document_title: Hail Mary

question_text: where did the prayer hail mary come from

text: Hail Mary

text: Biblical source[edit]

text: The prayer incorporates two passages from Saint Luke's Gospel: "Hail, the Lord is with thee."[1] and "Blessed art thou amongst women and blessed is the fruit of thy womb." And "full of grace" from John 1:14.[2] In mid-13th-century Western Europe the prayer consisted only of these words with the single addition of the name "Mary" after the word "Hail", as is evident from the commentary of Saint Thomas Aquinas on the prayer.[3]

text: The first of the two passages from Saint Luke's Gospel is the greeting of the Angel Gabriel to Mary, originally written in Koine Greek. The opening word of greeting, χαῖρε, chaíre, here translated "Hail", literally has the meaning "rejoice" or "be glad". This was the normal greeting in the language in which Saint Luke's Gospel is written and continues to be used in the same sense in Modern Greek. Accordingly, both "Hail" and "Rejoice" are valid English translations of the word ("Hail" reflecting the Latin translation, and "Rejoice" reflecting the original Greek).

text: The word κεχαριτωμένη, (kecharitōménē), here translated as "full of grace", admits of various translations. Grammatically, the word is the feminine perfect passive participle of the verb χαριτόω, charitóō, which means "to show, or bestow with, grace" and here, in the passive voice, "to have grace shown, or bestowed upon, one".[4]

text: The text also appears in the account of the annunciation contained in the apocryphal Infancy Gospel of Matthew, in chapter 9.

text: The second passage is taken from Elizabeth's greeting to Mary in Luke 1:42, "Blessed art thou among women, and blessed is the fruit of thy womb." Taken together, these two passages are the two times Mary is greeted in Chapter 1 of Luke.

text: In Western (Latin) tradition[edit]

text:
Part of a series on the

Mariology
of the Catholic Church

The Immaculate Conception, by Murillo

Overview[show]

Prayers
Antiphons
Hymns to Mary
Devotional practices

Prayers[show]

Angelus
Fátima Prayers
Flos Carmeli
Hail Mary
Hail Mary of Gold
Immaculata prayer
Magnificat
Mary, Mother of Grace
Mary Our Queen
Memorare
Sub tuum praesidium

Antiphons[show]

Alma Redemptoris Mater
Ave Maris Stella
Ave Regina Caelorum
Salve Regina

Hymns to Mary[show]

Hail Queen of Heaven, the Ocean Star
Immaculate Mary
Lo, How a Rose E'er Blooming
O Sanctissima
Regina Coeli
Stabat Mater

Devotional practices[show]

Acts of Reparation
Consecration to Mary
First Saturdays
Rosary
Seven Joys of the Virgin
Seven Sorrows of Mary
Three Hail Marys
Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary

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text: After considering the use of similar words in Syriac, Greek and Latin in the 6th century, Herbert Thurston, writing in the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that "there is little or no trace of the Hail Mary as an accepted devotional formula before about 1050",[5] (though a later pious tale attributed to Ildephonsus of Toledo (fl. 7th century) the use of the first part, namely the angel's greeting Mary, without that of Elizabeth, as a prayer). All the evidence suggests that it took its rise from certain versicles and responsories occurring in the Little Office or Cursus of the Blessed Virgin, which just at that time was coming into favour among the monastic orders.

text: Saint Thomas Aquinas spoke of the name "Mary" as the only word added at his time to the Biblical text, to indicate the person who was "full of grace." But at about the same time the name "Jesus" was also added, to specify who was meant by the phrase "the fruit of thy womb."

text: The Western version of the prayer is thus not derived from the Greek version: even the earliest Western forms have no trace of the Greek version's phrases: "Mother of God and Virgin" and "for thou hast given birth to the Saviour of our souls."

text: To the greeting and praise of Mary of which the prayer thus consisted, a petition "Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners now and at the hour of our death. Amen." was added later. The petition first appeared in print in 1495 in Girolamo Savonarola's "Esposizione sopra l’Ave Maria."[5][6] The "Hail Mary" prayer in Savonarola's exposition reads:

text: Hail Mary, full of grace, the Lord is with thee; blessed art thou amongst women, and blessed is the fruit of thy womb, Jesus. Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners, now and at the hour of our death. Amen[7]

text: The petition was commonly added around the time of the Council of Trent. The Dutch Jesuit St. Petrus Canisius is credited with adding in 1555 in his Catechism the sentence

text: Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for us sinners.[8]

text: Eleven years later, the sentence was included in the Catechism of the Council of Trent of 1566. The "Catechism of the Council of Trent" says that to the first part of the Hail Mary, by which "we render to God the highest praise and return Him most gracious thanks, because He has bestowed all His heavenly gifts on the most holy Virgin ... the Church of God has wisely added prayers and an invocation addressed to the most holy Mother of God ... we should earnestly implore her help and assistance; for that she possesses exalted merits with God, and that she is most desirous to assist us by her prayers, no one can doubt without impiety and wickedness."[9]

text: The current Latin version is thus as follows, with accents added to indicate how the prayer is said in the current ecclesiastical pronunciation of Latin:

text:
Áve María, grátia pléna,
Dóminus técum.
Benedícta tū in muliéribus,
et benedíctus frúctus véntris túi, Iésus.[10]
Sáncta María, Máter Déi,
óra pro nóbis peccatóribus,
nunc et in hóra mórtis nóstrae. Ámen.

Hail Mary, full of grace,
the Lord is with thee;
blessed art thou amongst women,
and blessed is the fruit of thy womb, Jesus.
Holy Mary, Mother of God,
pray for us sinners,
now and at the hour of our death. Amen.

text: Eastern Christian use[edit]

text: In Greek tradition[edit]

text: The Hail Mary prayer of the Eastern Orthodox Church and Eastern Catholic Churches is in the form

text:
Θεοτόκε Παρθένε, χαῖρε, κεχαριτωμένη Μαρία, ὁ Κύριος μετὰ σοῦ. εὐλογημένη σὺ ἐν γυναιξί, καὶ εὐλογημένος ὁ καρπὸς τῆς κοιλίας σου, ὅτι Σωτῆρα ἔτεκες τῶν ψυχῶν ἡμῶν.[11]

God-bearing Virgin, rejoice, grace-filled Mary, the Lord with thee. Praised thou among women, and praised the fruit of thy womb, because it was the Saviour of our souls that thou bearest.

text: Another English rendering of the same text reads:

text: Mother of God[12] and Virgin, rejoice, Mary full of grace, the Lord is with thee. Blessed art thou amongst women, and blessed is the fruit of thy womb, for thou hast given birth to the Saviour of our souls.

text: To the Biblical texts this adds the opening invocation "Theotokos Virgin," the name "Mary" and the concluding "because it was the Saviour of our souls that thou bearest".

text: In the Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Rite Eastern Catholic churches, the prayer is very common in the Greek form indicated above, or in translations from it. Although it is not said quite as often as in the West, it is well known and often used and appears in several canons of prayer. It is typically sung thrice at the end of Vespers during an All-Night Vigil, as well as occurring many times in the course of daily prayer.

text: Slavonic versions[edit]

text: There exist two variant versions in Church Slavonic:

text:
Cyrillic
Romanization
English Translation

Богородице дѣво радѹйсѧ
ѡбрадованнаѧ Марїе
Господь съ тобою
благословена ты въ женахъ,
и благословенъ плодъ чрева твоегѡ,
Якѡ родила еси Христа Спаса,
Избавителѧ дѹшамъ нашимъ.

Bogoroditse Djevo, raduisya,
Obradovannaya Marie,
Gospodh s' toboyu.
Blagoslovena tyh v' zhenach,
Y blagosloven plod chreva Tvoego,
Yako rodila esi Christa Spasa,
Izbavitelya dusham nashim.

Theotokos Virgin, rejoice, (or: Rejoice, O Virgin Theotokos)
Mary full of grace,
the Lord is with thee.
Blessed art thou amongst women,
and blessed is the fruit of thy womb,
for thou hast borne Christ the Saviour,
the Deliverer of our souls.

Богородице дѣво, радѹйсѧ,
Благодатнаѧ Марїе,
Господь съ тобою:
благословена Ты въ женахъ,
и благословенъ плодъ чрева Твоегѡ;
якѡ Спаса родила еси дѹшъ нашихъ.

Bogoroditse Djevo, raduisya,
Blagodatnaya Marie,
Gospod s' toboyu:
Blagoslovyena tyh v' zhenakh,
Y blagoslovyen plod chreva Tvoyego,
yako Spasa rodila yesi dush nashikh.

