document_title: Incandescent light bulb

question_text: why does a light bulb need a vacuum

question_tokens: why does a light bulb need a vacuum

text: Incandescent light bulb

text: History

text: In addressing the question of who invented the incandescent lamp, historians Robert Friedel and Paul Israel list 22 inventors of incandescent lamps prior to Joseph Swan and Thomas Edison.[8] They conclude that Edison's version was able to outstrip the others because of a combination of three factors: an effective incandescent material, a higher vacuum than others were able to achieve (by use of the Sprengel pump) and a high resistance that made power distribution from a centralized source economically viable.

text: Historian Thomas Hughes has attributed Edison's success to his development of an entire, integrated system of electric lighting.

text: The lamp was a small component in his system of electric lighting, and no more critical to its effective functioning than the Edison Jumbo generator, the Edison main and feeder, and the parallel-distribution system. Other inventors with generators and incandescent lamps, and with comparable ingenuity and excellence, have long been forgotten because their creators did not preside over their introduction in a system of lighting.

text: [show]Timeline of the early evolution of the light bulb[11]

tag: table

text: Early pre-commercial research

text: In 1761 Ebenezer Kinnersley demonstrated heating a wire to incandescence.[12]

text: In 1802, Humphry Davy used what he described as "a battery of immense size",[13] consisting of 2,000 cells housed in the basement of the Royal Institution of Great Britain,[14] to create an incandescent light by passing the current through a thin strip of platinum, chosen because the metal had an extremely high melting point. It was not bright enough nor did it last long enough to be practical, but it was the precedent behind the efforts of scores of experimenters over the next 75 years.[15]

text: Over the first three-quarters of the 19th century many experimenters worked with various combinations of platinum or iridium wires, carbon rods, and evacuated or semi-evacuated enclosures. Many of these devices were demonstrated and some were patented.[16]

text: In 1835, James Bowman Lindsay demonstrated a constant electric light at a public meeting in Dundee, Scotland. He stated that he could "read a book at a distance of one and a half feet". However, having perfected the device to his own satisfaction, he turned to the problem of wireless telegraphy and did not develop the electric light any further. His claims are not well documented, although he is credited in Challoner et al. with being the inventor of the "Incandescent Light Bulb".[17]

text: In 1838, Belgian lithographer Marcellin Jobard invented an incandescent light bulb with a vacuum atmosphere using a carbon filament.[18]

text: In 1840, British scientist Warren de la Rue enclosed a coiled platinum filament in a vacuum tube and passed an electric current through it. The design was based on the concept that the high melting point of platinum would allow it to operate at high temperatures and that the evacuated chamber would contain fewer gas molecules to react with the platinum, improving its longevity. Although a workable design, the cost of the platinum made it impractical for commercial use.

text: In 1841, Frederick de Moleyns of England was granted the first patent for an incandescent lamp, with a design using platinum wires contained within a vacuum bulb. He also used carbon.[19][20]

text: In 1845, American John W. Starr acquired a patent for his incandescent light bulb involving the use of carbon filaments.[21][22] He died shortly after obtaining the patent, and his invention was never produced commercially. Little else is known about him.[23]

text: In 1851, Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin publicly demonstrated incandescent light bulbs on his estate in Blois, France. His light bulbs are on display in the museum of the Château de Blois.[24]

text: In 1872, Russian Alexander Lodygin invented an incandescent light bulb and obtained a Russian patent in 1874. He used as a burner two carbon rods of diminished section in a glass receiver, hermetically sealed, and filled with nitrogen, electrically arranged so that the current could be passed to the second carbon when the first had been consumed.[25] Later he lived in the US, changed his name to Alexander de Lodyguine and applied and obtained patents for incandescent lamps having chromium, iridium, rhodium, ruthenium, osmium, molybdenum and tungsten filaments,[26] and a bulb using a molybdenum filament was demonstrated at the world fair of 1900 in Paris.[27]

text: Heinrich Göbel in 1893 claimed he had designed the first incandescent light bulb in 1854, with a thin carbonized bamboo filament of high resistance, platinum lead-in wires in an all-glass envelope, and a high vacuum. Judges of four courts raised doubts about the alleged Göbel anticipation, but there was never a decision in a final hearing due to the expiry date of Edison's patent. A research work published 2007 concluded that the story of the Göbel lamps in the 1850s is a legend.[28]

text: On 24 July 1874, a Canadian patent was filed by Henry Woodward and Mathew Evans for a lamp consisting of carbon rods mounted in a nitrogen-filled glass cylinder. They were unsuccessful at commercializing their lamp, and sold rights to their patent (U.S. Patent 0,181,613) to Thomas Edison in 1879.[29][30]

text: Commercialization

text: Dominance of carbon filament and vacuum

text: Joseph Swan (1828–1914) was a British physicist and chemist. In 1850, he began working with carbonized paper filaments in an evacuated glass bulb. By 1860, he was able to demonstrate a working device but the lack of a good vacuum and an adequate supply of electricity resulted in a short lifetime for the bulb and an inefficient source of light. By the mid-1870s better pumps became available, and Swan returned to his experiments.[31]

text: With the help of Charles Stearn, an expert on vacuum pumps, in 1878, Swan developed a method of processing that avoided the early bulb blackening. This received a British Patent in 1880.[32][dubious – discuss] On 18 December 1878, a lamp using a slender carbon rod was shown at a meeting of the Newcastle Chemical Society, and Swan gave a working demonstration at their meeting on 17 January 1879. It was also shown to 700 who attended a meeting of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne on 3 February 1879.[33] These lamps used a carbon rod from an arc lamp rather than a slender filament. Thus they had low resistance and required very large conductors to supply the necessary current, so they were not commercially practical, although they did furnish a demonstration of the possibilities of incandescent lighting with relatively high vacuum, a carbon conductor, and platinum lead-in wires. This bulb lasted about 40 hours.[34] Swan then turned his attention to producing a better carbon filament and the means of attaching its ends. He devised a method of treating cotton to produce 'parchmentised thread' in the early 1880s and obtained British Patent 4933 that same year.[32] From this year he began installing light bulbs in homes and landmarks in England. His house, Underhill, Low Fell, Gateshead, was the first in the world to be lit by a lightbulb and also the first house in the world to be lit by hydroelectric power. In 1878 the home of Lord Armstrong at Cragside was also among the first houses to be lit by electricity. In the early 1880s he had started his company.[35] In 1881, the Savoy Theatre in the City of Westminster, London was lit by Swan incandescent lightbulbs, which was the first theatre, and the first public building in the world, to be lit entirely by electricity.[36] The first street in the world to be lit by an incandescent lightbulb was Mosley Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom. It was lit by Joseph Swan's incandescent lamp on 3 February 1879.[37][38]

text: Thomas Edison began serious research into developing a practical incandescent lamp in 1878. Edison filed his first patent application for "Improvement In Electric Lights" on 14 October 1878.[39] After many experiments, first with carbon in the early 1880s and then with platinum and other metals, in the end Edison returned to a carbon filament.[40] The first successful test was on 22 October 1879,[41][42] and lasted 13.5 hours. Edison continued to improve this design and by 4 November 1879, filed for a US patent for an electric lamp using "a carbon filament or strip coiled and connected ... to platina contact wires."[43] Although the patent described several ways of creating the carbon filament including using "cotton and linen thread, wood splints, papers coiled in various ways,"[43] Edison and his team later discovered that a carbonized bamboo filament could last more than 1200 hours.[44] In 1880, the Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company steamer, Columbia, became the first application for Edison's incandescent electric lamps (it was also the first ship to use a dynamo).[45][46][47]

text: Albon Man, a New York lawyer, started Electro-Dynamic Light Company in 1878 to exploit his patents and those of William Sawyer.[48][49] Weeks later the United States Electric Lighting Company was organized.[48][49][50] This company didn't make their first commercial installation of incandescent lamps until the fall of 1880 at the Mercantile Safe Deposit Company in New York City, about six months after the Edison incandescent lamps had been installed on the Columbia. Hiram S. Maxim was the chief engineer at the United States Electric Lighting Company.[51]

text: Lewis Latimer, employed at the time by Edison, developed an improved method of heat-treating carbon filaments which reduced breakage and allowed them to be molded into novel shapes, such as the characteristic "M" shape of Maxim filaments. On 17 January 1882, Latimer received a patent for the "Process of Manufacturing Carbons", an improved method for the production of light bulb filaments, which was purchased by the United States Electric Light Company.[52] Latimer patented other improvements such as a better way of attaching filaments to their wire supports.[53]

text: In Britain, the Edison and Swan companies merged into the Edison and Swan United Electric Company (later known as Ediswan, and ultimately incorporated into Thorn Lighting Ltd). Edison was initially against this combination, but after Swan sued him and won, Edison was eventually forced to cooperate, and the merger was made. Eventually, Edison acquired all of Swan's interest in the company. Swan sold his US patent rights to the Brush Electric Company in June 1882.

text: The United States Patent Office gave a ruling 8 October 1883, that Edison's patents were based on the prior art of William Sawyer and were invalid. Litigation continued for a number of years. Eventually on 6 October 1889, a judge ruled that Edison's electric light improvement claim for "a filament of carbon of high resistance" was valid.[54]

text: In 1896 Italian inventor Arturo Malignani (1865–1939) patented an evacuation method for mass production, which allowed obtaining economic bulbs lasting 800 hours. The patent was acquired by Edison in 1898.[31]

text: In 1897, German physicist and chemist Walther Nernst developed the Nernst lamp, a form of incandescent lamp that used a ceramic globar and did not require enclosure in a vacuum or inert gas.[55][56] Twice as efficient as carbon filament lamps, Nernst lamps were briefly popular until overtaken by lamps using metal filaments.

text: Revolution of the tungsten filament, inert gas, and the coiled coil

text: On 13 December 1904, Hungarian Sándor Just and Croatian Franjo Hanaman were granted a Hungarian patent (No. 34541) for a tungsten filament lamp that lasted longer and gave brighter light than the carbon filament.[31] Tungsten filament lamps were first marketed by the Hungarian company Tungsram in 1904. This type is often called Tungsram-bulbs in many European countries.[57] Filling a bulb with an inert gas such as argon or nitrogen retards the evaporation of the tungsten filament compared to operating it in a vacuum. This allows for greater temperatures and therefore greater efficacy with less reduction in filament life.[58]

text: In 1906, William D. Coolidge developed a method of making 'ductile tungsten' from sintered tungsten which could be made into filaments while working for General Electric Company. By 1911 General Electric began selling incandescent light bulbs with ductile tungsten wire.

