document_title: National symbols of England

question_text: why is the rose the symbol of england

question_tokens: why is the rose the symbol of england

text: National symbols of England

text: Flags[edit]

text:
The national flag of England, known as St George's Cross, has been England's national flag since the 13th century. Originally the flag was used by the maritime state the Republic of Genoa. The English monarch paid a tribute to the Doge of Genoa from 1190 onwards, so that English ships could fly the flag as a means of protection when entering the Mediterranean. A red cross acted as a symbol for many Crusaders in the 12th and 13th centuries. It became associated with Saint George, along with countries and cities, which claimed him as their patron saint and used his cross as a banner.[1] Since 1606 the St George's Cross has formed part of the design of the Union Flag, a Pan-British flag designed by King James I.[2][2]

The Royal Banner of England[3] (also known as the Banner of the Royal Arms,[4] the Banner of the King) is the English banner of arms; it features the Royal Arms of England. This Royal Banner differs from England's national flag, St George's Cross, in that it does not represent any particular area or land, but rather symbolises the sovereignty vested in the rulers thereof.[5]

text: Flora and fauna[edit]

text:
The Barbary lion is a national animal of England. In the Middle Ages, the lions kept in the menagerie at the Tower of London were Barbary lions.[6] English medieval warrior rulers with a reputation for bravery attracted the nickname "the Lion": the most famous example is Richard I of England, known as Richard the Lionheart.[7] Lions are frequently depicted in English heraldry, either as a device on shields themselves, or as supporters. They also appear in sculpture, and sites of national importance. The lion is used as a symbol of English sporting teams, such as the England national cricket team.[8]

The oak is the national tree of England,[8] representing strength and endurance. The Royal Oak and Oak Apple Day commemorate the escape of King Charles II from the grasps of the parliamentarians after his father's execution; he hid in an oak tree to avoid detection before making it safely into exile. The Major Oak is an 800- to 1000-year-old oak in Sherwood Forest, fabled as the principal hideout of Robin Hood.[9]

The rose is England's national flower. Usually red,[8] it is used, for instance, in the emblems of the English Golf Union and England national rugby union team.

text: Food and drink[edit]

text:
Fish and chips has been a recognisable cultural and culinary symbol of England since the mid-19th century.[8] A strong contender for the unofficial title of England's national dish, it remains hugely popular as an affordable and nutritious takeaway meal.

Roast beef and Yorkshire pudding is a widely consumed part of English cuisine, and is symbolic of England.[8] It is another contender for the title of England's national dish.

Tea is symbolic of England.[8] In 2006, a government-sponsored survey confirmed that a cup of tea constituted a national symbol of England.[10] By an alternative view, it may be considered symbolic of Britain rather than England alone for its historical British connection with Empire and India,[11] and is not specifically pre-Union of the Crowns or pre-Union of Parliaments. It is also drunk widely and equally in England, Scotland and Wales.

text: Heraldry[edit]

text:
The Royal Arms of England[12] is a coat of arms symbolising England and the English monarchs.[13] Designed in the High Middle Ages, the Royal Arms was subject to significant alteration as the territory, politics and rule of the Kingdom of England shifted throughout the Middle Ages. However, the enduring blazon, or technical description, is "Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or armed and langued Azure",[5][14] meaning three horizontally positioned, identical gold lions facing the observer, with blue tongues and claws, on a deep red background. Although officially subsumed into the heraldry of the British Royal Family in 1707, the historic Royal Arms featuring three lions continues to represent England on several coins of the pound sterling, forms the basis of several emblems of English national sports teams (such as the England national football team),[15][16] and endures as one of the most recognisable national symbols of England.[13]

St Edward's Crown was one of the English Crown Jewels and remains one of the senior Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom, often being used as the coronation crown.[17] Since 1952, two-dimensional representations of the crown have been used in coats of arms, badges, and various other insignia to indicate the authority of the monarch throughout the Commonwealth realms.

The Tudor rose, which takes its name from the Tudor dynasty, was adopted as a national emblem of England around the time of the Wars of the Roses as a symbol of peace.[18] It is a syncretic symbol in that it merged the white rose of the Yorkists and the red rose of the Lancastrians - cadet branches of the Plantagenets - who went to war over control of the royal house. It is also known as the Rose of England.[19]

text: Literature[edit]

text:
Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1342/43-1400): "the first finder of our language", his Middle English collection of 24 stories The Canterbury Tales remains among the greatest poetic works of English literature.[20]

Charles Dickens (1812-1870): Generally considered the greatest English novelist of the Victorian era, his numerous works include: A Christmas Carol, Great Expectations, and Oliver Twist.[21]

George Orwell (Eric Arthur Blair, 1903-1950): English novelist, essayist, and critic whose politically founded works include the allegorical novella Animal Farm and dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four.[22]

William Shakespeare (1564-1616): English poet, dramatist, and actor often called the English national poet and commonly regarded as the greatest dramatist of all time.[23]

text: Military[edit]

text:
Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658): English soldier and statesman, who raised England's status once more to that of a leading power following a decline after the death of Queen Elizabeth I. A man of outstanding gifts, he believed deeply in religious toleration, and continued to influence political and social ideas until recent times.[24]

Horatio Nelson (1758-1805): Naval commander whose great success in battle, combined with his humanity as a commander, earned him godlike status in his lifetime. After his death at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, he was enshrined in popular myth and iconography. [25] Nelson's column in London's Trafalgar Square was constructed between 1840 and 1843.

Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington (1769-1852): Commander of the British Army during the Napoleonic Wars, he first rose to military prominence in India, won successes in the Peninsular War in Spain (1808–14), and triumphed over Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo (1815); later prime minister (1828–30).[26]

text: Motor vehicles[edit]

text:
AEC Routemaster bus: Double-decker bus designed by London Transport and built by the Associated Equipment Company (AEC) and Park Royal Vehicles; popular with the public, and a perennial favourite with tourists.[27]

Rolls-Royce Limited motor cars (1906-1973) and the Spirit of Ecstasy bonnet ornamnet: the original English company established a reputation worldwide for superior engineering quality and all-round elegance, earning widespread recognition for producing the "best car in the world".[28]

London taxi / black cab / Hackney carriage: Inimitable and timeless taxi design. Only licensed hackney carriages can pick up passengers on the street and without pre-booking. London's traditional black cabs are specially constructed vehicles designed to conform to the standards set out in the Conditions of Fitness. Traditional London taxi drivers are licensed and must have passed an extensive training course (the Knowledge).[29]

text: Music[edit]

text:
The Beatles: Arguably the most significant musical and cultural force of the twentieth century.[30][31]

William Byrd (c.1539/40 or 1543 - 1623): So-called "father of English music"; A. L. Rowse says Byrd was to music "what Shakespeare was to the theatre".[32]

Edward Elgar (1857-1934): Elgar's status as a symbol of artistic inspiration was celebrated on the English £20 banknote, 1999-2010.[33] Elgar's numerous compositions include the music of the stirring patriotic song "Land of Hope and Glory".[34]

text: Myth and folklore[edit]

text:
King Arthur: legendary sovereign of the late 5th and early 6th centuries who appears in a cycle of chivalric romances (known as the Matter of Britain). It is not known how his legend originated or whether the figure Arthur was based on a historical person.[35]

John Bull: a national personification of the U.K. in general and England in particular, Bull is typically represented in literature and political caricature of the 18th century and after as well-intentioned, frustrated, full of common sense, and entirely of native country stock.[36]

Robin Hood is a heroic outlaw in English folklore.[37]

text: People[edit]

text:
Alfred the Great was King of Wessex, becoming the dominant ruler in England.[38]

Winston Churchill (1874-1965): voted top of the BBC's 2002 100 Greatest Britons poll, Churchill is among the most influential people in English history.[8]

Saint George (280-303 AD): the patron saint of England.[1]

Queen Victoria (1819-1901): her reign (1837-1901) is known as the Victorian era; it was a period of great industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change, and was marked by a grand expansion of the British Empire.[39]

text: Miscellaneous[edit]

text:
Big Ben is the nickname for the Great Bell of the clock at the north end of the Palace of Westminster in London, and often extended to refer to the clock and the clock tower. The tower is officially known as Elizabeth Tower: it was renamed in 2012 to celebrate the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II. Previously it was known simply as the Clock Tower. "Big Ben" has become one of England's most prominent symbols.[40]

Buckingham Palace is the London residence and administrative headquarters of the reigning monarch of the United Kingdom. The palace is often the site of state occasions, and has been a focal point at times of national celebration and mourning.[41]

Coldstream Guards: The oldest regiment in the Regular Army in continuous active service, its origin lies in the English Civil War when Oliver Cromwell gave Colonel George Monck permission to form his own regiment as part of the New Model Army.[42]

