document_title: List of amendments to the United States Constitution

question_text: when was the last time the constitution changed

text: Ratified amendments

text: Synopsis of each ratified amendment

text:
No.
Subject
Date submitted for Ratification[4]
Date ratification completed[4]
Ratification time span

1st
Prohibits Congress from making any law respecting an establishment of religion, impeding the free exercise of religion, abridging the freedom of speech, infringing on the freedom of the press, interfering with the right to peaceably assemble or prohibiting the petitioning for a governmental redress of grievances.
September 25, 1789
December 15, 1791
2 years
2 months
20 days

2nd
Protects the right to keep and bear arms.
September 25, 1789
December 15, 1791
2 years
2 months
20 days

3rd
Places restrictions on the quartering of soldiers in private homes without the owner's consent, prohibiting it during peacetime.
September 25, 1789
December 15, 1791
2 years
2 months
20 days

4th
Prohibits unreasonable searches and seizures and sets out requirements for search warrants based on probable cause as determined by a neutral judge or magistrate.
September 25, 1789
December 15, 1791
2 years
2 months
20 days

5th
Sets out rules for indictment by grand jury and eminent domain, protects the right to due process, and prohibits self-incrimination and double jeopardy.
September 25, 1789
December 15, 1791
2 years
2 months
20 days

6th
Protects the right to a fair and speedy public trial by jury, including the rights to be notified of the accusations, to confront the accuser, to obtain witnesses and to retain counsel.
September 25, 1789
December 15, 1791
2 years
2 months
20 days

7th
Provides for the right to trial by jury in certain civil cases, according to common law.
September 25, 1789
December 15, 1791
2 years
2 months
20 days

8th
Prohibits excessive fines and excessive bail, as well as cruel and unusual punishment.
September 25, 1789
December 15, 1791
2 years
2 months
20 days

9th
Protects rights not enumerated in the Constitution.
September 25, 1789
December 15, 1791
2 years
2 months
20 days

10th
Reinforces the principle of federalism by stating that the federal government possesses only those powers delegated to it by the states or the people through the Constitution.
September 25, 1789
December 15, 1791
2 years
2 months
20 days

11th
Makes states immune from suits from out-of-state citizens and foreigners not living within the state borders; lays the foundation for sovereign immunity.
March 4, 1794
February 7, 1795
11 months
3 days

12th
Revises presidential election procedures by having the President and Vice President elected together as opposed to the Vice President being the runner up.
December 9, 1803
June 15, 1804
6 months
6 days

13th
Abolishes slavery, and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime.
January 31, 1865
December 6, 1865
10 months
6 days

14th
Defines citizenship, contains the Privileges or Immunities Clause, the Due Process Clause, the Equal Protection Clause, and deals with post–Civil War issues.
June 13, 1866
July 9, 1868
2 years
0 months
26 days

15th
Prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on race, color or previous condition of servitude.
February 26, 1869
February 3, 1870
11 months
8 days

16th
Permits Congress to levy an income tax without apportioning it among the states or basing it on the United States Census.
July 12, 1909
February 3, 1913
3 years
6 months
22 days

17th
Establishes the direct election of United States Senators by popular vote.
May 13, 1912
April 8, 1913
10 months
26 days

18th
Prohibited the manufacturing or sale of alcohol within the United States.
(Repealed December 5, 1933, via 21st Amendment.)
December 18, 1917
January 16, 1919
1 year
0 months
29 days

19th
Prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on sex.
June 4, 1919
August 18, 1920
1 year
2 months
14 days

20th
Changes the date on which the terms of the President and Vice President (January 20) and Senators and Representatives (January 3) end and begin.
March 2, 1932
January 23, 1933
10 months
21 days

21st
Repeals the 18th Amendment and makes it a federal offense to transport or import intoxicating liquors into US states and territories where such transport or importation is prohibited by the laws of those states and territories.
February 20, 1933
December 5, 1933
9 months
15 days

22nd
Limits the number of times that a person can be elected president: a person cannot be elected president more than twice, and a person who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected cannot be elected more than once.
March 24, 1947
February 27, 1951
3 years
11 months
6 days

23rd
Grants the District of Columbia electors (the number of electors being equal to the least populous state) in the Electoral College.
June 16, 1960
March 29, 1961
9 months
12 days

24th
Prohibits the revocation of voting rights due to the non-payment of a poll tax or any other tax.
September 14, 1962
January 23, 1964
1 year
4 months
27 days

25th
Addresses succession to the Presidency and establishes procedures both for filling a vacancy in the office of the Vice President, as well as responding to Presidential disabilities.
July 6, 1965
February 10, 1967
1 year
7 months
4 days

26th
Prohibits the denial of the right of US citizens, eighteen years of age or older, to vote on account of age.
March 23, 1971
July 1, 1971
3 months
8 days

27th
Delays laws affecting Congressional salary from taking effect until after the next election of representatives.
September 25, 1789
May 5, 1992[5]
202 years
7 months
10 days

text: Summation of ratification data for each ratified amendment

text:
" Y " indicates that state ratified amendment

" N " indicates that state rejected amendment

" Y(‡) " indicates that state ratified amendment after first rejecting it

" Y(×) " indicates that state ratified amendment, later rescinded that ratification, but subsequently re-ratified it

" — " indicates that state did not complete action on amendment

" … " indicates that amendment was ratified before state joined the Union

State
(in order of statehood)
1–10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27

 Delaware
Y
Y
N
Y(‡)
Y(‡)
Y(‡)
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Pennsylvania
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—

 New Jersey
Y
—
Y
Y(‡)
Y(×)
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Georgia
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
—
Y
Y(‡)
Y
—
Y
—
—
—
Y
Y

 Connecticut
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Massachusetts
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
—

 Maryland
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 South Carolina
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
—
Y
Y(‡)
Y
N
Y
—
—
Y
Y
Y

 New Hampshire
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Virginia
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
N
—
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y

 New York
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y(×)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—

 North Carolina
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Rhode Island
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Vermont
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Kentucky
…
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y(‡)
Y(‡)
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
—
Y
Y
—
Y

 Tennessee
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Ohio
…
…
Y
Y
Y(×)
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Louisiana
…
…
…
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
—
Y
—
—
Y
Y
Y

 Indiana
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Mississippi
…
…
…
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y(‡)
Y
—
Y
—
N
Y
—
—

 Illinois
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Alabama
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Maine
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Missouri
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Arkansas
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
—
Y
Y
Y

 Michigan
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Florida
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
—
—
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
—
Y

 Texas
…
…
…
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Iowa
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Wisconsin
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 California
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Minnesota
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Oregon
…
…
…
Y
Y(×)
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Kansas
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 West Virginia
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Nevada
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y

 Nebraska
…
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Colorado
…
…
…
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

  North Dakota
…
…
…
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
—
—
Y

 South Dakota
…
…
…
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
—
—
Y

 Montana
…
…
…
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Washington
…
…
…
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Idaho
…
…
…
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Wyoming
…
…
…
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y

 Utah
…
…
…
…
…
…
N
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y

 Oklahoma
…
…
…
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
N
Y
—
Y
Y
Y

 New Mexico
…
…
…
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y

 Arizona
…
…
…
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
—
Y
Y
Y

 Alaska
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Hawaii
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
…
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

State
(in order of statehood)
1–10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27

text: Unratified amendments

text: Synopsis of each unratified amendment

text:
Title
Subject
Status

Congressional Apportionment Amendment
Would strictly regulate the size of congressional districts for representation in the House of Representatives.
Pending since September 25, 1789

Titles of Nobility Amendment
Would strip citizenship from any United States citizen who accepts a title of nobility from a foreign country.
Pending since May 1, 1810

Corwin Amendment
Would make the states' "domestic institutions" (slavery) impervious to the constitutional amendment procedures established in Article V and immune to abolition or interference from Congress.
Pending since March 2, 1861

Child Labor Amendment
Would empower the federal government to limit, regulate, and prohibit child labor.
Pending since June 2, 1924

Equal Rights Amendment
Would have prohibited deprivation of equality of rights by the federal or state governments on account of sex.
Initial ratification period ended March 22, 1979, and extension period ended June 30, 1982; amendment failed

District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment
Would have treated the District of Columbia as if it were a state regarding representation in the United States Congress (including repealing the 23rd Amendment), representation in the Electoral College and participation in the process by which the Constitution is amended.
Ratification period ended August 22, 1985; amendment failed

text: Summation of ratification data for each unratified amendment

text:
" Y " indicates that state ratified amendment

" N " indicates that state rejected amendment

" Y(‡) " indicates that state ratified amendment after first rejecting it

" Y(×) " indicates that state ratified amendment, but later recinded that ratification

" ⋈ " indicates that state did not complete action on amendment during stated ratification period.

" " An empty cell indicates that state has not completed action on pending amendment.

