriff in episode 42 - "Six-Gun Artist" (1955). Was later known for playing Zorro, one of the inspirations for the Lone Ranger character.
Michael Winkelman - Chip Truett in episode 212 - "The Prince of Buffalo Gap" (1957).[13]
Sheb Wooley - episodes 116 - "The Wake of War" and 124 - "Stage to Estacado" (both 1953), episode 133 - "Message to Fort Apache" (1954), and episode 165 - "Wanted: The Lone Ranger" (1955).
Hank Worden - Rusty Bates in episode 9 - "The Tenderfeet" (1949), Stage Driver Whip in episode 121 - "Woman from Omaha" (1953), Ed in episode 126 - "The Ghost of Coyote Canyon" (1953), Ike Beatty in episode 138 - "Stage to Teshimingo" (1954), Jud in episode 179 - "The Bait: Gold" (1955), and Bruckner in episode 218 - "The Banker's Son" (1957).

text: DVD releases[edit]

text: On March 31, 2009, Mill Creek Entertainment released the box set Gun Justice featuring The Lone Ranger with other westerns, including Annie Oakley, The Adventures of Kit Carson, The Cisco Kid, Cowboy G-Men, Judge Roy Bean, The Gabby Hayes Show, and The Roy Rogers Show.

text: On November 11, 2009, Classic Media released The Lone Ranger: 75th Anniversary Edition to commemorate the show.[14] On June 4, 2013, Classic Media released The Lone Ranger: Collector's Edition, a 30-disc set featuring all 221 episodes of the series on DVD for the very first time, though many of the episodes are the syndicated edits missing 2–3 minutes.[15]


document_title: Supermarket

question_text: when was the first supermarket opened in usa

text: Supermarket

text: History[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: In the early days of retailing, all products generally were fetched by an assistant from shelves behind the merchant's counter while customers waited in front of the counter and indicated the items they wanted. Also, most foods and merchandise did not come in individually wrapped consumer-sized packages, so an assistant had to measure out and wrap the precise amount desired by the consumer. This also offered opportunities for social interaction: many regarded this style of shopping as "a social occasion" and would often "pause for conversations with the staff or other customers."[2] These practices were by nature very labor-intensive and therefore also quite expensive. The shopping process was slow, as the number of customers who could be attended to at one time was limited by the number of staff employed in the store.

text: Shopping for groceries also often involved trips to multiple specialty shops, such as a greengrocer, butcher, bakery, fishmonger and dry goods store, in addition to a general store, while milk was delivered by a milkman.

text: The concept of an inexpensive food market relying on large economies of scale was developed by Vincent Astor. He founded the Astor Market in 1915, investing $750,000 ($18 million in 2015 currency) of his fortune into a 165' by 125' corner of 95th and Broadway, Manhattan, creating, in effect, an open air mini-mall that sold meat, fruit, produce and flowers. The expectation was that customers would come from great distances ("miles around"), but in the end even attracting people from ten blocks away was difficult, and the market folded in 1917.[3][4][5]

text: The concept of a self-service grocery store was developed by entrepreneur Clarence Saunders and his Piggly Wiggly stores. His first store opened in 1916. Saunders was awarded a number of patents for the ideas he incorporated into his stores.[6][7][8][9] The stores were a financial success and Saunders began to offer franchises. The Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Company, which was established in 1859, was another successful early grocery store chain in Canada and the United States, and became common in North American cities in the 1920s. The general trend since then has been to stock shelves at night so that customers, the following day, can obtain their own goods and bring them to the front of the store to pay for them. Although there is a higher risk of shoplifting, the costs of appropriate security measures ideally will be outweighed by reduced labor costs.[citation needed]

text: Early self-service grocery stores did not sell fresh meats or produce. Combination stores that sold perishable items were developed in the 1920s.[10]

text: Historically, there has been debate about the origin of the supermarket, with King Kullen and Ralphs of California having strong claims.[11] Other contenders included Weingarten's Big Food Markets and Henke & Pillot.[12] To end the debate, the Food Marketing Institute in conjunction with the Smithsonian Institution and with funding from H.J. Heinz, researched the issue. It defined the attributes of a supermarket as "self-service, separate product departments, discount pricing, marketing and volume selling."[citation needed]