Morris dancing is a form of English folk dance normally accompanied by music. It involves rhythmic stepping and choreographed figures by a group of dancers, usually wearing bell pads on their shins. Morris dancers may use sticks, swords and handkerchiefs when dancing. The earliest known, surviving English record of Morris dancing is dated to 1448.[43]

The White Cliffs of Dover: The cliffs have great symbolic value in England because they face Continental Europe across the narrowest section of the English Channel, where invasions have historically threatened and against which the cliffs form a symbolic guard. Before air travel, crossing from Dover was the primary route to the continent, so the cliffs also formed the first or last sight of England for those making the journey.[44]


document_title: National Security Council

question_text: what is the purpose of the national security council

root

text: National Security Council

text: A National Security Council (NSC) is usually an executive branch governmental body responsible for coordinating policy on national security issues and advising chief executives on matters related to national security. An NSC is often headed by a national security advisor and staffed with senior-level officials from military, diplomatic, intelligence, law enforcement and other governmental bodies. The functions and responsibilities of an NSC at the strategic state level are different from those of the United Nations Security Council, which is more of a diplomatic forum.

tag: p

text: Occasionally a nation will be ruled by a similarly named body, such as "the National Security Committee" or "Council for National Security". These bodies are often a result of the establishment or preservation of a military dictatorship (or some other national crisis), do not always have statutory approval, and are usually intended to have transitory or provisional powers. See also: coup d'état.

text: Some nations may have a similar body which is not formally part of the executive government. For example, the Central National Security Commission in China is an organ of the Communist Party of China, the sole ruling party, rather than an organ of the executive government.

text: NSCs by country[edit]

text:
Australia: National Security Committee
Armenia: National Defense Council
Bangladesh: Armed Forces Division
Brazil: National Defense Council
Burma: National Defence and Security Council
Canada: National Security Advisor (Canada)
People's Republic of China: Central National Security Commission of the Communist Party of China
Croatia: National Security Council (Croatia)
Czech Republic: National Security Council of the Czech Republic
East Germany: National Defense Council of East Germany
Egypt: National Security Council
Estonia: National Defence Council
Fiji: National Security Council (Fiji)
France: Secretariat-General for National Defence and Security
Georgia: National Security Council of Georgia
Germany: Bundessicherheitsrat (Federal Security Council), prior to 1969 Bundesverteidigungsrat (Federal Defense Council)
Ghana: National Security Council (Ghana)
India: National Security Council (India)
Iran, Islamic Republic of: Supreme National Security Council
Ireland (Republic of): National Security Committee (Ireland)
Israel: National Security Council (Israel)
Japan: National Security Council (Japan) (previously Security Council)
Korea, North: National Defense Commission (Democratic People's Republic of Korea)
Korea, South: National Security Council (South Korea)
Malaysia: National Security Division[1]
Mongolia: National Security Council (Mongolia)[2]
New Zealand: Cabinet National Security Committee[3][4]
Pakistan: National Security Council (Pakistan)
Philippines: National Security Council (Philippines)
Romania: Supreme Council of National Defense (Romania)
Russian Federation: Security Council of the Russian Federation
Saudi Arabia: National Security Council (Saudi Arabia)
Spain: National Security Council (Spain)
Sri Lanka: National Security Council of Sri Lanka
Republic of China (Taiwan): National Security Council (Republic of China)
Thailand: National Security Council (Thailand)
Turkey: National Security Council (Turkey)
Ukraine: National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine
United Kingdom: National Security Council (United Kingdom)[5][6]
United States: United States National Security Council
Uzbekistan: National Security Council under the President of Uzbekistan
Vietnam: Council for National Defense and Security

tag: ul


document_title: Golden Retriever

question_text: where does the golden retriever breed come from

text: Golden Retriever

text: Characteristics

text: The Golden Retriever is a large, strongly built breed with a dense, water-repellant wavy coat.[11] As a dog with origins in pedigree breeding, and owing to its widespread historical popularity, some regional variations have emerged in the breed; therefore, the three subtypes of the Golden Retriever reflect the typical variations in dimensions and coat. However, all Golden Retrievers are blonde, yellow, or gold in colour, and all subtypes are susceptible to the same health problems.[12]

text: British

text: British-type Golden Retrievers are prevalent throughout Europe and Australia.[13] The skull is broader and the forequarters are more muscular than in other types. The muzzle is balanced and well chiseled. The coat is generally lighter in color than in the American types. Males stand between 22 to 24 in (56 to 61 cm) at the withers; females are between 20 to 22 in (51 to 56 cm). Acceptable or expected weights are not specified in the UK standard, but the Kennel Club standard calls for a level topline and straight hindquarters without the slight rear angulation found in American lines.[14][15]

text: The eyes are round and dark, which is in contrast to the triangular or slanted composition of their American counterparts. British Golden Retrievers can have a coat colour of any shade of gold or cream; red or mahogany are not permitted. Originally, cream was an unacceptable colour in the UK standard, but the standard was revised in 1936 to include cream. At the time of this revision, the exclusion of cream as a colour was agreed to as a mistake, as the original "yellow" retrievers of the 19th century were actually lighter in colour than was permitted by the standards used before 1936. As with American lines, white is an unacceptable colour in the show ring.[16] The British Kennel Club standard is used in all countries except the USA and Canada.[15] Golden retrievers have muscular bodies with great endurance, owing to their origins as hunting and gundogs.

text: American

text: American types are lankier and less muscular than other types, males stand between 23 and 24 in (58 and 61 cm) in height at the withers; females are 21.5 to 22.5 in (55 to 57 cm) tall. Their coats are darker in color and occur in various shades of lustrous gold with moderate feathering. When trotting, they have a free, smooth, powerful, and well-coordinated gait; as the dog runs, its feet converge towards the center of the line of balance.[17] The American standard also makes requirements about the proportion, substance, head and skull, neck, body, topline, forequarters, and hindquarters; in these respects, the American-type Retriever is the same as Golden Retrievers that conform to other national standards. American breeders of Golden Retrievers sometimes import their dogs from Britain to take advantage of the temperament and appearance of the British types.

text: Canadian

text: The Canadian Golden Retriever has a thinner and darker coat and stands taller than other types. Males stand 23 and 24 in (58 and 61 cm) in height at withers; and females 21.5 to 22.5 in (55 to 57 cm). Weight for males is between 29–34 kg (65-75 lb); and females between 27–32 kg (60-70 lb).[18]

text: Coat and colour

text: As indicated by their name, their coats occur in light golden to dark golden colours. The topcoat is water-resistant and slightly wavy, and sheds in small amounts throughout the year. The undercoat is soft and keeps the retriever cool in summer and warm in winter; it sheds in the spring and fall.[19] It usually lies flat against the belly. The Golden's coat should never be too long, as this may prove to be a disservice to it in the field, especially when retrieving game.[20] Golden Retrievers have mild feathering on the backs of their fore legs and heavier feathering on the fronts of their necks, backs of their thighs and the bottoms of their tails.[4]

text: The American Kennel Club (AKC) standard states the coat is a "rich, lustrous golden of various shades", disallowing extremely light or extremely dark coats. This leaves the outer ranges of coat colour up to a judge's discretion when competing in conformation shows. Therefore, "pure white" and "red" are unacceptable, as is black.[16] The Kennel Club (UK) also permits cream as an acceptable coat colour.[14] Judges may also disallow Goldens with pink noses, or those lacking pigment. The Golden's coat can also be mahogany, referred to as "redhead", although this is not accepted in the British show ring.[14]  As a Golden grows older, its coat can become darker or lighter, along with a noticeable whitening of the fur on and around the muzzle. Puppy coats are usually much lighter than their adult coats, but a puppy with darker ear tips may indicate a darker adult color.

text:
Golden Retrievers vary in colour, with a fair-haired dog shown here beside a mahogany one

The coat is "rich, lustrous golden of various shades"

A four-month-old white Golden Retriever

A light golden puppy

A dark golden coat

Golden Retrievers (left) are often confused with Yellow Labs (right). One key difference is the much shorter hair of the Yellow Lab

text: Temperament

text: The temperament of the Golden Retriever is a hallmark of the breed, and is described in the standard as "kindly, friendly and confident".[14] Golden Retrievers make good family pets, particularly as they are patient with children.[4] They are not "one-man dogs" and are generally equally amiable with both strangers and those familiar to them.[22] Their trusting, gentle disposition makes them a poor guard dog.[23] Any form of unprovoked aggression or hostility towards either people, dogs or other animals, whether in the show ring or community, is considered unacceptable in a Golden Retriever and is not in keeping with the character of the breed, nor should a Golden Retriever be unduly timid or nervous.[17][22] The typical Golden Retriever is calm, naturally intelligent and biddable, and with an exceptional eagerness to please.

