document_title: Maus

question_text: how many books are in the maus series

question_tokens: how many books are in the maus series

text: Maus

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: Most of the book weaves in and out of two timelines. In the frame tale of the narrative present,[1] Spiegelman interviews his father Vladek in the Rego Park neighborhood of New York City[2] in 1978–79.[3] The story that Vladek tells unfolds in the narrative past, which begins in the mid-1930s[2] and continues until the end of the Holocaust in 1945.[4]

text: In Rego Park in 1958,[3] a young Art Spiegelman complains to his father that his friends have left him behind. His father responds in broken English, "Friends? Your friends? If you lock them together in a room with no food for a week, then you could see what it is, friends!"[5]

text: As an adult, Art visits his father, from whom he has become estranged.[6] Vladek has remarried to a woman called Mala since the suicide in 1968 of Art's mother Anja.[7] Art asks Vladek to recount his Holocaust experiences.[6] Vladek tells of his time in the Polish city Częstochowa[8] and how he came to marry into Anja's wealthy family in 1937 and move to Sosnowiec to become a manufacturer. Vladek begs Art not to include this in the book, and Art reluctantly agrees.[9] Anja suffers a breakdown due to postpartum depression[10] after giving birth to their first son Richieu,[b] and the couple go to a sanitarium in Nazi-occupied Czechoslovakia for her to recover. After they return, political and antisemitic tensions build until Vladek is drafted just before the Nazi invasion. Vladek is captured at the front and forced to work as a prisoner of war. After his release, he finds Germany has annexed Sosnowiec, and he is dropped off on the other side of the border in the German protectorate. He sneaks across the border and reunites with his family.[12]

text: During one of Art's visits, he finds that a friend of Mala's has sent the couple one of the underground comix magazines Art contributed to. Mala had tried to hide it, but Vladek finds and reads it. In "Prisoner on the Hell Planet",[13] Art is traumatized by his mother's suicide three months after his release from the mental hospital, and in the end depicts himself behind bars saying, "You murdered me, Mommy, and left me here to take the rap!"[14] Though it brings back painful memories, Vladek admits that dealing with the issue in such a way was for the best.[15]

text: In 1943, the Nazis move the Jews of the Sosnowiec Ghetto to Srodula, and march them back to Sosnowiec to work. The family splits up—Vladek and Anja send Richieu to Zawiercie to stay with an aunt for safety. As more Jews are sent from the ghettos to Auschwitz, the aunt poisons herself, her children, and Richieu to escape the Gestapo. In Srodula, many Jews build bunkers to hide from the Germans. Vladek's bunker is discovered and he is placed into a "ghetto inside the ghetto" surrounded by barbed wire. The remnants of Vladek and Anja's family are taken away.[12] Srodula is cleared of its Jews, except for a group Vladek hides with in another bunker. When the Germans depart, the group splits up and leaves the ghetto.[16]

text: In Sosnowiec, Vladek and Anja move from one hiding place to the next, making occasional contact with other Jews in hiding. Vladek disguises himself as an ethnic Pole and hunts for provisions. The couple arrange with smugglers to escape to Hungary, but it is a trick—the Gestapo arrest them on the train (as Hungary is invaded) and take them to Auschwitz, where they are separated until after the war.[16]

text: Art asks after Anja's diaries, which Vladek tells him were her account of her Holocaust experiences and the only record of what happened to her after her separation from Vladek at Auschwitz, and which Vladek says she had wanted Art to read. Vladek comes to admit that he burned them after she killed herself. Art is enraged, and calls Vladek a "murderer".[17]

text: The story jumps to 1986, after the first six chapters of Maus have appeared in a collected edition. Art is overcome with the unexpected attention the book receives[4] and finds himself "totally blocked". Art talks about the book with his psychiatrist Paul Pavel, a Czech Holocaust survivor.[18] Pavel suggests that, as those who perished in the camps can never tell their stories, "maybe it's better not to have any more stories". Art replies with a quote from Samuel Beckett: "Every word is like an unnecessary stain on silence and nothingness", but then realizes, "on the other hand, he said it".[19]

text: Vladek tells of his hardship in the camps, of starvation and abuse, of his resourcefulness, of avoiding the selektionen—the process by which prisoners were selected for further labor or execution.[20] Despite the danger, Anja and Vladek exchange occasional messages. As the war progresses and the German front is pushed back, the prisoners are marched from Auschwitz in occupied Poland to Gross-Rosen within the Reich, and then to Dachau, where the hardships only increase and Vladek catches typhus.[21]

text: The war ends, the camp survivors are freed, and Vladek and Anja reunite. The book closes with Vladek turning over in his bed as he finishes his story and telling Art, "I'm tired from talking, Richieu, and it's enough stories for now."[22] The final image is of Vladek and Anja's tombstone[23]—Vladek died in 1982, before the book was completed.[24]

text: Primary characters[edit]

text: Background[edit]

text: Art Spiegelman was born on February 15, 1948, in Sweden to Polish Jews and Holocaust survivors Vladek and Anja Spiegelman. An aunt poisoned their first son Richieu to avoid capture by the Nazis four years before Spiegelman's birth.[42] He and his parents emigrated to the United States in 1951.[43] During his youth his mother occasionally talked about Auschwitz, but his father did not want him to know about it.[27]

text: Spiegelman developed an interest in comics early and began drawing professionally at 16.[44] He spent a month in Binghamton State Mental Hospital in 1968 after a nervous breakdown. Shortly after he got out, his mother committed suicide.[2] Spiegelman's father was not happy with his son's involvement in the hippie subculture. Spiegelman said that when he bought himself a German Volkswagen it damaged their already-strained relationship "beyond repair".[45] Around this time, Spiegelman read in fanzines about such graphic artists as Frans Masereel who had made wordless novels. The discussions in those fanzines about making the Great American Novel in comics inspired him.[46]

text: Spiegelman became a key figure in the underground comix movement of the 1970s, both as cartoonist and editor.[47] In 1972 Justin Green produced the semi-autobiographical comic book Binky Brown Meets the Holy Virgin Mary, which inspired other underground cartoonists to produce more personal and revealing work.[48] The same year, Green asked Spiegelman to contribute a three-page strip for the first issue of Funny Aminals  [sic], which Green edited.[47] Spiegelman wanted to do a strip about racism, and at first considered focusing on African Americans,[49] with cats as Ku Klux Klan members chasing African-American mice.[50] Instead, he turned to the Holocaust and depicted Nazi cats persecuting Jewish mice in a strip he titled "Maus". The tale was narrated to a mouse named "Mickey".[47] After finishing the strip, Spiegelman visited his father to show him the finished work, which he had based in part on an anecdote he had heard about his father's Auschwitz experience. His father gave him further background information, which piqued Spiegelman's interest. Spiegelman recorded a series of interviews over four days with his father, which was to provide the basis of the longer Maus.[51] Spiegelman followed up with extensive research, reading survivors' accounts and talking to friends and family who had also survived. He got detailed information about Sosnowiec from a series of Polish pamphlets published after the war which detailed what happened to the Jews by region.[52]

text: In 1973, Spiegelman produced a strip for Short Order Comix #1[53] about his mother's suicide called "Prisoner on the Hell Planet". The same year, he edited a pornographic, psychedelic book of quotations, and dedicated it to his mother.[38] He spent the rest of the 1970s building his reputation making short avant-garde comics. He moved back to New York from San Francisco in 1975, which he admitted to his father only in 1977, by which time he had decided to work on a "very long comic book".[15] He began another series of interviews with his father in 1978,[45] and visited Auschwitz in 1979.[54] He serialized the story in a comics and graphics magazine he and his wife Mouly began in 1980 called Raw.[55]

text: Comics medium[edit]

text: American comic books were big business with a diversity of genres in the 1940s and 1950s,[56] but had reached a low ebb by the late 1970s.[57] By the time Maus began serialization, the "Big Two" comics publishers, Marvel and DC Comics, dominated the industry with mostly superhero titles.[58] The underground comix movement that had flourished in the late 1960s and early 1970s also seemed moribund.[59] The public perception of comic books was as adolescent power fantasies, inherently incapable of mature artistic or literary expression.[60] Most discussion focused on comics as a genre rather than as a medium.[61]

text: Maus came to prominence when the term "graphic novel" was beginning to gain currency. Will Eisner popularized the term with the publication in 1978 of A Contract with God. The term was used partly to mask the low cultural status that comics had in the English-speaking world, and partly because the term "comic book" was being used to refer to short-form periodicals, leaving no accepted vocabulary with which to talk about book-form comics.[62]

text: Publication history[edit]

text: The first chapter of Maus appeared in December 1980 in the second issue of Raw[46] as a small insert; a new chapter appeared in each issue until the magazine came to an end in 1991. Every chapter but the last appeared in Raw.[63]

text: Spiegelman struggled to find a publisher for a book edition of Maus,[42] but after a rave New York Times review of the serial in August 1986, Pantheon Books published the first six chapters in a volume[64] called Maus: A Survivor's Tale and subtitled My Father Bleeds History. Spiegelman was relieved that the book's publication preceded the theatrical release of the animated film An American Tail by three months, as he believed that the film, produced by Steven Spielberg's Amblin Entertainment, was inspired by Maus and wished to avoid comparisons with it.[65]

text: The book found a large audience, partly because of its distribution through bookstores rather than the direct market comic shops where comic books were normally sold.[66] Maus was difficult for critics and reviewers to classify, and also for booksellers, who needed to know on which shelves to place it. Though Pantheon pushed for the term "graphic novel", Spiegelman was not comfortable with this, as many book-length comics were being referred to as "graphic novels" whether or not they had novelistic qualities. He suspected the term's use was an attempt to validate the comics form, rather than to describe the content of the books.[62] Spiegelman later came to accept the term, and with Drawn and Quarterly publisher Chris Oliveros successfully lobbied the Book Industry Study Group in the early 2000s to include "graphic novel" as a category in bookstores.[67]

text: Pantheon collected the last five chapters in 1991 in a second volume subtitled And Here My Troubles Began. Pantheon later collected the two volumes into soft- and hardcover two-volume boxed sets and single-volume editions.[68] In 1994 the Voyager Company released The Complete Maus on CD-ROM, a collection which contained the original comics, Vladek's taped transcripts, filmed interviews, sketches, and other background material.[69] The CD-ROM was based on HyperCard, a Macintosh-only application that has since become obsolete.[70] In 2011 Pantheon Books published a companion to The Complete Maus entitled MetaMaus, with further background material, including filmed footage of Vladek.[42] The centerpiece of the book is a Spiegelman interview conducted by Hillary Chute. It also has interviews with Spiegelman's wife and children, sketches, photographs, family trees, assorted artwork, and a DVD with video, audio, photos, and an interactive version of Maus.[71]

