document_title: Cape Town water crisis

question_text: when did the drought started in south africa

text: Cape Town water crisis

text: Background[edit]

text: The Cape Town region experiences a Mediterranean climate with warm, dry summers and winter rainfall. Water is supplied largely from the six major dams of the Western Cape Water Supply System in mountainous areas close to the city.[4] The dams are recharged by rain falling in their catchment areas, largely during the cooler winter months of May to August, and dam levels decline during the dry summer months of December to February during which urban and agricultural water use increases.

text: Cape Town's population has grown from 2.4 million residents in 1995 to an estimated 4.3 million by 2018, representing a 79 percent population increase in 23 years whereas dam water storage only increased by 15 percent in the same period.[5] In 2016/2017, 64.5% of the city's water supply went to formal residential users, while 3.6 percent went to informal settlements.[6]

text: The possibility of the city exceeding its water supply was highlighted as early as 1990.[7]

text: From 1950 to 1999, the city's consumption of treated water grew at 4% per year in line with the city's population growth. Water consumption peaked in 1999 at 335 million cubic metres (335 gigalitres) per year. In 2000 a plan called Africa Water Vision 2025 was developed aiming for "equitable and sustainable use of water for socioeconomic development".[8]

text: Periods of low winter rainfall in 2000/2001 and 2003/2004 resulted in water restrictions being imposed.[9][10] In 2007, the city implemented a 10-year water demand management strategy, which has successfully kept the annual consumption at or below the 1999 level despite ongoing population growth.[9]

text: In 2009, the storage capacity of the dams supplying Cape Town was increased by 17 percent from 768 to 898 million cubic metres through the completion of the Berg River Dam.[11] Despite the increased storage capacity, the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry predicted that the growing demand from the city would exceed supply by 2013 without water conservation and demand management measures by the city, and that even with those measures, further water sources would be required by 2019.[12]

text: Causes[edit]

text: The cause of water loss in Cape Town has been debated.  While drought is a factor in the city’s water scarcity, the degree of drought has been questioned.  It is believed water scarcity, caused by the drought, is being exacerbated by population growth, potentially unreported agriculture use, invasive species, and poor planning of water management. Cape Town particularly has grown by 50 percent in the last decade.[13]

text: While rainfall tends to undulate at stations monitoring rainfall where water is stored for Cape Town, there has been a clear, significant drop in 2016.

text: A study conducted by the Climate System Analysis Group at the University of Cape Town ran statistical analyses to determine that rainfall between the years 2015 and 2017 was very rare and severe.[14]

text: Some scientists believe this once in a millennium drought is being exacerbated by climate change with a one degree celsius increase in temperature over the past century.  Models predict Cape Town will increase another 0.25 degrees celsius in the next ten years, which would increase drought likelihood by up to seven times. Previous climate modeling suggested a likely decrease in rainfall due to climate change, and this is likely some of the first evidence supporting the model.  There is additional concern that several other cities will follow suit behind Cape Town in water scarcity.[15]

text: A major problem with Cape Town’s water dependence is that their water systems were built on the stable climate of previous years.  Climate change has changed precipitation patterns in the area, leading to less stable sources of water and a quicker rate of water loss than previously expected. Another large cause of water scarcity is agricultural use.  In 2016, Cape Town exported 113 million gallons of wine to Europe and the US. For each gallon of wine, between 666 and 1,357 gallons of water is used. One third of the water exported through the wine industry could be used for the 7 million people without access to water in South Africa. In addition, Cape Town exported roughly 231,000 tons of citrus fruits in 2017, resulting in an additional exportation of roughly 30 billion gallons of the area’s water.[16]

text: Timeline[edit]

text:
Water levels as a percentage of total dam capacity by year.[5]

Major dams
28 May 2018[17]
14 May 2018
15 May 2017
15 May 2016
15 May 2015
15 May 2014

Berg River Dam
43.3
39.2
32.4
27.2
54.0
90.5

Steenbras Lower
33.7
35.4
26.5
37.6
47.9
39.6

Steenbras Upper
60.0
59.6
56.7
56.9
57.8
79.1

Theewaterskloof Dam
14.9
12.0
15
31.3
51.3
74.5

Voelvlei Dam
16.9
14.5
17.2
21.3
42.5
59.5

Wemmershoek Dam
50.6
48.4
36
48.5
50.5
58.8

Total stored (megalitres)
215 283
191 843
190 300
279 954
450 429
646 137

Total % Storage
24.0
21.4
21.2
31.2
50.1
71.9

text: After good rains in 2013 and 2014, the city of Cape Town began experiencing a drought in 2015, the first of three consecutive years of dry winters brought on by the El Niño weather pattern and climate change.[18] Water levels in the city's dams declined from 71.9 percent in 2014 to 50.1 percent in 2015.[5] Water restrictions, in place at "Level 1" since 2005, were increased to Level 2 on 1 January 2016 and to Level 3 on 1 November 2016.

text: Significant droughts in other parts of South Africa ended in August 2016 through heavy rain and flooding in the interior of the country,[19] but the drought in the Western Cape remained.

text: Water restrictions were increased to Level 3B on 1 February 2017.

