document_title: Laptop

question_text: when was the first laptop invented and by whom

question_tokens: when was the first laptop invented and by whom

text: Laptop

text: Terminology variants[edit]

text: The terms laptop and notebook are used interchangeably to describe a portable computer in English, although in some parts of the world one or the other may be preferred. There is some question as to the original etymology and specificity of either term—the term laptop appears to have been coined in the early 1980s to describe a mobile computer which could be used on one's lap, and to distinguish these devices from earlier, much heavier, portable computers (informally called "luggables"). The term "notebook" appears to have gained currency somewhat later as manufacturers started producing even smaller portable devices, further reducing their weight and size and incorporating a display roughly the size of A4 paper; these were marketed as notebooks to distinguish them from bulkier laptops.[4] Regardless of the etymology, by the late 1990s, the terms were interchangeable.

text: History[edit]

text: As the personal computer (PC) became feasible in 1971, the idea of a portable personal computer soon followed. A "personal, portable information manipulator" was imagined by Alan Kay at Xerox PARC in 1968,[5] and described in his 1972 paper as the "Dynabook".[6] The IBM Special Computer APL Machine Portable (SCAMP) was demonstrated in 1973. This prototype was based on the IBM PALM processor.[7] The IBM 5100, the first commercially available portable computer, appeared in September 1975, and was based on the SCAMP prototype.[8]

text: As 8-bit CPU machines became widely accepted, the number of portables increased rapidly. The first laptop-sized notebook computer was the Epson HX-20,[9][10] invented (patented) by Suwa Seikosha's Yukio Yokozawa in July 1980,[11] introduced at the COMDEX computer show in Las Vegas by Japanese company Seiko Epson in 1981,[12][10] and widely released in 1982.[10][13] It had an LCD screen, a rechargeable battery, and a calculator-size printer, in a 1.6 kg (3.5 lb) chassis, the size of an A4 notebook.[10] It was described as a "laptop" and "notebook" computer in its patent.[11]

text: The portable micro computer Portal of the French company R2E Micral CCMC officially appeared in September 1980 at the Sicob show in PARIS. It was a portable microcomputer designed and marketed by the studies and developments department of R2E Micral at the request of company CCMC specializing in payroll and accounting. It was based on an Intel 8085 processor, 8-bit, clocked at 2 MHZ. It was equipped with a central 64K bite Ram, a keyboard with 58 alpha numeric keys and 11 numeric keys ( separate blocks ), a 32-character screen, a floppy disk : capacity = 140 000 characters, of a thermal printer : speed = 28 characters / second, an asynchronous channel, a synchronous channel, a 220V power supply. It weighed 12 kg and its dimensions were 45cm x 45cm x 15cm. It provided total mobility. Its operating system was Prologue.

text: The Osborne 1, released in 1981, was a luggable computer that used the Zilog Z80 and weighed 24.5 pounds (11.1 kg).[14] It had no battery, a 5 in (13 cm) cathode ray tube (CRT) screen, and dual 5.25 in (13.3 cm) single-density floppy drives. Both Tandy/RadioShack and Hewlett Packard (HP) also produced portable computers of varying designs during this period.[15][16] The first laptops using the flip form factor appeared in the early 1980s. The Dulmont Magnum was released in Australia in 1981–82, but was not marketed internationally until 1984–85. The US$8,150 (US$20,230 today) GRiD Compass 1101, released in 1982, was used at NASA and by the military, among others. The Sharp PC-5000,[17] Ampere[18] and Gavilan SC released in 1983. The Gavilan SC was described as a "laptop" by its manufacturer,[19] while the Ampere had a modern clamshell design.[18][20] The Toshiba T1100 won acceptance not only among PC experts but the mass market as a way to have PC portability.[21]

text: From 1983 onward, several new input techniques were developed and included in laptops, including the touchpad (Gavilan SC, 1983), the pointing stick (IBM ThinkPad 700, 1992), and handwriting recognition (Linus Write-Top,[22] 1987). Some CPUs, such as the 1990 Intel i386SL, were designed to use minimum power to increase battery life of portable computers and were supported by dynamic power management features such as Intel SpeedStep and AMD PowerNow! in some designs.

text: Displays reached 640x480 (VGA) resolution by 1988 (Compaq SLT/286), and color screens started becoming a common upgrade in 1991, with increases in resolution and screen size occurring frequently until the introduction of 17" screen laptops in 2003. Hard drives started to be used in portables, encouraged by the introduction of 3.5" drives in the late 1980s, and became common in laptops starting with the introduction of 2.5" and smaller drives around 1990; capacities have typically lagged behind physically larger desktop drives. Optical storage, read-only CD-ROM followed by writeable CD and later read-only or writeable DVD and Blu-ray players, became common in laptops early in the 2000s.

text: Types[edit]

text: Since the introduction of portable computers during late 1970s, their form has changed significantly, spawning a variety of visually and technologically differing subclasses. Except where there is a distinct legal trademark around a term (notably Ultrabook), there are rarely hard distinctions between these classes and their usage has varied over time and between different sources. Despite these setbacks, the laptop computer market continues to expand, introducing a number of laptops like Acer's Aspire and TravelMate, Asus' Transformer Book, VivoBook and Zenbook, Dell's Inspiron, Latitude and XPS, HP's EliteBook, Envy, Pavilion and ProBook, Lenovo's IdeaPad and ThinkPad and Toshiba's Portégé, Satellite and Tecra that incorporate the use of laptop computers.

text: Traditional laptop[edit]

text: The form of the traditional laptop computer is a clamshell, with a screen on one of its inner sides and a keyboard on the opposite, facing the screen. It can be easily folded to conserve space while traveling. The screen and keyboard are inaccessible while closed. Devices of this form are commonly called a 'traditional laptop' or notebook, particularly if they have a screen size of 11 to 17 inches measured diagonally and run a full-featured operating system like Windows 10, macOS, or Linux. Traditional laptops are the most common form of laptops, although Chromebooks, Ultrabooks, convertibles and 2-in-1s (described below) are becoming more common, with similar performance being achieved in their more portable or affordable forms.

text: Subnotebook[edit]

text: A subnotebook or an ultraportable, is a laptop designed and marketed with an emphasis on portability (small size, low weight, and often longer battery life). Subnotebooks are usually smaller and lighter than standard laptops, weighing between 0.8 and 2 kg (2-5 lb),[23] with a battery life exceeding 10 hours.[24] Since the introduction of netbooks and ultrabooks, the line between subnotebooks and either category has blurred. Netbooks are a more basic and cheap type of subnotebook, and while some ultrabooks have a screen size too large to qualify as subnotebooks, certain ultrabooks fit in the subnotebook category. One notable example of a subnotebook is the Apple MacBook Air.

text: Netbook[edit]

text: The netbook is an inexpensive, light-weight, energy-efficient form of laptop, especially suited for wireless communication and Internet access.[25][26] Netbooks first became commercially available around 2008, weighing under 1 kg, with a display size of under 9". The name netbook (with net short for Internet) is used as "the device excels in web-based computing performance".[27] Netbooks were initially sold with light-weight variants of the Linux operating system, although later versions often have the Windows XP or Windows 7 operating systems. The term "netbook" is largely obsolete,[28] although machines that would have once been called netbooks—small, inexpensive, and low powered—never ceased being sold, in particular the smaller Chromebook models.

text: Convertible, hybrid, 2-in-1[edit]

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text: The latest trend of technological convergence in the portable computer industry spawned a broad range of devices, with a combined features of several previously separate device types. The hybrids, convertibles and 2-in-1s emerged as crossover devices, which share traits of both tablets and laptops. All such devices have a touchscreen display designed to allow users to work in a tablet mode, using either multi-touch gestures or a stylus/digital pen.

text: Convertibles are devices with the ability to conceal a hardware keyboard. Keyboards on such devices can be flipped, rotated, or slid behind the back of the chassis, thus transforming from a laptop into a tablet. Hybrids have a keyboard detachment mechanism, and due to this feature, all critical components are situated in the part with the display. 2-in-1s can have a hybrid or a convertible form, often dubbed 2-in-1 detachables and 2-in-1 convertibles respectively, but are distinguished by the ability to run a desktop OS, such as Windows 10. 2-in-1s are often marketed as laptop replacement tablets.

text: 2-in-1s are often very thin, around 10 millimetres (0.39 in), and light devices with a long battery life. 2-in-1s are distinguished from mainstream tablets as they feature an x86-architecture CPU (typically a low- or ultra-low-voltage model), such as the Intel Core i5, run a full-featured desktop OS like Windows 10, and have a number of typical laptop I/O ports, such as USB 3 and Mini DisplayPort.

text: 2-in-1s are designed to be used not only as a media consumption device, but also as valid desktop or laptop replacements, due to their ability to run desktop applications, such as Adobe Photoshop. It is possible to connect multiple peripheral devices, such as a mouse, keyboard, and a number of external displays to a modern 2-in-1.

text: Microsoft Surface Pro-series devices and Surface Book are examples of modern 2-in-1 detachables, whereas Lenovo Yoga-series computers are a variant of 2-in-1 convertibles. While the older Surface RT and Surface 2 have the same chassis design as the Surface Pro, their use of ARM processors and Windows RT do not classify them as 2-in-1s, but as hybrid tablets. Similarly, a number of hybrid laptops run a mobile operating system, such as Android. These include Asus's Transformer Pad devices, examples of hybrids with a detachable keyboard design, which do not fall in the category of 2-in-1s.

text: Desktop replacement[edit]

text: A desktop-replacement laptop is a class of large device which is not intended primarily for mobile use. They are bulkier and not as portable as other laptops, and are intended for use as compact and transportable alternatives to a desktop computer.[29] Desktop replacements are larger and typically heavier than other classes of laptops. They are capable of containing more powerful components and have a 15-inch or larger display.[29] Desktop replacement laptops' operation time on batteries is typically shorter than other laptops; in rare cases they have no battery at all. In the past, some laptops in this class used a limited range of desktop components to provide better performance for the same price at the expense of battery life, although this practice has largely died out.[30] The names Media Center Laptops and Gaming Laptops are used to describe specialized notebook computers, often overlapping with the desktop replacement form factor.[23]

text: Rugged laptop[edit]

text: A rugged laptop is designed to reliably operate in harsh usage conditions such as strong vibrations, extreme temperatures, and wet or dusty environments. Rugged laptops are usually designed from scratch, rather than adapted from regular consumer laptop models. Rugged laptops are bulkier, heavier, and much more expensive than regular laptops,[31] and thus are seldom seen in regular consumer use.