State
(in alphabetical order)

Congressional Apportionment

Titles of Nobility

Corwin

Child Labor

Equal Rights

District of Columbia Voting Rights

 Alabama

⋈
⋈

 Alaska

Y
⋈

 Arizona

Y
⋈
⋈

 Arkansas

Y
⋈
⋈

 California

Y
Y
⋈

 Colorado

Y
Y
⋈

 Connecticut
N
N

N
Y
Y

 Delaware
N
Y

N
Y
Y

 Florida

N
⋈
⋈

 Georgia
N
Y

N
⋈
⋈

 Hawaii

Y
Y

 Idaho

Y
Y(×)
⋈

 Illinois

Y
Y
⋈Y
⋈

 Indiana

Y(‡)
Y
⋈

 Iowa

Y
Y
Y

 Kansas

Y(‡)
Y
⋈

 Kentucky
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y(×)
⋈

 Louisiana

N
⋈
Y

 Maine

Y(‡)
Y
Y

 Maryland
Y
Y
Y(×)
N
Y
Y

 Massachusetts
N
Y

N
Y
Y

 Michigan

Y
Y
Y

 Minnesota

Y(‡)
Y
Y

 Mississippi

⋈
⋈

 Missouri

N
⋈
⋈

 Montana

Y
Y
⋈

 Nebraska

Y(×)
⋈

 Nevada

Y
⋈Y
⋈

 New Hampshire
Y
Y

Y(‡)
Y
⋈

 New Jersey
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y

 New Mexico

Y(‡)
Y
⋈

 New York
Y
N

Y
⋈

 North Carolina
Y
Y

N
⋈
⋈

  North Dakota

Y
Y
⋈

 Ohio

Y
Y(×)
Y
Y
Y

 Oklahoma

Y
⋈
⋈

 Oregon

Y
Y
Y

 Pennsylvania
Y(‡)
Y

Y(‡)
Y
⋈

 Rhode Island
Y
N
Y

Y
Y

 South Carolina
Y

N
⋈
⋈

 South Dakota

N
Y(×)
⋈

 Tennessee

Y

N
Y(×)
⋈

 Texas

N
Y
⋈

 Utah

Y(‡)
⋈
⋈

 Vermont
Y
Y

N
Y
⋈

 Virginia
Y

N
⋈
⋈

 Washington

Y
Y
⋈

 West Virginia

Y
Y
Y

 Wisconsin

Y
Y
Y

 Wyoming

Y
Y
⋈

Number of ratifications:

11
12
5(×2)
28
37(×5,⋈2)
16


document_title: Prague astronomical clock

question_text: when was the astronomical clock in prague built

root

text: Prague astronomical clock

text: Description[edit]

text: The Orloj is mounted on the southern wall of Old Town Hall in the Old Town Square. The clock mechanism itself has three main components: the astronomical dial, representing the position of the Sun and Moon in the sky and displaying various astronomical details; statues of various Catholic saints stand on either side of the clock; "The Walk of the Apostles", a clockwork hourly show of figures of the Apostles and other moving sculptures—notably a figure of Death (represented by a skeleton) striking the time; and a calendar dial with medallions representing the months. According to local legend, the city will suffer if the clock is neglected and its good operation is placed in jeopardy; a ghost, mounted on the clock, was supposed to nod its head in confirmation. According to the legend, the only hope was represented by a boy born on New Year's night.[1]

tag: p

text: History[edit]

text: The oldest part of the Orloj, the mechanical clock and astronomical dial, dates back to 1410 when it was made by clockmaker Mikuláš of Kadaň and Jan Šindel, then later a professor of mathematics and astronomy at Charles University. The first recorded mention of the clock was on 9 October 1410.[2] Later, presumably around 1490, the calendar dial was added and the clock facade was decorated with gothic sculptures.

text: Formerly, it was believed that the Orloj was constructed in 1490 by clockmaster Jan Růže (also called Hanuš); this is now known to be a historical mistake. A legend, recounted by Alois Jirásek, has it that the clockmaker Hanuš was blinded on the order of the Prague Councillors so that he could not repeat his work; in turn, he disabled the clock, and no one was able to repair it for the next hundred years.

text: In 1552 it was repaired by Jan Taborský (ca 1500–1572), master clockmaker of Klokotská Hora, who also wrote a report of the clock where he mentioned Hanuš as the maker of this clock. This mistake, corrected by Zdeněk Horský,[3] was due to an incorrect interpretation of records from the period. The mistaken assumption that Hanuš was the maker is probably connected with his reconstruction of the Old Town Hall in the years 1470–1473. The clock stopped working many times in the centuries after 1552, and was repaired many times.

text: In 1629 or 1659 wooden statues were added, and figures of the Apostles were added after a major repair in 1787–1791. During the next major repair in the years 1865–1866 the golden figure of a crowing rooster was added.

text: The Orloj suffered heavy damage on May 7 and especially May 8, 1945, during the Prague Uprising, when the Nazis fired on the south-west side of the Old Town Square from several armoured vehicles in an unsuccessful attempt to destroy one of the centers of the uprising. The hall and nearby buildings burned along with the wooden sculptures on the clock and the calendar dial face made by Josef Mánes.[4] After significant effort, the machinery was repaired, the wooden Apostles restored by Vojtěch Sucharda, and the Orloj started working again in 1948.[5]

text: The Orloj was renovated in autumn 2005, when the statues and the lower calendar ring were restored. The wooden statues were covered with a net to keep pigeons away.

text: In July 2017, the Orloj was again being renovated. The work is expected to be finished by July 2018.[6]

text: 600th anniversary[edit]

text: On 9 October 2010, the Orloj's 600th anniversary was celebrated with a light show on the face of the clock tower. Two projectors were used to project several animated videos on the clock. The videos showed it being built, torn down, rebuilt, and peeled away to show its internal mechanisms and the famous animated figures, as well as various events in the clock's history. The video interacted with the tower's architecture, such as rain rolling off the arch, and showing the passage of time with moving shadows.[7]

text: 605th anniversary[edit]

text: On its 605th anniversary, 9 October 2015, the Orloj appeared on the Google home page as a Google Doodle.[8][9]

text: 2018 reconstruction[edit]

text: The Orloj was taken down for reconstruction and replaced by a LED screen in early 2018, with the restoration works scheduled to last for the whole summer tourist season of 2018 and the restored actual Orloj eventually being back in service soon enough to commemorate the 100th anniversary of Czechoslovakia at the end of October 2018.[10][11]

text: Astronomical dial[edit]

text: The astronomical dial is a form of mechanical astrolabe, a device used in medieval astronomy.  Alternatively, one may consider the Orloj to be a primitive planetarium, displaying the current state of the universe.

text: The astronomical dial has a background that represents the standing Earth and sky, and surrounding it operate four main moving components: the zodiacal ring, an outer rotating ring, an icon representing the Sun, and an icon representing the Moon.

text: Stationary background[edit]

text: The background represents the Earth and the local view of the sky.  The blue circle directly in the centre represents the Earth, and the upper blue is the portion of the sky which is above the horizon.  The red and black areas indicate portions of the sky below the horizon.  During the daytime, the Sun sits over the blue part of the background and at night it sits over the black. During dawn or dusk, the mechanical sun is positioned over the red part of the background.

text: Written on the eastern (left) part of the horizon is aurora (dawn in Latin) and ortus (rising).  On the western (right) part is occasus (sunset), and crepusculum (twilight).

text: Golden Roman numerals at the outer edge of blue circle are the timescale of a normal 24-hour day and indicate time in local Prague time, or Central European Time.  Curved golden lines dividing the blue part of dial into 12 parts are marks for unequal "hours".  These hours are defined as 1/12 of the time between sunrise and sunset, and vary as the days grow longer or shorter during the year.

text: Zodiacal ring[edit]

text: Inside the large black outer circle lies another movable circle marked with the signs of the zodiac which indicates the location of the Sun on the ecliptic.  The signs are shown in anticlockwise order. In the photograph accompanying this section, the Sun is currently moving anticlockwise from Cancer into Leo.

text: The displacement of the zodiac circle results from the use of a stereographic projection of the ecliptic plane using the North pole as the basis of the projection. This is commonly seen in astronomical clocks of the period.

text: The small golden star shows the position of the vernal equinox, and sidereal time can be read on the scale with golden Roman numerals. The zodiac is on the 366-tooth gear inside the machine. This gear is connected to the sun gear and the moon gear by a 24-tooth gear.

text: Old Czech time scale[edit]

text: At the outer edge of the clock, golden Schwabacher numerals are set on a black background.  These numbers indicate Old Czech Time (or Italian hours), with 24 indicating the time of sunset, which varies during the year from as early as 16:00 in winter to 20:16 in summer.  This ring moves back and forth during the year to coincide with the time of sunset.

text: Sun[edit]

text: The golden Sun moves around the zodiacal circle, thus showing its position on the ecliptic.  The sun is attached to an arm with a golden hand, and together they show the time in three different ways:

text:
The position of the golden hand over the Roman numerals on the background indicates the time in local Prague time.
The position of the Sun over the curved golden lines indicates the time in unequal hours.
The position of the golden hand over the outer ring indicates the hours passed after sunset in Old Czech Time.

tag: ol

text: Additionally, the distance of the Sun from the center of the dial shows the time of sunrise and sunset. The Sun and its hand are on the 365-tooth gear inside the machine.

text: Moon[edit]

text: The movement of the Moon on the ecliptic is shown similarly to that of the Sun, although the speed is much faster (due to the Moon's own orbit around the Earth). The Moon's arm is on the 379-tooth gear inside the clock machine.

text: The half-silvered, half-black sphere of the moon also shows the Lunar phase. The Moon has a 57-tooth gear inside its sphere, and is slowly rotated by a screw-thread attached to a weight (advancing 2 teeth per day). This movement, powered only by gravity, makes the Orloj unique in the world among astronomical clocks showing the phases of the moon. The mechanism was created by an unknown maker, probably in the mid-17th century. Unlike the original device (the construction of which was described in a report from 1570), this mechanism produces much smaller deviation from the actual lunar phase (about 1 day in 5 years)[12]

text: Animated figures[edit]

text: Moving figures

tag: table

text: The four figures flanking the clock are set in motion on the hour, and represent four things that were despised at the time of the clock's making. From left to right in the photographs, the first is Vanity, represented by a figure admiring himself in a mirror. Next, the miser holding a bag of gold represents greed or usury. Across the clock stands Death, a skeleton that strikes the time upon the hour. Finally there is a figure representing lust and earthly pleasures.  On the hour, the skeleton rings the bell and immediately all other figures shake their heads, side to side, signifying their unreadiness "to go."

text: There is also a presentation of statues of the Apostles at the doorways above the clock, with all twelve presented every hour.

text: Calendar[edit]

text: Calendar overview and detail

text: The calendar plate below the clock was replaced by a copy in 1880. The original is stored in the Prague City Museum.[13]


document_title: Sarla Thakral

question_text: first woman to fly a plane in india

question_tokens: first woman to fly a plane in india

text: Sarla Thakral

text:
Sarla Thakral

Sarla Thakral

Born
1914
New Delhi, India

Died
(2008-03-15)15 March 2008

Spouse(s)
P. D. Sharma , R.P Thakral

text: Sarla Thakral (1914 – 15 March 2008) was the first Indian woman to fly an aircraft.[1][2][3] Born in 1914, she earned an aviation pilot license in 1936 at the age of 21 and flew a Gypsy Moth solo. She had a four-year-old daughter. After obtaining the initial licence, she persevered and completed one thousand hours of flying in the aircraft owned by the Lahore Flying Club. Her husband P. D. Sharma[4] whom she married at 16 and comes from a family which had 9 pilots encouraged her to achieve it. While Sharma had been the first Indian to get his airmail pilot's license, flying between Karachi and Lahore; his wife would be first woman in India to attain her 'A’ license when she accumulated over 1000 hours of flying.[5]

text: Tragically, Captain Sharma died in an airplane crash in 1939. After some time, his young widow tried to apply to train for her commercial pilot license, but World War II had begun and civil training was suspended. With a child to raise, and needing to earn her livelihood, Thakral abandoned her plans to become a commercial pilot, returning to Lahore and attending the Mayo School of Art where she trained in the Bengal school of painting, obtaining a diploma in fine arts.

