document_title: Pregnancy

question_text: when do females start showing signs of pregnancy

question_tokens: when do females start showing signs of pregnancy

text: Pregnancy

text: Terminology

text: Associated terms for pregnancy are gravid and parous. Gravidus and gravid come from the Latin for "heavy" and a pregnant female is sometimes referred to as a gravida.[16] Gravidity is a term used to describe the number of times that a female has been pregnant.  Similarly, the term parity is used for the number of times that a female carries a pregnancy to a viable stage.[17] Twins and other multiple births are counted as one pregnancy and birth.  A woman who has never been pregnant is referred to as a nulligravida.  A woman who is (or has been only) pregnant for the first time is referred to as a primigravida,[18] and a woman in subsequent pregnancies as a multigravida or as multiparous.[16][19] Therefore, during a second pregnancy a woman would be described as gravida 2, para 1 and upon live delivery as gravida 2, para 2.  In-progress pregnancies, abortions, miscarriages and/ or stillbirths account for parity values being less than the gravida number. In the case of a multiple birth the gravida number and parity value are increased by one only. Women who have never carried a pregnancy achieving more than 20 weeks of gestation age are referred to as nulliparous.[20]

text: The terms preterm and postterm  have largely replaced earlier terms of premature and postmature. Preterm and postterm are defined above, whereas premature and postmature have historical meaning and relate more to the infant's size and state of development rather than to the stage of pregnancy.[21][22]

text: Signs and symptoms

text: The symptoms and discomforts of pregnancy are those presentations and conditions that result from pregnancy but do not significantly interfere with activities of daily living or pose a threat to the health of the mother or baby. This is in contrast to pregnancy complications. Sometimes a symptom that is considered a discomfort can be considered a complication when it is more severe. For example, nausea (morning sickness) can be a discomfort, but if, in combination with significant vomiting it causes a water-electrolyte imbalance, it is a complication known as hyperemesis gravidarum.

text: Common symptoms and discomforts of pregnancy include:

text:
Tiredness.
Constipation
Pelvic girdle pain
Back pain
Braxton Hicks contractions. Occasional, irregular, and often painless contractions that occur several times per day.
Edema (swelling). Common complaint in advancing pregnancy. Caused by compression of the inferior vena cava and pelvic veins by the uterus leads to increased hydrostatic pressure in lower extremities.
Increased urinary frequency. A common complaint, caused by increased intravascular volume, elevated glomerular filtration rate, and compression of the bladder by the expanding uterus.
Urinary tract infection[23]
Varicose veins. Common complaint caused by relaxation of the venous smooth muscle and increased intravascular pressure.
Haemorrhoids (piles). Swollen veins at or inside the anal area. Caused by impaired venous return, straining associated with constipation, or increased intra-abdominal pressure in later pregnancy.[24]
Regurgitation, heartburn, and nausea.
Stretch marks
Breast tenderness is common during the first trimester, and is more common in women who are pregnant at a young age.[25]

text: In addition, pregnancy may result in pregnancy complication such as deep vein thrombosis or worsening of an intercurrent disease in pregnancy.

text: Chronology

text: The chronology of pregnancy is, unless otherwise specified, generally given as gestational age, where the starting point is the woman's last normal menstrual period (LMP), or the corresponding age of the gestation as estimated by a more accurate method if available. Sometimes, timing may also use the fertilization age which is the age of the embryo.

text: Start of gestational age

text: According to American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, the main methods to calculate gestational age are:[26]

text:
Directly calculating the days since the beginning of the last menstrual period.
Early obstetric ultrasound, comparing the size of an embryo or fetus to that of a reference group of pregnancies of known gestational age (such as calculated from last menstrual periods), and using the mean gestational age of other embryos or fetuses of the same size. If the gestational age as calculated from an early ultrasound is contradictory to the one calculated directly from the last menstrual period, it is still the one from the early ultrasound that is used for the rest of the pregnancy.[26]
In case of in vitro fertilization, calculating days since oocyte retrieval or co-incubation and adding 14 days.[27]

text: Estimation of due date

text: Due date estimation basically follows two steps:

text:
Determination of which time point is to be used as origin for gestational age, as described in section above.
Adding the estimated gestational age at childbirth to the above time point. Childbirth on average occurs at a gestational age of 280 days (40 weeks), which is therefore often used as a standard estimation for individual pregnancies.[29] However, alternative durations as well as more individualized methods have also been suggested.

text: Naegele's rule is a standard way of calculating the due date for a pregnancy when assuming a gestational age of 280 days at childbirth. The rule estimates the expected date of delivery (EDD) by adding a year, subtracting three months, and adding seven days to the origin of gestational age. Alternatively there are mobile apps, which essentially always give consistent estimations compared to each other and correct for leap year, while pregnancy wheels made of paper can differ from each other by 7 days and generally do not correct for leap year.[30]

text: Furthermore, actual childbirth has only a certain probability of occurring within the limits of the estimated due date. A study of singleton live births came to the result that childbirth has a standard deviation of 14 days when gestational age is estimated by first trimester ultrasound, and 16 days when estimated directly by last menstrual period.[28]

text: Physiology

text: Initiation

text: Through an interplay of hormones that includes follicle stimulating hormone that stimulates folliculogenesis and oogenesis creates a mature egg cell, the female gamete. Fertilization is the event where the egg cell fuses with the male gamete, spermatozoon.  After the point of fertilization, the fused product of the female and male gamete is referred to as a zygote or fertilized egg. The fusion of male and female gametes usually occurs following the act of sexual intercourse. Pregnancy rates for sexual intercourse are highest during the menstrual cycle time from some 5 days before until 1 to 2 days after ovulation.[31] Fertilization can also occur by assisted reproductive technology such as artificial insemination and in vitro fertilisation.

text: Fertilization (conception) is sometimes used as the initiation of pregnancy, with the derived age being termed fertilization age. Fertilization usually occurs about two weeks before the next expected menstrual period.

text: A third point in time is also considered by some people to be the true beginning of a pregnancy:  This is time of implantation, when the future fetus attaches to the lining of the uterus.  This is about a week to ten days after fertilization.[32]  In this model, during the time between conception and implantation, the future fetus exists, but the woman is not considered pregnant.

text: Development of embryo and fetus

text: The sperm and the egg cell, which has been released from one of the female's two ovaries, unite in one of the two fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg, known as a zygote, then moves toward the uterus, a journey that can take up to a week to complete. Cell division begins approximately 24 to 36 hours after the male and female cells unite. Cell division continues at a rapid rate and the cells then develop into what is known as a blastocyst. The blastocyst arrives at the uterus and attaches to the uterine wall, a process known as implantation.

text: The development of the mass of cells that will become the infant is called embryogenesis during the first approximately ten weeks of gestation. During this time, cells begin to differentiate into the various body systems. The basic outlines of the organ, body, and nervous systems are established. By the end of the embryonic stage, the beginnings of features such as fingers, eyes, mouth, and ears become visible. Also during this time, there is development of structures important to the support of the embryo, including the placenta and umbilical cord. The placenta connects the developing embryo to the uterine wall to allow nutrient uptake, waste elimination, and gas exchange via the mother's blood supply. The umbilical cord is the connecting cord from the embryo or fetus to the placenta.

text: After about ten weeks of gestational age, the embryo becomes known as a fetus. At the beginning of the fetal stage, the risk of miscarriage decreases sharply.[33] At this stage, a fetus is about 30 mm (1.2 inches) in length, the heartbeat is seen via ultrasound, and the fetus makes involuntary motions.[34] During continued fetal development, the early body systems, and structures that were established in the embryonic stage continue to develop. Sex organs begin to appear during the third month of gestation. The fetus continues to grow in both weight and length, although the majority of the physical growth occurs in the last weeks of pregnancy.

text: Electrical brain activity is first detected between the fifth and sixth week of gestation.  It is considered primitive neural activity rather than the beginning of conscious thought. Synapses begin forming at 17 weeks, and begin to multiply quickly at week 28 until 3 to 4 months after birth.[35]

text:
Embryo at 4 weeks after fertilization. (Gestational age of 6 weeks.)

Fetus at 8 weeks after fertilization. (Gestational age of 10 weeks.)

Fetus at 18 weeks after fertilization. (Gestational age of 20 weeks.)

