document_title: Tenochtitlan

question_text: why did the aztecs built floating gardens in their capital city of tenochtitlan

text: Tenochtitlan

text: Etymology[edit]

text: Traditionally, the name Tenochtitlan was thought to come from Nahuatl tetl [ˈtetɬ] ("rock") and nōchtli [ˈnoːtʃtɬi] ("prickly pear") and is often thought to mean, "Among the prickly pears [growing among] rocks". However, one attestation in the late 16th-century manuscript known as "the Bancroft dialogues" suggest the second vowel was short, so that the true etymology remains uncertain.[2]

text: Geography[edit]

text: Tenochtitlan covered an estimated 8 to 13.5 km2 (3.1 to 5.2 sq mi), situated on the western side of the shallow Lake Texcoco.

text: At the time of Spanish conquests, Mexico City comprised both Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco. The city extended from north to south, from the north border of Tlatelolco to the swamps, which by that time were gradually disappearing to the west; the city ended more or less at the present location of Avenida Bucareli.

text: The city was connected to the mainland by bridges and causeways leading to the north, south, and west. The causeways were interrupted by bridges that allowed canoes and other water traffic to pass freely. The bridges could be pulled away, if necessary, to defend the city. The city was interlaced with a series of canals, so that all sections of the city could be visited either on foot or via canoe.

text: Lake Texcoco was the largest of five interconnected lakes. Since it formed in an endorheic basin, Lake Texcoco was brackish. During the reign of Moctezuma I, the "levee of Nezahualcoyotl" was constructed, reputedly designed by Nezahualcoyotl. Estimated to be 12 to 16 km (7.5 to 9.9 mi) in length, the levee was completed circa 1453. The levee kept fresh spring-fed water in the waters around Tenochtitlan and kept the brackish waters beyond the dike, to the east.

text: Two double aqueducts, each more than 4 km (2.5 mi) long and made of terracotta,[3] provided the city with fresh water from the springs at Chapultepec. This was intended mainly for cleaning and washing. For drinking, water from mountain springs was preferred. Most of the population liked to bathe twice a day; Moctezuma was said to take four baths a day. According to the context of Aztec culture in literature, the soap that they most likely used was the root of a plant called copalxocotl (Saponaria americana),[4] and to clean their clothes they used the root of metl (Agave americana). Also, the upper classes and pregnant women washed themselves in a temazcalli, similar to a sauna bath, which is still used in the south of Mexico. This was also popular in other Mesoamerican cultures.

text: City plans[edit]

text: When we saw so many cities and villages built in the water and other great towns on dry land we were amazed and said that it was like the enchantments (...) on account of the great towers and cues and buildings rising from the water, and all built of masonry. And some of our soldiers even asked whether the things that we saw were not a dream? (...) I do not know how to describe it, seeing things as we did that had never been heard of or seen before, not even dreamed about.

text: The city was divided into four zones, or camps; each camp was divided into 20 districts (calpullis, Nahuatl calpōlli); and each calpulli, or 'big house', was crossed by streets or tlaxilcalli. There were three main streets that crossed the city, each leading to one of the three causeways to the mainland of Tepeyac, Ixtapalpa, and Tlacopan.[6] Bernal Díaz del Castillo reported that they were wide enough for ten horses. Surrounding the raised causeways were artificial floating gardens with canal waterways and gardens of plants, shrubs, and trees.[7] The calpullis were divided by channels used for transportation, with wood bridges that were removed at night.

text: The earliest European images of the city were woodcuts published in Augsburg around 1522.[8]

text: Marketplaces[edit]

text: Each calpulli (from Classical Nahuatl calpōlli, Nahuatl pronunciation: [kaɬˈpoːlːi], meaning "large house") had its own tiyanquiztli (marketplace), but there was also a main marketplace in Tlatelolco – Tenochtitlan's sister city. Cortés estimated it was twice the size of the city of Salamanca with about 60,000 people trading daily. Bernardino de Sahagún provides a more conservative population estimate of 20,000 on ordinary days and 40,000 on feast days. There were also specialized markets in the other central Mexican cities.

text: Public buildings[edit]

text: In the center of the city were the public buildings, temples, and palaces. Inside a walled square, 500 meters to a side, was the ceremonial center. There were about 45 public buildings, including: the Templo Mayor, which was dedicated to the Aztec patron deity Huitzilopochtli and the Rain God Tlaloc; the temple of Quetzalcoatl; the tlachtli (ball game court) with the tzompantli or rack of skulls; the Sun Temple, which was dedicated to Tonatiuh; the Eagle's House, which was associated with warriors and the ancient power of rulers; the platforms for the gladiatorial sacrifice; and some minor temples.[9]

text: Outside was the palace of Moctezuma with 100 rooms, each with its own bath, for the lords and ambassadors of allies and conquered people. Also located nearby was the cuicalli, or house of the songs, and the calmecac.[10]

text: The city had great symmetry. All constructions had to be approved by the calmimilocatl, a functionary in charge of the city planning.

text: Palaces of Montezuma II[edit]

text: The palace of Montezuma II also had two houses or zoos, one for birds of prey and another for other birds, reptiles, and mammals. About 300 people were dedicated to the care of the animals.

text: There was also a botanical garden and an aquarium. The aquarium had ten ponds of salt water and ten ponds of fresh water, containing various fish and aquatic birds. Places like this also existed in Texcoco, Chapultepec, Huaxtepec (now called Oaxtepec), and Texcotzingo.[11]

text: Social classes[edit]

text: Tenochtitlan can be considered the most complex society in Mesoamerica in regard to social stratification.  The complex system involved many social classes. The macehualtin were commoners who lived outside the island city of Tenochtitlan. The pipiltin were noblemen who were relatives of leaders and former leaders, and lived in the confines of the island.  Cuauhipiltin, or eagle nobles, were commoners who impressed the nobles with their martial prowess, and were treated as nobles.[6] Teteuctin were the highest class, rulers of various parts of the empire, including the king. Tlacohtin were individuals who chose to enslave themselves to pay back a debt; they were not slaves forever and were not treated as badly as typical slaves seen in other ancient civilizations worldwide. Finally, the pochteca were merchants who traveled all of Mesoamerica trading.  The membership of this class was based on heredity.  Pochteca could become very rich because they did not pay taxes, but they had to sponsor the ritual feast of Xocotl Huetzi from the wealth that they obtained from their trade expeditions.

text: Status was displayed by location and type of house where a person lived.  Ordinary people lived in houses made of reeds plastered with mud and roofed with thatch. People who were better off had houses of adobe brick with flat roofs.[6] The wealthy had houses of stone masonry with flat roofs. They most likely made up the house complexes that were arranged around the inner court.  The higher officials in Tenochtitlan lived in the great palace complexes that made up the city.

text: Adding even more complexity to Aztec social stratification was the calpolli. Calpolli, meaning ‘big house’ is a group of families related by either kinship or proximity. These groups consist of both elite members of Aztec society and commoners.  Elites provided commoners with arable land and nonagricultural occupations, and commoners performed services for chiefs and gave tribute.[12]

text: History[edit]

text: Tenochtitlan was the capital of the Mexican civilization of the Mexica people, founded in 1325. The state religion of the Mexica civilization awaited the fulfillment of an ancient prophecy: the wandering tribes would find the destined site for a great city whose location would be signaled by an eagle with a snake in its beak perched atop a (Opuntia) cactus.

text: The Mexica saw this vision on what was then a small swampy island in Lake Texcoco, a vision that is now immortalized in Mexico's coat of arms and on the Mexican flag. Not deterred by the unfavourable terrain, they set about building their city, using the chinampa system (misnamed as "floating gardens") for agriculture and to dry and expand the island.

text: A thriving culture developed, and the Mexica civilization came to dominate other tribes around Mexico. The small natural island was perpetually enlarged as Tenochtitlan grew to become the largest and most powerful city in Mesoamerica. Commercial routes were developed that brought goods from places as far as the Gulf of Mexico, the Pacific Ocean and perhaps even the Inca Empire.[13]

text: After a flood of Lake Texcoco, the city was rebuilt under the rule of Ahuitzotl in a style that made it one of the grandest ever in Mesoamerica.

text: Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés arrived in Tenochtitlan on November 8, 1519. With an estimated population between 200,000 and 300,000, many[who?] scholars believe Tenochtitlan to have been among the largest cities in the world at that time.[14] Compared to the cities of Europe, only Paris, Venice and Constantinople might have rivaled it. It was five times the size of the London of Henry VIII.[6] In a letter to the Spanish king, Cortés wrote that Tenochtitlan was as large as Seville or Córdoba. Cortes' men were in awe at the sight of the splendid city and many wondered if they were dreaming.[15]

text: Although some popular sources put the number as high as 350,000,[16] the most common estimates of the population are of over 200,000 people. One of the few comprehensive academic surveys of Mesoamerican city and town sizes arrived at a population of 212,500 living on 13.5 km2 (5.2 sq mi),[17] It is also said that at one time, Moctezuma had rule over an empire of almost five million people in central and southern Mexico because he had extended his rule to surrounding territories to gain tribute and prisoners to sacrifice to the gods.[7]

text: Conquest era[edit]

text: When Cortés and his men arrived in Tenochtitlan, Moctezuma II, who precariously ruled over a large empire, chose to welcome Cortés as an honored guest, rather than risk a war which might quickly be joined by aggrieved indigenous people. Moctezuma may have feared that Cortés was the returning god Quetzalcoat, because the Spanish arrival coincided with the close of an Aztec calendar cycle consistent with such a return. This claim is found in the Florentine Codex, among other early sources, and accepted as true in many later histories. However, some scholars doubt it.[18]

text: As Cortés approached Tenochtitlan, the natives celebrated Toxcatl. At this event the most prominent warriors of altepetl[clarification needed] would dance in front of a huge statue of Huitzilopochtli. The Spanish leader, Pedro de Alvarado, who was left in charge, worried that the natives  planned a surprise attack. He captured three natives and tortured them until they said that this[clarification needed] was indeed true. There was no proof, however, but Alvarado decided to attack first. During the festival, the Spaniards came heavily armed and closed off every exit from the courtyard so that no one would escape. This happened during their last days in Tenochtitlan.[19].

