document_title: The Curse of Oak Island

question_text: how many episodes of oak island are there in season 5

text: The Curse of Oak Island

text: Overview[edit]

text: The Curse of Oak Island follows brothers Marty and Rick Lagina, originally from Kingsford, Michigan, through their efforts to find the speculated treasure or historical artifacts believed to be on Oak Island. The series discusses the history of the island, recent discoveries, theories, and prior attempts to investigate the site.[6] Areas of interest include the "Money Pit", Borehole 10-x, Smith's Cove, "Nolan's Cross", the "Hatch", the "Watchtower" and the "Swamp".

text: Background[edit]

text: The Lagina brothers became fascinated with the island after reading the January 1965 issue of Reader's Digest magazine that features an article on the Restall family's work to investigate the so-called "Money Pit".[7] Marty and his brother Rick obtained a controlling interest in Oak Island Tours, which reportedly owns most of the island. The brothers were later approached by Prometheus Entertainment to do a reality show. Rick and Marty have engaged the assistance of father-and-son Dan and Dave Blankenship, permanent residents of the island who have likewise been searching for treasure since the 1960s.[8]

text: Theories[edit]

text: The series explores various Oak Island theories and conjectures through conversations with independent researchers. Persons featured have included Zena Halpern discussing her theory about North African gold and sharing copies of a French map of the island which she claims is dated 1347; J. Hutton Pulitzer discussing his theory of ancient mariner visitations; Petter Amundsen discussing his theory about codes hidden in Shakespearen literature and a secret project involving Sir Francis Bacon and the Rosicrucians; Daniel Ronnstam discussing his theory about the 90 foot stone being a dual cypher containing instructions as how to defeat the money pit flood tunnels with corn; authors Kathleen McGowen and Alen Butler discussing their theory involving the fabled Knights Templar treasure and an alleged relocation of historical religious artifacts to the island; and John O'Brien discussing his theory that the island contains treasures of the Aztec Empire. It has also been suggested by Zena Halpern, without evidence, that the Templars worshipped the Phoenician goddess Tanit.

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
5
January 5, 2014 (2014-01-05)
February 9, 2014 (2014-02-09)

2
10
November 4, 2014 (2014-11-04)
January 13, 2015 (2015-01-13)

3
13
November 10, 2015 (2015-11-10)
February 2, 2016 (2016-02-02)

4
16
November 15, 2016 (2016-11-15)
February 21, 2017 (2017-02-21)

5
18
November 7, 2017 (2017-11-07)
March 6, 2018 (2018-03-06)

text: Production[edit]

text: Having started in 2014, The Curse of Oak Island is currently in its fifth season. On August 2, 2016, it was announced that Nova Scotia Business Inc. approved $1,271,546 in film funding for the production of the 4th season.[9] In October 2017, a fifth season was announced, which began airing on November 7, 2017.[10]

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2014)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Original air date
Viewers
(millions)

1
1
"What Lies Below"
January 5, 2014 (2014-01-05)
2.53[11]

Brothers Rick and Marty Lagina now own most of Oak Island. Determined to resume the search for treasure on the island, they explore an abandoned shaft called Borehole 10-X and use water pressure to pump material to the surface. They find a tiny piece of metal.

2
2
"The Mystery of Smith's Cove"
January 12, 2014 (2014-01-12)
2.35[12]

A scuba team that includes Marty's son Alex Lagina dives Smith's Cove and finds what are claimed to be non-indigenous coconut fibres and anomalous stones. Meanwhile, more metal fragments and cat bones are found in the slurry from 10-X.

3
3
"Voices from the Grave"
January 19, 2014 (2014-01-19)
2.33[13]

As Rick and Marty Lagina begin working to drain a swamp, they are visited by a woman who lost her father and brother to a tragic accident on Oak Island.

4
4
"The Secret of Solomon's Temple"
January 26, 2014 (2014-01-26)
2.72[14]

A visitor to the island presents Rick and Marty Lagina with his theory about where the treasure on Oak Island is located and the idea that the Menorah might be among the treasures for which they are searching.

5
5
"The Find"
February 9, 2014 (2014-02-09)
2.97[15]

The team digs in a shallow muddy swamp and finds what appears to be an antique Spanish copper coin. A diver is later sent into the swamp and finds no additional objects.

text: Season 2 (2014–2015)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Original air date
Viewers
(millions)

6
1
"Once In, Forever In"
November 4, 2014 (2014-11-04)
2.60[16]

After dating the Spanish coin they found last summer to 1652, brothers Rick and Marty Lagina return to Oak Island and begin searching the swamp again. Two men perform a Nuclear Magnetic Resonance test in which they present a map of ground voids and metals under the ground.

7
2
"Return To The Money Pit"
November 11, 2014 (2014-11-11)
2.15[17]

The team drills in the area of the money pit but is unable to drill through the underground material. A visitor shows them alleged evidence that the treasures from King Solomon's Temple could be buried on Oak Island.

8
3
"The Eight-Pointed Star"
November 18, 2014 (2014-11-18)
2.23[18]

A treasure hunter presents a theory that Phoenicians visited the island 2500 years ago and left behind the ark of the covenant. Rick and Marty Lagina unsuccessfully look for evidence to prove it while also trying to locate the original Money Pit.

9
4
"The Breakthrough"
November 25, 2014 (2014-11-25)
2.15[19]

A tree stump in the swamp is examined. Core samples extracted by drilling are discovered to contain rocks and wood.

10
5
"The 90-Foot Stone"
December 2, 2014 (2014-12-02)
2.46[20]

A visitor comes to the island suggesting that he has discovered a secret method of getting to the treasure. He claims that Francis Bacon has left behind instructions to the effect that the "flood tunnels" can be disabled by pouring corn into the money pit. The team declines to test the theory and instead visits a masonic lodge. The team searches the swamp again and finds nothing.

11
6
"Seven Must Dye"
December 9, 2014 (2014-12-09)
2.90[21]

Rick searches for man-made flood tunnels without success; Marty and John visit Europe to track down a lead.

12
7
"The Trail of the Templars"
December 16, 2014 (2014-12-16)
2.47[22]

While work begins in the swamp, Rick and Marty travel to Scotland to investigate more corn-related theories about the money pit. They are also presented with a theory that Oak Island is a copy of King Solomon's Temple and that the entrance to the Money Pit is in the swamp.

13
8
"X Marks the Spot"
December 23, 2014 (2014-12-23)
2.72[23]

Rick and Marty search the swamp for an alternate entrance into the Money Pit, without success.

14
9
"A Dangerous Dive"
January 6, 2015 (2015-01-06)
2.59[24]

Rick and Marty take a team of divers to Oak Island.

15
10
"The Big Reveal"
January 13, 2015 (2015-01-13)
3.06[25]

Rick and Marty use sonar to map out the bottom chamber of the 10-X borehole.

text: Season 3 (2015–2016)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Original air date
Viewers
(millions)

16
1
"The Hole Truth"
November 10, 2015 (2015-11-10)
2.26[27]

Rick and Marty search for underground tunnels on Oak Island and prep borehole 10-X for a dive.[26]

17
2
"Pipe Down"
November 17, 2015 (2015-11-17)
2.56[29]

Prep work for a dive in borehole 10X continues while the team simultaneously searches the area near the Money Pit for shallow treasure.[28]

18
3
"Time to Dig"
November 24, 2015 (2015-11-24)
2.60[31]

Rick, Marty and the team go shopping for excavation equipment, investigate the location of a possible Knight's Templar treasure and search for the original location of the Money Pit.[30]

19
4
"The Overton Stone"
December 1, 2015 (2015-12-01)
3.05[33]

Work continues to locate the Money Pit while the team investigates a stone with purported Portuguese carvings.[32]

20
5
"Disappearing Act"
December 8, 2015 (2015-12-08)
3.22[35]

The team completes preparations for a dive expedition down borehole 10X by investigating the shaft with a camera.[34]

21
6
"Carved in Stone"
December 15, 2015 (2015-12-15)[37]
2.47[38]

Rick, Marty and the team investigate rocks on Oak Island. A researcher visits the island and claims that the Aztecs may have visited the island in the past.[36]

22
7
"The Missing Peace"
December 22, 2015 (2015-12-22)[37]
3.40[40]

Rick and Marty welcome long-time rival Fred Nolan into the team.[39]

23
8
"Phantoms of the Deep"
December 29, 2015 (2015-12-29)[37]
3.30[42]

The team conducts a sonar sweep of the waters surrounding Oak Island and begin digging on Fred Nolan's property.[41]

24
9
"Columbus Day"
January 5, 2016 (2016-01-05)[37]
2.79[44]

The team preps for a dive of borehole 10X. They also listen to a theory about Christopher Columbus visiting the Island.[43]

25
10
"Silence in the Dark"
January 12, 2016 (2016-01-12)[37]
3.11[46]

Difficulties are encountered during the dive to the bottom of borehole 10X, the team further investigates Fred Nolan's property and an alleged Roman sword found in the waters off Oak Island is presented to the team.[45]

26
11
"Sword Play"
January 19, 2016 (2016-01-19)[37]
2.82[48]

The team has the Roman sword investigated and find that it is a modern reproduction. There is an unproductive search for treasure north of the Money Pit.[47]

27
12
"Voices from Below"
January 26, 2016 (2016-01-26)[37]
3.17[50]

The team dives to the bottom of borehole 10X. In a separate investigation, a cavity is found far underground near the Money Pit.[49]

28
13
"Secrets and Revelations"
February 2, 2016 (2016-02-02)[37]
3.41[51]

The diving investigation of borehole 10X concludes with nothing found. Relatives of the original Oak Island treasure hunters present a gold cross which is said to have come from the treasure.

text: Season 4 (2016–2017)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Original air date
Viewers
(millions)

29
1
"Going for Broke"
November 15, 2016 (2016-11-15)
2.62[53]

The team agrees to turn focus over to the Money Pit and review what they have collected. Researcher Zena Halpern presents a handmade copy of what she claims is a French map from 1347 of Oak Island. The map shows locations for a "hatch", a "valve" and an "anchor" on the Island. A theory is presented based on a purported decoding of a cipher that Joab at the time of King David transported the Ark of the Covenant to North Africa from which it was later transported onward by the Knights Templar from the then-Portuguese town of Safi in Morocco to Oak Island.[52]

30
2
"Always Forward"
November 22, 2016 (2016-11-22)
2.66[54]

While preparing to excavate the Money Pit, the team investigates an 18th century well on mainland Nova Scotia. The team brings in an archaeologist to inspect a hole on Dave Blankenship's property which they think is a potential "hatch".