text: Spiegelman dedicated Maus to his brother Richieu and his first daughter Nadja.[72] The book's epigraph is a quote from Adolf Hitler: "The Jews are undoubtedly a race, but they are not human."[73]

text: International publication[edit]

text: Penguin Books obtained the rights to publish the initial volume in the Commonwealth in 1986. In support of the African National Congress's cultural boycott in opposition to apartheid, Spiegelman refused to "compromise with fascism"[74] by allowing publication of his work in South Africa.[74]

text: By 2011, Maus had been translated into about thirty languages. Three translations were particularly important to Spiegelman: French, as his wife was French, and because of his respect for the sophisticated Franco-Belgian comics tradition; German, given the book's background; and Polish. Poland was the setting for most of the book and Polish was the language of his parents and his own mother tongue.[75] The publishers of the German edition had to convince the German culture ministry of the work's serious intent to have the swastika appear on the cover, per laws prohibiting the display of Nazi symbolism.[76] Reception in Germany was positive—Maus was a best-seller and was taught in schools. The Polish translation encountered difficulties; as early as 1987, when Spiegelman planned a research visit to Poland, the Polish consulate official who approved his visa questioned him about the Poles' depiction as pigs and pointed out how serious an insult it was. Publishers and commentators refused to deal with the book for fear of protests and boycotts.[75] Piotr Bikont, a journalist for Gazeta Wyborcza, set up his own publishing house to publish Maus in Polish in 2001. Demonstrators protested Maus's publication and burned the book in front of Gazeta's offices. Bikont's response was to don a pig mask and wave to the protesters from the office windows.[77] The magazine-sized Japanese translation was the only authorized edition with larger pages.[78] Long-standing plans for an Arabic translation have yet to come to fruition.[50] A Russian law passed in December 2014 prohibiting the display of Nazi propaganda led to the removal of Maus from Russian bookstores leading up to Victory Day due to the swastika appearing on the book's cover.[76]

text: A few panels were changed for the Hebrew edition of Maus. Based on Vladek's memory, Spiegelman portrayed one of the minor characters as a member of the Nazi-installed Jewish Police. An Israeli descendant objected and threatened to sue for libel. Spiegelman redrew the character with a fedora in place of his original police hat, but appended a note to the volume voicing his objection to this "intrusion".[79] This version of the first volume appeared in 1990 from the publishing house Zmora Bitan. It had an indifferent or negative reception, and the publisher did not release the second volume.[80] Another Israeli publisher put out both volumes, with a new translation by poet Yehuda Vizan that included Vladek's broken language, which Zmora Bitan had refused to do.[81] Marilyn Reizbaum saw this as highlighting a difference between the self-image of the Israeli Jew as a fearless defender of the homeland, and that of the American Jew as a feeble victim,[82] something that one Israeli writer disparaged as "the diaspora sickness".[83][f]

text: Themes[edit]

text: Presentation[edit]

text: Spiegelman, like many of his critics, worries that "[r]eality is too much for comics ... so much has to be left out or distorted", admitting that his presentation of the story may not be accurate.[84] He takes a postmodern approach; Maus "feeds on itself", telling the story of how the story was made. It examines the choices Spiegelman made in the retelling of his father's memories, and the artistic choices he had to make—for example, when his French wife converts to Judaism, Spiegelman's character frets over whether to depict her as a frog, a mouse, or another animal.[85]

text: The book portrays humans with the heads and tails of different species of animals; Jews are drawn as mice and other Germans and Poles as cats and pigs,[2] among others. Spiegelman took advantage of the way Nazi propaganda films depicted Jews as vermin,[86] though he was first struck by the metaphor after attending a presentation where Ken Jacobs showed films of minstrel shows along with early American animated films, abundant with racial caricatures.[87] Spiegelman derived the mouse as symbol for the Jew from Nazi propaganda, emphasized in a quote from a German newspaper in the 1930s that prefaces the second volume: "Mickey Mouse is the most miserable idea ever revealed ... Healthy emotions tell every independent young man and every honorable youth that the dirty and filth-covered vermin, the greatest bacteria carrier in the animal kingdom, cannot be the ideal type of animal ... Away with Jewish brutalization of the people! Down with Mickey Mouse! Wear the Swastika Cross!"[88]

text: Jewish characters try to pass themselves off as ethnic Poles by tying pig masks to their faces, with the strings showing at the back.[89] Vladek's disguise was more convincing than Anja's—"you could see she was more Jewish", Vladek says. Spiegelman shows this Jewishness by having her tail hang out of her disguise.[90] This literalization of the genocidal stereotypes that drove the Nazis to their Final Solution may risk reinforcing racist labels,[91] but Spiegelman uses the idea to create anonymity for the characters. According to art historian Andrea Liss, this may paradoxically enable the reader to identify with the characters as human, preventing the reader from observing racial characteristics based on facial traits, while reminding readers that racist classification is ever present.[92]

text: In making people of each ethnicity look alike, Spiegelman hoped to show the absurdity of dividing people along such lines. Spiegelman has stated that "these metaphors ... are meant to self-destruct"[93] and "reveal the inanity of the notion itself".[94] Professor Amy Hungerford saw no consistent system to the animal metaphor.[95] Rather, it signified the characters' roles in the story rather than their races—the gentile Françoise is a mouse because of her identification with her husband, who identifies with the Holocaust victims. When asked what animal he would make Israeli Jews, Spiegelman suggests porcupines.[88] When Art visits his psychiatrist, the two wear mouse masks.[96] Spiegelman's perceptions of the animal metaphor seem to have evolved over the book's making—in the original publication of the first volume, his self-portrait showed a mouse head on a human body, but by the time the second volume arrived, his self-portrait had become that of a man wearing a mouse mask.[97] In Maus, the characters seem to be mice and cats only in their predator/prey relationship. In every respect other than their heads and tails, they act and speak as ordinary humans.[97] Further complicating the animal metaphor, Anja is ironically shown to be afraid of mice, while other characters appear with pet dogs and cats, and the Nazis with attack dogs.[98]

text: Memory[edit]

text: To Marianne Hirsch, Spiegelman's life is "dominated by memories that are not his own".[99] His work is one not of memory but of postmemory—a term she coined after encountering Maus. This describes the relation of the children of survivors with the survivors themselves. While these children have not had their parents' experiences, they grow up with their parents' memories—the memory of another's memory—until the stories become so powerful that for these children they become memories in their own right. The children's proximity creates a "deep personal connection" with the memory, though separated from it by "generational distance".[100]

text: Art tried to keep his father's story chronological, because otherwise he would "never keep it straight".[101] His mother Anja's memories are conspicuously absent from the narrative, given her suicide and Vladek's destruction of her diaries. Hirsch sees Maus in part as an attempt to reconstruct her memory. Vladek keeps her memory alive with the pictures on his desk, "like a shrine", according to Mala.[102]

text: Guilt[edit]

text: Spiegelman displays his sense of guilt in many ways. He suffers anguish over his dead brother, Richieu, who perished in the Holocaust, and whom he feels he can never live up to.[103] The eighth chapter, made after the publication and unexpected success of the first volume, opens with a guilt-ridden Spiegelman (now in human form, with a strapped-on mouse mask) atop a pile of corpses—the corpses of the six million Jews upon whom Maus' success was built.[104] He is told by his psychiatrist that his father feels guilt for having survived and for outliving his first son,[105] and that some of Art's guilt may spring from painting his father in such an unflattering way.[106] As he had not lived in the camps himself, he finds it difficult to understand or visualize this "separate universe", and feels inadequate in portraying it.[27][107]

text: Racism[edit]

text: Spiegelman parodies the Nazis' vision of racial divisions; Vladek's racism is also put on display when he becomes upset that Françoise would pick up a black hitchhiker, a "schwartser" as he says. When she berates him, a victim of antisemitism, for his attitude, he replies, "It's not even to compare, the schwartsers and the Jews!"[108] Spiegelman gradually deconstructs the animal metaphor throughout the book, especially in the second volume, showing where the lines cannot be drawn between races of humans.[109]

text: The Germans are depicted with little difference between them, but there is great variety among the Poles and Jews who dominate the story.[110] Sometimes Jews and the Jewish councils are shown complying with the occupiers; some trick other Jews into capture, while others act as police for the Nazis.[111]

text: Spiegelman shows numerous instances of Poles who risked themselves to aid Jews, and also shows antisemitism as being rife among them. The kapos who run the camps are Poles, and Anja and Vladek are tricked by Polish smugglers into the hands of the Nazis. Anja and Vladek hear stories that Poles continue to drive off and even kill returning Jews after the war.[112]

text: Language[edit]

text: Vladek's English is broken in contrast with that of Art's more fluent therapist, Paul Pavel, who is also an immigrant and Holocaust survivor.[113] Vladek's knowledge of the language helps him several times during the story, as when he uses it to meet Anja. He also uses it to befriend a Frenchman, and continues to correspond with him in English after the war. His recounting of the Holocaust, first to American soldiers, then to his son, is never in his mother tongue,[114] and English becomes his daily language when he moves to America.[115] His difficulty with his second language is revealed as Art writes his dialogue in broken English;[116] when Vladek is imprisoned he tells Art, "[E]very day we prayed ... I was very religious, and it wasn't else to do".[117] Late in the book, Vladek talks of Dachau, saying, "And here ... my troubles began", though clearly his troubles had begun long before Dachau. This unidiomatic expression was used as the subtitle of the second volume.[116]

text: The German word Maus is cognate to the English word "mouse",[118] and also reminiscent of the German verb mauscheln, which means "to speak like a Jew"[119] and refers to the way Jews from Eastern Europe spoke German[120]—a word not etymologically related to Maus, but distantly to Moses.[119]

text: Style[edit]

text: Spiegelman's perceived audacity in using the Holocaust as his subject was compounded by his telling the story in comics. The prevailing view in the English-speaking world held comics as inherently trivial,[121] thus degrading Spiegelman's subject matter, especially as he used animal heads in place of recognizably human ones.[122] Funny animals have been a staple of comics, and while they have a traditional reputation as children's fare, the underground had long made use of them in adult stories,[123] for example in Robert Crumb's Fritz the Cat, which comics critic Joseph Witek asserts shows that the genre could "open up the way to a paradoxical narrative realism" that Maus exploited.[124]

