document_title: Fear the Walking Dead

question_text: where does fear the walking dead take place

text: Fear the Walking Dead

text: Premise[edit]

text: Set initially in Los Angeles, California and then later in Mexico,[2] the series follows a dysfunctional, blended family composed of high school guidance counselor Madison Clark, her English teacher fiancé Travis Manawa, her daughter Alicia, her drug addict son Nick, Travis's son from a previous marriage, Chris, Chris's mother Liza Ortiz, and others who join their group at the onset of the apocalypse.[3][4] They must reinvent themselves, learning new skills and adopting new attitudes in order to survive as civilization collapses around them.[5]

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Kim Dickens as Madison Clark: The series' intelligent and domineering main protagonist, a former guidance counselor, the mother of Nick and Alicia, and Travis' fiancée.[3][6]
Cliff Curtis as Travis Manawa: A resolute and peacekeeping former high school teacher, Madison's fiancé, Chris' father, and Liza's ex-husband. (seasons 1–3)[3][6]
Frank Dillane as Nick Clark: A brave and selfless recovering heroin addict, Madison's son, and Alicia's brother. (seasons 1–4)[3][4][6][7]
Alycia Debnam-Carey as Alicia Clark: The fiery yet compassionate daughter of Madison, and Nick's sister.[3][6]
Elizabeth Rodriguez as Liza Ortiz: A no-nonsense and caring nursing student, Travis' ex-wife, and Chris' mother. (season 1; guest season 2)[3][6][8]
Mercedes Mason as Ofelia Salazar: The strong-willed and very capable daughter of Daniel and his wife Griselda. (seasons 1–3)[3][6]
Lorenzo James Henrie as Chris Manawa: Travis and Liza's rebellious teenage son, who becomes more brutal due to the landscape of the deadly new world. (seasons 1–2)[3][8]
Rubén Blades as Daniel Salazar: A courageous and practical former Sombra Negra member, a barber, Griselda's husband, and Ofelia's father. (seasons 1–3)[3][9][10]
Colman Domingo as Victor Strand: A smart and sophisticated conman-turned-businessman, who forms friendships with Nick and Madison. (season 2–present; guest season 1)[11]
Michelle Ang as Alex: A pragmatic and quiet survivor introduced in the Fear the Walking Dead: Flight 462 web series. (season 2)[12]
Danay García as Luciana Galvez: A strong and cautious former member of the La Colonia community in Tijuana, Mexico, and Nick's girlfriend. (season 3–present; recurring season 2)[13]
Daniel Sharman as Troy Otto: The charismatic and impulsive son of Jeremiah, and Jake's half-brother. (season 3)[14][15]
Sam Underwood as Jake Otto: Jeremiah's moralistic and wiser son, Troy's half-brother, and Alicia's love interest. (season 3)[15]
Dayton Callie as Jeremiah Otto: The racist and candid leader of Broke Jaw Ranch, and Jake and Troy's father. (season 3; guest season 2)[15]
Lisandra Tena as Lola Guerrero: The generous and empathetic leader of a community stationed at a dam located in Tijuana, who is responsible for supplying water. (season 3)[15]
Maggie Grace as Althea: A curious and tactical journalist who encounters Morgan and John. (season 4)[16]
Garret Dillahunt as John Dorie: A lonesome and friendly police officer whom Morgan encounters. (season 4)[16]
Lennie James as Morgan Jones: A mentally unstable and ruthlessly pragmatic man, formerly a part of Rick Grimes' group on The Walking Dead, who encounters the core group of survivors. (season 4)[16]
Jenna Elfman as Naomi / Laura: A kind and mysterious nurse whom Madison encounters. (season 4)[16]

text: Recurring[edit]

text: Los Angeles[edit]

text:
Scott Lawrence as Art "Artie" Costa: The principal at the high school where Madison and Travis work. (season 1)[17]
Patricia Reyes Spíndola as Griselda Salazar: Ofelia's mother, who emigrated from El Salvador with her husband Daniel to escape political unrest. (season 1; guest season 2)[3]
Jamie McShane as Lt. Moyers: The leader of the National Guard contingent in charge of protecting Madison's neighborhood. (season 1)[18]
Shawn Hatosy as Cpl. Andrew Adams: A well-intentioned military man with a soulful disposition, who is out of his element. (season 1)[19]
Sandrine Holt as Dr. Bethany Exner: A confident and skilled doctor. (season 1)[20]

text: Pacific Coast[edit]

text:
Daniel Zovatto as Jack Kipling: A member of the pirates who develops an attraction to Alicia. (season 2)[21]
Jesse McCartney as Reed: Connor's brother and a hostile member of the pirates. (season 2)[22]
Veronica Diaz as Vida: A pregnant woman and one of Connor's pirates. (season 2)[23]
Arturo Del Puerto as Luis Flores: An ally and right-hand man of Victor Strand and Thomas Abigail. (season 2)[24]

text: Mexico[edit]

text:
Dougray Scott as Thomas Abigail: Strand's boyfriend and the namesake of the boat Abigail. (season 2)[25]
Marlene Forte as Celia Flores: Luis's mother. (season 2)[26]
Paul Calderón as Alejandro Nuñez: A pharmacist and leader of La Colonia, a community in Tijuana, Mexico, he claims to have been bitten, but did not die. (season 2)[27]
Alejandro Edda as Marco Rodriguez: The leader of the gang who live near La Colonia. (season 2)
Karen Bethzabe as Elena Reyes: The Rosario Beach hotel manager who helps Alicia. (season 2; guest season 3)[28]
Ramses Jimenez as Hector Reyes: Elena's nephew who used to manage the hotel with her. (season 2; guest season 3)
Andres Londono as Oscar Diaz: The leader of a group of survivors living at a hotel. (season 2)[29]
Raul Casso as Andres Diaz: Oscar's brother. (season 2)
Brenda Strong as Ilene Stowe: A member of the wedding party and mother-in-law of Oscar. (season 2; guest season 3)[30]
Kelly Blatz as Brandon Luke: The leader of a group of young men that befriend Chris. (season 2)[31]
Kenny Wormald as Derek: A member of Brandon's group. (season 2)[32]
Israel Broussard as James McCallister: A member of Brandon's group. (season 2)[32]

text: The Ranch[edit]

text:
Michael Greyeyes as Qaletaqa Walker: A Native American in a war with Jeremiah Otto, who occupies his lands. (season 3)
Michael William Freeman as Blake Sarno: A member of Broke Jaw Ranch's militia. (season 3)
Justin Rain as Lee "Crazy Dog": The right-hand man of Qaletaqa. (season 3)
Matt Lasky as Cooper: A member of Broke Jaw Ranch's militia. (season 3)

text: The Dam[edit]

text:
Jesse Borrego as Efrain Morales: A man who saves Daniel's life when he was injured by a fire. (season 3)
Ray McKinnon as Proctor John: The leader of the gang known as the Proctors. (season 3)

text: Dell Diamond Baseball Stadium[edit]

