document_title: It's a Wonderful Life

question_text: who played bert the cop in it's a wonderful life

question_tokens: who played bert the cop in it 's a wonderful life

text: It's a Wonderful Life

text: Plot[edit]

text: On Christmas Eve 1945, in Bedford Falls, New York, George Bailey is suicidal. Prayers for him reach Heaven, where Clarence Odbody, Angel 2nd Class, is assigned to save George, in return for which he will earn his angel wings. To prepare him for his mission, Clarence is shown flashbacks of George's life. The first is from 1919, when 12-year-old George saves his younger brother Harry from drowning at a frozen lake; George loses his hearing in one ear as a result. At his after-school job, George realizes that the druggist, Mr. Gower – distraught over his son's death from the flu – has accidentally added poison to a child's prescription, and intervenes to stop it from causing harm.

text: In 1928, George plans to leave on a world tour and then attend college. At Harry's high-school graduation party, he is reintroduced to Mary Hatch, who has had a crush on him from childhood. Their walk home is interrupted by news that George's father, Peter, has died of a stroke. George postpones his travel so he can sort out the family business, Bailey Brothers' Building and Loan. Henry F. Potter, the richest man in town, wishes to dissolve the Building and Loan to eliminate it as a competitor. The board of directors votes to keep the Building and Loan open, on condition that George stay to run it (along with his absent-minded uncle Billy). George gives his college tuition to Harry on the condition that Harry take over the Building and Loan when he returns.

text: Four years later, Harry returns from college with a job offer from his father-in-law. George tells Harry to take the job and he will keep running the Building and Loan. George and Mary get married. On their way to their honeymoon, they witness a run on the bank and use their honeymoon savings to keep the Building and Loan solvent until the bank reopens.

text: Eventually, George establishes Bailey Park, a housing development with small houses financed by the Building and Loan, so that people can own their own homes rather than paying rent to live in Potter's overpriced slums. Potter attempts to lure George into becoming his assistant, offering him $20,000 (equivalent to $270,000 in 2017[8]) a year; George is momentarily tempted, but rebukes him.

text: During World War II, George is ineligible for service because of his bad ear. Harry becomes a Navy pilot and earns the Medal of Honor by shooting down a kamikaze plane headed for a troop transport. On Christmas Eve morning 1945, as the town prepares a hero's welcome for Harry, Uncle Billy manages to misplace $8000 of the Building and Loan's cash (equivalent to $110,000 in 2017[8]). When a bank examiner arrives to review the Building and Loan's records, George realizes that criminal charges are possible; he berates Uncle Billy, then goes home and takes out his frustration on his family. He soon apologizes to his wife and children, then leaves.

text: George desperately appeals to Potter for a loan. When George offers his life insurance policy as collateral, Potter says George is worth more dead than alive and phones the police to have him arrested. George gets drunk at a local bar and is involved in a fight before he leaves and goes to a nearby bridge, thinking of suicide. The film's narrative catches up to the time of the opening scene. Before he can jump, Clarence dives into the river just before George does, causing George to rescue Clarence rather than killing himself. George does not believe Clarence's subsequent claim that he is George's guardian angel.

text: When George says he wishes he had never been born, Clarence decides to grant his wish and show George an alternate timeline in which he never existed. Bedford Falls is named Pottersville and is a less congenial place. Mr. Gower has recently been released from prison for manslaughter, because George was not there to stop him from putting poison in the pills. The Building and Loan has closed down, as George never took over after Peter's passing.

text: George's mother does not recognize him; she reveals that Uncle Billy was institutionalized after the collapse of the Building and Loan. In the cemetery where Bailey Park would have been, George discovers the grave of his brother. Clarence tells him all the soldiers on the transport died, as Harry was never there to save them, because George had never saved Harry from drowning. Mary, who works at the library, never married; when George says he is her husband, she screams for the police, causing George to flee and the local policeman to give chase.

text: George, now convinced that Clarence is really his guardian angel, runs back to the bridge and begs for his life back; the alternate timeline changes back to the original reality. George runs home to await his arrest. Mary and Uncle Billy arrive, having rallied the townspeople, who donate more than enough to cover the missing $8,000 and for Potter's warrant to be torn up. Harry arrives and toasts George calling him "The richest man in town". A bell on the Christmas tree rings, and his daughter recalls a story that says the sound means that an angel has just earned his wings, signifying Clarence's promotion.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Credited cast

James Stewart as George Bailey
Donna Reed as Mary Hatch Bailey
Henry Travers as Clarence Odbody
Lionel Barrymore as Mr. Henry F. Potter
Thomas Mitchell as Uncle Billy Bailey
Beulah Bondi as Ma Bailey
Frank Faylen as Ernie Bishop, the cab driver
Ward Bond as Bert, the cop
Gloria Grahame as Violet Bick
H. B. Warner as Mr. Emil Gower
Todd Karns as Harry Bailey
Samuel S. Hinds as father Peter "Pop" Bailey
Lillian Randolph as Annie, maid
Frank Albertson as Sam Wainwright
Virginia Patton as Ruth Dakin Bailey, Harry's wife
Mary Treen as Cousin Tilly, employee
Charles Williams as Cousin Eustace, employee
Sarah Edwards as Mrs. Hatch, Mary's mother
William Edmunds as Mr. Giuseppe Martini
Argentina Brunetti as Mrs. Martini
Bobby Anderson as Little George Bailey
Ronnie Ralph as Little Sam Wainwright
Jean Gale as Little Mary Hatch
Ray Walker as Joe
Jeanine Ann Roose[9] as Little Violet Bick

George Nokes as Little Harry Bailey
Danny Mummert as Little Marty Hatch
Sheldon Leonard as Nick, the bartender
Frank Hagney as Potter's mute aide
Charles Lane as Potter's rent collector
Larry Simms as Pete Bailey
Carol Coomes (AKA Carol Coombs) as Janie Bailey
Jimmy Hawkins as Tommy Bailey
Karolyn Grimes as Zuzu Bailey

Uncredited cast

Charles Halton as Mr. Carter, bank examiner
J. Farrell MacDonald as the man whose great-grandfather planted the tree that George drives into
Harry Holman as Mr. Partridge, High School principal
Harold Landon as Marty Hatch, Mary's brother
Carl "Alfalfa" Switzer as Freddie (Mary's annoying high school suitor)
Mark Roberts as Mickey (student with the key to open up pool)
Max Wagner as Cashier/Bouncer at Nick's Bar
Dick Elliott as fat man on porch
Tom Fadden as Bridge Caretaker
Stanley Andrews as Mr. Welch, teacher's husband
Al Bridge as Sheriff with arrest warrant
Ellen Corby as Miss Davis
Marian Carr as Jane Wainwright, Sam's wife[10]
Adriana Caselotti as the singer in Martini's Bar[11][N 2]
Joseph Granby as Angel Joseph (voice)
Moroni Olsen as the Senior Angel (voice)

text: The contention that James Stewart is often referred to as Capra's only choice to play George Bailey is disputed by film historian Stephen Cox, who indicates that "Henry Fonda was in the running."[12][13] Cary Grant was also considered for the role when RKO still had the rights to the film, before they were sold to Capra.[14]

text: Although it was stated that Jean Arthur, Ann Dvorak and Ginger Rogers were all considered for the role of Mary before Donna Reed won the part, this list is also disputed by Cox as he indicates that Jean Arthur was first offered the part but had to turn it down for a prior commitment on Broadway before Capra turned to Olivia de Havilland, Martha Scott and Ann Dvorak. Ginger Rogers was offered the female lead, but turned it down because she considered it "too bland". In Chapter 26 of her autobiography Ginger: My Story, she questioned her decision by asking her readers: "Foolish, you say?"

text: A long list of actors were considered for the role of Potter (originally named Herbert Potter): Edward Arnold, Charles Bickford, Edgar Buchanan, Louis Calhern, Victor Jory, Raymond Massey, Vincent Price and even Thomas Mitchell.[13] However, Lionel Barrymore, who eventually won the role, was a famous Ebenezer Scrooge in radio dramatizations of A Christmas Carol at the time and was a natural choice for the role. Barrymore had also worked with Capra and Stewart on his 1938 Best Picture Oscar winner, You Can't Take It with You.

text: H.B. Warner, who was cast as the drugstore owner Mr. Gower, actually studied medicine before going into acting. He was also in some of Capra's other films, including Mr. Deeds Goes to Town, Lost Horizon, You Can't Take It with You, and Mr. Smith Goes to Washington.[15] In the silent era, he had played the role of Jesus Christ in Cecil B. DeMille's The King of Kings (1927). The name Gower came from Capra's employer Columbia Pictures, which had been located on Gower Street for many years. Also on Gower Street was a drugstore that was a favorite for the studio's employees.[16]

text: Charles Williams, who was cast as Eustace Bailey, and Mary Treen, who was cast as Matilda "Tilly" Bailey, were both B-list actors, as they both had appeared in 90 films each before filming It's a Wonderful Life.[17]

text: Jimmy the raven (Uncle Billy's pet) appeared in You Can't Take It with You and each subsequent Capra film.[12][18]

text: Production[edit]

text: Background[edit]

text: The original story "The Greatest Gift" was written by Philip Van Doren Stern in November 1939. After being unsuccessful in getting the story published, he decided to make it into a Christmas card, and mailed 200 copies to family and friends in December 1943.[19][N 3][21] The story came to the attention of RKO producer David Hempstead, who showed it to Cary Grant's Hollywood agent, and in April 1944, RKO Pictures bought the rights to the story for $10,000, hoping to turn the story into a vehicle for Grant.[22] RKO created three unsatisfactory scripts before shelving the planned movie, and Grant went on to make another Christmas movie staple, The Bishop's Wife.[N 4][24]

text: At the suggestion of RKO studio chief Charles Koerner, Frank Capra read "The Greatest Gift" and immediately saw its potential. RKO, anxious to unload the project, in 1945 sold the rights to Capra's production company, Liberty Films, which had a nine-film distribution agreement with RKO, for $10,000,[N 5] and threw in the three scripts for free.[19] Capra, along with writers Frances Goodrich and Albert Hackett, with Jo Swerling, Michael Wilson, and Dorothy Parker brought in to "polish" the script,[26] turned the story and what was worth using from the three scripts into a screenplay that Capra would rename It's a Wonderful Life.[19] The script underwent many revisions throughout pre-production and during filming.[27] Final screenplay credit went to Goodrich, Hackett and Capra, with "additional scenes" by Jo Swerling.