Theotokos Virgin, rejoice, (or: Rejoice, O Virgin Theotokos)
Mary full of grace,
The Lord is with thee.
Blessed art thou amongst women,
and blessed is the fruit of thy womb,
for thou hast borne the Saviour of our souls.

text: The first is the older, and remains in use by the Old Believers as well as those who follow the Ruthenian recension (among them the Ukrainian Greek-Catholic Church and the Ruthenian Catholic Church). The second, corresponding more closely to the Greek, appeared in 1656 under the liturgical reforms of Patriarch Nikon of Moscow, and is in use by the Russian Orthodox Church, the Serbian Orthodox Church, the Bulgarian Orthodox Church and the Ukrainian Orthodox Church).

text: Roman Catholic use[edit]

text: The Hail Mary is the central part of the Angelus, a devotion generally recited thrice daily by many Catholics, as well as some Anglicans and Lutherans.

text: The Hail Mary is the essential element of the Rosary, a prayer method in use especially among Roman Rite (Western) Catholics.

text: The Saint Rosary (or the Hail Mary) is believed to be a powerful exorcism against Satan and his angels,dor the tradition usually together with the devotion to Saint Michael the Archangel. Infact, the Saint Virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus Christ God, is the human strongest intercessor between the human kind and the Lord. While devils hate Mary as his role of mother of Jesus (and by Mary, any mother), she is told to be who will crush the head of the serpent (Genesis 3:15).

text: The Eastern Catholic Churches say a similar version. The Rosary consists traditionally of three sets of five Mysteries, each mystery consisting of one "decade" or ten Ave Marias. The 150 Ave Marias of the Rosary thus echo the 150 psalms. These meditate upon events of Jesus' life during his childhood (Joyful Mysteries), Passion (Sorrowful Mysteries), and from his Resurrection onwards (Glorious Mysteries). Another set, the Luminous Mysteries, is of comparatively recent origin, having been proposed by Pope John Paul II in 2002. Each of these Mysteries is prayed as a decade (a unit of ten), consisting of one Our Father (Pater Noster or The Lord's Prayer), ten Hail Marys, and one 'Glory Be' (Gloria Patri) (Doxology).The repetition of the "Our Father", "Hail Mary", and "Glory Be" is conducive to meditation, as several Popes have pointed out, especially Pope Leo XIII. The restatement of the prayers locks one into fixed language, having the effect of freeing the conscious mind so that the recitation may come more from the heart and not the head. During the apparitions at Fatima, Mary placed singular emphasis on the importance of praying the Rosary every day to bring the world to conversion.[13] Pope Paul V said that "the Rosary is a treasure of graces" and Sister Lúcia of Fátima explained "the Rosary helps to preserve that flickering flame of faith that has not yet been completely extinguished from many consciences. Even for those souls who pray without meditating, the simple act of taking the beads in hand to pray is already a remembrance of God – of the supernatural". Lúcia also said "there is no problem, no matter how difficult it is, whether temporal or above all spiritual, in the personal life of each one of us, of our families, of the families in the world, or of the religious communities, or even of the life of peoples and nations that cannot be solved by the Rosary". [14]

text: Anglican use[edit]

text: Anglicans also employ the Hail Mary in devotional practice. Traditional Anglicism uses the prayer in much the same way as Roman Catholics, including use of the Rosary and the recitation of the Angelus. Many Anglican churches contain statues of the Virgin Mary, and the faithful use devotional prayers including the Hail Mary.[15]

text: Lutheran use[edit]

text: Martin Luther, the founder of Lutheranism, believed that Mary should be held in highest reverence. Although he did not agree with Mary's veneration, he did advocate the use of the first half of the Hail Mary (that is, "Hail Mary, full of grace, the Lord is with thee. Blessed art thou amongst women and blessed is the fruit of thy womb, Jesus.") as a sign of reverence for and devotion to the Virgin.[16][17][18]

text: Musical settings[edit]

text: The Hail Mary, or Ave Maria in Latin, has been set to music numerous times. Arguably the two most famous settings are:

text:
the version by Franz Schubert (1825); originally composed as Ave Maria (Ellens Gesang III, D839, Op 52 no 6, 1825), Ellen's third song in English, as part of his Opus 52, a setting of seven songs from Walter Scott's popular epic poem "The Lady of the Lake", and was translated into German by Adam Storck, used in the final segment of Walt Disney's Fantasia, opening with the greeting "Ave Maria" ("Hail Mary"), but not a setting of the traditional Ave Maria prayer; but nowadays commonly sung with the words of the traditional prayer.[19][20]
the version by Charles Gounod (1859), adding melody and words to Johann Sebastian Bach's first prelude from The Well-Tempered Clavier

text: Anton Bruckner wrote three different settings, the best known being a motet for seven voices. Antonín Dvořák's version was composed in 1877. Another setting of Ave Maria was written by Giuseppe Verdi for his 1887 opera Otello. Russian composer César Cui, who was raised Roman Catholic, set the text at least three times: as the "Ave Maria", op. 34, for one or two women's voices with piano or harmonium (1886), and as part of two of his operas: Le flibustier (premiered 1894) and Mateo Falcone (1907).

text: Settings also exist by Mozart, Liszt, Byrd, Elgar, Saint-Saëns, Rossini, Brahms, Stravinsky, Lauridsen, Franz Biebl, David Conte and Perosi as well as numerous versions by less well-known composers, such as J. B. Tresch and Ninel Samokhvalova.

text:
"Ave Maria"

The prayer as a traditional Latin Gregorian chant

"Ave Maria"

The second of Anton Bruckner's three settings of "Ave Maria"

Problems playing these files? See media help.

text: In Slavonic, the text was also a popular subject for setting to music by Eastern European composers. These include Rachmaninov, Stravinsky, Bortniansky, Vavilov (his version often misattributed to Caccini), Mikhail Shukh, Lyudmyla Hodzyumakha and others.

text: This text was also very often set by composers in the Renaissance, including Josquin des Prez, Orlando di Lasso, and Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina. Before the Council of Trent there were actually different versions of the text, so the earlier composers in the period sometimes set versions of the text different from the ones shown above. Josquin des Prez, for example, himself set more than one version of the Ave Maria. Here is the text of his motet Ave Maria ... Virgo serena, which begins with the first six words above and continues with a poem in rhymed couplets.

text:
Ave Maria, gratia plena,
Dominus tecum, Virgo serena.

Ave cuius conceptio,
solemni plena gaudio,
celestia, terrestria,
nova replet letitia.
Ave cuius nativitas,
nostra fuit solemnitas,
ut lucifer lux oriens
verum solem preveniens.
Ave pia humilitas,
sine viro fecunditas,
cuius annunciatio
nostra fuit salvatio.
Ave vera virginitas,
immaculata castitas,
cuius purificatio
nostra fuit purgatio.
Ave preclara omnibus
angelicis virtutibus,
cuius fuit assumptio
nostra glorificatio.

O Mater Dei, memento mei. Amen.

text: The much anthologized Ave Maria by Jacques Arcadelt is actually a 19th-century arrangement by Pierre-Louis Dietsch, loosely based on Arcadelt's three part madrigal Nous voyons que les hommes.

text: Even though Protestant Christianity generally avoids any special veneration of Mary, access to the beautiful and culturally significant tradition of Marian music is facilitated by substitution texts. These texts are intended to replace the words of the standard "Ave Maria", preserving word boundaries and syllable stresses, so that music written for the former text can be sung with the latter. An example is the Christ-centric Ave Redemptor:

text:
English translation

Ave redemptor, Domine Jesus:
Cuius ob opus
Superatur mors, enim salvatio
Nunc inundavit super universam terram.

Sancte redemptor, reputata
Fides est nobis peccatoribus,
Nunc et in morte, ad iustitiam.

Hail the Redeemer, Lord Jesus,
By whose work
Death is defeated, for salvation
Has now overflowed upon all of the world.

Holy redeemer, our faith
Is reckoned to us sinners,
Now and in death, as righteousness.

text: A famous setting for the Orthodox version of the prayer in Church Slavonic (Bogoroditsye Djevo) was composed by Sergei Rachmaninoff in his All-Night Vigil.


document_title: Michael Keaton

question_text: what character does michael keaton play in minions

root

text: Michael Keaton

text: Early life[edit]

text: Keaton, the youngest of seven children, was born in Coraopolis, Pennsylvania,[citation needed] and was raised between Forest Grove, Pennsylvania and Coraopolis, near Pittsburgh.[5] His father, George A. Douglas, worked as a civil engineer and surveyor, and his mother, Leona Elizabeth (née Loftus), a homemaker, came from McKees Rocks.[1][6]

tag: p

text: Keaton was raised in a Roman Catholic family.[7] He is of half Irish descent, through his mother.[8][9][10] Keaton attended Montour High School in Pennsylvania,[11] and studied speech for two years at Kent State University, where he appeared in plays, before dropping out and returning to Pittsburgh.[12]

text: Career[edit]

text: Keaton first appeared on TV in Pittsburgh public television programs, including Where the Heart Is and Mister Rogers' Neighborhood (1975), as one of the "Flying Zookeeni Brothers."[13] He also served as a full-time production assistant on the show.[14] In 2004, following Fred Rogers' death, Keaton hosted a PBS memorial tribute program, Fred Rogers: America's Favorite Neighbor. Keaton also worked as an actor in Pittsburgh theatre; he played the role of Rick in the Pittsburgh premiere of David Rabe's Sticks and Bones with the Pittsburgh Poor Players.[15]

text: Keaton left Pittsburgh and moved to Los Angeles to begin auditioning for various TV parts. He popped up in various popular TV shows including Maude and The Mary Tyler Moore Hour. He decided to use a stage name to satisfy SAG rules, as there was already an actor (Michael Douglas) and daytime host (Mike Douglas) with the same or similar names. The claim that Keaton selected his new surname due to an attraction to actress Diane Keaton is incorrect.[16] Keaton's film debut came in a small non-speaking role in Joan Rivers film Rabbit Test.