Fetus at 38 weeks after fertilization. (Gestational age of 40 weeks.)

text:
Relative size in 1st month (simplified illustration)

Relative size in 3rd month (simplified illustration)

Relative size in 5th month (simplified illustration)

Relative size in 9th month (simplified illustration)

text: Maternal changes

text: During pregnancy, the woman undergoes many physiological changes, which are entirely normal, including behavioral, cardiovascular, hematologic, metabolic, renal, and respiratory changes. Increases in blood sugar, breathing, and cardiac output are all required. Levels of progesterone and oestrogens rise continually throughout pregnancy, suppressing the hypothalamic axis and therefore also the menstrual cycle.

text: The fetus is genetically different from the woman and can be viewed as an unusually successful allograft.[36] The main reason for this success is increased immune tolerance during pregnancy.[37] Immune tolerance is the concept that the body is able to not mount an immune system response against certain triggers.[36]

text: Pregnancy is typically broken into three periods, or trimesters, each of about three months.[38][39] Each trimester is defined as 14 weeks, for a total duration of 42 weeks, although the average duration of pregnancy is 40 weeks.[40] While there are no hard and fast rules, these distinctions are useful in describing the changes that take place over time.

text: First trimester

text: Minute ventilation increases by 40% in the first trimester.[41] The womb will grow to the size of a lemon by eight weeks. Many symptoms and discomforts of pregnancy like nausea and tender breasts appear in the first trimester.[42]

text: Second trimester

text: Weeks 13 to 28 of the pregnancy are called the second trimester. Most women feel more energized in this period, and begin to put on weight as the symptoms of morning sickness subside and eventually fade away. The uterus, the muscular organ that holds the developing fetus, can expand up to 20 times its normal size during pregnancy.

text: Although the fetus begins to move during the first trimester, it is not until the second trimester that movement, often referred to as "quickening", can be felt. This typically happens in the fourth month, more specifically in the 20th to 21st week, or by the 19th week if the woman has been pregnant before. It is common for some women not to feel the fetus move until much later. During the second trimester, most women begin to wear maternity clothes.

text: Third trimester

text: Final weight gain takes place, which is the most weight gain throughout the pregnancy. The woman's abdomen will transform in shape as it drops due to the fetus turning in a downward position ready for birth. During the second trimester, the woman's abdomen would have been upright, whereas in the third trimester it will drop down low. The fetus moves regularly, and is felt by the woman. Fetal movement can become strong and be disruptive to the woman. The woman's navel will sometimes become convex, "popping" out, due to the expanding abdomen.

text: Head engagement, where the fetal head descends into cephalic presentation, relieves pressure on the upper abdomen with renewed ease in breathing. It also severely reduces bladder capacity, and increases pressure on the pelvic floor and the rectum.

text: It is also during the third trimester that maternal activity and sleep positions may affect fetal development due to restricted blood flow. For instance, the enlarged uterus may impede blood flow by compressing the vena cava when lying flat, which is relieved by lying on the left side.[43]

text: Childbirth

text: Childbirth, referred to as labor and delivery in the medical field, is the process whereby an infant is born.[44]

text: A woman is considered to be in labour when she begins experiencing regular uterine contractions, accompanied by changes of her cervix – primarily effacement and dilation. While childbirth is widely experienced as painful, some women do report painless labours, while others find that concentrating on the birth helps to quicken labour and lessen the sensations. Most births are successful vaginal births, but sometimes complications arise and a woman may undergo a cesarean section.

text: During the time immediately after birth, both the mother and the baby are hormonally cued to bond, the mother through the release of oxytocin, a hormone also released during breastfeeding.  Studies show that skin-to-skin contact between a mother and her newborn immediately after birth is beneficial for both the mother and baby.  A review done by the World Health Organization found that skin-to-skin contact between mothers and babies after birth reduces crying, improves mother–infant interaction, and helps mothers to breastfeed successfully.  They recommend that neonates be allowed to bond with the mother during their first two hours after birth, the period that they tend to be more alert than in the following hours of early life.[45]

text: Childbirth maturity stages

text:
Stages of pregnancy term

stage
starts
ends

Preterm[46]
 -
at 37 weeks

Early term[47]
37 weeks
39 weeks

Full term[47]
39 weeks
41 weeks

Late term[47]
41 weeks
42 weeks

Postterm[47]
42 weeks
-

text:
In the ideal childbirth labor begins on its own when a woman is "at term".[13]
Events before completion of 37 weeks are considered preterm.[46] Preterm birth is associated with a range of complications and should be avoided if possible.[48]

text: Sometimes if a woman's water breaks or she has contractions before 39 weeks, birth is unavoidable.[47] However, spontaneous birth after 37 weeks is considered term and is not associated with the same risks of a pre-term birth.[44] Planned birth before 39 weeks by Caesarean section or labor induction, although "at term", results in an increased risk of complications.[49] This is from factors including underdeveloped lungs of newborns, infection due to underdeveloped immune system, feeding problems due to underdeveloped brain, and jaundice from underdeveloped liver.[50]

text: Babies born between 39 and 41 weeks gestation have better outcomes than babies born either before or after this range.[47] This special time period is called "full term".[47] Whenever possible, waiting for labor to begin on its own in this time period is best for the health of the mother and baby.[13] The decision to perform an induction must be made after weighing the risks and benefits, but is safer after 39 weeks.[13]

text: Events after 42 weeks are considered postterm.[47] When a pregnancy exceeds 42 weeks, the risk of complications for both the woman and the fetus increases significantly.[51][52] Therefore, in an otherwise uncomplicated pregnancy, obstetricians usually prefer to induce labour at some stage between 41 and 42 weeks.[53]

text: Postnatal period

text: The postnatal period, also referred to as the puerperium, begins immediately after delivery and extends for about six weeks.[44] During this period, the mother's body begins the return to pre-pregnancy conditions that includes changes in hormone levels and uterus size.[44]

text: Diagnosis

text: The beginning of pregnancy may be detected either based on symptoms by the woman herself, or by using pregnancy tests. However, an important condition with serious health implications that is quite common is the denial of pregnancy by the pregnant woman. About one in 475 denials will last until around the 20th week of pregnancy. The proportion of cases of denial, persisting until delivery is about 1 in 2500.[54] Conversely, some non-pregnant women have a very strong belief that they are pregnant along with some of the physical changes. This condition is known as a false pregnancy.[55]

text: Physical signs

text: Most pregnant women experience a number of symptoms,[56] which can signify pregnancy. A number of early medical signs are associated with pregnancy.[57][58] These signs include:

text:
the presence of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in the blood and urine
missed menstrual period
implantation bleeding that occurs at implantation of the embryo in the uterus during the third or fourth week after last menstrual period
increased basal body temperature sustained for over 2 weeks after ovulation
Chadwick's sign (darkening of the cervix, vagina, and vulva)
Goodell's sign (softening of the vaginal portion of the cervix)
Hegar's sign (softening of the uterus isthmus)
Pigmentation of the linea alba – linea nigra, (darkening of the skin in a midline of the abdomen, caused by hyperpigmentation resulting from hormonal changes, usually appearing around the middle of pregnancy).[57][58]
Darkening of the nipples and areolas due to an increase in hormones.[59]

text: Biomarkers

text: Pregnancy detection can be accomplished using one or more various pregnancy tests,[60] which detect hormones generated by the newly formed placenta, serving as biomarkers of pregnancy.[61] Blood and urine tests can detect pregnancy 12 days after implantation.[62] Blood pregnancy tests are more sensitive than urine tests (giving fewer false negatives).[63] Home pregnancy tests are urine tests, and normally detect a pregnancy 12 to 15 days after fertilization.[64] A quantitative blood test can determine approximately the date the embryo was conceived because HCG doubles every 36 to 48 hours.[44] A single test of progesterone levels can also help determine how likely a fetus will survive in those with a threatened miscarriage (bleeding in early pregnancy).[65]

text: Ultrasound

text: Obstetric ultrasonography can detect fetal abnormalities, detect  multiple pregnancies, and improve gestational dating at 24 weeks.[66] The resultant estimated gestational age and due date of the fetus are slightly more accurate than methods based on last menstrual period.[67] Ultrasound is used to measure the nuchal fold in order to screen for Downs syndrome.[68]

text: Management

text: Prenatal care

text: Pre-conception counseling is care that is provided to a woman and/ or couple to discuss conception, pregnancy, current health issues and recommendations for the period before pregnancy.[70]

text: Prenatal medical care is the medical and nursing care recommended for women during pregnancy, time intervals and exact goals of each visit differ by country.[71] Women who are high risk have better outcomes if they are seen regularly and frequently by a medical professional than women who are low risk.[72] A woman can be labeled as high risk for different reasons including previous complications in pregnancy, complications in the current pregnancy, current medical diseases, or social issues.[73][74]

text: The aim of good prenatal care is prevention, early identification, and treatment of any medical complications.[75] A basic prenatal visit consists of measurement of blood pressure, fundal height, weight and fetal heart rate, checking for symptoms of labor, and guidance for what to expect next.[70]

text: Nutrition

text: Nutrition during pregnancy is important to ensure healthy growth of the fetus.[76]  Nutrition during pregnancy is different from the non-pregnant state.[76]  There are increased energy requirements and specific micronutrient requirements.[76] Women benefit from education to encourage a balanced energy and protein intake during pregnancy.[77] Some women may need professional medical advice if their diet is affected by medical conditions, food allergies, or specific religious/ ethical beliefs.[78]

text: Adequate periconceptional (time before and right after conception) folic acid (also called folate or Vitamin B9) intake has been shown to decrease the risk of fetal neural tube defects, such as spina bifida.[79]  The neural tube develops during the first 28 days of pregnancy, a urine pregnancy test is not usually positive until 14 days post-conception, explaining the necessity to guarantee adequate folate intake before conception.[64][80] Folate is abundant in green leafy vegetables, legumes, and citrus.[81] In the United States and Canada, most wheat products (flour, noodles) are fortified with folic acid.[82]