text: Ostensibly about the Holocaust, the story entwines with the frame tale of Art interviewing and interacting with his father. Art's "Prisoner on the Hell Planet" is also encompassed by the frame, and stands in visual and thematical contrast with the rest of the book as the characters are in human form[53] in a surreal, German Expressionist woodcut style inspired by Lynd Ward.[125]

text: Spiegelman blurs the line between the frame and the world, such as when neurotically trying to deal with what Maus is becoming for him, he says to his wife, "In real life you'd never have let me talk this long without interrupting."[126] When a prisoner whom the Nazis believe to be a Jew claims to be German, Spiegelman has difficulty deciding whether to present this character as a cat or a mouse.[127] Throughout the book, Spiegelman incorporates and highlights banal details from his father's tales, sometimes humorous or ironic, giving a lightness and humanity to the story which "helps carry the weight of the unbearable historical realities".[5]

text: Spiegelman started taking down his interviews with Vladek on paper, but quickly switched to a tape recorder,[128] face-to-face or over the phone.[52] Spiegelman often condensed Vladek's words, and occasionally added to the dialogue[128] or synthesized multiple retellings into a single portrayal.[52]

text: Spiegelman worried about the effect that his organizing of Vladek's story would have on its authenticity. In the end, he eschewed a Joycean approach and settled on a linear narrative he thought would be better at "getting things across".[52] He strove to present how the book was recorded and organized as an integral part of the book itself, expressing the "sense of an interview shaped by a relationship".[52]

text: Artwork[edit]

text: The story is text-driven, with few wordless panels[4] in its 1,500 black-and-white panels.[129] The art has high contrast, with heavy black areas and thick black borders balanced against areas of white and wide white margins. There is little gray in the shading.[130] In the narrative present, the pages are arranged in eight-panel grids; in the narrative past, Spiegelman found himself "violating the grid constantly" with his page layouts.[32]

text: Spiegelman rendered the original three-page "Maus" and "Prisoner on the Hell Planet" in highly detailed, expressive styles. Spiegelman planned to draw Maus in such a manner, but after initial sketches he decided to use a pared-down style, one little removed from his pencil sketches, which he found more direct and immediate. Characters are rendered in a minimalist way: animal heads with dots for eyes and slashes for eyebrows and mouths, sitting on humanoid bodies.[37] Spiegelman wanted to get away from the rendering of the characters in the original "Maus", in which oversized cats towered over the Jewish mice, an approach which Spiegelman says, "tells you how to feel, tells you how to think".[131] He preferred to let the reader make independent moral judgments.[132] He drew the cat-Nazis the same size as the mouse-Jews, and dropped the stereotypical villainous expressions.[89] The contrast between the artwork in "Prisoner on the Hell Planet" and Maus drives home the effectiveness of the simpler artwork—"Prisoner" is alienating, while Maus is more inviting, encouraging deeper contemplation and understanding.[40]

text: Spiegelman wanted the artwork to have a diary feel to it, and so drew the pages on stationery with a fountain pen and typewriter correction fluid. It was reproduced at the same size it was drawn, unlike his other work, which was usually drawn larger and shrunk down, which hides defects in the art.[50]

text: Influences[edit]

text: Spiegelman has published articles promoting a greater knowledge of his medium's history. Chief among his early influences were Harvey Kurtzman, Will Eisner,[133] and Bernard Krigstein's "Master Race".[134] Though he acknowledged Eisner's early work as an influence, he denied that Eisner's first graphic novel, A Contract with God (1978), had any impact on Maus.[135] He cited Harold Gray's comic strip Little Orphan Annie as having "influenced Maus fairly directly", and praised Gray's work for using a cartoon-based storytelling vocabulary, rather than an illustration-based one.[136] Justin Green's Binky Brown Meets the Holy Virgin Mary (1972) inspired Spiegelman to include autobiographical elements in his comics. Spiegelman stated, "without Binky Brown, there would be no Maus".[48] Among the graphic artists who influenced Maus, Spiegelman cited Frans Masereel, who had made early wordless novels in woodcuts such as Passionate Journey (1919).[46]

text: Reception and legacy[edit]

text: Spiegelman's work as cartoonist and editor had long been known and respected in the comics community, but the media attention after the first volume's publication in 1986 was unexpected.[137] Hundreds of overwhelmingly positive reviews appeared, and Maus became the center of new attention focused on comics.[138] It was considered one of the "Big Three" book-form comics from around 1986–1987, along with Watchmen and The Dark Knight Returns, that are said to have brought the term "graphic novel" and the idea of comics for adults into mainstream consciousness.[139] It was credited with changing the public's perception of what comics could be[140] at a time when, in the English-speaking world, they were considered to be for children, and strongly associated with superheroes.[59] Initially, critics of Maus showed a reluctance to include comics in literary discourse.[141] The New York Times intended praise when saying of the book, "Art Spiegelman doesn't draw comic books".[142] After its Pulitzer Prize win, it won greater acceptance and interest among academics.[143] The Museum of Modern Art staged an exhibition on the making of Maus in 1991–92.[144]

text: Maus proved difficult to classify to a genre,[145] and has been called biography, fiction, autobiography, history, and memoir.[146] Spiegelman petitioned The New York Times to move it from "fiction" to "non-fiction" on the newspaper's bestseller list,[126] saying, "I shudder to think how David Duke ... would respond to seeing a carefully researched work based closely on my father's memories of life in Hitler's Europe and in the death camps classified as fiction". An editor responded, "Let's go out to Spiegelman's house and if a giant mouse answers the door, we'll move it to the nonfiction side of the list!" The Times eventually acquiesced.[147] The Pulitzer committee sidestepped the issue by giving the completed Maus a Special Award in Letters in 1992.[148]

text: Maus ranked highly on comics and literature lists. The Comics Journal called it the fourth greatest comics work of the 20th century,[4] and Wizard placed it first on their list of 100 Greatest Graphic Novels.[149] Entertainment Weekly listed Maus at seventh place on their list of The New Classics: Books – The 100 best reads from 1983 to 2008,[150] and Time put Maus at seventh place on their list of best non-fiction books from between 1923 and 2005,[151] and fourth on their list of top graphic novels.[152] Praise for the book also came from contemporaries such as Jules Feiffer and literary writers such as Umberto Eco.[153] Spiegelman turned down numerous offers to have Maus adapted for film or television.[154]

text: Early instalments of Maus that appeared in Raw inspired the young Chris Ware to "try to do comics that had a 'serious' tone to them".[155] Maus is cited as a primary influence on graphic novels such as Marjane Satrapi's Persepolis and Alison Bechdel's Fun Home.[48]

text: In 1999, cartoonist Ted Rall had an article published in The Village Voice criticizing Spiegelman's prominence and influence in the New York cartooning community.[156] Entitled "King Maus: Art Spiegelman Rules the World of Comix With Favors and Fear", it accused the Pulitzer board of opportunism in selecting Maus, which Rall deemed unworthy.[157] Cartoonist Danny Hellman responded to the piece with a prank email in which Hellman posed as Rall,[156] soliciting discussion at the email address TedRallsBalls@onelist.com. Hellman followed up by posting fake responses from New York magazine editors and art directors. Rall launched a lawsuit seeking damages of $1.5 million for libel, breach of privacy, and causing emotional distress.[158] To raise funds to fight the suit, in 2001 Hellman had the Legal Action Comics anthology published, which included a back cover by Spiegelman in which he depicts Rall as a urinal.[156]

text: Academic work and criticism[edit]

text: A cottage industry of academic research has built up around Maus,[159] and schools have frequently used it as course material in a range of fields: history, dysfunctional family psychology,[2] language arts, and social studies.[160] The volume of academic work published on Maus far surpasses that of any other work of comics.[161] One of the earliest such works was Joshua Brown's 1988 "Of Mice and Memory" from the Oral History Review, which deals with the problems Spiegelman faced in presenting his father's story. Marianne Hirsch wrote an influential essay on post-memory called "Family Pictures: Maus, Mourning, and Post-Memory", later expanded into a book called Family Frames: Photography, Narrative, and Postmemory. Academics far outside the field of comics such as Dominick LaCapra, Linda Hutcheon, and Terrence Des Pres took part in the discourse. Few approached Maus who were familiar with comics, largely because of the lack of an academic comics tradition—Maus tended to be approached as Holocaust history or from a film or literary perspective. In 2003, Deborah Geis edited a collection of essays on Maus called Considering Maus: Approaches to Art Spiegelman's "Survivor's Tale" of the Holocaust.[133] Maus is considered an important work of Holocaust literature, and studies of it have made significant contributions to Holocaust studies.[162]

text: According to writer Arie Kaplan, some Holocaust survivors objected to Spiegelman making a comic book out of their tragedy.[163] Literary critics such as Hillel Halkin objected that the animal metaphor was "doubly dehumanizing", reinforcing the Nazi belief that the atrocities were perpetrated by one species on another, when they were actually done by humans against humans.[164] Comics writer and critic Harvey Pekar and others[165] saw Spiegelman's use of animals as potentially reinforcing stereotypes.[166] Pekar was also disdainful of Spiegelman's overwhelmingly negative portrayal of his father,[167] calling him disingenuous and hypocritical for such a portrayal in a book that presents itself as objective.[168] Comics critic R. C. Harvey argued that Spiegelman's animal metaphor threatened "to erode [Maus's] moral underpinnings",[169] and played "directly into [the Nazis'] racist vision".[170]

text: Commentators such as Peter Obst and Lawrence Weschler expressed concern over the Poles' depiction as pigs,[171] which reviewer Marek Kohn saw as an ethnic slur[172] and The Norton Anthology of American Literature called "a calculated insult".[173] Jewish culture views pigs and pork as non-kosher, or unclean—a point of which the Jewish Spiegelman was unlikely to be ignorant.[171] Critics such as Obst and Pekar have said that the portrayal of Poles is unbalanced—that, while some Poles are seen as helping Jews, they are often shown doing so for self-serving reasons.[174] In the late 1990s, an objector to Maus's depiction of Poles interrupted a presentation by Spiegelman at Montreal's McGill University with persistent abuse and was expelled from the auditorium.[175]

text: Literary critic Walter Ben Michaels found Spiegelman's racial divisions "counterfactual".[176] Spiegelman depicts Europeans as different animal species based on Nazi conceptions of race, but all Americans, both black and white, as dogs—with the exception of the Jews, who remain unassimilated mice. To Michaels, Maus seems to gloss over the racial inequality that has plagued the history of the U.S.[176]

text: Other critics, such as Bart Beaty, objected to what they saw as the work's fatalism.[177]

text: Scholar Paul Buhle asserted, "More than a few readers have described [Maus] as the most compelling of any [Holocaust] depiction, perhaps because only the caricatured quality of comic art is equal to the seeming unreality of an experience beyond all reason."[178] Michael Rothberg opined, "By situating a nonfictional story in a highly mediated, unreal, 'comic' space, Spiegelman captures the hyperintensity of Auschwitz."[179]

text: Parodies[edit]

text: Belgian publisher La Cinquième Couche[180] anonymously produced a book called Katz, a remix of Spiegelman's book with all animal heads replaced with cat heads. The book reproduced every page and line of dialogue from the French translation of Maus. Spiegelman's French publisher, Flammarion, had the Belgian publisher destroy all copies under charges of copyright violation.[177]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Awards and nominations for Maus