text: Nobles lined each side of the city's main causeway, which extended about a league.  Walking down the center came Moctezuma II, with two lords at his side, one his brother, the ruler of Iztapalapa. Cortés dismounted and was greeted by the ruler and his lords, but forbidden to touch him. Cortés gave him a necklace of crystals, placing it over his neck.[20]

text: They were then brought to a large house that would serve as their home for their stay in the city. Once they were settled, Moctezuma himself sat down and spoke with Cortés. The great ruler declared that anything that they needed would be theirs to have.[21] He was thrilled to have visitors of such stature.  Although the Spaniards were seeking gold, Moctezuma expressed that he had very little of the sort, but all of it was to be given to Cortés if he desired it.[22]

text: Since arriving in Tenochtitlan, Cortés faced early trouble.  Leaving a post in Vera Cruz, the officer left in charge received a letter from Qualpopoca, the leader of Almería, asking to become a vassal of the Spaniards. He requested that officials be sent to him so that he could confirm his submission. To reach the province, the officers would have to travel through hostile land. The officer in charge of Vera Cruz decided to send four officers to meet with Qualpopoca.[23]

text: When they arrived, they were captured and two were killed, the other two escaping through the woods. Upon their return to Vera Cruz, the officer in charge was infuriated, and led troops to storm Almería. Here they learned that Moctezuma was supposedly the one who ordered the officers executed.[24] Back in Tenochtitlan, Cortés detained Moctezuma and questioned him.[25] Though no serious conclusions were reached, this started the relationship between Moctezuma and the Spaniards on a bad note.[26]

text: Cortés subsequently besieged Tenochtitlan for 75 days, causing a famine;[7] directed the systematic destruction and leveling of the city;[27] and began its rebuilding, despite opposition, with a central area designated for Spanish use (the traza). The outer Indian section, now dubbed San Juan Tenochtitlan, continued to be governed by the previous indigenous elite and was divided into the same subdivisions as before.[28] While the people of Tenochtitlan were celebrating the few Spaniards who were not able to escape and were killed, the city was in great ruins.[clarification needed]

text: The people of Tenochtitlan were exposed to diseases. Someone who was exposed would not feel it for the first ten days, then the disease would spread throughout the body, causing many sores, pain in the body and high fever. People were weak to the point that they could not move, nor  obtain food and water. They couldn't cook or bury the remaining dead bodies from the conquest. The population of the people of Tenochtitlan began to starve and weaken. The death toll rose steadily over the course of the next 60 days.[29][when?]

text: Colonial era[edit]

text: Cortés founded the Spanish capital of Mexico City on the ruins of Tenochtitlan. Despite the extensive damage to the built environment, the site retained symbolic power and legitimacy as the capital of the Aztec empire, which Cortés sought to appropriate. For a time this ciudad de españoles, the highest rank in the Spanish hierarchy of settlement designation, was called Mexico-Tenochtitlan. Charles Gibson devotes the final chapter of his classic work, The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule, to what he called "The City,"[30] with later historians building on his work.[31] The Spaniards established a cabildo or town council, which had jurisdiction over the Spanish residents. The Spanish established a Europeans-only zone in the center of the city, an area of 13 blocks in each direction of the central plaza, which was the traza.  Although many native residents died during the siege of Tenochtitlan, the indigenous still had a strong presence in the city, and were settled in two main areas of the island, designated San Juan Tenochtitlan and Santiago Tlatelolco, each with a municipal council that functioned the entire colonial period. San Juan Tenochtitlan was a Spanish administrative creation, which amalgamated four indigenous sections, with each losing territory to the Spanish traza.  The Spanish laid out the streets of the traza in a checker board pattern, with straight streets and plazas at intervals, whereas the indigenous portions of the city were irregular in layout and built of modest materials. In the colonial period both San Juan Tenochtitlan and Santiago Tlatelolco retained jurisdiction over settlements on the mainland that they could draw on for labor and tribute demanded by the Spanish, but increasingly those subordinate settlements (sujetos) were able to gain their autonomy with their own rulers and separate relationship with the Spanish rulers.[32] Concern about the health of the indigenous population in early post-conquest Mexico-Tenochtilan led to the founding of a royal hospital for indigenous residents.[33]

text: There are a number of colonial-era pictorial manuscripts dealing with Tenochtitlan-Tlatelolco, which shed light on litigation between Spaniards and indigenous over property.[34] An account with information about the war of Tenochtitlan against its neighbor Tlatelolco in 1473 and the Spanish conquest in 1521 is the Anales de Mexico y Tlatelolco, 1473, 1521-22.[35] Anthropologist Susan Kellogg has studied colonial-era inheritance patterns of Nahuas in Mexico City, using Nahuatl- and Spanish-language testaments.[36]

text: Ruins[edit]

text: Tenochtitlan's main temple complex, the Templo Mayor, was dismantled and the central district of the Spanish colonial city was constructed on top of it. The great temple was destroyed by the Spanish during the construction of a cathedral. The location of the Templo Mayor was rediscovered in the early 20th century, but major excavations did not take place until 1978–1982, after utility workers came across a massive stone disc depicting the nude dismembered body of the moon goddess Coyolxauhqui.  The disc is 3.25 meters (10 ft 8 in) in diameter, and is held at the Templo Mayor Museum.[37]

text: The ruins, constructed over seven periods, were built on top of each other.  The resulting weight of the structures caused them to sink into the sediment of Lake Texcoco; the ruins now rest at an angle instead of horizontally.

text: Mexico City's Zócalo, the Plaza de la Constitución, is located at the site of Tenochtitlan's original central plaza and market, and many of the original calzadas still correspond to modern city streets. The Aztec calendar stone was located in the ruins. This stone is 4 meters (13 ft 1 in) in diameter and weighs over 20 short tons (17.9 long tons; 18.1 metric tons). It was once located half-way up the great pyramid. This sculpture was carved around 1470 under the rule of King Axayacatl, the predecessor of Tizoc, and is said to tell the history of the Mexicas and to prophesy the future.[38]

text: In August 1987, archaeologists discovered a mix of 1,789 human bones five meters (16 ft 5 in) below street level in Mexico City.[39] The burial dates back to the 1480s and lies at the foot of the main temple in the sacred ceremonial precinct of the Aztec capital. The bones are from children, teenagers and adults. A complete skeleton of a young woman was also found at the site.[39]


document_title: You'll Never Walk Alone

question_text: when did liverpool adopt you'll never walk alone

question_tokens: when did liverpool adopt you 'll never walk alone

root

text: You'll Never Walk Alone

text: Background[edit]

text: Christine Johnson, who created the role of Nettie Fowler, introduced the song in the original Broadway production.[2] Later in the show Jan Clayton, as Julie Jordan, reprised it, with the chorus joining in.

tag: p

text: In the film, it is first sung by Claramae Turner as Nettie. The weeping Julie Jordan (Shirley Jones) tries to sing it but cannot; it is later reprised by Julie and those attending the graduation.

text: Subsequent history[edit]

text: Besides the recordings of the song on the Carousel cast albums and the film soundtrack, the song has been recorded by many artists, with notable hit versions made by Roy Hamilton,[3] Frank Sinatra, Gerry and the Pacemakers, Judy Garland, Elvis Presley, Johnny Cash, Andy Williams, Johnny Maestro and The Brooklyn Bridge, Olivia Newton-John and Doris Day. Progressive rock group Pink Floyd took a recording by the Liverpool Kop choir, and "interpolated" it into their own song, "Fearless", on their 1971 album Meddle.

text: From 1964 through 2010, Jerry Lewis concluded the annual Jerry Lewis Labor Day MDA Telethon by singing the song.[4] After the end of a concert by the rock band Queen, the audience spontaneously sang this song, according to lead guitarist Brian May,[5] and this helped to inspire the creation of their songs "We Are the Champions" and "We Will Rock You". Italian-American tenor Sergio Franchi sang a notable version accompanied by the Welsh Men's Choir on the June 9, 1968 telecast of The Ed Sullivan Show.[6] He also covered this song in his 1964 RCA Victor album The Exciting Voice of Sergio Franchi.[7] American singer and songwriter Barbra Streisand sang this song in a surprise appearance at the close of the 2001 Emmy Awards, in honor of the victims of the September 11, 2001 attacks.[8]

text: In 1990 at the Nelson Mandela: An International Tribute for a Free South Africa concert at Wembley Stadium London, the audience spontaneously broke out into a mass rendition. Mandela turned to Adelaide Tambo who accompanied him onto the stage and asked what the song was. She replied, "A football song".

text: Renée Fleming sang the song at the Concert for America, which marked the first anniversary of 9/11,[9][10][better source needed] and for the Inauguration of Barack Obama on January 20, 2009.[11]

text: In 2010, this was sung during the festivities of the Last Night of the Proms, with the choir at the Royal Albert Hall joined by crowds of the public from Hillsborough Castle, Northern Ireland; Caird Hall, Dundee; Hyde Park, London; Salford, Greater Manchester; and Wales, to mark the fiftieth anniversary of the death of Oscar Hammerstein II.[citation needed]

text: In the second season of American Horror Story, this song was recited as a poem.

text: It has been the song of the Madison Scouts Drum and Bugle Corps song since 1954, where they first performed it as a part of their first field show in 1954. Challenged by the Rosemont Cavaliers singing "Over the Rainbow" in 1957, the corps responded with "You'll Never Walk Alone", and it has been the official corps song ever since.