31
3
"Swamp Things"
November 29, 2016 (2016-11-29)
2.97[55]

A piece of rock with scratches is found, before the team revisits the swamp for another look and finds very little.

32
4
"No Stone Unturned"
December 6, 2016 (2016-12-06)
2.95[56]

Part of the team unsuccessfully attempts to track down the '90-foot stone' in nearby Halifax; while the first excavation in over 50 years begins in the Money Pit.

33
5
"Bullseye"
December 11, 2016 (2016-12-11)
2.82[57]

A new theory that Inca gold is buried on Oak Island is offered, albeit without evidence to support it. Meanwhile the team supposedly inches their way to the alleged target in the Money Pit.

34
6
"Circles in Wood"
December 20, 2016 (2016-12-20)
3.44[58]

A few coins are found on the island, a long way from the money pit. The money pit search for the 'Chappel Vault' ends in failure so a new target is set for 170ft C-1 shaft in the Money Pit area.

35
7
"All That Glitters"
December 27, 2016 (2016-12-27)
3.68[59]

The swamp is drained and searched with a metal detector revealing an old spike. Object not dated. C-1 Dig Site is drilled to target depth of 170 ft. where previously inserted camera may have seen something shiny and gold colored.

36
8
"The Mystery of Samuel Ball"
January 3, 2017 (2017-01-03)
3.43[60]

A tiny amount of evidence is offered supposedly linking an 18th-century slave to the mystery.

37
9
"Echoes from the Deep"
January 10, 2017 (2017-01-10)
3.35[61]

A camera sent down 10X confirms the divers impression that there is nothing there of note, undermining the camera's operators previous assertion that they were 90% certain there was a chest there. Some of the team are in denial about this and insist there is still some point in exploring 10-X further on the basis that Dan Blankenship has spent so much time on it, it must be the key to the alleged puzzle.

38
10
"About Face"
January 17, 2017 (2017-01-17)
3.04[62]

Divers are sent to the bottom of borehole C-1. Nothing is found. A rock fifty miles from Oak Island is examined. The team decides to do a new examination of borehole 10X.

39
11
"Presidential Secrets"
January 24, 2017 (2017-01-24)
3.20[63]

The new examination of borehole 10X concludes. Equipment failure delays excavation of a new hole. Rick heads to the Franklin D. Roosevelt library to learn why the late President was interested in Oak Island.

40
12
"Hyde Park & Seek"
January 31, 2017 (2017-01-31)
3.15[64]

A cofferdam is built at Smith's Cove and the beach is excavated. The team debates where the "money pit" might have been.

41
13
"One Of Seven"
February 7, 2017 (2017-02-07)
3.24[65]

The team attempts to decode a cipher and concludes that they only possess 1/7th of the cipher. Rocks are found at Smith's Cove. The investigation of the cove is halted for the year. A man from Arizona claims, without any evidence, that several hundred tons of gold are hidden in tunnels near Oak Island.

42
14
"Sticks and Stones"
February 14, 2017 (2017-02-14)
3.20[66]

Rocks are examined on Oak Island. Pieces of wood are carbon dated. The third excavation on the island this season reaches bedrock with nothing found. The team decides to dig another hole.

43
15
"Blood is Thicker"
February 21, 2017 (2017-02-21)
3.79[67]

The final excavation of the season leads to the discovery of scrap metal pieces, a washer, several hex nuts and a button. Season finale featured McGinnis gold cross, iron spike, and other artifacts evaluated by antiques appraiser Dr. Lori Verderame (Ph.D. - History of Art and Architecture).

Note: This episode aired as a 2-hour special.

44
16
"Drilling Down"
February 28, 2017 (2017-02-28)
1.72[68]

The team is interviewed at the end of season. The wood from borehole 10-X is carbon dated as being from 1670-1780. A new cipher is decoded leading the team to once again believe that there is a "hatch" somewhere on the island. The team wants to continue searching the swamp. The team proposes pumping borehole 10-X dry to enable yet another round of searches. The team wants to search more of the Island with metal detectors in the future.

Note: This episode is a special.

text: Season 5 (2017–2018)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Original air date
Viewers
(millions)

45
1
"Forever Family"
November 7, 2017 (2017-11-07)
2.95[69]

A diver is sent to the bottom of borehole C-1. Mud is recovered. A nail is found in an old spoils pile from GAL-1. A copper coin is found in the woods near Issac's Point.

46
2
"Dead Man's Chest"
November 14, 2017 (2017-11-14)
2.98[70]

The sea chest of a captain who lived in Nova Scotia in the 1780s is examined. Salt water starts coming out the top of borehole C-1. Another copper coin is found on the island.

47
3
"Obstruction"
November 21, 2017 (2017-11-21)
2.85[71]

Two old British copper coins are found in the woods. The Province of Nova Scotia requests that an archaeologist be on site on Oak Island as an adviser to the treasure hunters. Part of a metal spoon and round rocks are discovered under tree stumps. Based on the rocks and the spoon pieces, Marty Lagina concludes that "something must have happened here". A small piece of scrap metal is found in the mud brought up from one of the new boreholes being drilled in the "money pit" area.

48
4
"Close Call"
November 28, 2017 (2017-11-28)
3.36[72]

Drilling below bedrock, the team discovers a void in the rock. A hose on the drill detaches resulting in a worker falling backward and suffering a minor injury to his wrist. Drilling is halted for over a week. A toy gun is found in the woods and the team launches an investigation of it. Lee Lamb and Richard Restall visit the island. Richard Restall is identified conclusively as the owner of the toy gun.

49
5
"Bone Dry"
December 5, 2017 (2017-12-05)
3.16[73]

An iron spike is found on the beach. Some small pottery fragments are brought up from one of the boreholes. Two human bone fragments were recovered and sent in for testing.

50
6
"Remains of the Day"
December 12, 2017 (2017-12-12)
3.01[74]

A piece of leather is found. Rick Lagina has headaches and a rash. He is later diagnosed as having lyme disease. The team intends to have the previously discovered human bone fragments carbon dated.

51
7
"The Lot Thickens"
December 19, 2017 (2017-12-19)
3.13[75]

A theory is presented that Sir Francis Drake is buried on Oak Island in a vault with gold treasure. It is suggested that the lack of any records documenting Drake travelling to Canada is proof that he must have travelled to Canada. A theory is presented that the scrap leather piece found is from a book binding. A patch of ground is excavated and nothing is found.

52
8
"Dan's Breakthrough"
January 2, 2018 (2018-01-02)
3.31[76]

The team discovers a horseshoe, a piece of shot and another coin. It is discovered that one of the words on the Zena Halpern map is the name of a French family (Rochefoucauld) who participated in the Crusades. The team presents an unsupported theory that Samuel de Champlain was ordered to incorrectly map Nova Scotia to hide Oak Island by Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons at the direction of Rochefoucauld family. The team decides to send several members to France for further investigation of the theory. The testing on the human bone fragments (found in episode 5) indicated that they dated in a range from 1682 AD to 1764 AD.

53
9
"The French Connection"
January 9, 2018 (2018-01-09)
3.02[77]

A small pottery fragment is found on Lot 24. It is determined that the rocks found in Season Five Episode 3 are not consistent with the foundation of a house. The team theorizes, without evidence, that there must have been a "watchtower" on Lot 24. In France, the team establishes that there is no connection between the Rochefoucauld family and the Knights Templar. A Zena Halpern map is examined again and it is determined that the English translations of the map done to present have been incorrect. The team looks at cave carvings in France and consults an expert in the Knights Templar. The team observes a pattern in part of a cave carving that they claim is roughly similar to an upside-down image of the Rochefoucauld family coat of arms and conclude that the family must be linked to the Knights Templar. They find a carving of a multi-armed cross and offer an unsupported theory that it is a representation of the "Tree of Life" and that it is the same as Nolan's Cross on the island. A theory is presented that the cave carving may represent an "earlier version" of the "Tree of Life". Based on the information discovered in France, the team concludes that the Oak Island swamp should be excavated again.

54
10
"The Signs Of A Cross"
January 16, 2018 (2018-01-16)
3.34[78]

Eight pages of what is alleged to be a transcript of an incomplete log of an unnamed ship are presented. It is claimed, without any evidence, that the log is from a French ship which participated in the Duc d'Anville Nova Scotia expedition of 1746. More wood, a bone and a metal spike are brought up from a borehole in the money pit area. The shaft excavation reaches an obstruction at 170 feet. A small lead cross is found at Smith's Cove. It is theorized, with no supporting evidence, that crosses with an attaching loop at the top were used by members of the Knights Templar and that this lead cross dates from the years 1200 to 1600.

55
11
"Moving Targets"
January 23, 2018 (2018-01-23)
3.32[79]

A spoon handle and a piece of brass are found at Smith's Cove. More pottery fragments, another bone and small bits of leather are found in the material brought up from borehole H8. The team debates the location of the "Chappel Vault".

56
12
"A Key to the Mystery"
January 30, 2018 (2018-01-30)
3.25[80]

The team gains access to Fred Nolan's survey maps of the island but have difficulty interpreting them. A folding metal key is examined. Searching for a local dumpsite, the team digs a trench on Lot 12 near the former house of Fred Nolan. Pottery fragments are found in the trench.

57
13
"Unhinged"
February 6, 2018 (2018-02-06)
3.32[81]

More pottery fragments and a metal hinge are found at the Nolan dumpsite. A part of the swamp is drained and a wooden stake is found. Zena Halpern is shown a picture of the lead cross and claims it is not a cross, but the symbol of the Phoenician goddess Tanit. She further makes unsupported claims that the cross is around 3200 years old (dating to 1200 BC) and that the Knights Templar worshiped Tanit. The drilling of the latest borehole encounters an obstruction at 75 feet.