text: Seneca Falls, New York claims that when Frank Capra visited their town in 1945, he was inspired to model Bedford Falls after it. The town has an annual "It's a Wonderful Life festival"in December.[28] In mid-2009, The Hotel Clarence opened in Seneca Falls, named for George Bailey's guardian angel. On December 10, 2010, the "It's a Wonderful Life" Museum opened in Seneca Falls, with Karolyn Grimes, who played Zuzu in the movie, cutting the ribbon.[29] Philip Van Doren Stern said in a 1946 interview, "Incidentally, the movie takes place in Westchester County. Actually, the town I had in mind was Califon, N.J. " The historic iron bridge in Califon is similar to the bridge that George Bailey considered jumping from in the movie.[30]

text: Both James Stewart (from Indiana, Pennsylvania) and Donna Reed (from Denison, Iowa) came from small towns. Stewart's father ran a small hardware store where James worked for years. Reed demonstrated her rural roots by winning an impromptu bet with Lionel Barrymore when he challenged her to milk a cow on set.[31]

text: Filming[edit]

text: It's a Wonderful Life was shot at RKO Radio Pictures Studio in Culver City, California, and the 89 acre RKO movie ranch in Encino,[32] where "Bedford Falls" consisted of Art Director Max Ree's Oscar-winning sets originally designed for the 1931 epic film Cimarron that covered 4 acres (1.6 ha), assembled from three separate parts, with a main street stretching 300 yards (three city blocks), with 75 stores and buildings, and a residential neighborhood.[33] For It's a Wonderful Life Capra built a working bank set, added a tree-lined center parkway, and planted 20 full grown oak trees to existing sets.[34]

text: Pigeons, cats, and dogs were allowed to roam the mammoth set to give the "town" a lived-in feel.[18] Due to the requirement to film in an "alternate universe" setting as well as during different seasons, the set was extremely adaptable. RKO created "chemical snow" for the film to avoid the need for dubbed dialogue when actors walked across an earlier movie snow that was made of crushed cornflakes.[35] Filming started on April 15, 1946 and ended on July 27, 1946, exactly on deadline for the 90-day principal photography schedule.[23]

text: RKO's movie ranch in Encino, a filming location of Bedford Falls, was razed in 1954.[N 6] There are only two surviving locations from the film. The first is the swimming pool that was unveiled during the famous dance scene where George courts Mary. It is located in the gymnasium at Beverly Hills High School and is still in operation as of 2013. The second is the "Martini home" in La Cañada Flintridge, California.[37]

text: During filming, in the scene where Uncle Billy gets drunk at Harry and Ruth's welcome home/newlyweds' party, George points him in the right direction home. As the camera focuses on George, smiling at his uncle staggering away, a crash is heard in the distance and Uncle Billy yells, "I'm all right! I'm all right!" Equipment on the set had actually been accidentally knocked over; Capra left in Thomas Mitchell's impromptu ad lib (although the "crashing" noise was augmented with added sound effects).

text: Dimitri Tiomkin had written "Death Telegram" and "Gower's Deliverance" for the drugstore scenes, but in the editing room Capra elected to go with no music for those scenes. Those changes, along with others, led to a falling out between Tiomkin and Capra. Tiomkin had worked on a lot of Capra's previous films, and was saddened that Capra decided to have the music pared or toned down, moved, or cut entirely. He felt as though his work was being seen as a mere suggestion. In his autobiography Please Don't Hate Me, he said of the incident, "an all around scissors job".[38]

text: The products and advertisements featured in Mr. Gower's drugstore include Coca-Cola, Paterson tobacco pipes, La Unica cigars, Camel cigarettes, Lucky Strike cigarettes, Chesterfield cigarettes, Sweet Caporal cigarettes (with a sign that says "Ask Dad he knows" that plays a role in the plot), Vaseline hair tonic, Penetro cough syrup, Pepto-Bismol, Bayer Aspirin ("for colds and influenza"), and The Saturday Evening Post.[39]

text: In an earlier draft of the script, the scene where George saves his brother Harry as a child was different. The scene had the boys playing ice hockey on the river (which is on Potter's property) as Potter watches with disdain. George shoots the puck, but it goes astray and breaks the "No Trespassing" sign and lands in Potter's yard. Potter becomes irate, and the gardener releases the attack dogs, which causes the boys to flee. Harry falls in the ice, and George saves him with the same results.[40]

text: Another scene that was in an earlier version of the script had young George visiting his father at his work. After George tells off Mr. Potter and closes the door, he considers asking Uncle Billy about his drugstore dilemma. Billy is talking on the phone to the bank examiner, and lights his cigar and throws his match in the wastebasket. This scene explains that Tilly (short for Matilda) and Eustace are both his cousins (not Billy's kids though), and Tilly is on the phone with her friend Martha and says, "Potter's here, the bank examiner's coming. It's a day of judgment." As George is about to interrupt Tilly on the phone, Billy cries for help and Tilly runs in and puts the fire out with a pot of coffee. George decides he is probably better off dealing with the situation by himself.[38]

text: Capra had filmed a number of sequences that were subsequently cut, the only remnants remaining being rare stills that have been unearthed.[41] A number of alternative endings were considered, with Capra's first script having Bailey falling to his knees reciting "The Lord's Prayer" (the script also called for an opening scene with the townspeople in prayer). Feeling that an overly religious tone did not have the emotional impact of the family and friends rushing to rescue George Bailey, the closing scenes were rewritten.[42][43][44]

text: Reception[edit]

text: It's a Wonderful Life premiered at the Globe Theatre in New York on December 20, 1946, to mixed reviews.[23] While Capra thought the contemporary critical reviews were either universally negative, or at best dismissive,[45] Time said, "It's a Wonderful Life is a pretty wonderful movie. It has only one formidable rival (Goldwyn's The Best Years of Our Lives) as Hollywood's best picture of the year. Director Capra's inventiveness, humor and affection for human beings keep it glowing with life and excitement."[46]

text: Bosley Crowther, writing for The New York Times, complimented some of the actors, including Stewart and Reed, but concluded that "the weakness of this picture, from this reviewer's point of view, is the sentimentality of it—its illusory concept of life. Mr. Capra's nice people are charming, his small town is a quite beguiling place and his pattern for solving problems is most optimistic and facile. But somehow they all resemble theatrical attitudes rather than average realities."[47]

text: The film, which went into general release on January 7, 1947, placed 26th ($3.3 million) in box office revenues for 1947[2] (out of more than 400 features released),[48] one place ahead of another Christmas film, Miracle on 34th Street. The film was supposed to be released in January 1947, but was moved up to December 1946 to make it eligible for the 1946 Academy Awards. This move was seen as worse for the film, as 1947 did not have quite the stiff competition as 1946. If it had entered the 1947 Awards, its biggest competition would have been Miracle on 34th Street. The number one grossing movie of 1947, The Best Years of Our Lives, made $11.5 million.[2]

text: The film recorded a loss of $525,000 at the box office for RKO.[49]

text: On May 26, 1947, the FBI issued a memo stating, "With regard to the picture 'It's a Wonderful Life,' [redacted] stated in substance that the film represented rather obvious attempts to discredit bankers by casting Lionel Barrymore as a 'scrooge-type' so that he would be the most hated man in the picture. This, according to these sources, is a common trick used by Communists. [In] addition, [redacted] stated that, in his opinion, this picture deliberately maligned the upper class, attempting to show the people who had money were mean and despicable characters."[50][51][52]

text: In 1990, It's a Wonderful Life was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the United States Library of Congress and selected for preservation in their National Film Registry.[53]

text: In 2002, Britain's Channel 4 ranked It's a Wonderful Life as the seventh greatest film ever made in its poll "The 100 Greatest Films".[54]

text: In June 2008, AFI revealed its 10 Top 10, the best ten films in ten "classic" American film genres, after polling over 1,500 people from the creative community. It's a Wonderful Life was acknowledged as the third-best film in the fantasy genre.[55][56]

text: Somewhat more iconoclastic views of the film and its content are occasionally expressed. In 1947, film critic Manny Farber wrote, "To make his points [Capra] always takes an easy, simple-minded path that doesn't give much credit to the intelligence of the audience", and adds that there are only a "few unsentimental moments here and there."[57][N 7] Wendell Jamieson, in a 2008 article for The New York Times which was generally positive in its analysis of the film, noted that far from being simply a sweet sentimental story, it "is a terrifying, asphyxiating story about growing up and relinquishing your dreams, of seeing your father driven to the grave before his time, of living among bitter, small-minded people. It is a story of being trapped, of compromising, of watching others move ahead and away, of becoming so filled with rage that you verbally abuse your children, their teacher and your oppressively perfect wife."[58]

text: In a 2010 Salon.com piece, Richard Cohen described It's a Wonderful Life as "the most terrifying Hollywood film ever made". In the "Pottersville" sequence, he wrote, George is not seeing the world that would exist had he never been born, but rather 'the world as it does exist, in his time and also in our own."[59] Nine years earlier, another Salon writer, Gary Kamiya, had expressed the opposing view that "Pottersville rocks!," adding, "The gauzy, Currier-and-Ives veil Capra drapes over Bedford Falls has prevented viewers from grasping what a tiresome and, frankly, toxic environment it is... We all live in Pottersville now."[60]

text: The film's elevation to the status of a beloved classic came decades after its initial release, when it became a television staple during Christmas season in the late 1970s. This came as a welcome surprise to Frank Capra and others involved with its production. "It's the damnedest thing I've ever seen," Capra told The Wall Street Journal in 1984. "The film has a life of its own now, and I can look at it like I had nothing to do with it. I'm like a parent whose kid grows up to be president. I'm proud... but it's the kid who did the work. I didn't even think of it as a Christmas story when I first ran across it. I just liked the idea."[61] In a 1946 interview, Capra described the film's theme as "the individual's belief in himself" and that he made it "to combat a modern trend toward atheism".[61]

text: The film's positive reception has continued into the present, and review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes currently reports a 94% "Certified Fresh" approval rating. The website's critical consensus reads, "The holiday classic to define all holiday classics, It's a Wonderful Life is one of a handful of films worth an annual viewing."[62]

text: Awards and honors[edit]

text: Prior to the Los Angeles release of It's a Wonderful Life, Liberty Films mounted an extensive promotional campaign that included a daily advertisement highlighting one of the film's players, along with comments from reviewers. Jimmy Starr wrote, "If I were an Oscar, I'd elope with It's a Wonderful Life lock, stock and barrel on the night of the Academy Awards". The New York Daily Times published an editorial that declared the film and James Stewart's performance to be worthy of Academy Award consideration.[63]

text: It's a Wonderful Life received five Academy Award nominations:[64]

text:
Award
Result
Nominee / Winner

Best Picture
Nominated
Frank Capra
Winner was Samuel Goldwyn – The Best Years of Our Lives