text: Punk band Dropkick Murphys covered the song for their 2017 album 11 Short Stories of Pain & Glory. Vocalist/bassist Ken Casey said in a December 2016 interview discussing the reason behind their version. "As you may know, opiate overdoses are an epidemic in America now particularly in (the Boston) area. I've been to thirty wakes in two years, three this week, one being my cousin, Al's lost a brother in law. It's hit home close to us. I was leaving one of the wakes and this song came on and as I was listening to the lyrics it summed up exactly how I was feeling. Sad, but knowing there is hope. You never have to be alone. I hope you like our version".

text: Sporting anthem[edit]

text:
"You'll Never Walk Alone"

Single by Gerry and the Pacemakers

from the album How Do You Like It

Released
October 1963

Recorded
July 2, 1963

Studio
EMI Studios, London[12]

Genre
Merseybeat, baroque pop

Length
2:40

Label
Columbia (EMI) (UK), Laurie Records (US)

Composer(s)
Richard Rodgers

Lyricist(s)
Oscar Hammerstein II

Producer(s)
George Martin

tag: table

text: In the UK, the song's most successful cover was released in 1963 by the Liverpudlian Merseybeat group Gerry and the Pacemakers, peaking at number one on the UK singles chart for four consecutive weeks. Sung by Liverpool fans in 1963, the song quickly became the anthem of Liverpool F.C. and is sung by its supporters moments before the start of each home game with the Gerry and the Pacemakers version played over the public address system.[1][13][14]

text: According to former player Tommy Smith, lead vocalist Gerry Marsden presented Liverpool manager Bill Shankly with a recording of his forthcoming cover single during a pre-season coach trip in the summer of 1963. "Shanks was in awe of what he heard. ... Football writers from the local newspapers were travelling with our party and, thirsty for a story of any kind between games, filed copy back to their editors to the effect that we had adopted Gerry Marsden's forthcoming single as the club song."[15] The squad was subsequently invited to perform the track with the band on The Ed Sullivan Show[1] with Marsden stating, "Bill came up to me. He said, ‘Gerry my son, I have given you a football team and you have given us a song’.”[1]

text: Shankly picked the song as his eighth and final selection for the BBC's Desert Island Discs on the eve of the 1965 FA Cup Final.[16] As Liverpool fans sang "You’ll Never Walk Alone" at Wembley during the 1965 FA Cup Final win over Leeds, commentator Kenneth Wolstenholme referred to it as "Liverpool's signature tune".[17] Marsden told BBC Radio how, in the 1960s, the disc jockey at Anfield would play the top-ten commercial records in descending order, with the number one single played last, shortly before kickoff. Liverpool fans on the Kop would sing along, but unlike with other hit singles, once "You'll Never Walk Alone" dropped out of the top-ten, instead of disregarding the song, supporters continued to sing it.[18][19]

text: The song was adopted by Scottish team Celtic after a 1966 Cup Winners Cup semi-final against Liverpool at Anfield.[1][17] It is now sung by Celtic fans prior to every home European tie.[1][17][20] The song has also been adopted by Dutch team Feyenoord, SC Cambuur,[21] Germany's Borussia Dortmund,[17] 1. FSV Mainz 05, TSV 1860 Munich,[22] Japan's F.C. Tokyo,[23] Spain's CD Lugo.[24] the Marist St. Pats MSP 80/80 Blues, and Bali United.[25] In ice hockey, the song has been adopted by German Deutsche Eishockey Liga side Krefeld Pinguine and Croatian Medveščak Zagreb.

text: A special recording of the song was made in solidarity with Bradford City following the Valley Parade fire in 1985, when 56 spectators died and many more were seriously injured. The song was performed by The Crowd, which was a supergroup featuring Gerry Marsden, Paul McCartney and others, and spent two weeks at number-one in the UK.

text: Some years later, after witnessing a rendition of "You'll Never Walk Alone" at Anfield in 2007, the President of the Spanish Olympic Committee, Alejandro Blanco, said he felt inspired to seek lyrics to his country's wordless national anthem, the Marcha Real, ahead of Madrid's bid to host the 2016 Olympic Games.[26][27]

text: During the 2014 Hong Kong protests, legislator Tam Yiu Chung quoted the song during a Legislative Council of Hong Kong meeting, to salute the Hong Kong Police,[28] who had received widespread criticism for using excessive force against pro-democracy protesters. More than 2,000 Liverpool Football Club fans in Hong Kong condemned his inappropriate use of the song, comparing his support of the police action to the police actions in the 1989 Hillsborough disaster, where South Yorkshire Police were found to have distorted facts relating to the unlawful killing by negligence of 96 Liverpool supporters.[29][30][31]

text: On March 13, 2016, after Borussia Dortmund's 2-0 win against 1. FSV Mainz 05 in the German Bundesliga, supporters of both teams performed the song to commemorate a Dortmund fan who died from a cardiac arrest in the stands during the game.[32]

text: Recorded versions[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
The Adicts[33]
Alfie Boe ("Onward") (2007)
Alicia Keys (Hurricane Katrina disaster relief, 2005)
André Rieu (2009 Maastricht concert)
Andy Williams (with orchestra conducted by Archie Bleyer)
Aretha Franklin (1972, on the live album Amazing Grace)
Barry Manilow & Cilla Black (1993)[34]
Bela B. & the Tikiwolves feat. Gary'o'Wolf[22] (official FC St. Pauli Stadionhymn, 1992)
Bernadette Peters
Billy Eckstine (1960): Live album No Cover, No Minimum, recorded in Las Vegas. Production was by Teddy Reig. The album was originally released by Roulette Records, but is also available on the Blue Note label.
Bryn Terfel (1996) – Something Wonderful: Bryn Terfel Sings Rodgers and Hammerstein
Charice (2008)
Celtic Woman (Believe 2011)
Chris de Burgh (2008)
Christy Gibson (Thai Language Version) (2001) – Soo Yod Kao
Christine Johnson on the Carousel Original Cast Album (1945)
Claramae Turner on the Carousel film soundtrack (1956)
The Crowd (1985)
The Crusaders (1966)
David Campbell (2010)
David Phelps on the album Classic (2012)
Die Toten Hosen (2000, Bayern ep)
Dionne Warwick (1967, On Stage and in the Movies album track)
Doris Akers (1963)
Doris Day (on the You'll Never Walk Alone album) (1962)
Dropkick Murphys (appears on their album 11 Short Stories of Pain & Glory) (2017)
Dudu Fisher (2006)
Elha Mae Nympha (2015, performed on the Live Semi-finals on the second season of The Voice Kids, and was moved to the grand finals)
Elvis Presley (1968 single release)
Engelbert Humperdinck (1972 album "Live at the Riviera", in Las Vegas)
Frank Sinatra (1945) (1963)
Frankie Vaughan (1979)
Gene Vincent (1958) (Gene Vincent Rocks and the Blue Caps Roll album track)
Gerry & The Pacemakers (1963)
Glen Campbell (1970)
Hayley Westenra (2001)
Il Divo (A Musical Affair, 2013)
Jackie Wilson (1965)
Jerry Reed (1971) (Ko-Ko Joe album track)
Jo Stafford and Gordon MacRae (1963)
John Barrowman (2010) (John Barrowman album track)
John Farnham (1998) - The Spirit of Christmas (compilation album)
Johnny Cash (2003)
Johnny Preston (1960)[35]
Johnny Maestro & the Brooklyn Bridge (1969)
Joseph Calleja (Last Night of the Proms, 2012)[36]
Josh Groban (2015)[37]
Joyce DiDonato (2012)[38]
Juan Diego Flórez (Live 8 – Berlin) (2005)
Judy Garland (1960)[39]
Katherine Jenkins (2005)
Kevin Rowland (1999)
Kiri Te Kanawa with the Mormon Tabernacle Choir (1990) – Songs of Inspiration
The Knickerbockers (1966)
Lee Greenwood
Lee Towers (1976)[40]
The Lettermen (1964)[41]
Tammy Wynette (1969 Inspiration)
Liverpool F.C. (1977) (FA Cup single: A-side - "We Can Do It" / "Liverpool Lou" B-side - "We Shall Not Be Moved" / "You'll Never Walk Alone")
Los Fastidios
Louis Armstrong (1954) in a medley with Tenderly
Mahalia Jackson
Malena Ernman (2013)
Malcolm Vaughan (1959)
Mark Vincent (2010)
Mario Lanza (1952 and 1956)
Maureen Forrester on the Carousel MCA Classics album (1987)
Melanie Chisholm (2012)
Michael Crawford (1987)
Mormon Tabernacle Choir (1971)
Nina Simone (1960, At Newport)
Olivia Newton-John (1989) – Warm and Tender
Patricia Neway in the soundtrack of the 1967 television adaptation of Carousel (1967)
Patti Labelle & The Blue Belles (1964)
Patti LaBelle (1980's)
Pink Floyd (1971) – "Fearless"
Pips, Chips & Videoclips (Dernjava album, 1995)
The Priests (2009)
Perry Como (1951) (with Mitchell Ayres Orchestra)
Ray Charles (Ingredients in a Recipe for Soul album track, July 1963)
Regine Velasquez (1992)
Renée Fleming (2003)
The Righteous Brothers (1965)
Riverdale Cast featuring main vocals of Madelaine Petsch (2018), appeared on Riverdale [42]
Robin S (appears on the 1998 movie soundtrack, Welcome to Woop Woop)
Robson & Jerome (1996)
Roy Hamilton (1954)[3]
Samuel Ramey (1989)
Sergio Franchi recorded on 1964 RCA album, The Exciting Voice of Sergio Franchi
The Shadows (Reflection album track, 1990)
Shirley Bassey (1962, single B-side to "Ave Maria")[43]
Shirley Jones recorded it on the original movie soundtrack of Carousel and again on her 1989 album Silent Strength
Sissel Kyrkjebø (2004)
Smoking Popes
The Soldiers (2011)
Steven Houghton (1997) – Steven Houghton
Susan Boyle (Standing Ovation: The Greatest Songs from the Stage, 2012)
The Three Tenors (The Three Tenors: Paris 1998, 1998)
Tokyo Ska Paradise Orchestra (2009) – Paradise Blue
Tom Jones (1969)
Trisha Yearwood (2016) - The Passion
Vocal Majority (1997) – How Sweet the Sound
Wayne Hussey and Julianne Regan (as Hussey-Regan) (2011) (in support of Liverpool F.C.'s disability charity, Respect 4 All)[44]