Year
Organisation
Award
Result

1986
National Book Critics Circle
National Book Critics Circle Award for Biography[181]
Nominated

1987
Present Tense magazine
American Jewish Committee
Present Tense/Joel H. Cavior Book Award for Fiction[182]
Won

1988
Témoignage chrétien (fr) (Christian Testimony)[183]
Prix Résistance by Témoignage chrétien[184]
Won

1988
Angoulême International Comics Festival Awards
Best Foreign Album[185] (Maus: un survivant raconte - Mon père saigne l'histoire)
Won

1988
Urhunden Prize
Foreign Album[186]
Won

1990
Max & Moritz Prize
Special Prize[187]
Won

1991
National Book Critics Circle
National Book Critics Circle Award[188]
Nominated

1992
Pulitzer Prize
Special Awards and Citations – Letters[189]
Won

1992
Eisner Award
Best Graphic Album—Reprint[190] (Maus II).
Won

1992
Harvey Award
Best Graphic Album of Previously Published Material[191] (Maus II)
Won

1992
Los Angeles Times
Book Prize for Fiction[192] (Maus II)
Won

1993
Angoulême International Comics Festival Awards
Best Foreign Album[193] (Maus: un survivant raconte - Et c'est là que mes ennuis ont commencé)
Won

1993
Urhunden Prize
Foreign Album[186] (Maus II)
Won


document_title: Boeing 777

question_text: what is the speed of a boeing 777

question_tokens: what is the speed of a boeing 777

root

text: Boeing 777

text: Development

text: Background

text: In the early 1970s, the Boeing 747, McDonnell Douglas DC-10, and the Lockheed L-1011 TriStar became the first generation of wide-body passenger airliners to enter service.[11] In 1978, Boeing unveiled three new models: the twin-engine Boeing 757 to replace its 727, the twin-engine 767 to challenge the Airbus A300, and a trijet 777 concept to compete with the DC-10 and L-1011.[12][13][14] The mid-size 757 and 767 launched to market success, due in part to 1980s' extended-range twin-engine operational performance standards (ETOPS) regulations governing transoceanic twinjet operations.[15] These regulations allowed twin-engine airliners to make ocean crossings at up to three hours' distance from emergency diversionary airports.[16] Under ETOPS rules, airlines began operating the 767 on long-distance overseas routes that did not require the capacity of larger airliners.[15] The trijet 777 was later dropped, following marketing studies that favored the 757 and 767 variants.[17] Boeing was left with a size and range gap in its product line between the 767-300ER and the 747-400.[18]

tag: p

text: By the late 1980s, DC-10 and L-1011 models were approaching retirement age, prompting manufacturers to develop replacement designs.[19] McDonnell Douglas was working on the MD-11, a stretched and upgraded successor of the DC-10,[19] while Airbus was developing its A330 and A340.[19] In 1986, Boeing unveiled proposals for an enlarged 767, tentatively named 767-X,[20] to target the replacement market for first-generation wide-bodies such as the DC-10,[16] and to complement existing 767 and 747 models in the company lineup.[21] The initial proposal featured a longer fuselage and larger wings than the existing 767,[20] along with winglets.[22] Later plans expanded the fuselage cross-section but retained the existing 767 flight deck, nose, and other elements.[20]

text: Airline customers were unimpressed with the 767-X proposals, and instead wanted an even wider fuselage cross-section, fully flexible interior configurations, short- to intercontinental-range capability, and an operating cost lower than any 767 stretch.[16] Airline planners' requirements for larger aircraft had become increasingly specific, adding to the heightened competition among aircraft manufacturers.[19] By 1988, Boeing realized that the only answer was a new design, which became the 777 twinjet.[23] The company opted for the twin-engine configuration given past design successes, projected engine developments, and reduced-cost benefits.[24] On December 8, 1989, Boeing began issuing offers to airlines for the 777.[20]

text: Design effort

text: The design phase for the new twinjet was different from Boeing's previous commercial jetliners. For the first time, eight major airlines – All Nippon Airways, American Airlines, British Airways, Cathay Pacific, Delta Air Lines, Japan Airlines, Qantas, and United Airlines – had a role in the development.[25] This was a departure from industry practice, where manufacturers typically designed aircraft with minimal customer input.[13] The eight airlines that contributed to the design process became known within Boeing as the "Working Together" group.[25] At the first group meeting in January 1990, a 23-page questionnaire was distributed to the airlines, asking what each wanted in the design.[16] By March 1990, Boeing and the airlines had decided upon a basic design configuration: a cabin cross-section close to the 747's, capacity up to 325 passengers, flexible interiors, a glass cockpit, fly-by-wire controls, and 10 percent better seat-mile costs than the A330 and MD-11.[16] Boeing selected its Everett factory in Washington, home of 747 production, as the 777's final assembly site.[26]

text: On October 14, 1990, United Airlines became the 777's launch customer when it placed an order for 34 Pratt & Whitney-powered aircraft valued at US$11 billion with options on an additional 34.[27][28] The development phase coincided with United's replacement program for its aging DC-10s.[29] United required that the new aircraft be capable of flying three different routes: Chicago to Hawaii, Chicago to Europe, and non-stop from Denver, a hot and high airport, to Hawaii.[29] ETOPS certification was also a priority for United,[30] given the overwater portion of United's Hawaii routes.[27] In January 1993, a team of United developers joined other airline teams and Boeing designers at the Everett factory.[31] The 240 design teams, with up to 40 members each, addressed almost 1,500 design issues with individual aircraft components.[32] The fuselage diameter was increased to suit Cathay Pacific, the baseline model grew longer for All Nippon Airways, and British Airways' input led to added built-in testing and interior flexibility,[16] along with higher operating weight options.[33]

text: The 777 was the first commercial aircraft designed entirely by computer.[21][27][34] Each design drawing was created on a three-dimensional CAD software system known as CATIA, sourced from Dassault Systemes and IBM.[35] This lets engineers assemble a virtual aircraft, in simulation, to check for interference and verify that the thousands of parts fit properly—thus reducing costly rework.[36] Boeing developed its own high-performance visualization system, FlyThru, later called IVT (Integrated Visualization Tool) to support large-scale collaborative engineering design reviews, production illustrations, and other uses of the CAD data outside of engineering.[37] Boeing was initially not convinced of CATIA's abilities and built a physical mock-up of the nose section to verify its results. The test was so successful that additional mock-ups were canceled.[38]

text: Production and testing

text: The production process included substantial international content, an unprecedented level of global subcontracting for a Boeing jetliner,[40] later exceeded by the 787.[41] International contributors included Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and Kawasaki Heavy Industries (fuselage panels),[42] Fuji Heavy Industries, Ltd. (center wing section),[42] Hawker de Havilland (elevators), and Aerospace Technologies of Australia (rudder).[43] An agreement between Boeing and the Japan Aircraft Development Corporation, representing Japanese aerospace contractors, made the latter risk-sharing partners for 20 percent of the entire development program.[40] The initial 777-200 model was launched with propulsion options from three manufacturers, General Electric, Pratt & Whitney, and Rolls-Royce,[44] giving the airlines their choice of engines from competing firms.[45] Each manufacturer agreed to develop an engine in the 77,000 lbf (340 kN) and higher thrust class (a measure of jet engine output) for the world's largest twinjet.[44]

text: To accommodate production of its new airliner, Boeing doubled the size of the Everett factory at the cost of nearly US$1.5 billion[27] to provide space for two new assembly lines.[29] New production methodologies were developed, including a turn machine that could rotate fuselage subassemblies 180 degrees, giving workers access to upper body sections.[35] Major assembly of the first aircraft began on January 4, 1993.[46] By the start of production, the program had amassed 118 firm orders, with options for 95 more from 10 airlines.[47] Total investment in the program was estimated at over US$4 billion from Boeing, with an additional US$2 billion from suppliers.[48]

text: On April 9, 1994, the first 777, line number WA001, was rolled out in a series of 15 ceremonies held during the day to accommodate the 100,000 invited guests.[49] The first flight took place on June 12, 1994,[50] under the command of chief test pilot John E. Cashman.[51] This marked the start of an 11-month flight test program that was more extensive than testing for any previous Boeing model.[52] Nine aircraft fitted with General Electric, Pratt & Whitney, and Rolls-Royce engines[50] were flight tested at locations ranging from the desert airfield at Edwards Air Force Base in California[53] to frigid conditions in Alaska, mainly Fairbanks International Airport.[54] To satisfy ETOPS requirements, eight 180-minute single-engine test flights were performed.[55] The first aircraft built was used by Boeing's nondestructive testing campaign from 1994 to 1996, and provided data for the -200ER and -300 programs.[56] At the successful conclusion of flight testing, the 777 was awarded simultaneous airworthiness certification by the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and European Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) on April 19, 1995.[50]

text: Entry into service

text: Boeing delivered the first 777 to United Airlines on May 15, 1995.[57][58] The FAA awarded 180-minute ETOPS clearance ("ETOPS-180") for the Pratt & Whitney PW4084-engined aircraft on May 30, 1995, making it the first airliner to carry an ETOPS-180 rating at its entry into service.[59] The first commercial flight took place on June 7, 1995, from London Heathrow Airport to Dulles International Airport near Washington, D.C.[60] Longer ETOPS clearance of 207 minutes was approved in October 1996.[61]