text: In 1913, Irving Langmuir found that filling a lamp with inert gas instead of a vacuum resulted in twice the luminous efficacy and reduction of bulb blackening.

text: In 1917, Burnie Lee Benbow was granted a patent for inventing the coiled coil filament.[59] In 1921, Junichi Miura created the first double-coil bulb using a coiled coil tungsten filament while working for Hakunetsusha (a predecessor of Toshiba). At the time, machinery to mass-produce coiled coil filaments did not exist. Hakunetsusha developed a method to mass-produce coiled coil filaments by 1936.[60]

text: In 1924, Marvin Pipkin, an American chemist, patented a process for frosting the inside of lamp bulbs without weakening them, and in 1947, he patented a process for coating the inside of lamps with silica.

text: Between 1924 and the outbreak of the Second World War, the Phoebus cartel attempted to fix prices and sales quotas for bulb manufacturers outside of North America.

text: In 1930, Hungarian Imre Bródy filled lamps with krypton gas rather than argon, and designed a process to obtain krypton from air. Production of krypton filled lamps based on his invention started at Ajka in 1937, in a factory co-designed by Polányi and Hungarian-born physicist Egon Orowan.[61]

text: By 1964, improvements in efficiency and production of incandescent lamps had reduced the cost of providing a given quantity of light by a factor of thirty, compared with the cost at introduction of Edison's lighting system.[62]

text: Consumption of incandescent light bulbs grew rapidly in the US. In 1885, an estimated 300,000 general lighting service lamps were sold, all with carbon filaments. When tungsten filaments were introduced, about 50 million lamp sockets existed in the US. In 1914, 88.5 million lamps were used, (only 15% with carbon filaments), and by 1945, annual sales of lamps were 795 million (more than 5 lamps per person per year).[63]

text: Efficacy, efficiency, and environmental impact

text: Of the power consumed by typical incandescent light bulbs, 95% or more is converted into heat rather than visible light.[1] Other electrical light sources are more effective.

text: Luminous efficacy of a light source may be defined in two ways. The radiant luminous efficacy (LER) is the ratio of the visible light flux emitted (the luminous flux) to the total power radiated over all wavelengths. The source luminous efficacy (LES) is the ratio of the visible light flux emitted (the luminous flux) to the total power input to the source, such as a lamp.[64] Visible light is measured in lumens, a unit which is defined in part by the differing sensitivity of the human eye to different wavelengths of light. Not all wavelengths of visible electromagnetic energy are equally effective at stimulating the human eye; the luminous efficacy of radiant energy (LER) is a measure of how well the distribution of energy matches the perception of the eye. The units of luminous efficacy are "lumens per watt" (lpw). The maximum LER possible is 683 lm/W for monochromatic green light at 555 nanometers wavelength, the peak sensitivity of the human eye.

text: The luminous efficiency is defined as the ratio of the luminous efficacy to the theoretical maximum luminous efficacy of 683 lpw, and, as for luminous efficacy, is of two types, radiant luminous efficiency (LFR) and source luminous efficacy (LFS).[65][66]

text: The chart below lists values of overall luminous efficacy and efficiency for several types of general service, 120-volt, 1000-hour lifespan incandescent bulb, and several idealized light sources. The values for the incandescent bulbs are source efficiencies and efficacies. The values for the ideal sources are radiant efficiencies and efficacies. A similar chart in the article on luminous efficacy compares a broader array of light sources to one another.

text:
Type
Overall luminous efficiency
Overall luminous efficacy (lm/W)

40 W tungsten incandescent
1.9%
12.6[1]

60 W tungsten incandescent
2.1%
14.5[1]

100 W tungsten incandescent
2.6%
17.5[1]

glass halogen
2.3%
16

quartz halogen
3.5%
24

photographic and projection lamps with very high filament temperatures and short lifetimes
5.1%
35[67]

ideal black-body radiator at 4000 K (or a class K star like Arcturus)
7.0%
47.5

ideal black-body radiator at 7000 K (or a class F star like Procyon)
14%
95

ideal monochromatic 555 nm (green) source
100%
683[68]

text: The spectrum emitted by a blackbody radiator at temperatures of incandescent bulbs does not match the sensitivity characteristics of the human eye; the light emitted does not appear white, and most is not in the range of wavelengths at which the eye is most sensitive. Tungsten filaments radiate mostly infrared radiation at temperatures where they remain solid – below 3,695 K (3,422 °C; 6,191 °F). Donald L. Klipstein explains it this way: "An ideal thermal radiator produces visible light most efficiently at temperatures around 6,300 °C (6,600 K; 11,400 °F). Even at this high temperature, a lot of the radiation is either infrared or ultraviolet, and the theoretical luminous efficacy (LER) is 95 lumens per watt."[67] No known material can be used as a filament at this ideal temperature, which is hotter than the sun's surface. An upper limit for incandescent lamp luminous efficacy (LER) is around 52 lumens per watt, the theoretical value emitted by tungsten at its melting point.[62]

text: Although inefficient, incandescent light bulbs have an advantage in applications where accurate color reproduction is important, since the continuous blackbody spectrum emitted from an incandescent light-bulb filament yields near-perfect color rendition, with a color rendering index of 100 (the best possible).[69] White-balancing is still required to avoid too "warm" or "cool" colors, but this is a simple process that requires only the color temperature in kelvins as input for modern, digital visual reproduction equipment such as video or still cameras unless it is completely automated. The color-rendering performance of incandescent lights cannot be matched by LEDs or fluorescent lights, although they can offer satisfactory performance for non-critical applications such as home lighting.[70][71] White-balancing such lights is therefore more complicated, requiring additional adjustments to reduce for example green-magenta color casts, and even when properly white-balanced, the color reproduction will not be perfect.

text: For a given quantity of light, an incandescent light bulb produces more heat (and thus consumes more power) than a fluorescent lamp. In buildings where air conditioning is used, incandescent lamps' heat output increases load on the air conditioning system.[72] While heat from lights will reduce the need for running a building's heating system, in general a heating system can provide the same amount of heat at a lower cost than incandescent lights.

text: Halogen incandescent lamps have higher efficacy, which will allow a halogen light to use less power to produce the same amount of light compared to a non-halogen incandescent light. The expected life span of halogen lights is also generally longer compared to non-halogen incandescent lights, and halogen lights produce a more constant light-output over time, without much dimming.[73]

text: There are many non-incandescent light sources, such as the fluorescent lamp, high-intensity discharge lamps and LED lamps, which have higher luminous efficiency, and some have been designed to be retrofitted in fixtures for incandescent lights. These devices produce light by luminescence. These lamps produce discrete spectral lines and do not have the broad "tail" of invisible infrared emissions. By careful selection of which electron energy level transitions are used, and fluorescent coatings which modify the spectral distribution, the spectrum emitted can be tuned to mimic the appearance of incandescent sources, or other different color temperatures of white light. Due to the discrete spectral lines rather than a continuous spectrum, the light is not ideal for applications such as photography and cinematography.[70][71]

text: Cost of lighting

text: The initial cost of an incandescent bulb is small compared to the cost of the energy it uses over its lifetime. Incandescent bulbs have a shorter life than most other lighting, an important factor if replacement is inconvenient or expensive. Some types of lamp, including incandescent and fluorescent, emit less light as they age; this may be an inconvenience, or may reduce effective lifetime due to lamp replacement before total failure. A comparison of incandescent lamp operating cost with other light sources must include illumination requirements, cost of the lamp and labor cost to replace lamps (taking into account effective lamp lifetime), cost of electricity used, effect of lamp operation on heating and air conditioning systems. When used for lighting in houses and commercial buildings, the energy lost to heat can significantly increase the energy required by a building's air conditioning system. During the heating season heat produced by the bulbs is not wasted,[74] although in most cases it is more cost effective to obtain heat from the heating system. Regardless, over the course of a year a more efficient lighting system saves energy in nearly all climates.[75]

text: Measures to ban use

text: Since incandescent light bulbs use more energy than alternatives such as CFLs and LED lamps, many governments have introduced measures to ban their use, by setting minimum efficacy standards higher than can be achieved by incandescent lamps. Measures to ban light bulbs have been implemented in the European Union, the United States, Russia, Brazil, Argentina, Canada and Australia, among others. In the Europe the EC has calculated that the ban contributes 5 to 10 billion euros to the economy and saves 40 TWh of electricity every year, translating in CO2 emission reductions of 15 million tonnes.[76]

text: In the US, federal law has scheduled the most common incandescent light bulbs to be phased out by 2014, to be replaced with more energy-efficient light bulbs.[77] Traditional incandescent light bulbs were phased out in Australia in November 2009.[78]

text: Objections to banning the use of incandescent light bulbs include the higher initial cost of alternatives and lower quality of light of fluorescent lamps.[79] Some people have concerns about the health effects of fluorescent lamps. However, even though they contain mercury, the environmental performance of CFLs is much better than that of light bulbs, mostly because they consume much less energy and therefore strongly reduce the environmental impact of power production.[80] LED lamps are even more efficient, and are free of mercury. They are regarded as the best solution in terms of cost effectiveness and robustness.[81]

text: Efforts to improve efficiency

text: Some research has been carried out to improve the efficacy of commercial incandescent lamps. In 2007, the consumer lighting division of General Electric announced a "high efficiency incandescent" (HEI) lamp project, which they claimed would ultimately be as much as four times more efficient than current incandescents, although their initial production goal was to be approximately twice as efficient.[82][83] The HEI program was terminated in 2008 due to slow progress.[84][85]

text: US Department of Energy research at Sandia National Laboratories initially indicated the potential for dramatically improved efficiency from a photonic lattice filament.[82] However, later work indicated that initially promising results were in error.[86]

text: Prompted by legislation in various countries mandating increased bulb efficiency, new "hybrid" incandescent bulbs have been introduced by Philips. The "Halogena Energy Saver" incandescents can produce about 23 lm/W; about 30 percent more efficient than traditional incandescents, by using a reflective capsule to reflect formerly wasted infrared radiation back to the filament from which it can be re-emitted as visible light.[87] This concept was pioneered by Duro-Test in 1980 with a commercial product that produced 29.8 lm/W.[88][89] More advanced reflectors based on interference filters or photonic crystals can theoretically result in higher efficiency, up to a limit of about 270 lm/W (40% of the maximum efficacy possible).[90] Laboratory proof-of-concept experiments have produced as much as 45 lm/W, approaching the efficacy of compact fluorescent bulbs.[90][91]

text: Construction

text: Incandescent light bulbs consist of an air-tight glass enclosure (the envelope, or bulb) with a filament of tungsten wire inside the bulb, through which an electric current is passed. Contact wires and a base with two (or more) conductors provide electrical connections to the filament. Incandescent light bulbs usually contain a stem or glass mount anchored to the bulb's base that allows the electrical contacts to run through the envelope without air or gas leaks. Small wires embedded in the stem in turn support the filament and its lead wires.