text: It has been determined that the first true supermarket in the United States was opened by a former Kroger employee, Michael J. Cullen, on 4 August 1930, inside a 6,000-square-foot (560 m2) former garage in Jamaica, Queens in New York City.[13] The store, King Kullen, operated under the slogan "Pile it high. Sell it low." At the time of Cullen's death in 1936, there were seventeen King Kullen stores in operation. Although Saunders had brought the world self-service, uniform stores and nationwide marketing, Cullen built on this idea by adding separate food departments, selling large volumes of food at discount prices and adding a parking lot.

text: Other established American grocery chains in the 1930s, such as Kroger and Safeway at first resisted Cullen's idea, but eventually were forced to build their own supermarkets as the economy sank into the Great Depression, while consumers were becoming price-sensitive at a level never experienced before.[14] Kroger took the idea one step further and pioneered the first supermarket surrounded on all four sides by a parking lot.[citation needed]

text: As larger chain supermarkets began to dominate the market in the USA, able to supply consumers with the desired lower prices as opposed to the smaller "mom and pop" stands with considerable more overhead costs, the backlash of this infrastructure alteration was seen through numerous anti-chain campaigns. The idea of "monopsony," proposed by Cambridge economist Joan Robinson in 1933, that a single buyer could out-power the market of multiple sellers, became a strong anti-chain rhetorical device. With public backlash came political pressure to even the playing field for smaller vendors without the luxuries of economies of scale. In 1936, the Robinson-Patman Act was implemented as a way of preventing such larger chains from using this buying power to reap advantages over smaller, although the act was not well enforced and did not have much impact in the prevention of larger chains overtaking power in the markets.[15]

text: Supermarkets proliferated across Canada and the United States with the growth of automobile ownership and suburban development after World War II. Most North American supermarkets are located in suburban strip shopping centers as an anchor store along. They are generally regional rather than national in their company branding. Kroger is perhaps the most nationally oriented supermarket chain in the United States but it has preserved most of its regional brands, including Ralphs, City Market, King Soopers, Fry's, Smith's, and QFC.[citation needed]

text: In Canada, the largest such company is Loblaw, which operates stores under a variety of banners targeted to different segments and regions, including Fortinos, Zehrs, No Frills, the Real Canadian Superstore, and Loblaws, the foundation of the company. Sobeys is Canada's second largest supermarket with locations across the country, operating under many banners (Sobeys IGA in Quebec).[citation needed] Québec's first supermarket opened in 1934 in Montréal, under the banner Steinberg's.[16]

text: In the United Kingdom, self-service shopping took longer to become established. Even in 1947, there were just ten self-service shops in the country.[2] In 1951, ex-US Navy sailor Patrick Galvani, son-in-law of Express Dairies chairman, made a pitch to the board to open a chain of supermarkets across the country. The UK's first supermarket under the new Premier Supermarkets brand opened in Streatham, South London,[17] taking ten times as much per week as the average British general store of the time. Other chains caught on, and after Galvani lost out to Tesco's Jack Cohen in 1960 to buy the 212 Irwin's chain, the sector underwent a large amount of consolidation, resulting in 'the big four' dominant UK of today: Tesco, Asda (owned by Wal-Mart), Sainsbury's and Morrisons.

text: In the 1950s, supermarkets frequently issued trading stamps as incentives to customers. Today, most chains issue store-specific "membership cards," "club cards," or "loyalty cards". These typically enable the card holder to receive special members-only discounts on certain items when the credit card-like device is scanned at check-out.[citation needed] Sales of selected data generated by clubcards is becoming a significant revenue stream for some supermarkets.