text: On November 12, 1995, Boeing delivered the first model with General Electric GE90-77B engines to British Airways,[62] which entered service five days later.[63] Initial service was affected by gearbox bearing wear issues, which caused British Airways to temporarily withdraw its 777 fleet from transatlantic service in 1997,[63] returning to full service later that year.[53] General Electric subsequently announced engine upgrades.[53]

text: The first Rolls-Royce Trent 877-powered aircraft was delivered to Thai Airways International on March 31, 1996,[62] completing the introduction of the three powerplants initially developed for the airliner.[64] Each engine-aircraft combination had secured ETOPS-180 certification from the point of entry into service.[65] By June 1997, orders for the 777 numbered 323 from 25 airlines, including satisfied launch customers that had ordered additional aircraft.[50] Operations performance data established the consistent capabilities of the twinjet over long-haul transoceanic routes, leading to additional sales.[66] By 1998, the 777 fleet had approached 900,000 flight hours.[67] Boeing states that the 777 fleet has a dispatch reliability (rate of departure from the gate with no more than 15 minutes delay due to technical issues) above 99 percent.[68][69][70][71]

text: Initial derivatives

text: After the original model, Boeing developed an increased gross weight variant of the 777-200 with greater range and payload capability.[72] Initially named 777-200IGW,[73] the 777-200ER first flew on October 7, 1996,[74] received FAA and JAA certification on January 17, 1997,[75] and entered service with British Airways on February 9, 1997.[75] Offering greater long-haul performance, the variant became the most widely ordered version of the aircraft through the early 2000s.[72] On April 2, 1997, a Malaysia Airlines -200ER named "Super Ranger" broke the great circle "distance without landing" record for an airliner by flying eastward from Boeing Field, Seattle to Kuala Lumpur, a distance of 10,823 nautical miles (20,044 km), in 21 hours and 23 minutes.[67]

text: Following the introduction of the -200ER, Boeing turned its attention to a stretched version of the airliner. On October 16, 1997, the 777-300 made its first flight.[74] At 242.4 ft (73.9 m) in length, the -300 became the longest airliner yet produced (until the A340-600), and had a 20 percent greater overall capacity than the standard length model.[76] The -300 was awarded type certification simultaneously from the FAA and JAA on May 4, 1998,[77] and entered service with launch customer Cathay Pacific on May 27, 1998.[74][78]

text: Longer-range models

text: From the program's start, Boeing had considered building ultra-long-range variants.[80] Early plans centered on a 777-100X proposal,[81] a shortened variant of the -200 with reduced weight and increased range,[81] similar to the 747SP.[82] However, the -100X would have carried fewer passengers than the -200 while having similar operating costs, leading to a higher cost per seat.[81][82] By the late 1990s, design plans shifted to longer-range versions of existing models.[81] In March 1997 the Boeing board approved the 777-200X/300X specifications: 298 passengers in three classes over 8,600 nmi (15,900 km) for the 200X and 6,600 nmi (12,200 km) with 355 passengers in a tri-class layout for the 300X, with design freeze planned in May 1998, 200X certification in August 2000, and introduction in September and in January 2001 for the 300X.[83]

text: A more powerful engine in the 100,000 lbf (440 kN) and higher thrust class was required, leading to talks between Boeing and engine manufacturers. General Electric offered to develop the GE90-115B engine,[45] while Rolls-Royce proposed developing the Trent 8104 engine.[84] In 1999, Boeing announced an agreement with General Electric, beating out rival proposals.[45] Under the deal with General Electric, Boeing agreed to only offer GE90 engines on new 777 versions.[45]

text: On February 29, 2000, Boeing launched its next-generation twinjet program,[85] initially called 777-X,[80] and began issuing offers to airlines.[72] Development was slowed by an industry downturn during the early 2000s.[74] The first model to emerge from the program, the 777-300ER, was launched with an order for ten aircraft from Air France,[86] along with additional commitments.[72] On February 24, 2003, the -300ER made its first flight, and the FAA and EASA (European Aviation Safety Agency, successor to the JAA) certified the model on March 16, 2004.[87] The first delivery to Air France took place on April 29, 2004.[74] The -300ER, which combined the -300's added capacity with the -200ER's range, became the top-selling 777 variant in the late 2000s,[88] benefitting as airlines replaced comparable four-engine models with twinjets for their lower operating costs.[89]

text: The second long-range model, the 777-200LR, rolled out on February 15, 2005, and completed its first flight on March 8, 2005.[74] The -200LR was certified by both the FAA and EASA on February 2, 2006,[90] and the first delivery to Pakistan International Airlines occurred on February 26, 2006.[91] On November 10, 2005, the first -200LR set a record for the longest non-stop flight of a passenger airliner by flying 11,664 nautical miles (21,602 km) eastward from Hong Kong to London.[8] Lasting 22 hours and 42 minutes, the flight surpassed the -200LR's standard design range and was logged in the Guinness World Records.[7]

text: The production freighter model, the 777F, rolled out on May 23, 2008.[92] The maiden flight of the 777F, which used the structural design and engine specifications of the -200LR[93] along with fuel tanks derived from the -300ER, occurred on July 14, 2008.[94] FAA and EASA type certification for the freighter was received on February 6, 2009,[95] and the first delivery to launch customer Air France took place on February 19, 2009.[96][97]

text: Updates and improvements

text: In late 2011, the FAA assigned a common type rating to the 787 and 777, allowing pilots qualified on either aircraft to operate both models, due to related design features.[98] The smaller 787 was the first stage of a replacement aircraft initiative called the Boeing Yellowstone Project.[99] Reportedly, the 777 could eventually be replaced by a new aircraft family, Yellowstone 3, which would draw upon technologies from the 787.[100]

text: By the late 2000s, the 777 was facing increased potential competition from Airbus' planned A350 XWB and internally from proposed 787 variants,[100] both airliners that promise fuel efficiency improvements. As a consequence, the 777-300ER received an engine and aerodynamics improvement package for reduced drag and weight.[101] In 2010, the variant further received a 5,000 lb (2,300 kg) maximum zero-fuel weight increase, equivalent to a higher payload of 20–25 passengers; its GE90-115B1 engines received a 1–2.5 percent thrust enhancement for increased takeoff weights at higher-altitude airports.[101] More changes were targeted for late 2012, including possible extension of the wingspan,[101] along with other major changes, including a composite wing, new powerplant, and different fuselage lengths.[101][102][103] Emirates was reportedly working closely with Boeing on the project, possibly being the launch customer for new 777 versions.[104] China Airlines ordered ten 777-300ER aircraft to replace 747-400s on routes between Taipei and Los Angeles and New York City, telling Aviation Week and Space Technology that the 777-300ER's per seat cost is about 20% lower than the 747's costs (varying due to fuel prices).[105] Four of the 777 aircraft were already flying as of February 2015.

text: Boeing has worked with General Electric to offer a 2% improvement in fuel efficiency to new aircraft beginning in 2016. GE will improve the fan module and the high pressure compressor stage-1 blisk in the GE-90-115 turbofan, as well as reduce clearances between the tips of the turbine blades and the shroud during cruise. These improvements, of which the latter is the most important and was derived from work to develop the 787, will, GE says, lower fuel burn by 0.5%. Boeing's wing modification will deliver the remainder. Boeing stated that every 1% improvement in the 777-300ER's fuel burn translates into being able to fly the aircraft another 75 nautical miles on the same load of fuel, or add ten passengers or 2,400 lb of cargo to a "load limited" flight.[106]

text: In March 2015, additional details of the improvement package were published in Aviation Week & Space Technology. The 777-300ER is to shed 1,800 lb. Boeing will replace the fuselage crown with tie rods and composite integration panels, similar to those used on the 787. New flight control software is to eliminate the need for the tail skid by keeping the tail off the runway surface regardless of the extent to which pilots command the elevators. Boeing is also redesigning the inboard flap fairings to reduce drag by reducing pressure on the underside of the wing. The outboard raked wingtip is to have a divergent trailing edge, described as a"poor man's airfoil" by Boeing; this originally developed for the McDonnell Douglas MD-12 project. Another change involves elevator trim bias. These changes are to increase fuel efficiency and allow airlines to add 14 additional seats to the airplane, increasing per seat fuel efficiency by 5%.[107]

text: Production

text: Initially second to the 747 as Boeing's most profitable jetliner,[108] the 777 became the company's most lucrative model in the 2000s.[109] Program sales accounted for an estimated US$400 million of Boeing's pretax earnings in 2000, US$50 million more than the 747.[108] By 2004, the airliner comprised the bulk of wide-body revenues for the Boeing Commercial Airplanes division.[110] In 2007, orders for second-generation 777 models approached 350 aircraft,[100] and in November of that year, Boeing announced that all production slots were sold out to 2012.[89] The program backlog of 356 orders was valued at US$95 billion at list prices in 2008.[111]

text: In 2010, Boeing announced plans to increase production from 5 aircraft per month to 7 aircraft per month by mid-2011, and 8.3 per month by early 2013.[112] Complete assembly of each 777-300ER requires 49 days.[113] In November 2011, assembly began on the 1,000th 777, a -300ER model for Emirates;[113] which was rolled out in March 2012.[114]

text: By April 2014, with cumulative sales surpassing those of the 747, the 777 became the best-selling wide-body airliner; at existing production rates, the aircraft was on track to become the most-delivered wide-body airliner by mid-2016.[115]

text: Mindful of the long time required to bring the 777X to the market, Boeing continued to develop improvement packages which improve fuel efficiency, as well as lower prices for the existing product. As of February 2015, the backlog of undelivered 777s totals 278 aircraft, representing just under three years of current production at 8.3 aircraft per month,[116] causing Boeing to ponder the 2018-2020 time frame. In January 2015, United Airlines ordered 10 Boeing 777-300ERs, normally costing around $150 million each but paid around $130 million, a discount to bridge the production gap to the 777X.[117]

text: In January 2016, Boeing confirmed plans to reduce the production rate of the 777 family from 8.3 per month to 7 per month in 2017 to help close the production gap between the 777 and 777X created by a lack of new orders.[118] In 2018, assembling test 777-9 aircraft is expected to lower output to an effective rate of 5.5 per month.[119] Boeing will drop 777 production to five per month in August 2017.[120]

