document_title: History of electric power transmission

question_text: when was electricity first used in homes in the us

text: History of electric power transmission

text: Early transmission[edit]

text: This section is about an event or subject but lacks specific dates for context. Please help improve it to include this information. The talk page may contain suggestions. (November 2014)

text: Prior to electricity, various systems have been used for transmission of power across large distances. Chief among them were telodynamic (cable in motion), pneumatic (pressurized air), and hydraulic (pressurized fluid) transmission.[1] Cable cars were the most frequent example of telodynamic transmission, whose lines could extend for several miles for a single section. Pneumatic transmission was used for city power transmission systems in Paris, Birmingham, Rixdorf, Offenbach, Dresden and Buenos Aires at the beginning of the twentieth century. Cities in the 19th century also used hydraulic transmission using high pressure water mains to deliver power to factory motors. London's system delivered 7000 hp ( 5 megawatts) over a 180-mile (290 km) network of pipes carrying water at 800 psi. These systems were replaced by cheaper and more versatile electrical systems, but by the end of the 19th century, city planners and financiers were well aware of the benefits, economics, and process of establishing power transmission systems.

text: In the early days of electric power usage, widespread transmission of electric power had two obstacles. First, devices requiring different voltages required specialized generators with their own separate lines. Street lights, electric motors in factories, power for streetcars and lights in homes are examples of the diversity of devices with voltages requiring separate systems. Secondly, generators had to be relatively near their loads (a mile or less for low voltage devices). It was known that long distance transmission was possible the higher the voltage was raised, so both problems could be solved if transforming voltages could be cheaply performed from a single universal power line.

text: Specialized systems[edit]

text: Much of early electricity was direct current, which could not easily be increased or decreased in voltage either for long-distance transmission or for sharing a common line to be used with multiple types of electric devices. Companies simply ran different lines for the different classes of loads their inventions required, for example, Charles Brush's New York arc lamp systems required up to 10 kV for many lamps in a series circuit, Edison's incandescent lights used 110 V, streetcars built by Siemens or Sprague required large motors in the 500 volt range,[2] whereas industrial motors in factories used still other voltages.[3] Due to this specialization of lines, and because transmission was so inefficient, it seemed at the time that the industry would develop into what is now known as a distributed generation system with large numbers of small generators located near their loads.[4]

text: Early high voltage exterior lighting[edit]

text: High voltage was of interest to early researchers working on the problem of transmission over distance. They knew from elementary electricity principle that the same amount of power could be transferred on a cable by doubling the voltage and halving the current. Due to Joule's Law, they also knew that the capacity of a wire is proportional to the square of the current traveling on it, regardless the voltage, and so by doubling the voltage, the same cable would be capable of transmitting the same amount of power four times the distance.

text: At the Paris Exposition of 1878, electric arc lighting had been installed along the Avenue de l'Opera and the Place de l'Opera, using electric Yablochkov arc lamps, powered by Zénobe Gramme alternating current dynamos.[5][6][7] Yablochkov candles required high voltage, and it was not long before experimenters reported that the arc lamps could be powered on a 7-mile (11 km) circuit.[8] Within a decade scores of cities would have lighting systems using a central power plant that provided electricity to multiple customers via electrical transmission lines. These systems were in direct competition with the dominant gaslight utilities of the period.[9]

text: The idea of investing in a central plant and a network to deliver energy produced to customers who pay a recurring fee for service was familiar business model for investors: it was identical to the lucrative gaslight business, or the hydraulic and pneumatic power transmission systems. The only difference was the commodity being delivered was electricity, not gas, and the "pipes" used for delivering were more flexible.

text: The California Electric Company (now PG&E) in San Francisco in 1879 used two direct current generators from Charles Brush's company to supply multiple customers with power for their arc lamps. This San Francisco system was the first case of a utility selling electricity from a central plant to multiple customers via transmission lines.[11] CEC soon opened a second plant with 4 additional generators. Service charges for light from sundown to midnight was $10 per lamp per week.[9][12]

text: In December 1880, Brush Electric Company set up a central station to supply a 2-mile (3.2 km) length of Broadway with arc lighting. By the end of 1881, New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Montreal, Buffalo, San Francisco, Cleveland and other cities had Brush arc lamp systems, producing public light well into the 20th century.[13] By 1893 there were 1500 arc lamps illuminating New York streets.[14]

text: Direct current lighting[edit]

text: Extremely bright arc lights were too bright, and with the high voltages and sparking/fire hazard, too dangerous to use indoors.[15] In 1878 inventor Thomas Edison saw a market for a system that could bring electric lighting directly into a customer's business or home, a niche not served by arc lighting systems.[16] After devising a commercially viable incandescent light bulb in 1879, Edison went on to develop the first large scale investor-owned electric illumination "utility" in lower Manhattan, eventually serving one square mile with 6 "jumbo dynamos" housed at Pearl Street Station.[7][9][17][18] When service began in September 1882, there were 85 customers with 400 light bulbs. Each dynamo produced 100 kW2—enough for 1200 incandescent lights, and transmission was at 110 V via underground conduits. The system cost $300,000 to build with installation of the 100,000 feet (30,000 m) of underground conduits one of the most expensive parts of the project. Operating expenses exceeded income in the first two years and fire destroyed the plant in 1890.[19] Further, Edison had a three wire system so that either 110 V or 220 V could be supplied to power some motors.

text: Availability of large-scale generation[edit]

text: Availability of large amounts of power from diverse locations would become possible after Charles Parsons' production of turbogenerators beginning 1889. Turbogenerator output quickly jumped from 100 kW to 25 megawatts in two decades.[20] Prior to efficient turbogenerators, hydroelectric projects were a significant source of large amounts of power requiring transmission infrastructure.

text: Induction coils advantage of alternating current[edit]

text: When George Westinghouse became interested in electricity, he quickly and correctly concluded that Edison's low voltages were too inefficient to be scaled up for transmission needed for large systems. He further understood that long-distance transmission needed high voltage and that inexpensive conversion technology only existed for alternating current. Transformers would play the decisive role in the victory of alternating current over direct current for transmission and distribution systems.[21] In 1876, Pavel Yablochkov patented his mechanism of using induction coils to serve as a step up transformer prior to the Paris Exposition demonstrating his arc lamps. In 1881, Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs developed a more efficient device which they dubbed the secondary generator, namely an early transformer provided with 1:1 turn ratio and open magnetic circuit.[7][22]

text: The birth of the first transformer

text: The first demonstrative long distance (34 km, i.e. 21 mi) AC line was built for the 1884 International Exhibition of Turin, Italy. It was powered by a 2-kV, 130-Hz Siemens & Halske alternator and featured several Gaulard secondary generators with their primary windings connected in series, which fed incandescent lamps. The system proved the feasibility of AC electric power transmission on long distances.[7] After this success, between 1884 and 1885, Hungarian engineers Zipernowsky, Bláthy, and Déri from the Ganz company in Budapest created the efficient "Z.B.D." closed-core coils, as well as the modern electric distribution system. The three had discovered that all former coreless or open-core devices were incapable of regulating voltage, and were therefore impractical. Their joint patent described two versions of a design with no poles: the "closed-core transformer" and the "shell-core transformer".[23][24] Ottó Bláthy suggested the use of closed-cores, Károly Zipernowsky the use of shunt connections, and Miksa Déri performed the experiments.[7][25]

text: In the closed-core transformer the iron core is a closed ring around which the two coils are wound. In the shell type transformer, the windings are passed through the core. In both designs, the magnetic flux linking the primary and secondary windings travels almost entirely within the iron core, with no intentional path through air. The core consists of iron strands or sheets. These revolutionary design elements would finally make it technically and economically feasible to provide electric power for lighting in homes, businesses and public spaces.[26] Zipernowsky, Bláthy and Déri also discovered the transformer formula, Vs/Vp = Ns/Np.[citation needed] Electrical and electronic systems the world over rely on the principles of the original Ganz transformers. The inventors are also credited with the first use of the word "transformer" to describe a device for altering the EMF of an electric current.[26][27]

text: A very first operative AC line was put into service in 1885 in via dei Cerchi, Rome, Italy, for public lighting. It was powered by two Siemens & Halske alternators rated 30 hp (22 kW), 2 kV at 120 Hz and used 200 series-connected Gaulard 2-kV/20-V step-down transformers provided with a closed magnetic circuit, one for each lamp. Few months later it was followed by the first British AC system, which was put into service at the Grosvenor Gallery, London. It also featured Siemens alternators and 2.4-kV/100-V step-down transformers, one per user, with shunt-connected primaries.[28]

text: The concept that is the basis of modern transmission using inexpensive step up and step down transformers was first implemented by Westinghouse, William Stanley, Jr. and Franklin Leonard Pope in 1886 in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, resorting also to European technology.[29][30] In 1888 Westinghouse also licensed Nikola Tesla's induction motor patent giving AC a much needed usable motor. This system was developed into the modern 3-phase system by Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky and Allgemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft and Charles Eugene Lancelot Brown in Europe, starting in 1889.[3][28] The simplicity of polyphase generators and motors meant that besides their efficiency they could be manufactured cheaply, compactly and would require little attention to maintain. Simple economics would drive the expensive, balky and mechanically complex DC dynamos to their ultimate extinction. As it turned out, the deciding factor in the War of Currents was the availability of low cost step up and step down transformers that meant that all customers regardless of their specialized voltage requirements could be served at minimal cost of conversion. This "universal system" is today regarded as one of the most influential innovations for the use of electricity.[3]

text: High voltage direct current transmission[edit]

text: The case for alternating current was not clear at the turn of the century and high voltage direct current transmission systems were successfully installed without the benefit of transformers. Rene Thury, who had spent six months at Edison's Menlo Park facility, understood his problem with transmission and was convinced that moving electricity over great distances was possible using direct current. He was familiar with the work of Marcel Deprez, who did early work on high voltage transmission after being inspired by the capability of arc lamp generators to support lights over great distances.[31][32] Deprez avoided transformers by placing generators and loads in series[31] as arc lamp systems of Charles F. Brush did. Thury developed this idea into the first commercial system for high-voltage DC transmission. Like Brush's dynamos, current is kept constant, and when increasing load demands more pressure, voltage is increased. The Thury System was successfully used on several DC transmission projects from Hydro generators. The first in 1885 was a low voltage system in Bözingen,[33] and the first high voltage system went into service in 1889 in Genoa, Italy, by the Acquedotto de Ferrari-Galliera company. This system transmitted 630 kW at 14 kV DC over a circuit 120 km long.[34][35] The largest Thury System was the Lyon Moutiers project that was 230 km in length, eventually delivering 20 megawatts, at 125 kV.[31][32][36]

text: Victory for AC[edit]

text: Ultimately, the versatility of the Thury system was hampered by the fragility of series distribution, and the lack of a reliable DC conversion technology that would not show up until the 1940s with improvements in mercury arc valves. The AC "universal system" won by force of numbers, proliferating systems with transformers both to couple generators to high-voltage transmission lines, and to connect transmission to local distribution circuits. By a suitable choice of utility frequency, both lighting and motor loads could be served. Rotary converters and later mercury-arc valves and other rectifier equipment allowed DC load to be served by local conversion where needed. Even generating stations and loads using different frequencies could also be interconnected using rotary converters. By using common generating plants for every type of load, important economies of scale were achieved, lower overall capital investment was required, load factor on each plant was increased allowing for higher efficiency, allowing for a lower cost of energy to the consumer and increased overall use of electric power.