text: Thakral was a dedicated follower of the Arya Samaj, a spiritual community dedicated to following the teachings of the Vedas.[6] Within this community, remarriage was a possibility for Thakral.

text: After the Partition she moved to Delhi with her two daughters where she met her second husband R. P. Thakral and married him in 1948. Sarla, also known as Mati, became a successful businesswoman, painter and began designing clothes and costume jewellery.[5] She died in 2008.[7][8]


document_title: Francis Ouimet

question_text: who did francis ouimet beat in the us open

text: Francis Ouimet

text: Early life[edit]

text: Ouimet was born to Mary Ellen Burke and Arthur Ouimet in Brookline, Massachusetts, a suburb southwest of Boston. His father was a French-Canadian immigrant, and his mother was originally from Ireland. When Francis was four years old, his family purchased a house on Clyde Street in Brookline, directly across from the 17th hole of The Country Club. The Ouimet family grew up relatively poor and were near the bottom of the economic ladder, which was hardly the position of any American golfer at the time. As far as the general public was concerned, amateur golf was reserved for the wealthy, while professional golf provided competition and income for former caddies, prohibited by the USGA from caddying after the age of 16 or lose their amateur status.[3] Ouimet became interested in golf at an early age and started caddying at The Country Club at the age of 11. Using clubs from his brother and balls he found around the course, he taught himself to play. His game soon caught the eye of many country club members and caddie master Dan MacNamara. It wasn't long before Ouimet was the best high school golfer in the state. When he was a junior in high school, his father insisted that he drop out and do "something useful" with his life. Ouimet worked at a drygoods store before landing a job at a sporting goods store owned by future Baseball Hall of Famer George Wright.[3][4]

text: Golf career[edit]

text: 1913 U.S. Open[edit]

text: In 1913, Ouimet won his first significant title at age 20, the Massachusetts Amateur, an event he won five more times. He participated in the U.S. Amateur at the Garden City Golf Club in Long Island, New York in early September, losing in the quarterfinals to the eventual champion, Jerome Travers. Soon after, he was asked personally by the president of the United States Golf Association, Robert Watson, if he would play in the national professional championship, the 1913 U.S. Open, which had been postponed to mid-September from its original June dates to allow for the participation of British golfers Harry Vardon and Ted Ray, both of Jersey.[5] Vardon had won the U.S. Open in 1900 and The Open Championship five times to that point. Ray had won the Open Championship in 1912. The 1913 event was played at the course Ouimet knew best, The Country Club in Brookline, Massachusetts. Ouimet originally declined to play, having just returned from an absence from work to play in the National Amateur. His participation in the Open was soon arranged, however, with the cooperation of his employer.

text: It was Ouimet's first appearance in the championship. Eddie Lowery was his ten year old caddie. After 72 holes of regulation play ended in a three-way tie, Ouimet, Vardon, and Ray engaged in an 18-hole playoff the next day in rainy conditions. Ouimet won the playoff at one-under-par for the day, beating Vardon by 5 strokes and Ray by 6.[6] His victory was widely hailed as a stunning upset over the strongly favored British, who were regarded as the top two golfers in the world. He was the first amateur to win the U.S. Open. The biggest crowds ever seen in American golf followed the playoff, and his achievement was front-page news across the country.

text: Ouimet's U.S. Open success is credited for bringing golf into the American sporting mainstream. Before his win over Vardon and Ray, golf was dominated by British players. In America, the sport was restricted to players with access to private facilities. There were very few public courses (the first, Van Cortlandt Golf Course in The Bronx borough of New York City, opened in 1895.) Ten years after his 1913 victory, the number of American players had tripled and many new courses had been built, including numerous public ones.

text: In 1963, WGBH-TV, Boston's public television station, aired an interview with Ouimet at The Country Club in Brookline, Massachusetts, to mark the 50th anniversary of his win at the 1913 U.S. Open. The kinescope of that interview was included in the DVD of the Walt Disney film The Greatest Game Ever Played. Disney's film took artistic license, portraying the win as having been by a single stroke when, in reality, Ouimet won by five strokes.

text: Controversy resolved[edit]

text: Ouimet never turned professional;[1] he wished to remain an amateur for his whole career, as he decided before his U.S. Open success that he wanted to work in the world of business. In 1916, however, the USGA, in one of the most controversial decisions in their history, stripped Ouimet of his amateur status. Its reasoning was that he was using his celebrity to aid his own sporting goods business and was therefore making a living from golf. This was at the time when caddies were not allowed to continue caddying after they reached the age of 16, unless they declared themselves professionals. The decision was greeted with uproar from Ouimet's fellow golfers. In 1918, Ouimet enlisted in the U.S. Army and rose to the rank of lieutenant. After the war, the USGA quietly reinstated his amateur status. Ouimet did not bear a grudge against the USGA and served on several committees. He was also a golf member of Charles River Country Club in Newton Centre, and was a member of the Woodland Golf Club of Auburndale.

text: Ouimet won his second U.S. Amateur in 1931.[1] During the 1920s, he lost several close matches to Bobby Jones, who dominated amateur golf for that decade.

text: Later achievements[edit]

text: Ouimet won the U.S. Amateur twice (1914 and 1931).[7] He played on the first eight Walker Cup Teams and was Captain of the next four for a team record of 11-1. In 1951, he became the first non-Briton elected Captain of the Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews and in 1955 was the first-ever winner of the Bob Jones Award, the highest honor given by the USGA, in recognition of distinguished sportsmanship in golf. Ouimet has been named to many golf halls of fame and has a room named after him in the USGA Museum.

text: Two other aspects of Ouimet's golf career are important: He used the overlapping grip to hold the club and was among the first top players to use this method. He very likely used the grip to emulate Vardon, who often is credited with developing the grip. Many great golf champions since have used this technique. The method is named for the "overlapping' of the little finger of the bottom hand between the forefinger and middle finger of the top hand. Ouimet mentored and encouraged the young Gene Sarazen, who developed into one of golf's greatest champions.[8]

text: Francis Ouimet Scholarship Fund[edit]

text: In 1949, a group of Ouimet's friends started a scholarship in his honor, naming it the Francis Ouimet Scholarship Fund.[1] The scholarship was created to give college scholarship aid to young people who worked as caddies at clubs in Massachusetts. The inaugural class had 13 scholars who received a total of $4,600. Since then more than 5,100 students have been selected as Ouimet Scholars, receiving more than $26 million in need-based college tuition assistance. Today's requirements state that young people who have given at least two years of service to golf as caddies or worked in a pro shop or in course superintendent operations in Massachusetts are eligible to receive the Scholarship.

text: The Ouimet Fund is the second largest caddie scholarship in the U.S. and the largest independent scholarship fund in Massachusetts. Students must go through a rigorous application and interview process before being selected as a Ouimet Scholar. Once selected, students may attend any school they wish, which is one of the major differences between the Ouimet Fund and the Evans Fund, the other major caddie fund in the U.S. Since the Ouimet Fund is a need-based scholarship, awards can range anywhere from a few thousand dollars to $30,000 or more over four years.

text: The Francis Ouimet Award for Lifelong Contributions to Golf was first presented in 1997 and is presented annually at the Francis Ouimet Scholarship Fund's banquet. Past winners include Arnold Palmer (1997), Peter Jacobsen (2006), Jack Nicklaus (2007), and Annika Sörenstam (2010).[9]

text: Depictions[edit]

text: In 1988 a portrait of Ouimet appeared on a commemorative 25-cent United States Postal Service postage stamp in his honor.[10]

text: In 2002, Mark Frost wrote a biographical account of Ouimet's U.S. Open victory titled The Greatest Game Ever Played: Harry Vardon, Francis Ouimet, and the Birth of Modern Golf. Shortly afterward, Frost was tapped by Walt Disney Studios to write a motion picture adaptation. The Greatest Game Ever Played was released in theaters in 2005. The film starred Shia LaBeouf as Ouimet and was directed by Bill Paxton and produced by Larry Brezner.

text: Appearing on the cover of The Greatest Game is a photograph of Ouimet at the U.S. Open with his ten-year-old caddie, Eddie Lowery. This iconic image is one of the best known in American golf and was used as the logo for the United States Golf Association's Centennial celebrations. A statue of Ouimet and Lowery based on the photograph stands in Brookline, Massachusetts, and at the World Golf Hall of Fame in St. Augustine, Florida.

text: Oddly enough, a street is named after Ouimet in Greenside, Johannesburg, South Africa, close to the Parkview Golf Course. A number of adjacent streets are also named after golfers,[11] although the street in Johannesburg is named Quimet Street. How the misspelling occurred is not known. The street is still sometimes pronounced (correctly) without the Q, while it is also sometimes pronounced in the French way (Wee-May).

text: Personal life[edit]

text: Ouimet aspired to become a businessman to elevate himself into the middle class. The life of a professional golfer at that time did not offer an avenue to reach that goal. Within ten years of his U.S. Open victory, Ouimet had started to work as a banker and eventually a stock broker, which had always been his intention. He culminated his business career as a customer's financial advisor at Brown Brothers Harriman.

text: He married Stella M. Sullivan on September 11, 1918.[12] They had two daughters: Janice Salvi and Barbara McLean.

text: Ouimet died in Newton, Massachusetts, on September 2, 1967, at age 74.[13]

text: Tournament wins (27)[edit]

text:
1909 Boston Interscholastic
1910 Boston Interscholastic, Woodland Golf Club Open
1912 The Country Club Cup, Allston Golf Club Open Championship
1913 U.S. Open, Massachusetts Amateur, Meadow Brook Golf Club Open
1914 U.S. Amateur, Massachusetts Amateur, French Amateur
1915 Massachusetts Amateur, Baltimore Country Club Spring Invitational
1917 Western Amateur
1919 Massachusetts Amateur
1920 North and South Amateur
1922 Massachusetts Amateur, Houston Invitational
1923 St. George's Challenge
1924 Crump Memorial
1925 Massachusetts Amateur, Gold Mashie Tournament, Bermuda Handicap Tourney at Riddle's Bay
1927 Crump Memorial
1931 U.S. Amateur
1932 Massachusetts Open
1934 Boston Open

tag: ul

text: Professional and amateur majors shown in bold.

