document_title: The Man from Snowy River (poem)

question_text: where did the man from snowy river take place

text: The Man from Snowy River (poem)

text: Setting of the poem[edit]

text: It is recorded in the selected works of "Banjo" Paterson that the location of the ride fictionalised in the poem was in the region of today's Burrinjuck Dam, north-west of Canberra in Australian Capital Territory. Paterson had helped round up brumbies as a child and later owned property in this region.

text: The Snowy River, from where "the Man" comes, has its headwaters in the Snowy Mountains, the highest section of the Great Dividing Range near the easternmost part of the border between New South Wales and Victoria. The ride does not take place in the Snowy River because, within the poem, Clancy describes to the other men the country from where "the man from Snowy River" comes.

text: "The Man"[edit]

text: Corryong, a small town on the western side of the range, claims stockman Jack Riley (1841–1914) as the inspiration for the character, and like many other towns in the region uses the image of the character as part of the marketing to tourists. Riley was a hermit stockman employed by John Pearce of Greg Station at Corryong to run cattle at "Tom Groggin" 60 km upriver from Khancoban, New South Wales. Paterson is said (by Corryong legend) to have met Riley on at least two occasions.

text: The inspiration for "The Man" was claimed by Banjo himself to be not one person but a number of people, one of which was Owen Cummins. Cummins was born in Dargo and was well known for being a great horseman. He worked around the area before making his way up to Wave Hill, NT, where a monument has been erected to reflect his role in inspiring the poem.

text: There is a possibility that another exceptional and fearless rider, Charlie McKeahnie, might have been the inspiration for the poem. In 1885, when McKeahnie was only 17 years of age, he performed a dangerous riding feat in the Snowy River region.[3][4] Historian Neville Locker supports this theory, adding that a prior poem had been written about McKeahnie by bush poet Barcroft Boake and that the story had been recounted by a Mrs Hassle to a crowd that included Paterson.[5] Locker also offers as evidence a letter by McKechnie's sister that discusses the ride and Paterson's hearing of the ride. McKeahnie was killed in a riding accident near Bredbo in 1895 and is buried in the Old Adaminaby cemetery, on the shores of Lake Eucumbene.

text: Historical context of the poem[edit]

text: The poem was written at a time in the 1880s and 1890s when Australia was developing a distinct identity as a nation. Though Australia was still a set of independent colonies under the final authority of Britain, and had not yet trod the path of nationhood, there was a distinct feeling that Australians needed to be united and become as one. Australians from all walks of life, be they from the country or the city (Clancy of the Overflow), looked to the bush for their mythology and heroic characters. They saw in the Man from Snowy River a hero whose bravery, adaptability and risk-taking could epitomise a new nation in the south. This new nation emerged as the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901.

text: Currency commemoration and tribute[edit]

text: A. B. "Banjo" Paterson and "The Man From Snowy River" poem are commemorated on the Australian 10 dollar note [1]. The full text of the poem is printed several times in microprint as one of the note's security devices.[6]

text: Recordings of the poem[edit]

text:
Slim Dusty recorded the poem with new music, to call attention to the "old bush ballads".
Leonard Teale narrated the poem, which was recorded on audiotape
Steve Bisley narrated the poem, in his role as Banjo Paterson, during the re-enactment of the poem in the 2002 musical theatre production The Man from Snowy River: Arena Spectacular.
Jack Thompson has released recordings of a number of Banjo Paterson poems including "The Man from Snowy River" and "Clancy of the Overflow" on the album The Bush Poems of A.B. (Banjo) Paterson.[7]
The Australian folk band Wallis and Matilda set the poem to music on their album Pioneers.
The Concert Band of the 2nd Military District (Australia) made a recording with the poem narrated by Tim Elliott, accompanied by an arrangement of the music from the 1982 film. (Reference YPRX2097)

text: Adaptations of the poem[edit]

text: Three films, a television series and an arena spectacular musical have been based on the poem.

text: Films:

text: The Man from Snowy River (1920 film) – a silent black & white film

text: The Man from Snowy River (1982 film) – film

text: The Man from Snowy River II – the 1988 sequel to the 1982 film

text: Television:

text: The Man from Snowy River (TV series) – (set 25 years after the famous ride)

text: Stage musical:


document_title: Noble gas

question_text: where did the name noble gases come from

root

text: Noble gas

text: History[edit]

text: Noble gas is translated from the German noun Edelgas, first used in 1898 by Hugo Erdmann[1] to indicate their extremely low level of reactivity. The name makes an analogy to the term "noble metals", which also have low reactivity. The noble gases have also been referred to as inert gases, but this label is deprecated as many noble gas compounds are now known.[2] Rare gases is another term that was used,[3] but this is also inaccurate because argon forms a fairly considerable part (0.94% by volume, 1.3% by mass) of the Earth's atmosphere due to decay of radioactive potassium-40.[4]

tag: p

text: Pierre Janssen and Joseph Norman Lockyer discovered a new element on August 18, 1868 while looking at the chromosphere of the Sun, and named it helium after the Greek word for the Sun, ἥλιος (hḗlios).[5] No chemical analysis was possible at the time, but helium was later found to be a noble gas. Before them, in 1784, the English chemist and physicist Henry Cavendish had discovered that air contains a small proportion of a substance less reactive than nitrogen.[6] A century later, in 1895, Lord Rayleigh discovered that samples of nitrogen from the air were of a different density than nitrogen resulting from chemical reactions. Along with Scottish scientist William Ramsay at University College, London, Lord Rayleigh theorized that the nitrogen extracted from air was mixed with another gas, leading to an experiment that successfully isolated a new element, argon, from the Greek word ἀργός (argós, "idle" or "lazy").[6] With this discovery, they realized an entire class of gases was missing from the periodic table. During his search for argon, Ramsay also managed to isolate helium for the first time while heating cleveite, a mineral. In 1902, having accepted the evidence for the elements helium and argon, Dmitri Mendeleev included these noble gases as group 0 in his arrangement of the elements, which would later become the periodic table.[7]

text: Ramsay continued his search for these gases using the method of fractional distillation to separate liquid air into several components. In 1898, he discovered the elements krypton, neon, and xenon, and named them after the Greek words κρυπτός (kryptós, "hidden"), νέος (néos, "new"), and ξένος (ksénos, "stranger"), respectively. Radon was first identified in 1898 by Friedrich Ernst Dorn,[8] and was named radium emanation, but was not considered a noble gas until 1904 when its characteristics were found to be similar to those of other noble gases.[9] Rayleigh and Ramsay received the 1904 Nobel Prizes in Physics and in Chemistry, respectively, for their discovery of the noble gases;[10][11] in the words of J. E. Cederblom, then president of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, "the discovery of an entirely new group of elements, of which no single representative had been known with any certainty, is something utterly unique in the history of chemistry, being intrinsically an advance in science of peculiar significance".[11]

text: The discovery of the noble gases aided in the development of a general understanding of atomic structure. In 1895, French chemist Henri Moissan attempted to form a reaction between fluorine, the most electronegative element, and argon, one of the noble gases, but failed. Scientists were unable to prepare compounds of argon until the end of the 20th century, but these attempts helped to develop new theories of atomic structure. Learning from these experiments, Danish physicist Niels Bohr proposed in 1913 that the electrons in atoms are arranged in shells surrounding the nucleus, and that for all noble gases except helium the outermost shell always contains eight electrons.[9] In 1916, Gilbert N. Lewis formulated the octet rule, which concluded an octet of electrons in the outer shell was the most stable arrangement for any atom; this arrangement caused them to be unreactive with other elements since they did not require any more electrons to complete their outer shell.[12]

text:
In 1962, Neil Bartlett discovered the first chemical compound of a noble gas, xenon hexafluoroplatinate.[13] Compounds of other noble gases were discovered soon after: in 1962 for radon, radon difluoride (RnF
2),[14] which was identified by radiotracer techniques and in 1963 for krypton, krypton difluoride (KrF
2).[15] The first stable compound of argon was reported in 2000 when argon fluorohydride (HArF) was formed at a temperature of 40 K (−233.2 °C; −387.7 °F).[16]

text: In December 1998, scientists at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research working in Dubna, Russia bombarded plutonium (Pu) with calcium (Ca) to produce a single atom of element 114,[17] flerovium (Fl).[18] Preliminary chemistry experiments have indicated this element may be the first superheavy element to show abnormal noble-gas-like properties, even though it is a member of group 14 on the periodic table.[19] In October 2006, scientists from the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory successfully created synthetically oganesson (Og), the seventh element in group 18,[20] by bombarding californium (Cf) with calcium (Ca).[21]

text: Physical and atomic properties[edit]

text:
Property[9][22]
Helium
Neon
Argon
Krypton
Xenon
Radon

Density (g/dm3)
0.1786
0.9002
1.7818
3.708
5.851
9.97

Boiling point (K)
4.4
27.3
87.4
121.5
166.6
211.5

Melting point (K)
0.95
(at 25 bar)
24.7
83.6
115.8
161.7
202.2

Enthalpy of vaporization (kJ/mol)
0.08
1.74
6.52
9.05
12.65
18.1

Solubility in water at 20 °C (cm3/kg)
8.61
10.5
33.6
59.4
108.1
230

Atomic number
2
10
18
36
54
86

Atomic radius (calculated) (pm)
31
38
71
88
108
120

Ionization energy (kJ/mol)
2372
2080
1520
1351
1170
1037

Allen electronegativity[23]
4.16
4.79
3.24
2.97
2.58
2.60

tag: table

text: The noble gases have weak interatomic force, and consequently have very low melting and boiling points. They are all monatomic gases under standard conditions, including the elements with larger atomic masses than many normally solid elements.[9] Helium has several unique qualities when compared with other elements: its boiling and melting points are lower than those of any other known substance; it is the only element known to exhibit superfluidity; it is the only element that cannot be solidified by cooling under standard conditions—a pressure of 25 standard atmospheres (2,500 kPa; 370 psi) must be applied at a temperature of 0.95 K (−272.200 °C; −457.960 °F) to convert it to a solid.[24] The noble gases up to xenon have multiple stable isotopes. Radon has no stable isotopes; its longest-lived isotope, 222Rn, has a half-life of 3.8 days and decays to form helium and polonium, which ultimately decays to lead.[9] Melting and boiling points generally increase going down the group.

text: The noble gas atoms, like atoms in most groups, increase steadily in atomic radius from one period to the next due to the increasing number of electrons. The size of the atom is related to several properties. For example, the ionization potential decreases with an increasing radius because the valence electrons in the larger noble gases are farther away from the nucleus and are therefore not held as tightly together by the atom. Noble gases have the largest ionization potential among the elements of each period, which reflects the stability of their electron configuration and is related to their relative lack of chemical reactivity.[22] Some of the heavier noble gases, however, have ionization potentials small enough to be comparable to those of other elements and molecules. It was the insight that xenon has an ionization potential similar to that of the oxygen molecule that led Bartlett to attempt oxidizing xenon using platinum hexafluoride, an oxidizing agent known to be strong enough to react with oxygen.[13] Noble gases cannot accept an electron to form stable anions; that is, they have a negative electron affinity.[25]

text: The macroscopic physical properties of the noble gases are dominated by the weak van der Waals forces between the atoms. The attractive force increases with the size of the atom as a result of the increase in polarizability and the decrease in ionization potential. This results in systematic group trends: as one goes down group 18, the atomic radius, and with it the interatomic forces, increases, resulting in an increasing melting point, boiling point, enthalpy of vaporization, and solubility. The increase in density is due to the increase in atomic mass.[22]

text: The noble gases are nearly ideal gases under standard conditions, but their deviations from the ideal gas law provided important clues for the study of intermolecular interactions. The Lennard-Jones potential, often used to model intermolecular interactions, was deduced in 1924 by John Lennard-Jones from experimental data on argon before the development of quantum mechanics provided the tools for understanding intermolecular forces from first principles.[26] The theoretical analysis of these interactions became tractable because the noble gases are monatomic and the atoms spherical, which means that the interaction between the atoms is independent of direction, or isotropic.