text: The design features found in rugged laptops include a rubber sheeting under the keyboard keys, sealed port and connector covers, passive cooling, very bright displays easily readable in daylight, cases and frames made of magnesium alloys that are much stronger than plastics found in commercial laptops, and solid-state storage devices or hard disc drives that are shock mounted to withstand constant vibrations. Rugged laptops are commonly used by public safety services (police, fire, and medical emergency), military, utilities, field service technicians, construction, mining, and oil drilling personnel. Rugged laptops are usually sold to organizations rather than individuals, and are rarely marketed via retail channels.

text: Business laptop[edit]

text: A business laptop is a laptop designed for those in a workplace. Typically, it is ruggedised, with consumer facing features, like high resolution sound removed to allow the device to be used for pure productivity.

text: Hardware[edit]

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text: The basic components of laptops function identically to their desktop counterparts. Traditionally they were miniaturized and adapted to mobile use, although desktop systems increasingly use the same smaller, lower-power parts which were originally developed for mobile use. The design restrictions on power, size, and cooling of laptops limit the maximum performance of laptop parts compared to that of desktop components, although that difference has increasingly narrowed.[32]

text: In general, laptop components are not intended to be replaceable or upgradable, with the exception of components which can be detached, such as a battery or CD/CDR/DVD drive. This restriction is one of the major differences between laptops and desktop computers, because the large "tower" cases used in desktop computers are designed so that new motherboards, hard disks, sound cards, RAM, and other components can be added. In a very compact laptop, such as laplets, there may be no upgradeable components at all.[33]

text: Intel, Asus, Compal, Quanta, and some other laptop manufacturers have created the Common Building Block standard for laptop parts to address some of the inefficiencies caused by the lack of standards and inability to upgrade components.[34]

text: The following sections summarizes the differences and distinguishing features of laptop components in comparison to desktop personal computer parts.[35]

text: Display[edit]

text: Most modern laptops feature a 13 inches (33 cm) or larger color active matrix display based on LED lighting with resolutions of 1280×800 (16:10) or 1366×768 (16:9) pixels and above. Models with LED-based lighting offer lesser power consumption, and often increased brightness. Netbooks with a 10 inches (25 cm) or smaller screen typically use a resolution of 1024×600, while netbooks and subnotebooks with a 11.6 inches (29 cm) or 12 inches (30 cm) screen use standard notebook resolutions. Having a higher resolution display allows more items to fit onscreen at a time, improving the user's ability to multitask, although at the higher resolutions on smaller screens, the resolution may only serve to display sharper graphics and text rather than increasing the usable area. Since the introduction of the MacBook Pro with Retina display in 2012, there has been an increase in the availability of very-high resolution (1920×1080 and higher) displays, even in relatively small systems, and in typical 15-inch screens resolutions as high as 3200×1800 are available. External displays can be connected to most laptops, and models with a Mini DisplayPort can handle up to three.[36]

text: Central processing unit[edit]

text: A laptop's central processing unit (CPU) has advanced power-saving features and produces less heat than one intended purely for desktop use. Typically, laptop CPUs have two processor cores, although 4-core models are also available. For low price and mainstream performance, there is no longer a significant performance difference between laptop and desktop CPUs, but at the high end, the fastest 4-to-8-core desktop CPUs still substantially outperform the fastest 4-core laptop processors, at the expense of massively higher power consumption and heat generation; the fastest laptop processors top out at 56 watts of heat, while the fastest desktop processors top out at 150 watts.

text: There have been a wide range of CPUs designed for laptops available from both Intel, AMD, and other manufacturers. On non-x86 architectures, Motorola and IBM produced the chips for the former PowerPC-based Apple laptops (iBook and PowerBook). Many laptops have removable CPUs, although this has become less common in the past few years as the trend has been towards thinner and lighter models. In other laptops the CPU is soldered on the motherboard and is non-replaceable; this is nearly universal in ultrabooks.

text: In the past, some laptops have used a desktop processor instead of the laptop version and have had high performance gains at the cost of greater weight, heat, and limited battery life, but the practice was largely extinct as of 2013. Unlike their desktop counterparts, laptop CPUs are nearly impossible to overclock. A thermal operating mode of laptops is very close to its limits and there is almost no headroom for an overclocking–related operating temperature increase. The possibility of improving a cooling system of a laptop to allow overclocking is extremely difficult to implement.

text: Graphical processing unit[edit]

text: On most laptops a graphical processing unit (GPU) is integrated into the CPU to conserve power and space. This was introduced by Intel with the Core i-series of mobile processors in 2010, and similar accelerated processing unit (APU) processors by AMD later that year. Prior to that, lower-end machines tended to use graphics processors integrated into the system chipset, while higher end machines had a separate graphics processor. In the past, laptops lacking a separate graphics processor were limited in their utility for gaming and professional applications involving 3D graphics, but the capabilities of CPU-integrated graphics have converged with the low-end of dedicated graphics processors in the past few years. Higher-end laptops intended for gaming or professional 3D work still come with dedicated, and in some cases even dual, graphics processors on the motherboard or as an internal expansion card. Since 2011, these almost always involve switchable graphics so that when there is no demand for the higher performance dedicated graphics processor, the more power-efficient integrated graphics processor will be used. Nvidia Optimus is an example of this sort of system of switchable graphics.

text: Memory[edit]

text: Most laptops use SO-DIMM (small outline dual in-line memory module) memory modules, as they are about half the size of desktop DIMMs.[35] They are sometimes accessible from the bottom of the laptop for ease of upgrading, or placed in locations not intended for user replacement. Most laptops have two memory slots, although some of the lowest-end models will have only one, and some high end models (usually mobile engineering workstations and a few high-end models intended for gaming) have four slots. Most mid-range laptops are factory equipped with 4–6 GB of RAM. Netbooks are commonly equipped with only 1–2 GB of RAM and are generally only expandable to 2 GB, if at all. Laptops may have memory soldered to the motherboard to conserve space, which allows the laptop to have a thinner chassis design. Soldered memory cannot be upgraded.

text: Internal storage[edit]

text: Traditionally, laptops had a hard disk drive (HDD) as a main non-volatile storage, but these proved inefficient for use in mobile devices due to high power consumption, heat production, and a presence of moving parts, which can cause damage to both the drive itself and the data stored when a laptop is unstable physically, e.g. during its use while transporting it or after its accidental drop. With the advent of flash memory technology, most mid- to high-end laptops opted for more compact, power efficient, and fast solid-state drives (SSD), which eliminated the hazard of drive and data corruption caused by a laptop's physical impacts.[37] Most laptops use 2.5-inch drives, which are a smaller version of a 3.5-inch desktop drive form factor. 2.5-inch HDDs are more compact, power efficient, and produce less heat, while at the same time have a smaller capacity and a slower data transfer rate. Some very compact laptops support even smaller 1.8-inch HDDs. For SSDs, however, these miniaturization-related trade-offs are nonexistent, because SSDs were designed to have a very small footprint. SSDs feature a traditional 2.5- or 1.8-inch or a laptop-specific mSATA or M.2 card's form factor. SSDs have a higher data transfer rate, lower power consumption, lower failure rate, and a larger capacity[38][39][40][41] compared to HDDs. However, HDDs have a significantly lower cost.

text: Most laptops can contain a single 2.5-inch drive, but a small number of laptops with a screen wider than 17 inches can house two drives. Some laptops support a hybrid mode, combining a 2.5-inch drive, typically a spacious HDD for data, with an mSATA or M.2 SDD drive, typically having less capacity, but a significantly faster read/write speed. The operating system partition would be located on the SSD to increase laptop I/O performance. Another way to increase performance is to use a smaller SSD of 16-32 GB as a cache drive with a compatible OS. Some laptops may have very limited drive upgradeability when the SSD used has a non-standard shape or requires a proprietary daughter card.[42] Some laptops have very limited space on the installed SSD, instead relying on availability of cloud storage services for storing of user data; Chromebooks are a prominent example of this approach. A variety of external HDDs or NAS data storage servers with support of RAID technology can be attached to virtually any laptop over such interfaces as USB, FireWire, eSATA, or Thunderbolt, or over a wired or wireless network to further increase space for the storage of data. Many laptops also incorporate a card reader which allows for use of memory cards, such as those used for digital cameras, which are typically SD or microSD cards. This enables users to download digital pictures from an SD card onto a laptop, thus enabling them to delete the SD card's contents to free up space for taking new pictures.

text: Removable media drive[edit]

text: Optical disc drives capable of playing CD-ROMs, compact discs (CD), DVDs, and in some cases, Blu-ray Discs (BD), were nearly universal on full-sized models in the 2010s. A disc drive remains fairly common in laptops with a screen wider than 15 inches (38 cm), although the trend towards thinner and lighter machines is gradually eliminating these drives and players; these drives are uncommon in compact laptops, such as subnotebooks and netbooks. Laptop optical drives tend to follow a standard form factor, and usually have a standard mSATA connector. It is often possible to replace an optical drive with a newer model. In certain laptop models there is a possibility to replace an optical drive with a second hard drive, using a caddy that fills the extra space the optical drive would have occupied.

text: Inputs[edit]

text: An alphanumeric keyboard is used to enter text and data and make other commands (e.g., function keys). A touchpad (also called a trackpad), a pointing stick, or both, are used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, and an integrated keyboard[43] is used for typing. An external keyboard and mouse may be connected using a USB port or wirelessly, via Bluetooth or similar technology. With the advent of ultrabooks and support of touch input on screens by 2010-era operating systems, such as Windows 8.1, multitouch touchscreen displays are used in many models. Some models have webcams and microphones, which can be used to communicate with other people with both moving images and sound, via Skype, Google Chat and similar software. Laptops typically have USB ports and a microphone jack, for use with an external mic. Some laptops have a card reader for reading digital camera SD cards.

text: Input/output (I/O) ports[edit]

text: On a typical laptop there are several USB ports, an external monitor port (VGA, DVI, HDMI or Mini DisplayPort), an audio in/out port (often in form of a single socket) is common. It is possible to connect up to three external displays to a 2014-era laptop via a single Mini DisplayPort, utilizing multi-stream transport technology.[36] Apple, in a 2015 version of its MacBook, transitioned from a number of different I/O ports to a single USB-C port.[44] This port can be used both for charging and connecting a variety of devices through the use of aftermarket adapters. Google, with its updated version of Chromebook Pixel, shows a similar transition trend towards USB-C, although keeping older USB Type-A ports for a better compatibility with older devices.[45] Although being common until the end of the 2000s decade, Ethernet network port are rarely found on modern laptops, due to widespread use of wireless networking, such as Wi-Fi. Legacy ports such as a PS/2 keyboard/mouse port, serial port, parallel port, or Firewire are provided on some models, but they are increasingly rare. On Apple's systems, and on a handful of other laptops, there are also Thunderbolt ports, but Thunderbolt 3 uses USB-C. Laptops typically have a headphone jack, so that the user can connect external headphones or amplified speaker systems for listening to music or other audio.