text: Major championships (3)[edit]

text: Professional wins (1)[edit]

text:
Year
Championship
54 holes
Winning score
Margin
Runners-up

1913
U.S. Open
Tied for lead
+12 (77-74-74-79=304)
Playoff 1
 Harry Vardon,  Ted Ray

text: 1 Defeated Vardon and Ray in an 18-hole playoff – Ouimet 72 (−1), Vardon 77 (+4), Ray 78 (+5)

text: Amateur wins (2)[edit]

text:
Year
Championship
Winning score
Runner-up

1914
U.S. Amateur
6 & 5
 Jerome Travers

1931
U.S. Amateur
6 & 5
 Jack Westland

text: Results timeline[edit]

text: As an amateur, Ouimet could not play in the PGA Championship.

text:
Tournament
1910
1911
1912
1913
1914
1915
1916
1917
1918
1919

U.S. Open
DNP
DNP
DNP
1 LA
T5
T35
DNP
NT
NT
T18

The Open Championship
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP
T56
NT
NT
NT
NT
NT

U.S. Amateur
DNQ
DNQ
DNQ
R16
1
R16
DNP
NT
NT
QF

The Amateur Championship
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP
R128
NT
NT
NT
NT
NT

text:
Tournament
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929

U.S. Open
DNP
DNP
DNP
T29
DNP
T3
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP

The Open Championship
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP

U.S. Amateur
2
R16 M
R16
SF
SF
DNQ
SF
SF
R32
SF

The Amateur Championship
DNP
R128
DNP
SF
DNP
DNP
R64
DNP
DNP
DNP

text:
Tournament
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939

Masters Tournament
NYF
NYF
NYF
NYF
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP

U.S. Open
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP

The Open Championship
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP

U.S. Amateur
R32
1
SF
DNP
R256
R256
R64
WD
DNP
DNQ

The Amateur Championship
R32
DNP
DNP
DNP
R256
DNP
DNP
DNP
R64
DNP

text:
Tournament
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949

Masters Tournament
DNP
WD
DNP
NT
NT
NT
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP

U.S. Open
DNP
DNP
NT
NT
NT
NT
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP

The Open Championship
NT
NT
NT
NT
NT
NT
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP

U.S. Amateur
DNQ
DNP
NT
NT
NT
NT
DNP
DNP
DNP
DNP

The Amateur Championship
NT
NT
NT
NT
NT
NT
DNP
R32
DNP
R128

text:
Tournament
1950

Masters Tournament
DNP

U.S. Open
DNP

The Open Championship
DNP

U.S. Amateur
DNP

The Amateur Championship
R128

text:
M = Medalist
LA = Low amateur
NYF = Tournament not yet founded
NT = No tournament
DNP = Did not play
WD = Withdrew
"T" indicates a tie for a place
DNQ = Did not qualify for match play portion
R256, R128, R64, R32, R16, QF, SF = Round in which player lost in match play
Green background for wins. Yellow background for top-10

text: Summary[edit]

text:
Tournament
Wins
2nd
3rd
Top-5
Top-10
Top-25
Events
Cuts made

Masters Tournament
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
-

U.S. Open
1
0
1
3
3
4
6
-

The Open Championship
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
-

U.S. Amateur
2
1
6
10
14
16
26
19

The Amateur Championship
0
0
1
1
1
3
10
-

Totals
3
1
8
14
18
23
44
19

text:
Most consecutive cuts made – 9 (1913 U.S. Amateur – 1924 U.S. Amateur)
Longest streak of top-10s – 3 (1921 U.S. Amateur – 1923 The Amateur Championship, 1923 U.S. Amateur – 1925 U.S. Open)

text: U.S. national team appearances[edit]

text: Amateur

text: Walker Cup: 1922 (winners), 1923 (winners), 1924 (winners), 1926 (winners), 1928 (winners), 1930 (winners), 1932 (winners, playing captain), 1934 (winners, playing captain), 1936 (winners, non-playing captain), 1938 (non-playing captain), 1947 (winners, non-playing captain), 1949 (winners, non-playing captain)


document_title: My Mad Fat Diary

question_text: who plays stacey in my mad fat diary

question_tokens: who plays stacey in my mad fat diary

text: My Mad Fat Diary

text: Plot[edit]

text: Set in Stamford, Lincolnshire in the mid-1990s, My Mad Fat Diary follows the story of 16-year-old, 16 stone (102 kg) (224 lb) girl, Rae Earl, who has just left a psychiatric hospital, where she has spent four months.[4] She begins to reconnect with her best friend, Chloe, who is unaware of Rae's mental health and body image problems, believing she was in France for the past four months. Rae attempts to keep this information from her while also trying to impress Chloe's friends Finn, Archie, Izzy and Chop.[5]

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Main cast[edit]

text:
Sharon Rooney as Rachel 'Rae' Earl, a 16-year-old who has spent four months in a psychiatric hospital. She struggles to hide her mental health and body image problems from her new friends and finds it hard to fit in. She becomes romantically involved with Finn Nelson, whom she dates in the second series.
Claire Rushbrook as Linda Earl-Bouchtat, Rae's mum.[6] She marries Karim Bouchtat in the finale of series 1. She becomes pregnant during the second series and gives birth to a girl in the series finale.
Ian Hart as Dr. Kester, Rae's therapist who helps her deal with her issues.
Nico Mirallegro as Finley "Finn" Nelson, a boy whom Rae clashes with at first, but who later becomes her main love interest. Finn and Rae are in a relationship for most of the second series, before breaking up. They reunite after the birth of Rae's baby sister at the end of Series 2. In Series 3, they separate again, although Rae says to Finn that it "could happen again one day".
Jodie Comer as Chloe Gemell, Rae's attractive, popular best friend from childhood.
Dan Cohen as Archie, Rae's close friend. He is later revealed to be gay and is victim of homophobia and bullying.
Jordan Murphy as Arnold "Chop" Peters, the party animal of their group of friends. He begins a relationship with Izzy at the end of series one. Initially uncomfortable with Archie's homosexuality, but the two reconcile when Chop stands up for Archie when the latter gets picked on at the pub.
Ciara Baxendale as Izzy, the sweet but ditzy girl of the group. Often cheerful and optimistic, Rae describes her as never having a negative thought. She is in a relationship with Chop.
Darren Evans as Danny Two Hats, a resident of the psychiatric hospital and later, due to the death of Tix at the end of series one, Rae's friend.
Sophie Wright as Tix (series 1 & 3), a resident of the psychiatric hospital and Rae's other best friend. In the series 2 opener, it is revealed that she died due to over-exercising and refusing to eat at the end of the previous series. She makes a cameo appearance in the final episode of series 3 as Rae reflects on her teenage years and when rae sees everyone in the reflection of the train window.
Turlough Convery as Liam Owen (series 2 & 3), Rae's new friend/love interest who attends group therapy with her in Series 2. He makes a cameo appearance in the final episode of series 3 When rae sees everyone in the reflection of the train window.
Faye Marsay as Katie Springer (series 3), a former student at Rae's school who comes back to Stamford to speak about her experiences at university

text: Recurring cast[edit]

text:
Bamshad Abedi-Amin as Karim Bouchtat, the Tunisian illegal immigrant boyfriend, and later husband, of Rae's mum.
Shazad Latif as Dr. Nick Kassar (series 1), a doctor at the psychiatric hospital.
Eliot Otis Brown Walters as Big G (series 1), a bully who often picks on Rae, calling her Jabba.[7][8]
Keith Allen as Victor Earl (series 2-3), Rae's father.
Sacha Parkinson as Stacey Stringfellow (series 2), a popular girl who used to date Finn and bullies other girls.
Susie Potter as Amy Malone, a tough girl in Stacey's clique. She falls out with Stacey after she said she looked 'proper rough'. She later ends up dating Liam, and even threatens Rae whenever she sees her with Liam.
Jodie Hamblet as Vicky, a popular girl in Stacey's clique. She has a skin condition, although she dislikes talking about it. She later becomes an enemy of Rae and Chloe, regularly insulting them at school.
Kirsty Armstrong as Lois, a sweet girl in Stacey's clique. She is revealed to be Archie's 'girlfriend'. After Rae "outs" Archie to Lois, she threatens to tell her friends that Archie is gay if he doesn't tell everyone first.
Cameron Moore as Stephen Carrisford, a PE Teacher in Rae's school.