text: 777X program

text: In September 2011, Boeing released more details on proposed third-generation 777 versions, collectively referred to as 777X and tentatively designated 777-8 and 777-9.[121] The 777-9 was to feature a fuselage stretch of 7.0 ft (2.13 m) to a total length of 250 ft 11 in (76.5 m) to accommodate 407 passengers,[122][123] while the ultra long-range 777-8, a replacement for the 777-200LR, was slated to be 228.17 ft (69.5 m) in length.[121] Wingspan for both models was expected to increase from the current 212 ft 7 in (64.8 m) to 234 ft (71.3 m), and incorporate the use of carbon fiber reinforced polymer in its construction.[121][122] In February 2012, General Electric disclosed studies on a new engine, dubbed the GE9X, to power the 777X.[124][125] Rolls-Royce and Pratt & Whitney also proposed powerplants for the 777X, including the RB3025 concept, based on the Trent 1000 and Trent XWB engines, and an adaptation of PW1000G engine architecture to produce up to 100,000 lbf (440 kN) of thrust.[121] However, in March 2013 the General Electric GE9X was selected as the exclusive engine to power the 777X.[126]

text: In May 2013, Boeing's board of directors gave formal permission for its Commercial Airplanes division to start offering the 777X to customers.[127] The 777X program includes two models: the 777-9, which is stretched beyond the length of the 777-300ER, and the 777-8, which is sized close to the 777-300ER but with ultra-long range capability.[128] On September 19, 2013, Lufthansa's supervisory board gave approval to order 34 Boeing 777-9 aircraft to replace its 747-400s, in advance of the program's official launch.[129][130][131] In October 2013, Boeing announced that its U.S. facilities in Charleston, Huntsville, Long Beach, Philadelphia, and St. Louis as well as Russian facilities in Moscow would support the 777X design effort.[132]

text: Boeing officially launched the 777X at the 2013 Dubai Airshow in November 2013, announcing a total of 259 orders and commitments worth more than US$95 billion,[133][134] constituting the largest product launch by dollar value in the history of commercial aviation.[135] These included orders for 150 aircraft from Emirates, 25 aircraft from Etihad Airways, and 50 aircraft from Qatar Airways; the former two orders encompass both 777-8 and 777-9 variants and the latter is entirely for the 777-9.[128][133][136]

text: Design

text: Boeing introduced a number of advanced technologies with the 777 design, including fully digital fly-by-wire controls,[137] fully software-configurable avionics, Honeywell LCD glass cockpit flight displays,[138] and the first use of a fiber optic avionics network on a commercial airliner.[139] Boeing made use of work done on the cancelled Boeing 7J7 regional jet,[140] which utilized similar versions of the chosen technologies.[140] In 2003, Boeing began offering the option of cockpit electronic flight bag computer displays.[141] In 2013, Boeing announced that the upgraded 777X models would incorporate airframe, systems, and interior technologies from the 787.[142]

text: Fly-by-wire

text: In designing the 777 as its first fly-by-wire commercial aircraft, Boeing decided to retain conventional control yokes rather than change to sidestick controllers as used in many fly-by-wire fighter aircraft and in many Airbus airliners.[137] Along with traditional yoke and rudder controls, the cockpit features a simplified layout that retains similarities to previous Boeing models.[143] The fly-by-wire system also incorporates flight envelope protection, a system that guides pilot inputs within a computer-calculated framework of operating parameters, acting to prevent stalls, overspeeds, and excessively stressful maneuvers.[137] This system can be overridden by the pilot if deemed necessary.[137] The fly-by-wire system is supplemented by mechanical backup.[144]

text: Airframe and systems

text: The wings on the 777 feature a supercritical airfoil design that is swept back at 31.6 degrees and optimized for cruising at Mach 0.83 (revised upward after flight tests to Mach 0.84).[145] The wings are designed with increased thickness and a longer span than previous airliners, resulting in greater payload and range, improved takeoff performance, and a higher cruising altitude.[50] The wings also serve as fuel storage, with longer-range models able to carry up to 47,890 US gallons (181,300 L) of fuel.[146] This capacity allows the 777-200LR to operate ultra-long-distance, trans-polar routes such as Toronto to Hong Kong.[147] In 2013, a new wing made of composite materials was introduced for the upgraded 777X, with a wider span and design features based on the 787's wings.[142]

text: Unlike smaller airliners like the Boeing 737, no current 777 wings have winglets; instead, the exceptionally long raked wings of the 777 serve the same drag-reducing function. Large folding wingtips, 21 feet (6.40 m) long, were offered when the 777 was first launched, to appeal to airlines who might use gates made to accommodate smaller aircraft, but no airline purchased this option.[148] Folding wingtips reemerged as a design feature at the announcement of the upgraded 777X in 2013. Smaller folding wingtips of 11 feet (3.35 m) in length will allow 777X models to use the same airport gates and taxiways as earlier 777s.[142] These smaller folding wingtips are less complex than those proposed for earlier 777s, and internally only affect the wiring needed for wingtip lights.[142]

text: The airframe incorporates the use of composite materials, which comprise nine percent of its original structural weight (all models outside the 777-8 and 777-9).[149] Elements made from composite material include the cabin floor and rudder. The main fuselage cross-section is circular[150] and tapers rearward into a blade-shaped tail cone with a port-facing auxiliary power unit.[6] The aircraft also features the largest landing gear and the biggest tires ever used in a commercial jetliner.[151] The six-wheel bogies are designed to spread the load of the aircraft over a wide area without requiring an additional centerline gear. This helps reduce weight and simplifies the aircraft's braking and hydraulic systems. Each tire of a 777-300ER six-wheel main landing gear can carry a load of 59,490 lb (26,980 kg), which is heavier than other wide-bodies such as the 747-400.[152] The aircraft has triple redundant hydraulic systems with only one system required for landing.[153] A ram air turbine –a small retractable propeller which can provide emergency power– is also fitted in the wing root fairing.[154]

text: Interior

text: The original 777 interior, also known as the Boeing Signature Interior, features curved panels, larger overhead bins, and indirect lighting.[63] Seating options range from four[155] to six abreast in first class up to 10 across in economy.[156] The 777's windows were the largest of any current commercial airliner until the 787, and measure 15-inch (380 mm) by 10-inch (250 mm) in size (all models outside the 777-8 and -9).[157] The cabin also features "Flexibility Zones", which entails deliberate placement of water, electrical, pneumatic, and other connection points throughout the interior space, allowing airlines to move seats, galleys, and lavatories quickly and more easily when adjusting cabin arrangements.[156] Several aircraft have also been fitted with VIP interiors for non-airline use.[158] Boeing designed a hydraulically damped toilet seat cover hinge that closes slowly.[159]

text: In 2003, Boeing introduced overhead crew rests as an option on the 777.[160] Located above the main cabin and connected via staircases, the forward flight crew rest contains two seats and two bunks, while the aft cabin crew rest features multiple bunks.[160] The Signature Interior has since been adapted for other Boeing wide-body and narrow-body aircraft, including 737NG, 747-400, 757-300, and newer 767 models, including all 767-400ER models.[161][162] The 747-8 and 767-400ER have also adopted the larger, more rounded windows of the original 777.

text: In 2011, Flight International reported that Boeing is considering replacing the Signature Interior on the 777 with a new interior similar to that on the 787, as part of a move towards a "common cabin experience" across all Boeing platforms.[163] With the launch of the 777X in 2013, Boeing confirmed that the aircraft would be receiving a new interior featuring 787 cabin elements and larger windows.[142] Further details released in 2014 included re-sculpted cabin sidewalls for greater interior room, noise-dampening technology, and higher cabin humidity.[164]

text: Variants

text: Boeing uses two characteristics – fuselage length and range – to define its 777 models.[18] Fuselage length affects the number of passengers and amount of cargo that can be carried; the 777-200 and derivatives are the base size, and the aircraft was stretched into the 777-300 in 1998. In terms of range, the aircraft has been categorized into three segments based on design criteria. The A-market would cover domestic and regional operations, the B-market would cover routes from Europe to the US West coast and the C-market the longest transpacific routes.[165]

text: These were initially defined as the following:

text:
A-market: up to 4,200 nautical miles (7,800 km)[166]
B-market: 6,600 nautical miles (12,200 km)[166]
C-market: 7,800 nautical miles (14,400 km)[167]

tag: ul

text: When referring to different variants, Boeing and airlines often collapse the model number (777) and the variant designator (-200 or -300) into a truncated form (e.g., "772" or "773"[168]). The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aircraft type designator system adds a preceding manufacturer letter (e.g., "B772" or "B773").[169] Subsequent to the capacity number, designations may or may not append the range identifier (e.g., 777-300ER as "773ER",[170] "773B",[171] "77W",[172] or "B77W"[169]). These notations may be found in aircraft manuals or airline timetables.

text: The 777-200 was the initial A-market model. The first -200 was delivered to United Airlines on May 15, 1995.[74] With a maximum range of 5,240 nautical miles (9,700 km),[173] the -200 was chiefly aimed at U.S. domestic airline operators.[18] Nine different -200 customers have taken delivery of 88 aircraft,[1] with 62 in airline service as of July 2017.[10] The competing aircraft from Airbus is the A330-300.[174]

text: The 777-200ER ("ER" for Extended Range), the B-market version of the -200, was originally known as the 777-200IGW (increased gross weight).[73] The -200ER has additional fuel capacity and an increased maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) over the -200. Aimed at international airlines operating transatlantic routes,[18] the -200ER's maximum range is 7,065 nautical miles (13,084 km).[175] In addition to breaking the eastbound great circle "distance without landing" record, the -200ER also holds the record for the longest ETOPS-related emergency flight diversion (177 minutes under one engine), on a United Airlines flight carrying 255 passengers on March 17, 2003, over the Pacific Ocean.[176][177]

text: The first -200ER was delivered to British Airways on February 6, 1997.[74] A British Airways 777-200ER flew the fastest subsonic New York to London flight at 5 hours and 16 minutes in January 2015 due to strong tail winds.[178][179][180] Singapore Airlines, one of the variant's largest customers,[1] ordered over half of its -200ERs with reduced engine thrust specifications (de-rated) for use on medium-length routes.[181][182] The de-rated engines lower the MTOW, which reduces the aircraft's purchase price and landing fees; these aircraft can be re-rated to full -200ER standard for long-haul operations.[181] As of August 2017, -200ER deliveries to 33 different customers totaled 422 with no unfilled orders.[1] As of July 2017, 354 examples of the -200ER were in airline service.[10] The competing aircraft from Airbus are the A340-300 and the A350-900, while Boeing's own 787-9 is positioned as a successor.[183]