text: Traditional supermarkets in many countries face intense competition from discounters such as Wal-Mart, and Tesco in the UK, which typically are non-union and operate with better buying power. Other competition exists from warehouse clubs such as Costco that offer savings to customers buying in bulk quantities. Superstores, such as those operated by Wal-Mart and Asda, often offer a wide range of goods and services in addition to foods. The proliferation of such warehouse and superstores has contributed to the continuing disappearance of smaller, local grocery stores; increased dependence on the automobile; suburban sprawl because of the necessity for large floorspace and increased vehicular traffic. For example, in 2009 51% of Wal-Mart's $251 Billion domestic sales were recorded from grocery goods.[18] Some critics consider the chains' common practice of selling loss leaders to be anti-competitive. They are also wary of the negotiating power that large, often multinational have with suppliers around the world.[citation needed]

text: Growth in developing countries[edit]

text: There has been a rapid transformation of the food sector in developing countries, beginning in the 1990s. This applies particularly to Latin America, South-East Asia, India, China and South Africa. However, growth is being witnessed in nearly all countries. With growth, has come considerable competition and some amount of consolidation.[19] The growth has been driven by increasing affluence and the rise of a middle class; the entry of women into the workforce; with a consequent incentive to seek out easy-to-prepare foods; the growth in the use of refrigerators, making it possible to shop weekly instead of daily; and the growth in car ownership, facilitating journeys to distant stores and purchases of large quantities of goods. The opportunities presented by this potential have encouraged several European companies to invest in these markets (mainly in Asia) and American companies to invest in Latin America and China. Local companies also entered the market.[20] Initial development of supermarkets has now been followed by hypermarket growth. In addition there were investments by companies such as Makro and Metro in large-scale Cash-and-Carry operations.

text: While the growth in sales of processed foods in these countries has been much more rapid than the growth in fresh food sales, the imperative nature of supermarkets to achieve economies of scale in purchasing, means that the expansion of supermarkets in these countries has important repercussions for small farmers, particularly those growing perishable crops. New supply chains have developed involving cluster formation; development of specialized wholesalers; leading farmers organizing supply; and farmer associations or cooperatives.[21] In some cases supermarkets have organized their own procurement from small farmers; in others wholesale markets have adapted to meet supermarket needs.[22]

text: Typical supermarket merchandise[edit]

text: Larger supermarkets in North America and in Europe typically sell a great number of items among many brands, sizes and varieties, including:

text:
Alcoholic beverages (as state, provincial or local laws allow)
Baby foods and baby-care products such as disposable diapers
Breads and bakery products (many stores may have a bakery on site that offers specialty and dessert items)
Baking needs
Books, newspapers, and magazines, including supermarket tabloids
Bulk dried foods such as legumes, flour, rice, etc. (typically available for self-service)
Canned goods and dried cereals
CDs, audio cassettes, DVDs, and videos (including video rentals)
Cigarettes and other tobacco products (as country, state, provincial or local laws allow)
Confections and candies
Cosmetics
Dairy products and eggs
Delicatessen foods (ready-to-eat)
Diet foods
Dressings and Sauces
Electrical products such as light bulbs, extension cords, etc.
Feminine hygiene products
Financial services and products such as mortgages, credit cards, savings accounts, wire transfers, etc. (typically offered in-store by a partnering bank or other financial institution)
Flowers
Frozen foods and crushed ice
Fresh produce, fruits and vegetables
Greeting cards
House-cleaning products
Housewares, dishware and cooking utensils (typically limited)
Laundry products such as detergents and fabric softeners
Lottery tickets (where operational and legal)
Luggage items (typically limited)
Meats, fish and seafoods (some stores may offer live fish and seafood items from aquarium tanks)
Medicines and first aid items (primarily over-the-counter drugs, although many supermarkets also have an on-site pharmacy) (as laws allow)
Nonalcoholic beverages such as soft drinks, juices, and bottled water (some stores may have a juice bar that prepares ready-to-drink freshly squeezed juices, smoothies, etc.)
Personal hygiene and grooming products
Pet foods and products
Seasonal items and decorations
Snack foods
Tea and coffee (some stores may have a commercial-style grinder, typically available for self-service, or a staffed coffee bar that prepares ready-to-drink coffee and tea beverages)
Toys and novelties

text: In some countries, the range of supermarket merchandise is more strictly focused on food products, although the range of goods for sale is expanding in many locations as typical store sizes continue to increase globally.[citation needed]

text: Typical store architecture[edit]

text: While branding and store advertising will differ from company to company, the layout of a supermarket remains virtually unchanged. Although big companies spend time giving consumers a pleasant shopping experience, the design of a supermarket is directly connected to the in-store marketing that supermarkets must conduct in order to get shoppers to spend more money while there.

