document_title: Graham's number

question_text: what is the value of graham's number

question_tokens: what is the value of graham 's number

text: Graham's number

text: Context[edit]

text: Graham's number is connected to the following problem in Ramsey theory:

text: Connect each pair of geometric vertices of an n-dimensional hypercube to obtain a complete graph on 2n vertices. Colour each of the edges of this graph either red or blue. What is the smallest value of n for which every such colouring contains at least one single-coloured complete subgraph on four coplanar vertices?

text:
In 1971, Graham and Rothschild proved that this problem has a solution N*, giving as a bound 6 ≤ N* ≤ N, with N being a large but explicitly defined number

F

7

(
12
)

=

F
(
F
(
F
(
F
(
F
(
F
(
F
(
12
)
)
)
)
)
)
)

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle F^{7}(12)\;=\;F(F(F(F(F(F(F(12)))))))}

, where

F
(
n
)

=

2

↑

n

3

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle F(n)\;=\;2\uparrow ^{n}3}

 in Knuth's up-arrow notation; the number is between 4 → 2 → 8 → 2 and 2 → 3 → 9 → 2 in Conway chained arrow notation.[1] This was reduced in 2014 via upper bounds on the Hales–Jewett number to

N
′

=

2

↑↑↑

6

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle N'\;=\;2\;\uparrow \uparrow \uparrow \;6}

.[2] The lower bound of 6 was later improved to 11 by Geoffrey Exoo in 2003,[3] and to 13 by Jerome Barkley in 2008.[4] Thus, the best known bounds for N* are 13 ≤ N* ≤ N'.

text:
Graham's number, G, is much larger than N:

f

64

(
4
)

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle f^{64}(4)}

, where

f
(
n
)

=

3

↑

n

3

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle f(n)\;=\;3\uparrow ^{n}3}

. This weaker upper bound for the problem, attributed to an unpublished work of Graham, was eventually published and named by Martin Gardner in Scientific American in November 1977.[5]

text: Publication[edit]

text: The number gained a degree of popular attention when Martin Gardner described it in the "Mathematical Games" section of Scientific American in November 1977, writing that Graham had recently established, in an unpublished proof, "a bound so vast that it holds the record for the largest number ever used in a serious mathematical proof." The 1980 Guinness Book of World Records repeated Gardner's claim, adding to the popular interest in this number. According to physicist John Baez, Graham invented the quantity now known as Graham's number in conversation with Gardner. While Graham was trying to explain a result in Ramsey theory which he had derived with his collaborator Bruce Lee Rothschild, Graham found that the quantity now known as Graham's number was easier to explain than the actual number appearing in the proof. Because the number which Graham described to Gardner is larger than the number in the paper itself, both are valid upper bounds for the solution to the problem studied by Graham and Rothschild.[6]

text: Definition[edit]

text: Using Knuth's up-arrow notation, Graham's number G (as defined in Gardner's Scientific American article) is

text: where the number of arrows in each subsequent layer is specified by the value of the next layer below it; that is,

text: and where a superscript on an up-arrow indicates how many arrows there are. In other words, G is calculated in 64 steps: the first step is to calculate g1 with four up-arrows between 3s; the second step is to calculate g2 with g1 up-arrows between 3s; the third step is to calculate g3 with g2 up-arrows between 3s; and so on, until finally calculating G = g64 with g63 up-arrows between 3s.

text: Equivalently,

text:
and the superscript on f indicates an iteration of the function, e.g.,

f

4

(
n
)

=

f
(
f
(
f
(
f
(
n
)
)
)
)

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle f^{4}(n)\;=\;f(f(f(f(n))))}

. Expressed in terms of the family of hyperoperations

H

0

,

H

1

,

H

2

,
⋯

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {\text{H}}_{0},{\text{H}}_{1},{\text{H}}_{2},\cdots }

, the function f is the particular sequence

f
(
n
)

=

H

n
+
2

(
3
,
3
)

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle f(n)\;=\;{\text{H}}_{n+2}(3,3)}

, which is a version of the rapidly growing Ackermann function A(n,n). (In fact,

f
(
n
)

>

A
(
n
,

n
)

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle f(n)\;>\;A(n,\,n)}

 for all n.) The function f can also be expressed in Conway chained arrow notation as

f
(
n
)

=

3
→
3
→
n

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle f(n)\;=\;3\rightarrow 3\rightarrow n}

, and this notation also provides the following bounds on G:

text: Magnitude[edit]

text:
To convey the difficulty of appreciating the enormous size of Graham's number, it may be helpful to express—in terms of exponentiation alone—just the first term (g1) of the rapidly growing 64-term sequence. First, in terms of tetration (

↑↑

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle \uparrow \uparrow }

) alone:

text: where the number of 3s in the expression on the right is

text:
Now each tetration (

↑↑

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle \uparrow \uparrow }

) operation reduces to a power tower (

↑

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle \uparrow }

) according to the definition

text: Thus,

text: becomes, solely in terms of repeated "exponentiation towers",

text: and where the number of 3s in each tower, starting from the leftmost tower, is specified by the value of the next tower to the right.

text:
In other words, g1 is computed by first calculating the number of towers,

n

=

3
↑
3
↑
3

…

↑
3

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle n\;=\;3\uparrow 3\uparrow 3\ \dots \ \uparrow 3}

 (where the number of 3s is

3
↑
3
↑
3

=

7625597484987

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle 3\uparrow 3\uparrow 3\;=\;7625597484987}

), and then computing the nth tower in the following sequence:

text: where the number of 3s in each successive tower is given by the tower just before it. Note that the result of calculating the third tower is the value of n, the number of towers for g1.

text:
The magnitude of this first term, g1, is so large that it is practically incomprehensible, even though the above display is relatively easy to comprehend. Even n, the mere number of towers in this formula for g1, is far greater than the number of Planck volumes (roughly 10185 of them) into which one can imagine subdividing the observable universe. And after this first term, still another 63 terms remain in the rapidly growing g sequence before Graham's number G = g64 is reached. To illustrate just how fast this sequence grows, while g1 is equal to

3
↑↑↑↑
3

{\displaystyle 3\uparrow \uparrow \uparrow \uparrow 3}

 with only four up arrows, the number of up arrows in g2 is this incomprehensibly large number g1.

text: Rightmost decimal digits[edit]

text: Graham's number is a "power tower" of the form 3↑↑n (with a very large value of n), so its rightmost decimal digits must satisfy certain properties common to all such towers. One of these properties is that all such towers of height greater than d (say), have the same sequence of d rightmost decimal digits. This is a special case of a more general property: The d rightmost decimal digits of all such towers of height greater than d+2, are independent of the topmost "3" in the tower; i.e., the topmost "3" can be changed to any other non-negative integer without affecting the d rightmost digits.

text: The following table illustrates, for a few values of d, how this happens. For a given height of tower and number of digits d, the full range of d-digit numbers (10d of them) does not occur; instead, a certain smaller subset of values repeats itself in a cycle. The length of the cycle and some of the values (in parentheses) are shown in each cell of this table:

text:
Number of different possible values of 3↑3↑…3↑x when all but the rightmost d decimal digits are ignored

Number of digits (d)
3↑x
3↑3↑x
3↑3↑3↑x
3↑3↑3↑3↑x
3↑3↑3↑3↑3↑x

1
4
(1,3,9,7)
2
(3,7)
1
(7)
1
(7)
1
(7)

2
20
(01,03,…,87,…,67)
4
(03,27,83,87)
2
(27,87)
1
(87)
1
(87)

3
100
(001,003,…,387,…,667)
20
(003,027,…387,…,587)
4
(027,987,227,387)
2
(987,387)
1
(387)

text:
The particular rightmost d digits that are ultimately shared by all sufficiently tall towers of 3s are in bold text, and can be seen developing as the tower height increases. For any fixed number of digits d (row in the table), the number of values possible for 3

↑

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle \uparrow }

3↑…3↑x mod 10d, as x ranges over all nonnegative integers, is seen to decrease steadily as the height increases, until eventually reducing the "possibility set" to a single number (colored cells) when the height exceeds d+2.

text: A simple algorithm[7] for computing these digits may be described as follows: let x = 3, then iterate, d times, the assignment x = 3x mod 10d. Except for omitting any leading 0s, the final value assigned to x (as a base-ten numeral) is then composed of the d rightmost decimal digits of 3↑↑n, for all n > d. (If the final value of x has fewer than d digits, then the required number of leading 0s must be added.)

text: Let k be the numerousness of these stable digits, which satisfy the congruence relation G(mod 10k)≡[GG](mod 10k).

text: k=t-1, where G(t):=3↑↑t.[8] It follows that, g63 ≪ k ≪ g64.

text: The algorithm above produces the following 500 rightmost decimal digits of Graham's number (or of any tower of more than 500 3s):


document_title: Nutrition facts label

question_text: who decides what information goes on a food label

root

text: Nutrition facts label

text: Australia and New Zealand[edit]

text: Australia and New Zealand use a nutritional information panel of the following format:

tag: p

text:
NUTRITION INFORMATION

Servings per package:
Serving size: g

Quantity per Serving
Quantity per 100 g

Energy
0
kJ (Cal)