Best Director
Nominated
Frank Capra
Winner was William Wyler – The Best Years of Our Lives

Best Actor
Nominated
James Stewart
Winner was Fredric March – The Best Years of Our Lives

Best Film Editing
Nominated
William Hornbeck
Winner was Daniel Mandell – The Best Years of Our Lives

Best Sound Recording
Nominated
John Aalberg
Winner was John P. Livadary – The Jolson Story

Technical Achievement Award
Won
Russell Shearman and RKO Radio Studio Special Effects Dept.
For the development of a new method of simulating falling snow on motion picture sets.

text: It's a Wonderful Life won just the one Academy Award, in the Technical Achievement category for developing a new method of creating artificial snow.[65] Before It's a Wonderful Life, fake movie snow was mostly made from cornflakes painted white. And it was so loud when stepped on that any snow-filled scenes with dialogue had to be re-dubbed afterwards. RKO studio's head of special effects, Russell Shearman, developed a new compound, utilizing water, soap flakes, foamite and sugar.[66]

text: The Best Years of Our Lives, a drama about servicemen attempting to return to their pre-World War II lives, won most of the awards that year, including four of the five for which It's a Wonderful Life was nominated. (The award for "Best Sound Recording" was won by The Jolson Story.) The Best Years of Our Lives was also an outstanding commercial success, ultimately becoming the highest-grossing film of the decade, in contrast to the more modest initial box office returns of It's a Wonderful Life.[67]

text: It's a Wonderful Life received a Golden Globe Award:

text:
Award
Result
Winner

Best Director
Won
Frank Capra

text: Capra won the "Best Motion Picture Director" award from the Golden Globes, and a "CEC Award" from the Cinema Writers Circle in Spain, for Mejor Película Extranjera (Best Foreign Film). Jimmy Hawkins won a "Former Child Star Lifetime Achievement Award" from the Young Artist Awards in 1994; the award recognized his role as Tommy Bailey as igniting his career, which lasted until the mid-1960s.[68]

text: American Film Institute lists

text:
AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies – 11
AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions – 8
AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes and Villains:

Mr. Potter – No. 6 Villain
George Bailey – No. 9 Hero

AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs:

"Buffalo Gal (Won't You Come Out Tonight)" – Nominated[69]

AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes:

"What is it you want, Mary? What do you want? You want the moon? Just say the word, and I'll throw a lasso around it and pull it down." – Nominated[70]
"To my big brother George, the richest man in town!" – Nominated[70]
"Look, Daddy. Teacher says, 'Every time a bell rings an angel gets his wings.'" – Nominated[70]

AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers – No. 1
AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – No. 20
AFI's 10 Top 10 – No. 3 Fantasy Film

text: Release[edit]

text: Ownership and copyright issues[edit]

text: Ancillary rights[edit]

text: Liberty Films was purchased by Paramount Pictures, and remained a subsidiary until 1951. In 1955, M. & A. Alexander purchased the movie. This included key rights to the original television syndication, the original nitrate film elements, the music score, and the film rights to the story on which the film is based, "The Greatest Gift".[N 8] National Telefilm Associates (NTA) took over the rights to the film soon thereafter.

text: A clerical error at NTA prevented the copyright from being renewed properly in 1974.[72][73] Despite the lapsed copyright, television stations that aired it still had to pay royalties because—though the film's images had entered the public domain—the film's story was still protected as a derivative work of the published story The Greatest Gift, whose copyright Philip Van Doren Stern had properly renewed in 1971.[74][75][N 9] The film became a perennial holiday favorite in the 1980s, possibly due to its repeated showings each holiday season on hundreds of local television stations. It was mentioned during the deliberations on the Copyright Term Extension Act of 1998.[74][76]

text: In 1993, Republic Pictures, which was the successor to NTA, relied on the 1990 U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Stewart v. Abend (which involved another Stewart film, Rear Window) to enforce its claim to the copyright. While the film's copyright had not been renewed, Republic still owned the film rights to "The Greatest Gift"; thus the plaintiffs were able to argue its status as a derivative work of a work still under copyright.[74][77] NBC, since 1996, is licensed to show the film on U.S. network television, and traditionally shows it twice during the holidays, with one showing on Christmas Eve. Paramount (via parent company Viacom's 1998 acquisition of Republic's then-parent, Spelling Entertainment) once again has distribution rights for the first time since 1955.[74][78]

text: Due to all the above actions, this is one of the few RKO films not controlled by Turner Entertainment/Warner Bros. in the USA. It is also one of two Capra films Paramount owns despite not having originally released it—the other is Broadway Bill (originally from Columbia, remade by Paramount as Riding High in 1950).[74]

text: Colorization[edit]

text: Director Capra met with Wilson Markle about having Colorization, Inc., colorize It's a Wonderful Life based on an enthusiastic response to the colorization of Topper from actor Cary Grant.[79] The company's art director Brian Holmes prepared 10 minutes of colorized footage from It's a Wonderful Life for Capra to view, which resulted in Capra signing a contract with Colorization, Inc., and his "enthusiastic agree[ment] to pay half the $260,000 cost of colorizing the movie and to share any profits" and giving "preliminary approval to making similar color versions of two of his other black-and-white films, Meet John Doe (1941) and Lady for a Day (1933)".[79] However, the film was believed to be in the public domain at the time, and as a result Markle and Holmes responded by returning Capra's initial investment, eliminating his financial participation, and refusing outright to allow the director to exercise artistic control over the colorization of his films, leading Capra to join in the campaign against the process.[79]

text: Three colorized versions have been produced. The first was released by Hal Roach Studios in 1986. The second was authorized and produced by the film's permanent owner, Republic Pictures, in 1989. Both Capra and Stewart took a critical stand on the colorized editions.[80] The Hal Roach color version was re-released in 1989 to VHS through the cooperation of Video Treasures. A third colorized version was produced by Legend Films and released on DVD in 2007 with the approval of Capra's estate.[citation needed]

text: Home media[edit]

text: VHS[edit]

text: Throughout the 1980s and early 1990s, when the film was still under public domain status, It's A Wonderful Life was released on VHS by a variety of home video companies. Among the companies that released the film on home video before Republic Pictures stepped in were Meda Video (which would later become Media Home Entertainment), Kartes Video Communications (under its Video Film Classics label), GoodTimes Home Video and Video Treasures (now Anchor Bay Entertainment). After Republic reclaimed the rights to the film, all unofficial VHS copies of the film in print were destroyed.[77] Artisan Entertainment (under license from Republic) took over home video rights in the mid-1990s. Artisan was later sold to Lions Gate Entertainment, which continued to hold US home video rights until late 2005 when they reverted to Paramount, who also owns video rights throughout Region 4 (Latin America and Australia) and in France. Video rights in the rest of the world are held by different companies; for example, the UK rights are with Universal Studios.

text: Technological first: CD-ROM[edit]

text: In 1993, due in part to the confusion of the ownership and copyright issues, Kinesoft Development, with the support of Republic Pictures, released It's a Wonderful Life as one of the first commercial feature-length films on CD-ROM for the Windows PC (Windows 3.1). Predating commercial DVDs by several years, it included such features as the ability to follow along with the complete shooting script as the film was playing.[81][82][N 10]

text: Given the state of video playback on the PC at the time of its release, It's a Wonderful Life for Windows represented another first, as the longest running video on a computer. Prior to its release, Windows could only play back approx. 32,000 frames of video, or about 35 minutes at 15 frames per second. Working with Microsoft, Kinesoft was able to enhance the video features of Windows to allow for the complete playback of the entire film — all of this on a PC with a 486SX processor and only 8 MB of RAM.[83]

text: Computer Gaming World said in April 1994 that, "The picture quality still has a way to go before it reaches television standards," but was "...a noble effort" that would "please fans of the film."[84]

text: DVD and Blu-ray[edit]

text: The film has seen multiple DVD releases since the availability of the DVD format. In the autumn of 2001, Republic issued the movie twice, once in August, and again with different packaging in September of that same year. On October 31, 2006, Paramount released a newly restored "60th Anniversary Edition". On November 13, 2007, Paramount released a two-disc "special edition" DVD of the film that contained both the original theatrical black-and-white version, and a new, third colorized version, produced by Legend Films using the latest colorization technology. On November 3, 2009, Paramount released a DVD version with a "Collector's Edition" ornament, and a Blu-ray edition.

text: Adaptations in other media[edit]

text: The film was twice adapted for radio in 1947, first on Lux Radio Theater (March 10) and then on The Screen Guild Theater (December 29), then again on the Screen Guild Theater broadcast of March 15, 1951. James Stewart and Donna Reed reprised their roles for all three radio productions. Stewart also starred in the May 8, 1949 radio adaptation presented on the Screen Director's Playhouse.

text: A musical stage adaptation of the film, titled A Wonderful Life, was written by Sheldon Harnick and Joe Raposo. This version was first performed at the University of Michigan in 1986, but a planned professional production was stalled by legal wrangling with the estate of Philip Van Doren Stern. It was eventually performed in Washington, D.C. by Arena Stage in 1991, and had revivals in the 21st century, including a staged concert version in New York City in 2005 and several productions by regional theatres.