text:
Sebastian Sozzi as Cole: A resident of the community within the baseball stadium. (season 4)[33]
Rhoda Griffis as Viv: A resident of the community within the baseball stadium. (season 4)
Kenneth Wayne Bradley as Douglas: A resident of the community within the baseball stadium. (season 4)

text: The Vultures[edit]

text:
Kevin Zegers as Mel: An antagonistic leader of the Vultures. (season 4)[34]
Alexa Nisenson as Charlie: A young girl who is a spy for the Vultures. (season 4)
Evan Gamble as Ennis: A member of the Vultures. (season 4)[35]

text: Episodes[edit]

text: The first season consists of six episodes. The second season, comprising 15 episodes, premiered on April 10, 2016.[36][37][38] On April 15, 2016, AMC announced the series had been renewed for a 16-episode third season, which premiered on June 4, 2017.[39][40] In April 2017, AMC renewed the series for a 16-episode fourth season and announced that Andrew Chambliss and Ian Goldberg would replace the departing Dave Erickson as showrunners.[41] The fourth season premiered on April 15, 2018.[42]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
6
August 23, 2015 (2015-08-23)
October 4, 2015 (2015-10-04)

2
15
April 10, 2016 (2016-04-10)
October 2, 2016 (2016-10-02)

3
16
June 4, 2017 (2017-06-04)
October 15, 2017 (2017-10-15)

4
16[43]
April 15, 2018 (2018-04-15)
TBA

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: In September 2013, AMC announced they were developing a companion series to The Walking Dead, which follows a different set of characters created by Robert Kirkman.[44] In September 2014, AMC ordered a pilot, which was written by Kirkman and Dave Erickson, and directed by Adam Davidson,[45] and is executive produced by Kirkman, Erickson, Gale Anne Hurd, and David Alpert, with Erickson serving as showrunner.[46] The project was originally known as Cobalt;[47] Kirkman confirmed, in March 2015, that the series would be titled Fear the Walking Dead.[48] On March 9, 2015, AMC announced it had ordered Fear the Walking Dead to series, with a two-season commitment. The series premiered on August 23, 2015.[49]

text: Casting[edit]

text: In December 2014, the first four starring roles were cast: Kim Dickens as Madison, the female lead; Cliff Curtis as Travis Manawa, the male lead; Frank Dillane as Nick; and Alycia Debnam-Carey as Alicia.[50][51][52] In April and May 2015, Elizabeth Rodriguez and Mercedes Mason were announced as series regulars, both in unknown roles.[53][54]

text: In November 2017, it was reported that Lennie James who portrays Morgan Jones on The Walking Dead would crossover and join the main cast in the fourth season.[55] The fourth season also sees the additions of several new series regulars, played by Garret Dillahunt,[56] Jenna Elfman,[57] and Maggie Grace.[58]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Production of the pilot episode began in early 2015 and ended on February 6, 2015.[59][60] The pilot episode was filmed in Los Angeles; the remaining first-season episodes were filmed in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.[61][62] Production on the remaining five first-season episodes began on May 11, 2015.[6] Adam Davidson, who directed the pilot, also directed the series' second and third episodes.[6]

text: Filming for the second season began in December 2015, with production moving to Baja California, Mexico.[63] Locations included Rosarito (sea scenes and hotel) and Valle de Guadalupe (Abigail's vineyard). The sea scenes were filmed using a horizon tank at Baja Film Studios. An additional scene from the season one finale was filmed in The Sunken City, San Pedro, Los Angeles.[64]

text: Filming for the third season began on January 6, 2017, in Baja California, Mexico, with some of the same location sites used for the second half of season two.[65] Additional locations in Tijuana Municipality included Avenida Revolución,[66] Abelardo L. Rodríguez Dam and the hills that hosted the Otto's ranch.[67]

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: On August 23, 2015, the series debuted simultaneously worldwide on: AMC in the U.S.; AMC Global in major regional markets in Africa, Asia, Europe, Latin America, and the Middle East;[68] and FX in Australia.[69] Hulu holds the show's video on demand rights in the U.S., while Amazon Instant Video owns the streaming rights in Austria and Germany, and will make episodes available online one day after their original airing. Streaming in the United Kingdom became available to Amazon Prime members in 2016.[70][71]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text:
Season
Critical response

Rotten Tomatoes
Metacritic

1
78% (59 reviews)[72]
66 (33 reviews)[73]

2
71% (29 reviews)[74]
54 (12 reviews)[75]

3
80% (8 reviews)[76]
N/A

4
90% (43 reviews)[77]
N/A

text: Season 1[edit]

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has a rating of 78%, based on 59 reviews, whose average rating is 6.8/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Fear the Walking Dead recycles elements of its predecessor, but it's still moody and engrossing enough to compete with the original."[72] On Metacritic, the season has a score of 66 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[73]

text: Elisabeth Vincentelli of the New York Post rated the first two episodes three out of four stars, stating that "[They] are creepily suspenseful–they're great examples of how effective a slow pace and a moody atmosphere can be."[78] Another positive review of the first episode came from Ken Tucker of Yahoo TV, who wrote, "Fear the Walking Dead is a mood piece, more artful than the original series" and that the cast is "terrific".[79] Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter gave an average review, writing, "The 90-minute first episode and the hour-long second episode are, while not actually boring, certainly less magnetic than the original."[80]

text: One of the harshest negative reviews came from HitFix, on Daniel Fienberg and Alan Sepinwall's podcast, where Fienberg called the premiere episode "awful, just horrible ... as bad as The Walking Dead has ever gotten at its very worst. This is that bad. I've been kind of stunned to see people being generous to it. ... I thought this was almost unwatchably bad." Sepinwall called his B− review "slightly generous".[81][82]

text: Season 2[edit]

text: The second season received mostly mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has a rating of 71%, based on 29 reviews, whose average rating is 6.6/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Fear the Walking Dead sets sail in its sophomore season with an intriguing backdrop that doesn't always disguise its deficiencies in comparison to its predecessor."[74] On Metacritic, the season has a score of 54 out of 100, based on 12 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[75]

text: Season 3[edit]

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the third season has an approval rating of 80% based on 8 reviews, with an average rating of 7.5/10.[76] In his season review for IGN, Matt Fowler gave it an 8.2 out of 10 and wrote, "Fear the Walking Dead more solidly found its tone and voice this season by embracing the arid landscape, ramping up the human-on-human conflict, and rallying around Kim Dickens' anti-hero mom, Madison, as the driving character" and that it is now "a better series overall than The Walking Dead".[83]

text: Season 4[edit]

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the fourth season has an approval rating of 90% based on 42 reviews, with an average rating of 8.42/10.[77]

text: Ratings[edit]

text: The U.S. series premiere attracted 10.1 million total viewers, with 6.3 million in the advertiser-coveted 18-to-49-year-old demographic, both cable television records for a series premiere.[84][85] Numerous international debuts of the pilot also set ratings records.[68] The first season averaged 11.2 million viewers in "live plus-3" ratings (includes VOD and DVR viewing within three days after initial telecast) to become the highest-rated first season of any series in cable history.[86]

text:
Season
Timeslot (ET)
Episodes
First aired
Last aired
Avg. viewers
(millions)