58
14
"The Templar Connection"
February 13, 2018 (2018-02-13)
2.34[82]

A history of the Knights Templar is presented along with speculative theories about how they might have been involved with Oak Island.

Note: This episode is a special.

59
15
"Steel Trapped"
February 20, 2018 (2018-02-20)
2.99[83]

Independent researcher Kathleen McGowan Coppens offers an unsupported theory that the lead cross was part of a necklace used by Templars to smuggle gold. She also claims that the country of Canada was named by the Templars after the town of Sarlat-la-Canéda in France. A rusty keyhole plate is found in the woods. On examination, the exposed surface of the drilling obstruction at the money pit appears to be rocks and clay soil. The borehole later fills with water. The team arranges for a diver to go down the borehole.

60
16
"Seeing Red"
February 27, 2018 (2018-02-27)
3.02[84]

An excavation is done at Smith's cove and wood is found. The team plans for further excavations at Smith's cove next year. A button claimed to be from the 1700s and an old jewelry fragment are located by metal detector.

61
17
"A Family Album"
February 27, 2018 (2018-02-27)
1.98[84]

The episode includes accounts of activities on the Oak Island by the McGinnis family, descendants of Samuel Ball, William Chappell's family, the Restall Family and the family of Robert Dunfield. The Blankenship/Nolan disputes on Oak Island are discussed. The episode ends with a short history of the Lagina brothers' interest in Oak Island.

Note: This episode is a special.

62
18
"Amazing Discoveries"
March 6, 2018 (2018-03-06)
2.89[85]

The gem in the Jewelry fragment found on the island is a Rhodolite Garnet stone of small value. The drilling obstruction in the "money pit" borehole is determined by divers to be a granite boulder.


document_title: James M. Connor

question_text: who is the guy that does the dr. pepper commercials

root

text: James M. Connor

text: This biographical article needs additional citations for verification, as it includes attribution to IMDb. IMDb may not be a reliable source for biographical information. Please help by adding additional, reliable sources for verification. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (January 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text:
James M. Connor

Born
(1960-06-16) June 16, 1960 (age 57)
Omaha, Nebraska, United States

text: James Michael Connor (born June 16, 1960 in Omaha, Nebraska) is an American actor who, making his film debut as a supporting character in the 1976 science fiction film Futureworld, has played recurring characters on several television series including Buffy the Vampire Slayer and The King of Queens, and FCU: Fact Checkers Unit (2010), as well as guest appearances on The X-Files, The Drew Carey Show, Desperate Housewives, Gilmore Girls, Rules of Engagement (2010), and Scrubs (2002). More recently, Connor has appeared on TV in Brooklyn Nine-Nine (2013-2014), Community (2012-2014), Franklin & Bash (2014), and Parks and Recreation (2012-2015).[1]

tag: p

text: Connor has also appeared in feature films such as About Schmidt, Blades of Glory, Pendulum and Watchmen and in the short film, The Yard Sale. Other movie roles include The Perfect 46 (2014), and Dream World (2012),

text: Commercials and Voiceovers[edit]

text: In late-2014 Connor appeared as Larry Culpepper in Dr. Pepper TV commercials tied to the NCAA college football playoffs. Connor has also contributed voiceovers for a few videogames,[2] namely Marvel Heroes (2013), The 3rd Birthday (2011), Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs (2009), and Gun (2005).

text: He attended Creighton Preparatory School in Omaha, Nebraska, with his friend, the director Alexander Payne.


document_title: Canada balsam

question_text: why should we use canadabalsem to glued lenses

text: Canada balsam

text: Canada balsam, also called Canada turpentine or balsam of fir, is a turpentine made from the resin of the balsam fir tree (Abies balsamea) of boreal North America. The resin, dissolved in essential oils, is a viscous, sticky, colourless or yellowish liquid that turns to a transparent yellowish mass when the essential oils have been allowed to evaporate.

text: Canada balsam is amorphous when dried. Since it does not crystallize with age, its optical properties do not deteriorate.[citation needed] However, it has poor thermal and solvent resistance.[1]

text: Uses[edit]

text: Due to its high optical quality and the similarity of its refractive index to that of crown glass (n = 1.55), purified and filtered Canada balsam was traditionally used in optics as an invisible-when-dry glue for glass, such as lens elements. Lenses glued with Canada balsam (or with other similar glues) are called cemented lenses. Also, other optical elements can be cemented with Canada balsam, such as two prisms bonded to form a beam splitter. Balsam was phased out as an optical adhesive during World War II, in favour of polyester, epoxy, and urethane-based adhesives. In modern optical manufacturing, UV-cured epoxies are often used to bond lens elements.

text: Canada balsam was also commonly used for making permanent microscope slides. From about 1830 molten Canada balsam was used for microscope slides, then Canada balsam in solution was introduced in 1843, becoming popular in the 1850s.[2] In biology, for example, it can be used to conserve microscopic samples by sandwiching the sample between a microscope slide and a glass coverslip, using Canada balsam to glue the arrangement together and enclose the sample to conserve it. Xylene balsam, Canada balsam dissolved in xylene, is also used for preparing slide mounts.[3] Some workers prefer terpene resin for slide mounts, as it is both less acidic and cheaper than balsam. Synthetic resins have largely replaced organic balsams for such applications.

text: Another important application of Canada balsam is in the construction of the Nicol prism. A Nicol prism consists of a calcite crystal cut into two halves. Canada balsam is placed between the two layers. Calcite is an anisotropic crystal and has different refractive indices for rays polarized along directions parallel and perpendicular to its optic axis. These rays with differing refractive indices are known as the ordinary and extraordinary rays. The refractive index for Canada balsam is in between the refractive index for the ordinary and extraordinary rays. Hence the ordinary ray will be totally internally reflected. The emergent ray will be linearly polarized, and traditionally this has been one of the popular ways of producing polarized light.

text: Some other uses (traditional and current) include:

text:
in geology, it is used as a common thin section cement and glue and for refractive-index studies and tests, such as the Becke line test;
to fix scratches in glass (car glass, for instance) as invisibly as possible;
in oil painting, to achieve glow and facilitate fusion;
in Buckley's cough syrup.

tag: ul


document_title: Rake It Up

question_text: when will the rake it up video be released

text: Rake It Up

text: Background and release[edit]

text: After collaborating on "5 Star" (Remix), "Coca Coca" and "Down in the DM" (Remix); "Rake It Up" marks the fourth time Yo Gotti and Nicki Minaj have worked together on a recording.[2] To promote the song, Gotti has, on May 30, 2017, teased the song on his Snapchat during a private boat party.[2] Minaj also played a snippet of the song on May 31, 2017 via her Instagram account, confirming that the track would be released the following day at midnight (EST).[3][4] Soon after the song was announced, critics wrote how Minaj was probably trying to "steal a little of her ex-boyfriend's (Meek Mill) thunder", since he was very recently featured on another Yo Gotti song called "Top Lookin Down".[3][4] On June 1, 2017, the song premiered online and was released worldwide as a digital download.

text: Music video[edit]

text: The official music video for the song premiered August 21, 2017, on Tidal,[5] but was subsequently released on YouTube on August 26. It was shot in Miami, and features a guest appearance from Blac Chyna.

text: Live performance[edit]

text: On September 14, 2017, Gotti and Minaj performed the song on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon.[6]

text: Charts[edit]

text:
Chart (2017)
Peak
position

Australia (ARIA)[7]
124

Canada (Canadian Hot 100)[8]
49

Netherlands (Global Top 40)[9]
28

US Billboard Hot 100[10]
8

US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs (Billboard)[11]
5

US Rhythmic (Billboard)[12]
1

text: Certifications[edit]

text:
Region
Certification
Certified units/Sales

Canada (Music Canada)[13]
Gold
40,000^

United States (RIAA)[14]
Platinum
1,000,000

*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone
sales+streaming figures based on certification alone

text: Release history[edit]

text:
Region
Date
Format
Label
Ref.

Various
June 1, 2017

Digital download

Self-released
[15]


document_title: Roo Stewart

question_text: who plays roo stewart mum in home and away

text: Roo Stewart

text: Casting[edit]

text: In 1987, Clarke auditioned for the roles of Carly Morris, Lynn Davenport and Bobby Simpson; but was unsuccessful each time. After the series had finished filming their pilot episode, producers changed their minds and invited Clarke to audition for the role of Roo, which she won. Clarke told a reporter from TV Life that she was "really pleased" because she thought Roo was a "great character".[1]

text: Character development[edit]

text: Characterisation[edit]

text:
“

Roo is the much-hated character who attempts to sabotage her father's marriage to Ailsa and who nearly fools Frank into marrying her by claiming that she is carrying his baby. There are two sides to her personality; to the adults she is charming and personable. To people her own age she is boy-crazy and scheming.

