document_title: World War I casualties

question_text: how many french soldiers were killed in ww1

text: World War I casualties

text: Classification of casualty statistics[edit]

text: Casualty statistics for World War I vary to a great extent; estimates of total deaths range from 9 million to over 15 million.[1] Military casualties reported in official sources list deaths due to all causes, including an estimated 7 to 8 million combat related deaths (killed or died of wounds) and another two to three million military deaths caused by accidents, disease and deaths while prisoners of war. Official government reports listing casualty statistics were published by the United States and Great Britain.[2][3] These  secondary sources published during the 1920s, are the source of the statistics in reference works listing casualties in World War I.[4][5][6][7][8] This article summarizes the  casualty statistics published in the official government reports of the United States and Great Britain as well as France, Italy, Belgium, Germany, Austria and Russia. More recently the research of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) has revised the military casualty statistics of the UK and its allies; they include in their listing of military war dead personnel outside of combat theaters and civilians recruited from Africa, the Middle East and China who provided logistical and service support in combat theaters.[9][10][11][12][13] The casualties of these support personnel recruited outside of Europe were previously not included with British war dead, however the casualties of the Labour Corps recruited from the British Isles were included in the rolls of British war dead published in 1921.[14] The methodology used by each nation to record and classify casualties was not uniform, a general caveat regarding casualty figures is that they cannot be considered comparable in all cases.[15]

text: First World War civilian deaths are "hazardous to estimate" according to Michael Clodfelter who maintains that "the generally accepted figure of noncombatant deaths is 6.5 million."[16] The figures listed below include about 6 million excess civilian deaths due to war related privations, that are often omitted from other compilations of World War I casualties. The war brought about malnutrition and disease caused by the U-boat Campaign and the Blockade of Germany which disrupted trade resulting in food shortages. The civilian deaths in the Ottoman Empire include the Armenian Genocide, Assyrian Genocide, and Greek Genocide. Civilian deaths due to the Spanish flu have been excluded from these figures, whenever possible. The figures do not include deaths during the Russian Civil War and the Turkish War of Independence.

text: Casualties in the borders of 1914–18[edit]

text:
Nation

Population (millions)

Combat Deaths and Missing in Action (included in total Military deaths)

Total Military deaths (from all causes)

Civilian deaths (military action and crimes against humanity)

Increase in civilian deaths (malnutrition and disease excluding Influenza pandemic)

Total deaths

Deaths as % of population

Military wounded

Allies and co-belligerents of World War I

 Australia b

5.0

61,527 [17]

59,330[18]to 62,149[9]

59,330to 62,149

1.19%  to 1.24%

152,171 [18]

 Canada d

7.2

56,638[19]

56,639[18] to 64,996 [9]
1,963[20][21]

58,639 to 66,996

0.81%  to 0.93%

149,732[18]

 India g

315.1

64,449[18]

64,449[18]  to 73,905[9]

64,449 to 73,905

0.02%  to 0.02%

69,214 [18]

 New Zealand l

1.1

18,166[22]

16,711[18] to 18,060 [9]

16,711 to 18,060

1.52%  to 1.64%

41,317[18]

 Newfoundland m

0.2

1,204[18]

1,204[18] to 1,570[23](included with UK)

1,204to 1,570

0.6%  to 0.79%

2,314[18]

 South Africa r

6.0

7,121[18]

7,121[18] to 9,726[9]

7,121 to 9,726

0.12%  to 0.16%

12,029[18]

 United Kingdom(and Colonies) s

45.4

744,000s1

744,000s1
 to 887,858[9]

16,829[24][25]
[26]

107,000[27]

867,829 to 1,011,687

1.91% to 2.23%

1,675,000s1

Sub-total for British Empire

380.0

953,104

949,454 to 1,118,264

18,829

107,000

1,077,283to 1,244,093

0.28%  to 0.33%

2,101,077

East-Central Africaa

est. 750,000a[28]
est. 750,000a

 Belgium c

7.4

38,170[29]

38,170[29]to 58,637[30]

23,700[31]

62,000[32]

123,870to 144,337

1.67%  to 1.95%

44,686[33]

 France e

39.6

1,150,000[34][35]

1,357,000[36]to 1,397,800[37]

40,000[16][38][39]

300,000[32]

1,697,000to 1,737,800

4.29%  to 4.39%

4,266,000[33]

 Greece f

4.8

5,000[40]

5,000[40] to 26,000[41]

150,000[42]

155,000 to 176,000

3.23%  to 3.67%

21,000[33]

 Italy h

35.6

460,000[29]

460,000[29] to 651,000[43]

3,400[44]

589,000[45]

1,052,400 to 1,243,400

2.96%  to 3.49%

947,000[33]

 Empire of Japan i

53.6

300[33]

300[33] to 4,661[46]

300 to 4,661

0%  to 0.01%

907[33]

 Montenegro k

0.5

3,000[33]

3,000[33] to 13,325 [46]

3,000 to 13,325

0.6%  to 2.67%

10,000[33]

 Portugal n

6.0

7,222[29]

7,222[29]

13[47]

82,000[48]

89,235

1.49%

13,751[29]

 Romania o

7.5

335,706[40]

250,000[46] to 335,706[40]

130,000[49]

200,000[49]

580,000 to 665,706

7.73%  to 8.88%

120,000 [33]

 Russian Empire p

175.1

1,700,000[33][50]

1,700,000[33] to2,254,369[51]

410,000[52]

730,000[52]

2,840,000 to3,394,369

1.62% to 1.94%

3,749,000[51] to4,950,000[33]

 Serbia q

4.5

127,500[50]

300,000[53]to 450,000 [54]

450,000[53]to 800,000[54]

750,000 to 1,250,000

16.67%  to 27.78%

133,148[33]

 United States t

92.0

53,402[55]

116,708[56][57]

757[58]

117,465

0.13%

204,002[56]

Total (Entente Powers)

806.6

4,833,404

5,186,854 to 6,433,692

626,699

3,420,000to 3,770,000

9,235,553 to 10,080,391

1.05%  to 1.25%

11,611,271 to 12,812,271

Central Powers

 Austria-Hungary u

51.4

1,016,200[59][60]

1,200,000[33][61]to 1,494,200 [60]

120,000[62]

467,000[63]

1,787,000 to 2,081,200

3.48%  to 4.05%

3,620,000[64]

 Bulgaria v

4.5

87,500[33]

87,500[33][65]

100,000[66]

187,500

3.41%

152,390 [33][65]

 German Empire w

64.9

1,800,000[33][67][68]

2,037,000[69][70]

720[71]

424,000.[72] to 763,000 [73][74]

2,198,420 to 2,800,720

3.39% to  4.32%

4,215,662 [69]

 Ottoman Empire x

21.3

305,085[75]

325,000[33]  to 771,844[76]

1,500,000.[77]

1,000,000[78]

2,825,000 to 3,271,844

13.26%  to 15.36%

400,000[33] to 763,753[76]

Total (Central Powers)

142.1

3,208,785

3,386,200 to 4,390,544

1,620,720

1,991,000 to 2,330,000

6,997,920  to 8,341,264

4.92%  to 5.87%

8,388,052to 8,751,805

Neutral nations

 Denmark y

2.7

700[79]

700

0.03%

—

 Luxembourg j

0.3

See footnote

 Norway z

2.4

1,180.[46]

1,180

0.08%

—

 Sweden az

5.6

800.[46]

800

0.02%

—

Grand total

959.7

8,042,189

8,573,054 to 10,824,236

2,250,099

5,411,000  to 6,100,000

15,486,153 to 19,174,335

1.69%  to 1.89%

22,101,100  to 23,665,873

text: The source of population data is: Haythornthwaite, Philip J., The World War One Source Book pp. 382–383 [80]

text: Casualties by post-war (1924) borders[edit]

text: The war involved multi-ethnic empires such as Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary and Turkey. Many ethnic groups in these territories were conscripted for military service. The casualties listed by modern borders are also included in the above table of figures for the countries that existed in 1914. The casualty figures by 1924 post war borders are rough estimates by  Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century, the sources of his figures were published in the Soviet era and in post-Soviet Russia.[81] According to the 1914–1918 Online Encyclopedia "In addition to losses suffered by African military personnel and the laborers supporting their operations, very large, but unknown numbers of African civilians perished during the war."  They made an estimate of civilian losses in Africa of 750,000 based on the study by the Vadim Erlikman. They noted that Erlikman's figures are based on the work of the Russian demographer Boris Urlanis, they noted that these estimates were "imprecise" and "could be used to provide a frame of reference for further inquiry".[28] The Oxford History of World War One notes that "In east and central Africa the harshness of the war resulted in acute shortages of food with famine in some areas, a weakening of populations, and epidemic diseases which killed hundreds of thousands of people and also cattle."[82]

text: Austria

text: The following estimates of Austrian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 175,000: including military losses 120,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW deaths in captivity of 30,000. Civilian dead due to famine and disease were 25,000.[83]

text: Belarus

text: The following estimates of Belarusian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 130,000: including military losses 70,000 with the Russian forces. Civilian dead were 60,000.[84]

text: Ukraine

text: The following estimates of Ukrainian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 590,000: including military losses 450,000,(Erlikman did not break out military losses between Austro-Hungarian and Russian armed forces). Civilian dead were 140,000.[85]

text: Democratic Republic of the Congo

text: The Belgian Congo was part of the Kingdom of Belgium during the war. A Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia estimated a total of 155,000 deaths in the Belgian Congo during the war.[86]

text: Czechoslovakia

text: Czechoslovakia was part of Austro-Hungary during the war. The estimates of Czechoslovak deaths within 1991 borders were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 185,000: including military losses 110,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW deaths in captivity of 45,000. Civilian dead due to famine and disease were 30,000.[87] The Czechoslovak Legions fought with the armies of the Allies during the war.