text: Chemical properties[edit]

text: The noble gases are colorless, odorless, tasteless, and nonflammable under standard conditions. They were once labeled group 0 in the periodic table because it was believed they had a valence of zero, meaning their atoms cannot combine with those of other elements to form compounds. However, it was later discovered some do indeed form compounds, causing this label to fall into disuse.[9]

text: Configuration[edit]

text: Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in its electron configuration, especially the outermost shells resulting in trends in chemical behavior:

text:
Z
Element
No. of electrons/shell

2
helium
2

10
neon
2, 8

18
argon
2, 8, 8

36
krypton
2, 8, 18, 8

54
xenon
2, 8, 18, 18, 8

86
radon
2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8

text: The noble gases have full valence electron shells. Valence electrons are the outermost electrons of an atom and are normally the only electrons that participate in chemical bonding. Atoms with full valence electron shells are extremely stable and therefore do not tend to form chemical bonds and have little tendency to gain or lose electrons.[27] However, heavier noble gases such as radon are held less firmly together by electromagnetic force than lighter noble gases such as helium, making it easier to remove outer electrons from heavy noble gases.

text: As a result of a full shell, the noble gases can be used in conjunction with the electron configuration notation to form the noble gas notation. To do this, the nearest noble gas that precedes the element in question is written first, and then the electron configuration is continued from that point forward. For example, the electron notation of phosphorus is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3, while the noble gas notation is [Ne] 3s2 3p3. This more compact notation makes it easier to identify elements, and is shorter than writing out the full notation of atomic orbitals.[28]

text: Compounds[edit]

text: The noble gases show extremely low chemical reactivity; consequently, only a few hundred noble gas compounds have been formed. Neutral compounds in which helium and neon are involved in chemical bonds have not been formed (although there is some theoretical evidence for a few helium compounds), while xenon, krypton, and argon have shown only minor reactivity.[29] The reactivity follows the order Ne < He < Ar < Kr < Xe < Rn.

text:
In 1933, Linus Pauling predicted that the heavier noble gases could form compounds with fluorine and oxygen. He predicted the existence of krypton hexafluoride (KrF
6) and xenon hexafluoride (XeF
6), speculated that XeF
8 might exist as an unstable compound, and suggested that xenic acid could form perxenate salts.[30][31] These predictions were shown to be generally accurate, except that XeF
8 is now thought to be both thermodynamically and kinetically unstable.[32]

text:
Xenon compounds are the most numerous of the noble gas compounds that have been formed.[33] Most of them have the xenon atom in the oxidation state of +2, +4, +6, or +8 bonded to highly electronegative atoms such as fluorine or oxygen, as in xenon difluoride (XeF
2), xenon tetrafluoride (XeF
4), xenon hexafluoride (XeF
6), xenon tetroxide (XeO
4), and sodium perxenate (Na
4XeO
6). Xenon reacts with fluorine to form numerous xenon fluorides according to the following equations:

text:
Some of these compounds have found use in chemical synthesis as oxidizing agents; XeF
2, in particular, is commercially available and can be used as a fluorinating agent.[34] As of 2007, about five hundred compounds of xenon bonded to other elements have been identified, including organoxenon compounds (containing xenon bonded to carbon), and xenon bonded to nitrogen, chlorine, gold, mercury, and xenon itself.[29][35] Compounds of xenon bound to boron, hydrogen, bromine, iodine, beryllium, sulphur, titanium, copper, and silver have also been observed but only at low temperatures in noble gas matrices, or in supersonic noble gas jets.[29]

text: In theory, radon is more reactive than xenon, and therefore should form chemical bonds more easily than xenon does. However, due to the high radioactivity and short half-life of radon isotopes, only a few fluorides and oxides of radon have been formed in practice.[36]

text: Krypton is less reactive than xenon, but several compounds have been reported with krypton in the oxidation state of +2.[29] Krypton difluoride is the most notable and easily characterized. Under extreme conditions, krypton reacts with fluorine to form KrF2 according to the following equation:

text: Compounds in which krypton forms a single bond to nitrogen and oxygen have also been characterized,[37] but are only stable below −60 °C (−76 °F) and −90 °C (−130 °F) respectively.[29]

text: Krypton atoms chemically bound to other nonmetals (hydrogen, chlorine, carbon) as well as some late transition metals (copper, silver, gold) have also been observed, but only either at low temperatures in noble gas matrices, or in supersonic noble gas jets.[29] Similar conditions were used to obtain the first few compounds of argon in 2000, such as argon fluorohydride (HArF), and some bound to the late transition metals copper, silver, and gold.[29] As of 2007, no stable neutral molecules involving covalently bound helium or neon are known.[29]

text: The noble gases—including helium—can form stable molecular ions in the gas phase. The simplest is the helium hydride molecular ion, HeH+, discovered in 1925.[38] Because it is composed of the two most abundant elements in the universe, hydrogen and helium, it is believed to occur naturally in the interstellar medium, although it has not been detected yet.[39] In addition to these ions, there are many known neutral excimers of the noble gases. These are compounds such as ArF and KrF that are stable only when in an excited electronic state; some of them find application in excimer lasers.

text: In addition to the compounds where a noble gas atom is involved in a covalent bond, noble gases also form non-covalent compounds. The clathrates, first described in 1949,[40] consist of a noble gas atom trapped within cavities of crystal lattices of certain organic and inorganic substances. The essential condition for their formation is that the guest (noble gas) atoms must be of appropriate size to fit in the cavities of the host crystal lattice. For instance, argon, krypton, and xenon form clathrates with hydroquinone, but helium and neon do not because they are too small or insufficiently polarizable to be retained.[41] Neon, argon, krypton, and xenon also form clathrate hydrates, where the noble gas is trapped in ice.[42]

text:
Noble gases can form endohedral fullerene compounds, in which the noble gas atom is trapped inside a fullerene molecule. In 1993, it was discovered that when C
60, a spherical molecule consisting of 60 carbon atoms, is exposed to noble gases at high pressure, complexes such as He@C
60 can be formed (the @ notation indicates He is contained inside C
60 but not covalently bound to it).[43] As of 2008, endohedral complexes with helium, neon, argon, krypton, and xenon have been obtained.[44] These compounds have found use in the study of the structure and reactivity of fullerenes by means of the nuclear magnetic resonance of the noble gas atom.[45]

text:
Noble gas compounds such as xenon difluoride (XeF
2) are considered to be hypervalent because they violate the octet rule. Bonding in such compounds can be explained using a three-center four-electron bond model.[46][47] This model, first proposed in 1951, considers bonding of three collinear atoms. For example, bonding in XeF
2 is described by a set of three molecular orbitals (MOs) derived from p-orbitals on each atom. Bonding results from the combination of a filled p-orbital from Xe with one half-filled p-orbital from each F atom, resulting in a filled bonding orbital, a filled non-bonding orbital, and an empty antibonding orbital. The highest occupied molecular orbital is localized on the two terminal atoms. This represents a localization of charge which is facilitated by the high electronegativity of fluorine.[48]

text: The chemistries of the heavier noble gases, krypton and xenon, are well established. The chemistry of the lighter ones, argon and helium, is still at an early stage, while a neon compound is yet to be identified.

text: Occurrence and production[edit]

text: The abundances of the noble gases in the universe decrease as their atomic numbers increase. Helium is the most common element in the universe after hydrogen, with a mass fraction of about 24%. Most of the helium in the universe was formed during Big Bang nucleosynthesis, but the amount of helium is steadily increasing due to the fusion of hydrogen in stellar nucleosynthesis (and, to a very slight degree, the alpha decay of heavy elements).[49][50] Abundances on Earth follow different trends; for example, helium is only the third most abundant noble gas in the atmosphere. The reason is that there is no primordial helium in the atmosphere; due to the small mass of the atom, helium cannot be retained by the Earth's gravitational field.[51] Helium on Earth comes from the alpha decay of heavy elements such as uranium and thorium found in the Earth's crust, and tends to accumulate in natural gas deposits.[51] The abundance of argon, on the other hand, is increased as a result of the beta decay of potassium-40, also found in the Earth's crust, to form argon-40, which is the most abundant isotope of argon on Earth despite being relatively rare in the Solar System. This process is the basis for the potassium-argon dating method.[52] Xenon has an unexpectedly low abundance in the atmosphere, in what has been called the missing xenon problem; one theory is that the missing xenon may be trapped in minerals inside the Earth's crust.[53] After the discovery of xenon dioxide, research showed that Xe can substitute for Si in quartz.[54] Radon is formed in the lithosphere by the alpha decay of radium. It can seep into buildings through cracks in their foundation and accumulate in areas that are not well ventilated. Due to its high radioactivity, radon presents a significant health hazard; it is implicated in an estimated 21,000 lung cancer deaths per year in the United States alone.[55]

text:
Abundance
Helium
Neon
Argon
Krypton
Xenon
Radon

Solar System (for each atom of silicon)[56]
2343
2.148
0.1025
5.515 × 10−5
5.391 × 10−6
–

Earth's atmosphere (volume fraction in ppm)[57]
5.20
18.20
9340.00
1.10
0.09
(0.06–18) × 10−19[58]

Igneous rock (mass fraction in ppm)[22]
3 × 10−3
7 × 10−5
4 × 10−2
–
–
1.7 × 10−10

text:
Gas
2004 price (USD/m3)[59]

Helium (industrial grade)
4.20–4.90

Helium (laboratory grade)
22.30–44.90

Argon
2.70–8.50

Neon
60–120

Krypton
400–500

Xenon
4000–5000

text: For large-scale use, helium is extracted by fractional distillation from natural gas, which can contain up to 7% helium.[60]

text: Neon, argon, krypton, and xenon are obtained from air using the methods of liquefaction of gases, to convert elements to a liquid state, and fractional distillation, to separate mixtures into component parts. Helium is typically produced by separating it from natural gas, and radon is isolated from the radioactive decay of radium compounds.[9] The prices of the noble gases are influenced by their natural abundance, with argon being the cheapest and xenon the most expensive. As an example, the adjacent table lists the 2004 prices in the United States for laboratory quantities of each gas.

