document_title: Vascular tissue

question_text: xylem and phloem tissues are derived from which primary meristem

text: Vascular tissue

text: Vascular tissue is a complex conducting tissue, formed of more than one cell type, found in vascular plants. The primary components of vascular tissue are the xylem and phloem. These two tissues transport fluid and nutrients internally. There are also two meristems associated with vascular tissue: the vascular cambium and the cork cambium.  All the vascular tissues within a particular plant together constitute the vascular tissue system of that plant.

text:
The cells in vascular tissue are typically long and slender. Since the xylem and phloem function in the conduction of water, minerals, and nutrients throughout the plant, it is not surprising that their form should be similar to pipes.  The individual cells of phloem are connected end-to-end, just as the sections of a pipe might be. As the plant grows, new vascular tissue differentiates in the growing tips of the plant. The new tissue is aligned with existing vascular tissue, maintaining its connection throughout the plant.
The vascular tissue in plants is arranged in long, discrete strands called vascular bundles.  These bundles include both xylem and phloem, as well as supporting and protective cells.  In stems and roots, the xylem typically lies closer to the interior of the stem with phloem towards the exterior of the stem.  In the stems of some Asterales dicots, there may be phloem located inwardly from the xylem as well.

text: Between the xylem and phloem is a meristem called the vascular cambium.  This tissue divides off cells that will become additional xylem and phloem. This growth increases the girth of the plant, rather than its length.  As long as the vascular cambium continues to produce new cells, the plant will continue to grow more stout.  In trees and other plants that develop wood, the vascular cambium allows the expansion of vascular tissue that produces woody growth. Because this growth ruptures the epidermis of the stem, woody plants also have a cork cambium that develops among the phloem.  The cork cambium gives rise to thickened cork cells to protect the surface of the plant and reduce water loss.  Both the production of wood and the production of cork are forms of secondary growth.

text: In leaves, the vascular bundles are located among the spongy mesophyll. The xylem is oriented toward the adaxial surface of the leaf (usually the upper side), and phloem is oriented toward the abaxial surface of the leaf.  This is why aphids are typically found on the undersides of the leaves rather than on the top, since the phloem transports sugars manufactured by the plant and they are closer to the lower surface.[citation needed]


document_title: Clothing

question_text: when was the first piece of clothing invented

root

text: Clothing

text: Origin of clothing[edit]

text: There is no easy way to determine when clothing was first developed, but some information has been inferred by studying lice which estimates put the introduction of clothing at roughly 42,000–72,000 years ago.[1][2][3][4] [5]

tag: p

text: Functions[edit]

text: The most obvious function of clothing is to improve the comfort of the wearer, by protecting the wearer from the elements. In hot climates, clothing provides protection from sunburn or wind damage, while in cold climates its thermal insulation properties are generally more important. Shelter usually reduces the functional need for clothing. For example, coats, hats, gloves, and other superficial layers are normally removed when entering a warm home, particularly if one is residing or sleeping there. Similarly, clothing has seasonal and regional aspects, so that thinner materials and fewer layers of clothing are generally worn in warmer seasons and regions than in colder ones.

text: Clothing performs a range of social and cultural functions, such as individual, occupational and gender differentiation, and social status.[6] In many societies, norms about clothing reflect standards of modesty, religion, gender, and social status. Clothing may also function as a form of adornment and an expression of personal taste or style.

text: Clothing can and has in history been made from a very wide variety of materials. Materials have ranged from leather and furs, to woven materials, to elaborate and exotic natural and synthetic fabrics. Not all body coverings are regarded as clothing. Articles carried rather than worn (such as purses), worn on a single part of the body and easily removed (scarves), worn purely for adornment (jewelry), or those that serve a function other than protection (eyeglasses), are normally considered accessories rather than clothing, as are footwear and hats.

text: Clothing protects against many things that might injure the uncovered human body. Clothes protect people from the elements, including rain, snow, wind, and other weather, as well as from the sun. However, clothing that is too sheer, thin, small, tight, etc., offers less protection. Clothes also reduce risk during activities such as work or sport. Some clothing protects from specific environmental hazards, such as insects, noxious chemicals, weather, weapons, and contact with abrasive substances. Conversely, clothing may protect the environment from the clothing wearer, as with doctors wearing medical scrubs.

text: Humans have shown extreme invention in devising clothing solutions to environmental hazards. Examples include: space suits, air conditioned clothing, armor, diving suits, swimsuits, bee-keeper gear, motorcycle leathers, high-visibility clothing, and other pieces of protective clothing. Meanwhile, the distinction between clothing and protective equipment is not always clear-cut—since clothes designed to be fashionable often have protective value and clothes designed for function often consider fashion in their design. Wearing clothes also has social implications. They cover parts of the body that social norms require to be covered, act as a form of adornment, and serve other social purposes.

text: Scholarship[edit]

text: Although dissertations on clothing and its function appear from the 19th century as colonising countries dealt with new environments,[7] concerted scientific research into psycho-social, physiological and other functions of clothing (e.g. protective, cartage) occurred in the first half of the 20th century, with publications such as J. C. Flügel's Psychology of Clothes in 1930,[6] and Newburgh's seminal Physiology of Heat Regulation and The Science of Clothing in 1949.[8] By 1968, the field of environmental physiology had advanced and expanded significantly, but the science of clothing in relation to environmental physiology had changed little.[9] While considerable research has since occurred and the knowledge-base has grown significantly, the main concepts remain unchanged, and indeed Newburgh's book is still cited by contemporary authors, including those attempting to develop thermoregulatory models of clothing development.[10]

text: Cultural aspects[edit]

text: Gender differentiation[edit]

text: In most cultures, gender differentiation of clothing is considered appropriate. The differences are in styles, colors and fabrics.

text: In Western societies, skirts, dresses and high-heeled shoes are usually seen as women's clothing, while neckties are usually seen as men's clothing. Trousers were once seen as exclusively male clothing, but can nowadays be worn by both genders. Male clothes are often more practical (that is, they can function well under a wide variety of situations), but a wider range of clothing styles are available for females. Males are typically allowed to bare their chests in a greater variety of public places. It is generally more or less acceptable for a woman to wear clothing perceived as masculine, while the opposite is seen as unusual.

text: In some cultures, sumptuary laws regulate what men and women are required to wear. Islam requires women to wear more modest forms of attire, usually hijab. What qualifies as "modest" varies in different Muslim societies. However, women are usually required to cover more of their bodies than men are. Articles of clothing Muslim women wear for modesty range from the head-scarf to the burqa.

text: Men may sometimes choose to wear men's skirts such as togas or kilts, especially on ceremonial occasions. Such garments were (in previous times) often worn as normal daily clothing by men.

text: Clothing designed to be worn by either sex is called unisex clothing. Unisex clothes, such as T-shirts, tends to be cut straighter to fit a wider variety of bodies. The majority of unisex clothing styles have started out as menswear, but some articles, like the fedora, were originally worn by women.

text: Social status[edit]

text: In some societies, clothing may be used to indicate rank or status. In ancient Rome, for example, only senators could wear garments dyed with Tyrian purple. In traditional Hawaiian society, only high-ranking chiefs could wear feather cloaks and palaoa, or carved whale teeth. In China, before establishment of the republic, only the emperor could wear yellow. History provides many examples of elaborate sumptuary laws that regulated what people could wear. In societies without such laws, which includes most modern societies, social status is instead signaled by the purchase of rare or luxury items that are limited by cost to those with wealth or status. In addition, peer pressure influences clothing choice.

text: Religion[edit]

text: Religious clothing might be considered a special case of occupational clothing. Sometimes it is worn only during the performance of religious ceremonies. However, it may also be worn everyday as a marker for special religious status.

text: For example, Jains and Muslim men wear unstitched cloth pieces when performing religious ceremonies. The unstitched cloth signifies unified and complete devotion to the task at hand, with no digression.[citation needed] Sikhs wear a turban as it is a part of their religion.

text: The cleanliness of religious dresses in Eastern religions like Hinduism, Sikhism, Buddhism, Islam and Jainism is of paramount importance, since it indicates purity.

text: Clothing figures prominently in the Bible where it appears in numerous contexts, the more prominent ones being: the story of Adam and Eve who made coverings for themselves out of fig leaves, Joseph's cloak, Judah and Tamar, Mordecai and Esther. Furthermore, the priests officiating in the Temple had very specific garments, the lack of which made one liable to death.

text: The Quran says about husbands and wives, regarding clothing: "...They are clothing/covering (Libaas) for you; and you for them" (chapter 2:187).

text: Jewish ritual also requires rending of one's upper garment as a sign of mourning. This practice is found in the Bible when Jacob hears of the apparent death of his son Joseph.[11]

text: Origin and history[edit]

text: First recorded use[edit]

text: According to archaeologists and anthropologists, the earliest clothing likely consisted of fur, leather, leaves, or grass that were draped, wrapped, or tied around the body. Knowledge of such clothing remains inferential, since clothing materials deteriorate quickly compared to stone, bone, shell and metal artifacts. Archeologists have identified very early sewing needles of bone and ivory from about 30,000 BC, found near Kostenki, Russia in 1988.[12] Dyed flax fibers that could have been used in clothing have been found in a prehistoric cave in the Republic of Georgia that date back to 36,000 BP.[13][14]

text: Scientists are still debating when people started wearing clothes. Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kayser and Mark Stoneking, anthropologists at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, have conducted a genetic analysis of human body lice that suggests clothing originated quite recently, around 170,000 years ago. Body lice is an indicator of clothes-wearing, since most humans have sparse body hair, and lice thus require human clothing to survive. Their research suggests the invention of clothing may have coincided with the northward migration of modern Homo sapiens away from the warm climate of Africa, thought to have begun between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago. However, a second group of researchers using similar genetic methods estimate that clothing originated around 540,000 years ago [15] For now, the date of the origin of clothing remains unresolved.

text: Making clothing[edit]

text: Some human cultures, such as the various people of the Arctic Circle, traditionally make their clothing entirely of prepared and decorated furs and skins. Other cultures supplemented or replaced leather and skins with cloth: woven, knitted, or twined from various animal and vegetable fibers including wool, linen, cotton, silk, hemp, and ramie.

text: Although modern consumers may take the production of clothing for granted, making fabric by hand is a tedious and labor-intensive process involving fiber making, spinning, and weaving. The textile industry was the first to be mechanized – with the powered loom – during the Industrial Revolution.

text: Different cultures have evolved various ways of creating clothes out of cloth. One approach simply involves draping the cloth. Many people wore, and still wear, garments consisting of rectangles of cloth wrapped to fit – for example, the dhoti for men and the sari for women in the Indian subcontinent, the Scottish kilt or the Javanese sarong. The clothes may simply be tied up, as is the case of the first two garments; or pins or belts hold the garments in place, as in the case of the latter two. The precious cloth remains uncut, and people of various sizes or the same person at different sizes can wear the garment.