text: DHA omega-3 is a major structural fatty acid in the brain and retina, and is naturally found in breast milk.[83] It is important for the woman to consume adequate amounts of DHA during pregnancy and while nursing to support her well-being and the health of her infant.[83]  Developing infants cannot produce DHA efficiently, and must receive this vital nutrient from the woman through the placenta during pregnancy and in breast milk after birth.[84]

text: Several micronutrients are important for the health of the developing fetus, especially in areas of the world where insufficient nutrition is common.[85] Women living in low and middle income countries are suggested to take multiple micronutrient supplements containing iron and folic acid.[85] These supplements have been shown to improve birth outcomes in developing countries, but do not have an effect on perinatal mortality.[85][86] Adequate intake of folic acid, and iron is often recommended.[87][88] In developed areas, such as Western Europe and the United States, certain nutrients such as Vitamin D and calcium, required for bone development, may also require supplementation.[89][90][91] Vitamin E supplementation has not been shown to improve birth outcomes.[92] Zinc supplementation has been associated with a decrease in preterm birth, but it is unclear whether it is causative.[93] Daily iron supplementation reduces the risk of maternal anemia.[94] Studies of routine daily iron supplementation for pregnant women found improvement in blood iron levels, without a clear clinical benefit.[95] The nutritional needs for women carrying twins or triplets. are higher than those of women carrying one baby.[96]

text: Women are counseled to avoid certain foods, because of the possibility of contamination with bacteria or parasites that can cause illness.[97] Careful washing of fruits and raw vegetables may remove these pathogens, as may thoroughly cooking leftovers, meat, or processed meat.[98]  Unpasteurized dairy and deli meats may contain Listeria, which can cause neonatal meningitis, stillbirth and miscarriage.[99] Pregnant women are also more prone to Salmonella infections, can be in eggs and poultry, which should be thoroughly cooked.[100] Cat feces and undercooked meats may contain the parasite Toxoplasma gondii and can cause toxoplasmosis.[98] Practicing good hygiene in the kitchen can reduce these risks.[101]

text: Women are also counseled to eat seafood in moderation and to eliminate seafood known to be high in mercury because of the risk of birth defects.[100] Pregnant women are counseled to consume caffeine in moderation, because large amounts of caffeine are associated with miscarriage.[44]  However, the relationship between caffeine, birthweight, and preterm birth is unclear.[102]

text: Weight gain

text: The amount of healthy weight gain during a pregnancy varies.[103] Weight gain is related to the weight of the baby, the placenta, extra circulatory fluid, larger tissues, and fat and protein stores.[76] Most needed weight gain occurs later in pregnancy.[104]

text: The Institute of Medicine recommends an overall pregnancy weight gain for those of normal weight (body mass index of 18.5–24.9), of 11.3–15.9 kg (25–35 pounds) having a singleton pregnancy.[105] Women who are underweight (BMI of less than 18.5), should gain between 12.7–18 kg (28–40 lbs), while those who are overweight (BMI of 25–29.9) are advised to gain between 6.8–11.3 kg (15–25 lbs) and those who are obese (BMI>30) should gain between 5–9 kg (11–20 lbs).[106] These values reference the expectations for a term pregnancy.

text: During pregnancy, insufficient or excessive weight gain can compromise the health of the mother and fetus.[104] The most effective intervention for weight gain in underweight women is not clear.[104] Being or becoming overweight in pregnancy increases the risk of complications for mother and fetus, including cesarean section, gestational hypertension, pre-eclampsia, macrosomia and shoulder dystocia.[103] Excessive weight gain can make losing weight after the pregnancy difficult.[103][107]

text: Around 50% of women of childbearing age in developed countries like the United Kingdom are overweight or obese before pregnancy.[107] Diet modification is the most effective way to reduce weight gain and associated risks in pregnancy.[107] A diet that has foods with a low glycemic index may help prevent the onset of gestational diabetes.[108]

text: Medication

text: Drugs used during pregnancy can have temporary or permanent effects on the fetus.[109] Anything (including drugs) that can cause permanent deformities in the fetus are labeled as teratogens.[110]  In the U.S., drugs were classified into categories A, B, C, D and X based on the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) rating system to provide therapeutic guidance based on potential benefits and fetal risks.[111] Drugs, including some multivitamins, that have demonstrated no fetal risks after controlled studies in humans are classified as Category A.[109] On the other hand, drugs like thalidomide with proven fetal risks that outweigh all benefits are classified as Category X.[109]

text: Recreational drugs

text: The use of recreational drugs in pregnancy can cause various pregnancy complications.[44]

text: Ethanol during pregnancy can cause fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol spectrum disorder.[44]  According to the CDC, there is no known safe amount of alcohol during pregnancy and no safe time to drink during pregnancy, including before a woman knows that she is pregnant.[112]

text:
Tobacco smoking during pregnancy can cause a wide range of behavioral, neurological, and physical difficulties.[113] Smoking during pregnancy causes twice the risk of premature rupture of membranes, placental abruption and placenta previa.[114] Smoking is associated with 30% higher odds of preterm birth.[115]
Prenatal cocaine exposure is associated with premature birth, birth defects and attention deficit disorder.[44]
Prenatal methamphetamine exposure can cause premature birth and congenital abnormalities.[116] Short-term neonatal outcomes show small deficits in infant neurobehavioral function and growth restriction.[117] Long-term effects in terms of impaired brain development may also be caused by methamphetamine use.[116]
Cannabis in pregnancy has been shown to be teratogenic in large doses in animals, but has not shown any teratogenic effects in humans.[44]

text: Exposure to toxins

text: Intrauterine exposure to environmental toxins in pregnancy has the potential to cause adverse effects on the development of the embryo/fetus and to cause pregnancy complications.[44] Air pollution has been associated with low birth weight infants.[118] Conditions of particular severity in pregnancy include mercury poisoning and lead poisoning.[44] To minimize exposure to environmental toxins, the American College of Nurse-Midwives recommends: checking whether the home has lead paint, washing all fresh fruits and vegetables thoroughly and buying organic produce, and avoiding cleaning products labeled "toxic" or any product with a warning on the label.[119]

text: Pregnant women can also be exposed to toxins in the workplace, including airborne particles. The effects of wearing N95 filtering facepiece respirators are similar for pregnant women as non-pregnant women, and wearing a respirator for one hour does not affect the fetal heart rate.[120]

text: Sexual activity

text: Most women can continue to engage in sexual activity throughout pregnancy.[121] Most research suggests that during pregnancy both sexual desire and frequency of sexual relations decrease.[122][123] In context of this overall decrease in desire, some studies indicate a second-trimester increase, preceding a decrease during the third trimester.[124][125]

text: Sex during pregnancy is a low-risk behavior except when the healthcare provider advises that sexual intercourse be avoided for particular medical reasons.[121] For a healthy pregnant woman, there is no safe or right way to have sex during pregnancy.[121]  Pregnancy alters the vaginal flora with a reduction in microscopic species/genus diversity.[126]

text: Exercise

text: Regular aerobic exercise during pregnancy appears to improve (or maintain) physical fitness.[127] Physical exercise during pregnancy does appear to decrease the risk of C-section.[128] Bed rest, outside of research studies, is not recommended as there is no evidence of benefit and potential harm.[129]

text: The Clinical Practice Obstetrics Committee of Canada recommends that "All women without contraindications should be encouraged to participate in aerobic and strength-conditioning exercises as part of a healthy lifestyle during their pregnancy".[130] Although an upper level of safe exercise intensity has not been established, women who were regular exercisers before pregnancy and who have uncomplicated pregnancies should be able to engage in high intensity exercise programs.[130] In general, participation in a wide range of recreational activities appears to be safe, with the avoidance of those with a high risk of falling such as horseback riding or skiing or those that carry a risk of abdominal trauma, such as soccer or hockey.[131]

text: The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists reports that in the past, the main concerns of exercise in pregnancy were focused on the fetus and any potential maternal benefit was thought to be offset by potential risks to the fetus. However, they write that more recent information suggests that in the uncomplicated pregnancy, fetal injuries are highly unlikely.[131]  They do, however, list several circumstances when a woman should contact her health care provider before continuing with an exercise program: vaginal bleeding, dyspnea before exertion, dizziness, headache, chest pain, muscle weakness, preterm labor, decreased fetal movement, amniotic fluid leakage, and calf pain or swelling (to rule out thrombophlebitis).[131]

text: Sleep

text: It has been suggested that shift work and exposure to bright light at night should be avoided at least during the last trimester of pregnancy to decrease the risk of psychological and behavioral problems in the newborn.[132]

text: Dental care

text: The increased levels of progesterone and estrogen during in pregnancy can develop gingivitis; the gums become edematous, red in colour, and tend to bleed.[133] Also a pyogenic granuloma or “pregnancy tumor,” is commonly seen on the labial surface of the papilla. Lesions can be treated by local debridement or deep incision depending on their size, and by following adequate oral hygiene measures.[134] There have been suggestions that severe periodontitis may increase the risk of having preterm birth and low birth weight, however, a Cochrane review found insufficient evidence to determine if periodontitis can develop adverse birth outcomes.[135]

text: Complications

text: Each year, ill health as a result of pregnancy is experienced (sometimes permanently) by more than 20 million women around the world.[136] In 2013 complications of pregnancy resulted in 293,000 deaths down from 377,000 deaths in 1990. Common causes include maternal bleeding (44,000), complications of abortion (44,000), high blood pressure of pregnancy (29,000), maternal sepsis (24,000), and obstructed labor (19,000).[11]

text: The following are some examples of pregnancy complications:

text:
Pregnancy induced hypertension
Anemia[137]
Postpartum depression
Postpartum psychosis
Thromboembolic disorders. These are the leading cause of death in pregnant women in the US.[138][139]
PUPPP (Pruritic Urticarial Papules and Plaques of Pregnancy), a skin disease that develops around the 32nd week. Signs are red plaques, papules, and itchiness around the belly button that then spreads all over the body except for the inside of hands and face.
Ectopic pregnancy, implantation of the embryo outside the uterus.
Hyperemesis gravidarum, excessive nausea and vomiting that is more severe than normal morning sickness.
Pulmonary embolism, blood clots that form in the legs that can migrate to the lungs.[139]

text: There is also an increased susceptibility and severity of certain infections in pregnancy.