text: Another musical stage adaptation of the film, titled It's a Wonderful Life – The Musical, was written by Bruce Greer and Keith Ferguson. This version premiered at the Majestic Theatre, Dallas, Texas in 1998. It was an annual Christmas show at the theatre for five years. It has since been performed at venues all around the United States.[85]

text: The film was also adapted into a play in two acts by James W. Rodgers. It was first performed on December 15, 1993 at Paul Laurence Dunbar High School. The play opens with George Bailey contemplating suicide and then goes back through major moments in his life. Many of the scenes from the movie are only alluded to or mentioned in the play rather than actually dramatized. For example, in the opening scene Clarence just mentions George having saved his brother Harry after the latter had fallen through the ice.[86]

text: It's a Wonderful Life: A Live Radio Play, a stage adaptation presented as a 1940s radio show, was adapted by Joe Landry and has been produced around the United States since 1997. The script is published by Playscripts, Inc.

text: In 1997, PBS aired Merry Christmas, George Bailey, taped from a live performance of the 1947 Lux Radio Theatre script at the Pasadena Playhouse. The presentation, which benefited the Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation, featured an all-star cast including Bill Pullman as George, Nathan Lane as Clarence, Martin Landau as Mr. Potter, Penelope Ann Miller as Mary, and Sally Field as Mother Bailey.[87]

text: Philip Grecian's 2006 radio play based on the film It's a Wonderful Life is a faithful adaptation, now in its third incarnation, that has been performed numerous times by local theatres in Canada.[88]

text: The Last Temptation of Clarence Odbody is a novel written by John Pierson. The novel imagines the future lives of various characters if George had not survived his jump into the river.[89]

text: Remakes[edit]

text: It Happened One Christmas

text: The film was remade as the 1977 television movie It Happened One Christmas. Lionel Chetwynd based the screenplay on the original Van Doren Stern short story and the 1946 screenplay. This remake employed gender-reversal, with Marlo Thomas as the protagonist Mary Bailey, Wayne Rogers as George Hatch, and Cloris Leachman as the angel Clara Oddbody.[N 11] Leachman received her second Emmy nomination for this role. In a significant departure from his earlier roles, Orson Welles was cast as Mr. Potter.[N 12] Following initial positive reviews, the made-for-television film was rebroadcast twice in 1978 and 1979, but has not been shown since on national re-broadcasts, nor issued in home media.[N 13][90]

text: The Christmas Spirit was a retelling of the movie starring Nicollette Sheridan as . This was a made-for-TV film aired in December 1, 2013 on the Hallmark Channel executive produced by Sheridan under her company, Wyke Lane Productions, and Brad Krevoy Television. The film was directed and written by Jack Angelo. Spirit was set in the present day featuring the Charlotte Hart character, who works to save a "quiet New England town from a ruthless real estate developer." The film was planned to kick off a film series centered around the Hart character.[91] The film had 3.372 million viewers overall.[92]

text: Sequel[edit]

text: In 1990, another made-for-television film called Clarence starred Robert Carradine in a new tale of the helpful angel.[93][94]

text: Potential[edit]

text: A purported sequel was in development for a 2015 release, and was to be called It's a Wonderful Life: The Rest of the Story. It was to be written by Bob Farnsworth and Martha Bolton and follow the angel of George Bailey's daughter Zuzu (played once again by Karolyn Grimes), as she teaches Bailey's evil grandson how different the world would have been if he had never been born. Producers were considering directors and hoped to shoot the film with a $25–$35 million budget in Louisiana early in 2014.[95]

text: The film had been announced as being produced by Star Partners and Hummingbird Productions, neither of which are affiliated with Paramount, owners of the original film (Farnsworth claimed that It's a Wonderful Life was in the public domain). Later, a Paramount spokesperson claimed that they were not granting permission to make the film, "To date, these individuals have not obtained any of the necessary rights, and we would take all appropriate steps to protect those rights," the spokesperson said.[96] No further developmental plans have since arisen.

text: Antecedent[edit]

text: In a 1997 review, film historian James Berardinelli commented on the parallels between this film and the classic Charles Dickens tale A Christmas Carol. In both stories, a man revisits his life and potential death (or non-existence) with the help of supernatural agents, culminating in a joyous epiphany and a renewed view of his life.[97]


document_title: Ronan the Accuser

question_text: who does ronan work for in guardians of the galaxy

root

text: Ronan the Accuser

text: Publication history[edit]

text: Ronan was created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby in 1967. He first appeared in Fantastic Four vol. 1 #65.

tag: p

text: The character returned sporadically in Captain Marvel vol. 1, and played an important role in the Kree-Skrull War storyline in Avengers vol. 1 #88–97. After appearances in Ms. Marvel vol. 1 #19 and Silver Surfer vol. 3, Ronan returned in the Galactic Storm crossover in 1992.

text: Ronan subsequently appeared in Fantastic Four vol. 3 #13–14 and Iron Man vol. 3 #14, before having a major role in the Maximum Security crossover in Jan 2001.

text: During the 2006 Annihilation storyline, Ronan received a four-issue eponymous miniseries written by Simon Furman, and a leading role in Annihilation #1–6. He appeared in the sequels, Annihilation Conquest #1–6 and Annihilation Conquest: Wraith #1–4 in 2007.

text: After being seen during the Secret Invasion: War of Kings one-shot, the character was used in War of Kings #1–6 (2009) and Realm of Kings: Inhumans #1–4. Following appearances in The Thanos Imperative #1–6 (2010), Ronan joined the titular team in Annihilators #1–4 (2011) and Annihilators: Earthfall #1–4 (Sept 2011 – Dec 2011).

text: Fictional character biography[edit]

text: Ronan was born on the planet Hala, the capital of the Kree Empire in the Greater Magellanic Cloud. Ronan later joined the Accuser Corps, who are the Kree equivalent of military governors and jurists, and his rise through their ranks was extraordinary; he eventually became the third-most powerful being in the Kree Empire. The Supreme Intelligence ultimately appointed him "Supreme Accuser of the Kree Empire", as which he is known simply as "Ronan the Accuser".

text: On his first mission, Ronan is sent to Earth to investigate the destruction of a robotic Kree Sentry at the hands of the Fantastic Four. The team defeats Ronan,[2] which prompts a Kree expedition to spy on and assess Earth.[3] Captain Mar-Vell is a member of the team, and he interacts with Ronan frequently during his mission.[4]

text: Ronan secretly plans with Zarek to overthrow the Kree leader, the Supreme Intelligence, believing the Empire should not be ruled by a non-humanoid entity. But Ronan is paralyzed by the psionic powers of Rick Jones, and control of the Kree Empire reverts to the Supreme Intelligence.[5]

text: Ronan is subsequently mentally dominated by the Supreme Intelligence, and battles Mar-Vell on multiple occasions.[6] Ronan later regains his sanity and returns to his former position as Supreme Accuser.[7] During the second Kree-Skrull war, Ronan executes a Skrull duplicate of the Silver Surfer.[8]

text: During the Kree-Shi'ar War, Ronan joins Starforce.[9]

text: When Earth becomes a prison planet, Ronan serves as its warden. The Supreme Intelligence then plans to subvert the galactic council and use Ego the Living Planet as a weapon. Although Ronan is able to elevate his power by tapping into Ego's own energy, Mister Fantastic, Iron Man, Giant-Man and Bruce Banner manage to create a machine that transfers Ego's essence into Quasar. The weakened Ronan is defeated and captured by the U.S. Agent.[volume & issue needed]

text: When Ronan is falsely accused of treason by Tana Nile, he discovers he has been framed by a highly placed member of a Kree house.[10] After defending the Kree Empire against the Annihilation Wave, Ronan clears his name and kills his betrayer, although not before he lobotomizes the Supreme Intelligence. In an act of mercy, Ronan kills the Supreme Intelligence and becomes ruler of the Kree Empire.[11]

text: During the Phalanx conquest of the Kree, Ronan works with the Super-Skrull and Wraith to free his people.

text: When the Inhumans seek aid from the Kree against the Skrull's Secret Invasion, Ronan agrees on the condition that the Inhuman princess, Crystal, marries him.[12] On their wedding day, Ronan is severely beaten by the Shi'ar Imperial Guard and hospitalized.[13] He does not fully recover until after the War of Kings is over.[volume & issue needed]

text: During the war with the cancerverse, Ronan is a member of Nova's main attack force.[14] In an effort to prevent further conflict, Ronan joins the Annihilators,[15] who protect Galador from the Dire Wraiths[16] and oppose the Universal Church of Truth's attempt to revive the Magus.[17]

text: Ronan is soon separated from his wife under the orders of Black Bolt, as part of a truce made between Black Bolt and the Supreme Intelligence to ensure peace between Inhumans and the Kree Empire. Crystal and Ronan are deeply saddened by this decision, as their arranged marriage had eventually become a stronger relationship.[18]

text: In the Infinity storyline, Ronan the Accuser and the Supreme Intelligence appeared as members of the Galactic Council.[19] Ronan later fights Thanos' minion, Black Dwarf of the Black Order, and kills him.[20]

text: Ronan the Accuser steals The Black Vortex from the cosmically powered X-Men, and, against the Supreme Intelligence's orders, submits to the Vortex and receives cosmic powers. Mister Knife later steals the Vortex and destroys Hala and the Supreme Intelligence.[21] Ronan and the imperial fleet survive, but the last remaining seed of the Supreme Intelligence was stolen from the Collector by Star-Lord's half-sister Victoria.[22]

text: Powers and abilities[edit]

text: As a Kree warrior in peak physical condition, Ronan possesses his species' unique physiology, having far greater natural attributes than a human. Thus, Ronan's body is resistant to poisons, toxins and diseases. He has superhuman strength, speed, endurance and reflexes, which are all further enhanced by his exoskeleton body-armor. Ronan's armor, which contains multiple scanners, can also create fields of invisibility, and his gauntlets can discharge cosmic energy bolts or generate sufficient coldness to place certain lifeforms into a state of suspended animation. In addition, Ronan possesses a brilliant strategic mind; his high intellect allowed him to rise to one of the highest positions in the Kree Empire. He also has extensive knowledge in all matters pertaining to Kree law, and is well-versed in the use of his species' highly advanced technology.

text: Ronan's primary weapon is an Accuser Cosmi-Rod called the "Universal Weapon". At its wielder's will, the device can absorb and fire cosmic energy, manipulate matter, generate force-fields, control gravity, and create "time-motion displacement fields". It also allows for interstellar teleportation, hyperspatial passages and flight. As a highly trained Kree soldier, Ronan is extremely proficient in the use of this weapon in both close- and long-ranged confrontations. Even without his war hammer, Ronan has proven a formidable hand-to-hand combatant.