text: Estonia

text: Estonia was part of the Russian Empire during the war and about 100,000 Estonians served in the Russian Army. Of them about 10,000 were killed.[88]

text: Finland

text: From 1809 Finland was an autonomous Grand Duchy in the Russian Empire until the end of 1917. In 1924 the Finnish government in a reply to a questionnaire from the International Labour Office, an agency of the League of Nations, reported 26,517 were dead and missing in World War I.[46]

text: French colonies

text: The following estimates of deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia.[89]

text: Total: 263,000

text: German colonies

text: The following estimates of deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia.[90]

text: Total: 123.000

text: Hungary

text: The following estimates of Hungarian deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 385,000: including military losses 270,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW deaths in captivity of 70,000. Civilian dead due to famine and disease were 45,000.[91]

text: Ireland

text: Ireland was a part of the UK during World War I. Five-sixths of the island left to form the Irish Free State, now the Republic of Ireland, in 1922. A total of 206,000 Irishmen served in the British forces during the war.[92] The number of Irish deaths in the British Army recorded by the registrar general was 27,405.[93] A significant number of these casualties were from what, in 1920, became Northern Ireland. While 49,400 soldiers died serving in Irish divisions (the 10th, 16th and 36th), although not all of the men serving in these divisions were natives of Ireland and many Irish who died in non-Irish regiments are not listed.[94][95] For example, 29% of the casualties in the 16th Division were not natives of Ireland.[93] Neither does it include Irish emigrants in Britain who enlisted there and are not categorised as Irish. Australia lists 4,731 of its first World War soldiers as having been born in Ireland and more than 19,000 Irish-born soldiers served in the Canadian Corps. According to research done by John Horne of Trinity College Dublin, there are at least 30,986 soldiers who were born in Ireland that died; however, that's considered a "conservative" estimate and is very likely to raise. [96]

text: Mozambique

text: The losses of Portuguese Mozambique were estimated by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia.[89] 52,000

text: Poland

text: Poland was an annexed territory of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia, from 1795 to 1918. By late 1915, Germany had complete control over modern-day Poland. A 2005 Polish study estimated 3,376,800 Poles were conscripted into the armed forces of the occupying powers during World War I, an additional 300,000 were conscripted for forced labor by the Germans. The Russians and Austrians forcibly resettled 1.6 to 1.8 million persons from the war zone in Poland.[97] According to Michael Clodfelter, Polish war dead were 1,080,000, whilst 200,000 Polish civilians were killed in the fighting on the Eastern Front; 870,000 men served in the German, Austrian and Russian armies.[16] Another estimate made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century, put total Polish war dead at 640,000, including military losses of 270,000 Poles conscripted, civilian losses of 120,000 due to military operations and 250,000 caused by famine and disease.[98] The ethnic Polish Blue Army served with the French Army. The ethnic Polish Legions fought as part of the Austro-Hungarian Army on the Eastern Front.

text: Romania

text:
The territory of Transylvania was part of Austria-Hungary during World War I. The following estimates of Romanian deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead: 748,000, including military losses of 220,000 with the Romanian forces, 150,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW deaths in captivity of 48,000. Civilian dead were as follows due to famine and disease: 200,000, killed in military operations 120,000 and 10,000 dead in Austrian prisons.
[49]

text: British colonies

text: Britain recruited Indian, Chinese, native South African, Egyptian and other overseas labour to provide logistical support in the combat theatres.[99] Included with British casualties in East Africa are the deaths of 44,911 recruited labourers.[100] The CWGC reports that nearly 2,000 workers from the Chinese Labour Corps are buried with British war dead in France.[101]

text: The following estimates of British Empire colonial military deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia.[102]

text: Total: 141.573

text: Kingdom of Yugoslavia

text: The following estimates are for Yugoslavia within the 1991 borders.

text: Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Vojvodina (Now part of Serbia) were part of Austria-Hungary during World War I. Serbia, which included Macedonia, and Montenegro was an independent nation. The Yugoslav historian Vladimir Dedijer put the total losses of the Yugoslav lands at 1.9 million, of which 43% were from Serbia.[104] The following estimates of Yugoslav deaths, within 1991 borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead: 996,000 including military losses, 260,000 with the Serbian forces, 80,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces, 13,000 with Montenegrin forces and POW deaths in captivity of 93,000. Civilian dead were as follows due to famine and disease: 400,000, killed in military operations: 120,000 and 30,000 dead in Austrian prisons or executed.[105]

text: Nepal

text: During World War I, the Nepalese army was expanded and six new regiments, totaling more than 20,000 troops—all volunteers—were sent to India, most of them to the North-West Frontier Province, to release British and Indian troops for service overseas. Simultaneously, the Nepalese government agreed to maintain recruitment at a level that would sustain the existing British Gurkha units and allow the establishment of additional ones. The battalions were increased to thirty-three with the addition of 55,000 new recruits and Gurkha units were placed at the disposal of the British high command for service on all fronts. Many volunteers were assigned to non-combat units, such as the Army Bearer Corps and the labour battalions but they also were in combat in France, Turkey, Palestine and Mesopotamia. The Rana prime ministers urged Nepalese males to fight in the war. Of the more than 200,000 Nepalese who served in the British army, there were some 20,000 Gurkha casualties included above with the British Indian Army.[106]

text: Footnotes[edit]

text: ^a  East and  Central Africa

text:
The conflict in East Africa caused enormous civilian casualties. The Oxford History of World War One notes that "In east and central Africa the harshness of the war resulted in acute shortages of food with famine in some areas, a weakening of populations, and epidemic diseases which killed hundreds of thousands of people and also cattle."[82] According to the 1914–1918 Online Encyclopedia "In addition to losses suffered by African military personnel and the laborers supporting their operations, very large, but unknown numbers of African civilians perished during the war."  They made an estimate of civilian losses in Africa of 750,000[28] The following estimates of civilian deaths in East Africa during World War I were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century: Kenya 30,000; Tanzania 100,000; Mozambique 50,000; Rwanda 15,000; Burundi 20,000 and the Belgian Congo 150,000.[86]
The military casualties of the UK, France, Germany, Belgium and Portugal include Africans who served with their armed forces, the details are noted above in the list of the various colonies.

text: ^b Australia

text:
The Australian War Memorial puts their war dead at 61,513.[17]
The Australian War Memorial maintains a database listing the names of war dead.[107]
The Commonwealth War Graves Commission figure for Australian war dead is 62,149.[9]
The report of the UK War Office listed 59,330 Army war dead, 152,171 wounded and 4,084 taken prisoner.[18]
In 1924 the Australian government in a reply to a questionnaire from the International Labour Office, an agency of the League of Nations, reported 412,953 men mobilized and 59,337 dead and missing in World War I.[46]
The Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis estimated that included in total military deaths are 54,000 killed and died of wounds.[108]

text: ^c Belgium

text:
Belgian government figures for military losses in Europe were 40,367 (26,338 killed, died of wounds or accidents and 14,029 died of disease or missing). In Africa: 2,620 soldiers were killed and 15,650 porters died. The combined total for Europe and Africa is 58,637.[30]
United States War Dept. figures for Belgium are: Total mobilized force 267,000; total casualties 93,061 including killed and died 13,716; wounded 44,686; Prisoners and missing 34,659.[33]
The report of the UK War Office listed 93,061 casualties up until November 11, 1918 including 13,716 killed and died; 24,456 missing; 44,686 wounded and 10,208 POW. "These figures are approximate only, the records being incomplete."[36]
In 1924, the Belgian government in a reply to a questionnaire from the International Labour Office, an agency of the League of Nations, reported 365,000 men mobilized and 40,936 dead and missing in World War I.[46]
The Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis estimated that included in total Belgian military deaths are 35,000 killed and died of wounds[108]
Civilian deaths according to Belgian government statistics were 23,700 (6,000 killed in the 1914 German massacres and 17,700 victims in prisons, deportations and by military tribunals).[30] According to a demographic study, there were 92,000 indirect deaths in Belgium (62,000 deaths due to wartime privations and 30,000 in the Spanish Flu pandemic).[32] John Horne estimated that 6,500 Belgian and French civilians were killed in German reprisals.[109]

text: ^d Canada

text:
According to the Canadian War Museum Close to 61,000 Canadians were killed during the war, and another 172,000 were wounded. The small colony of Newfoundland suffered 1,305 killed and several thousand wounded. The Canadian Expeditionary Force lost 59,544 in the war, including 51,748 due to enemy action; the Royal Canadian Navy reported 150 deaths from all causes and 1,388 Canadians died while serving with the British Flying Services.[110]
The Commonwealth War Graves Commission figure for Canadian war dead is 64,996.[9]
The report of the UK War Office listed 56,639 Canadian war dead, 149,732 wounded and 3,729 taken prisoner.[18]
In 1924, the Canadian government in a reply to a questionnaire from the International Labour Office, an agency of the League of Nations, reported 628,964 men mobilized and 51,674 dead and missing in World War I.[46]
The Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis estimated that included in total Canadian military deaths are 53,000 killed and died of wounds.[108]
The Canadian Virtual War Memorial contains a registry of information about the graves and memorials of Canadians and Newfoundlanders who served valiantly and gave their lives for their country.[111]
The 2,000 Civilian deaths were due to the Halifax Explosion.[20]