text: The 777-200LR ("LR" for Longer Range), the C-market model, entered service in 2006 as one of the longest-range commercial airliners.[184][185] Boeing named it Worldliner as it can connect almost any two airports in the world,[8] although it is subject to ETOPS restrictions.[186] It holds the world record for the longest nonstop flight by a commercial airliner.[8] It has a maximum design range of 8,555 nautical miles (15,844 km) as of 2017.[175] The -200LR was intended for ultra long-haul routes such as Los Angeles to Singapore.[80]

text: Developed alongside the -300ER, the -200LR features an increased MTOW and three optional auxiliary fuel tanks in the rear cargo hold.[184] Other new features include raked wingtips, redesigned main landing gear, and additional structural strengthening.[184] As with the -300ER and 777F, the -200LR is equipped with wingtip extensions of 12.8 ft (3.90 m).[184] The -200LR is powered by GE90-110B1 or GE90-115B turbofans.[187] The first -200LR was delivered to Pakistan International Airlines on February 26, 2006.[91][188] As of August 2017, eleven different -200LR customers have taken delivery of 59 aircraft, with no unfilled orders.[1] Airlines operated 55 of the -200LR variant as of July 2017[update].[10] Delta Air Lines and Emirates are the largest operators of the LR variant, each operating 10 aircraft.[10] The closest competing aircraft from Airbus are the discontinued A340-500HGW[184] and the forthcoming A350-900ULR.[189]

text: The stretched 777-300 was designed as an A-market replacement for 747-100s and 747-200s.[190] Compared to the older 747s, the stretched 777 has comparable passenger capacity and range, but burns one-third less fuel and has 40 percent lower maintenance costs.[76] The -300 features a 33.3 ft (10.1 m) fuselage stretch over the baseline -200. This allows seating for up to 550 passengers in a single class high-density configuration,[76] an arrangement adopted for heavily trafficked Japanese routes.[191] Because of the aircraft's length, the -300 is equipped with a tailskid and ground maneuvering cameras to aid pilots during taxi.[192] The maximum range is 6,030 nautical miles (11,170 km),[173] allowing the -300 to operate trunk routes previously flown by older 747s.[76]

text: After being certified simultaneously by the FAA and JAA,[77] the first -300 was delivered to Cathay Pacific on May 21, 1998.[74][78] Eight -300 customers have taken delivery of 60 aircraft,[1] 49 of which were in service as of July 2017.[10] However, following the introduction of the longer-range -300ER in 2004, operators have selected that variant instead.[1] The -300 has no direct Airbus rival, but the A340-600 was offered in competition.[193][194]

text: The 777-300ER ("ER" for Extended Range) is the B-market version of the -300. Its higher MTOW and increased fuel capacity permits a maximum range of 7,370 nautical miles (13,650 km) with 396 passengers in a two-class seating arrangement.[175] The 777-300ER features raked and extended wingtips, a strengthened fuselage and wings and a modified main landing gear.[195] Its wings have an aspect ratio of 9.0.[196] It is powered by the GE90-115B turbofan, the most powerful jet engine with a maximum thrust of 115,300 lbf (513 kN).[197] Following flight testing, aerodynamic refinements have reduced fuel burn by an additional 1.4%.[88][198]

text: Since its launch, the -300ER has been a primary driver of the twinjet's sales past the rival A330/340 series.[9] Its direct competitors have included the Airbus A340-600 and the A350-1000.[100] Using two engines produces a typical operating cost advantage of around 8–9% for the -300ER over the A340-600.[199] Several airlines have acquired the -300ER as a 747-400 replacement amid rising fuel prices given its 20% fuel burn advantage.[89] The -300ER has a $44 per seat hour, compared to an Airbus A380's roughly $50 per seat hour (hourly cost is about $26,000), and $90 per seat hour for a Boeing 747-400 as of November 2015.[200]

text: The first -300ER was delivered to Air France on April 29, 2004.[201] The -300ER is the best-selling 777 variant, having surpassed the -200ER in orders in 2010 and deliveries in 2013.[1] As of August 2017, -300ER deliveries to 45 different customers totalled 753, with 70 unfilled orders.[1] As of July 2017, 739 -300ER aircraft were in service.[10]

text: 777 Freighter

text: The 777 Freighter (777F) is an all-cargo version of the twinjet, and shares features with the -200LR; these include its airframe, engines,[202] and fuel capacity.[146] With a maximum payload of 224,900 lb (102,000 kg) (similar to the 243,000 lb (110,000 kg) of the 747-200F), it has a range of 4,970 nmi (9,200 km).[175] Greater range is possible if less cargo weight is carried.[203]

text: As the aircraft promises improved operating economics compared to older freighters,[89] airlines have viewed the 777F as a replacement for freighters such as the 747-200F, MD-10, and MD-11F.[93][204] The first 777F was delivered to Air France on February 19, 2009.[96] As of August 2017, 130 freighters had been delivered to 16 different customers, with 31 unfilled orders.[1] Operators had 128 of the 777F in service as of July 2017.[10]

text: In the 2000s, Boeing began studying the conversion of 777-200ER and -200 passenger airliners into freighters, under the name 777 BCF (Boeing Converted Freighter).[205] The company has been in discussion with several airline customers, including FedEx Express, UPS Airlines, and GE Capital Aviation Services, to provide launch orders for a 777 BCF program.[206]

text: 777-8 and -9

text: The 777-8 and the larger 777-9, are the two variants which comprise the Boeing 777X program, launched in 2013. Both models incorporate a new carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer wing with folding wingtips, a wider, more comfortable redesigned cabin, and other upgraded systems. Service entry of the first 777X variant, the 777-9, is scheduled for 2020.[128]

text: Government and corporate

text: Versions of the 777 have been acquired by government and private customers. The main purpose has been for VIP transport, including as an air transport for heads of state, although the aircraft has also been proposed for other military applications.

text:
777 Business Jet (777 VIP) – the Boeing Business Jet version of the 777 that is sold to corporate customers. Boeing has received orders for 777 VIP aircraft based on the 777-200LR and 777-300ER passenger models.[207][208] The aircraft are fitted with private jet cabins by third party contractors,[207] and completion may take 3 years.[209]
777 Tanker (KC-777) – the KC-777 is a proposed tanker version of the 777. In September 2006, Boeing announced that it would produce the KC-777 if the United States Air Force (USAF) required a larger tanker than the KC-767, able to transport more cargo or personnel.[210][211][212] In April 2007, Boeing offered its 767-based KC-767 Advanced Tanker instead of the KC-777 to replace the smaller Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker under the USAF's KC-X program.[213] Boeing officials have described the KC-777 as suitable for the related KC-Z program to replace the wide-body McDonnell Douglas KC-10 Extender.[214]
In 2014, the Japanese government chose to procure two 777-300ERs to serve as the official air transport for the Emperor of Japan and Prime Minister of Japan.[215] The aircraft, to be operated by the Japan Air Self-Defense Force under the callsign Japanese Air Force One, are scheduled to enter service in 2019 and replace two 747-400s. Besides VIP transport, the 777s are also intended for use in emergency relief missions.[215]
777s have served as official government transports for nations including Gabon (VIP-configured 777-200ER),[216] Turkmenistan (VIP-configured 777-200LR),[217] and the United Arab Emirates (VIP-configured 777-200ER and 777-300ER operated by Abu Dhabi Amiri Flight).[208] Prior to returning to power as Prime Minister of Lebanon, Rafic Hariri acquired a 777-200ER as an official transport.[218]
In 2014, the USAF examined the possibility of adopting modified 777-300ERs or 777-9Xs to replace the Boeing 747-200 aircraft used as Air Force One.[219] Although the USAF had preferred a four engine aircraft, this was mainly due to precedent (the existing aircraft were purchased when the 767 was just beginning to prove itself with ETOPS; decades later, the 777 and other twin jets established a comparable level of performance as quad-jet aircraft).[219] Ultimately, the air force decided against the 777, and selected instead the Boeing 747-8 to become the next presidential aircraft.[220]

text: Operators

text: Boeing customers that have received the most 777s are Emirates, Singapore Airlines, United Airlines, ILFC, and American Airlines.[1] Emirates is the largest airline operator as of July 2017,[10] and is the only customer to have operated all 777 variants produced, including the -200, -200ER, -200LR, -300, -300ER, and 777F.[1][221] The 1,000th 777 off the production line, a -300ER set to be Emirates' 102nd 777, was unveiled at a factory ceremony in March 2012.[114]

text: A total of 1,387 aircraft (all variants) were in airline service as of July 2017, with Emirates (161), United Airlines (88), Cathay Pacific (70), Air France (70), American Airlines (67), British Airways (58), Qatar Airways (55), Singapore Airlines (53), All Nippon Airways (52) and other operators with fewer aircraft of the type.[10]

text: In 2017, 777 Classics are towards the end of their mainline service: with a -200 age ranging from three to 22 years, 43 Classic 777s or 7.5% of the fleet have been retired. Values of 777-200ERs have declined by 45% since January 2014, faster than Airbus A330s and Boeing 767s with 30%, due to the lack of a major secondary market but only a few budget, air charters and ACMI operators. In 2015, Richard H. Anderson, then Delta Air Lines' chairman and chief executive, said he had been offered 777-200s for less than $10 million. To keep them cost efficient, operators densifies their 777s for about $10 million each, like Scoot with 402 seats in its dual-class -200s, or Cathay Pacific which switched the 3-3-3 economy layout of 777-300s to 3-4-3 to seat 396 on regional services.[222]

text: Orders and deliveries

text:
Boeing 777 orders and deliveries by type[1]

view
talk
edit

Total orders
Total deliveries

777-200
88
88

777-200ER
422
422

777-200LR
59
59

777-300
60
60

777-300ER
823
753

777F
161
130

777X
326
–

Total
1,939
1,512

tag: table

text: Orders and deliveries through August 31, 2017[1]

text:
Boeing 777 orders[1] and deliveries[223] by year

1990-94
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
Total

Orders (all variants)
112
101
68
54
68
35
116
30
32
13
42
153
76
110
39
30
75
194
75
121
283
58
17
37
1,939

Deliveries
777-200
–
13
32
11
10
3
9
3
–
1
2
3
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
88