text: Another approach involves measuring, cutting, and sewing the cloth by hand or with a sewing machine. Clothing can be cut from a sewing pattern and adjusted by a tailor to a persons measurements. An adjustable sewing mannequin or dress form is used to create form fitting clothing. Fabrics are expensive and efforts are made to use every bit of the cloth rectangle in constructing the clothing. The tailor may cut triangular pieces from one corner of the cloth, and then add them elsewhere as gussets. Traditional European patterns for men's shirts and women's chemises take this approach. These remnant can also be rused to make patchwork hats, vests, and skirts.

text: Modern European fashion treats cloth much less conservatively, typically cutting in such a way as to leave various odd-shaped cloth remnants. Industrial sewing operations sell these as waste; home sewers may turn them into quilts.

text: In the thousands of years that humans have spent constructing clothing, they have created an astonishing array of styles, many of which have been reconstructed from surviving garments, photos, paintings, mosaics, etc., as well as from written descriptions. Costume history serves as a source of inspiration to current fashion designers, as well as a topic of professional interest to costumers constructing for plays, films, television, and historical reenactment.

text: Contemporary clothing[edit]

text: The neutrality of this section is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met. (July 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: Western dress code[edit]

text: The Western dress code has changed over the past 500+ years. The mechanization of the textile industry made many varieties of cloth widely available at affordable prices. Styles have changed, and the availability of synthetic fabrics has changed the definition of "stylish". In the latter half of the 20th century, blue jeans became very popular, and are now worn to events that normally demand formal attire. Activewear has also become a large and growing market.

text: The licensing of designer names was pioneered by designers like Pierre Cardin in the 1960s and has been a common practice within the fashion industry from about the 1970s. Among the more popular include Marc Jacobs and Gucci, named for Marc Jacobs and Guccio Gucci respectively.

text: Spread of western styles[edit]

text: By the early years of the 21st century, western clothing styles had, to some extent, become international styles. This process began hundreds of years earlier, during the periods of European colonialism. The process of cultural dissemination has perpetuated over the centuries as Western media corporations have penetrated markets throughout the world, spreading Western culture and styles. Fast fashion clothing has also become a global phenomenon. These garments are less expensive, mass-produced Western clothing. Donated used clothing from Western countries are also delivered to people in poor countries by charity organizations.

text: Ethnic and cultural heritage[edit]

text: People may wear ethnic or national dress on special occasions or in certain roles or occupations. For example, most Korean men and women have adopted Western-style dress for daily wear, but still wear traditional hanboks on special occasions, like weddings and cultural holidays. Items of Western dress may also appear worn or accessorized in distinctive, non-Western ways. A Tongan man may combine a used T-shirt with a Tongan wrapped skirt, or tupenu.

text: Sport and activity[edit]

text: Most sports and physical activities are practiced wearing special clothing, for practical, comfort or safety reasons. Common sportswear garments include shorts, T-shirts, tennis shirts, leotards, tracksuits, and trainers. Specialized garments include wet suits (for swimming, diving or surfing), salopettes (for skiing) and leotards (for gymnastics). Also, spandex materials are often used as base layers to soak up sweat. Spandex is also preferable for active sports that require form fitting garments, such as volleyball, wrestling, track & field, dance, gymnastics and swimming.

text: Fashion[edit]

text: Future trends[edit]

text: This section contains content that is written like an advertisement. Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view. (July 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The world of clothing is always changing, as new cultural influences meet technological innovations. Researchers in scientific labs have been developing prototypes for fabrics that can serve functional purposes well beyond their traditional roles, for example, clothes that can automatically adjust their temperature, repel bullets, project images, and generate electricity. Some practical advances already available to consumers are bullet-resistant garments made with kevlar and stain-resistant fabrics that are coated with chemical mixtures that reduce the absorption of liquids. New blends of Spandex cotton blends allow for form fitting and stretching of closer fitting mass produced patterns. New mesh materials allow for better breathe-ability in shoes. New insulation fibers and batting make lighter rainments that keep you warm when wet and recent advances in coatings for fabrics or down also repel water.

text: Political issues[edit]

text: Working conditions in the garments industry[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (June 2008)

text: Though mechanization transformed most aspects of human industry by the mid-20th century, garment workers have continued to labor under challenging conditions that demand repetitive manual labor. Mass-produced clothing is often made in what are considered by some to be sweatshops, typified by long work hours, lack of benefits, and lack of worker representation. While most examples of such conditions are found in developing countries, clothes made in industrialized nations may also be manufactured similarly.[citation needed]

text: Coalitions of NGOs, designers (including Katharine Hamnett, American Apparel, Veja, Quiksilver, eVocal, and Edun) and campaign groups like the Clean Clothes Campaign (CCC) and the Institute for Global Labour and Human Rights as well as textile and clothing trade unions have sought to improve these conditions as much as possible by sponsoring awareness-raising events, which draw the attention of both the media and the general public to the workers.

text: Outsourcing production to low wage countries like Bangladesh, China, India and Sri Lanka became possible when the Multi Fibre Agreement (MFA) was abolished. The MFA, which placed quotas on textiles imports, was deemed a protectionist measure.[citation needed] Although many countries recognize treaties like the International Labour Organization, which attempt to set standards for worker safety and rights, many countries have made exceptions to certain parts of the treaties or failed to thoroughly enforce them. India for example has not ratified sections 87 and 92 of the treaty.[citation needed]

text: Despite the strong reactions that "sweatshops" evoked among critics of globalization, the production of textiles has functioned as a consistent industry for developing nations providing work and wages, whether construed as exploitative or not, to many thousands of people.

text: Fur[edit]

text: The use of animal fur in clothing dates to prehistoric times. It is currently associated in developed countries with expensive, designer clothing, although fur is still used by indigenous people in arctic zones and higher elevations for its warmth and protection. Once uncontroversial, it has recently been the focus of campaigns on the grounds that campaigners consider it cruel and unnecessary. PETA, along with other animal rights and animal liberation groups have called attention to fur farming and other practices they consider cruel.

text: Life cycle[edit]

text: Clothing maintenance[edit]

text: Clothing suffers assault both from within and without. The human body sheds skin cells and body oils, and exudes sweat, urine, and feces. From the outside, sun damage, moisture, abrasion and dirt assault garments. Fleas and lice can hide in seams. Worn clothing, if not cleaned and refurbished, itches, looks scruffy, and loses functionality (as when buttons fall off, seams come undone, fabrics thin or tear, and zippers fail).

text: In some cases, people wear an item of clothing until it falls apart. Cleaning leather presents difficulties, and bark cloth (tapa) cannot be washed without dissolving it. Owners may patch tears and rips, and brush off surface dirt, but old leather and bark clothing always look old.

text: But most clothing consists of cloth, and most cloth can be laundered and mended (patching, darning, but compare felt).

text: Laundry, ironing, storage[edit]

text: Humans have developed many specialized methods for laundering, ranging from early methods of pounding clothes against rocks in running streams, to the latest in electronic washing machines and dry cleaning (dissolving dirt in solvents other than water). Hot water washing (boiling), chemical cleaning and ironing are all traditional methods of sterilizing fabrics for hygiene purposes.

text: Many kinds of clothing are designed to be ironed before they are worn to remove wrinkles. Most modern formal and semi-formal clothing is in this category (for example, dress shirts and suits). Ironed clothes are believed to look clean, fresh, and neat. Much contemporary casual clothing is made of knit materials that do not readily wrinkle, and do not require ironing. Some clothing is permanent press, having been treated with a coating (such as polytetrafluoroethylene) that suppresses wrinkles and creates a smooth appearance without ironing.

text: Once clothes have been laundered and possibly ironed, they are usually hung on clothes hangers or folded, to keep them fresh until they are worn. Clothes are folded to allow them to be stored compactly, to prevent creasing, to preserve creases or to present them in a more pleasing manner, for instance when they are put on sale in stores.

text: Non-iron[edit]

text: A resin used for making non-wrinkle shirts releases formaldehyde, which could cause contact dermatitis for some people; no disclosure requirements exist, and in 2008 the U.S. Government Accountability Office tested formaldehyde in clothing and found that generally the highest levels were in non-wrinkle shirts and pants.[16] In 1999, a study of the effect of washing on the formaldehyde levels found that after 6 months after washing, 7 of 27 shirts had levels in excess of 75 ppm, which is a safe limit for direct skin exposure.[17]

text: Mending[edit]

text: In past times, mending was an art. A meticulous tailor or seamstress could mend rips with thread raveled from hems and seam edges so skillfully that the tear was practically invisible. When the raw material – cloth – was worth more than labor, it made sense to expend labor in saving it. Today clothing is considered a consumable item. Mass-manufactured clothing is less expensive than the labor required to repair it. Many people buy a new piece of clothing rather than spend time mending. The thrifty still replace zippers and buttons and sew up ripped hems.

text: Recycling[edit]

text: Used, unwearable clothing can be repurposed for quilts, rags, rugs, bandages, and many other household uses. It can also be recycled into paper. In Western societies, used clothing is often thrown out or donated to charity (such as through a clothing bin). It is also sold to consignment shops, dress agencies, flea markets, and in online auctions. Used clothing is also often collected on an industrial scale to be sorted and shipped for re-use in poorer countries.

text: There are many concerns about the life cycle of synthetics, which come primarily from petrochemicals.[weasel words] Unlike natural fibers, their source is not renewable and they are not biodegradable.[18]


document_title: I'm a Man (The Spencer Davis Group song)

question_text: who sings i'm a man yes i am

question_tokens: who sings i 'm a man yes i am

text: Original version by the Spencer Davis Group[edit]

text: The original recording was a fast, Hammond organ-driven blues rock track released as a single by the Spencer Davis Group in early 1967, reaching number nine in the UK Singles Chart[1][2] and number 10 in the U.S. (the US edition was slightly edited) Billboard Hot 100. It was the last hit single by the band before the brothers Steve and Muff Winwood left to pursue their own separate careers.

text: "I'm a Man" was included on the band's summer 1967 album, I'm a Man, as well as being featured on the 2005 Spencer Davis Group DVD Gimme Some Lovin' Live 1966. Although the recording is said to be late 1966, this date is in fact controversial. In an article and an interview on the "Living Archives" (Elävä arkisto) website of YLE, the Finnish Broadcasting Corporation, the producer of the original live recording, Mr. Tapani Karhu, clearly states that the date of the show was 19 March 1967.