text: ^e France

text:
French casualty figures up until June 1, 1919 were listed in a French government report of August 1, 1919 presented to the French Chamber of Deputies.[112] Total Army dead and missing up until November 11, 1918 were 1,357,800; in addition there were 28,600 deaths after November 11, 1918 of those wounded and 11,400 Navy dead which brings total dead and missing to 1,397,800. These figures include 35,200 French Colonial Forces, 35,900 "north Africans" and 4,600 French Foreign Legion personnel.[37]
According to the French Army official report "La Statistique médicale de l'armée" Total dead were 1,325,000 (675,000 killed in action, 225,000 missing and prisoners killed, 250,000 died of wounds and 175,000 died of disease.)[113]
A breakdown of French casualties published in the  Official History of the Australian Army Medical Services, 1914–1918 lists 674,700 killed in action, 250,000 died of wounds, 225,300 missing and presumed dead and 175,000 dead from disease and injury. Wounded amounted to 2,300,000.[35]
United States War Dept. figures for French casualties are: Total mobilized force 8,410,000; total casualties 6,160,800 including killed and died: 1,357,800, wounded: 4,266,000, prisoners and missing: 537,000.[33]
The UK War Office put French dead, killed and missing at 1,385,300 dead and missing, including 58,000 colonial soldiers up until Nov. 1,1918. They noted that a government report of Aug. 1, 1919, listed the number of killed and died at 1,357,000. There were no figures available of the wounded.[36]
In 1924, the French government in a reply to a questionnaire from the International Labour Office, an agency of the League of Nations, reported  7,935,000 men mobilized and 1,400,000 dead and missing in World War I.[46]
The names of the soldiers who died for France during World War I are listed on-line by the French government.[114]
The Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis estimated that included in total French military deaths are 1,126,000 killed and died of wounds.[108]
According to the French encyclopedia Quid 30–40,000 foreign volunteers from about 40 nationalities served in the French army, including 12,000 with the Czechoslovak Legion and the ethnic Polish Blue Army; 5,000 Italians served in a "Legion" commanded by Colonel Garibaldi. There were also 1,000 Spaniards and 1,500 Swiss in French service, 200 American volunteers served with the French from 1914 to 1916, including the Lafayette Escadrille.[115] Luxembourg was occupied by Germany during the war. According to the Mobile Reference travel Guide 3,700 Luxembourg citizens served in the French armed forces, 2,800 gave their lives in the war. They are commemorated at the Gëlle Fra in Luxembourg.[116] The French Armenian Legion served as part of the French armed forces during the war. French colonies, such as Algeria and Vietnam, also sent troops to fight and serve on the battlefront. American military historian Douglas Porch reported of the French Foreign Legion, in which most non-French nationals served, that some estimates put Legion casualties during the war as high as 31,000 of the 44,150 men who served in the Legion, a 70 per cent casualty rate.[117]
According to a demographic study, there were 500,000 indirect deaths in France (300,000 deaths due to wartime privations and 200,000 in the Spanish Flu pandemic).[118] Another estimate of the demographic loss of the civilian population in the France during the war, put total excess deaths at 264,000 to 284,000, not including an additional 100,000 to 120,000 Spanish Flu deaths.[119] Civilian dead include 1,509 merchant sailors and 3,357 killed in air attacks and long range artillery bombardments[120]
Tertiary sources put French civilian war dead at 40,000.[16][38][39]

text: ^f Greece

text:
The Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis estimated total military dead of 26,000, including 15,000 deaths due to disease and 11,000 killed and died of wounds[41][121][122]
United States War Dept. figures for Greek casualties are: Total mobilized force 230,000; total casualties 27,000 (killed and died 5,000; wounded 21,000; prisoners and missing 1,000).[33]
The report of the UK War Office listed 27,000 casualties (5,000 killed or died of wounds; 21,000 wounded and 1,000 prisoners and missing).[40]
In 1924, the Greek government in a reply to a questionnaire from the International Labour Office, an agency of the League of Nations, reported 355,000 men mobilized and no  dead and missing in World War I.[46]
Jean Bujac in a campaign history of the Greek Army in World War I, listed 8,365 combat related deaths and 3,255 missing.[123]
According to a demographic study there were 150,000 indirect deaths in Greece due to wartime privations.[42]

text: ^g India (British)

text: The Commonwealth War Graves Commission figure for Indian war dead is 73,905.[9]

text:
The report of the UK War Office listed 64,449 Army war dead, 69,214 wounded and 11,264 taken prisoner, these figures include British serving in the Indian Army (2,393 dead, 2,325 wounded and 194 taken prisoner).[18]
The Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis estimated that included in total Indian military deaths are 27,000 killed and died of wounds.[122]

text: ^h Italy

text:
The Italian government put military war deaths at 651,000 (killed in action or died of wounds 378,000; died of disease 186,000 plus an additional 87,000 deaths of invalids from 12 Nov. 1918 until 30 April 1920, due to war related injuries.) These official figures were published in an Italian study of war losses by G. Mortara, however he estimated actual losses until the war's end in Nov. 1918, at 600,000 (400,000 killed or died of wounds and 200,000 deaths due to disease).[43] A brief summary of data from this study can be found online.[124]
United States War Dept. figures for Italian casualties are: Total mobilized force 5,615,000; total casualties 2,197,000 (killed and died 650,000; wounded 947,000; prisoners and missing 600,000).[33]
The report of the UK War Office listed 1,937,000 casualties up until Nov. 11, 1918 (460,000 dead; 947,000 wounded and 530,000 prisoners).[36]
In 1924, the Italian government in a reply to a questionnaire from the International Labour Office, an agency of the League of Nations, reported 5,615,000 men mobilized and 750,000 dead and missing in World War I.[46]
The Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis estimated that included in total Italian military deaths are 433,000 killed and died of wounds.[108]
According to a demographic study there were 1,021,000 indirect deaths in Italy (589,000 deaths due to wartime privations and 432,000 in the Spanish Flu pandemic).[45] Another estimate of the demographic loss of the civilian population in the Italy during the war, put total excess deaths at 324,000 not including an additional 300,000 Spanish Flu deaths.[125] Civilian deaths due to military action were 3,400 (including 2,293 by attacks on shipping, 965 during air raids and 142 by sea bombardment).[126]

text: ^i Japan

text:
In 1924, the Japanese government in a reply to a questionnaire from the International Labour Office, an agency of the League of Nations, reported 800,000 men mobilized and 4,661 dead and missing in World War I.[46]
The Yasukuni Shrine lists 4,850 dead in World War I.[127]
United States War Dept. figures for Japanese casualties are: total mobilized force 800,000; total casualties 1,210 (including Killed and died 300; wounded 907; Prisoners and missing 3).[33]

text: ^k Montenegro

text:
In 1924, the Yugoslav government in a reply to a questionnaire from the International Labour Office, an agency of the League of Nations, reported Montenegro mobilized 50,000 men and 13,325 were dead and missing in World War I.[46]
United States War Dept. figures for Montenegrin casualties are: total mobilized force 50,000; total casualties 20,000 including killed and died 3,000; wounded 10,000; prisoners and missing 7,000.[33]

text: ^l New Zealand

text:
The Auckland War Memorial Museum commemorates the 18,060 New Zealand World War I dead.[22]
The Auckland War Memorial Museum maintains a database listing the names of the New Zealand war dead.[128]
The Commonwealth War Graves Commission figure for New Zealand war dead is 18,060.[9]
The report of the UK War Office listed 16,711 army war dead, 41,317 wounded and 498 taken prisoner.[18]
The Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis estimated that included in total New Zealand military deaths are 14,000 killed and died of wounds.[108]

text: ^m Newfoundland

text:
The Dominion of Newfoundland was not part of Canada during World War I. The report of the UK War Office listed 1,204 Army war dead, 2,314 wounded and 150 taken prisoner.[18]
An academic journal published in Newfoundland has given the details of Newfoundland's military casualties. Fatalities totaled 1,570 The Royal Newfoundland Regiment suffered 1,297 dead; there were an additional 171 dead in the Royal Navy and 101 in the Merchant Navy.[23]

text: ^n Portugal

text:
United States War Dept. figures for Portuguese casualties are: total mobilized force 100,000; total casualties 33,291 (including killed and died 7,222; wounded 13,751; prisoners and missing 12,318).[33]
The report of the UK War Office listed 33,291 casualties: 7,222 dead (1,689 in Europe and 5,533 in Africa); 13,751 wounded (figure for Europe only) and 12,318 prisoners and missing (6,678 in Europe and "a large number of missing in Mozambique).[36]
In 1924, the Portuguese  government in a reply to a questionnaire from the International Labour Office, an agency of the League of Nations, reported 100,000 men mobilized and 4,000 dead and missing in World War I.[46]
The Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis estimated that included in total Portuguese military deaths are 6,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds.[108]
According to a demographic study there were 220,000 indirect deaths in Portugal (82,000 deaths due to wartime privations and 138,000 in the Spanish Flu pandemic).[48]
13 Portuguese civilians that were killed during bombardment of Funchal, Madeira Island in 3 December 1916, and 12 December 1917, by German submarines.[129]

text: ^o Romania

text:
In 1924, the Romanian government in a reply to a questionnaire from the International Labour Office, an agency of the League of Nations, reported 1,000,000 men mobilized and 250,000 dead and missing in World War I.[46]
United States War Dept. figures for Romanian casualties are: total mobilized force 750,000; total casualties 535,706 (including killed and died 335,706; wounded 120,000; prisoners and missing 80,000).[33]
The report of the UK War Office listed military casualties of 335,706 killed or missing. In addition 265,000 civilians were killed or missing.[40]
The Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis estimated that included in total Romanian military deaths are 177,000 killed and died of wounds.[108]
According to a demographic study there were 430,000 indirect deaths in Romania due to wartime privations.[130]
A Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century estimated 330,000 civilian dead (120,000 due to military activity, 10,000 as prisoners and 200,000 caused by famine and disease).[131]