text: By allowing multiple generating plants to be interconnected over a wide area, electricity production cost was reduced. The most efficient available plants could be used to supply the varying loads during the day. Reliability was improved and capital investment cost was reduced, since stand-by generating capacity could be shared over many more customers and a wider geographic area. Remote and low-cost sources of energy, such as hydroelectric power or mine-mouth coal, could be exploited to lower energy production cost.[37]

text: The first transmission of three-phase alternating current using high voltage took place in 1891 during the international electricity exhibition in Frankfurt. A 15 kV transmission line connected Lauffen on the Neckar and Frankfurt am Main, on a 175 km long distance.[28][38]

text: Initially transmission lines were supported by porcelain pin-and-sleeve insulators similar to those used for telegraphs and telephone lines. However, these had a practical limit of 40 kV. In 1907, the invention of the disc insulator by Harold W. Buck of the Niagara Falls Power Corporation and Edward M. Hewlett of General Electric allowed practical insulators of any length to be constructed for higher voltages.

text: The first large scale hydroelectric generators in the USA were installed in 1895 at Niagara Falls and provided electricity to Buffalo, New York, via power transmission lines. A statue of Nikola Tesla stands at, Goat Island Niagara Falls New York, today in tribute to his contributions.

text: Modern period[edit]

text: Voltages used for electric power transmission increased throughout the 20th century.[39] The first "high voltage" AC power station, rated 4-MW 10-kV 85-Hz, was put into service in 1889 by Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti at Deptford, London.[28] The first electric power transmission line in North America operated at 4000 V. It went online on June 3, 1889, with the lines between the generating station at Willamette Falls in Oregon City, Oregon, and Chapman Square in downtown Portland, Oregon stretching about 13 miles.[40] By 1914 fifty-five transmission systems operating at more than 70,000 V were in service, and the highest voltage then used was 150 kV.[41] The first three-phase alternating current power transmission at 110 kV took place in 1907 between Croton and Grand Rapids, Michigan. Voltages of 100 kV and more were not established technology until around 5 years later, with for example the first 110 kV line in Europe between Lauchhammer and Riesa, Germany, in 1912.

text: In the early 1920s the Pit River – Cottonwood – Vaca-Dixon line was built for 220 kV transporting power from hydroelectric plants in the Sierra Nevada to the San Francisco Bay Area, at the same time the Big Creek – Los Angeles lines were upgraded to the same voltage. Both of those systems entered commercial service in 1923. On April 17, 1929 the first 220 kV line in Germany was completed, running from Brauweiler near Cologne, over Kelsterbach near Frankfurt, Rheinau near Mannheim, Ludwigsburg–Hoheneck near Austria. This line comprises the North-South interconnect, at the time one of the world's largest power systems. The masts of this line were designed for eventual upgrade to 380 kV. However the first transmission at 380 kV in Germany was on October 5, 1957 between the substations in Rommerskirchen and Ludwigsburg–Hoheneck.

text: The world's first 380 kV power line was built in Sweden, the 952 km Harsprånget – Hallsberg line in 1952. In 1965, the first extra-high-voltage transmission at 735 kV took place on a Hydro-Québec transmission line.[42] In 1982 the first transmission at 1200 kV was in the Soviet Union.

text: The rapid industrialization in the 20th century made electrical transmission lines and grids a critical part of the economic infrastructure in most industrialized nations. Interconnection of local generation plants and small distribution networks was greatly spurred by the requirements of World War I, where large electrical generating plants were built by governments to provide power to munitions factories; later these plants were connected to supply civil load through long-distance transmission.[43]

text: Small municipal electrical utilities did not necessarily desire to reduce the cost of each unit of electricity sold; to some extent, especially during the period 1880–1890, electrical lighting was considered a luxury product and electric power was not substituted for steam power. Engineers such as Samuel Insull in the United States and Sebastian Z. De Ferranti in the United Kingdom were instrumental in overcoming technical, economic, regulatory and political difficulties in development of long-distance electric power transmission. By introduction of electric power transmission networks, in the city of London the cost of a kilowatt-hour was reduced to one-third in a ten-year period.[44]

text: In 1926 electrical networks in the United Kingdom began to be interconnected in the National Grid, initially operating at 132 kV.


document_title: History of gravitational theory

question_text: who came up with the idea of gravity

question_tokens: who came up with the idea of gravity

root

text: History of gravitational theory

text: Antiquity[edit]

text: Greece[edit]

text: In the 4th century BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle believed that there is no effect or motion without a cause. The cause of the downward motion of heavy bodies, such as the element earth, was related to their nature, which caused them to move downward toward the center of the universe, which was their natural place. Conversely, light bodies such as the element fire, move by their nature upward toward the inner surface of the sphere of the Moon. Thus in Aristotle's system heavy bodies are not attracted to the earth by an external force of gravity, but tend toward the center of the universe because of an inner gravitas or heaviness.[1][2]

tag: p

text: In Book VII of his De Architectura, the Roman engineer and architect Vitruvius contends that gravity is not dependent on a substance's "weight" but rather on its "nature" (cf. specific gravity).

text: If the quicksilver is poured into a vessel, and a stone weighing one hundred pounds is laid upon it, the stone swims on the surface, and cannot depress the liquid, nor break through, nor separate it. If we remove the hundred pound weight, and put on a scruple of gold, it will not swim, but will sink to the bottom of its own accord. Hence, it is undeniable that the gravity of a substance depends not on the amount of its weight, but on its nature.[3]

text: India[edit]

text: Aryabhata first identified the force to explain why objects do not fall when the earth rotates,and developed a geocentric solar system of gravitation, with an eccentric elliptical model of the planets, where the planets spin on their axes and follow elliptical orbits,the Sun and the moon revolving around the earth in epicycles. Brahmagupta the Indian astronomer and mathematician described gravity as an attractive force and used the term "gruhtvaakarshan" for gravity.[4][5][6]

text: Al Hamdānī and Al Biruni quote Brahmagupta saying

text: "Disregarding this, we say that the earth on all its sides is the same; all people on the earth stand upright, and all heavy things fall down to the earth by a law of nature, for it is the nature of the earth to attract and to keep things, as it is the nature of water to flow, that of fire to burn, and that of the wind to set in motion. If a thing wants to go deeper down than the earth, let it try. The earth is the only low thing, and seeds always return to it, in whatever direction you may throw them away, and never rise upwards from the earth."[7][8]

text: Modern era[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: During the 17th century, Galileo found that, counter to Aristotle's teachings, all objects accelerated equally when falling.

text: In the late 17th century, as a result of Robert Hooke's suggestion that there is a gravitational force which depends on the inverse square of the distance,[9] Isaac Newton was able to mathematically derive Kepler's three kinematic laws of planetary motion, including the elliptical orbits for the six then known planets and the Moon:

text: "I deduced that the forces which keep the planets in their orbs must be reciprocally as the squares of their distances from the centres about which they revolve, and thereby compared the force requisite to keep the moon in her orb with the force of gravity at the surface of the earth and found them to answer pretty nearly."

text: So Newton's original formula was:

text:
where the symbol

∝

{\displaystyle \propto }

 means "is proportional to".

text: To make this into an equal-sided formula or equation, there needed to be a multiplying factor or constant that would give the correct force of gravity no matter the value of the masses or distance between them. This gravitational constant was first measured in 1797 by Henry Cavendish.

text: In 1907 Albert Einstein, in what was described by him as "the happiest thought of my life", realized that an observer who is falling from the roof of a house experiences no gravitational field. In other words, gravitation was exactly equivalent to acceleration. Between 1911 and 1915 this idea, initially stated as the Equivalence principle, was formally developed into Einstein's theory of general relativity.

text: Newton's theory of gravitation[edit]

text: In 1687, English mathematician Sir Isaac Newton published Principia, which hypothesizes the inverse-square law of universal gravitation. In his own words, "I deduced that the forces which keep the planets in their orbs must be reciprocally as the squares of their distances from the centers about which they revolve; and thereby compared the force requisite to keep the Moon in her orb with the force of gravity at the surface of the Earth; and found them answer pretty nearly."

text: Newton's theory enjoyed its greatest success when it was used to predict the existence of Neptune based on motions of Uranus that could not be accounted by the actions of the other planets. Calculations by John Couch Adams and Urbain Le Verrier both predicted the general position of the planet, and Le Verrier's calculations are what led Johann Gottfried Galle to the discovery of Neptune.

text: Years later, it was another discrepancy in a planet's orbit that showed Newton's theory to be inaccurate. By the end of the 19th century, it was known that the orbit of Mercury could not be accounted for entirely under Newtonian gravity, and all searches for another perturbing body (such as a planet orbiting the Sun even closer than Mercury) have been fruitless. This issue was resolved in 1915 by Albert Einstein's new general theory of relativity, which accounted for the discrepancy in Mercury's orbit.

text: Paul Dirac developed the hypothesis that gravitation should have slowly and steadily decreased over the course of the history of the universe.[10]

text: Although Newton's theory has been superseded, most modern non-relativistic gravitational calculations still use it because it is much easier to work with and is sufficiently accurate for most applications.

text: Mechanical explanations of gravitation[edit]

text: The mechanical theories or explanations of the gravitation are attempts to explain the law of gravity by aid of basic mechanical processes, such as pushes, and without the use of any action at a distance. These theories were developed from the 16th until the 19th century in connection with the aether theories.[11]

text: René Descartes (1644) and Christiaan Huygens (1690) used vortices to explain gravitation. Robert Hooke (1671) and James Challis (1869) assumed, that every body emits waves which lead to an attraction of other bodies. Nicolas Fatio de Duillier (1690) and Georges-Louis Le Sage (1748) proposed a corpuscular model, using some sort of screening or shadowing mechanism. Later a similar model was created by Hendrik Lorentz, who used electromagnetic radiation instead of the corpuscles. Isaac Newton (1675) and Bernhard Riemann (1853) argued that aether streams carry all bodies to each other. Newton (1717) and Leonhard Euler (1760) proposed a model, in which the aether loses density near the masses, leading to a net force directing to the bodies. Lord Kelvin (1871) proposed that every body pulsates, which might be an explanation of gravitation and the electric charges.