”

— Kesta Desmond on Roo (1990).[2]

text: Roo's personality gained an unwelcome reception amongst viewers. Clarke said that "everyone" hated Roo and revealed that people would "boo" at her while attending promotional appearances.[3] On one occasion Clarke had to leave a shopping centre because females were shouting "slut" at her.[4] Clarke said that Roo is "a cow" but defended her because Roo ultimately ends up suffering.[5]

text: Teenage pregnancy[edit]

text: In the serial's first season, Alan Bateman wanted Home and Away to tackle serious social issues and a few months later Roo became the first character to have a teenage pregnancy.[6] The production team felt that Roo's pregnancy was "risque" because Home and Away was aired in an early evening time-slot. Clarke said she did not know what it was like to be pregnant and had to carry out research. While filming the storyline, Clarke was required to wear a bag filled with lentils beneath her clothing. This was to give the impression that Roo was pregnant, and as her pregnancy progressed more lentils were added to the bag to maintain continuity.[7] Clarke remained unaware of how to portray a convincing birth scene. The wife of the episode's director had previously given birth during a complicated labour. She helped Clarke with her research, which also included watching child birth videos. Clarke said that while she had learned most aspects of labour, not experiencing the actual pain of birth resulted in her feeling unprepared for the scenes. The birth scenes were filmed over the period of one day, consisting of more than fifteen shoots. Clarke said the dramatic breathing left her "dizzy" and even caused her to hyperventilate.[7]

text: Departure and return[edit]

text: Clarke played the role of Roo from 1988, until the character was written out a year later after Clarke quit the show.[8][9] Clarke has been asked to return to the show and reprise her role as Roo many times, but she has never agreed.[10]

text: In August 2010, it was announced that Roo would be returning to Home and Away.[8] Producers decided to recast the role after Clarke became busy with other television shows and her career as a children's singer.[10] Former All Saints actress, Georgie Parker was given the role and she began filming her first scenes in the same month.[8][11] Of her casting, Parker said "I'm thrilled to be back at Channel Seven and to be part of Home and Away. Working with Ray is a joy. We are having a fantastic time together. The whole cast and crew have been wonderful".[8] Of the decision to bring the character back, series producer Cameron Welsh said "We had such a positive reaction to Emily Symons's return as Marilyn; we trust the fans will love having an original character such as Roo back in the Bay. Securing Georgie Parker to bring her back to our screens is a real coup for the show".[8]

text: Parker called her "a colourful character who has a strong history with the origin of the show".[10] Parker has said the grown up Roo is very different from the teenager. She said "She was a colourful character when she left. She lost her mother when she was very young, and I think that when girls lose their mothers, they can go off the rails - and that's exactly what Roo did".[10] Parker added that she gets to play the adult who may have learned from past mistakes.[10] During an interview, Meagher said the adult Roo is "still full of energy, bluff and bravado. She's had a few financial problems and is possibly running away from a bloke."[12] He added that Alf has trouble getting her to tell him the truth, but he is "pleased to see her back in the Bay."[12]

text: Meningitis[edit]

text: In July 2014, the character was diagnosed with meningitis.[13] After returning from an extended trip to Las Vegas to look after her injured aunt Colleen Smart (Lyn Collingwood), Roo was very secretive about her times away. Within a day, Roo started showing symptoms of an illness.[13] Parker explained "This illness hits her fast and hard. She's lethargic, but thinks it's just jetlag. She also has a splitting headache that affects her eyes, and she's low on energy. It's all very out of character."[13] Roo's decision to keep quiet about her trip meant that nobody had any idea what was wrong with her. Roo fell unconscious at home and the situation became very serious.[13] Roo was eventually diagnosed with meningitis. Her condition later took a turn for the worse and she suffered a seizure.[14] In order to treat her, the doctors needed to know about her trip and her foster-daughter Maddy Osborne (Kassandra Clementi) found her passport, which revealed that she had been to Peru. With the information, the doctors were able to treat Roo and save her life.[14]

text: Storylines[edit]

text: Roo begins to resent her father's relationship with Ailsa Hogan (Judy Nunn) out of loyalty to her late mother, Martha (Alison Mulvaney). Roo begins dating Frank Morgan (Alex Papps) and they start a band with Lance Smart (Peter Vroom) and Martin Dibble (Craig Thompson). Roo's continued obsession with Ailsa drives a rift between her and Frank, despite nearly sleeping with him as an act of rebellion over Ailsa staying over. Roo contacts her aunt, Morag Bellingham (Cornelia Frances), who is a judge and asks her to do a background check on Ailsa. At Alf and Ailsa's engagement party, Roo reveals Ailsa went to prison for killing her abusive father. However, Ailsa's friends and Frank, side with her. Roo begins a feud with Bobby Simpson (Nicolle Dickson), Ailsa's friend. Tired of her behaviour, Alf sends Roo to boarding school in Sydney.

text: Roo begins dating Brett Macklin (Gerry Sont) and she gets pregnant. Brett's reaction to this to book an abortion for her. Roo returns to Summer Bay and tries convincing Frank that he is the baby's father. She pretends to accept Alf and Ailsa's relationship so she will be allowed to stay. Roo sleeps with Frank and arranges for Alf to catch them together. She tells her aunt, Celia Stewart (Fiona Spence), that she is pregnant with Frank's baby. Frank agrees to marry her and Roo tries to accept Alf and Ailsa's marriage. Brett turns up and tells Roo the mumps has left him infertile and that he now wants the baby. She refuses to let him back into her life, so Brett goes to Morag, who tries to talk Roo into changing her mind. In the middle of her wedding, she reveals that Frank is not the father of her baby. Frank drives off in anger and swerves off the road to avoid Bobby and the car falls into a ditch, almost killing him.

text: The incident leaves Roo an outcast within the town. Morag tries to persuade her to move to the city with her, but Celia talks her out of it. Brett applies for custody, but Roo suggests they sort it out between themselves. She begins helping Brett's family as they set up a business in the Bay. She is pleased when Alf and Ailsa's differences over the development causes them to split up. With Ailsa returning to town to be Christopher Fletcher's (Ashleigh Bell-Weir) godmother, Roo fakes stomach pains to stop Alf attending the christening. However, by hyperventilating she sends herself into premature labour and gives birth to a baby girl, who she names, Martha (Burcin Kapkin). She is pleased when Frank seems to take an interest, until she learns that he is dating Bobby. Brett tries to force Roo into giving him custody of Martha. He kidnaps the baby and Roo considered suicide, before she is informed that Brett had returned Martha. Roo refuses to press charges and the couple realise that they cannot raise Martha, so they give her up for adoption. Roo then begins to accept Ailsa, when she and Alf reconcile.

text: Roo decides to take a break from the Bay and when she returns, she reveals that she has a new boyfriend, David Lee (Anthony Wong). Alf and Celia are slightly shocked as David is Chinese and they are uncomfortable with Roo being in a mixed race relationship. Alf eventually gives the pair his blessing, but David later leaves town. Frank and Bobby marry and Roo is stunned to learn Bobby is Morag's daughter and thus her cousin. Roo takes a job at the Macklin Corporation. Her manager, Nicholas Walsh (Robert Taylor), sends nasty letters to Ailsa and frames Roo, with help from Morag. With Alf and Ailsa believing the letters are from her, Roo moves in with Celia and then with Morag. When Alf discovers the truth, he apologises and Roo moves back in. She then starts dating Simon Yates (Christopher Saunders).

text: Ailsa becomes pregnant, which pleases Roo. Alf and Tom Fletcher (Roger Oakley) go missing on a fishing trip and Ailsa goes into premature labour. Roo stays as her half-brother Duncan (Allana Ellis) is born, shortly before Alf is found. Roo finds herself working closely with Frank and when he is offered a promotion in the city, he celebrates by kissing Roo. She feels guilty about the kiss and when Frank goes to the city without Bobby, everyone assumes he and Roo had an affair. Roo is upset when Sally Fletcher (Katie Ritchie) blames her for the break-up. Bobby tells her that she and Frank would have broken up anyway and gives them her blessing. Roo then goes to the city to meet Frank and tells him she wants to give their relationship another go. Frank and Roo marry, but they split by the time Frank returns to town. Roo later moves to New York, where she is joined for a time by both Martha and Duncan. In 2005, Roo has a near fatal car-accident and Alf and Morag fly to New York to be with her while she recovers.

text: Five years later, Roo returns to Summer Bay. Alf is shocked to see her and Roo tells him that she has come for a visit as a job fell through and she had some frequent-flyer miles to use up. Roo starts receiving texts and calls from her boyfriend, Tim, and her bank manager. Colleen Smart is also shocked to see Roo and starts mentioning all the bad things she did in the past, until Alf tells her to stop. Robert Robertson (Socratis Otto) questions Roo about Martha and Hugo Austin (Bernard Curry) for the Federal Police and she states that she has not been in contact with them. Roo later tries to persuade Hugo's mother, Gina (Sonia Todd), to give them the money Hugo left behind, but Gina is reluctant. Gina runs a credit check on Roo and discovers that she is broke. Roo denies wanting the money for herself. Roo advises Alf to get a lawyer when rumours begin to circulate that he killed Penn Graham (Christian Clark). Gina gets Roo to take a job with John Palmer (Shane Withington), who pays her with Hugo's money. Roo attends Bianca Scott's (Lisa Gormley) bridal shower and wedding, before leaving for the States.

text: On her return, Roo finds Alf has gone travelling and her aunt Morag has been placed in charge of the caravan park. Roo goes to the relaunch of Angelo Rosetta's (Luke Jacobz) restaurant where she gets drunk and wakes up in bed with Miles Copeland (Josh Quong Tart). Angelo offers Roo a room at his place and tries to make a pass at her. John hires Roo to organise sponsorship for the upcoming surf carnival. Roo becomes close friends with Nicole Franklin (Tessa James) and Marilyn Chambers (Emily Symons). She also gets on well with Marilyn's partner, Sid Walker (Robert Mammone). Roo supports Nicole during her pregnancy and she asks her to be present at the birth. Roo also supports Romeo Smith's (Luke Mitchell) attempts to start a charter business. Laura Carmody (Roxanne Wilson) arrives in the Bay and reveals she and Roo are old friends. Roo invites Laura to stay with her and they work together on a hospital fundraiser. Roo invites Romeo to accompany her on a business trip to Hawaii and he brings Indigo Walker (Samara Weaving) with them. When they announce that they are getting married, Roo calls Sid and he flies over. Sid kisses Roo, but she rejects him because he is with Marilyn. However, she runs after his taxi, but fails to stop him leaving.

text: When she returns home, Roo is shocked to learn Marilyn and Sid have broken up. She and Sid kiss again and agree to be a couple. Roo and Laura organise a ball at Sid's farm and Roo tries to make peace with Marilyn. Bianca is raped at the ball and Roo criticises Laura for selling tickets to the River Boys. Alf disapproves of Roo's relationship with Sid, as he is worried about how he will treat her. Roo and Marilyn eventually become friends again and Roo breaks up with Sid when she realises his family will always be a priority over her. Roo takes over the running of the Diner due to staff shortages and she starts dating Harvey Ryan (Marcus Graham), despite being warned not to by Romeo, Indi and Sid. Roo and Harvey break up when she learns he sabotaged Alf's boat. Roo is disgusted when Harvey tries to blackmail John and she persuades Alf to stand against him during the council elections. Roo later takes a job alongside Harvey and becomes jealous of him and his girlfriend, Fleur Simpson (Alys Daroy). Roo and Harvey later get back together and she is surprised when his ex-wife, Mel (Allison Cratchley), and daughter, Lottie (Morgan Weaving), arrive in Summer Bay.

