document_title: Miss America

question_text: when was the first miss america pageant televised

text: Miss America

text: Overview[edit]

text: On February 1, 1919, there was a beauty pageant held in the Chu Chin Chow Ball at the Hotel des Artistes in New York City. The winner, Edith Hyde Robbins Macartney, was called "Miss America." Neither the title nor this pageant were related to the current "Miss American Pageant" which would develop a year later in Atlantic City, New Jersey.[4][5][6][7][8] Rather, the origins of the "Miss America Pageant" lie in an event entitled The Fall Frolic which was held on September 25, 1920, in Atlantic City. This event was designed to bring business to the Boardwalk: "three hundred and fifty gaily decorated rolling wicker chairs were pushed along the parade route. Three hundred and fifty men pushed the chairs. However, the main attractions were the young 'maidens' who sat in the rolling chairs, headed by a Miss Ernestine Cremona, who was dressed in a flowing white robe and represented 'Peace.'"[9]

text: The event was so successful that The Businessmen's League planned to repeat it the following year as a beauty pageant or a "bather's revue"[9] (to capitalize on the popularity of newspaper-based beauty contests that used photo submissions).[9] Thus, "newspapers as far west as Pittsburgh and as far south as Washington, D.C., were asked to sponsor local beauty contests. The winners would participate in the Atlantic City contest. If the local newspaper would pay for the winner's wardrobe, the Atlantic City Businessmen's League would pay for the contestant's travel to compete in the Inter-City Beauty Contest."[9] Herb Test, a "newspaperman", coined the term for the winner: "Miss America."[9] On September 8, 1921, 100,000 people gathered at the Boardwalk to watch the contestants from Washington, D.C., Pittsburgh, Harrisburg, Ocean City, Camden, Newark, New York, and Philadelphia.[9] The 16-year-old winner from Washington, D.C., Margaret Gorman, was crowned the "Golden Mermaid" and won $100.[9]

text: The pageant continued consistently over the next eight decades except for the years 1928–1932, when it was temporarily shut down due to financial problems associated with the Great Depression and suggestions that it promoted "loose morals."[10] With its revival in 1933, 15-year-old Marian Bergeron won, prompting future contestants to be between the ages of 18 and 26.[10] In 1935, Lenora Slaughter was hired to "re-invent" the pageant and served for 32 years as its Director.[10] By 1938, a talent section was added to the competition, and contestants were required to have a chaperone.[10] In 1940, the title officially became "The Miss America Pageant" and the pageant was held in Atlantic City's Convention Hall.[10] In 1944, compensation for "Miss America" switched from "furs and movie contracts" to college scholarships, an idea generally credited to Jean Bartel, Miss America 1943.[10][11]

text: During the early years of the pageant, under the directorship of Lenora Slaughter, it became segregated via rule number seven that stated: "contestants must be of good health and of the white race."[12] Rule number seven was abolished in 1950.[13] Miss New York 1945, Bess Myerson, the only Jewish American winner to date, became Miss America 1945 and faced antisemitism during her time as Miss America, leading to a cutback in her official duties.[14][15][16][17][18] Although there were Native American, Latina, and Asian-American contestants, there were no African-American contestants for fifty years (African-Americans appeared in musical numbers as far back as 1923, however, when they were cast as slaves).[12][19][20]

text: In 1970, however, Cheryl Browne, Miss Iowa 1970,[21][22][23] competed as the first African-American contestant in the Miss America 1971 pageant.[24][25][26] She also participated in one of the last USO-Miss America tours in Vietnam.[25] A decade later in 1983, Miss New York (and Miss Syracuse) 1983, Vanessa Williams (the first African-American woman to win the competition as Miss America 1984), faced discrimination in response to her win and later resigned under pressure due to a scandal involving nude photographs.[27][28] Three decades after these events, Miss New York (and Miss Syracuse) 2013, Nina Davuluri, the first Indian-American woman to win the crown as Miss America 2014, faced xenophobic and racist comments in social media when she won.[27][28] Two years later at the Miss America 2016 pageant, former Miss America CEO Sam Haskell apologized to Vanessa Williams (who was serving as head judge) for what was said to her during the events of 1984.[29][30][31]

text: History[edit]

text: Margaret Gorman, Miss District of Columbia, was declared "The Most Beautiful Bathing Girl in America" in 1921 at the age of 16 and was recognized as the first "Miss America" when she returned to compete the next year. The contest that year was won by Mary Katherine Campbell (Miss Ohio) and again in 1923.[32] She returned to compete a third time in 1924 but placed as first runner-up that year, and pageant rules were then amended to prevent anyone from winning more than once. Beginning in 1940, Bob Russell served as the first official host of the pageant.[33] In 1941, Mifauny Shunatona, Miss Oklahoma, became the first Native American contestant.[34][35]

text: In 1945, Bess Myerson became the first Jewish-American and the first Miss New York[36] (competing as Miss New York City, a competition organized by a local radio station[16]) to win the Miss America pageant as Miss America 1945.[14][15][16][17] As the only Jewish contestant, Myerson was encouraged by the pageant directors to change her name to "Bess Meredith"[37] or "Beth Merrick",[14] but she refused.[14][37] After winning the title (and as a Jewish Miss America), Myerson received few endorsements[14][15][16][17][37] and later recalled that "I couldn't even stay in certain hotels […] there would be signs that read no coloreds, no Jews, no dogs. I felt so rejected. Here I was chosen to represent American womanhood and then America treated me like this."[37] She thus cut short her Miss America tour and instead traveled with the Anti-Defamation League. In this capacity, she spoke against discrimination in a talk entitled, "You Can't Be Beautiful and Hate."[14][15][16][17][37]

text: In 1948, Irma Nydia Vasquez, the first Miss Puerto Rico, became the first Latina contestant.[34][38][39] In addition, in 1948, Yun Tau Chee, the first Miss Hawaii, was also the first Asian-American contestant.[34] Miss America 1949, Jacque Mercer, was married and divorced during her reign; after this, a rule was enacted requiring Miss America contestants to sign a certification that they have never been married or pregnant.[40] Starting in 1950, although the pageant continued to be in September, the Miss America title changed to "post-dated", thus that year's pageant winner became Miss America 1951, and there was no Miss America 1950. The pageant was first televised nationally in 1954, hosted by Bob Russell.[33] Future television star Lee Meriwether was crowned Miss America 1955. It would also be the last time Russell served as host. He recommended, and was replaced by, Bert Parks, who served as the host for the second televised pageant in 1955 and stayed as host until 1979.[33][41] Television viewership peaked during the early 1960s, when it was the highest-rated program on American television.[42]

text: With the rise of second-wave feminism and the civil rights movement during the 1960s, the Miss America pageant became the subject of a series of protests that attacked it as sexist, racist, and part of U.S. militarism. The first demonstration took place during the Miss America 1969 pageant held on September 7, 1968 (won by Miss Illinois 1968, Judith Ford), when about 200 members of the group New York Radical Women demonstrated as part of the Miss America protest. In addition, a pamphlet distributed at the protest by Robin Morgan, No More Miss America!, became a source for feminist scholarship.[43] The protest was co-sponsored by Florynce Kennedy's Media Workshop, an activist group she founded in 1966 to protest the media's representation of African Americans, along with the feminist Jeanette Rankin Brigade and the ACLU.[44] Morgan later stated that the Miss America pageant "was chosen as a target for a number of reasons: it has always been a lily-white, racist contest; the winner tours Vietnam, entertaining the troops as a 'Murder Mascot'; the whole gimmick is one commercial shillgame to sell the sponsor's products. Where else could one find such a perfect combination of American values—racism, militarism, sexism—all packaged in one ‘ideal symbol,’ a woman."[45] The protesters compared the pageant to a county fair where livestock are judged.[21][46] They thus crowned a sheep as Miss America and symbolically destroyed a number of feminine products, including false eyelashes, high-heeled shoes, curlers, hairspray, makeup, girdles, corsets, and bras.[47] Burning the contents of a trash can was suggested, but a permit was unobtainable; news media seized on the similarity between draft resisters burning draft cards and women burning their bras. In fact, there was no bra burning, nor did anyone remove her bra.[48][49] The Women's Liberation Front later demonstrated at the Miss America 1971 pageant.[24]

text: Miss Iowa 1970,[23] Cheryl Browne, became the first African American contestant in the competition's history during the Miss America 1971 pageant (September 12, 1970).[21][22][24][25][26] Browne drew attention from reporters and from security personnel in Atlantic City who maintained a visible presence during pageant rehearsals.[25] Browne was not a finalist, however,[25] losing to future media personality, Miss Texas 1970, Phyllis George. In August 1971, Browne traveled to Vietnam with George, Miss Nevada 1970, Vicky Jo Todd, Miss New Jersey 1970, Hela Yungst, Miss Arizona 1970, Karen Shields, Miss Arkansas 1970, Donna Connelly, and Miss Texas 1970 (George's replacement), Belinda Myrick.[50] They participated in a 22-day United Service Organizations tour for American troops that began in Saigon.[25][50][51] Browne later commented that she thought "it was one of the last Miss America groups to go to Vietnam."[25] Miss Arkansas 1980, Lencola Sullivan, finished the Miss America 1981 pageant (September 6, 1980) as fourth runner-up, making her the first African American contestant to place in the top five.[34]