text: Intercurrent diseases

text: A pregnant woman may have intercurrent diseases, defined as disease not directly caused by the pregnancy, but that may become worse or be a potential risk to the pregnancy.

text:
Diabetes mellitus and pregnancy deals with the interactions of diabetes mellitus (not restricted to gestational diabetes) and pregnancy. Risks for the child include miscarriage, growth restriction, growth acceleration, fetal obesity (macrosomia), polyhydramnios (too much amniotic fluid), and birth defects.
Thyroid disease in pregnancy can, if uncorrected, cause adverse effects on fetal and maternal well-being. The deleterious effects of thyroid dysfunction can also extend beyond pregnancy and delivery to affect neurointellectual development in the early life of the child. Demand for thyroid hormones is increased during pregnancy which may cause a previously unnoticed thyroid disorder to worsen.
Untreated celiac disease can cause spontaneous abortion (miscarriage), intrauterine growth restriction, small for gestational age, low birthweight and preterm birth. Often reproductive disorders are the only manifestation of undiagnosed celiac disease and most cases are not recognized. Complications or failures of pregnancy cannot be explained simply by malabsorption, but by the autoimmune response elicited by the exposure to gluten, which causes damage to the placenta. The gluten-free diet avoids or reduces the risk of developing reproductive disorders in pregnant women with celiac disease.[140][141] Also, pregnancy can be a trigger for the development of celiac disease in  genetically susceptible women who are consuming gluten.[142]
Systemic lupus erythematosus in pregnancy confers an increased rate of fetal death in utero, spontaneous abortion, and of neonatal lupus.
Hypercoagulability in pregnancy is the propensity of pregnant women to develop thrombosis (blood clots). Pregnancy itself is a factor of hypercoagulability (pregnancy-induced hypercoagulability), as a physiologically adaptive mechanism to prevent post partum bleeding.[143] However, in combination with an underlying hypercoagulable states, the risk of thrombosis or embolism may become substantial.[143]

text: Medical imaging

text: Medical imaging may be indicated in pregnancy because of pregnancy complications, intercurrent diseases or routine prenatal care. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) without MRI contrast agents as well as obstetric ultrasonography are not associated with any risk for the mother or the fetus, and are the imaging techniques of choice for pregnant women.[144] Projectional radiography, X-ray computed tomography and nuclear medicine imaging result in some degree of ionizing radiation exposure, but in most cases the absorbed doses are not associated with harm to the baby.[144] At higher dosages, effects can include miscarriage, birth defects and intellectual disability.[144]

text: Epidemiology

text: About 213 million pregnancies occurred in 2012 of which 190 million were in the developing world and 23 million were in the developed world. This is about 133 pregnancies per 1,000 women between the ages of 15 and 44.[10] About 10% to 15% of recognized pregnancies end in miscarriage.[2] Globally 40% of pregnancies are unplanned. Half of unplanned pregnancies are aborted.[10]

text: Of pregnancies in 2012 120 million occurred in Asia, 54 million in Africa, 19 million in Europe, 18 million in Latin America and the Caribbean, 7 million in North America, and 1 million in Oceania.[10] Pregnancy rates are 140 per 1000 women of childbearing age in the developing world and 94 per 1000 in the developed world.[10]

text: The rate of pregnancy, as well as the ages at which it occurs, differ by country and region. It is influenced by a number of factors, such as cultural, social and religious norms; access to contraception; and rates of education. The total fertility rate (TFR) in 2013 was estimated to be highest in Niger (7.03 children/woman) and lowest in Singapore (0.79 children/woman).[145]

text: In Europe, the average childbearing age has been rising continuously for some time. In Western, Northern, and Southern Europe, first-time mothers are on average 26 to 29 years old, up from 23 to 25 years at the start of the 1970s. In a number of European countries (Spain), the mean age of women at first childbirth has crossed the 30-year threshold.

text: This process is not restricted to Europe. Asia, Japan and the United States are all seeing average age at first birth on the rise, and increasingly the process is spreading to countries in the developing world like China, Turkey and Iran. In the US, the average age of first childbirth was 25.4 in 2010.[146]

text: In the United States and United Kingdom, 40% of pregnancies are unplanned, and between a quarter and half of those unplanned pregnancies were unwanted pregnancies.[147][148]

text: Globally, an estimated 270,000 women die from pregnancy-related complications each year.[149]

text: Society and culture

text: In most cultures, pregnant women have a special status in society and receive particularly gentle care.[150] At the same time, they are subject to expectations that may exert great psychological pressure, such as having to produce a son and heir. In many traditional societies, pregnancy must be preceded by marriage, on pain of ostracism of mother and (illegitimate) child.

text: Overall, pregnancy is accompanied by numerous customs that are often subject to ethnological research, often rooted in traditional medicine or religion. The baby shower is an example of a modern custom.

text: Pregnancy is an important topic in sociology of the family. The prospective child may preliminarily be placed into numerous social roles. The parents' relationship and the relation between parents and their surroundings are also affected.

text: A belly cast may be made during pregnancy as a keepsake.

text: Arts

text: Images of pregnant women, especially small figurines, were made in traditional cultures in many places and periods, though it is rarely one of the most common types  of image.  These include ceramic figures from some Pre-Columbian cultures, and a few figures from most of the ancient Mediterranean cultures. Many of these seem to be connected with fertility.  Identifying whether such figures are actually meant to show pregnancy is often a problem, as well as understanding their role in the culture concerned.

text: Among the oldest surviving examples of the depiction of pregnancy are prehistoric figurines found across much of Eurasia and collectively known as Venus figurines.  Some of these appear to be pregnant.

text: Due to the important role of the Mother of God in Christianity, the Western visual arts have a long tradition of depictions of pregnancy, especially in the biblical scene of the Visitation, and devotional images called a Madonna del Parto.[151]

text: The unhappy scene usually called Diana and Callisto, showing the moment of discovery of Callisto's forbidden pregnancy, is sometimes painted from the Renaissance onwards.  Gradually, portraits of pregnant women began to appear, with a particular fashion for "pregnancy portraits" in elite portraiture of the years around 1600.

text: Pregnancy, and especially pregnancy of unmarried women, is also an important motif in literature. Notable examples include Hardy's Tess of the d'Urbervilles and Goethe's Faust.

text:
Pregnancy in art

Anatomical model of a pregnant woman; Stephan Zick (1639-1715); 1700; Germanisches Nationalmuseum

Statue of a pregnant woman, Macedonia

Bronze figure of a pregnant naked woman by Danny Osborne, Merrion Square

Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger Portrait of Susanna Temple, second wife of Sir Martin Lister, 1620

Octave Tassaert, The Waif aka L'abandonnée 1852, Musée Fabre, Montpellier

text: Infertility

text: Modern reproductive medicine offers many forms of assisted reproductive technology for couples who stay childless against their will, such as fertility medication, artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization and surrogacy.

text: Abortion

text: An abortion is the termination of an embryo or fetus, either naturally or via medical methods.[152] When done electively, it is more often done within the first trimester than the second, and rarely in the third.[33]  Not using contraception, contraceptive failure, poor family planning or rape can lead to undesired pregnancies. Legality of socially indicated abortions varies widely both internationally and through time. In most countries of Western Europe, abortions during the first trimester were a criminal offense a few decades ago[when?] but have since been legalized, sometimes subject to mandatory consultations. In Germany, for example, as of 2009 less than 3% of abortions had a medical indication.

text: Legal protection

text: Many countries have various legal regulations in place to protect pregnant women and their children. Maternity Protection Convention ensures that pregnant women are exempt from activities such as night shifts or carrying heavy stocks. Maternity leave typically provides paid leave from work during roughly the last trimester of pregnancy and for some time after birth. Notable extreme cases include Norway (8 months with full pay) and the United States (no paid leave at all except in some states). Moreover, many countries have laws against pregnancy discrimination.

text: In 2014, the American state of Tennessee passed a law which allows prosecutors to charge a woman with criminal assault if she uses illegal drugs during her pregnancy and her fetus or newborn is considered harmed as a result.[153]

text: In the United States, laws make some actions that result in miscarriage or stillbirth crimes.  One such law is the federal Unborn Victims of Violence Act.