text: However, those models were overthrown because most of them lead to an unacceptable amount of drag, which is not observed. Other models are violating the energy conservation law and are incompatible with modern thermodynamics.[12]

text: General relativity[edit]

text: In general relativity, the effects of gravitation are ascribed to spacetime curvature instead of to a force. The starting point for general relativity is the equivalence principle, which equates free fall with inertial motion. The issue that this creates is that free-falling objects can accelerate with respect to each other. In Newtonian physics, no such acceleration can occur unless at least one of the objects is being operated on by a force (and therefore is not moving inertially).

text: To deal with this difficulty, Einstein proposed that spacetime is curved by matter, and that free-falling objects are moving along locally straight paths in curved spacetime. (This type of path is called a geodesic). More specifically, Einstein and Hilbert discovered the field equations of general relativity, which relate the presence of matter and the curvature of spacetime and are named after Einstein. The Einstein field equations are a set of 10 simultaneous, non-linear, differential equations. The solutions of the field equations are the components of the metric tensor of spacetime. A metric tensor describes the geometry of spacetime. The geodesic paths for a spacetime are calculated from the metric tensor.

text: Notable solutions of the Einstein field equations include:

text:
The Schwarzschild solution, which describes spacetime surrounding a spherically symmetric non-rotating uncharged massive object. For compact enough objects, this solution generated a black hole with a central singularity. For radial distances from the center which are much greater than the Schwarzschild radius, the accelerations predicted by the Schwarzschild solution are practically identical to those predicted by Newton's theory of gravity.
The Reissner–Nordström solution, in which the central object has an electrical charge. For charges with a geometrized length which are less than the geometrized length of the mass of the object, this solution produces black holes with an event horizon surrounding a Cauchy horizon.
The Kerr solution for rotating massive objects. This solution also produces black holes with multiple horizons.
The cosmological Robertson–Walker solution, which predicts the expansion of the universe.

tag: ul

text: General relativity has enjoyed much success because of the way its predictions of phenomena which are not called for by the older theory of gravity have been regularly confirmed. For example:

text:
General relativity accounts for the anomalous perihelion precession of the planet Mercury.
The prediction that time runs slower at lower potentials has been confirmed by the Pound–Rebka experiment, the Hafele–Keating experiment, and the GPS.
The prediction of the deflection of light was first confirmed by Arthur Eddington in 1919, and has more recently been strongly confirmed through the use of a quasar which passes behind the Sun as seen from the Earth. See also gravitational lensing.
The time delay of light passing close to a massive object was first identified by Irwin Shapiro in 1964 in interplanetary spacecraft signals.
Gravitational radiation has been indirectly confirmed through studies of binary pulsars. In 2016, the LIGO experiments directly detected gravitational radiation from two colliding black holes, making this the first direct observation of both the gravitational radiation as well as black holes.
The expansion of the universe (predicted by the Robertson–Walker metric) was confirmed by Edwin Hubble in 1929.

text: Gravity and quantum mechanics[edit]

text: Several decades after the discovery of general relativity it was realized that it cannot be the complete theory of gravity because it is incompatible with quantum mechanics.[13] Later it was understood that it is possible to describe gravity in the framework of quantum field theory like the other fundamental forces. In this framework the attractive force of gravity arises due to exchange of virtual gravitons, in the same way as the electromagnetic force arises from exchange of virtual photons.[14][15] This reproduces general relativity in the classical limit, but only at the linearized level and postulating that the conditions for the applicability of Ehrenfest theorem holds, which is not always the case. Besides, this approach fails at short distances of the order of the Planck length.[13]

text: It is notable that in general relativity, gravitational radiation, which under the rules of quantum mechanics must be composed of gravitons, is created only in situations where the curvature of spacetime is oscillating, such as is the case with co-orbiting objects. The amount of gravitational radiation emitted by the solar system is far too small to measure.

text: However, gravitational radiation has been observed both indirectly, as an energy loss over time in binary pulsar systems such as PSR 1913+16, and directly by the LIGO gravitational wave observatory, whose first detection (named GW150914) occurred on 14 September 2015[16] and matched theoretical predictions of signals due to the inward spiral and merger of a pair of black holes. It is believed that neutron star mergers (since detected in 2017)[17] and black hole formation may also create detectable amounts of gravitational radiation.


document_title: SAP S/4HANA

question_text: in which year did sap released sap s/4 hana enterprise management 1st version

question_tokens: in which year did sap released sap s / 4 hana enterprise management 1st version

text: SAP S/4HANA

text: Purpose[edit]

text: The offering is an Enterprise Resource Planning software package meant to cover all day-to-day processes of an enterprise. It integrates functions from lines of businesses as well as industry solutions, and also re-integrates portions of SAP Business Suite products such as SAP SRM, SAP CRM and SAP SCM. However SAP Business Suite 4 only runs on the SAP HANA database, and thus it is packaged as one product: SAP S/4HANA.[1]

text: SAP's classical R3 based business suite and related products were designed to run on several database platforms, including those from Oracle, Microsoft and IBM.[2]

text: SAP has said that the SAP HANA platform can potentially save an organization 37% across hardware, software, and labor costs.[3]

text: History[edit]

text: The platform SAP HANA has been available since 2010, and SAP applications like SAP ERP and the SAP Business Suite have been able to run on the SAP HANA database and/or any other database.[4]

text: The S/4HANA launch[5] took place on February 3, 2015 at the New York Stock Exchange. The event introduced cloud and on premises editions, and launched the on-premises edition. Availability of the cloud edition followed at SAPPHIRE NOW (SAP’s annual customer conference) on May 6, 2015 in Orlando, Florida.[6]

text: SAP S/4HANA is being called SAP's biggest update to its ERP strategy and platform in over two decades.[7] Post-launch, Gartner analysts noted that SAP S/4HANA represented a “transformational shift,” but raised questions about the functionality, availability, pricing and migration surrounding S/4HANA.[8]

text: By April 21, 2015, 370 customers had purchased S/4HANA. After the first half of 2015, positive growth was confirmed for SAP. In October 2015 SAP confirmed that S/4 HANA has exceeded over 1300 customers. [9][10][11]

text: Growth continued through the third quarter of 2015.[12] Following its third quarter earnings announcement, SAP said the number of SAP S/4HANA customers had risen to 1,300.[13] After fourth quarter close of 2016, SAP announced that 5,400 customers had implemented SAP S/4HANA.

text: There are numerous ERP systems with the same intention, some of the product’s competitors in the Software as a Service space are Oracle,[14] Microsoft and Workday, Inc.[15]

text: Editions[edit]

text: The S/4HANA product offering consists of two editions: SAP S/4HANA On-Premises and SAP S/4HANA Cloud .

text: SAP S/4HANA On-Premises is similar in terms of coverage, functionality, industry-specific support, and localization to the current SAP Business Suite (35 languages, 61 country versions, 23 industries). This edition is available for on premises deployment and as a hosted offering via SAP and its partners.[16]

text: SAP also offers SAP S/4HANA Cloud .[17] SAP S/4 HANA Cloud was announced February 8, 2017 at an analyst briefing. SAP has emphasized the product as pivotal to its cloud shift.[18] It consists of functionality for finance, accounting, controlling, procurement, sales, manufacturing, plant maintenance, project system, and product lifecycle management, plus integration with SAP SuccessFactors , SAP Ariba , SAP Hybris and SAP Fieldglass.

text: SAP plans to have comprehensive industry coverage for the cloud edition, as well as industry-specific solutions.[19] It is currently available in several languages (English, German, French, Spanish, Russian, Chinese, Japanese and Portuguese). The cloud edition supports:

text:
SAP S/4HANA Marketing Cloud - for the marketing line of business (no country dependencies)
SAP S/4HANA Professional Services Cloud - for the professional services industry (country/regional scope: U.S., Germany, Australia, Canada, UK)
SAP S/4HANA Enterprise Management Cloud - for full ERP capabilities, covering all lines of business; cloud enterprise edition is the equivalent to the Enterprise Management on premises offering (country/regional scope: U.S., Germany, Australia, Canada, UK)
SAP S/4HANA Finance Cloud

text: Overview of Releases[edit]

text: Every 11 months Version coding: YYMM example 1709 - September 2017.

text:
SAP S/4HANA Finance 1503 : March 2015
SAP S/4HANA 1511: November 2015
SAP S/4HANA Finance 1605: May 2016
SAP S/4HANA 1610: October 2016
SAP S/4HANA 1709: September 2017

text: Deployment[edit]

text: SAP S/4HANA can be deployed on premises, in the cloud (private or public), or through a hybrid model that supports a variety of deployment scenarios.[20]

text: Implementation[edit]

text: There are various ways to get to S/4HANA, this depends on a customer’s starting point. For example, new implementation, system conversion, and landscape transformation.[21]

text:
New implementation - This is a new implementation of SAP S/4HANA (green field): customers who are migrating from a non-SAP legacy system or from an SAP ERP system and implementing a fresh system that requires an initial data load. In this scenario, the SAP S/4HANA system is implemented, and master and transactional data are migrated from the legacy system, thus standard data migration tools and content has to be used.
System conversion - This is a complete conversion of an existing SAP Business Suite system to SAP S/4HANA (lift & shift): customers who want to change their current SAP ERP system to SAP S/4HANA. This scenario is technically based on Software Update Manager (SUM) with Database Migration Option (DMO) in case the customer is not yet on SAP HANA as the underlying database.
Landscape transformation - This is a consolidation of current regional SAP systems into one global SAP S/4HANA system or a split out of different parts of a system: customers who want to consolidate their landscape or carve out selected entities (such as a company code) or processes into a single SAP S/4HANA system.

text: Product Lifecycle[edit]

text: Both SAP S/4HANA on-premises and the SAP S/4HANA cloud editions have release strategies which involve quarterly shipments. The cloud editions are released quarterly. The on-premises edition has one new release per year, and receives additional functionality and corrections in the form of Feature Pack Stacks (FPS) or Service Pack Stacks (SPS) each quarter.

text: On-premises: Each year, SAP is shipping a new product version of its on-premises SAP S/4HANA product (e.g. SAP S/4HANA 1610) this will always be followed by three successive FPS on a quarterly basis, after this SAP releases the next product version and the previous product version is receiving SPS on a quarterly basis until the end of mainstream maintenance. Technically, a FPS is like a SPS, but it may include non-disruptive, non-mandatory features. The numbering of FPS/SPS will be consecutive, i.e. the first SPS after a FPS3 would be consequently SPS4.[22]

text: Embedded Analytics[edit]

text: SAP S/4HANA Embedded Analytics is the collection of all analytics features integrated in SAP S/4HANA suite. It is the real time analysis on Transactional System. SAP delivered many pre-build models and reports using VDM(Virtual Data Models) which are based on CDS(Core Data Services) views. This eliminates the need to have a separate data warehousing system and the need to replicate data - where the data is usually one day old.

text: Embedded analytics brings transaction data and analytics into one platform with one Single Source of Truth. SAP Embedded Analytics can be consumed / reported through various reporting tools, including SAP Advanced Analysis for Office, SAP Lumira , SAP Predictive Analysis, SAP Fiori, SAP Smart Business Cockpits, SAP Design Studio, SAP Cloud for Analytics, KPI Modelling Apps ( Fiori ), Query Browser / Query Builder and EMP – for planning and consolidation.[23]


document_title: List of SpongeBob SquarePants cast members

question_text: who does the voice of the pirate on spongebob

text: Regular cast[edit]

text: Background[edit]

text:
Voice of SpongeBob SquarePants

Audio sample of the voice of SpongeBob SquarePants from the episode "The Secret Box" (2001).