text: An electric current heats the filament to typically 2,000 to 3,300 K (3,140 to 5,480 °F), well below tungsten's melting point of 3,695 K (6,191 °F). Filament temperatures depend on the filament type, shape, size, and amount of current drawn. The heated filament emits light that approximates a continuous spectrum. The useful part of the emitted energy is visible light, but most energy is given off as heat in the near-infrared wavelengths.

text: Three-way light bulbs have two filaments and three conducting contacts in their bases. The filaments share a common ground, and can be lit separately or together. Common wattages include 30–70–100, 50–100–150, and 100–200–300, with the first two numbers referring to the individual filaments, and the third giving the combined wattage.

text: Most light bulbs have either clear or coated glass. The coated glass bulbs have a white powdery substance on the inside called kaolin. Kaolin, or kaolinite, is a white, chalky clay in a very fine powder form, that is blown in and electrostatically deposited on the interior of the bulb. It diffuses the light emitted from the filament, producing a more gentle and evenly distributed light. Manufacturers may add pigments to the kaolin to adjust the characteristics of the final light emitted from the bulb. Kaolin diffused bulbs are used extensively in interior lighting because of their comparatively gentle light. Other kinds of colored bulbs are also made, including the various colors used for "party bulbs", Christmas tree lights and other decorative lighting. These are created by coloring the glass with a dopant; which is often a metal like cobalt (blue) or chromium (green).[92] Neodymium-containing glass is sometimes used to provide a more natural-appearing light.

text:
Outline of Glass bulb
Low pressure inert gas (argon, nitrogen, krypton, xenon)
Tungsten filament
Contact wire (goes out of stem)
Contact wire (goes into stem)
Support wires (one end embedded in stem; conduct no current)
Stem (glass mount)
Contact wire (goes out of stem)
Cap (sleeve)
Insulation (vitrite)
Electrical contact

text: Many arrangements of electrical contacts are used. Large lamps may have a screw base (one or more contacts at the tip, one at the shell) or a bayonet base (one or more contacts on the base, shell used as a contact or used only as a mechanical support). Some tubular lamps have an electrical contact at either end. Miniature lamps may have a wedge base and wire contacts, and some automotive and special purpose lamps have screw terminals for connection to wires. Contacts in the lamp socket allow the electric current to pass through the base to the filament. Power ratings for incandescent light bulbs range from about 0.1 watt to about 10,000 watts.

text: The glass bulb of a general service lamp can reach temperatures between 200 and 260 °C (392 and 500 °F). Lamps intended for high power operation or used for heating purposes will have envelopes made of hard glass or fused quartz.[62]

text: Gas fill

text: The bulb is filled with an inert gas, to reduce evaporation of the filament and prevent its oxidation at a pressure of about 70 kPa (0.7 atm).[93]

text: The role of the gas is to prevent evaporation of the filament, without introducing significant heat losses. For these properties, chemical inertness and high atomic or molecular weight is desirable. The presence of gas molecules knocks the liberated tungsten atoms back to the filament, reducing its evaporation and allowing it to be operated at higher temperature without reducing its life (or, for operating at the same temperature, prolongs the filament life). It however introduces heat losses (and therefore efficiency loss) from the filament, by heat conduction and heat convection.

text: Early lamps, and some small modern lamps used only a vacuum to protect the filament from oxygen. This however increases evaporation of the filament, albeit it eliminates the heat losses.

text: The most common fills are:[94]

text:
Vacuum, used in small lamps. Provides best thermal insulation of the filament but does not protect against its evaporation. Used also in larger lamps where the outer bulb surface temperature has to be limited.
Argon (93%) and nitrogen (7%), where argon is used for its inertness, low thermal conductivity and low cost, and the nitrogen is added to increase the breakdown voltage and prevent arcing between parts of the filament[93]
Nitrogen, used in some higher-power lamps, e.g. projection lamps, and where higher breakdown voltage is needed due to proximity of filament parts or lead-in wires
Krypton, which is more advantageous than argon due to its higher atomic weight and lower thermal conductivity (which also allows use of smaller bulbs), but its use is hindered by much higher cost, confining it mostly to smaller-size bulbs.
Krypton mixed with xenon, where xenon improves the gas properties further due to its higher atomic weight. Its use is however limited by its very high cost. The improvements by using xenon are modest in comparison to its cost.
Hydrogen, in special flashing lamps where rapid filament cooling is required; its high thermal conductivity is exploited here.

text: The gas fill must be free of traces of water. In the presence of the hot filament, water reacts with tungsten forming tungsten trioxide and atomic hydrogen. The oxide deposits on the bulb inner surface and reacts with hydrogen, decomposing to metallic tungsten and water. Water then cycles back to the filament. This greatly accelerates the bulb blackening, in comparison with evaporation-only.

text: The gas layer close to the filament (called the Langmuir layer) is stagnant, heat transfer occurs only by conduction. Only at some distance does convection occur to carry heat to the bulb envelope.

text: The orientation of the filament influences efficiency. Gas flow parallel to the filament, e.g. a vertically oriented bulb with vertical (or axial) filament, reduces convective losses.

text: The efficiency of the lamp increases with a larger filament diameter. Thin-filament, low-power bulbs benefit less from a fill gas, so are often only evacuated. In special cases, when rapid cooling of a filament is needed (e.g. in flashing lights), hydrogen gas fill is used.

text: Early lightbulbs with carbon filaments also used carbon monoxide, nitrogen, or mercury vapor. Carbon filaments however operate at lower temperatures than tungsten ones, so the effect of the fill gas was not significant as the heat losses offset any benefits.

text: Manufacturing

text: Early lamps were laboriously assembled by hand. After automatic machinery was developed the cost of lamps fell.

text: In manufacturing the glass bulb, a type of "ribbon machine" is used. A continuous ribbon of glass is passed along a conveyor belt, heated in a furnace, and then blown by precisely aligned air nozzles through holes in the conveyor belt into molds. Thus the glass bulbs are created. After the bulbs are blown, and cooled, they are cut off the ribbon machine; a typical machine of this sort produces 50,000 bulbs per hour.[95] The filament and its supports are assembled on a glass stem, which is fused to the bulb. The air is pumped out of the bulb, and the evacuation tube in the stem press is sealed by a flame. The bulb is then inserted into the lamp base, and the whole assembly tested.

text: Filament

text: The first successful light bulb filaments were made of carbon (from carbonized paper or bamboo). Early carbon filaments had a negative temperature coefficient of resistance — as they got hotter, their electrical resistance decreased. This made the lamp sensitive to fluctuations in the power supply, since a small increase of voltage would cause the filament to heat up, reducing its resistance and causing it to draw even more power and heat even further. In the "flashing" process, carbon filaments were heated by current passing through them while in an evacuated vessel containing hydrocarbon vapor (usually gasoline). The carbon deposited on the filament by this treatment improved the uniformity and strength of filaments as well as their efficiency. A metallized or "graphitized" filament was first heated in a high-temperature oven before flashing and lamp assembly. This transformed the carbon into graphite which further strengthened and smoothed the filament. This also changed the filament to have a positive temperature coefficient, like a metallic conductor, and helped stabilize the lamp's power consumption, temperature and light output against minor variations in supply voltage.

text: In 1902, the Siemens company developed a tantalum lamp filament. These lamps were more efficient than even graphitized carbon filaments and could operate at higher temperatures. Since tantalum metal has a lower resistivity than carbon, the tantalum lamp filament was quite long and required multiple internal supports. The metal filament had the property of gradually shortening in use; the filaments were installed with large loops that tightened in use. This made lamps in use for several hundred hours quite fragile.[96] Metal filaments had the property of breaking and re-welding, though this would usually decrease resistance and shorten the life of the filament. General Electric bought the rights to use tantalum filaments and produced them in the US until 1913.[97]

text: From 1898 to around 1905, osmium was also used as a lamp filament in Europe, and the metal was so expensive that used broken lamps could be returned for partial credit.[98] It could not be made for 110 V or 220 V so several lamps were wired in series for use on standard voltage circuits.

text: In 1906, the tungsten filament was introduced. Tungsten metal was initially not available in a form that allowed it to be drawn into fine wires. Filaments made from sintered tungsten powder were quite fragile. By 1910, a process was developed by William D. Coolidge at General Electric for production of a ductile form of tungsten. The process required pressing tungsten powder into bars, then several steps of sintering, swaging, and then wire drawing. It was found that very pure tungsten formed filaments that sagged in use, and that a very small "doping" treatment with potassium, silicon, and aluminium oxides at the level of a few hundred parts per million greatly improved the life and durability of the tungsten filaments.[99]

text: Coiled coil filament

text: To improve the efficiency of the lamp, the filament usually consists of multiple coils of coiled fine wire, also known as a 'coiled coil'. Light bulbs using coiled coil filaments are sometimes referred to as 'double-coil bulbs'. For a 60-watt 120-volt lamp, the uncoiled length of the tungsten filament is usually 22.8 inches (580 mm),[62] and the filament diameter is 0.0018 inches (0.046 mm). The advantage of the coiled coil is that evaporation of the tungsten filament is at the rate of a tungsten cylinder having a diameter equal to that of the coiled coil. The coiled-coil filament evaporates more slowly than a straight filament of the same surface area and light-emitting power. As a result, the filament can then run hotter, which results in a more efficient light source, while reducing the evaporation so that the filament will last longer than a straight filament at the same temperature.

text: There are several different shapes of filament used in lamps, with differing characteristics. Manufacturers designate the types with codes such as C-6, CC-6, C-2V, CC-2V, C-8, CC-88, C-2F, CC-2F, C-Bar, C-Bar-6, C-8I, C-2R, CC-2R, and Axial.