document_title: Flash Gordon (film)

question_text: who did brian blessed play in flash gordon

root

text: Flash Gordon (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: To relieve his boredom, Emperor Ming the Merciless of the planet Mongo declares that he will play with and destroy Earth by remotely causing natural disasters. On Earth, New York Jets football star "Flash" Gordon boards a small plane, where he meets travel agent Dale Arden. Mid-flight, the cockpit is hit by a meteorite and the pilots are lost. Flash takes control and manages to crash land into a greenhouse owned by Dr. Hans Zarkov. Zarkov, who believes the disasters are being caused because an unknown source is pushing the moon towards Earth, has secretly constructed a spacecraft that he plans to use to investigate. Zarkov's assistant refuses to go, so Zarkov lures Flash and Dale aboard. The rocket launches, taking them to Mongo, where they are captured by Ming's troops.

tag: p

text: The trio is brought before Ming, who orders Dale be prepared for his pleasure. Flash tries to resist, but is overpowered. Ming orders Zarkov be reprogrammed and Flash executed. Ming's daughter, Princess Aura, seduces Ming's surgeon into saving Flash, to whom she is attracted. As they escape, Flash sees Zarkov being brainwashed by Klytus, the metal-faced head of the secret police. Aura and Flash flee to Arboria, kingdom of Prince Barin, Aura's lover. En route, Aura teaches Flash to use a telepathic communicator to contact Dale. He lets her know he is alive. Dale is locked in Ming's bedchamber but, encouraged by Flash, she escapes. Klytus sends Zarkov to intercept Dale, who tells him and Klytus that Flash is alive. Zarkov then reveals he resisted the brainwashing, and escapes Mingo City with Dale. They are quickly captured by Prince Vultan's Hawkmen and taken to Sky City.

text: Aura and Flash arrive at Arboria. Aura asks the Prince to keep Flash safe. A distrustful Barin, in love with Aura, agrees not to kill Flash, but then forces him to perform a deadly ritual. Barin and Flash take turns sticking their hands into a hollow stump with a giant scorpion-like Wood Beast inside. When Flash has to take an extra turn, he pretends to be stung as a distraction and escapes. Barin follows, but they are both captured by the Hawkmen.

text: Klytus informs Ming that Flash is alive and is given authority to find out who is responsible. Aura returns and is taken prisoner and tortured by Klytus and General Kala. They force her to confess and Ming orders her banished to the ice moon Frigia once his wedding has taken place. Meanwhile, Flash and Barin are taken to Sky City, where Flash and Dale are briefly reunited. Flash is forced to fight Barin in a death match, but Flash instead saves Barin's life, causing Barin to join him. Klytus arrives and Flash and Barin kill him. Knowing this will bring retribution, Vultan orders the Hawkmen to evacuate, leaving Barin, Flash, Dale and Zarkov behind. Ming's ship arrives and he orders Barin, Zarkov and Dale to be taken aboard. Ming is impressed with Flash and offers him lordship over Earth in exchange for loyalty. Flash refuses. Ming gives the order to destroy Vultan's kingdom along with Flash. Flash finds a rocket cycle and escapes before Sky City is destroyed.

text: Flash contacts Vultan, who is hiding on Arboria, and they plot an attack on Mingo City. Flash pretends to attack Mingo City alone on his rocket cycle. General Kala dispatches the war rocket Ajax to kill Flash, but the Hawkmen ambush and seize the rocket. Meanwhile, Princess Aura overpowers her guard and frees Barin and Zarkov from the execution chamber. Flash and the Hawkmen attack Mingo City in Ajax and Kala activates the defenses as Ming's and Dale's wedding begins. Mingo City's lightning field can only be penetrated by flying Ajax into it at a suicidal speed. Flash volunteers to stay at the helm to ensure success and enable the Hawkmen to invade the city.

text: Barin and Zarkov enter the control room to stop the lightning field, encountering Kala, who refuses to deactivate it. She attempts to kill Zarkov, but Barin shoots and kills her. Without Kala, they are unable to deactivate the field from that control room. Barin tells Zarkov to hold the fort while he heads to Sector Alpha 9. Zarkov keeps trying, but is unable to deactivate the shield.

text: Barin fights through Ming's guards and gets to Sector Alpha and deactivates the lightning field before Ajax hits it. Flash flies the rocket ship into the city's wedding hall and the ship's bow impales Ming. He falls off the rocket nose, seriously wounded, and Flash offers to spare his life if he will stop the attack on Earth. Ming refuses. Ming attempts to use his power ring on Flash, but his power falters and nothing happens. He then aims the ring at himself and is seemingly vaporized by its remaining power, seconds before the counter to the destruction of the Earth reaches zero. A huge victory celebration ensues.

text: Barin and Aura become the new leaders in Ming's place. Barin names Vultan the leader of their armies. Flash, Dale and Zarkov discuss returning to Earth. Zarkov says he doesn't know how they will get back, but they will try. Barin tells them all they're welcome to stay, but Dale says she's a New York City girl, and it's now too quiet around Mongo.

text: The final frame shows Ming's ring being picked up by the hand of an unseen person. Ming's evil laugh echoes as the ending credits roll. Following the credits, the text "The End" is shown on the screen before a question mark (?) is appended.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Sam J. Jones as Flash Gordon
Melody Anderson as Dale Arden
Max von Sydow as Emperor Ming the Merciless
Chaim Topol as Hans Zarkov
Ornella Muti as Princess Aura
Timothy Dalton as Prince Barin
Brian Blessed as Prince Vultan
Peter Wyngarde as General Klytus
Mariangela Melato as General Kala
Richard O'Brien as Fico
John Osborne as Arborian Priest
Philip Stone as Zogi the High Priest
John Hallam as General Luro
Suzanne Danielle as Serving Girl
John Morton as Airline pilot
William Hootkins as Munson, Dr. Zarkov's assistant
Robbie Coltrane as Man at Airfield[7]
Peter Duncan as Young Treeman
John Hollis as Klytus Observer No. 2
Leon Greene as Colonel of Battle Control Room
Tony Scannell as Ming's officer
Bogdan Kominowski as a lieutenant of Ming's Air Force
George Harris as Prince Thun
Deep Roy as Fellini, Princess Aura's pet
Bob Goody as Azurian Man
Kenny Baker as Dwarf
Malcolm Dixon as Dwarf

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: Initially, producer De Laurentiis wanted Italian director Federico Fellini to direct the picture; although Fellini optioned the Flash Gordon rights from De Laurentiis, he never made the film.[8] George Lucas attempted to make a Flash Gordon film in the 1970s; unable to acquire the rights from De Laurentiis, Lucas decided to create Star Wars instead.[8][9] De Laurentiis then hired Nicolas Roeg to make the film. Roeg, an admirer of the original Alex Raymond comic strips, spent a year in pre-production work.[9][10] However, De Laurentiis was unhappy with Roeg's treatment of Flash Gordon, and Roeg left the project.[9] De Laurentiis also considered hiring Sergio Leone to direct the Flash Gordon film; Leone refused, because he believed the script was not faithful to the original Raymond comic strips.[10][11] De Laurentiis then hired Mike Hodges to direct.[9]

text: Lorenzo Semple, Jr. wrote the script. He later recalled:

text: Dino wanted to make Flash Gordon humorous. At the time, I thought that was a possible way to go, but, in hindsight, I realize it was a terrible mistake. We kept fiddling around with the script, trying to decide whether to be funny or realistic. That was a catastrophic thing to do, with so much money involved... I never thought the character of Flash in the script was particularly good. But there was no pressure to make it any better. Dino had a vision of a comic-strip character treated in a comic style. That was silly, because Flash Gordon was never intended to be funny. The entire film got way out of control.[12]

text: Filming[edit]

text: According to a 2012 interview in Maxim, Sam J. Jones had disagreements with De Laurentiis of some kind and departed prior to post-production, which resulted in a substantial portion of his dialogue being dubbed by a professional voice actor, whose identity is unknown.[13] A sequel was proposed, but the departure of Jones effectively ended any such prospects.[14] The airfield scene at the beginning of the film, although set in the U.S., was shot at the Broadford Airfield in Skye, Scotland.[7]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Flash Gordon, in total, grossed well above double its $20 million budget, grossing $27,107,960 in North America, which was augmented by a very strong showing in the United Kingdom, grossing nearly £14 million. Additionally, the film performed well in Italy, due to the two Italian actors prominent in the credits. The film found appreciation with some film critics, such as The New Yorker's Pauline Kael. Kael described Flash Gordon as having "some of the knowing, pleasurable giddiness of the fast-moving Bonds...The director, Mike Hodges, gets right into comic-strip sensibility and pacing".[15] Roger Ebert also praised Flash Gordon, stating "Flash Gordon is played for laughs, and wisely so...This is space opera, a genre invented by Edgar Rice Burroughs and Hugo Gernsback and other men of unlimited imagination harnessed to definitely limited skills. It's fun to see it done with energy and love and without the pseudo-meaningful apparatus of the Force and Trekkie Power... Is it fun? Yeah, sort of, it is."  [16] By contrast, several critics expressed dislike for the film. Leslie Halliwell, writing in 1981, was dismissive towards Flash Gordon, describing it as "another addition to the increasing numbers of such things being restaged at enormous expense fifty years after their prime".[17] Richard Combs in the Monthly Film Bulletin also disliked the film, calling Flash Gordon "an expensively irrelevant gloss on its sources."[17] Godfrey Fitzsimmons of The Irish Times said "Flash Gordon is a hodge-podge...the humour is not very funny and much of the "serious" element is hilarious, which makes for an unsatisfying film."[18] Von Sydow (Ming) received a good deal of praise for his performance, but Jones (Gordon) was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actor. Before the film's run in theaters, a sequel was considered and according to Brian Blessed on the Region 2 DVD commentary for Flash Gordon – Silver Anniversary Edition, the sequel was going to be set on Mars, as a possible update of the Buster Crabbe serials.