Protein
0
g

Fat, total
0
g

  - saturated
0
g

Carbohydrate
g
g

  - sugars
g
g

Sodium
mg
mg

tag: table

text: Other items are included as appropriate, and the units may be varied as appropriate (e.g. substituting ml for g, or mmol for mg in the 'Sodium' row).[2] In April 2013 the New Zealand government introduced rules around common claims made on food packaging, such as 'low in fat'.[3]

text: Canada[edit]

text: In Canada, a standardized "Nutrition Facts" label was introduced as part of regulations passed in 2003, and became mandatory for most prepackaged food products on December 12, 2005. (Smaller businesses were given until December 12, 2007 to make the information available.).[4] In accordance with food packaging laws in the country, all information, including the nutrition label, must be written in both English and French, the country's two official languages.[5]

text: Canadian regulation tightly controls the manner in which the nutrition fact table (NFT) data are laid out. There is a wide variety of possible formats for use on a given food package. A selection hierarchy is used to select among the many formats (28 main formats, and 2-7 sub formats for each). This results in standard (vertical) formats being considered for use before horizontal and linear formats. The selection hierarchy also allows the NFT to occupy no more than 15% of the physical package's available display area (ADS), but never to be smaller than a format that would be <=15% of ADS. In practice, determining the ADS of a package, and selecting the appropriate NFT format, can be a detailed calculation.

text: China[edit]

text: In 2011 the Chinese Ministry of Health released the National Food Safety Standard for Nutrition Labeling of Prepackaged Foods (GB 28050-2011). The core nutrients that must be on a label are: protein, fat, carbohydrate and sodium. Energy is noted in kJ. And all values must be per 100g/100ml.,[6][7]

text: European Union[edit]

text: It was regulated by the Commission Directive 2008/100/EC of 28 October 2008 amending Council Directive 90/496/EEC on nutrition labelling for foodstuffs as regards recommended daily allowances, energy conversion factors and definitions.[8] A new regulation is now in force (Regulation 1169/2011).[9] Nutritional labelling becomes mandatory for most pre-packaged foods as from December 2016.

text: In the European Union, along the "old" rules (Directive 90/496, amended), the information (usually in panel format) is most often labelled "Nutrition Information" (or equivalent in other EU languages). An example is shown on the right. The panel is optional, but if provided, the prescribed content and format must be followed. It will always give values for a set quantity — 100 g (3.5 oz) or 100 ml (3.5 imp fl oz; 3.4 US fl oz) of the product — and often also for a defined "serving", as an option. First will come the energy values, in both kilocalories and kilojoules.

text: Then will come a breakdown of constituent elements: usually most or all of protein, carbohydrate, starch, sugar, fat, fibre and sodium. The "fat" figure is likely to be further broken down into saturated and unsaturated fat, while the "carbohydrate" figure is likely to give a subtotal for sugars. With the "new" rules, the mandatory information is: energy, fat, saturates, carbohydrates, sugars, protein and salt, in that particular order, with options to extend this list to: mono-unsaturates, polyunsaturates, polyols, starch, fibre, and vitamins and minerals.[9]

text: With regards to health claims and nutrition (composition) claims, these are harmonised in the EU through Regulation 1924/2006, amended.[10] In November 2012, the European Commission published two new regulations: Regulation (EC) No. 1047/2012 and Regulation (EC) No.1048/2012. Certain nutrition claim groups as of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 had to be changed. Moreover, the health claims associated to barley beta-gluten were amended (e.g. lowering blood cholesterol).[11][12]

text: Within Regulation 1924, there are legal definitions of terms such as "low fat", "high fibre", "reduced calories".[10]

text: All health claims have been harmonised in the European Union. They can be used if they have been approved by EFSA. The list of approved and rejected claims is available on a web site.[13]

text: Provided the full nutrition information is shown on the packet, additional nutritional information and formats (e.g. a traffic light rating system) may be included and this falls outside the scope of regulation.

text: The United Kingdom regulations are given in Schedules 6 and 7 of the Food Labelling Regulations 1996.[14]

text: Hong Kong[edit]

text: In Hong Kong nutrition facts labels are regulated by the subsidiary legislation Food and Drugs (Composition and Labelling) (Amendment: Requirements for Nutrition Labelling and Nutrition Claim) Regulation 2008.[15]

text: India[edit]

text: The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare had, on September 19, 2008, notified the Prevention of Food Adulteration (5th Amendment) Rules, 2008, mandating packaged food manufacturers to declare on their product labels nutritional information and a mark from the F.P.O or Agmark (Companies that are responsible for checking food products) to enable consumers make informed choices while purchasing.[16] Prior to this amendment, disclosure of nutritional information was largely voluntary though many large manufacturers tend to adopt the international practice.[17]

text: Mexico[edit]

text: Food products sold in Mexico use the NOM-051-SCFI-1994 "Información nutrimental" product labelling standard, very similar to "Nutrition Facts" in the US. The Official Mexican Standard, or NOM (Norma Oficial Mexicana), was developed by the Mexican Secretary of Commerce and Industrial Promotion (Secretaría de Comercio y Fomento Industrial), now a part of the Secretary of the Economy (SECOFI). It entered into effect on January 24, 1996[18] and defines "General specifications for labelling foods and pre-bottled non-alcoholic beverages."[19]

text: United States[edit]

text: In the United States, the Nutritional Facts label lists the percentage supplied that is recommended to be met, or to be limited, in one day of human nutrients based on a daily diet of 2,000 calories.

text: With certain exceptions, such as foods meant for babies, the following Daily Values are used.[20] These are called Reference Daily Intake (RDI) values and were originally based on the highest 1968 Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) for each nutrient in order to assure that the needs of all age and sex combinations were met.[21] These are older than the current Recommended Dietary Allowances of the Dietary Reference Intake. For vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin E, vitamin K, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and manganese, the current highest RDAs are up to 50% higher than the older Daily Values used in labeling, whereas for other nutrients the recommended needs have gone down. A side-by-side table of the old and new adult Daily Values is provided at Reference Daily Intake. As of October 2010, the only micronutrients that are required to be included on all labels are vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, and iron.[22] To determine the nutrient levels in the foods, companies may develop or use databases, and these may be submitted voluntarily to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for review.[23]

text:
Nutrient
Daily Value for label
(before 2016 update)
highest RDA
of DRI
unit

Vitamin A
5,000
3,000
IU

Vitamin C
60
90
mg

Calcium
1,000
1,300
mg

Iron
18
18
mg

Vitamin D
400
600
IU

Vitamin E
30 IU
15 mg (33
IU synthetic)

Vitamin K
80
120
μg

Thiamin
1.5
1.2
mg

Riboflavin
1.7
1.3
mg

Niacin
20
16
mg

Vitamin B6
2
1.7
mg

Folate
400
400
μg

Vitamin B12
6
2.4
μg

Biotin
300
30
μg

Pantothenic acid
10
5
mg

Phosphorus
1,000
1,250
mg

Iodine
150
150
μg

Magnesium
400
420
mg

Zinc
15
11
mg

Selenium
70
55
μg

Copper
2
0.9
mg

Manganese
2
2.3
mg

Chromium
120
35
μg

Molybdenum
75
45
μg

Chloride
3,400
2,300
mg

text: Additionally, there is a requirement for ingredients to be listed in order from highest to lowest quantity, according to their weight.[citation needed]

text: The label was mandated for most food products under the provisions of the 1990 Nutrition Labeling and Education Act (NLEA), per the recommendations of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.[24] It was one of several controversial actions taken during the tenure of FDA Commissioner Dr. David Kessler. The law required food companies to begin using the new food label on packaged foods beginning May 8, 1994. (Meat and poultry products were not covered by NLEA, though the U.S. Department of Agriculture proposed similar regulations for voluntary labeling of raw meat and poultry.[25]) Foods labeled before that day could use the old label. This appeared on all products in 1995. The old label was titled "Nutrition Information Per Serving" or simply, "Nutrition Information".

text: The label begins with a standard serving measurement, calories are listed second, and then following is a breakdown of the constituent elements. Always listed are total fat, sodium, carbohydrates and protein; the other nutrients usually shown may be suppressed, if they are zero. Usually all 15 nutrients are shown: calories, calories from fat, fat, saturated fat, trans fat, cholesterol, sodium, carbohydrates, dietary fiber, sugars, protein, vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, and iron.

text: Products containing less than 5 g of fat show amounts rounded to the nearest 0.5 g. Amounts less than 0.5 g are rounded to 0 g. For example, if a product contains 0.45 g of trans fat per serving, and the package contains 18 servings, the label would show 0 g of trans fat, even though the product actually contains a total of 8.1 g of trans fat.