text: Expansion cards[edit]

text: In the past, a PC Card (formerly PCMCIA) or ExpressCard slot for expansion was often present on laptops to allow adding and removing functionality, even when the laptop is powered on; these are becoming increasingly rare since the introduction of USB 3.0. Some internal subsystems such as: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, or a wireless cellular modem can be implemented as replaceable internal expansion cards, usually accessible under an access cover on the bottom of the laptop. The standard for such cards is PCI Express, which comes in both mini and even smaller M.2 sizes. In newer laptops, it is not uncommon to also see Micro SATA (mSATA) functionality on PCI Express Mini or M.2 card slots allowing the use of those slots for SATA-based solid state drives.[46]

text: Battery and power supply[edit]

text: 2016-era laptops use lithium ion batteries, with some thinner models using the flatter lithium polymer technology. These two technologies have largely replaced the older nickel metal-hydride batteries. Battery life is highly variable by model and workload, and can range from one hour to nearly a day. A battery's performance gradually decreases over time; substantial reduction in capacity is typically evident after one to three years of regular use, depending on the charging and discharging pattern and the design of the battery. Innovations in laptops and batteries have seen situations in which the battery can provide up to 24 hours of continued operation, assuming average power consumption levels. An example is the HP EliteBook 6930p when used with its ultra-capacity battery.[47]

text: A laptop's battery is charged using an external power supply which is plugged into a wall outlet. The power supply outputs a DC voltage typically in the range of 7.2—24 volts. The power supply is usually external, and connected to the laptop through a DC connector cable. In most cases, it can charge the battery and power the laptop simultaneously. When the battery is fully charged, the laptop continues to run on power supplied by the external power supply, avoiding battery use. The battery charges in a shorter period of time if laptop is turned off or sleeping. The charger typically adds about 400 grams (0.88 lb) to the overall transporting weight of a laptop, although some models are substantially heavier or lighter. Most 2016-era laptops use a smart battery, a rechargeable battery pack with a built-in battery management system (BMS). The smart battery can internally measure voltage and current, and deduce charge level and SoH (State of Health) parameters, indicating the state of the cells.[citation needed]

text: Cooling[edit]

text: Waste heat from operation is difficult to remove in the compact internal space of a laptop. Early laptops used heat sinks placed directly on the components to be cooled, but when these hot components are deep inside the device, a large space-wasting air duct is needed to exhaust the heat. Modern laptops instead rely on heat pipes to rapidly move waste heat towards the edges of the device, to allow for a much smaller and compact fan and heat sink cooling system. Waste heat is usually exhausted away from the device operator towards the rear or sides of the device. Multiple air intake paths are used since some intakes can be blocked, such as when the device is placed on a soft conforming surface like a chair cushion. It is believed that some designs with metal cases, like Apple's aluminum MacBook Pro and MacBook Air, also employ the case of the machine as a heat sink, allowing it to supplement cooling by dissipating heat out of the device core. Secondary device temperature monitoring may reduce performance or trigger an emergency shutdown if it is unable to dissipate heat, such as if the laptop were to be left running and placed inside a carrying case. Aftermarket cooling pads with external fans can be used with laptops to reduce operating temperatures.

text: Docking station[edit]

text: A docking station (sometimes referred to simply as a dock) is a laptop accessory that contains multiple ports, and in some cases expansion slots or bays for fixed or removable drives. A laptop connects and disconnects to a docking station, typically through a single large proprietary connector. A docking station is an especially popular laptop accessory in a corporate computing environment, due to a possibility of a docking station to transform a laptop into a full-featured desktop replacement, yet allowing for its easy release. This ability can be advantageous to "road warrior" employees who have to travel frequently for work, and yet who also come into the office. If more ports are needed, or their position on a laptop is inconvenient, one can use a cheaper passive device known as a port replicator. These devices mate to the connectors on the laptop, such as through USB or FireWire.

text: Charging trolleys[edit]

text: Laptop charging trolleys, also known as laptop trolleys or laptop carts, are mobile storage containers to charge multiple laptops, netbooks, and tablet computers at the same time. The trolleys are used in schools that have replaced their traditional static computer labs[48] suites of desktop equipped with "tower" computers, but do not have enough plug sockets in an individual classroom to charge all of the devices. The trolleys can be wheeled between rooms and classrooms so that all students and teachers in a particular building can access fully charged IT equipment.[49]

text: Laptop charging trolleys are also used to deter and protect against opportunistic and organized theft. Schools, especially those with open plan designs, are often prime targets for thieves who steal high-value items. Laptops, netbooks, and tablets are among the highest–value portable items in a school. Moreover, laptops can easily be concealed under clothing and stolen from buildings. Many types of laptop–charging trolleys are designed and constructed to protect against theft. They are generally made out of steel, and the laptops remain locked up while not in use. Although the trolleys can be moved between areas from one classroom to another, they can often be mounted or locked to the floor or walls to prevent thieves from stealing the laptops, especially overnight.[48]

text: Solar panels[edit]

text: In some laptops, solar panels are able to generate enough solar power for the laptop to operate.[50] The One Laptop Per Child Initiative released the OLPC XO-1 laptop which was tested and successfully operated by use of solar panels.[51] Presently, they are designing a OLPC XO-3 laptop with these features. The OLPC XO-3 can operate with 2 watts of electricity because its renewable energy resources generate a total of 4 watts.[52][53] Samsung has also designed the NC215S solar–powered notebook that will be sold commercially in the U.S. market.[54]

text: Accessories[edit]

text: A common accessory for laptops is a laptop sleeve, laptop skin, or laptop case, which provides a degree of protection from scratches. Sleeves, which are distinguished by being relatively thin and flexible, are most commonly made of neoprene, with sturdier ones made of low-resilience polyurethane. Some laptop sleeves are wrapped in ballistic nylon to provide some measure of waterproofing. Bulkier and sturdier cases can be made of metal with polyurethane padding inside, and may have locks for added security. Metal, padded cases also offer protection against impacts and drops. Another common accessory is a laptop cooler, a device which helps lower the internal temperature of the laptop either actively or passively. A common active method involves using electric fans to draw heat away from the laptop, while a passive method might involve propping the laptop up on some type of pad so it can receive more air flow. Some stores sell laptop pads which enable a reclining person on a bed to use a laptop.

text: Obsolete features[edit]

text: Features that certain early models of laptops used to have that are not available in most 2017 laptops include:

text:
Reset ("cold restart") button in a hole (needed a thin metal tool to press)
Instant power off button in a hole (needed a thin metal tool to press)
Integrated charger or power adapter inside the laptop
Floppy disk drive
Serial port
Parallel port
Modem
Shared PS/2 input device port
VHS or 8mm VCR
IrDA
S-video port[55]
PC Card / PCMCIA slot

text: Some 2017 laptops do not have an internal CD-ROM/DVD/CD drive.

text: Comparison with desktops[edit]

text: Advantages[edit]

text: Portability is usually the first feature mentioned in any comparison of laptops versus desktop PCs.[56] Physical portability allows a laptop to be used in many places—not only at home and at the office, but also during commuting and flights, in coffee shops, in lecture halls and libraries, at clients' locations or at a meeting room, etc. Within a home, portability enables laptop users to move their device from the living room to the dining room to the family room. Portability offers several distinct advantages:

text:
Productivity: Using a laptop in places where a desktop PC cannot be used can help employees and students to increase their productivity on work or school tasks. For example, an office worker reading their work e-mails during an hour-long commute by train, or a student doing their homework at the university coffee shop during a break between lectures.
Immediacy: Carrying an laptop means having instant access to information, including personal and work files. This allows better collaboration between coworkers or students, as a laptop can be flipped open to look at a report, document, spreadsheet, or presentation anytime and anywhere.
Up-to-date information: If a person has more than one desktop PC, a problem of synchronization arises: changes made on one computer are not automatically propagated to the others. There are ways to resolve this problem, including physical transfer of updated files (using a USB flash memory stick or CD-ROMs) or using synchronization software over the Internet, such as cloud computing. However, transporting a single laptop to both locations avoids the problem entirely, as the files exist in a single location and are always up-to-date.
Connectivity: In the 2010s, a proliferation of Wi-Fi wireless networks and cellular broadband data services (HSDPA, EVDO and others) in many urban centers, combined with near-ubiquitous Wi-Fi support by modern laptops[57] meant that a laptop could now have easy Internet and local network connectivity while remaining mobile. Wi-Fi networks and laptop programs are especially widespread at university campuses.[58]

text: Other advantages of laptops:

text:
Size: Laptops are smaller than desktop PCs. This is beneficial when space is at a premium, for example in small apartments and student dorms. When not in use, a laptop can be closed and put away in a desk drawer.
Low power consumption: Laptops are several times more power-efficient than desktops. A typical laptop uses 20–120 W, compared to 100–800 W for desktops. This could be particularly beneficial for large businesses, which run hundreds of personal computers thus multiplying the potential savings, and homes where there is a computer running 24/7 (such as a home media server, print server, etc.).
Quiet: Laptops are typically much quieter than desktops, due both to the components (quieter, slower 2.5-inch hard drives) and to less heat production leading to use of fewer and slower cooling fans.
Battery: a charged laptop can continue to be used in case of a power outage and is not affected by short power interruptions and blackouts. A desktop PC needs an Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) to handle short interruptions, blackouts, and spikes; achieving on-battery time of more than 20–30 minutes for a desktop PC requires a large and expensive UPS.[59]
All-in-One: designed to be portable, most 2010-era laptops have all components integrated into the chassis (however, some small laptops may not have an internal CD/CDR/DVD drive, so an external drive needs to be used). For desktops (excluding all-in-ones) this is divided into the desktop "tower" (the unit with the CPU, hard drive, power supply, etc.), keyboard, mouse, display screen, and optional peripherals such as speakers.

text: Disadvantages[edit]

text: Compared to desktop PCs, laptops have disadvantages in the following areas:

text: Performance[edit]

text: While the performance of mainstream desktops and laptop is comparable, and the cost of laptops has fallen less rapidly than desktops, laptops remain more expensive than desktop PCs at the same performance level.[60] The upper limits of performance of laptops remain much lower than the highest-end desktops (especially "workstation class" machines with two processor sockets), and "bleeding-edge" features usually appear first in desktops and only then, as the underlying technology matures, are adapted to laptops.