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: Throughout its run, My Mad Fat Diary received critical acclaim, particularly for its accurate and honest portrayal of mental illness and Sharon Rooney's performance. The Guardian's Sam Wollaston called it a "lovely drama – honest and painful, real, and very funny," going on to say "Sharon Rooney's performance in the lead is natural, effortless and utterly believable; she should win something for it."[9] The Stage called it "a comedy drama that actually satisfies the criteria of both genres, My Mad Fat Diary offers a unique and uncompromising perspective on adolescent angst that distresses and delights by turns. Visual gimmicks – flashbacks, fantasies and animated squiggles leaping from the page – are used sparingly but effectively, allowing the focus to stay fixed on Rae and Rooney’s commanding and engagingly natural central performance."[10] The Art Desk said "the first episode of this six-part comedy drama is touching, hilarious and perfectly cast." Claire Webb of the Radio Times said the plot is "as uplifting as it is moving, although the banter and gimmicks won't be to everybody's taste."[11]

text: The show also received praise for its honest portrayal of mental health. Brian Semple of The Independent calls the show "surprisingly honest, funny and even moving account of what it’s like for a teenage girl to live with serious mental health problems, free of many of the clichés that often inform how mental illness is portrayed on TV," going on to say that Rae "has a mental illness, but it doesn’t define her. It’s just something that she has to deal with and try to manage on a daily basis, just like the one in ten young people in the UK who have a mental illness." Semple refers to My Mad Fat Diary as a "breath of fresh air and will do a lot to change the way young people think about mental health."[12] The mental health charity Mind praised the My Mad Fat Diary, with the show's depiction of mental health leading it to win the Drama category at their annual Media Awards in both 2014[13] and 2016[14][15].

text: In a more mixed review, Robert Epstein of The Independent criticised E4 for relating the programme to its other teen shows: "If such comparisons are unfair, blame it on E4, whose continuity announcer declared: 'If you like Skins, The Inbetweeners and Misfits, you'll like this.' Well, sorry, I do like those three shows, but, even with a great soundtrack (if only the Mack really would return …) and the odd nice line, My Mad Fat Diary is a long way from the equal of that trio in invention, edge or humour."[16]

text: My Mad Fat Diary star Sharon Rooney was chosen as one of the first group of BAFTA "Breakthrough Brits" in 2013.[17]

text: Ratings[edit]

text: The first episode of the third and final series attracted 548,000 viewers on E4, whilst the second episode attracted 537,000 viewers. The final episode of the series attracted 450,000 viewers. All viewing figures exclude those who watched on All 4 and on E4+1.

text: American remake[edit]

text: Tom Bidwell, the writer of the show, mentioned in April 2014 in an interview with the Chorley Guardian that MTV has commissioned him to work on an American remake of the show.[18]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Recipient
Result

2013
British Academy Scotland Awards
Best Actor/Actress - Television
Sharon Rooney
Nominated

2014
British Academy Television Awards
Best Drama Series
My Mad Fat Diary
Nominated

Best Supporting Actress
Claire Rushbrook
Nominated

British Academy Scotland Awards
Best Actress - Television
Sharon Rooney
Nominated

Broadcasting Press Guild Awards
Breakthrough Award
Nominated

Mind Media Awards
Drama
My Mad Fat Diary
Won

Royal Television Society
Best Drama Series
Nominated

Best Actress
Sharon Rooney
Nominated

2015
British Academy Scotland Awards
Best Actress - Television
Won

International Emmy Awards
Drama Series
My Mad Fat Diary
Nominated

2016
Mind Media Awards
Drama
Won


question_text: who won the first women's world series

question_tokens: who won the first women 's world series

text: Founding and play[edit]

text: With America's entry into World War II, several major league baseball executives started a new professional league with women players in order to maintain baseball in the public eye while the majority of able men were away. The founders included Philip K. Wrigley, Branch Rickey and Paul V. Harper. They feared that Major League Baseball might even temporarily cease due to the war because of the loss of talent,[2] as well as restrictions on team travel due to gasoline rationing.[3]

text: The women's initial tryouts were held at Wrigley Field in Chicago.  Scouted from amateur softball games across the country, over 200 women were invited to try-out, and about 60 were selected for the league roster.  Like the male major-league, the 'girls' league was also informally segregated, thus no African Americans were recruited or hired.  Women were selected for their skilled play, but the player also needed to fit what was seen by marketers as a wholesome feminine ideal.[4]   The first league game was played on May 30, 1943.[5][6]

text: The league went through three periods of ownership. It was owned by chewing gum mogul, Wrigley[1] from 1943 to 1945, wealthy publicist Arthur Meyerhoff from 1945 to 1951, and the teams were individually owned from 1951 to 1954. The teams generally played in Midwestern cities. The South Bend Blue Sox and the Rockford Peaches were the only two teams that stayed in their home cities for the full period of the AAGPBL's existence.[4]

text:
Part of a series on theHistory of baseball
Origins
Early years
Knickerbocker Rules
The Massachusetts Game
Philadelphia town ball
Alexander Cartwright
Doc Adams
Doubleday myth
First league
First pro team
First pro league
Team nicknames

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text: In the first season, the league played a game that was a hybrid of baseball and softball.  The ball was 12 inches in circumference, the size of a regulation softball (regulation baseballs are 9 to 91⁄4 inches).  The pitcher's mound was only forty feet from home plate, closer even than in regulation softball and much closer than the baseball distance of 60 feet, 6 inches.  Pitchers threw underhand windmill, like in softball, and the distance between bases was 65 feet, five feet longer than in softball but 25 feet shorter than in baseball.  Major similarities between the AAGPBL and baseball included nine player teams and the use of a pitcher's mound (softball pitchers throw from flat ground).  By 1948 the ball had shrunk to 10 3/8 inches, overhand pitching was allowed, and the mound was moved back to 50 feet.  Over the history of the league, the rules continued to gradually approach those of baseball.  By the final season in 1954, the ball was regulation baseball size, the mound was moved back to 60 feet, and the basepaths were extended to 85 feet (still five feet shorter than in regulation baseball).[7]  Teams were generally managed by men who knew competitive athletics and were former major league players, in part to demonstrate to fans that the league was serious.[4]

text: Salaries were above average for women and ranged from $45–$85 (or $636–$1202 in 2017 dollars[8]) a week during the first years of play to about $125 (or $1179 in 2017 dollars[8]) per week in later years.  The women's league generally went along with the men's late spring to early autumn season.[9]

text: The uniforms worn by the female ballplayers consisted of a belted, short-sleeved tunic dress with a slight flare of the skirt. Rules stated that skirts were to be worn no more than six inches above the knee, but the regulation was most often ignored in order to facilitate running and fielding. A circular team logo was sewn on the front of each dress, and baseball caps featured elastic bands in the back so that they were one-size-fits-all[10]

text: During spring training the girls were required to attend Helena Rubinstein's evening charm school classes.  The proper etiquette for every situation was taught, and every aspect of personal hygiene, mannerisms and dress code was presented to all the players. In an effort to make each player as physically attractive as possible, each received a beauty kit and instructions on how to use it.  As a part of the leagues 'Rules of Conduct', the 'girls' were not permitted to have short hair, smoke or drink in public places, and they were required to wear lipstick at all times.  Fines for not following the leagues rules of conduct were five dollars for the first offense, ten for the second, and suspension for the third.[11] In 1944, Josephine "JoJo" D’Angelo was fired for cutting her hair short.[12]  The women's contracts were much stricter about behavior than in the men's league, and each team was also assigned its own chaperone by the league.[4]

text: The AAGPBL peaked in attendance during the 1948 season, when 10 teams attracted 910,000 paid fans.[11] The Rockford Peaches won the most league championships with four (1945, 1948, 1949, 1950). The Milwaukee/Grand Rapids Chicks were second with three (1944 in Milwaukee, 1947 and 1953 in Grand Rapids). The Racine Belles (1943 and 1946) and the South Bend Blue Sox (1951 and 1952) each won two, and the Kalamazoo Lassies won in the league's final season (1954).[4]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: The 1992 film A League of Their Own, although fictionalized, covers the founding and play of this league. Geena Davis, Lori Petty, Rosie O'Donnell, Madonna, and Tom Hanks were the stars of the film, which was directed by Penny Marshall.  The league is the forerunner of later-day professional league sports played by women.[4]

text: Lois Siegel documented the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League in her film Baseball Girls, which was produced by the National Film Board of Canada. Olive Little threw the first no-hitter in team and league history.[13]

text: Several histories of the AAGPBL have been published in book form.[14][15]

text: Although the AAGPBL was the first recorded professional women's baseball league, women had played baseball since the nineteenth century. The first known women's baseball team played at Vassar College in 1866,[16] while barnstorming Bloomer Girls teams[17] (sometimes including men[18])

text: Baseball Hall of Fame members Max Carey[19] and Jimmie Foxx[20] managed teams in the AAGPBL.

text: The league went through a series of name changes during its history.  It was founded as the All-American Girls Softball League.,[1] but midway through its first season of 1943, the name was changed to the All-American Girls Baseball League (AAGBBL).[11]  After the 1943 season, the official League name was again changed, to the All-American Girls Professional Ball League (AAGPBL), reflecting that players were paid from the start and further separate it from existing amateur leagues.[2]  This name was used until the end of the 1945 season, when the league reverted to All-American Girls Baseball League (AAGBBL), which it would use through 1950.  When teams were sold to independent owners at the end of the 1950 season, the official League name was changed to the American Girls Baseball League (AGBL), although it continued to be popularly identified as the All-American League or the All-American Girls Baseball League (AAGBBL).  When the Players' Association organized in 1986, and gained recognition by the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1988, the name All-American Girls Professional Baseball League (AAGPBL) was chosen to represent the league, and that is the name commonly used to refer to it to this day.[11]

text: Rules of play[edit]

text: Uniforms[edit]

text: The uniform was a one-piece short-skirted flared tunic with a team patch in the center of the chest.  The base uniform was designed by Wrigley Company art director Otis Shepard, who was also the longtime art director for the Chicago Cubs and spearheaded a series of innovative uniforms beginning in 1937.[21][22]  Shepard modeled the uniform after the figure skating, field hockey, and tennis outfits of the period.  The uniforms included satin shorts, knee-high baseball socks, and a baseball cap.[23] The team patches were modeled after each respective city's seal.[24]

text: Theme song[edit]

text: The theme song made famous in the 1992 film A League of Their Own was the official song of the All-American Girls Baseball League, co-written by Pepper Paire and Nalda Bird (although in the movie, the word "Irishmen" was changed to "Irish ones").[25]

text:
Victory Song
Batter up! Hear that call!
The time has come for one and all
To play ball.

text:
We are the members of the All-American League
We come from cities near and far
We’ve got Canadians, Irishmen and Swedes,
We’re all for one, we’re one for all
We’re all Americans!!

text:
Each girl stands, her head so proudly high,
Her motto ‘Do or Die’
She’s not the one to use or need an alibi.

text:
Our chaperones are not too soft,
They’re not too tough,
Our managers are on the ball.
We’ve got a president who really knows his stuff,
We’re all for one, we’re one for all,
We’re All-Americans!