text: His next break was working alongside James Belushi in the short-lived comedy series Working Stiffs, which showcased his comedic talent and led to a co-starring role in the comedy Night Shift directed by Ron Howard. His role as the fast-talking schemer Bill "Blaze" Blazejowski earned Keaton some critical acclaim, and he scored leads in the subsequent comedy hits Mr. Mom, Johnny Dangerously and Gung Ho. He played the title character in Tim Burton's 1988 horror-comedy Beetlejuice, earning Keaton widespread acclaim and boosting him to Hollywood's A list. He originally turned down the role, then reconsidered like most of the cast. He now considers Beetlejuice his favorite of his own films.[citation needed] That same year, he also gave an acclaimed dramatic performance as a drug-addicted businessman in Clean and Sober.[citation needed]

text: Keaton's career was given another major boost when he was again cast by Tim Burton, this time as the title comic book superhero of 1989's Batman.[17][18] Warner Bros. received thousands of letters of complaint by fans who believed Keaton was the wrong choice to portray Batman.[19] However, Keaton's performance in the role ultimately earned widespread acclaim from both critics and audiences,[20] and Batman became one of the most successful films of that year.[21]

text: According to Les Daniels's reference book Batman: The Complete History, Keaton was not surprised when he was first considered as Batman as he initially believed the film would be similar to the 1960s television series starring Adam West. It was only after he was introduced to Frank Miller's comic book miniseries, The Dark Knight Returns, that Keaton really understood the dark and brooding side of Batman that he portrayed to much fan approval.[22] Keaton later reprised the role for the sequel Batman Returns (1992), which was another critically acclaimed success.[23] He was initially set to reprise the role again for a third Batman film, even going as far as to show up for costume fitting. However, when Burton was dropped as director of the film, Keaton left the franchise as well. He was reportedly dissatisfied with the screenplay approved by the new director, Joel Schumacher. According to the A&E Biography episode on Keaton, after he had refused the first time (after meetings with Schumacher), Warner Bros. offered him $15 million, but Keaton steadfastly refused and was replaced by Val Kilmer in Batman Forever (1995).[24]

text: Keaton remained active during the 1990s, appearing in a wide range of films, including Pacific Heights, One Good Cop, My Life and the star-studded Shakespearean story Much Ado About Nothing. He starred in The Paper and Multiplicity, and twice in the same role, that of Elmore Leonard character Agent Ray Nicolette, in the films Jackie Brown and Out of Sight. He made the family holiday movie Jack Frost and the thriller Desperate Measures. Keaton starred as a political candidate's speechwriter in 1994's Speechless.[citation needed]

text: This section of a biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (July 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: In the early 2000s, Keaton appeared in several films with mixed success, including Live From Baghdad (for which he was nominated for a Golden Globe award), First Daughter, White Noise and Herbie: Fully Loaded. While he continued to receive good notices from the critics (particularly for Jackie Brown), he was not able to re-approach the box-office success of Batman until the release of Disney/Pixar's Cars (2006), in which he voiced Chick Hicks. On New Year's Day of 2004, he hosted the PBS TV special Mr. Rogers: America's Favorite Neighbor. It was released by Triumph Marketing LLC on DVD September 28, 2004. In 2006, he starred in Game 6, about the 1986 World Series bid by the Boston Red Sox. He had a cameo in the Tenacious D short film Time Fixers, an iTunes exclusive. The 9-minute film was released to coincide with Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny.[citation needed] Keaton reportedly was cast as Jack Shephard in the series Lost, with the understanding that the role of Jack would be a brief one. Once the role was retooled to be a long-running series regular, Keaton withdrew. The part was then given to actor Matthew Fox. The show ran for six seasons, with the Shephard role continuing throughout.[25]

text: Keaton starred in the 2007 TV miniseries The Company, set during the Cold War, in which he portrayed the real-life CIA counterintelligence chief James Jesus Angleton. The role garnered Keaton a 2008 Screen Actors Guild nomination for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Television Movie or Miniseries.[citation needed] Keaton provided the voice of Ken in Toy Story 3 (2010). The film received overwhelmingly positive acclaim and grossed over $1 billion worldwide, making it one of the most financially successful films ever.[26] He announced in June 2010 his interest in returning for a Beetlejuice sequel.[27] He played Captain Gene Mauch in the comedy The Other Guys. In 2014 he played the OmniCorp CEO Raymond Sellars in the RoboCop remake as a more active antagonist, taking Robocop's wife and child hostage making Joel Kinnaman's character struggle to overcome the 4th directive.

text: Keaton starred alongside Zach Galifianakis, Edward Norton, Emma Stone, and Naomi Watts in Birdman or (The Unexpected Virtue of Ignorance) (2014), playing Riggan Thomson, a screen actor, famous for playing the iconic titular superhero, who puts on a Broadway play based on a Raymond Carver short story, to regain his former glory.[28] He won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy for his portrayal of Thomson and received an Academy Award nomination for Best Actor.[29] In 2015, Keaton appeared as Walter V. Robinson in the film Spotlight, and in 2016, he starred as businessman Ray Kroc in the biopic The Founder. On July 28, 2016, Keaton received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, located at 6931 Hollywood Boulevard.[30][31]

text: In 2017, Keaton played the supervillain The Vulture in Spider-Man: Homecoming.[32][33] He is also set to portray the villain in Disney's live-action adaptation of Dumbo, co-starring with Colin Farrell and Eva Green.[34]

text: Personal life[edit]

text: Keaton was married to the late actress Caroline McWilliams from 1982 to 1990. They have one son, Sean. He had a relationship with actress Courteney Cox from 1989-95. Keaton, a longtime Pittsburgh resident and fan of its sports teams, negotiated a break in his Batman movie contract in case the Pirates made the playoffs that year. (They did not.) He also wrote an ESPN blog on the Pirates during the final months of their 2013 season.[35]

text: In the 1980s, Keaton bought a ranch near Big Timber, Montana, where he spends much of his time.[36] An avid fisherman, he is often seen on the saltwater fishing series Buccaneers & Bones on Outdoor Channel, along with Tom Brokaw, Zach Gilford, Thomas McGuane and Yvon Chouinard, among others.[37]

text: Keaton is a Democrat. He endorsed President Barack Obama for re-election in 2012[38] and Senator Bernie Sanders for the Democratic nomination in 2016.[39]

text: Filmography[edit]

text: Film[edit]

text:
Year
Title
Role
Notes

1978
Rabbit Test
Sailor

A Different Approach
Filmmaker
Short film

1982
Night Shift
Bill Blazejowski

1983
Mr. Mom
Jack Butler

1984
Johnny Dangerously
Johnny Kelly / Johnny Dangerously

1986
Gung Ho
Hunt Stevenson

Touch and Go
Robert "Bobby" Barbato

1987
The Squeeze
Harold "Harry" Berg

1988
She's Having a Baby
Himself
Uncredited cameo[citation needed]

Beetlejuice
Betelgeuse

Clean and Sober
Daryl Poynter

1989
The Dream Team
William "Billy" Caufield

Batman
Bruce Wayne / Batman

1990
Pacific Heights
Carter Hayes / James Danforth

1991
One Good Cop
Arthur "Artie" Lewis

1992
Batman Returns
Bruce Wayne / Batman

1993
Much Ado About Nothing
Dogberry

My Life
Robert "Bob" Jones

1994
The Paper
Henry Hackett

Speechless
Kevin Vallick

1996
Multiplicity
Doug Kinney

1997
Inventing the Abbotts
Narrator / Older Doug
Uncredited[citation needed]

Jackie Brown
Raymond "Ray" Nicolette

1998
Desperate Measures
Peter J. McCabe

Out of Sight
Raymond "Ray" Nicolette
Uncredited[citation needed]

Jack Frost
Jack Frost

1999
Body Shots

Executive producer

2002
A Shot at Glory
Peter Cameron

2004
Quicksand
Martin Raikes

First Daughter
President Mackenzie

2005
White Noise
Jonathan Rivers

Porco Rosso
Porco Rosso
Voice role(English dub)

Herbie: Fully Loaded
Raymond "Ray" Peyton, Sr.