text: For Internet browsing and typical office applications, where the computer spends the majority of its time waiting for the next user input, even relatively low-end laptops (such as Netbooks) can be fast enough for some users.[61] Most higher-end laptops are sufficiently powerful for high-resolution movie playback, some 3D gaming and video editing and encoding. However, laptop processors can be disadvantaged when dealing with higher-end database, maths, engineering, financial software, virtualization, etc. This is because laptops use the mobile versions of processors to conserve power, and these lag behind desktop chips when it comes to performance. Some manufacturers work around this performance problem by using desktop CPUs for laptops.[62]

text: Upgradeability[edit]

text: Upgradeability of laptops is very limited compared to desktops, which are thoroughly standardized. In general, hard drives and memory can be upgraded easily. Optical drives and internal expansion cards may be upgraded if they follow an industry standard, but all other internal components, including the motherboard, CPU and graphics, are not always intended to be upgradeable. Intel, Asus, Compal, Quanta and some other laptop manufacturers have created the Common Building Block standard for laptop parts to address some of the inefficiencies caused by the lack of standards. The reasons for limited upgradeability are both technical and economic. There is no industry-wide standard form factor for laptops; each major laptop manufacturer pursues its own proprietary design and construction, with the result that laptops are difficult to upgrade and have high repair costs. Devices such as sound cards, network adapters, hard and optical drives, and numerous other peripherals are available, but these upgrades usually impair the laptop's portability, because they add cables and boxes to the setup and often have to be disconnected and reconnected when the laptop is on the move.

text: Ergonomics and health effects[edit]

text: Wrists[edit]

text: Prolonged use of laptops can cause repetitive strain injury because of their small, flat keyboard and trackpad pointing devices,.[63] Usage of separate, external ergonomic keyboards and pointing devices is recommended to prevent injury when working for long periods of time; they can be connected to a laptop easily by USB or via a docking station. Some health standards require ergonomic keyboards at workplaces.

text: Neck and spine[edit]

text: A laptop's integrated screen often requires users to lean over for a better view, which can cause neck or spinal injuries. A larger and higher-quality external screen can be connected to almost any laptop to alleviate this and to provide additional screen space for more productive work. Another solution is to use a computer stand.

text: Possible effect on fertility[edit]

text: A study by State University of New York researchers found that heat generated from laptops can increase the temperature of the lap of male users when balancing the computer on their lap, potentially putting sperm count at risk. The study, which included roughly two dozen men between the ages of 21 and 35, found that the sitting position required to balance a laptop can increase scrotum temperature by as much as 2.1 °C (4 °F). However, further research is needed to determine whether this directly affects male sterility.[64] A later 2010 study of 29 males published in Fertility and Sterility found that men who kept their laptops on their laps experienced scrotal hyperthermia (overheating) in which their scrotal temperatures increased by up to 2.0 °C (4 °F). The resulting heat increase, which could not be offset by a laptop cushion, may increase male infertility.[65][66][67][68][69]

text: A common practical solution to this problem is to place the laptop on a table or desk, or to use a book or pillow between the body and the laptop.[citation needed] Another solution is to obtain a cooling unit for the laptop. These are usually USB powered and consist of a hard thin plastic case housing one, two, or three cooling fans – with the entire assembly designed to sit under the laptop in question – which results in the laptop remaining cool to the touch, and greatly reduces laptop heat buildup.

text: Thighs[edit]

text: Heat generated from using a laptop on the lap can also cause skin discoloration on the thighs known as "toasted skin syndrome".[70][71][72][73]

text: Durability[edit]

text: Laptops are generally not durable, however there are certain exceptions.

text: Equipment wear[edit]

text: Because of their portability, laptops are subject to more wear and physical damage than desktops. Components such as screen hinges, latches, power jacks, and power cords deteriorate gradually from ordinary use, and may have to be replaced. A liquid spill onto the keyboard, a rather minor mishap with a desktop system (given that a basic keyboard costs about US$20), can damage the internals of a laptop and destroy the computer, result in a costly repair or entire replacement of laptops. One study found that a laptop is three times more likely to break during the first year of use than a desktop.[74] To maintain a laptop, it is recommended to clean it every three months for dirt, debris, dust, and food particles. Most cleaning kits consist of a lint-free or microfiber cloth for the LCD screen and keyboard, compressed air for getting dust out of the cooling fan, and cleaning solution. Harsh chemicals such as bleach should not be used to clean a laptop, as they can damage it.[75]

text: Parts replacement[edit]

text: Original external components are expensive, and usually proprietary and non-interchangeable; other parts are inexpensive—a power jack can cost a few dollars—but their replacement may require extensive disassembly and reassembly of the laptop by a technician. Other inexpensive but fragile parts often cannot be purchased separate from larger more expensive components. For example, the video display cable and the backlight power cable that pass through the lid hinges to connect the motherboard to the screen will eventually break from repeated opening and closing of the lid. These tiny cables usually cannot be purchased from the original manufacturer separate from the entire LCD panel, with the price of hundreds of dollars, although for popular models an aftermarket in pulled parts generally exists. The repair costs of a failed motherboard or LCD panel often exceeds the value of a used laptop. Parts can also be ordered from third party vendors.

text: Heating and cooling[edit]

text: Laptops rely on extremely compact cooling systems involving a fan and heat sink that can fail from blockage caused by accumulated airborne dust and debris. Most laptops do not have any type of removable dust collection filter over the air intake for these cooling systems, resulting in a system that gradually conducts more heat and noise as the years pass. In some cases the laptop starts to overheat even at idle load levels. This dust is usually stuck inside where the fan and heat sink meet, where it can not be removed by a casual cleaning and vacuuming. Most of the time, compressed air can dislodge the dust and debris but may not entirely remove it. After the device is turned on, the loose debris is reaccumulated into the cooling system by the fans. A complete disassembly is usually required to clean the laptop entirely. However, preventative maintenance such as regular cleaning of the heat sink via compressed air can prevent dust build up on the heat sink. Many laptops are difficult to disassemble by the average user and contain components that are sensitive to electrostatic discharge (ESD).

text: Battery life[edit]

text: Battery life is limited because the capacity drops with time, eventually requiring replacement after as little as a year. A new battery typically stores enough energy to run the laptop for three to five hours, depending on usage, configuration, and power management settings. Yet, as it ages, the battery's energy storage will dissipate progressively until it lasts only a few minutes. The battery is often easily replaceable and a higher capacity model may be obtained for longer charging and discharging time. Some laptops (specifically ultrabooks) do not have the usual removable battery and have to be brought to the service center of its manufacturer or a third-party laptop service center to have its battery replaced. Replacement batteries can also be expensive.

text: Security and privacy[edit]

text: Because they are valuable, commonly used, portable, and easy to hide in a backpack or other type of travel bag, laptops are often stolen. Every day, over 1,600 laptops go missing from U.S. airports.[76] The cost of stolen business or personal data, and of the resulting problems (identity theft, credit card fraud, breach of privacy), can be many times the value of the stolen laptop itself. Consequently, physical protection of laptops and the safeguarding of data contained on them are both of great importance. Most laptops have a Kensington security slot, which can be used to tether them to a desk or other immovable object with a security cable and lock. In addition, modern operating systems and third-party software offer disk encryption functionality, which renders the data on the laptop's hard drive unreadable without a key or a passphrase. As of 2015, some laptops also have additional security elements added, including eye recognition software and fingerprint scanning components.[77]

text: Software such as LoJack for Laptops, Laptop Cop, and GadgetTrack have been engineered to help people locate and recover their stolen laptop in the event of theft. Setting one's laptop with a password on its firmware (protection against going to firmware setup or booting), internal HDD/SSD (protection against accessing it and loading an operating system on it afterwards), and every user account of the operating system are additional security measures that a user should do.[78][79] Fewer than 5% of lost or stolen laptops are recovered by the companies that own them,[80] however, that number may decrease due to a variety of companies and software solutions specializing in laptop recovery. In the 2010s, the common availability of webcams on laptops raised privacy concerns. In Robbins v. Lower Merion School District (Eastern District of Pennsylvania 2010), school-issued laptops loaded with special software enabled staff from two high schools to take secret webcam shots of students at home, via their students' laptops.[81][82][83]

text: Sales[edit]

text: Manufacturers[edit]

text:
Major laptop brands

Acer / Gateway / eMachines / Packard Bell: TravelMate, Extensa, Ferrari and Aspire; Packard Bell Easynote; Chromebook

Apple: MacBook Air and MacBook Pro

Asus: Asus Eee, Lamborghini, Asus ROG

Clevo

Dell: Alienware, Inspiron, Latitude, Precision, Studio, Vostro and XPS

Falcon Northwest: DRX, TLX, I / O

Fujitsu: Lifebook

Gigabyte: AORUS

HCL (India): ME Laptop, ME Netbook, Leaptop and MiLeap

Hewlett-Packard / Compaq: HP Pavilion, HP Envy, HP ProBook, HP EliteBook, Compaq Presario

Lenovo: ThinkPad, IdeaPad, and the Essential B and G Series

LG: Xnote

Medion: Akoya (OEM version of MSI Wind)

MSI: E, C, P, G, V, A, X, U series and Wind Netbook

Panasonic: Toughbook, Satellite, Let's Note (Japan only)

Samsung: SENS: N, P, Q, R and X series; Chromebook, ATIV Book

TG Sambo (Korea): Averatec, Averatec Buddy

Toshiba: Dynabook, Portege, Tecra, Satellite, Qosmio, Libretto

VAIO

v
t
e

text: There are many laptop brands and manufacturers. Several major brands that offer notebooks in various classes are listed in the adjacent box. The major brands usually offer good service and support, including well-executed documentation and driver downloads that remain available for many years after a particular laptop model is no longer produced. Capitalizing on service, support, and brand image, laptops from major brands are more expensive than laptops by smaller brands and ODMs. Some brands specialize in a particular class of laptops, such as gaming laptops (Alienware), high-performance laptops (HP Envy), netbooks (EeePC) and laptops for children (OLPC).

text: Many brands, including the major ones, do not design and do not manufacture their laptops. Instead, a small number of Original Design Manufacturers (ODMs) design new models of laptops, and the brands choose the models to be included in their lineup. In 2006, 7 major ODMs manufactured 7 of every 10 laptops in the world, with the largest one (Quanta Computer) having 30% of world market share.[84] Therefore, identical models are available both from a major label and from a low-profile ODM in-house brand.