Problems playing this file? See media help.

text: SpongeBob SquarePants has featured the voices of Tom Kenny, Bill Fagerbakke, Rodger Bumpass, Clancy Brown, Mr. Lawrence, Jill Talley, Carolyn Lawrence, Mary Jo Catlett and Lori Alan since it began. Stephen Hillenburg started developing the SpongeBob concept into a television series in 1996 upon the cancellation of Rocko's Modern Life, which he directed. While creating the show and writing its pilot episode in 1997, he and the show's then-creative director Derek Drymon were also conducting auditions to find voices for the show's characters.[1]

text: For the voice of SpongeBob, the main character, Hillenburg approached Kenny, who previously worked with him on Rocko's Modern Life.[2] Drymon said, "Steve [Hillenburg] wanted to find an original sounding voice [for SpongeBob]."[1] Hillenburg utilized Kenny's and other people's personalities to help create the personality of SpongeBob.[3] The voice of SpongeBob was originally used by Kenny for a minor character in Rocko's Modern Life. Kenny forgot the voice initially as he created it only for that single use. Hillenburg, however, remembered it when he was coming up with SpongeBob and used a video clip of the episode to remind Kenny of the voice.[3] Kenny says that SpongeBob's high-pitched laugh was specifically created to be unique. They wanted an annoying laugh in the tradition of Popeye and Woody Woodpecker.[4] Voice acting veteran Clancy Brown voices Mr. Krabs, SpongeBob's boss at the Krusty Krab. For the character, Brown uses a voice that he describes as "piratey" with "a little Scottish brogue."[5] According to him, his Mr. Krabs voice was improvised during his audition and it was not challenging for him to find the correct voice.[5] Bumpass provides the voice of Squidward Tentacles, and other characters. Squidward was "a very nasally, monotone kind of guy", said Bumpass. He said that the character "became a very interesting character to do" because of "his sarcasm, and then his frustration, and then his apoplexy, and so he became a wide spectrum of emotions".[6]

text: Mr. Lawrence had met Hillenburg previously on Rocko's Modern Life. When working on the pilot episode of SpongeBob, Hillenburg invited him to audition for all of the characters.[7] Since other voices had been found for the main cast already, Lawrence started out by voicing a variety of minor characters. This included Plankton, who was initially only set to appear in one episode.[7][1] Mr. Lawrence stated in an interview with Thomas F. Wilson that Nickelodeon executives told Hillenburg, "'we could stunt-cast this. You know, we could have Bruce Willis do this voice.' And Steve was just like, 'it's Doug [Lawrence], don't you hear it? This is the character! This is the guy!'"[7] Jill Talley, Tom Kenny's wife, voices Karen Plankton. Being a Chicago native, she uses a Midwestern accent for the character.[8] Electronic sound effects are underlaid by the series' audio engineers to create a robotic sound whenever she speaks.[9] Talley and Mr. Lawrence often improvise their characters' dialogue. In 2009, Lawrence called improvisation his "favorite part of the voice over."[10] He elaborated in a 2012 interview, saying, "I always enjoy the back-and-forth. [Talley and I] start to actually overlap so much talking to each other that [the voice directors] have to tell us, 'hey, stop doing that, separate what you're saying!'"[7]

text: Fagerbakke voices SpongeBob's best friend, a starfish named Patrick Star. He auditioned for the role after Kenny had been cast as SpongeBob. Fagerbakke said, "Steve is such a lovely guy, and I had absolutely no feeling for the material whatsoever." He described his experience in the audition, saying "I was just going in for another audition, and I had no idea what was in store there in terms of the remarkable visual wit and really the kind of endearing child-like humanity in the show. I couldn't pick that up from the audition material at all. I was just kind of perfunctorially trying to give the guy what he wanted."[11] Carolyn Lawrence provides Sandy Cheeks' voice. When Lawrence was on a sidewalk in Los Feliz, Los Angeles with a friend who knew SpongeBob SquarePants casting director Donna Grillo, her friend said to the director that Lawrence had "an interesting voice". Grillo invited Lawrence to audition and she then got the role.[12][13] Mrs. Puff's voice is provided by American actress Mary Jo Catlett, who is known for her live-action roles on television programs from the 1970s such as Diff'rent Strokes and M*A*S*H.[14] As of 2017, voicing Mrs. Puff has become her only remaining regular television role; Catlett described herself as "basically retired" in 2013, since she feels that voicing Mrs. Puff requires less preparation than her performances in person.[15] Lori Alan voices Pearl. During her audition for the role, she was shown an early drawing of Pearl and took note of how the character was much larger than the rest of the cast. She decided to reflect the character's size in her voice by making it deep and full in tone. She aimed to make Pearl's voice invoke the sound of whales’ low vocalizations while also sounding "spoiled and lovable."[16] In an interview with AfterBuzz TV, Alan said that she knew Pearl "had to sound somewhat like a child," but at the same time needed "an abnormally large voice."[17]

text: Mr. Krabs' mother, Mama Krabs, who debuted in the episode "Sailor Mouth", was voiced by staff writer Paul Tibbitt.[18][19][20] However, voice actress Sirena Irwin overtook Tibbitt's role as the character reappeared in the fourth season episode "Enemy In-Law" in 2005.[21] Irwin also provides the voices of other characters in the show, including Margaret SquarePants, SpongeBob's mother. In the Christmas special "Christmas Who?", the characters of Patchy the Pirate, the president of the fictional SpongeBob SquarePants fan club, and his pet called Potty the Parrot debuted. The former is portrayed by Kenny in live-action, while series creator Hillenburg voiced the latter.[22] After Hillenburg's departure as the series' showrunner in 2004, Tibbitt was given the role voicing Potty the Parrot.[23]

text: Voice recording sessions always include a full cast of actors, which Kenny describes as "getting more unusual".[24] Kenny said, "That's another thing that's given SpongeBob its special feel. Everybody's in the same room, doing it old radio-show style. It's how the stuff we like was recorded".[24] It takes about four hours to record an 11-minute episode.[25] For the first three seasons, Hillenburg and Drymon sat in on recording sessions at Nickelodeon Studios, and they directed the actors.[26] In the fourth season, Andrea Romano took over the role as the voice director.[26] Wednesday is recording day, the same schedule followed by the crew since 1999.[26] Casting supervisor Jennie Monica Hammond said, "I loved Wednesdays".[26]

text: The cast members get residuals every time the episodes they appeared in are aired, which Carolyn Lawrence described as "a very complicated mathematical calculation."[25] Lawrence said in 2008 that it was a "declining scale" and they were "still in negotiations... both sides are still talking." She further stated that "they're still trying to work it out."[25]

text: Main cast[edit]

text:
Actor
Character(s)

Tom Kenny[27][24]
SpongeBob SquarePants
Gary the Snail

French Narrator
Hans

Patchy the Pirate
Harold SquarePants

Dirty Bubble[A]
Grandpa SquarePants

Other miscellaneous characters

Bill Fagerbakke[27]
Patrick Star

Other miscellaneous characters

Rodger Bumpass[27]
Squidward Tentacles

Other miscellaneous characters

Clancy Brown[27]
Mr. Krabs

Other miscellaneous characters

Mr. Lawrence[27]
Plankton
Potty the Parrot[B]

Realistic Fish Head
Larry the Lobster

Other miscellaneous characters

Jill Talley[27]
Karen

Other miscellaneous characters

Carolyn Lawrence[27]
Sandy Cheeks

Other miscellaneous characters

Mary Jo Catlett[27]
Mrs. Puff

Other miscellaneous characters

Lori Alan[27]
Pearl

Other miscellaneous characters

text: Other regular cast[edit]

text:
Actor
Character(s)

Carlos Alazraqui
Scooter

Other miscellaneous characters

Dee Bradley Baker[26][28]
Bubble Bass
Squilliam Fancyson

Old Man Jenkins
Perch Perkins

Other miscellaneous characters

Sirena Irwin[29]
Mama Krabs[B]
Margaret SquarePants

Other miscellaneous characters

Bob Joles[30]
Man Ray[C]

Mark Fite[31][32]
Various characters

Thomas F. Wilson[33][34]
Various characters

text: Recurring guest voices[edit]

text:
Actor
Character(s)
Notes

Tim Conway

Barnacle Boy[35]
Conway first appeared in 1999 with his former McHale's Navy co-star Ernest Borgnine, who voiced Mermaid Man;[36] he has since appeared in over 15 episodes.

Brian Doyle-Murray

The Flying Dutchman[27]
Doyle-Murray appeared in ten episodes throughout the first eight seasons. He returned in 2017 for a guest appearance in "The Legend of Boo-Kini Bottom" after a six-year absence.[37]

Marion Ross

Grandma SquarePants[38]
Ross has appeared since 2001.[39]

John O'Hurley

King Neptune[40]
O'Hurley has appeared three times as King Neptune since the character's first appearance in 2000.[41][42]

Michael McKean

Captain Frostymug
Lonnie
McKean appeared twice during the show's ninth season, voicing Captain Frostymug in "License to Milkshake" and Lonnie the shark in "Sharks vs. Pods".[43][44]

text: Former cast members[edit]

text:
Actor
Character(s)
Notes

Brad Abrell

Bubble Buddy
Abrell voiced Bubble Buddy and other minor characters during the show's second season. He reprised his role as Bubble Buddy for the eighth season episode "Bubble Buddy Returns" but has not made an appearance since.[45]

Ernest Borgnine

Mermaid Man
Borgnine made the most guest appearances on the show, voicing the character since 1999 to his death in 2012.[36][46]

Stephen Hillenburg

Potty the Parrot
Hillenburg voiced the recurring character from 2000 to 2004. When he left the show as the showrunner, writer Tibbitt was given the role voicing the character as it reappeared in the fifth season episode "Friend or Foe".[23]

Sara Paxton

Various characters
Paxton voiced many minor child characters in the show's first three seasons, but has not recorded new dialogue since.[47][48][49] An archival recording of Paxton's voice is used in the tenth-season episode "Unreal Estate."

Paul Tibbitt

Potty the Parrot
Tibbitt took over the role of Potty from Stephen Hillenburg in 2005 and last voiced the character in 2012.