text: By the end of the dry season in May 2017, the drought was declared the city's worst in a century, with dams having less than 10 percent of their usable capacity.[20] Level 4 water restrictions were imposed, limiting the consumption of water to 100 litres per person per day.[21]

text: In June 2017 a significant storm hit the area, dropping up to 50 mm of rain, but not enough to break the drought.[22] Overall rainfall in 2017 was the lowest since 1933.[23]

text: With the dry summer season approaching, the city increased its existing water restrictions to Level 4B on 1 July 2017, and to Level 5 on 3 September 2017, banning most outdoor and non-essential use of water, encouraging the use of greywater for toilet flushing, and aiming to limit the per capita water consumption to 87 litres per day, for a total of 500 million litres per day.[24]

text: By early October 2017, following a low rainfall winter, Cape Town had an estimated five months before water levels would be depleted.[25] In the same month, the City of Cape Town issued an emergency water plan to be rolled-out in multiple phases depending on the severity of the water shortage. Phase 1 was "water rationing through extreme pressure reduction" which involved temporary water cuts and rationing. Phase 1 was implemented immediately with unannounced water cuts to a number of outlying neighbourhoods. In Phase 2 water will be shut off to most of the system except to places of key water access. Phase 3 is the point at which the city can no longer draw water from surface dams in the Western Cape Water Supply System and there is a limited period of time before the water supply system fails.[26]

text: In mid-October 2017 the City was criticised by water desalination companies for the slow pace of contract negotiations, high level of bureaucracy, lack of urgency, and the inadequate scale of the proposed water supply projects.[27] On 26 October 2017 it was announced that the Cape Town city manager would be given special powers to take drought-related actions that would not have to follow the city's normal decision making and approval process. This announcement came after a review of the city's decision making processes that found "certain aspects of the Preferential Procurement Policy Framework Act, the Municipal Finance Management Act and Supply Chain Management regulations, as well as the council's own Supply Chain Management Policy, failed to adequately provide for the City of Cape Town to 'deal effectively and timeously' with the disaster."[28]

text: Level 6 restrictions were imposed on 1 January 2018, and Level 6B on 1 February 2018, limiting consumption to 50 litres per person per day.

text: On 24 January 2018, the Western Cape provincial cabinet stated that it was the responsibility of the national government to fund the expansion of the water system as the "provision of bulk water supply is a national government mandate." The provincial cabinet also announced that it was drawing up plans with the South African Police Service for a strategy to deploy officers at water distribution points across the city after day zero.[29]

text: In mid-January 2018, Cape Town Mayor Patricia de Lille announced that the city would be forced to shut off most of the municipal water supply if conditions do not change. "Day Zero" would be declared when the water level of the city's major dams reached 13.5%, and Level 7 would be declared, with municipal water supplies largely switched off, and residents relying on 149 water collection points around the city to collect a daily ration of 25 litres of water per person.[30][31] This would further affect Cape Town's economy, because of employees having "to take time off from work to wait in line for water".[32] Water supply would be maintained in the city's CBD, in informal settlements (where water is already collected from central locations) and essential services such as hospitals. At the time of the announcement, Day Zero was projected to take place on 22 April 2018, shortly afterwards revised forward to 12 April.[33][34][35] The Day Zero date is projected based on the fortnightly change in dam storage levels, assuming that this rate will continue unchanged, with no further rainfall or change in water demand.[36]

text: In February 2018, the Groenland Water Users' Association (a representative body for farmers in the Elgin and Grabouw agricultural areas around Cape Town) began releasing an additional 10 billion litres of water into the Steenbras Dam.[37]

text: Residential water usage declined significantly under the 6B restrictions to a low of 511 million litres on March 12, the closest yet to the recommended level of 450 million litres per day. Agricultural use also declined significantly. As these reductions took effect and as water transferred from the Groenland Water Users' Association reached the city's water supply, Day Zero was moved back in stages from April to August,[38][39][40][41][36][3] and then postponed indefinitely.[42]

text: Severity of the drought[edit]

text: Research on long-term weather data done by the University of Cape Town found that the period from 2015-2017 has been the driest 3-year period since 1933, and 2017 was the driest year since 1933, and possibly earlier, since comparable data before 1933 was not available. It also found that a drought of this severity will statistically occur on average once every 311 years.[23] Modelling by Aurecon found that the drought was approximately a 1 in 400 year event.[43]

text: “Once lush city parks and golf courses have withered, and public restrooms now urge visitors to flush only when absolutely necessary”.[32] Cafes began using plastic and paper cups and plates to reduce dishwashing loads. Analysts “estimate that the water crisis will cost some 300,000 jobs in agriculture and tens of thousands more in the service, hospitality and food sectors”. [32]

text: Impact[edit]

text: In response to the water shortage, the agricultural sector reduced water consumption by 50 percent, contributing to the loss of 37,000 jobs in the sector nationally, and leading to an estimated 50,000 being pushed below the poverty line due to job losses and inflation due to increases in the price of food.[25] By February 2018 the agricultural sector had incurred R14 billion (US$1.17 billion) in losses due to the water shortage.[44]

text: In office buildings and many public places throughout Cape Town, water was removed from toilets to prevent flushing and aid in water conservation. Rainwater was directed to be added to the tank if the toilet needed flushing. However, residents have been directed not to flush the toilet if only urinating but use a disinfectant/scented spray afterwards. If defecating residents have been directed to use rainwater or greywater to flush. Hand sanitizer has also been provided in offices and public buildings to use instead of conventional handwashing to conserve water.

text: The city is urging residents to stock up on emergency drinking water. But the task is proving to be more difficult than residents thought. Stores are selling out of water the minute it is delivered and shopkeepers are uncertain when more will arrive. Residents can go to a natural spring to collect water but this means waiting in line for hours on end to fill their allotment. [32]

text: Public health[edit]

text: Residents of Cape Town have been restricted to only 50 litres (11 imp gal; 13 US gal) of water per person per day, and are encouraged to flush toilets less often and only using non-potable water, and to reduce the length and frequency of showers. This has led public health professionals to raise concerns of diseases spread via faecal-oral contamination as a result of less hand-washing.