text: Electrical filaments are also used in hot cathodes of fluorescent lamps and vacuum tubes as a source of electrons or in vacuum tubes to heat an electron-emitting electrode.

text: Reducing filament evaporation

text: One of the problems of the standard electric light bulb is filament notching due to evaporation of the filament. Small variations in resistivity along the filament cause "hot spots" to form at points of higher resistivity;[63] a variation of diameter of only 1% will cause a 25% reduction in service life.[62] These hot spots evaporate faster than the rest of the filament, which increases the resistance at that point—this creates a positive feedback that ends in the familiar tiny gap in an otherwise healthy-looking filament. Irving Langmuir found that an inert gas, instead of vacuum, would retard evaporation. General service incandescent light bulbs over about 25 watts in rating are now filled with a mixture of mostly argon and some nitrogen,[100] or sometimes krypton.[101] Lamps operated on direct current develop random stairstep irregularities on the filament surface which may cut lifespan in half compared to AC operation; different alloys of tungsten and rhenium can be used to counteract the effect.[102][103]

text: Since a filament breaking in a gas-filled bulb can form an electric arc, which may spread between the terminals and draw very heavy current, intentionally thin lead-in wires or more elaborate protection devices are therefore often used as fuses built into the light bulb.[104] More nitrogen is used in higher-voltage lamps to reduce the possibility of arcing.

text: While inert gas reduces filament evaporation, it also conducts heat from the filament, thereby cooling the filament and reducing efficiency. At constant pressure and temperature, the thermal conductivity of a gas depends upon the molecular weight of the gas and the cross sectional area of the gas molecules. Higher molecular weight gasses have lower thermal conductivity, because both the molecular weight is higher and also the cross sectional area is higher. Xenon gas improves efficiency because of its high molecular weight, but is also more expensive, so its use is limited to smaller lamps.[105]

text: During ordinary operation, the tungsten of the filament evaporates; hotter, more-efficient filaments evaporate faster. Because of this, the lifetime of a filament lamp is a trade-off between efficiency and longevity. The trade-off is typically set to provide a lifetime of several hundred to 2,000 hours for lamps used for general illumination. Theatrical, photographic, and projection lamps may have a useful life of only a few hours, trading life expectancy for high output in a compact form. Long-life general service lamps have lower efficiency but are used where the cost of changing the lamp is high compared to the value of energy used.

text: If a light bulb envelope leaks, the hot tungsten filament reacts with air, yielding an aerosol of brown tungsten nitride, brown tungsten dioxide, violet-blue tungsten pentoxide, and yellow tungsten trioxide that then deposits on the nearby surfaces or the bulb interior.

text: Bulb blackening

text: In a conventional lamp, the evaporated tungsten eventually condenses on the inner surface of the glass envelope, darkening it. For bulbs that contain a vacuum, the darkening is uniform across the entire surface of the envelope. When a filling of inert gas is used, the evaporated tungsten is carried in the thermal convection currents of the gas, depositing preferentially on the uppermost part of the envelope and blackening just that portion of the envelope. An incandescent lamp that gives 93% or less of its initial light output at 75% of its rated life is regarded as unsatisfactory, when tested according to IEC Publication 60064. Light loss is due to filament evaporation and bulb blackening.[106] Study of the problem of bulb blackening led to the discovery of the Edison effect, thermionic emission and invention of the vacuum tube.

text: A very small amount of water vapor inside a light bulb can significantly affect lamp darkening. Water vapor dissociates into hydrogen and oxygen at the hot filament. The oxygen attacks the tungsten metal, and the resulting tungsten oxide particles travel to cooler parts of the lamp. Hydrogen from water vapor reduces the oxide, reforming water vapor and continuing this water cycle.[63] The equivalent of a drop of water distributed over 500,000 lamps will significantly increase darkening.[62] Small amounts of substances such as zirconium are placed within the lamp as a getter to react with any oxygen that may bake out of the lamp components during operation.

text: Some old, high-powered lamps used in theater, projection, searchlight, and lighthouse service with heavy, sturdy filaments contained loose tungsten powder within the envelope. From time to time, the operator would remove the bulb and shake it, allowing the tungsten powder to scrub off most of the tungsten that had condensed on the interior of the envelope, removing the blackening and brightening the lamp again.[107]

text: Halogen lamps

text: The halogen lamp reduces uneven evaporation of the filament and eliminates darkening of the envelope by filling the lamp with a halogen gas at low pressure, rather than an inert gas. The halogen cycle increases the lifetime of the bulb and prevents its darkening by redepositing tungsten from the inside of the bulb back onto the filament. The halogen lamp can operate its filament at a higher temperature than a standard gas filled lamp of similar power without loss of operating life. Such bulbs are much smaller than normal incandescent bulbs, and are widely used where intense illumination is needed in a limited space. Fiber-optic lamps for optical microscopy is one typical application.

text: Incandescent arc lamps

text: A variation of the incandescent lamp did not use a hot wire filament, but instead used an arc struck on a spherical bead electrode to produce heat. The electrode then became incandescent, with the arc contributing little to the light produced. Such lamps were used for projection or illumination for scientific instruments such as microscopes. These arc lamps ran on relatively low voltages and incorporated tungsten filaments to start ionization within the envelope. They provided the intense concentrated light of an arc lamp but were easier to operate. Developed around 1915, these lamps were displaced by mercury and xenon arc lamps.[108][109][110]

text: Electrical characteristics

text:
Comparison of efficacy by power

120 volt lamps[111]
230 volt lamps[112]

Power (W)
Output (lm)
Efficacy (lm/W)
Output (lm)
Efficacy (lm/W)

5
25
5

15
110
7.3

25
200
8.0
230
9.2

40
500
12.5
430
10.8

60
850
14.2
730
12.2

75
1,200
16.0

100
1,700
17.0
1,380
13.8

150
2,850
19.0
2,220
14.8

200
3,900
19.5
3,150
15.8

300
6,200
20.7
5,000
16.7

500

8,400
16.8

text: Power

text: Incandescent lamps are nearly pure resistive loads with a power factor of 1. This means the actual power consumed (in watts) and the apparent power (in volt-amperes) are equal. Incandescent light bulbs are usually marketed according to the electrical power consumed. This is measured in watts and depends mainly on the resistance of the filament, which in turn depends mainly on the filament's length, thickness, and material. For two bulbs of the same voltage, type, color, and clarity, the higher-powered bulb gives more light.

text: The table shows the approximate typical output, in lumens, of standard incandescent light bulbs at various powers. Light output of a 230 V version is usually slightly less than that of a 120 V version. The lower current (higher voltage) filament is thinner and has to be operated at a slightly lower temperature for same life expectancy, and that reduces energy efficiency.[113] The lumen values for "soft white" bulbs will generally be slightly lower than for clear bulbs at the same power.

text: Current and resistance

text: The actual resistance of the filament is temperature dependent. The cold resistance of tungsten-filament lamps is about 1/15 the hot-filament resistance when the lamp is operating. For example, a 100-watt, 120-volt lamp has a resistance of 144 ohms when lit, but the cold resistance is much lower (about 9.5 ohms).[62][114] Since incandescent lamps are resistive loads, simple phase-control TRIAC dimmers can be used to control brightness. Electrical contacts may carry a "T" rating symbol indicating that they are designed to control circuits with the high inrush current characteristic of tungsten lamps. For a 100-watt, 120-volt general-service lamp, the current stabilizes in about 0.10 seconds, and the lamp reaches 90% of its full brightness after about 0.13 seconds.[115]

text: Carbon filament bulbs have the opposite characteristic. The resistance of a carbon filament is higher when it is cold than when it is operating. In the case of a 240 Volt, 60 Watt carbon filament bulb, the resistance of the filament when at operating temperature is 960 Ohms, but rises to around 1500 Ohms when cold.[citation needed]

text: Physical characteristics

text: Bulb shapes

text: Incandescent light bulbs come in a range of shapes and sizes. The names of the shapes vary somewhat from region to regions. Many of these shapes have a designation consisting of one or more letters followed by one or more numbers, e.g. A55 or PAR38. The letters represent the shape of the bulb. The numbers represent the maximum diameter, either in  1⁄8 of an inch, or in millimeters, depending on the shape and the region. For example, 63 mm reflectors are designated R63, but in the US, they are known as R20 (2.5 in).[116] However, in both regions, a PAR38 reflector is known as PAR38[citation needed]. ANSI C79.1-2002, IS 14897:2000[117] and JIS C 7710:1988[118] cover a common terminology for bulb shapes.

text: Examples

text:
description
metric
imperial
details

"standard" lightbulb
A60 E26
A19 E26
⌀60 mm (~⌀2.375") A series bulb, ⌀26 mm Edison screw[a]

candle-flame bulb
CA35 E12
CA11 E12
⌀25 mm (~⌀1.375") candle-flame shape, ⌀12 mm Edison screw[a]

flood light
BR95 E26
BR30 E26
⌀95 mm (~⌀3.75") flood light, ⌀26 mm Edison screw[a]

halogen track-light bulb
MR50 GU5.3
MR16 GU5.3
⌀50 mm (~⌀2") multifaceted reflector, 5.33 mm-spaced 12 V bi-pin connector

text: Common shapes:

text: Lamp bases

text: Very small lamps may have the filament support wires extended through the base of the lamp, and can be directly soldered to a printed circuit board for connections. Some reflector-type lamps include screw terminals for connection of wires. Most lamps have metal bases that fit in a socket to support the lamp and conduct current to the filament wires. In the late 19th century, manufacturers introduced a multitude of incompatible lamp bases. General Electric introduced standard base sizes for tungsten incandescent lamps under the Mazda trademark in 1909. This standard was soon adopted across the US, and the Mazda name was used by many manufacturers under license through 1945. Today most incandescent lamps for general lighting service use an Edison screw in candelabra, intermediate, or standard or mogul sizes, or double contact bayonet base. Technical standards for lamp bases include ANSI standard C81.67 and IEC standard 60061-1 for common commercial lamp sizes, to ensure interchangeablitity between different manufacturer's products. Bayonet base lamps are frequently used in automotive lamps to resist loosening due to vibration. A bipin base is often used for halogen or reflector lamps.[121]

text: Lamp bases may be secured to the bulb with a cement, or by mechanical crimping to indentations molded into the glass bulb.