Date
Viewers
(millions)
Date
Viewers
(millions)

1
Sunday 9:00 pm
6
August 23, 2015 (2015-08-23)
10.13[87]
October 4, 2015 (2015-10-04)
6.86[88]
7.61[89]

2
15
April 10, 2016 (2016-04-10)
6.67[90]
October 2, 2016 (2016-10-02)
3.05[91]
4.19[92]

3
16
June 4, 2017 (2017-06-04)
3.11[93]
October 15, 2017 (2017-10-15)
2.23[94]
2.36[95]

4
Sunday 10:00 pm (1)
Sunday 9:00 pm (2–)
16
April 15, 2018 (2018-04-15)
4.09[96]
TBA
TBD
TBD

text:
Season
Ep. 1
Ep. 2
Ep. 3
Ep. 4
Ep. 5
Ep. 6
Ep. 7
Ep. 8
Ep. 9
Ep. 10
Ep. 11
Ep. 12
Ep. 13
Ep. 14
Ep. 15
Ep. 16

1
10.13
8.18
7.19
6.62
6.66
6.86
N/A

2
6.67
5.58
4.73
4.80
4.41
4.49
4.39
3.86
3.66
2.99
3.40
3.62
3.49
3.67
3.05
N/A

3
3.11
2.70
2.50
2.40
2.50
2.19
2.62
2.40
2.14
2.14
1.99
2.08
2.36
2.23
2.23
2.23

4
4.09
3.07
2.71
2.49
2.46
2.31
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Recipient
Result
Ref.

2015
E! Online Best. Ever. TV. Awards
New Show You're Most Excited to See
Fear the Walking Dead
Won
[98]

2016
42nd Saturn Awards
Best Horror Television Series
Fear the Walking Dead
Nominated
[99]

Best Actress on Television
Kim Dickens
Nominated

Best Performance by a Younger Actor on Television
Frank Dillane
Nominated

E! Online TV Scoop Awards
Female Breakout Star
Alycia Debnam-Carey
Won
[100]

2017
Saturn Awards
Best Horror Television Series
Fear the Walking Dead
Nominated
[101]

Best Actress on a Television Series
Kim Dickens
Nominated

Best Younger Actor on a Television Series
Alycia Debnam-Carey
Nominated

Lorenzo James Henrie
Nominated

2018
16th Visual Effects Society Awards
Outstanding Supporting Visual Effects in a Photoreal Episode
Peter Crosman, Denise Gayle, Philip Nussbaumer, Martin Pelletier, Frank Ludica for "Sleigh Ride"
Nominated
[102]

Saturn Awards
Best Horror Television Series
Fear the Walking Dead
Pending
[103]

Best Performance by a Younger Actor on a Television Series
Alycia Debnam-Carey
Pending

Best Guest-Starring Performance on Television
Michael Greyeyes
Pending

text: Web series[edit]

text: Fear the Walking Dead: Flight 462[edit]

text: Fear the Walking Dead: Flight 462, a 16-part web series, premiered on October 4, 2015, on AMC.com; it also aired as promos during The Walking Dead season 6. Two of the web series' characters, Alex (previously known as Charlie) and Jake, are introduced in Fear the Walking Dead season 2, episode 3 ("Ouroboros").[104]

text: Fear the Walking Dead: Passage[edit]

text: A second 16-part web series debuted on October 17, 2016, and episodes were made available online weekly and aired as promos during the seventh season of The Walking Dead. The web series follows Sierra, a capable survivor, who helps an injured woman named Gabi as they try to find sanctuary. The series was written by Lauren Signorino and Mike Zunic, and directed by Andrew Bernstein.[105]

text: Home media[edit]

text: The first season was released on Blu-ray and DVD on December 1, 2015.[106] A special edition version of the first season was released on Blu-ray and DVD on March 22, 2016, with new bonus features, including deleted scenes, seven featurettes, and audio commentaries by cast and crew, on all six episodes.[107] The second season, featuring audio commentaries, deleted scenes, and various behind-the-scene featurettes, was released on Blu-ray and DVD on December 13, 2016.[108] The third season, featuring audio commentaries and deleted scenes, was released on Blu-ray and DVD on March 13, 2018.[109]


document_title: Structure of the Earth

question_text: what is the solid outer layer of the earth called

root

text: Structure of the Earth

text: Mass[edit]

text: The force exerted by Earth's gravity can be used to calculate its mass. Astronomers can also calculate Earth's mass by observing the motion of orbiting satellites. Earth’s average density can be determined through gravitometric experiments, which have historically involved pendulums.

tag: p

text: The mass of Earth is about 7024600000000000000♠6×1024 kg.[1]

text: Structure[edit]

text: The structure of Earth can be defined in two ways: by mechanical properties such as rheology, or chemically. Mechanically, it can be divided into lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesospheric mantle, outer core, and the inner core. Chemically, Earth can be divided into the crust, upper mantle, lower mantle, outer core, and inner core. The geologic component layers of Earth[3][not in citation given] are at the following depths below the surface:

text:
Depth
Layer

Kilometres
Miles

0–60
0–37
Lithosphere (locally varies between 5 and 200 km)

0–35
0–22
… Crust (locally varies between 5 and 70 km)

35–60
22–37
… Uppermost part of mantle

35–2,890
22–1,790
Mantle

210-270
130-168
… Upper mesosphere (upper mantle)

660–2,890
410–1,790
… Lower mesosphere (lower mantle)

2,890–5,150
1,790–3,160
Outer core

5,150–6,360
3,160–3,954
Inner core

tag: table

text: The layering of Earth has been inferred indirectly using the time of travel of refracted and reflected seismic waves created by earthquakes. The core does not allow shear waves to pass through it, while the speed of travel (seismic velocity) is different in other layers. The changes in seismic velocity between different layers causes refraction owing to Snell's law, like light bending as it passes through a prism. Likewise, reflections are caused by a large increase in seismic velocity and are similar to light reflecting from a mirror.

text: Crust[edit]

text: The crust ranges from 5–70 kilometres (3.1–43.5 mi) in depth and is the outermost layer. The thin parts are the oceanic crust, which underlie the ocean basins (5–10 km) and are composed of dense (mafic) iron magnesium silicate igneous rocks, like basalt. The thicker crust is continental crust, which is less dense and composed of (felsic) sodium potassium aluminium silicate rocks, like granite. The rocks of the crust fall into two major categories – sial and sima (Suess,1831–1914). It is estimated that sima starts about 11 km below the Conrad discontinuity (a second order discontinuity). The uppermost mantle together with the crust constitutes the lithosphere. The crust-mantle boundary occurs as two physically different events. First, there is a discontinuity in the seismic velocity, which is most commonly known as the Mohorovičić discontinuity or Moho. The cause of the Moho is thought to be a change in rock composition from rocks containing plagioclase feldspar (above) to rocks that contain no feldspars (below). Second, in oceanic crust, there is a chemical discontinuity between ultramafic cumulates and tectonized harzburgites, which has been observed from deep parts of the oceanic crust that have been obducted onto the continental crust and preserved as ophiolite sequences.