text: A few years later, Vanessa Williams (Miss New York 1983) won the title of Miss America 1984 on September 17, 1983, making her the first African American woman to wear the crown.[52] Williams later commented that she was one of five minority contestants that year, noting that ballet dancer Deneen Graham "had already had a cross burned on her front yard because she was the first black Miss North Carolina [1983]."[53] She also pointed out that "Suzette Charles was the first runner-up, and she was biracial. But when the press started, when I would go out on the – on the tour and do my appearances, and people would come up and say they never thought they'd see the day that it would happen; when people would want to shake my hand, and you'd see tears in their eyes, and they'd say, I never thought I'd see it in my lifetime – that's when, you know, it was definitely a very special honor."[53] Williams' reign as Miss America was not without its challenges and controversies, however. For the first time in pageant history, a reigning Miss America was the target of death threats and hate mail.[34][53] Williams was forced to resign seven weeks prior to the end of her time as Miss America, however, after the unauthorized publication of nude photos in Penthouse.[34][54][55][56] First runner-up, Miss New Jersey 1983, Suzette Charles replaced her for the final weeks of Williams' reign.[57] Thirty-two years after she resigned however, Vanessa Williams returned to the Miss America stage on September 13, 2015, for the Miss America 2016 pageant as head judge (where Miss Georgia 2015, Betty Cantrell, won the crown).[58][59] The pageant began with former Miss America CEO Sam Haskell issuing an apology to Williams, telling her that although "none of us currently in the organization were involved then, on behalf of today's organization, I want to apologize to you and to your mother, Miss Helen Williams. I want to apologize for anything that was said or done that made you feel any less the Miss America you are and the Miss America you always will be."[29][30][31] Suzette Charles (Williams' replacement) said in an interview with Inside Edition that she was perplexed over the apology and suggested that it was given for the purpose of ratings.[60]

text: In 1985, Miss Utah 1984, Sharlene Wells Hawkes, became the first foreign-born, bilingual Miss America, as she was born in Asunción, Paraguay.[61] Miss Alabama 1994, Heather Whitestone, won the 1995 pageant becoming the first deaf Miss America (she lost most of her hearing at the age of 18 months).[62][63] At the Miss America 1999 pageant held on September 19, 1998, Nicole Johnson (Miss Virginia 1998) became the first Miss America with diabetes and the first contestant to publicize an insulin pump.[64][65] Around the same time, Miss America officials announced they had lifted the ban on contestants who were divorced or had had an abortion. This rule change, however, was rescinded and Miss America CEO Robert L. Beck, who had suggested it, was fired.[66][67] Angela Perez Baraquio, Miss Hawaii 2000, was crowned Miss America 2001, thereby becoming the first Asian-American, the first Filipino-American, as well as the first teacher ever to win the pageant.[68]

text: A few years later, the Miss America 2005 pageant held on September 18, 2004, would be the last one televised live on ABC (which dropped the pageant after this broadcast, as it "drew a record-low 9.8 million viewers")[69] and the last one held in Atlantic City for ten years. Miss Alabama 2004, Deidre Downs, reigned as Miss America four months longer than usual as the Miss America 2006 pageant was moved to a January broadcast at the Las Vegas Strip's Theatre for the Performing Arts (Planet Hollywood Resort & Casino).[70][71] It was also broadcast live on MTV Networks' Country Music Television. After two years, the pageant moved to TLC (the former Learning Channel).[72][73] The Miss America 2011 pageant held on January 15, 2011, showcased Miss New York 2010, Claire Buffie, (the first Miss America contestant to advocate a gay-rights platform)[74][75] and Miss Delaware 2010, Kayla Martell, (the first bald contestant).[76][77] ABC also resumed broadcasting the pageant with the 2011 competition.[78] The Miss America 2013 pageant, held on January 12, 2013, was the last one to take place in Las Vegas.[79] Miss New York 2012, Mallory Hagan, won the competition but only served for eight months as the pageant moved back to its former broadcast slot in September 2013[79][80] Miss Montana 2012, Alexis Wineman, ("America's Choice" winner) was the pageant's first autistic contestant.[81][82]

text: With the Miss America 2014 pageant, held on September 15, 2013, the competition returned to Boardwalk Hall, Atlantic City, New Jersey.[79] Miss New York (Nina Davuluri) won the title of Miss America. Davuluri was also the first Indian-American and second Asian-American to win the crown.[83][84] Shortly after her win, however, Davuluri became the target of xenophobic and racist comments in social media[85][86][87] relating the proximity of the event date to the 9/11 anniversary and to anti-Indian sentiment.[85][86][88][89][90] News agencies cited tweets that misidentified her as Muslim or Arab, associated her with groups such as Al-Qaeda, and questioned why she was chosen over Miss Kansas 2013, Theresa Vail,[85][86][88][91][92] (a soldier who won the "America's Choice" award and was the first contestant to display tattoos during the swimsuit competition).[93][94] Davuluri said that she was prepared for this backlash because "as Miss New York, I was called a terrorist and very similar remarks",[95][96] and Vail denounced the social media backlash, offering her support to Davuluri.[97][98] In addition, a torn ACL and MCL forced Miss Florida 2013, Myrrhanda Jones, to perform her baton routine with a decorated leg brace,[99] while Nicole Kelly (Miss Iowa 2013) was the first contestant without a forearm to compete in the pageant.[100]

text: Amanda Longacre, who was crowned Miss Delaware 2014 and was preparing to compete in Miss America 2015, was stripped of the title and the crown[101][102][103] because she was deemed to be too old.[101][102][103] Longacre filed a $3 million lawsuit,[101][102][103] and Miss America officials later blamed the error on state pageant officials whom, they said, "missed the age discrepancy in Longacre's submitted paperwork."[101][102][103] Miss New York 2014 (Kira Kazantsev) eventually won the title of Miss America 2015, making New York the first state to produce a winner for three consecutive years.[104][105]

text: In September 2014, comedian John Oliver ran a segment on his show, Last Week Tonight, that investigated the Miss America Organization's claim that it is "the world's largest provider of scholarships for women."[106] Oliver's team, which included four researchers with journalism backgrounds,[107] collected and analyzed the organization's state and federal tax forms to find that the organization's scholarship program only distributes a small fraction of its claimed "$45 million made available annually".[108] Oliver said that at the national level, the Miss America Organization and Miss America Foundation together spent only $482,000 in cash scholarships in 2012.[106] Oliver found that at the state level, the Miss Alabama pageant claimed that it had provided $2,592,000 in scholarships to Troy University despite not actually distributing any such scholarships.[109] The pageant appeared to multiply the value of a single available scholarship by the number of contestants theoretically eligible for it, while using the term "provided" in a way that did not mean "distributed."[110] The Miss America Organization responded by stating that Oliver affirmed that it provides the most scholarships to women and that the $45 million figure was based on all scholarships made available whether or not they are accepted.[111] In February 2015, Sharon Pearce announced that she was stepping down from her role as President of the Miss America Organization. At that time, former CEO Sam Haskell was named Executive Chairman of the Miss America Organization, retained the title of CEO, and assumed all of Pearce's responsibilities.[112] In addition, Miss America 2014, Nina Davuluri, was appointed one of the new trustees to the Miss America Foundation.[113] In September 2015, Miss America officials announced that the organization grants $5.5 million in scholarships,[114] a number which still includes adding together offers of in-kind tuition waivers from multiple schools when a contestant could accept one at most.[115]

text: On March 24, 2016, the Miss America Organization announced a contract renewal with ABC to continue carrying the pageant for the next three years to the 2019 edition.[116]

text: In June 2016, Erin O'Flaherty was crowned Miss Missouri, becoming the first openly lesbian Miss America contestant.[117]

text: In late December 2017, HuffPost published an article exposing derogatory emails sent and received by CEO Sam Haskell, board members Tammy Haddad and Lynn Weidner, and lead writer Lewis Friedman. The emails, sent between 2014 and 2017, featured instances of expletive name-calling and unprofessional comments. The comments were often sexual or violent in nature and targeted former Miss America winners, notably Mallory Hagan and Katherine Shindle, both of whom joined 47 other former Miss Americas (including all Miss Americas from 1988 to 2017)[118] in signing a joint open letter calling for the firing or resignation of all involved.[119] On December 22, the Miss America Organization released statements to USA Today, saying that it was made aware of concerns several months prior. They stated that the organization does not "condone the use of inappropriate language" and reported that its investigation had determined that Haskell was under "unreasonable distress resulting from intense attacks on his family from disgruntled stakeholders". The organization also reported that its relationship with Friedman had been terminated. Haskell explained that attacks on his character impaired his judgment when responding to the emails.[120] Miss America's board of directors also suspended Haskell, who released a statement labeling the HuffPost article "unkind and untrue".[118][121] Hagan and Shindle criticized the decision to suspend Haskell, rather than fire him, as inadequate.[122] The following day, the President of Miss America, Josh Randle; executive chairwoman Lynn Weidner; and Haskell all resigned.[123] The scandal prompted the pageant's producer, Dick Clark Productions, to cut ties, and the Casino Reinvestment Development Authority (CRDA) announced that it was reconsidering its contract with Miss America, with its executive director Chris Howard describing the scandal as "troubling", and both Frank Gilliam, incoming mayor of Atlantic City, and State Senator Colin Bell called for CRDA to end its relationship with Miss America.[124] On December 24, Haddad also resigned.[125]

text: In January 2018, Gretchen Carlson, who won the Miss America in 1989, was elected as the new chairwoman of the organization, becoming the first former Miss America to serve as its leader. Katherine Shindle, Miss America 1998, was also appointed to the board alongside fellow Miss America winners, Heather French Henry (2000) and Laura Kaeppeler (2012).[126]

text: Winners[edit]

text: Recent titleholders[edit]

text:
Year
Miss America
State Represented

Miss America 2018
Cara Mund
 North Dakota

Miss America 2017
Savvy Shields
 Arkansas

Miss America 2016
Betty Cantrell
 Georgia

Miss America 2015
Kira Kazantsev
 New York

Miss America 2014
Nina Davuluri

Miss America 2013
Mallory Hagan

Miss America 2012
Laura Kaeppeler
 Wisconsin

Miss America 2011
Teresa Scanlan
 Nebraska

Miss America 2010
Caressa Cameron
 Virginia

tag: table

text: Hosts[edit]

text: Present[edit]

text:
Chris Harrison: 2004, 2011–present[127][128][129][130]
Sage Steele: 2017–present[130]

text: Past[edit]