text: Inadequate sanitation is a leading cause of diarrhoeal diseases, which kill 2.2 million every year, with most deaths occurring among children younger than 5 years of age. With a population around 3.81 million and a population density of around 1530 per square kilometer, diseases like cholera and others could spread rapidly without proper sanitation, especially in impoverished neighborhoods in Cape Town.  Without clean water the public health consequences continue as insects are attracted and reproduce in dirty waters, further spreading disease. The problem continues to snowball as standing water will bacteria and parasites start to grow.[45]

text: The Western Cape of South Africa has seen a “the second-highest incidence of listeriosis in South Africa”.[46] As a whole, South Africa has been victim to the largest outbreak of the disease on record. According to the Western Cape Health Department, 29 people have died of the disease since last year of 115 cases reported. Listeriosis can particularly threatens newborns as it can spread through lack of or inadequate hand-washing and failure to rinse vegetables, fruits, and other raw foods thoroughly. Officials warn that water-borne illnesses such as cholera, hepatitis A and typhoid fever “likely will become more prevalent” as residents begin storing water in contaminated containers.

text: Public health companies, research centres and health providers also worry about the impact the water crisis will have on health services. Some are thinking ahead to the impact of employees being unable to come into work because they are waiting in lines for water which are becoming longer and longer.[46]

text: Occupational health risks[edit]

text: Emergency shower and eyewash stations are an essential part of workplace safety for many laboratories and factories.  A steady supply of water is necessary in the event of harmful chemical exposure. Many Occupational Health and Safety requirements suggest that all emergency showers be able to pump 75 litres per minute for a minimum of 15 minutes.[47] This would use approximately three weeks of water. If these wash stations are banned or limited, workers who handle highly corrosive chemicals would be vulnerable.

text: Fire risk increases as environment and infrastructure become increasingly dry. This is especially significant for large industrial sites and warehousing as fire on one site can spread more easily to other buildings in close proximity. Fire suppression system may also fail due to reduced water pressure in high-use areas.[48]

text: Vulnerable population[edit]

text: In homes and orphanages, children are one of the most vulnerable populations in Cape Town to suffer from health effects of water scarcity. The feeding, washing, and sterilization of items required to care for children is water intensive.[49] Furthermore, “If schools in the Western Cape have their taps turned off on Day Zero, 1.1 million children could be left stranded without water.”[50]

text: Industry[edit]

text: The agriculture industry is one of the largest consumers of water. The wine industry in and surrounding Cape Town is a major tourist draw and is a significant aspect of the economy, employing 300,000 workers. The wineries drew 1.5 million tourists in 2017 and at the same time used a third of the water.[51] Depending on the region, a vineyard needs between 10 and 24 inches of rain to survive. South Africa’s wineries have received on average half as much precipitation in the past year. The stress is being felt by industry where less water is causing smaller berries and therefore smaller yield. The industry also has a disproportionate profit with only about 1% return on investment despite producing some of the most popular wines in the world.  The grape yield for 2018 could fall an estimated 20% from the 1.4 million tons produced in 2017, resulting in a 9% decrease in the volume of wine sold.[52]

text: The water crisis impacts organisations and industries that are not reliant on large volumes of water for their core operations as well such as corporate offices. The World Economic Forum's Global Risk Report 2015 [53] ranked the risk of a water crisis as the top risk in terms of impact. The cost of doing business in a drought affected area increases significantly.  As workers move away or are evacuated from drought-affected areas the local economies suffer.

text: Hydrological poverty[edit]

text: Hydrologic poverty tends to trap their people as they cannot afford to purchase food or water necessary for their society to become more affluent. An analyst estimates that with the current water crisis 300,000 jobs could be lost in agriculture and tens of thousands more in the service, hospitality and food sectors [29]. In Cape Town it is illegal to sell water from wells or rivers but people can still profit from the transport and labor. One resident who had been stockpiling water was charging $350 for a barrel of water. This is further alienating the more impoverished neighborhoods and citizens of getting necessary clean water. Those who are using over the allocated daily water are being fined between $41-$248 [29]. Yet this impact is further cementing the gap because the fine is likely insignificant for the wealthy and can be crippling for less affluent residents. Increases in hydrological poverty, by the reduction of available water, could increase deaths in Cape Town by 25 to 33 percent. [54]

text: Political responsibility[edit]

text: Responsibility for the water supply is shared by local, provincial and national government. Cape Town and the Western Cape are governed by the Democratic Alliance (DA), and Western Cape is the only province not run by the African National Congress (ANC), which has been in power nationally since 1994. The Water Act of 1998 puts the national government as the "public trustee" of the nation's water resources which must ensure that water is "protected, used, developed, conserved, managed and controlled in a sustainable and equitable manner, for the benefit of all persons". It says "the National Government, acting through the Minister, has the power to regulate the use, flow and control of all water in the Republic."[55] This has resulted in tension between the DA-led local and provincial government on the one hand, and the ANC-led national government on the other, with the parties at times blaming each other for the water crisis.[13]

text: The party leader of the Democratic Alliance, Mmusi Maimane, has taken a public role in announcements regarding the crisis, although he holds no role in government structures. This has led to criticism of complicating the situation by conflating party and state.[56]

text: Positives[edit]

text: This water crisis has increased research and investment in alternative water systems, which may ultimately help prevent other cities from falling into the same degree of water scarcity.  As climate change continues and the population grows, moving into urban areas, other cities will also face severe drought and will need to assess alternative methods for obtaining water.[57]

text: The potential for a culture change in water usage is also a positive result of this crisis.

text: Solutions[edit]

text: The city of Cape Town is currently working on constructing four new desalination plants as well as building new water wells and an effluent recycler. By January 2018, these projects were half way through completion. In addition, the city has been working on educating the public on reducing water consumption. This has led to successful drop in water consumption by 50 percent from 2015 to early 2018.[58]

text: In addition, Cape Town is working on producing product that accommodates the water availability of the region.[16]


document_title: Noli Me Tángere (novel)

question_text: when did jose rizal wrote noli me tangere

root

text: Noli Me Tángere (novel)

text: Title[edit]

text: Rizal entitled this novel as such drawing inspiration from "Touch Me Not" — the technical name of a particularly painful type of cancer (back in his time, it is unknown what is the modern name of said disease). He proposed to probe all the cancers of Filipino society that everyone else felt too painful to touch. [1]

tag: p

text: Early English translations of the novel used titles like An Eagle Flight (1900) and The Social Cancer (1912), disregarding the symbolism of the title, but the more recent translations were published using the original Latin title. It has also been noted[citation needed] by the Austro-Hungarian writer Ferdinand Blumentritt that "Noli Me Tángere" was a name used by ophthalmologists for cancer of the eyelids; that as an ophthalmologist himself Rizal was influenced by this fact is suggested in the novel's dedication, "To My household".