text: Market Share[edit]

text: Battery-powered portable computers had just 2% worldwide market share in 1986.[85] However, laptops have become increasingly popular, both for business and personal use.[86] Around 109 million notebook PCs shipped worldwide in 2007, a growth of 33% compared to 2006.[87] In 2008 it was estimated that 145.9 million notebooks were sold, and that the number would grow in 2009 to 177.7 million.[88] The third quarter of 2008 was the first time when worldwide notebook PC shipments exceeded desktops, with 38.6 million units versus 38.5 million units.[86][89][90][91]

text: May 2005 was the first time notebooks outsold desktops in the US over the course of a full month; at the time notebooks sold for an average of $1,131 while desktops sold for an average of $696.[92] When looking at operating systems, for Microsoft Windows laptops the average selling price (ASP) showed a decline in 2008/2009, possibly due to low-cost netbooks, drawing an average US$689 at U.S. retail stores in August 2008. In 2009, ASP had further fallen to $602 by January and to $560 in February. While Windows machines ASP fell $129 in these seven months, Apple macOS laptop ASP declined just $12 from $1,524 to $1,512.[93]

text: Extreme use[edit]

text: The ruggedized Grid Compass computer was used since the early days of the Space Shuttle program. The first commercial laptop used in space was a Macintosh portable in 1991 aboard Space Shuttle mission STS-43.[94][95][96] Apple and other laptop computers continue to be flown aboard manned spaceflights, though the only long duration flight certified computer for the International Space Station is the ThinkPad.[97] As of 2011, over 100 ThinkPads were aboard the ISS. Laptops used aboard the International Space Station and other spaceflights are generally the same ones that can be purchased by the general public but needed modifications are made to allow them to be used safely and effectively in a weightless environment such as updating the cooling systems to function without relying on hot air rising and accommodation for the lower cabin air pressure.[98] Laptops operating in harsh usage environments and conditions, such as strong vibrations, extreme temperatures, and wet or dusty conditions differ from those used in space in that they are custom designed for the task and do not use commercial off-the-shelf hardware.


document_title: Physician writer

question_text: who was a renowed astronomer apart from being a physician

root

text: Physician writer

text: Antiquity[edit]

text:
Ctesias (5th century BCE) Greek historian
St. Luke (1st century CE) apostle

tag: ul

text: Middle Ages[edit]

text:
Avicenna (980–1037) early contributor to medical, philosophical and Islamic literature
Yehuda Halevi (c.1075–1141) Jewish-Spanish philosopher and poet
Maimonides (1138–1204) rabbi, and philosopher in Andalusia, Morocco and Egypt

text: 15th century[edit]

text:
Adam of Łowicz (also known as Adamus Polonus; died 1514) was a professor of medicine at Poland's Kraków Academy, its rector in 1510–11, royal court physician, a humanist, writer and philosopher.
Biernat of Lublin (1465–1529) was a Polish poet, fabulist and physician. He was one of the first Polish-language writers known by name, and the most interesting of the earliest ones.
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) was a Polish mathematician, astronomer, physician, classical scholar, translator, Catholic cleric, jurist, governor, military leader, diplomat and economist, best known for his epoch-making book, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium.
Girolamo Fracastoro (Fracastorius; 1478–1553) Italian scholar (in mathematics, geography and astronomy), poet and atomist; as a physician, he proposed ideas very similar to the germ theory of disease.
Paracelsus (1493–1541) Swiss-born botanist, alchemist, occultist.
François Rabelais (1483–1553) French satirist and author of The Lives, Heroic Deeds and Sayings of Gargantua and Pantagruel.

text: 16th century[edit]

text:
Luis Barahona de Soto (1548–1595) Spanish poet admired by Cervantes
Jan Brożek (Broscius, 1585–1652), Polish mathematician, astronomer, physician, poet, writer, musician, rector of the Kraków Academy
Thomas Campion (1567–1620) English composer and poet
William Gilbert (1544–1603) English natural philosopher
Jacques Grévin (c. 1539–1570) French dramatist
Arthur Johnston (1587–1641) Scottish poet
Thomas Lodge (c. 1558–1625) English dramatist and writer of the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods; best remembered as the author of Rosalynde, on which Shakespeare based As You Like It
Sebastian Petrycy of Pilzno (1554–1626) was a Polish philosopher and physician.[1]
Michael Servetus (1511–53), Spanish theologian, cartographer, humanist; the first European to describe pulmonary circulation; burned at the stake, for his religious views, in John Calvin's Geneva.
Andreas Vesalius (1514–64) Belgian anatomist, author of De humani corporis fabrica

text: 17th century[edit]

text:
Patrick Abercromby (1656–c.1716) Scottish antiquarian, noted for being physician to King James VII (II of England)
John Arbuthnot (1667–1735) one of Queen Anne's physicians and an associate of Jonathan Swift and Alexander Pope in the Scriblerus Club
Sir Thomas Browne (1605–1682) British writer with mastery in diverse fields including medicine, religion, science and the esoteric.[2]
Samuel Garth (1661–1719) British author and translator of classics
Paul Fleming (1609–1640) was a lyricist he stood in the front rank of German poets
Giulio Mancini (1559–1630) papal physician, art collector, and author of treatises on painting, nobility, dancing, government, and health
Bernard Mandeville (1670–1733) Dutch philosopher, political economist and satirist who lived most of his life in England and used English for most of his published works; became famous (or infamous) for The Fable of the Bees
Francesco Redi (1626–97) Italian poet, best known work being Bacchus in Tuscany
Angelus Silesius, né Johannes Scheffler (1624–77) German mystic and poet who wrote the lyrics to many Christian hymns
Henry Vaughan (1622–1695) Welsh metaphysical poet
John Locke (1632–1704) English philosopher, father of liberalism and one of the most influential thinkers.

text: 18th century[edit]

text:
Mark Akenside (1721-1770) English poet and physician, known for his poem The Pleasures of the Imagination (1744)
Erasmus Darwin (1731–1802) British poet, grandfather of Charles Darwin
James Grainger (1721–66) poet from a Cumberland family; friend of Dr. Johnson
Oliver Goldsmith (1728–74) Anglo-Irish writer and poet known for his novel The Vicar of Wakefield (1766)
Albrecht von Haller (1708–77) Swiss anatomist, physiologist, naturalist and poet
Edward Jenner, FRS, (1749–1823) famous for introducing the smallpox vaccine; also a poet of some note
Johann Heinrich Jung (1740–1817) German author, best known by his assumed name, Heinrich Stillin; friend of Goethe
John Keats (1795–1821) one of the principal poets of the English Romantic movement who influenced poets such as Alfred Tennyson immensely[3]
Justinus Andreas Christian Kerner (1786–1862) German poet who, along with Ludwig Uhland, established the Swabian group of Romantic poets; some of his poems were set to music by Robert Schumann
Jean-Paul Marat (1743–93) Swiss-born French philosopher, political theorist and scientist best known as a radical journalist and politician from the French Revolution; stabbed to death in his bathtub by the Girondin sympathizer Charlotte Corday and memorialized in Jacques-Louis David's 1793 painting, The Death of Marat
John Kearsley Mitchell (1798–1858) American writer, father of S. Weir Mitchell
David Macbeth Moir (1798–1851) Scottish writer; a contributor of both prose and verse to the magazines, and particularly, with the signature of Delta, to Blackwood's Magazine
Mungo Park (1771–1806) Scottish explorer of the African continent
Peter Mark Roget (1779–1869) creator of the Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases (Roget's Thesaurus)
Friedrich von Schiller (1759–1805) German writer, poet, essayist and dramatist; friend of Goethe. He was an army surgeon before achieving fame as a writer.
Tobias Smollett (1721–71) Scottish author, known for his picaresque novels, such as The Adventures of Roderick Random (1748); best known work is The Expedition of Humphry Clinker[4]

text: 19th century[edit]