text: Golden Retrievers are also noted for their intelligence. The breed ranks fourth in Stanley Coren's The Intelligence of Dogs – following the Border Collie, Poodle, and German Shepherd – as one of the brightest dogs ranked by obedience-command trainability.

text: Typical Golden Retrievers are active and fun-loving animals with the exceptionally patient demeanour befitting a dog bred to sit quietly for hours in a hunting blind. Adult Goldens love to work, and have a keen ability to focus on a given task. They will work until they collapse, so care should be taken to avoid overworking them.

text: Other characteristics related to their hunting heritage are a size suited for scrambling in and out of boats and an inordinate love for water. Golden Retrievers are exceptionally trainable—due to their intelligence, athleticism and desire to please their handlers—and excel in obedience trials. They are also very competitive in agility and other performance events. Harsh training methods are unnecessary, as Golden Retrievers often respond very well to positive and upbeat training styles.[24]

text: Golden Retrievers are compatible with other dogs, cats, and most livestock. They are particularly valued for their high level of sociability towards people, calmness, and willingness to learn. Because of this, they are commonly used as guide dogs, mobility assistance dogs, and search and rescue dogs.

text: Health and lifespan

text: The average lifespan for a Golden Retriever is about 11 to 12 years.[27][28][29] The breed is susceptible to specific ailments, so pets should be taken to a veterinarian for yearly checkups.

text: Golden Retrievers are known to have genetic disorders and other diseases. Hip dysplasia is common in the breed; when buying a puppy, the pedigree should be known and be examined by the OFA or by PennHIP for hip disease. Obesity is also common in the breed because Golden Retrievers love to eat. Puppies should eat about three cups of food a day and adults three to five cups, depending on the food and how active the dog is.[19]

text: Common health problems

text: Cancer is the breed's biggest killer, causing 61.4% of American Golden deaths according to a 1998 health study conducted by the Golden Retriever Club of America. The most common is hemangiosarcoma, followed by lymphosarcoma, mast cell tumour, and osteosarcoma.[27] A 2004 survey by the UK Kennel Club puts this number at 38.8%.[28] Although most puppies are screened for the disorders before being sold (by reputable breeders), hip and elbow dysplasia afflict one-fifth of dogs.[30][31] Eye diseases are also possible in the breed; cataracts are the most common eye disease,[30] but they can also be afflicted with progressive retinal atrophy, glaucoma, distichiasis,[32] entropion,[32] corneal dystrophy,[32] and retinal dysplasia.[32]

text: They may suffer from heart disease, especially subvalvular aortic stenosis,[30] and cardiomyopathy and joint diseases, including patella luxation, osteochondritis, panosteitis, and cruciate ligament rupture. In addition to the heavy shedding they experience (and their constant lighter shedding throughout the year), Golden Retrievers can suffer from skin diseases; the most prevalent skin problem is allergies (often leading to acute moist dermatitis or "hot spots"), with the most common allergy being to fleas.[27] They can also suffer from seborrhoea, sebaceous adenitis, self-inflicted lick granuloma, and haemophilia.[33]

text: Grooming

text: Golden Retrievers require regular grooming and occasional baths.[4] Their coats shed somewhat during the year, but are known to shed profusely twice a year. They also need to have their ears cleaned regularly, or ear infections might occur. While shedding is unavoidable, frequent grooming (daily to weekly) lessens the amount of hair shed by the animal. Severe shedding resulting in bald patches can be indicative of stress or sickness.

text: Activities

text: The Golden Retriever's eagerness to please has made it a consistent, top performer in the obedience and agility rings. Its excellent swimming ability makes it proficient at dock jumping. A natural retrieving ability means it is also competitive in flyball and field trials.[5]

text: The first three dogs ever to achieve the AKC Obedience Champion title were Golden Retrievers; the first of the three was a female named 'Ch. Moreland's Golden Tonka'.[34]

text: Since Golden Retrievers are so trainable, they are used for many important jobs, such as guide dogs for blind people, drug or bomb sniffing at airports, or helping to rescuing people from earthquakes and other natural disasters.[19] This breed is also used in water rescue/lifesaving, along with the Leonberger, Newfoundland and Labrador Retriever dogs.[35]

text: Origins and history

text: The Golden Retriever was originally bred in Scotland in the mid-19th century.[3][5] At that time, wildfowl hunting was a popular sport for the wealthy Scottish elite, but the existing retriever breeds were inadequate for retrieving downed game from both water and land. Retrieving from both land and water was necessary because the hunting grounds of the time were pocketed with marshy ponds and rivers. Consequently, the best water spaniels were crossed with the existing retrievers, resulting in the establishment of the breed today known as the Golden Retriever.[36] The Golden Retriever was first developed near Glen Affric in Scotland, at "Guisachan", the highland estate of Dudley Marjoribanks, 1st Baron Tweedmouth.[37] For many years, what breeds were originally crossed was disputed, but in 1952, the publication of Marjoribanks' breeding records from 1835 to 1890 dispelled the myth concerning the purchase of a whole troupe of Russian tracker sheepdogs from a visiting circus; instead it details a careful line-breeding program.[5] Commonly, the breed is said to have originated from the Russian tracker.[38][39]

text: Improvements in guns during the 1800s resulted in more fowl being downed during hunts at greater distances and over increasingly difficult terrain, leading to more birds being lost in the field. Because of this improvement in firearms, a need for a specialist retriever arose, as training setter and pointer breeds in retrievals was found to be ineffective. Thus, work began on the breeding of the dog to fill this much-needed role.[22]

text: The original cross was of a yellow-coloured retriever, 'Nous', with a Tweed Water Spaniel female dog, 'Belle'.[40] The Tweed Water Spaniel is now extinct, but was then common in the border country. Marjoribanks had purchased Nous in 1865 from an unregistered litter of otherwise black wavy-coated retriever pups. In 1868, this cross produced a litter that included four pups; these four became the basis of a breeding program which included the Irish Setter, the sandy-coloured Bloodhound, the St. John's water dog of Newfoundland, and two more wavy-coated black retrievers. The bloodline was also inbred and selected for trueness to Marjoribanks' idea of the ultimate hunting dog. His vision included a more vigorous and powerful dog than previous retrievers, one that would still be gentle and trainable. Russian sheepdogs are not mentioned in these records, nor are any other working dog breeds. The ancestry of the Golden Retriever is all sporting dogs, in line with Marjoribanks' goals. The Golden Retriever was active and powerful and had a gentle mouth for retrieving games while on hunts.[4]

text: Organisations other than clubs are dedicated to Golden Retrievers, such as breed-specific adoption sites. One such organisation is the Golden Retriever Club of Scotland, which in August 2013 assembled 222 Golden Retrievers at the historical home of the first Golden Retrievers.[41]

text: In England

text: Golden Retrievers were first accepted for registration by The Kennel Club of England in 1903, as Flat Coats – Golden. They were first exhibited in 1908, and in 1911 were recognized as a breed referred to as Retriever (Golden and Yellow).

text: In the United States

text: It took another 14 years for the breed to be recognized in America, and in 1925, the American Kennel Club did so. In 1938, the Golden Retriever Club of America was founded. Golden Retrievers are ranked number two for American Kennel Club Registrations. As of the year 1999, 62,652 have been registered and the only breed above them is the Labrador Retriever.[42] According to the purebred dog guide recognized by the American Kennel Club, Golden Retrievers are judged based on a variety of traits: color, coat, ears, feet, nose, body, etc.[43]

text: In Canada

text: The Honourable Archie Marjoribanks took a Golden Retriever to Canada in 1881, and registered 'Lady' with the AKC in 1894. These are the first records of the breed in these two countries. The breed was first registered in Canada in 1927, and the Golden Retriever Club of Ontario (GRCO) was formed in 1958. The cofounders of the GRCO were Cliff Drysdale, an Englishman who had brought over an English Golden, and Jutta Baker, daughter-in-law of Louis Baker, who owned Northland Kennels.[44] The GCRO in later years expanded to become the Golden Retriever Club of Canada.