text: Applications[edit]

text: Noble gases have very low boiling and melting points, which makes them useful as cryogenic refrigerants.[61] In particular, liquid helium, which boils at 4.2 K (−268.95 °C; −452.11 °F), is used for superconducting magnets, such as those needed in nuclear magnetic resonance imaging and nuclear magnetic resonance.[62] Liquid neon, although it does not reach temperatures as low as liquid helium, also finds use in cryogenics because it has over 40 times more refrigerating capacity than liquid helium and over three times more than liquid hydrogen.[58]

text: Helium is used as a component of breathing gases to replace nitrogen, due its low solubility in fluids, especially in lipids. Gases are absorbed by the blood and body tissues when under pressure like in scuba diving, which causes an anesthetic effect known as nitrogen narcosis.[63] Due to its reduced solubility, little helium is taken into cell membranes, and when helium is used to replace part of the breathing mixtures, such as in trimix or heliox, a decrease in the narcotic effect of the gas at depth is obtained.[64] Helium's reduced solubility offers further advantages for the condition known as decompression sickness, or the bends.[9][65] The reduced amount of dissolved gas in the body means that fewer gas bubbles form during the decrease in pressure of the ascent. Another noble gas, argon, is considered the best option for use as a drysuit inflation gas for scuba diving.[66] Helium is also used as filling gas in nuclear fuel rods for nuclear reactors.[67]

text: Since the Hindenburg disaster in 1937,[68] helium has replaced hydrogen as a lifting gas in blimps and balloons due to its lightness and incombustibility, despite an 8.6%[69] decrease in buoyancy.[9]

text: In many applications, the noble gases are used to provide an inert atmosphere. Argon is used in the synthesis of air-sensitive compounds that are sensitive to nitrogen. Solid argon is also used for the study of very unstable compounds, such as reactive intermediates, by trapping them in an inert matrix at very low temperatures.[70] Helium is used as the carrier medium in gas chromatography, as a filler gas for thermometers, and in devices for measuring radiation, such as the Geiger counter and the bubble chamber.[59] Helium and argon are both commonly used to shield welding arcs and the surrounding base metal from the atmosphere during welding and cutting, as well as in other metallurgical processes and in the production of silicon for the semiconductor industry.[58]

text: Noble gases are commonly used in lighting because of their lack of chemical reactivity. Argon, mixed with nitrogen, is used as a filler gas for incandescent light bulbs.[58] Krypton is used in high-performance light bulbs, which have higher color temperatures and greater efficiency, because it reduces the rate of evaporation of the filament more than argon; halogen lamps, in particular, use krypton mixed with small amounts of compounds of iodine or bromine.[58] The noble gases glow in distinctive colors when used inside gas-discharge lamps, such as "neon lights". These lights are called after neon but often contain other gases and phosphors, which add various hues to the orange-red color of neon. Xenon is commonly used in xenon arc lamps which, due to their nearly continuous spectrum that resembles daylight, find application in film projectors and as automobile headlamps.[58]

text: The noble gases are used in excimer lasers, which are based on short-lived electronically excited molecules known as excimers. The excimers used for lasers may be noble gas dimers such as Ar2, Kr2 or Xe2, or more commonly, the noble gas is combined with a halogen in excimers such as ArF, KrF, XeF, or XeCl. These lasers produce ultraviolet light which, due to its short wavelength (193 nm for ArF and 248 nm for KrF), allows for high-precision imaging. Excimer lasers have many industrial, medical, and scientific applications. They are used for microlithography and microfabrication, which are essential for integrated circuit manufacture, and for laser surgery, including laser angioplasty and eye surgery.[71]

text: Some noble gases have direct application in medicine. Helium is sometimes used to improve the ease of breathing of asthma sufferers.[58] Xenon is used as an anesthetic because of its high solubility in lipids, which makes it more potent than the usual nitrous oxide, and because it is readily eliminated from the body, resulting in faster recovery.[72] Xenon finds application in medical imaging of the lungs through hyperpolarized MRI.[73] Radon, which is highly radioactive and is only available in minute amounts, is used in radiotherapy.[9]

text: Discharge color[edit]

text:
Colors and spectra (bottom row) of electric discharge in noble gases; only the second row represents pure gases.

Helium
Neon
Argon
Krypton
Xenon

text: The color of gas discharge emission depends on several factors, including the following:[74]

text:
discharge parameters (local value of current density and electric field, temperature, etc. – note the color variation along the discharge in the top row);
gas purity (even small fraction of certain gases can affect color);
material of the discharge tube envelope – note suppression of the UV and blue components in the bottom-row tubes made of thick household glass.

tag: ul


document_title: The White Princess (miniseries)

question_text: who plays princess elizabeth in the white princess

text: The White Princess (miniseries)

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Jodie Comer as Elizabeth "Lizzie" of York, the Queen of England
Rebecca Benson as Margaret "Maggie" Plantagenet, the Queen's paternal cousin, sister of Teddy
Jacob Collins-Levy as Henry VII, the King of England, Elizabeth's husband
Kenneth Cranham as Bishop (later Cardinal) John Morton, a confidant of the King's mother
Essie Davis as Dowager Queen Elizabeth Woodville, the Queen's mother
Rossy de Palma as Isabella I of Castile, the Queen of Castile
Richard Dillane as Thomas Stanley, Margaret Beaufort's husband
Anthony Flanagan as Francis Lovell, a Yorkist supporter
Patrick Gibson as Perkin Warbeck, a pretender to the English crown and husband of Cathy Gordon
Caroline Goodall as Cecily Neville, Duchess of York, the Queen's paternal grandmother. Goodall is the only actor appearing in both The White Queen and The White Princess.
Amy Manson as Catherine "Cathy" Gordon, wife of Perkin Warbeck
Adrian Rawlins as John de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk, husband of Eliza de la Pole
Vincent Regan as Jasper Tudor, the King's uncle
Suki Waterhouse as Cecily of York, the Queen's sister
Joanne Whalley as Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy, the Queen's paternal aunt
Andrew Whipp as Sir Richard Pole, husband of Maggie Plantagenet
Michelle Fairley as Margaret Beaufort, the King's mother

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Nicholas Audsley as Lord Strange
Rhys Connah (child) and Albert de Jongh (teen) as Edward "Teddy" Plantagenet, Earl of Warwick, the Queen's cousin, brother of Maggie
Heidi Ely as Princess Bridget, the Queen's sister
Oliver Hembrough as John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln, the Duke of Suffolk's son
Rosie Knightley as Princess Anne, the Queen's sister
Ava Masters as Princess Catherine, the Queen's sister
Rollo Skinner as Ned, a stable boy
Susie Trayling as Elizabeth "Eliza" de la Pole, Duchess of Suffolk, the Queen's paternal aunt
Guy Williams as William Stanley, Lord Thomas's brother
Iain Batchelor as Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor
Dorian Grover as Philip
Zazie Hayhurst as Rettie
Billy Barratt as Prince Arthur, the King's first son
Woody Norman as Prince Harry, the King's second son
Philip Arditti as Rodrigo de Puebla, the Spanish ambassador

text: Guest[edit]

text:
Ned Elliott as Prince Richard, the Queen's brother
Luc Webb as Prince Edward, the Queen's brother
Derek Frood as the Mayor of York
Kitty Smith as Ruth
Emmanuelle Bouaziz as Mary of Burgundy
Max True as Lambert Simnel
Nia Roberts as Catherine "Kate" Woodville, Duchess of Buckingham
Norman Arthur Eshley as the Abbot
Marc Danbury as the Priest
Juan Echenique as Ferdinand II of Aragon, the King of Aragon
Nicholas Gecks as the Wimborne Priest
Alex Sawyer as Kofi, Novice Monk
Mark Edel-Hunt as Thomas Wolsey
Alasdair McLaughlin as Noah Luff

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
No.
Title [1]
Directed by [2]
Written by [2]
Original air date [3]
U.S. viewers
(millions)

1
"In Bed With The Enemy"
Jamie Payne
Emma Frost
April 16, 2017 (2017-04-16)
0.633[4]

Arriving triumphantly in London after defeating Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth, the new king Henry Tudor is compelled to wed Elizabeth of York—whom he despises due to her purported affair with Richard—to join the warring houses of Lancaster and York. Lizzie hates Henry as well, even more so when he insists on getting her pregnant before committing himself to marry her. Recognizing the influence over Henry that her new pregnancy gives her, Lizzie decides to play the part of dutiful wife as she and her mother, the former Queen consort Elizabeth, plot against the Tudors.

2
"Hearts and Minds"
Jamie Payne
Emma Frost
April 23, 2017 (2017-04-23)
0.712[5]

Henry embarks on a tour of the kingdom to assert his sovereignty. Planning to accompany him to secretly rally York supporters, Lizzie's mother Elizabeth is instead neutralized by Henry's own mother Margaret Beaufort and locked up in Westminster Palace. Henry survives an assassination attempt by Yorkist Francis Lovell but suspects Lizzie's involvement; she recognizes it as her mother's handiwork, and denounces any intentions to actually kill Henry. In his absence, Lizzie wins favor with the common people by seizing funds from the Royal Treasury to aid those threatened by the sweating sickness. Though she is unable to convince Henry to free her young cousin Teddy Plantagenet from the Tower of London, Lizzie reinforces Henry's growing attachment to her.

3
"Burgundy"
Jamie Payne
Emma Frost
April 30, 2017 (2017-04-30)
0.784[6]

Lizzie gives birth to Prince Arthur, and finds common ground with Henry. Jasper Tudor visits Margaret of Burgundy seeking an alliance but peace negotiations are suddenly aborted by an incident at the Burgundy court. In the meantime, Lizzie's mother Elizabeth is exiled to Bermondsey Abbey.

4
"The Pretender"
Alex Kalymnios
Sarah Dollard & Emma Frost
May 7, 2017 (2017-05-07)
0.845[7]

As plans are made to safely marry the York princesses to Tudor loyalists, Margaret of Burgundy raises an army behind a peasant boy she has declared is Teddy Plantagenet. Lizzie convinces Henry to release the real Teddy from the Tower and make a public display that he is happily ensconced with the Tudors. Margaret Beaufort, the King's Mother, arranges a disturbance that sends Teddy back to the Tower as a threat to Henry's rule. Henry defeats the pretender's forces and shows mercy to the boy. Though Margaret declares the Dowager Queen Elizabeth complicit in the conspiracy, Henry declines executing his wife's mother.

5
"Traitors"
Alex Kalymnios
Loren McLaughlan & Amy Roberts
May 14, 2017 (2017-05-14)
0.951[8]

Margaret of Burgundy is rallying European support around a boy she recognizes as the true heir to the English throne, Lizzie's brother Richard Plantagenet, the Duke of York. Henry sends Lizzie's cousin Maggie, now Lady Pole, to prove that the boy is an impostor. Henry and Lizzie name their own son Henry as the Duke of York, but Lizzie's mother, the Dowager Queen, interrupts the ceremony with a pronouncement that her son, the rightful King of England, is alive in Burgundy. Though partially convinced of Richard's authenticity, Maggie declares him an impostor when questioned by Henry. Jasper learns that Margaret Beaufort, the King's Mother, ordered the murders of the Princes in the Tower and is outraged; to preserve her secret, Margaret smothers a sick Jasper to death while he is in bed.

6
"English Blood on English Soil"
Alex Kalymnios
Emma Frost & Alice Nutter
May 21, 2017 (2017-05-21)
0.792[9]

William Stanley is executed for his support to the pretender Perkin Warbeck, who—through a marriage with the Scottish noblewoman Catherine Gordon—is gaining the support of most European kingdoms except Spain. Lizzie and Henry travel to Spain to seek for an alliance, but Queen Isabella of Castile refuses to help the king until his traitors are dealt with. After the death of the Dowager Queen Elizabeth, Lizzie inspires Henry's men to fight against the pretender, who ultimately finds sanctuary in a monastery. Warbeck is later retrieved by the King's Mother, who drags him to London pending Henry's reckoning.