text: Other versions[edit]

text: Ultimate Marvel[edit]

text: The Ultimate version of Ronan the Accuser is the son of Thanos, and is a part of his empire. He is ultimately defeated by the Thing.[23]

text: In the series Hunger, another version of Ronan called Ro-Nan leads an army of Kree warriors in a battle against the Chitauri, when both alien races encounter the entity Gah Lak Tus during battle. Ro-Nan is killed in Hunger #3.[24]

text: JLA/Avengers[edit]

text: Ronan appears as part of Krona's army in JLA/Avengers, and is defeated by DC's Captain Marvel.[25]

text: In other media[edit]

text: Television[edit]

text:
Ronan made a cameo appearance in the Silver Surfer animated series. In the episode "Radical Justice", he was a member of the Wanderers, a group consisting of various alien races displaced by Galactus.
Ronan appears in Fantastic Four: World's Greatest Heroes, voiced by Michael Dobson.[26] He is seen in the episodes "Trial by Fire", "Revenge of the Skrulls", and "Contest of Champions".
Ronan appears in The Super Hero Squad Show, voiced by Michael Dorn.[26] He is seen in the episodes "Trial by Fire", "Revenge of the Skrulls", and "Contest of Champions".
Ronan appears in The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes, voiced by Keith Szarabajka.[26] He is featured in the episodes "Welcome to the Kree Empire" and "Operation Galactic Storm".
Ronan appears in Hulk and the Agents of S.M.A.S.H.,[27] voiced by James C. Mathis III.[26] He is featured in the two-parter "Planet Hulk", and the episode "A Druff is Enough".
Ronan appears in Guardians of the Galaxy, voiced by Jonathan Adams.[26] The episode "Undercover Angle" reveals that Ronan was killed in a battle with the Guardians and only his Universal Weapon remained. In the episode "The Backstabbers", it is revealed that Ronan was Thanos' top general prior to his betrayal and death, and there has since been a power vacuum over his former position. Nebula later claims Ronan's Universal Weapon and uses a special seed and the life-giving energies of the moon Mandala to resurrect him in the episode "Bad Moon Rising". The episode "Crystal Blue Persuasion" reveals that Ronan was exiled by the Kree Empire.
Ronan appears in Lego Marvel Super Heroes - Guardians of the Galaxy: The Thanos Threat, voiced again by Jonathan Adams.[28][better source needed]

tag: ul

text: Film[edit]

text:
Lee Pace portrays Ronan the Accuser in the films set in Marvel Cinematic Universe.

The character first appeared in the 2014 film Guardians of the Galaxy.[1] Depicted as a Kree fanatic, Ronan refuses to heed the Kree Empire's recent peace treaty with the Nova Corps of Xandar. He agrees to retrieve an orb for Thanos, in exchange for help destroying Xandar. When Ronan learns the orb contains an ancient, powerful object called an Infinity Stone, he realizes it will allow him to destroy Xandar without Thanos' help and reneges on their deal. As Ronan's flagship descends on Xandar, he devastates the Nova Corps' defenses. Ronan attempts to annihilate the planet with the stone, but the Guardians of the Galaxy take it and use it to destroy him.
Ronan the Accuser will appear in the 2019 Captain Marvel, which is set prior to the first Guardians of the Galaxy film.[29]

text: Video games[edit]

text:
Ronan appears in the 1995 arcade game Avengers in Galactic Storm.[citation needed]
Ronan appears as an unlockable character in the 2013 game Lego Marvel Super Heroes.[citation needed]
Ronan appears as an unlockable character in the 2016 game Lego Marvel's Avengers, voiced by John DiMaggio.[citation needed]
Ronan is a villain in Marvel: Avengers Alliance. He appears in Special Operation 20, based on the Guardians of the Galaxy film.[citation needed]
Ronan is an unlockable character in Marvel: Avengers Alliance Tactics.[citation needed]
Ronan appears as a playable character in the action-adventure sandbox video games Disney Infinity: Marvel Super Heroes and Disney Infinity 3.0, voiced again by James C. Mathis III.[30][31] He possesses superhuman strength, and his Cosmi-Rod (the Universal Weapon) can fire powerful blasts of energy. His appearance is based on the Guardians of the Galaxy film.
Ronan is a playable character in the mobile game Marvel Contest of Champions.[32]
Ronan appears in Marvel: Avengers Alliance 2.[33]
Ronan is a playable character in the mobile game Marvel: Future Fight.[citation needed]

text: Merchandise[edit]

text:
A Ronan figure was released as part of the Classic Marvel Figurine Collection.[34]
Ronan is a playable character in the Marvel HeroClix "Hammer of Thor", "Critical Mass", "Galactic Guardians" and "Guardians of the Galaxy" sets.[35]
A Ronan figure was released for the Guardians of the Galaxy movie line, which features a "swinging hammer strike" when the legs are squeezed together.
Funko has released a POP! Vinyl figure of Ronan in their Guardians of the Galaxy movie wave.
Two Ronan bobble-heads were released as part of Funko's Guardians of the Galaxy Mystery Minis line. One version has a regular paint job, while the other sports a metallic finish.
A collectible statue of Ronan was released for the Disney Infinity: Marvel Super Heroes 2.0 video game, based on his appearance in the Guardians of the Galaxy film. This figure's base serves as an interactive game piece, and comes packaged with a web code card to play as Ronan in the game.[30]


document_title: Fujita scale

question_text: what is the wind speed of f1 tornado

question_tokens: what is the wind speed of f1 tornado

text: Fujita scale

text: Background[edit]

text:
The scale was introduced in 1971 by Tetsuya Fujita of the University of Chicago, in collaboration with  Allen Pearson, head of the National Severe Storms Forecast Center/NSSFC (currently the Storm Prediction Center/SPC). The scale was updated in 1973, taking into account path length and width. In the United States, starting in 1973, tornadoes were rated soon after occurrence. The Fujita scale was applied retroactively to tornadoes reported between 1950 and 1972 in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National Tornado Database. Fujita rated tornadoes from 1916–1992[clarification needed] and Tom Grazulis of The Tornado Project retroactively rated all known significant tornadoes (F2–F5 or causing a fatality) in the U.S. back to 1880.[3]
The Fujita scale was adopted in most areas outside of Great Britain.[citation needed]

text: In 2007, the Fujita scale was updated, and the Enhanced Fujita Scale was introduced in the United States. The new scale more accurately matches wind speeds to the severity of damage caused by the tornado.

text: Though each damage level is associated with a wind speed, the Fujita scale is effectively a damage scale, and the wind speeds associated with the damage listed aren't rigorously verified. The Enhanced Fujita Scale was formulated due to research which suggested that the wind speeds required to inflict damage by intense tornadoes on the Fujita scale are greatly overestimated. A process of expert elicitation with top engineers and meteorologists resulted in the EF scale wind speeds, however, these are biased to United States construction practices. The EF scale also improved damage parameter descriptions.

text: Derivation[edit]

text: The original scale as derived by Fujita was a theoretical 13-level scale (F0–F12) designed to smoothly connect the Beaufort scale and the Mach number scale. F1 corresponds to the twelfth level of the Beaufort scale, and F12 corresponds to Mach number 1.0. F0 was placed at a position specifying no damage (approximately the eighth level of the Beaufort scale), in analogy to how the Beaufort's zeroth level specifies little to no wind. From these wind speed numbers, qualitative descriptions of damage were made for each category of the Fujita scale, and then these descriptions were used to classify tornadoes.[4] The diagram on the right illustrates the relationship between the Beaufort, Fujita, and Mach number scales.

text: At the time Fujita derived the scale, little information was available on damage caused by wind, so the original scale presented little more than educated guesses at wind speed ranges for specific tiers of damage. Fujita intended that only F0–F5 be used in practice, as this covered all possible levels of damage to frame homes as well as the expected estimated bounds of wind speeds. He did, however, add a description for F6, which he phrased as "inconceivable tornado", to allow for wind speeds exceeding F5 and for possible future advancements in damage analysis which might show it.[5]

text: Furthermore, the original wind speed numbers have since been found to be higher than the actual wind speeds required to incur the damage described at each category. The error manifests itself to an increasing degree as the category increases, especially in the range of F3 through F5. NOAA notes that "... precise wind speed numbers are actually guesses and have never been scientifically verified. Different wind speeds may cause similar-looking damage from place to place—even from building to building. Without a thorough engineering analysis of tornado damage in any event, the actual wind speeds needed to cause that damage are unknown."[5] Since then, the Enhanced Fujita Scale has been created using better wind estimates by engineers and meteorologists.

text: Some sources add level F+", meaning a tornado with winds below 39 mph; on rare occasions tornadoes this weak are observed covering a wide range of path widths and lengths.[citation needed]

text: Parameters[edit]

text: The five categories are listed here, in order of increasing intensity.

text:
The rating of any given tornado is of the most severe damage to any well-built frame home or comparable level of damage from engineering analysis of other damage.
Since the Fujita scale is based on the severity of damage resulting from high winds, an F6 or an F7 tornado is a theoretical construct. Structural damage cannot exceed total destruction, which constitutes an F5. A tornado with wind speeds greater than 319 miles per hour (513 km/h) is theoretically possible, and the 1999 Bridge Creek-Moore Tornado may have been such an event. However, no such wind speed has ever been recorded and that measurement was not near ground level.

text:
Scale

Wind speed estimate[6]

Path width[7]

Potential damage[6]

mph

km/h

F0

40–72
64–116
6–17 yards(5.5–15.5 m)
Light damage.
Some damage to chimneys; branches broken off trees; shallow-rooted trees pushed over; sign boards damaged.

F1

73–112
117–180
18–55 yards(16–50 m)
Moderate damage.
The lower limit is the beginning of hurricane wind speed; peels surface off roofs; mobile homes pushed off foundations or overturned; moving vehicles pushed off the roads; attached garages may be destroyed.

F2

113–157
181–253
56–175 yards(51–160 m)
Significant damage.
Roofs torn off frame houses; mobile homes demolished; boxcars overturned; large trees snapped or uprooted; highrise windows broken and blown in; light-object missiles generated.

F3

158–206
254–332
176–566 yards(161–518 m)
Severe damage.
Roofs and some walls torn off well-constructed houses; trains overturned; most trees in forest uprooted; heavy cars lifted off the ground and thrown.