tag: ul

text: Keith Jack (2008)


document_title: Hooterville

question_text: what was the name of the telephone operator on green acres

text: Hooterville

text: Citizens[edit]

text: Citizens include Oliver Wendell Douglas and Lisa Douglas, the new residents from New York City; Eb Dawson, the handyman for the Douglas family; Newt Kiley, who farms over 80 acres (32 ha); Ben Miller, the apple farmer; Mr. Haney (first name disputed, Eustace or Charlton), the county antiques dealer and con man; Hank Kimball, the idiotic county agent; Sam Drucker, owner of Sam Drucker's General Store; Sarah Hotchkiss Trendell, the telephone operator; the Monroe Brothers, Alf and Ralph (despite Ralph's name and status as a brother, Ralph is a woman — seemingly, only Oliver Wendell Douglas questions the bizarre contradiction); Fred Ziffel, a pig farm owner; Doris "Ruthie" Ziffel, Fred's loud and nosy wife; Arnold Ziffel, Fred and Doris's porcine "son"; and Charley Pratt and Floyd Smoot, the engineer and conductor, respectively, of the local train, the Hooterville Cannonball.[2] Kate Bradley and her Uncle Joe Carson and her three daughters, Betty Jo, Bobbie Jo, and Billie Jo reside at the Shady Rest Hotel, 25 miles outside of Hooterville.

text: The citizens of Hooterville are old-fashioned to the point of thinking that Calvin Coolidge is still President, although they later believe the President to be Coolidge's successor, Herbert Hoover. They are also quite provincial: they have never heard of the Federal income tax or tax refunds.[3]

text: Drucker's Store[edit]

text: Drucker's is Hooterville's general store. It is the kind of old-fashioned store where the grocer retrieves many of the items from shelves behind the counter.[4] Sam Drucker sells food and household goods, and at times sells such oddities as nail polish that's also a bathtub sealant and dehydrated chickens: "Just add water and bones, and let it sit for a couple hours." [5] Customers are allowed to shop on credit, although Drucker frequently (and exasperatedly) reminds them of their outstanding bills. Drucker's Store is the closest thing Hooterville has to a social club.[6] The locals often come in to chit-chat, or to play checkers, or to rant and rave about community issues. And, on election day, they cast their votes at Drucker's. Exterior shots of the store show a sign that says "Sam Drucker's General Store", but everyone (including Sam Drucker) mostly calls the store either "Drucker's Store" or just "Drucker's".

text: Post Office[edit]

text: The Hooterville post office is located in Drucker's Store. One of Sam Drucker's quirks is that he insists on putting on his official postal worker hat and standing behind a small regulation post office grille next to the register whenever his role switches from storekeeper to postmaster. Drucker takes great pride in his association with the Post Office Department, and he's also very pleased that his patrons must come to his store to get their mail. In the 1960s, post offices were often situated in stores in rural areas, and some still exist even today. The Green Acres episode "Old Mail Day" is about the day when Sam Drucker cleans his store and Hootervillians gather to receive the lost old mail that he finds. A letter from 1917 informs Fred Ziffel that he has been drafted to fight in World War I.[7] There is no Rural Free Delivery (RFD) in Hooterville. When new resident Oliver Douglas petitions his Congressman for it to be initiated, Drucker is shocked to learn that an obscure (and fictitious) postal regulation requires him to carry the entire route himself — by bicycle. (This situation is, obviously, soon corrected.) In the 1990 made-for-television film, "Return to Green Acres", actor Frank Cady in character as Sam Drucker states that the ZIP Code is "four oh five one six and a half," the vicinity of Lexington-Fayette, Kentucky.

text: Hooterville Volunteer Fire Department[edit]

text: The volunteer fire department is run by Fire Chief Joe Carson. The firemen include Joe, Sam Drucker, Ralph and Alf Monroe, Mr. Haney and an assortment of other Hootervillians. Joe is also the conductor of the Hooterville Volunteer Fire Department Band, which is a brass ensemble marching band that includes Charley Pratt (trumpet), Floyd Smoot (tuba), Ben Miller (French horn), Grandpa Miller (cymbals), and Sam Drucker (bass drum).[8] The only song the band ever plays is "Hot Time In The Old Town Tonight", and no matter how many times they rehearse it, they always play the song at half-speed and somewhat off-key. In the Green Acres episode "I Didn't Raise My Husband to be a Fireman", Oliver Douglas learns that a person has to be able to play an instrument in order to join the fire department. Joe Carson says this is because Hooterville has more parades than fires. Indeed, the Fire Department Band is seen much more often on the shows than actual fire emergencies. The band actually pre-dates the fire department; it was used in fundraisers to help establish the department.

text: Tourist attractions and events[edit]

text: The local tourist attractions and events seen and referred to on Petticoat Junction and Green Acres give a (sometimes humorous) picture of old-fashioned small-town life:

text:
Newt Kiley's two-headed rooster (before it died)
Mr. Haney's monkey racing track
The Shady Rest Hotel's annual Horseshoe Tournament
Kate Bradley's annual Shady Rest Jamboree
The Hooterville Centennial Celebration (1968)
Old Mail Day at Drucker's Store
The Spring Festival
The annual Hooterville Founders' Day Celebration
The Hooterville County Fair

text: Petticoat Junction[edit]

text: Petticoat Junction (1963–1970) is based on the Burris Hotel, a real hotel that existed in Eldon, Missouri.[9] Paul Henning, the producer and creator of the show, was married to the granddaughter of the owner of the hotel and often visited. The Burris hotel became the "Shady Rest Hotel" on Petticoat Junction. The Shady Rest is located 25 miles (40 km) down the tracks from "downtown" Hooterville, just inside the Hooterville county line. In one episode, it is revealed that the Shady Rest was built right on the county line between Hooterville county and Pixley county. The situation is solved when the Hooterville Cannonball tows the hotel several feet until it is fully within the Hooterville boundary. The hotel is run by widow Kate Bradley (played by Bea Benaderet) and her lazy-but-lovable Uncle Joe Carson (Edgar Buchanan). Kate has three daughters, "boy crazy" Billie Jo (Jeannine Riley, 1963–1965; Gunilla Hutton, 1965–1966; Meredith MacRae,1967–1970), sexy bookworm Bobbie Jo (Pat Woodell, 1963–1965; Lori Saunders, 1965–1970), and "tomboy" Betty Jo (Linda Kaye Henning, 1963–1970). From 1969 to 1970, actress June Lockhart played Dr. Janet Craig, whose office was behind the register desk of the Shady Rest.

text: Green Acres[edit]

text: Green Acres (1965–1971) is about a wealthy New York City couple, lawyer Oliver Wendell Douglas (Eddie Albert) and his diamond-clad wife, Lisa (Eva Gabor), who give up their Park Avenue penthouse for a run-down farm, "The Old Haney Place". In Green Acres Hooterville is portrayed as a much more wacky, surreal place than it is in Petticoat Junction. Though the shows share some characters, the humor in Green Acres is often far broader. The major overlap between the two shows is shopkeeper–postman–newsman Sam Drucker. In this series, the town is said to be named after Horace Hooter, who founded the town in 1868. According to Green Acres, Hooterville is in "the kangaroo state". When Oliver visits the governor, the governor gives him a stuffed kangaroo as state memorabilia. Lisa consistently mispronounces the name of the town as "Hootersville". A running gag is that Hooterville is so remote that the only way to get there is by parachute. However, a plot hole shows that Hooterville is connected on a railroad and has a nearby airport in Pixley.

text: Population and elevation inconsistencies[edit]

text: On the series Petticoat Junction, Hooterville appears to be a fairly large town, able to support a high school and several other institutions. In 1963, the county has a population of around 3,000 citizens. And the sign at the Hooterville railroad station says that the town is situated at an elevation of 1427 feet.[10] However, on Green Acres, the population of Hooterville is said to be much smaller and the elevation much lower. In the episode "The Youth Center", general store owner Sam Drucker says that a sign showing the population as 48 and the elevation as 23 inches is incorrect, since two young people recently moved away and the elevation is down to 18 inches. When Oliver Douglas asks him how the elevation could change, Sam explains that "Hooterville is subject to sinking spells." Interestingly, Oliver refers to Hooterville as being "2 1/2 inches above sea level" in the Green Acres episode "Lisa's Jam Session".

text: Location[edit]

text: The exact location of Hooterville is never stated on Petticoat Junction or Green Acres. The shows are rife with conflicting clues, so assigning a location will never be decisive. It cannot even be determined if Hooterville is in the east or the west of the United States. In the Green Acres episode "Music to Milk By", the call letters of the nearby Pixley radio station that Eb Dawson listens to begin with the letter W, rather than K, suggesting that Pixley and Hooterville are east of the Mississippi River. However, the Pixley television station's call letters are KPIX, which would probably put it west of the river. (There were some early exceptions to the W and K nomenclature.[11]) Even the outsiders within the fictional world of the shows have a hard time locating the town. Hooterville is so obscure that in one episode a fly covers it on a map; in another episode the only way a government bureaucrat can get to Hooterville is by parachute. Season 2 Episode 9 The Hooterville Image. Mr. Haney is talking with Mr. Ziffel, Mr. Kiley and Mr. Drucker about the suits that Oliver wears while farming. Mr. Haney states that tourists see him (Oliver) and think they are still in the outskirts of Chicago.