7
"Two Kings"
Jamie Payne
Emma Frost
May 28, 2017 (2017-05-28)
0.722[10]

Though Warbeck, his wife, and their son are Henry's prisoners, he refuses to denounce his claim to the throne. Maggie becomes an unlikely spy for her aunt, Margaret of Burgundy. Lizzie is convinced that Warbeck is her brother, but knows that his existence threatens her husband and sons. She starts a fire to allow him to escape, but he refuses.

8
"Old Curses"
Jamie Payne
Sarah Phelps
June 4, 2017 (2017-06-04)
0.868[11]

Lizzie finally admits to Henry that she and her mother cursed her brothers' murderers; if Henry kills Warbeck—who she believes is Richard—he will visit the curse on their sons. Lizzie offers up an imposter to be executed in Warbeck's place, but Margaret of Burgundy is not fooled. Henry nearly strangles his mother as he realizes that she murdered the Princes in the Tower, cursing his bloodline. With the ruse discovered, Lizzie realizes that the only way to secure the alliance with Spain and assure her sons' futures is to allow her brother and Teddy to be executed. The King's Mother remarks to a furious Lizzie how alike they are.

text: Development[edit]

text: The 10-part 2013 television series The White Queen adapted Gregory's previous novels The White Queen (2009), The Red Queen (2010) and The Kingmaker's Daughter (2012).[12] The series was broadcast on BBC One in the United Kingdom and on Starz in the United States, and features Freya Mavor as a young Elizabeth of York.[12] Despite initial plans for a second series, on 20 August 2013 the BBC announced they were not commissioning one, possibly due to the lukewarm reception the series received.[13]

text: However, in October 2013, The Telegraph reported that Starz was planning to develop a sequel miniseries called The White Princess, based on Gregory's novel.[14] Starz CEO Chris Albrecht announced in January 2014 that the network was working with White Queen screenwriter Emma Frost on the project.[15] Starz would produce the White Princess miniseries without involvement from the BBC.[15] Gregory confirmed that the project was underway in August 2015.[16] On 7 February 2016, Gregory announced on Facebook that the sequel was officially confirmed to be in production, with the scripts being written.[17] The series was confirmed to be eight episodes in May 2016.[18][19]

text: Casting[edit]

text: Jodie Comer was cast in the title role of Elizabeth of York in April 2016,[20] with Michelle Fairley added as Margaret Beaufort in May.[18] In June 2016, Starz announced the casting of Essie Davis as Dowager Queen Elizabeth, Jacob Collins-Levy as Henry VII, Suki Waterhouse as Cecily of York, Rebecca Benson as Margaret Plantagenet, and Joanne Whalley as Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy.[21] The remaining cast includes Caroline Goodall as Duchess Cecily, Kenneth Cranham as Bishop Morton, Vincent Regan as Jasper Tudor. and Rhys Connah as Teddy Plantagenet.[22]

text: Production[edit]

text: Production on The White Princess began in June 2016,[21][22] with locations including Bradford on Avon,[23] Bristol,[24] Berkeley Castle, Gloucester Cathedral,[25] Lacock,[26] Salisbury Cathedral,[27] and Wells.[28]

text: Jamie Payne, who directed three episodes of The White Queen, directed episodes 1, 2, 3, 7, and 8. Frost is showrunner and executive producer. Lachlan MacKinnon is serving as producer, with Gregory as executive producer. Playground's Colin Callender and Scott Huff are serving as executive producers with Company Pictures' Michele Buck.[24] In early January 2017, the producers released a video clip from the series as a teaser trailer.[29]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: In February 2017, Starz announced that The White Princess would premiere on 16 April 2017.[30]

text: In the UK the series began its satellite and terrestrial broadcasts on the Drama channel on 18 November 2017.


document_title: The Steve Wilkos Show

question_text: where does the steve wilkos show take place

text: The Steve Wilkos Show

text: History[edit]

text: The show has Wilkos expanding on his "Steve to the Rescue" shows that he did while serving as a co-host for Jerry Springer whenever Springer took breaks or was doing other projects, such as Dancing with the Stars.[2][3] The idea of Wilkos having his own show came as a result of this approach, which proved to be so popular with viewers that the producers of Springer pitched the idea of giving Wilkos his own show to NBCUniversal, which proved successful.[4] On his show, each episode of the show focuses on the topics usually addressed by this type of talk show, mainly involving adultery, domestic abuse, paternity, disrespectful children and teenage pregnancy, with other topics of the same genre also covered often.

text: As noted, Wilkos' show takes a darker tone and deals with more serious topics than Springer's usually covers, most involving criminal justice issues. Wilkos will often refuse to allow guests accused of excessively heinous misbehavior, such as being convicted of certain crimes (especially sex offenses and spousal/child abuse) to sit down in the chairs on his soundstage. Wilkos will sometimes toss these chairs aside when he is angry (and at times he has also thrown the chairs, thereby breaking them). He often notes in his show that the reason he does so is because when the accused committed the crime against the victim, they weren't making them "comfortable" and as such, they don't deserve to be "comfortable" while on his show.[5] Irrespective of any heinous behavior, Wilkos typically lets pregnant women[6] and teenagers[7] sit on his stage.

text: Wilkos often gets into close confrontations with guests by not letting them sit if he is overly disgusted with them, yelling in their faces, physically intimidating them, and even challenging them to hit him, but avoids physical contact with them unless necessary to defend himself or other guests.[8] When a presumably guilty guest begins to explain their actions in greater detail, Wilkos will often ignore and shout over the top of them.[9] When guests get aggressive, Wilkos has threatened them with arrest.[10] When guests flee backstage to try to get away from Wilkos, he often follows them and continues the confrontations.[11] Almost always, when Wilkos has had enough of a particular guest's antics, he will eject the guest off the stage by yelling "Get the hell off my stage!," "Get off my stage!," "Get your ass off my stage!," or "Get the fuck off my stage!", and with increasing frequency, will have them forcibly removed from the studio as well. On rare occasions, Wilkos would even throw guests out of the building.[12] At times, when Wilkos is at his calmest depending on how the guests conduct themselves on the show, he will kindly ask the guests to "walk off the stage."

text: A trademark of the show is Wilkos' chair throwing. When angry, he often picks up and throws chairs, usually breaking them (in one notable instance, rather than breaking, a chair he threw got wedged into the wall), and often stating that he would like to do the same to his guests.[13]

text: Polygraph exams are commonly used on the show, as means for resolving issues. Often guests are polygraphed in regards to cases of physical abuse, child molestation, rape, murder, and infidelity. When the results of a polygraph are disputed by an accused guest, Wilkos brings out the production's polygraph expert, Daniel Ribacoff (who has been on the show since the third season) to explicate the results and clarify how a polygraph works. Guests usually take the polygraph exam three times or more to ensure accuracy of the results.[14]

text: The show also focuses on clearing the names of those who are wrongfully accused and/or convicted of serious offenses such as rape, abuse, murder, and other offenses of that nature. If the accused passes their lie detector test, Steve often turns his anger towards the accusers the same way he expresses anger at those who are guilty of committing those offenses.

text: In earlier seasons, Wilkos would often make jokes about prison rape to unnerve or upset abusers and rapists, but this practice is almost completely unseen in recent seasons. Wilkos doesn't yell or get in the accused guests' faces as often as he did in the first season, unless if need be for a greater cause, depending on how the guests take the heat on his stage.

text: Wilkos has appeared twice on Maury; once in 2008,[15] and participated in the 2,500th episode in 2013.[16]

text: On November 22, 2013, The Steve Wilkos Show celebrated their 1000th episode, along with Jerry Springer and Rachelle Wilkos as special guests. The 1,000th episode took a look back on the first seven of the ten seasons of the show.[17]

text: The Steve Wilkos Show celebrated its tenth anniversary in September 2016. Steve Wilkos and Rachelle Wilkos, as well as the producers hosted a series of tributes entitled "A Decade of Steve" looking back on the first nine seasons of the show.

text: Changes[edit]

text: In the show's first season, Wilkos frequently closed episodes with readings of both positive and negative e-mails he received from viewers. He would preface the readings by saying, "If I read your letter, and if you're not a knucklehead, moron or belly-rubber, I'll send you a free t-shirt." He also proclaimed his show to be "Moron-Free TV", and declared that those who sent him negative e-mails were "not allowed to watch". Since the second season, these readings were less frequent, Wilkos no longer used the "knucklehead," "moron," "belly-rubber" or "Moron-Free TV" labels (most likely to avoid offense and/or legal issues), and everyone who had their e-mail read gets the free T-shirt. This segment ended when Wilkos' show was moved to the Stamford Media Center in Stamford, Connecticut. Nowadays, the readings of positive and negative e-mails from viewers are very infrequent.

text: For much of the first season, Wilkos would read lie detector results as "you have told the entire truth / you have not told the entire truth". From the February 2008 episodes onward, he has excluded "entire truth" from this catchphrase. After that, Wilkos would read lie detector results as "the results of your lie detector test is that you told the truth/did not tell the truth." Since midway through the fifth season, Wilkos would begin reading lie detector results as "The results of your lie detector test came back the same to each question, and they came back that (subject, accused and the accusers, mostly the accused) told the truth/did not tell the truth."

text: Also in the second season, Wilkos began dividing some episodes into two segments, each one dealing with different guests and issues. In rare cases, there can be three segments on one episode. Additionally, paternity tests and infidelity were added as topics to the show. As time went on with the paternity and infidelity stories, Wilkos would often make jokes with guests just to get laughs from himself, his guests and the audience, since paternity and infidelity aren't as serious an offense as abuse of any kind.

text: According to the Chicago Sun-Times, executive producer Richard Dominick was forced from the program by Springer and NBCU Domestic Television after encouraging Wilkos to become extremely physical with a guest. Rachelle Wilkos, Wilkos's wife and a long time Springer crew member, became the program's executive producer.[18]

text: Wilkos' third season premiered September 14, 2009, originating from the Stamford Media Center in Stamford, Connecticut complete with a new studio. Fellow NBC-Universal talkers Maury and Springer made the move, as well.[19] On October 25, 2010, it was announced that the show was picked up by NBC Universal through the 2013-14 season.[20]

text: In October 2014, it was announced that the show had been renewed, once again, by NBC Universal through September 2018 along with Maury and The Jerry Springer Show.[21]


document_title: List of Tour de France general classification winners

question_text: when was the last time a french rider won the tour

text: History[edit]

text: The Tour de France was established in 1903 by newspaper L'Auto, in an attempt to increase its sales. The first race was won by Frenchman Maurice Garin. He won again the next year, but was disqualified after allegations that he had been transported by car or rail arose. Henri Cornet became the winner after the dispute was settled; he is the youngest to win the Tour. Following the scandals in 1904, the scoring system was changed from being time-based to a points-based system, in which the cyclist who has  the fewest points at the end of the race is victorious. This system lasted until 1912, when the time-based system was re-introduced. French cyclists were successful in the early Tours; the first non-Frenchman to win the Tour was François Faber of Luxembourg, who won in 1909.[8]

text: Belgian riders were more successful before and after the First World War (which suspended the Tour from 1915 to 1918). In the 1920s, trade teams dominated the Tour; cyclists such as Nicolas Frantz won the Tour with the Alcyon team. However, when Alcyon cyclist Maurice De Waele won the Tour in 1929 while ill, the organisers decided to introduce national teams the following year, to stop team tactics from undermining the race. Because of the Second World War, the Tour de France was suspended from 1940 to 1946.[9]

text: After the Second World War, no one dominated the Tour until Louison Bobet, who won three consecutive Tours from 1953 to 1955—he was the first person to achieve this feat.[10] This was bettered by the French cyclist Jacques Anquetil, who won four successive Tours from 1961 to 1964. Anquetil, who also won in 1957, became the first to win five Tours.[11] Anquetil's five victories were matched when Belgian cyclist Eddy Merckx won four successive Tours from 1969 to 1972 and the 1974 Tour. Merckx is the only person to have won the general, points and king of the mountains classifications in the same Tour. He achieved this in 1969, when he won his first Tour.[12]

text: Merckx looked to be heading for a record sixth Tour victory in 1975, but Bernard Thévenet beat him, becoming the first French winner in seven years. Thévenet won again in 1977; however, he was eclipsed in following years by fellow Frenchman Bernard Hinault, who won consecutive Tours in 1978 and 1979. Hinault won the Tour at his first attempt in 1978; becoming one of 11 cyclists (including Anquetil, Merckx, Hugo Koblet and Fausto Coppi) managed to do so.[13] In 1980, Hinault was going for a third consecutive win, but had to pull out because of tendinitis, and the Tour was won by Joop Zoetemelk.[14] Hinault returned in 1981 and won that race as well as the one after that. Hinault sat out the Tour in 1983, and another Frenchman—Laurent Fignon—achieved victory. Fignon won again the following year, beating Hinault; Hinault recovered in 1985 to win his fifth Tour.