text:
Carl Ludwig Emil Aarestrup (1800–1856) Danish erotic poet
Mariano Azuela (1873–1952) Mexican physician in Pancho Villa's army; in 1949 he received a National Prize for Literature
Doris Bell Ball (1897–1987) wrote under the pseudonym "Josephine Bell"; a British detective novelist who wrote more than forty books; a founding member of the Crime Writers Association[5]
Pío Baroja y Nessi (1872–1956) Spanish writer, one of the key novelists of the Generation of '98; admired by Hemingway
Nérée Beauchemin (1850–1931) Québécois poet who attempted to produce a national literature
Thomas Lovell Beddoes (1803–1849) English poet and dramatist whose central theme was death
Gottfried Benn (1886–1956) German essayist, novelist and expressionist poet
Robert Seymour Bridges, OM, (1844–1930) English poet, the only physician to hold the honour of poet laureate (1913)
Georg Büchner (1813–1837) German dramatist and writer of prose
Ludwig Büchner (1824–1899) German philosopher and physiologist who became one of the exponents of 19th century scientific materialism
Mikhail Bulgakov (1891–1940) Russian novelist and playwright; author of The Master and Margarita
Hans Carossa (1878–1956) German novelist and poet, known mostly for his autobiographical novels, and his innere Emigration (inner emigration) during the Nazi era.
Louis-Ferdinand Céline pen name of French writer Louis-Ferdinand Destouches (1894–1961) developed a new style of writing that modernized both French and World literature
Anton Chekhov (1860–1904) celebrated Russian short-story writer and playwright[6]
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1859–1930) British author of Sherlock Holmes fame[7][8]
Géza Csáth (né József Brenner) (1887–1919) Hungarian writer, playwright, musician, music critic and psychiatrist
Warwick Deeping (1877–1950) prolific English novelist and short story writer; most famous novel is Sorrell and Son (1925)
Júlio Dinis, pseudonym of Joaquim Guilherme Gomes Coelho (1839–1871) was a Portuguese doctor and writer.
Alfred Döblin (1878–1957) was a German novelist, essayist, and doctor, best known for his novel Berlin Alexanderplatz (1929).
William Henry Drummond (1854–1907) Irish-Canadian poet of the habitant[9]
Georges Duhamel (1884–1966) French author who, in 1920, published Confession de minuit featuring the anti-hero Salavin; in 1935, elected member of Académie française
Havelock Ellis (1859–1940) British writer and poet, author of The Psychology of Sex
Rudolph Fisher (1897–1934) African-American writer who was an active participant in the Harlem Renaissance, primarily as a novelist, but also as a musician
R. Austin Freeman (1862–1943) British writer of detective stories, most featuring the medico-legal forensic investigator Dr Thorndyke. He invented the inverted detective story[10]
William Gilbert (author) (1804–1890) English author and father of W. S. Gilbert
Oliver St. John Gogarty (1878–1957) Irish ear surgeon, one of the most prominent Dublin wits and best known as the inspiration for Buck Mulligan in James Joyce's novel Ulysses[11]
Enrique González Martínez (1871–1952) Mexican poet and diplomat, considered to be primarily Modernist in nature, with elements of French symbolism
Thomas Gordon Hake (1809–1895) English poet, intimate member of the circle of friends and followers of Rossetti
William Alexander Hammond (1828–1900) pioneering American neurologist and the Surgeon General of the United States Army during the American Civil War
Henry Head (1861–1940) English neurologist who conducted pioneering studies on the somatosensory system and sensory nerves. Much of this work was conducted on himself, in collaboration with the psychiatrist W. H. R. Rivers
Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. (1809–1894) one of the best regarded American poets of the 19th century; helped found the literary magazine The Atlantic Monthly, his collected essays published as The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table, highly popular in its day
Richard Huelsenbeck (1892–1974) poet and a founder and historian of Dada.
David H. Keller (1880–1966) (most often published as David H. Keller, MD, but also known by the pseudonyms Monk Smith, Matthew Smith, Amy Worth, Henry Cecil, Cecilia Henry and Jacobus Hubelaire); a writer for pulp magazines in the mid-20th century who wrote science fiction, fantasy and horror.
Arabella Kenealy (1859-1938), English graduate of the London School of Medicine for Women, she practiced medicine in London and Watford (1888–1894)and authored many works of fiction, including the novel Dr. Janet of Harley Street (1893).
Geoffrey Keynes (1887–1982) English biographer, surgeon, scholar and bibliophile; younger brother of the economist John Maynard Keynes
Janusz Korczak (1879–1942) Polish-Jewish pediatrician, hero of the Warsaw Ghetto, and author of books for and about children
F. Reinhold Kreutzwald (1803–1882) Estonian folklorist and poet who compiled the national epic poem Kalevipoeg
Vincas Kudirka (1858–1899) Lithuanian poet and the author of both the music and lyrics of the Lithuanian National Anthem, Tautiška giesmė
František Langer (1888–1965) Czech author, script writer, essayist, literary critic and publicist
C. Louis Leipoldt (1880–1947) South African poet who wrote novels, plays, stories, children's books, cookbooks and a travel diary; numbered amongst the greatest of the Afrikaner poets
Jorge de Lima (1895–1953) Brazilian politician, poet, and writer of Alagoas
David Livingstone (1813–1873) Scottish medical missionary, explorer of Africa, travel writer
Paolo Mantegazza (1831–1910) Italian writer, wrote the science fiction book, L'Anno 3000
W. Somerset Maugham (1874–1965) celebrated British novelist, short-story writer, and playwright; wrote Of Human Bondage[12]
John McCrae (1872–1918) Canadian poet, artist and soldier during World War I and a surgeon during the battle of Ypres; best known for writing the famous war memorial poem "In Flanders Fields"
S. Weir Mitchell (1829–1914) prominent American neurologist who wrote short stories, poetry and more than a dozen novels (Hugh Wynne, Dr North, Characteristics), including the celebrated fictional story The Strange Case of George Dedlow.[13]
Mori Ōgai or Mori Rintaro (1862–1922) Japanese translator, novelist and poet; The Wild Geese is considered his major work; began as a writer of partly autobiographical fiction with strong overtones of German Romantic writings; midway in his career he shifted to historical novels
Axel Martin Fredrik Munthe (1857–1949) Swedish psychiatrist, best known as the author of The Story of San Michele (1929), an autobiographical account of his work and life
Max Simon Nordau (1849–1923) born Simon Maximilian Südfeld was a Hungarian Zionist leader, author, and social critic; co-founder of the World Zionist Organization
Sir William Osler(1849–1919) Canadian-born; one of the greatest icons of medicine and described as the Father of Modern Medicine
Philippe Panneton (pseudonym Ringuet) (1895–1960) Canadian academic, diplomat and writer
Wilder Graves Penfield (1891–1976) a neurosurgeon who worked at McGill University and pioneered neurosurgical procedures for epilepsy; also wrote fiction
Bozo Pericić (1865–1947) Croatian author of travel books, reviews on famous writers and a translation of Hamlet[14]
John William Polidori (1795–1821) Personal physician of Lord Byron and author of The Vampyre, the first vampire story in English
Jose P. Rizal (1861–1896) Filipino polymath, nationalist and the most prominent advocate for reforms in the Philippines during the Spanish colonial era; a polyglot conversant in at least ten languages, he was a prolific poet, essayist, diarist, correspondent, and novelist whose most famous works were his two novels, Noli me Tangere and El Filibusterismo
Sir Ronald Ross (1857–1932) a "Renaissance man"; demonstrated the life cycle of the malarial parasite; made contributions in pure and epidemiologic mathematics, and wrote novels, plays and poetry
Mokichi Saitō (1882–1953) Japanese poet of the Taishō period, a member of Araragi school; by the time of his death, he had written 17 collections of poems and 17,907 poems; family doctor of author Ryūnosuke Akutagawa and assisted in his suicide; novelist Kita Morio is his second son
Arthur Schnitzler (1862–1931) Jewish-Austrian writer and dramatist. Stanley Kubrick's 1999 film Eyes Wide Shut is based on Schnitzler's Rhapsod; Schnitzler's La Ronde also spawned film versions.[15]
Albert Schweitzer (1875–1965) German theologian, philosopher, organist, musicologist and medical missionary to Africa
Victor Segalen (1878–1919) French ethnographer, archeologist, writer, poet, explorer, art-theorist, linguist, literary critic
Henry Thompson, (1820–1904) indefatigable British polymath, scholar and novelist
Margaret Todd (c. 1859-1918) Scottish writer and doctor who wrote under the pen name Graham Travers and published several novels including Mona Maclean, Medical Student.
John Todhunter (1839–1916) Irish poet and playwright
Saul Tschernichowsky (1875–1943) Jewish-Russian military physician during the First World War; decorated by the Russian government; nomadic life spent writing, translating, editing
Adolfo Valderrama (1834–1902) Chilean man of letters and senator[16]
Vladislav Vančura (1891–1942) Czech author, scriptwriter and film director
Frederik Willem van Eeden (1829–1901) started a literary periodical, founded an agricultural colony, translated Rabindranath Tagore's work into Dutch, and wrote social and literary treatises in addition to fiction, poetry, and plays
Ernst Weiß (1882–1940) Jewish-Austrian writer, friend of Kafka, died by his own hand in Paris in 1940 as the Nazis entered the city
William Carlos Williams (1883–1963) American poet, short story writer, novelist, playwright and essayist; in 1963 he won a posthumous Pulitzer Prize for poetry[17]
Charlotte Wolff (1897–1986) Jewish-German psychoanalyst and sexologist, author of poetry and novels, and one of few scientifically trained investigators of the diagnostic significance of the hand (Studies in Handreading, 1936)[18]
Francis Brett Young (1884–1954) English novelist and poet
Simon Vestdijk (1898–1971) a Dutch doctor, writer, poet and translator.

text: 20th century[edit]