text: The film received overall positive reviews, holding an 82% approval rating at the film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, based on 38 reviews.[4][19][19][20] The film ranked No. 88 on the Rotten Tomatoes Journey Through Sci-Fi List (100 Best-Reviewed Sci-Fi Movies).[21]

text: Reviewing the film for The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, John Grant stated the film was "Rather heavy-handed in its attempts at Parody" and that it used "stark garishness to compensate for appalling spfx"; he concluded that Flash Gordon "is a gaudy cliché whose charm should not be underestimated".[22] John Clute gave Flash Gordon a mixed review, saying "the special effects are great" and praising the action sequences. However Clute expressed dislike for Flash Gordon's humorous, self-aware tone, adding the actors "are all just playing, and we know it".[23] Peter Nicholls in The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction gave a negative verdict on Flash Gordon: "Apart from the fetishistic costumes...there is little of interest in this tongue-in-cheek, lurid fantasy, which tries to make a Comic-strip virtue of wooden acting."[24] The Aurum Film Encyclopedia also gave the film an adverse review, claiming it was impossible to suspend disbelief in the film: "Hodges puts a knowingness and literalness that works completely against the sense of pulp poetry so essential if we are to believe in Flash". It also described Semple's script as "similarly bland, its occasional witticisms notwithstanding".[25] Reviewing Flash Gordon for The Dissolve website, Keith Phipps stated, "Flash Gordon is, like Batman, entertaining for kids and a different sort of entertaining for grown-ups, who pick up on the goofiness...But there’s more than a whiff of condescension to it, too, as if it’s ridiculous to even consider Raymond’s vision of clashing heroes and villains as anything but comedy fodder."[6]

text: Cult following[edit]

text: Flash Gordon has since become a cult classic with fans of science fiction and fantasy. It is a favourite of director Edgar Wright, who used the film as one of the visual influences for Scott Pilgrim vs. the World. Acclaimed comic book artist Alex Ross names the film as his favorite film of all time. He painted the cover of the film's 2007 "Saviour of the Universe Edition" DVD release, and starred in a featurette to talk extensively about his affection for the film.[26] In Seth MacFarlane's 2012 comedy Ted, the characters of Ted (MacFarlane) and John (Mark Wahlberg) are fans of Flash Gordon, and it is referenced several times throughout the film. Jones (playing himself) also appears in the film during a manic party sequence and in the film's conclusion.[13] He also appears in the sequel Ted 2.[27] Horror punk musician Wednesday 13 based the song "Hail Ming" on his album The Dixie Dead (2013) on the film.

text: Blessed's performance as Prince Vultan lodged the veteran stage and screen actor into the United Kingdom collective consciousness for the utterance of a single line – "Gordon's alive?!" – which, more than 30 years later, remains the most repeated, reused, and recycled quotation from both the film and Blessed's career.[28][29][30]

text: The Dynamite Entertainment comic Flash Gordon: Zeitgeist drew on several elements of the 1980 film, including the reappearance of the villain Klytus (who does not appear in the original comic strips).[31] In this adaptation, Klytus again serves as Ming's main henchman.[31] The 2014 Dynamite Flash Gordon comic also contained several allusions to the film, including having Vultan speak the line "Gordon's alive?!".[32]

text: In 2018, Life After Flash, a feature-length documentary directed by Lisa Downs & produced by Ashley Pugh, had its World Premiere at Chattanooga Film Festival,[33] followed by the European Premiere at the 72nd Edinburgh International Film Festival.[34] Life After Flash not only celebrates the 1980 classic featuring interviews with cast, crew and fans including Melody Anderson, Brian Blessed, Peter Wyngarde, Mark Millar, Robert Rodriguez, Stan Lee and Brian May, but also explores the aftermath of when star Sam J Jones went up against one of the most powerful producers in Hollywood: Dino De Laurentiis. Executive Produced by Sam J Jones, Aleksandar Smiljanic and Matt Pasant.

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: The film's soundtrack was composed and performed by the rock band Queen. Flash Gordon was one of the earliest high-budget feature films to use a score primarily composed and performed by a rock band (an earlier example is The Who's Tommy (1975). Additional orchestral score pieces were also composed by Howard Blake. Blake's pieces from the film have been released on CD, alongside his score from Amityville 3-D.

text: Release[edit]

text: The film was originally released in North America via Universal Studios. Universal has retained the domestic theatrical and home video rights, while the international rights passed on through different distributors, eventually residing with StudioCanal. However, the film's UK distributor, Thorn EMI, controlled U.S TV rights. Although StudioCanal now holds those rights due to ownership of the EMI film library, they licensed them to MGM for U.S syndication, which explains why MGM's logo appears on current television airings.

text: In other media[edit]

text: A comic book adaptation, written by Bruce Jones and illustrated by classic Flash Gordon artist Al Williamson (himself not a fan of the movie due to its overall campy nature, numerous script changes and resulting alterations to his artwork[35]), was released by Western Publishing to coincide with the film's release. It was serialized in three issues of the Flash Gordon comic book (#31–33) and released in a single large format softcover and hardcover editions.

text: A novelization by Arthur Byron Cover of the movie script by Lorenzo Semple Jr. was published in 1980.

text: A video game adaptation for the Atari 2600 was developed by Sirius Software and published by 20th Century Fox Games in 1983.[36][37]

text: In the Family Guy Episode "Road to Germany," Stewie and Brian enlist the help of the Hawkmen in order to defeat the German pilots in WW2.

text: Home media[edit]

text: The film was released in 1981 on VHS, Betamax and MCA DiscoVision, and re-released in 1998 on both Laserdisc and Region 1 DVD via Universal. It was released in Region 2 in 2001 (Japan) and again in 2005 (UK/Europe); with the 2005 release including commentary by Brian Blessed winning the "Commentary of the Year" award from Hotdog Magazine for his humor and enthusiasm. On 7 August 2007, Universal Studios Home Entertainment released a "Saviour of the Universe Edition" DVD in North America to coincide with The Sci Fi Channel's new television series. This special edition does not include the cast and crew interviews of the Region 2 release.

text: In October 2007, a high definition transfer of the film premiered on the MGM HD cable/satellite channel.

text: In November 2007, Sam J. Jones and Melody Anderson together created a new commentary track for the StudioCanal DVD edition of the film.[38][39] Flash Gordon was released on Blu-ray on 15 June 2010.[40]

text: In 2012, Universal released Flash Gordon in a four-feature DVD set along with Battlestar Galactica: Saga of a Star World, The Last Starfighter and Dune.

text: On 3 May 2016, Ted vs. Flash Gordon: The Ultimate Collection was released on Blu-ray plus Digital HD, featuring this film and the unrated versions of Ted and Ted 2.[41]

text: Awards[edit]

text: Saturn Award

text: BAFTA

text: 1st Golden Raspberry Award

text: Reboot[edit]

text: Since 2015, a new Flash Gordon film has been in the works.[43] 20th Century Fox hired JD Payne and Patrick McKay as screenwriters, while Matthew Vaughn was in talks to direct.[44] On 15 January 2016, Mark Protosevich was hired to rewrite the film's script.[45]


document_title: Penalty card

question_text: when was the yellow card introduced in football

text: Penalty card

text: History and origin[edit]

text: The idea of using language-neutral coloured cards to communicate a referee's intentions originated in association football, with English referee Ken Aston.[2] Aston had been appointed to the FIFA Referees' Committee and was responsible for all referees at the 1966 FIFA World Cup. In the quarter finals, England met Argentina at Wembley Stadium. After the match, newspaper reports stated that referee Rudolf Kreitlein had cautioned both Bobby and Jack Charlton, as well as sending off Argentinian Antonio Rattin. The referee had not made his decision clear during the game, and England manager Alf Ramsey approached FIFA for post-match clarification. This incident started Aston thinking about ways to make a referee's decisions clearer to both players and spectators. Aston realised that a colour-coding scheme based on the same principle as used on traffic lights (yellow – stop if safe to do so, red – stop) would transcend language barriers and make it clear that a player had been cautioned or expelled.[2] As a result, yellow cards to indicate a caution and red cards to indicate an expulsion were used for the first time in the 1970 FIFA World Cup in Mexico. The use of penalty cards has since been adopted and expanded by several sporting codes, with each sport adapting the idea to its specific set of rules or laws.