text: In addition to the nutrition label, products may display certain nutrition information or health claims on packaging. These health claims are only allowed by the FDA for "eight diet and health relationships based on proven scientific evidence", including: calcium and osteoporosis, fiber-containing grain products, fruits and vegetables and cancer, fruits, vegetables, and grain products that contain fiber—particularly soluble fiber—and the risk of coronary heart disease, fat and cancer, saturated fat and cholesterol and coronary heart disease, sodium and hypertension, and folate and neural tube defects.[26] The Institute of Medicine recommended these labels contain the most useful nutritional information for consumers: saturated fats, trans fats, sodium, calories, and serving size.[27] In January 2011, food manufacturers and grocery stores announced plans to display some of this nutrition information on processed food.[28]

text: The nutrition facts label currently appears on more than 6.5 billion food packages. President Bill Clinton issued an award of design excellence for the nutrition facts label in 1997 to Burkey Belser in Washington, DC.[29]

text: The FDA does not require any specific typeface be used in the Nutrition Facts label, mandating only that the label "utilize a single easy-to-read type style",[30] though its example label uses Helvetica.[31] However, as regulated by the FDA and the USDA, it is mandatory for certain information listed in the label to be written in English, including: name of the product, net quantity, serving size and number of servings per package, nutrition facts, ingredient list, and name of manufacturer or distributor.[32] The smallest lettering should be at least 1/16th of an inch tall (1.5875 millimeters), based on the height of a lowercase "o".[33]

text: In 2009, a federal appellate court rejected the New York State Restaurant Association’s challenge to the city’s 2007 regulation requiring most major fast-food and chain restaurants to prominently display calorie information on their menus. The rule applies to restaurants that are part of chains with at least 15 establishments doing business nationally.[34]

text: Alcoholic beverages are under the jurisdiction of the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau (TTB), and as of 2012 are not required to have a nutrition facts label. Since at least 2003, consumer groups have lobbied the TTB to require labelling disclosing relevant information.[35] Marketing terms such as "light" for beers and wines, and "table wine" do have specific requirements, and in certain cases alcohol content must be disclosed.[35]

text: In January 2006, Trans fat was required to be listed under saturated fat. This was the first significant change to the Nutrition Facts panel since it was introduced in 1993.[36]

text: Revision to Nutrition Facts panel[edit]

text: In 2014, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration proposed several simultaneous improvements to nutrition labeling for the first time in over 20 years.[37][38] The proposed changes were based on trends of consumption of nutrients of public health importance.[39] However, studies had shown that the majority of the U.S. population could not understand the information in the then current Nutrition Facts Label.[40] Nutrition label numeracy is particularly low in older individuals, of black and Hispanic race/ethnicity, who are unemployed, born outside of the US, have lower English proficiency, lower education achievement, lower income, or live in the South.[41]

text: Proposed changes included a new design requiring serving sizes to more accurately reflect how many servings the average individual is actually consuming. The new recommendation also proposed removing “calories from fat”, and instead focusing on total calories and type of fats being consumed in a product. The proposed labels were to also list how much sugar is added (rather than inherent) to a product, as well as declaring the amount of Vitamin D and potassium in a product.[37][42] Some of these changes sparked a major debate between the food industry and public health agencies. The proposal to indicate sugar added during food production, in particular, was brought forward by the FDA as a measure to counter the increase in per capita sugar consumption in the US, which over the last decades exceeded the limits recommended by scientific institutions and governmental agencies.[43][44] Major American food associations opposed the label change, indicating "lack of merit" and "no preponderance of evidence" to justify the inclusion of sugar added in the new label.[45][46]

text: The rules for the new design were finalized on May 20, 2016. Manufacturers were initially given until July 26, 2018 to comply (or July 26, 2019 if they have less than $10 million in annual food sales).[47] A proposed rule by the FDA would extend the compliance deadline to January 1, 2020 (or January 1, 2021 for qualified small business).[48] For food and dietary supplement labeling purposes the amounts of vitamins and nutritionally essential minerals in a serving are expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). Many of the definitions of 100% Daily Value were changed as part of the revision.[49] A table of the old and new adult Daily Values is provided at Reference Daily Intake.

text: Misleading Nutrition Facts on Food Labels[edit]

text: The FDA is constantly updating and changing its guidelines to help inform consumers and keep them safe from misleading labels. Food producers and their marketing techniques have continued to find ways to circumvent existing regulations. Of the many claims and misleading labels in question, the use of the label “Healthy” on a variety of foods has been a particular issue for many food quality advocacy groups. In their comments to the FDA, The Center for Science in the Public Interest(CSPI) urged FDA officials to address the incongruity between current dietary recommendation/nutritional standards and their definition, CSPI argued that the current definition is too ambiguous and sets a low health standard that allows processed foods with minimal and low nutritional value to use this definition to entice consumers into making poor health choices.[50] The CSPI claimed that the FDA’s current guidance on this issue could be potentially misleading and could incline customers to consume unhealthy foods without making informed decisions. CSPI and their research suggested that a new standard and more adequate definition should make it more difficult for processed food brands to obtain and misuse the “healthy” food label, ultimately giving consumers a better ability to make informed decisions based on the nutritional and health quality of the food they consume as opposed to relatively unsubstantiated claims.[50]

text: In addition to using the “healthy” food label to draw customers to low nutrition foods, food marketers have used a variety of “low content,” like low fat, low calorie, etc claims to assuage consumer’s health concerns and to potentially mislead them. “Low content” claims are labels or other advertised claims that appear on packages and or in advertisements are used so that consumers perceive the products they buy as being healthier or more nutritious.[51] Misleading food health assertions of this nature are both widespread in food marketing and also not reflective of the actual nutritional or health quality of the food or beverage in question. These claims are not consistent among all food and beverage groups, although some of them do accurately represent the nutritional and or health benefits of a certain food or beverage, often this does not guarantee that all claims across all beverages and foods are reflective of actual nutrition. Additionally, even if a certain product is in fact low fat or any one of the different types of “low content” claims, consumers often focus on the claim and neglect other health considerations like added sugars, calories, and other unhealthy ingredients.[51]

text: The Food industry constantly confuses consumers. Some of the basic reasons why people are misled is because terms such as natural, non-GMO, trans-fat free, or kosher do not have consistent definitions for consumers to follow.[52] Without clear standards or definitions, these claims are not informative of the true nutritional content of the food in question. Non-GMO products are often mistaken for organic, just because it is certified as non-GMO. Conventionally raised crops like corn, canola, and soy may be certified non-GMO if they are grown without genetically engineered seeds. Many snack chips being sold in stores use non-GMO ingredients grown with chemical pesticides. Non-GMO does not mean certified non-GMO. Many food products and nutritional products claim to be non-GMO but do not provide certification of that status. Any company that self-proclaims its products to be non-GMO has to back it up with certification.[52] Trans-Fat Free does not mean the food is free from trans fats. In fact, in the U.S. alone, the FDA currently allows foods containing up to 0.5g of trans fats per serving to claim zero grams of trans fats per serving, which is completely misleading.[52]

text: Choosing one food item over another for reasons such as products claiming they are all natural or fat free do not always mean it’s healthier. The FDA does not define “natural” but if labeled so, the food must not contain added colors, artificial flavors, or synthetic substances.[53] However, foods labeled natural can contain preservatives. Companies will argue that natural products that contain high fructose corn syrup are healthy because it comes from corn. No sugar added items are often bought but also not fully understood. Foods like fruit, milk, cereals, and vegetables naturally contain sugar. Although there may not have been added sugar, they still contain natural sugars. These sugar free products may contain added ingredients like maltodextrin, which is a carbohydrate.[53] Carbohydrates may be simple sugars or complex starches that can raise blood sugar. Just because “no sugar added” is labeled does not mean the product is calorie free or carbohydrate free which most consumers often misunderstand. Most consumers are ignorant about the actual nutritional content of their foods and heavily rely on the food labels and claims that are provided on packages. This over-reliance on a variety of different claims has many implications including uninformed customer purchases and over-consumption of unhealthy foods.[53]

text: FDA Guidelines[edit]

text: The FDA has guidelines for what is considered a misleading label.[54] There are rules for the size of the font and what to name food products. The name must include what the food actually is, that means if the food is canned carrots the can must have Carrots on the label. If an official name for the food does not exist, then the label must give the consumer some idea of what the food contains. The FDA states the name should be a “statement of identity,” meaning the company cannot make up a new name for an already existing food. Something must be called an imitation if its nutritional values are significantly different than the original food. With drinks/beverages that want to be called juice, it must have the percentage of the fruit or vegetable in the juice. The name of the juice must be from its more prominent fruit or vegetable by volume.[54] For example Coca-Cola tried to sell pomegranate juice (POM Wonderful) with only had .3% pomegranate in it, so they had to change the label.[55] For a beverage/drink to be called juice it must be 100% juice; if it is less than 100%, then it must be called a drink or beverage.[54]

text: Marketing and Consumer Perceptions[edit]

text: Many companies have started to use their packaging for food as a marketing tool. Words such as “healthy”, “low-fat”, and “natural” have contributed to what is called the health-halo effect, which is when consumers overestimate the healthfulness of an item based on claims on the packaging.[56] Today, food companies incorporate whole grain and higher fiber levels into their products in order to advertise these advantages. With that in mind, there is no regulated amount of grain needed in a certain product to be able to advertise this benefit, so it is important to note that companies advertising this may not be as healthy as they would like to appear.[56]

text: Other studies have shown that marketing for food products has demonstrated an effect on consumers’ perceptions of purchase intent and flavor of the products. One study in particular performed by Food and Brand Lab researchers at Cornell University looked at how an Organic label affects consumers’ perceptions. The study concluded that the label claiming the product was “organic” altered perceptions in various ways. Consumers perceived these foods to have fewer calories and stated they were willing to pay up to 23.4% more for the product.[57] The taste was supposedly “lower in fat” for the organic products as opposed to the regular ones. Finally, the study concluded that people who do not regularly read nutrition labels and who do not regularly buy organic food products are the most susceptible to this example of the health-halo effect. Because of this it is now important for consumers to be aware of the ways in which food companies alter their nutrition labels.[57]


document_title: List of tallest buildings in Duluth

question_text: what is the tallest building in duluth mn

text: List of tallest buildings in Duluth

text: The city of Duluth, Minnesota, is home to 17 completed high-rises standing over 115ft (35m) tall.[1] The tallest building in Duluth is the 16-story, 247-foot-tall Alworth Building, which at the time of its construction, was the tallest building in Minnesota outside Minneapolis.[2]

text: The history of high-rises in Duluth begins with the Torrey Building. Completed in 1892, it is Duluth's first high-rise. It was the first building outside the Twin Cities to reach 12 floors.[3]

text: The newest high-rise constructed in Duluth is the 11-story, 207 ft tall Maurices Headquarters Building, completed in 2016.[4]

text:
Rank
Name
Height
ft / m
Floors
Year
Note
References

1
Alworth Building
247 / 75
16
1910
Tallest building in Duluth. When it was first constructed it was the tallest building in Minnesota outside of Minneapolis.
[2]