text: In Scotland

text: In July 2006, the Golden Retriever Club of Scotland organized a gathering of Golden Retriever enthusiasts at the ancestral home, Guisachan House. A photograph taken by photographer Lynn Kipps to commemorate the occasion captured 188 Golden Retrievers, and so holds the record for the most Golden Retrievers in one image.[45]

text: Notable dogs

text: Liberty, the presidential pet of President Gerald R. Ford,[46] and Victory, the presidential pet of Ronald Reagan,[47][48] were Golden Retrievers. The breed has also featured in a number of films and TV series, including the Air Bud film series, Full House, Homeward Bound: The Incredible Journey and Homeward Bound II: Lost in San Francisco, Fluke, Napoleon, Up, Pushing Daisies,  You've Got Mail, The Drew Carey Show, and Cats & Dogs. Cash from The Fox and the Hound 2 was also a mix of this breed, as was Whopper from Pound Puppies.[citation needed]

text: A female Golden Retriever named Goldie appeared on the UK BBC One children's programme Blue Peter from 1978 to 1986.[49] Monty Don, a presenter of the UK BBC Two gardening programme Gardeners' World has a male Golden Retriever called Nigel who appears with him most of the time on the programme.[50] A Golden Retriever portrayed the role of Levi, the hearing dog of the titular deaf FBI agent in Sue Thomas: F.B.Eye, based on the life of the real Sue Thomas.[citation needed]


document_title: Crescent

question_text: what is the shape of a crescent moon

question_tokens: what is the shape of a crescent moon

text: Crescent

text: Symbolism[edit]

text: The crescent symbol is primarily used to represent the Moon, not necessarily in a particular lunar phase. When used to represent a waxing or waning lunar phase, "crescent" or "increscent" refers to the waxing first quarter, while the symbol representing the waning final quarter is called "decrescent".

text: The crescent symbol was long used as a symbol of the Moon in astrology, and by extension of Silver (as the corresponding metal) in alchemy.[3] The astrological use of the symbol is attested in early Greek papyri containing horoscopes.[4] In the 2nd-century Bianchini's planisphere, the personification of the Moon is shown with a crescent attached to her headdress.[5]

text: Its ancient association with Ishtar/Astarte and Diana is preserved in the Moon (as symbolised by a crescent) representing the female principle (as juxtaposed with the Sun representing the male principle), and (Artemis-Diana being a virgin goddess) especially virginity and female chastity. In Roman Catholic tradition, the crescent entered Marian iconography, by the association of Mary with the Woman of the Apocalypse (described with "the moon under her feet, and on her head a crown of twelve stars" in Revelation) The most well known representation of Mary as the Woman of the Apocalypse is the Virgin of Guadalupe.

text: The symbol of the Crescent is an emblem of Islam. It denotes divine authority, increase, resurrection and, with a star, it denotes paradise. [6]

text: Shape[edit]

text: Examples of lunes in planar geometry (shaded areas). Examples in the top row can be considered crescent shapes.

tag: table

text: The crescent shape consists of a circular disk with a segment of another circle removed from its edge, so that what remains is a shape enclosed by two circular arcs of different diameters which intersect at two points (usually in such a manner that the enclosed shape does not include the center of the original circle). As such, it belongs to the class of figures known as lune in planar geometry. The tapering towards the points of intersection of the two arcs are known as the "horns" of the crescent. The classical crescent shape has its horns pointing upward (and is often worn as horns when worn as a crown or diadem, e.g. in depictions of the lunar goddess, or in the headdress of Persian kings, etc.[7]

text: The word crescent is derived etymologically from the present participle of the Latin verb crescere "to grow", technically denoting the waxing moon (luna crescens). As seen from the northern hemisphere, the waxing Moon tends to appear with its horns pointing towards the left, and conversely the waning Moon with its horns pointing towards the right; the English word crescent may however refer to the shape regardless of its orientation, except for the technical language of blazoning used in heraldry, where the word "increscent" refers to a crescent shape with its horns to the left, and "decrescent" refers to one with its horns to the right, while the word "crescent" on its own denotes a crescent shape with horns pointing upward.[8]

text: The shape of the lit side of a spherical body (most notably the Moon) that appears to be less than half illuminated by the Sun as seen by the viewer appears in a different shape from what is generally termed a crescent in planar geometry: Assuming the terminator lies on a great circle, The crescent Moon will actually apperar as the figure bounded by a half-ellipse and a half-circle, with the major axis of the ellipse coinciding with a diameter of the semicircle.

text: Unicode encodes a crescent (increscent) at U+263D (☽) and a decrescent at U+263E (☾). The Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs block provides variants with faces: FIRST QUARTER MOON WITH FACE at U+1F31B (🌛) and LAST QUARTER MOON WITH FACE at U+1F31C (🌜).

text: History[edit]

text: Early history[edit]

text: The crescent shape is used to represent the Moon, and the Moon deity Nanna/Sin from an early time, visible in Akkadian cylinder seals as early as 2300 BC.

text: The crescent was well used in the iconography of the Ancient Near East and was used transplanted by the Phoenicians in the 8th century BC as far as Carthage in modern Tunisia. The crescent and star also appears on pre-Islamic coins of South Arabia.[10]

text: The combination of star and crescent also arises in the Ancient Near East, representing the Moon and Ishtar (the planet Venus), often combined into a triad with the solar disk.[11] It was inherited both in Sassanian and Hellenistic iconography.

text: Classical Antiquity[edit]

text: In the iconography of the Hellenistic period, the crescent became the symbol of Artemis-Diana, the virgin hunter goddess associated with the Moon. Numerous depictions show Artemis-Diana wearing the crescent Moon as part of her headdress. The related symbol of the star and crescent was the emblem of the Mithradates dynasty in the Kingdom of Pontus and was also used as the emblem of Byzantium.

text:
Astarte with horns", statuette from Seleucid-era Mesopotamia.

Bust of Selene on a Roman sarcophagus (3rd century)

Taq-e Bostan, from the era of Sassanid Empire of Persia (pre-Islamic era). Note the crescent above the arch.

text: Middle Ages[edit]

text: The crescent remained in use as an emblem in Sassanid Persia, used as a Zoroastrian regal or astrological symbol. In the Crusades it came to be associated with the Orient (the Byzantine Empire, the Levant and Outremer in general) and was widely used (often alongside a star) in Crusader seals and coins. It was used as a heraldic charge by the later 13th century. Anna Notaras, daughter of the last Megas Doux of the Byzantine Empire Loukas Notaras, after the fall of Constantinople and her emigration to Italy, made a seal with her coat of arms which included Two Lions holding above the crescent a cross or a sword.[12]

text: From its use in Sassanid Persia, the crescent also found its way into Islamic iconography after the Muslim conquest of Persia. Umar is said to have two hung two crescent-shaped ornaments captured from the Sassanid capital Ctesiphon in the Kaaba.[13] The crescent appears to have been adopted as an emblem on military flags by the Islamic armies from at least the 13th century, although the scholarly consensus holds that the widespread use of the crescent in Islam develops later, during the 14th to 15th century.[14] The use of such flags is reflected in the 14th-century Libro del Conoscimiento and the Catalan Atlas. Examples include the flags attributed to Gabes, Tlemcen, Tunis and Buda,[15] Nubia/Dongola (documented by Angelino Dulcert in 1339) and the Mamluks of Egypt.[16]

text: The Roman Catholic fashion of depicting Madonna standing or sitting on a crescent develops in the 15th century.

text: Early modern and modern[edit]

text: Wikimedia Commons has media related to Women with a crescent on their head.

text: Wikimedia Commons has media related to Madonna on the crescent.

text: The goddess Diana was associated with the Moon in classical mythology. In reference to this, feminine jewelry representing crescents, especially diadems, became popular in the early modern period. The Tarot card of the "Popess" also wears a crescent on her head.

text: Conrad Grünenberg in his Pilgrimage to the Holy Land (1486) consistently depicts cities in the Holy Land with crescent finials.[17] Flags with crescents appear to have been used on Ottoman vessels since at least the 16th century. Prints depicting the Battle of Lepanto (1571), including the print by Agostino Barberigo of Rome made just a few weeks after the battle,[18] and the Martino Rota of Venice in the following year, show the Ottoman vessels displaying flags with one or several crescents in various orientations (as do the monumental paintings commissioned later based on these prints). Rota also shows numerous crescent finials, both on ships and on fortresses depicted in the background, as well as some finials with stars or suns radiant, and in some cases a sun radiant combined with a crescent in the star-and-crescent configuration. The official adoption of star and crescent as the Ottoman state symbol started during the reign of Mustafa III (1757–1774) and its use became well-established during Abdul Hamid I (1774–1789) and Selim III (1789–1807) periods. A buyruldu (decree) from 1793 states that the ships in the Ottoman navy have that flag.[19]

text: Muhammad Ali, who became Pasha of Egypt in 1805, introduced the first national flag of Egypt, red with three white crescents, each accompanied by a white star. The association of the crescent with the Ottoman Empire appears to have resulted in a gradual association of the crescent shape with Islam in the 20th century. A Red Crescent appears to have been used as a replacement of the Red Cross as early as in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877/8, and it was officially adopted in 1929. While some Islamic organisations since the 1970s have embraced the crescent as their logo or emblem (e.g. Crescent International magazine, established 1980), Muslim publications tend to emphasize that the interpretation of the crescent, historically used on the banners of Muslim armies, as a "religious symbol" of Islam was an error made by the "Christians of Europe".[20] The identification of the crescent as an "Islamic symbol" is mentioned by James Hastings as a "common error" to which "even approved writers on Oriental subjects" are prone as early as 1928.[21]

text:
Triple crescent badge of Henry II of France (Château d'Écouen)