text: Miniature lamps used for some automotive lamps or decorative lamps have wedge bases that have a partial plastic or even completely glass base. In this case, the wires wrap around to the outside of the bulb, where they press against the contacts in the socket. Miniature Christmas bulbs use a plastic wedge base as well.

text: Lamps intended for use in optical systems such as film projectors, microscope illuminators, or stage lighting instruments have bases with alignment features so that the filament is positioned accurately within the optical system. A screw-base lamp may have a random orientation of the filament when the lamp is installed in the socket.

text: Light output and lifetime

text: Incandescent lamps are very sensitive to changes in the supply voltage. These characteristics are of great practical and economic importance.

text: For a supply voltage V near the rated voltage of the lamp:

text:
Light output is approximately proportional to V 3.4
Power consumption is approximately proportional to V 1.6
Lifetime is approximately proportional to V −16
Color temperature is approximately proportional to V 0.42[122]

text: This means that a 5% reduction in operating voltage will more than double the life of the bulb, at the expense of reducing its light output by about 16%. This may be a very acceptable trade off for a light bulb that is in a difficult-to-access location (for example, traffic lights or fixtures hung from high ceilings). Long-life bulbs take advantage of this trade-off. Since the value of the electric power they consume is much more than the value of the lamp, general service lamps emphasize efficiency over long operating life. The objective is to minimize the cost of light, not the cost of lamps.[62] Early bulbs had a life of up to 2500 hours, but in 1924 a cartel agreed to limit life to 1000 hours.[123] When this was exposed in 1953, General Electric and other leading American manufacturers were banned from limiting the life.[124]

text: The relationships above are valid for only a few percent change of voltage around rated conditions, but they do indicate that a lamp operated at much lower than rated voltage could last for hundreds of times longer than at rated conditions, albeit with greatly reduced light output. The "Centennial Light" is a light bulb that is accepted by the Guinness Book of World Records as having been burning almost continuously at a fire station in Livermore, California, since 1901. However, the bulb emits the equivalent light of a four watt bulb. A similar story can be told of a 40-watt bulb in Texas that has been illuminated since 21 September 1908. It once resided in an opera house where notable celebrities stopped to take in its glow, and was moved to an area museum in 1977.[125]

text: In flood lamps used for photographic lighting, the tradeoff is made in the other direction. Compared to general-service bulbs, for the same power, these bulbs produce far more light, and (more importantly) light at a higher color temperature, at the expense of greatly reduced life (which may be as short as two hours for a type P1 lamp). The upper temperature limit for the filament is the melting point of the metal. Tungsten is the metal with the highest melting point, 3,695 K (6,191 °F). A 50-hour-life projection bulb, for instance, is designed to operate only 50 °C (122 °F) below that melting point. Such a lamp may achieve up to 22 lumens per watt, compared with 17.5 for a 750-hour general service lamp.[62]

text: Lamps designed for different voltages have different luminous efficacy. For example, a 100-watt, 120-volt lamp will produce about 17.1 lumens per watt. A lamp with the same rated lifetime but designed for 230 V would produce only around 12.8 lumens per watt, and a similar lamp designed for 30 volts (train lighting) would produce as much as 19.8 lumens per watt.[62] Lower voltage lamps have a thicker filament, for the same power rating. They can run hotter for the same lifetime before the filament evaporates.

text: The wires used to support the filament make it mechanically stronger, but remove heat, creating another tradeoff between efficiency and long life. Many general-service 120-volt lamps use no additional support wires, but lamps designed for "rough service" or "vibration service" may have as many as five. Low-voltage lamps have filaments made of heavier wire and do not require additional support wires.

text: Very low voltages are inefficient since the lead wires would conduct too much heat away from the filament, so the practical lower limit for incandescent lamps is 1.5 volts. Very long filaments for high voltages are fragile, and lamp bases become more difficult to insulate, so lamps for illumination are not made with rated voltages over 300 volts.[62] Some infrared heating elements are made for higher voltages, but these use tubular bulbs with widely separated terminals.

text:
The Centennial Light is the longest-lasting light bulb in the world.

Various lighting spectra as viewed in a diffraction grating. Upper left: fluorescent lamp, upper right: incandescent bulb, lower left: white LED, lower right: candle flame.


document_title: She's Gotta Have It (TV series)

question_text: who played opal in she's gotta have it

question_tokens: who played opal in she 's got ta have it

root

text: She's Gotta Have It (TV series)

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
DeWanda Wise as Nola Darling[4]
Anthony Ramos as Mars Blackmon[5]
Lyriq Bent as Jamie Overstreet[6]
Cleo Anthony as Greer Childs[7]
Chyna Layne as Shemekka Epps[8](season 2; recurring season 1)[9]

tag: ul

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Margot Bingham as Clorinda Bradford
Ilfenesh Hadera as Opal Gilstrap[8]
Kim Director as Vicky Street[10]
Sydney Morton as Cheryl Overstreet[11]
Elise Hudson as Rachel[12]
De'Adre Aziza as Raqueletta Moss
Elvis Nolasco as Papo
Heather Headley as Dr Jamison[13]
Fat Joe as Winnie Win[14]

text: Music[edit]

text: The song "Black Girl Magic" by Chrisette Michele was going to be played in the show, however Lee removed it after she performed at the inauguration of Donald Trump.[15]

tag: p

text: Episodes[edit]

text: This section's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (January 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
No.
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date

1
"#DaJumpoff (DOCTRINE)"
Spike Lee
Spike Lee
November 23, 2017 (2017-11-23)

Artist Nola Darling's romantic life in gentrified Brooklyn is characterized by sexual freedom as she juggles three open-relationships with married Jamie, care-free Mars, and cocky Greer. She takes jobs, such as being a dog walker, to be able to pay for her apartment in Brooklyn. She also spends time with friends Clorinda Bradford, who previously dated Mars, Shemeka, and Rachel for her born-day. Later on, we then see Jamie in his office trying to call Nola while she happens to be sleeping with Mars. After they finish, Mars asks her if he as good in bed as her other lovers and states that she has a lot of space under her bed for all of his Air Jordans, implying that he wants their relationship to progress. He also states that he would like to buy Nola a brownstone so she would no longer have to rent. Nola then spends time with Greer, who is a photographer. He asks her if she is her only sex buddy and calls her a sex addict. She responds by stating "I'm a grown-ass woman. I can't enjoy sex?" [16] They have a back-and-forth where Nola asks if she should quit Greer cold turkey if she is indeed an addict. He then asks her to meet him in the shower. Later, Jamie and Nola discuss the structure of their relationship. He leaves upset when Nola brings up his complicated home life. Next, Nola and Clorinda meet to smoke weed and talk about how Nola broke the girl code by getting with Mars. Clorinda questions if Nola has thought about slowing down sexually and if it gets confusing juggling all of her lovers. As she is walking home that night, she is grabbed by a man trying to make advances towards her. She breaks free and runs home where she again smokes marijuana to calm down and begins to cry. Nola then gives a monologue about Akira Kurosawa's 1950's film Rashomon. She states that she has a Rashomon-like effect on her lovers, as they all view her differently. She proclaims that she will not allow Jamie, Greer, and Mars to paint who she is and that she has to look within herself for happiness. She states that if the three men want to continue on within relationships with her, it is going to be on her own terms. Finally, she states that she is not a freak, sex addict or anybody's property. Next, Nola is seen installing an art exhibit inspired by her recent attack. She puts up posters with various sayings such as "My name isn't dimepiece," as well as a photograph of a woman with an afro. The episode ends with Nola stating "My name is Nola Darling. Peace, two fingers. #BlackLivesMatter."
Songs feautured in episode: Between the Sheets (song) by The Isley Brothers, Set it Off by Strafe (band), Pretty Wings by Maxwell, Tender Love by Force MDs and Golden (Jill Scott song) by Jill Scott.

2
"#BootyFull (SELF ACCEPTANCE)"
Spike Lee
Radha Blank
November 23, 2017 (2017-11-23)

The episode opens with Nola giving a monologue about the black female form. She states that she wants to paint a portrait of featuring her friend Shemekka because she is representative of a Brooklyn-based black feminine style.During the painting of the portrait, Shemekka reveals that she met Nola at a house party when Nola spilled a drink on her.
Songs feautured in episode: The Seed (2.0) by The Roots, Losing You by Solange Knowles

3
"#LBD (LITTLE BLACK DRESS)"
Spike Lee
Lynn Nottage
November 23, 2017 (2017-11-23)

Songs feautured in episode: You Make Me Feel So Young by Frank Sinatra, Autumn Serenade by John Coltrane and Johnny Hartman, Keep Looking by Sade and Anytime by Brian McKnight. Nola presents her " Little Black Dress," in her three encounters with the men she is dating.

4
"#LuvIzLuv (SEXUALITY IS FLUID)"
Spike Lee
Eisa Davis
November 23, 2017 (2017-11-23)

Nola decides for the time being, she does not want a man in her loving bed. The audience is then introduced to Opal Gilstrap, a former love interest of Nola. She and Nola rekindle their sexual relationship. The pair spend more time with each other and Nola speaks about Opal with her therapist. While Nola and Opal are on the street, they run into Greer, and Nola acts embarrassed by Opal. Opal has a daughter, and she and Nola begin to bond, but she promises to see her before her bedtime and arrives too late.Opal is upset at Nola's lack of commitment, and they end their fling. Looking at the upside of things, Nola makes it to the second round of the Catlett Prize.
Songs featured in episode: Say Yes by Floetry, I Still Haven't Found What I'm Looking For by Rhythms Del Mundo, U2 and Coco Freeman, Fool of Me by Meshell Ndegeocello

5
"#4MyNegusAndMyBishes (ALL WORDS MATTER)"
Spike Lee
Barry Michael Cooper
November 23, 2017 (2017-11-23)

Nola embarks on her new journey as an art teacher. She faces many challenges along the way. As for Shemekka, she decides to make a drastic change for her dance career to take off.

6
"#HeGotItAllMixedUp (DYSLEXIA)"
Spike Lee
Cinqué Lee
November 23, 2017 (2017-11-23)

7
"#HowToMakeLoveToANegroWithoutGettingTired"
Spike Lee
Joie Lee
November 23, 2017 (2017-11-23)

Greer opens up the episode about his first encounter with Nola. But now he's ready to be exclusive.