2
Medical Arts Building
191 / 58
15
1933

[5]

3
Greysolon Plaza
190 / 58
13
1925

[6]

5
Wells Fargo Building
159 / 49
10
1956
First modern high-rise constructed in Duluth
[7]

6
Sheraton Duluth & Condominiums
140 / 42
11
2007

[8]

7
Board of Trade Building
136 / 41
8
1895
Tallest building in Duluth 1895–1910. A contributing property to the NRHP-listed Duluth Commercial Historic District.
[9]

4
U.S. Bank Place
160 / 49
10
1984

[10]

text: High-rises with unknown heights (12 stories or greater).[11]

text:
Rank
Name
Floors
Year

1
Holiday Inn Hotel & Suits Duluth Downtown Waterfront
16
1977

2
Radison Hotel Duluth Harbor view
16
1969

3
Tri-towers Apartments
15
1973

4
Midtown Manor I
14
1971

5
Midtown Manor II
14
1982

6
Lenox Place Apartments
14
1979

7
Gateway Tower
14
1974

8
Ramsey Manor
13
1971

9
Essentia Health St. Mary's Duluth
12
1957

10
Torrey Building
12
1892


document_title: Saint Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands

question_text: what language do they speak in st croix

question_tokens: what language do they speak in st croix

text: Saint Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands

text: History[edit]

text: The island was inhabited by various indigenous groups during its prehistory. Christopher Columbus landed on Santa Cruz, as he called it, on November 14, 1493, and immediately was attacked by the Kalinago, who lived at Salt River on the north shore. This is the first recorded fight between the Spanish and a New World native population, and Columbus gave the battle site the name Cabo de la Flecha (Cape of the Arrow).[3] The Spanish never colonized the Islands, but most or all of the native population was eventually dispersed or killed. By the end of the 16th century, the islands were said to be uninhabited.[4]

text: Dutch and English settlers landed St. Croix in 1625, joined by some French refugees from St. Kitts. However, the English expelled the settlers, before they themselves were evicted by a Spanish invasion in August 1650. The Spanish occupation was short lived, since a French force of 166 men attacked, and in the following year 1651 had established a colony of 300 on the island. From 1651 until 1664, the Knights of Malta ruled the island in the name of Louis XIV. The island then passed to the French West India Company. The colony was evacuated to San Domingo in 1695, when France battled the English and Dutch in the War of the Grand Alliance. The island then lay uninhabited and abandoned for another 38 years.[5]

text: In 1725, St. Thomas Governor Frederick Moth encouraged the Danish West Indies Company's directors to consider purchasing Ste. Cruds (St. Croix). On 15 June 1733, France and Denmark-Norway concluded a treaty by which the Danish West India Company bought St. Croix for 750,000 livres. Louis XV ratified the treaty on 28 June, and received half the payment in French coins, with the remaining half paid in 18 months. On 16 Nov. 1733, Moth was named the first Danish governor of St. Croix. The 1742 census lists 120 sugar plantations, 122 cotton plantations, and 1906 slaves, with about 300 Englishmen and 60 Danes on the island. By 1754, the number of slaves had grown to 7,566. That year, King Frederick took direct control of St. Croix from the company.[6][5]

text: For nearly 200 years, St. Croix, St. Thomas and St. John were known as the Danish West Indies. By the mid to late 18th century, "at the peak of the plantation economy, the enslaved population of St. Croix numbered between 18,000 and 20,000, the white population ranging between 1,500 and 2,000".[7]

text: Alexander Hamilton and his brother lived with their mother Rachel "Faucette" on St. Croix, after she returned to the island in 1765. Their residence was in the upper floor of a house at 34 Company Street, while Rachel used the lower floor as a shop selling food items. Within two years, however, Hamilton lost his father, James Hamilton, by abandonment, and his mother to death. Official documents from the island, a 1768 probate court testimony from his uncle, established Alexander's age at thirteen. By 1769, Hamilton's cousin, aunt, uncle, and grandmother had also died. His brother James became an apprentice carpenter, and Alexander Hamilton became the ward of Thomas Stevens, a merchant on King Street. Hamilton was soon clerking in the export-import business of Beekman and Cruger, at the intersection of King and King's Cross Streets. In 1772, local businessmen funded Hamilton's further education in New York.[8]

text: The British invasion and occupation of the Danish West Indies took place at the end of March 1801, with the arrival of a British fleet arrived at St Thomas. Denmark-Norway accepted the Articles of Capitulation and the Britain occupied the islands without a shot being fired. Their occupation lasted only until April 1802, when Britain returned the islands to Denmark-Norway.

text: A second British invasion of the Danish West Indies took place in December 1807, when a British fleet captured St Thomas on 22 December, and St. Croix on 25 December. Denmark-Norway did not resist and the invasion again was bloodless. This occupation lasted until 20 November 1815. Both invasions were due to Denmark's alliance with France during the Napoleonic Wars. On the conclusion of a peace with France, the islands were returned to Denmark.

text: In 1916, Denmark sold St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John to the United States, formalizing the transfer in the Treaty of the Danish West Indies, in exchange for a sum of US$25 million in gold. In a national referendum on the issue, 64.2% of Danish voters approved the sale. An unofficial referendum held in the islands resulted in 99.83% vote in favor of the purchase. Formal transfer of the islands to the U.S. took place on April 1, 1917.

text: The island's inhabitants were granted United States citizenship in 1927. Industrialization of the island and its move away from an agrarian society took place in the 1960s. The 2012 shutdown of the Hovensa refinery resulted in the loss of many jobs. Agriculture has seen a slow resurgence, due to an increase in demand for local produce and agricultural products.

text: Geography[edit]

text: St. Croix lies at 17°45′N 64°45′W / 17.750°N 64.750°W / 17.750; -64.750: the easternmost point in the United States of America (as measured from the center of the continental United States, ignoring the westernmost of the Aleutian Islands of Alaska just west of the 180th meridian) is St. Croix's Point Udall. The island has an area of 214.66 km2 (82.88 sq mi). The terrain is rugged, though not extremely so. The highest point on the island, Mount Eagle, is 1,165 feet (355 m) high. Most of the east end is quite hilly and steep, as is the north side from Christiansted west. From the north side hills, a fairly even plain slopes down to the south coast: this was cultivated as the prime sugar land on the island.

text: Climate[edit]

text: The trade wind blows more or less along the length of the island. The hills of the western part of the island receive a good deal more rain than the east end; annual rainfall is on the whole extremely variable, averaging perhaps 40 inches (1,000 mm) a year. The east end of the island is a dry desert range with a substantial amount of cactus, while the west end has lush vegetation and palm trees. The island has multiple ecosystems in a small geographic area. Fairly severe and extended drought has always been a problem, particularly considering the lack of fresh ground water and lack of freshwater streams or rivers on the island. The island has a desalination plant, but most residential homes and businesses have built-in cisterns used to collect rainwater.

text: Demographics[edit]

text: Inhabitants are called Crucians /ˈkruːʒən/[9] (frequently written as "Cruzans").

text: Due to St. Croix's history of immigration, there is much debate as to what constitutes a native Crucian. The consensus in Crucian society is that if one is bahn ya ("born here" in Crucian dialect) on St. Croix, they can claim to be Crucian, but not necessarily a native Crucian. Those considered to be the native Crucians (or by the more politically correct term: ancestral native Crucian) of St. Croix are persons who can trace their ancestry to the era prior to U.S. Virgin Islands acquisition of American citizenship in 1927. Ancestral native Crucians (approximately one-fourth to one-third of St. Croix's population) largely consist of the descendants of enslaved Africans brought to the island by Europeans during the 18th and 19th centuries, as well as the descendants of paid laborers recruited by the Danish from the British and Dutch West Indies after emancipation in 1848. As on other Caribbean islands, many ancestral natives are also descended from European settlers and planters that migrated to the West Indies during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. Due to a low number of European females in the colonial West Indies, many European males in colonial St. Croix produced offspring with the majority African population, whose mixed-heritage descendants bear the surnames of their European ancestors. However, there are also a handful of ancestral families on the island (traditionally known as bukra) of full European ancestry.