text: American Greg LeMond became the first non-European to win the Tour in 1986. LeMond missed out in 1987 and 1988, but returned in 1989 to win the Tour by finishing eight seconds ahead of Laurent Fignon, the smallest winning margin in the Tour's history. LeMond also won in 1990.[15] In 1991, Spaniard Miguel Indurain won his first Tour. Indurain came to dominate the Tour, winning four more Tours consecutively—making him the first person to win five consecutive Tours.[16] He tried to win a record-high sixth Tour in 1996, but was beaten by Bjarne Riis, who later admitted to using Erythropoietin.[17] Jan Ullrich and Marco Pantani won in 1997 and 1998, respectively; however, Pantani's victory was overshadowed by doping scandals.[18]

text: The 1999 Tour saw the first victory of Lance Armstrong,[19] which was followed by six more, for a total of seven consecutive victories.[20] He was stripped of his titles in October 2012, when it emerged he had used performance-enhancing drugs throughout much of his career, including the Tour de France victories.[7] Floyd Landis won the Tour in 2006, but was later stripped of his title, after a drug-control test demonstrated the presence of a skewed testosterone/epitestosterone ratio.[21] Óscar Pereiro was subsequently awarded the victory. Alberto Contador won the 2007 Tour with the Discovery Channel. The 2007 Tour was also marred by doping scandals, thus Contador was unable to defend his title in 2008, as his Astana team was banned for its part. Fellow Spaniard Carlos Sastre of Team CSC won.[22] Contador and Astana returned in 2009 to regain the title. He won the Tour again in 2010, but was later stripped of his title after he was found guilty of doping. Runner-up Andy Schleck was awarded the victory.

text: Cadel Evans became the first Australian to win the Tour in 2011.[23] The following year, Bradley Wiggins became the first British cyclist to win the Tour.[24] Chris Froome became the second successive British winner in 2013, which was the 100th edition of the race.[25] He could not defend his title the following year, as he crashed out in stage 5, with Vincenzo Nibali winning his first Tour.[26] Froome regained the title in 2015 and then successfully defended it in 2016, the first rider in over 20 years to do so.[27] He then backed it up with a third consecutive win in 2017.[5]

text: Winners[edit]

text:
Key

Winner won points classification in the same year

*

Winner won mountains classification in the same year

#

Winner won young rider classification in the same year

Winner won points and mountains classification in the same year

text:
The "Year" column refers to the year the competition was held, and wikilinks to the article about that season.
The "Distance" column refers to the distance over which the race was held.
The "Margin" column refers to the margin of time or points by which the winner defeated the runner-up.
The "Stage wins" column refers to the number of stage wins the winner had during the race.

text:
Tour de France general classification winners

Year

Country

Cyclist

Sponsor/Team

Distance

Time/Points

Margin

Stage wins

Stages in lead

1903

 France

Maurice Garin

La Française

2,428 km (1,509 mi)

94h 33' 14"

+ 2h 59' 21"

3

6

1904

 France

Maurice Garin Henri Cornet[E]

Conte

2,428 km (1,509 mi)

96h 05' 55"

+ 2h 16' 14"

1

3

1905

 France

Louis Trousselier

Peugeot–Wolber

2,994 km (1,860 mi)

35

26

5

10

1906

 France

René Pottier

Peugeot–Wolber

4,637 km (2,881 mi)

31

8

5

12

1907

 France

Lucien Petit-Breton

Peugeot–Wolber

4,488 km (2,789 mi)

47

19

2

5

1908

 France

Lucien Petit-Breton

Peugeot–Wolber

4,497 km (2,794 mi)

36

32

5

13

1909

 Luxembourg

François Faber

Alcyon–Dunlop

4,498 km (2,795 mi)

37

20

6

13

1910

 France

Octave Lapize

Alcyon–Dunlop

4,734 km (2,942 mi)

63

4

4

3

1911

 France

Gustave Garrigou

Alcyon–Dunlop

5,343 km (3,320 mi)

43

18

2

13

1912

 Belgium

Odile Defraye

Alcyon–Dunlop

5,289 km (3,286 mi)

49

59

3

13

1913

 Belgium

Philippe Thys

Peugeot–Wolber

5,287 km (3,285 mi)

197h 54' 00"

+ 8' 37"

1

8

1914

 Belgium

Philippe Thys

Peugeot–Wolber

5,380 km (3,340 mi)

200h 28' 48"

+ 1' 50"

1

15

1915

World War I

1916

1917

1918

1919

 Belgium

Firmin Lambot

La Sportive

5,560 km (3,450 mi)

231h 07' 15"

+ 1h 42' 54"

1

2

1920

 Belgium

Philippe Thys

La Sportive

5,503 km (3,419 mi)

228h 36' 13"

+ 57' 21"

4

14

1921

 Belgium

Léon Scieur

La Sportive

5,485 km (3,408 mi)

221h 50' 26"

+ 18' 36"

2

14

1922

 Belgium

Firmin Lambot

Peugeot–Wolber

5,375 km (3,340 mi)

222h 08' 06"

+ 41' 15"

0

3

1923

 France

Henri Pélissier

Automoto–Hutchinson

5,386 km (3,347 mi)

222h 15' 30"

+ 30 '41"

3

6

1924

 Italy

Ottavio Bottecchia

Automoto

5,425 km (3,371 mi)

226h 18' 21"

+ 35' 36"

4

15

1925

 Italy

Ottavio Bottecchia

Automoto–Hutchinson

5,440 km (3,380 mi)

219h 10' 18"

+ 54' 20"

4

13

1926

 Belgium

Lucien Buysse

Automoto–Hutchinson

5,745 km (3,570 mi)

238h 44' 25"

+ 1h 22' 25"

2

8

1927

 Luxembourg

Nicolas Frantz

Alcyon–Dunlop

5,398 km (3,354 mi)

198h 16' 42"

+ 1h 48' 41"

3

14

1928

 Luxembourg

Nicolas Frantz

Alcyon–Dunlop

5,476 km (3,403 mi)

192h 48' 58"

+ 50' 07"

5

22

1929

 Belgium

Maurice De Waele

Alcyon–Dunlop

5,286 km (3,285 mi)

186h 39' 15"

+44' 23"

1

16

1930

 France

André Leducq

Alcyon–Dunlop

4,822 km (2,996 mi)

172h 12' 16"

+ 14' 13"

2

13

1931

 France

Antonin Magne

France

5,091 km (3,163 mi)

177h 10' 03"

+ 12' 56"

1

16

1932

 France

André Leducq

France

4,479 km (2,783 mi)

154h 11' 49"

+ 24' 03"

6

19

1933

 France

Georges Speicher

France

4,395 km (2,731 mi)

147h 51' 37"

+ 4' 01"

3

12

1934

 France

Antonin Magne

France

4,470 km (2,780 mi)

147h 13' 58"

+ 27' 31"

3

22

1935

 Belgium

Romain Maes

Belgium

4,338 km (2,696 mi)

141h 23' 00"

+ 17' 52"

3

21

1936

 Belgium

Sylvère Maes

Belgium

4,442 km (2,760 mi)

142h 47' 32"

+ 26' 55"

4

14

1937

 France

Roger Lapébie

France

4,415 km (2,743 mi)

138h 58' 31"

+ 7' 17"

3

4

1938

 Italy

Gino Bartali*

Italy

4,694 km (2,917 mi)

148h 29' 12"

+ 18' 27"

2

8

1939

 Belgium

Sylvère Maes*

Belgium

4,224 km (2,625 mi)

132h 03' 17"

+ 30' 38"

2

4

1940

World War II

1941

1942

1943

1944

1945

1946

1947

 France

Jean Robic

France

4,642 km (2,884 mi)

148h 11' 25"

+ 3' 58"

3

1

1948

 Italy

Gino Bartali*

Italy

4,922 km (3,058 mi)

147h 10' 36"

+ 26' 16"

7

9

1949

 Italy

Fausto Coppi*

Italy

4,808 km (2,988 mi)

149h 40' 49"

+ 10' 55"

3

5

1950

  Switzerland

Ferdinand Kübler

Switzerland

4,773 km (2,966 mi)

145h 36' 56"

+ 9' 30"

3

11

1951

  Switzerland

Hugo Koblet

Switzerland

4,690 km (2,910 mi)

142h 20' 14"

+ 22' 00"

5

11

1952

 Italy

Fausto Coppi*

Italy

4,898 km (3,043 mi)

151h 57' 20"

+ 28' 17"

5

14

1953

 France

Louison Bobet

France

4,476 km (2,781 mi)

129h 23' 25"

+ 14' 18"

2

5

1954

 France

Louison Bobet

France

4,656 km (2,893 mi)

140h 06' 05"

+ 15' 49"

3

14

1955

 France

Louison Bobet

France

4,495 km (2,793 mi)

130h 29' 26"

+ 4' 53"

2

6

1956

 France

Roger Walkowiak

France

4,498 km (2,795 mi)

124h 01' 16"

+ 1' 25"

0

8

1957

 France

Jacques Anquetil

France

4,669 km (2,901 mi)

135h 44' 42"

+ 14' 56"

4

15

1958

 Luxembourg

Charly Gaul

Luxembourg

4,319 km (2,684 mi)

116h 59' 05"

+ 3' 10"

4

2

1959

 Spain

Federico Bahamontes*

Spain

4,358 km (2,708 mi)

123h 46' 45"

+ 4' 01"

1

6

1960

 Italy

Gastone Nencini

Italy

4,173 km (2,593 mi)

112h 08' 42"

+ 5' 02"

0

14

1961

 France

Jacques Anquetil

France

4,397 km (2,732 mi)

122h 01' 33"

+ 12' 14"

2

21

1962

 France

Jacques Anquetil

Saint-Raphaël–Helyett–Hutchinson

4,274 km (2,656 mi)

114h 31' 54"

+ 4' 59"

2

3

1963

 France

Jacques Anquetil

Saint-Raphaël–Gitane–R. Geminiani

4,138 km (2,571 mi)

113h 30' 05"

+ 3' 35"

4

5

1964

 France

Jacques Anquetil

Saint-Raphaël–Gitane–Dunlop

4,504 km (2,799 mi)

127h 09' 44"