8
"#LoveDontPayDaRent (IF YOU DON’T KNOW ME BY NOW)"
Spike Lee
Barry Michael Cooper
November 23, 2017 (2017-11-23)

The episode opens with a montage of characters reacting to the election of Donald Trump as well as article clippings and photographs of the new president. We then cut to Nola smoking on her bed when she receives a call from Greer asking if he can come over. Nola tells Greer that she has sold one of her paintings, but when he asks her out to lunch she declines; they instead have sex. While sleeping with Greer, she calls out "Overstreet," which is Jamie's last name. She makes up an excuse and brushes his questions off. We then cut to Jamie's wife sitting in his office waiting for him. She shows Jamie a picture on her phone of the self-portrait he purchased from Nola and asks "Who is this woman in the portrait?" She confronts Jamie about the $10,000 check made out to a Nola Darling. They have a back-and-forth which culminates in Sheryl leaving angrily. Next, Nola is seen trying to purchase art supplies when her debit card is declined. Her rent check has also bounced, causing her landlord to give a two-day eviction notice. Nola angrily calls Jamie to ask him why he would cancel the check. Jamie responds by saying he will fix the situation in which Nola replies that she wants her painting back. Trying to make up the money to pay her rent, Nola tries to sell some of her artwork in front of her brownstone apartment to some tourists to no avail.
Songs featured in episode: I Know by Dionne Farris, Mercy by Prefab Sprout, Outta Here by KRS-One

9
"#ChangeGonCome (GENTRIFICATION)"
Spike Lee
Radha Blank
November 23, 2017 (2017-11-23)

Songs featured in episode:This Woman's Work by Maxwell, Faithful by Meshell Ndegeocello

10
"#NolasChoice (3 DA HARD WAY)"
Spike Lee
Spike Lee
November 23, 2017 (2017-11-23)

While Nola's parents are celebrating Thanksgiving with family, she decides to invite Mars, Jamie and Greer over for dinner.
Songs featured in episode: Be Real Black For Me by Roberta Flack and Donny Hathaway, Raspberry Beret by Prince

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: She’s Gotta Have It has received positive reviews from critics. On Metacritic the show currently holds a score of 77 out of 100, based on 16 critics, indicating “generally favorable reviews”.[17] On Rotten Tomatoes it currently holds a 87% “Certified Fresh” rating. The site’s consensus reads: “Fun, fascinating and feminist, Spike Lee's classic is born again for a new generation.”[18]


document_title: List of National Football League career passing yards leaders

question_text: who has the most passing yards in the nfl history

text: Players with at least 30,000 passing yards[edit]

text:
Key

^
Inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame

*
Denotes player who is still active in the NFL

text: Through end of 2017 season.

text:
Rank
Player
Team(s) by season
Yards

1
Manning, PeytonPeyton Manning
Indianapolis Colts (1998–2011)
Denver Broncos (2012–2015)
71,940

2
Favre, BrettBrett Favre^
Atlanta Falcons (1991)
Green Bay Packers (1992–2007)
New York Jets (2008)
Minnesota Vikings (2009–2010)
71,838

3
Brees, DrewDrew Brees*
San Diego Chargers (2001–2005)
New Orleans Saints (2006–present)
70,445

4
Brady, TomTom Brady*
New England Patriots (2000–present)
66,159

5
Marino, DanDan Marino^
Miami Dolphins (1983–1999)
61,361

6
Manning, EliEli Manning*
New York Giants (2004–present)
51,682

7
Elway, JohnJohn Elway^
Denver Broncos (1983–1998)
51,475

8
Roethlisberger, BenBen Roethlisberger*
Pittsburgh Steelers (2004–present)
51,065

9
Rivers, PhilipPhilip Rivers*
San Diego/Los Angeles Chargers (2004–present)
50,348

10
Moon, WarrenWarren Moon^
Houston Oilers (1984–1993)
Minnesota Vikings (1994–1996)
Seattle Seahawks (1997–1998)
Kansas City Chiefs (1999–2000)
49,325

11
Tarkenton, FranFran Tarkenton^
Minnesota Vikings (1961–1966, 1972–1978)
New York Giants (1967–1971)
47,003

12
Palmer, CarsonCarson Palmer
Cincinnati Bengals (2003–2010)
Oakland Raiders (2011–2012)
Arizona Cardinals (2013–2017)
46,247

13
Testaverde, VinnyVinny Testaverde
Tampa Bay Buccaneers (1987–1992)
Cleveland Browns (1993–1995)
Baltimore Ravens (1996–1997)
New York Jets (1998–2003, 2005)
Dallas Cowboys (2004)
New England Patriots (2006)
Carolina Panthers (2007)
46,233

14
Bledsoe, DrewDrew Bledsoe
New England Patriots (1993–2001)
Buffalo Bills (2002–2004)
Dallas Cowboys (2005–2006)
44,611

15
Fouts, DanDan Fouts^
San Diego Chargers (1973–1987)
43,040

16
Ryan, MattMatt Ryan*
Atlanta Falcons (2008–present)
41,796

17
Collins, KerryKerry Collins
Carolina Panthers (1995–1998)[a])
New Orleans Saints (1998)
New York Giants (1999–2003)
Oakland Raiders (2004–2005)
Tennessee Titans (2006–2010)
Indianapolis Colts (2011)
40,922

18
Montana, JoeJoe Montana^
San Francisco 49ers (1979–1992)
Kansas City Chiefs (1993–1994)
40,551

19
Unitas, JohnnyJohnny Unitas^
Baltimore Colts (1956–1972)
San Diego Chargers (1973)
40,239

20
Rodgers, AaronAaron Rodgers*
Green Bay Packers (2005–present)
38,502

21
Krieg, DaveDave Krieg
Seattle Seahawks (1980–1991)
Kansas City Chiefs (1992–1993)
Detroit Lions (1994)
Arizona Cardinals (1995)
Chicago Bears (1996)
Tennessee Oilers (1997–1998)
38,147

22
Esiason, BoomerBoomer Esiason
Cincinnati Bengals (1984–1992)
New York Jets (1993–1995)
Arizona Cardinals (1996)
Cincinnati Bengals (1997)
37,920

23
McNabb, DonovanDonovan McNabb
Philadelphia Eagles (1999–2009)
Washington Redskins (2010)
Minnesota Vikings (2011)
37,276

24
Hasselbeck, MattMatt Hasselbeck
Green Bay Packers (1998–2000)
Seattle Seahawks (2001–2010)
Tennessee Titans (2011–2012)
Indianapolis Colts (2013–2015)
36,638

25
Flacco, JoeJoe Flacco*
Baltimore Ravens (2008–present)
35,780

26
Kelly, JimJim Kelly^
Buffalo Bills (1986–1996)
35,467

27
Cutler, JayJay Cutler
Denver Broncos (2006–2008)
Chicago Bears (2009–2016)
Miami Dolphins (2017–present)
35,133

28
Everett, JimJim Everett
Los Angeles Rams (1986–1993)
New Orleans Saints (1994–1996)
San Diego Chargers (1997)
34,837

29
Stafford, MatthewMatthew Stafford*
Detroit Lions (2009–present)
34,749

30
Hart, JimJim Hart
St. Louis Cardinals (1966–1983
Washington Redskins 1984)
34,665

31
DeBerg, SteveSteve DeBerg
San Francisco 49ers (1978–1980)
Denver Broncos (1981–1983)
Tampa Bay Buccaneers (1984–1987, 1992–1993[b])
Kansas City Chiefs (1988–1991)
Miami Dolphins (1993)
Atlanta Falcons (1998)
34,241

32
Romo, TonyTony Romo
Dallas Cowboys (2003–2016)
34,183

33
Hadl, JohnJohn Hadl
San Diego Chargers (1962–1972)
Los Angeles Rams (1973–1974[c])
Green Bay Packers (1974–1975)
Houston Oilers (1976–1977)
33,503

34
Simms, PhilPhil Simms
New York Giants (1979–1993)
33,462

35
Young, SteveSteve Young^
Tampa Bay Buccaneers (1985–1986
San Francisco 49ers (1987–1999)
33,124

36
Aikman, TroyTroy Aikman^
Dallas Cowboys (1989–2000)
32,942

37
Anderson, KenKen Anderson
Cincinnati Bengals (1971–1986)
32,838

38
Warner, KurtKurt Warner^
St. Louis Rams (1998–2003)
New York Giants (2004)
Arizona Cardinals (2005–2009)
32,344

39
Jurgensen, SonnySonny Jurgensen^
Philadelphia Eagles (1957–1963)
Washington Redskins (1964–1974)
32,224

40
Brunell, MarkMark Brunell
Green Bay Packers (1993–1994)
Jacksonville Jaguars (1995–2003)
Washington Redskins (2004–2006)
New Orleans Saints (2008–2009)
New York Jets (2010–2011)
32,072

41
Smith, AlexAlex Smith*
San Francisco 49ers (2005–2012)
Kansas City Chiefs (2013–present)
31,888

42
Brodie, JohnJohn Brodie
San Francisco 49ers (1957–1973)
31,548

43
McNair, SteveSteve McNair
Houston / Tennessee Oilers / Titans (1995–2005)
Baltimore Ravens (2006–2007)
31,304

44
Snead, NormNorm Snead
Washington Redskins (1961–1963)
Philadelphia Eagles (1964–1970)
Minnesota Vikings (1971)
New York Giants (1972–1974, 1976)
San Francisco 49ers (1974–1975)
30,797

text: Note: Y. A. Tittle passed for 33,070 yards in his professional career. However, 4,731 of those yards came in the All-America Football Conference (AAFC). The NFL does not recognize statistics and records accrued in the AAFC.[1][2] As such, his career passing yards total in the NFL stands at 28,339.[3]

text: Active players with 25,000–29,999 yards[edit]

text: Through end of 2017 season; numbers in yards

text:
Ryan Fitzpatrick, 26,991
Andy Dalton, 25,756
Cam Newton, 25,254

text: Historical passing yards leaders[edit]

text: Nine players are recognized as having held the record as the NFL's career passing yardage leader.[4] The longest record holder was Fran Tarkenton who held the record for 19 years.

text:
Reign
Player
Team(s) by season
Yards

1932–1943
(11 years)
Arnie Herber^
Green Bay Packers (1930–1940)
New York Giants (1944–1945)
8,041