2006
Game 6
Nicholas "Nicky" Rogan

Cars
Chick Hicks
Voice

2007
The Last Time
Ted Riker
Also executive producer

2009
The Merry Gentleman
Franklin "Frank" Logan
Also director

Post Grad
Walter Malby

2010
Toy Story 3
Ken
Voice role

The Other Guys
Captain Gene Mauch

2011
Hawaiian Vacation
Ken
Voice role; short film

2012
Noah's Ark: The New Beginning
Noah
Voice role

2014
Blindsided
Hollander
Also executive producer

RoboCop
Raymond Sellars

Need for Speed
Monarch

Birdman or (The Unexpected Virtue of Ignorance)
Riggan Thomson

2015
Minions
Walter Nelson
Voice role

Spotlight
Walter "Robby" Robinson

2016
The Founder
Ray Kroc

2017
Spider-Man: Homecoming
Adrian Toomes / Vulture

American Assassin
Stan Hurley

2019
Dumbo
V.A. Vandemere
Filming

text: Television[edit]

text:
Year
Title
Role
Notes

1975
Mister Rogers' Neighborhood
Volunteer
Episode 1,435

1976–1977
All's Fair
Lannie Wolf
5 episodes

1977
Klein Time
Various characters
Movie

1977
Mary Hartman, Mary Hartman
The Robber
Episode: "2.90"

1977
Maude
Chip Winston
Episode: "Arthur's Crisis"

1978
The Tony Randall Show
Zeke
2 episodes

1978
Mary
Various characters
3 episodes

1978
Family
Tree salesman
Episode: "Gifts"

1979
Working Stiffs
Mike O'Rourke
9 episodes

1979
The Mary Tyler Moore Hour
Kenneth Christy
11 episodes

1982
Report to Murphy
Murphy
6 episodes

1982
Kraft Salutes Walt Disney World's 10th Anniversary[40]
Kevin
Special

1982, 1992,
2015
Saturday Night Live
Himself (host)
3 episodes

1990
The Earth Day Special
Charles McIntyre
Special

2001
The Simpsons
Jack Crowley (voice)
Episode: "Pokey Mom"

2002
Frasier
Blaine Sternin
Episode: "Wheels of Fortune"

2002
Live from Baghdad
Robert Wiener
Movie

2003
King of the Hill
Trip Larsen (voice)
Episode: "Pigmalion"

2003
Gary the Rat
Jerry Andrews (voice)
Episode: "Catch Me If You Can"

2004
Fred Rogers: America's Favorite Neighbor
Himself (host)
Special

2007
The Company
James Angleton
3 episodes

2011
30 Rock
Tom
Episode: "100"

2013
Clear History
Joe Stumpo
Movie

text: Video games[edit]

text:
Year
Title
Voice role

2006
Cars
Chick Hicks

2009
Cars Race-O-Rama

2012
Call of Duty: Black Ops II
Jason Hudson

text: Honorary degrees[edit]

text: Honorary Doctor of Fine Arts degree from Carnegie Mellon University in 2017[41]

tag: ul

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: List of awards and nominations received by Michael Keaton


document_title: Legal history of cannabis in the United States

question_text: when was hemp made illegal in the united states

question_tokens: when was hemp made illegal in the united states

text: Legal history of cannabis in the United States

text: Early history[edit]

text: In 1619, King James I decreed that the American colonists of Jamestown would need to step up efforts to do their fair share towards supporting England. The Virginia Company enacted the decree, asking Jamestown's land owners to grow and export 100 hemp plants to help support England's cause. Later the colonists would grow it to support its expansion in the Americas.[4][5] Cannabis cultivation played a central role in the establishment of the United States, with cannabis appearing on the ten dollar bill as late as 1900. George Washington grew hemp at Mount Vernon as one of his three primary crops. The use of hemp for rope and fabric later became ubiquitous throughout the 18th and 19th centuries in the United States. Medicinal preparations of cannabis became available in American pharmacies in the 1850s following an introduction to its use in Western medicine by William O'Shaughnessy a decade earlier in 1839.[6]

text: Early pharmaceutical and recreational use[edit]

text: Around the same time, efforts to regulate the sale of pharmaceuticals began, and laws were introduced on a state-to-state basis that created penalties for mislabeling drugs, adulterating them with undisclosed narcotics, and improper sale of those considered "poisons". Poison laws generally either required labels on the packaging indicating the harmful effects of the drugs or prohibited sale outside of licensed pharmacies and without a doctor's prescription. Those that required labeling often required the word "poison" if the drug was not issued by a pharmacy. Other regulations were prohibitions on the sale to minors, as well as restrictions on refills. Some pharmaceutical laws specifically enumerated the drugs that came under the effect of the regulations, while others did not—leaving the matter to medical experts. Those that did generally included references to cannabis, either under the category of "cannabis and its preparations" or "hemp and its preparations."[7]

text: A 1905 Bulletin from the United States Department of Agriculture lists twenty-nine states with laws mentioning cannabis. Eight states are listed with "sale of poisons" laws that specifically mention cannabis: North Carolina, Ohio, Wisconsin, Louisiana, Vermont, Maine, Montana; and the District of Columbia. Among those states that required a prescription for sale were Wisconsin and Louisiana. Several "sale of poison" laws did not specify restricted drugs, including in Indiana, Rhode Island, Hawaii, Nebraska, Kentucky, Mississippi, and New York. Many states did not consider cannabis a "poison" but required it be labeled.[8]

text: In New York, the original law did enumerate cannabis, and was passed in 1860 following a string of suicides allegedly involving the substances later categorized as poisons. The first draft of the bill 'An act to regulate the sale of poisons' prohibited the sale of cannabis—as with the other substances—without the written order of a physician.[9] The final bill as passed allowed the sale without a prescription so long as the purpose to which it was issued and name and address of the buyer was recorded, and in addition, all packaging of such substances—whether sold with a prescription or not—had to have the label "poison" on them in uppercase red letters. In 1862, the section which enumerated the substances was repealed with an amendatory act, though cannabis was still required to be labeled.[10]

text: In some states where poison laws excluded cannabis, there were nonetheless attempts to include it. A bill introduced in 1880 in the California state legislature was titled 'An act to regulate the sale of opium and other narcotic poisons' and would have forbidden anyone to keep, sell, furnish, or give away any "preparations or mixtures made or prepared from opium, hemp, or other narcotic drugs" without a doctor's prescription at a licensed store. That bill was withdrawn in favor of one specifically aimed at opium, though further bills including hemp-based drugs were introduced in 1885 and in 1889.[6]

text: Background to later restrictions (late 19th century)[edit]

text: As early as 1853, recreational cannabis was listed as a "fashionable narcotic".[11] By the 1880s, oriental-style hashish parlors were flourishing alongside opium dens, to the point that one could be found in every major city on the east coast. It was estimated there were around 500 such establishments in New York City alone.[12]

text: An article in Harper’s Magazine (1883), attributed to Harry Hubbell Kane, describes a hashish-house in New York frequented by a large clientele, including males and females of "the better classes," and further talks about parlors in Boston, Philadelphia and Chicago.[6] Hemp cigarettes were reported to be used by Mexican soldiers as early as 1874.[13]

text: Criminalization (1900s)[edit]

text: Strengthening of poison laws (1906–1938)[edit]

text: The Pure Food and Drug Act was then passed by the United States Congress in 1906 and required that certain special drugs, including cannabis, be accurately labeled with contents. Previously, many drugs had been sold as patent medicines with secret ingredients or misleading labels.[14] Even after the passage of regulations, there continued to be criticism about the availability of narcotics and around 1910 there was a wave of legislation aimed to strengthen requirements for their sale and remove what were commonly referred to as "loopholes" in poison laws. The new revisions aimed to restrict all narcotics, including cannabis, as poisons, limit their sale to pharmacies, and require doctor's prescriptions. The first instance was in the District of Columbia in 1906, under "An act to regulate the practice of pharmacy and the sale of poisons in the District of Columbia, and for other purposes". The act was updated in 1938 to the Federal Pure Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act of 1938 which remains in effect even today, creating a legal paradox for federal sentencing. Under this act, the framework for prescription and non-prescription drugs and foods are set, along with standards as well as the enforcing agency, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). "Goods found in violation of the law were subject to seizure and destruction at the expense of the manufacturer. That, combined with a legal requirement that all convictions be published (Notices of Judgment), proved to be important tools in the enforcement of the statute and had a deterrent effect upon would-be violators." Marijuana remains under this law defined as a "dangerous drug".[15]

text: Further regulation of cannabis followed in Massachusetts (1911), New York (1914), and Maine (1914). In New York, reform legislation began under the Towns-Boylan Act, which targeted all "habit-forming drugs", restricted their sale, prohibited refills in order to prevent habituation, prohibited sale to people with a habit, and prohibited doctors who were themselves habituated from selling them.[16] Shortly after, several amendments were passed by the New York Board of Health, including adding cannabis to the list of habit-forming drugs.[17]

text: A New York Times article noted on the cannabis amendment:

text: The inclusion of Cannabis indica among the drugs to be sold only on prescription is common sense. Devotees of hashish are now hardly numerous here enough to count, but they are likely to increase as other narcotics become harder to obtain.[18]

text: In the West, the first state to include cannabis as a poison was California. The Poison Act was passed in 1907 and amended in 1909 and 1911, and in 1913 an amendatory act was made to make possession of "extracts, tinctures, or other narcotic preparations of hemp, or loco-weed, their preparations and compounds" a misdemeanor.[6] There is no evidence that the law was ever used or intended to restrict pharmaceutical cannabis; instead it was a legislative mistake, and in 1915 another revision placed cannabis under the same restriction as other poisons.[6] In 1914, one of the first cannabis drug raids in the nation occurred in the Mexican-American neighborhood of Sonoratown in Los Angeles, where police raided two "dream gardens" and confiscated a wagonload of cannabis.[19]

text: Other states followed with marijuana laws including: Wyoming (1915); Texas (1919); Iowa (1923); Nevada (1923); Oregon (1923); Washington (1923); Arkansas (1923); Nebraska (1927);[20] Louisiana (1927); and Colorado (1929).[21]