text: Possible Hooterville locations[edit]

text: The original inspiration for Petticoat Junction came from Paul Henning's wife, Ruth. As a child, Ruth traveled by train to her grandparents' hotel in Eldon, Missouri.[12] Other than the hotel and the train, though, there is little resemblance between Hooterville and Eldon, Missouri. One of the pre-production working titles for Petticoat Junction was Ozark Widow. In one episode, the characters on The Beverly Hillbillies go back home to find a husband for Elly Mae. "Back home" turns out to be the Missouri Ozarks theme park Silver Dollar City, which is treated as a real town on the show.

text: At one point, Granny from The Beverly Hillbillies visits Hooterville and wants to marry Sam Drucker. When she is asked how she knows Sam Drucker, she replies "We is neighbors!", and then explains that Hooterville is just over the state-line from her home state of Tennessee. According to this clue, Hooterville is in one of the eight states that border Tennessee.

text: Of the eight states that border Tennessee, only North Carolina includes the Great Smoky Mountains, where Granny says she is from: "When I was a girl back in Tennessee, I set so many boys' hearts on fire that they took to calling that neck of the woods The Smoky Mountains." [13] So is it Hooterville, North Carolina? It is not the most popular guess, or the only guess, but it does follow a major bit of storyline affecting two different shows. It is worth mentioning that the town of Hendersonville, North Carolina, which is in about the right location, actually refers to itself as "Hooterville". (Although that may or may not be because of Green Acres. The link leads to one local author's explanation of why they call themselves "Hooterville", in which he states that the origin of the name pre-dates the show.)

text: In some ways, the best argument is for Kentucky. Sam Drucker, Hooterville grocer and postmaster, gives the ZIP Code for Hooterville as 40516½ in the 1990 reunion movie Return to Green Acres. 40516 is a ZIP Code for Lexington, Kentucky, a city 375 miles (604 km) from Chicago. The character Mr. Haney on Green Acres says that Chicago is nearly 300 miles (480 km) away from Hooterville. Mr. Haney mentioned the "High Flyer Diner" — owned by one of his cousins — being on "Highway 27". US Route 27 passes through Lexington, Kentucky, and most importantly, right along the boundary of ZIP Code 40516. In the Petticoat Junction episode "Betty Jo's Dog", they talk of sending the dog back on the train to Louisville. Also, Lexington, Kentucky is near Springfield, Kentucky, and a nearby town of Hooterville is called "Springfield". That is the most common place name in the U.S., but the shows have frequent references to Bug Tussle or Bugtussle, and that is the name of a place on KY 87 in Monroe County, Kentucky, on the Tennessee border west of Gamaliel. One argument against Kentucky is that one episode says the county seat is 75 miles from Hooterville, and no Kentucky county is that large.

text: The name Hooterville approximates Hooverville, a term used for the shantytowns that emerged during the Great Depression. But it also approximates Hooversville, Pennsylvania, a bucolic town on railroad tracks in western Pennsylvania.[14] Also, characters on Green Acres make trips to and from New York City on an occasional basis and appear to make the round trip in a day's time.

text: In the Petticoat Junction episode "The Valley's New Owner", it is revealed that Hooterville was in a Confederate state during the Civil War. Missouri and Kentucky were Union states during the war, but they were claimed and for a time partially controlled by the Confederacy, which gave them stars in its battle flag. Florida and Louisiana were part of the Confederacy, but are excluded from this list because their elevations are too low (see below).

text: Hooterville is not in these states[edit]

text: Hooterville is not in New York, based on two episodes from season one of Green Acres. In episode 21, "What's In A Name?", Ralph Monroe wishes to have her name changed to Sophia. When Oliver presents his petition to the court, he is informed by the judge that "this state does not have a reciprocal agreement with New York State. Therefore, your credentials are not acceptable. You are not authorized to practice law in this state." In episode 24, "The Deputy", Oliver points out the license plate on his Lincoln Continental to Officer Heston Haney, a blue and yellow New York plate 4G-8561. Officer Haney says "Oh, New York plates, huh. You live there?" to which Oliver replies "No, I live here". When Officer Haney finds out that Oliver has lived in the state for 7 months he writes Oliver a citation stating "We have a law. All out-of-state residents who reside in state more than six months are required to replace their out-of-state plates with in-state." When handing Oliver the ticket Officer Haney says "Now there you are, there's your in-state traffic citation for havin' out-of-state plates."

text: Hooterville is not in Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, Connecticut, or Indiana, based on character comments in the third season of Green Acres. Each of these states is referred to by characters as being somewhere else. Also, given its elevation of 1,427 feet (as seen on the sign in the railroad station), Hooterville is too low to be in Colorado, Montana, New Mexico, Utah, or Wyoming, and too high to be in Delaware, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Louisiana, or Rhode Island.[15]

text: Hooterville is not in any state that didn't exist prior to the end of the American Civil War, nor any state that wasn't part of the Confederacy, with the possible exceptions of Missouri, Kentucky, or West Virginia. This is proven in the episode of Petticoat Junction entitled "The Valley's New Owner" (S7 Ep18). While discussing a deed showing Orrin Pike was the owner of the entire Hooterville Valley, Dr. Janet Craig says to Orrin Pike "the Confederate governor that signed this, gave away land that he didn't own."[16]

text: Real cities within 500 miles[edit]

text: In numerous episodes, it is said that they are close to Chicago. In one Green Acres episode, Mr. Haney says that Chicago is nearly 300 miles (480 km) away. Eldon, Missouri, the inspiration for the show is right at 350 miles (560 km), as the crow flies, from Chicago. In one Petticoat Junction episode, Billie Jo talks about going to the big city Omaha, Nebraska, and in another Uncle Joe talks about going to Sioux City, Iowa. Another time it is said that a nearby town is called Springfield, which could mean Springfield, Illinois or Springfield, Missouri. However, "Springfield" is a common (and geographically ambiguous) fictional city name on television, as seen in such shows as The Simpsons, Guiding Light, and Father Knows Best.

text: Fictional nearby towns[edit]

text: A larger nearby town is called "Pixley", and there is an ongoing rivalry between the two communities. Pixley is the closest town to Hooterville, about 50 miles away. Pixley comically boasts several things that no small farm town in America would have. Among them are a very tiny international airport (Pixley International Airport, the hub of Trans Pixley Airlines) and a television station, KPIX, Channel 5 (call letters also for a television station in San Francisco, California). Other towns in the area include Crabwell Corners (about 5-8 miles (13 km) away), Stankwell Falls (distance never stated), Bug Tussle or Bugtussle (about 20-25 miles (40 km) away), Bleedswell (distance never stated), the unnamed county seat (about 75 miles (121 km) away), Springfield (distance never stated), Appleville (300 miles away), and the unnamed state capital (500 miles away).

text: In Season 4, Episode 12 of Green Acres, "How to Get from Hooterville to Pixley Without Moving", the Douglas' farmhouse is thought to be in Pixley and the barn in Hooterville. By the episode's end, we learn there was an error and the farmhouse is in Hooterville after all. The barn is in Pixley and much to Oliver's surprise, the rest of his farm is in Crabwell Corners, so the three towns must be of large physical areas.

text: In one episode of Petticoat Junction, surveyors determine that the Shady Rest Hotel was built on top of the city boundary line between Hooterville and Pixley. This could imply that the two towns are much closer together than originally thought, but it may also reflect the geography of the northeastern U.S., in which most of the land area is assigned to a town. Or, it could refer to separate districts on the county legislative body.

text: However, there is real evidence to suggest that "Hooterville" is probably an pseudonym for "Porterville California". Pixley is a real town in California's Central Valley on Highway 99 just south of the small town of Tipton. Pixley is mentioned in the 1940 film adaptation of Steinbeck's "The Grapes of Wrath". Although Porterville is 23 miles northeast of Pixley, the two town's ZIP Codes are only one digit apart, Pixley being 93256 and Porterville being 93257. There is also an unincorporated community built around the country intersection of Highway 65 and County Road J137 on the outskirts of Porterville called "Cairns Corners." KTIP is also a real radio station based in Porterville, California and became operational in January, 1947 when the FCC issued the license to station founder and Porterville businessman Jack Tighe. The fictional town of "Springfield" in Green Acres is likely a reference to nearby Springville, California, which lies 16 miles northeast of Porterville. Other real small communities/census designated areas near Porterville, California include Tooleville, Cotton Center, Poplar, and Plainview, to name but a few. From historical references, we know that the Hotel at Redbanks, California, built in 1915, near present-day Woodlake, California, was a favorite destination of movie stars and producers in the 1920s and 1930s, so it could be that "Porterville" is likely the real-life inspiration for "Hooterville".

text: Pop culture[edit]

text: An episode of the television series Two and a Half Men is titled "It Never Rains in Hooterville". In the episode, Alan Harper tells his brother Charlie about his disastrous rainy camp night with his son Jake. Charlie asks where Jake is now, and Alan says that he went with his friends to Hooterville, to which Charlie replies, "It never rains in Hooterville".

text: In the song, "The Revolution Will Not Be Televised", singer Gil Scott-Heron refers to "Green Acres, Beverly Hillbillies, and Hooterville Junction" as symbols of mainstream viewing habits that "will no longer be so damned relevant" when the "Revolution" comes.[17]


document_title: Angel food cake

question_text: how much sugar does angel food cake have

text: Angel food cake

text: Description[edit]

text: Angel food cake requires egg whites whipped until they are stiff; cream of tartar is added to the mixture to stabilize the egg whites.[1] Remaining ingredients are gently folded into the egg white mixture. For this method of leavening to work well, it is useful to have flour that has been made of softer wheat; cake flour is generally used because of its light texture. The softer wheat and the lack of fat causes angel food cake to have a very light texture and taste.