777-200ER
–
–
–
48
50
63
42
55
41
29
22
13
23
19
3
4
3
–
3
4
–
–
–
–
422

777-200LR
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
10
11
16
9
6
1
1
3
–
–
–
59

777-300
–
–
–
–
14
17
4
3
6
9
2
4
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
60

777-300ER
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
10
20
39
53
47
52
40
52
60
79
83
79
88
51
753

777F
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
16
22
15
19
14
13
19
11
1
130

777X
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–

Deliveries (all variants)
–
13
32
59
74
83
55
61
47
39
36
40
65
83
61
88
74
73
83
98
99
98
99
52
1,512

text: Orders [1] and deliveries[223] through August 31, 2017

text: Boeing 777 orders and deliveries (cumulative, by year):

text: Orders

text: Deliveries

text: Orders[1] and deliveries[223] through August 31, 2017

text:
Model variants by ICAO code

ICAO designation[169]
Model series

B772
777-200
777-200ER

B77L
777-200LR
777F

B773
777-300

B77W
777-300ER

text: Accidents and incidents

text: As of February 2017, the 777 has been involved in nineteen aviation accidents and incidents,[225] including a total of six hull-losses – at least one due to a criminal act – resulting in 541 fatalities; and three hijackings.[226][227] The first fatality involving the twinjet occurred in a fire while an aircraft was being refueled at Denver International Airport in the United States on September 5, 2001, during which a ground worker sustained fatal burns.[228] The aircraft, operated by British Airways, suffered fire damage to the lower wing panels and engine housing; it was later repaired and returned to service.[228][229]

text: The type's first hull-loss occurred on January 17, 2008, when a 777-200ER with Rolls-Royce Trent 895 engines, flying from Beijing to London as British Airways Flight 38, crash-landed approximately 1,000 feet (300 m) short of Heathrow Airport's runway 27L and slid onto the runway's threshold. There were 47 injuries and no fatalities. The impact damaged the landing gear, wing roots and engines. The aircraft was written off.[230][231] The accident was attributed to ice crystals suspended in the aircraft's fuel clogging the fuel-oil heat exchanger (FOHE).[224][232] Two other minor momentary losses of thrust with Trent 895 engines occurred later in 2008.[233][234] Investigators found these were also caused by ice in the fuel clogging the FOHE. As a result, the heat exchanger was redesigned.[224][235]

text: On July 29, 2011, a 777-200ER scheduled to operate as EgyptAir Flight 667, suffered a cockpit fire while parked at the gate at Cairo International Airport before its departure.[236] The aircraft was evacuated with no injuries,[236] and airport fire teams extinguished the fire.[237] The aircraft sustained structural-, heat- and smoke damage, and was written off.[236][237] Investigators focused on a possible short circuit between an electrical cable and a supply hose in the cockpit crew oxygen system.[236]

text: On July 6, 2013, a 777-200ER operating as Asiana Airlines Flight 214, crashed while landing at San Francisco International Airport after touching down short of the runway. The 307 surviving passengers and crew on board evacuated before fire destroyed the aircraft. Two passengers, who had not been wearing their seatbelts, were ejected from the aircraft during the crash and were killed.[238] A third passenger died six days later as a result of injuries sustained during the crash.[239] These were the first fatalities in a crash involving a 777 since its entry into service in 1995.[240][239][241] The official accident investigation concluded in June 2014 that the pilots committed 20 to 30 minor to significant errors in their final approach, and that complexities of the automated controls contributed to the accident.[242][243]

text: On March 8, 2014, a 777-200ER carrying 227 passengers and 12 crew, en route from Kuala Lumpur to Beijing as Malaysia Airlines Flight 370, was reported missing. Air Traffic Control's last reported coordinates for the aircraft were over the South China Sea at 6°55′15″N 103°34′43″E / 6.92083°N 103.57861°E / 6.92083; 103.57861.[244][245] After the search for the aircraft began, Malaysia's prime minister announced on March 24, 2014 that after analysis of new satellite data it was now to be assumed "beyond reasonable doubt" that the aircraft had crashed in the Indian Ocean and there were no survivors.[246][247] As of August 2016[update], the cause remains unknown, but the Malaysian Government declared it was an accident in January 2015.[248][249] On July 29, 2015, an item later identified as a flaperon from the missing aircraft was found on the island of Réunion in the western Indian Ocean.[250]

text: The fifth hull loss occurred on July 17, 2014, when a 777-200ER, bound for Kuala Lumpur from Amsterdam as Malaysia Airlines Flight 17, broke up in mid-air and crashed[251] in the Donetsk province in eastern Ukraine, after being hit by an anti-aircraft missile.[252] All 298 people (283 passengers and 15 crew) on board were killed. The incident was linked to the ongoing Donbass insurgency in the region.[253][254] The official accident report, released in October 2015, states that airliner was brought down by a Buk missile launched from territory held by pro-Russian separatists.[255]

text: On September 8, 2015, a 777-200ER caught fire during its take-off at Las Vegas McCarran International Airport as British Airways Flight 2276, after one of its General Electric GE90-85B engines suffered a serious uncontained engine failure. The take-off was aborted and all crew and passengers were evacuated with only minor injuries occurring. Investigators discovered that debris from inside the engine had punctured 'multiple' holes in the engine case.[256][257][258][259]

text: On May 27, 2016, an engine caught fire on a 777-300 before it was due to take off as Korean Air Flight 2708 at Tokyo International Airport, commonly known as Haneda Airport. Shortly before take-off, the Number 1 Pratt & Whitney PW4000 engine caught fire. All 17 crew members and 302 passengers evacuated safely. Fire fighters put out the fire within an hour. The incident is under investigation.[260][261][262][importance?]

text: On June 27, 2016, a 777-300ER suffered an oil leak in the right engine while en route from Singapore to Milan as Singapore Airlines Flight 368. It was diverted back to Singapore Changi Airport for an emergency landing. The right engine and wing caught fire during the landing roll and sustained serious fire damage. There were no injuries.[263][264]

text: On August 3, 2016, the sixth hull-loss of the type occurred, when a 777-300 crashed while landing and caught fire at Dubai Airport at the end of its flight as Emirates Flight 521.[265] The preliminary investigation indicated that the aircraft was attempting a landing during active wind shear conditions. The pilots initiated a go-around procedure shortly after the main wheels touched-down onto the runway, however the aircraft settled back onto the ground apparently due to late throttle application. As the undercarriage was in the process of being retracted, the aircraft landed on its rear underbody and engine nacelles, resulting in the separation of one engine, loss of control and subsequent crash.[266] There were no passenger casualties of the 300 people on board, however one airport fireman was killed fighting the fire. The aircraft's fuselage and right wing were badly damaged by the fire.[265][267]

text: Specifications

text:
Boeing 777 specifications

Model
777-200[187]
777-200ER[187]
777-200LR[146]
777F[146]
777-300[187]
777-300ER[146]

Cockpit crew
Two

3-class[173]
305 (24F/54J/227Y)
301 (16F/58J/227Y)

368 (30F/84J/254Y)
365 (22F/70J/273Y)

2-class/capacity[175]
313
317
224,900 lb / 102,010 kg
396

Exit limit[268]
440
11
550

Length
209 ft 1 in / 63.73 m
242 ft 4 in / 73.86 m

Wingspan
199 ft 11 in / 60.93 m
212 ft 7 in / 64.80 m
199 ft 11 in / 60.93 m
212 ft 7 in / 64.80 m

Wing sweep
31.6°[269]

Wing area
4,605 sq ft (427.8 m2)[269]
4,702 sq ft (436.8 m2)[270]
4,605 sq ft (427.8 m2)[269]
4,702 sq ft (436.8 m2)[270]

Aspect ratio
8.68
9.04
8.68
9.04

Tail height[175]
60 ft 9 in / 18.5 m
61 ft 1 in / 18.6 m
60 ft 8 in / 18.5 m

Cabin width
230 in / 5.84 m

Seat width
18.5 in / 47 cm at 9 abreast, 17 in / 43 cm at 10 abreast

Fuselage width
20 ft 4 in / 6.20 m

Maximum cargo capacity[175]
5,330 ft³ / 150.9 m³
23,051 ft³ / 652.7 m³
7,120 ft³ / 201.6 m³

Maximum takeoff weight (MTOW)
545,000 lb / 247,200 kg
656,000 lb / 297,550 kg
766,000 lb / 347,452 kg
766,800 lb / 347,815 kg
660,000 lb / 299,370 kg
775,000 lb / 351,533 kg

Max. landing weight
445,000 lb / 201,840 kg
470,000 lb / 213,180 kg
492,000 lb / 223,168 kg
575,000 lb / 260,816 kg
524,000 lb / 237,680 kg
554,000 lb / 251,290 kg

Operating empty weight
299,550 lb / 135,850 kg
304,500 lb / 138,100 kg
320,000 lb / 145,150 kg
318,300 lb / 144,379 kg
353,800 lb / 160,530 kg
370,000 lb / 167,829 kg

Fuel capacity
31,000 US gal / 117,340 L / 207,700 lb / 94,240 kg
45,220 US gal / 171,171 L / 302,270 lb / 137,460 kg
47,890 US gal / 181,283 L / 320,863 lb / 145,538 kg
45,220 US gal / 171,171 L / 302,270 lb / 137,460 kg
47,890 US gal / 181,283 L / 320,863 lb / 145,538 kg

Service ceiling[268]
43,100 ft (13,100 m)

Cruise speed
Mach 0.84 (892 km/h; 554 mph)

Max. speed
Mach 0.89 (945 km/h; 587 mph)[271]

Range[175]
5,240 nmi / 9,700 km[a][173]
7,065 nmi / 13,080 km[b]
8,555 nmi / 15,840 km[c]
4,970 nmi / 9,200 km[d]
6,030 nmi / 11,165 km[e][173]
7,370 nmi / 13,650 km[f]

Takeoff distance[g]
8,000 ft
2,440 m
11,100 ft
3,380 m
9,200 ft
2,800 m
9,300 ft
2,830 m
10,600 ft
3,230 m
10,000 ft
3,050 m

Turbofan (×2)
PW 4077
RR 877
GE90-77B
PW 4090
RR 895
GE90-94B
GE90-110B1
GE90-115B1
PW 4098
RR 892
GE90-92B/-94B
GE90-115B1

Max thrust (×2)
77,200 lbf (343 kN)
93,700 lbf (417 kN)
115,300 lbf (513 kN)
98,000 lbf (440 kN)
115,300 lbf (513 kN)