text: Chicago version[edit]

text: Chicago Transit Authority (now known as Chicago) recorded a cover version of "I'm a Man" for their 1969 debut album, The Chicago Transit Authority. When the band's popularity surged after their second album, "I'm a Man" was released as the B-side to a re-release of "Questions 67 and 68". Radio stations ended up playing both sides, and "I'm a Man" reached #49 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart in 1971. The song reached #13 in Ireland.[3]

text: Chicago's cover arrangement features an extended percussion and drum section with a total run time of 7 minutes and 40 seconds, and is based around the distortion-heavy blues-rock guitar of Terry Kath, the drumming of Danny Seraphine, the bass of Peter Cetera, the soaring Hammond organ of Robert Lamm and the horn players periodically switching over to auxiliary percussion instruments, such as claves, cowbell, maracas, and tambourine. Kath, Cetera and Lamm each sing a verse apiece (not singing the lyrics as they were originally written, but as they misheard and/or revised them), preluding Seraphine's extended drum solo before a return to the second and third verses with the horn section and choruses that bring the song to a climactic drum roll, and finally leading into a guitar solo to bring the song to a dramatic close. This version is featured on the 1971 four record live album Chicago at Carnegie Hall and Chicago Live in Japan and has remained a fan favorite and concert staple throughout Chicago's career. Santana has also used a small part of this song in the track "Waiting" which appears on their self titled 1969 debut album.

text: Chicago Personnel:

text:
Terry Kath - lead vocals (first verses), backing vocals (choruses), fuzzed wah-wah electric guitars
Peter Cetera - lead vocals (second verses), backing vocals (choruses), bass
Robert Lamm - lead vocals (third verses), backing vocals (choruses), Hammond organ, maracas(?)
Danny Seraphine - drums, maracas(?)
Jimmy Pankow - cowbell, trombone
Lee Loughnane - claves, trumpet
Walt Parazaider - tambourine, tenor saxophone, backing vocals

tag: ul

text: It is unclear if the maracas were performed by Lamm or overdubbed by Seraphine during his drum solo.

text: Other cover versions[edit]

text: The Serfs album The Early Bird Cafe, Capitol, 1968, featured a percussion-heavy intro (pre-dating Chicago's) and Mike Finnigan's lead vocal. Their arrangement segued into Bo Diddley's song of the same name.

text: Hungarian progressive band Syrius often played the song - combined with Brian Auger song Black Cat - in their concerts between 1970 and 1973. The studio version of the song has been recorded in 1971 in Australia, but it has been released more than twenty years later in 1994 on album Most, Mult, Lesz.

text: Former Chicago drummer Danny Seraphine's current band, California Transit Authority (CTA), performed "I'm a Man" at their appearance at the 2006 Modern Drummer Festival in New Jersey. The performance featured extensive drumset and percussion solos. The tune also appears on CTA's first album, Full Circle, released in 2007.

text: Marzio Vincenzi (lead and background vocalist originally from Bologna, Italy) and Mauro Malavasi produced in 1978 a version of "I'm a Man" under the name Macho which is a classic of disco music, or as some[who?] have classified it, "rosco music", a hybrid between rock and disco genres.

text: A further disco-flavored version is the one released by keyboardist Keith Emerson in his soundtrack album of the 1981 film Nighthawks, featuring him providing unlikely lead vocals. The song underpins a key scene in the movie in a slightly different version which features a longer instrumental coda not included in the original record.

text: In 1987 the Italian producer Gianfranco Bortolotti edited as Club House the maxi-single "I'm a man/Yéké Yéké" remixing both tracks.

text: Guitarist Roy Z's band, Tribe of Gypsies, included a cover of "I'm a Man" on their 1997 (Japanese import only) mini-album, Nothing Lasts Forever, adding a strong Latin rock flavor to the song.

text: A remix of the original was featured on Gravy: Remixes & Rarities in 2007 released by Acid Jazz Records.

text: Los Lonely Boys recorded a version on their 2008 album Forgiven.

text: VW Polo advert[edit]

text: Volkswagen aired a UK television commercial titled "Dog" in late winter 2008, which featured a dog miming singing "I'm a Man". The version used in the advert for the Polo was a cover version by a young British singer-songwriter, Charlie Winston. The Noam Murro-directed[4] advert was banned after complaints from the RSPCA and over 750 viewers.[5][6]

text: In other media[edit]

text: An instrumental disco version of the song is occasionally featured in the game show The Price Is Right mostly for reveals of new cars.

text: The Live365 Internet radio service Radio Vietnam uses excerpts from "I'm a Man" as one of their station IDs.

text: The song was used in the Mad Men Season 7 premiere episode, "Time Zones".

text: The song was featured in the 2014 film Pawn Sacrifice.

text: The 2015 film Minions featured the song and is also on the film's soundtrack.

text: In 2016, the original Spencer Davis Group version of "I'm A Man" was used in an advert for Amazon Prime in the UK and Germany.


document_title: Volcano

question_text: where are most volcanoes above sea level located

text: Volcano

text: Etymology

text: The word volcano is derived from the name of Vulcano, a volcanic island in the Aeolian Islands of Italy whose name in turn comes from Vulcan, the god of fire in Roman mythology.[3] The study of volcanoes is called volcanology, sometimes spelled vulcanology.

text: Plate tectonics

text: Divergent plate boundaries

text: At the mid-oceanic ridges, two tectonic plates diverge from one another as new oceanic crust is formed by the cooling and solidifying of hot molten rock. Because the crust is very thin at these ridges due to the pull of the tectonic plates, the release of pressure leads to adiabatic expansion (without transfer of heat or matter) and the partial melting of the mantle, causing volcanism and creating new oceanic crust. Most divergent plate boundaries are at the bottom of the oceans; therefore, most volcanic activity on the Earth is submarine, forming new seafloor. Black smokers (also known as deep sea vents) are evidence of this kind of volcanic activity. Where the mid-oceanic ridge is above sea-level, volcanic islands are formed; for example, Iceland.

text: Convergent plate boundaries

text: Subduction zones are places where two plates, usually an oceanic plate and a continental plate, collide. In this case, the oceanic plate subducts, or submerges, under the continental plate, forming a deep ocean trench just offshore. In a process called flux melting, water released from the subducting plate lowers the melting temperature of the overlying mantle wedge, thus creating magma. This magma tends to be extremely viscous because of its high silica content, so it often does not attain the surface but cools and solidifies at depth. When it does reach the surface, however, a volcano is formed. Typical examples are Mount Etna and the volcanoes in the Pacific Ring of Fire.

text: Hotspots

text: Hotspots are volcanic areas believed to be formed by mantle plumes, which are hypothesized to be columns of hot material rising from the core-mantle boundary in a fixed space that causes large-volume melting. Because tectonic plates move across them, each volcano becomes dormant and is eventually re-formed as the plate advances over the postulated plume. The Hawaiian Islands are said to have been formed in such a manner; so has the Snake River Plain, with the Yellowstone Caldera being the part of the North American plate above the hot spot. This theory, however, has been doubted.[2]

text: Volcanic features

text: The most common perception of a volcano is of a conical mountain, spewing lava and poisonous gases from a crater at its summit; however, this describes just one of the many types of volcano. The features of volcanoes are much more complicated and their structure and behavior depends on a number of factors. Some volcanoes have rugged peaks formed by lava domes rather than a summit crater while others have landscape features such as massive plateaus. Vents that issue volcanic material (including lava and ash) and gases (mainly steam and magmatic gases) can develop anywhere on the landform and may give rise to smaller cones such as Puʻu ʻŌʻō on a flank of Hawaii's Kīlauea. Other types of volcano include cryovolcanoes (or ice volcanoes), particularly on some moons of Jupiter, Saturn, and Neptune; and mud volcanoes, which are formations often not associated with known magmatic activity. Active mud volcanoes tend to involve temperatures much lower than those of igneous volcanoes except when the mud volcano is actually a vent of an igneous volcano.

text: Fissure vents

text: Volcanic fissure vents are flat, linear fractures through which lava emerges.

text: Shield volcanoes

text: Shield volcanoes, so named for their broad, shield-like profiles, are formed by the eruption of low-viscosity lava that can flow a great distance from a vent. They generally do not explode catastrophically. Since low-viscosity magma is typically low in silica, shield volcanoes are more common in oceanic than continental settings. The Hawaiian volcanic chain is a series of shield cones, and they are common in Iceland, as well.

text: Lava domes

text: Lava domes are built by slow eruptions of highly viscous lava. They are sometimes formed within the crater of a previous volcanic eruption, as in the case of Mount Saint Helens, but can also form independently, as in the case of Lassen Peak. Like stratovolcanoes, they can produce violent, explosive eruptions, but their lava generally does not flow far from the originating vent.

text: Cryptodomes

text: Cryptodomes are formed when viscous lava is forced upward causing the surface to bulge. The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens was an example; lava beneath the surface of the mountain created an upward bulge which slid down the north side of the mountain.

text: Volcanic cones (cinder cones)

text: Volcanic cones or cinder cones result from eruptions of mostly small pieces of scoria and pyroclastics (both resemble cinders, hence the name of this volcano type) that build up around the vent. These can be relatively short-lived eruptions that produce a cone-shaped hill perhaps 30 to 400 meters high. Most cinder cones erupt only once. Cinder cones may form as flank vents on larger volcanoes, or occur on their own. Parícutin in Mexico and Sunset Crater in Arizona are examples of cinder cones. In New Mexico, Caja del Rio is a volcanic field of over 60 cinder cones.

text: Based on satellite images it was suggested that cinder cones might occur on other terrestrial bodies in the Solar system too; on the surface of Mars and the Moon.[4][5][6][7]

text: Stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes)

text:
Large magma chamber
Bedrock
Conduit (pipe)
Base
Sill
Dike
Layers of ash emitted by the volcano
Flank
Layers of lava emitted by the volcano
Throat
Parasitic cone
Lava flow
Vent
Crater
Ash cloud

tag: ol

text: Stratovolcanoes or composite volcanoes are tall conical mountains composed of lava flows and other ejecta in alternate layers, the strata that gives rise to the name. Stratovolcanoes are also known as composite volcanoes because they are created from multiple structures during different kinds of eruptions. Strato/composite volcanoes are made of cinders, ash, and lava. Cinders and ash pile on top of each other, lava flows on top of the ash, where it cools and hardens, and then the process repeats. Classic examples include Mount Fuji in Japan, Mayon Volcano in the Philippines, and Mount Vesuvius and Stromboli in Italy.