text: Sid tells Roo that Harvey had a young son who drowned and she becomes upset that Harvey did not tell her. Harvey admits to Roo that he and the Mayor rigged the election, so he would win. Harvey is arrested and Roo stands by him. She later tells Harvey that she loves him. Roo bonds with Lottie and agrees that she can move in with her and Harvey, when Mel goes to the city. Lottie and Mel eventually leave the Bay and Harvey asks Roo to marry him. Roo's ex-boyfriend, Tim (Jonny Pasvolsky), comes to the Bay and tries to win Roo back. Harvey and Roo marry and they take in teen runaways Maddy Osborne and Spencer Harrington (Andrew Morley). Harvey sails around the world with his best friend, Winston Markman (John Batchelor). Winston returns a few months later to tell Roo that he lost Harvey. Roo holds a memorial service for Harvey and says goodbye. Roo is delighted when Harvey eventually returns. However, he cannot cope being back in the Bay, causing problems with his marriage. Roo decides the best thing for them to do is get divorced. Harvey agrees and leaves the Bay.

text: When Colleen has an accident, Roo flies to Las Vegas to care for her. On her return, she becomes ill and collapses. She is diagnosed with meningitis and has to have fluid removed from her brain, but she shows no improvement. Nate Cooper (Kyle Pryor) discovers growths on her brain and her family learn that Roo went to Peru, where she had suffered a reaction to her inoculations. Roo is given antiviral drugs and recovers. Roo plans Marilyn and John's wedding. At the reception, she is informed that Maddy has stolen her credit card to buy clothes. Maddy is later fired from the gym for stealing and Roo pays off her debt, preferring that Maddy owes her instead. When Maddy learns that she has ovarian cancer, Roo supports her through her treatment. Alf collapses during a school field trip to a war memorial and he is diagnosed with post traumatic stress disorder. He experiences mood swings and Roo encourages him to speak to a therapist. James Edmunds (Myles Pollard) returns to the Bay and offers Roo a job as a lecturer at the university. She and James get on well and begin dating. Roo and Maddy then move in with James. He later proposes to her and she accepts. James and Roo try to get married quickly, but their wedding is stopped by Alf who thinks James lied about where he used to work. James and Roo then decide to put the wedding on hold. Roo later discovers James is already married with children, and has been lying to her all along. She calls off their engagement, but continues her relationship with him. After James confesses to Roo that he also lied to her about his parents being alive, she finally breaks up with him.

text: When Roo visits her brother Duncan in Hawaii, she meets James Mayvers (Tim Ross) and they begin a relationship. Roo initially tries to keep the relationship a secret due to the age gap between them, but Morag soon catches them together. Roo faints and is convinced by Morag that she is going through the menopause. However, she soon learns she is pregnant. James tells Roo that he does not want children and asks her to have an abortion, but she refuses and decides to the raise the child as a single parent. James's father David Mayvers (Noel Hodda) offers Roo $250,000 with the condition that she or her child does not contact James. Roo turns the offer down. While driving back from the pharmacy, she collapses in pain. Nate and Tori Morgan (Penny McNamee) find her and diagnose a ruptured ectopic pregnancy. She undergoes surgery, but loses the baby. Roo leaves town to try and find Martha, but she is unsuccessful and returns home.

text: Reception[edit]

text: A writer for Ausculture named Roo fifth on their Top Ten Aussie Soap Villains list.[15] They called Roo "evil" for trying to break up Alf's relationship with Ailsa, lying to and trying to marry Frank, leaving him at the altar and later having an affair with him.[15] They added "If she hadn't already left town, I wouldn't have been surprised to hear that she was driving the speedboat that struck down Summer Bay's beloved butch Bobby and killed her. On the plus side, she does have the rather hilarious name of 'Roo'."[15] Andrew Mercado described Roo as Alf Stewart's (Ray Meagher) "Minxy teenage daughter" in his book, Super Aussie soaps: behind the scenes of Australia's best loved TV shows.[16] A TV Week columnist describe Roo as "Summer Bay's original spoilt brat" who was never very far from drama.[10]

text:
A Holy Soap writer stated that Roo's most memorable moment was "Bowling over her dad Alf by unexpectedly arriving back in Summer Bay after more than two decades away."[17] The Herald Sun said Roo is "Manipulative, mysterious and returned from living what she claims was the high life in New York", they predicted that her motives for returning to the Bay would puzzle viewers.[18] When she slept with Miles, The Sun's television magazine Buzz said: "Will she ever give up her wild-child way?"[19]
Jaci Stephen writing for the Daily Mail highlighted the fact that Roo and Sid were fighting an attraction for one another. She said she could guess they would give into their desires in a number of "days rather than weeks."[20] Laura Morgan writing for All About Soap hoped Roo would not steal Sid from Marilyn and said: "Keep your hands off that Sid, Roo!"[21] When Roo finds happiness with Harvey, Stephen predicted that it would take one week before Roo became unhappy again.[22]


document_title: Indian National Congress

question_text: who presided the first session of indian national congress

question_tokens: who presided the first session of indian national congress

text: Indian National Congress

text: History

text: The history of the Indian National Congress (INC) falls into two distinct eras:

text:
The pre-independence era, when the party was the umbrella organisation leading the campaign for independence;
The post-independence era, when the party has had a prominent place in Indian politics.

text: Pre-independence

text: Foundation

text: The Indian National Congress conducted its first session in Bombay from 28–31 December 1885 at the initiative of retired Civil service officer Allan Octavian Hume. In 1883, Hume had outlined his idea for a body representing Indian interests in an open letter to graduates of the University of Calcutta.[24][25] Its aim was to obtain a greater share in government for educated Indians, and to create a platform for civic and political dialogue between them and the British Raj. Hume took the initiative, and in March 1885 a notice convening the first meeting of the Indian National Union to be held in Poona the following December was issued.[26] Due to a cholera outbreak there, it was moved to Bombay.[27][24][28]

text: Hume organised the first meeting in Bombay with the approval of the Viceroy Lord Dufferin. Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee was the first president of Congress; the first session was attended by 72 delegates. Representing each province of India.[29][30] Notable representatives included Scottish ICS officer William Wedderburn, Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta of the Bombay Presidency Association, Ganesh Vasudeo Joshi of the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, social reformer and newspaper editor Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, Justice K. T. Telang, N. G. Chandavarkar, Dinshaw Wacha, Behramji Malabari, journalist and activist Gooty Kesava Pillai, and P. Rangaiah Naidu of the Madras Mahajana Sabha.[31][32] This small elite group, unrepresentative of the Indian masses at the time,[33] functioned more as a stage for elite Indian ambitions than a political party for the first decade of its existence.[34]

text: Early years

text: At the beginning of the 20th century,Congress' demands became more radical in the face of constant opposition from the British government, and the party decided to advocate in favour of the independence movement because it would allow a new political system in which Congress could be a major party. By 1905, a division opened between the moderates led by Gokhale, who downplayed public agitation, and the new extremists who advocated agitation, and regarded the pursuit of social reform as a distraction from nationalism. Bal Gangadhar Tilak, who tried to mobilise Hindu Indians by appealing to an explicitly Hindu political identity displayed in the annual public Ganapati festivals he inaugurated in western India, was prominent among the extremists.[35]

text: Congress included a number of prominent political figures. Dadabhai Naoroji, a member of the sister Indian National Association, was elected president of the party in 1886 and was the first Indian Member of Parliament in the British House of Commons (1892–1895). Congress also included Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and Mohammed Ali Jinnah. Jinnah was a member of the moderate group in the Congress, favouring Hindu–Muslim unity in achieving self-government.[36] Later he became the leader of the Muslim League and instrumental in the creation of Pakistan. Congress was transformed into a mass movement by Surendranath Banerjea during the partition of Bengal in 1905, and the resultant Swadeshi movement.[32]

text: Congress as a mass movement

text: Mahatma Gandhi returned from South Africa in 1915. With the help of the moderate group led by Ghokhale, Gandhi became president of Congress. After the First World War, the party became associated with Gandhi, who remained its unofficial spiritual leader and icon.[37] He formed an alliance with the Khilafat Movement in 1920 to fight for preservation of the Ottoman Caliphate, and rights for Indians using civil disobedience or satyagraha as the tool for agitation.[38] In 1923, after the deaths of policemen at Chauri Chaura, Gandhi suspended the agitation. In protest, a number of leaders, Chittaranjan Das, Annie Besant, and Motilal Nehru, resigned to set up the Swaraj Party. The Khilafat movement collapsed and Congress was split.[39]

text: The rise of Gandhi's popularity and his satyagraha art of revolution led to support from Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Khan Mohammad Abbas Khan, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, Chakravarti Rajgopalachari, Dr. Anugraha Narayan Sinha, Jayaprakash Narayan, Jivatram Kripalani, and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad. As a result of prevailing nationalism, Gandhi's popularity, and the party's attempts at eradicating caste differences, untouchability, poverty, and religious and ethnic divisions, Congress became a forceful and dominant group. Although its members were predominantly Hindu, it had members from other religions, economic classes, and ethnic and linguistic groups.[40]

text: At the Congress 1929 Lahore session under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, Purna Swaraj (complete independence) was declared as the party's goal, declaring 26 January 1930 as "Purna Swaraj Diwas" (Independence Day). The same year, Srinivas Iyenger was expelled from the party for demanding full independence, not just home rule as demanded by Gandhi.[41]

text: After the passage of the Government of India Act of 1935, provincial elections were held in India in the winter of 1936–37 in eleven provinces: Madras, Central Provinces, Bihar, Orissa, United Provinces, Bombay Presidency, Assam, NWFP, Bengal, Punjab, and Sindh. After contesting these elections, the Indian National Congress gained power in eight of them except Bengal, Punjab, and Sindh. The All-India Muslim League failed to form a government in any province.[42] Congress ministries resigned in October and November 1939 in protest against Viceroy Lord Linlithgow's declaration that India was a belligerent in the Second World War without consulting the Indian people.[43]