text:
Brooke Burke: 2011–2013, 2016[127][131]
Lara Spencer: 2014–2015[128][129]
Mario Lopez: 2007, 2009–2010[132][133]
Mark Steines: 2008[134]
James Denton: 2006[134]
Tom Bergeron: 2003[134]
Wayne Brady: 2002[134]
Tony Danza: 2001[134]
Donny and Marie Osmond: 1999–2000[134](known collectively as "Donny & Marie")
Boomer Esiason and Meredith Vieira: 1998[134]
Eva LaRue and John Callahan: 1997[134]
Regis Philbin: 1996[134]
Regis Philbin and Kathie Lee Gifford: 1991–1995[134](known collectively as "Regis and Kathie Lee")
Phyllis George: 1989–1990[134]
Gary Collins: 1982–1990[134]
Ron Ely: 1980–1981[134]
Bert Parks: 1955–1980[41]
Bob Russell: 1940–1954[33]


document_title: Doritos

question_text: when did doritos spicy sweet chili come out

root

text: Doritos

text: History[edit]

text: The original product was made at the Casa de Fritos (now Rancho Del Zocalo) at Disneyland in Anaheim, California, during the early 1960s. Using surplus tortillas and taking the original idea from the traditional Mexican snack known as totopo, the company-owned restaurant cut them up and fried them and added basic seasoning, resembling the Mexican chilaquiles, but in this case being dry. Arch West was the vice president of marketing of Frito-Lay at the time, and noticed their popularity. He made a deal in 1964 with Alex Foods, the provider of many items for Casa de Fritos at Disneyland, and produced the chips for a short time regionally, before it was overwhelmed by the volume, and Frito-Lay moved the production in-house to its Tulsa plant.[3][4]

tag: p

text: "Doritos" were released nationwide in 1966, the first tortilla chip to be launched nationally in the United States.[5] The name derives from the Mexican Spanish doradito, meaning "golden brown."[6]

text: According to Information Resources International, in 1993, Doritos earned $1.2 billion in retail sales, one-third of the total Frito-Lay sales for the year. Nevertheless, in the costliest redesign in Frito-Lay history, in 1994 the company spent $50 million to redesign Doritos to make the chips 20% larger, 15% thinner, and rounded the edges of the chip. Roger J. Berdusco, the vice president of tortilla chip marketing, said a primary reason for the change was "greater competition from restaurant-style tortilla chips, that are larger and more strongly seasoned".[7] The design change was the result of a two-year market research study that involved 5,000 chip eaters. The new design gave each chip rounded corners, making it easier to eat and reducing the scrap resulting from broken corners. Each chip was also given more seasoning, resulting in a stronger flavor. The redesigned chips were released in four flavors beginning in January 1995.[7]

text: In the United States, Frito-Lay eliminated trans fat from all Doritos varieties in 2002. The same year, the Doritos brand began complying with U.S. Food and Drug Administration labeling regulations, four years before the regulations became mandatory.[8]

text: The company was sued in 2003 by Charles Grady, who claimed that his throat had been damaged because of eating Doritos. According to him, the shape and rigidity of the chips made them inherently dangerous.[9] Grady attempted to admit into evidence a study by a former chemistry professor that calculated how best to safely swallow the chips. The Pennsylvania Supreme Court later ruled that the study did not meet scientific standards and could not be presented as evidence.[8]

text: In 2005, Doritos sales in the United States fell by 1.7% to $595 million. To increase sales in 2006, the company launched several new flavors, a new label, and more bilingual advertising. Frito-Lay vice president Joe Ennen described this as "the most significant rebranding and relaunch in Doritos' 38-year history."[10]

text: On February 21, 2013, the Doritos logo was changed again,[11] and the advertising slogan "FOR THE BOLD" adopted.[12]

text: In 2015, Doritos introduced a limited edition Rainbow Doritos product, which were only available to those making a minimum donation of $10 to the It Gets Better Project, a non-profit organization that supports LGBT youth.[13] The promotion raised $100,000 for the organization, and was met with controversy.[14]

text: Ingredients[edit]

text: The plain chips are made of ground corn (maize), vegetable oil, and salt. Other ingredients vary across the flavored chip varieties. Doritos made for the US market generally do not use pork-derived animal rennet in the making of the cheese flavorings used on the chip.[15]

text: Nacho Cheese Doritos ingredients (U.S.), in order of percent of product: whole corn, vegetable oil (corn, soybean, and/or sunflower oil), salt, cheddar cheese (milk, cheese cultures, salt, enzymes), maltodextrin, whey, monosodium glutamate, buttermilk solids, romano cheese (part skim cow's milk, cheese cultures, salt, enzymes), whey protein concentrate, onion powder, partially hydrogenated soybean and cottonseed oil, corn flour, disodium phosphate, lactose, natural and artificial flavor, dextrose, tomato powder, spices, lactic acid, artificial color (including Yellow 6, Yellow 5, Red 40), citric acid, sugar, garlic powder, red and green bell pepper powder, sodium caseinate, disodium inosinate, disodium guanylate, nonfat milk solids, whey protein isolate, corn syrup solids.[16]

tag: ul

text: In 1996, The Onion, a satirical newspaper and website, featured an article with the headline "Doritos Celebrates One Millionth Ingredient", lampooning Frito-Lay for the sheer number of ingredients found in Doritos.[17]

text: Concerns have been raised that the oils, flavorings and additives used may be unhealthy.[18][19]

text: Flavors[edit]

text: Doritos are sold in many countries worldwide in assorted flavors. They launched nationally in the United States in 1966,[5] with only one flavor: toasted corn.[20] The product proved successful, but additional market research revealed that many consumers outside the Southwest and West considered the chip to be too bland and not spicy enough for what was perceived as a Mexican snack. Frito-Lay therefore developed taco-flavored Doritos, which also became successful after they were introduced nationally in 1967.[20] National distribution of nacho cheese-flavored Doritos began in 1972, and were also a hit.[20] For a short run in the late 1970s, Sour Cream and Onion flavored Doritos were available, but were discontinued in the early 1980s. A Sesame seed flavored chip was also available for a short time in the late 1970s.[21] In 1986, Cool Ranch Doritos made their debut and also became popular.[20] Cool Ranch Doritos are sold under the name "Cool Original" in the UK and are called "Cool American" elsewhere in Europe, as ranch dressing is less common in those places.

text: In the 1990s, in partnership with parent company PepsiCo's fast food brands, two new flavors of Doritos were introduced, Taco Bell's Taco Supreme (incorporating a "beef" flavoring that was quite different from the original 1960s "Taco" incarnation) and Pizza Hut's Pizza Cravers. After PepsiCo spun off its restaurant division in 1997, the flavors were simply renamed taco and pizza, respectively, with the pizza flavor discontinued in some markets. At around the same time, due to the popularity of Frito-Lay's Tostitos brand the unflavored Toasted Corn was briefly discontinued, then brought back. In 2008, the Taco Bell flavor was temporarily re-released under the "Back by Popular Demand" label along with Four Cheese.

text: In 1990, Jumpin' Jack Monterey Cheese flavored Doritos were introduced. This flavor was later discontinued. In 1995, Chester's Cheese Doritos were available for a limited time. This flavor introduced the familiar Cheetos flavor cheese on the typical Doritos tortilla chip.[22] In 1997, Spicy Nacho was introduced.

text: For a brief period in 2004, Doritos introduced new shape and form called "Rollitos", which were corn chips shaped into small tubes, like a regular triangular Dorito was "rolled" up. Rollitos flavors included Nacho Cheesier, Zesty Taco, Cooler Ranch and Queso Picante. In 2013 This idea was reintroduced rebranded as "Dinamitas", or little sticks of dynamite. There are two varieties, a chili lime combo, and the Mojo Criollo (Creole magic), a lemon-lime and garlic flavored rolled Doritos. Dinamitas differs slightly in style than Rollitos. Rollitos had the chips baked, the tube formed with an oil-submersible box press to fry. Currently it is rolled into a tube before the baking and frying, a much simpler process.[23]

text: Five versions of "Doritos Collisions", which include two different flavors in the same bag, have been produced. Those varieties of Doritos Collisions are Hot Wings/Blue Cheese, Zesty Taco/Chipotle Ranch, Habanero/Guacamole, Cheesy Enchilada/Sour Cream, and Pizza Cravers/Ranch.[24]

text: In 2007, Doritos ran a campaign called "Doritos X-13D Flavor Experiment" where black, unidentified bags of Doritos were on the market for consumers to identify and name the flavor. The only flavor identification on these chips was "All American Classic".

text: Reincarnations and relaunches of taco-flavored Doritos, including the 2008 "Back By Popular Demand" campaign, were different from the original taco flavor (A sour cream flavor had been added to the recipe around 1985). The taco chips included in the Zesty Taco and Chipotle Ranch "Collisions" bags were thought by customers to be closer to the original, but were later discontinued in most of the United States.[25] In late 2010 the taco flavor recipe that was used in the 1980s returned in a limited edition "retro" styled bag incorporating the original Doritos logo, and in early 2011 the company announced that this incarnation would remain in the permanent product line-up.[26]

text: In 2008, Doritos debuted a "mystery flavor" Quests with prizes being given as puzzles were solved. The mystery flavor was Mountain Dew.[27] In 2009, Doritos released some new flavors under the banner "Doritos Late Night": "Tacos at Midnight" and "Last Call Jalapeño Popper". They also modified the X-13D Flavor as All Nighter Cheeseburger.

text: 2010 saw the release of three successively spicy "Degree Burn" flavors (Blazin' Jalapeño/Jalapeño Fire, Fiery Buffalo and Scorchin' Habanero), cross promoted to "cool down" with Pepsi's lime "Cease Fire/Max Citrus Freeze", and the wasabi flavored Mr. Dragon's Fire Chips. 2010 saw the introduction of Doritos to New Zealand and with it flavors including Nacho Cheese, Cheese Supreme, Salted, and Salsa. This year also saw the original Taco flavor of Doritos revived in the original packaging design.