Camryn Walling

Various characters
Walling voiced several child characters throughout the show's first two seasons, but has not recorded new dialogue since.[45] An archival recording of Walling's voice is used in the tenth-season episode "Unreal Estate."

Frank Welker

Welker voiced several animal characters—including Clamu, Baby Oyster, Mystery the Seahorse, and the gorilla—between 2001 and 2003, but has not appeared since.[45]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year
Actor
Award
Category
Role
Episode
Result
Ref(s).

2001
Catlett, Mary JoMary Jo Catlett
Annie Award
Outstanding Individual Achievement for Voice Acting by a Female Performer in an Animated Television Production
Mrs. Puff
"No Free Rides"
Nominated
[50]

2001
Kenny, TomTom Kenny
Annie Award
Outstanding Individual Achievement for Voice Acting by a Male Performer in an Animated Television Production
SpongeBob SquarePants
"Wormy"
Nominated
[50]

2008
Kenny, TomTom Kenny
Annie Award
Best Voice Acting in an Animated Television Production
SpongeBob SquarePants
"Spy Buddies"
Nominated
[51]

2010
Kenny, TomTom Kenny
Annie Award
Best Voice Acting in a Television Production
SpongeBob SquarePants
"Truth or Square"
Won
[52]

2012
Bumpass, RodgerRodger Bumpass
Daytime Emmy Award
Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program
Squidward Tentacles

Nominated
[53]

2018
Kenny, TomTom Kenny
Annie Award
Outstanding Achievement for Voice Acting in an Animated Television / Broadcast Production
SpongeBob SquarePants

Won
[54]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
^ A. Guest star Charles Nelson Reilly originally provided the voice of the character.[55] Reilly died in 2007.[56][57]
^ B. Replaced Paul Tibbitt.
^ C. Replaced John Rhys-Davies, who has voiced Man Ray in two episodes.[58][59]


document_title: Moonstruck

question_text: who won the best actress oscar for the 1987 movie moonstruck

text: Moonstruck

text: Plot[edit]

text: Thirty-seven-year-old Loretta Castorini (Cher), an Italian-American widow, is a bookkeeper in Brooklyn Heights, New York, where she lives with her family: her father Cosmo (Vincent Gardenia) a successful plumber; her mother Rose (Olympia Dukakis); and her paternal grandfather (Feodor Chaliapin Jr.). Her boyfriend Johnny Cammareri (Danny Aiello) proposes to her before leaving for Sicily to be with his dying mother; she accepts, but is insistent that they carefully follow tradition as she believes her first marriage was cursed by her failure to do so, resulting in her husband's death. Johnny asks Loretta to invite his estranged younger brother Ronny (Nicolas Cage) to the wedding. Loretta returns home and informs her parents of the engagement. Cosmo dislikes Johnny and is reluctant to commit to paying for the "real" wedding Loretta insists on, while Rose is pleased that Loretta likes Johnny but does not love him; she believes that one can easily be driven crazy by a partner whom one loves.

text: The next day, Loretta goes to see Ronny at his bakery. He reveals that he has a wooden prosthetic hand, and he explains that he blames Johnny for the loss of his hand and his own fiancée; Ronny became distracted while talking to Johnny as he cut bread for him, his hand was mangled in the slicer, and his fiancée left him. Loretta insists that they discuss the matter upstairs in his apartment, where she cooks for him and then tells him that she believes he is a "wolf" who cut off his own hand to escape the trap of a bad relationship. Ronny reacts furiously and passionately, kissing Loretta (who responds to his kiss) and then carrying her to his bed where they make love. At the same time, Cosmo is dining with his mistress Mona (Anita Gillette) and giving her jewelry.

text: That evening, Rose's brother Raymond (Louis Guss) and his wife Rita (Julie Bovasso) join Rose and Cosmo for dinner, and they all wonder where Loretta is. Raymond recalls that when he was a boy and Cosmo was courting Rose, he thought that a particularly bright moon one night was somehow brought to the house by Cosmo because of his love for Rose. That night, Loretta remains at Ronny's apartment and sees such a moon; Raymond sees it as well, and it leads him and Rita to make love. The next morning, Loretta tells Ronny they can never see each other again. She slaps him when he claims to be in love with her ("Snap out of it!") and he agrees to never see her again if she will attend the opera (his other great love) with him that night. She agrees. She then goes to church and confesses her infidelity. She unexpectedly sees her mother there, and Rose tells her that Cosmo is having an affair; Loretta is doubtful. Loretta then goes to Raymond and Rita's store to close out the cash register, after which she impulsively goes to the hair salon and buys a glamorous evening gown.

text: Loretta and Ronny (wearing a tuxedo) meet at Lincoln Center, and each is impressed with the other's appearance. Loretta is deeply moved by her first opera, Puccini's La bohème. But as they leave, Loretta sees Cosmo and Mona, and she confronts her father. He sees that she is with Ronny, and he suggests that they simply agree that they didn't see each other at all, but Loretta is conflicted. Loretta then intends to return home alone, but Ronny leads her back to his apartment where he passionately and desperately persuades her into another tryst. The same night, Rose dines alone at a restaurant and sees a college professor, Perry (John Mahoney), being dramatically dumped by a female student, a similar scene having played out with a different girl the night Johnny proposed to Loretta. Rose invites Perry to dine with her, asks him why men pursue women, and then shares with him her belief that men pursue women because they fear death. Perry walks Rose home and tries to convince her to invite him in; she refuses "because I'm married. Because I know who I am." Later, Johnny unexpectedly returns from Sicily after his mother's "miraculous" recovery and goes to Loretta's house; Rose explains that she's not there and then asks him why men chase women. He tells her it may be because they fear death, with which Rose agrees. After this exchange he leaves, planning to return in the morning to see Loretta.

text: In the morning, Loretta returns home in a reverie but is then distressed to learn from Rose that Johnny will be there soon. Ronny then arrives, and Rose notes their matching "love bites" and invites him for breakfast over Loretta's objections. Cosmo and his father emerge from upstairs, and the older man cajoles Cosmo into agreeing to pay for Loretta's wedding. Rose then confronts Cosmo and, after he acknowledges in response to her questioning that she has been a good wife, demands that he end his affair; he is upset but agrees and, after insistence from Rose, also agrees to go to confession, and they then affirm their love for each other. Raymond and Rita also arrive, concerned and seemingly reluctantly suspicious, to find out why Loretta didn't make the previous day's bank deposit; they are relieved to learn that she merely forgot and still has the money. When Johnny finally arrives, he breaks off the engagement, superstitiously believing that their marriage would cause his mother's death. Loretta, momentarily offended by his breaking the engagement, chastises Johnny for breaking his promise and throws the engagement ring at him. Seizing the moment, Ronny borrows the ring and asks Loretta to marry him; she accepts. To Rose's chagrin, Loretta declares that she loves Ronny. The family toasts the couple with champagne and a befuddled Johnny joins in at the grandfather's urging, as he will now be part of the family after all.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Cher as Loretta Castorini
Nicolas Cage as Ronny Cammareri
Olympia Dukakis as Rose Castorini
Vincent Gardenia as Cosmo Castorini
Danny Aiello as Johnny Cammareri
Julie Bovasso as Rita Cappomaggi
Louis Guss as Raymond Cappomaggi
John Mahoney as Perry
Feodor Chaliapin Jr. as Grandpa Castorini
Anita Gillette as Mona

text: Critical and commercial reception[edit]

text: Moonstruck was a major critical and commercial success. The film holds an approval rating of 93% on Rotten Tomatoes, with the site's consensus reading, "Led by energetic performances from Nicolas Cage and Cher, Moonstruck is an exuberantly funny tribute to love and one of the decade's most appealing comedies." On Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, the film has a normalized score of 83 out of 100, based on 17 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".[4]

text: Time wrote, "John Patrick Shanley's witty, shapely script puts an octet of New Yorkers under a lunar-tuney spell one romantic night. Cher shines brightest of all." Roger Ebert, who later added the film among his "Great Movies" list, said: "Reviews of the movie tend to make it sound like a madcap ethnic comedy, and that it is. But there is something more here, a certain bittersweet yearning that comes across as ineffably romantic, and a certain magical quality"[5]

text: According to Gene Siskel, writing for the Chicago Tribune: "Moonstruck, which is being sold as a romance but actually is one of the funniest pictures to come out in quite some time. [...] You will not easily forget this incredibly robust family, created by writer John Patrick Shanley and directed by Norman Jewison, who makes a comeback with this uproarious film."[6]

text: It appeared on both critics' Top 10 lists for 1987.[7]

text: On its wide release, the film opened at #3 and spent 20 nonconsecutive weeks in the top 10 and finally grossed $80,640,528[2] on a budget of $15 million. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A-" on an A+ to F scale.[8]

text: Awards and honors[edit]

text:
Awards

Award
Category
Name
Outcome

Academy Awards
Best Actress
Cher
Won

Best Supporting Actress
Olympia Dukakis
Won

Original Screenplay
John Patrick Shanley
Won

Best Picture
Norman Jewison, Patrick Palmer
Nominated

Best Supporting Actor
Vincent Gardenia
Nominated

Best Director
Norman Jewison
Nominated

Berlin Film Festival
Silver Bear for Best Director
Norman Jewison
Won[9]

British Academy Film Awards
Best Actress
Cher
Nominated

Best Supporting Actress
Olympia Dukakis
Nominated

BAFTA Award for Best Film Music
Dick Hyman
Nominated

BAFTA Award for Best Original Screenplay
John Patrick Shanley
Nominated

Golden Globe Awards
Best Actress - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy
Cher
Won

Best Supporting Actress
Olympia Dukakis
Won

Best Picture - Musical or Comedy

Nominated

Best Actor - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy
Nicolas Cage
Nominated

Best Screenplay
John Patrick Shanley
Nominated

Writers Guild of America
Best Original Screenplay
John Patrick Shanley
Won

text: In June 2008, AFI revealed its "Ten top Ten"—the best ten films in ten "classic" American film genres—after polling over 1,500 people from the creative community. Moonstruck was acknowledged as the eighth best film in the romantic comedy genre.[10][11] The film is also number 72 on Bravo's "100 Funniest Movies," and number 41 on AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs.

text: The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:

text:
1998: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies – Nominated[12]
2000: AFI's 100 Years...100 Laughs – #41[13]
2002: AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions – #17[14]
2004: AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs:

"That's Amore" – Nominated[15]

2005: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes:

Loretta Castorini: "Snap out of it!" – #96[16]

2007: AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – Nominated[17]
2008: AFI's 10 Top 10:

#8 Romantic Comedy Film[18]

text: Influential film critic Roger Ebert entered the film to his "Great Movies" collection in June 2003.[19]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
Song
Artist
Notes