text: One source of tensions in the western and southwestern states was the influx of Mexicans to the U.S. following the 1910 Mexican Revolution.[22] Many Mexicans also smoked marijuana to relax after working in the fields.[23] It was also seen as a cheaper alternative to alcohol, due to Prohibition (which went into effect nationally in 1920).[24] Later in the 1920s, negative tensions grew between the small farms and the large farms that used cheaper Mexican labor. Shortly afterwards, the Great Depression came which increased tensions as jobs and resources became more scarce. Because of that, the passage of the initial laws is often described as a product of racism, yet the use of hashish by Near Eastern immigrants was also cited, as well as the misuse of pharmaceutical hemp, and the laws conformed with other legislation that was being passed around the country. Mexico itself had passed prohibition in 1925, following the International Opium Convention (see below).[25]

text: International Opium Convention (1925)[edit]

text: In 1925, the United States supported regulation of Indian hemp, also known as hashish, in the International Opium Convention.[26] The convention banned exportation of "Indian hemp", and the preparations derived therefrom, to countries that had prohibited its use and required importing countries to issue certificates approving the importation and stating that the shipment was required "exclusively for medical or scientific purposes". The convention did not ban trade in fibers and other similar products from European hemp, traditionally grown in the United States. According to the 1912 edition of the Swedish encyclopedia Nordisk familjebok, the European hemp grown for its fibers lacks the THC content that characterizes Indian hemp.[27]

text: Uniform State Narcotic Drug Act (1925–1932)[edit]

text: The Uniform State Narcotic Drug Act, first tentative draft in 1925 and fifth final version in 1932, was a result of work by the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws. It was argued that the traffic in narcotic drugs should have the same safeguards and the same regulation in all of the states. The committee took into consideration the fact that the federal government had already passed the Harrison Act in 1914 and the Federal Import and Export Act in 1922. Many people assumed that the Harrison Act was all that was necessary. The Harrison Act, however, was a revenue-producing act and, while it provided penalties for violation, it did not give the states themselves authority to exercise police power in regard to seizure of drugs used in illicit trade, or in regard to punishment of those responsible. The act was recommended to the states for that purpose.[28] As a result of the Uniform State Narcotic Act, the Federal Bureau of Narcotics encouraged state governments to adopt the act. By the middle of the 1930s all member states had some regulation of cannabis.[29][30][31]

text: Federal Bureau of Narcotics (1930)[edit]

text: The use of cannabis and other drugs came under increasing scrutiny after the formation of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics (FBN) in 1930,[32] headed by Harry J. Anslinger as part of the government's broader push to outlaw all recreational drugs.

text: When the present administration took office ten countries had ratified the Geneva Narcotic Limitation Convention. The United States was one of these ten. ... It was my privilege, as President, to proclaim, on that day, that this treaty had become effective throughout the jurisdiction of the United States. ... On Jan. 1, 1933, only nine nations had registered their ratification of the limitation treaty. On Jan. 1, 1935, only nine States had adopted the uniform State statute. As 1933 witnessed ratification of the treaty by thirty-one additional nations, so may 1935 witness the adoption of the uniform drug act by at least thirty-one more states, thereby placing interstate accord abreast of international accord, to the honor of the legislative bodies of our States and for the promotion of the welfare of our people and the peoples of other lands.

text: The FBN produced propaganda films promoting Anslinger's views and Anslinger often commented to the press regarding his views on marijuana.[34]

text: The 1936 Geneva Trafficking Conventions[edit]

text: In 1936 the Convention for the Suppression of the Illicit Traffic in Dangerous Drugs (1936 Trafficking Convention) was concluded in Geneva. The U.S., led by Anslinger, had attempted to include the criminalization of all activities in the treaty – cultivation, production, manufacture and distribution – related to the use of opium, coca (and its derivatives), and cannabis, for non-medical and non-scientific purposes. Many countries opposed this and the focus remained on illicit trafficking. Article 2 of the Convention called upon signatory countries to use their national criminal law systems to "severely" punish, "particularly by imprisonment or other penalties of deprivation of liberty", acts directly related to drug trafficking.[35] The U.S. refused to sign the final version because it considered the convention too weak, especially in relation to extradition, extraterritoriality and the confiscation of trafficking profits.[36]

text: Marihuana Tax Act (1937)[edit]

text: The Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 effectively made possession or transfer of marihuana illegal throughout the United States under federal law, excluding medical and industrial uses, through imposition of an excise tax on all sales of hemp. Annual fees were $24 ($637 adjusted for inflation) for importers, manufacturers, and cultivators of cannabis, $1 ($24 adjusted for inflation) for medical and research purposes, and $3 ($82 adjusted for inflation) for industrial users. Detailed sales logs were required to record marihuana sales. Selling marihuana to any person who had previously paid the annual fee incurred a tax of $1 per ounce or fraction thereof; however, the tax was $100 ($2,206 adjusted for inflation) per ounce or fraction thereof to sell any person who had not registered and paid the annual fee.[37]

text: The American Medical Association (AMA) opposed the act because the tax was imposed on physicians prescribing cannabis, retail pharmacists selling cannabis, and medical cannabis cultivation and manufacturing; instead of enacting the Marihuana Tax Act the AMA proposed cannabis be added to the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act.[38] This approach was unappealing to some legislators who feared that adding a new substance to the Harrison Act would subject that act to new legal scrutiny. Since the federal government had no authority under the 10th Amendment to regulate medicines, that power being reserved by individual states in 1937, a tax was the only viable way to legislate marijuana.

text: After the Philippines fell to Japanese forces in 1942, the Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Army urged farmers to grow hemp fiber and tax stamps for cultivation were issued to farmers. Without any change in the Marihuana Tax Act, over 400,000 acres of hemp were cultivated between 1942 and 1945. The last commercial hemp fields were planted in Wisconsin in 1957.[39] New York Mayor Fiorello LaGuardia, who was a strong opponent of the 1937 Marihuana Tax Act, started the LaGuardia Commission that in 1944 contradicted the earlier reports of addiction, madness, and overt sexuality.[40]

text: The decision of the United States Congress to pass the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 was based on poorly attended hearings and reports based on questionable studies.[41][42] In 1936 the Federal Bureau of Narcotics (FBN) noticed an increase of reports of people smoking marijuana, which further increased in 1937. The Bureau drafted a legislative plan for Congress seeking a new law, and the head of the FBN, Harry J. Anslinger, ran a campaign against marijuana.[43][44] Newspaper mogul William Randolph Hearst's empire of newspapers used the "yellow journalism" pioneered by Hearst to demonize the cannabis plant and spread a public perception that there were connections between cannabis and violent crime.[45] Several scholars argue that the goal was to destroy the hemp industry,[46][47][48] largely as an effort of Hearst, Andrew Mellon and the Du Pont family.[46][48] They argue that with the invention of the decorticator hemp became a very cheap substitute for the wood pulp that was used in the newspaper industry.[46][49] However, Hearst newspapers owed large debts to Canadian suppliers of paper, who used wood as raw material. If an alternative raw material for paper had emerged, it would have lowered the price of the paper needed to print Hearst's many newspapers—a positive thing for Hearst.[50][51] Moreover, by the year 1916 there were at least five "machine brakes" for hemp[52] and it is unlikely that in 1930s hemp became a new threat for newspapers owners.

text: Mellon was Secretary of the Treasury, as well as the wealthiest man in America, and had invested heavily in nylon, DuPont's new synthetic fiber. He considered[dubious  – discuss] nylon's success to depend on it replacing the traditional resource, hemp.[46][53][54][55][56][57][58][59]

text: The company DuPont and many industrial historians dispute a link between nylon and hemp. They argue that the reason for developing nylon was to produce a fiber that could compete with silk and rayon in, for example, thin stockings for women. Silk was much more expensive than hemp and imported largely from Japan. There was more money in a substitute for silk. DuPont focused early on thin stockings for women. As a commercial product, nylon was a revolution in textiles. Strong and water-resistant, it was possible to make very thin fibers from cheap raw materials. The first sales in 1938 in New York of nylon stockings created a line with 4000 middle class women. For years to come, nylon demand was greater than DuPont could produce. And the DuPont Group was very big; it could move on if nylon had not become a success.[60][61][62]

text: In 1916, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) chief scientists Jason L. Merrill and Lyster H. Dewey created a paper, USDA Bulletin No. 404 "Hemp Hurds as Paper-Making Material",[63] in which they stated that paper from the woody inner portion of the hemp stem broken into pieces, so called hemp hurds, was "favorable in comparison with those used with pulp wood". Merrill and Dewey's findings were not repeated in a later book by Dewey[64] and have not been confirmed by paper production experts. The consistency of long fibers is too low in hemp hurds for commercial papermaking. Numerous machines had been devised for breaking and scutching hemp fibers, but none had been found to be fully satisfactory in actual commercial work.[51][64][65] To produce fiber from hemp was a labor-intensive process if harvest, transport and processing are included. Technological developments decreased the labor but not sufficiently to eliminate this disadvantage.[66]

text: There was also a misconception about the intoxicating effects of hemp because it has the same active substance, THC, which is in all cannabis strains. Hemp normally has a minimal amount of THC when compared to recreational cannabis strains but, in the 1930s, THC was not yet fully identified.[67] The methods FBN used for predicting the psychoactive effect of different samples of cannabis and hemp therefore gave confusing results.[68][69]