text: In the spring of 2011, a Tapatio hot sauce flavor was released. In February 2011, Doritos Canada ran a competition to write the end of a commercial for two new flavors ("Onion Rings n' Ketchup" and "Blazin' Buffalo and Ranch"), and to vote for which of the two flavors would be taken off shelves when the contest ended. Onion Rings n' Ketchup received the most votes and remained on sale.[28]

text: In the spring of 2015, Doritos Roulette was released to US markets for a limited time. While all chips appeared to look the same on the outside, one out of every six chips would be extra spicy.[29] Owing to the spicy nature of one variety contained in the pack, in July 2015 a school in the UK reported an incident where a student "suffered some difficulty breathing after eating one".[30]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: The brand's marketing campaigns have included many television commercials featuring Avery Schreiber,[31] Jay Leno,[2] and Ali Landry,[32] as well as product placement in movies, such as Wayne's World.[33]

text: Super Bowl[edit]

text: For many years, Doritos advertised heavily during the Super Bowl. According to Thomas L. Harris's Value-Added Public Relations, "the most-used single video news release of 1995" was a Doritos Super Bowl Commercial featuring recently defeated US state governors Mario Cuomo and Ann Richards. The pair were discussing change and the ad ended with viewers aware that the change they referred to was not political, but rather a new packaging for Doritos. The ad generated a great deal of publicity before it ever ran and much discussion afterward. The governors later parodied their ad; when they were interviewed on the CBS news program 60 Minutes, the two were often seen eating Doritos.[34]

text: In 1998, Doritos cast former Miss USA Ali Landry in a new Super Bowl Commercial. In the ad, filmed in a Laundromat, she plays a sexy customer who catches Doritos chips in her mouth as they come flying helter-skelter. The ad was such a success that Frito-Lay signed Landry, who became known as "The Doritos Girl," to a three-year contract.[35]

text: For Super Bowl XLI, Doritos launched a contest, Crash the Super Bowl, to allow consumers to create their own Doritos commercial. The general public was allowed to vote for their favorite of five finalists. According to Doritos, the vote was so close that just before the game the company decided to run two of the ads rather than just one. Both commercials finished highly in ratings of commercials during this Super Bowl.[36] The following year, Doritos sponsored a contest to find a musician to feature in a Super Bowl ad. Although the ad, featuring winner Kina Grannis, generated a lot of publicity, it ranked last in popularity among the program's ads.[37]

text: For Super Bowl XLIII, Doritos relaunched the fan-created commercials, with the winning vote going to the "Free Doritos" ad, which featured an office worker (Comedian Steve Booth) with a snow globe (believing it to be a crystal ball) "predicting" that everyone in the office would get free Doritos, then subsequently throws the snow globe into a vending machine selling nothing but Nacho Cheese & Cool Ranch Doritos.[38] The commercial was ranked by the USA Today Super Bowl Ad Meter as the best ad for the year, earning the creators of the ad – Joe and Dave Herbert – a $1 million prize.[39] They again aired two ads during the game ads and the second place ad also placed in the top five according to USA Today. This ad featured a man who discovers that each crunch from his bag of Doritos causes whatever is on his mind to become reality (until he runs out of chips). Another popular commercial from the group of finalist included an executive making a presentation to other executives on a new (fictional) Doritos flavor called "Doritos Beer", which, as the name implies, is beer-flavored Doritos, with each chip containing as much alcohol as an equivalent of a 16-oz. can of beer. The executive making the presentation, eating the beer-flavored chips, ends up drunk on the chips and is down to his underwear and a tie by the end of the commercial.[40] For Super Bowl XLIV, four ads were entered, and if three of the commercials sweep the top three positions in that year's Ad Meter contest, all of the creators would be awarded a total of $5 million, broken down as $1 million for first place, $600,000 for second and $400,000 for third, plus each maker would get an additional $1 million.[41]

text: For the Super Bowl XLIII as aired in Canada, Doritos aired the "Chip Hat" commercial [42] advertising their new "unidentified flavor" chip flavor that offers a prize of CDN $25,000 + 1% of all associated sales to someone that can both name, and create an ad for the new flavor.[43] The new winning name, Scream Cheese (or, in French, Fromage Fracassant), was submitted by Ryan Coopersmith of Montreal.

text: For the Super Bowl XLIV Doritos aired the "House Rules" commercial, as a "Crash the Super Bowl" finalist. It was ranked by ADBOWL as the second best ad of the year.

text: For Super Bowl XLVI, an ad aired featuring a Grandma and a baby attempting to get a bag of Doritos by a slingshot activated by a wheelchair. The bag was stolen by a child, constantly teasing them in the process. The baby reaches the bag and steals it back with just enough force to reach it. Flattering the child, Grandma and the baby eat the Doritos with ease.

text: For Super Bowl XLIX, the ad was about a dad giving his bag of Doritos to his son "when pigs fly".

text: Other[edit]

text: In 2008, Doritos were promoted by an "out-of-this-world" advertising campaign, literally beaming a 30-second advertisement for Doritos brand tortilla chips into a planetary system 42 light years away. The project was in collaboration with EISCAT Space Center in Svalbard, Norway. The "You Make It, We'll Play It" contest chose the winning advertisement that was transmitted on June 12, 2008. The ad was beamed towards 47 Ursae Majoris, a distant star within the Ursa Major constellation that is orbited by planets which may harbor life.[44]

text: Doritos was the main sponsor of Wolverhampton Wanderers for the 2002/03 and 2003/04 seasons, the latter of which was spent in the Premier League. Doritos officially sponsored the "Hail to the Cheese Stephen Colbert's Nacho Cheese Doritos 2008 Presidential Campaign Coverage."[45] The money given to Colbert could not be used to directly fund his campaign, so he used the money to fund The Colbert Report. He claimed that he would not use his show to plug Doritos, but plugged the chips during these claims. After the campaign flopped, Colbert joked that his "body will stop producing bright orange waste."[46] In March 2008, Colbert partnered with Doritos, specifically the Spicy Sweet Chili flavor, to promote his Philadelphia-based coverage of the Pennsylvania primaries.[47]

text: In 2010, Doritos Canada launched a "Viralocity" competition, asking the public to name a new flavor and to produce an online video advertising the fictional new flavor. Natalie Armstrong submitted her video, and before long she received the most points based on numerous factors, including most widely viewed, winning a cash prize.[48]

text: In 2010, Doritos launched for the first time in New Zealand with Nacho Cheese, Cheese Supreme, Salsa, and Salted flavors. It replaced the long-running CC's brand.

text: On September 20, 2011, retired Frito-Lay marketing executive Arch West, who was credited for creating Doritos as the first national tortilla chip brand, died in Dallas at age 97.[49] It is said that corporate response showed little enthusiasm to the tortilla chip idea, but more marketing research led to the Doritos release.

text: To coincide with the 50th anniversary of Taco Bell, Doritos and Taco Bell partnered to form the Doritos Locos Tacos, introduced on March 8, 2012. The taco is a standard Crunchy Taco. The taco comes either as a Doritos Locos Taco Supreme (ground beef, lettuce, diced tomatoes, shredded cheese, and sour cream), or a Regular Doritos Locos Taco (ground beef, lettuce, and shredded cheese), but the taco shell is made out of Nacho Cheese Doritos.[50] From 1978 to 1997, both Taco Bell and Doritos were under the same corporate umbrella within PepsiCo until PepsiCo spun off its restaurant business into what would eventually become Yum! Brands.

text: In March 2012, a new line of Doritos were introduced: Doritos Jacked. The chips are 40% larger than standard Doritos.[51]

text: In March 2013, Doritos redesigned its packaging and logo as part of its first global marketing campaign. The "For the Bold" campaign will use crowdsourcing initiatives from 37 countries, emphasizing Dorito's focus on its consumers "living for the moment" attitude. The campaign kicked off at the South by Southwest Music Conference.[52]

text: In April 2013, Doritos released Doritos Locos Chips with Nacho Cheese and Cool Ranch to match Taco Bells campaign. In July 2014, 7-11 released a new snack called Doritos Loaded. The breaded cheese snack was released by PepsiCo’s as its first frozen food product, also available in grocery stores.[53][54]

text: Current flavors of Doritos (as of November 2014) marketed in Canada are Nacho Cheese, Zesty Cheese, Cool Ranch, Spicy Nacho, Jalapeño Cheddar, Intense Pickle, Roulette (Nacho Cheese with 1 in 7 chips being hot) and Sweet Chili Heat. Brief stints of Jacked, Taco, Guacamole, Locos Nacho (taco and nacho), Locos Cool Ranch (taco and cool ranch) and Ketchup have been introduced with Guacamole lined to make a return in early 2015. Doritos Roasted Corn, Tapatio Hot Sauce, and Salsa Verde are also popular American flavors.Other Lines of Doritos are Doritos Jacked flavors such as Buffalo Wings and Spicy Street Taco and the Dynamitas flavor lines shaped in tubes. Dynamitas come in flavors such as Chile Limon, Nacho Picoso, and Spicy Habanero flavors.[55]

text: In January 2017, Doritos entered the Indonesian market. Flavors of Doritos marketed in Indonesia, including Nacho Cheese and Barbeque, both of which are distributed by Indofood.[56]

text: Doritos 3D[edit]

text: The Doritos 3D line was introduced in the 1990s and discontinued in the mid-2000s. These now discontinued snacks have been described as "Doritos-meets-Bugles".[57] Flavors included Jalapeño Cheddar, Nacho Cheese and Zesty Ranch.[58]


document_title: Harley Davidson and the Marlboro Man

question_text: who played jack in harley davidson and the marlboro man

text: Harley Davidson and the Marlboro Man

text: Plot[edit]

text: This article needs an improved plot summary. (October 2015)