text: Commonly used penalty cards[edit]

text: Yellow card[edit]

text: A yellow card is used in many different sporting codes. Its meaning differs among sports; however, it most commonly indicates a caution given to a player regarding his or her conduct, or indicates a temporary suspension. Examples include:

text: Association football: A yellow card is shown by the referee to indicate that a player has been officially cautioned.[3] The player's details are then recorded by the referee in a small notebook; hence a caution is also known as a "booking". A player who has been cautioned may continue playing in the game; however, a player who receives a second caution in a match is sent off (shown the yellow card again, and then a red card), meaning that he must leave the field immediately and take no further part in the game. The player may not be replaced by a substitute. Law 12 of the Laws of the Game (which are set by the International Football Association Board and used by FIFA) lists the types of offences and misconduct that may result in a caution or is cautionary. It also states that "only a player, substitute or substituted player" can be cautioned.[3]

text:
Athletics: In track events, a yellow card used to indicate that the next false start would result in a disqualification.[4] IAAF rules have since abolished false start warnings; false starts now result in immediate disqualification.[5] However, as of 2012, the false start rule is that an athlete's hands must leave the track or their feet must leave the starting blocks before the gunshot in order for a false start to be given. Therefore, if an athlete makes a twitch, while being in their final 'set' position, the maximum penalty is a yellow card.
Australian rules football: A yellow card is issued against a player for committing any reportable offence (such as striking an opponent, swearing at an official, amongst others), except those listed as 'serious' reportable offences. Any player issued a yellow card is unable to participate in the game for the length of a quarter of play, excluding breaks, although the player can be replaced. However, a yellow card may be issued against a player at the discretion of an umpire, despite the player not committing a reportable offence. Yellow cards and red cards are, however, not issued in the Australian Football League, the highest level of play in Australian rules football.[6]
Badminton: A yellow card is given to a singles player or doubles pair as a warning for breaching the Laws of Badminton. A yellow card can only be given once to a player or pair in a match, subsequent breaches are sanctioned with a red or black card.[7][8]
Bandy: A yellow card indicates a warning given to an entire team for technical fouls such as errors in the execution of goal-throws or free strokes, or the obstruction of a player without ball.[9] Subsequent technical fouls by the same team result in a five-minute penalty indicated by a white card.
Canoe polo: A yellow card indicates a player has received a two-minute temporary suspension.[10] A yellow card can be awarded for a deliberate or dangerous foul that prevents the scoring of a near certain goal, dangerous illegal play that is deliberate or repeated, foul or abusive language, continuously disputing a referee's decisions or receiving a third green card for any reason.
Equestrian sports: Yellow cards may be issued during FEI sanctioned events for abuse of a horse or incorrect behavior towards an official.[11] Abuse of the horse may include riding an obviously lame horse, riding an exhausted horse, excessive use of whip and/or spurs, and dangerous riding. Riders may choose not to accept issued cards, but doing so may lead to a disciplinary hearing. A rider receiving a yellow card can be disqualified from the event and subsequently fined or suspended.[11]
Fencing: A yellow card indicates a warning to a fencer and is valid for the remainder of the bout.[12] In some cases, an annulment of any hit scored by the fencer at fault may also occur. Yellow cards are awarded for Group 1 offences such as making bodily contact with the opposing fencer (in foil or sabre), leaving the piste without permission, or refusing to obey the referee. A yellow card can also be awarded when, at the first call by the referee, a fencer does not present himself on the piste ready to fence. Any person not on the piste who disturbs the good order of the competition may also receive a yellow card on the first infringement.[12]
Field hockey: A yellow card indicates a temporary suspension of at least 5 minutes. The length of the suspension is determined by the umpire.[13] It is possible for a player to receive two yellow cards for different offences during the same match; however, the period of suspension must be significantly longer with each yellow card. When an offence for which a yellow card has been awarded is repeated, the yellow card must not be used again and a more severe penalty must be awarded. There must also be a clear difference between the duration of a yellow card suspension for a minor offence and the duration for a major offence. The yellow card can be shown to a specific player or to the captain for misconduct by the entire team.[13] In this case, the captain is temporarily suspended.
Gaelic games: In camogie, Gaelic football, hurling and ladies' Gaelic football a yellow card (Irish: cárta buí) is given to players for moderate fouls. A player who receives two yellow cards in a single game is sent off and receives a red card.
Handball: A yellow card indicates a warning and can be given to a player or team official for unsportsmanlike conduct, or to a player whose actions are mainly or exclusively directed at the opponent and not at the ball. IHF rules also allow referees to use discretion to award a yellow card outside of these situations.[14]
Mixed martial arts promotions PRIDE (defunct), DEEP, and ZST: A warning, the third leads to disqualification.
Racewalking: A yellow card indicates a competitor's foot fails to be on the ground when the rear leg is being raised, or the front leg is not straightened when it makes contact with the ground.[15]
Rugby league: Yellow cards are not usually used in rugby league in the southern hemisphere with referees indicating a 10-minute suspension by raising both arms straight out with fingers spread (to indicate 10 minutes). This is otherwise known as a "sin bin". However, in the northern hemisphere it is common for a referee to use a yellow card in signaling a "sin bin" to indicate 10 minutes instead of using the arm and hand signal used in the southern hemisphere. It is possible for a player to receive seven yellow cards without receiving a red card (a player who receives eight yellow cards in a match will receive a red card, which results in ejection from the match). However, it is up to the referee's discretion at how bad the offences are, and in these cases, a red card may be commonly shown for a second major offence without the presence of a second yellow card.
Rugby union: According to the laws of the game published by World Rugby (WR), during international matches, any player who commits an offence under Law 9 – Foul Play may be shown a yellow card and suspended from the game for 10 minutes (2 minutes in rugby sevens[16]); the player cannot be replaced during that time.[17] Offences include obstruction, unfair play, repeated infringements, dangerous play and misconduct which is prejudicial to the game. Receiving a yellow card is known colloquially as being sent to the "sin bin". A player receiving a second yellow card in a game will also be shown a red card (see below) meaning that he or she has been sent-off and will be unable to take part in the remainder of the match.
Volleyball: Under FIVB rules a YELLOW card is the second stage of a formal warning for a player(s)/coach for Minor Misconduct, the first being a verbal one given through the team captain. It is recorded on the scoresheet but has no immediate consequences - there is no loss of service (if applicable) and no point awarded to the opposition. It is shown together with a RED card (in one hand) where a player(s)/coach is sanctioned with Expulsion, and (with a card in each hand) separately with a RED card where a player(s)/coach is sanctioned with Disqualification, all such offences are recorded on the scoresheet.
Water polo: Given as an official warning for disrespectful conduct from the coach, individual players, or the entire bench.

text: Red card[edit]

text: A red card is used in several different sporting codes. Its meaning differs among sports, but it most commonly indicates a serious offence and often results in a player being permanently suspended from the game (commonly known as an ejection, dismissal, expulsion, removal, or sending-off, often with personal embarrassment). Examples include:

text: Association football: A red card is shown by a referee to signify that a player has been sent off.[3] A player who has been sent off is required to leave the field of play immediately and must take no further part in the game. The player who has been sent off cannot be replaced during the game; his team must continue the game with one player fewer. Only players, substitutes and substituted players may receive a red card. If a goalkeeper receives a red card another player will be allowed to assume goalkeeping duties (teams will usually substitute an outfield player for another goalkeeper if this option is available). A red card will be shown to a player who has committed a serious offense such as violent conduct or an illegal and purposeful obstruction of a goal scoring opportunity for the opposing team. A red card will also be shown to a player who accumulates two yellow cards for more minor offenses.

text:
Athletics: A red card indicates that the athlete is charged with a false start and a disqualification has been made.[4]
Australian rules football: A red card is issued against a player who has accumulated two yellow cards over the course of a match, or has committed a 'serious reportable offence' (such as striking an umpire or kicking an opponent). A player issued with a red card may not participate for the remainder of the match; however, unlike most sports, the player can be replaced, although not until a length of time equivalent to one-quarter (excluding breaks) has elapsed. Yellow cards and red cards are, however, not issued in the Australian Football League, the highest level of play in Australian rules football.[6]
Badminton: A red card is given to a singles player or doubles pair to penalize subsequent infractions after receiving a yellow card. It counts as fault, meaning the opposing side is awarded a point. After a second red card, a player or pair may be disqualified with a black card at the tournament referee's discretion.[7][8]
Bandy: A red card indicates a match penalty, i.e. a player has been excluded for the remainder of the match and cannot be substituted.[9] Red card offenses include directly attacking an opponent or using abusive language. A coach or substitute may also be penalized with a red card. In this situation, a player currently on the rink also serves a ten-minute penalty, resulting in the number of players being reduced by one.
Canoe polo: A red card indicates a player has been sent off for the remainder of the match and cannot be substituted.[10] A red card can be awarded if a personal attack on a player occurs, repeated foul or abusive language, or when the award of a yellow card is disputed or has not had the desired effect of causing the player to control his play or attitude. A red card is also awarded when a player has received a second yellow card for any reason.
Cricket: In December 2016, it was announced that by October 2017 cricket umpires would be given the power to issue red cards to send off players who have committed the following: “threatening an umpire; physically assaulting another player, umpire, official or spectator; or any other act of violence”.[18]
Fencing: A red card is used to indicate that a fencer has committed an offence that warrants a penalty hit to be awarded to the opponent.[12] Second and subsequent Group 1 offences, all Group 2 offences and first Group 3 offences are penalised with a red card.[12] A red card may also be awarded when, at the second call by the referee, a fencer does not present himself on the piste ready to fence.
Field hockey: A red card results in a player being permanently suspended from the game. The player cannot take any further part in the game and cannot be substituted. Unlike other penalty cards in field hockey, the red card is never given to the captain for team misconduct. In addition to their colour, red cards in field hockey are often circular in shape.[13]
Floorball: A red card is results in the player being ejected from the game and his/her team being penalised with a 5 minute bench penalty. In floorball, the red card can be linked with 3 different types of Match Penalties (MP 1, 2 and 3). MP1 is linked with violent play during the game, such as heavy hits (pushing) against the goal-cage or boarding; this penalty does not cause additional suspension in the tournament. MP2 is linked with offences such as sabotage of the game, mild brawl (no punches), and is also given when a player receives his/her second 5 minute bench penalty; this match penalty causes an automatic 1 game suspension. MP3 is linked with vulgar conduct, such as insulting the referee, another player or spectators, violent conduct that is not directly linked with play (such as punching an opponent); this match penalty causes an automatic 1 game suspension, and is further reviewed by a disciplinary committee that can penalise the player with additional suspension.