text: Throughout recorded history, ash produced by the explosive eruption of stratovolcanoes has posed the greatest volcanic hazard to civilizations. Not only do stratovolcanoes have greater pressure build up from the underlying lava flow than shield volcanoes, but their fissure vents and monogenetic volcanic fields (volcanic cones) have more powerful eruptions, as they are many times under extension. They are also steeper than shield volcanoes, with slopes of 30–35° compared to slopes of generally 5–10°, and their loose tephra are material for dangerous lahars.[8] Large pieces of tephra are called volcanic bombs. Big bombs can measure more than 4 feet(1.2 meters) across and weigh several tons.[9]

text: Supervolcanoes

text: A supervolcano usually has a large caldera and can produce devastation on an enormous, sometimes continental, scale. Such volcanoes are able to severely cool global temperatures for many years after the eruption due to the huge volumes of sulfur and ash released into the atmosphere. They are the most dangerous type of volcano. Examples include: Yellowstone Caldera in Yellowstone National Park and Valles Caldera in New Mexico (both western United States); Lake Taupo in New Zealand; Lake Toba in Sumatra, Indonesia; and Ngorongoro Crater in Tanzania. Because of the enormous area they may cover, supervolcanoes are hard to identify centuries after an eruption. Similarly, large igneous provinces are also considered supervolcanoes because of the vast amount of basalt lava erupted (even though the lava flow is non-explosive).

text: Underwater volcanoes

text: Submarine volcanoes are common features of the ocean floor. In shallow water, active volcanoes disclose their presence by blasting steam and rocky debris high above the ocean's surface. In the ocean's deep, the tremendous weight of the water above prevents the explosive release of steam and gases; however, they can be detected by hydrophones and discoloration of water because of volcanic gases. Pillow lava is a common eruptive product of submarine volcanoes and is characterized by thick sequences of discontinuous pillow-shaped masses which form under water. Even large submarine eruptions may not disturb the ocean surface due to the rapid cooling effect and increased buoyancy of water (as compared to air) which often causes volcanic vents to form steep pillars on the ocean floor. Hydrothermal vents are common near these volcanoes, and some support peculiar ecosystems based on dissolved minerals. Over time, the formations created by submarine volcanoes may become so large that they break the ocean surface as new islands or floating pumice rafts.

text: Subglacial volcanoes

text: Subglacial volcanoes develop underneath icecaps. They are made up of flat lava which flows at the top of extensive pillow lavas and palagonite. When the icecap melts, the lava on top collapses, leaving a flat-topped mountain. These volcanoes are also called table mountains, tuyas, or (uncommonly) mobergs. Very good examples of this type of volcano can be seen in Iceland, however, there are also tuyas in British Columbia. The origin of the term comes from Tuya Butte, which is one of the several tuyas in the area of the Tuya River and Tuya Range in northern British Columbia. Tuya Butte was the first such landform analyzed and so its name has entered the geological literature for this kind of volcanic formation. The Tuya Mountains Provincial Park was recently established to protect this unusual landscape, which lies north of Tuya Lake and south of the Jennings River near the boundary with the Yukon Territory.

text: Mud volcanoes

text: Mud volcanoes or mud domes are formations created by geo-excreted liquids and gases, although there are several processes which may cause such activity. The largest structures are 10 kilometers in diameter and reach 700 meters high.

text: Erupted material

text: Lava composition

text: Another way of classifying volcanoes is by the composition of material erupted (lava), since this affects the shape of the volcano. Lava can be broadly classified into four different compositions (Cas & Wright, 1987):

text:
If the erupted magma contains a high percentage (>63%) of silica, the lava is called felsic.

Felsic lavas (dacites or rhyolites) tend to be highly viscous (not very fluid) and are erupted as domes or short, stubby flows. Viscous lavas tend to form stratovolcanoes or lava domes. Lassen Peak in California is an example of a volcano formed from felsic lava and is actually a large lava dome.
Because siliceous magmas are so viscous, they tend to trap volatiles (gases) that are present, which cause the magma to erupt catastrophically, eventually forming stratovolcanoes. Pyroclastic flows (ignimbrites) are highly hazardous products of such volcanoes, since they are composed of molten volcanic ash too heavy to go up into the atmosphere, so they hug the volcano's slopes and travel far from their vents during large eruptions. Temperatures as high as 1,200 °C are known to occur in pyroclastic flows, which will incinerate everything flammable in their path and thick layers of hot pyroclastic flow deposits can be laid down, often up to many meters thick. Alaska's Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, formed by the eruption of Novarupta near Katmai in 1912, is an example of a thick pyroclastic flow or ignimbrite deposit. Volcanic ash that is light enough to be erupted high into the Earth's atmosphere may travel many kilometres before it falls back to ground as a tuff.

If the erupted magma contains 52–63% silica, the lava is of intermediate composition.

These "andesitic" volcanoes generally only occur above subduction zones (e.g. Mount Merapi in Indonesia).
Andesitic lava is typically formed at convergent boundary margins of tectonic plates, by several processes:

Hydration melting of peridotite and fractional crystallization

Play media

Sarychev Peak eruption, Matua Island, oblique satellite view

Melting of subducted slab containing sediments[citation needed]
Magma mixing between felsic rhyolitic and mafic basaltic magmas in an intermediate reservoir prior to emplacement or lava flow.

If the erupted magma contains <52% and >45% silica, the lava is called mafic (because it contains higher percentages of magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe)) or basaltic. These lavas are usually much less viscous than rhyolitic lavas, depending on their eruption temperature; they also tend to be hotter than felsic lavas. Mafic lavas occur in a wide range of settings:

At mid-ocean ridges, where two oceanic plates are pulling apart, basaltic lava erupts as pillows to fill the gap;
Shield volcanoes (e.g. the Hawaiian Islands, including Mauna Loa and Kilauea), on both oceanic and continental crust;
As continental flood basalts.

Some erupted magmas contain <=45% silica and produce ultramafic lava. Ultramafic flows, also known as komatiites, are very rare; indeed, very few have been erupted at the Earth's surface since the Proterozoic, when the planet's heat flow was higher. They are (or were) the hottest lavas, and probably more fluid than common mafic lavas.

text: Lava texture

text: Two types of lava are named according to the surface texture: ʻAʻa (pronounced [ˈʔaʔa]) and pāhoehoe ([paːˈho.eˈho.e]), both Hawaiian words. ʻAʻa is characterized by a rough, clinkery surface and is the typical texture of viscous lava flows. However, even basaltic or mafic flows can be erupted as ʻaʻa flows, particularly if the eruption rate is high and the slope is steep.

text: Pāhoehoe is characterized by its smooth and often ropey or wrinkly surface and is generally formed from more fluid lava flows. Usually, only mafic flows will erupt as pāhoehoe, since they often erupt at higher temperatures or have the proper chemical make-up to allow them to flow with greater fluidity.

text: Volcanic activity

text: Popular classification of volcanoes

text: A popular way of classifying magmatic volcanoes is by their frequency of eruption[according to whom?], with those that erupt regularly called active, those that have erupted in historical times but are now quiet called dormant or inactive, and those that have not erupted in historical times called extinct. However, these popular classifications—extinct in particular—are practically meaningless to scientists. They use classifications which refer to a particular volcano's formative and eruptive processes and resulting shapes, which was explained above.

text: Active

text: There is no consensus among volcanologists on how to define an "active" volcano. The lifespan of a volcano can vary from months to several million years, making such a distinction sometimes meaningless when compared to the lifespans of humans or even civilizations. For example, many of Earth's volcanoes have erupted dozens of times in the past few thousand years but are not currently showing signs of eruption. Given the long lifespan of such volcanoes, they are very active. By human lifespans, however, they are not.

text: Scientists usually consider a volcano to be erupting or likely to erupt if it is currently erupting, or showing signs of unrest such as unusual earthquake activity or significant new gas emissions. Most scientists consider a volcano active if it has erupted in the last 10,000 years (Holocene times) – the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program uses this definition of active. Most volcanoes are situated on the Pacific Ring of Fire.[10] An estimated 500 million people live near active volcanoes.[10]

text: Historical time (or recorded history) is another timeframe for active.[11][12] The Catalogue of the Active Volcanoes of the World, published by the International Association of Volcanology, uses this definition, by which there are more than 500 active volcanoes.[11] However, the span of recorded history differs from region to region. In China and the Mediterranean, it reaches back nearly 3,000 years, but in the Pacific Northwest of the United States and Canada, it reaches back less than 300 years, and in Hawaii and New Zealand, only around 200 years.[11]

text: As of 2013, the following are considered Earth's most active volcanoes:[13]

text:
Kīlauea, the famous Hawaiian volcano, has been in continuous, effusive eruption (in which lava steadily flows onto the ground) since 1983 and has the longest-observed lava lake.
Mount Etna and nearby Stromboli, two Mediterranean volcanoes in "almost continuous eruption"[vague] since antiquity.[clarification needed]
Mount Yasur, in Vanuatu, has been erupting "nearly continuously" for over 800 years.[citation needed]

text: The longest currently ongoing (but not necessarily continuous) volcanic eruptive phases are:[14]

text:
Mount Yasur, 111 years
Mount Etna, 109 years
Stromboli, 108 years
Santa María, 101 years
Sangay, 94 years

text: Other very active volcanoes include:

text:
Mount Nyiragongo and its neighbor, Nyamuragira, are Africa's most active volcanoes

Nyiragongo's lava lake

.
Piton de la Fournaise, in Réunion, erupts frequently enough to be a tourist attraction.
Erta Ale, in the Afar Triangle, has maintained a lava lake since at least 1906.
Mount Erebus, in Antarctica, has maintained a lava lake since at least 1972.
Mount Merapi
Whakaari / White Island, has been in continuous state of smoking since its discovery in 1769.
Ol Doinyo Lengai
Ambrym
Arenal Volcano
Pacaya
Klyuchevskaya Sopka
Sheveluch

text: Extinct

text: Extinct volcanoes are those that scientists consider unlikely to erupt again because the volcano no longer has a magma supply. Examples of extinct volcanoes are many volcanoes on the Hawaiian – Emperor seamount chain in the Pacific Ocean, Hohentwiel, Shiprock and the Zuidwal volcano in the Netherlands. Edinburgh Castle in Scotland is famously located atop an extinct volcano. Otherwise, whether a volcano is truly extinct is often difficult to determine. Since "supervolcano" calderas can have eruptive lifespans sometimes measured in millions of years, a caldera that has not produced an eruption in tens of thousands of years is likely to be considered dormant instead of extinct. Some volcanologists refer to extinct volcanoes as inactive, though the term is now more commonly used for dormant volcanoes once thought to be extinct.