text: The film is set in Los Angeles in the then-future of 1996. Harley Davidson (Mickey Rourke), dressed in biker gear, with ultra-short dyed hair, hears from the radio about a dangerous new street drug named "Crystal Dream". (The significance of this street drug does not become clear until later.) Harley goes into a rough bar and sees a cowboy-looking fellow (Don Johnson wearing a beard, cowboy hat and boots). He has scammed a fellow in a pool game but has to use strong measures when the fellow refuses payment. Harley helps him in this. We learn that they are old friends (later we learn the name he goes by is The Marlboro Man.) They visit a blues (old jazz?) bar in Burbank, which they both hold special. They go into a back room and meet Jack Daniels, an extremely-heavily-muscled lad, who immediately goes to fight Harley due to an old feud over a woman. After a manly exchange of blows and body slams, Harley tells him that he knows that the woman loves Jack and they make friends. Soon it is revealed that the bar is about to be demolished as the lease will not be renewed. "Suits" at Great Trust bank plan to replace it with a skyscraper. Harley, Marlboro, Jack and two friends decide to rob a bank to raise the money to ensure the bar's survival. A comely waitress hooks up with Harley. Marlboro borrows Harley's Harley and baits a motorcycle cop, with interesting results. In a bit of psychological revelation, we learn that he is in an intermittent amorous relationship with a beautiful woman, who tells him that she is going to settle down with another man, as she is not getting enough loving from him. He is conflicted by the news but later tells Harley that he is not the kind of man who has a wife. Harley arrives and takes her out for breakfast. An armored car is going down a street and meets a detour sign. Marlboro jumps on its back door and climbs to its roof (a visual parallel of train robbers crawling on the roofs of boxcars in old western movies). The contents of the armored car is heisted in a well-thought-out scheme, but the escape of Harley/Marlboro's gang is almost foiled by the appearance of a squad of black-trenchcoat-wearing (a la Matrix) machinepistol-firing soldiers. Jack drives a fiery motorcycle into the fray and allows them to escape. But they discover the goods they have stolen are a large amount of "Crystal Dream", not money. Chance Wilder (Tom Sizemore), president of the Great Trust branch, is obviously involved in drug dealing. Harley and Marlboro go to the bank. Showing considerable balls, Harley negotiates an exchange - the drugs for $2.5M. The exchange goes down smoothly in a visually-fascinating airplane graveyard, but then the bank's squad of soldiers finds them celebrating at the bar and it is not pretty, although Harley and Marlboro manage to escape with the money. In a running battle, Harley and Marlboro alternately flee and face off with steadily-declining elements of the squad until a final showdown in the penthouse suite of the Great Trust bank. The closing scene: Marlboro has gone back to rodeo bull-riding and Harley on his bike takes to the road, stopping only temporarily to pick up a ravishing and shapely hitchhiker who tells him she is going "no place special", a destination that Harley promises to take her. Much of the film was filmed in and around Tucson, Arizona and the "Boneyard" at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Mickey Rourke as Harley Davidson
Don Johnson as The Marlboro Man (Robert Lee Anderson)
Chelsea Field as Virginia Slim
Daniel Baldwin as Alexander
Giancarlo Esposito as Jimmy Jiles
Vanessa Williams as Lulu Daniels
Tom Sizemore as Chance Wilder
Tia Carrere as Kimiko
Big John Studd as Jack Daniels
Julius Harris as "The Old Man" Jiles
Eloy Casados as Jose Cuervo
Kelly Hu as Suzi
Robert Ginty as Thom
Branscombe Richmond as Big Indian
Sean "Hollywood" Hamilton as himself (Radio Personality)

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
Harley Davidson and the Marlboro Man

Soundtrack album by various artists

Released
1991

Genre
Rock, Hard rock

Length
42:46

Label
Mercury Records

text:
No.
Title
Writer(s)
Performer
Length

1.
"Long Way from Home"
Loyd Neil Carswell
Copperhead
7:15

2.
"The Bigger They Come"
Frampton, Marriott, John Regan
Peter Frampton, Steve Marriott
4:26

3.
"Tower of Love" (from the album Roadhouse, 1991)
Paul Jackson, Richard Day, Frank Noon
Roadhouse
3:56

4.
"I Mess Around" (from the album Shooting Gallery, 1991)
Billy G. Bang, Andy McCoy
Shooting Gallery
4:19

5.
"Wild Obsession" (from the album Hollywood Vampires, 1991)
Mick Cripps, Tracii Guns, Phil Lewis, Kelly Nickels, Steve Riley
L.A. Guns
4:14

6.
"C'mon" (from the album All for One, 1991)
Dave Gleeson, Richard Lara
The Screaming Jets
2:48

7.
"Let's Work Together"
Wilbert Harrison
The Kentucky Headhunters
2:14

8.
"Hardline"
Tom Kimmel, Dennis Morgan
Waylon Jennings
4:09

9.
"Ride with Me"
Dean Davidson
Blackeyed Susan
5:10

10.
"What Will I Tell My Heart?" (from the album The Comfort Zone, 1991)
Peter Tinturin, Irving Gordon, Jack Lawrence
Vanessa Williams
4:15

Total length:
42:46

text: Other songs in the film, but not included on the soundtrack are "Stop the World" by The Screaming Jets, "Wanted Dead or Alive" by Bon Jovi, and "Work to Do" and "The Better Part of Me" by Vanessa Williams. An early scene around a pool table seems to have originally featured AC/DC's "Hells Bells," but has been replaced by a sound-alike.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 22% of 18 surveyed critics gave it a positive review; the average rating was 3.6/10.[3] Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times called it "a mindless cobbling from countless buddy movies".[4] Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly rated it C+ and called it "a kinetic formula shoot-'em-up" that is "engagingly junky entertainment with a healthy sense of its own ludicrousness."[5] Variety called it "a dopey, almost poignantly bad actioner about two legends-in-their-own-minds".[6] Vincent Canby of The New York Times wrote, "Mr. Rourke and Mr. Johnson handle their roles with more ease and humor than can be accommodated by a movie so stuffed with mindless fistfights, gunfights, helicopter chases, explosions and leaps from tall buildings."[7] Time Out London called it "utter rubbish, and badly dressed at that."[8] Kim Newman of Empire wrote, "For a while, its crassness is amusing, but as the plot sets in, it gradually turns into a stultifying bore."[9] Johnson and Rourke have spoken negatively of the film. Rourke sighted the film as the beginning of his decline in mainstream Hollywood. Johnson, while promoting the film gave a tonge in cheek interview where he was quoted as saying “ If your a fan of mindless action. If you don’t have a single brain cell in your head, this is the film for you.”

text: DVD[edit]

text: Harley Davidson and the Marlboro Man was released to DVD by MGM Home Entertainment on February 23st, 2001 as a Region 1 widescreen DVD and to Blu-Ray disc by Shout Factory (under license from MGM) on May 19th, 2015.


document_title: Biuret test

question_text: how can you tell by using this test that a substance contains protein

text: Biuret test

text: Procedure[edit]

text: An aqueous sample is treated with an equal volume of 1% strong base (sodium or potassium hydroxide) followed by a few drops of aqueous copper(II) sulfate. If the solution turns purple, protein is present. 5–160 mg/mL can be determined. Peptides with the chain length of at least 3 amino acids are necessary for a significant, measurable colour shift with these reagents.[5]

text: Biuret reagent[edit]

text: The Biuret reagent is made of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and hydrated copper(II) sulfate, together with potassium Chemical Reagents Potassium sodium tartrate[6] is added to chelate and thus stabilize the cupric ions. The reaction of the cupric ions with the nitrogen atoms involved in peptide bonds leads to the displacement of the peptide hydrogen atoms under the alkaline conditions. A tri or tetra dentate chelation with the peptide nitrogen produces the "biuret" color. This is found with dipeptides (Datta,S.P., Leberman,R., and Rabin,B.R., Trans.Farad.Soc. (1959), 55, 2141.)

text: The reagent is commonly used in the biuret protein assay, a colorimetric test used to determine protein concentration by UV/VIS spectroscopy at wavelength 550  nm.

text: High sensitivity variants of the biuret test[edit]

text: Two major modifications of the biuret test are commonly applied in modern colorimetric analysis of peptides: the bicinchoninic acid (BCA) assay and the Lowry assay. In these tests, the Cu+ formed during the biuret reaction reacts further with other reagents, leading to a deeper color.

text: In the BCA test, Cu+ forms a deep purple complex with bicinchoninic acid (BCA),[7] which absorbs around 562 nm, producing the signature violet color. The water-soluble BCA/copper complex absorbs much more strongly than the peptide/copper complex, increasing the sensitivity of the biuret test by a factor of around 100: the BCA assay allows to detect proteins in the range of 0.0005 to 2 mg/mL). Additionally, the BCA protein assay gives the important benefit of compatibility with substances such as up to 5% surfactants in protein samples.

text: In the Lowry protein assay Cu+ is oxidized back to Cu2+ by MoVI in Folin-Ciocalteu's reagent, which forms molybdenum blue (MoIV). Tyrosine residues in the protein also form molybdenum blue under these circumstances. In this way, proteins can be detected in concentrations between 0.005 and 2 mg/mL.[8] Molybdenum blue in turn can bind certain organic dyes such as malachite green and Auramine O, resulting in further amplification of the signal.[9]

text: In Poland, the Biuret Test is more commonly called as the Piotrowski Test, in honor of the Polish toxological chemist, Jerzy Kazimierz Piotrowski (b. 1926) of Lodz.[citation needed]


document_title: Nuclear binding energy

question_text: why is the total mass of a helium nucleus not equal to the mass of its individual parts

question_tokens: why is the total mass of a helium nucleus not equal to the mass of its individual parts

text: Nuclear binding energy

text: Introduction[edit]

text: Nuclear binding energy is explained by the basic principles involved in nuclear physics.

text: Nuclear energy[edit]

text: An absorption or release of nuclear energy occurs in nuclear reactions or radioactive decay; those that absorb energy are called endothermic reactions and those that release energy are exothermic reactions. Energy is consumed or liberated because of differences in the nuclear binding energy between the incoming and outgoing products of the nuclear transmutation.[3]

text: The best-known classes of exothermic nuclear transmutations are fission and fusion. Nuclear energy may be liberated by atomic fission, when heavy atomic nuclei (like uranium and plutonium) are broken apart into lighter nuclei. The energy from fission is used to generate electric power in hundreds of locations worldwide. Nuclear energy is also released during atomic fusion, when light nuclei like hydrogen are combined to form heavier nuclei such as helium. The Sun and other stars use nuclear fusion to generate thermal energy which is later radiated from the surface, a type of stellar nucleosynthesis. In any exothermic nuclear process, nuclear mass might ultimately be converted to thermal energy, given off as heat.