text: In their annual reunions since 1998, it is usual to hear the original AAGPBL players singing the song.[26]

text: Teams[edit]

text: Team timeline[edit]

text:
Kenosha Comets[1] (1943–1951)
Racine Belles[1] (1943–1950)
Rockford Peaches[1] (1943–1954)
South Bend Blue Sox[1] (1943–1954)
Milwaukee Chicks (1944)
Minneapolis Millerettes[1] (1944)
Fort Wayne Daisies[1] (1945–1954)
Grand Rapids Chicks[1] (1945–1954)
Muskegon Lassies (1946–1949)
Peoria Redwings[1] (1946–1951)
Chicago Colleens[1] (1948)
Springfield Sallies[1] (1948)
Kalamazoo Lassies[1] (1950–1954)
Battle Creek Belles (1951–1952)
Muskegon Belles (1953)

text: League champions[edit]

text:
1943 – Racine Belles
1944 – Milwaukee Chicks
1945 – Rockford Peaches
1946 – Racine Belles
1947 – Grand Rapids Chicks
1948 – Rockford Peaches
1949 – Rockford Peaches
1950 – Rockford Peaches
1951 – South Bend Blue Sox
1952 – South Bend Blue Sox
1953 – Grand Rapids Chicks
1954 – Kalamazoo Lassies[4]

text: AAGPBL Players Association[edit]

text:
When the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League was unable to continue in 1955, its history and its significance was forgotten by Baseball Historians. Many people in the 1950s thought that women were not supposed to play baseball, so most female athletes competed on other fields of endeavor. Finally, in 1980, former pitcher June Peppas launched a newsletter project to get in touch with friends, teammates and opponents, that resulted in the league’s first reunion in Chicago, Illinois in 1982.  The Players Association was formed after a 1986 Reunion held in Fort Wayne as part of Run, Jane Run a local Women's Bureau event. Historian and Baseball card publisher Sharon Roepke (author of Diamond Gals) who was circulating a petition to get the Baseball Hall of Fame to recognize the All American Girls Baseball League asked the players at the Reunion to organize to help the effort.  A meeting was held at the South Bend home of Fran Janssen and the Player's Association was born.  June Peppas was nominated President.
[27]

text: National Women's Baseball Hall of Fame inductees[edit]

text:
1999 – Claire Schillace
2002 – Faye Dancer
2003 – Dorothy Ferguson (Dottie Key)
2005 – Joanne Winter
2010 – Dorothy Kamenshek
2012 – Jean Faut
2012 – Doris Sams
2013 – Pepper Paire
2013 – Sophie Kurys
2017 – Arleene Johnson (Noga)[28]


document_title: Bargaining unit

question_text: who is typically included in the bargaining unit

text: Bargaining unit

text: A bargaining unit, in labor relations, is a group of employees with a clear and identifiable community of interests who are (under U.S. law) represented by a single labor union in collective bargaining and other dealings with management. Examples would be non-management professors, law enforcement professionals, blue-collar workers, clerical and administrative employees, etc. Geographic location as well as the number of facilities included in bargaining units can be at issue during representation cases.

text: The size of a company does not relate to the size of a bargaining unit. Bargaining units must consist of at least three employees, and must have the support of a majority of employees in the bargaining unit. However, the bargaining unit can be a small portion of a large company where no other employees are members of a union.


document_title: Jamestown, Virginia

question_text: who was the person that led the turnaround at the jamestown colony

text: Jamestown, Virginia

text: Settlement[edit]

text: Spain, Portugal, and France moved quickly to establish a presence in the New World, while other European countries moved more slowly. The English did not attempt to found colonies until many decades after the explorations of John Cabot, and early efforts were failures—most notably the Roanoke Colony which vanished about 1590.

text: Arrival and beginning (1607–1609)[edit]

text: Late in 1606, English colonizers set sail with a charter from the London Company to establish a colony in the New World. The fleet consisted of the ships Susan Constant, Discovery, and Godspeed, all under the leadership of Captain Christopher Newport. They made a particularly long voyage of four months, including a stop in Canary Islands[15][16] and subsequently Puerto Rico, and finally departed for the American mainland on April 10, 1607. The expedition made landfall on April 26, 1607 at a place which they named Cape Henry. Under orders to select a more secure location, they set about exploring what is now Hampton Roads and an outlet to the Chesapeake Bay which they named the James River in honor of King James I of England.[17] Captain Edward Maria Wingfield was elected president of the governing council on April 25, 1607. On May 14, he selected a piece of land on a large peninsula some 40 miles (64 km) inland from the Atlantic Ocean as a prime location for a fortified settlement. The river channel was a defensible strategic point due to a curve in the river, and it was close to the land, making it navigable and offering enough land for piers or wharves to be built in the future.[18] Perhaps the most favorable fact about the location was that it was not inhabited by nearby Virginia Indian[19] tribes, who regarded the site as too poor and remote for agriculture.[20] The island was swampy and isolated, and it offered limited space, was plagued by mosquitoes, and afforded only brackish tidal river water unsuitable for drinking.

text: The Jamestown settlers arrived in Virginia during a severe drought, according to a research study conducted by the Jamestown Archaeological Assessment (JAA) team in the 1990s. The JAA analyzed information from a study conducted in 1985 by David Stahle and others, who obtained borings of 800 year-old baldcypress trees along the Nottoway and Blackwater rivers. The lifespan of these trees is up to 1,000 years and their rings offer a good indication of an area’s annual amount of rainfall. The borings revealed that the worst drought in 700 years occurred between 1606 and 1612. This severe drought affected the Jamestown colonists and Powhatan tribe’s ability to produce food and obtain a safe supply of water.[21]

text: The settlers also arrived too late in the year to get crops planted.[22] Many in the group were either gentlemen unused to work or their manservants, both equally unaccustomed to the hard labor demanded by the harsh task of carving out a viable colony.[22] One of these was Robert Hunt, a former vicar of Reculver, England who celebrated the first known Eucharist in the territory of the future United States on June 21, 1607.[23]

text: In a few months, 80% of the party were dead; some of the survivors were deserting to the Indians whose land they had colonized.[22] Virginia Native Americans had established settlements long before the English settlers arrived, and there were an estimated 14,000 in the region who were politically known as Tsenacommacah and who spoke an Algonquian language. They were the Powhatan Confederacy, ruled by their paramount chief known as Wahunsenacawh or "Chief Powhatan". Wahunsenacawh initially sought to resettle the English colonists from Jamestown, considered part of Paspahegh territory, to another location known as Capahosick where they would make metal tools for him as members of his Confederacy, but this never transpired.

text: The first explorers had been welcomed by the Indians with dancing, feasting, and tobacco ceremonies.[24] Despite the hospitality of Wahunsenacawh, the presence of the English settlers and perhaps a further expedition up the James River by Captain Christopher Newport provoked the Paspahegh, Weyanock, and other groups to mount a series of attacks on the fort during period of violence lasting from May 27 to July 14, 1607.

text: Two-thirds of the settlers died before ships arrived in 1608 with supplies and German, Polish, and Slovak craftsmen,[25][26][27] who helped to establish the first manufactories in the colony. As a result, glassware became the foremost American products to be exported to Europe at the time. Clapboard had already been sent back to England beginning with the first returning ship.

text: The delivery of supplies in 1608 on the First and Second Supply missions of Captain Newport had also added to the number of hungry settlers. It seemed certain at that time that the colony at Jamestown would meet the same fate as earlier English attempts to settle in North America, specifically the Roanoke Colony (Lost Colony) and the Popham Colony, unless there was a major relief effort. The Germans who arrived with the Second Supply and a few others defected to the Powhatans, with weapons and equipment.[9][10] The Germans even planned to join a rumored Spanish attack on the colony and urged the Powhatans to join it.[29] The Spanish were driven off by the timely arrival in July 1609 of Captain Samuel Argall in Mary and John, a larger ship than the Spanish reconnaissance ship La Asunción de Cristo.[30] Argall's voyage also prevented the Spanish from gaining knowledge of the weakness of the colony. Don Pedro de Zúñiga, the Spanish ambassador to England, was desperately seeking this (in addition to spies) in order to get Philip III of Spain to authorise an attack on the colony.[31]

text: The investors of the Virginia Company of London expected to reap rewards from their speculative investments. With the Second Supply, they expressed their frustrations and made demands upon the leaders of Jamestown in written form. They specifically demanded that the colonists send commodities sufficient to pay the cost of the voyage, a lump of gold, assurance that they had found the South Sea, and one member of the lost Roanoke Colony. It fell to the third president of the Council Captain John Smith to deliver a bold and much-needed wake-up call in response to the investors in London, demanding practical laborers and craftsmen who could help make the colony more self-sufficient.[32]

text: Starving Time and Third Supply (1609–1610)[edit]

text: After Smith was forced to return to England due to an explosion which gave him deep burn wounds during a trading expedition,[33] the colony was led by George Percy, who proved incompetent in negotiating with the native tribes. There are indications that those in London comprehended and embraced Smith's message. The Third Supply mission of 1609 was to be by far the largest and best equipped. They also had a new purpose-built flagship, Sea Venture, constructed, and placed in the most experienced of hands, Christopher Newport.

text: On June 2, 1609, Sea Venture set sail from Plymouth as the flagship of a seven-ship fleet (towing two additional pinnaces) destined for Jamestown, Virginia as part of the Third Supply, carrying 214 settlers.[34] On July 24, the fleet ran into a strong storm, likely a hurricane, and the ships were separated. Although some of the ships did make it to Jamestown, the leaders, and most of the supplies had been aboard Sea Venture, which fought the storm for three days before Admiral of the Company, Sir George Somers, deliberately drove her onto the reefs of Bermuda to prevent her foundering. This allowed all aboard to be landed safely.[35]

text: The survivors (including Lieutenant-General Sir Thomas Gates, Captain Christopher Newport, Sylvester Jordain, Stephen Hopkins, later of Mayflower, and secretary William Strachey) were stranded on Bermuda for approximately nine months. During that time, they built two new ships, the pinnaces Deliverance and Patience. The original plan was to build only one vessel, Deliverance, but it soon became evident that she would not be large enough to carry the settlers and all of the food (salted pork) that was being sourced on the islands.[36]

text: While the Third Supply was stranded in Bermuda, the colony at Jamestown was in even worse shape. In the "Starving Time" of 1609–1610, the Jamestown settlers faced rampant starvation for want of additional provisions. During this time, lack of food drove people to eat snakes and even boil the leather from shoes for sustenance.[37] Only 60 of the original 214 settlers at Jamestown survived.[34] There is scientific evidence that the settlers at Jamestown had turned to cannibalism during the starving time.[38][39][40]

text: The ships from Bermuda arrived in Jamestown on 23 May 1610.[41][42][43] Many of the surviving colonists were near death, and Jamestown was judged to be unviable. Everyone was boarded onto Deliverance and Patience, which set sail for England. However, on June 10, 1610, the timely arrival of another relief fleet, bearing Governor Baron De La Warr (who would eventually give his name to the colony of Delaware), which met the two ships as they descended the James River, granted Jamestown a reprieve. The Colonists called this The Day of Providence. The fleet brought not only supplies, but also additional settlers.[44] All the settlers returned to the colony, though there was still a critical shortage of food.