1943–1959
(16 years)
Sammy Baugh^
Washington Redskins (1937-1952)
21,886

1959–1964
(5 years)
Bobby Layne^
Chicago Bears (1948)
New York Bulldogs (1949)
Detroit Lions (1950–1958)
Pittsburgh Steelers (1958–1962)
26,768

1964–1967
(3 years)
Y. A. Tittle^
Baltimore Colts (1948–1950)
San Francisco 49ers (1951–1960)
New York Giants (1961–1964)
28,339

1967–1976
(9 years)
Johnny Unitas^
Baltimore Colts (1956–1972)
San Diego Chargers (1973)
40,239

1976–1995
(19 years)
Fran Tarkenton^
Minnesota Vikings (1961–1966)
New York Giants (1967–1971)
Minnesota Vikings (1972–1978)
47,003

1995–2007
(12 years)
Dan Marino^
Miami Dolphins (1983–1999)
61,361

2007–2015
(8 years)
Brett Favre^
Atlanta Falcons (1991)
Green Bay Packers (1992–2007)
New York Jets (2008)
Minnesota Vikings (2009–2010)
71,838

2015–present
(2 years)
Peyton Manning
Indianapolis Colts (1998–2011)
Denver Broncos (2012–2015)
71,940


document_title: List of The Fosters characters

question_text: who plays zach's mom on the fosters

question_tokens: who plays zach 's mom on the fosters

text: List of The Fosters characters

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Actor
Character
Seasons

1
2
3
4
5
6

Main cast

Teri Polo
Stephanie "Stef" Adams Foster
Main

Sherri Saum
Lena Adams Fosters
Main

Jesus Adams Fosters
Jake T. Austin
Main

Noah Centineo

Main

Hayden Byerly
Jude Adams Fosters
Main

David Lambert
Brandon Foster
Main

Maia Mitchell
Callie Adams Foster
Main

Danny Nucci
Mike Foster A
Main

Cierra Ramirez
Mariana Adams Foster
Main

text: A In season 5, Danny Nucci is only credited on the episodes Mike appears but still in the opening titles.

text: Main characters[edit]

text: Stef Adams Foster[edit]

text: Stefanie "Stef" Marie Adams Foster (season 1–present) is a police officer. She and Mike Foster, her partner at work, are Brandon's biological parents. They divorced shortly after Stef met Lena and realized she's a lesbian and wanted to be with her. In a flashback in episode 9, when she first met the twins, it is shown that she has a very caring nature despite her tough appearance. At the end of episode 1x10, Stef and Lena are officially married, legally cementing their long-term union of ten years. Stef is very strong and tough, but is also very funny and loving. Callie initially doesn't feel comfortable around her due to her position as a cop, but gradually forms a close bond with her. While Stef likes to act tough around everyone, especially Lena, it is shown that she cares a great deal about her wife and family, although she won't hesitate to discipline her kids if need be.

text: Lena Adams Foster[edit]

text: Lena Elizabeth Adams Foster (season 1–present) is Stef's wife, Brandon's stepmother, and the other children's adoptive/foster mother. While neither she or Stef are really the dominant one in their relationship, Lena has a more motherly nature. She is good with kids and tries often to reason with her kids more so than punish them, despite Stef's usually "quick to act" nature. She is the biracial vice principal of the charter school the kids attend. In episode 8, she and Stef get into a fight about Lena wanting to be married and never discussing it, showing that while she is more a lover than a fighter she will defend herself, but more so around Stef than anyone else. It was Lena who decided to take Callie in after she was released from the juvenile detention center. Lena is very aware of the people around her and takes on the role of caring mother to all of the kids. She is artificially inseminated with co-worker Timothy's sperm, desiring to have a biological child of her own, and finds out she is pregnant shortly afterwards in the season 1 finale. However, in season 2, she is diagnosed with life-threatening preeclampisa and, consequently, loses the baby.

text: Jesus Adams Foster[edit]

text: Jesus Adams Foster "(season 1–present) 16, was one of the twins that Lena and Stef fostered as children and eventually adopted. He is the more laid-back of the twins. He had ADHD, for which he took medication. After a fainting spell caused by his pills in "House and Home", he decided with the suggestion of Mike to join the wrestling team to cope with negative effects of ADHD. He is close with his sister as they were both in the foster care system and he acted as her protector; however their personalities and values clash occasionally, causing many arguments. He even went as far to take the blame for her selling his pills to have money for their birth mom, Ana, who he feels disgust and resentment towards because she chose drugs over him and his sister. He starts dating Mariana's childhood best friend Lexi, in "Consequently" after defending her from a guy. He falls out with his sister in "Quinceanera" when she finds out he's been secretly dating Lexi and feels betrayed by Jesus for doing so. They make up in "The Fall-Out". He has sex with Lexi once in "The Morning After". His relationship with Lexi is on hold when she moves back to Honduras because her grandmother is sick and her family cannot find a way back as they are undocumented immigrants. He eventually moves on from their relationship and falls into a love triangle between wrestling mate Emma and popular girl Hayley.

text: Jude Adams Foster[edit]

text: Jude Adams Foster (season 1–present) is Callie's 13-year-old half brother, who Callie and Brandon rescue from an abusive foster home. He is a quiet child with somewhat more optimistic views on foster homes than Callie, though he has been moved from foster home to foster home along with his sister and been abused as well. Once he is moved into the Fosters' home, he quickly begins to adjust to the new lifestyle and becomes more talkative and energetic. At school, he develops a close friendship with a handsome and kind-hearted boy named Connor, a growing relationship which prompts Jude to begin questioning his sexuality.[6][7] As the series progresses, Jude turns 13 and is subsequently adopted by Lena and Stef, although a technicality regarding Callie's birth certificate prevents her from being adopted along with him. He deals with the emotional impact of Callie becoming close to her biological family, but realizes that she will always be with him no matter what. He later develops a romance with his best friend, Connor, and the two begin dating in the season 2 finale. In the mid-season 3 finale the two admit they love each other for the first time after Connor considers moving to Los Angeles to live with his more accepting mother. Then a little more after that Taylor asked if Jude wanted to go to church then meets a boy named Noah then he asks Jude if he wants to try pot so they are not allowed to see each other.

text: Brandon Foster[edit]

text: Brandon Foster (season 1–present) is the 17-year-old son of Stef and her ex-husband, Mike. He is one of Callie's love interests. He is very talented musically, specifically with the piano, and writes piano pieces which he presents for chances at scholarships. He has been shown to have an unsteady relationship with his father, Mike, due to the fact that Mike is a struggling alcoholic and has disappointed him many times through his childhood and teen years. At the start of Season 1, Brandon has a girlfriend named Talya, but breaks up with her because of his growing feelings for Callie and his annoyance and anger at her harassment and jealousy directed at Callie. For most of the first season, Brandon continues to pursue Callie romantically, even though she warned him that she could be kicked out of the house if they got involved. Brandon continues to make reckless decisions, included violating a restraining order, in order to be with Callie. Ultimately, he accepts that Callie needs a family more than a relationship, and eventually agrees to a mutual break up. He eventually joins a band and begins a relationship with bandmate Lou.

text: Callie Adams Foster[edit]

text: Callie Adams Foster (season 1–present), 17, is one of the Foster family's new foster children. Callie is headstrong and tough as a result of being in the foster system since she was a child, but holds a soft spot for her younger brother Jude. She was sent to Juvie for destroying a car in order to protect him from their foster father's abuse. After she is released from Juvie and placed with the Fosters, Callie and Brandon rescue Jude, who is subsequently fostered by the Foster family as well. Callie has had a hard life— her mother is dead and her father is in jail and she has been abused in many ways in the foster care system. She initially has trouble opening herself up to her new family, but she slowly comes to love and accept them as her "forever" family. Initially, Callie opens up mainly to Brandon, and the two develop a romantic relationship, although it is forbidden by the rules of the foster system, which soon meets a heartbreaking end. Callie also holds an on-again, off-again relationship with a classmate named Wyatt. Unfortunately, after the Fosters decide to adopt Callie and Jude, Callie learns that the man she thought was her father (Donald Jacob) is not. She then pursues to meet her biological father, as well as her half-sister who looks as if she could be her identical twin. In the episode "Lucky" from season 3, she is officially adopted and an "Adams Foster"

text: Mike Foster[edit]

text: Michael "Mike" Foster (season 1-present) is a San Diego police sergeant, Brandon's father, and Stef's ex-husband and ex-police patrol partner. As the series progresses, it is revealed that Mike has a drinking problem, but joins AA to cope with it. A frequent visitor to the Foster household, Mike is familiar with his son's family. Toward the end of the first season, he started dating Dani, who helped him to keep his sobriety. However, he soon discovers that Dani had sex with a drunken Brandon one night and arrests her for statutory rape. Since then, Mike helps Ana come to terms with her addiction and live a clean life.

text: Mariana Adams Foster[edit]

text: Mariana Adams Foster (season 1–present) is Jesus's 16-year-old twin sister. She was fostered as a young child, and eventually adopted, by Lena and Stef. She is very smart and girly, and cares about her appearance very much. She is popular and social, likes to gossip, and speaks Spanish fluently. She is naive when it comes to certain topics - especially her birth mother, but she smartens up about her when finally realizing she was using her for money. She changes herself for guys and friends like in "The Morning After" when she sees that an old friend, Garrett is cute now and writes poetry, she goes to a Poetry Slam with him, and pierces her nose herself for him since he was hanging out with a girl who was dressed much edgier than Mariana. Also, in season 2, she dyes her hair blonde to fit in when making it on a dance team only to overhear the other girls say she only did because she is Latina. However, she eventually gains the confidence in herself to not give in to what other people say and make her feel. Mariana has a thing for the bad boys later on in the seasons and she gets caught up into some trouble. Her ex-boyfriend Nick gets put into a mental hospital because of her.

text: Recurring and minor characters[edit]