text: In order to quantify the energy released or absorbed in any nuclear transmutation, one must know the nuclear binding energies of the nuclear components involved in the transmutation.

text: The nuclear force[edit]

text: Electrons and nuclei are kept together by electrostatic attraction (negative attracts positive). Furthermore, electrons are sometimes shared by neighboring atoms or transferred to them (by processes of quantum physics), and this link between atoms is referred to as a chemical bond, and is responsible for the formation of all chemical compounds.[4]

text: The force of electric attraction does not hold nuclei together, because all protons carry a positive charge and repel each other. Thus, electric forces do not hold nuclei together, because they act in the opposite direction. It has been established that binding neutrons to nuclei clearly requires a non-electrical attraction.[4]

text: Therefore, another force, called the nuclear force (or residual strong force) holds the nucleons of nuclei together. This force is a residuum of the strong interaction, which binds quarks into nucleons at an even smaller level of distance.

text: The nuclear force must be stronger than the electric repulsion at short distances, but weaker far away, or else different nuclei might tend to clump together. Therefore, it has short-range characteristics. An analogy to the nuclear force is the force between two small magnets: magnets are very difficult to separate when stuck together, but once pulled a short distance apart, the force between them drops almost to zero.[4]

text: Unlike gravity or electrical forces, the nuclear force is effective only at very short distances. At greater distances, the electrostatic force dominates: the protons repel each other because they are positively charged, and like charges repel. For that reason, the protons forming the nuclei of ordinary hydrogen—for instance, in a balloon filled with hydrogen—do not combine to form helium (a process that also would require some protons to combine with electrons and become neutrons). They cannot get close enough for the nuclear force, which attracts them to each other, to become important. Only under conditions of extreme pressure and temperature (for example, within the core of a star), can such a process take place.[5]

text: Physics of nuclei[edit]

text: There are around 92 naturally occurring elements on earth. The atoms of each element have a nucleus containing a specific number of protons (always the same number for a given element), and some number of neutrons, which is often roughly a similar number. Two atoms of the same element having different numbers of neutrons are known as isotopes of the element. Different isotopes may have different properties - for example one might be stable and another might be unstable, and gradually undergo radioactive decay to become another element.

text: The hydrogen nucleus contain just one proton, Its isotope deuterium, or heavy hydrogen, contains a proton and a neutron. Helium contains two protons and two neutrons, and carbon, nitrogen and oxygen - six, seven and eight of each particle, respectively. However, a helium nucleus weighs less than the sum of the weights of the two hydrogen nuclei which combine to make it. The same is true for carbon, nitrogen and oxygen. For example, the carbon nucleus is slightly lighter than three helium nuclei, which can combine to make a carbon nucleus. This difference is known as the mass defect.

text: Mass defect[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Mass defect (not to be confused with mass excess in nuclear physics or mass defect in mass spectrometry) is the difference between the mass of a composite particle and the sum of the masses of its parts. For example, a helium atom containing 4 nucleons has a mass about 0.8% less than the total mass of four hydrogen nuclei (which contain one nucleon each).

text: The "mass defect" can be explained using Albert Einstein's formula E = mc2, describing the equivalence of energy and mass. By this formula, adding energy also increases mass (both weight and inertia), whereas removing energy decreases mass. In the above example, the helium nucleus has four nucleons bound together, and the binding energy which holds them together is, in effect, the missing 0.8% of mass.

text: If a combination of particles contains extra energy—for instance, in a molecule of the explosive TNT—weighing it reveals some extra mass, compared to its end products after an explosion. (The weighing must be done after the products have been stopped and cooled, however, as the extra mass must escape from the system as heat before its loss can be noticed, in theory.) On the other hand, if one must inject energy to separate a system of particles into its components, then the initial mass is less than that of the components after they are separated. In the latter case, the energy injected is "stored" as potential energy, which shows as the increased mass of the components that store it. This is an example of the fact that energy of all types is seen in systems as mass, since mass and energy are equivalent, and each is a "property" of the other.[6]

text: The latter scenario is the case with nuclei such as helium: to break them up into protons and neutrons, one must inject energy. On the other hand, if a process existed going in the opposite direction, by which hydrogen atoms could be combined to form helium, then energy would be released. The energy can be computed using E = Δm c2 for each nucleus, where Δm is the difference between the mass of the helium nucleus and the mass of four protons (plus two electrons, absorbed to create the neutrons of helium).

text: For lighter elements, the energy that can be released by assembling them from lighter elements decreases, and energy can be released when they fuse. This is true for nuclei lighter that iron/nickel. For heavier nuclei, more energy is needed to bind them, to the point that energy is released by breaking them up into 2 fragments (known as atomic fission). Nuclear power is generated at present by breaking up uranium nuclei in nuclear power reactors, and capturing the released energy as heat, which is converted to electricity.

text: As a rule, very light elements can fuse comparatively easily, and very heavy elements can break up via fission very easily; elements in the middle are more stable and it is difficult to make them undergo either fusion or fission in an earthly environment such as a laboratory.

text: The reason the trend reverses after iron is the growing positive charge of the nuclei, which tends to force nuclei to break up. It is resisted by the strong nuclear interaction, which holds nucleons together. The electric force may be weaker than the strong nuclear force, but the strong force has a much more limited range: in an iron nucleus, each proton repels the other 25 protons, while the nuclear force only binds close neighbors. So for larger nuclei, the electrostatic forces tend to dominate and the nucleus will tend over time to break up.

text: As nuclei grow bigger still, this disruptive effect becomes steadily more significant. By the time polonium is reached (84 protons), nuclei can no longer accommodate their large positive charge, but emit their excess protons quite rapidly in the process of alpha radioactivity—the emission of helium nuclei, each containing two protons and two neutrons. (Helium nuclei are an especially stable combination.) Because of this process, nuclei with more than 94 protons are not found naturally on Earth (see periodic table). The isotopes beyond uranium (atomic number 92) with the longest half-lives are plutonium-244 (80 million years) and curium-247 (16 million years).

text: Solar binding energy[edit]

text: The nuclear fusion process works as follows: five billion years ago, the new Sun formed when gravity pulled together a vast cloud of hydrogen and dust, from which the Earth and other planets also arose. The gravitational pull released energy and heated the early Sun, much in the way Helmholtz proposed.

text: Thermal energy appears as the motion of atoms and molecules: the higher the temperature of a collection of particles, the greater is their velocity and the more violent are their collisions. When the temperature at the center of the newly formed Sun became great enough for collisions between hydrogen nuclei to overcome their electric repulsion, and bring them into the short range of the attractive nuclear force, nuclei began to stick together. When this began to happen, protons combined into deuterium and then helium, with some protons changing in the process to neutrons (plus positrons, positive electrons, which combine with electrons and become neutral). This released nuclear energy now keeps up the high temperature of the Sun's core, and the heat also keeps the gas pressure high, keeping the Sun at its present size, and stopping gravity from compressing it any more. There is now a stable balance between gravity and pressure.

text: Different nuclear reactions may predominate at different stages of the Sun's existence, including the proton-proton reaction and the carbon-nitrogen cycle—which involves heavier nuclei, but whose final product is still the combination of protons to form helium.

text: A branch of physics, the study of controlled nuclear fusion, has tried since the 1950s to derive useful power from nuclear fusion reactions that combine small nuclei into bigger ones, typically to heat boilers, whose steam could turn turbines and produce electricity. Unfortunately, no earthly laboratory can match one feature of the solar powerhouse: the great mass of the Sun, whose weight keeps the hot plasma compressed and confines the nuclear furnace to the Sun's core. Instead, physicists use strong magnetic fields to confine the plasma, and for fuel they use heavy forms of hydrogen, which burn more easily. Magnetic traps can be rather unstable, and any plasma hot enough and dense enough to undergo nuclear fusion tends to slip out of them after a short time. Even with ingenious tricks, the confinement in most cases lasts only a small fraction of a second.

text: Combining nuclei[edit]

text: Small nuclei that are larger than hydrogen can combine into bigger ones and release energy, but in combining such nuclei, the amount of energy released is much smaller compared to hydrogen fusion. The reason is that while the overall process releases energy from letting the nuclear attraction do its work, energy must first be injected to force together positively charged protons, which also repel each other with their electric charge.[5]

text: For elements that weigh more than iron (a nucleus with 26 protons), the fusion process no longer releases energy. In even heavier nuclei energy is consumed, not released, by combining similar sized nuclei. With such large nuclei, overcoming the electric repulsion (which affects all protons in the nucleus) requires more energy than what is released by the nuclear attraction (which is effective mainly between close neighbors). Conversely, energy could actually be released by breaking apart nuclei heavier than iron.[5]

text: With the nuclei of elements heavier than lead, the electric repulsion is so strong that some of them spontaneously eject positive fragments, usually nuclei of helium that form very stable combinations (alpha particles). This spontaneous break-up is one of the forms of radioactivity exhibited by some nuclei.[5]

text: Nuclei heavier than lead (except for bismuth, thorium, uranium, and plutonium) spontaneously break up too quickly to appear in nature as primordial elements, though they can be produced artificially or as intermediates in the decay chains of lighter elements. Generally, the heavier the nuclei are, the faster they spontaneously decay.[5]

text: Iron nuclei are the most stable nuclei (in particular iron-56), and the best sources of energy are therefore nuclei whose weights are as far removed from iron as possible. One can combine the lightest ones—nuclei of hydrogen (protons)—to form nuclei of helium, and that is how the Sun generates its energy. Or else one can break up the heaviest ones—nuclei of uranium or plutonium—into smaller fragments, and that is what nuclear power reactors do.[5]

text: Nuclear binding energy[edit]

text: An example that illustrates nuclear binding energy is the nucleus of 12C (carbon-12), which contains 6 protons and 6 neutrons. The protons are all positively charged and repel each other, but the nuclear force overcomes the repulsion and causes them to stick together. The nuclear force is a close-range force (it is strongly attractive at a distance of 1.0 fm and becomes extremely small beyond a distance of 2.5fm), and virtually no effect of this force is observed outside the nucleus. The nuclear force also pulls neutrons together, or neutrons and protons.[7]