Madonna on the crescent, Bad Waldsee church (17th century)

"Portrait of a Lady as Diana" by Pompeo Batoni (1760s)

The painting of the 1571 Battle of Lepanto by Tommaso Dolabella (c. 1632) shows a variety of naval flags with crescents attributed to the Ottoman Empire.

text: Heraldry[edit]

text: The crescent has been used as a heraldic charge since the 13th century. In heraldic terminology, the term "crescent" when used alone refers to a crescent with the horns pointing upward. A crescent with the horns pointing left (dexter) is called "a crescent increscent" (or simply "an increscent"), and when the horns are pointing right (sinister), it is called "a crescent decrescent" (or "a decrescent"). A crescent with horns pointing down is called "a crescent reversed". Two crescents with horns pointing away from each other are called "addorsed".[22] Siebmachers Wappenbuch (1605) has 48 coats of arms with one or more crescents, for example:[23]

text:
Azure, a crescent moon argent pierced by an arrow fesswise Or all between in chief three mullets of six points and in base two mullets of six points argent (von Hagen, p. 176);
Azure, an increscent and a decrescent addorsed Or (von Stoternheim, p. 146);
Per pale Or and sable, a crescent moon and in chief three mullets of six points counterchanged (von Bodenstein, p. 182).

text: In English heraldry, the crescent is used as a difference denoting a second son.[22]

text:
Three examples of coats of arms with crescents from the Dering Roll (c. 1270): No. 118: Willem FitzLel (Sable crusily and three crescents argent); no. 120: John Peche (Gules, a crescent or, on a chief argent two mullets gules); no. 128: Rauf de Stopeham (Argent, two (of three) crescents and a canton gules).

Coat of arms of the Neuamt bailiwick of Zürich (16th century).[24] Its reversed crescent was taken up in the 20th-century municipal coats of arms of Niederglatt, Neerach and Stadel (canton of Zürich).

text: Contemporary use[edit]

text: Wikimedia Commons has media related to Flags with crescents.

text: The crescent remains in use as astrological symbol and astronomical symbol representing the Moon. Use of a standalone crescent in flags is less common than the star and crescent combination. Crescents without stars are found in the South Carolina state flag (1861), the flag of the Maldives (1965), the flag of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (1981)[25] and the flag of the Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (c. 2002).

text: New Orleans is nicknamed The Crescent City, and a crescent, or crescent and star, is used to represent the city in official emblems.[26]

text: Crescents, often with faces, are found on numerous modern municipal coats of arms in Europe, e.g. Germany: Bönnigheim, Dettighofen, Dogern, Jesenwang, Karstädt, Michelfeld (Angelbachtal), Waldbronn; Switzerland: Boswil, Dättlikon, Neerach (from the 16th-century Neuamt coat of arms); France: Katzenthal, Mortcerf; Malta: Qormi; Sweden: Trosa.

text: The crescent printed on military ration boxes is the US Department of Defense symbol for subsistence items. The symbol is used on packaged foodstuffs but not on fresh produce or on items intended for resale.[27]

text: Since 1993, the crescent has also been in use as chaplain badge for Muslim chaplains in the US military.[2]

text: Other things called "crescent"[edit]

text: The term crescent may also refer to objects with a shape reminiscent of the crescent shape, such as houses forming an arc, a type of solitaire game, Crescent Nebula, glomerular crescent (crescent shaped scar of the glomeruli of the kidney).,[28][29] the Fertile Crescent (the fertile area of land between Mesopotamia and Egypt roughly forming a crescent shape), and the croissant (the French form of the word) for the crescent-shaped pastry.


document_title: Missionary (LDS Church)

question_text: what is the age limit to go on an lds mission

question_tokens: what is the age limit to go on an lds mission

text: Missionary (LDS Church)

text: Preparation to serve[edit]

text: Significance and basic qualifications[edit]

text: LDS Church president Spencer W. Kimball said, "Every young man should fill a mission".[4] Completing a mission is often described as a rite of passage for a young Latter-day Saint.[5][6][7][8] The phrase "the best two years of my life" is a common cliché among returned missionaries when describing their experience.[9][10] Although Gordon B. Hinckley had suggested that a mission is not to be a rite of passage,[11] this cultural aspect remains.[citation needed] With the usual starting age of 18–20, a mission provides a clear event or marker for the traditional age of adulthood, but is not necessary for continuance in church membership.

text: Young men between the ages of 18 and 25 who meet standards of worthiness are strongly encouraged to consider a two-year, full-time proselytizing mission. This expectation is based in part on the New Testament passage "Go ye therefore, and teach all nations" (Matt. 28: 19–20). The minimum age had previously been age 19 in most countries until October 6, 2012, when church president Thomas S. Monson announced that all male missionaries, regardless of nation, could serve from age 18.[12] Prior to the announcement, some countries held that male missionaries may be 18 years old because of educational or military requirements.[13] It was also announced that young women may serve beginning at age 19 instead of 21.[12] In 2007, approximately 30% of all 19-year-old LDS men became Mormon missionaries; from LDS families that are active in the church, approximately 80–90% of 19-year-old men serve a mission.[6]

text: In cases where an immediate family member dies, the missionary has the choice to travel home for the funeral or to remain on the mission.[citation needed] Missionaries can be sent home for violating mission rules, and occasionally missionaries choose to go home for health or various other reasons. However, the vast majority of missionaries serve the whole two-year (men) or eighteen-month (women) terms.[citation needed]

text: As of 2007, 80% of all Mormon missionaries were young, single men, 13% were young single women and 7% retired couples.[6] Women who would like to serve a mission must meet the same standards of worthiness and be at least 19 years old. Women generally serve as missionaries for 18 months. Married retired couples, on the other hand, are encouraged to serve missions, but their length of service may vary from 6 to 36 months depending on their circumstances and means.[14] Any single retired person may also be called to serve in what is known as senior missionary service. In the last two decades, the LDS Church has stepped up its call for senior couple missionaries.

text: Standards of worthiness[edit]

text: All missionaries must meet certain minimum standards of worthiness. Among the standards that a prospective missionary must demonstrate adherence to are: regular attendance at church meetings, regular personal prayer, regular study of the scriptures, adherence to the law of chastity (sexual purity), adherence to the Word of Wisdom (code of health and nutrition), payment of tithing, spiritual diligence and testimony of God.

text: Other exclusionary factors[edit]

text: In addition to spiritual preparedness, church bishops are instructed to ensure that prospective missionaries are physically, mentally, and emotionally capable of full-time missionary work. In the same speech where he called for "every young man" to fill a mission, Kimball added, "we realize that while all men definitely should, all men are not prepared to teach the gospel abroad."[4] Apart from general issues of worthiness and ability, there are a number of specific situations that will disqualify a person from becoming a full-time missionary for the LDS Church. Those excluded include those who would have to leave dependent children in the care of someone else; young couples who are still of childbearing age; those who are in debt and have not made arrangements to meet these obligations; those who are on legal probation or parole; couples with serious unresolved marital problems; those who are HIV-positive; and those who have been convicted of sexual abuse. Additionally, members who have submitted to, performed, encouraged, paid for, or arranged for an abortion (except in the case of rape, incest, or the mother's life is in danger) are usually excluded from missionary service, as are members who have fathered or borne a child out of wedlock; men under 26 and women under 40 who have been divorced; and anyone who has participated in homosexual activity after age 16.[15]

text: From the beginnings of the LDS Church, people of black African descent could be members of the church, but up until 1978 the LDS Church did not call men of black African descent to serve on missions, due to the ban on blacks holding the priesthood. The priesthood ban was lifted during Kimball's presidency and since 1978 there has been no restrictions to missionary service that are based on race or ethnicity.[16]

text: Mission call[edit]

text: After application to the church and the requisite approval, prospective missionaries receive a "call to serve"—an official notification of their location assignment—through the mail from the President of the Church. The mission call also informs the prospective missionary what language he or she will be expected to use during his or her mission. Members of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles are responsible for assigning missionaries to a particular mission. A prospective missionary receiving the call to serve is generally considered to be a major event in LDS culture; family members, friends, and members of the prospective missionary's congregation often gather together when a call arrives, which the prospective missionary opens and reads aloud to the group.