text: Many rocks now making up Earth's crust formed less than 100 million (1×108) years ago; however, the oldest known mineral grains are 4.4 billion (4.4×109) years old, indicating that Earth has had a solid crust for at least that long.[4]

text: Mantle[edit]

text: Earth's mantle extends to a depth of 2,890 km, making it the thickest layer of Earth. The mantle is divided into upper and lower mantle. The upper and lower mantle are separated by the transition zone. The lowest part of the mantle next to the core-mantle boundary is known as the D″ (pronounced dee-double-prime[5]) layer. The pressure at the bottom of the mantle is ≈140 GPa (1.4 Matm). The mantle is composed of silicate rocks that are rich in iron and magnesium relative to the overlying crust. Although solid, the high temperatures within the mantle cause the silicate material to be sufficiently ductile that it can flow on very long timescales. Convection of the mantle is expressed at the surface through the motions of tectonic plates. As there is intense and increasing pressure as one travels deeper into the mantle, the lower part of the mantle flows less easily than does the upper mantle (chemical changes within the mantle may also be important). The viscosity of the mantle ranges between 1021 and 1024 Pa·s, depending on depth.[6] In comparison, the viscosity of water is approximately 10−3 Pa·s and that of pitch is 107 Pa·s. The source of heat that drives plate tectonics is the primordial heat left over from the planet’s formation as well as the radioactive decay of uranium, thorium, and potassium in Earth’s crust and mantle.[7]

text: Core[edit]

text: The average density of Earth is 5,515 kg/m3. Because the average density of surface material is only around 3,000 kg/m3, we must conclude that denser materials exist within Earth's core. Seismic measurements show that the core is divided into two parts, a "solid" inner core with a radius of ≈1,220 km[8] and a liquid outer core extending beyond it to a radius of ≈3,400 km. The densities are between 9,900 and 12,200 kg/m3 in the outer core and 12,600–13,000 kg/m3 in the inner core.[9]

text: The inner core was discovered in 1936 by Inge Lehmann and is generally believed to be composed primarily of iron and some nickel. It is not necessarily a solid, but, because it is able to deflect seismic waves, it must behave as a solid in some fashion. Experimental evidence has at times been critical of crystal models of the core.[10] Other experimental studies show a discrepancy under high pressure: diamond anvil (static) studies at core pressures yield melting temperatures that are approximately 2000 K below those from shock laser (dynamic) studies.[11][12] The laser studies create plasma,[13] and the results are suggestive that constraining inner core conditions will depend on whether the inner core is a solid or is a plasma with the density of a solid. This is an area of active research.

text: In early stages of Earth's formation about four and a half billion (4.5×109) years ago, melting would have caused denser substances to sink toward the center in a process called planetary differentiation (see also the iron catastrophe), while less-dense materials would have migrated to the crust. The core is thus believed to largely be composed of iron (80%), along with nickel and one or more light elements, whereas other dense elements, such as lead and uranium, either are too rare to be significant or tend to bind to lighter elements and thus remain in the crust (see felsic materials). Some have argued that the inner core may be in the form of a single iron crystal.[14][15]

text: Under laboratory conditions a sample of iron–nickel alloy was subjected to the corelike pressures by gripping it in a vise between 2 diamond tips (diamond anvil cell), and then heating to approximately 4000 K. The sample was observed with x-rays, and strongly supported the theory that Earth's inner core was made of giant crystals running north to south.[16][17]

text: The liquid outer core surrounds the inner core and is believed to be composed of iron mixed with nickel and trace amounts of lighter elements.

text: Recent speculation suggests that the innermost part of the core is enriched in gold, platinum and other siderophile elements.[18]

text: The matter that comprises Earth is connected in fundamental ways to matter of certain chondrite meteorites, and to matter of outer portion of the Sun.[19][20] There is good reason to believe that Earth is, in the main, like a chondrite meteorite. Beginning as early as 1940, scientists, including Francis Birch, built geophysics upon the premise that Earth is like ordinary chondrites, the most common type of meteorite observed impacting Earth, while totally ignoring another, albeit less abundant type, called enstatite chondrites. The principal difference between the two meteorite types is that enstatite chondrites formed under circumstances of extremely limited available oxygen, leading to certain normally oxyphile elements existing either partially or wholly in the alloy portion that corresponds to the core of Earth.

text: Dynamo theory suggests that convection in the outer core, combined with the Coriolis effect, gives rise to Earth's magnetic field. The solid inner core is too hot to hold a permanent magnetic field (see Curie temperature) but probably acts to stabilize the magnetic field generated by the liquid outer core. The average magnetic field strength in Earth's outer core is estimated to be 25 Gauss (2.5 mT), 50 times stronger than the magnetic field at the surface.[21][22]

text: Recent evidence has suggested that the inner core of Earth may rotate slightly faster than the rest of the planet;[23] however, more recent studies in 2011[which?] found this hypothesis to be inconclusive. Options remain for the core which may be oscillatory in nature or a chaotic system.[citation needed] In August 2005 a team of geophysicists announced in the journal Science that, according to their estimates, Earth's inner core rotates approximately 0.3 to 0.5 degrees per year faster relative to the rotation of the surface.[24][25]

text: The current scientific explanation for Earth's temperature gradient is a combination of heat left over from the planet's initial formation, decay of radioactive elements, and freezing of the inner core.


document_title: Rail transport in India

question_text: name of the first train run in india

question_tokens: name of the first train run in india

text: Rail transport in India

text: History[edit]

text: The history of rail transport in India began in the early nineteenth century.

text: 1832–1852: Industrial railways[edit]

text: The first proposals for railways in India were made in Madras in 1832.[9] The first train in India ran from Red Hills to Chintadripet bridge in Madras in 1837. It was called Red Hill Railway. It was hauled by a rotary steam engine locomotive manufactured by William Avery. It was built by Sir Arthur Cotton. It was mainly used for transporting granite stones for road building work in Madras.[9] In 1845, a railway was built at Dowleswaram in Rajahmundry. It was called Godavari Dam Construction Railway. It was also built by Arthur Cotton. It was used to supply stones for construction of a dam over Godavari.[9] On May 8, 1845, Madras Railway was incorporated. In the same year East India Railway company was incorporated. On August 1, 1849, Great Indian Peninsular Railway was incorporated by an Act of Parliament. "Guarantee System" providing free land and guaranteed rates of return (5%) to the private English companies willing to work on building railways was finalized on August 17, 1849. In 1851, a railway was built in Roorkee. It was called Solani Aqueduct Railway. It was hauled by steam locomotive called Thomason, named after a British officer. It was used for transporting construction materials for building of aqueduct over Solani river.[9] In 1852, the Madras Guaranteed Railway Company was incorporated.