text: Dormant and reactivated

text: It is difficult to distinguish an extinct volcano from a dormant (inactive) one. Volcanoes are often considered to be extinct if there are no written records of its activity. Nevertheless, volcanoes may remain dormant for a long period of time. For example, Yellowstone has a repose/recharge period of around 700,000 years, and Toba of around 380,000 years.[15] Vesuvius was described by Roman writers as having been covered with gardens and vineyards before its eruption of 79 CE, which destroyed the towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Before its catastrophic eruption of 1991, Pinatubo was an inconspicuous volcano, unknown to most people in the surrounding areas. Two other examples are the long-dormant Soufrière Hills volcano on the island of Montserrat, thought to be extinct before activity resumed in 1995, and Fourpeaked Mountain in Alaska, which, before its September 2006 eruption, had not erupted since before 8000 BCE and had long been thought to be extinct. Climate change can reportedly trigger volcanic activity in sensitive areas by changing pressure of ice or seawater and extreme weather.[16]

text: Technical classification of volcanoes

text: Volcanic-alert level

text: The three common popular classifications of volcanoes can be subjective and some volcanoes thought to have been extinct have erupted again. To help prevent people from falsely believing they are not at risk when living on or near a volcano, countries have adopted new classifications to describe the various levels and stages of volcanic activity.[17] Some alert systems use different numbers or colors to designate the different stages. Other systems use colors and words. Some systems use a combination of both.

text: The United States Geological Survey (USGS) has adopted a common system nationwide for characterizing the level of unrest and eruptive activity at volcanoes. The new volcano alert-level system classifies volcanoes now as being in a normal, advisory, watch or warning stage. Additionally, colors are used to denote the amount of ash produced. Details of the U.S. system can be found at Volcano warning schemes of the United States.

text: Decade volcanoes

text: The Decade Volcanoes are 17 volcanoes identified by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior (IAVCEI) as being worthy of particular study in light of their history of large, destructive eruptions and proximity to populated areas. They are named Decade Volcanoes because the project was initiated as part of the United Nations-sponsored International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction. The 17 current Decade Volcanoes are

text:
Avachinsky-Koryaksky (grouped together), Kamchatka, Russia
Nevado de Colima, Jalisco and Colima, Mexico
Mount Etna, Sicily, Italy
Galeras, Nariño, Colombia
Mauna Loa, Hawaii, USA
Mount Merapi, Central Java, Indonesia
Mount Nyiragongo, Democratic Republic of the Congo
Mount Rainier, Washington, USA

Sakurajima, Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan
Santa Maria/Santiaguito, Guatemala
Santorini, Cyclades, Greece
Taal Volcano, Luzon, Philippines
Teide, Canary Islands, Spain
Ulawun, New Britain, Papua New Guinea
Mount Unzen, Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan
Vesuvius, Naples, Italy

text: The Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project, an initiative of the Deep Carbon Observatory, monitors nine volcanoes, two of which are Decade volcanoes. The focus of the Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project is to use Multi-Component Gas Analyzer System instruments to measure CO2/SO2 ratios in real-time and in high-resolution to allow detection of the pre-eruptive degassing of rising magmas, improving prediction of volcanic activity.[18]

text: Effects of volcanoes

text: There are many different types of volcanic eruptions and associated activity: phreatic eruptions (steam-generated eruptions), explosive eruption of high-silica lava (e.g., rhyolite), effusive eruption of low-silica lava (e.g., basalt), pyroclastic flows, lahars (debris flow) and carbon dioxide emission. All of these activities can pose a hazard to humans. Earthquakes, hot springs, fumaroles, mud pots and geysers often accompany volcanic activity.

text: Volcanic gases

text: The concentrations of different volcanic gases can vary considerably from one volcano to the next. Water vapor is typically the most abundant volcanic gas, followed by carbon dioxide[19] and sulfur dioxide. Other principal volcanic gases include hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen chloride, and hydrogen fluoride. A large number of minor and trace gases are also found in volcanic emissions, for example hydrogen, carbon monoxide, halocarbons, organic compounds, and volatile metal chlorides.

text: Large, explosive volcanic eruptions inject water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), hydrogen chloride (HCl), hydrogen fluoride (HF) and ash (pulverized rock and pumice) into the stratosphere to heights of 16–32 kilometres (10–20 mi) above the Earth's surface. The most significant impacts from these injections come from the conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfuric acid (H2SO4), which condenses rapidly in the stratosphere to form fine sulfate aerosols. The SO2 emissions alone of two different eruptions are sufficient to compare their potential climatic impact.[20] The aerosols increase the Earth's albedo—its reflection of radiation from the Sun back into space—and thus cool the Earth's lower atmosphere or troposphere; however, they also absorb heat radiated up from the Earth, thereby warming the stratosphere. Several eruptions during the past century have caused a decline in the average temperature at the Earth's surface of up to half a degree (Fahrenheit scale) for periods of one to three years; sulfur dioxide from the eruption of Huaynaputina probably caused the Russian famine of 1601–1603.[21]

text: Significant consequences

text: Prehistory

text: A volcanic winter is said to have taken place around 70,000 years ago after the supereruption of Lake Toba on Sumatra island in Indonesia.[22] According to the Toba catastrophe theory to which some anthropologists and archeologists subscribe, it had global consequences,[23] killing most humans then alive and creating a population bottleneck that affected the genetic inheritance of all humans today.[24]

text: It has been suggested that volcanic activity caused or contributed to the End-Ordovician, Permian-Triassic, Late Devonian mass extinctions, and possibly others. The massive eruptive event which formed the Siberian Traps, one of the largest known volcanic events of the last 500 million years of Earth's geological history, continued for a million years and is considered to be the likely cause of the "Great Dying" about 250 million years ago,[25] which is estimated to have killed 90% of species existing at the time.[26]

text: Historical

text: The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora created global climate anomalies that became known as the "Year Without a Summer" because of the effect on North American and European weather.[27] Agricultural crops failed and livestock died in much of the Northern Hemisphere, resulting in one of the worst famines of the 19th century.[28]

text: The freezing winter of 1740–41, which led to widespread famine in northern Europe, may also owe its origins to a volcanic eruption.[29]

text: Acid rain

text: Sulfate aerosols promote complex chemical reactions on their surfaces that alter chlorine and nitrogen chemical species in the stratosphere. This effect, together with increased stratospheric chlorine levels from chlorofluorocarbon pollution, generates chlorine monoxide (ClO), which destroys ozone (O3). As the aerosols grow and coagulate, they settle down into the upper troposphere where they serve as nuclei for cirrus clouds and further modify the Earth's radiation balance. Most of the hydrogen chloride (HCl) and hydrogen fluoride (HF) are dissolved in water droplets in the eruption cloud and quickly fall to the ground as acid rain. The injected ash also falls rapidly from the stratosphere; most of it is removed within several days to a few weeks. Finally, explosive volcanic eruptions release the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide and thus provide a deep source of carbon for biogeochemical cycles.[30]

text: Gas emissions from volcanoes are a natural contributor to acid rain. Volcanic activity releases about 130 to 230 teragrams (145 million to 255 million short tons) of carbon dioxide each year.[31] Volcanic eruptions may inject aerosols into the Earth's atmosphere. Large injections may cause visual effects such as unusually colorful sunsets and affect global climate mainly by cooling it. Volcanic eruptions also provide the benefit of adding nutrients to soil through the weathering process of volcanic rocks. These fertile soils assist the growth of plants and various crops. Volcanic eruptions can also create new islands, as the magma cools and solidifies upon contact with the water.

text: Hazards

text: Ash thrown into the air by eruptions can present a hazard to aircraft, especially jet aircraft where the particles can be melted by the high operating temperature; the melted particles then adhere to the turbine blades and alter their shape, disrupting the operation of the turbine. Dangerous encounters in 1982 after the eruption of Galunggung in Indonesia, and 1989 after the eruption of Mount Redoubt in Alaska raised awareness of this phenomenon. Nine Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers were established by the International Civil Aviation Organization to monitor ash clouds and advise pilots accordingly. The 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull caused major disruptions to air travel in Europe.

text: Volcanoes on other celestial bodies

text: The Earth's Moon has no large volcanoes and no current volcanic activity, although recent evidence suggests it may still possess a partially molten core.[32] However, the Moon does have many volcanic features such as maria (the darker patches seen on the moon), rilles and domes.

text: The planet Venus has a surface that is 90% basalt, indicating that volcanism played a major role in shaping its surface. The planet may have had a major global resurfacing event about 500 million years ago,[33] from what scientists can tell from the density of impact craters on the surface. Lava flows are widespread and forms of volcanism not present on Earth occur as well. Changes in the planet's atmosphere and observations of lightning have been attributed to ongoing volcanic eruptions, although there is no confirmation of whether or not Venus is still volcanically active. However, radar sounding by the Magellan probe revealed evidence for comparatively recent volcanic activity at Venus's highest volcano Maat Mons, in the form of ash flows near the summit and on the northern flank.

text: There are several extinct volcanoes on Mars, four of which are vast shield volcanoes far bigger than any on Earth. They include Arsia Mons, Ascraeus Mons, Hecates Tholus, Olympus Mons, and Pavonis Mons. These volcanoes have been extinct for many millions of years,[34] but the European Mars Express spacecraft has found evidence that volcanic activity may have occurred on Mars in the recent past as well.[34]

text: Jupiter's moon Io is the most volcanically active object in the solar system because of tidal interaction with Jupiter. It is covered with volcanoes that erupt sulfur, sulfur dioxide and silicate rock, and as a result, Io is constantly being resurfaced. Its lavas are the hottest known anywhere in the solar system, with temperatures exceeding 1,800 K (1,500 °C). In February 2001, the largest recorded volcanic eruptions in the solar system occurred on Io.[35] Europa, the smallest of Jupiter's Galilean moons, also appears to have an active volcanic system, except that its volcanic activity is entirely in the form of water, which freezes into ice on the frigid surface. This process is known as cryovolcanism, and is apparently most common on the moons of the outer planets of the solar system.

text: In 1989 the Voyager 2 spacecraft observed cryovolcanoes (ice volcanoes) on Triton, a moon of Neptune, and in 2005 the Cassini–Huygens probe photographed fountains of frozen particles erupting from Enceladus, a moon of Saturn.[36][37] The ejecta may be composed of water, liquid nitrogen, ammonia, dust, or methane compounds. Cassini–Huygens also found evidence of a methane-spewing cryovolcano on the Saturnian moon Titan, which is believed to be a significant source of the methane found in its atmosphere.[38] It is theorized that cryovolcanism may also be present on the Kuiper Belt Object Quaoar.

text: A 2010 study of the exoplanet COROT-7b, which was detected by transit in 2009, suggested that tidal heating from the host star very close to the planet and neighboring planets could generate intense volcanic activity similar to that found on Io.[39]

text: Traditional beliefs about volcanoes

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2016)

text: Many ancient accounts ascribe volcanic eruptions to supernatural causes, such as the actions of gods or demigods. To the ancient Greeks, volcanoes' capricious power could only be explained as acts of the gods, while 16th/17th-century German astronomer Johannes Kepler believed they were ducts for the Earth's tears.[40] One early idea counter to this was proposed by Jesuit Athanasius Kircher (1602–1680), who witnessed eruptions of Mount Etna and Stromboli, then visited the crater of Vesuvius and published his view of an Earth with a central fire connected to numerous others caused by the burning of sulfur, bitumen and coal.