text: Temple attendance[edit]

text: Before beginning their mission, prospective male missionaries are usually ordained to the office of an elder in the Melchizedek Priesthood (if they do not hold this office already). All missionaries are set apart by the laying on of hands to preach the gospel; this is usually performed by the missionary's stake president. Prospective missionaries also usually attend the temple for the first time to receive their endowment if they have not already done so.

text: Training[edit]

text: Newly called missionaries attend a short training period at one of 15 church Missionary Training Centers (MTCs) worldwide.[17] The largest MTC is located in Provo, Utah,[18] adjacent to Brigham Young University. Missionaries who will not be learning a language in order to serve their missions spend three weeks at an MTC where they practice using proselytizing materials, learn expected conduct, and study the scriptures. Missionaries bound for foreign-language missions spend six to nine weeks at an MTC, depending on the language to be learned. During this period, they are encouraged not to speak in their native tongue but rather to immerse themselves in the new language.

text: Missionary conduct[edit]

text: The Missionary Handbook[edit]

text: The basic standards of missionary service and conduct are contained in the Missionary Handbook.[19] Missionaries are instructed that following these standards will protect them both physically and spiritually. Mission presidents have discretion to adjust some of the standards according to local circumstances.[19]:1 The Missionary Handbook is also commonly and informally referred to as "the white handbook" or "the white bible".[20]

text: Dress and grooming[edit]

text: Previously, full-time LDS missionaries were required to adhere to a dress code: for men, conservative, dark trousers and suit coats, white dress shirts, and conservative ties. For women, modest and professional dresses or blouses and mid-calf length skirts were worn.

text: In recent years,[when?] the LDS Church has updated their grooming standards. Young men are no longer required to wear dark suits, and they do not have to wear a full suit during regular everyday proselytizing activities. They must, however, remain in professional, conservative attire. For instance, a light colored suit is acceptable. They are also allowed to wear a sweater or suit vest over their dress shirt and are encouraged to wear colored ties.[21]

text: Sister missionaries may wear skirts and dresses that cover their knees. In areas infested with mosquitoes, particularly in Central and South America where the humidity yields infestations, sister missionaries are now permitted to wear slacks.[22] Young women are encouraged to dress in colors and patterns, and they may wear appropriate jewelry and accessories.[23]

text: In some areas these standards are altered slightly according to the discretion of the mission president. For example, in hot, humid climates, suit coats are not required, and dress shirts may be short-sleeved. Casual clothes may be worn only in limited circumstances, such as when missionaries provide manual labor or exercise.[24]

text: In 2016, the dress guidelines were updated to allow for "simple and conservative" sunglasses and "wide-brimmed hats" as part of a missionary's attire to provide missionaries protection from excessive heat.[25]

text: All full-time missionaries wear a name tag that gives their surname with the appropriate title ("Elder" or "Sister" in English-speaking areas, or their equivalent titles in other languages). The name tag also bears the church's name, unless the mission president considers this inadvisable due to circumstances in the area (e.g., adverse political conditions). Missionaries are required to wear the tag at all times in public.

text: This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (December 2013)

text: Companionships[edit]

text: A missionary companionship, consisting of two (or occasionally, three) missionaries, is the smallest organizational unit of a mission. Every missionary is assigned by the mission president to be another missionary's companion. Missionary companionships are generally maintained for months at a time and most missionaries will have served with multiple companions by the end of their mission. These companions very rarely have prior acquaintance outside of the mission. Companionships are always of the same gender.

text: Missionary companions are instructed to stay together at all times and not to go out of the hearing of their companion's voice.[19]:30–31 Privacy is allowed only for personal care such as showering. One of the intentions of this strict policy of staying together is to discourage missionaries from breaking any mission rules.[19]:31 Companions share the same living quarters and the same bedroom, but not the same bed.[19]:31

text: When companions have conflicting personalities or interests, they are encouraged to try to resolve them themselves. If a missionary's companion is having difficulty with the work or with personal problems, missionaries are instructed to give criticism constructively, in private and with respect.[19]:30 In dealing with a problem, missionaries are first to raise the issue with their companion and if it is not resolved, to raise it with the mission president. "A missionary's first priority is to the Lord, then to the mission president and finally to their companion", as the missionary handbook states.[19]:32 High value is placed on the spiritual commitment to the virtues of humility and love. Missionaries are urged to treat the companionship as a relationship that must succeed in being cooperative and selfless, thus improving the spirituality, character and social skills of each individual missionary.

text: Senior couples[edit]

text: Senior couples serve as a companionship for the entirety of their mission and have more relaxed rules. Unlike single missionaries, they share the same bed and are able to travel outside of the mission boundaries.

text: Personal relationships[edit]

text: Missionaries are encouraged to write a letter to their parents weekly. Since almost all of their time is otherwise occupied, other communication is limited. However, a missionary may use preparation day to correspond with any person that is resident outside of the boundaries of the mission. Missionaries do not go on vacation and are generally permitted to telephone their parents only on Christmas Day, and one other day of the year, usually Mother's Day.[19]:37 Missionaries are provided with a free, filtered church e-mail account to correspond with their parents on preparation day only by using a computer in a public location, such as at a public library or an internet café.[19]:20 In the event of an emergency, family members of a missionary may contact him or her via the mission president's office.

text: Single missionaries are prohibited from dating or courting while serving missions. The policy of companionships staying together at all times serves to discourage these activities. While missionaries may interact with members of the opposite sex, they may never be alone with them or engage in any kind of intimate physical or emotional activity (e.g., kissing, hugging, holding hands, flirting). They may not telephone, write, e-mail, or accept letters from members of the opposite sex that live in the area where they are assigned to proselytize.[19]:33 Missionary companionships are also asked not to visit with members of the opposite sex unless at least one person of the missionaries' same sex is present to chaperone.[19]:34 Alternatively, those contacts may be referred to a companionship of the same gender as the contact or to married couple missionaries, when available.

text: In the early days of the LDS Church, men were called to serve missions regardless of marital status. Today, however, married young men are not expected to serve missions, unless called to oversee a mission as a mission president. A call to be a mission president is typically extended to the married couple, and in turn, the entire family of the chosen mission president. Older retired couples also may serve as missionaries, but do not take their families with them.

text: Schedule[edit]

text:
Sample schedule of missionaries serving in their native language

Time

Activity
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Exercise

Eat

Shower and dress

Personal study

Companion study

Proselytize

Plan and pray

text: Generally, missionaries wake up at 6:30 am.[26] After praying, exercising (30 minutes), and eating breakfast, they spend two hours studying the scriptures and other materials. If they are teaching in a foreign language, they'll spend another 30 minutes to an hour studying the language. Missionaries leave their place of residence at 10 am to proselytize (or 10:30 am or 11 am if teaching in a foreign language). They have an hour for lunch and dinner, and return to their apartment by 9 pm, or 9:30 if they are in the process of teaching a lesson at the end of the day. They plan for the next day's activities, pray, and are encouraged to write in their personal journal, but are not required to. They then retire to bed at 10:30 pm.[19]:14–15[27][28]

text: On January 25, 2017, the church announced that schedules can be modified depending on the area in which missionaries serve.[29]

text: Media rules[edit]

text: Missionaries are admonished to "avoid all forms of worldly entertainment."[19]:24 Generally, they are not permitted to watch television, listen to the radio, watch or go to movies, or use the Internet[19]:25 (except to use email, and social media for their work, see Personal relationships above). They are not permitted to listen to music that has romantic lyrics or overtones, or merely entertains.[19]:25 The general interpretation of this guideline is to listen to only religious music, such as that performed by the Mormon Tabernacle Choir, though the rule's application has been variable in some missions. They are permitted to read only books, magazines, or other materials authorized by the church.[19]:27

text: These guidelines were updated in October 2017, when the church announced that in some missions, missionaries would be issued smart phones and be permitted to use technology on a wider scale. This is intended to enable the missionaries to more easily find "religiously minded people." [30]

text: Slang[edit]

text: Missionaries are instructed to avoid slang and casual language including when they are alone in their apartment and in their letters to family.[19]:8–9 They are also instructed to refer to missionary leaders by only their correct titles.[19]:9 However, as with the members of any organization, some missionaries use certain missionary-specific jargon when communicating with one another. Some words and expressions are mission- or language-specific, while others are universal, such as calling the halfway point of a mission the "hump" or hump day,[31] or describing a missionary who is excited about returning home as "trunky" as he has already packed his trunk.[32][33] Foreign-language missionaries often develop a "mission language", distinct from but combining aspects of their first and acquired languages, that they use when communicating with each other; the senkyoshigo of Japan is an example.[32]

text: Number of missionaries and number of converts[edit]

text: As of the end of 2016, there were 70,946 full-time LDS missionaries serving in 421 church missions throughout the world.[1] Their work, often in cooperation with local members, resulted in 240,131 convert baptisms in 2016.[1] Author David Stewart points out that the number of convert baptisms per missionary per year has fallen from a high of 8.03 in 1989 to just 4.67 in 2005.[34] He argues that the number of converts would increase if Mormon missionaries made greater efforts in meeting new people; he points out that the average pair of missionaries spends only four or five hours per week attempting to meet new people.[34]

text: Types of missionaries[edit]

text: Proselytizing[edit]

text: The most visible and most common type of missionaries are typically those who proselytize door-to-door and ride bicycles for transportation. For many years, Mormon missionaries used structured lessons called "missionary discussions" (formally called "The Uniform System for Teaching the Gospel") to teach interested non-members and recent converts about the doctrines of the LDS Church and to commit them on the steps to take to become a member of the church. Missionaries were often instructed to adhere very closely to the six lessons, and they frequently quoted segments word-for-word (an especially helpful practice when learning a foreign language). The training materials also instructed missionaries to freely change the order of the lessons segments according to the needs and questions of the learners.