+ 55"

4

6

1965

 Italy

Felice Gimondi

Salvarani

4,188 km (2,602 mi)

116h 42' 06"

+ 2' 40"

3

18

1966

 France

Lucien Aimar

Ford France–Hutchinson

4,329 km (2,690 mi)

117h 34' 21"

+ 1' 07"

0

6

1967

 France

Roger Pingeon

Peugeot–BP–Michelin

4,779 km (2,970 mi)

136h 53' 50"

+ 3' 40"

1

17

1968

 Netherlands

Jan Janssen

Pelforth–Sauvage–Lejeune

4,492 km (2,791 mi)

133h 49' 42"

+ 38"

2

1

1969

 Belgium

Eddy Merckx

Faema

4,117 km (2,558 mi)

116h 16' 02"

+ 17' 54"

6

18

1970

 Belgium

Eddy Merckx*

Faemino–Faema

4,254 km (2,643 mi)

119h 31' 49"

+ 12' 41"

8

20

1971

 Belgium

Eddy Merckx

Molteni

3,608 km (2,242 mi)

96h 45' 14"

+ 9' 51"

4

17

1972

 Belgium

Eddy Merckx

Molteni

3,846 km (2,390 mi)

108h 17' 18"

+ 10' 41"

6

15

1973

 Spain

Luis Ocaña

Bic

4,090 km (2,540 mi)

122h 25' 34"

+ 15' 51"

6

14

1974

 Belgium

Eddy Merckx

Molteni

4,098 km (2,546 mi)

116h 16' 58"

+ 8' 04"

8

18

1975

 France

Bernard Thévenet

Peugeot–BP–Michelin

4,000 km (2,500 mi)

114h 35' 31"

+ 2' 47"

2

8

1976

 Belgium

Lucien Van Impe

Gitane–Campagnolo

4,017 km (2,496 mi)

116h 22' 23"

+ 4' 14"

1

12

1977

 France

Bernard Thévenet

Peugeot–Esso–Michelin

4,096 km (2,545 mi)

115h 38' 30"

+ 48"

1

8

1978

 France

Bernard Hinault

Renault–Gitane–Campagnolo

3,908 km (2,428 mi)

108h 18' 00"

+ 3' 56"

3

3

1979

 France

Bernard Hinault

Renault–Gitane

3,765 km (2,339 mi)

103h 06' 50"

+ 13' 07"

7

17

1980

 Netherlands

Joop Zoetemelk

TI–Raleigh–Creda

3,842 km (2,387 mi)

109h 19' 14"

+ 6' 55"

2

10

1981

 France

Bernard Hinault

Renault–Elf–Gitane

3,753 km (2,332 mi)

96h 19' 38"

+ 14' 34"

5

18

1982

 France

Bernard Hinault

Renault–Elf–Gitane

3,507 km (2,179 mi)

92h 08' 46"

+ 6' 21"

4

12

1983

 France

Laurent Fignon#

Renault–Elf

3,809 km (2,367 mi)

105h 07' 52"

+ 4' 04"

1

6

1984

 France

Laurent Fignon

Renault–Elf

4,021 km (2,499 mi)

112h 03' 40"

+ 10' 32"

5

7

1985

 France

Bernard Hinault

La Vie Claire

4,109 km (2,553 mi)

113h 24' 23"

+ 1' 42"

2

16

1986

 United States

Greg LeMond

La Vie Claire

4,094 km (2,544 mi)

110h 35' 19"

+ 3' 10"

1

7

1987

 Ireland

Stephen Roche

Carrera Jeans–Vagabond

4,231 km (2,629 mi)

115h 27' 42"

+ 40"

1

3

1988

 Spain

Pedro Delgado

Reynolds

3,286 km (2,042 mi)

84h 27' 53"

+ 7' 13"

1

11

1989

 United States

Greg LeMond

AD Renting–W-Cup–Bottecchia

3,285 km (2,041 mi)

87h 38' 35"

+ 8"

3

8

1990

 United States

Greg LeMond

Z–Tomasso

3,504 km (2,177 mi)

90h 43' 20"

+ 2' 16"

0

2

1991

 Spain

Miguel Indurain

Banesto

3,914 km (2,432 mi)

101h 01' 20"

+ 3' 36"

2

10

1992

 Spain

Miguel Indurain

Banesto

3,983 km (2,475 mi)

100h 49' 30"

+ 4' 35"

3

10

1993

 Spain

Miguel Indurain

Banesto

3,714 km (2,308 mi)

95h 57' 09"

+ 4' 59"

2

14

1994

 Spain

Miguel Indurain

Banesto

3,978 km (2,472 mi)

103h 38' 38"

+ 5' 39"

1

13

1995

 Spain

Miguel Indurain

Banesto

3,635 km (2,259 mi)

92h 44' 59"

+ 4' 35"

2

13

1996

 Denmark

Bjarne Riis[A]

Team Telekom

3,765 km (2,339 mi)

95h 57' 16"

+ 1' 41"

2

13

1997

 Germany

Jan Ullrich#

Team Telekom

3,950 km (2,450 mi)

100h 30' 35"

+ 9' 09"

2

12

1998

 Italy

Marco Pantani

Mercatone Uno–Bianchi

3,875 km (2,408 mi)

92h 49' 46"

+ 3' 21"

2

7

1999[B]

 United States

Lance Armstrong

U.S. Postal Service

3,687 km (2,291 mi)

91h 32' 16"

+ 7' 37"

4

15

2000[B]

 United States

Lance Armstrong

U.S. Postal Service

3,662 km (2,275 mi)

92h 33' 08"

+ 6' 02"

1

12

2001[B]

 United States

Lance Armstrong

U.S. Postal Service

3,458 km (2,149 mi)

86h 17' 28"

+ 6' 44"

4

8

2002[B]

 United States

Lance Armstrong

U.S. Postal Service

3,272 km (2,033 mi)

82h 05' 12"

+ 7' 17"

4

11

2003[B]

 United States

Lance Armstrong

U.S. Postal Service

3,427 km (2,129 mi)

83h 41' 12"

+ 1' 01"

1

13

2004[B]

 United States

Lance Armstrong

U.S. Postal Service

3,391 km (2,107 mi)

83h 36' 02"

+ 6' 19"

5

7

2005[B]

 United States

Lance Armstrong

Discovery Channel

3,593 km (2,233 mi)

86h 15' 02"

+ 4' 40"

1

17

2006

 Spain

Floyd Landis Óscar Pereiro[C]

Caisse d'Epargne–Illes Balears

3,657 km (2,272 mi)

89h 40' 27"

+ 32"

0

8

2007

 Spain

Alberto Contador#

Discovery Channel

3,570 km (2,220 mi)

91h 00' 26"

+ 23"

1

4

2008

 Spain

Carlos Sastre*

Team CSC

3,559 km (2,211 mi)

87h 52' 52"

+ 58"

1

5

2009

 Spain

Alberto Contador

Astana

3,459 km (2,149 mi)

85h 48' 35"

+ 4' 11"

2

7

2010

 Luxembourg

Alberto Contador Andy Schleck#[D]

Team Saxo Bank

3,642 km (2,263 mi)

91h 59' 27"

+ 1' 22"

2

12

2011

 Australia

Cadel Evans

BMC Racing Team

3,430 km (2,130 mi)

86h 12' 22"

+ 1' 34"

1

2

2012

 Great Britain

Bradley Wiggins

Team Sky

3,496 km (2,172 mi)

87h 34' 47"

+ 3' 21"

2

14

2013

 Great Britain

Chris Froome

Team Sky

3,404 km (2,115 mi)

83h 56' 20"

+ 4' 20"

3

14

2014

 Italy

Vincenzo Nibali

Astana

3,660.5 km (2,274.5 mi)

89h 59' 06"

+ 7' 37"

4

19

2015

 Great Britain

Chris Froome*

Team Sky

3,360.3 km (2,088.0 mi)

84h 46' 14"

+ 1' 12"

1

16

2016

 Great Britain

Chris Froome

Team Sky

3,529 km (2,193 mi)

89h 04' 48"

+ 4' 05"

2

14

2017

 Great Britain

Chris Froome

Team Sky

3,540 km (2,200 mi)

86h 20' 55"

+ 54"

0

15

2018

 Great Britain

Geraint Thomas

Team Sky

3,349 km (2,081 mi)

83h 17' 13"

+ 1' 51"

2

11

text: Multiple winners[edit]

text: The following riders have won the Tour de France on 2 or more occasions. Since the retirement of two-time winner Alberto Contador in 2017, the only active rider on the list as of that year is Chris Froome, currently with 4 wins. Contador had originally won three Tours, but was stripped of one following an anti-doping violation.[D]

text: Lance Armstrong was removed from the head of the list after having all seven of his Tour victories stripped when he was found guilty of repeated doping offences. Had his tainted Tour victories been reallocated (as were the victories of Floyd Landis and Contador) to the second placed rider in each race, Jan Ullrich would have joined the list with 4 Tour wins. However, the race organisers ASO decided not to reallocate the titles won in those years, in recognition of the historic doping problem in the sport at that time - Ullrich himself having been banned for a doping violation. Ullrich, therefore, has a single Tour victory to his name.

text:
Multiple winners of the Tour de France general classification

Cyclist

Total

Years

 Jacques Anquetil (FRA)

5

1957, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964

 Eddy Merckx (BEL)

5

1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1974

 Bernard Hinault (FRA)

5

1978, 1979, 1981, 1982, 1985

 Miguel Indurain (ESP)

5

1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995

 Chris Froome (GBR)

4

2013, 2015, 2016, 2017

 Philippe Thys (BEL)

3

1913, 1914, 1920

 Louison Bobet (FRA)

3

1953, 1954, 1955

 Greg LeMond (USA)

3

1986, 1989, 1990

 Lucien Petit-Breton (FRA)

2

1907, 1908

 Firmin Lambot (BEL)

2

1919, 1922

 Ottavio Bottecchia (ITA)

2

1924, 1925

 Nicolas Frantz (LUX)

2

1927, 1928

 André Leducq (FRA)

2

1930, 1932

 Antonin Magne (FRA)

2

1931, 1934

 Sylvère Maes (BEL)

2

1936, 1939

 Gino Bartali (ITA)

2

1938, 1948

 Fausto Coppi (ITA)

2

1949, 1952

 Bernard Thévenet (FRA)

2

1975, 1977

 Laurent Fignon (FRA)

2

1983, 1984

 Alberto Contador (ESP)[D]

2

2007, 2009

text: By nationality[edit]

text:
Tour de France general classification winners by nationality

Country

No. of wins

No. of winning cyclists

 France

36

23

 Belgium

18

10

 Spain[D]

12

7

 Italy

10

7

 Great Britain

6

3

 Luxembourg

5

4

 United States[B][C]