text: Background[edit]

text: José Rizal, a Filipino nationalist and medical doctor, conceived the idea of writing a novel that would expose the ills of Philippine society after reading Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin. He preferred that the prospective novel express the way Filipino culture was backward, anti-progress, anti-intellectual, and not conducive to the ideals of the Age of Enlightenment. He was then a student of medicine in the Universidad Central de Madrid.

text: In a reunion of Filipinos at the house of his friend Pedro A. Paterno in Madrid on 2 January 1884, Rizal proposed the writing of a novel about the Philippines written by a group of Filipinos. His proposal was unanimously approved by the Filipinos present at the tite, among whom were Pedro, Maximino Viola and Antonio Paterno, Graciano López Jaena, Evaristo Aguirre, Eduardo de Lete, Julio Llorente and Valentin Ventura. However, this project did not materialize. The people who agreed to help Rizal with the novel did not write anything. Initially, the novel was planned to cover and describe all phases of Filipino life, but almost everybody wanted to write about women. Rizal even saw his companions spend more time gambling and flirting with Spanish women. Because of this, he pulled out of the plan of co-writing with others and decided to draft the novel alone.

text: Plot[edit]

text: Having completed his studies in Europe, young Juan Crisostomo Magsalin Ibarra (Spanish: Juan Crisóstomo Ibarra y Magsalin) returns to the Philippines after a seven-year absence. In his honor, Don Santiago de los Santos, also known as "Captain Tiago", a family friend, throws a reunion party, attended by friars and other prominent figures. One of the guests, a Franciscan friar named Dámaso Vardolagas, the former curate of San Diego, belittled and slandered Ibarra.

text: The next day, Ibarra visits his betrothed María Clara, the beautiful daughter of Captain Tiago and affluent resident of Binondo. Their long-standing love was clearly manifested in this meeting, and María Clara cannot help but reread the letters her sweetheart had written her before he went to Europe. Before Ibarra left for San Diego in time for the town fiesta, Lieutenant Guevara, an officer in the Civil Guard, reveals to him the incidents preceding the death of his father, Don Rafael Ibarra, a rich hacendero of the town.

text: According to Guevara, Rafalel discovered the abuses and corruption committed by the friars. Although a practicing Catholic, Rafael's non-participation in the Sacraments, such as Confession and Mass were caused by another discovery of Damaso's evil acts. He was then alleged by Damaso as a subversive and was unjustly accused of being a heretic. Fr. Dámaso's animosity towards Ibarra's father is aggravated by another incident when Don Rafael helped out to stop a fight between a tax collector and a child, with the former's accidental death being blamed on him. People who thought ill of him surfaced with additional complaints. Rafael was imprisoned, and just when the matter was almost settled, he died of an illness in jail. Guevara adds that Rafael's remains, formerly interred at the local cemetery, were ordered by Dámaso to be exhumed and transferred to the Chinese cemetery, which Damaso believes is a burial place for heathens; people who do not acknowledge God few years past. However the graveyard caretakers, who sympathize Rafael and the Ibarra family while also despising the friars, instead threw the remains in the lake to fool Dámaso.

text: Revenge was not in Ibarra's plans, instead he carried through his father's plan of putting up a school, since he believed education would pave the way to his country's progress (all throughout the novel, the author refers to both Spain and the Philippines as two different countries but part of the same nation or family, with Spain seen as the mother and the Philippines as the daughter). During the inauguration of the school, Ibarra would have been killed in a sabotage had Elías — a mysterious man who had warned Ibarra earlier of a plot to assassinate him — not warned him of the plot (which involved the derrick supporting the cornerstone to be laid on the foundation collapsing on him). Instead the hired assassin was killed.

text: After the inauguration, Ibarra hosted a luncheon wherein Dámaso attended despite not being invited. The friar again insulted Ibarra, who ignored the priest's insolence. But when Dámaso slandered the memory of his dead father, Ibarra was no longer able to restrain himself. He picks up a knife and lunged at Dámaso, holding the knife to his neck. After Ibarra tells everyone the truth about the friar's evil acts and what he had done to insult his late father, he berates Dámaso and prepares to stab him to death only for Maria Clara to stop him out of mercy. Ibarra aborts his plan to kill Dámaso, and is excommunicated for assaulting a cleric after news of the incident reaches the Church. Damaso takes this opportunity to persuade the already-hesitant Tiago to forbid his daughter from marrying Ibarra. The friar instead wanted María Clara to marry Alfonso Linares de Espadaña, a Peninsular who just arrived from Spain.

text: With the help of the sympathetic Governor-General, Ibarra's excommunication was lifted by Friar Salvi and he (the Archbishop) receives him into the Church once again.Meanwhile, Friar Salvi went to the house of the alferez that a revolution was being plotted by Ibarra, but it's true mastermind was Lucas, not Ibarra. A revolt happened soon after, and both Spanish colonial officials and friars implicated Ibarra as its mastermind. Thus, he was arrested and detained, and was punished to death without having a trial.

text: Meanwhile, in Capitán Tiago's residence, a party was being held to announce the upcoming wedding of María Clara and Linares. Ibarra, with the help of Elías and the sympathetic Governor-General, took this opportunity to escape from prison. Before leaving, Ibarra spoke to María Clara and accused her of betraying him, thinking she gave the letter he wrote her to the jury. María Clara explained that she would never conspire against him, but that she was forced to surrender Ibarra's letter to Father Salví, in exchange for the letters written by her mother, Doña Pia, even before she, María Clara, was born. The letter states that Damaso is Maria Clara's real father.