text: Mandatory sentencing (1952, 1956)[edit]

text: Mandatory sentencing and increased punishment were enacted when the United States Congress passed the Boggs Act of 1952 and the Narcotics Control Act of 1956. The acts made a first-time cannabis possession offense a minimum of two to ten years with a fine up to $20,000; however, in 1970 the US Congress repealed mandatory penalties for cannabis offenses.[40]

text: Controlled Substances Act (1970)[edit]

text: In its 1969 Leary v. United States decision the Supreme Court held the Marijuana Tax Act to be unconstitutional, since it violated the Fifth Amendment privilege against self-incrimination.[70] In response, Congress passed the Controlled Substances Act as Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970, which repealed the Marijuana Tax Act.[71]  Although the new law did officially prohibit the use of cannabis for any purpose (medical included), it also separated cannabis from other illicit narcotics and removed mandatory sentences for possessing small amounts of the drug.[40]

text: Cannabis was assigned a Schedule I classification under the CSA, deemed to have a high potential for abuse and no accepted medical use – thereby prohibiting even medical use of the drug.  The classification has remained since the CSA was first signed into law, despite multiple efforts to reschedule.[72][73]  Other drugs in the Schedule I category include heroin, LSD, and peyote.[74]

text: Reorganization (1968, 1973)[edit]

text: In 1968 the United States Department of the Treasury subsidiary the Bureau of Narcotics, and the United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare subsidiary the Bureau of Drug Abuse Control, merged to create the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs as a United States Department of Justice subsidiary.[79]

text: In 1973 President Richard Nixon's "Reorganization Plan Number Two" proposed the creation of a single federal agency to enforce federal drug laws and Congress accepted the proposal, as there was concern regarding the growing availability of drugs.[80] As a result, on July 1, 1973, the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs (BNDD) and the Office of Drug Abuse Law Enforcement (ODALE) merged to create the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA).[40] On December 1, 1975, the Supreme Court ruled that it was "not cruel or unusual for Ohio to sentence someone to 20 years for having or selling cannabis".[81]

text: State Office of Narcotics and Drug Abuse (1977)[edit]

text: In January 1976, California's study of the economic impact of its law repealing prohibitions of use went into effect. The law reduced the penalty for personal possession of an ounce or less of marijuana from a felony to a citable misdemeanor with a maximum fine of $100. Possession of more than an ounce was made a misdemeanor, making the maximum fine $500 and/or six months in jail. After the law went into effect, the state's annual spending towards marijuana laws went down 74%. Prior to the law, the state had been spending from $35 million to $100 million.[82]

text: Mandatory sentencing and three-strikes (1984, 1986)[edit]

text: During the Reagan Administration the Sentencing Reform Act provisions of the Comprehensive Crime Control Act of 1984 created the Sentencing Commission, which established mandatory sentencing guidelines.[83] The Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 reinstated mandatory prison sentences, including large scale cannabis distribution.[84] Later an amendment created a three-strikes law, which created mandatory 25-years imprisonment for repeated serious crimes – including certain drug offenses – and allowed the death penalty to be used against "drug kingpins".[40]

text: Solomon–Lautenberg amendment (1990)[edit]

text: The Solomon–Lautenberg amendment is a federal law enacted in 1990 that urged states to suspend the driver's license of anyone who commits a drug offense.[85]  A number of states passed laws in the early 1990s seeking to comply with the amendment, in order to avoid a penalty of reduced federal highway funds.[86]  These laws imposed mandatory driver's license suspensions of at least six months for persons committing a drug offense (including simple possession of cannabis), regardless of whether any motor vehicle was involved.[87]  Although the amendment does contain a provision for states to opt out (without penalty), ten states still have so-called "Smoke a joint, lose your license" laws in effect as of 2018.

text: House Joint Resolution 117 (1998)[edit]

text: By the fall of 1998, California voters had approved Proposition 215 to legalize medical cannabis, and similar measures were up for vote in several more states.  In response to these developments, House Joint Resolution 117 was passed by the U.S. House of Representatives on September 15, 1998, to declare support for "the existing Federal legal process for determining the safety and efficacy of drugs" and oppose "efforts to circumvent this process by legalizing marijuana ... for medicinal use without valid scientific evidence and [FDA] approval".[88]  The measure passed by a 310 to 93 vote.[89]

text: United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative (2001)[edit]

text: Following the passage of Proposition 215, the Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative was created to "provide seriously ill patients with a safe and reliable source of medical cannabis, information, and patient support".[90]  In January 1998, the U.S. Government sued Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative for violating federal laws created as a result of Controlled Substances Act of 1970. On May 14, 2001, the United States Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative that federal anti-drug laws do not permit an exception for medical cannabis and rejected the common-law medical necessity defense to crimes enacted under the Controlled Substances Act because Congress concluded cannabis has "no currently accepted medical use" when the act was passed in 1970.[91]

text: Gonzales v. Raich (2005)[edit]

text: Gonzales v. Raich 545 U.S. 1 (2005) was a decision in which the U.S. Supreme Court ruled (6–3) that even where individuals or businesses in accordance with state-approved medical cannabis programs are lawfully cultivating, possessing, or distributing medical cannabis, such persons or businesses are violating federal marijuana laws. Therefore, under federal law violators are prosecuted because the Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution grants the federal government jurisdiction, pursuant to the U.S. Controlled Substances Act, to prosecute marijuana offenses.

text: In Gonzales the defendants argued that because the cannabis in question had been grown, transported, and consumed entirely within California and in compliance with California medical cannabis laws, their activity did not implicate interstate commerce, and as such could not be regulated by the federal government through the Commerce Clause.

text: The Supreme Court disagreed, reasoning that cannabis grown within California for medical purposes is indistinguishable from illicit marijuana and that because the intrastate medical cannabis market contributes to the interstate illicit marijuana market, the Commerce Clause applies. Even where California citizens are using medical cannabis in compliance with state law, those individuals and businesses can still be prosecuted by federal authorities for violating federal law.[92]

text: To combat state-approved medical cannabis legislation, the Drug Enforcement Administration continued the routine targeting and arrests of medical cannabis patients and the seizure of medical cannabis and the business assets of growers and medical dispensaries.  This was finally curtailed with the passage of the Rohrabacher–Farr amendment in 2014, although prosecutions initially continued until a pair of court rulings determined the DOJ was interpreting the amendment incorrectly.

text: Cole Memorandum rescinded (2018)[edit]

text: In January 2018, Attorney General Jeff Sessions rescinded the Cole Memorandum, an Obama-era policy that generally discouraged U.S. Attorneys from enforcing federal law against state-legal cannabis enterprises.[93]  The impact that rescinding the memo would have on enforcement activities was not immediately made clear by Justice Department officials.[94]

text: Decriminalization (1970s–)[edit]

text: Medical use[edit]

text: Compassionate IND program (1978)[edit]

text: In 1975, a Washington D.C. resident named Robert Randall was arrested for cultivating cannabis.  Randall, who had discovered that cannabis relieved the symptoms of his glaucoma, employed a medical necessity defense at trial to justify his use of the drug.[95]  The charges against Randall were dismissed, and as a result of an ensuing petition filed with the FDA, Randall became the first person to receive cannabis from the federal government in 1976.[95]  After his supply was cut off in 1978, he filed a lawsuit to have it restored,[95] setting in motion the creation of the Compassionate Investigational New Drug program shortly thereafter.[96]  The program allowed patients with serious medical conditions to receive a regular supply of cannabis from the federal government; however, only 13 patients ended up participating due to the very complicated and drawn-out application process involved.[97]

text: The Compassionate IND program was closed to new patients in 1992, due to a flood of new applications from AIDS patients and concerns that the program undercut Bush administration efforts to discourage illegal drug use.[98]  Twenty-eight applications that had recently been approved were rescinded, and only the 13 patients who were already receiving cannabis were allowed to do so moving forward.[97]  As of 2016, most of the original 13 patients had perished, but at least two were still known to be receiving cannabis from the federal government.[99]

text: Early medical cannabis laws (1978–1982)[edit]

text: During the late 1970s and into the early 80s, a number of states passed legislation addressing the medical use of cannabis.[100] New Mexico was the first to do so in 1978, and by the end of 1982 over thirty states had followed suit.[101]  The majority of these laws sought to provide cannabis through federally-approved research programs administered by the states, using cannabis supplied by the National Institute on Drug Abuse.  Only seven states ended up implementing the programs, however,[102] due to the large bureaucratic and regulatory obstacles involved.[97]  Other states passed laws allowing doctors to prescribe cannabis, or reclassifying cannabis in a state's internal drug scheduling system.  Additionally, a few states passed legislation affirming the right of individuals to present a medical necessity defense at trial.[100]  These laws were all largely ineffectual though, due to the continued prohibition of medical cannabis at the federal level.[102]  By the mid-80s, efforts to pass new medical cannabis laws had ground to a halt, and a number of existing laws were either repealed or allowed to expire.[100]

text: DEA judge recommends reclassification (1988)[edit]