text: 1853–1924: Passenger railways and expansion[edit]

text: The first passenger train in India ran between Bombay (Bori Bunder) and Thane on April 16, 1853. The 14-carriage train was hauled by three steam locomotives: Sahib, Sindh and Sultan. It ran for about 34 kilometers between these two cities carrying 400 people. The line was built and operated by GIPR.[10][11] This railway line was built in 1,676 mm (5 ft 6 in) broad gauge, which became the standard for the railways in the country. The first passenger railway train in eastern India ran from Howrah, near Calcutta to Hoogly, for distance of 24 miles, on August 15, 1854. The line was built and operated by EIR.[12] In May 1854, the Bombay-Thane line was extended to Kalyan by building bridge over "Dapoorie viaduct" over Ulhas river.[13] This was also the first railway bridge in India. In the same year GIPR started its first workshops in Byculla. In 1855, BB&CI Railway was incorporated.[14] In August 1855, EIR 'Express' and Fairy Queen steam locomotives started hauling trains.[15] The first passenger train in South India ran from Royapuram / Veyasarapady (Madras) to Wallajah Road (Arcot) on July 1, 1856, for a distance of 60 miles. It was built and operated by Madras Railway.[16] In the same year, first workshop was set up by the Madras Railway at Perambur, near Madras. The Bombay-Thane line was extended to Khopoli in same year. In 1858, Eastern Bengal Railway was incorporated.[17] On February 24, 1873, the first tramway (a horse-drawn tramway) opened in Calcutta between Sealdah and Armenian Ghat Street, a distance of 3.8 km.[18] In 1874, GSIR and Carnatic Rly. merged to form the South Indian Railway. On May 9, 1874, horse-drawn tramway began operations in Bombay between Colaba and Parel. In 1880, Calcutta Tramways Company was incorporated.[19] In 1890, East Coast State Railway was incorporated. In 1897, lighting in passenger coaches was introduced by many railway companies. In 1902, the Jodhpur Railway became the first to introduce electric lights as standard fixtures. In 1920, electric lighting of signals was introduced between Dadar and Currey Road in Bombay.

text: 1925–1950: Electrification and further expansion[edit]

text: On February 3, 1925, first electric passenger train in India ran between Victoria terminus and Kurla. It ran on 1500V DC overhead traction.[20] Cammell Laird and Uerdingenwagonfabrik companies provided the locomotives for the same. In the same year VT-Bandra section was also electrified and electric services began there, with an elevated platform at Sandhurst Road.[20] In the same year, the Oudh and Rohilkhund Railway was merged with EIR. The first railway budget was also presented in 1925.[21] East Indian Railway Company and Great Indian Peninsular Railway were taken over by the state in the same year.[22] In 1926, Kurla-Kalyan section was electrified with 1500 V DC. Electrification to Poona and Igatpuri (both 1500V DC) over the Bhore and Thal Ghats was also completed in the same year.[20] Charbagh railway station in Lucknow was built in the same year. In January 1928, Bandra-Virar section was electrified with 1500V DC. In the same year, the Frontier Mail made its inaugural run between Bombay VT and Peshawar.[23] and first automatic colour-light signals became operational in India, on GIPR's lines between Bombay VT and Byculla.[24] In the same year, Kanpur Central and Lucknow stations were inaugurated. In 1929, the Grand Trunk Express began running between Peshawar and Mangalore,[25] Punjab Limited Express began running between Mumbai and Lahore. Automatic colour-light signalling was extended to the Byculla-Kurla section in the same year. On June 1, 1930, the Deccan Queen began running, hauled by a WCP-1 (No. 20024, old number EA/1 4006) and with 7 coaches, on the GIPR's electrified route from Bombay VT to Poona (Pune).[26] In the same year, Hyderabad Godavary Valley Rly. was merged into Nizam's State Rly. In the same year, the route of the Grand Trunk Exp. was changed to Delhi - Madras.

text: 1951–1983: Zonal re-organisation and further developments[edit]

text: The re-organisation of railways in India into regional zones began in 1951.[27] On April 14, 1951, Southern Railway was created. On 5 November, Central Railway and Western Railway were created.[28] In the same year,the post of Chief Commissioner of Railways was abolished and the Railway Board adopted the practice of making the seniormost member Chairman of the board.[28] In the same year, the government of West Bengal entered into an agreement with the Calcutta Tramways Co. to take over its administrative functions. On April 14, 1952, Northern Railway, Eastern Railway and North-Eastern Railway were created.[28] In the same year, fans and lights were mandated for all compartments in all classes of passenger accommodation and sleeping accommodation was introduced in coaches. On August 1, 1955, Eastern Railway was split to form new South-Eastern Railway. In 1956, divisional system of administration was set up for the various regional zones. Also in 1956, the first fully air-conditioned train was introduced between Howrah and Delhi.[29] In 1957, after successful trials in France, SNCF proposed 25kV AC electrification for railways. Railways took a decision to adopt 25kV AC electrification and chose SNCF as technical consultant.[30] An organisation, Main Line Electrification Project (which later became the Railway Electrification Project and still later the Central Organization for Railway Electrification) was established in the same year.[31] In 1958, the North-Eastern Railway split to form a new Northeast Frontier Railway.[28] In 1959, the Raj Kharswan - Dongoposi section became the first section to be electrified with 25kV AC traction.[30] The first scheduled train using 25kV AC traction ran on Raj Kharswan - Dongoposi section on August 11, 1960.[30] In 1966, first containerized freight services were started, between Bombay and Ahmedabad. In the same year, electrification of several suburban tracks around Delhi, Madras and Calcutta was completed with the 25 kV AC system. In 1979, Main Line Electrification Project was reconstituted into Central Organization for Railway Electrification (CORE).

text: 1984–present: Rapid transit and later developments[edit]

text: On October 24, 1984, first metro train ran in India between Esplanade to Bhowanipur (now the Netaji Bhawan station) in Calcutta.[32] Thus Calcutta Metro became the first metro in the country.[33] In 1986, computerized ticketing and reservation was introduced in India, for the first time, at New Delhi.[34] In 1988, The first Shatabdi Express was introduced in the country between New Delhi and Jhansi (later extended to Bhopal), and also became the fastest train at the time.[35] In 1990, first Self-Printing Ticket Machine (SPTM) was introduced, at New Delhi. In 1993, AC 3-tier coaches were introduced for the first time in India. In the same year, Sleeper Class was introduced on IR for the first time, separate from Second Class. On January 16, 1995, first regularly scheduled services on trains hauled by locos using the 2*25kV system of traction started on Bina-Katni. In September 1996, CONCERT system of computerized reservations was fully deployed at New Delhi, Mumbai and Chennai. In 1998, Coupon Validating Machines (CVMs) were introduced at Mumbai CST. The complete networked nationwide CONCERT system became operational on April 18, 1999. In the same year, South East Central was constituted. Credit cards were started being accepted for booking tickets and reservations in some stations also in 1999. In February 2000, Indian Railways web site was deployed.[36] On 6 July 2002, the East Coast, South Western, South East Central, North Central, and West Central zones were created.[37] On 3 August 2002, IR began online train reservations and ticketing over the Internet. On December 1, 2002, internet ticket booking was extended to many cities.[38] On February 5, 2012, WR switched completely to 25kV AC traction, ending its use of 1.5kV DC traction.[39] On 26 September 2013, Tatkal system of ticketing extended to ordinary trains. On 5 April 2016, Gatiman Express, India's fastest train with the maximum speed of 160 km/h, made its maiden journey from Delhi to Agra.[40] On 11 April 2016, CR completely switched to 25 kV AC traction, ending the use of DC traction completely in Mumbai area as well as on entire main-line rail network in the country.[41] On 31 March 2017, IR announced that the entire rail network in the country will be electrified by 2022.[42]