text: The energy of the nucleus is negative with regard to the energy of the particles pulled apart to infinite distance (just like the gravitational energy of planets of the solar system), because energy must be utilized to split a nucleus into its individual protons and neutrons. Mass spectrometers have measured the masses of nuclei, which are always less than the sum of the masses of protons and neutrons that form them, and the difference—by the formula E = m c2—gives the binding energy of the nucleus.[7]

text: Nuclear fusion[edit]

text: The binding energy of helium is the energy source of the Sun and of most stars. The sun is composed of 74 percent hydrogen (measured by mass), an element whose nucleus is a single proton. Energy is released in the sun when 4 protons combine into a helium nucleus, a process in which two of them are also converted to neutrons.[7]

text: The conversion of protons to neutrons is the result of another nuclear force, known as the weak (nuclear) force. The weak force, like the strong force, has a short range, but is much weaker than the strong force. The weak force tries to make the number of neutrons and protons into the most energetically stable configuration. For nuclei containing less than 40 particles, these numbers are usually about equal. Protons and neutrons are closely related and are sometimes collectively known as nucleons. As the number of particles increases toward a maximum of about 209, the number of neutrons to maintain stability begins to outstrip the number of protons, until the ratio of neutrons to protons is about three to two.[7]

text: The protons of hydrogen combine to helium only if they have enough velocity to overcome each other's mutual repulsion sufficiently to get within range of the strong nuclear attraction. This means that fusion only occurs within a very hot gas. Hydrogen hot enough for combining to helium requires an enormous pressure to keep it confined, but suitable conditions exist in the central regions of the Sun, where such pressure is provided by the enormous weight of the layers above the core, pressed inwards by the Sun's strong gravity. The process of combining protons to form helium is an example of nuclear fusion.[7]

text: The earth's oceans contain a large amount of hydrogen that could theoretically be used for fusion, and helium byproduct of fusion does not harm the environment, so some consider nuclear fusion a good alternative to supply humanity's energy needs. Experiments to generate electricity from fusion have so far have only partially succeeded. Sufficiently hot hydrogen must be ionized and confined. One technique is to use very strong magnetic fields, because charged particles (like those trapped in the Earth's radiation belt) are guided by magnetic field lines. Fusion experiments also rely on heavy hydrogen, which fuses more easily, and gas densities can be moderate. But even with these techniques far more net energy is consumed by the fusion experiments than is yielded by the process.[7]

text: The binding energy maximum and ways to approach it by decay[edit]

text: In the main isotopes of light nuclei, such as carbon, nitrogen and oxygen, the most stable combination of neutrons and of protons are when the numbers are equal (this continues to element 20, calcium). However, in heavier nuclei, the disruptive energy of protons increases, since they are confined to a tiny volume and repel each other. The energy of the strong force holding the nucleus together also increases, but at a slower rate, as if inside the nucleus, only nucleons close to each other are tightly bound, not ones more widely separated.[7]

text: The net binding energy of a nucleus is that of the nuclear attraction, minus the disruptive energy of the electric force. As nuclei get heavier than helium, their net binding energy per nucleon (deduced from the difference in mass between the nucleus and the sum of masses of component nucleons) grows more and more slowly, reaching its peak at iron. As nucleons are added, the total nuclear binding energy always increases—but the total disruptive energy of electric forces (positive protons repelling other protons) also increases, and past iron, the second increase outweighs the first. Iron-56 (56Fe) is the most efficiently bound nucleus[7] meaning that it has the least average mass per nucleon. However, nickel-62 is the most tightly bound nucleus in terms of energy of binding per nucleon [8]. (Nickel-62's higher energy of binding does not translate to a larger mean mass loss than Fe-56, because Ni-62 has a slightly higher ratio of neutrons/protons than does iron-56, and the presence of the heavier neutrons increases nickel-62's average mass per nucleon).

text: To reduce the disruptive energy, the weak interaction allows the number of neutrons to exceed that of protons—for instance, the main isotope of iron has 26 protons and 30 neutrons. Isotopes also exist where the number of neutrons differs from the most stable number for that number of nucleons. If the ratio of protons to neutrons is too far from stability, nucleons may spontaneously change from proton to neutron, or neutron to proton.

text: The two methods for this conversion are mediated by the weak force, and involve types of beta decay. In the simplest beta decay, neutrons are converted to protons by emitting a negative electron and an antineutrino. This is always possible outside a nucleus because neutrons are more massive than protons by an equivalent of about 2.5 electrons. In the opposite process, which only happens within a nucleus, and not to free particles, a proton may become a neutron by ejecting a positron. This is permitted if enough energy is available between parent and daughter nuclides to do this (the required energy difference is equal to 1.022 MeV, which is the mass of 2 electrons). If the mass difference between parent and daughter is less than this, a proton-rich nucleus may still convert protons to neutrons by the process of electron capture, in which a proton simply electron captures one of the atom's K orbital electrons, emits a neutrino, and becomes a neutron.[7]

text: Among the heaviest nuclei, starting with tellurium nuclei (element 52) containing 106 or more nucleons, electric forces may be so destabilizing that entire chunks of the nucleus may be ejected, usually as alpha particles, which consist of two protons and two neutrons (alpha particles are fast helium nuclei). (Beryllium-8 also decays, very quickly, into two alpha particles.) Alpha particles are extremely stable. This type of decay becomes more and more probable as elements rise in atomic weight past 106.

text: The curve of binding energy is a graph that plots the binding energy per nucleon against atomic mass. This curve has its main peak at iron and nickel and then slowly decreases again, and also a narrow isolated peak at helium, which as noted is very stable. The heaviest nuclei in nature, uranium 238U, are unstable, but having a half-life of 4.5 billion years, close to the age of the Earth, they are still relatively abundant; they (and other nuclei heavier than helium) have formed in stellar evolution events like supernova explosions [9] preceding the formation of the solar system. The most common isotope of thorium, 232Th, also undergoes alpha particle emission, and its half-life (time over which half a number of atoms decays) is even longer, by several times. In each of these, radioactive decay produces daughter isotopes that are also unstable, starting a chain of decays that ends in some stable isotope of lead.[7]

text: Determining nuclear binding energy[edit]

text: Calculation can be employed to determine the nuclear binding energy of nuclei. The calculation involves determining the mass defect, converting it into energy, and expressing the result as energy per mole of atoms, or as energy per nucleon.[2]

text: Conversion of mass defect into energy[edit]

text: Mass defect is defined as the difference between the mass of a nucleus, and the sum of the masses of the nucleons of which it is composed. The mass defect is determined by calculating three quantities.[2] These are: the actual mass of the nucleus, the composition of the nucleus (number of protons and of neutrons), and the masses of a proton and of a neutron. This is then followed by converting the mass defect into energy. This quantity is the nuclear binding energy, however it must be expressed as energy per mole of atoms or as energy per nucleon.[2]

text: Fission and fusion[edit]

text: Nuclear energy is released by the splitting (fission) or merging (fusion) of the nuclei of atom(s). The conversion of nuclear mass-energy to a form of energy, which can remove some mass when the energy is removed, is consistent with the mass-energy equivalence formula:

text: ΔE = Δm c2,

text: in which,

text: ΔE = energy release,

text: Δm = mass defect,

text: and c = the speed of light in a vacuum (a physical constant 299,792,458 m/s by definition).

text: Nuclear energy was first discovered by French physicist Henri Becquerel in 1896, when he found that photographic plates stored in the dark near uranium were blackened like X-ray plates (X-rays had recently been discovered in 1895).[10]

text: Nickel-62 has the highest binding energy per nucleon of any isotope. If an atom of lower average binding energy is changed into two atoms of higher average binding energy, energy is given off. Also, if two atoms of lower average binding energy fuse into an atom of higher average binding energy, energy is given off. The chart shows that fusion of hydrogen, the combination to form heavier atoms, releases energy, as does fission of uranium, the breaking up of a larger nucleus into smaller parts. Stability varies between isotopes: the isotope U-235 is much less stable than the more common U-238.

text: Nuclear energy is released by three exoenergetic (or exothermic) processes:

text:
Radioactive decay, where a neutron or proton in the radioactive nucleus decays spontaneously by emitting either particles, electromagnetic radiation (gamma rays), or both. Note that for radioactive decay, it is not strictly necessary for the binding energy to increase. What is strictly necessary is that the mass decrease. If a neutron turns into a proton and the energy of the decay is less than 0.782343 MeV (such as rubidium-87 decaying to strontium-87), the average binding energy per nucleon will actually decrease.
Fusion, two atomic nuclei fuse together to form a heavier nucleus
Fission, the breaking of a heavy nucleus into two (or more rarely three) lighter nuclei

text: Binding energy for atoms[edit]

text: The binding energy of an atom (including its electrons) is not the same as the binding energy of the atom's nucleus. The measured mass deficits of isotopes are always listed as mass deficits of the neutral atoms of that isotope, and mostly in MeV. As a consequence, the listed mass deficits are not a measure for the stability or binding energy of isolated nuclei, but for the whole atoms. This has very practical reasons, because it is very hard to totally ionize heavy elements, i.e. strip them of all of their electrons.

text: This practice is useful for other reasons, too: stripping all the electrons from a heavy unstable nucleus (thus producing a bare nucleus) changes the lifetime of the nucleus, indicating that the nucleus cannot be treated independently (Experiments at the heavy ion accelerator GSI). This is also evident from phenomena like electron capture. Theoretically, in orbital models of heavy atoms, the electron orbits partially inside the nucleus (it does not orbit in a strict sense, but has a non-vanishing probability of being located inside the nucleus).

text: A nuclear decay happens to the nucleus, meaning that properties ascribed to the nucleus change in the event. In the field of physics the concept of "mass deficit" as a measure for "binding energy" means "mass deficit of the neutral atom" (not just the nucleus) and is a measure for stability of the whole atom.

text: Nuclear binding energy curve[edit]

text: In the periodic table of elements, the series of light elements from hydrogen up to sodium is observed to exhibit generally increasing binding energy per nucleon as the atomic mass increases. This increase is generated by increasing forces per nucleon in the nucleus, as each additional nucleon is attracted by other nearby nucleons, and thus more tightly bound to the whole.