text: In 1972, the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws petitioned the BNDD (which later became the DEA) to remove cannabis from the list of Schedule I drugs, in order to allow it to be prescribed by physicians.[97]  After a decade of legal battles in which the DEA refused to consider the petition, public hearings were finally held on the matter starting in 1986.[103]  In September 1988, after two years of extensive public hearings, DEA Chief Administrative Law Judge Francis L. Young ruled in favor of moving cannabis to a Schedule II classification, finding that "Marijuana, in its natural form, is one of the safest therapeutically active substances known to man."[104]  Young further concluded: "The evidence in this record clearly shows that marijuana has been accepted as capable of relieving the distress of great numbers of very ill people, and doing so with safety under medical supervision.  It would be unreasonable, arbitrary and capricious for [the] DEA to continue to stand between those sufferers and the benefits of this substance in light of the evidence in this record."[104]  As Young's ruling was only a non-binding recommendation, however, it was rejected by DEA Administrator John Lawn in December 1989.[105]  The decision was upheld in 1994 by a U.S. Court of Appeals ruling.[100]

text: Proposition P and first cannabis dispensaries (1991)[edit]

text: In 1991, 79% of San Francisco voters approved Proposition P, a non-binding ballot measure expressing support for the medical use of cannabis.[105]  The city board of supervisors soon followed with Resolution 141-92, which urged law enforcement not to prosecute individuals using cannabis under a doctor's care (as proven by a letter from a treating physician).[106]  The resolution allowed the open distribution of cannabis to AIDS patients and others throughout the city, most notably through the San Francisco Cannabis Buyers Club which was operated by Dennis Peron.[107]  Similar clubs appeared outside San Francisco in the ensuing years as other cities passed legislation to support the medical use of cannabis.  The Wo/Men's Alliance for Medical Marijuana was founded in 1993 after Santa Cruz voters approved Measure A in November 1992.[108]  And the Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative was founded in 1995 shortly before the city council passed multiple medical cannabis resolutions.[108]  These were the first cannabis dispensaries in the U.S., allowed to operate openly by city officials even though in violation of both state and federal law.

text: Compassionate Use Act of 1996[edit]

text: In California, following the success of Proposition P and other local initiatives, medical cannabis advocates turned attention towards reform efforts at the state level.  A pair of medical cannabis bills was approved by state legislators in 1994 and 1995; however, both of these were vetoed by Governor Pete Wilson.[109]  Frustrated by these vetoes, medical cannabis advocates took the issue directly to the voters, collecting 775,000 signatures for qualification of a statewide ballot initiative in 1996.[110]

text: On November 5, 1996, California voters approved Proposition 215 (Compassionate Use Act of 1996), making the state the first in the nation to legalize the medical use of cannabis.[111]  The measure, approved with 56% of the vote, allowed the use, possession, and cultivation of cannabis by patients with a physician's recommendation, for treatment of cancer, anorexia, AIDS, chronic pain, spasticity, glaucoma, arthritis, migraine, or "any other illness for which marijuana provides relief".[112]  The law also allowed patient caregivers to cultivate cannabis, and urged lawmakers to facilitate the "safe and affordable distribution of marijuana".[112]

text: The passage of Proposition 215 was followed by the approval of five more medical cannabis ballot initiatives in 1998 (Washington, Oregon, Alaska, Nevada, and the District of Columbia).[104]  Maine followed in 1999, along with Nevada (for a second time) and Colorado in 2000.[104]  Also in 2000, Hawaii became the first state to legalize medical cannabis through an act of state legislature.[113]

text: D.C. medical cannabis blocked (1998)[edit]

text: Washington D.C. residents approved a medical cannabis initiative in 1998, but a series of amendments introduced by Rep. Bob Barr and approved by Congress prevented its implementation for over a decade.[114]  The initial Barr amendment was enacted prior to the November 1998 election but after ballots had been printed, thereby allowing D.C. residents to vote on the initiative but preventing the results from being made public.[115]  The amendment was challenged in court by the American Civil Liberties Union on grounds that it violated First Amendment rights, and in September 1999 U.S. District Court Judge Richard W. Roberts agreed, overturning the Barr amendment.[116]  Rep. Barr then introduced a similar amendment which became law in November 1999, setting off a long legal battle[117] until finally in December 2009 the Barr amendment was removed from the annual D.C. appropriations bill, allowing the original 1998 ballot initiative to move forward.[114]  Rep. Barr, who left Congress in 2003, helped lobby for defeat of the legislation he originally authored,[118] having reversed his earlier opposition to the medical use of cannabis.[119]

text: Conant v. McCaffrey (2000)[edit]

text: After Proposition 215 passed, the Clinton administration reiterated its firm opposition to the medical use of cannabis, and threatened to revoke the prescription-writing abilities of doctors who recommend or prescribe the drug.[120]  Additionally, threats were made by the administration to criminally prosecute physicians, and ban them from participating in Medicare and Medicaid.[121]  A group of physicians challenged this policy as a violation of First Amendment rights, and in September 2000 prevailed in the case Conant v. McCaffrey, which affirmed the right of physicians to recommend (but not prescribe) cannabis.[102]  As a result, cannabis must be recommended instead of prescribed in all states where its medical use has been legalized.

text: Ogden memo (2009)[edit]

text: In October 2009, the Ogden memo was issued by the Justice Department, advising U.S. attorneys to only prosecute medical cannabis providers who violate state law or engage in other federally-illegal activity (such as money laundering or illegal use of firearms).[122]  The memo did not have the effect that many expected, however, as raids on medical cannabis providers actually increased in frequency following its release.[123]  Prompted by public outcry and requests for clarification from numerous elected officials, a new memo was issued by Deputy Attorney General James M. Cole in June 2011.[124]  The 2011 Cole memo insisted that the 2009 Ogden memo was being adhered to,[123] and that the Ogden memo's protections applied only to individual patients and not commercial operations.[125]  The crackdown on medical cannabis continued following the release of the 2011 memo, but was tempered somewhat by the issuance of a new Cole memo in 2013, which advised a more deferential approach towards the states (similar in nature to how the 2009 Ogden memo was widely interpreted).[124]

text: Rohrabacher–Farr amendment (2014)[edit]

text: In response to increased raids on medical cannabis providers, Congress passed the Rohrabacher–Farr amendment in 2014, to prohibit the Justice Department from prosecuting individuals acting in accordance with state law.  The amendment passed the House by a 219–189 vote in May 2014, and was signed into law in December as part of an omnibus spending bill.[126]  It was renewed following a 242–186 House vote in 2015, and was subsequently included in a number of short-term spending bills in 2016 and 2017.[126]

text: After the amendment's 2014 enactment, the Justice Department initially continued to prosecute medical cannabis providers based on a new interpretation of the amendment that was being employed.[127][128]  U.S. District Judge Charles Breyer ruled against the DOJ in October 2015, however, stating that the interpretation "defies language and logic" and "tortures the plain meaning of the statute", and was "counterintuitive and opportunistic".[129]  The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals similarly rejected the DOJ's arguments in an August 2016 ruling.[130]

text: Non-medical use[edit]

text: Shafer Commission (1972)[edit]

text: Following the passage of the Controlled Substances Act in 1970, a commission was formed under decree of the act to study the rising use of cannabis in America, and subsequently make policy recommendations.  Formally known as the National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse, the Shafer Commission – led by former Pennsylvania governor Raymond P. Shafer – determined in its March 1972 report to the President and Congress that the societal harms caused by cannabis were limited, and recommended removal of criminal penalties for possession and distribution of small amounts of the drug.[131]  While President Nixon was furious with the commission and publicly rejected its findings,[132] supporters of reform frequently cited the report's recommendations to build support for decriminalization in subsequent years.[108]

text: California Marijuana Initiative (1972)[edit]

text: In 1972, California became the first state to vote on a ballot measure attempting to legalize cannabis.  Proposition 19 – the California Marijuana Initiative – sought to legalize the use, possession, and cultivation of cannabis, but did not allow for commercial sales.[133]  It was ultimately defeated by a wide margin (33–67%),[134] but supporters were encouraged by the results,[135] which provided momentum to other reform efforts in California in subsequent years.[108]

text: First wave of decriminalization (1973 to 1978)[edit]

text: In 1973 Oregon became the first state to decriminalize cannabis, reducing the penalty for possessing up to one ounce to a $100 fine.  Five more states followed in 1975 – Alaska, Maine, Colorado, California, and Ohio.[133]  In subsequent years, decriminalization laws passed in Minnesota (1976), Mississippi (1977), New York (1977), North Carolina (1977), and Nebraska (1978).[132] NORML was actively involved in helping to pass these laws, lobbying in support of legislation and paying for decriminalization proponents (including members of the Shafer Commission) to travel to various states to testify.[132]

text: Some cities also passed decriminalization laws in the 1970s, such as Ann Arbor in 1972 and Madison in 1977.[136][137]  Additionally, San Francisco voters approved a non-binding measure in 1978 to effectively legalize cannabis,[138] but mayor George Moscone was assassinated shortly afterwards and the initiative was subsequently disregarded.[108][139]

text: Ravin v. State (1975)[edit]