text: Rolling stock[edit]

text: Locomotives[edit]

text: Locomotives in India consist of electric and diesel locomotives. The world's first CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) locomotives are also being used.[43] Steam locomotives are no longer used, except in heritage trains. In India, locomotives are classified according to their gauge, motive power, the work they are suited for and their power or model number. The class name includes this information about the locomotive. It comprises 4 or 5 letters. The first letter denotes the track gauge. The second letter denotes their motive power, Diesel or Alternating current (Electric), and the third letter denotes the kind of traffic for which they are suited (goods, passenger, Multi or shunting). The fourth letter used to denote locomotives' chronological model number. However, from 2002 a new classification scheme has been adopted. Under this system, for newer diesel locomotives, the fourth letter will denote their horsepower range. Electric locomotives don't come under this scheme, and even all diesel locos are not covered. For them, this letter denotes their model number as usual.

text: A locomotive may sometimes have the fifth letter in its name which denotes a technical variant or subclass or subtype. This fifth letter indicates some smaller variation in the basic model or series, perhaps different motors, or a different manufacturer. With the new scheme for classifying diesel locomotives (as mentioned above) the fifth item is a letter that further refines the horsepower indication in 100 hp increments: 'A' for 100 hp, 'B' for 200 hp, 'C' for 300 hp, etc. So in this scheme, a WDM-3A refers to a 3100 hp loco, while a WDM-3D would be a 3400 hp loco and WDM-3F would be 3600 hp loco.

text: Note: This classification system does not apply to steam locomotives in India as they have become non-functional now. They retained their original class names such as M class or WP class.

text: Diesel locomotives are now fitted with auxiliary power units which saves nearly 88% of fuel during the idle time when train is not running.[44]

text: Goods wagons[edit]

text: The number of goods wagons was 205,596 on March 31, 1951, and reached the maximum number 405,183 on March 31, 1980, after which it started declining and was 239,321 on March 31, 2012.[citation needed] The number is far less than the requirement, and the IR keeps losing freight traffic to road. IR carried 93 million tonnes of goods in 1950–51, and it increased to 1010 million tonnes in 2012–13.[45]

text: However, its share in goods traffic is much lower than road traffic. In 1951, its share was 65%, and the share of the road was 35%. Now the shares have been reversed, and the proportion of railways has declined to 30% and the share of road has increased to 70%.[citation needed]

text: Since the 1990s, IR has stopped single-wagon consignments and provides only full rake freight trains.[citation needed]

text: Wagon types include:[46]

text:
BOXN = BOXN-HL, BOXN-HS, BOXN-HL, BOXN-CR, BOXN-LW, BOXN-AL, BOXN-EL.
BOBYN
BCNA
BCNHL
BTPN
BCACBM
BCCN
BOBRN
BRH
BTPGLN
VVN

tag: ul

text: Passenger coaches[edit]

text: IR has several types of passenger coaches.

text: The coaches used in IR are produced at Integral Coach Factory, Rail Coach Factory, Modern Coach Factory, Raebareli; including the new LHB coaches.

text: Electric Multiple Unit (EMU) coaches are used for suburban traffic in large cities – mainly Mumbai, Chennai, Delhi, Kolkata, Pune, Hyderabad and Bangalore. These coaches numbered 7,793 on March 31, 2012. They have second class and first class seating accommodation.

text: Passenger coaches numbered 46,722 on March 31, 2012. Other coaches (luggage coach, parcel van, guard's coach, mail coach, etc.) numbered 6,560 on March 31, 2012.

text: Manufacturing[edit]

text: The Chittaranjan Locomotive Works in Chittaranjan makes electric locomotives. The Diesel Locomotive Works in Varanasi makes diesel locomotives. The Integral Coach Factory in Perambur, Chennai makes integral coaches. These have a monocoque construction, and the floor is an integral unit with the undercarriage. The Rail Coach Factory in Kapurthala also makes coaches. The Rail Wheel Factory at Yelahanka, Bangalore and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela, Chhapra, Bihar manufactures wheels and axles, Diesel-Loco Modernisation Works, Patiala upgrade the WDM-2 Diesel loco from 2600 hp to 3100 hp. Some electric locomotives have been supplied by BHEL, Jhansi and Palakkad, and locomotive components are manufactured in several other plants around the country.[47]

text: Network[edit]

text: Tracks[edit]

text: The total track length of network is 119,640 km (74,340 mi) while the total route length of the network is 66,687 km (41,437 mi). Track sections are rated for speeds ranging from 80 to 220 km/h (50 to 137 mph), though trains don't really clock speeds of 200 km/h. Maximum speed attained by passenger trains is 177 km/h-180 km/h (110 mph).

text: Indian gauge 1,676 mm (5 ft 6 in) (a broad gauge) is the predominant gauge used by IR with 108,500 km (67,400 mi) of track length (94% of entire track length of all the gauges) and 59,400 km (36,900 mi) of route-kilometre (91% of entire route-kilometre of all the gauges). It is the widest gauge in passenger use in the world. The first railway line in India from Mumbai (Bori Bunder) to Thane in 1853 was built in broad gauge.

text: Urban rail transit lines which serve the urban areas are in 1,435 mm (4 ft 8 1⁄2 in) standard gauge (except suburban rail which is in Indian gauge). These encompass metro and trams. As of 2016, lines in operation are Trams in Kolkata, Delhi Metro, Rapid MetroRail Gurgaon, the Bangalore Metro and the Mumbai Metro. These lines are not operated by IR.[48]

text: On decreasing routes, the 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 3⁄8 in) metre gauge and 762 mm (2 ft 6 in) and 610 mm (2 ft) narrow gauges are present. These were initially introduced in hilly regions for cost considerations and simpler engineering. The metre gauge has about 5,000 km (3,100 mi) of track length (4% of entire track length of all the gauges) and 4,100 km (2,500 mi) of route-kilometre (6% of entire route-kilometre of all the gauges), while narrow gauges have 1,500 km (930 mi) route-kilometre (2% of entire route-kilometre of all the gauges), as of 31 March 2016.

text: Sleepers (ties) are mostly made up of prestressed concrete. Metal and teak sleepers are still in use on a few lines. These are under conversion to concrete sleepers.