text: Various explanations were proposed for volcano behavior before the modern understanding of the Earth's mantle structure as a semisolid material was developed. For decades after awareness that compression and radioactive materials may be heat sources, their contributions were specifically discounted. Volcanic action was often attributed to chemical reactions and a thin layer of molten rock near the surface.


document_title: Alaska Purchase

question_text: how much did russia sell alaska to the us for

text: Alaska Purchase

text: Background[edit]

text:
Part of a series on theHistory of Alaska

Prehistory
Russian America (1733–1867)
Department of Alaska (1867–1884)
District of Alaska (1884–1912)
Territory of Alaska (1912–1959)
State of Alaska (1959–present)
Other topics

vte

text: Russian America was settled by promyshlenniki, merchants and fur trappers that expanded through Siberia. They arrived in Alaska in 1732, and in 1799 the Russian-American Company (RAC) received a charter to hunt for fur. No colony was established, but the Russian Orthodox Church sent missionaries to the natives and built churches. About 700 Russians enforced sovereignty in a territory twice as large as Texas.[2]

text:
By the 1850s a population of 300,000 sea otters was almost extinct, and Russia needed money after being defeated by Britain in the Crimean War. The California gold rush showed that if gold were discovered in Alaska, Americans and Canadians would overwhelm the Russian presence in what one scholar later described as "Siberia's Siberia".[2] In any future war with Britain, the hard-to-defend colony would be easily captured. Therefore, Emperor Alexander II decided to sell the territory. The Russian government discussed the proposal in 1857 and 1858.[3] Perhaps in the hope of starting a bidding war, both the British and the Americans were approached in 1859. However, British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston steadfastly rejected the offer, arguing that Canada (which wasn't a country at the time and under British rule) had enough uncharted wilderness to deal with and that Britain would overstretch its resources in maintaining Alaska as well as its territories and colonies outside North America. Then the Russians offered to sell the territory to the United States, hoping that its presence in the region would offset the plans of Britain. However, no deal was reached, as the risk of an American Civil War was a more pressing concern in Washington.[4]
[5]

text: Grand Duke Konstantin, a younger brother of the Tsar, began to press for the handover of Russian America to the United States in 1857. In a memorandum to Foreign Minister Alexander Gorchakov he stated that

text: we must not deceive ourselves and must foresee that the United States, aiming constantly to round out their possessions and desiring to dominate undividedly the whole of North America will take the afore-mentioned colonies from us and we shall not be able to regain them.[3]

text: Konstantin's letter was shown to his brother, Tsar Alexander II, who wrote "this idea is worth considering" on the front page.[6] Supporters of Konstantin's proposal to immediately withdraw from North America included Admiral Yevfimy Putyatin and the Russian minister to the United States, Eduard de Stoeckl. Gorchakov agreed with the necessity of abandoning Russian America, but argued for a gradual process leading to its sale. He found a supporter in the naval minister and former chief manager of the Russian-American Company, Ferdinand von Wrangel. Wrangel pressed for some proceeds to be invested in the economic development of Kamchatka and the Amur Basin.[6] The Emperor eventually sided with Gorchakov, deciding to postpone negotiations until the end of the RAC's patent, set to expire in 1861.

text: Over the winter of 1859–1860 de Stoeckl held meetings with American officials, though he had been instructed not to initiate discussions about the sale of the RAC assets. Communicating primarily with Assistant Secretary of State John Appleton and Senator William M. Gwin, de Stoeckl reported the interest expressed by the Americans in acquiring Russian America. While President James Buchanan kept these hearings informal, preparations were made for further negotiations.[6] Senator Gwin tendered a hypothetical[clarification needed] offer of five million dollars for the Russian colony, a figure Gorchakov found far too low. De Stoeckl informed Appleton and Gwin of this, the latter saying that his Congressional colleagues in Oregon and California would support a larger figure. Buchanan's increasingly unpopular presidency forced the matter to be shelved until a new presidential election. With the oncoming American Civil War, de Stoeckl proposed a renewal of the RAC's charter. Two of its ports were to be open to foreign traders and commercial agreements with Peru and Chile to be signed to give "a fresh jolt" to the company.[6]

text: Additionally, the Russian Crown sought to repay money to its landowners after its emancipation reform of 1861 and borrowed 15 million pounds sterling from Rothschilds at 5% annually.[7] When the time came to repay the loan, the Russian government was short of funds.

text: Russia continued to see an opportunity to weaken British power by causing British Columbia, including the Royal Navy base at Esquimalt, to be surrounded or annexed by American territory.[8] Following the Union victory in the Civil War, the Tsar instructed the Russian minister to the United States, Eduard de Stoeckl, to re-enter into negotiations with William H. Seward in the beginning of March 1867. President Johnson was entangled in negotiations about Reconstruction and Seward had alienated a number of Republicans, so they believed that the purchase would help divert attention from the domestic issues.[9] The negotiations concluded after an all-night session with the signing of the treaty at 04:00 on March 30, 1867,[10] with the purchase price set at $7.2 million ($105 million in 2016), or about 2 cents per acre ($4.74/km2).[1][11]

text: American ownership[edit]

text: An Aleut name, "Alaska", was chosen by the Americans. This name had earlier, in the Russian era, denoted the Alaska Peninsula, which the Russians had called "Аляска" (Alyaska) (also Alyaksa is attested, especially in older sources).

text: Seward and many other Americans believed that Asia would become an important market for the country's products, and expected that Alaska would serve as a base for American trade with Asia and globally and for American power in the Pacific. While agreeing with Seward about the benefit to trade, Senator Charles Sumner was unusual in expecting that the territory would be valuable on its own; having studied the records of explorers, he believed that it contained valuable animals and forests. He compared the acquisition to contemporary European colonialism, such as the French conquest of Algeria.[12][13] As chair of the Foreign Relations Committee, he sponsored the bill to acquire the territory. Seward told the nation that the Russians estimated that Alaska contained about 2,500 Russians and those of mixed race (that is, a Russian father and native mother), and 8,000 indigenous people, in all about 10,000 people under the direct government of the Russian fur company, and possibly 50,000 Inuit and Alaska Natives living outside its jurisdiction. The Russians were settled at 23 trading posts, placed at accessible islands and coastal points. At smaller stations only four or five Russians were stationed to collect furs from the natives for storage and shipment when the company's boats arrived to take it away. There were two larger towns. New Archangel, now named Sitka, had been established in 1804 to handle the valuable trade in the skins of the sea otter and in 1867 contained 116 small log cabins with 968 residents. St. Paul in the Pribilof Islands had 100 homes and 283 people and was the center of the seal fur industry.[14] The treaty passed the United States Senate with 37 votes for versus 2 opposed.[15]

text: Public opinion in the United States[edit]

text: Many Americans believed in 1867 that the purchase process had been corrupt,[13] but W. H. Dall in 1872 wrote that "...there can be no doubt that the feelings of a majority of the citizens of the United States are in favor of it..." while referring to purchasing the territories of Russia in America.[16] The notion that the purchase was unpopular among Americans is, a scholar wrote 120 years later, "one of the strongest historical myths in American history. It persists despite conclusive evidence to the contrary, and the efforts of the best historians to dispel it", likely in part because it fits American and Alaskan writers' view of the territory as distinct and filled with self-reliant pioneers.[12]

text: A majority of newspapers supported the purchase or were neutral.[13]  A review of dozens of contemporary newspapers found general support for the purchase, especially in California; most of 48 major newspapers supported the purchase.[12][17] Public opinion was not universally positive; to some the purchase was known as "Seward's folly", "Walrussia",[2] or "Seward's icebox". Editorials contended that taxpayer money had been wasted on a "Polar bear garden". Nonetheless, most newspaper editors argued that the U.S. would probably derive great economic benefits from the purchase; friendship with Russia was important; and it would facilitate the acquisition of British Columbia.[18][19][20][21] Forty-five percent of supportive newspapers cited the increased potential for annexing British Columbia in their support,[8] and The New York Times stated that, consistent with Seward's reason, Alaska would increase American trade with East Asia.[13]

text: The principal urban newspaper that opposed the purchase was the New York Tribune, published by Seward opponent Horace Greeley. The ongoing controversy over Reconstruction spread to other acts, such as the Alaska purchase. Some opposed the United States obtaining its first non-contiguous territory, seeing it as a colony; others saw no need to pay for land that they expected the country to obtain through manifest destiny.[12] Historian Ellis Paxson Oberholtzer summarized the minority opinion of some American newspaper editors who opposed the purchase:[22]

text: Already, so it was said, we were burdened with territory we had no population to fill. The Indians within the present boundaries of the republic strained our power to govern aboriginal peoples. Could it be that we would now, with open eyes, seek to add to our difficulties by increasing the number of such peoples under our national care? The purchase price was small; the annual charges for administration, civil and military, would be yet greater, and continuing. The territory included in the proposed cession was not contiguous to the national domain. It lay away at an inconvenient and a dangerous distance. The treaty had been secretly prepared, and signed and foisted upon the country at one o'clock in the morning. It was a dark deed done in the night… The New York World said that it was a "sucked orange." It contained nothing of value but furbearing animals, and these had been hunted until they were nearly extinct. Except for the Aleutian Islands and a narrow strip of land extending along the southern coast the country would be not worth taking as a gift… Unless gold were found in the country much time would elapse before it would be blessed with Hoe printing presses, Methodist chapels and a metropolitan police. It was "a frozen wilderness."

text: Transfer ceremony[edit]

text: The transfer ceremony took place in Sitka on October 18, 1867. Russian and American soldiers paraded in front of the governor's house; the Russian flag was lowered and the American flag raised amid peals of artillery.

text: A description of the events was published in Finland six years later, written by a blacksmith named T. Ahllund, who had been recruited to work in Sitka only less than two years previously.[23]

text: We had not spent many weeks at Sitka when two large steam ships arrived there, bringing things that belonged to the American crown, and a few days later the new governor also arrived in a ship together with his soldiers. The wooden two-story mansion of the Russian governor stood on a high hill, and in front of it in the yard at the end of a tall spar flew the Russian flag with the double-headed eagle in the middle of it. Of course, this flag now had to give way to the flag of the United States, which is full of stripes and stars. On a predetermined day in the afternoon a group of soldiers came from the American ships, led by one who carried the flag. Marching solemnly, but without accompaniment, they came to the governor's mansion, where the Russian troops were already lined up and waiting for the Americans. Now they started to pull the [Russian double-headed] eagle down, but—whatever had gone into its head—it only came down a little bit, and then entangled its claws around the spar so that it could not be pulled down any further. A Russian soldier was therefore ordered to climb up the spar and disentangle it, but it seems that the eagle cast a spell on his hands, too—for he was not able to arrive at where the flag was, but instead slipped down without it. The next one to try was not able to do any better; only the third soldier was able to bring the unwilling eagle down to the ground. While the flag was brought down, music was played and cannons were fired off from the shore; and then while the other flag was hoisted the Americans fired off their cannons from the ships equally many times. After that American soldiers replaced the Russian ones at the gates of the fence surrounding the Kolosh [i.e. Tlingit] village.