text: ^p Russian Empire

text:
According to the Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis the sources for Russian casualties are difficult to ascertain. Casualty figures, compiled from the field reports during the war, were published in 1925 by the Soviet Central Statistical office[132] They put Russia's total losses at 775,400 dead and missing, 348,500 disabled and 3,343,900 POW. Those evacuated to the rear area were 1,425,000 sick and 2,844,500 wounded. Included in these figures are battle casualties of 7,036,087. (626,440 killed in action, 17,174 died of wounds, 228,838 missing, 3,409,433 held as prisoners of war and 2,754,202 wounded in action).[133][134] Urlanis believes that the figures for those killed were considerably underestimated, because a large part of the reports were lost in retreats. Urlanis estimated the actual total military war dead at 1,811,000 (killed 1,200,000, died of wounds 240,000, gassed 11,000, died from disease 155,000, POW deaths 190,000, deaths due to accidents and other causes 15,000).[108]
A study by the Russian military historian G.F. Krivosheev estimated the total war dead at 2,254,369 (killed in action 1,200,000; missing and presumed dead 439,369; died of wounds 240,000, gassed 11,000, died from disease 155,000, POW deaths 190,000, deaths due to accidents and other causes 19,000). Wounded 3,749,000. POW 3,343,900. Total mobilized force 15,378,000.[51]
United States War Dept. figures for Russian casualties are: Total mobilized force 12,000,000. Total casualties 9,150,000 (including Killed and died 1,700,000, wounded 4,950,000, prisoners and missing 2,500,000).[33]
The UK War Office Based on a telegram from Petrograd to Copenhagen in December 1918 listed military casualties of 9,150,000 (including 1,700,000 killed, 1,450,000 disabled, 3,500,000 wounded and 2,500,000 POW).[40]
In 1924, the Soviet government in a reply to a questionnaire from the International Labour Office, an agency of the League of Nations, reported for Russia 15,070,000 men mobilized and 1,700,000 dead and missing in World War I.[46]
According to the Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis there were 1,500,000 civilian deaths due to wartime privations up until the end of 1917.[135]
A Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century estimated 1,140,000 war related Russian civilian deaths, from 1914 to 1917 in 1914 borders (410,000 due to military operations and 730,000 caused by famine and disease).[136]

text: ^q Serbia

text:
Sources for total Serbian casualties range from 750,000 to 1,250,000.[53][137]
A demographic study  in 1927, put total the war dead for Serbia and Montenegro at 750,000 (300,000 military and 450,000 civilians). The overall population loss from 1912 to 1920, based on the pre-war level was 1,236,000 persons (including 750,000 in World War I; 150,000 killed in the Balkan Wars and a decline in the number of births of 336,000), in addition there were 47,000 war related deaths during 1914–1920, that are included with deaths by natural causes.[53]
According to Frédéric Le Moal, Serbian historian Dušan T. Bataković puts their losses at 1,250,000 (450,000 military and 800,000 civilians). These losses are from 1912 to 1918 and include the Balkan Wars.[137] In July 2014, Serbian poet and academic Matija Bećković said "that 402,435 Serbian soldiers have been killed and 845,000 civilians hanged or exterminated in concentration camps during WWI.[138] At a September 2014 conference sponsored by the Serbian Ministry of Defense, Dr. Alexander Nedok put Serbian war dead at 1,247,435 persons.[139]
According to the Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis regarding Serbia "it is particularly difficult to ascertain the number of killed". Based on a demographic analysis of the population, Urlanis estimated total Serbian and Montenegrin casualties of 728,000 including military dead: 278,000 (140,000 killed in action; 25,000 died of wounds; 50,000 disease; 60,000 POW and 3,000 from other causes) and total civilian dead of 450,000.[140]
In 1924, the Serbian government in a reply to a questionnaire from the International Labour Office, an agency of the League of Nations, reported 1,008,240 men mobilized and 365,164 dead and missing in World War I.[46]
United States War Dept. figures for Serbian casualties are: total mobilized force 707,343; total casualties 331,106 (including killed and died 45,000; wounded 133,148; prisoners and missing 152,958).[33]
The report of the UK War Office listed military casualties of 331,106 including 45,000 killed, 133,148 wounded and 70,243 prisoners and 82,535 missing.[40]
A Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century, estimated 120,000 Serbian civilian deaths due to military activity and 30,000 executed (казнено и убито) by the Austro-Hungarians. His estimate for total Yugoslav civilian casualties including Austro-Hungarian territory was 550,000.[141]

text: ^r South Africa

text:
The Commonwealth War Graves Commission figure for South Africa war dead is 9,726 [142]
The report of the UK War Office listed 7,121 Army war dead, 12,029 wounded and 1,538 taken prisoner.[18]
In 1924, the South African government in a reply to a questionnaire from the International Labour Office, an agency of the League of Nations, reported 136,070 men mobilized and 7,134 dead and missing in World War I.[46]
The Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis estimated that included in total South African military deaths are 5,000 killed and died of wounds.[108]

text: ^s United Kingdom

text:
^s1 UK military casualties were reported separately by branch of service: Total of 744,000 dead and missing from the British Isles: Army 702,410 "soldiers";[18] Royal Navy  32,287[143] and Royal Air Force 9,378 [144] The UK government in 1924 put total military dead at 743,702[46] Total of 1,675,000 wounded from the British Isles: Army 1,662,625  "soldiers";[18] Royal Navy  5,135[143] and Royal Air Force 7,245[144]
There are three published official figures for army deaths. One: official figures issued by the British Army in 1921 put their losses at 673,375 dead and missing from all causes in combat theaters.[145] Two: the summary in the 1922 report of the War Office put army and Royal Naval Division dead from the British Isles at 702,410.[18] The authors of the War Office report did not explain the difference between their figures and the official figures issued in 1921 by the British army, however the difference is more than likely due to the inclusion of the Royal Naval Division and deaths outside of combat theaters.[146][147] Three: the Commonwealth War Graves Commission database available online identifies by name 758,000 army dead, not including the Royal Naval Division[148]
The Commonwealth War Graves Commission in 2014 listed 887,858 war dead for the UK and Colonies.[9] This figure also includes the British Mercantile Marine and conscripted civilian laborers from Africa and Asia.[149] According to The Commonwealth War Graves Commission, their statistics are representative of the number of names commemorated for all servicemen/women whose death was attributable to their war service, they do not list the cause of death for these  casualties. They do not break  down UK losses between the British Isles and the various colonies. The website of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission database lists the names of many of the UK war dead. Access to the database is open to the general public free of charge. These figures include deaths of forces from the UK and Colonies excluding the Dominions and include deaths that occurred after the war up until 31 August 1921.[148] The CWGC figures include military dead outside of combat theaters and civilian workers conscripted outside of the UK in British military service.[12]
In 1924, the UK government in a reply to a questionnaire from the International Labour Office, an agency of the League of Nations, reported 5,704,416 men mobilized and 743,702 dead and missing in World War I.[46]
The report of the UK War Office listed a summary figures from 4 Aug. 1914 up until 31 Dec. 1920 for the army from the  British Isles, not including other colonies of 702,410 war dead, 1,662,625 wounded and 170,389 taken prisoner of war. The War Office report lists those "killed in action; died of wounds; died as prisoners of war and missing officers and other ranks whose deaths have been accepted for official purposes".[18] According to the report these figures include the casualties of the army and the Royal Naval Division.[150]
Reported separately were Royal Navy casualties of 32,287 dead and missing and 5,135 wounded.[151] These figures do not include an additional 14,661 British Mercantile Marine dead.[151]
The casualties from the Royal Flying Corps, Royal Air Force and Royal Naval Air Service for 1914–18 totaled 6,166 killed, 3,212 missing and 7,245 wounded.[144][152]
The figures for the Royal Naval Division were 7,547 killed and 2,584 died of wounds.[153]
A compilation published by the authority of the War Office in 1920–21 Soldiers died in the great war, 1914–1919, listed war 673,000 Army war dead, not including the Royal Flying Corps.[154]
The official "final and corrected" casualty figures for British army, including the Territorial Force, were issued on 10 March 1921, in a British parliamentary report. The losses were for the period 4 August 1914 until 30 September 1919, included 573,507 "killed in action, died from wounds and died of other causes"; 254,176 missing and prisoners less 154,308 released prisoners; for a net total of 673,375 dead and missing. There were 1,643,469 wounded also listed in the report.[145]

text:
United States War Dept. figures for total British Empire casualties including the UK were: total mobilized force 8,904,467; total casualties 3,190,255 (including killed and died: 908,371; wounded: 2,090,212; prisoners and missing 191,652).[33]
The Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis estimated that included in total UK military deaths are 624,000 killed or missing in action and died of wounds.[108]
According to a demographic study, there were 292,000 indirect deaths in the UK (109,000 deaths due to wartime privations and 183,000 in the Spanish Flu pandemic).[27] Another estimate of the demographic loss of the civilian population in the UK during the war, put total excess deaths at 181,000 not including an additional 100,000 Spanish Flu deaths.[155] The 1922 War Office report detailed the deaths of 1,260 civilians and 310 military personnel due to air and sea bombardment of the UK[156] Losses at sea were 908 UK civilians and 63 fisherman killed in U-Boat attacks.[26]
Overseas labor units serving with the British and French forces. The UK employed about 300,000 Indian, Chinese, native South African, Egyptian and other nations as laborers during the war. By the end of 1917, there were 50,000 Chinese workers in France, rising to 96,000 by August 1918 (with another 30,000 working for the French). 100,000 Egyptians were working in France and the Middle East, alongside 21,000 Indians and 20,000 South Africans, who were also in East Africa.[12] A total of about 140,000 Chinese workers recruited in the Beiyang government, served on the Western Front during and after the war with the British and French Armed Forces.[157][158] According to the Commonwealth war Graves Commission "In all, nearly 2,000 men from the Chinese Labour Corps died during the First World War, some as a direct result of enemy action, or of wounds received in the course of their duties, but many more in the influenza epidemic that swept Europe in 1918–19"[13] One historical controversy is the number who died in the war. Some Chinese scholars say the number was as high as 20,000 but records kept by the British and French recruiters, show just under 2,000 lost their lives, many from the flu pandemic that swept the world starting in 1919.[159] According to the Commonwealrh War Graves Commission, "The African combatant troops raised for the East African campaign numbered 34,000. The non-combatant porters, stevedores and followers of the Military Labour Corps 600,000. Almost 50,000 of these men were lost, killed in action died of sickness or wounds"[11] According to The Africa Research Institute official British figures the death toll exceeded 105,000 native African troops and military carriers [160]