text:
Gaelic games: In camogie, Gaelic football, hurling and ladies' Gaelic football a red card (Irish: cárta dearg) is given to players for serious fouls and violent conduct. A player who receives two yellow cards in a single game is sent off and receives a red card.
Handball: A red card indicates a disqualification of a player who has committed an offense such as unsportsmanlike conduct, serious foul play, or receiving a third two-minute suspension.[14] A red card prevents a player from playing for the remainder of the match and as a result reduces the number of players that are available to a team. A red card also carries a two-minute suspension for the team, meaning that a team cannot replace the disqualified player until the two-minute team suspension has expired.[14]
Racewalking: A red card indicates that a competitor's foot failed to be on the ground when the rear leg is being raised or that his front leg is not straightened when it makes contact with the ground. A judge would issue a yellow card for the first infraction committed by a competitor. And if the same judge detects the second infraction from the same competitor, a red card is issued. Three red cards, from three different judges, will result in a competitor's disqualification.[15]
Rugby league: Red cards are not usually used in rugby league in the southern hemisphere with referees indicating a player has been sent from the field for the rest of the match with one extended arm above the head with the index finger pointed in the direction of a sideline. However, in the northern hemisphere, it is common for a referee to use a red card in signaling a player has been sent from the field for the rest of the match, with no replacement allowed. It is possible for a player to receive seven yellow cards without receiving a red card (a player who receives eight yellow cards in a match will receive a red card, which results in ejection from the match). However, it is up to the referee's discretion at how bad the offenses are, and in these cases, a red card may be commonly shown for a second major offense without the presence of a second yellow card.
Rugby union: A red card is used to indicate that a player has been sent off and can take no further part in the game.[17] He cannot be replaced, leaving his team with one fewer player for the remainder of the game. During international matches, a player who commits an offense under Law 9 – Foul Play may be shown a red card. Red cards are normally issued for serious offenses. Any player receiving a second yellow card in a game will automatically be shown a red card.
Volleyball: A red card can be issued by the referee for the first instance of Rude Conduct. It is recorded on the scoresheet and results in loss of service (if applicable) and a penalty point to the opposition. Rude Conduct is the only category of sanction punished by a Red card alone, and which results in loss of service (if applicable) and a penalty point. For the sanctions of Expulsion and Disqualification, a Red and Yellow card is shown simultaneously, held together in one hand, or separately in each hand, respectively.

text: Two Man (beach): The rules vary in one aspect from the six-a-side competition. A red card is shown for the first and any second offense of Rude Conduct in the same set. It is recorded on the scoresheet, resulting in loss of service (if applicable) and a penalty point to the opposition. Otherwise the procedural use of cards is the same as for six-a-side.

text: Water polo: A red card is issued to a coach or player on the bench for a second incident of misconduct after receiving a yellow card or severe unsporting conduct. A person receiving a red card must leave the competition area.

text: Other types of penalty cards[edit]

text: Green card[edit]

text: A green card is used in some sports to indicate an official warning to a player who has committed a minor offence that does not warrant a more serious sanction.

text:
Athletics: A green card indicates that the recall did not warrant a warning, which most commonly happens when the machines used to catch false-starters make a mistake.[4]
Canoe polo: A green card indicates an official warning that can be applied to an individual player or a whole team.[10] A green card can be awarded for deliberate unsporting behavior or unnecessary verbal communication to the referee.
Field hockey: A green card indicates an official warning when a minor offence has occurred. A second green card for the same player will result in a yellow card (5 minute suspension). In this case, the umpire will show a green card, followed by a yellow card. When an offence for which a green card has been awarded is repeated, a yellow card should be awarded. A green card can be given to a specific player or to the captain as a warning to the entire team. Cards shown to the captain as a warning to the team are treated separate from cards shown to the captain as a player. In addition to their colour, green cards in field hockey are often triangular in shape.[13] In international competition, the green card carries a two-minute suspension during which time that player's team plays with one fewer player. This is not officially a Rule of hockey, but has been adopted in many domestic competitions at elite club and representative level.

text: White card[edit]

text: A white card is used in bandy to indicate a five-minute timed penalty given to a player.[9] The offending player must leave the playing area and wait on a penalty bench near the centre line until the penalty has expired. During the 5 minute period the player may not be replaced, although he or she may be replaced with a different player when the penalty has expired. Offences that can warrant a white card include trying to hinder the opponents from executing a free-stroke, illegal substitution or repeated illegal but non-violent attacks on an opponent.

text: In the 2012 Super Rugby season in rugby union, a White Card was introduced for incidents of suspected foul play where the referee is unsure of the identity of the perpetrator, or where the referee is unsure if a red card is warranted. The incident is later referred to the citing commissioner, and may result in a suspension for the offending player.[19] It is similar to a citation sign (arms crossed above the head) in rugby league. However, in 2013 the International Rugby Board, now known as World Rugby, extended the powers of the TMO to include reviewing suspected incidents of foul play.[20] As a result, no white cards were issued in 2013.[21]

text: Blue card[edit]

text: A blue card or 'Blue Disk' as pioneered by The Elms, is used in bandy to indicate a ten-minute timed penalty given to a player.[9] The offending player must leave the playing area and wait on a penalty bench near the centre line until the penalty has expired. During the 10 minute period the player may not be replaced, although he or she may be replaced with a different player when the penalty has expired. A blue card is typically shown for offences that are more serious than those warranting a white card including attacking an opponent in a violent or dangerous way, causing advantage by intentionally stopping the ball with a high stick or protesting a referee's decision.

text: A blue card is also frequently used in indoor soccer in the United States, signifying that the offender must leave the field and stay in a penalty box (usually 2–5 minutes), during which time their team plays down a man (identical to ice hockey and roller hockey). If a goal is scored by the team opposite of the offender, then the offender may return to the field immediately. It is also used in the Clericus Cup association football league for a 5-minute bench penalty for unsportsmanlike play. And it is also used in the beach soccer for a 2-minute bench penalty for unsportsmanlike play.

text: A Blue Card is also used in Muggle Quidditch to indicate a technical foul. The fouling player is sent to the penalty box for one minute or until a goal is scored against the fouling player's team. Unlike a yellow card, there is no additional penalty for multiple blue cards.[22]

text: In European indoor soccer or Futsal, a Blue Card was used to send a player off the court; however the team was able to replace him with another player. The offending player could not return to play during the match. A blue card was shown directly for foul play or verbal abuse, if the same player had received two yellow cards, or if he had accumulated a total of 5 fouls during the game.

text: The Blue Card has been in use in Handball since the International Handball Federation announced a rule change that came into effect on July 1, 2016.[23] First the Red Card is shown, then the referee will after a short discussion show the blue card. Following that a written report will accompany the score sheet and the Disciplinary Commission will then decide on further actions against the player.[24]

text: Black card[edit]

text: A black card is used in fencing. It is issued by the director, or the referee for severe rule infractions.[12] A second instance of a Group 3 offence, and all Group 4 offences including deliberate brutality, refusal to fence, refusal to salute, and refusal to shake hands can be punished with a black card.[12] When the black card is issued, the offending fencer is excluded from the remainder of the competition and may be suspended from further tournaments. In the official record of the tournament, his or her name is replaced with the words "FENCER EXCLUDED".[25]

text: A black card is also used in the sport of badminton to indicate disqualification.[26]

text: In the Gaelic Games of Gaelic football and hurling, a tick or black book – was formerly recorded against a player for a minor infringement not warranting a yellow card, though multiple bookings will result in the issuance of a yellow card. The act of the referee physically holding up his black notebook in the same manner as a card has been discontinued by the GAA.[27]

text: Beginning January 1, 2014 a player in Gaelic football can be ordered off the pitch for the remainder of the game with a substitution allowed by being physically shown a Black Card (the referee's black notebook) in the same manner as any other penalty card for "cynical behaviour," including blatant tripping, pulling down and bodychecking. This forced substitution is an intermediate punishment between the yellow and red cards. A player who receives a yellow card and a black card in the same game is sent off without any substitute being permitted.[28]