text: When the business with the flags was finally over, Captain of 2nd Rank Aleksei Alekseyevich Peshchurov said: "General Rousseau, by authority from His Majesty, the Emperor of Russia, I transfer to the United States the territory of Alaska." General Lovell Rousseau accepted the territory. (Peshchurov had been sent to Sitka as commissioner of the Russian government in the transfer of Alaska.) A number of forts, blockhouses and timber buildings were handed over to the Americans. The troops occupied the barracks; General Jefferson C. Davis established his residence in the governor's house, and most of the Russian citizens went home, leaving a few traders and priests who chose to remain.[24][25]

text: Aftermath[edit]

text: After the transfer, a number of Russian citizens remained in Sitka, but very soon nearly all of them decided to return to Russia, which was still possible at the expense of the Russian-American Company. Ahllund's story "corroborates other accounts of the transfer ceremony, and the dismay felt by many of the Russians and creoles, jobless and in want, at the rowdy troops and gun-toting civilians who looked on Sitka as merely one more western frontier settlement." Ahllund gives a vivid account of what life was like for civilians in Sitka under U.S. rule, and it helps to explain why hardly any of the Russian subjects wanted to stay there. Moreover, Ahllund's article is the only known description of the return voyage on the Winged Arrow, a ship especially purchased in order to transport the Russians back to their native country. "The over-crowded vessel, with crewmen who got roaring drunk at every port, must have made the voyage a memorable one." Ahllund mentions stops at the Sandwich (Hawaiian) Islands, Tahiti, Brazil, London, and finally Kronstadt, the port for St. Petersburg, where they arrived on August 28, 1869.[26]

text: American settlers who shared Sumner's belief in the riches of Alaska rushed to the territory, but found that much capital was required to exploit its resources, many of which were also found closer to markets in the contiguous United States. Most soon left; by 1873 Sitka's population had declined from about 2,500 to a few hundred.[12] The United States acquired an area twice as large as Texas, but it was not until the great Klondike gold strike in 1896 that Alaska came to be seen generally as a valuable addition to American territory.

text: The seal fishery was one of the chief considerations that induced the United States to purchase Alaska. It provided considerable revenue to the United States by the lease of the privilege of taking seals, in fact an amount in excess of the price paid for Alaska. From 1870 to 1890, the seal fisheries yielded 100,000 skins a year. The company to which the administration of the fisheries was entrusted by a lease from the U.S. government paid a rental of $50,000 per annum and in addition thereto $2.62½ per skin for the total number taken. The skins were transported to London to be dressed and prepared for world markets. The business grew so large that the earnings of English laborers after the acquisition of Alaska by the United States amounted by 1890 to $12,000,000.[27]

text: However, exclusive U.S. control of this resource was eventually challenged, and the Bering Sea Controversy resulted when the United States seized over 150 sealing ships flying the British flag, based out of the coast of British Columbia. The conflict between the United States and Great Britain was resolved by an arbitration tribunal in 1893. The waters of the Bering Sea were deemed to be international waters, contrary to the U.S.'s contention that they were an internal sea. The U.S. was required to make a payment to Great Britain, and both nations were required to follow regulations which were developed to preserve the resource.[27]

text: Financial return[edit]

text: Economist David R. Barker has argued that the U.S. federal government has not earned a positive financial return on the purchase of Alaska. According to Barker, tax revenue and mineral and energy royalties to the federal government have been less than federal costs of governing Alaska plus interest on the borrowed funds used for the purchase.[28]

text: John M. Miller has taken the argument further, contending that U.S. oil companies that developed Alaskan petroleum resources did not earn profits sufficient to compensate for the risks they have incurred.[29]

text: Other economists and scholars, including Scott Goldsmith and Terrence Cole, have criticized the metrics used to reach those conclusions, noting that most continental Western states would fail to meet the bar of "positive financial return" using the same criteria and contending that looking at the increase in net national income, instead of simply U.S. Treasury revenue, paints a much more accurate picture of the financial return of Alaska as an investment.[30]

text: Alaska Day[edit]

text: In Alaska, Alaska Day celebrates the formal transfer of Alaska from Russia to the United States, which took place on October 18, 1867. The date is by the Gregorian calendar, which came into effect in Alaska the following day to replace the Julian calendar used by the Russians (the Julian calendar in the 19th century was 12 days behind the Gregorian calendar). Alaska Day is a holiday for all state workers.[31]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
^ Jump up to: a b Thomas, Ryland; Williamson, Samuel H. (2018). "What Was the U.S. GDP Then?". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved 5 January 2018.  United States Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the Measuring Worth series.

^ Jump up to: a b c Montaigne, Fen (2016-07-07). "Tracing Alaska's Russian Heritage". Smithsonian Journeys Travel Quarterly. Retrieved 2018-01-20.

^ Jump up to: a b Russian Opinion on the Cession of Alaska. The American Historical Review 48, No. 3 (1943), pp. 521–531.

Jump up ^ "Purchase of Alaska, 1867". Office of the Historian, U.S. Department of State. Retrieved December 4, 2014.

Jump up ^ Claus-M Naske; Herman E. Slotnick (15 March 1994). Alaska: A History of the 49th State. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 330. ISBN 978-0-8061-2573-2.

^ Jump up to: a b c d Bolkhovitinov, Nikolay N. (1990). "The Crimean War and the Emergence of Proposals for the Sale of Russian America, 1853–1861". Pacific Historical Review. 59 (1): 15–49. JSTOR 3640094.

Jump up ^ Кто и как продавал Аляску (Who and how was selling Alaska) Archived 2012-09-11 at the Wayback Machine.. Russian portal.

^ Jump up to: a b Neunherz, R. E. (1989). ""Hemmed In": Reactions in British Columbia to the Purchase of Russian America". The Pacific Northwest Quarterly. 80 (3): 101–111. doi:10.2307/40491056. JSTOR 40491056.

Jump up ^ Kennedy, Robert C. "The Big Thing". Harp Week. Archived from the original on March 26, 2013. Retrieved 31 August 2015.

Jump up ^ Seward, Frederick W., Seward at Washington as Senator and Secretary of State. Volume: 3, 1891, p. 348.

Jump up ^ "Treaty with Russia for the Purchase of Alaska". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 29 March 2015. Retrieved 30 August 2015.

^ Jump up to: a b c d e Haycox, Stephen (1990). "Haycox, Stephen. "Truth and Expectation: Myth in Alaska History". Northern Review. 6. Retrieved 31 August 2015.

^ Jump up to: a b c d Cook, Mary Alice (Spring 2011). "Manifest Opportunity: The Alaska Purchase as a Bridge Between United States Expansion and Imperialism" (PDF). Alaska History. 26 (1): 1–10.

Jump up ^ Seward (1869).

Jump up ^ "A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774–1875". loc.gov.

Jump up ^ Dall, W. H. (1872). "Is Alaska a Paying Investment". Harper's New Monthly Magazine. NY: Harper & Brothers. XLIV: 252.

Jump up ^ photographs, Preston Jones ;; Holland, illustrations edited by Neal (2013). The fires of patriotism : Alaskans in the days of the First World War 1910–1920. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-60223-205-1. Retrieved 30 August 2015.

Jump up ^ Welch, Richard E., Jr. (1958). "American Public Opinion and the Purchase of Russian America". American Slavic and East European Review. 17 (4): 481–494. JSTOR 3001132.

Jump up ^ Howard I. Kushner, "'Seward's Folly'?: American Commerce in Russian America and the Alaska Purchase". California Historical Quarterly (1975): 4–26. JSTOR 25157541.

Jump up ^ "Biographer calls Seward's Folly a myth". The Seward Phoenix LOG. 3 April 2014. Retrieved 31 August 2015.

Jump up ^ Founding of Anchorage, Alaska (Adobe Flash). Featured Speaker, Professor Preston Jones. CSPAN. July 9, 2015. Retrieved 2017-12-22.

Jump up ^ Ellis Paxson Oberholtzer, A History of the United States since the Civil War (1917)1:541.

Jump up ^ Ahllund, T. (1873/2006).

Jump up ^ Bancroft, H. H., (1885) pp. 590–629.

Jump up ^ Pierce, R. (1990), p 395.

Jump up ^ Richard Pierce, introduction to Ahllund, T., From the Memoirs of a Finnish Workman (2006).

^ Jump up to: a b  Gilman, D. C.; Peck, H. T.; Colby, F. M., eds. (1905). "Sealing". New International Encyclopedia (1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead.

Jump up ^ Powell, Michael (18 August 2010). "How Alaska Became a Federal Aid Magnet". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 April 2014.

Jump up ^ Miller, John. The Last Alaskan Barrel: An Arctic Oil Bonanza that Never Was. Caseman Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9828780-0-2.

Jump up ^ Powell, Michael (20 August 2010). "Was the Alaska Purchase a Good Deal?". The New York Times. Retrieved 24 September 2014.

Jump up ^ State of Alaska 2014 Holiday Calendar (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 20 August 2014, retrieved 18 December 2014

text: Further reading[edit]

text:
Bancroft, Hubert Howe: History of Alaska: 1730–1885 (1886).
Dunning, William. A. "Paying for Alaska", Political Science Quarterly Vol. 27, No. 3 (September 1912), pp. 385–398. JSTOR 2141366.
Farrow, Lee A. Seward's Folly: A New Look at the Alaska Purchase (University of Alaska Press, 2016). xiv, 225 pp.
Grinëv, Andrei. V., and Richard L. Bland. "A Brief Survey of the Russian Historiography of Russian America of Recent Years", Pacific Historical Review, May 2010, Vol. 79 Issue 2, pp. 265–278.
Pierce, Richard: Russian America: A Biographical Dictionary, p. 395. Alaska History no. 33, The Limestone Press; Kingston, Ontario & Fairbanks, Alaska, 1990.
Holbo, Paul S (1983). Tarnished Expansion: The Alaska Scandal, the Press, and Congress 1867–1871. Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press.
Jensen, Ronald (1975). The Alaska Purchase and Russian-American Relations.
Oberholtzer, Ellis (1917). A History of the United States since the Civil War. Vol. 1.  online

text: Primary sources[edit]

text:
Ahllund, T., From the Memoirs of a Finnish Workman, trans. Panu Hallamaa, ed. Richard Pierce, Alaska History, 21 (Fall 2006), 1–25. (Originally published in Finnish in Suomen Kuvalehti (editor-in-chief Julius Krohn) No. 15/1873 (1 August) – No. 19/1873 (1 October)).
Seward, William H. Alaska: Speech of William H. Seward at Sitka, August 12, 1869 (1869; Digitized page images & text), a primary source


document_title: List of home video game consoles

question_text: when was the first video game console ever made

text: List of home video game consoles

text: List of release date in order

text: First generation (1972–1980)

text:
Magnavox Odyssey, released in 1972, was the first home video game console.