text: María Clara, thinking Ibarra had been killed in the shooting incident, was greatly overcome with grief. Robbed of hope and severely disillusioned, she asked Dámaso to confine her to a nunnery. Dámaso reluctantly agreed when she threatened to take her own life, demanding, “the nunnery or death!”[2] Unbeknownst to her, Ibarra was still alive and able to escape, as it was Elías who had taken the shots.

text: On Christmas Eve, a fatally injured Elías awakens in a forested land owned by Ibarra's family, where he had instructed Ibarra to meet him. Instead, Elías found the altar boy Basilio cradling his already-dead mother, Sisa. The woman descended to madness after learning that Basilio and her other son, Crispín, were chased out of the convento by the sacristan mayor on suspicions of stealing two gold pieces.

text: Elías, convinced he would die soon, instructs Basilio to build a funeral pyre and cremate his and Sisa's corpses. He tells Basilio that, if nobody reaches the place, he was to return later and dig some of Ibarra's treasures and gold buried in a concealed spot near their graves then use them to get education. In his dying breath, he instructed Basilio to continue dreaming about freedom for his motherland with the words:

text:
“
I shall die without seeing the dawn break upon my homeland. You, who shall see it, salute it! Do not forget those who have fallen during the night.
”

tag: table

text: Elías died thereafter.

text: In the epilogue, it was explained that Tiago became addicted to opium and was seen to frequent the public opium den in Binondo. María Clara became a nun and Salví, who had lusted after her from the beginning of the novel, regularly used her to sate his carnal desires. One stormy evening, a beautiful yet insane woman was seen on the roof of the nunnery, crying and cursing the heavens for the fate it had handed her. While the woman was never identified by name, the novel insinuates that it was María Clara.

text: Publication history[edit]

text: Rizal finished the novel in December 1886. At first, according to one of Rizal's biographers, Rizal feared the novel might not be printed, and that it would remain unread. He was struggling with financial constraints at the time and thought it would be hard to pursue printing the novel.

text: Financial aid came from a friend named Máximo Viola; this helped him print the book at Berliner Buchdruckerei-Aktiengesellschaft in Berlin. Rizal was initially hesitant, but Viola insisted and ended up lending Rizal ₱300 for 2,000 copies. The printing was finished earlier than the estimated five months. Viola arrived in Berlin in December 1886, and by March 21, 1887, Rizal had sent a copy of the novel to his friend, Blumentritt.[3]

text: The book was banned by Spanish authorities in the Philippines, although copies were smuggled into the country. The first Philippine edition (and the second published edition) was finally printed in 1899 in Manila by Chofre y Compania in Escolta.

text: Recent English editions[edit]

text: On August 21, 2007, a 480-page English-language version of Noli me tangere was released to major Australian book stores. An Australian edition of the novel was published by Penguin Classics (an imprint by Penguin Books) to represent the company's "commitment to publish the major literary classics of the world."[4] American writer Harold Augenbraum, who first read Noli in 1992, translated the novel. A writer well-acquainted with translating other Hispanophone literary works, Augenbraum proposed to translate the novel after being asked for his next assignment in the publishing company. Intrigued by the novel and knowing more about it, Penguin nixed their plan of adapting existing English versions and instead translated it on their own.[4]

text: Reaction and legacy[edit]

text: This novel and its sequel, El filibusterismo (nicknamed El fili), were banned by Spanish authorities in the Philippines because of their portrayal of corruption and abuse by the colonial government and the Catholic Church. Copies of the book were nevertheless smuggled in and hidden, and when Rizal returned to the Philippines after completing medical studies, he quickly ran afoul of the local government. A few days after his arrival, Rizal was summoned to Malacañan Palace by Governor-General Emilio Terrero, who told him of the charge that Noli me tangere contained subversive elements. After a discussion, Terrero was appeased but still unable to offer resistance to pressure from the Church against the book. The persecution can be discerned from Rizal's letter to Leitmeritz:

text:
“
My book made a lot of noise; everywhere, I am asked about it. They wanted to anathematize me ['to excommunicate me'] because of it... I am considered a German spy, an agent of Bismarck, they say I am a Protestant, a freemason, a sorcerer, a damned soul and evil. It is whispered that I want to draw plans, that I have a foreign passport and that I wander through the streets by night...
”

text: Rizal was exiled to Dapitan in Mindanao, then later arrested for "inciting rebellion" based largely on his writings. Rizal was executed by firing squad at the Luneta outside Manila's walls on December 30, 1896 at the age of thirty-five, at the park that now bears his name.

text: Influence on Filipino nationalism[edit]

text: Rizal depicted nationality by emphasising the positive qualities of Filipinos: the devotion of a Filipina and her influence on a man's life, the deep sense of gratitude, and the solid common sense of the Filipinos under the Spanish regime.

text: The work was instrumental in creating a unified Filipino national identity and consciousness, as many natives previously identified with their respective regions. It lampooned, caricatured and exposed various elements in colonial society. Two characters in particular have become classics in Filipino culture: María Clara, who has become a personification of the ideal Filipino woman, loving and unwavering in her loyalty to her spouse; and the priest Father Dámaso, who reflects the covert fathering of illegitimate children by members of the Spanish clergy.

text: The book indirectly influenced the Philippine Revolution of independence from Spain, even though Rizal actually advocated direct representation to the Spanish government and an overall larger role for the Philippines within Spain's political affairs. In 1956, Congress passed Republic Act 1425, more popularly known as the Rizal Law, which requires all levels in Philippine schools to teach the novel as part of their curriculum. Noli me tangere is being taught to third year secondary school students, while its sequel El filibusterismo is being taught for fourth year secondary school students. The novels are incorporated to their study and survey of Philippine literature.[5] Both of Rizal's novels were initially banned from strict Catholic educational institutions given its negative portrayal of the Church, but this taboo has been largely superseded as religious schools conformed to the Rizal Law.