text: The region of increasing binding energy is followed by a region of relative stability (saturation) in the sequence from magnesium through xenon. In this region, the nucleus has become large enough that nuclear forces no longer completely extend efficiently across its width. Attractive nuclear forces in this region, as atomic mass increases, are nearly balanced by repellent electromagnetic forces between protons, as the atomic number increases.

text: Finally, in elements heavier than xenon, there is a decrease in binding energy per nucleon as atomic number increases. In this region of nuclear size, electromagnetic repulsive forces are beginning to overcome the strong nuclear force attraction.

text: At the peak of binding energy, nickel-62 is the most tightly bound nucleus (per nucleon), followed by iron-58 and iron-56.[11] This is the approximate basic reason why iron and nickel are very common metals in planetary cores, since they are produced profusely as end products in supernovae and in the final stages of silicon burning in stars. However, it is not binding energy per defined nucleon (as defined above), which controls which exact nuclei are made, because within stars, neutrons are free to convert to protons to release even more energy, per generic nucleon, if the result is a stable nucleus with a larger fraction of protons. In fact, it has been argued that photodisintegration of 62Ni to form 56Fe may be energetically possible in an extremely hot star core, due to this beta decay conversion of neutrons to protons.[12] The conclusion is that at the pressure and temperature conditions in the cores of large stars, energy is released by converting all matter into 56Fe nuclei (ionized atoms). (However, at high temperatures not all matter will be in the lowest energy state.) This energetic maximum should also hold for ambient conditions, say T = 298 K and p = 1 atm, for neutral condensed matter consisting of 56Fe atoms—however, in these conditions nuclei of atoms are inhibited from fusing into the most stable and low energy state of matter.

text: It is generally believed that iron-56 is more common than nickel isotopes in the universe for mechanistic reasons, because its unstable progenitor nickel-56 is copiously made by staged build-up of 14 helium nuclei inside supernovas, where it has no time to decay to iron before being released into the interstellar medium in a matter of a few minutes, as the supernova explodes. However, nickel-56 then decays to cobalt-56 within a few weeks, then this radioisotope finally decays to iron-56 with a half life of about 77.3 days. The radioactive decay-powered light curve of such a process has been observed to happen in type II supernovae, such as SN 1987A. In a star, there are no good ways to create nickel-62 by alpha-addition processes, or else there would presumably be more of this highly stable nuclide in the universe.

text: Binding energy and nuclide masses[edit]

text: The fact that the maximum binding energy is found in medium-sized nuclei is a consequence of the trade-off in the effects of two opposing forces that have different range characteristics. The attractive nuclear force (strong nuclear force), which binds protons and neutrons equally to each other, has a limited range due to a rapid exponential decrease in this force with distance. However, the repelling electromagnetic force, which acts between protons to force nuclei apart, falls off with distance much more slowly (as the inverse square of distance). For nuclei larger than about four nucleons in diameter, the additional repelling force of additional protons more than offsets any binding energy that results between further added nucleons as a result of additional strong force interactions. Such nuclei become increasingly less tightly bound as their size increases, though most of them are still stable. Finally, nuclei containing more than 209 nucleons (larger than about 6 nucleons in diameter) are all too large to be stable, and are subject to spontaneous decay to smaller nuclei.

text: Nuclear fusion produces energy by combining the very lightest elements into more tightly bound elements (such as hydrogen into helium), and nuclear fission produces energy by splitting the heaviest elements (such as uranium and plutonium) into more tightly bound elements (such as barium and krypton). Both processes produce energy, because middle-sized nuclei are the most tightly bound of all.

text: As seen above in the example of deuterium, nuclear binding energies are large enough that they may be easily measured as fractional mass deficits, according to the equivalence of mass and energy. The atomic binding energy is simply the amount of energy (and mass) released, when a collection of free nucleons are joined together to form a nucleus.

text: Nuclear binding energy can be computed from the difference in mass of a nucleus, and the sum of the masses of the number of free neutrons and protons that make up the nucleus. Once this mass difference, called the mass defect or mass deficiency, is known, Einstein's mass-energy equivalence formula E = mc² can be used to compute the binding energy of any nucleus. Early nuclear physicists used to refer to computing this value as a "packing fraction" calculation.

text: For example, the atomic mass unit (1 u) is defined as 1/12 of the mass of a 12C atom—but the atomic mass of a 1H atom (which is a proton plus electron) is 1.007825 u, so each nucleon in 12C has lost, on average, about 0.8% of its mass in the form of binding energy.

text: Semiempirical formula for nuclear binding energy[edit]

text: For a nucleus with A nucleons, including Z protons and N neutrons, a semi-empirical formula for the binding energy (BE) per nucleon is:

text:
where the coefficients are given by:

a
=
14.0

{\displaystyle a=14.0}

;

b
=
13.0

{\displaystyle b=13.0}

;

c
=
0.585

{\displaystyle c=0.585}

;

d
=
19.3

{\displaystyle d=19.3}

;

e
=
33

{\displaystyle e=33}

.

text:
The first term

a

{\displaystyle a}

 is called the saturation contribution and ensures that the binding energy per nucleon is the same for all nuclei to a first approximation. The term

−
b

/

A

1

/

3

{\displaystyle -b/A^{1/3}}

 is a surface tension effect and is proportional to the number of nucleons that are situated on the nuclear surface; it is largest for light nuclei. The term

−
c

Z

2

/

A

4

/

3

{\displaystyle -cZ^{2}/A^{4/3}}

 is the Coulomb electrostatic repulsion; this becomes more important as

Z

{\displaystyle Z}

 increases. The symmetry correction term

−
d
(
N
−
Z

)

2

/

A

2

{\displaystyle -d(N-Z)^{2}/A^{2}}

 takes into account the fact that in the absence of other effects the most stable arrangement has equal numbers of protons and neutrons; this is because the n-p interaction in a nucleus is stronger than either the n-n or p-p interaction. The pairing term

±
e

/

A

7

/

4

{\displaystyle \pm e/A^{7/4}}

 is purely empirical; it is + for even-even nuclei and - for odd-odd nuclei.

text: Example values deduced from experimentally measured atom nuclide masses[edit]

text: The following table lists some binding energies and mass defect values.[13] Notice also that we use 1 u = (931.494028 ± 0.000023) MeV. To calculate the binding energy we use the formula Z (mp + me) + N mn − mnuclide where Z denotes the number of protons in the nuclides and N their number of neutrons. We take mp = 938.2723 MeV, me = 0.5110 MeV and mn = 939.5656 MeV. The letter A denotes the sum of Z and N (number of nucleons in the nuclide). If we assume the reference nucleon has the mass of a neutron (so that all "total" binding energies calculated are maximal) we could define the total binding energy as the difference from the mass of the nucleus, and the mass of a collection of A free neutrons. In other words, it would be (Z + N) mn − mnuclide. The "total binding energy per nucleon" would be this value divided by A.

text:
Most strongly bound nuclides atoms

nuclide
Z
N
mass excess
total mass
total mass / A
total binding energy / A
mass defect
binding energy
binding energy / A

56Fe
26
30
−60.6054 MeV
55.934937 u
0.9988372 u
9.1538 MeV
0.528479 u
492.275 MeV
8.7906 MeV

58Fe
26
32
−62.1534 MeV
57.932276 u
0.9988496 u
9.1432 MeV
0.547471 u
509.966 MeV
8.7925 MeV

60Ni
28
32
−64.472 MeV
59.93079 u
0.9988464 u
9.1462 MeV
0.565612 u
526.864 MeV
8.7811 MeV

62Ni
28
34
−66.7461 MeV
61.928345 u
0.9988443 u
9.1481 MeV
0.585383 u
545.281 MeV
8.7948 MeV

text: 56Fe has the lowest nucleon-specific mass of the four nuclides listed in this table, but this does not imply it is the strongest bound atom per hadron, unless the choice of beginning hadrons is completely free. Iron releases the largest energy if any 56 nucleons are allowed to build a nuclide—changing one to another if necessary, The highest binding energy per hadron, with the hadrons starting as the same number of protons Z and total nucleons A as in the bound nucleus, is 62Ni. Thus, the true absolute value of the total binding energy of a nucleus depends on what we are allowed to construct the nucleus out of. If all nuclei of mass number A were to be allowed to be constructed of A neutrons, then 56Fe would release the most energy per nucleon, since it has a larger fraction of protons than 62Ni. However, if nuclei are required to be constructed of only the same number of protons and neutrons that they contain, then nickel-62 is the most tightly bound nucleus, per nucleon.

text:
Some light nuclides resp. atoms

nuclide
Z
N
mass excess
total mass
total mass / A
total binding energy / A
mass defect
binding energy
binding energy / A

n
0
1
8.0716 MeV
1.008665 u
1.008665 u
0.0000 MeV
0 u
0 MeV
0 MeV

1H
1
0
7.2890 MeV
1.007825 u
1.007825 u
0.7826 MeV
0.0000000146 u
0.0000136 MeV
13.6 eV

2H
1
1
13.13572 MeV
2.014102 u
1.007051 u
1.50346 MeV
0.002388 u
2.22452 MeV
1.11226 MeV

3H
1
2
14.9498 MeV
3.016049 u
1.005350 u
3.08815 MeV
0.0091058 u
8.4820 MeV
2.8273 MeV

3He
2
1
14.9312 MeV
3.016029 u
1.005343 u
3.09433 MeV
0.0082857 u
7.7181 MeV
2.5727 MeV

text: In the table above it can be seen that the decay of a neutron, as well as the transformation of tritium into helium-3, releases energy; hence, it manifests a stronger bound new state when measured against the mass of an equal number of neutrons (and also a lighter state per number of total hadrons). Such reactions are not driven by changes in binding energies as calculated from previously fixed N and Z numbers of neutrons and protons, but rather in decreases in the total mass of the nuclide/per nucleon, with the reaction. (Note that the Binding Energy given above for hydrogen-1 is the atomic binding energy, not the nuclear binding energy which would be zero.)