text: Angel food cake should be cut with a serrated knife, as a straight-edged blade tends to compress the cake rather than slice it. Forks, electric serrated knives, special tined cutters or a strong thread should be used instead.

text: Angel food cake is usually baked in a tube pan, a tall, round pan with a tube up the center that leaves a hole in the middle of the cake.[1] A bundt pan may also be used, but the fluted sides can make releasing the cake more difficult. The center tube allows the cake batter to rise higher by 'clinging' to all sides of the pan. The angel food cake pan should not be greased, unlike pans used to prepare other cakes, this allows the cake to have a surface upon which to crawl up helping it to rise. After baking, the cake pan is inverted while cooling to prevent the cake from falling in on itself. Angel food cake is sometimes frosted but more often has some sort of sauce, such as a sweet fruit sauce, drizzled over it. A simple glaze is also popular. Recently, many chefs (Alton Brown in particular) have popularized the idea of adding aromatic spices such as mace and cloves to the cake.[citation needed]

text:
Angel food cake pan

Angel food cake in a tube pan

An angel food cake with various toppings and frosting

text: History[edit]

text: Angel food cake is a white sponge cake made with only stiffly beaten egg whites (yolks would make it yellow and inhibit the stiffening of the whites) and no butter. The first recipe in a cookbook for a white sponge cake is in Lettice Bryan’s The Kentucky Housewife of 1839. Since there is no butter in the cake, the angel food cake is not related to the butter cakes: snow-drift cake, silver cake or lady cake.

text: The Home Messenger Book of Tested Recipes, 2d ed., 1878, by Isabella Stewart contained the first recipe for Angel’s Food Cake. Stewart’s detailed recipe called for eleven egg whites, sugar, flour, vanilla extract and cream of tartar.[3]

text: Manufacturing[edit]

text: The most traditional method, also known as the angel food cake method is as follows. First the egg whites, and possibly salt and cream of tartar, are mixed at a medium speed until a soft peak forms. Whipping continues while the sugar is slowly added. Once a hard peak is formed,[4] the flour is folded into the mixture of egg whites and sugar. This technique is done in order to disturb the foam as little as possible.[5]

text: Different equipment is used when preparing an angel food cake at home or in a small bakery as opposed to a large scale production.[6] Many recipes found in cookbooks advise bakers to whip the egg whites in a copper bowl. The theory behind this is that the whisk incorporates copper particles[7] or ovotransferrin, which is attached to copper particles, into the egg whites, improving the flexibility and stability of the foam. Some research has found that the copper significantly increases the dilatational elasticity, which is the elasticity of the protein cell wall at the interface of air/water.[5]

text: A planetary mixer, such as a stand mixer or handheld mixer, is appropriate for a homemade or bakery cake. If the cake is being mass-produced, a continuous mixer is preferred.[6] There are three methods in which the cake can be made at home or in a commercial setting. The first two methods are most commonly used at home or in a small bakery using planetary mixers in various sizes.[4] Large planetary mixers may have a vacuum in order to pressurize the ingredients. This allows for control of the emulsion and temperature.[6]

text: The first method is the foam process or angel food cake method. The egg whites are whipped until a foam is formed before any other ingredients are added. This method ensures that the foam is not disturbed when it is being formed and that the maximum number of bubbles stay intact. Another method is called the meringue process. This entails whipping all or most of the ingredients together at the same time.[4] This may result in a lower quality foam and a final cake with a reduced volume. The last method is call the continuous process and is usually used in commercial bakeries because it creates a consistent product in large volumes. Ingredients are fed into the continuous mixer in either one or two stages. A one-stage process mixes all of the ingredients together and feeds them into an emulsion head. Upon entry into the emulsion head, air is incorporated, fully mixing the batter. In a two-stage process, the ingredients are blended separately in different tanks according to the recipe. The speed of the mixer is controlled, as well as air flow to help mix the batter. The final batter may then go through a static mixer (a pipe with a spiral blade inside) to be deposited in a tube pan, depositor, or hopper.[6]

text:
Angel food cake batter

Close-up view of the batter

text: Normally angel food cakes are baked in a straight-sided tube pan, but similar pans such as a bundt pan are acceptable. It is very important that the pan does not have a non-stick surface and that no grease is applied to the sides or around the tube. As the cake bakes, it expands and rises. The sides and hollow center tube act as supports for the foam as it expands. The hollow pan also allows for an even heat distribution.

text: For the optimal angel food cake outcome, experts believe that the cake should be baked for at the shortest amount of time at the highest temperature. The temperature and duration depends on the size and weight of the cake.[4] Temperatures range from 325 to 375 °F, while baking time ranges from 30 minutes to one hour (Suas, M. 2009). If the angel food cake does not bake long enough, the foam and gel structures will not reach their full potential.[4]

text: In a bakery, angel food cakes could be baked in a rack oven, revolving oven, convention oven, or small deck oven. A commercial bakery may use a tunnel or traveling oven.[6] When the cake has finished baking, it should have a golden brown color on the exposed area.[4] The final volume will generally be two to three times larger than the batter volume.[5]

text: Angel food cakes are cooled upside down. Some tube pans have “feet” or “fingers” that extend off of the top rim of the pan. The “feet” are placed on a cooling rack. If the pan does not have “feet” it is customary for home bakers to place a glass soda bottle or something similar through the tube to ensure that the pan is elevated. The elevation provides sufficient air flow to the cake, so that it cools properly. If a non-stick pan or greased pan were used, the cake would fall out when inverted, leading to a collapsed cake.[8]

text: Angel food cakes have a shelf-life of a few days at room temperature or up to a week in a refrigerator because of the tendency for moisture to migrate and evaporate. After a few days the cake will be dry and lack flexibility.[9]

text: Molecular and structural composition[edit]

text: Egg whites[edit]

text: Egg whites play an integral role in the structure of the baked cake. Egg whites are composed of many proteins, however only ovalbumin, conalbuminm, lysozyme, and globulins[7] have properties which aid in creating a voluminous angel food cake. Ovalbumin and globulins will produce a foam that is equal or greater to the size of the egg whites.[5]

text: Egg white proteins have many uses in baking, one of which is the ability to create and maintain a foam. Whipping incorporates air throughout the egg whites, as well as denaturing or unfolding the proteins to create thinner protein molecules. Overrun, similar to lightness, describes the amount of air pushed into the foam. In terms of an angel food cake, overrun is the increase in volume from the original volume caused by the inclusion of air. The overrun of an egg white foam ranges from 500 to 800%. This means that whipping 100 mL of egg whites would result in 500 mL - 800 mL of air incorporated into the foam. During whipping, protein adsorption allows for rapid foam formation. Adsorption is the ability to spontaneously form a very thin layer on a surface.[5] The denatured proteins move to the air/water interface to create the cell walls of the air bubbles. Cell wall formation occurs when the denatured proteins aggregate, forming an extremely thin network or film.[7] Many interactions between the proteins and the interface are possible, including hydrogen bonding, electrostatic interactions, disulfate bonds, and Van der Waals interactions.[5] A cake made with egg yolks would not be as light and airy because they have a lower foaming ability than egg whites.[7]

text: This move, to the air/water interface, by the proteins is also aided by their hydrophobic and hydrophilic part. The hydrophobic moieties orient themselves toward the air while the hydrophilic moieties orient themselves toward the water portion of the interface. The air molecules at the air/water interface interact less with the other molecules that are fully inside the bubble. This lack of interaction causes the air molecules to have excess energy, resulting in surface tension. The presence of egg white proteins at the interface acts as a surfactant which lowers the surface tension and promotes foam development. A foam is a type of emulsion: air in an aqueous solution. If the surface tension was not lowered, the air bubbles would coalescence and the emulsion would separate.[5]

text: The interfacial dilational modulus (E) describes how the egg white proteins or surfactants covering the air/water interface are able to resist deformation from stretching or compression. An elastic and viscosity component are incorporated into the value, which account for the energy that is lost and recovered as a result of deformation.[5]

text: E = dγ/d ln A

text: E: interfacial dilational modulus

text: γ: change in interfacial tension

text: A: change in interfacial area at a constant shape[5]

text: The most stable and volumous foams are created when the egg white proteins are near their isoelectric points. Protein adsorption is most rapid at the isoelectric point because electrostatic repulsion is reduced for proteins with a neutral net charge. The viscoelasticity of protein foam films is usually at its highest near its isoelectric point. This is why acid is usually added to the cake batter, in order to adjust the pH.[5]

text: The preparation of the batter should be done as quickly as possible. When the foam sits, disproportionation will occur. This is the result of water draining from the foam and collecting at the bottom. The bubbles at the top of the foam will grow larger as the water leaves and the cell walls or film become too weak and break, forming larger bubbles.[10]

text: Whipping aids[edit]

text: Whipping aids improve the foaming properties of albumen, a protein found in egg whites, which means a firmer foam will be established in a shorter amount of time. Cream of tartar is an acidic salt which adjusts the pH of egg whites so the proteins will be more soluble, as well as reducing protein denaturation during whipping. If cream of tartar is not used the cake may not reach its maximum achievable volume. Cream of tartar also decolorizes the flavone pigments in flour, which gives a final cake that is a bright white color. The whiteness of the cake is also caused by the way cream of tartar creates very small and uniform air bubbles, which gives the cake the appearance of being whiter after baking.[4]

text: Flour[edit]

text: The baking process causes the batter to expand and go from a liquid to a solid foam. The proteins will not start to denature until the temperature reaches around 158 °F. During this rise in temperature the air bubbles will either expand, coalesce, or break. An egg white foam will continue to expand uniformly until the internal temperature reaches 176 – 185 °F.[5] Based on the ideal gas law, as the temperature increases, the volume of the air bubbles will expand.[4] The temperature will continue to rise, causing the cake to expand at different rates and egg white proteins will gradually denature.[5] Some of the egg white proteins will start to denature and coagulate at around 135 °F. This establishes the setting of the foam structure. By the time the temperature reaches 180 °F, all of the egg white proteins will have set in place.[4]