3

1

 Netherlands

2

2

  Switzerland

2

2

 Denmark

1

1

 Germany

1

1

 Ireland

1

1

 Australia

1

1

text: Footnotes[edit]

text: A. ^ Bjarne Riis has admitted to doping during the 1996 Tour de France. The organizers of the Tour de France have stated that they no longer consider him to be the winner, although Union Cycliste Internationale has so far refused to change the official status due to the amount of time passed since his win. Jan Ullrich was placed second on the podium in Paris.[28]

text: B. a b c d e f g h Lance Armstrong was declared winner of seven consecutive Tours from 1999 to 2005. However, in October 2012 he was stripped of all titles by the UCI due to the use of performance-enhancing drugs. The Tour director Christian Prudhomme had previously declared that if this happened, there would be no alternate winners for those years, but this has not yet been made official.[29]

text: C. a b Floyd Landis was the winner at the podium ceremony in Paris on the last day of the 2006 Tour, but subsequently was found to have tested positive for performance-enhancing drugs during stage 17 of the race. The United States Anti-Doping Agency found him guilty of using synthetic testosterone during the race and stripped him of his title on 20 September 2007.[30]

text: D. a b c Alberto Contador was the winner at the podium ceremony in Paris on the last day of the 2010 Tour, but subsequently was found to have tested positive for the prohibited substance Clenbuterol on a rest day. The Court of Arbitration for Sport found him guilty of using clenbuterol during the race and stripped him of his title on 6 February 2012.[31]

text: E. ^ Henri Cornet was declared the winner of 1904 race after the disqualification of Maurice Garin for cheating.


document_title: Techniques of neutralization

question_text: according to neutralization theory offenders who are in a state of transience

text: Techniques of neutralization

text: The theory[edit]

text: The idea of such techniques was first postulated by David Matza (born May 1, 1930) and Gresham Sykes (born 1922) during their work on Edwin Sutherland's Differential Association in the 1950s. While Matza and Sykes were at the time working on juvenile delinquency, they theorized that the same techniques could be found throughout society and published their ideas in Delinquency and Drift 1964.[1]

text: Matza and Sykes' theory states that people are always aware of their moral obligation to abide by the law, and that they have the same moral obligation within themselves to avoid illegitimate acts. Thus, they reasoned, when a person did commit illegitimate acts, they must employ some sort of mechanism to silence the urge to follow these moral obligations.

text: This theory rejects other theories which suggested that groups containing delinquents have set up their own permanent moral code which completely replaces moral obligations. Thus, Matza and Sykes were able to explain how offenders 'drift' from illegitimate to legitimate lifestyles repeatedly, as they retain the moral code rather than wipe it clean to be replaced by a more illegitimate one as previous theories suggested.

text: The techniques[edit]

text: The theory was built up upon four observations:

text:
Delinquents express guilt over their illegal acts.
Delinquents frequently respect and admire honest, law-abiding individuals.
A line is drawn between those whom they can victimize and those they cannot.
Delinquents are not immune to the demands of conformity.

text: These theories were brought from positivistic criminology which looked at epistemological perspectives of delinquency.

text: From these, Matza and Sykes created the following methods by which, they believed, delinquents justified their illegitimate actions:

text:
Denial of responsibility. The offender will propose that they were victims of circumstance or were forced into situations beyond their control.[2]
Denial of injury. The offender insists that their actions did not cause any harm or damage.[2]
Denial of the victim. The offender believes that the victim deserved whatever action the offender committed.[2]
Condemnation of the condemners. The offenders maintain that those who condemn their offense are doing so purely out of spite, or are shifting the blame off of themselves unfairly.[2]
Appeal to higher loyalties. The offender suggests that his or her offense was for the greater good, with long term consequences that would justify their actions, such as protection of a friend.[2]

text: There are five methods of neutralization generally manifest themselves in the form of arguments, such as:

text:
"It wasn't my fault"
"It wasn't a big deal. They could afford the loss"
"They had it coming"
"You were just as bad in your day"
"My friends needed me. What was I going to do?"[3]

text: In 2017, Bryant et al. analysed statements made by 27 individuals accused of participation in the Rwanda genocide and found two neutralization techniques that had not been identified before:[4]

text:
Appeal to good character. The offender will "assert their good deeds or admirable character attributes that they contend render them incapable of committing (genocidal) crimes".
Victimisation. The offender will argue how she, he, people close to him or his ethnic group were under threat or have suffered loss by a third party (in case of the Rwanda genocide the Tutsi).

text: Acceptance[edit]

text: Further research in the theory has produced inconclusive results. Offenders have been found both with a solid belief in their moral obligations, and without. Travis Hirschi, a social bond theorist, also raised the question as to whether the offender develops these techniques to neutralise their qualms regarding offending before or after they actually commit the offence.[5]

text: Neutralization Theory was introduced by Sykes and Matza in 1957, facing the then prevailing criminological wisdom that offenders engage in crime because they adhere to an oppositional subcultural rule set that values law breaking and violence, they rejected this perspective. Subsequent research revealed that the original formulation of the Sykes and Matza's theory explains only the behavior of "conventionally attached individuals" not those of "nonconventionally oriented individuals" such as "criminally embedded street offenders". Professor Volkan Topalli, at Georgia State University, in his article The Seductive Nature of Autotelic Crime: How Neutralization Theory Serves as a Boundary Condition for Understanding Hardcore Street Offending, explains that for those groups "guilt is not an issue at all because their crimes are not only considered acceptable, but attractive and desirable".[6]


document_title: List of Prime Ministers of India

question_text: who was the prime minister of india in 1996

text: List of Prime Ministers of India

text: Key[edit]

text:
Colour key for party of the prime ministers

  Bharatiya Janata Party

  Indian National Congress
designated Indian National Congress (I) 1977–1996[5]

  Janata Dal

  Janata Party

  Janata Party (Secular)

  Samajwadi Janata Party

Other key

№: Incumbent number
† Assassinated or died in office
§ Returned to office after a previous term
RES Resigned
NC Resigned following a no-confidence motion

text: Prime Ministers of India[edit]

text:
№
Name
(birth–death)
Portrait
Prior Office
Party
(Alliance)
Elected constituency
Term of office[6]
Appointed by

1
Jawaharlal Nehru
(1889–1964)

Vice President of Executive Council

Indian National Congress
Phulpur, Uttar Pradesh
15 August
1947
27 May
1964[†]
16 years, 286 days
Lord Mountbatten

Rajendra Prasad

–
Gulzarilal Nanda (acting)
(1898–1998)

Minister of Labour and Employment

Indian National Congress
Sabarkantha, Gujarat
27 May
1964
9 June
1964
13 days
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan

2
Lal Bahadur Shastri
(1904–1966)

Minister of Home Affairs

Indian National Congress
Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh
9 June
1964
11 January
1966[†]
1 year, 216 days
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan

–
Gulzarilal Nanda (acting)
(1898–1998)

Minister of Home Affairs

Indian National Congress
Sabarkantha, Gujarat
11 January
1966
24 January
1966
13 days
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan

3
Indira Gandhi
(1917–1984)

Minister of Information and Broadcasting

Prime Minister (Re-elected)

Indian National Congress
Rajya Sabha MP for Uttar Pradesh
24 January
1966
24 March
1977
11 years, 59 days
V. V. Giri

4
Morarji Desai
(1896–1995)

Minister of Finance and Deputy Prime Minister of India before he resigned in 1969

Janata Party
Surat, Gujarat
24 March
1977
28 July
1979[RES]
2 years, 126 days
B. D. Jatti
(acting President)

5
Charan Singh
(1902–1987)

Minister of Finance

Janata Party (Secular)
with INC
Baghpat, Uttar Pradesh
28 July
1979
14 January
1980[RES]
170 days
Neelam Sanjiva Reddy

6
Indira Gandhi
(1917–1984)

Former Prime Minister

Indian National Congress (I)
Medak, Andhra Pradesh
14 January
1980[§]
31 October
1984[†]
4 years, 291 days
Neelam Sanjiva Reddy

7
Rajiv Gandhi
(1944–1991)

MP for Amethi

Indian National Congress (I)
Amethi, Uttar Pradesh
31 October
1984
2 December
1989
5 years, 32 days
Zail Singh

8
Vishwanath Pratap Singh
(1931–2008)

Minister of Defence

Janata Dal
(National Front)
Fatehpur, Uttar Pradesh
2 December
1989
10 November
1990[NC]
343 days
R. Venkataraman

9
Chandra Shekhar
(1927–2007)

MP for Ballia

Samajwadi Janata Party
with INC
Ballia, Uttar Pradesh
10 November
1990
21 June
1991[a]
223 days
R. Venkataraman

10
Pamulaparti Venkata Narasimha Rao
(1921–2004)

Minister of External Affairs

Indian National Congress (I)
Nandyal, Andhra Pradesh
21 June
1991
16 May
1996
4 years, 330 days
R. Venkataraman

11
Atal Bihari Vajpayee
(born 1924)

Minister of External Affairs

Bharatiya Janata Party
Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
16 May
1996
1 June
1996[RES]
16 days
Shankar Dayal Sharma

12
Haradanahalli Doddegowda Deve Gowda
(born 1933)

Chief Minister of Karnataka

Janata Dal
(United Front)
Rajya Sabha MP for Karnataka
1 June
1996
21 April
1997[RES]
324 days
Shankar Dayal Sharma

13
Inder Kumar Gujral
(1919–2012)

Minister of External Affairs

Janata Dal
(United Front)
Rajya Sabha MP for Bihar
21 April
1997
19 March
1998
332 days
Shankar Dayal Sharma

14
Atal Bihari Vajpayee
(born 1924)

Former Prime Minister

Bharatiya Janata Party
(NDA)
Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
19 March
1998[§]
22 May
2004
6 years, 64 days
K. R. Narayanan

15
Manmohan Singh
(born 1932)

Minister of Finance

Indian National Congress
(UPA)
Rajya Sabha MP for Assam
22 May
2004
26 May
2014
10 years, 4 days
A. P. J. Abdul Kalam

Pratibha Patil

16
Narendra Modi
(born 1950)

Chief Minister of Gujarat

Bharatiya Janata Party
(NDA)
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh
26 May
2014[7]
Incumbent
3 years, 279 days
Pranab Mukherjee

text: Jump up ^ Chandra Shekhar officially resigned as Prime Minister on 13 March 1991, but he and his ministers continued in office until Rao succeeded him.

tag: ol


document_title: The Door in the Wall (novel)

question_text: where does the door in the wall take place

text: The Door in the Wall (novel)

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
The Door in the Wall

Author
Marguerite de Angeli

Country
United States

Language
English

Genre
Children's literature
Historical fiction

Publisher
Doubleday

Publication date

1949

Media type
Hardback , Paperback & Ebook

Pages
128 pages (first edition, and hardback)

ISBN
0440402832

text: The Door in the Wall is a 1949 novel by Marguerite de Angeli that received the Newbery Medal for excellence in American children's literature in 1950.[1]

text: Plot summary[edit]

text: The story, illustrated by the author, is set in England during the Middle Ages, as the Black Death (bubonic plague) is sweeping across the country. Young Robin is sent away to become a knight like his father, but his dreams are endangered when he loses the use of his legs. A doctor reassures Robin that the weakness in his legs is not caused by the plague and the doctor is supposed to come and help him but does not. His parents are away, serving the king and queen during war, and the servants abandon the house, fearing the plague. Robin is saved by Brother Luke, a friar, who finds him and takes him to St. Mark's, the monastery where he lives and cares for him.

text: Brother Luke teaches Robin how to read using the Bible, how to swim as exercise, whittling and wood carving and how to use crutches he assists in crafting, to be independent and build self-confidence, but Robin also learns patience and strength from the friar. The friar tells him that before overcoming a challenge you must first find "the door in the wall".