text: Major characters[edit]

text: Crisóstomo Ibarra[edit]

text: Juan Crisóstomo Ibarra y Magsalin, commonly referred to the novel as Ibarra or Crisóstomo, is the novel's protagonist. The mestizo (mixed-race) son of Filipino businessman Don Rafael Ibarra, he studied in Europe for seven years.[6] Ibarra is also María Clara's fiancé.

text: Maria Clara[edit]

text: María Clara de los Santos y Alba, commonly referred to as María Clara, is Ibarra's fiancée and the most beautiful and widely celebrated girl in San Diego.[7] She was raised by Capitán Tiago de los Santos, and his cousin, Isabel. In the later parts of the novel, she was revealed to be an illegitimate daughter of Father Dámaso, the comer curate of the town, and Doña Pía Alba, Capitán Tiago's wife, who had died giving birth to María Clara.[8]

text: At the novel's end, a heartbroken yet resolved María Clara entered the Beaterio de Santa Clara (a nunnery) after learning the truth of her parentage and mistakenly believing her lover Crisóstomo to have been killed. In the epilogue, Rizal stated that it is unknown if María Clara is still living within the walls of the convent or she is already dead.[9]

text: Kapitán Tiago[edit]

text: Don Santiago de los Santos, known by his nickname Tiago and political title Kapitán Tiago is it is said that Kapitán Tiago is the richest man in the region of Binondo and he possessed real properties in Pampanga and Laguna de Bay. He is also said to be a good Catholic, a friend of the Spanish government and thus was considered a Spaniard by the colonial elite. Capitán Tiago never attended school, so he became the domestic helper of a Dominican friar who gave him an informal education. He later married Pía Alba from Santa Cruz.[7]

text: Padre Dámaso[edit]

text: Dámaso Verdolagas, or Padre Dámaso is a Franciscan friar and the former parish curate of San Diego. He is notorious for speaking with harsh words, highhandedness, and his cruelty during his ministry in the town.[10] An enemy of Crisóstomo's father, Don Rafael Ibarra, Dámaso is revealed to be María Clara's biological father.[8] Later, he and María Clara had bitter arguments whether she would marry Alfonso Linares de Espadaña (which he preferred) or to enter the nunnery (her desperate alternative).[11] At the end of the novel, he is again reassigned to a distant town and later found dead in his bed.[9]

text: Elías[edit]

text: Elías is Ibarra's mysterious friend and ally. Elías made his first appearance as a pilot during a picnic of Ibarra and María Clara and her friends.[12] He wants to revolutionize the country and to be freed from Spanish oppression.[13]

text: The 50th chapter of the novel explores the past of Elías and history of his family. In the past, Ibarra's great-grandfather condemned Elías' grandfather (Ingkong) of burning a warehouse which led to misfortune for Elías' family. This led to Ingkong to commit suicide. Meanwhile, Impong (Ingkong's wife, Elias' grandmother), who resorted to prostitution to earn money, was accused of killing her husband as she did not bury him. She was to be punished after she gave birth to her second child, who unfortunately died upon birth. In order to avoid her punishment, she, and her son fled to another province. There, she gave birth to another boy (Elias' father). Seeking revenge, the eldest son (named "Balat" ) became a rebel. One day, Impong found Balat's head hanged on a tree while the other parts of the body were scattered around the province. This shocked Impong which caused her to die. The youngest son fled upon finding out as he knew he will be accused. He fled to Tayabas where he met and fell in love with a girl but her father refused his hand as her family had discovered his past and lineage. Being rich, the father imprisoned the youngest son, but got the girl pregnant. The girl died upon giving birth to twins, a girl and a boy named Elias. In the long run, Elías and his twin sister were raised by their maternal grandfather. They lived luxuriously, but then a servant revealed to them their true parentage, and that their father was one of the servants. The father died after revealing to Elias and her sister their history. One day, his sister disappeared which led him to search for her. His search led him into different places, and finally, he became a fugitive and subversive.

text: When Ibarra had been escaped in prison, they had been attacked Guardia Civil and Elias was hit by the shots of the civils and command Ibarra to hide.Two days later, he command Basilio to get things to cremate Sisa and him.After a long last words he passed away.[14]

text: Pilosopo Tacio[edit]

text: Filosofo Tacio, known by his Tagalized name Pilosopong Tasyo, is another major character in the story. Seeking for reforms from the government, he expresses his ideals in paper written in a cryptographic alphabet similar from hieroglyphs and Coptic figures[15] hoping "that the future generations may be able to decipher it" and realized the abuse and oppression done by the conquerors.[16]

text: His full name is only known as Don Anastasio. The educated inhabitants of San Diego labeled him as Filosofo Tacio (Tacio the Sage) while others called him as Tacio el Loco (Tacio the Insane) due to his exceptional talent for reasoning.

text: Doña Victorina[edit]

text: Doña Victorina de los Reyes de Espadaña, commonly known as Doña Victorina, is an ambitious Filipina who classifies herself as a Spanish and mimics Spanish ladies by putting on heavy make-up.[10] The novel narrates Doña Victorina's younger days: she had lots of admirers, but she spurned them all because none of them were Spaniards. Later on, she met and married Don Tiburcio de Espadaña, an official of the customs bureau ten years her junior.[17] However, their marriage is childless.

text: Her husband assumes the title of medical "doctor" even though he never attended medical school; using fake documents and certificates, Tiburcio illegally practices medicine. Tiburcio's usage of the title Dr. consequently makes Victorina assume the title Dra. (doctora, female doctor).[17] Apparently, she uses the whole name Doña Victorina de los Reyes de de Espadaña, with double de to emphasize her marriage surname.[17] She seems to feel that this awkward titling makes her more "sophisticated."