text: The foam structure will decrease slightly or collapse in order to form a solid foam of less volume. This occurs while the cake is still baking, not when it is cooling. The combination of protein denaturation and starch gelatinization determines whether the cake will set or collapse. When proteins denature, they are not in a stable state. In order to stabilize, the denatured proteins will aggregate around air bubbles and within the continuous phase of the batter. The aggregation and overlapping of the proteins forms a very stable network.[5]

text: The flour plays an important role in the texture, structure and elasticity of an angel food cake. Minimal folding of the flour allows cell walls to form when it comes in contact with the egg protein foam and sugar mixture. If the batter is over-mixed, the egg white proteins may coagulate causing the bubbles to break during baking, or the cell walls may become too rigid, lacking elasticity. This would reduce the volume and result in a coarse texture. However, if the batter is under-mixed, a weak foam will form.[4]

text: A gluten matrix is formed when the proteins glutenin and gliadin, found in wheat flour, are mixed in the presence of water. When the batter is agitated, these two proteins form cross-links, disulfide bonds, ionic bonds, and hydrogen bonds. The matrix that forms is strong and very flexible. Although no water is added to the batter, the gluten reacts with the water found in egg whites. Since air has already been entrapped in the foam, the flour proteins can only coat the already entrapped air. This helps to strengthen the cell walls and batter during baking or any other handling. This is beneficial because the meringue on its own is weak, cannot expand in heat, and does not have any elasticity normally expected in cakes.[4]

text: Starch gelatinization occurs around the same time as when expansion stops and the cake sets or collapses. When starch granules are exposed to heat and water, they swell, leaching out some starch and forming hydrogen bonds with other starch granules. About 96% of the starch granules are gelatinized.[11] Starch granules create very strong and rigid gel networks. The starch gel network is interspersed throughout the structure along with the aggregated protein network. The formation of the starch gel may interfere with expanding bubbles, causing them to burst and air to leave the cake. This would result in s collapsed cake.[5]

text: Sugar[edit]

text: Sugar functions as a sweetener, stabilizer, and tenderizer. The amount of sugar has a large impact on the overrun and stability of the foam. When sugar and egg whites are whipped together, a meringue is formed. If the amount of sugar is less than or equal to the amount of egg whites, a soft meringue is formed. A stiffer meringue is formed when there is more sugar than egg white.[5] Angel food cakes usually have equal parts sugar and egg white.[4] Sugar will disturb protein foam formation in a positive or negative manner. It is also important that the sugar is added slowly, so that the crystals have a chance to dissolve. It is typically added after a weak foam has been formed. This way it can help stabilize the foam instead of impeding on it, causing coagulation and collapse. When the sugar dissolves, it interacts with the proteins at the air/water interface, creating a thicker and more stable cell wall. The sugar can also assist in the denaturing and aggregation of egg white proteins,[7] which increases overrun, giving a lighter texture.[5] Sugar binds water through hydrogen bonds, which allows for a moist final cake and why all of the moisture does not leave during baking.[7]

text: Since there is no shortening, butter, fat, or oil, sugar is the only tenderizer. The more sugar added, the more tender the cake will be. However, if too much is added, the cake may collapse because the foam structure is not strong enough to support itself.[4]

text: When the cake has finished baking, it should have a golden brown color on the exposed area. This is due to Maillard browning reactions. If the cake bakes for too long, more moisture will be removed and the texture will turn out dry, rough and potentially burnt.[4]

text: Additional ingredients in commercially-produced cakes[edit]

text: Commercial bakeries have a need to reduce cost and increase the shelf life for mass-produced products. For these reasons they use many ingredients that vary from the traditional angel food cake recipe.

text: Dehydrated and frozen egg whites are cheaper and more efficient than fresh egg whites. However, each lot of dehydrated egg whites varies from the next. This results in each batch of cakes varying in texture, moisture, volume, and height.[12] Surfactants that have been used to improve the whipping properties of dehydrated eggs are sodium desoxycholate, triethyl citrate, triacetin, sodium oleate and oleic acid.[4] Frozen egg whites do not form as firm or stable foams as fresh egg whites.[7] It may be necessary to adjust the pH if the eggs have been refrigerated for a long time because they become more alkaline than fresh eggs. Acids can be added in manufacturing such as acetic, malic, tartaric, and citric. These improve the color and cake structure by lowering the pH, however they do not work as well as cream of tartar.[4]

text: Instead of using pure cake flour, wheat flour or a mixture of wheat flour and raw wheat starch is used. The wheat flour is bleached to remove any brown pigments and produce a bright white color. The pH of the bleached flour is between 3 and 4.5, although the optimal pH of starch gelatinization is between 3.7 and 3.9. Acidifiers are used in order to reach this pH range. The optimal flour protein content is between 3% and 4%, and must be below 4.5%. If a mixture is used, at least 20% by weight should be wheat flour. A small amount of raw wheat starch may be added to the sugar as a grinding aid.[12]

text: Pregelatinized starch may be added to increase the rate of starch gelatinization. One method of pregelatinization starts by heating a mixture of starch and water until a gel forms. The gel may be placed on a heated roll in a thin layer in order to dry it. Once all the water has been removed, a starch cake is left on the roll. The cake is then scraped off and pulverized to form a powder. When the pregelatinized starch powder is subjected to water, a gel forms. The pregelatinized starch increases water adsorption. This in turn increases the batter viscosity and helps retain the entrapped air while the batter is prepared and as it starts to bake. The gel is not as strong has it would be if a normal starch was mixed with water and heated. However, the combination of pregelatinized starch and starch in the wheat flour create an acceptable gel together. Typically corn starch is used, however a variety of other starches also work.[12]

text: A balanced chemical leavening such sodium bicarbonate, along with an acidifier is another common ingredient. When reacted together, the acidifier has the ability to release all of the carbon dioxide from the sodium bicarbonate. A variety of acidifiers can be used, including potassium bitartrate, tartaric acid, and disodium phosphate. The type of acidifier used depends on when the preferred release of CO2 is. If the release would be most beneficial when the batter is forming, citric acid would be ideal because it is fast acting. The amount of acidifier depends on which agent, such as sodium bicarbonate, is used because they have varying neutralization points.[12]

text: An excess acidifier is also added, however it isn’t used in combination with the sodium bicarbonate. Instead it lowers the batter pH to facilitate the starch gelatinization and maintain the egg white protein foam volume in the baking cake. At a lower pH, the egg white proteins are able to entrap more air during both preparation and baking. The optimal pH for the batter is between 5.5 and 6.8. It also helps to create a whiter cake, which is more desirable to consumers. It is typical that the excess acidifier is the same as that used to react with the balanced chemical leavener.[12]

text: Adding a small amount of calcium chloride may be used to alter the pH to the optimum value when dehydrated egg whites with a higher pH are used. It may also alter the flour gelatinization temperature. This ensures that when large quantities of cakes are produced, the cakes will be the best possible quality and volume, without a gummy layer forming.[12]

text: A whipping aid such as modified soy protein can help to account for the decreased foaming ability of dehydrated or frozen egg whites. Modified soy protein is a soy protein in a solution which is then acidified using hydrochloric acid. Pepsin or another enzyme is then added to enhance the protein foaming abilities. Once the enzyme activity has ceased, the solution is heated to deactivate the enzyme and more hydrochloric acid is added if a pH adjustment is required.[12]

text: Oxidized wheat starch is a tenderizing agent that may be added to give the angel food cake a lighter texture. Raw wheat starch is treated with sodium hypochlorite, neutralized, purified, and dried. The final starch has molecules with shorter chain lengths, which prevents the gel network from being too tough.[12]

text: Unlike a homemade angel food cake, water may be used when mixing the dry ingredients, as well as to reconstitute dehydrated egg whites.[12]


document_title: Preventable causes of death

question_text: what is the second leading cause of preventable deaths in the united states

text: Preventable causes of death

text: Worldwide[edit]

text: It is estimated that of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two thirds—100,000 per day—die of age-related causes because they have aged.[1] In industrialized nations the proportion is much higher, reaching 90 percent.[1] Thus, albeit indirectly, biological aging (senescence) is by far the leading cause of death. Whether senescence as a biological process itself can be slowed down, halted, or even reversed is a subject of current scientific speculation and research.[2]

text: 2001 figures[edit]

text: Leading causes of preventable death worldwide as of the year 2001, according to researchers working with the Disease Control Priorities Network (DCPN)[3] and the World Health Organization (WHO).[4] (The WHO's 2008 statistics show very similar trends.)

text:
Cause

Number of deaths resulting (millions per year)

Hypertension

7.8

Smoking tobacco

5.4

Malnutrition

3.8

Sexually transmitted diseases

3.0

Poor diet

2.8

Overweight and obesity

2.5

Physical inactivity

2.0

Alcohol

1.9

Indoor air pollution from solid fuels

1.8

Unsafe water and poor sanitation

1.6

text: In 2001, on average 29,000 children died of preventable causes each day (that is, about 20 deaths per minute). The authors provide the context:

text:
“

About 56 million people died in 2001. Of these, 10.6 million were children, 99% of whom lived in low-and-middle-income countries. More than half of child deaths in 2001 were attributable to acute respiratory infections, measles, diarrhea, malaria, and HIV/AIDS.[4]

”

text: United States[edit]

text: The three most common preventable causes of death in the population of the United States are smoking, high blood pressure, and being overweight.[5]

text: Leading preventable causes of death in the United States in the year 2000.[6] Note: This data is outdated and has been significantly revised, especially for obesity-related deaths.[5]

text: Accidental death[edit]

text:
Leading causes of accidental death in the United States by age group as of  2002[update].[7]

Leading causes of accidental death in the United States as of  2002[update], as a percentage of deaths in each group.[7]

text: Annual number of deaths and causes[edit]

text:
Cause
Number
Percent of total
Notes

Smoking tobacco
435,000[6]
18.1%

Preventable medical errors in hospitals
210,000 to 448,000[8]
23.1%
Estimates vary, significant numbers of preventable deaths also result from errors outside of hospitals.