text: ^t United States

text:
US Dept. of Defense figures from 2010, list 116,516 war dead from all causes for the period ending Dec. 31, 1918, including 106,378 in the Army, 7,287 in the Navy and 2,851 in the Marine Corps. There were 53,402 battle deaths, including 50,510 in the Army, 431 in the navy and 2,461 in the Marines. There were 63,114 non-combat deaths, 55,868 in the Army, 6,856 in the Navy and 390 in the Marines. Wounded: 204,002 (Army: 193,663, Navy: 819, Marines: 9,520).[56] The figures include 279 deaths during the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War from 1918 to 1920.[161] The U.S. casualty figures were revised by the US Dept. of Defense in 1957.[33] The US Coast Guard lost 192 dead (111 deaths in action and 81 from other causes).[57][162]
United States War Dept. figures from 1924 for U.S. casualties were: total mobilized force 4,355,000; total casualties 350,300 (including killed and died from all causes 126,000; wounded 234,300 (including 14,500 died of wounds); prisoners and missing 4,500).[163]
In 1924, the U.S. government in a reply to a questionnaire from the International Labour Office, an agency of the League of Nations, reported 4,272,521 men mobilized and 67,813 dead and missing in World War I.[46]
United States civilian losses include 128 killed in the sinking of the RMS Lusitania (before the U.S. became a belligerent) as well as 629 Merchant Mariners killed in enemy submarine attacks on their merchant ships.[58]

text: ^u Austria-Hungary

text:
The official history of Austria-Hungary's involvement in the First World War put total military dead at 1,494,200:(1,016,200 killed and 478,000 while prisoners of war).[60][164]
In 1924, the Austrian government in a reply to a questionnaire from the International Labour Office, an agency of the League of Nations, reported 9,000,000 men mobilized and 1,542,817 dead and missing in World War I.[46]
United States War Dept. figures for Austro-Hungarian casualties are: total mobilized force 7,800,000; total casualties 7,020,000 (including killed and died 1,200,000; wounded 3,620,000; prisoners and missing 2,200,000).[33]
The UK War Office estimate for Austro-Hungarian casualties up to 31 December 1918: total casualties of 7,020,000 including 1,200,000 killed, 3,620,000 wounded and 2,200,000 prisoners.[165] Preliminary figures up to the end of May, 1918, given by the U. K. Director of Military Intelligence give the following estimated totals: 800,000 killed, 1,800,000 prisoners/missing, and 3,200,000 wounded/sick, for a total of 5,800,000. An additional 80,000 killed, 320,000 wounded/sick, and 20,000 prisoners are estimated in the Austrian offensive against Italy from 1 June to 24 October 1918. At the same time there 72,500 casualties on the Balkans and Western Fronts. Finally, during the last Italian offensive the prisoners claimed by the Italians amounted to 448,000, while a further 30,000 Austro-Hungarians were killed and 50,000 wounded.[166]
The Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis estimated that included in total Austro-Hungarian military deaths are 900,000 killed and died of wounds.[108]
A study published by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace estimated that there were 467,000 civilian deaths attributable to wartime privations caused by the allied blockade.[63]
A Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century estimated 120,000 civilian deaths due to military activity in Austro-Hungarian Galicia.[141]

text: ^v Bulgaria

text:
United States War Dept. figures for Bulgarian casualties are: total mobilized force 1,200,000; total casualties 266,919 (including Killed and died 87,500; wounded 152,930; Prisoners and missing 27,029).[33]
The UK War Office listed casualties reported by the Bulgarian War Office:  87,500 total dead (48,917 killed, 13,198 died of wounds, 888? accidentally killed, 24,497 died of disease); 13,729 missing; 152,390 wounded and 10,623 prisoners. The Bulgarian War Office stated that "losses during the retreat from sickness and privations were much greater than the figures they possess".[167]
In 1924, the Bulgarian government in a reply to a questionnaire from the International Labour Office, an agency of the League of Nations, reported 400,000 men mobilized and 32,772  dead and missing in World War I.[46]
The Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis estimated that included in total Bulgarian military deaths are 62,000 killed and died of wounds.[108]
According to the Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis there were 100,000 civilian deaths due to wartime privations.[66]

text: ^w German Empire

text:
In 1934 the official German war history listed 2,037,000 military dead.[164] Confirmed dead from all causes 1,936,897 (Army 1,900,876, Navy 34,836, Colonial troops 1,185); wounded 4,215,662; prisoners and missing 974,977 of which an estimated 100,000 were presumed dead.[69]-
United States War Dept. figures for German casualties are: total mobilized force 11,000,000; total casualties 7,142,558 (including Killed and died 1,773,700; wounded 4,216,058; prisoners and missing 1,152,800).[33]
The UK War Office listed official German figures from 1921 of 1,808,545 killed and 4,247,143 wounded, exclusive of 14,000 African conscript deaths during the war.[168]
In 1924, the German government in a reply to a questionnaire from the International Labour Office, an agency of the League of Nations, reported 13,250,000 men mobilized and 2,000,000 dead and missing in World War I.[46]
The Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis estimated that included in total German military deaths are 1,796,000 killed and died of wounds.[108]
The UK War Office listed official German figures from 1919 of 720 German civilians who were killed by allied air raids.[169]
The figures for civilian deaths due to the Blockade of Germany are disputed. The German Board of Public Health in December 1918 maintained that 763,000 German civilians died from malnutrition and disease caused by the blockade up until the end of December 1918.[73][74][170] A German academic study in 1928 put the death toll at 424,000.[171] A study sponsored by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in 1940, estimated the German civilian death toll due to the war at over 600,000. Based on the above-mentioned German study of 1928, they maintained that "A thorough inquiry has led to the conclusion that the number of "civilian" deaths traceable to the war was 424,000, to which number must be added about 200,000 deaths caused by the influenza epidemic".[72]

text: ^x Ottoman Empire

text:
Based on his analysis of the non-published individual World War I campaign histories in the Ottoman Archives, Edward J. Erickson estimated Ottoman military casualties in the study Ordered to Die: A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War. The casualties included total war dead of 771,844, (243,598 killed in action, 61,487 missing action and 466,759 deaths due to disease). The number of wounded was 763,753 and POWs 145,104.[173]
The Ottoman official casualty statistics published in 1922 were: total dead 325,000 including (killed in action 50,000, 35,000 died of wounds, 240,000 died of disease). Wounded 400,000. POWs, sick and missing 1,565,000 and total mobilized: 2,850,000.[174]
United States War Dept. figures for Ottoman casualties are: total mobilized force 2,850,000; total casualties 975,000 (including killed and died 325,000; wounded 400,000; prisoners and missing 250,000).[33]
The UK War Office figures for Ottoman casualties were: total accounted for 725,000 (killed 50,000, died of wounds 35,000, died of disease 400,000, wounded 400,000). Total unaccounted for: 1,565,000 (prisoners, deserters, invalids and missing).[168]
The Soviet demographer Boris Urlanis estimated that included in total Ottoman military deaths are 318,000 killed and died of wounds.[108]
Estimates of Ottoman civilian casualties in western sources range from 2,000,000 to 2,150,000.[39][175][176][177] A Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century estimated total Ottoman civilian dead from 1915 to 1918 at about 3.2 million including the deaths of 2.2 million Armenian, Assyrian, and Greek victims of genocides committed by the Ottomans and 1,000,000 war-related civilian deaths in the Ottoman Empire due to famine and disease.(In current borders Turkey 500,000; Syria 160,000; Lebanon 110,000; Iraq 150,000; Israel/Palestine 35,000 and Jordan 20,000)[178] According to the BBC 200,000 persons perished in the Great Famine of Mount Lebanon during the war.[179]
Civilian casualties include the Armenian Genocide. The total number of resulting Armenian deaths is generally held to have been 1.5 million.[77] Other ethnic groups were similarly attacked by the Ottoman Empire during this period, including Assyrians and Greeks. Some scholars consider those events to be part of the same policy of extermination.[180][181][182] The overwhelming majority of historians as well as academic institutions on Holocaust and Genocide Studies recognize the Armenian Genocide.[183][184][185][186] "Despite the vast amount of evidence that points to the historical reality of the Armenian Genocide, eyewitness accounts, official archives, photographic evidence, the reports of diplomats, and the testimony of survivors, denial of the Armenian Genocide by successive regimes in Turkey has gone on from 1915 to the present".[187]

text: ^y Denmark

text: Denmark was neutral in the war but Germany at that time included part of Danish Schleswig. Men from this area were conscripted into the German forces and their losses are included with German casualties. Over 700 Danish merchant sailors and fisherman died, mostly due to vessels torpedoed by German submarines.[79]

text: ^j Luxembourg

text: Luxembourg remained under German occupation during the war. The government, led by Paul Eyschen, chose to remain neutral. This strategy had the approval of Marie-Adélaïde, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg. Some citizens were conscripted into the German forces and others escaped to volunteer for the Allies. According to the Mobile Reference travel Guide, 3,700 Luxembourgeois citizens served in the French armed forces and 2,800 gave their lives in the war. They are commemorated at the Gëlle Fra in Luxembourg.[116]