text: Robin's parents had planned for him to become a knight and to stay with Sir Peter de Lindsay to be a page. John Go-in-the-Wynd, a minstrel, gives him a letter from Robin's father telling him and John Go-in-the-Wynd and Brother Luke to go to Lindsay. They get there after traveling for long hours for several days, almost being robbed, and going on the wrong road for a time. Arriving safely, he is welcomed warmly by de Lindsay and his family. During his stay, he fulfills his page duties as capable, continues his literary lessons, and swimming in the autumn-chilled river. Inspired by Go-in-the-Wynd's playing, he also undergoes music lessons to play the harp, and utilizes his growing woodworking skills to start crafting his own.

text: Some time later, Lindsay Castle is besieged by the Welsh and unable to send for assistance, due to a lean harvest that year food and water begin to run low. With Brother Luke's support and blessing, Robin hatches a secret plan to save the castle without de Lindsay's knowledge, assisted by the working class members of the staff. Robin swims the chilly river, hobbles through enemy lines with his crutches, disguised as a simple-minded young shepherd, and alerts Go-in-the-Wynd, who at the time was staying beyond the lands of the castle to visit his elderly mother. John sends word to de Lindsay's cousin Sir Hugh, whose forces have the element of surprise and defeat the Welsh invaders.

text: Later that winter, the King and Queen with their forces and Robin's parents arrive just in time for Christmas Eve. Robin is reunited with his parents, and after he accompanies himself in a Christmas carol with his completed harp for the royal couple, he is rewarded for his service to the crown in saving Lindsay Castle. His parents assure him that they love him more for his brave spirit than for his physical prowess.

text: The term "door in the wall" means that someone who keeps trying and never gives up will find a way to break through and to succeed. A quotation from the book (anachronistically rendered in Early Modern rather than Middle English) reads "If thou followeth [sic; proper Early Modern English would read 'followest'] a wall far enough, there must be a door in it."


document_title: The Roof Is on Fire

question_text: who sang the roof the roof the roof is on fire

text: The Roof Is on Fire

text: This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
"The Roof Is on Fire"

Single by Rock Master Scott & the Dynamic Three

B-side
"Request Line"

Released
1984

Genre
Hip hop

Length
5:30

Label
Reality/Fantasy

text: "The Roof Is on Fire" is a single from Rock Master Scott & the Dynamic Three, released in 1984. It reached number five on the Billboard Hot Dance Music/Maxi-Singles Sales chart. It is known for its chorus:

text:
The roof, the roof, the roof is on fire!
We don't need no water—Let the motherfucker burn!
Burn, motherfucker, burn!

text: The song's intro is sampled by The Chemical Brothers in their song "Hey Boy Hey Girl", and the chorus is covered by the Bloodhound Gang's "Fire Water Burn", Coal Chamber's "Sway", Rancid's "Burn" and Quad City DJ's "Party Over Here".


document_title: History of rail transport in India

question_text: when was the first train started in india

text: History of rail transport in India

text: 1832–1852: Industrial railways[edit]

text: India's first railway proposals were made in Madras in 1832.[1] The Red Hill Railway, the country's first train, ran from Red Hills to Chintadripet bridge in Madras in 1837. It was hauled by a rotary steam-engine locomotive manufactured by William Avery. Built by Arthur Cotton, the railway was primarily used to transport granite stone for road-building work in Madras.[1] In 1845, the Godavari Dam Construction Railway was built at Dowleswaram in Rajahmundry. Also built by Cotton, it supplied stone for the construction of a dam over the Godavari River.[1]

text: On 8 May 1845, the Madras Railway was incorporated, followed that year by the East India Railway. On 1 August 1849, the Great Indian Peninsular Railway was incorporated by an act of parliament. The "guarantee system", providing free land and a guaranteed five-percent rate of return to private English companies willing to build railways, was finalized on 17 August 1849. In 1851, the Solani Aqueduct Railway was built in Roorkee. It was hauled by the Thomason steam locomotive, named after a British officer-in-charge of that name. The railway transported construction materials for an aqueduct over the Solani River.[1] In 1852, the Madras Guaranteed Railway Company was incorporated. In 1852 the Madras Guaranteed Railway Company was incorporated.

text: 1853–1924: Passenger railways and expansion[edit]

text: The country's first passenger train, which ran between Bombay's Bori Bunder station and Thane on 16 April 1853, was dedicated by Lord Dalhousie. The 14-carriage train was hauled by three steam locomotives: the Sahib, Sindh, and Sultan. Travelling 34 kilometres (21 mi), the train carried 400 people. The passenger line was built and operated by the Great Indian Peninsula Railway (GIPR).[2][3] It was built in 1,676 mm (5 ft 6 in) broad gauge, which became the country's standard for railways.

text: The first passenger train in eastern India ran from Howrah (near Calcutta) to Hoogly, a distance of 24 miles (39 km), on 15 August 1854. The line was built and operated by the East Indian Railway Company (EIR).[4] In May 1854, the Bombay-Thane line was extended to Kalyan with the Dapoorie viaduct over the Ulhas River[5] (India's first railway bridge). That year, the GIPR opened its first workshops in Byculla. In 1855, the BB&CI Railway was incorporated.[6] That August, the EIR Express and Fairy Queen steam locomotives were introduced.[7]

text: South India's first passenger train ran from Royapuram-Veyasarapady (Madras) to Wallajah Road in Arcot, a distance of 60 miles (97 km), on 1 July 1856. It was built and operated by the Madras Railway.[8] The Madras Railway's first workshop opened in Perambur (near Madras) that year, and the Bombay-Thane line was extended to Khopoli. In 1858, the Eastern Bengal Railway was incorporated.[9]

text: India's first tramway (a horse-drawn tramway) opened in Calcutta between Sealdah and Armenian Ghat Street, a distance of 3.8 kilometres (2.4 mi), on 24 February 1873.[10] The following year, the Great South Indian and Carnatic Railways merged to form the South Indian Railway Company. On 9 May 1874, a horse-drawn tramway began operation in Bombay between Colaba and Parel. The Calcutta Tramways Company was incorporated in 1880,[11] followed a decade later by the East Coast State Railway.

text: Lighting in passenger coaches was introduced by many railway companies in 1897. In 1902, the Jodhpur Railway was the first to introduce electric lighting as standard fixtures. Electric signal lighting was introduced between Dadar and Currey Road in Bombay in 1920.

text:
Railway maps of India

1865

1871

1893

1909

text: 1925–1950: Electrification and further expansion[edit]

text: The first railway budget was presented in 1925. On 3 February 1925, the first electric passenger train in India ran between Victoria Terminus (VT) and Kurla on 1,500 V DC overhead traction.[12] Cammell Laird and Uerdingenwagonfabrik manufactured the locomotives for this train. The VT-Bandra section was electrified (with an elevated platform at Sandhurst Road),[12] the Oudh and Rohilkhund Railway was merged with the EIR, the first railway budget was presented in the same year.[13][14] In 1926, the Kurla-Kalyan section was electrified with 1,500 V DC. Electrification to Poona and Igatpuri (both 1,500 V DC) over the Bhore and Thal Ghats was also completed,[12] and the Charbagh railway station in Lucknow was built that year. The Bandra-Virar section was electrified with 1,500 V DC in January 1928.

text: The Frontier Mail made its inaugural run between Bombay VT and Peshawar in 1928.[15] The country's first automatic color-light signals became operational, on GIPR's lines between Bombay VT and Byculla.[16] In 1928, the Kanpur Central and Lucknow stations opened. The Grand Trunk Express began running between Peshawar and Mangalore,[17] the Punjab Limited Express began running between Mumbai and Lahore, and automatic color-light signaling was extended to the Byculla-Kurla section the following year. On 1 June 1930, the Deccan Queen began service (hauled by a WCP-1—No. 20024, old number EA/1 4006) with seven coaches on the GIPR's electrified route from Bombay VT to Poona (Pune).[18] The Hyderabad Godavari Valley Railway was merged into Nizam's State Railway and the route of the Grand Trunk Express was changed to Delhi-Madras that year.

text: 1951–1983: Zonal re-organisation and further developments[edit]

text: The re-organisation of railways in India into regional zones began in 1951.[19] On 14 April of that year, the Southern Railway zone was created. On 5 November, the Central and Western Railway zones were created.[20] That year, the post of Chief Commissioner of Railways was abolished and the Railway Board adopted the practice of making its senior-most member the chairman of the board.[20] The government of West Bengal also entered into an agreement with the Calcutta Tramways Company to take over its administrative functions that year. The Northern, Eastern and North Eastern Railway zones were created on 14 April 1952.[20]

text: Fans and lights were mandated for all compartments in all classes of passenger accommodations in 1952, and sleeping accommodations were introduced in coaches. On 1 August 1955, the South-Eastern zone was split off from the Eastern Railway zone. A divisional system of administration was established for the zones in 1956, and the first fully air-conditioned train was introduced (between Howrah and Delhi).[21]

text: In 1957, after successful trials in France, SNCF proposed 25 kV AC electrification for India's railways. Indian Railways decided to adopt 25 kV AC electrification, choosing SNCF as a technical consultant.[22] The Main Line Electrification Project (which later became the Railway Electrification Project and, still later, the Central Organisation for Railway Electrification) was established that year.[23] In 1958, the Northeast Frontier Railway zone split off from the North Eastern zone.[20] In 1959, Raj Kharswan to Dongoposi was the first section electrified with 25kV AC traction.[22] The first scheduled train using 25 kV AC traction ran on the Raj Kharswan-Dongoposi section on 11 August 1960.[22] The first containerized freight service began between Bombay and Ahmedabad in 1966, and 25 kV AC electrification of several suburban tracks around Delhi, Madras and Calcutta was completed. In 1979, the Main Line Electrification Project became the Central Organization for Railway Electrification (CORE).

text: 1984–Present: Rapid Transit and Later Developments[edit]

text: India's first metro train ran from Esplanade to Bhowanipur (now the Netaji Bhawan station) in Calcutta on 24 October 1984,[24] and the Calcutta Metro was the country's first rapid-transit line.[25]

text: In 1986, computerized ticketing and reservations were introduced in New Delhi.[26] The Shatabdi Express, India's fastest train, was introduced between New Delhi and Jhansi in 1988; the line was later extended to Bhopal.[27] In 1990, the first self-printing ticket machine (SPTM) was introduced in New Delhi. Air-conditioned, three-tier coaches and a sleeper class (separate from Second Class) were introduced in 1993.

text: On 16 January 1995, the first regularly-scheduled service with 2 x 25 kV traction began on the Bina-Katni line. In September 1996, the CONCERT system of computerized reservations began in New Delhi, Mumbai and Chennai. In 1998, coupon-validating machines (CVMs) were introduced at Mumbai CST. The CONCERT system became operational nationwide on 18 April 1999; the South East Central Railway zone was established and credit cards were accepted for tickets and reservations at some stations that year. In February 2000, the Indian Railways website went online.[28] On 6 July 2002, the East Coast, South Western, South East Central, North Central and West Central Railway zones were created.[29] Indian Railways (IR) began online train reservations and ticketing on 3 August of that year, with Internet ticketing extended to many cities on 1 December.[30] On 5 February 2012, The Western Railway zone (WR) ended its use of 1,500 V DC traction, switching to 25 kV AC traction.[31] The Tatkal system of ticketing was extended to all trains on 26 September 2013.

text: Gatimaan Express, India's fastest train with a maximum speed of 160 km/h, made its maiden journey from Delhi to Agra on 5 April 2016.[32] The Central Railway zone (CR) ended its use of DC traction in the Mumbai area and on the country's main-line rail network, switching to 25 kV AC traction on 11 April of that year.[33] On 31 March 2017, IR announced that India's entire rail network would be electrified by 2022.[34]