text: In 1939, Subhas Chandra Bose, the elected president in both 1938 and 1939, resigned from Congress over the selection of the working committee. The party was not the sole representative of the Indian polity, other parties included the Hindu Mahasabha, and the Forward Bloc.[44] The party was an umbrella organisation, sheltering radical socialists, traditionalists, and Hindu and Muslim conservatives. Gandhi expelled all the socialist groupings, including the Congress Socialist Party, the Krishak Praja Party, and the Swarajya Party, along with Subhas Chandra Bose, in 1939.[37]

text: Azad Hind, an Indian provisional government, had been established in Singapore in 1943, and was supported by Japan.[45][46]

text: In 1946, the British tried the Indian soldiers who had fought alongside the Japanese during World War II in the INA trials. In response, Congress helped form the INA Defence Committee, which assembled a legal team to defend the case of the soldiers of the Azad Hind government. The team included several famous lawyers, including Bhulabhai Desai, Asaf Ali, and Jawaharlal Nehru.[47] The same year, Congress members initially supported the sailors who led the Royal Indian Navy mutiny, but they withdrew support at a critical juncture and the mutiny failed.[48][49]

text: Post-independence

text: After Indian independence in 1947, the Indian National Congress became the dominant political party in the country. In 1952, in the first general election held after Independence, the party swept to power in the national parliament and most state legislatures. It held power nationally until 1977, when it was defeated by the Janata coalition. It returned to power in 1980 and ruled until 1989, when it was once again defeated. The party formed the government in 1991 at the head of a coalition, as well as in 2004 and 2009, when it led the United Progressive Alliance. During this period the Congress remained centre-left in its social policies while steadily shifting from a socialist to a neoliberal economic outlook.[50] The Party's rivals at state level have been national parties including the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPIM), and various regional parties, such as the Telugu Desam Party, Trinamool Congress and Aam Aadmi Party.[51]

text: A post-partition successor to the party survived as the Pakistan National Congress, a party which represented the rights of religious minorities in the state. The party's support was strongest in the Bengali-speaking province of East Pakistan. After the Bangladeshi War of Independence, it became known as the Bangladeshi National Congress, but was dissolved in 1975 by the government.[52][53][52][54]

text: Nehru/Shastri era (1947–1966)

text: From 1951 until his death in 1964, Jawaharlal Nehru was the paramount leader of the party. Congress gained power in landslide victories in the general elections of 1951–52, 1957, and 1962.[55] During his tenure, Nehru implemented policies based on import substitution industrialisation, and advocated a mixed economy where the government-controlled public sector co-existed with the private sector.[56] He believed the establishment of basic and heavy industries was fundamental to the development and modernisation of the Indian economy.[55] The Nehru government directed investment primarily into key public sector industries—steel, iron, coal, and power—promoting their development with subsidies and protectionist policies.[56] Nehru embraced secularism, socialistic economic practices based on state-driven industrialisation, and a non-aligned and non-confrontational foreign policy that became typical of the modern Congress Party.[57] The policy of non-alignment during the Cold War meant Nehru received financial and technical support from both the Eastern and Western Blocs to build India's industrial base from nothing.[58][59]

text: During his period in office, there were four known assassination attempts on Nehru.[60] The first attempt on his life was during partition in 1947 while he was visiting the North-West Frontier Province in a car. The second was by a knife-wielding rickshaw-puller in Maharashtra in 1955.[61] A third attempt happened in Bombay in 1956.[62] The fourth was a failed bombing attempt on railway tracks in Maharashtra in 1961.[60] Despite threats to his life, Nehru despised having excess security personnel around him and did not like his movements to disrupt traffic.[60]

text: In 1964, Nehru died because of an aortic dissection, raising questions about the party's future.[63][64][65]

text: K. Kamaraj became the president of the All India Congress Committee in 1963 during the last year of Nehru's life.[66] Prior to that, he had been the chief minister of Madras state for nine years.[67] Kamraj had also been a member of "the syndicate", a group of right wing leaders within Congress.In 1963 the Congress lost popularity following the defeat in the Indo-Chinese war of 1962.To revitalize the party, Kamraj proposed the Kamaraj Plan to Nehru that encouraged six Congress chief ministers (including himself) and six senior cabinet ministers to resign to take up party work.[68][69][70] After Nehru's death in May 1964, Kamaraj was widely credited as the "kingmaker" in Indian politics for ensuring the victory of Lal Bahadur Shastri over Morarji Desai as the successor of Nehru.[71]

text: As prime minister, Shastri retained many members of Nehru's Council of Ministers; T. T. Krishnamachari was retained as Finance Minister of India, as was Defence Minister Yashwantrao Chavan.[72] Shastri appointed Swaran Singh to succeed him as External Affairs Minister.[73] Shashtri appointed Indira Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru's daughter and former party president, Minister of Information and Broadcasting.[74] Gulzarilal Nanda continued as the Minister of Home Affairs.[75] As Prime Minister, Shastri continued Nehru's policy of non-alignment,[76] but built closer relations with the Soviet Union. In the aftermath of the Sino-Indian War of 1962, and the formation of military ties between China and Pakistan, Shastri's government expanded the defence budget of India's armed forces. He also promoted the White Revolution—a national campaign to increase the production and supply of milk by creating the National Dairy Development Board.[77] The Madras anti-Hindi agitation of 1965 occurred during Shastri's tenure.[78][79]

text: Shastri became a national hero following victory in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965.[80] His slogan, "Jai Jawan Jai Kisan" ("Hail the soldier, Hail the farmer"), became very popular during the war.[81] On 11 January 1966, a day after signing the Tashkent Declaration, Shastri died in Tashkent, reportedly of a heart attack; but the circumstances of his death remain mysterious.[82][83][84]

text: Indira era (1966–1984)

text: After Shastri's death, Congress elected Indira Gandhi as leader over Morarji Desai. Once again, politician K. Kamaraj was instrumental in achieving this result. In 1967, following a poor performance in the general election, Indira Gandhi started moving towards the political left. In mid-1969, she was involved in a dispute with senior party leaders on a number of issues. The two major issues were Gandhi supporting the independent candidate, V. V. Giri, rather than the official Congress party candidate, Neelam Sanjiva Reddy, for the vacant post of the President of India.[85][86] The second issue was Mrs. Gandhi's abrupt nationalization of the 14 biggest banks in India, which resulted in the resignation of the finance minister, Morarji Desai. Later in the year, the Congress party president, S. Nijalingappa, expelled her from the party for indiscipline.[87][88] Mrs. Gandhi as a counter-move launched her own faction of the INC. Mrs. Gandhi's faction, called Congress (R), was supported by most of the Congress MPs while the original party had the support of only 65 MPs.[89]

text: In the mid-term parliamentary elections held in 1971, the Gandhi-led Congress (R) Party won a landslide victory on a platform of progressive policies such as the elimination of poverty (Garibi Hatao).[90] The policies of the Congress (R) Party under Gandhi before the 1971 elections included proposals to abolish the Privy Purse to former rulers of the Princely states, and the 1969 nationalisation of India's 14 largest banks.[91]

text: The New Congress Party's popular support began to wane in the mid-1970s. From 1975, Gandhi's government grew increasingly more authoritarian and unrest among the opposition grew. On 12 June 1975, the High Court of Allahabad declared Indira Gandhi's election to the Lok Sabha, the lower house of India's parliament, void on the grounds of electoral malpractice.[92] However, Gandhi rejected calls to resign and announced plans to appeal to the Supreme Court. She moved to restore order by ordering the arrest of most of the opposition participating in the unrest. In response to increasing disorder and lawlessness, Gandhi's cabinet and government recommended that President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed declare a State of Emergency, which he did on 25 June 1975 based on the provisions of Article 352 of the Constitution.[93]

text: During the nineteen-month emergency, widespread oppression and abuse of power by Gandhi's unelected younger son and political heir Sanjay Gandhi and his close associates occurred.[94][95][96] This period of oppression ended on 23 January 1977, when Gandhi released all political prisoners and called fresh elections for the Lok Sabha to be held in March.[97] The Emergency officially ended on 23 March 1977.[98] In that month's parliamentary elections, the opposition Janata Party won a landslide victory over Congress, winning 295 seats in the Lok Sabha against Congress' 153. Gandhi lost her seat to her Janata opponent Raj Narain. On 2 January 1978, she and her followers seceded and formed a new opposition party, popularly called Congress (I)—the I signifying Indira. During the next year, her new party attracted enough members of the legislature to become the official opposition.[99]

text: In November 1978, Gandhi regained a parliamentary seat. In January 1980, following a landslide victory for Congress (I), she was again elected prime minister.[100] The national election commission declared Congress (I) to be the real Indian National Congress for the 1984 general election.However, the designation I was only dropped in 1996.[101][102][103]

text: During Gandhi's new term as prime minister, her youngest son Sanjay died in an aeroplane crash in June 1980.[104][105] This led her to encourage her elder son Rajiv, who was working as a pilot, to enter politics. Gradually, Indira Gandhi's politics and outlook grew more authoritarian and autocratic, and she became the central figure within the Congress Party. As prime minister, she became known for her political ruthlessness and unprecedented centralisation of power.[106]

text: Gandhi's term as prime minister also saw increasing turmoil in Punjab, with demands for Sikh autonomy by Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale and his militant followers.[107] In 1983, they headquartered themselves in the Golden Temple in Amritsar and started accumulating weapons.[108] In June 1984, after several futile negotiations, Gandhi ordered the Indian Army to enter the Golden Temple to establish control over the complex and remove Bhindranwale and his armed followers. This event is known as Operation Blue Star.[109]

text: On 31 October 1984, two of Gandhi's bodyguards, Satwant Singh and Beant Singh, shot her with their service weapons in the garden of the prime minister's residence in response to her authorisation of Operation Blue Star.[108] Gandhi was due to be interviewed by British actor Peter Ustinov, who was filming a documentary for Irish television.[110] Her assassination prompted the 1984 anti-Sikh riots, during which more than 3,000 people were killed.[111]

text: Rajiv Gandhi and Rao era (1985–1998)