That's Amore
Dean Martin
Harry Warren, Jack Brooks

Canzone Per Loretta/Addio, Mulberry Street
Jack Zaza (mandolin)
Dick Hyman

Mr. Moon

Dick Hyman

It Must Be Him
Vikki Carr
Gilbert Bécaud, Mack David, Maurice Vidalin

Old Man Mazurka
Dominic Cortese (accordion)
Dick Hyman

Lament for Johnny's Mama

Dick Hyman

Che gelida manina
Ed Bickert (guitar)
Giacomo Puccini

Donde lieta uscì
Renata Tebaldi
Giacomo Puccini

Canzone Per Loretta

Dick Hyman

O soave fanciulla
Carlo Bergonzi, Renata Tebaldi
Giacomo Puccini

Musetta's Waltz
Moe Koffman (alto saxophone)
Giacomo Puccini

Musetta's Entrance
Nora Shulman (flute)
Giacomo Puccini

La bohème (instrumental excerpts)

Giacomo Puccini

(In Loretta's Bedroom) Gettin' Ready
Moe Koffman (alto saxophone)
Dick Hyman

Brooklyn Heights Stroll

Dick Hyman

Beautiful Signorina

Dick Hyman

Moonglow

Eddie DeLange, Will Hudson, Irving Mills

Canzone Per Loretta
Dominic Cortese (accordion)
Dick Hyman

Gioventù mia, tu non sei morta (La bohème, act 2)
Carlo Bergonzi, Cesare Siepi, Ettore Bastianini, Fernando Corena, Gianna D'Angelo, Renata Tebaldi, Renato Cesari
Giacomo Puccini

text: Soundtrack references: [20][21]


document_title: Recluse spider

question_text: how many species of recluse spiders are there

text: Recluse spider

text: Relation with other spiders[edit]

text: Sicariidae are of the superfamily Scytodoidea. Other families in the Scytodoidea include Drymusidae, Scytodidae, and Periegopidae.

text: Habitat and appearance[edit]

text: Loxosceles is distributed nearly worldwide in warmer areas. All have six eyes arranged in three groups of two (dyads) and some are brownish with a darker brown characteristic violin marking on the cephalothorax. However, the "violin marking" cannot be used as a reliable way to identify the spider as thousands of species of spider have similar markings. Spiders come with many markings varying greatly within the same species. Most Loxosceles can live for one and a half to two years. Many species of this genus can live for very long times without food or water. They are about 7–12 mm long.

text: The most common and most famous species in the United States is the brown recluse spider (Loxosceles reclusa). It is found in a large area of the Midwest, west to Colorado and the New Mexico state line and east to northern Georgia. Sporadic records from other locations only represent incidental introductions, not established populations.[citation needed] The brown recluse feeds on whatever small prey is available, and has been observed to prefer scavenging over actively hunting.[2] Other notable members of this genus include the Chilean recluse spider (L. laeta) and the Mediterranean recluse spider (L. rufescens).

text: Recently, concerns have been raised regarding recluses spreading faster due to warmer air carrying them farther as a result of changing climate. On the contrary, newly hatched recluses do not travel via ballooning and thus the populations are confined to very tight spaces with dense populations.[3]

text: Venom components and effects[edit]

text: Loxosceles spiders, like Sicarius species, have potent tissue-destroying venoms containing the dermonecrotic agent, sphingomyelinase D, which is otherwise found only in a few pathogenic bacteria.[4] Recent research has indicated the venom is composed largely of sulfated nucleosides, though these compounds are relatively new discoveries, so little is known about them.[5] The venom produces necrotic lesions that are slow to heal and may require skin grafts. Rarely, the venom is carried by the bloodstream, causing red blood cell destruction.

text: The venom is identical in male and female spiders, but females can have almost twice the concentration of toxins.[6] For unknown reasons, the toxicity of the venom to mammalian species varies; recluse bites may cause necrosis in humans, rabbits, and guinea pigs, but not in mice or rats.[6]

text: The Chilean recluse (L. laeta) supposedly has a more potent venom, which results in systemic involvement more often. This spider was introduced to the Los Angeles area (Alhambra, Sierra Madre, and Monterey Park). No verified bites and the subsequent systemic hemolysis have been documented, even though it has been known there for over 30 years. All Loxosceles species that have been tested have venoms similar to that of the brown recluse and all should be avoided. In general, though, they are not aggressive and commonly occupy human dwellings without causing problems.[7]

text: Many types of skin wounds are mistaken for or assumed to be the result of a recluse spider bite.[8] Several diseases can mimic the lesions of the bite, including Lyme disease, various fungal and bacterial infections, and the first sore of syphilis.[9] It is important to associate the spider directly with the bite to avoid improper treatment, and to successfully treat common infections or other conditions if no spider was seen.

text: Bites most often occur as a defense when the spider is trapped against the skin, in clothing, for example.[3] Insecticides often fail to kill the spider, instead intoxicating its nervous system and inducing erratic behavior.[10]

text: The bite of a recluse spider can generally be categorized into one of the following groups:[3]

text:
Unremarkable - self-healing minute damage
Mild reaction - self-healing damage with itchiness, redness, patterns of aggressive behavior and a mild lesion.
Dermonecrotic - the uncommon, "classic" recluse bite, producing a necrotic skin lesion. About 66% of necrotic bite lesions heal with no complications.[11] In extreme cases, the lesion may be up to 40 centimeters wide, last for several months, and heal with a permanent scar.[3]
Systemic or viscerocutaneous - an extremely rare, systemic reaction to envenomation of the bloodstream. This reaction is more common in obese victims, because the venom destroys adipose tissue. It is more often systemic in children,[3] though there has never been a verifiable death as a result of a brown recluse spider bite in North America.[12]

text: Most bites are unremarkable or mild.[13][14][15]

text: Species[edit]

text: There are about 100 species of Loxosceles.[3]

text: Species include:

text:
Loxosceles accepta Chamberlin, 1920 — Peru
Loxosceles adelaida Gertsch, 1967 — Brazil
Loxosceles alamosa Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — Mexico
Loxosceles alicea Gertsch, 1967 — Peru
Loxosceles amazonica Gertsch, 1967 — Brazil
Loxosceles anomala (Mello-Leitão, 1917) — Brazil
Loxosceles apachea Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — United States, Mexico
Loxosceles aphrasta Wang, 1994 — China
Loxosceles aranea Gertsch, 1973 — Mexico
Loxosceles arizonica Gertsch & Mulaik, 1940 — USA
Loxosceles aurea Gertsch, 1973 — Mexico
Loxosceles baja Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — Mexico
Loxosceles barbara Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — Mexico
Loxosceles belli Gertsch, 1973 — Mexico
Loxosceles bettyae Gertsch, 1967 — Peru
Loxosceles blancasi Gertsch, 1967 — Peru
Loxosceles blanda Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — USA
Loxosceles boneti Gertsch, 1958 — Mexico, El Salvador
Loxosceles candela Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — Mexico
Loxosceles caribbaea Gertsch, 1958 — Greater Antilles
Loxosceles carmena Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — Mexico
Loxosceles chinateca Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — Mexico
Loxosceles colima Gertsch, 1958 — Mexico
Loxosceles conococha Gertsch, 1967 — Peru
Loxosceles coquimbo Gertsch, 1967 — Chile
Loxosceles coyote Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — Mexico
Loxosceles cubana Gertsch, 1958 — Cuba, Bahama Islands
Loxosceles deserta Gertsch, 1973 — USA, Mexico
Loxosceles devia Gertsch & Mulaik, 1940 — USA, Mexico
Loxosceles fontainei Millot, 1941 — Guinea
Loxosceles foutadjalloni Millot, 1941 — Guinea
Loxosceles francisca Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — Mexico
Loxosceles frizzelli Gertsch, 1967 — Peru
Loxosceles gaucho Gertsch, 1967 — Brazil, Tunisia
Loxosceles gloria Gertsch, 1967 — Ecuador, Peru
Loxosceles guatemala Gertsch, 1973 — Guatemala
Loxosceles harrietae Gertsch, 1967 — Peru
Loxosceles herreri Gertsch, 1967 — Peru
Loxosceles hirsuta Mello-Leitão, 1931 — Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina
Loxosceles huasteca Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — Mexico
Loxosceles immodesta (Mello-Leitão, 1917) — Brazil
Loxosceles inca Gertsch, 1967 — Peru
Loxosceles insula Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — Mexico
Loxosceles intermedia Mello-Leitão, 1934 — Brazil, Argentina
Loxosceles jaca Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — Mexico
Loxosceles jamaica Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — Jamaica
Loxosceles jarmila Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — Jamaica
Loxosceles julia Gertsch, 1967 — Peru
Loxosceles kaiba Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — USA
Loxosceles lacroixi Millot, 1941 — Ivory Coast
Loxosceles lacta Wang, 1994 — China
Loxosceles laeta (Nicolet, 1849) — South America, introduced to North America, Finland and Australia
Loxosceles lawrencei Caporiacco, 1955 — Venezuela, Trinidad, Curaçao
Loxosceles lutea Keyserling, 1877 — Colombia, Ecuador
Loxosceles luteola Gertsch, 1973 — Mexico
Loxosceles manuela Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — Mexico
Loxosceles martha Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — USA
Loxosceles meruensis Tullgren, 1910 — Tanzania
Loxosceles misteca Gertsch, 1958 — Mexico
Loxosceles mulege Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — Mexico
Loxosceles nahuana Gertsch, 1958 — Mexico
Loxosceles neuvillei Simon, 1909 — Somalia, East Africa
Loxosceles olmea Gertsch, 1967 — Peru
Loxosceles pallidecolorata (Strand, 1906) — Ethiopia
Loxosceles palma Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — USA, Mexico
Loxosceles panama Gertsch, 1958 — Panama
Loxosceles parrami Newlands, 1981 — South Africa
Loxosceles piura Gertsch, 1967 — Peru
Loxosceles pucara Gertsch, 1967 — Peru
Loxosceles puortoi Martins, Knysak & Bertani, 2002 — Brazil
Loxosceles reclusa Gertsch & Mulaik, 1940 — North America
Loxosceles rica Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — Costa Rica
Loxosceles rosana Gertsch, 1967 — Peru
Loxosceles rothi Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — Mexico
Loxosceles rufescens (Dufour, 1820) — Cosmopolitan
Loxosceles rufipes (Lucas, 1834) — Guatemala, Panama, Colombia
Loxosceles russelli Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — USA
Loxosceles sabina Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — USA
Loxosceles seri Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — Mexico
Loxosceles similis Moenkhaus, 1898 — Brazil
Loxosceles smithi Simon, 1897 — Ethiopia
Loxosceles sonora Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — Mexico
Loxosceles spadicea Simon, 1907 — Peru, Bolivia, Argentina
Loxosceles speluncarum Simon, 1893 — South Africa
Loxosceles spinulosa Purcell, 1904 — Southern Africa
Loxosceles surca Gertsch, 1967 — Peru
Loxosceles taeniopalpis Simon, 1907 — Ecuador
Loxosceles taino Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — Bahama Islands, Jamaica, Hispaniola
Loxosceles tehuana Gertsch, 1958 — Mexico
Loxosceles tenango Gertsch, 1973 — Mexico
Loxosceles teresa Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — Mexico
Loxosceles tlacolula Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — Mexico
Loxosceles unicolor Keyserling, 1887 — South America
Loxosceles valdosa Gertsch, 1973 — Mexico
Loxosceles valida Lawrence, 1964 — South Africa
Loxosceles variegata Simon, 1897 — Paraguay
Loxosceles virgo Gertsch & Ennik, 1983 — Virgin Islands
Loxosceles vonwredei Newlands, 1980 — Namibia
Loxosceles weyrauchi Gertsch, 1967 — Peru
Loxosceles yucatana Chamberlin & Ivie, 1938 — Mexico, Belize, Guatemala
Loxosceles zapoteca Gertsch, 1958 — Mexico