text: Electrification[edit]

text: Around 23,555 km (14,636 mi) of the route-kilometre or 43,357 km (26,941 mi) of running track was electrified, as of March 31, 2016. India uses 25 kV AC traction on all of its electrified tracks.[49]

text: Railway electrification in India began with the inauguration of the first electric train between Bombay Victoria Terminus and Kurla on Harbour Line on February 3, 1925, on the then existing Great Indian Peninsula Railway (GIPR) at 1500 V DC. Heavy gradients on the Western Ghats necessitated the introduction of electric traction on the GIPR up to Igatpuri on the North East line and to Pune on the South East line. 1500 V DC traction was introduced on the suburban section of the then existing Bombay, Baroda and Central India Railway between Colaba and Borivili on January 5, 1928, and between Madras Beach and Tambaram of the then existing Madras and Southern Mahratta Railway on May 11, 1931. All this was primarily to meet the growing traffic on these metros.

text: The electrification of the Howrah-Burdwan section of the Eastern Railway was done at 3000 V DC and completed in 1958. The first 3000 V DC EMU services were inaugurated in Howrah-Sheoraphuli section on December 14, 1957.

text: The 25 kV AC system of traction emerged as an economical system of electrification as a result of research and trials in Europe, particularly on French Railways (SNCF). Railways decided in 1957 to adopt the 25 kV AC system of electrification as a standard, with SNCF as their consultant in the initial stages. The first section electrified on the 25 kV AC system was Raj Kharswan – Dongoaposi on the South Eastern Railway in 1960. The first 25 kV AC EMUs which were for Kolkata suburban services were inaugurated in September 1962. With a view to provide continuity of traction system, the Howrah – Burdwan section of the Eastern Railway and Madras Beach – Tambaram section of the Southern Railway were converted to the 25 kV AC system by 1968.

text: Considering the limitations in the existing DC traction system, a decision was taken to convert to 25 kV AC traction during 1996-97. Conversion from DC traction to AC traction was completed in the year 2012 by Western Railway and in 2016 by Central Railway. With this, the entire electrified mainline rail network in India now uses 25kV AC. Since then, DC traction is used only for metros and trams.

text: Signaling systems[edit]

text: The railways mostly use colour signal lights. Earlier the older semaphores and discs-based signalling (depending on the position or colour) were used, but these were replaced by colour signals.[50] Except for some high-traffic sections around large cities and junctions, the network does not use automatic block systems. However, the signals at stations are almost invariably interlocked with the setting of points (routes) and so safety does not depend on the skill of the station masters. With the planned introduction of Cab signalling/Anti collision devices the element of risk on account of drivers overshooting signals will also be eliminated.

text: Coloured signalling uses multi-coloured lighting, and in many places is automatically controlled. There are three modes:[50]

text:
Two aspect signalling, which uses a red (bottom) and green (top) lamp
Three aspect signalling, which uses an additional amber lamp in the centre
Four (multiple) aspect signalling uses four lamps. The fourth is amber and is placed above the other three.

text: Multiple aspect signals, by providing several intermediate speed stages between 'clear' and 'on', allow high-speed trains sufficient time to brake safely if required. This becomes very important as train speeds rise. Without multiple-aspect signals, the stop signals must be placed far apart to allow sufficient braking distance and this reduces track utilisation. At the same time, slower trains can also be run closer together on track with multiple aspect signals.

text: Rail links with adjacent countries[edit]

text: Rail links between India and neighbouring countries are not well developed. Two trains operate to Pakistan—the Samjhauta Express between Delhi and Lahore, and the Thar Express between Jodhpur and Karachi. Bangladesh is connected by a biweekly train, the Maitree Express, that runs from Kolkata to Dhaka. Two rail links to Nepal exist—passenger services between Jaynagar and Bijalpura, and freight services between Raxaul and Birganj.[51]

text: Bandhan Express also began running commercial trips between Kolkata, India, and Khulna, Bangladesh, in November 2017.[52][53]

text: Indian and Bangladeshi governments will start work late by December or early by January 2015 on a new rail link to ease surface transport.[54] India will build a 15-km railway tracks linking Tripura's capital Agartala with Bangladesh's southeastern city of Akhaura, an important railway junction connected to Chittagong port, resource-rich Sylhet and Dhaka.[55] An agreement to implement the railway project was signed between India's former Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and Bangladesh Premier Sheikh Hasina during her visit to India in January 2010.[56] Total cost of the proposed project is estimated at Rs.252 crore. The Indian Railway Construction Company (IRCON) would lay the new railway tracks on both sides of the border. Of the 15 km rail line, five km of tracks fall in the Indian territory.[57][58] The NFR is now laying tracks to connect Tripura's southern most border town Sabroom, 135 km south of here. From Sabroom, the Chittagong international sea port is just 72 km.[59]

text: No rail link exists with Myanmar but a railway line is to be built through from Jiribam (in Manipur) to Tamu through Imphal and Moreh.[60] The construction of this missing link, as per the feasibility study conducted by the Ministry of External Affairs through RITES Ltd, is estimated to cost ₹29.41 billion (US$460 million).[61] An 18-km railway link with Bhutan is being constructed from Hashimara in West Bengal to Toribari in Bhutan. No rail link exists with either China or Sri Lanka.[62]

text: Services[edit]

text: Passenger services[edit]

text: Accommodation classes[edit]

text: IR has several classes of travel with or without air conditioning. A train may have just one or many classes of travel. Slow passenger trains have only unreserved seating class whereas Rajdhani, Duronto, Shatabdi, Garib Rath and Yuva trains have only air-conditioned classes. The fares for all classes are different with unreserved seating class being the cheapest. The fare of Rajdhani, Duronto and Shatabdi trains includes food served in the train, but the fare for other trains does not include food that has to be bought separately. From September 2016, the IR have introduced dynamic fares for all accommodation classes for Rajdhani, Duronto and Shatabdi trains(except 1AC and EC classes) to shore up revenue.[63] In long-distance trains a pantry car is usually included and the food is served at the berth or seat itself. Luxury trains such as Palace on Wheels have separate dining cars, but these trains cost as much as or more than a five-star hotel room.

text: A standard passenger rake has four unreserved (also called "general") compartments, two at the front and two at the end, of which one may be exclusively for ladies. The exact number of other coaches varies according to the demand and the route. A luggage compartment can also exist at the front or the back. In some mail trains, a separate mail coach is attached. Lavatories are communal and feature both the Indian style as well as the Western style.

text: The following table lists the classes in operation. A train may not have all these classes.

text:
Class[64]
Description[65][66]

1A
AC first class: This is the most expensive class, where the fares are almost at par with air fare. There are eight cabins (including two coupes) in the full AC First Class coach and three cabins (including one coupe) in the half AC First Class coach. The coach has an attendant to help the passengers. Bedding is included with the fare. This air conditioned coach is present only on popular routes and can carry 18 passengers (full coach) or 10 passengers (half coach). The sleeper berths are extremely wide and spacious. The coaches are carpeted, have sleeping accommodation and have privacy features like personal coupes.