text: In 1984, Indira Gandhi's son Rajiv Gandhi became nominal head of Congress, and went on to become prime minister upon her assassination.[112] In December, he led Congress to a landslide victory, where it secured 401 seats in the legislature.[113] His administration took measures to reform the government bureaucracy and liberalise the country's economy.[114] Rajiv Gandhi's attempts to discourage separatist movements in Punjab and Kashmir backfired. After his government became embroiled in several financial scandals, his leadership became increasingly ineffectual.[115] Gandhi was regarded as a non-abrasive person who consulted other party members and refrained from hasty decisions.[116] The Bofors scandal damaged his reputation as an honest politician, but he was posthumously cleared of bribery allegations in 2004.[117] On 21 May 1991, Gandhi was killed by a bomb concealed in a basket of flowers carried by a woman associated with the Tamil Tigers.[118] He was campaigning in Tamil Nadu for upcoming parliamentary elections. In 1998, an Indian court convicted 26 people in the conspiracy to assassinate Gandhi.[119] The conspirators, who consisted of Tamil militants from Sri Lanka and their Indian allies, had sought revenge against Gandhi because the Indian troops he sent to Sri Lanka in 1987 to help enforce a peace accord there had fought with Tamil separatist guerrillas.[120][121]

text: Rajiv Gandhi was succeeded as party leader by P. V. Narasimha Rao, who was elected prime minister in June 1991.[122] His rise to the prime ministership was politically significant because he was the first holder of the office from South India. His administration oversaw major economic change and experienced several home incidents that affected India's national security.[123] Rao, who held the Industries portfolio, was personally responsible for the dismantling of the Licence Raj, which came under the purview of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry.[124] He is often called the "father of Indian economic reforms".[125][126]

text: Future prime ministers Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Manmohan Singh continued the economic reform policies begun by Rao's government. Rao accelerated the dismantling of the Licence Raj, reversing the socialist policies of previous governments.[127][128] He employed Manmohan Singh as his finance minister to begin a historic economic change. With Rao's mandate, Singh launched India's globalisation reforms that involved implementing International Monetary Fund (IMF) policies to prevent India's impending economic collapse.[124] Rao was also referred to as Chanakya for his ability to push tough economic and political legislation through the parliament while he headed a minority government.[129][130]

text: By 1996, the party's image was suffering from allegations of corruption, and in elections that year, Congress was reduced to 140 seats, its lowest number in the Lok Sabha to that point. Rao later resigned as prime minister and, in September, as party president.[131] He was succeeded as president by Sitaram Kesri, the party's first non-Brahmin leader.[132]

text: Modern era

text: The 1998 general election saw Congress win 141 seats in the Lok Sabha, its lowest tally until then.[133] To boost its popularity and improve its performance in the forthcoming election, Congress leaders urged Sonia Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi's widow, to assume leadership of the party. She had previously declined offers to become actively involved in party affairs, and had stayed away from politics. After her election as party leader, a section of the party that objected to the choice because of her Italian ethnicity broke away and formed the Nationalist Congress Party (NCP), led by Sharad Pawar. The breakaway faction commanded strong support in the state of Maharashtra and limited support elsewhere. The remainder continued to be known as the Indian National Congress.[134]

text: Sonia Gandhi struggled to revive the party in her early years as its president; she was under continuous scrutiny for her foreign birth and lack of political acumen. In the snap elections called by the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) government in 1999, Congress' tally further plummeted to just 114 seats.[135] Although the leadership structure was unaltered as the party campaigned strongly in the assembly elections that followed, Gandhi began to make such strategic changes as abandoning the party's 1998 Pachmarhi resolution of ekla chalo, or "go it alone" policy, and formed alliances with other like-minded parties. In the intervening years, the party was successful at various legislative assembly elections; at one point, Congress ruled 15 states.[136] For the 2004 general election, Congress forged alliances with regional parties including the NCP and the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam.[137] The party's campaign emphasised social inclusion and the welfare of the common masses—an ideology that Gandhi herself endorsed for Congress during her presidency—with slogans such as Congress ka haath, aam aadmi ke saath ("Congress hand in hand with the common man"), contrasting with the NDA's "India Shining" campaign.[135][138][139][140][141] The Congress-led United Progressive Alliance (UPA) won 222 seats in the new parliament, defeating the NDA by a substantial margin. With the subsequent support of the communist front, Congress won a majority and formed a new government. Despite massive support from within the party, Gandhi declined the post of prime minister, choosing to appoint Manmohan Singh instead. She remained as party president and headed the National Advisory Council (NAC).[142]

text: During its first term in office, the UPA government passed several social reform bills. These included an employment guarantee bill, the Right to Information Act, and a right to education act. The NAC, as well as the Left Front that supported the government from the outside, were widely seen as being the driving force behind such legislation. The Left Front withdrew its support of the government over disagreements about the U.S.–India Civil Nuclear Agreement. Despite the effective loss of 62 seats in parliament, the government survived the trust vote that followed.[143] In the Lok Sabha elections held soon after, Congress won 207 seats, the highest tally of any party since 1991. The UPA as a whole won 262, enabling it to form a government for the second time. The social welfare policies of the first UPA government, and the perceived divisiveness of the BJP, are broadly credited with the victory.[144]

text: By the 2014 Lok Sabha elections, the party had lost much of its popular support, mainly because of several years of poor economic conditions in the country, and growing discontent over a series of corruption allegations involving government officials, including the 2G spectrum case and the Indian coal allocation scam.[145][146] Congress won only 44 seats,[147] which was its worst-ever performance in a national election and brought into question whether it would continue to be identified as an officially recognised party.[148] Gandhi retired as party president in December 2017, having served for a record nineteen years. She was succeeded by her son Rahul Gandhi.[140]

text: Election symbols

text: As of 2014, the election symbol of Congress, as approved by the Election Commission of India, is an image of a right hand with its palm facing front and its fingers pressed together;[149] this is usually shown in the centre of a tricolor flag. The hand symbol was first used by Indira Gandhi when she split from the Congress (R) faction following the 1977 elections and created the New Congress (I).[150]

text: The symbol of the original Congress during elections held between 1952 and 1971 was an image of two bullocks with a plough.[151] The symbol of Indira's Congress (R) during the 1971–1977 period was a cow with a suckling calf.[152]

text: In general elections

text:
Year

Legislature

Leader

Seats won

Change in # of seats

Percentage of vote

Vote swing

Outcome

1934

5th Central Legislative Assembly

Bhulabhai Desai

42 / 147

 42

N/A

1945

6th Central Legislative Assembly

Sarat Chandra Bose

59 / 102

 17

Interim Government of India (1946-1947)

1951

1st Lok Sabha

Jawaharlal Nehru

364 / 489

44.99%

Government

1957

2nd Lok Sabha

Jawaharlal Nehru

371 / 494

7

47.78%

 2.79%

Government

1962

3rd Lok Sabha

Jawaharlal Nehru

361 / 494

10

44.72%

 3.06%

Government

1967

4th Lok Sabha

Indira Gandhi

283 / 520

78

40.78%

 2.94%

Government

1971

5th Lok Sabha

Indira Gandhi

352 / 518

69

43.68%

 2.90%

Government

1977

6th Lok Sabha

Indira Gandhi

153 / 542

199

34.52%

 9.16%

Opposition

1980

7th Lok Sabha

Indira Gandhi

351 / 542

 198

42.69%

 8.17%

Government

1984

8th Lok Sabha

Rajiv Gandhi

415 / 533

 64

49.01%

 6.32%

Government

1989

9th Lok Sabha

Rajiv Gandhi

197 / 545

218

39.53%

 9.48%

Opposition

1991

10th Lok Sabha

P.V. Narasimha Rao

244 / 545

 47

35.66%

 3.87%

Government

1996

11th Lok Sabha

P. V. Narasimha Rao

140 / 545

 104

28.80%

 7.46%

Opposition, later outside support for UF

1998

12th Lok Sabha

Sitaram Kesri

141 / 545

 1

25.82%

 2.98%

Opposition

1999

13th Lok Sabha

Sonia Gandhi

114 / 545

 27

28.30%

 2.48%

Opposition

2004

14th Lok Sabha

Sonia Gandhi

145 / 543

 32

26.7%

 1.6%

Government

2009

15th Lok Sabha

Manmohan Singh

206 / 543

 61

28.55%

 2.02%

Government

2014

16th Lok Sabha

Rahul Gandhi

44 / 543

 162

19.3%

 9.25%

Opposition

text: Current structure and composition

text: Congress was structured in a hierarchical manner by Mohandas Gandhi's when he took charge as the president of the party in 1921.[153] The party was a "broad church" during the independence movement; however, Jawarlal Nehru's descendants have turned the party into a "family firm" with hereditary succession.[154] At present, the president and the All India Congress Committee (AICC) are elected by delegates from state and district parties at an annual national conference; in every Indian state and union territory—or pradesh—there is a Pradesh Congress Committee (PCC), which is the state-level unit of the party responsible for directing political campaigns at local and state levels, and assisting the campaigns for parliamentary constituencies.[155] Each PCC has a working committee of twenty members, most of whom are appointed by the party president, the leader of the state party, who is chosen by the national president. Those elected as members of the states' legislative assemblies form the Congress Legislature Parties in the various state assemblies; their chairperson is usually the party's nominee for Chief Ministership. The party is also organised into various committees, and sections; it publishes a daily newspaper, the National Herald.[156] Despite being a party with a structure, Congress under Indira Gandhi did not hold any organizational elections after 1972.[157]

text: The AICC is composed of delegates sent from the PCCs.[156] The delegates elect Congress committees, including the Congress Working Committee, consisting of senior party leaders and office bearers. The AICC takes all important executive and political decisions. Since Indira Gandhi formed Congress (I) in 1978, the President of the Indian National Congress has effectively been: the party's national leader, head of the organisation, head of the Working Committee and all chief Congress committees, chief spokesman, and Congress' choice for Prime Minister of India. Constitutionally, the president is elected by the PCCs and members of the AICC; however, this procedure has often been by-passed by the Working Committee, which has elected its own candidate.[156]

text: The Congress Parliamentary Party (CPP) consists of elected MPs in the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. There is also a Congress Legislative Party (CLP) leader in each state. The CLP consists of all Congress Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs) in each state. In cases of states where the Congress is single-handedly ruling the government, the CLP leader is the Chief Minister. Other directly affiliated groups include: the National Students Union of India (NSUI), the Indian Youth Congress — the party's youth wing, the Indian National Trade Union Congress, Mahila Congress, its women's division, and Congress Seva Dal—its voluntary organisation.[158][159]