text: ^z Norway

text: Norway was neutral in the war but lost ships and merchant sailors in trading through the war zones. Norway is at times referred to as the Neutral Ally due to its close relationship with the United Kingdom during the war. In 1924, the Norwegian government in a reply to a questionnaire from the International Labour Office, an agency of the League of Nations, reported 1,180 persons dead and missing in World War I.[46]

text: ^az Sweden

text: Sweden was neutral in the war but lost ships and merchant sailors in trading through the war zones. In 1924, the Swedish government in a reply to a questionnaire from the International Labour Office, an agency of the League of Nations, reported 800 persons dead and missing in World War I.[46]

text: Sources[edit]

text:
The Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) Annual Report 2014–2015 [9] provides current statistics on the military dead for the British Empire. The war dead totals listed in the report are based on the research by the CWGC to identify and commemorate Commonwealth war dead. The statistics tabulated by The Commonwealth War Graves Commission are representative of the number of names commemorated for all servicemen/women of the Armed Forces of the Commonwealth and former UK Dependencies, whose death was attributable to their war service. Some auxiliary and civilian organizations are also accorded war grave status if death occurred under certain specified conditions. For the purposes of CWGC the dates of inclusion for Commonwealth War Dead are 4 August 1914 to 31 August 1921. Total World War I dead were 1,116,371 (UK and former colonies 887,711; Undivided India 73,895; Canada 64,997; Australia 62,123; New Zealand 18,053; South Africa 9,592). The Commonwealth War Graves Commission figures also include the Merchant Navy.
Statistics of the Military Effort of the British Empire During the Great War 1914–1920, The War Office March 1922.[36] This official report lists Army casualties (including Royal Naval Division) of 908,371 killed in action, died of wounds, died as prisoners of war and were missing in action from 4 August 1914 to 31 December 1920, (British Isles 702,410; India 64,449; Canada 56,639; Australia 59,330; New Zealand 16,711; South Africa 7,121 and Newfoundland 1,204, other colonies 507).[150] Figures of the Royal Navy war dead and missing of 32,287 were listed separately.[143] These figures do not include the Merchant Navy dead of 14,661.[188] The losses of France, Belgium, Italy, Portugal, Romania, Serbia, Greece, Russia, the USA, Bulgaria, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey were also listed in the UK War Office report.[36]
The official "final and corrected" casualty figures for British Army, including the Territorial Force (not including allied British Empire forces) were issued on 10 March 1921. The losses were for the period 4 August 1914 until 30 September 1919, included 573,507 "killed in action, died from wounds and died of other causes"; 254,176 missing less 154,308 released prisoners; for a net total of 673,375 dead and missing. There were 1,643,469 wounded also listed in the report.[189]
Sources for British Empire casualties are divergent and contradictory. The report of the War Office published in 1922 put the total number of British Empire "soldiers who lost their lives" at 908,371.[190] On a separate schedule the War Office listed the losses of the Royal Navy at 32,237 dead and missing.[191] It is implicit in this presentation that the figures for "soldiers who lost their lives" do not include the Royal Navy. However many published reference works list total British Empire(including the Dominions) losses at 908,371, it is implicit in these presentations that the figures for total losses include the Royal Navy.[6][7][8]
The War Office report puts the number of "soldiers who lost their lives" from the British Regular Army and Royal Naval Division at 702,410.[190] This is not in agreement with the "final and corrected" figures in the 1921 report for the army published in the General Annual Report of the British Army 1912–1919, which put British Army dead and missing at 673,375 and the official compilation of Army war dead published in 1921 that put total losses at about 673,000.[189][192] The War Office report did not explain the reason for this discrepancy; the difference is more than likely due to their inclusion of the Royal Naval Division and deaths outside of combat theaters.[147]
Casualties and Medical Statistics published in 1931.[193][194] was the final volume of the Official Medical History of the War, gives British Empire, including the Dominions, for Army losses by cause of death. Total war dead in combat theaters from 1914 to 1918 were 876,084, which included 418,361 killed, 167,172 died of wounds, 113,173 died of disease or injury, 161,046 missing and presumed dead and 16,332 prisoner of war deaths. Also listed were 2,004,976 wounded and 6,074,552 sick and injured.[195] Total losses were not broken out for the UK and each Dominion, the figures are for losses in combat theaters only and do not include casualties of forces stationed in the UK from accidents or disease, casualties of the Royal Naval Division are also not included in these figures; the losses of the Gallipoli Campaign are for British forces only, since records for Dominion forces were incomplete.[100] Figures do not include the Royal Navy.
Military Casualties–World War–Estimated," Statistics Branch, General Staff, U.S. War Department, 25 February 1924. This report prepared by the U.S. War Department estimated the casualties of the belligerents in the war. The figures from this report are listed in the Encyclopædia Britannica and often cited in historical literature.[33]
Huber, Michel La Population de la France pendant la guerre, Paris 1931.[112] This study published by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, lists official French government figures for war-related military deaths and missing of France and its colonies.
Mortara, Giorgo La Salute pubblica in Italia durante e dopo la Guerra, New Haven: Yale University Press 1925.[196] The official government Italian statistics on war dead are listed here. A brief summary of data from this report can be found online. go to Vol 13, No. 15
The demographer Boris Urlanis, analysis of the military dead for the belligerents in the war including his estimates for the combat related deaths included in total deaths.[108]
The Belgian government published statistics on their war losses in the Annuaire statistique de la Belgique et du Congo Belge 1915–1919[30]
Heeres-Sanitätsinspektion im Reichskriegsministeriums, Sanitätsbericht über das deutsche Heer, (Deutsches Feld- und Besatzungsheer), im Weltkriege 1914–1918, Volume 3, Sec. 1, Berlin 1934. The official German Army medical war history listed German losses.
Grebler, Leo and Winkler, Wilhelm The Cost of the World War to Germany and Austria-Hungary This study published by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace details the losses of Austria-Hungary and Germany in the war.[197]
Erickson, Edward J. Ordered to Die: A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War The authors estimates were made based data from official Ottoman sources.[198]
Hersch, Liebmann, La mortalité causée par la guerre mondiale, Metron. The International Review of Statistics, 1927, Vol 7. No 1. This study published in an academic journal, detailed the demographic impact of the war on France, the UK, Italy, Belgium, Portugal, Serbia, Romania and Greece. The total estimated increase in the number of civilian deaths due to the war was 2,171,000, not including an additional 984,000 Spanish Flu deaths. These losses were due primarily wartime privations.[199]
Dumas, Samuel (1923). Losses of Life Caused by War  published by Oxford University Press. This study detailed the impact of the war on the civilian population. The study estimated excess civilian deaths at: France (264,000 to 284,000), the UK (181,000), Italy (324,000) and Germany(692,000).[200]
In The International Labour Office, an agency of the League of Nations, published statistics on the military dead and missing for the belligerents in the war.[201]

text: The source of population data is:


document_title: Forest cover by state in India

question_text: how much land is under forest cover in india

root

text: Forest cover by state in India

text:
States and union  territories of India  ordered by
Area
Population

Abbreviations
Capitals
Child Nutrition
Crime rate
Electricity penetration
Fertility rate
Forest cover
GDP (per capita)
Highest point
HIV awareness
HDI
Home ownership
Household size
Human Trafficking
Institutional delivery
Life expectancy at birth
Literacy rate
Media exposure
Number of Vehicles
Number of voters
Obesity
Open defecation
Origin of name
Places of worship
Poverty
Power capacity
Safe Drinking Water
Safety of Women
School Enrollment Rate
Sex ratio
Suicides
Tax revenues
TV ownership
Toilet availability
Transport network
Underweight people
Unemployment
Vaccination coverage
vte

tag: table

text: The forest cover (in square kilometres) in 2017 in India by state and union territory as published by the Forest Survey of India.[1]

tag: p

text:
State / UT
Geographical Area
Very dense
Moderately dense
Open forest
Total forest area
% of forested area
% change since 2015