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Actor
Character
Seasons

1
2
3
4
5
6

Recurring and Guest cast

Alexandra Barreto
Ana Gutierrez
Recurring

Amanda Leighton
Emma Kurtzman
Recurring

Daffany Clark
Daphne Keene
Recurring
Guest

Gavin MacIntosh
Connor Stevens
Recurring
Guest

Alex Saxon
Wyatt
Recurring
Guest

Guest

Jay Ali
M. Timothy
Recurring

Guest

Marla Sokoloff
Danielle "Dani" Kirkland
Recurring

Rosie O'Donnell
Rita Hendricks
Recurring
Guest
Recurring

Tom Phelan
Cole
Recurring
Guest

Guest

Cherinda Kincherlow
Kiara
Recurring
Guest

Alicia Sixtos
Carmen Cruz
Recurring
Guest

Annamarie Kennoyer
Becka
Recurring
Guest

Reiley McClendon
Vico Cerar
Recurring
Guest

Madisen Beaty
Talya Banks
Recurring

Guest

Bianca A. Santos
Lexi Rivera
Recurring

Guest

April Parker-Jones
Captain Roberts
Recurring

Guest

Anne Winters
Kelsey
Recurring

Julian de la Celle
Zachary Rogers
Recurring

Lorraine Toussaint
Dana Adams
Guest

Annie Potts
Sharon Elkin
Guest

Adam Kang
Aiden
Guest

Guest

Michael Traynor
Craig
Guest

Guest

Brandon W. Jones
Liam Olmstead
Guest

Michael Patrick McGill
Coach Spears
Guest

Annika Marks
Monte Porter

Recurring

Jordan Rodrigues
Mat Tan

Recurring
Guest

Kerr Smith
Robert Quinn

Recurring
Guest

Ashley Argota
Lucy "Lou" Chan

Recurring
Guest

Bailee Madison
Sophia Quinn

Recurring
Guest

Jack DePew
Jasper Landry

Recurring
Guest

Caitlin Carver
Hayley Heinz

Recurring
Guest

Valerie Dillman
Jill Quinn

Recurring
Guest

Chris Bruno
Adam Stevens

Recurring
Guest

Hannah Kasulka
Kaitlyn Reihl

Recurring

Samantha Logan
Tia Stephens

Recurring

Izabela Vidovic
Taylor

Guest
Recurring

Marlene Forte
Elena Gutierrez

Guest

Tony Plana
Victor Gutierrez

Guest

Guest

Judy Kain
Lauren

Guest

Guest

Madison Pettis
Daria

Guest

Alberto De Diego
Rafael

Guest

Tom Williamson
AJ Hensdale

Recurring

Brandon Quinn
Gabriel "Gabe" Duncroft

Recurring

Denyse Tontz
Cortney Strathmore

Recurring
Guest

Louis Hunter
Nick Stratos

Recurring
Guest

Chris Warren
Ty Hensdale

Recurring
Guest

Tanner Buchanan
Jack Downey

Recurring
Guest

Keean Johnson
Tony

Recurring

Kelli Williams
Justina Marks

Recurring

Pepi Sonuga
Sally Benton

Recurring

Benjamin and Alexander Freitas
Mason Strathmore

Guest
Recurring
Guest

Mark Totty
Craig Stratos

Guest
Recurring
Guest

Various babies
Isabella Gutierrez

Guest

Elliot Fletcher
Aaron Baker

Recurring

Kalama Epstein
Noah

Recurring

Alex Skuby
Joe Gray

Recurring
Guest

Meg DeLacy
Grace

Guest
Recurring

Jared Ward
Drew Turner

Guest
Recurring

Adam Irigoyen
Kyke Snow

Guest

Mercedes Colon
Margo Velasquez

Guest

Lisseth Chavez
Ximena Sinfuego

Recurring

Reggie Austin
Dean Bayfield

Recurring

Kristen Ariza
Teresa "Tess" Bayfield

Recurring

Christopher Meyer
Logan Bayfield

Recurring

Nandy Martin
Poppy Sinfuego

Recurring

Nick Fink
Shawn

Recurring

text: Characters[edit]

text:
Annika Marks as Monte Porter (season 2-present), the principal at Anchor Beach Community Charter School. An attractive, personable professional woman, Monte wants to focus on administration, budget and finance, giving Lena control over student curriculum.
Bianca A. Santos as Lexi Rivera (season 1, season 3): Mariana's best friend and Jesus' ex-girlfriend who moves to Honduras in "Honeymoon". She is also an undocumented immigrant.[5]
Jordan Rodrigues as Mat (season 2-present): A guitarist in Lou's band. Mariana has a small crush on him and they soon begin a relationship together.[8]
Alex Saxon as Wyatt (season 1-present): Callie's friend and on-again, off-again boyfriend. In "I Do" Wyatt reveals that his mother is moving him to Indiana to live with his grandmother.[9] He returns in "Metropolis" and resumes his relationship with Callie.
Madisen Beaty as Talya Banks (season 1, season 3): Brandon's girlfriend in the beginning of the series before the two broke up. Brandon broke up with her due to her intense jealousy over Callie. After this, she remains Callie's enemy.
Alexandra Barreto as Ana Gutierrez (season 1-present): Mariana and Jesus' biological mother. She is a drug addict, and repeatedly tries to manipulate Mariana into giving her money to support her addiction. She even suggests that Mariana steal something from her parents in order to obtain more money for herself. Mike helps her to finally become sober and it is later revealed that she is pregnant and hopes to be a better mother than she was to Mariana and Jesus.
April Parker Jones as Captain Roberts (season 1, season 4): Stef and Mike's boss.
Anne Winters as Kelsey (season 1): A girl who is sent to a rehab after having problems with drugs. She is a friend of Mariana's, and after coming back from rehab, becomes her enemy because they both liked the same guy.[10]
Brandon W. Jones as Liam Olmstead (season 1-present): A boy from one of Callie's previous foster homes. Liam raped Callie while she was living with his family as a foster child and lied that she came onto him, resulting in her and Jude being forced out of the home.[11][12]
Justina Machado as Sofia "Sophia" Rivera (season 1): Lexi's protective and religious mother. Despite being religious, she and her husband support the LGBT community.[13]
Carlos Sanz as Ernesto Rivera (season 1): Sofia's husband and Lexi's father.
Gavin MacIntosh as Connor Stevens (season 1-season 3): Jude's classmate, best friend and, later, love interest, who accepts Jude as he is and encourages him to express his true personality. In season two, he informs Jude that his dad thinks Jude is gay and doesn't want him to spend time with Jude anymore because of it. Despite pressure from his dad, the two were able to maintain a friendship together. Later, it's revealed that the two boys kissed while on a school camping trip in their shared tent together, a moment they have ignored ever since. As their friendship continues to evolve, their relationship becomes complicated. In the episode "Now Hear This", they kiss on-screen for the first time and at the end of the next episode, Connor is shot in the foot and, in the next episode, officially comes out to his father and Jude. After finally being able to see Jude, they begin to officially date. In the mid-season 3 finale, Connor decides to move to Los Angeles to live with his mother due to his father's continuing homophobia and inability to accept him. Though both are heartbroken, Connor and Jude agree to maintain a long-distance relationship and profess their love for each other for the first time.
Amanda Leighton as Emma (season 1-present): A girl on Jesus' wrestling team who is known to be independent, semi-bossy and tom-boyish. She is a love interest for Jesus and the two began dating, but broke up due to her bossiness in their relationship.
Julian De La Celle as Zac Rogers (season 1): A boy who worked on the school play with Mariana and was her first boyfriend. They dated until he had to move away to live with his dad when his mother was diagnosed with early on Alzheimer's.
Garrett Clayton as Chase (season 1, season 3): Mariana's former love interest and star of the high school play.
Jay Ali as Timothy (season 1-present): Callie's and Talya's literature teacher. They call him by his first name.[14] He was Stef and Lenas' new baby's biological father before the baby died due to pregnancy complications.
Mary Mouser as Sarah (season 1-2): A foster child in Callie's foster child support group who was staying with Liam and his family. Callie became worried for her safety upon learning Liam was with her. She was then taken out of Liam's home after Callie confessed to Lena and Stef about Liam assaulting her.
Sam McMurray as Frank Elkin (season 1): Stef's late father, who struggled to accept Stef's relationship with Lena. He dies in "Family Day", deeply affecting Stef who regretted never making amends with him.
Annie Potts as Sharon Elkin (season 1-present): Stef's supportive mother and ex-wife of Frank.
Lorraine Toussaint as Dana Adams (season 1-present): Lena's mother who is oblivious to Lena's biracial struggles. The two have something of a rocky relationship, due to Dana not seeing Lena as a "real" African American woman, but Dana is there for Lena when she needs it.
Stephen Collins/Bruce Davison as Reverend Stuart Adams (season 1-present): Lena's father.
Daffany Clark as Daphne (season 1-present): A girl in Callie's group home who becomes one of her best friends. She has a young daughter who she intends to get back one day.
Rosie O'Donnell as Rita Hendricks (season 1-present): A leader of a group home who befriends Callie.
Tom Phelan as Cole (season 1-present): A transgender boy in Callie's group home.
Cherinda Kincherlow as Kiara (season 1-present): Callie's roommate as well as house sponsor while Callie is at Girls United. She offers Callie advice on how to survive at Girls United.
Marla Sokoloff as Dani (season 1-2): Mike's girlfriend and recovering alcoholic. She wants to help Brandon out in his daily struggles, even supporting his relationship with Callie until she breaks up with him. After she and Mike break up, she ends up having sex with a drunken Brandon. After this, she later gets back together with Mike. Despite trying to convince him to keep their one night stand a secret, Brandon confesses about having sex with her, therefore getting Dani arrested for statutory rape.
Romy Rosemont as Amanda Rogers (season 1): Zac's mother who suffers from Early-onset Alzheimer's disease.
Reiley McClendon as Vico (season 1-2): A boy on the wrestling team that brings Brandon in on the fake ID's. After Brandon scares away all of his customers, he seeks revenge by jumping Brandon at night and breaking his hand. He is now attending military school and is on probation.
Caitlin Carver as Hayley Heinz (season 2-present): A dancer with Mariana on the dance team who has a secret relationship with Jesus before being dumped by him.
Kerr Smith as Robert Quinn (season 2-present): Callie's biological father. He grows attached to Callie after getting to know her and, despite promising to hand her over to the Fosters, finds himself unable to give her up. He soon refuses to sign his abandonment papers, devastating Callie.
Bailee Madison as Sophia Quinn (season 2-present): Robert Quinn's other daughter and Callie biological paternal half-sister, who wants to meet her. They develop a close relationship. In the summer finale, she reveals that when Robert tried to send the adoption papers, she ripped them up and threw them out so Callie couldn't get adopted. After an upset Callie yells at Sophia, calling her a "spoiled little brat", Sophia locks herself in the bathroom in tears.
Ashley Argota as Lou (season 2-present): An attractive singer in whom Brandon takes an interest.[15]