text: Due to historical economic and political differences, as well as the remnants of a 19th-century caste system based on skin complexion, socioeconomic class differences among ancestral native Crucians can vary widely, even within the same family. Most ancestral native Crucians today are employed by the Government of the Virgin Islands, although there are others who are involved in the tourism industry, as well as the legal and medical professions.

text: Puerto Rican migration was prevalent in the 1930s, 40s and 50s, when many Puerto Ricans relocated to St. Croix for work after the collapse of the sugar industry. In addition, the U.S. Navy purchase of two-thirds of the nearby Puerto Rican island of Vieques during World War II resulted in the displacement of thousands of Viequenses, many of whom relocated to St. Croix because of its similar size and geography. The local holiday, Puerto Rico/U.S. Virgin Islands Friendship Day, has been celebrated since the 1960s on the second Monday of October, which is also the same date as Columbus Day. Puerto Ricans in St. Croix, most of whom have lived on the island for more than a generation, have kept their culture alive while integrating it into the native Crucian culture and society. For example, in informal situations, many Puerto Ricans in St. Croix speak a unique Spanglish-like combination of Puerto Rican Spanish and the local Crucian creole English.

text: Migration from "down-island" (a Virgin Islander colloquial term for Caribbean islands east and south of the U.S. and British Virgin Islands), occurred mainly throughout the 1960s and 70s. In that period, agriculture declined as the major industry in St. Croix and was replaced by tourism, alumina production, and oil refining. Jobs were plentiful in these industries and down-islanders came to St. Croix by the thousands. The demand for imported labor in St. Croix was exacerbated by the fact that many ancestral native Crucians, having acquired American citizenship several decades earlier, migrated to the mainland United States to pursue educational and career opportunities. Many down-islanders made St. Croix their permanent home, while others eventually relocated to the mainland United States or returned to their native countries. Most down-islanders came from St. Kitts and Nevis, Antigua, St. Lucia and Dominica, although people from every Anglophone Caribbean nation can be easily found on St. Croix. Down islanders and their St. Croix-born offspring form the majority of St. Croix's middle class, which has dwindled in size since the 2008 global recession.

text: Although down-island migration to St. Croix is most commonly thought of as a mid-20th century phenomenon brought upon by American immigration policy, it is important to note that persons of both European and African descent from the nearby islands of Anguilla, St. Martin, Statia, Saba, St. Kitts, Nevis, Antigua, and Montserrat have been migrating to St. Croix since the 1600s. In addition, many ancestral native Crucians also share family ties with Barbados, as Bajans were heavily recruited to St. Croix to work on sugar plantations throughout the late 19th century.

text: Continental Americans, although small in number in comparison with Caribbean immigrants, have also been part of the St. Croix community. Most reside on the East End of St. Croix and tend to work in the tourism industry, real estate, and legal professions. Many are temporary residents or retirees, as well.

text: Arab Palestinians have been an influential part of the local economy since the 1960s, when they first started to migrate to St. Croix to set up shops, supermarkets and gas stations.

text: In the 21st century, recent waves of migration to St. Croix have included people from the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, the Philippines, and various South American nations.

text: St. Croix's history of migration has sometimes caused tensions between immigrants and Crucians whose ancestry on the island dates back for generations. Tensions have subsided to some extent in recent years, mainly due to intermarriage among Crucians and other Caribbean peoples. In the late 1990s, many people supported legislation to define as a "native U.S. Virgin Islander" anyone who could trace their ancestry on the island to 1927, the year in which U.S. Virgin Islanders were granted United States citizenship. This effort by a select group of nationalist senators eventually failed after much public outcry and controversy. It was learned that most native-born U.S. Virgin Islanders would not qualify as "native" under the proposed legislation, as their immigrant ancestors had arrived later than 1927, but thousands of Danish citizens would have qualified.

text: In 2009, the proposed U.S. Virgin Islands Constitution voted by the Fifth Constitutional Convention established three definitions of U.S. Virgin Islanders: "Ancestral Native Virgin Islander" - those with ancestral ties (and their descendants); "Native Virgin Islander" - those born on the island (and their descendants); and "Virgin Islander" - any United States citizen who has resided in the territory for five years. The proposed constitution was rejected by the United States Congress in 2010 for violating the principle of equal rights for all citizens of the territory, "native" or not, and was sent back to the convention for further consideration.

text: The total population of the island as per the 2010 U.S. Census is 50,601.[10]

text: Subdivisions[edit]

text: St. Croix is divided into the following subdistricts (with population as per the 2010 U.S. Census):

text:
Anna's Hope Village (pop. 4,041)
Christiansted (pop. 2,626)
East End (pop. 2,453)
Frederiksted (pop. 3,091)
Northcentral (pop. 4,977)
Northwest (pop. 4,863)
Sion Farm (pop. 13,003)
Southcentral (pop. 8,049)
Southwest (pop. 7,498)

tag: ol

text: Language[edit]

text: English is the dominant language on St. Croix and has been the official language since 1917, when the Danish West Indies were purchased by the United States. Previously, the official language was Danish, although it was not widely spoken. Other languages throughout St. Croix's colonial history included Irish, Scots, Spanish and French, as well as a Dutch Creole spoken by St. Thomas and St. John-born persons living in St. Croix, as well as the local creole English, which still exists today.[11]

text: Known on the island as Crucian, Virgin Islands Creole English is spoken by the majority of the population in informal situations.[12] Spanish is spoken by Puerto Rican and Dominican (Dominican Republic) immigrants and their St. Croix-born offspring, and various French creoles are spoken by the large St. Lucian and Dominican (Dominica) communities, as well as the smaller Haitian one. Arabic is common among the large Palestinian community on St. Croix. Immigrants from the Anglophone Caribbean that migrated to St. Croix after their formative years tend to speak the English creoles of their respective islands in informal situations, which are, for the most part, mutually intelligible with Virgin Islands Creole English.

text: Religion[edit]

text: Christianity is the predominant religion; the island has been called the "Land of Churches"[13] for the approximately 150 churches that serve its 50,000 residents.

text: Protestant denominations are the most prevalent, but there is also a significant Roman Catholic presence due to St. Croix's large Hispanic population, as well as Irish influence during the Danish colonial period. Anglican, Methodist, Moravian, Presbyterian, Pentecostal and Seventh-day Adventists are among the Protestant denominations prevalent on the island. There are also followers of the Jehovah's Witness faith, as well as The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (LDS or Mormon).

text: As in most of the Caribbean, various forms of Rastafari are practiced on the island. Islam is prevalent among the small local Arab population, and there is a small Jewish presence as well.

text: Economy[edit]

text: St. Croix was once an agricultural powerhouse in the Caribbean, but this period ended with the rapid industrialization of the island's economy in the 1960s. Like many other Caribbean islands today, St. Croix has tourism as one of its main sources of revenue. A number of other industries on the island contribute to the economy.

text: St. Croix was home to HOVENSA, one of the world's largest oil refineries. HOVENSA is a limited liability company owned and operated by Hess Oil Virgin Islands Corp. (HOVIC), a division of U.S.-based Hess Corporation, and Petroleos de Venezuela, SA (PDVSA), the national oil company of Venezuela. Gas prices on the island were slightly higher than average when compared to gas prices in the continental United States.

text: On January 18, 2012, the company announced that the HOVENSA refinery would be permanently shut down. This was expected to have a major adverse effect on the economy of St. Croix and the entire U.S. Virgin Islands, as the refinery employed 1,200 residents and 950 contractors.[14]

text: St. Croix is also home to the Cruzan Rum Distillery,[15] makers of Cruzan Rum, a brand of Beam Suntory, Inc. The Cruzan Rum Distillery was founded in 1760 as Estate Diamond, and for many years used locally grown sugar cane to produce a single "dark" style rum. The distillery now imports sugar cane molasses from other countries in the region, primarily from the Dominican Republic and South America. In recent years, Cruzan Rum, along with Bacardi from Puerto Rico and Gosling's from Bermuda, has contributed to the resurgence of "single barrel," super-premium rum. The quality and smoothness of the Cruzan Estate Rums has won more than 30 Spirit Awards.[16] Cruzan Estate Diamond Rum (aged five years in American oak barrels) and Cruzan Single Barrel Estate Rum (aged 12 years in American oak barrels) are two examples.

text: Diageo has completed construction of a new distillery on a 26-acre industrial site next to the Hovensa Refinery. The new distillery produces Captain Morgan Rum.[17] Diageo's entrance into the U.S. Virgin Islands rum industry has been controversial. The cash-strapped U.S. Virgin Islands government secured $250 million in bonds for the plant, about which the Puerto Rican government has bitterly complained.

text: Transportation[edit]

text: Cars drive on the left hand side of the road, but nearly all the automobiles on the island have left side steering columns. This has proven difficult for new residents and visitors from right-hand traffic locales such as the mainland United States, the French and Dutch West Indies, and Puerto Rico.

text: There is a public bus service called Virgin Islands Transit, also known as VITRAN, operated by the Virgin Islands Department of Public Works.