Andhra Pradesh
162,968
1,957
14,051
12,139
28,147
17.27%
+1.31%

Arunachal Pradesh
83,743
20,721
30,955
15,288
66,964
79.96%
-0.23%

Assam
78,438
2,797
10,192
15,116
28,105
35.83%
+0.72%

Bihar
94,163
332
3,260
3,707
7,299
7.75%
+0.05%

Chhattisgarh
135,192
7,064
32,215
16,268
55,547
41.09%
-0.01%

Delhi
1,483
7
56
129
192
12.97%
+0.25%

Goa
3,702
538
576
1,115
2,229
60.21%
+0.51%

Gujarat
196,244
378
5,200
9,179
14,757
7.52%
+0.02%

Haryana
44,212
28
452
1,108
1,588
3.59%
+0.02%

Himachal Pradesh
55,673
3,110
6,705
5,285
15,100
27.12%
+0.71%

Jammu & Kashmir
222,236
4,075
8,579
10,587
23,241
10.46%
+0.11%

Jharkhand
79,716
2,598
9,686
11,269
23,553
29.55%
+0.04%

Karnataka
191,791
4,502
20,444
12,604
37,550
19.58%
+0.57%

Kerala
38,852
1,663
9,407
8,251
20,321
52.30%
+2.68%

Madhya Pradesh
308,252
6,563
34,571
36,280
77,414
25.11%
-0.00%

Maharashtra
307,713
8,736
20,652
21,294
50,682
16.47%
-0.01%

Manipur
22,327
908
6,510
9,928
17,346
77.69%
+1.18%

Meghalaya
22,429
453
9,386
7,307
17,146
76.76%
-0.52%

Mizoram
21,081
131
5,861
12,194
18,186
86.27%
-2.52%

Nagaland
16,579
1,279
4,587
6,623
12,489
75.33%
-2.71%

Odisha
155,707
6,967
21,370
23,008
51,345
32.98%
+0.57%

Punjab
50,362
8
806
1,023
1,837
3.65%
+0.13%

Rajasthan
342,239
78
4,340
12,154
16,572
4.84%
+0.14%

Sikkim
7,096
1,081
1,575
688
3,344
47.13%
-0.13

Tamil Nadu
130,060
3,672
10,979
11,630
26,281
20.21%
+0.06%

Telangana
112,077
1,596
8,738
10,085
20,419
18.22%
+0.50%

Tripura
10,486
656
5,246
1,824
7,726
73.68%
-1.56%

Uttar Pradesh
240,928
2,617
4,069
7,993
14,679
6.09%
+0.12%

Uttarakhand
53,483
4,969
12,884
6,442
24,295
45.43%
+0.04%

West Bengal
88,752
2,994
4,147
9,706
16,847
18.98%
+0.02%

Andaman & Nicobar Islands
8,249
5,678
684
380
6,742
81.73%
-0.11%

Chandigarh
114
1
14
6
22
18.91%
-0.09%

Dadra & Nagar Haveli
491
0
80
127
207
42.16%
+0.20%

Daman & Diu
111
1
6
13
20
18.46%
+0.79%

Lakshadweep
30
0
17
10
27
90.33%
0.13%

Puducherry
490
0
18
36
54
10.95%
-0.67%

Total
3,287,469
98,158
308,318
301,797
708,273
21.54%
+0.21%


document_title: Electronic warfare

question_text: what are the three division of electronic warfare

text: Electronic warfare

text: The electromagnetic environment[edit]

text: Military operations are executed in an information environment increasingly complicated by the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum portion of the information environment is referred to as the electromagnetic environment (EME). The recognized need for military forces to have unimpeded access to and use of the electromagnetic environment creates vulnerabilities and opportunities for electronic warfare (EW) in support of military operations.[1]

text: Within the information operations construct, EW is an element of information warfare; more specifically, it is an element of offensive and defensive counterinformation.[2]

text: NATO has a different and arguably more encompassing and comprehensive approach to EW. A Military Committee conceptual document from 2007 (MCM_0142 Nov 2007 Military Committee Transformation Concept for Future NATO Electronic Warfare) recognised the EME as an operational manoeuvre space and warfighting environment/domain. In NATO, EW is considered to be warfare in the EME. NATO has adopted simplified language which parallel those used in the other warfighting environments like maritime, land and air/space. For example, Electronic Attack is offensive use of EM energy. ED is electronic defence and ES electronic surveillance. The use of the traditional NATO EW measures (ECM, EPM and ESM) has been retained as they contribute to and support EA, ED and ES. Besides EW, other EM operations include ISTAR and SIGINT. Subsequently NATO has issued EW Policy and Doctrine and is addressing the other NATO defence lines of development.

text: Electronic warfare applications[edit]

text: Electronic warfare is any military action involving the use of the EM spectrum to include directed energy (DE) to control the EM spectrum or to attack an enemy. This is not limited to radio or radar frequencies but includes IR, visible, ultraviolet, and other less used portions of the EM spectrum. This includes self-protection, standoff, and escort jamming, and antiradiation attacks. EW is a specialized tool that enhances many air and space functions at multiple levels of conflict.[2]

text: The purpose of EW is to deny the opponent an advantage in the EM spectrum and ensure friendly unimpeded access to the EM spectrum portion of the information environment. EW can be applied from air, sea, land, and space by manned and unmanned systems. EW is employed to support military operations involving various levels of detection, denial, deception, disruption, degradation, protection, and destruction.[1]

text: EW contributes to the success of information operations (IO) by using offensive and defensive tactics and techniques in a variety of combinations to shape, disrupt, and exploit adversarial use of the EM spectrum while protecting friendly freedom of action in that spectrum. Expanding reliance on the EM spectrum increases both the potential and the challenges of EW in information operations. All of the core, supporting, and related information operations capabilities either directly use EW or indirectly benefit from EW.[2]

text: The principal EW activities have been developed over time to exploit the opportunities and vulnerabilities that are inherent in the physics of EM energy. Activities used in EW include: electro-optical, infrared and radio frequency countermeasures; EM compatibility and deception; communications jamming, radar jamming and anti-jamming; electronic masking, probing, reconnaissance, and intelligence; electronics security; EW reprogramming; emission control; spectrum management; and wartime reserve modes.[1][2]

text: Subdivisions[edit]

text: Electronic warfare includes three major subdivisions: electronic attack (EA), electronic protection (EP), and electronic warfare support (ES).[1]

text: Electronic attack (EA)[edit]

text: Electronic attack (EA) (previously known as Electronic Counter Measures (ECM)) involves the use of EM energy, directed energy, or anti-radiation weapons to attack personnel, facilities, or equipment with the intent of degrading, neutralizing, or destroying enemy combat capability including human life. In the case of EM energy, this action is referred to as jamming and can be performed on communications systems (see Radio jamming) or radar systems (see Radar jamming and deception).

text: Electronic Protection (EP)[edit]

text: Electronic Protection (EP) (previously known as electronic protective measures (EPM) or electronic counter countermeasures (ECCM)) involves actions taken to protect personnel, facilities, and equipment from any effects of friendly or enemy use of the electromagnetic spectrum that degrade, neutralize, or destroy friendly combat capability. Jamming is not part of EP, it is an EA measure.

text: The use of flare rejection logic on an Infrared homing missile to counter an adversary’s use of flares is EP. While defensive EA actions and EP both protect personnel, facilities, capabilities, and equipment, EP protects from the effects of EA (friendly and/or adversary). Other examples of EP include spread spectrum technologies, use of Joint Restricted Frequency List (JRFL), emissions control (EMCON), and low observability or "stealth".[1]

text: An Electronic Warfare Self Protection (EWSP) is a suite of countermeasure systems fitted primarily to aircraft for the purpose of protecting the aircraft from weapons fire and can include among others: DIRCM (protects against IR missiles), Infrared countermeasures (protects against IR missiles), Chaff (protects against RADAR guided missiles), DRFM Decoys (Protects against Radar guided missiles), Flare (protects against IR missiles).

text: An Electronic Warfare Tactics Range (EWTR) is a practice range which provides for the training of aircrew in electronic warfare. There are two such ranges in Europe; one at RAF Spadeadam in the United Kingdom and the POLYGON range in Germany and France. EWTRs are equipped with ground-based equipment to simulate electronic warfare threats that aircrew might encounter on missions.

text: Antifragile EW is a step beyond standard EP, occurring when a communications link being jammed actually increases in capability as a result of a jamming attack, although this is only possible under certain circumstances such as reactive forms of jamming.[3]

text: Electronic warfare support (ES)[edit]

text: Electronic Warfare Support (ES), is the subdivision of EW involving actions tasked by, or under direct control of, an operational commander to search for, intercept, identify, and locate or localize sources of intentional and unintentional radiated electromagnetic (EM) energy for the purpose of immediate threat recognition, targeting, planning, and conduct of future operations.[1] These measures begin with systems designed and operators trained to make Electronic Intercepts (ELINT) and then classification and analysis broadly known as Signals intelligence from such detection to return information and perhaps actionable intelligence (e.g. a ship's identification from unique characteristics of a specific radar) to the commander.

text: The overlapping discipline, signals intelligence (SIGINT) is the related process of analyzing and identifying the intercepted frequencies (e.g. as a mobile phone or radar). SIGINT is broken into three categories: ELINT, COMINT, and FISINT. the parameters of intercepted txn are-: communication equipment-: freq, bandwidth, modulation, polarisation etc. The distinction between intelligence and electronic warfare support (ES) is determined by who tasks or controls the collection assets, what they are tasked to provide, and for what purpose they are tasked. Electronic warfare support is achieved by assets tasked or controlled by an operational commander. The purpose of ES tasking is immediate threat recognition, targeting, planning and conduct of future operations, and other tactical actions such as threat avoidance and homing. However, the same assets and resources that are tasked with ES can simultaneously collect intelligence that meets other collection requirements.[1]

text: Where these activities are under the control of an operational commander and being applied for the purpose of situational awareness, threat recognition, or EM targeting, they also serve the purpose of Electronic Warfare surveillance (ES).

text: Relevant EW History[edit]

text: In the 2007 Operation Orchard Israeli attack on a suspected Syrian nuclear weapons site, the Israel Air Force used electronic warfare to take control of Syrian airspace prior to the attack.[4] Israeli electronic warfare (EW) systems took over Syria’s air defense systems, feeding them a false sky-picture while Israel Air Force jets crossed much of Syria, bombed their targets and returned.[5]

text: In February 2015 the Russian army received their first set of the multifunctional electronic warfare system, known as Borisoglebsk 2.[6][7][8] Svenska Dagbladet claimed its initial usage caused concern within NATO.[9] A Russian blog describes Borisoglebsk 2 as "The 'Borisoglebsk-2' when compared to its predecessors has better technical characteristics: wider frequency bandwidth for conducting radar collection and jamming, faster scanning times of the frequency spectrum, and higher precision when identifying the location and source of radar emissions, and increased capacity for suppression." [10]


document_title: Permanent Settlement

question_text: who suffered the most from the decennial settlement

text: Permanent Settlement

text: Background[edit]

text: Earlier zamindars in Bengal, Bihar and Odisha had been functionaries who held the right to collect revenue on behalf of the Mughal emperor and his representative, the diwan, in Bengal. The diwan supervised the zamindars to ensure they were neither lax nor overly stringent. When the East India Company was awarded the diwani or overlordship of Bengal by the empire following the Battle of Buxar in 1764, it found itself short of trained administrators, especially those familiar with local custom and law. As a result, landholders were unsupervised or reported to corrupt and indolent officials. The result was that revenues were extracted without regard for future income or local welfare.