document_title: Winnie-the-Pooh

question_text: where did the name winnie the pooh come from

text: Winnie-the-Pooh

text: History

text: Origin

text: A. A. Milne named the character Winnie-the-Pooh after a teddy bear owned by his son, Christopher Robin Milne, who was the basis for the character Christopher Robin. The rest of Christopher Robin Milne's toys, Piglet, Eeyore, Kanga, Roo and Tigger, were incorporated into Milne's stories.[2][3] Two more characters, Owl and Rabbit, were created by Milne's imagination, while Gopher was added to the Disney version. Christopher Robin's toy bear is on display at the Main Branch of the New York Public Library in New York City.[4]

text: Christopher Milne had named his toy bear after Winnie, a Canadian black bear he often saw at London Zoo, and "Pooh", a swan they had met while on holiday. The bear cub was purchased from a hunter for $20 by Canadian Lieutenant Harry Colebourn in White River, Ontario, Canada, while en route to England during the First World War.[5] He named the bear "Winnie" after his adopted hometown in Winnipeg, Manitoba. "Winnie" was surreptitiously brought to England with her owner, and gained unofficial recognition as The Fort Garry Horse regimental mascot. Colebourn left Winnie at the London Zoo while he and his unit were in France; after the war she was officially donated to the zoo, as she had become a much loved attraction there.[6] Pooh the swan appears as a character in its own right in When We Were Very Young.

text: In the first chapter of Winnie-the-Pooh, Milne offers this explanation of why Winnie-the-Pooh is often called simply "Pooh":

text: But his arms were so stiff ... they stayed up straight in the air for more than a week, and whenever a fly came and settled on his nose he had to blow it off. And I think – but I am not sure – that that is why he is always called Pooh.

text: Ashdown Forest: the setting for the stories

text: The Winnie-the-Pooh stories are set in Ashdown Forest, East Sussex, England. The forest is a large area of tranquil open heathland on the highest sandy ridges of the High Weald Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty situated 30 miles (50 km) south of London. In 1925 Milne, a Londoner, bought a country home a mile to the north of the forest at Cotchford Farm, near Hartfield. According to Christopher Milne, while his father continued to live in London "...the four of us—he, his wife, his son and his son's nanny—would pile into a large blue, chauffeur-driven Fiat and travel down every Saturday morning and back again every Monday afternoon. And we would spend a whole glorious month there in the spring and two months in the summer."[7] From the front lawn the family had a view across a meadow to a line of alders that fringed the River Medway, beyond which the ground rose through more trees until finally "above them, in the faraway distance, crowning the view, was a bare hilltop. In the centre of this hilltop was a clump of pines." Most of his father's visits to the forest at this time were, he noted, family expeditions on foot "to make yet another attempt to count the pine trees on Gill's Lap or to search for the marsh gentian". Christopher added that, inspired by Ashdown Forest, his father had made it "the setting for two of his books, finishing the second little over three years after his arrival".[8]

text: Many locations in the stories can be linked to real places in and around the forest. As Christopher Milne wrote in his autobiography: "Pooh’s forest and Ashdown Forest are identical". For example, the fictional "Hundred Acre Wood" was in reality Five Hundred Acre Wood; Galleon's Leap was inspired by the prominent hilltop of Gill's Lap, while a clump of trees just north of Gill's Lap became Christopher Robin's The Enchanted Place because no-one had ever been able to count whether there were sixty-three or sixty-four trees in the circle.[9]

text: The landscapes depicted in E. H. Shepard's illustrations for the Winnie-the-Pooh books were directly inspired by the distinctive landscape of Ashdown Forest, with its high, open heathlands of heather, gorse, bracken and silver birch punctuated by hilltop clumps of pine trees. Many of Shepard's illustrations can be matched to actual views, allowing for a degree of artistic licence. Shepard's sketches of pine trees and other forest scenes are held at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London.[10]

text: The game of Poohsticks was originally played by Christopher Milne on a footbridge across a tributary of the River Medway in Posingford Wood, close to Cotchford Farm. The wooden bridge is now a tourist attraction, and it has become traditional to play the game there using sticks gathered in nearby woodland.[11][12] When the footbridge recently had to be replaced, the engineer designed a new structure based closely on the drawings of the bridge by Shepard in the books, which were somewhat different than the original structure.

text: First publication

text: Christopher Robin's teddy bear, Edward, made his character début in A. A. Milne's poem, "Teddy Bear", in the 13 February 1924 edition of Punch, and the same poem was published in Milne's book of children's verse When We Were Very Young (6 November 1924).[13] Winnie-the-Pooh first appeared by name on 24 December 1925, in a Christmas story commissioned and published by the London newspaper The Evening News. It was illustrated by J. H. Dowd.[14]

text: The first collection of Pooh stories appeared in the book Winnie-the-Pooh. The Evening News Christmas story reappeared as the first chapter of the book. At the beginning, it explained that Pooh was in fact Christopher Robin's Edward Bear, who had been renamed by the boy. He was renamed after a black bear at London Zoo called Winnie who got her name from the fact that her owner had come from Winnipeg, Canada. The book was published in October 1926 by the publisher of Milne's earlier children's work, Methuen, in England, and E. P. Dutton in the United States.[15]

text: Character

text: In the Milne books, Pooh is naive and slow-witted, but he is also friendly, thoughtful, and steadfast. Although he and his friends agree that he "has no Brain", Pooh is occasionally acknowledged to have a clever idea, usually driven by common sense. These include riding in Christopher Robin's umbrella to rescue Piglet from a flood, discovering "the North Pole" by picking it up to help fish Roo out of the river, inventing the game of Poohsticks, and getting Eeyore out of the river by dropping a large rock on one side of him to wash him towards the bank.

text: Pooh is also a talented poet, and the stories are frequently punctuated by his poems and "hums." Although he is humble about his slow-wittedness, he is comfortable with his creative gifts. When Owl's house blows down in a storm, trapping Pooh and Piglet and Owl inside, Pooh encourages Piglet (the only one small enough to do so) to escape and rescue them all by promising that "a respectful Pooh song" will be written about Piglet's feat. Later, Pooh muses about the creative process as he composes the song.

text: Pooh is very fond of food, especially "hunny" but also condensed milk and other items. When he visits friends, his desire to be offered a snack is in conflict with the impoliteness of asking too directly. Though intending to give Eeyore a pot of honey for his birthday, Pooh cannot resist eating the honey on his way to deliver the present, and so instead gives Eeyore "a useful pot to put things in". When he and Piglet are lost in the forest during Rabbit's attempt to "unbounce" Tigger, Pooh finds his way home by following the "call" of the honeypots from his house. Pooh makes it a habit to have "a little something" around eleven o'clock in the morning. As the clock in his house "stopped at five minutes to eleven some weeks ago," any time can be Pooh's snack time.

text: Pooh is very social. After Christopher Robin, his closest friend is Piglet, and he most often chooses to spend his time with one or both of them. But he also habitually visits the other animals, often looking for a snack or an audience for his poetry as much as for companionship. His kind-heartedness means he goes out of his way to be friendly to Eeyore, visiting him and bringing him a birthday present and building him a house, despite receiving mostly disdain from Eeyore in return.

text: Sequel

text: An authorised sequel Return to the Hundred Acre Wood was published on 5 October 2009. The author, David Benedictus, has developed, but not changed, Milne's characterisations. The illustrations, by Mark Burgess, are in the style of Shepard.[16]

text: Another authorised sequel, The Best Bear in All the World, was published by Egmont in 2016. The sequel consists of four short stories by four leading children's authors, Kate Saunders, Brian Sibley, Paul Bright, and Jeanne Willis. Illustrations are by Mark Burgess.[17] The Best Bear in All The World sees the introduction of a new character, a Penguin, which was inspired by a long-lost photograph of Milne and his son Christopher with a toy penguin.[18] A further special story, Winnie-the-Pooh Meets the Queen, was published in 2016 to mark the 90th anniversary of Milne's creation and the 90th birthday of Elizabeth II. It sees Winnie the Pooh meet the Queen at Buckingham Palace.[19]

text: Stephen Slesinger

text: On 6 January 1930, Stephen Slesinger purchased U.S. and Canadian merchandising, television, recording and other trade rights to the "Winnie-the-Pooh" works from Milne for a $1000 advance and 66% of Slesinger's income, creating the modern licensing industry. By November 1931, Pooh was a $50 million-a-year business.[20] Slesinger marketed Pooh and his friends for more than 30 years, creating the first Pooh doll, record, board game, puzzle, US radio broadcast (NBC), animation, and motion picture film.[21]

text: Red Shirt Pooh

text: The first time Pooh and his friends appeared in colour was 1932, when he was drawn by Slesinger in his now-familiar red shirt and featured on an RCA Victor picture record. Parker Brothers also introduced A. A. Milne's Winnie-the-Pooh Game in 1933, again with Pooh in his red shirt. In the 1940s, Agnes Brush created the first plush dolls with Pooh in his red shirt. Shepard had drawn Pooh with a shirt as early as the first Winnie-The-Pooh book, which was subsequently coloured red in later coloured editions.

text: Disney ownership era (1966–present)

text: After Slesinger's death in 1953, his wife, Shirley Slesinger Lasswell, continued developing the character herself. In 1961, she licensed rights to Walt Disney Productions in exchange for royalties in the first of two agreements between Stephen Slesinger, Inc. and Disney.[22] The same year, A. A. Milne's widow, Daphne Milne, also licensed certain rights, including motion picture rights, to Disney.

text: Since 1966, Disney has released numerous animated productions starring Winnie the Pooh and related characters. These have included theatrical featurettes, television series, and direct-to-video films, as well as the theatrical feature-length films The Tigger Movie, Piglet's Big Movie, Pooh's Heffalump Movie, and Winnie the Pooh.

text: Merchandising revenue dispute

text: Pooh videos, soft toys, and other merchandise generate substantial annual revenues for Disney. The size of Pooh stuffed toys ranges from Beanie and miniature to human-sized. In addition to the stylised Disney Pooh, Disney markets Classic Pooh merchandise which more closely resembles E.H. Shepard’s illustrations.