text: In addition to taxis and buses, St. Croix has shared taxis, locally known as "taxi buses" (also found on the other U.S. Virgin Islands). Taxi buses are full-sized vans running a route from Frederiksted to Christiansted. Taxi buses are privately owned and operated; they do not follow a regular schedule, and there are no pre-specified stops. People simply wait by the side of the road until a taxi bus approaches, then flag the driver down by waving. Passengers can get out anywhere along the taxi route. Taxi buses are not metered and are required by law to charge a flat rate of $2.50, regardless of where a rider gets on and off. Taxis to specific locations are much more expensive and are typically used by tourists.

text: Ferry service to St. Thomas was restarted in April, 2017. The QE IV Ferry makes two trips per day to St. Thomas. Ferry companies based in St. Thomas and St. John sometimes operate St. Croix-to-St. Thomas service for special occasions, such as the St. Croix Agricultural Fair in February, Virgin Islands Carnival, Crucian Christmas Carnival, as well as horse races.

text: The Henry E. Rohlsen International Airport serves St. Croix with regular flights from the U.S. mainland, Puerto Rico, and the Eastern Caribbean. Seaplanes, operated by Seaborne Airlines, make the trip from St. Croix to St. Thomas, departing and arriving in Christiansted Harbor.

text: Although St. Croix is a U.S. territory, the U.S. Virgin Islands are maintained as a free port in a separate customs zone. Therefore, travelers to and from the contiguous United States and Puerto Rico must clear U.S. customs but do not need to present a passport, and only need proof of U.S. citizenship or nationality. The immigration status of non-U.S. citizens may be verified during this process.

text: Education[edit]

text: The St. Croix School District operates public schools in St. Croix.[18] There also exist multiple private schools, including, but not limited to, St. Croix Montessori, Star Apple Montessori School, The Good Hope Country Day School, AZ Academy, St. Mary's Catholic School, Free Will Baptist, St. Croix SDA School, and The Manor School. The only colleges on the island are the University of the Virgin Islands, St. Croix campus and Barry University, which operates a physician assistant training program.

text: Culture[edit]

text: Festivals[edit]

text: The island's largest festival, termed "Crucian Christmas Carnival," is celebrated on St. Croix throughout late December and early January. Another significant festival is the Agricultural and Food Fair held in mid-February.

text: Several times a year, there is a nighttime festival in Christiansted called "Jump-Up" and a monthly event called "Sunset Jazz" in Frederiksted, where local jazz musicians play on Frederiksted Beach. Every year on the Saturday before Mardi Gras, there is a local Mardi Croix parade and a dog parade through the North Shore.

text: The St. Croix Half Ironman Triathlon is held in the first week of May.[19] The Triathlon includes a 1.2-mile (1.9 km) swim, a 56-mile (90 km) bike ride, and a 13.1-mile (21.1 km) run. Because the bicycle route includes a ride up an extremely steep hill known as "The Beast", this triathlon is often nicknamed "Beauty and the Beast".

text:
A costumed carnival dancer.

Parade of costumed carnival dancers.

A costumed carnival dancer.

A costumed carnival dancer.

A Moko jumbie.

tag: ul

text: Points of interest[edit]

text: Frederiksted maintains its Victorian era architecture and original seven street by seven street city design and is host to several historic structures. Among them are St. Patrick's Catholic Church built in the 1840s and its primary school, the Customs House, the 19th Century Apothecary, and many other buildings; some of which due to hurricanes past have fallen into very scenic ruins. Frederiksted operates at a more relaxed pace than most of the island, and is more lively during Carnival in January and whenever visiting cruise ships are in port.

text: Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve contains the only known site where members of a Columbus expedition set foot on what is now United States territory. It also preserves upland watersheds, mangrove forests, and estuarine and marine environments that support threatened and endangered species. The site is marked by Fort Salé, a remaining earthworks fortification from the French period of occupation, about 1617. The park also preserves prehistoric and colonial-era archeological sites including the only existent example of a ball court in the Caribbean. This is one of two sites on the island for bioluminescent bays (the other being Altona Lagoon).

text: Fort Christiansværn built in 1749 and other buildings are maintained by the National Park Service as the Christiansted National Historic Site.

text: Buck Island Reef National Monument preserves a 176 acres (71 ha) island just north of St. Croix and the surrounding reefs. This is a popular destination for snorkelers. Buck Island maintains a U.S. Coast Guard weather station and is also home to a student monitored lemon shark breeding ground. Green Cay (pronounced green key) is a small island located southwest of Buck Island; it is managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. It hosts a nearby reef popular among scuba divers and snorkelists—Tamarind Reef.

text: Scuba diving, snorkeling, and watersports[edit]

text: The waters surrounding St. Croix are warm year-round, with temperatures ranging from 25 °C (77 °F) – 30 °C (86 °F), making it a popular destination for watersports including scuba diving, snorkeling, kayaking, paddleboarding, surfing, kite surfing, parasailing, jet skiing, fishing, and sailing. Two of the island's most popular underwater sites for scuba divers are the Frederiksted Pier and the drop-off into deep water at Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve.

text: Frederiksted is known for reef diving and access to wreck diving. The western side of the island has calm waters that allow snorkeling with access from the beach. Paddleboarding is popular near Frederiksted for the same reason. The Frederiksted Pier attracts scuba divers and snorkellers, as well as those who simply jump off it.[20][21] The shallow water and sandy bottom around the pier are ideal for recreational diving by novice scuba divers in PADI Discover Scuba Diving programs (also called resort diving), for extended shore diving, night diving, and for underwater photography,[22] especially of its abundant seahorse population.[23][23][24]

text: A few hundred meters off the northern coast of the island, from Salt River to Cane Bay, the bottom drops suddenly into a deep trench, where coral reefs, abundant tropical fish, and migrant sea turtles may be observed. Kayaking is popular in the Salt River area as well.

text: The town of Christiansted, a short distance from Buck Island and Green Cay, is a former capital of the Danish West Indies. It lies just east of the northern underwater drop-off and is protected by a reef.

text: Bioluminescent bays[edit]

text: There are two bioluminescent bays or bio bays on St Croix. The most widely known and visited is located at Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve. A second bio bay can be found at Altona Lagoon. Bio bays are extremely rare with "only seven year-round lagoons known to exist in the Caribbean".[25]

text: A combination of factors creates the necessary conditions for bioluminescence: red mangrove trees surround the water (the organisms have been related to mangrove forest,[26] although mangrove is not necessarily associated with this species).[27] A study at the bio bay located at Salt River is being conducted as of 2013[update] by faculty and students from the University of South Carolina, the University of North Carolina-Wilmington and the University of the Virgin Islands. Their research is focused on analyzing quality and nutrient composition of the water, the distribution of a micro-organism, the dinoflagellate Pyrodinium bahamense, which glows whenever the water is disturbed, and the abundance of “cysts,” dormant dinoflagellates embedded in the sea floor.

text: A concurrent complementary study is being undertaken by the St. Croix Environmental Association in conjunction with Scripps Institution of Oceanography which focuses on counting the photon density of the phenomenon over time and through various conditions of weather and other impacts. Water quality and taxonomic analysis from both studies will be shared and correlated to create one of the most thorough investigations of year-round bioluminescent bays to date.

text: The two bio bays on St Croix have very different characteristics. The one at Altona Lagoon is large in size but is very shallow allowing one to see the various marine life swimming and agitating the water, lighting it up. The bio bay at Salt River is smaller in size but is deeper than Altona Lagoon. Because of its depth this bay is also home to a second form of bioluminescence called Ctenophora or comb-jellies, which are not found at Altona Lagoon.

text: A third bioluminescent organism is also found in Salt River. A species of marine fireworm performs its brilliant green mating ritual within 57 hours after the full moon, females rising to the surface and leaving a luminescent green puddle for the males to race through, fertilizing the eggs.

text: Protected areas[edit]

text:
Buck Island Reef National Monument
Christiansted National Historic Site, managed by the National Park Service (a federal agency)
Green Cay National Wildlife Refuge, managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service (a federal agency)
Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve, co-managed by the Territory of the Virgin Islands and the National Park Service (a federal agency)
Sandy Point National Wildlife Refuge, managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service (a federal agency)
Point Udall
St. Croix East End Marine Park: managed by the Government of the Virgin Islands through the Department of Planning and Natural Resources' Division of Coastal Zone Management

text:
Christiansted, looking north.