text: Sisa, Crispín, and Basilio[edit]

text: Sisa, Crispín, and Basilio represent a Filipino family persecuted by the Spanish authorities:

text:
Narcisa or Sisa is the deranged mother of Basilio and Crispín. Described as beautiful and young, although she loves her children very much, she can not protect them from the beatings of her husband, Pedro.
Crispín is Sisa's 7-year-old son. An altar boy, he was unjustly accused of stealing money from the church. After failing to force Crispín to return the money he allegedly stole, Father Salví and the head sacristan killed him. It is not directly stated that he was killed, but a dream of Basilio's suggests that Crispín died during his encounter with Padre Salví and his minion.
Basilio is Sisa's 10-year-old son. An acolyte tasked with ring the church's bells for the Angelus, he faced the dread of losing his younger brother and the descent of his mother into insanity. At the end of the novel, a dying Elías requested Basilio to cremate him and Sisa in the woods in exchange for a chest of gold located nearby. He will later play a major role in El Filibusterismo.

tag: ul

text: Due to their tragic but endearing story, these characters are often parodied in modern Filipino popular culture.

text: Salomé is Elías' sweetheart. She lived in a little house by the lake, and though Elías would like to marry her, he tells her that it would do her or their children no good to be related to a fugitive like himself. In the original publication of Noli, the chapter that explores the identity of Elías and Salomé was omitted, classifying her as a total non-existing character. This chapter, entitled Elías y Salomé was probably the 25th chapter of the novel. However, recent editions and translations of Noli provides the inclusion of this chapter, either on the appendix or renamed as Chapter X (Ex).

text: Other characters[edit]

text: There are a number of secondary and minor characters in Noli Me Tángere. Items indicated inside the parenthesis are the standard Filipinization of the Spanish names in the novel.

text:
Padre Hernándo de la Sibyla – a Dominican friar. He is described as short and has fair skin. He is instructed by an old priest in his order to watch Crisóstomo Ibarra.
Padre Bernardo Salví – the successor of Padre Dámaso as the Franciscan curate of San Diego, and who secretly lusts after María Clara. He is described to be very thin and sickly. It is also hinted that his surname, "Salvi" is the shorter form of "Salvi" ("salvation"), or "Salvi" is short for "salvaje" ("savage", "wild") hinting at the fact that he is willing to kill an innocent child, Crispín, who he accused of stealing money worth 2 onzas.
El Alférez (Alperes) – the unnamed chief of the Guardia Civil and husband of Doña Consolación. He is the sworn enemy of the priests in the town's power struggle.
Doña Consolación – wife of the Alférez, nicknamed as la musa de los guardias civiles (The muse of the Civil Guard) or la Alféreza. She was a former laundrywoman who passes herself as a peninsular, and is best remembered for her abusive treatment of Sisa.
Don Tiburcio de Espadaña – A Spanish quack doctor who is weak and submissive to his pretentious wife, Doña Victorina.
Tenyente Guevarra - a close friend of Don Rafael Ibarra. He reveals to Crisóstomo how Don Rafael Ibarra's death came about.
Alfonso Linares – A distant nephew of Tiburcio de Espadaña, the would-be fiancé of María Clara. Although he presented himself as a practitioner of law, it was later revealed that he is, like Don Tiburcio, a fraud. He later died from medications Don Tiburcio had given him.
Tíya Isabel – Capitán Tiago's cousin, who helped raise María Clara and served as a surrogate mother figure.
Governor-General (Gobernador-Heneral) – Unnamed in the novel, he is the most powerful colonial official in the Philippines. He harbours great disdain for the friars and corrupt officials, and sympathises with Ibarra.
Don Filipo Lino – vice mayor of the town of San Diego, leader of the liberals.
Padre Manuel Martín – he is the linguist curate of a nearby town who delivers the sermon during San Diego's fiesta.
Don Rafael Ibarra – the deceased father of Crisóstomo Ibarra. Though he was the richest man in San Diego, he was also the most virtuous and generous.
Doña Pía Alba – wife of Capitán Tiago and mother of María Clara, she had died giving birth to her daughter. In reality, she was raped by Padre Dámaso.
Don Pedro Eibarramendia - Crisóstomo Ibarra's Basque great-grandfather who falsely accused Elias's grandfather and ruined his family. The surname was later shortened to Ibarra, hence Elias does not realize the relationship at first.
Albino - a seminarian who follows Crisostomo Ibarra in a picnic with Maria Clara's friends.

text: Translations[edit]

text: Many English and Tagalog translations have been made of Noli Me Tángere, as well as a few other languages. The copyrights of the original text have expired, and the copyrights of some translators have also expired, so certain translations are in the public domain and have been put online by Project Gutenberg.

text: English[edit]

text:
Friars and Filipinos (1900) by Frank Ernest Gannett. Available freely via Project Gutenberg.[18]
The Social Cancer (1912) by Charles Derbyshire. Available freely via Project Gutenberg.[19]
"Noli Me Tángere": A Complete English Translation of Noli Me Tángere from the Spanish of Dr. José Rizal (1956) by Senator Camilo Osías.[20]
The Lost Eden (1961) by Leon Ma. Guerrero.[21]
Noli Me Tángere (1997) by Maria Soledad Locsin.[22]
Noli Me Tángere (2006) by Harold Augenbraum. Published by Penguin Classics.[23]
Noli Me Tángere: A Shortened Version in Modern English Translated with an Introduction and Notes (2016) by Nicholas Tamblyn. [24]

text: Tagalog[edit]

text:
Noli Me Tángere (also titled Huwag Akong Salangin Nino Man/Nobody Dare Touch Me) (1906) by Dr. Pascual H. Poblete. Available freely via Project Gutenberg.[25]
Noli Me Tángere (1997) by Virgilio Almario.[26]
Noli Me Tángere (1999) by Ofelia Jamilosa-Silapan, Tagalog translation of the English translation by León Ma. Guerrero.