Ping-O-Tronic (1974)

Fairchild Channel F (1976)

Color TV-Game (1977)

text:
Name
Release date
Manufacturer

Magnavox Odyssey
September 1972
Magnavox

Ping-O-Tronic
1974
Zanussi

Atari PONG
1975
Atari

PC-50X Family
1975
General Instrument

Tele-Spiel
1975
Philips

Video 2000
1975
Interton

Fairchild Channel F
1976
Fairchild

Coleco Telstar Arcade
1977
Coleco

Color TV-Game
1977
Nintendo

text: Consoles of the early 1970s, such as the Pong consoles and the Magnavox Odyssey, were often inaccurately called "analog", but were actually discrete logic circuits.[1]

text: Second generation (1976–1992)

text:
Fairchild Channel F II (1979)

RCA Studio II (1977)

Atari 2600 (1977)

Bally Astrocade (1977)

VC 4000 (1978)

Magnavox Odyssey 2 (1978)

Intellivision (1980)

VTech CreatiVision (1981)

Epoch Cassette Vision (1981)

Arcadia 2001 (1982)

Atari 5200 (1982)

ColecoVision (1982)

Vectrex (1982)

text:
Name
Release date
Manufacturer

APF-MP1000
1978
APF

RCA Studio II
1977
RCA

Atari 2600
September 11, 1977
Atari Inc.

Bally Astrocade
1977
Midway

VC 4000
1978
Interton

Magnavox Odyssey²
1978
Magnavox/Philips

Channel F II
1979
Fairchild

APF Imagination Machine
1979
APF

Bandai Super Vision 8000
1979
Bandai

Intellivision
1980
Mattel

PlayCable
1981
Mattel

VTech CreatiVision
1981
VTech

Epoch Cassette Vision
1981
Epoch

Arcadia 2001/Leisure Vision
1982
Emerson Radio

Atari 5200
November 1982
Atari Inc.

ColecoVision
1982
Coleco

Entex Adventure Vision
1982
Entex

Vectrex
1982
GCE/Milton Bradley Company

text: Third generation (1983–2003)

text:
Nintendo Entertainment System (1983)

Sega Master System (1985)

Atari 7800 (1984)

Super Cassette Vision (1984)

PV-1000 (1983)

Action Max (1987)

text:
Name
Release date
Manufacturer
Units sold
CPU

PV-1000
1983
Casio

Z80A clocked at 3.579 MHz

Videopac G7400
1983
Philips

Commodore 64 Games System
1990
Commodore

Amstrad GX4000
1990
Amstrad
15,000
Zilog Z80 @ 4 MHz

Atari 7800
May 1986
Atari Corporation
8 million
Atari SALLY 6502 ("6502C") clocked at 1.19-1.79 MHz,

Atari XEGS
1987
Atari Corporation
2 million
MOS Technology 6502C

Sega SG-1000
July 15, 1983
Sega
2 million
Zilog Z80 @ 3.58 MHz

Sega Master System
October 20, 1985
Sega , Tec Toy
13 million
Zilog Z80 @ 4 MHz

NES/Family Computer (Famicom)
July 15, 1983
Nintendo
61.91 million
Ricoh 2A03 8-bit processor (MOS Technology 6502 core)

Family Computer Disk System[2]
1986
Nintendo
4.44 million
Ricoh 2A03 8-bit processor (MOS Technology 6502 core)

My Vision
1983
Nichibutsu

Super Cassette Vision
1984
Epoch

Zemmix
1985
Daewoo Electronics

Bridge Companion
1985
BBC/Heber

text: Fourth generation (1987–2004)

text:
TurboGrafx-16 (1987)

Sega Genesis (1988)

Neo-Geo (1990)

Super Nintendo Entertainment System (1990)

Turbo Duo (1991)

CD-i (1991)

Sega 32X (1994)

text:
Name
Release date
Manufacturer
Units sold
CPU

PC Engine/TurboGrafx-16
1987
NEC
10 million
Hudson Soft HuC6280

PC Engine2/SuperGrafx
1989
NEC

Hudson Soft HuC6280

Sega Genesis/Mega Drive
October 29, 1988
Sega
30.75 million
Motorola 68000 @ 7.6 MHz
Zilog Z80 @ 3.58 MHz

Sega CD/Mega CD
1992 (North America)
Sega
2.24 million
Motorola 68000 @ 12.5 MHz

Sega 32X
1994
Sega
665,000
2 × SH-2 32-bit RISC @ 23 MHz

Konix Multisystem
Cancelled
Konix
N/A

Neo-Geo
April 26, 1990
SNK
>750,000
Motorola 68000 @ 12 MHz, Zilog Z80A @ 4 MHz

Super NES/Super Famicom
November 21, 1990
Nintendo
49.10 million
Ricoh 5A22 @ 3.58 MHz

SNES-CD
Cancelled
Nintendo
N/A

Satellaview
1993
Nintendo

Atari Panther
Cancelled
Atari Corporation
N/A

Commodore CDTV
March, 1991
Commodore

Motorola 68000 @ 7 MHz

Turbo Duo/PC Engine Duo
September 21, 1991
NEC
>500,000
Hudson Soft HuC6280

CD-i
December 3, 1991
Philips
>1.5 million
Philips SCC68070 @ 15.5 MHz

Memorex VIS
1992
Memorex/Tandy Corp
<15,000

Sega Pico
1994
Sega/Majesco Entertainment

Super A'Can
1995
Funtech

text: Fifth generation (1993–2005)

text:
Pioneer LaserActive (1993)

FM Towns Marty (1993)

Atari Jaguar (1993)

Neo-Geo CD (1994)

PlayStation (1994)

Sega Saturn (1994)

3DO Interactive Multiplayer (1993)

Nintendo 64 (1996)

Amiga CD32 (1993)

PC-FX (1994)

Apple Bandai Pippin (1995)

text:
Name
Release date
Manufacturer
Units sold
CPU

Pioneer LaserActive
1993
Pioneer Corporation

FM Towns Marty
1993
Fujitsu

AMD 386SX at 16 MHz

Apple Bandai Pippin
1995
Bandai /Apple Inc.
42,000
PowerPC 603 RISC (66 MHz)

PC-FX
1994
NEC
>400,000
NEC V810

Neo-Geo CD
1994
SNK

Atari Jaguar
November 23, 1993
Atari Corporation
<1 million

Atari Jaguar CD
1995
Atari Corporation

PlayStation
December 3, 1994
Sony
102.49 million
R3000 @ 33.8688 MHz

Sega Saturn
November 22, 1994
Sega
9.26 million
2× Hitachi SH-2 @ 28.6 MHz

3DO Interactive Multiplayer
1993
Panasonic/Sanyo /GoldStar
2 million
32-bit RISC CPU ARM60 based on ARM architecture @ 12.5 MHz

Amiga CD32
1993
Commodore
>100,000
Motorola 68EC020@ 14.18 MHz (PAL)14.32 MHz (NTSC)

Casio Loopy
1995
Casio

32-bit RISC SH-1 (SH7021)

Playdia
1994
Bandai

CPS Changer
1994
Capcom

Motorola 68000 (@ 10 MHz)

Nintendo 64
June 23, 1996
Nintendo
32.93 million
64-bit NEC VR4300 @ 93.75 MHz

Nintendo 64DD
1999
Nintendo

text: Sixth generation (1998–2013)

text:
Dreamcast (1998 in Japan, 1999 in other areas)

PlayStation 2 (2000)

GameCube (2001)

Xbox (2001)

text:
Name
Release date
Manufacturer
Units sold
CPU

Dreamcast
1998
Sega
9.13 million
Hitachi SH-4 32-bit RISC clocked at 200 MHz

Nuon
2000
VM Labs
>25 thousand

PlayStation 2
2000
Sony
155 million
Emotion Engine clocked at 294.912 MHz (launch), 299 MHz (newer models), with 128-bit SIMD capabilities

L600
Cancelled
Indrema
N/A

GameCube
2001
Nintendo
21.74 million
IBM PowerPC Gekko @ 486 MHz

iQue Player
2003
Nintendo
>0.1 million
R-4300 64Bit CPU, 93.75 MHz

Panasonic M2
Cancelled
Panasonic
N/A

Xbox
2001
Microsoft
24 million
Custom 733 MHz Intel Pentium III "Coppermine-based" processor

text: Seventh generation (2005–2017)

text:
Xbox 360 (2005)

PlayStation 3 (2006)

Wii (2006)

text:
Name
Release date
Manufacturer
Units sold
CPU

Phantom
Cancelled
Phantom
N/A

Game Wave
2005
ZAPiT
70 thousand (as of 2008)[3]

Xbox 360
2005
Microsoft
83.7 million (as of March 31, 2014)[4][5][6][7]
3.2 GHz PowerPC Tri-Core Xenon

HyperScan
2006
Mattel

Wii
2006
Nintendo
101.63 million (as of December 31, 2016)[8]
IBM PowerPC "Broadway"

PlayStation 3
2006
Sony
80 million[9]
3.2 GHz Cell Broadband Engine with 1 PPE & 7 SPEs

text: Eighth generation (2012–present)

text:
Wii U (2012)

PlayStation 4 (2013)

Xbox One (2013)

text:
Name
Release date
Manufacturer
Units sold
CPU

Wii U
2012
Nintendo
13.56 million (as of December 31, 2016)[10]
1.24 GHz Tri-Core IBM PowerPC "Espresso"

PlayStation 4
2013
Sony
50 million (as of December 6, 2016)[11]
Semi-custom 8-core AMD x86-64 Jaguar 1.6 GHz CPU (integrated into APU)

Xbox One
2013
Microsoft
>10 million (as of December 31, 2013[update])[a]
Custom 1.75 GHz AMD 8-core APU (2 quad-core Jaguar modules)

text: The Nintendo Switch (code name NX) was released during this period, on March 3, 2017, but has been referred to as a hybrid video game console combining features of home and handheld systems.