Christiansted, looking northeast

Downtown Christiansted and harbor

Old Danish Customs House, Christiansted

East End

Scuba Diving in the calm waters of Frederiksted

text:
East End

Teague Bay Beach

Canegarden Bay Beach

St. George Village Botanical Gardens

Scuba diver and sponges, Cane Bay wall

Scuba diver and sponges, Cane Bay wall

text: Famous Crucians, St. Croix-born persons and Saint Croix residents[edit]

text:
Hans Jonatan (1784–1827), possibly the first person of color to live in Iceland
Joe Aska, former professional American football running back
Raja Bell, professional basketball player, Utah Jazz[28]
De Apostle,reggae singer,songwriter
Bennie Benjamin, musician, songwriter
Judah P. Benjamin, American and Confederate politician
Victor Borge, Danish pianist and comedian
Edmund Bourke (1761–1821), Danish diplomat
Livingstone Bramble, boxer (raised on St. Croix) from Montserrat
Georg Carstensen, Danish engineer founder of Tivoli Gardens
Annie de Chabert, political figure, Entrepreneur
Horace Clarke, professional baseball player, New York Yankees and San Diego Padres
Quentin Coryatt, professional NFL American football player, Indianapolis Colts[29]
Frank Crosswaith – union leader
Dezarie, reggae singer
Tim Duncan, professional NBA basketball player, San Antonio Spurs[30]
Walt Frazier, professional NBA basketball player[31]
Jack Gantos, author (mentioned in Hole In My Life)
Muhammad Halim, Olympic triple jumper
Alexander Hamilton, American statesman, first United States Secretary of the Treasury (born on Nevis)
Jimmy Hamilton, jazz musician
Hubert Harrison, Harlem activist and intellectual "The Father of Harlem Radicalism"
Elizabeth Hawes, clothing designer, author and social critic, who wrote a book about her life in St. Croix titled But Say It Politely
Casper Holstein, Harlem Renaissance philanthropist
Roy Innis, civil rights advocate, chairman, Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
Rea Irvin, illustrator and first art director on The New Yorker magazine
Peter Jackson, 19th-century Australian boxing champion
Linval Joseph, professional NFL American football player, Minnesota Vikings[32]
William Alexander Leidesdorff, entrepreneur
Audre Lorde, poet, feminist
Midnite, roots reggae band
Abraham Markoe, American revolutionary figure
Hanik Milligan, professional American football player, San Diego Chargers
Warren Mosler, economist
Richard Cooper Newick, boat builder and designer
Maureen O'Hara, actress
Elmo Plaskett, baseball player
Jasmin St. Claire, pornographic actress
Sugar Ray Seales, Olympic gold medalist, boxer
Jim Simpson, Hall of Fame sportscaster
Allen Stanford, financier convicted of fraud
Andre Wadsworth, professional NFL American football player, Arizona Cardinals[33]
Henry S. Whitehead, American author of horror fiction and fantasy
Mike Yard, contributor on The Nightly Show
Frederick Moth - Governor of St. Croix (January 8, 1735 – May 15, 1747)


document_title: The Mother (How I Met Your Mother)

question_text: how i met your mother what did the mother die of

text: The Mother (How I Met Your Mother)

text: Casting[edit]

text: During its first eight seasons, the successful sitcom How I Met Your Mother often hinted at the unseen character of The Mother. Well-known actresses often made guest appearances on the show. Many fans expected that another would play one of the most-wanted roles in Hollywood, but creators Carter Bays and Craig Thomas wanted an unknown. Using Anne Hathaway and Amy Adams as examples, Thomas said that "We didn’t want it to be a big famous star because we didn’t want the wider audience to have associations with whatever actress this would be ... The whole idea is that Ted’s never seen this woman before, so it better feel that way to the audience", similar to how Cobie Smulders being cast as Robin Scherbatsky had "kept the show alive" when it began. Bays and Thomas also did not want a large casting call.[4][5]

text: They chose Cristin Milioti after seeing her on 30 Rock and Once; her musical ability was also helpful, as The Mother had been described as a band member. After competing for the role against at least two others, Milioti filmed her first scene—for the last episode of season 8—having never watched How I Met Your Mother; she recalled, "I had ignorance on my side. So I didn’t know what it meant." Milioti learned of the character's importance only after binge watching the show during the summer.[5][6]

text: Character history[edit]

text: The Mother was born on September 19, 1984.[note 1]

text: The Mother, joined by her roommate Kelly awaits the arrival of her boyfriend Max only to receive a call informing her of his death. After the funeral service, she returns to the apartment to open Max's last gift to her — a ukulele. The Mother spends the next few years grieving the passing of the man she believes was her one true love.[7]

text: In "Wait for It", it is revealed that the short story of how they met involved her yellow umbrella. In "No Tomorrow", Ted finds the umbrella at a club and takes it home after attending a St. Patrick's Day party which she also attended, as it had been two and a half years since the death of Max, her late boyfriend. She is still grieving, but her roommate Kelly encourages her to go out and date again, bringing her to the same bar where Ted and Barney are celebrating. The two women run into Mitch, her old orchestra instructor; The Mother offers to give Mitch her cello for his work at a school and they head to her apartment. After they start talking, Mitch encourages her to pursue her dreams. The Mother expresses her desire to end poverty by taking up economics in college.[7]

text: On his first day of teaching as Professor Mosby, as seen in the season 4 finale "The Leap", he is seen in front of the classroom of students, one of which Future Ted says is the titular mother. But in the first episode of season 5, "Definitions", it is revealed that he was actually in the wrong classroom — Economics instead of Architecture. At the same time in "How Your Mother Met Me", the Mother sits her first session in Economics 305 and meets another graduate student named Cindy (Rachel Bilson), whom she offers to move in with her as her roommate. They see Ted enter the room, but when he announces the subject, The Mother thinks she is in the wrong room and runs off. She heads back to the room after seeing Ted scramble to his actual classroom.

text: Later, in "Girls Versus Suits", Ted dates Cindy, not knowing that her roommate is his future wife. Throughout the episode, Ted notes that Cindy had spent most of their first date talking jealously about her roommate. When in Cindy and the mother's apartment he picks up many of The Mother's belongings, attempting to show how compatible he and Cindy are (thinking the items are Cindy's) and glimpses the mother's foot as she disappears into her room after taking a shower. Ted finds out at this time that she plays bass guitar in a band. Ted forgets to take the yellow umbrella with him when he goes out and Future Ted mentions, "this is how your mother got her yellow umbrella back." In "How Your Mother Met Me", it is revealed that, after Ted left the apartment, the Mother had discovered the umbrella and, upon going to question Cindy, finds her in a state. As she tried to console her, Cindy said that she was a much better match for Ted, and began to lovingly list all of the reasons that Ted would find the mother attractive, before spontaneously kissing her, revealing that her jealousy towards her roommate was actually a crush. While this incident made Cindy realise that she is a lesbian, it also made the Mother decide to go back into dating, as the kiss was her first in a long time.

text: Some time after this, a man named Darren approaches The Mother and is welcomed into her band named Superfreakonomics. Darren gradually takes over the band.[7]

text: In the season 6 opener "Big Days" it is revealed Ted meets his future wife "the day of" the wedding at which he is the best man. In the episode "False Positive" Robin asks Ted to be her future best man, should she ever get married. In the episode "Challenge Accepted", it is revealed that Ted meets the mother of his children the day of Barney's wedding. In the last episode of season 7, "The Magician's Code" it is shown that Barney will marry Robin, and Ted will meet the mother "the day of" their wedding. On the premiere of season 8, Ted's wife appears after Barney and Robin's wedding, outside at the "Farhampton" station while holding a yellow umbrella and her bass guitar.

text: In the season 8 episode "Band or DJ?," Ted runs into Cindy on the subway and tells her that the band Barney and Robin hired to play at their wedding cancelled at the last minute. The end result of the encounter is that Cindy's (now ex-) roommate's band plays at Barney and Robin's wedding.

text: The Mother is first shown meeting Louis in "How Your Mother Met Me" as she is left to carry the band equipment while the now-lead band member Darren talks to his fans. Later at MacLaren's Pub, she tells him she's not yet ready to date. Louis asks her to give him a call if she changes her mind and they begin dating not long after.

text: The Mother meets all of Ted's best friends (Barney, Lily, Marshall and Robin) before she meets him. The Mother is responsible for convincing Barney to pursue Robin, as revealed through a flashback in "Platonish". In "The Locket", Tracy meets Lily on a train journey.

text: In "Bass Player Wanted", the Mother picks up a hitchhiking Marshall, carrying his son Marvin, on her way to Farhampton Inn. On their way, it is revealed that the Mother is a bass player in the band, that is scheduled to play at the wedding reception. But the band's leader, Darren, forced her to quit. The Mother ultimately decides to confront Darren and retake the band. She ends up alone at the bar, and while practicing a speech to give Darren, Darren walks up to her furious the groom's best man punched him for "no reason." Amused by this, the Mother laughs, and Darren quits the band in anger.

text: In "How Your Mother Met Me", it is shown that after this incident, the Mother returns to Louis' summer cottage not far from the Farhampton Inn where she has been staying for the duration of the wedding weekend. As she walks in the door, Louis proposes to her, but she goes outside to think about it for a few minutes. She declines Louis' proposal and leaves his cottage, going to check in at Farhampton Inn. On her room's balcony, she plays the ukulele and sings "La Vie en Rose". Ted hears her singing from his room next door.

text: In "Gary Blauman", Ted and the Mother are on their first date. Ted picks her up at her New York City apartment and they proceed to walk to a Scottish-Mexican fusion restaurant for dinner. On the way there, Ted is telling her a story when they nearly have a run-in with Louis. She says that she is in the "weirdest place on earth" right now and that it is too soon for her to be dating. Ted walks her back to her apartment. They say goodnight and Ted begins to walk away. The Mother then stops him and asks him to finish the story he was telling her. When the story is over, they say goodnight again. The Mother takes a step towards Ted and they kiss for the first time, before deciding to carry on their date.

text: In a flashforward in "The Lighthouse", Ted proposes to the Mother at the top of the lighthouse near Farhampton Inn. She immediately accepts. In another flashfoward in "Unpause", the Mother is revealed to be pregnant with their second child, Luke, in the year 2017. She goes into labor while she and Ted are staying at Farhampton.