text: Relations between the colonists and the Powhatans quickly deteriorated after De La Warr's arrival, eventually leading to conflict. The Anglo-Powhatan War lasted until Samuel Argall captured Wahunsenacawh's daughter Matoaka, better known by her nickname Pocahontas, after which the chief accepted a treaty of peace.

text: Rising fortunes (1610–1624)[edit]

text: Due to the aristocratic backgrounds of many of the new colonists, a historic drought and the communal nature of their work load, progress through the first few years was inconsistent at best. By 1613, six years after Jamestown's founding, the organizers and shareholders of the Virginia Company were desperate to increase the efficiency and profitability of the struggling colony. Without stockholder consent the Governor, Sir Thomas Dale, assigned 3-acre (12,000 m2) plots to its "ancient planters" and smaller plots to the "settlement's" later arrivals. Measurable economic progress was made, and the settlers began expanding their planting to land belonging to local native tribes. That this turnaround coincided with the end of a drought that had begun the year before the English settlers' arrival probably indicates multiple factors were involved besides the colonists' ineptitude.[45]

text: Among the colonists who survived the Third Supply was John Rolfe, who carried with him a cache of untested new tobacco seeds from Bermuda, which had grown wild there after being planted by shipwrecked Spaniards years before.[46] In 1614, Rolfe began to successfully harvest tobacco.[47] Prosperous and wealthy, he married Pocahontas, daughter of Chief Powhatan, bringing several years of peace between the English and natives.[48] However, at the end of a public relations trip to England, Pocahontas became sick and died on March 21, 1617.[49] The following year, her father also died. Powhatan's brother, a fierce warrior named Opchanacanough, became head of the Powhatan Confederacy. As the English continued to appropriate more land for tobacco farming, relations with the natives worsened.

text: Due to the high cost of the trans-atlantic voyage at this time, many English settlers came to Jamestown as indentured servants: in exchange for the passage, room, board, and the promise of land or money, these immigrants would agree to work for three to seven years. Immigrants from continental Europe, mainly Germans, were usually redemptioners—they purchased some portion of their voyage on credit and, upon arrival, borrowed or entered into a work contract to pay the remainder of their voyage costs.[50] Along with European indentured servants, around 20 African slaves arrived in Jamestown in 1619. These slaves were captives taken from a ship headed for Mexico. Though these Africans started in Jamestown as slaves, some were able to obtain the status of indentured servant later in life.

text: In 1619, the first representative assembly in America convened in the Jamestown Church, "to establish one equal and uniform government over all Virginia" which would provide "just laws for the happy guiding and governing of the people there inhabiting." This became known as the House of Burgesses (forerunner of the Virginia General Assembly). Initially, only men of English origin were permitted to vote. On June 30, 1619, in what was the first recorded strike in Colonial America, the Polish artisans protested and refused to work if not allowed to vote ("No Vote, No Work").[51][52][53] On July 21, 1619, the court granted the Poles and Slovaks equal voting rights.[54] Afterwards, the labor strike (the first "in American history"[6]) was ended and the artisans resumed their work.[53][55][56][57] Individual land ownership was also instituted, and the colony was divided into four large "boroughs" or "incorporations" called "citties" by the colonists. Jamestown was located in James Cittie.

text: After several years of strained coexistence, Chief Opchanacanough and his Powhatan Confederacy attempted to eliminate the English colony once and for all. On the morning of March 22, 1622, they attacked outlying plantations and communities up and down the James River in what became known as the Indian Massacre of 1622. More than 300 settlers were killed in the attack, about a third of the colony's English-speaking population.[45] Sir Thomas Dale's development at Henricus, which was to feature a college to educate the natives, and Wolstenholme Towne at Martin's Hundred, were both essentially wiped out. Jamestown was spared only through a timely warning by a Virginia Indian employee. There was not enough time to spread the word to the outposts.

text: Of the 6,000 people who came to the settlement between 1608 and 1624, only 3,400 survived.[45]

text: Later years (1624–1699)[edit]

text: In 1624, King James revoked the Virginia Company's charter, and Virginia became a royal colony. Despite the setbacks, the colony continued to grow. Ten years later, in 1634, by order of King Charles I, the colony was divided into the original eight shires of Virginia (or counties), in a fashion similar to that practiced in England. Jamestown was now located in James City Shire, soon renamed the "County of James City", better known in modern times as James City County, Virginia, the nation's oldest county.

text: Another large-scale "Indian attack" occurred in 1644. In 1646, Opchanacanough was captured and while in custody an English guard shot him in the back—against orders—and killed him. Subsequently, the Powhatan Confederacy began to decline. Opechancanough's successor signed the first peace treaties between the Powhatan Indians and the English. The treaties required the Powhatan to pay yearly tribute payment to the English and confined them to reservations.[58]

text: A generation later, during Bacon's Rebellion in 1676, Jamestown was burned, eventually to be rebuilt. During its recovery, the Virginia legislature met first at Governor William Berkeley's nearby Green Spring Plantation, and later at Middle Plantation, which had been started in 1632 as a fortified community inland on the Virginia Peninsula, about 8 miles (13 km) distant.[59]

text: When the statehouse burned again in 1698, this time accidentally, the legislature again temporarily relocated to Middle Plantation, and was able to meet in the new facilities of the College of William and Mary, which had been established after receiving a royal charter in 1693. Rather than rebuilding at Jamestown again, the capital of the colony was moved permanently to Middle Plantation in 1699. The town was soon renamed Williamsburg, to honor the reigning monarch, King William III. A new Capitol building and "Governor's Palace" were erected there in the following years. This was a revolutionary change.

text: Aftermath and preservation[edit]

text: Due to the movement of the capital to Williamsburg, the old town of Jamestown began to slowly disappear from view. Those who lived in the general area attended services at Jamestown's church until the 1750s, when it was abandoned. By the mid-18th century, the land was heavily cultivated, primarily by the Travis and Ambler families.

text: During the American Revolutionary War, although the Battle of Green Spring was fought nearby at the site of former Governor Berkeley's plantation, Jamestown was apparently inconsequential. In 1831, David Bullock purchased Jamestown from the Travis and Ambler families.

text: American Civil War[edit]

text: During the American Civil War, in 1861, Confederate William Allen, who owned the Jamestown Island, occupied Jamestown with troops he raised at his own expense with the intention of blockading the James River and Richmond from the Union Navy.[60] He was soon joined by Lieutenant Catesby ap Roger Jones, who directed the building of batteries and conducted ordnance and armor tests for the first Confederate ironclad warship, CSS Virginia, which was under construction at the Gosport Naval Shipyard in Portsmouth in late 1861 and early 1862.[60] Jamestown had a peak force of 1,200 men.[60]

text: During the Peninsula Campaign, which began later that spring, Union forces under General George B. McClellan moved up the Peninsula from Fort Monroe in an attempt to capture the Confederate capital of Richmond.[60] The Union forces captured Yorktown in April 1862, and the Battle of Williamsburg was fought the following month.[60] With these developments, Jamestown and the lower James River were abandoned by the Confederates.[60] Some of the forces from Jamestown, and the crew of Virginia, relocated to Drewry's Bluff, a fortified and strategic position high above the river about 8 miles (13 km) below Richmond. There, they successfully blocked the Union Navy from reaching the Confederate capital.

text: Once in Federal hands, Jamestown became a meeting place for runaway slaves, who burned the Ambler house, an eighteenth-century plantation house, which along with the old church was one of the few remaining signs of old Jamestown.[60] When Allen sent men to assess the damage in late 1862, they were killed by the former slaves.[60] Following the Confederate surrender at Appomattox Courthouse, the oath of allegiance was administered to former Confederate soldiers at Jamestown.[60]

text: Preservation and early archaeology[edit]

text: In the years after the Civil War, Jamestown became quiet and peaceful once again. In 1892, Jamestown was purchased by Mr. and Mrs. Edward Barney. The following year, the Barneys donated 22½ acres of land, including the ruined church tower, to the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities (now known as Preservation Virginia).

text: By this time, erosion from the river had eaten away the island's western shore. Visitors began to conclude that the site of James Fort lay completely underwater. With federal assistance, a sea wall was constructed in 1900 to protect the area from further erosion. The archaeological remains of the original 1607 fort, which had been protected by the sea wall, were discovered in 1994.

text: In 1932, George Craghead Gregory of Richmond was credited with discovering the foundation of the first brick statehouse (capitol) building, circa 1646, at Jamestown on the land owned by Preservation Virginia.[61] Around 1936, Gregory, who was active with the Virginia Historical Society, founded the Jamestowne Society for descendants of stockholders in the Virginia Company of London and the descendants of those who owned land or who had domiciles in Jamestown or on Jamestown Island prior to 1700.[62]

text: Colonial National Monument was authorized by the U.S. Congress on July 3, 1930 and established on December 30, 1930. In 1934, the National Park Service obtained the remaining 1,500 acre (6.1 km²) portion of Jamestown Island which had been under private ownership by the Vermillion family. The National Park Service partnered with Preservation Virginia to preserve the area and present it to visitors in an educational manner. On June 5, 1936, the national monument was re-designated a national historical park, and became known as Colonial National Historical Park.

text: From 1936 J.C. “Pinky” Harrington worked on the NPS's excavations at Jamestown. In 1954 John L. Cotter took charge of field projects at Jamestown, conducted with the site's 350th anniversary (1957) in mind. Cotter worked with Edward B. Jelks and Harrington to survey the area's colonial sites. In 1957 Cotter and J. Paul Hudson co-authored New Discoveries at Jamestown. Cotter contributed, along with Jelks, Georg Neumann, and Johnny Hack, to the 1958 report Archaeological Excavations at Jamestown.[63]

text: Present day[edit]

text: In the present time, as part of the Colonial National Historical Park, the Jamestown Island area is home to two heritage tourism sites related to the original fort and town. Nearby, the Jamestown-Scotland Ferry[64] service provides a link across the navigable portion of the James River for vehicles and affords passengers a view of Jamestown Island from the river.