text: Other languages[edit]

text:
Au Pays des Moines (In the Land of Monks) (1899, French) by Henri Lucas and Ramon Sempau. Available freely via Project Gutenberg.[27]
N'y touchez pas! (Don't touch it!) (1980, French) Translation by Jovita Ventura Castro, Collection UNESCO, Connaissance de l'Orient, Gallimard, Paris.
Noli me tángere (1987, German) by Annemarie del Cueto-Mörth. Published by Insel Verlag.
Noli me tángere (2003, Italian) by Vasco Caini. Published by Debatte editore, Livorno, Italy, ISBN 88-86705-26-3.
Noli me Tángere: Filippijnsche roman (Noli Me Tángere: Filipino Novel) (1912, Dutch) by Abraham Anthony Fokker, published by Soerabaijasch Handelsblad. Available freely via Project Gutenberg.[28]

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: The Noli has been adapted for literature, theater, television, and film.

text:
1915: Noli Me Tángere, a silent film adaptation by Edward M. Gross.[29]
1930: Noli Me Tángere, another silent film adaptation, directed by José Nepomuceno under Malayan Movies.[30]
1951: National Artist for Cinema Gerardo de León directed a motion picture titled Sisa, starring Anita Linda in the role of the titular character.
1957: Noli Me Tángere: The Opera, an opera in Filipino (Tagalog) composed by National Artist for Music Felipe Padilla de Leon with libretto by National Artist for Visual Arts Guillermo Tolentino. World premiere in 1957 at Far Eastern University Auditorium.[31] Staged in 1974 at Cultural Center of the Philippines (CCP) Main Theater. Staged in 1987 by Fides Cuyugan-Asensio's Music Theater Foundation at the CCP.[32] Staged in 2011 (Nov) and 2012 (July-Aug) by Dulaang Unibersidad ng Pilipinas at Guerrero Theater, University of the Philippines.[33][34] Staged in 2013, one night only, by Far Eastern University as part of its 85th anniversary at Far Eastern University Auditorium.[35] Staged in 2014, produced by J&S Productions at Newport Performing Arts Theater, Resorts World Manila. Staged in 2017, produced by J&S Productions at Tanghalang Nicanor Abelardo, CCP.[36]

text: International stagings: In 1988, Music Theater Foundation's 1987 production was toured in the USA with reduced performers in 1988 in Chicago, Detroit, St. Louis and Los Angeles.[37] The first documented staging by a local group in the USA was in 2012, produced by KGB Productions and staged by da Corneto Opera Company at Harris Theater for Music and Dance, Chicago, performed in Filipino with English supertitles.[38] Staged in 2013 in New York, produced by Edwin Josue at the Sylvia and Danny Kaye Playhouse, Hunter College.[39] Staged in 2014 in Washington, DC, produced by Edwin Josue at Eisenhower Theater, Kennedy Center.[40] Staged in 2016 in Richmond, Virginia, produced by Capitol Opera Richmond at Henrico Theatre.[41] To be staged in June 2017 in Boston, produced by KGB Productions and staged by Opera Brittenica, venue TBA.[42]

text:
1961: Noli Me Tángere, a faithful film adaptation of the novel, was directed by Gerardo de León for Bayanihan-Arriva Productions, featuring Eddie del Mar[43] in the role of Crisóstomo Ibarra.[44] Released for the birth centenary of José Rizal, the motion picture was awarded the Best Picture in the 10th FAMAS Awards.
1979: Kanser (Noli Me Tangere), play in Filipino (Tagalog) written by Jomar Fleras. World premiere in 1979 at Cultural Center of the Philippines by theater group Bulwagang Gantimpala.[45] It has been staged annually by Gantimpala Theater (the group's new name) since 1989.[46] In 2015, it was adapted into a sung-through musical by Gantimpala Theater with music composed by Joed Balsamo.[47]
1992: Noli Me Tángere, a 13-episode TV series by Eddie S. Romero. This adaptation features Joel Torre in the role of Crisóstomo Ibarra, Chin Chin Gutierrez as María Clara, and Tetchie Agbayani as Sisa.
1995: Noli Me Tángere, a Filipino (Tagalog) musical adaptation of the novel staged by theater company Tanghalang Pilipino with libretto (book and lyrics) by National Artist for Literature Bienvenido Lumbera and music by Ryan Cayabyab. It premiered in 1995 at the Cultural Center of the Philippines, directed by Nonon Padilla. It went on to tour Japan. It starred John Arcilla and Audie Gemora alternating as Crisóstomo Ibarra, Monique Wilson as María Clara, and Regine Velasquez as Sisa. Bernardo Bernardo and Bodjie Pascua alternated as Padre Damaso, and Nanette Inventor and Sheila Francisco as Dona Victorina. It was restaged in 2005, directed by Paul Morales, and in 2011, directed by Audie Gemora. In 2014, it was staged in Los Angeles, directed by Olga Natividad.[48]
Several excerpts from Noli Me Tángere were dramatized in the 1998 film José Rizal, with Joel Torre as Crisóstomo Ibarra and Monique Wilson as María Clara.
1998: Sisa, a remake of the 1951 film of the same name. Written and directed by Mario O'Hara.[49]
2005: Noli Me Tángere 2, a modern literary adaptation of the novel written by Roger Olivares.[50]
2008–2009: Noli at Fili: Dekada 2000, a stage adaptation of Noli Me Tángere and El Filibusterismo by the Philippine Educational Theater Association, set in the present day, in the fictional town of Maypajo in the province of San Lorenzo. Written by Nicanor G. Tiongson and directed by Soxie Topacio.[50][51]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text:
A series of streets in the Sampaloc area of Manila are named after the characters Ibarra, Sisa and Basilio.
A street in Makati city is called Ibarra Street between Matanzas and Guernica streets
A restaurant serving Filipino cuisine at Greenbelt in Makati is called Restaurante Pia y Damaso,[52] after María Clara's biological parents.
A restaurant chain called Crisostomo features dishes from Filipino history and culture such as "Atcharra ni Ibarra". Its sister restaurant is called Elías.