F4

207–260
333–418
0.3–0.9 miles(0.48–1.45 km)
Devastating damage.
Well-constructed houses leveled; structures with weak foundations blown away some distance; cars thrown and large missiles generated.

F5

261–318
419–512
1.0–3.1 miles(1.6–5.0 km)
Incredible damage.
Strong frame houses lifted off foundations and carried considerable distances to disintegrate; automobile sized missiles fly through the air farther than 100 meters (110 yards); trees debarked; steel reinforced concrete structures badly damaged and skyscrapers toppled

tag: table

text: Rating classifications[edit]

text:
Tornado rating classifications

F0

F1

F2

F3

F4

F5

Weak

Strong

Violent

Significant

Intense

text: For purposes such as tornado climatology studies, Fujita scale ratings may be grouped into classes.[3][8][9]

text: Decommission in the US[edit]

text: The Fujita scale, introduced in 1971 as a means to differentiate tornado intensity and path area, assigned wind speeds to damage that were, at best, educated guesses.[10] Fujita and others recognized this immediately and intensive engineering analysis was conducted through the rest of the 1970s. This research, as well as subsequent research, showed that tornado wind speeds required to inflict the described damage were actually much lower than the F-scale indicated, particularly for the upper categories. Also, although the scale gave general descriptions for the type of damage a tornado could cause, it gave little leeway for strength of construction and other factors that might cause a building to receive higher damage at lower wind speeds. Fujita tried to address these problems somewhat in 1992 with the Modified Fujita Scale,[11] but by then he was semi-retired and the National Weather Service was not in a position for the undertaking of updating to an entirely new scale, so it went largely unenacted.[12]

text: In the United States, on February 1, 2007,[1][2] the Fujita scale was decommissioned in favor of what these scientists believe is a more accurate Enhanced Fujita Scale, which replaces it. The meteorologists and engineers who designed the EF Scale believe it an improvement on the F-scale on many counts—it accounts for different degrees of damage that occur with different types of structures, both man-made and natural. The expanded and refined damage indicators and degrees of damage standardize what was somewhat ambiguous. It also is thought to provide a much better estimate for wind speeds, and sets no upper limit on the wind speeds for the strongest level, EF5. Several countries[which?] continue to use the original Fujita Scale. Environment Canada has begun using the Enhanced Fujita scale in Canada as of April 18, 2013.[13]


document_title: Chapters and verses of the Bible

question_text: what is the middle chapter of the kjv bible

text: Chapters and verses of the Bible

text: History[edit]

text: Chapters[edit]

text: Early manuscripts of the biblical texts did not contain the chapter and verse divisions in the numbered form familiar to modern readers.  In antiquity Hebrew texts were divided into paragraphs (parashot) that were identified by two letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Peh פ indicated an "open" paragraph that began on a new line, while Samekh ס indicated a "closed" paragraph that began on the same line after a small space.[1] These two letters begin the Hebrew words open (patuach) and closed (sagoor), and are, themselves, open פ and closed ס. The earliest known copies of the Book of Isaiah from the Dead Sea Scrolls used parashot divisions, although they differ slightly from the Masoretic divisions.[2] (This is different from the use of consecutive letters of the Hebrew alphabet to structure certain poetic compositions, known as acrostics, such as several of the Psalms and most of the Book of Lamentations.)

text: The Hebrew Bible was also divided into some larger sections.  In Israel the Torah (its first five books) were divided into 154 sections so that they could be read through aloud in weekly worship over the course of three years. In Babylonia it was divided into 53 or 54 sections (Parashat ha-Shavua) so it could be read through in one year.[2]  The New Testament was divided into topical sections known as kephalaia by the fourth century. Eusebius of Caesarea divided the gospels into parts that he listed in tables or canons. Neither of these systems corresponds with modern chapter divisions.[3]  (See fuller discussions below.)

text: Chapter divisions, with titles, are also found in the 9th century Tours manuscript, Paris Bibliothèque Nationale MS Lat. 3, the so-called Bible of Rorigo.[4]

text: Archbishop Stephen Langton and Cardinal Hugo de Sancto Caro developed different schemas for systematic division of the Bible in the early 13th century. It is the system of Archbishop Langton on which the modern chapter divisions are based.[5][6][7]

text: While chapter divisions have become nearly universal, editions of the Bible have sometimes been published without them.  Such editions, which typically use thematic or literary criteria to divide the biblical books instead, include John Locke's Paraphrase and Notes on the Epistles of St. Paul (1707),[8] Alexander Campbell's The Sacred Writings (1826),[9] Daniel Berkeley Updike’s fourteen-volume The Holy Bible Containing the Old and New Testaments and the Apocrypha, Richard Moulton's The Modern Reader's Bible (1907),[10] Ernest Sutherland Bates's The Bible Designed to Be Read as Living Literature (1936),[11] The Books of the Bible (2007) from the International Bible Society (Biblica), Adam Lewis Greene’s five-volume Bibliotheca (2014),[12][13] and the six-volume ESV Reader's Bible[14] (2016) from Crossway Books.

text: Verses[edit]

text: Since at least 916 the Tanakh has contained an extensive system of multiple levels of section, paragraph, and phrasal divisions that were indicated in Masoretic vocalization and cantillation markings. One of the most frequent of these was a special type of punctuation, the sof passuq, symbol for a full stop or sentence break, resembling the colon (:) of English and Latin orthography. With the advent of the printing press and the translation of the Bible into English, Old Testament versifications were made that correspond predominantly with the existing Hebrew full stops, with a few isolated exceptions. Most attribute these to Rabbi Isaac Nathan ben Kalonymus's work for the first Hebrew Bible concordance around 1440.[6]

text: The first person to divide New Testament chapters into verses was Italian Dominican biblical scholar Santi Pagnini (1470–1541), but his system was never widely adopted.[15] His verse divisions in the New Testament were far longer than those known today.[16] Robert Estienne created an alternate numbering in his 1551 edition of the Greek New Testament[17] which was also used in his 1553 publication of the Bible in French. Estienne's system of division was widely adopted, and it is this system which is found in almost all modern Bibles. Estienne produced a 1555 Vulgate that is the first Bible to include the verse numbers integrated into the text. Before this work, they were printed in the margins.[16]

text: The first English New Testament to use the verse divisions was a 1557 translation by William Whittingham (c. 1524–1579). The first Bible in English to use both chapters and verses was the Geneva Bible published shortly afterwards in 1560. These verse divisions soon gained acceptance as a standard way to notate verses, and have since been used in nearly all English Bibles and the vast majority of those in other languages.  (Nevertheless, some Bibles have removed the verse numbering, including the ones noted above that also removed chapter numbers; a recent example of an edition that removed only verses, not chapters, is The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language by Eugene H. Peterson.)[18]

text: Jewish tradition[edit]

text: The Hebrew Masoretic text of the Bible notes several different kinds of subdivisions within the biblical books:

text: Verse endings[edit]

text: Most important are the verse endings. According to the Talmudic tradition, the division of the text into verses is of ancient origin.[19] In Masoretic versions of the Bible, the end of a verse is indicated by a small mark in its final word called a silluq (which means "stop"). Less formally, verse endings are usually also indicated by two horizontal dots following the word with a silluq.

text: Parashiyot[edit]

text: The Masoretic textual tradition also contains section endings called parashot, which are usually indicated by a space within a line (a "closed" section) or a new line beginning (an "open" section). The division of the text reflected in the parashot is usually thematic. Unlike chapters, the parashot are not numbered, but some of them have special titles.

text: In early manuscripts (most importantly in Tiberian Masoretic manuscripts, such as the Aleppo codex), an "open" section may also be represented by a blank line, and a "closed" section by a new line that is slightly indented (the preceding line may also not be full). These latter conventions are no longer used in Torah scrolls and printed Hebrew Bibles. In this system, the one rule differentiating "open" and "closed" sections is that "open" sections must always start at the beginning of a new line, while "closed" sections never start at the beginning of a new line.

text: Sedarim[edit]

text: Another division of the biblical books found in the Masoretic text is the division of the sedarim. This division is not thematic, but is almost entirely based upon the quantity of text. For the Torah, this division reflects the triennial cycle of reading that was practiced by the Jews of the Land of Israel.

text: Christian versions[edit]

text: The Byzantines also introduced a concept roughly similar to chapter divisions, called kephalaia (singular kephalaion, literally meaning heading).[20] This system, which was in place no later than the 5th century, is not identical to the present chapters. Unlike the modern chapters, which tend to be of roughly similar length, the distance from one kephalaion mark to the next varied greatly in length both within a book and from one book to the next.  For example, the Sermon on the Mount, comprising three chapters in the modern system, has but one kephalaion mark, while the single modern chapter 8 of the Gospel of Matthew has several, one per miracle.  Moreover, there were far fewer kephalaia in the Gospel of John than in the Gospel of Mark, even though the latter is the shorter text. In the manuscripts, the kephalaia with their numbers, their standard titles (titloi) and their page numbers would be listed at the beginning of each biblical book; in the book's main body, they would be marked only with arrow-shaped or asterisk-like symbols in the margin, not in the text itself.

text: The titles usually referred to the first event or the first theological point of the section only, and some kephalaia are manifestly incomplete if one stops reading at the point where the next kephalaion begins (for example, the combined accounts of the miracles of the Daughter of Jairus and of the healing of the woman with a haemorrhage  gets two marked kephalaia, one titled of the daughter of the synagogue ruler at the beginning when the ruler approaches Jesus and one titled of the woman with the flow of blood where the woman enters the picture – well before the ruler's daughter is healed and the storyline of the previous kephalaion is thus properly concluded). Thus the kephalaia marks are rather more like a system of bookmarks or links into a continuous text, helping a reader to quickly find one of several well-known episodes, than like a true system of chapter divisions.

text: Cardinal Hugo de Sancto Caro is often given credit for first dividing the Latin Vulgate into chapters in the real sense, but it is the arrangement of his contemporary and fellow cardinal Stephen Langton who in 1205 created the chapter divisions which are used today. They were then inserted into Greek manuscripts of the New Testament in the 16th century. Robert Estienne (Robert Stephanus) was the first to number the verses within each chapter, his verse numbers entering printed editions in 1551 (New Testament) and 1571 (Hebrew Bible).[21]

text: The division of the Bible into chapters and verses has received criticism from some traditionalists and modern scholars. Critics state that the text is often divided in an incoherent way, or at inappropriate rhetorical points, and that it encourages citing passages out of context. Nevertheless, the chapter and verse numbers have become indispensable as technical references for Bible study.