text: Following the devastating famine of 1770, which was partially caused by this shortsightedness, Company officials in Calcutta better understood the importance of oversight of revenue officials. They failed to consider the question of incentivisation; hence Warren Hastings, then governor-general, introduced a system of five-yearly inspections and temporary tax farmers.

text: Many appointed as tax farmers absconded with as much revenue as they could during the time period between inspections. The British Parliament took note of the disastrous consequences of the system, and in 1784, British Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger directed the Calcutta administration to alter it immediately. In 1786 Charles Cornwallis was sent out to India to reform the company's practices.

text: In 1786, the East India Company Court of Directors first proposed a permanent settlement for Bengal, changing the policy then being followed by Calcutta, which was attempting to increase taxation of zamindars. Between 1786 and 1790, the new Governor-General Lord Cornwallis and Sir John Shore (later Governor-General) entered a heated debate over whether or not to introduce a permanent settlement with the zamindars. Shore argued that the native zamindars would not trust the permanent settlement to be permanent and that it would take time before they realised it was genuine.

text: Cornwallis believed that they would immediately accept it and so begin investing in improving their land. In 1790, the Court of Directors issued a ten-year (decennial) settlement to the zamindars, which was made permanent in 1793.

text: By the Permanent Settlement Act of 1793, their power of keeping the armed forces were taken back. They remained just the tax collectors of the land. There were considerably weakened as they were now banned from holding any court, as it was brought under the supervision of collector appointed by the company. British officials believed that investing in the land would improve the economy.

text: They did not want to take direct control of local administration in villages for several reasons.They did not want to annoy those people who had traditionally enjoyed power and prestige in the village. To keep powerful people happy and collect better revenue, Cornwallis introduced the Permanent Settlement. As per permanent system, rajas and taluqdars were recognised as zamindars, who were supposed to collect the land revenue from the peasants.

text: The rate of revenue was never to be increased. The company officials believed that would give some motivation for land to be invested in, as zamindars would be assured of long-term returns of continuous flow of revenue.

text: Also was created a new social class of land owning nobility in Bengal and Bihar, loyal to the British.

text: Overview[edit]

text: The question of incentivisation now being understood to be central, the security of tenure of landlords was guaranteed. In short, the former landholders and revenue intermediaries were granted proprietorial rights (effective ownership) to the land they held. In addition, the land tax was fixed in perpetuity to minimise the tendency by British administrators to amass a small fortune in sluiced-away revenue. Smallholders were no longer permitted to sell their land, but they could not be expropriated by their new landlords.

text: Incentivization of zamindars was intended to encourage improvements of the land, such as drainage, irrigation and the construction of roads and bridges; such infrastructure had been insufficient through much of Bengal. With a fixed land tax, zamindars could securely invest in increasing their income without any fear of having the increase taxed away by the Company. Cornwallis made the motivation quite clear by declaring that "when the demand of government is fixed, an opportunity is afforded to the landholder of increasing his profits, by the improvement of his lands". The British had in mind "improving landlords" in their own country, such as Coke of Norfolk.

text: The Court of Directors also hoped to guarantee the company's income, which was constantly plagued by defaulting zamindars who fell into arrears, making it impossible for them to budget their spending accurately.

text: The immediate consequence of the Permanent Settlement was both very sudden and dramatic, one that nobody had apparently foreseen. By ensuring that zamindars' lands were held in perpetuity and with a fixed tax burden, they became desirable commodities. In addition, the government tax demand was inflexible, and the British East India Company's collectors refused to make allowances for times of drought, flood or other natural disaster. The tax demand was higher than that in England at the time. As a result, many zamindars immediately fell into arrears.

text: The Company's policy of auction of any zamindari lands deemed to be in arrears created a market for land that previously did not exist. Many of the new purchasers of this land were Indian officials within the East India Company's government. The bureaucrats were ideally placed to purchase lands which they knew to be underassessed and therefore profitable. In addition, their position as officials gave them opportunity to acquire the wealth necessary to purchase land quickly through bribery and corruption. They could also manipulate the system to bring to sale land that they specifically wanted.

text: Historian Bernard S. Cohn and others have argued that the Permanent Settlement led to a commercialisation of land, which previously did not exist in Bengal and, as a consequence, it led to a change in the social background of the ruling class from "lineages and local chiefs" to "under civil servants and their descendants, and to merchants and bankers".

text: The new landlords were different in their outlook; "often they were absentee landlords who managed their land through managers and who had little attachment to their land".[2]

text: Influence[edit]

text: The Company hoped that the Zamindar class would not only be a revenue-generating instrument but also serve as intermediaries for the more political aspects of their rule, preserving local custom and protecting rural life from the possibly rapacious influences of its own representatives. However, it worked both ways, as zamindars became a naturally conservative interest group. Once British policy in the mid-19th century changed to one of reform and intervention in custom, the zamindars were vocal in their opposition. The zamindars were adamant for it. The Permanent Settlement had the features that state demand was fixed at 89% of the rent and 11% was to be retained by the zamindar. The state demand could not be increased but payment should be made on the due date, before sunset, so it was also known as the 'Sunset Law'. Failure to pay led to the sale of land to the highest bidder.

text: While the worst of the tax-farming excesses were countered by the introduction of the Settlement, the use of land was not part of the agreement. There was a tendency of Company officials and Indian landlords to force their tenants into plantation-style farming of cash crops like indigo and cotton rather than rice and wheat. That was a cause of many of the worst famines of the nineteenth century. In addition, zamindars eventually became absentee landlords, with all that that implied for neglect of investment on the land.

text: Once the salient features of the Settlement were reproduced all over India, and indeed elsewhere in the Empire, including Kenya, the political structure was altered forever. The landlord class held much greater power than they had under the Mughals, who subjected them to oversight by a trained bureaucracy with the power to attenuate their tenure. The power of the landlord caste/class over smallholders was not diluted in India until the first efforts towards land reform in the 1950s, still incomplete everywhere except West Bengal.

text: In Pakistan, where land reform was never carried out, elections in rural areas still suffer from a tendency towards oligarchy reflecting the concentration of influence in the hands of zamindar families. This is because once Pakistan became separated from India, and the two began to fight over Kashmir, the goal of the government was revenue extraction instead of devotion to agriculture and infrastructure. As a result, the central leadership skewed the relationship between the elected and non-elected institutions of the state.[3]


document_title: Water table

question_text: where do springs form with respect to the water table

text: Water table

text: Form[edit]

text: The water table may vary due to seasonal changes such as precipitation and evapotranspiration. In undeveloped regions with permeable soils that receive sufficient amounts of precipitation, the water table typically slopes toward rivers that act to drain the groundwater away and release the pressure in the aquifer. Springs, rivers, lakes and oases occur when the water table reaches the surface. Springs commonly form on hillsides, where the Earth's slanting surface may "intersect" with the water table. Groundwater entering rivers and lakes accounts for the base-flow water levels in water bodies.[citation needed]

text: Surface topography[edit]

text: Within an aquifer, the water table is rarely horizontal, but reflects the surface relief due to the capillary effect (capillary fringe) in soils, sediments and other porous media. In the aquifer, groundwater flows from points of higher pressure to points of lower pressure, and the direction of groundwater flow typically has both a horizontal and a vertical component. The slope of the water table is known as the hydraulic gradient, which depends on the rate at which water is added to and removed from the aquifer and the permeability of the material. The water table does not always mimic the topography due to variations in the underlying geological structure (e.g., folded, faulted, fractured bedrock)

text: Perched water tables[edit]

text: A perched water table (or perched aquifer) is an aquifer that occurs above the regional water table, in the vadose zone. This occurs when there is an impermeable layer of rock or sediment (aquiclude) or relatively impermeable layer (aquitard) above the main water table/aquifer but below the surface of the land. If a perched aquifer's flow intersects the Earth's dry surface, at a valley wall for example, the water is discharged as a spring.

text: Fluctuations[edit]

text: Tidal fluctuations[edit]

text: On low-lying oceanic islands with porous soil, freshwater tends to collect in lenticular pools on top of the denser seawater intruding from the sides of the islands. Such an island's freshwater lens, and thus the water table, rises and falls with the tides.

text: Seasonal fluctuations[edit]

text: In some regions, for example, Great Britain or California, winter precipitation is often higher than summer precipitation and so the groundwater storage is not fully recharged in summer. Consequently, the water table is lower during the summer. This disparity between the level of the winter and summer water table is known as the "zone of intermittent saturation", wherein the water table will fluctuate in response to climatic conditions.

text: Long-term fluctuations[edit]

text: Fossil water is groundwater that has remained in an aquifer for several millennia and occurs mainly in deserts. It is non-renewable by present-day rainfall due to its depth below the surface, and any extraction causes a permanent change in the water table in such regions.

text: Effects on sea level[edit]

text: Aquifer drawdown or overdrafting and the pumping of fossil water may be a contributing factor to sea-level rise.[3]

text: Effects on crop yield[edit]

text: Most crops need a watertable at a minimum depth because at shallower depths the crop suffers a yield decline.[6] For some important food and fiber crops a classification was made:[7]

text:
Crop and location
DWT tolerance
Classification
Explanation

Wheat, Nile Delta, Egypt
45
Very tolerant
Resists shallow water tables

Sugar cane, Australia
60
Tolerant
The water table should be deeper than 60 cm

Banana, Surinam
70
Sligtly sensitive
Yield declines at water tables < than 70 cm deep

Cotton, Nile Delta
90
Sensitive
Cotton needs dry feet, water table should be deep