text: Ravin v. State was a 1975 decision by the Alaska Supreme Court that held the Alaska Constitution's right to privacy protects an adult's ability to use and possess a small amount of cannabis in the home for personal use.[140][141] The Alaska Supreme Court thereby became the first—and only—state or federal court to announce a constitutional privacy right that protects some level of cannabis use and possession.[140]  This policy of effective legalization remained in place until it was overridden by a 1990 ballot initiative that recriminalized cannabis.[142]

text: Second wave of decriminalization (2000s and onward)[edit]

text: In 2001, Nevada became the first state in over two decades to decriminalize cannabis.[143]  In the following years, major cities across the U.S. began to either decriminalize cannabis or make enforcement of cannabis laws the lowest priority.  Among the first cities to do so were Seattle (2003),[144] Oakland (2004),[145] Denver (2005),[146] and San Francisco (2006).[147]  In 2008, Massachusetts voters approved a ballot initiative to decriminalize cannabis.[148]  States that decriminalized in subsequent years were Connecticut (2011),[149] Rhode Island (2012),[150] Vermont (2013),[151] Maryland (2014),[152] Missouri (2014),[153] Delaware (2015),[154] Illinois (2016),[155] and New Hampshire (2017).[156]  The U.S. Virgin Islands also decriminalized in 2014.[157]

text: First two states legalize (2012)[edit]

text: On November 6, 2012, Colorado and Washington became the first states to legalize recreational use of cannabis when voters approved Colorado Amendment 64 and Washington Initiative 502.[158]  Each regulated cannabis in a way similar to alcohol, allowing possession of up to an ounce for adults ages 21 and older, with DUID provisions similar to those against drunk driving.  Unlike Initiative 502, Amendment 64 allowed for personal cultivation of up to six plants.  Both allowed for commercial cultivation and sales, subject to regulation and taxes.

text: Cole Memorandum (2013)[edit]

text: After the first states legalized in 2012, the Justice Department issued the Cole Memorandum in August 2013, seeking to clarify how federal law would be enforced.  The memo specified eight conditions which would merit enforcement of federal law, some of which included the distribution of cannabis to minors and the diversion of cannabis across state borders.[159]  Aside from these situations, the memo generally allowed for the commercial distribution of cannabis in states where such activity has been legalized.  In January 2018, however, the Cole memo was rescinded by Attorney General Jeff Sessions, introducing uncertainty into how federal law would be enforced.[94]

text: Two more states plus D.C. legalize (2014)[edit]

text: In November 2014, the states of Alaska (Measure 2) and Oregon (Ballot Measure 91) along with Washington D.C. (Initiative 71) legalized the recreational use of cannabis.  These laws were similar in nature to those of Colorado and Washington, except the D.C. initiative did not contain an allowance for commercial sales.  A rider attached to the 2014 "Cromnibus" bill further prevented D.C. council members from enacting legislation to allow for commercial sales.[160][161]

text: Indian Reservation legalization allowed (2014)[edit]

text: In December 2014, the Justice Department announced a policy to allow recognized Indian tribes to legalize the use and sale of cannabis on their lands.  The laws on reservations are allowed to be different from state and federal laws, and as with states that have legalized cannabis the federal government will not intervene as long as strict controls are maintained.  Some domestic nations such as the Yakama Nation and the Oglala Sioux Tribal Council have rejected legalization on their reservations.[162]  In 2015, the Flandreau Santee Sioux Tribe (South Dakota) voted to legalize the recreational use of cannabis.[163]

text: Four more states legalize (2016)[edit]

text: In November 2016, four more states legalized through ballot initiative – California, Nevada, Massachusetts, and Maine.[164]  This included the nation's most populous state (California), while Massachusetts and Maine became the first eastern states to legalize.

text: First state legalizes through legislature (2018)[edit]

text: In January 2018, Vermont became the first state to legalize through an act of legislature, as opposed to ballot initiative with the previous eight states.  Also differentiating Vermont's law is the fact that it does not allow for commercial sales, although a commission was set up to explore the possibility.[165]  The bill was signed into law by Republican governor Phil Scott.[166]


document_title: Union budget of India

question_text: who presents the central government budget in the lok sabha

text: Union budget of India

text: Chronology[edit]

text: Pre-liberalisation[edit]

text: The first Union budget of independent India was presented by R. K. Shanmukham Chetty on November 26, 1947.

text: The Union budgets for the fiscal years 1959-61 to 1963-64, inclusive of the interim budget for 1962-63, were presented by Morarji Desai.On February 29 in 1964 and 1968, he became the only finance minister to present the Union budget on his birthday.[3] Desai presented budgets that included five annual budgets and an interim budget during his first stint and three final budgets and one interim budget in his second tenure when he was both the Finance Minister and the Deputy Prime Minister of India.

text: After Desai's resignation, Indira Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India, took over the Ministry of Finance to become the only woman to hold the post of the Finance Minister.

text: Pranab Mukherjee, the first Rajya Sabha member to hold the Finance portfolio, presented the annual budgets for the financial years 1982-83, 1983–84 and 1984-85.

text: Rajiv Gandhi presented the budget for 1987-89, after V. P. Singh quit his government, and in the process became the third Prime Minister to present a budget after his mother and grandfather.

text: N. D. Tiwari presented the budget for 1988-89, S. B. Chavan for 1989-90, while Madhu Dandawate presented the Union budget for 1990-91.

text: Dr. Manmohan Singh became the Finance Minister and presented the interim budget for 1991-92 as elections were forced.

text: Due to political developments, early elections were held in May 1991 following which the Indian National Congress returned to political power and Manmohan Singh, the Finance Minister, presented the budget for 1991-92.

text: Post-liberalisation[edit]

text: Manmohan Singh under P. V. Narasimha Rao, in his next annual budgets from 1992–93, opened the economy,[4] encouraged foreign investments and reduced peak import duty from 300 plus percent to 50 percent.

text: After elections in 1996, a non-Congress ministry assumed office. Hence the financial budget for 1996-97 was presented by P. Chidambaram, who then belonged to Tamil Maanila Congress.

text: Following a constitutional crisis when the I. K. Gujral Ministry was on its way out, a special session of Parliament was convened just to pass Chidambaram's 1997-98 budget. This budget was passed without a debate.

text: After the general elections in March 1998 that led to the Bharatiya Janata Party forming the Central Government, Yashwant Sinha, the then Finance Minister in this government, presented the interim and final budgets for 1998-99.

text: After general elections in 1999, Sinha again became the Finance Minister and presented four annual budgets from 1999-2000 to 2002-2003. Due to elections in May 2004, an interim budget was presented by Jaswant Singh.

text: Former Finance Minister Morarji Desai presented the budget ten times, the most by any.

text: The Union Budget of India for 2012–2013 was presented by Pranab Mukherjee, the Finance Minister of India on 16 March 2012, which was the 7th budget of his career. These budgetary proposals would be applicable for financial year 1 April 2012 to 31 March 2013.

text: The Union Budget of India for 2013–2014 was presented by P. Chidambaram on 28 February 2013. The Interim Union Budget for 2014–2015 was presented on February 17, 2014.[5]

text: The Union Budget of India for 2014–2015 was presented by Arun Jaitley on 10 July 2014.[6]

text: The Union Budget of India for 2015–2016 was presented by Arun Jaitley on 28 February 2015.[7]

text: The Union Budget of India for 2016–2017 was presented by Arun Jaitley on 29 February 2016.[8]

text: The Union Budget of India for 2017–2018 was presented by Arun Jaitley on 1 February 2017.[9][10]

text: The Union Budget of India for 2018–2019 was presented by Arun Jaitley on 1 February 2018.[11]

text: Traditions[edit]

text: Time of Budget announcement[edit]

text: Until the year 1999, the Union Budget was announced at 6:00 pm on the last working day of the month of February. This practice was inherited from the Colonial Era, Another reason was that until the 1990s, all that budgets seem to do was to raise taxes, a presentation in the evening gave producers and the tax collecting agencies the night to work out the change in prices. It was Mr.Yashwant Sinha, the then Finance Minister of India in the NDA government (led by Bharatiya Janata Party) of Atal Bihari Vajpayee, who changed the ritual by announcing the 1999 Union Budget at 11 am.[12]

text: Date of Budget announcement[edit]

text: Also again in 2017, departing from the colonial-era tradition of presenting the Union Budget on the last working day of February, Minister of Finance (India) Arun Jaitley, in the NDA government (led by Bharatiya Janata Party) of Narendra Modi government announced that it will now be presented on 1 February. [13] Additionally Rail Budget, presented separately for 92 Years, merged with union budget.[14]

text: Halwa Ceremony[edit]

text: The printing of budget documents starts roughly a week ahead of presenting in the Parliament with a customary 'Halwa ceremony' in which halwa (a sweet dish) is prepared in large quantities and served to the officers and support staff involved. They remain isolated and stay in the North Block office until the Budget is presented. Halwa is also served by the Finance Minister. This ceremony is performed as a part of the Indian tradition of having something sweet before starting an important work.[15]

text:
1947 Union budget of India
2009 Union budget of India
2010 Union budget of India
2011 Union budget of India
2012 Union budget of India
2013 Union budget of India
2014 Interim-Union budget of India
2014 Union budget of India
2015 Union budget of India
2016 Union budget of India
2017 Union budget of India
2018 Union budget of India
Railway Budget of India