text: Several modern publications of the Bible have eliminated numbering of chapters and verses. Biblica published such a version of the NIV in 2007 and 2011. In 2014, Crossway published the ESV Reader's Bible and Bibliotheca published a modified ASV.[22] Projects such as Icthus[23] also exist which strip chapter and verse numbers from existing translations.

text: Protestant Bible statistics[edit]

text:
The number of words can vary depending upon aspects such as whether the Hebrew alphabet in Psalm 119, the superscriptions listed in some of the Psalms, and the subscripts traditionally found at the end of the Pauline epistles, are included.
Except where stated, the following apply to the King James Version of the Bible in its modern 66-book Protestant form including the New Testament and the protocanonical Old Testament, not the deuterocanonical books.

text: Chapters[edit]

text:
There are 929 chapters in the Old Testament.
187 chapters in the Pentateuch
249 chapters in the Historical books
243 chapters in the Poetic books ("Wisdom")
183 chapters in the Major prophets
67 chapters in the Minor prophets
There are 260 chapters in the New Testament.
89 chapters in the Gospels
28 chapters in Acts
87 chapters in the Pauline Epistles (excluding Hebrews)
34 chapters in the General Epistles (including Hebrews)
22 chapters in Revelation
This gives a total of 1,189 chapters (on average, 18 per book).
Psalm 117, the shortest chapter, is also the middle chapter of the Bible, being the 595th Chapter.[24]
Psalm 117 is the shortest chapter of the Bible.
Psalm 119 is the longest chapter of the Bible.
Five books are a single chapter: Obadiah, Philemon, 2 & 3 John, Jude. In many printed editions, the chapter number is omitted for these books, and references just use the verse numbers.

text:
Old Testament - 929 chapters[25]

Book / Division
Chapters

Pentateuch (or the Law)
187

Genesis
50

Exodus
40

Leviticus
27

Numbers
36

Deuteronomy
34

Historical Books
249

Joshua
24

Judges
21

Ruth
4

1 Samuel
31

2 Samuel
24

1 Kings
22

2 Kings
25

1 Chronicles
29

2 Chronicles
36

Ezra
10

Nehemiah
13

Esther
10

Books of Wisdom (or "Poetry")
243

Job
42

Psalms
150

Proverbs
31

Ecclesiastes
12

Song of Solomon
8

Major Prophets
183

Isaiah
66

Jeremiah
52

Lamentations
5

Ezekiel
48

Daniel
12

Minor Prophets
67

Hosea
14

Joel
3

Amos
9

Obadiah
1

Jonah
4

Micah
7

Nahum
3

Habakkuk
3

Zephaniah
3

Haggai
2

Zechariah
14

Malachi
4

text:
New Testament - 260 chapters[25]

Book / Division
Chapters

Gospels
89

Matthew
28

Mark
16

Luke
24

John
21

History
28

Acts
28

Pauline Epistles
87

Romans
16

1 Corinthians
16

2 Corinthians
13

Galatians
6

Ephesians
6

Philippians
4

Colossians
4

1 Thessalonians
5

2 Thessalonians
3

1 Timothy
6

2 Timothy
4

Titus
3

Philemon
1

General Epistles
34

Hebrews
13

James
5

1 Peter
5

2 Peter
3

1 John
5

2 John
1

3 John
1

Jude
1

Apocalyptic Writings
(Prophecy)

22

Revelation
22

text: Verses[edit]

text:
There are 23,145 verses in the Old Testament and 7,957 verses in the New Testament. This gives a total of 31,102 verses,[25] which is an average of a little more than 26 verses per chapter.
Contrary to popular belief, Psalm 118 does not contain the middle verse of the Bible. The King James Version has an even number of verses (31,102), with the two middle verses being Psalm 103:1–2.[26]
John 11:35 ("Jesus wept") is the shortest verse in most English translations. Some translations — including the New International Version, New Living Translation, New Life Version, Holman Christian Standard Bible and New International Reader's Version — render Job 3:2 as "He said". However, that is a translators' condensation of the Hebrew which literally translated is: "And Job answered and said."
The shortest verse in the Greek New Testament is Luke 20:30 ("και ο δευτερος", "And the second") with twelve letters, according to the Westcott and Hort text. In the Textus Receptus, the shortest verse is 1 Thessalonians 5:16 ("παντοτε χαιρετε", "Rejoice always") with fourteen letters,[27] since Stephanus' rendering of Luke 20:30 includes some additional words.[28]
Isaiah 10:8 ("Dicet enim") is the shortest verse in the Latin Vulgate.[29]
Esther 8:9 is the longest verse in the Masoretic Text. The discovery of several manuscripts at Qumran (in the Dead Sea Scrolls) has reopened what is considered the most original text of 1 Samuel 11; if one believes that those manuscripts better preserve the text, several verses in 1 Samuel 11 surpass Esther 8:9 in length.


document_title: List of High Commissioners of India to the United Kingdom

question_text: who was appointed as the first high commissioner of india in 1920 a.d

text: High Commissioners for India (1920-1947)[edit]

text:
Name
Portrait
Entered office
Left office
Notes

Sir William Stevenson Meyer GCIE, KCSI [4]

September 1920
October 1922

J. W. Bhore CBE [4]

October 1922
April 1923
(acting)

Sir Dadiba Merwanji Dalal CIE [4]

April 1923
December 1924
First High Commissioner of Indian origin

Sir Atul Chandra Chatterjee KCSI, KCIE [5]

1925
1931

Sir Bhupendra Nath Mitra KCSI, KCIE, CBE [6]

1931
1936

Malik Sir Feroz Khan Noon KCSI, KCIE, Kt. [7]

1936
December 1941

Khan Bahadur Maulvi Sir Muhammad Aziz-ul-Haq CIE [8]

December 1941
May 1943

Dewan Bahadur Sir Samuel Ebenezer Runganadhan [9]

May 1943
April 1947

M. K. Vellodi CIE [10]

April 1947
August 1947
(acting)

text: High Commissioners of India to the United Kingdom (1947-present)[edit]

text: Dominion of India (1947-1950)[edit]

text:
Name
Portrait
Entered office
Left office
Notes

V. K. Krishna Menon

August 1947
26 January 1950

text: Republic of India (1950-present)[edit]

text:
Name
Portrait
Entered office
Left office
Notes

V. K. Krishna Menon

26 January 1950
1952
First High Commissioner of the Republic of India (from 26 January 1950)

B. G. Kher

1952
1954

Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit

1954
1961

M. C. Chagla

1962
1963

Jivraj Narayan Mehta

1963
1966

S. S. Dhawan

1968
1969

Appa B. Pant

1969
1972

Braj Kumar Nehru

1973
1977

N. G. Gore

1977
1979

V.A. Seyid Muhammad

1980
1984

P. Mehrotra

July 1984
December 1984

P. C. Alexander

1985
1987

Maharaja Krishna Rasgotra

1988
1990

Kuldip Nayar

March 1990
November 1990

Laxmi Mall Singhvi

1991
1997

Salman Haidar

January 1998
July 1998

Lalit Mansingh

1998
1999

Nareshwar Dayal

2000
2002

Ronen Sen

May 2002
April 2004

Kamalesh Sharma

July 2004
January 2008

Shiv Shankar Mukherjee[12][13]

January 2008
August 2009

Nalin Surie[14]

September 2009
August 2011

Jaimini Bhagwati

February 2012
December 2013

Ranjan Mathai

December 2013
December 2015

Navtej Sarna

January 2016
December 2016

Yashvardhan Kumar Sinha

December 2016


document_title: List of Olympic Games host cities

question_text: which city is the first in the world to be awarded both summer and winter olympics

text: List of Olympic Games host cities

text: Olympic Games host cities[edit]

text:
City

Country

Continent

Summer (Olympiad)

Winter

Summer (Youth)

Winter (Youth)

Year

Opening Ceremony

Closing Ceremony

Athens
 Greece
Europe
S005I

1896
April 6
April 15

Paris
 France
Europe
S005II

1900
May 14
October 28

St. Louis[a]
 United States
North America
S005III

1904
July 1
November 23

London[c]
 United Kingdom
Europe
S005IV

1908
April 27
October 31

Stockholm
 Sweden
Europe
S005V

1912
May 5
July 22

Berlin
 Germany
Europe
S006VI

1916
Cancelled due to WWI[10]

Antwerp[d]
 Belgium
Europe
S007VII

1920
April 20
September 12[11]

Chamonix
 France
Europe

W001I

1924
January 25
February 5[12]

Paris
 France
Europe
S008VIII

May 4
July 27[13]

St. Moritz
  Switzerland
Europe

W002II

1928
February 11
February 19[14]

Amsterdam
 Netherlands
Europe
S009IX

May 17
August 12[15]

Lake Placid
 United States
North America

W003III

1932
February 4
February 15[16]

Los Angeles
 United States
North America
S010X

July 30
August 14[17]

Garmisch-Partenkirchen
 Nazi Germany
Europe

W004IV

1936
February 6
February 16[18]

Berlin
 Nazi Germany
Europe
S011XI

August 1
August 16[19]