text: Every aspect of the store is mapped out and attention is paid to color, wording and even surface texture. The overall layout of a supermarket is a visual merchandising project that plays a major role. Stores can creatively use a layout to alter customers’ perceptions of the atmosphere. Alternatively, they can enhance the store’s atmospherics through visual communications (signs and graphics), lighting, colors, and even scents.[23] For example, to give a sense of the supermarket being healthy, fresh produce is deliberately located at the front of the store. In terms of bakery items, supermarkets usually dedicate 30 to 40 feet of store space to the bread aisle.[24]

text: Supermarkets are designed to "give each product section a sense of individual difference and this is evident in the design of what are called the anchor departments; fresh produce, dairy, delicatessen, meat and the bakery".[25] Each section has different floor coverings, style, lighting and sometimes even individual services counters to allow shoppers to feel as if there are a number of markets within this one supermarket.[26]

text: Marketers use well researched techniques to try to control purchasing behaviour. The layout of a supermarket is considered by some to consist of a few rules of thumb and three layout principles.[27] The high-draw products are placed in separate areas of the store to keep drawing the consumer through the store. High impulse and high margin products are placed in the most predominant areas to grab attention. Power products are placed on both sides of the aisle to create increased product awareness, and end caps are used to receive high exposure of a certain product whether on special, promotion or in a campaign, or a new line.

text: The first principle of layout is circulation. Circulation is created by arranging product so the supermarket can control the traffic flow of the consumer. Along this path there will be high-draw, high-impulse items that will influence the consumer to purchase which he or she did not intend. Service areas such as rest rooms are placed in a location which draws the consumer past certain products to create extra buys. Necessity items such as bread and milk are found at the rear of the store to increase the start of circulation. Cashiers' desks are placed in a position to promote circulation. The entrance will be on the right-hand side because research has shown that consumers who travel in a counter-clockwise direction spend more.[28]

text: The second principle of layout is coordination. Coordination is the organised arrangement of product that promotes sales. Products such as fast-selling and slow-selling lines are placed in strategic positions in aid of the overall sales plan. Managers sometimes place different items in fast-selling places to increase turnover or to promote a new line.

text: The third principle is consumer convenience. The layout of a supermarket is designed to create a high degree of convenience to the consumer to make the shopping experience pleasant and increase customer spending.[29] This is done through the character of merchandising and product placement. There are many different ideas and theories in relation to layout and how product layout can influence the purchases made. One theory suggests that certain products are placed together or near one another that are of a similar or complementary nature to increase the average customer spend.[30] This strategy is used by to create cross-category sales similarity. In other words, the toothpaste is next to or adjacent the tooth brushes and the tea and coffee are down the same isle as the sweet biscuits. These products complement one another and placing them near is one way marketers try to increase purchases.[30] For vertical placement, cheap generic brands tend to be on the lowest shelves, products appealing to children are placed at the mid-thigh level, and the most profitable brands are placed at eye level.[29]

text: Consumer psychologists suggest that most buyers tend to enter the store and shop to their right first.[31] Some supermarkets therefore choose to place the entrance to the left-hand side as the consumer will likely turn right upon entry, and this allows the consumer to do a full anticlockwise circle around the store before returning to the checkouts. This suggests that supermarket marketers should use this theory to their advantage by placing their temporary displays of products on the right-hand side to entice you to make an unplanned purchase. Furthermore, aisle ends are extremely popular with product manufacturers, who pay top dollar to have their products located there.[32] These aisle ends are used to lure customers into making a snap purchase and to also entice them to shop down the aisle. The most obvious place supermarket layout influences consumers is at the checkout. Small displays of chocolates, magazines and drinks are located at each checkout to tempt shoppers while they wait to be served.[31]

text: Criticisms[edit]

text:
The large scale of supermarkets, while often improving cost and efficiency for customers, can place significant economic pressure on suppliers and smaller shopkeepers.[33][34][35][36][37]
Supermarkets often generate considerable food waste, although modern technologies such as biomethanation units may be able to process the waste into an economical source of energy.[38][39][40]