text:
Kōbō Abe (1924–1993) Japanese author known for his surrealistic, Kafkaesque style
Keith Ablow, New York Times best-selling author
Dannie Abse (born 1923) Welsh chest specialist who is also one of Europe's most prolific doctor-poets
Vassily Aksyonov (1932–2009) Russian novelist who was forced to emigrate from the Soviet Union in 1980[19]
António Lobo Antunes (born 1942) psychiatrist and leading Portuguese writer
Jacob M. Appel (born 1973), American short story writer
Daniel Amen, psychiatrist, New York Times author
Janet Asimov (born 1926, Janet Opal Jeppson) American science fiction author and psychoanalyst, wife of Isaac Asimov
Brian Andrews (born 1955), neurosurgeon, Novelist
Alaa Al Aswany (born 1957), Egyptian writer and practicing dentist
Ba'al Machshavot: see Israel Isidor Elyashev
Arnie Baker (born 1953 in Montreal, Canada) is a bicycle coach, racer and writer
Christiaan Neethling Barnard (1922–2001) South African cardiac surgeon, famous for performing the world's first successful human-to-human heart transplant
Martin Bax (born 1933) British founder and editor of the literary journal Ambit (1959); a developmental pediatrician and editor of the journal, Developmental and Child Neurology. He is also author of the cult novel, The Hospital Ship.
Eric Berne (1910–70), psychiatrist who created transactional analysis; author of Games People Play.
Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński (1874–1941) Polish gynecologist, journalist, poet, most famous as the translator of over 100 French literary classics into Polish.[20]
Rafael Campo (born 1964) director of the Harvard Program in the Medical Humanities; his practice serves mostly Latinos, gay/lesbian/bisexual/transgender people, and people with HIV
Ethan Canin (born 1960) American short story writer and novelist; author of Emperor of the Air, Carry Me Across the Water, and other works
Theodore Dalrymple, pen name of Anthony Daniels (born 1949). Conservative writer, author of Spoilt Rotten: The Toxic Cult of Sentimentality, among others. Retired British prison doctor and psychiatrist.
Louis-Ferdinand Céline (Louis-Ferdinand Destouches, 1894–1961), French physician and author of Voyage au bout de la nuit
Deepak Chopra (born 1946) Indian writer on spirituality and mind-body medicine
Don Coldsmith (born 1926) American author of primarily Western fiction; past president of Western Writers of America
Robert Coles (born 1929) American author, child psychiatrist, and professor at Harvard University
Alex Comfort (1920–2000) British writer and poet, author of The Joy of Sex and a science fiction novel, Tetrarch
Robin Cook (born 1940), American author of best-selling novels, including Coma; nearly all his books deal with hot medical issues of the day, from bioterrorism to organ donation
Michael Crichton (1942–2008) American author of Jurassic Park
A.J. Cronin (1896–1981), Scottish novelist and essayist; creator of Dr. Finlay. Other works include The Stars Look Down, The Citadel, and The Keys of the Kingdom. The Citadel (1937) brought much-needed attention to inequities in the British medical system and is credited with having prompted the creation of Britain's National Health Service.
Colin Douglas (born 1945) pseudonym of a Scottish novelist, Colin Thomas Currie; frequent British Medical Journal contributor
Marek Edelman (1922–2009) Polish sociopolitical activist, memoirist, last leader of the 1943 Warsaw Ghetto Uprising.
Nawal El Saadawi (born 1931) Egyptian feminist who has written many books on the subject of women in Islam
Israel Isidor Elyashev (1873–1924; pen-name: Ba'al Machshavot, Hebrew for "The Thinker" (בעל מחשבות): Lithuanian neurologist; pioneer of Hebrew and Yiddish literature; known as the first Yiddish literary critic, publisher, translator (translated Theodor Herzl's Altneuland from German into Yiddish) and forerunner of the Zionist Movement
Frantz Fanon (1925–1961) born in Martinique, who wrote books on the psychology of colonial oppression, notably The Wretched of the Earth.
Jacques Ferron (1921–85) Canadian author who founded the Parti Rhinocéros, which he described as "an intellectual guerrilla party"
Michael Fitzwilliam, pseudonym of J.B. Lyons (born 1922), professor of medical history at the Royal College of Surgeons of Ireland, who wrote fiction in the 1960s[21]
Alice Weaver Flaherty (born ) American neurologist, author of The Midnight Disease: The Drive to Write, Writer's Block, and the Creative Brain
Viktor Frankl (1905–1997) Austrian neurologist and psychiatrist, author of Man's Search for Meaning
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), Austrian psychoanalyst, author of many books prized as much for their literary qualities.
Graeme Garden (born 1943) British comedy writer and performer from Scotland, actor, television director, and author, he became well known as a member of The Goodies comedy trio; author of a novel The Seventh Man
Tess Gerritsen (born 1953) American writer of gothic thrillers with a medical theme[22]
Peter Goldsworthy (1951) Australian writer who has won many awards for his short stories, poetry, novels, and opera libretti
Richard Gordon, pen name of Gordon Ostlere (born 1921) English author of novels, screenplays for film and television and accounts of popular history; most famous for comic novels on a medical theme starting with Doctor in the House, and their film, television and stage adaptations; The Alarming History of Medicine was published in 1993 followed by The Alarming History of Sex
John Grant (born 1933) English author who writes under the pen name Jonathan Gash. He is the author of the Lovejoy series of novels
Lars Johan Wictor Gyllensten (1921–2006) Swedish author and physician, and a member of the Swedish Academy
Miroslav Holub (1923–1998) Czech poet, heavily influenced by his experiences as an immunologist, wrote many poems using his scientific knowledge to poetic effect
Richard Hooker (1924–1997) American writer and surgeon who wrote under the pseudonym Richard Hooker. His most famous work was MASH (1968)
Khaled Hosseini (born 1965) Afghanistan-born American novelist; author of the bestsellers The Kite Runner and A Thousand Splendid Suns
Wil Huygen (born 1923) Dutch author and painter, best known for the picture books on gnomes
Yusuf Idris, also Yusif Idris (1927–91) Egyptian writer of plays, short stories, and novels who wrote realistic stories about ordinary and poor people. Many of his works are in the Egyptian vernacular, and he was considered a master of the short story
P. C. Jersild (born 1935) Swedish writer, best known for Barnens ö (The Island of the Children) filmed in 1980 by Kay Pollak
Alice Jones, American poet, practiced internal medicine, psychiatry, now psychoanalysis. Co-editor of Apogee Press.
Carl Jung (1875–1961), Austrian psychoanalyst and author.
James Kahn (born 1947) American writer, best known for his novelization of Return of the Jedi, Poltergeist and Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom. He has also written for well-known television series such as Melrose Place, Star Trek: The Next Generation, St. Elsewhere and E/R
Christopher Kasparek (born 1945), Scottish-born writer of Polish descent who has edited and translated works by Ignacy Krasicki, Bolesław Prus, Florian Znaniecki, Władysław Tatarkiewicz, Marian Rejewski and Władysław Kozaczuk, as well as the Constitution of 3 May 1791.
Harold L. Klawans (1937–98) wrote Chekhov's Lie, about the challenges of combining writing with the medical life
Bernard Knight, CBE (born 1931) has written about thirty books, including contemporary crime fiction, historical novels about Wales, biography, non-fiction popular works on forensic medicine, twelve medico-legal textbooks and the current highly acclaimed Crowner John Mysteries series of 12th-century historical mysteries[23]
Ronald David Laing (1927–89) Scottish psychiatrist who wrote extensively on mental illness and particularly the experience of psychosis
Stanisław Lem (1921–2006) Polish science fiction, philosophical and satirical writer whose books have been translated into 41 languages and have sold over 27 million copies
Carlo Levi (1902–1975) Italian novelist and writer; author of Christ Stopped at Eboli
Edward Lowbury (1913–2007) English bacteriologist and pathologist who was also a published poet and wrote criticism and biography
John E. Mack (1929–2004) Pulitzer Prize-winning biographer, also considered an authority on the spiritual or transformational effects of alleged alien-encounter experiences
Adeline Yen Mah (born 1937) Chinese-American author
J. Nozipo Maraire (born 1966) Zimbabwean writer; author of Zenzele: A Letter for My Daughter
Félix Martí Ibáñez (1912–1972) Spanish author and minister for the Republic during the Spanish Civil War; exiled during Franco's era, he became a United States citizen and published the popular MD magazine in 1950s
Alexander McCall Smith, CBE, FRSE, (born 1948) Rhodesian-born Scottish writer and Emeritus Professor of Medical Law at the University of Edinburgh, Scotland; writer of fiction, most widely known as the creator of The No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency Series
Keith McCarthy (born 1960) British author of crime novels[24]
Jed Mercurio (born 1966) British writer who also writes under the name John MacUre; created the television series Cardiac Arrest and Bodies; has also written and directed for The Grimleys
Sir Jonathan Wolfe Miller, CBE (born 1934) British theatre and opera director, author, television presenter, humorist and sculptor
Amitabh Mitra (born 1955) South African poet of Indian origin, working at Cecilia Makiwane Hospital in Mdantsane township
Merrill Moore (1903–57) contributor to The Fugitive, became a member of the great literary circle that started the "modern Southern literature," the Southern Agrarian Movement; most prolific sonneteer ever, he wrote over forty thousand sonnets[25]
Fernando Goncalves Namora (1919–1989) was a Portuguese writer and medical doctor.
Taslima Nasrin (also spelled Taslima Nasreen and popularly referred to as 'Taslima', born 1962) Bengali Bangladeshi author and feminist who writes about the treatment of women in Islam; lives in exile in India and has received death threats from fundamentalists
Josef Nesvadba (1926–2005) Czech science fiction writer, the best known from the 1960s generation; pioneer of group psychotherapy in Czechoslovakia
António Agostinho Neto (1922–79), first President of Angola (1975–1979), leader of the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) and celebrated poet
Abioseh Nicol (Davidson Nicol) (1924–94) Sierra Leonean academic, diplomat, writer and poet
Alan E. Nourse (1928–1992) American science fiction author
Sherwin Nuland (1930–2014) American author who teaches bioethics and medicine at the Yale University School of Medicine
Danielle Ofri (born 1965). Author of Singular Intimacies: Becoming a Doctor at Bellevue, Incidental Findings and Medicine in Translation: Journeys with My Patients. Internist at Bellevue Hospital and NYU School of Medicine.
Ferdie Pacheco (born 1927) prolific author and painter, nicknamed "The Fight Doctor"; personal physician of Muhammad Ali
Michael Stephen Palmer (born 1942) author of 13 novels, often called the Medical thrillers series[26]
M. Scott Peck (1936–2005), American psychiatrist whose The Road Less Traveled sold more than seven million copies and was on the New York Times best-seller list for over six years
Walker Percy (1916–1990) American Southern author whose interests included philosophy and semiotics[27]
Lenrie Leopold Wilfred Peters (born 1932) Gambian novelist and poet
Steve Pieczenik (born 1943) is author of psycho-political thrillers and the co-creator of the best-selling Tom Clancy's Op-Center and Tom Clancy's Net Force paperback series[28]
Stephen Potts (born 1957) British author of children's books
Wilhelm Reich (1897–1957), Austrian-American psychiatrist, author of The Mass Psychology of Fascism and Character Analysis.
Mickey Zucker Reichert (born 1962) Pediatrician and fantasy author
Theodore Isaac Rubin (born 1923) iconoclastic psychiatrist, wrote more than twenty-five works of fiction and nonfiction; his David and Lisa was made into an acclaimed film in 1962
Suhayl Saadi (born 1961) is an author and dramatist based in Glasgow
Oliver Wolf Sacks (1933–2015) wrote popular books about his patients (e.g. The Man Who Mistook his Wife for a Hat), the most famous of which is Awakenings, which was adapted into a film starring Robin Williams and Robert De Niro
Ferrol Sams (born 1922) American novelist; author of Run with the Horsemen, who draws heavily on southern storytelling tradition
Moacyr Scliar (1937–2011) Jewish-Brazilian writer; most of his writing centers on issues of Jewish identity in the Diaspora and particularly on being Jewish in Brazil
Richard Selzer (born 1928) American author of such celebrated works as Mortal Lessons, Confessions of a Knife, Letters to a Young Doctor and Taking the World in for Repairs which blur the line between case reporting and fiction[29]
Samuel Shem, pen-name Stephen Joseph Bergman (born 1944) wrote The House of God and Mount Misery, both fictional but close-to-real first-hand descriptions of the training of doctors[30]
David Shrayer-Petrov (born 1936) Russian-American fiction writer, poet, and essayist, best known for his Russian trilogy of novels about Jewish refuseniks and for his collections of short stories Jonah and Sarah, Autumn in Yalta and Dinner with Stalin, all of which feature medical themes and characters who are doctors and nurses. He served as a military physician in the Soviet Union, practiced as an endocrinologist, worked as a research microbiologist and oncologist.
Frank Slaughter, pseudonym C.V. Terry (1908–2001) American bestselling novelist whose themes include history, the Biblical world, new findings in medical research and technology; wrote Doctors' Wives[31]
Benjamin Spock (1903–1988) – American pediatrician, wrote Baby and Child Care
Ken Strauss (born 1953) novelist who helps promote the work of other physician writers
Han Suyin pen name of Elizabeth Comber, born Rosalie Elisabeth (born 1917), Chinese-born author of several books on modern China, novels set in East Asia, and autobiographical works; she currently resides in Lausanne and has written in English and French
Raymond Tallis (born 1946) British author has published a novel, three volumes of poetry and over a dozen books on philosophy, literary theory, art and cultural criticism; in 2004 he was identified in Prospect magazine as one of the top 100 public intellectuals in the United Kingdom; wrote The Enduring Significance of Parmenides: Unthinkable Thought
Lewis Thomas (1913–1993) celebrated American essayist and poet
Leonid Tsypkin (1926–1982) Jewish-Russian writer born in Minsk, best known for his book Summer in Baden-Baden
Gael Turnbull (1928–2004) Scottish poet who was an important precursor of the British Poetry Revival
Vaino Vahing (born 1940) former psychiatrist, one of the most famous and gifted of Estonian writers; most of his publications date from the 1970s and '80s.
Abraham Verghese (born 1955) Indian-American professor at Stanford University Medical School, born and reared in Ethiopia, author of the novel, Cutting for Stone.
Karl Edward Wagner (1945–1994) American writer, editor and publisher of horror, science fiction, and heroic fantasy
Phil Whitaker (born 1966) book reviewer for the New Statesman and a novelist
James White (1928–1999) wrote the Sector General Series about a hospital in space, but was not a physician. He wanted to be one, but "he had to go out and work" (see article in Wikipedia and author's web site.)
William Carlos Williams (1883–1963) was an American poet closely associated with modernism and Imagism. He was also a pediatrician and GP.
Tim Willocks (born 1957) British novelist whose work usually features a central character with extensive medical knowledge (especially of drugs) and martial arts ability (Willocks is a black belt in Shotokan karate)
F. Paul Wilson (born 1946) writes novels and short stories primarily in the science fiction and horror genres
Irvin Yalom (born 1931) existentialist and psychotherapist; produced a number of novels and also experimented with writing techniques; in Everyday Gets a Little Closer he invited a patient to co-write about the experience of therapy
C. Dale Young (born 1969) American poet, editor and educator; edits poetry for New England Review.