text: Name[edit]

text: The Mother's real name is not revealed until the series finale, "Last Forever". When Ted meets her at the Farhampton train station, she reveals that her name is Tracy McConnell. In the season 1 episode "Belly Full of Turkey", Ted meets a stripper named Tracy and says "...that, kids, is the true story of how I met your mother". The children react encouraged and appear to believe Ted before he admits he is joking,[9] which led some fans to correctly guess that The Mother's name is Tracy.[10]

text: Death[edit]

text: In the series finale, it is revealed that six years prior to Ted telling the story to his children, Tracy died in 2024 from an undisclosed illness. In the finale the characters do not directly state that the mother is dead. Ted says that she "became sick" and his children saying that she has been "gone" for six years. Many fans expressed considerable disappointment to The Mother's death.[11] Milioti cried when she learned her character was supposed to die, but came to accept the ending was what the writers had planned from the beginning.[12] Bill Kuchman from Popculturology said that The Mother was "an amazing character"[9] and that "over the course of this final season HIMYM made us care about Tracy.[13] Kuchman said that "asking fans to drop all of that with a simple line about The Mother getting sick and passing away was a very difficult request", that the finale "advanced too quickly" and that "HIMYM was a victim of its own success on this issue".[9]

text: A petition was started, aiming to rewrite and reshoot the finale. The petition has over 20,000 signatures and considerable online news coverage.[14][15] On April 5, 2014, Carter Bays announced on Twitter that an alternate ending would be included on the Season 9 DVD. No new material was shot for this scene.[16][17] In the alternate ending, the mother is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030.[18][1]

text: Notes[edit]

text: Jump up ^ The Mother celebrates her 21st birthday on the day that "Pilot" is set.[7] The pilot is set on September 19, 2005.[8]


document_title: Danger zone (food safety)

question_text: what is the maximum amount of time that tcs foods can be in the temperature danger zone

text: Danger zone (food safety)

text:
Food safety

Terms

Foodborne illness

Hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP)  •  Hazard analysis and risk-based preventive controls (HARPC)

Critical control point

Critical factors

FAT TOM

pH

Water activity (aw)

Bacterial pathogens

Clostridium botulinum

Escherichia coli

Listeria

Salmonella

Vibrio cholerae

Cronobacter spp

Viral pathogens

Enterovirus

Hepatitis A

Norovirus

Rotavirus

Parasitic pathogens

Cryptosporidium

Entamoeba histolytica

Giardia

Trichinella

v
t
e

text: The temperature range in which food-borne bacteria can grow is known as the danger zone. Food safety agencies, such as the United States' Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), define the danger zone as roughly 5 to 60 °C (41 to 140 °F).[1][2][3] The FSIS stipulates that potentially hazardous food should not be stored at temperatures in this range in order to prevent foodborne illness (for example, a refrigerator's temperature must be kept below 4 °C (40 °F)[4]), and that food that remains in this zone for more than two hours should not be consumed.[5] Foodborne microorganisms grow much faster in the middle of the zone, at temperatures between 21 and 47 °C (70 and 117 °F).[6]

text: Food-borne bacteria, in large enough numbers, may cause food poisoning, symptoms similar to gastroenteritis or "stomach flu" (a misnomer, as true influenza primarily affects the respiratory system). Some of the symptoms include stomach cramps, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and fever.[7] Food-borne illness becomes more dangerous in certain populations, such as people with weakened immune systems, young children, the elderly, and pregnant women.[7] In Canada, there are approximately 11 million cases of food-borne disease per year.[8] These symptoms can begin as early as shortly after and as late as weeks after consumption of the contaminated food.[9]

text: Time and temperature control plays a critical role in food safety. To prevent time-temperature abuse, the amount of time food spends in the danger zone must be minimized.[10] A logarithmic relationship exists between microbial cell death and temperature: a significantly large number of cells may survive slightly lower temperatures.[11] In addition to reducing the time spent in the danger zone, foods should be moved through the danger zone as few times as possible when reheating or cooling.[12]

text: Foods that are potentially hazardous inside the danger zone:[13]

text:
Meat: beef, poultry, pork, seafood
Eggs and other protein-rich foods
Dairy products
Cut or peeled fresh produce
Cooked vegetables, beans, rice, pasta
Sauces, such as gravy
Sprouts
Any foods containing the above, e.g. casseroles, salads, quiches


document_title: Driving licence in India

question_text: what is lmv and mcwg in driving licence

question_tokens: what is lmv and mcwg in driving licence

text: Driving licence in India

text: Background[edit]

text: Applications for a provisional driving licence can be made from the age of 16. Valid for driving a moped or gearless motorcycle (with a capacity of up to 50 cc) from aged 16,[1] and a car from aged 18 or older to drive any other type of vehicle.[2] The common "All India Permit" allows the licensee to drive throughout the country.[3] For driving commercial/transport vehicles, one should obtain endorsement (and a minimum age of 20 years, in some states) in the driving licence to effect under s.3(1) of The Motor Vehicles Act, 1988. Until a driving test (which consists of three sections: verbal or written test (depending on the state), road sign test followed by a supervised driving examination)[4] has been passed a driver may hold only a provisional licence and be subject to certain conditions.

text: The conditions attached to provisional licences of a particular category of vehicle are:[2]

text:
L-plates must be conspicuously displayed on the front and rear of the vehicle.
Learner drivers of a particular category and transmission type of vehicle must be accompanied by somebody who has held a full driving licence for that category and transmission type, except in the case of solo motorcycles and vehicles of certain categories designed solely for one person.
Motorcycle riders must not carry any pillion passenger.
Bus drivers must not carry any passenger except a person giving or receiving instruction.

text: After passing a driving test, the provisional licence may be surrendered in exchange for a full Indian licence for the relevant kind of vehicle. Full car licences allow use of mopeds, motorcycles and cars.

text: A licence if valid for 20 years from the date of issue or till the licence holders turns 50 years of age, whichever happens earlier. The driving licence is required to be renewed after expiry of its validity.[5]

text: Theory testing[edit]

text: Tests on basic driving rules are conducted at the RTOs when an individual applies for provisional licence. The theoretical test in India consists of basic road sign questions, which are the same for car and motorcycle tests:

text:
Multiple choice questions – 20 questions with a choice of possible answers. At least 12 questions should be answered correctly to pass this section.
Verbal or written test (depending on the state)

text: The theory test are completed on the computer, and both must be passed in order to pass the theory test.by abhichegu

text: Driving licence categories[edit]

text: This is a list of the categories that might be found on a driving licence in India.

text:
MC 50CC (Motorcycle 50cc) — motorcycles with an engine capacity of 50 cc or less.
MC EX50CC (Motorcycle more than 50cc) — motorcycles and (Light Motor Vehicle)CAR.
FVG—Motorcycles of any engine capacity, but without gears, including mopeds and scooters
MC With Gear or M/CYCL.WG (Motorcycle With Gear) — all motorcycles.
LMV (Light Motor Vehicle) — including motorcars, jeeps, taxis, delivery vans.
LMV-NT (Land Motor Vehicle—No 4 wheeler Transport) — for personal use only
LMV-TR (Light Motor Vehicle—Transport) — for commercial transportation including light goods carrier.[6]
HMV (Heavy Motor Vehicle)
HPMV (Heavy Passenger Motor Vehicle)
HTV Heavy Transport Vehicle (Heavy Goods Motor Vehicle, Heavy Passenger Motor Vehicle)
TRAILER — a person holding a heavy vehicle driving licence can only apply for heavy trailer licence

text: Most of the legislation regarding licensing is in the Rules of the Road Regulation and the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988. Private/Commercial drivers should have an additional Badge if they are driving a taxi or any other public transport vehicle.scout

text: Points and endorsements[edit]

text: India uses cumulative points systems, broadly similar but different in detail in different countries, for offenders.

text: Points are given for driving offences by law courts, and the licence is endorsed accordingly. An Indian driving licence may be endorsed by the courts for various offences, not only for those committed whilst driving or in charge of a vehicle.[citation needed] If the individual committing the offence does not hold a valid driving licence the driver is subject to be penalised or face imprisonment of up to 3 months.[7] Violation of traffic signals, triple driving on motor cycle, using vehicles without registration or in unsafe condition may endorse and attract 3 negative points in each case.[8]

text: In case of two-wheelers, helmet laws is mandatory for the main rider and the pillion rider. Offences such as for drink or drug driving are recorded on the licence and the offender is prosecuted and imprisoned.[9]

text: Twelve points on the licence makes the driver liable to cancellation/suspension of driving licence for one year; accumulation of twelve points for the second consecutive time would lead to suspension of driving licence for five years.[8]

text: Production[edit]

text: Drivers are legally obliged to carry a valid driving licence while driving. Under s.130 of Motor Vehicles Act, 1988; A police officer or any other official authorised by the government can ask for vehicle-related documents, and the driver should produce them within 15 days at the police station (or the concerned department).[10]

text: The law permits officials to seize a licence, and issue a temporary one for a specified time. The law also allows the state government to set the fines or prison terms for minor traffic violations, and specifies who has the rights to enforce these rules.

text: Every driving licence has a maximum number of endorsements allowed. If the driver does not follow the traffic rules or causes any fault, then a penalty fine is issued and an endorsement put on the licence. An excessive number of endorsements may lead to cancellation.[8]