text: Dynasticism

text: Dynasticism is fairly common in many political parties in India,however,the congress can be described as dynastic party par excellence.Six members of the Nehru-Gandhi family have been presidents of the party.The party started turning into a family firm controlled by Indira Gandhi's family during the emergency.This was characterized by servility and sycophancy towards the family which later turned into hereditary succession of Gandhi family members to power.[154] Since the formation of Congress(I) by Indira Gandhi in 1978,the party president has been from her family except for the period between 1991 and 1998. In the last three elections to the Lok Sabha combined,37% of Congress party MPs had family members precede them in politics.[160]

text: State and territorial units

text:
Andaman and Nicobar PCC
Andhra Pradesh PCC
Arunachal Pradesh PCC
Assam PCC
Bihar PCC
Chandigarh PCC
Chhattisgarh PCC
Dadra and Nagar Haveli PCC
Daman and Diu PCC
Delhi PCC
Goa PCC
Gujarat PCC
Haryana PCC
Himachal Pradesh PCC
Jammu and Kashmir PCC
Jharkhand PCC
Karnataka PCC
Kerala PCC
Lakshadweep PCC
Madhya Pradesh PCC
Maharashtra PCC
Manipur PCC
Meghalaya PCC
Mizoram PCC
Nagaland PCC
Odisha PCC
Puducherry PCC
Punjab PCC
Rajasthan PCC
Sikkim PCC
Tamil Nadu PCC
Telangana PCC
Tripura PCC
Uttarakhand PCC
Uttar Pradesh PCC
West Bengal PCC

text: Ideology and policies

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text: Congress is a civic nationalist party that follows a form of nationalism that supports the values of freedom, tolerance, equality, and individual rights.[161]

text: Throughout much of the Cold War period, Congress supported a foreign policy of nonalignment that called for India to form ties with both the Western and Eastern Blocs, but to avoid formal alliances with either.[162] American support for Pakistan led the party to endorse a friendship treaty with the Soviet Union in 1971.[163] In 2004, when the Congress-led United Progressive Alliance came to power, its chairperson Sonia Gandhi unexpectedly relinquished the premiership to Manmohan Singh. This Singh-led "UPA I" government executed several key pieces of legislation and projects, including the Rural Health Mission, Unique Identification Authority, the Rural Employment Guarantee scheme, and the Right to Information Act.[164][165]

text: Economic policy

text: The history of economic policy of Congress-led governments can be divided into two periods. The first period lasted from independence, in 1947, to 1991 and put great emphasis on the public sector. The second period began with economic liberalization in 1991.

text: At the beginning of the first period, the Congress prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru implemented policies based on import substitution industrialization and advocated a mixed economy where the government-controlled public sector would co-exist with the private sector.[166] He believed that the establishment of basic and heavy industry was fundamental to the development and modernisation of the Indian economy. The government, therefore, directed investment primarily into key public-sector industries—steel, iron, coal, and power—promoting their development with subsidies and protectionist policies.[167] This period was called the Licence Raj, or Permit Raj,[168] which was the elaborate system of licences, regulations, and accompanying red tape that were required to set up and run businesses in India between 1947 and 1990.[169] The Licence Raj was a result of Nehru and his successors' desire to have a planned economy where all aspects of the economy were controlled by the state, and licences were given to a select few. Up to 80 government agencies had to be satisfied before private companies could produce something; and, if the licence were granted, the government would regulate production.[170] The licence raj system continued under Indira Gandhi.In addition,many key sectors such as banking, steel coal, and oil were nationalized.[89][171] Under Rajiv Gandhi, small steps were taken to liberalize the economy.[172]

text: In 1991, the new Congress-party government, led by P. V. Narasimha Rao, initiated reforms to avert the impending 1991 economic crisis.[126][173] The reforms progressed furthest in opening up areas to foreign investment, reforming capital markets, deregulating domestic business, and reforming the trade regime. The goals of Rao's government were to reduce the fiscal deficit, privatize the public sector, and increase investment in infrastructure. Trade reforms and changes in the regulation of foreign direct investment were introduced in order to open India to foreign trade while stabilising external loans. Rao chose Manmohan Singh for the job. Singh, an acclaimed economist and former chairman of the Resrve Bank, played a central role in implementing these reforms.

text: In 2004, Singh became prime minister of the Congress-led UPA government. Singh remained prime minister after the UPA won the 2009 general elections. The UPA government introduced policies aimed at reforming the banking and financial sectors, as well as public sector companies.[174] It also introduced  policies aimed at relieving farmers of their debt.[175] In 2005, Singh's government introduced the value added tax, replacing the sales tax. India was able to resist the worst effects of the global Economic crisis of 2008.[176][177] Singh's government continued the Golden Quadrilateral, the Indian  highway modernisation program that was initiated by Vajpayee's government.[178]

text: At present, Congress endorses a mixed economy in which the private sector and the state both direct the economy, which has characteristics of both market and planned economies. Congress advocates import substitution industrialisation—the replacement of foreign imports with domestic products. Congress believes the Indian economy should be liberalised to increase the pace of development.

text: Healthcare and education

text: In 2005, the Congress-led government started the National Rural Health Mission, which employed about 500,000 community health workers. It was praised by American economist Jeffrey Sachs.[179] In 2006, it implemented a proposal to reserve 27% of seats in the All India Institute of Medical Studies (AIIMS), the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), the Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs), and other central higher education institutions, for Other Backward Classes, which led to the 2006 Indian anti-reservation protests.[180] The Singh government also continued the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan programme, which includes the introduction and improvement of mid-day school meals and the opening of new schools throughout India, especially in rural areas, to fight illiteracy.[181] During Manmohan Singh's prime-ministership, eight Institutes of Technology were opened in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Orissa, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Himachal Pradesh.[182]

text: Security and home affairs

text: Congress has strengthened anti-terrorism laws with amendments to the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA).[183] The National Investigation Agency (India) (NIA) was created by the UPA government soon after the November 2008 Mumbai terror attacks, in response to the need for a central agency to combat terrorism.[184] The Unique Identification Authority of India was established in February 2009 to implement the proposed Multipurpose National Identity Card, with the objective of increasing national security.[185]

text: Foreign policy

text: Congress has continued the foreign policy started by P. V. Narasimha Rao. This includes the peace process with Pakistan, and the exchange of high-level visits by leaders from both countries.[186] The party has tried to end the border dispute with the People's Republic of China through negotiations.[187][188] Relations with Afghanistan have also been a concern for Congress.[189] During Afghan President Hamid Karzai's visit to New Delhi in August 2008, Manmohan Singh increased the aid package to Afghanistan for the development of schools, health clinics, infrastructure, and defence.[190] India is now one of the single largest aid donors to Afghanistan.[190]

text: When in power between 2004 and 2014, Congress worked on India's relationship with the United States. Prime Minister Manmohan Singh visited the US in July 2005 to negotiate an Indo-US civilian nuclear agreement. US President George W. Bush visited India in March 2006; during this visit, a nuclear agreement that would give India access to American nuclear fuel and technology in exchange for the IAEA inspection of its civil nuclear reactors was proposed. Over two years of negotiations, followed by approval from the IAEA, the Nuclear Suppliers Group and the US Congress, the agreement was signed on 10 October 2008.[191]

text: Congress' policy has been to cultivate friendly relations with Japan as well as European Union countries including the United Kingdom, France, and Germany.[192] Diplomatic relations with Iran have continued, and negotiations over the Iran-Pakistan-India gas pipeline have taken place.[193] In April 2006, New Delhi hosted an India–Africa summit attended by the leaders of 15 African states.[194] Congress' policy has also been to improve relations with other developing countries, particularly Brazil and South Africa.[195]

text: Presence in state governments

text: As of June 2018, Congress (INC) is in power in the states of Mizoram and Punjab where the party has majority support. In Karnataka and Puducherry it shares power with alliance partner Janata Dal (Secular) and Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam respectively. Previously, Congress governed Delhi, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Goa, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Assam, Haryana, Bihar, Meghalaya, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand & Manipur.

text: List of current INC and UPA governments

text:
State/UT

Chief Minister

Party/alliance partner

CM since

Seats in Assembly

Last election

Karnataka

H. D. Kumaraswamy (JD(S))

INC (79), JD(S) (36), BSP (1), KPJP (1), Independent (1)

23 May 2018

118/224

12 May 2018

Mizoram

Lal Thanhawla (INC)

INC (34)

11 December 2008

34/40

25 November 2013

Puducherry

V. Narayanasamy (INC)

INC (15), DMK (2)

6 June 2016

17/30

16 May 2016

Punjab

Amarinder Singh (INC)

INC (78)

16 March 2017

78/117

4 February 2017

text: List of Prime Ministers

text:
No.
Prime Ministers
Year
Duration
Constituency

1
Jawaharlal Nehru
1947–64
17 years
Phulpur

2
Gulzarilal Nanda(Acting Prime Minister)
May–June 1964; January 1966
26 days
Sabarkantha

3
Lal Bahadur Shastri
1964–66
2 years
Allahabad

4
Indira Gandhi
1966–77, 1980–84
16 years
Uttar Pradesh (Rajya Sabha), Rae Bareli, Medak

5
Rajiv Gandhi
1984–89
5 years
Amethi

6
P. V. Narasimha Rao
1991–96
5 years
Nandyal

7
Manmohan Singh
2004–14
10 years
Assam (Rajya Sabha)

text: List of Prime Ministers (former Congress members)

text: A majority of non-Congress prime ministers of India are former Congress members.

text:
No.
Prime Ministers
Year
Duration
Constituency

1
Morarji Desai
1977–79
2 years
Surat

2
Charan Singh
July 1979; January 1980
170 days
Baghpat

3
V. P. Singh
1989–90
1 year
Fatehpur

4
Chandra Shekhar
1990
223 Days
Ballia

5
H. D. Deve Gowda
1996–97
1 year
Karnataka (Rajya Sabha)

6
I. K. Gujral
1997–98
1 year
Bihar (Rajya Sabha)