text: 21st century[edit]

text:
Chris Adrian, author, paediatrician, Harvard Divinity School graduate
Monther Alkabbani (born 1970), celebrated Saudi Arabian writer, novelist and surgeon
Janet Asimov, psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, and science fiction writer
Gyan Chaturvedi (born 1952), Indian cardiologist, author, and columnist. He is a prolific writer of much-acclaimed satire in Hindi.
Brandon Colby, writer on predictive medicine and genetic testing
Joel Fuhrman, family physician, author, print and TV advocate of a micronutrient-rich diet
Rivka Galchen, novelist, psychiatrist
Atul Gawande (b. 1965) general and endocrine surgeon at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts and is The New Yorker medical writer
Tess Gerritsen, fiction novelist
Perri Klass, journalist, pediatrician, New York University professor
Vincent Lam, Canadian writer (Bloodletting & Miraculous Cures)
C. J. Lyons, former pediatrician and thriller writer
William James Maloney, American dentist, author
Howard Markel, physician, medical historian, journalist, editor, national best selling author, and professor at The University of Michigan
Richard Mounce, endodontist and magazine writer
Siddhartha Mukherjee, oncologist, Pulitzer Prize winner, author of The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer
Taslima Nasrin, Bengali author and former physician
Danielle Ofri, essayist, editor, practicing internist, and professor at New York University School of Medicine
Kevin Patterson, Canadian writer
Nawal El Saadawi, Egyptian feminist writer, activist, physician and psychiatrist
Abraham Verghese, Indian-American New York Times Bestselling author, Professor at Stanford University Medical School, Department of Internal Medicine
Martin Winckler, physician, writer, TV critic

text: Why physicians write[edit]

text: Physicians have a long history, dating back to Greek medicine, of literary activities. This may have its origins in mythology. Apollo was the god of both poetry and medicine. Pallas Athene was the goddess of poetry, healing and war. Brigit was the Celtic patroness of poets, smiths and healers.

tag: p

text: It is thought that through their privileged and intimate contact with those moments of greatest human drama (birth, illness, injury, suffering, disease, death) physicians are in a unique position to observe, record and create the stories that make us human. "The clinical gaze [has] much in common with the artist's eye."[32]

text: Robert Louis Stevenson, in his Preface to Underwoods,[33] described this unique privilege:

text: There are men and classes of men that stand above the common herd: the soldier, the sailor, and the shepherd not infrequently; the artist rarely; rarelier still, the clergyman; the physician almost as a rule. He is the flower (such as it is) of our civilization; and when that stage of man is done with, and only to be marvelled at in history, he will be thought to have shared as little, as any in the defects of the period, and most notably exhibited the virtues of the race. Generosity he has, such as is possible to those who practise an art, never to those who drive a trade; discretion, tested by a hundred secrets; tact, tried in a thousand embarrassments; and what are more important, Heraclean cheerfulness and courage. So that he brings air and cheer into the sick room, and often enough, though not so often as he wishes, brings healing.

text: The challenges of combining medical practice with writing are addressed by neurologist and pharmacologist Harold L. Klawans in his study, Chekhov's Lie.[34]

text: Worldwide organizations[edit]

text: In 1955 a group of physician-writers created the International Federation of Societies of Physician-Writers (FISEM). One of the founders was Dr. André Soubiran, author of Hommes en blanc (The Doctors). Other founders included Italian Professors Nasi and Lombroso, Belgian Drs. Sévery and Thiriet, Swiss physicians Junod and René Kaech, and eminent French writers of the medical academy. Dr. Mirko Skoficz was a key figure at the first FISEM congress in San Remo, Italy, along with his wife, Italian film star Gina Lollobrigida.

text: In 1973 FISEM changed its name to UMEM—Union Mondiale des Écrivains Médécins, or World Union of Physician Writers.[35] Its current president is Dr. Carlos Vieira Reis of Portugal. UMEM is an umbrella organization that subsumes physician-writer groups in:

text:
Belgium, Groupement Belge des Médecins-Écrivains[36]
Brazil, Sociedade Brasileira de Médicos Escritores SOBRAMES[37]
Bulgaria, Club des Écrivains Médecins en Bulgarie[38]
France, Groupement des Ecrivains – Médecins [GEM][39]
Germany, Bundesverband Deutscher Schriftstellerärzte [BDSA][40]
Greece, Hellenic Society of Physician Writers[41]
Italy, A.M.S.I.[42]
Netherlands, Penaescula [43]
Poland, Unia Polskich Pisarzy Medyków [UPPL][44]
Portugal, Sociedade Portuguesa dos Escritores Médicos [SOPEAM][45]
Romania, Societaea Medicilor Scriitori şi Publicişti din România[46]
South America, Liga Sud-Americana de Médicos-Escritores LISAME[47]
Spain, Asociación Española de Médicos Escritores e Artistas [AEMEA][48]
Switzerland, Association Suisse des Écrivains Médecins [ASEM][49]

text: Anglophone associations[edit]

text: In the Anglophone world, the lead has been taken by New York University (NYU) with their encyclopedic Literature, Arts & Medicine Database[50] and blog.[51] An associated resource is the Medical Humanities directory: http://medhum.med.nyu.edu/directory.html.

text: These sites were established in 1994 at the New York University School of Medicine and were:

text: "dedicated to providing a resource for scholars, educators, students, patients, and others who are interested in the work of medical humanities. We define the term 'medical humanities' broadly to include an interdisciplinary field of humanities (literature, philosophy, ethics, history and religion), social science (anthropology, cultural studies, psychology, sociology), and the arts (literature, theater, film, and visual arts) and their application to medical education and practice. The humanities and arts provide insight into the human condition, suffering, personhood, our responsibility to each other, and offer a historical perspective on medical practice. Attention to literature and the arts helps to develop and nurture skills of observation, analysis, empathy, and self-reflection – skills that are essential for humane medical care. The social sciences help us to understand how bioscience and medicine take place within cultural and social contexts and how culture interacts with the individual experience of illness and the way medicine is practiced."[52]

text: Daniel Bryant, an American internist, has compiled an extensive list of fellow physician writers.[53]

text: The Johns Hopkins University Press publishes Literature and Medicine, "a journal devoted to exploring interfaces between literary and medical knowledge and understanding. Issues of illness, health, medical science, violence, and the body are examined through literary and cultural texts."[54]

text: Dartmouth Medical School publishes Lifelines, an art and literature journal dedicated to featuring the works of physicians[55] and their experiences in medicine.

text: The British Medical Association keeps an updated, though selective, list of physician-writers on its web site.[56]


question_text: mippa was enacted in 2008 and is an acronym for

text:
Medicare Improvements for Patients and Providers Act of 2008

Long title
An Act to amend Titles XVIII and XIX of the Social Security Act to extend expiring provisions under the Medicare Program, to improve beneficiary access to preventive and mental health services, to enhance low-income benefit programs, and to maintain access to care in rural areas, including pharmacy access, and for other purposes.

Acronyms (colloquial)
MIPPA

Enacted by
the 110th United States Congress

Effective
July 15, 2008

Citations

Public law
110-275

Statutes at Large
122 Stat. 2494

Codification

Acts amended
Social Security Act

Legislative history

tag: table

text: The Medicare Improvements for Patients and Providers Act of 2008 ("MIPPA"), is a 2008 statute of United States Federal legislation which amends the Social Security Act.

text: On July 15, 2008, President George W. Bush vetoed the bill.[1] On that same day the House of Representatives and the Senate voted to overturn the veto.[1][2]

text: This law contained the first revision to policy covering Medicare Part D.[3]


document_title: Tree of Life (Disney)

question_text: who designed the tree of life at disney

question_tokens: who designed the tree of life at disney

text: Tree of Life (Disney)

text:
Tree of Life

Disney's Animal KingdomArea
Discovery IslandOpening date
April 22, 1998General statisticsDesigner
Walt Disney ImagineeringHeight
145 ft (44.2 m)Base width
50 ft (15.2 m)
 Wheelchair accessible

text: The Tree of Life is a 145-foot (44 m) sculpture of a baobab tree at Disney's Animal Kingdom, Walt Disney World Resort. It debuted when the attraction opened on April 22, 1998.[1] Inspired by the  tree of the same name, the Tree of Life features 325 carvings of existing and extinct animal species on its trunk and surrounding roots.

text: Engineered from a refitted oil platform and based on the natural forms of baobob trees, the Tree of Life is located on Discovery Island, roughly in the center of the park. Its leaves are made out of kynar.[2] At the structure's interior base is a 428-seat theater that hosts It's Tough to Be a Bug!, a 3-D film attraction based on the 1998 Disney/Pixar film A Bug's Life.[1][3]

text: Tree of Life Awakenings[edit]

text: The Tree of Life Awakenings is a series of projection mapping shows that debuted on May 27, 2016, as part of the park's new nighttime operating hours.[4] A media preview of the show was presented on April 19, 2016.[5] Four presentations are featured throughout the evening, which have been given names on the Rivers of Light soundtrack release:

text:
Journey: A playful deer and a watchful hawk.
Rendezvous: A hummingbird and flowers.
Gift Giver: A red fox in a winter setting.
Disney Medley: Animal imagery inspired by Pocahontas, Bambi, Dinosaur, Tarzan, Finding Nemo, Avatar, The Jungle Book, and The Lion King.