text: The missionary discussions were replaced beginning in October 2004 by a guide called Preach My Gospel which places emphasis on "teaching by the Spirit".[35] According to Mormons, "teaching by the Spirit" means seeking guidance from the Holy Ghost to teach; the idea is that the teachings will be catered to each person who is seeking the truth through divine guidance. According to Preach My Gospel, God knows each of His children and can guide His servants to say and teach what is best for each individual.[28]:89–90

text: Despite the latitude given to missionaries, the guide still contains material which should be actively taught. Chapter 3 of Preach My Gospel concisely describes all of the doctrine that the missionaries are to teach to those learning about the church. The missionaries are responsible for knowing the doctrine and continually preparing to teach it. They can choose the order that this material is taught to serve the needs of each individual. This is a change from the missionary discussions which were usually taught in order to each investigator.

text: The book, now published in many languages,[36] is meant to be used by the general church membership. This sets it apart from the previous missionary discussions, which were used primarily by full-time missionaries, members with church callings related to missionary work, and those preparing to serve missions.[citation needed]

text: Online[edit]

text: According to The Huffington Post, the church has online missionaries, who work at a Referral Center Mission in Provo, Utah.[37] These missionaries use the "Chat with a Mormon" homepage to talk with potential converts.[38] The Salt Lake Tribune reported that these missionaries are more successful than traditional proselytizers.[39] Furthermore, The Huffington Post also reported that it is now permissible for missionaries to use SMS, blogs and Facebook.[37]

text: Church-service[edit]

text: Missionaries with special needs or health considerations may be called as full-time or part-time service missionaries. Many fully able missionaries are called to do genealogical research or act as tour guides or hosts at Temple Square or Family History libraries and other church sites. In many areas, even proselytizing missionaries spend most of their day responding to incoming phone calls and queries, delivering requested media from the church's television and radio commercials. Missionaries may use public transportation, walk, bicycle, or in some areas drive automobiles owned by the church, or occasionally ride within a private automobile with a church member who is accompanying them to a teaching appointment, proselytizing, or fellowshipping activity. At the end of 2016, there were 33,695 church-service missionaries.[1]

text: Humanitarian aid[edit]

text: The LDS Church also has a strong welfare and humanitarian missionary program. These humanitarian missionaries typically serve in impoverished areas of the world and do not actively proselytize. Humanitarian missionaries comply with any local laws regarding teaching or displaying religious symbols, including the identifying name tags. This allows them to provide services and aid in countries where activities by religious organizations are typically restricted or forbidden, such as in predominantly Muslim countries or in Southeast Asia. Regular proselytizing missionaries are asked to engage in welfare activities and community service, limited to four hours a week on days other than weekends or preparation day.[40]

text: Building missionaries were called by the president of the Tongan Mission in the early 1950s.[41] Among their major successes was building Liahona High School. From 1955 on, Wendell B. Mendenhall institutionalized building missionaries on a larger scale with skilled tradesmen called as supervisors of the missionaries. Most of the supervisors were Americans, while most of the workers were young men indigenous to the areas of the South Pacific and Latin America where the work was carried out. However, at times the situation was more complex. One example is Jose Alvarez, who was a native of Argentina, but had lived in the United States for three years when he was called to go with his family to Chile, where he served as a building missionary supervisor.[42] Often, trainee or assistant building supervisors would work under the leadership of an experienced supervisor in preparation for an assignment as a fully-fledged supervisor of some project or group of missionaries.

text: Administration[edit]

text: Organization[edit]

text: Every part of the world is assigned to be within a mission of the church, whether or not LDS missionaries are active in the area. An adult male mission president presides over the missionaries in the mission.

text: Most missions are divided into several zones, a zone being a geographic area specified by the mission president (though these are often the same area as the LDS ecclesiastical unit known as a "stake"). A zone encompasses several more organizational units called districts. Each zone and district is presided over by leaders drawn from male missionaries serving in that area. Zone and district leaders are responsible for gathering weekly statistics, assisting missionaries in their areas of responsibility, and general accountability to the mission president for the well-being and progress of the missionaries under their stewardship. A district typically encompasses four to eight missionaries, and may or may not comprise more than one proselytizing area. An area is typically a portion of the LDS ecclesiastical unit known as a ward (or congregation), one ward, or multiple wards.

text: In addition to the leaders mentioned above, the mission president has two or more assistants. Assistants to the President (APs) are typically missionaries who have previously served as district and/or zone leaders. They serve as the president's executive assistants, administering policies and helping missionaries throughout the mission.

text: The number of missions in the church typically varies from one year to the next. The First Presidency and Quorum of the Twelve Apostles determine when new missions are created, consolidated, or discontinued. In October 2017, the church announced that, in an effort to increase missionary safety, the number of missions would be consolidated.[30]. The extent of those consolidation plans is yet to be announced.

text: Expenses[edit]

text: Missionaries are expected to pay their own expenses while on the mission, often with assistance from family. In the past, each missionary paid his or her actual living expenses, but this approach created a disproportionate burden on missionaries who were assigned to more expensive areas of the world. In 1990, a new program was introduced to equalize the financial responsibility for each missionary and his or her family. Now, all young missionaries pay a flat monthly rate which is then redistributed according to regional costs of living. The cost of a mission varies based on the country of origin of the missionary; for missionaries from the United States, the cost is US$400 per month.[43][44] The monthly rate helps to cover food, lodging, transportation, and other mission related expenses. Missionaries are asked to bring extra personal money for any personal items they would like to purchase. Once the money is received by the church it is then redistributed to the missionaries in amounts proportionate to the cost of living within the assigned mission area.[citation needed] As families now contribute to a general fund for missionary expenses, the sum is deductible under many nations' tax policies regarding charitable gifts.

text: For health care, the church provides missionaries with limited medical care. A missionary will be required to pay for any medical treatment that is considered non-essential or that is considered to be associated with a preexisting condition. The local mission office will often help missionaries find Mormon doctors or dentists who can offer their services to missionaries for a small fee or for free.

text: Young people in the church are encouraged to save money throughout their childhood and teenage years to pay for as much of their mission as they can, although many receive assistance from parents, family, or friends. Missionaries who cannot save the required funds may obtain assistance from their home congregation or from a general missionary fund operated by the church and contributed to by Latter-day Saints around the world. Married couple missionaries are expected to pay their own costs,[45] but in 2011 the church began paying for missionary couples' housing expenses that exceed US$1400 per month.[14] In many areas, church members often invite locally assigned missionaries over for meals to help reduce the overall expenditures of the missionary program.

text: Returned missionaries[edit]

text:
Notable returned missionaries

Mitt Romney (France), businessman and politician

Ken Jennings (Spain), the US game show contestant with the second-largest winnings ever

Aaron Eckhart (Switzerland), actor

Stephen Covey (England), author of The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People

Jon Heder (Japan), actor known for title role in Napoleon Dynamite

Orson Scott Card (Brazil), author known for writing Ender's Game

text: A returned missionary (often abbreviated "RM") is a term used by members of the LDS Church to refer to men and women who have previously served as Mormon missionaries. Once they return home, RMs are generally encouraged to begin dating seriously and to seek marriage.[46][47][48] Those who learned to speak a foreign language must readjust, sometimes with difficulty, to speaking their first language.[32]

text: In Mormon culture, stereotypes and jokes abound regarding newly returned missionaries, most dealing with their difficulties in handling the reverse culture shock. Other stereotypes revolve around the fact that as missionaries, they lived highly structured, disciplined lives and avoided contact with members of the opposite sex, so many RMs have difficulty readjusting to social life and dating.[49] Other stereotypes include the supposed rush of many RMs to get married as soon as possible. Many families whose daughters are old enough to marry encourage them to date RMs.