SapporoGarmisch-Partenkirchen[e]
 Empire of Japan Nazi Germany
AsiaEurope

W005aV

1940
Cancelled due to WWII[10]

TokyoHelsinki[f]
 Empire of Japan Finland
AsiaEurope
S012XII

Cortina d'Ampezzo
 Italy
Europe

W005bV

1944

London
 United Kingdom
Europe
S013XIII

St. Moritz
  Switzerland
Europe

W005cV

1948
January 30
February 8

London
 United Kingdom
Europe
S014XIV

July 29
August 14

Oslo
 Norway
Europe

W006VI

1952
February 14
February 25

Helsinki
 Finland
Europe
S015XV

July 19
August 3

Cortina d'Ampezzo
 Italy
Europe

W007VII

1956
January 26
February 5

MelbourneStockholm[g]
 Australia Sweden
OceaniaEurope
S016XVI

November 22June 10
December 8June 17

Squaw Valley
 United States
North America

W008VIII

1960
February 18
February 28

Rome
 Italy
Europe
S017XVII

August 25
September 11

Innsbruck
 Austria
Europe

W009IX

1964
January 29
February 9

Tokyo
 Japan
Asia
S018XVIII

October 10
October 24

Grenoble
 France
Europe

W010X

1968
February 6
February 18

Mexico City
 Mexico
North America
S019XIX

October 12
October 27

Sapporo
 Japan
Asia

W011XI

1972
February 3
February 13

Munich
 West Germany
Europe
S020XX

August 26
September 11

Innsbruck
 Austria
Europe

W012XII

1976
February 4
February 15

Montreal
 Canada
North America
S021XXI

July 17
August 1

Lake Placid
 United States
North America

W013XIII

1980
February 13
February 24

Moscow
 Soviet Union
Europe[h]
S022XXII

July 19
August 3

Sarajevo
 Yugoslavia
Europe

W014XIV

1984
February 7
February 19

Los Angeles
 United States
North America
S023XXIII

July 28
August 12

Calgary
 Canada
North America

W015XV

1988
February 13
February 28

Seoul
 South Korea
Asia
S024XXIV

September 17
October 2

Albertville
 France
Europe

W016XVI

1992
February 8
February 23

Barcelona
 Spain
Europe
S025XXV

July 25
August 9

Lillehammer
 Norway
Europe

W017XVII

1994
February 12
February 27

Atlanta
 United States
North America
S026XXVI

1996
July 19
August 4

Nagano
 Japan
Asia

W018XVIII

1998
February 7
February 22

Sydney
 Australia
Oceania
S027XXVII

2000
September 15
October 1

Salt Lake City
 United States
North America

W019XIX

2002
February 8
February 24

Athens
 Greece
Europe
S028XXVIII

2004
August 13
August 29

Turin
 Italy
Europe

W020XX

2006
February 10
February 26

Beijing[i]
 China
Asia
S029XXIX

2008
August 8
August 24

Vancouver
 Canada
North America

W021XXI

2010
February 12
February 28

Singapore
 Singapore
Southeast Asia

SY01I

August 14
August 26

Innsbruck
 Austria
Europe

WY01I
2012
January 13
January 22

London
 United Kingdom
Europe
S030XXX

July 27
August 12

Sochi
 Russia
Europe[h]

W022XXII

2014
February 7
February 23

Nanjing
 China
Asia

SY02II

August 16
August 28

Lillehammer
 Norway
Europe

WY02II
2016
February 12
February 21

Rio de Janeiro
 Brazil
South America
S031XXXI

August 5
August 21

Pyeongchang
 South Korea
Asia

W023XXIII

2018
February 9
February 25

Buenos Aires
 Argentina
South America

SY03III

October 6
October 18

Lausanne
  Switzerland
Europe

WY03III
2020
January 10
January 19

Tokyo
 Japan
Asia
S032XXXII

July 24
August 9

Beijing
 China
Asia

W024XXIV

2022
February 4
February 20

TBD
TBD
Africa

SY04IV

(TBD)

Paris
 France
Europe
S033XXXIII

2024
July 26
August 11

TBD
TBD

W025XXV

2026
(TBD)

Los Angeles
 United States
North America
S034XXXIV

2028
July 21
August 6

text: Host cities for multiple Summer and Winter Olympic Games and Youth Olympic Games[edit]

text:
List of cities that hosted multiple editions of the Olympic Games

City
Country
Continent
Summer Olympics
Winter Olympics
Summer Youth Olympics
Winter Youth Olympics
Total

London
 United Kingdom
Europe
3 (1908, 1948, 2012)
0
0
0
3

Paris
 France
Europe
3 (1900, 1924, 2024)
0
0
0

Los Angeles
 United States
North America
3 (1932, 1984, 2028)
0
0
0

Innsbruck
 Austria
Europe
0
2 (1964, 1976)
0
1 (2012)

Athens
 Greece
Europe
2 (1896, 2004)
0
0
0
2

Tokyo
 Japan
Asia
2 (1964, 2020)
0
0
0

Beijing
 China
Asia
1 (2008)
1 (2022)
0
0

St. Moritz
  Switzerland
Europe
0
2 (1928, 1948)
0
0

Lake Placid
 United States
North America
0
2 (1932, 1980)
0
0

Lillehammer
 Norway
Europe
0
1 (1994)
0
1 (2016)

text: The 1906 Intercalated Games are not officially recognized by the IOC as an official Olympic Games.

text: Number of Olympic Games by country[edit]

text:
List of countries ranked by the number of times they hosted the Olympic Games

Rank
Country
Continent
Summer Olympics
Winter Olympics
Summer Youth Olympics
Winter Youth Olympics
Total

1
 United States
North America
5 (1904, 1932, 1984, 1996, 2028)
4 (1932, 1960, 1980, 2002)
0
0
9

2
 France
Europe
3 (1900, 1924, 2024)
3 (1924, 1968, 1992)
0
0
6

3
 Japan
Asia
2 (1940, 1964, 2020)
2 (1940, 1972, 1998)
0
0
4

4
 China
Asia
1 (2008)
1 (2022)
1 (2014)
0
3

5
  Switzerland
Europe
0
2 (1928, 1940, 1948)
0
1 (2020)

6
 Norway
Europe
0
2 (1952, 1994)
0
1 (2016)

7
 United Kingdom
Europe
3 (1908, 1944, 1948, 2012)
0
0
0

8
 Austria
Europe
0
2 (1964, 1976)
0
1 (2012)

9
 Canada
North America
1 (1976)
2 (1988, 2010)
0
0

10
 Italy
Europe
1 (1960)
2 (1944, 1956, 2006)
0
0

11
 German Empire/ Nazi Germany/ West Germany/ Germany
Europe
2 (1916, 1936, 1972)
1 (1936, 1940)
0
0

12
 South Korea
Asia
1 (1988)
1 (2018)
0
0
2

13
 Soviet Union/ Russia
Europe
1 (1980)
1 (2014)
0
0

14
 Greece
Europe
2 (1896, 2004)
0
0
0

15
 Australia
Oceania
2 (1956, 2000)
0
0
0

16
TBD
Africa
0
0
1 (2022)
0
1

17
 Argentina
South America
0
0
1 (2018)
0

18
 Brazil
South America
1 (2016)
0
0

19
 Singapore
Asia
0
0
1 (2010)
0

20
 Spain
Europe
1 (1992)
0
0
0

21
 SFR Yugoslavia/ Bosnia and Herzegovina
Europe
0
1 (1984)
0
0

22
 Mexico
North America
1 (1968)
0
0
0

23
 Finland
Europe
1 (1940, 1952)
0
0
0

24
 Netherlands
Europe
1 (1928)
0
0
0

25
 Belgium
Europe
1 (1920)
0
0
0

26
 Sweden
Europe
1 (1912)
0
0
0

text: Number of Olympic Games by continent[edit]

text:
Rank
Continent
Summer Olympics
Winter Olympics
Summer Youth Olympics
Winter Youth Olympics
Total

1
Europe
17 (1896, 1900, 1908, 1912,  1916, 1920, 1924, 1928, 1936,  1940, 1944, 1948, 1952, 1960, 1972, 1980, 1992, 2004, 2012, 2024)
14 (1924, 1928, 1936, 1940, 1944, 1948, 1952, 1956, 1964, 1968, 1976, 1984, 1992, 1994, 2006, 2014)
0
3 (2012, 2016, 2020)
34

2
North America
7 (1904, 1932, 1968, 1976, 1984, 1996, 2028)
6 (1932, 1960, 1980, 1988, 2002, 2010)
0
0
13

3
Asia
4 (1940, 1964, 1988, 2008, 2020)
4 (1940, 1972, 1998, 2018, 2022)
1 (2014)
0
9

4
Oceania
2 (1956, 2000)
0
0
0
2

5
South America
1 (2016)
0
1 (2018)
0
2

6
Africa
0
0
1 (2022)
0
1

7
Antarctica
0
0
0
0
0

text: Unsuccessful cities[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Country
City
Bids

 United States
Detroit
7

 Hungary
Budapest
6

 Turkey
Istanbul
5

 Spain
Madrid
4

 Argentina
Buenos Aires
4

  Switzerland
Lausanne
4

 United States
Philadelphia
5

 United States
Chicago
4

 United States
Minneapolis
3

 Cuba
Havana
3

 Belgium
Brussels
3

 Azerbaijan
Baku
2

 Qatar
Doha
2

 Spain
Seville
2

 Yugoslavia/ Serbia
Belgrade
2

 Mexico
Guadalajara
2

 Mexico
Monterrey
1

 Puerto Rico
San Juan
1

 Australia
Brisbane
1

 Slovakia
Poprad
1

text: Notes[edit]

text: Olympics portal

text:
a  Originally awarded to Chicago, but moved to St. Louis to coincide with the World's Fair.[20][21]
b  The 1906 Games were sanctioned and treated as an Olympic Games when held, and they were recognized as an Olympic Games by the IOC until 1949[22]
c  The 1908 Games were originally given to Rome, but were moved to London when Mount Vesuvius erupted.[23]
d  The sailing events in 1920 were held in Ostend, Belgium and in Amsterdam, Netherlands.
e  The 1940 winter games were originally awarded to Sapporo, but were moved to Garmisch-Partenkirchen before being cancelled.
f  The 1940 summer games were originally awarded to Tokyo, but were moved to Helsinki before being cancelled.
g Equestrian events were held in Stockholm, Sweden. Stockholm had to bid for the equestrian competition separately; it received its own Olympic flame and had its own formal invitations and opening and closing ceremonies, just like the regular Summer Olympics.[24]
h Russia/Soviet Union spans the continents of Europe and Asia. However, the Russian National Olympic Committee is part of the European Olympic Committees. Also, Moscow is on the European side of the most commonly recognized boundary between Europe and Asia. (Sochi is in Asia per the usual geographic boundary, being just south of the Greater Caucasus' western end; but political approximations of the continental boundary place it in Europe.)
i Equestrian events were held in China's Hong Kong SAR.[25] Although Hong Kong's separate NOC conducted the equestrian competition, it was an integral part of the Beijing Games (unlike the 1956 Stockholm equestrian competition it was not conducted under a separate Hong Kong bid, separate flame, etc.).[26]