text: Historic Jamestowne[edit]

text: Historic Jamestowne, located at the original site of Jamestown, is administered by Preservation Virginia and the National Park Service. The central 22½ acres of land, where the archaeological remains of the original James Fort were found, are owned by Preservation Virginia (formerly known as the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities); the remaining 1,500 acres (6.1 km2) are held by the National Park Service and is part of the Colonial National Historical Park.

text: The site gained renewed importance when in 1996 the Jamestown Rediscovery project began excavations in search of the original James Fort site, originally in preparation for the quadricentennial of Jamestown's founding. The primary goal of the archaeological campaign was to locate archaeological remains of "the first years of settlement at Jamestown, especially of the earliest fortified town; [and the] subsequent growth and development of the town".[65]

text: Today, visitors to Historic Jamestowne can view the site of the original 1607 James Fort, the 17th-century church tower and the site of the 17th-century town, as well as tour an archaeological museum called the Archaearium and view many of the close to two million artifacts found by Jamestown Rediscovery. They also may participate in living history ranger tours and Archaeological tours given by the Jamestown Rediscovery staff. Visitors can also often observe archaeologists from the Jamestown Rediscovery Project at work, as archaeological work at the site continues. As of 2014[update], the archaeological work and studies are ongoing.[66] In addition to their newsletter and website, new discoveries are frequently reported in the local newspaper, the Virginia Gazette based in nearby Williamsburg, and by other news media, often worldwide.[67]

text: Jamestown Settlement[edit]

text: Jamestown Settlement is a living-history park and museum located 1.25 miles (2.01 km) from the original location of the colony and adjacent to Jamestown Island. Initially created for the celebration of the 350th anniversary in 1957, Jamestown Settlement is operated by the Jamestown-Yorktown Foundation, and largely sponsored by the Commonwealth of Virginia. The museum complex features a reconstruction of a Powhatan village, the James Fort as it was c. 1610–1614, and seagoing replicas of the three ships that brought the first settlers, Susan Constant, Godspeed, Discovery.

text: Commemorations[edit]

text: With the national independence of the United States established by the end of the 18th century, Jamestown came to be looked at as a starting point. Its founding in 1607 has been regularly commemorated, with the most notable events being held every fifty years.

text: 200th anniversary (1807)[edit]

text: The bicentennial of Jamestown on May 13–14, 1807, was called the Grand National Jubilee.[68] Over 3,000 people attended the event, many arriving on vessels which anchored in the river off the island.[68]

text: May 13 was the opening day of the festival, which began with a procession which marched to the graveyard of the old church, where the attending bishop delivered the prayer.[68] The procession then moved to the Travis mansion, where the celebrants dined and danced in the mansion that evening.[68] Also during the festivities, students of the College of William and Mary gave orations. An old barn on the island was used as a temporary theater, where a company of players from Norfolk performed.[68] Attending were many dignitaries, politicians, and historians. The celebration concluded on May 14 with a dinner and toast at the Raleigh Tavern in Williamsburg.[68]

text: 250th anniversary (1857)[edit]

text: In 1857, the Jamestown society organized a celebration marking the 250th anniversary of Jamestown's founding.[68] According to the Richmond Enquirer, the site for the celebration was on 10 acres (40,000 m2) on the spot where some of the colonists' houses were originally built.[68] However, it is also speculated that the celebration was moved further east on the island closer to the Travis grave site, in order to avoid damaging Major William Allen's corn fields.[68]

text: The attendance was estimated at between 6,000 and 8,000 people.[68] Sixteen large steam ships anchored offshore in the James River and were gaily decorated with streamers.[68] Former US President John Tyler of nearby Sherwood Forest Plantation gave a 2½ hour speech, and there were military displays, a grand ball and fireworks.[68]

text: 300th anniversary (1907): Jamestown Exposition[edit]

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text: The 100th anniversary of the Surrender at Yorktown in 1781 had generated a new interest in the historical significance of the colonial sites of the Peninsula. Williamsburg, a sleepy but populated town of shops and homes, was still celebrating Civil War events. However, as the new century dawned, thoughts turned to the upcoming 300th anniversary of the founding of Jamestown. The Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities (now known as Preservation Virginia) started the movement in 1900 by calling for a celebration honoring the establishment of the first permanent English colony in the New World at Jamestown to be held on the 300th anniversary in 1907.

text: As a celebration was planned, virtually no one thought that the actual isolated and long-abandoned original site of Jamestown would be suitable for a major event because Jamestown Island had no facilities for large crowds. The original fort housing the Jamestown settlers was believed to have been long ago swallowed by the James River. The general area in James City County near Jamestown was also considered unsuitable, as it was not very accessible in the day of rail travel before automobiles were common.

text: As the tricentennial of the 1607 Founding of the Jamestown neared, around 1904, despite an assumption in some quarters that Richmond would be a logical location, leaders in Norfolk began a campaign to have a celebration held there. The decision was made to locate the international exposition on a mile-long frontage at Sewell's Point near the mouth of Hampton Roads. This was about 30 miles (48 km) downstream from Jamestown in a rural section of Norfolk County. It was a site which could become accessible by both long-distance passenger railroads and local streetcar service, with considerable frontage on the harbor of Hampton Roads. This latter feature proved ideal for the naval delegations which came from points all around the world.

text: The Jamestown Exposition of 1907 was one of the many world's fairs and expositions that were popular in the early part of the 20th century. Held from April 26, 1907 to December 1, 1907, attendees included US President Theodore Roosevelt, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, the Prince of Sweden, Mark Twain, Henry H. Rogers, and dozens of other dignitaries and famous persons. A major naval review featuring the United States' Great White Fleet was a key feature. U.S. Military officials and leaders were impressed by the location, and the Exposition site later formed the first portion of the large U.S. Naval Station Norfolk in 1918 during World War I.

text: 350th Anniversary (1957): Jamestown Festival[edit]

text: With America's increased access to automobiles, and with improved roads and transportation, it was feasible for the 350th anniversary celebration to be held at Jamestown itself in 1957. Although erosion had cut off the land bridge between Jamestown Island and the mainland, the isthmus was restored and new access provided by the completion of the National Park Service's Colonial Parkway which led to Williamsburg and Yorktown, the other two portions of Colonial Virginia's Historic Triangle. There were also improvements of state highways. The north landing for the popular Jamestown Ferry and a portion of State Route 31 were relocated.[68]

text: Major projects such were developed by non-profit, state and federal agencies. Jamestown Festival Park was established by the Commonwealth of Virginia adjacent to the entrance to Jamestown Island. Full-sized replicas of the three ships that brought the colonists, Susan Constant, Godspeed, and Discovery were constructed at a shipyard in Portsmouth, Virginia and placed on display at a new dock at Jamestown, where the largest, Susan Constant, could be boarded by visitors. On Jamestown Island, the reconstructed Jamestown Glasshouse, the Memorial Cross and the visitors center were completed and dedicated.[68] A loop road was built around the island.

text: Special events included army and navy reviews, air force fly-overs, ship and aircraft christenings and even an outdoor drama at Cape Henry, site of the first landing of the settlers.[68] This celebration continued from April 1 to November 30 with over a million participants, including dignitaries and politicians such as the British Ambassador and U.S. Vice President Richard Nixon.[68] The highlight for many of the nearly 25,000 at the Festival Park on October 16, 1957 was the visit and speech of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and her consort, Prince Philip.[68] Queen Elizabeth II loaned a copy of the Magna Carta for the exhibition. It was her first visit to the United States since assuming the throne.

text: The 1957 Jamestown Festival was so successful that tourists still kept coming long after the official event was completed. Jamestown became a permanent attraction of the Historic Triangle, and has been visited by families, school groups, tours, and thousands of other people continuously ever since.

text: 400th anniversary: Jamestown 2007[edit]

text: Early in the 21st century, new accommodations, transportation facilities and attractions were planned in preparation for the quadricentennial of the founding of Jamestown. Numerous events were promoted under the banner of America's 400th Anniversary and promoted by the Jamestown 2007 Commission. The commemoration included 18 months of statewide, national and international festivities and events, which began in April 2006 with a tour of the new replica Godspeed.

text: In January 2007, the Virginia General Assembly held a session at Jamestown. On May 4, 2007, Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and Prince Philip attended a ceremony commemorating the 400th anniversary of the settlement's arrivals, reprising the honor they paid in 1957.[69]

text: In addition to the Virginia State Quarter, Jamestown was also the subject of two United States commemorative coins celebrating the 400th anniversary of its settlement. A silver dollar and a gold five dollar coin were issued in 2007.

text: 2019 Commemoration[edit]

text: In 2019 Jamestown, in cooperation with Williamsburg, will hold a commemoration that marks the 400th anniversary of three landmark events in American history: the first meeting of the Virginia House of Burgesses, the arrival of the first Africans to English North America, and the first Thanksgiving.[70]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text:
A fictional romantic adventure set at Jamestown, To Have and to Hold, was the bestselling novel in the United States in 1900. The novel was later adapted into two feature films, in 1916 and 1922.
A highly fictionalized version of the Jamestown settlement is depicted in the animated Disney film Pocahontas (1995) as well as its direct-to-video sequel Pocahontas II: Journey to a New World (1998). Among other inaccuracies it is shown as being near mountains, when it was actually located on the Tidewater region.
A feature-length film, The New World (2005), directed by Terrence Malick, covers the story of Jamestown's colonization. Although the historical details are accurate in most ways, the plot focuses on a dramatized relationship between John Smith, played by Colin Farrell, and Pocahontas, played by Q'orianka Kilcher. It also features John Rolfe, played by Christian Bale. Many scenes were filmed on-location along the James and Chickahominy Rivers and at Henricus Historical Park in Chesterfield County, Virginia.
Another feature-length film, First Landing: The Voyage from England to Jamestown (2007), documents the 1607 landing of English colonists.[71]
In 2017, Sky 1 launched a new series based in Jamestown. The series, named after its eponymous setting, revolves around the societal change triggered by the arrival of women to the settlement to marry the male citizens of the area, and is made by the producers of Downton Abbey.[72][73]