text: Returned missionaries are frequently called to assist in the local missionary effort and are encouraged to stay active within the LDS Church through callings and service.[50] RMs who served in the same mission frequently stay in touch and often gather for mission reunions in Utah to coincide with the semiannual LDS General Conference.[51]

text: The notion of the Mormon mission as a crucible is a common one, and the benefits gained from going through it have been used to help explain the prominence of LDS Church members in business and civic life.[52][53][54][55] Mission experience has also helped prepare RMs for later engaging and prospering in non-Mormon environments.[56]

text: Alumni[edit]

text: Notable people who have served LDS missions include Aaron Eckhart (Switzerland/France),[57][58] Shawn Bradley (Australia),[59] Orson Scott Card (Brazil),[60] Stephen Covey (England),[61] Jon Heder (Japan),[62] Ken Jennings (Spain),[63] Elizabeth Smart (France),[64][65] Lindsey Stirling (NYC),[66] Jon Huntsman, Jr. (Taiwan),[67] Brandon Sanderson (Korea),[68] Mitt Romney (France),[69] Paul Alan Cox (Samoa),[70] Shay Carl (West Indies), Chad Lewis (Taiwan),[71] and Dale Murphy (Boston).[72]

text: In 2011, American pop singer-songwriter David Archuleta announced he was taking a two-year hiatus to be a missionary for the church. He served his mission in Chile.[73][74][75]

text: History[edit]

text: The LDS Church regards Samuel H. Smith, the younger brother of church founder Joseph Smith, as the church's first full-time missionary.[76][77] Smith traveled from city to city, covering more than 4,000 miles, trying to sell copies of the Book of Mormon. The book was presented as evidence of Joseph Smith's prophetic calling. Phineas Young received a Book of Mormon from Samuel Smith and became an early member of the church. (Phineas' younger brother Brigham would later be baptized and become the 2nd president of the LDS Church.)

text: During the 1850s missionaries were sent to Chile, France, Germany, Hawaii, India, Italy, Scandinavia, Switzerland and a number of other countries.[78]

text: In 1898, the church began allowing single women to be called as missionaries. The first two single female missionaries were Jennie Brimhall and Inez Knight, who were called to serve as companions in England.[79]

text: As more members became aware of Joseph Smith's First Vision during the late 1800s and early 1900s, it began to take on a prominent role in the conversion narrative. The story of the First Vision was first published in a missionary tract in 1910.[80]

text: Each mission was responsible for individually developing lessons until 1952 when, under the direction of Gordon B. Hinkley, the church published "A Systematic Program for Teaching the Gospel".[81] In 1961, towards the beginning of the church's correlation effort, "A Uniform System for Teaching Investigators" was made mandatory church-wide. The missionary lessons, or discussions as they were often called, continued to be updated with major revisions approximately every decade up until the publication of Preach My Gospel in 2004. Early missionaries, like Samuel Smith, relied primarily on the story of the Book of Mormon to attract converts to the church. By the late 19th century, the story of Joseph Smith's first vision had gained prominence and was given an important role in the official missionary lessons.[82]

text: In the early 1950s, Henry D. Moyle had responsibility over the missionary department. Moyle encouraged missionaries to use a tactic that later became known as "baseball baptism". Missionaries would encourage young men to join church-sponsored sports leagues and baptism was imposed as a prerequisite.[83] The use of this tactic created a large number of converts, especially in England, but very few of the young men ever had any interest in the spiritual aspects of the church. Moyle introduced baptism goals, missionary incentives and other salesmanship techniques into the church missionary department. David O. McKay eventually removed Moyle from his responsibilities over the missionary program but many of the changes introduced during this time remain even today.

text: During the 1960s, missionaries whose area of service required them to learn a new language were first sent to the Language Training Mission on the BYU campus. This later became the Missionary Training Center in 1978 where all new missionaries were sent for training not just the ones learning a language.

text: Starting during Spencer W. Kimball's administration, it was emphasized that "every able, worthy young man" had a duty to serve a mission.[78] Prior to this, missionary service for men was not viewed as obligatory. This resulted in an increase in the number of young men choosing to serve missions.

text: Before 1978, the church did not permit people of African descent to hold the priesthood, and they were not actively proselytized. Missionary work in places such as Brazil may have increased pressure to change the policy due to the difficulty of verifying lack of African descent in these populations.[84] When the policy was eliminated by Kimball, additional areas of the world were opened up to missionary work.

text: Church researchers discovered that in addition to the content of the lessons, the way in which the material was presented had a major impact on conversion. In 1984, the Missionary Department codified the "commitment pattern" as the proper way for missionaries to teach the lessons.[85] This involves the missionaries making specific invitations to act in response to the lessons. Gospel students would be encouraged to make personal commitments to attend church, to read the Book of Mormon and to be baptized.

text: In 2002, apostle M. Russell Ballard delivered a General Conference address stating that the bar to qualify for missionary service had been raised and that "the day of the 'repent and go' missionary is over".[86]

text: During the church's October 2012 General Conference, church president Thomas S. Monson announced that the minimum age for missionary service for young men had been lowered from 19 to 18 and that the minimum age for young women had been lowered from 21 to 19.[12] Immediately following the announcement, the church experienced an unprecedented influx of new missionaries. The rate of new missionaries swelled "by 471 percent, from about 700 new applications per week to about 4,000 each week, with young women comprising more than half of the new applicants." Later, the number of missionaries applying to serve slowed, but it is still double what it had been in the past and now the applicants are split somewhat evenly among young women and young men.[87] In 2013, the number of missionaries peaked at 89,000[88] and had dropped to 70,946 by the end of 2016.[1] Throughout the history of the church, over one million missionaries have been sent on missions.[2][3]

text: Incidents[edit]

text: Although rare, missionaries have been the victims of violence. In 1974, two young-adult male missionaries were murdered in Austin, Texas by Robert Elmer Kleason. In 1977, the case of a Mormon missionary who said he was abducted and raped by a woman was covered extensively by newspapers in Britain, being dubbed the Mormon sex in chains case.[90] In 1989, the Zarate Willka Armed Forces of Liberation killed two American missionaries in Bolivia.[89] From 1999 to 2006, three LDS missionaries were murdered worldwide, while 22 died in accidents of some sort.[91] In 2008, three men from Port Shepstone, South Africa were convicted of raping and robbing two female LDS missionaries in June 2006.[92]

text: A few cases of kidnapping have also occurred, a recent one being in 1998, when two male missionaries were abducted while working in the Samara region of Russia. The kidnappers demanded US$300,000 for their return. The missionaries were released unharmed a few days later without payment of the ransom.[93]

text: In August 2006, three male missionaries from Idaho, Nevada and California participated in the vandalism of a Roman Catholic shrine in San Luis, Colorado, for which desecration the LDS Church apologized shortly thereafter.[94] The incident recalled a 1972 occurrence in which a pair of missionaries in Thailand took pictures of themselves sitting on an ancient Buddha statue. Although the missionaries "probably didn't think much about it",[95] they were caught and sentenced to a year in prison, and their images were published in the newspapers. The King of Thailand pardoned them on his birthday, and they were released after six months. Missionaries of the church are counseled to respect other religions and cultures, one reason being to avoid such conflicts.[95]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: Mormon missionaries have been portrayed in various popular culture media. Missionaries are the main focus of LDS cinema films God's Army (1999), The Other Side of Heaven (2001), The Best Two Years (2003), The R.M. (2003), God's Army 2: States of Grace (2005), Return with Honor (2007), The Errand of Angels (2008) and The Saratov Approach (2013). The musical Saturday's Warrior (1973) features missionaries and was made into a film in 1989. The DVD series Liken the Scriptures occasionally shows missionaries.

text: Missionaries were featured in the PBS documentary Get the Fire (2003), as well as in the Tony Award-winning satirical Broadway musical The Book of Mormon. Hollywood portrayed missionaries in Yes Man (2008) starring Jim Carrey, and British film Millions also mentioned missionaries.

text: Films portraying missionaries gone astray include Trapped by the Mormons (1922), Orgazmo (1997) and Latter Days (2003). Mormon missionaries appeared at the end of the American horror film The Strangers (2008); the missionaries were depicted as children as opposed to young men.

text: In 2008, former missionary Chad Hardy was subjected to church discipline after releasing a pin-up calendar titled "Men on a Mission", which consisted of pictures of scantily clad returned missionaries.[96][97][98]