text: In 1991, Stephen Slesinger, Inc. filed a lawsuit against Disney which alleged that Disney had breached their 1983 agreement by again failing to accurately report revenue from Winnie the Pooh sales. Under this agreement, Disney was to retain approximately 98% of gross worldwide revenues while the remaining 2% was to be paid to Slesinger. In addition, the suit alleged that Disney had failed to pay required royalties on all commercial exploitation of the product name.[23] Though the Disney corporation was sanctioned by a judge for destroying forty boxes of evidential documents,[24] the suit was later terminated by another judge when it was discovered that Slesinger's investigator had rummaged through Disney's garbage in order to retrieve the discarded evidence.[25] Slesinger appealed the termination, and on 26 September 2007, a three-judge panel upheld the lawsuit dismissal.[26]

text: After the Copyright Term Extension Act of 1998, Clare Milne, Christopher Milne's daughter, attempted to terminate any future U.S. copyrights for Stephen Slesinger, Inc.[27] After a series of legal hearings, Judge Florence-Marie Cooper of the US District Court in California found in favour of Stephen Slesinger, Inc., as did the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. On 26 June 2006, the U.S. Supreme Court refused to hear the case, sustaining the ruling and ensuring the defeat of the suit.[28]

text: On 19 February 2007 Disney lost a court case in Los Angeles which ruled their "misguided claims" to dispute the licensing agreements with Slesinger, Inc. were unjustified,[29] but a federal ruling of 28 September 2009, again from Judge Florence-Marie Cooper, determined that the Slesinger family had granted all trademark and copyright rights to Disney, although Disney must pay royalties for all future use of the characters. Both parties have expressed satisfaction with the outcome.[30][31]

text: Adaptations

text: Theatre

text:
Winnie-the-Pooh at the Guild Theater | Sue Hastings Marionettes, 1931[32]
Winnie-the-Pooh, a play in three acts | Dramatized by Kristin Sergel, Dramatic Publishing Company, 1957
Winnie-the-Pooh, a musical comedy in two acts | Lyrics by A. A. Milne and Kristin Sergel, Music by Allan Jay Friedman, Book by Kristin Sergel, Dramatic Publishing Company, 1964
A Winnie-the-Pooh Christmas Tail, In Which Winnie-the-Pooh and His Friends Help Eeyore Have a Very Merry Christmas (Or a Very Happy Birthday.) | Book, Music and Lyrics by James W. Rogers, Dramatic Publishing Company, 1977
"Bother! The Brain of Pooh" | Peter Dennis, 1986
Winnie-the-Pooh, small cast musical version | Dramatized by le Clanché du Rand, Music by Allan Jay Friedman, Lyrics by A. A. Milne and Kristin Sergel, Additional Lyrics by le Clanché du Rand, Dramatic Publishing Company, 1992

text: Audio

text: Selected Pooh stories read by Maurice Evans released on vinyl LP:

text:
Winnie-the-Pooh (consisting of three tracks: "Introducing Winnie-the-Pooh and Christopher Robin"; Pooh Goes Visiting and Gets into a Tight Place"; "Pooh and Piglet Go Hunting and Nearly Catch a Woozle") 1956
More Winnie-the-Pooh (consisting of three tracks: "Eeyore Loses a Tail"; "Piglet Meets a Heffalump"; "Eeyore Has a Birthday".)

text: In 1960 HMV recorded a dramatised version with songs (music by Harold Fraser-Simson) of two episodes from The House at Pooh Corner (Chapters 2 and 8), starring Ian Carmichael as Pooh, Denise Bryer as Christopher Robin (who also narrated), Hugh Lloyd as Tigger, Penny Morrell as Piglet, and Terry Norris as Eeyore. This was released on a 45 rpm EP.[33]

text: In the 1970s and 1980s, Carol Channing recorded Winnie the Pooh, The House at Pooh Corner and The Winnie the Pooh Songbook, with music by Don Heckman. These were released on vinyl LP and audio cassette by Caedmon Records.

text: Unabridged recordings read by Peter Dennis of the four Pooh books:

text:
When We Were Very Young
Winnie-the-Pooh
Now We Are Six
The House at Pooh Corner

text: In 1979 a double audio cassette set of "Winnie the Pooh" was produced featuring British actor Lionel Jeffries reading all characters in the stories. This was followed in 1981 by an audio cassette set of stories from "House at Pooh Corner" also read by Lionel Jeffries.[34]

text: In the 1990s, the stories were dramatised for audio by David Benedictus, with music composed, directed and played by John Gould. They were performed by a cast that included Stephen Fry as Winnie-the-Pooh, Jane Horrocks as Piglet, Geoffrey Palmer as Eeyore and Judi Dench as Kanga.[35]

text: Radio

text:
Winnie-the-Pooh was broadcast by Donald Calthrop over all BBC stations on Christmas Day, 1925.[14]
Pooh made his US radio debut on 10 November 1932, when he was broadcast to 40,000 schools by The American School of the Air, the educational division of the Columbia Broadcasting System.[36]

text: Film

text: 2017: Goodbye Christopher Robin, a drama film exploring the creation of Winnie-the-Pooh by A.A. Milne.

text: Disney adaptations

text: Theatrical shorts

text:
1966: Winnie the Pooh and the Honey Tree
1968: Winnie the Pooh and the Blustery Day
1974: Winnie the Pooh and Tigger Too
1981: Winnie the Pooh Discovers the Seasons
1983: Winnie the Pooh and a Day for Eeyore

text: Theatrical feature films

text:
1977: The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh (compilation of Honey Tree, Blustery Day, and Tigger Too)
2000: The Tigger Movie
2003: Piglet's Big Movie
2005: Pooh's Heffalump Movie
2011: Winnie the Pooh

text: A live action film is in development with screenwriter Alex Ross Perry on board to write the screenplay and Marc Forster to direct. The story is planned to focus on an adult Christopher Robin returning to the Hundred Acre Wood.[37][38]

text: Soviet adaptation

text: In the Soviet Union, three Winnie-the-Pooh, (transcribed in Russian as "Vinni Pukh") (Russian language: Винни-Пух) stories were made into a celebrated trilogy[39] of short films by Soyuzmultfilm (directed by Fyodor Khitruk) from 1969 to 1972.

text:
Винни-Пух (Winnie-the-Pooh, 1969) – based on chapter 1
Винни-Пух идёт в гости (Winnie-the-Pooh Pays a Visit, 1971) – based on chapter 2
Винни-Пух и день забот (Winnie the Pooh and the Blustery Day, 1972) – based on chapters 4 and 6.

text: Films use Boris Zakhoder's translation of the book. Pooh was voiced by Yevgeny Leonov. Unlike the Disney adaptations, the animators did not base their depictions of the characters on Shepard's illustrations, creating a different look. The Soviet adaptations make extensive use of Milne's original text, and often bring out aspects of Milne's characters' personalities not used in the Disney adaptations.

text: Television

text: A version of Winnie The Pooh, in which the animals were played by marionettes designed, made and operated by Bil And Cora Baird, was presented on 3 October 1960, on NBC Television's The Shirley Temple Show. Pooh himself is voiced by Franz Fazakas.

text: During the 1970s the BBC children's television show Jackanory serialised the two books, which were read by Willie Rushton.[40]

text: Magical World of Winnie the Pooh (Note: These are episodes from The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh)

text: Television shows

text:
Welcome to Pooh Corner (*) (Disney Channel, 1983–1986)
Mini Adventures of Winnie the Pooh (Disney Junior, 2011-2014[41])
The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh (ABC, 1988–1991)
The Book of Pooh (*) (Disney Channel (Playhouse Disney), 2001–2003)
My Friends Tigger & Pooh (Disney Channel (Playhouse Disney), 2007–2010)

text: (*): Puppet/live-action show

text: Holiday TV specials

text:
1991: Winnie the Pooh and Christmas Too, included in A Very Merry Pooh Year
1996: Boo to You Too! Winnie the Pooh, included in Pooh's Heffalump Halloween Movie
1998: A Winnie the Pooh Thanksgiving, included in Seasons of Giving
1999: A Valentine for You

text: Direct-to-video shorts

text: 1990: Winnie the Pooh's ABC of Me

text: Direct-to-video features

text:
1997: Pooh's Grand Adventure: The Search for Christopher Robin
1999: Seasons of Giving*
2001: The Book of Pooh: Stories from the Heart
2002: A Very Merry Pooh Year*
2004: Springtime with Roo
2005: Pooh's Heffalump Halloween Movie
2007: Super Sleuth Christmas Movie
2009: Tigger & Pooh and a Musical Too
2010: Super Duper Super Sleuths

text: These features integrate stories from The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh and/or holiday specials with new footage.

text: Legacy

text: Winnie the Pooh has inspired multiple texts to explain complex philosophical ideas. Benjamin Hoff used Milne's characters in The Tao of Pooh and The Te of Piglet to explain Taoism. Similarly, Frederick Crews wrote essays about the Pooh books in abstruse academic jargon in The Pooh Perplex and Postmodern Pooh to satirise a range of philosophical approaches.[42] Pooh and the Philosophers by John T. Williams uses Winnie the Pooh as a backdrop to illustrate the works of philosophers including Descartes, Kant, Plato and Nietzsche.[43]

text: One of the best known characters in British children's literature, a 2011 poll saw Winnie the Pooh voted onto the list of icons of England.[44] Forbes magazine ranked Pooh the most valuable fictional character in 2002, with merchandising products alone generating more than $5.9 billion that year.[45] In 2005, Pooh generated $6 billion, a figure surpassed by only Mickey Mouse.[46] In 2006, Pooh received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, marking the 80th birthday of Milne's creation.[46] The bear is such a popular character in Poland that a Warsaw street is named for him, Ulica Kubusia Puchatka. There is also a street named after him in Budapest (Micimackó utca).[47]

text: In music, Kenny Loggins wrote the song "House at Pooh Corner", which was originally recorded by the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band.[48] Loggins later rewrote the song as "Return to Pooh Corner", featuring on the album of the same name in 1991. In Italy, a pop band took their name from Winnie, and were titled Pooh. In Estonia there is a punk/metal band called Winny Puhh.

text: In the "sport" of Poohsticks, competitors drop sticks into a stream from a bridge and then wait to see whose stick will cross the finish line first. Though it began as a game played by Pooh and his friends in the book The House at Pooh Corner and later in the films, it has crossed over into the real world: a World Championship Poohsticks race takes place in Oxfordshire each year. Ashdown Forest in England where the Pooh stories are set is a popular tourist attraction, and includes the wooden Pooh Bridge where Pooh and Piglet invented Poohsticks.[49] The Oxford University Winnie the Pooh Society was founded by undergraduates in 1982.

text: In the Peoples Republic of China images of Pooh are censored as internet memes comparing Chinese president Xi Jinping to Pooh became popular in mid-2017.[50]