Being overweight and obesity

111,900[9]
4.6%
There was considerable debate about the differences in the numbers of obesity-related diseases.  The numbers reported in the referenced article have been found to be the most accurate.[10]

Alcohol
85,000[6]
3.5%

Infectious diseases
75,000[6]
3.1%

Toxic agents including toxins, particulates and radon
55,000[6]
2.3%

Traffic collisions
43,000[6]
1.8%

Preventable colorectal cancers
41,400
1.7%
Colorectal cancer (bowel cancer, colon cancer) caused 51,783 deaths in the US in 2011.[11] About 80 percent[12] of colorectal cancers begin as benign growths, commonly called polyps, which can be easily detected and removed during a colonoscopy. Accordingly, the tabulated figure assumes that 80 percent of the fatal cancers could have been prevented.

Firearms deaths
31,940[13]
1.3%
Suicide: 19,766; homicide: 11,101; accidents: 852; unknown: 822.

Sexually transmitted infections
20,000[6]
0.8%

Drug abuse
17,000[6]
0.7%

text: Among children worldwide[edit]

text: Various injuries are the leading cause of death in children 9–17 years of age. In 2008, the top five worldwide unintentional injuries in children are as follows:[14]

text:
Cause

Number of deaths resulting

Traffic collision

260,000 per year

Drowning

175,000 per year

Viruses

96,000 per year

Falls

47,000 per year

Toxins

45,000 per year


document_title: List of the largest trading partners of the United States

question_text: who is the u.s.'s biggest trading partner

question_tokens: who is the u.s. 's biggest trading partner

text: The 20 largest trade partners of the United States represent 76.6% of U.S. exports, and 81.0% of U.S. imports as of December 2014[update].[1] These figures do not include services or foreign direct investment.

text: The largest US partners with their total trade (sum of imports and exports) in millions of US dollars for calendar year 2016 are as follows:[2]

text:
Rank
Country/District
Exports
Imports
Total Trade
Trade Balance

-
World
1,454,624
2,188,940
3,643,564
-734,316

-
 European Union[3]
270,325
416,666
686,991
-146,340

1
 China
115,775
462,813
578,588
-347,038

2
 Canada
266,827
278,067
544,894
-11,240

3
 Mexico
230,959
294,151
525,110
-63,192

4
 Japan
63,264
132,202
195,466
-68,938

5
 Germany
49,362
114,227
163,589
-64,865

6
 South Korea
42,266
69,932
112,198
-27,666

7
 United Kingdom
55,396
54,326
109,722
+1,070

8
 France
30,941
46,765
77,706
-15,824

9
 India
21,689
45,998
67,687
-24,309

10
 Taiwan
26,045
39,313
65,358
-13,268

11
 Italy
16,754
45,210
61,964
-28,456

12
  Switzerland
22,701
36,374
59,075
-13,673

13
 Netherlands
40,377
16,152
56,529
+24,225

14
 Brazil
30,297
26,176
56,473
+4,121

15
 Ireland
9,556
45,504
55,060
-35,948

16
 Vietnam
10,151
42,109
52,260
-31,958

17
 Belgium
32,271
17,020
49,291
+15,251

18
 Malaysia
11,867
36,687
48,554
-24,820

19
 Singapore
26,868
17,801
44,669
+9,067

20
 Hong Kong
34,908
7,386
42,294
+27,522

21
 Thailand
10,573
29,493
40,066
-18,920

22
 Israel
13,197
22,206
35,403
-9,009

23
 Saudi Arabia
18,023
16,926
34,949
+1,097

24
 Australia
22,225
9,534
31,759
+12,691

25
 Colombia
13,099
13,796
26,895
-697

26
 United Arab Emirates
22,382
3,356
25,738
+19,026

27
 Indonesia
6,037
19,203
25,240
-13,166

28
 Spain
10,373
13,468
23,841
-3,095

29
 Chile
12,941
8,799
21,740
+4,142

30
 Russia
5,798
14,512
20,310
-8,714

-
Top 30
1,272,922
1,979,506
3,252,428
-706,584

-
Remaining Countries
181,702
209,434
391,136
-27,732

text:
Imports / Exports / Trade Deficits of the United States in 2014 ($Millions)[4][5]

Country
Exports
Imports
Trade Deficit

 China

123,676

446,754

343,078

 European Union

276,142

418,754

142,059

 Germany

49,363

123,260

73,897

 Japan

66,827

134,004

67,117

 Mexico

240,249

294,074

53,825

 Canada

312,421

347,798

35,377

 Saudi Arabia

18,705

47,041

28,336

 Ireland

7,806

33,956

26,150

 Italy

16,968

42,115

25,147

 South Korea

44,471

69,518

25,047

 India

21,608

45,244

23,636

 Malaysia

13,068

30,420

17,352

 France

31,301

46,874

15,573

 Thailand

11,810

27,123

15,313

 Taiwan

26,670

40,581

13,911

  Switzerland

22,176

31,191

9,015

 Israel

15,083

22,962

7,879

 United Kingdom

53,823

54,392

569

text:
Balance of Trade 2014[6]

China
Euro Area
Japan
Mexico
Pacific
Canada
Middle East
Lat. America
Total by Product

Computer
-151.9
3.4
-8.0
-11.0
-26.1
20.9
5.8
12.1

-155.0

Oil, Gas, Minerals
1.9
6.4
2.4
-20.8
1.1
-79.8
-45.1
-15.9

-149.7

Transportation
10.9
-30.9
-46.2
-59.5
-0.5
-6.1
17.1
8.8

-106.3

Apparel
-56.3
-4.9
0.6
-4.2
-6.3
2.5
-0.3
-1.1

-69.9

Electrical Equipment
-35.9
-2.4
-4.0
-8.5
-3.3
10.0
1.8
2.0

-40.4

Misc. Manufacturing
-35.3
4.9
2.7
-2.8
-1.4
5.8
-1.5
1.8

-25.8

Furniture
-18.3
-1.2
0.0
-1.6
-2.1
0.4
0.2
0.0

-22.6

Machinery
-19.9
-27.0
-18.8
3.9
7.6
18.1
4.5
9.1

-22.4

Primary Metals
-3.1
3.1
-1.8
1.0
1.9
-8.9
-0.9
-10.4

-19.1

Fabricated Metals
-17.9
-5.9
-3.5
2.8
-4.3
7.3
1.2
1.9

-18.5

Plastics
-15.7
-1.9
-2.0
5.7
-4.1
2.6
-0.1
0.5

-15.0

Textile
-12.3
-1.1
-0.3
2.8
-4.6
1.5
-0.9
0.2

-14.7

Beverages, Tobacco
1.3
-9.9
0.6
-3.3
0.0
1.0
0.2
-0.6

-10.6

Nonmetallic Minerals
-6.1
-1.9
-0.4
-1.2
0.1
1.9
-0.5
-0.8

-8.9

Paper
-2.7
1.2
1.1
4.3
1.2
-9.8
0.9
-1.9

-5.8

Chemical
-3.9
-39.5
-1.5
19.1
3.2
4.6
-2.4
15.8

-4.7

Food
0.7
-3.6
6.1
4.9
0.9
0.1
1.4
-1.1

9.5

Agriculture
17.8
6.2
7.3
-3.0
5.7
-0.8
2.8
-6.5

29.5

Petroleum
0.6
-1.2
0.1
16.6
-2.0
-0.1
0.6
18.3

32.9

Total by Country/Area
-346.1
-106.1
-65.6
-54.9
-33.0
-29.0
-15.1
32.3

text: Countries of which United States is the largest trading partner[edit]

text: The United States is also the primary export or import partner of several countries. The percentages on these tables are based on 2014 data as shown on the CIA World Factbook. Some countries are repeated from the previous table.

text:
Exports[7]

Region
Percentage

 American Samoa
100%

 Haiti
83.2%

 Mexico
80.2%

 Chad
77.6%

 Canada
76.8%

 Nicaragua
52.3%

 Saint Kitts and Nevis
49.9%

 El Salvador
46.5%

 Ecuador
43.9%

 Dominican Republic
40.1%

 Jamaica
39.5%

 Costa Rica
38.4%

 Guatemala
36.1%

 Honduras
35.2%

 Venezuela
34.6%

 Suriname
32.1%

 Guyana
31.9%

 Trinidad and Tobago
29.1%

 Israel
26.9%

 Colombia
26.3%

 Sri Lanka
25.0%

 Cambodia
24.1%

 Ireland
20.6%

 Belize
20.5%

 Vietnam
20.0%

 Panama
19.8%

 Japan
18.9%

 China
16.9%

 Jordan
15.8%

 Bangladesh
14.3%

 India
13.4%

 Pakistan
12.4%

 Fiji
11.8%

Imports[8]

Region
Percentage

 Aruba
56.0%

 Canada
54.5%

 Mexico
48.8%

 Dominican Republic
45.8%

 Costa Rica
44.4%

 Honduras
43.3%

 El Salvador
41.0%

 Guatemala
40.3%

 Jamaica
39.3%

 Saint Kitts and Nevis
39.3%

 Trinidad and Tobago
34.6%

 Ecuador
31.9%

 Suriname
31.3%

 Bahamas
30.8%

 Colombia
28.5%

 Panama
25.1%

 Venezuela
24.2%

 Equatorial Guinea
23.5%

 Guyana
21.9%

 Belize
21.8%

 Peru
21.0%

 Nicaragua
16.2%

 Kuwait
12.7%

 Israel
11.8%

 Qatar
11.5%