2A
AC two tier: These air-conditioned coaches have sleeping berths across eight bays. Berths are usually arranged in two tiers in bays of six, four across the width of the coach and two berths longways on the other side of the corridor, with curtains along the gangway or corridor. Bedding is included with the fare. A coach can carry 48 passengers (full coach) or 20 passengers (half coach).

FC
First class: Similar as 1AC, but without air conditioning. No bedding is available in this class. The berths are not as wide and spacious as in 1AC . There is a coach attendant to help the passengers. This class has been phased out completely. However heritage trains still have this class.

3A
AC three tier: Air conditioned coaches with 64 sleeping berths. Berths are usually arranged as in 2AC but with three tiers across the width and two longways as before giving eight bays of eight. They are slightly less well-appointed, usually no reading lights or curtained off gangways. Bedding is included with fare. It carries 64 passengers per coach.

3E
AC three tier (economy): Air conditioned coaches with sleeping berths, present in Garib Rath Express trains. Berths are usually arranged as in 3A but with three tiers across the width and three longways. They are slightly less well-appointed, usually no reading lights or curtained off gangways. Bedding is not included with fare.

EC
Executive chair car: An air-conditioned coach with large spacious seats and legroom. It has a total of four seats in a row used for day travel between cities. This class of travel is available on Tejas Express and Shatabdi Express trains.

CC
AC chair car: An air-conditioned seater coach with a total of five seats in a row used for day travel between cities. AC Double Deck sitter coaches are used in Double Decker Express.

SL
Sleeper class: The sleeper class is the most common coach on IR, and usually ten or more coaches of SL could be attached to a train rake. These are regular sleeping coaches with three berths across the width and two longways, without air conditioning. It carries 72 passengers per coach.

2S
Second seater: similar as CC, without the air-conditioning. Non-AC Double Deck sitter were introduced to few Mumbai-Pune trains and the Flying Ranee. However Flying Ranee is the only train that uses Non-AC Double Decker sitter coaches.

UR/GEN
Unreserved/General: This is the cheapest accommodation. These coaches are usually over-crowded and a seat is not guaranteed. Tickets issued are valid on any train on the same route if boarded within 24 hours of buying the ticket.

text: At the rear of the train is a special compartment known as the guard's cabin. It is fitted with a transceiver and is where the guard usually gives the all clear signal before the train departs.

text: Types of passenger trains[edit]

text: Trains are sorted into various categories that dictate the number of stops along their route, the priority they enjoy on the network, and the fare structure. Each express train is identified by a five-digit number, the first digit as 1 and 2 for long-distance Express trains. If the first digit is 0, then the train is a Special. The first digit as 5 denotes a passenger train. The second digit indicates the zone that operates the train, the third the division within the zone that controls the train and is responsible for its regular maintenance and cleanliness, and the last two digits are the train's serial number.[67] The system was changed from four digits from December 20, 2010,[68] to accommodate an increasing number of trains.

text: For super-fast trains, the second digit is always 2 (the first remains 1 or 2),[67] the third digit is the zone, the fourth is the division and only the last digit is the serial number within the division. Trains travelling in opposite directions along the same route are usually labelled with consecutive numbers.[67] However, there is considerable variation in train numbers and some zones, such as Central Railway, has a less systematic method for numbering trains.[67] Most express trains also have a unique name that is usually exotic and taken from landmarks, famous people, rivers and so on.[69][70]

text: Trains are classified by their average speed.[71] A faster train has fewer stops ("halts") than a slower one and usually caters to long-distance travel.

text: Order of the trains as per priority (1 indicates highest priority and 9 indicates lowest priority)

text: 1.Gatiman Express

text: 2.Rajdhani Express

text: 3.Shatabdi/Janshatabdi Express

text: 4.Duranto Express

text: 5.Yuva /Garibrath Express

text: 6.AC Express

text: 7.Superfast (includes all the special category trains like Mahamana Exp etc.)

text: 8.Mail /Express

text: Below is the list of all trains run by Indian Railways :

text:
S.no
Train
Description

1
Gatimaan Express
It is a semi high speed train that runs between Delhi and Agra in India. It operates at a speed of 160 km/h (99 mph) and is the fastest train in India. The train takes a travel time of 100 minutes to cover 188 km (117 mi) journey from Hazrat Nizamuddin to Agra Cantonment railway stations.

2
Shatabdi Express
The Shatabdi trains are air-conditioned, intercity trains for travel during daytime. Unlike the Rajdhani or Duronto Expresses, all Shatabdi expresses, it makes a round trip on same day. The Bhopal Shatabdi Express (Train no: 12001/12002) is second fastest train in India, between New Delhi and Agra cantonment, this train travels at an average speed of 90 km/h (56 mph) and touches top speed of 150 kilometres per hour (93 mph). They have seats and executive class seats, Some also have 3-tier AC berth. They have limited stops. It has on board Wi-fi facility.[72]

3
Rajdhani Express
These are air-conditioned trains linking major cities to New Delhi. They have high priority and are one of the fastest trains in India, travelling at a maximum speed of around 130–140 km/h (81–87 mph). They have limited stops. In the Railway budget of 2014, it was proposed that the speed of Rajdhani express, and Shatabdi Expresses would be increased up 180 km/h (110 mph).

4
Duronto Express
These are the non-stop (except for technical halts) point to point rail services introduced for the first time in 2009. They connect the metros and major state capitals of India and were introduced to travel as fast or faster than the Rajdhani Express. They provide first AC, two-tier AC and three-tier AC accommodation. Some of them provide non air-conditioned Sleeper Class accommodation.

5
AC Express
These are fully air-conditioned trains linking major cities in the country. They have high priority and are one of the fastest trains in India, travelling at about 130 km/h (81 mph). They have limited stops.

6
Tejas Express
Same as Shatabdi Express, these are fully air-conditioned single floor express trains. They have high priority and have limited stops. But unlike the Shatabdi Express these trains are sleeper trains used for long distance hauling.

7
Double Decker Express
Same as Shatabdi Express, these are fully air-conditioned two floor express trains. They have high priority and are among fast trains in India. They have limited stops. These trains are used for daytime travel.

8
Uday Express
Same as Double Decker Express, these are fully air-conditioned two floor express trains. They have high priority and have limited stops. These trains have berth facility and are used for night travel.

9
Humsafar Express
These are fully AC 3 tier coaches trains. It is also called semi-luxury train. These train provide so many facilities like LED screen display to show information about stations and train speed, Speakers for announcement system, Vending machines for tea and coffee, Charging ports for charging electronic devices such as mobiles and laptops, Bio toilets in compartments, Safety measures in compartments such as introduction of smoke alarms and CCTV cameras, Heating chamber as well as a refrigerating box for keeping food, curtains to maintain privacy, Providing with new khadi bed rolls etc.

10
Garib Rath
Air-conditioned no-frills trains with seats and 3-tier Economy AC berths. The maximum speed is 130 km/h (81 mph). Some of them have AC Chair cars also.

11
Yuva Express
These trains were started along with Duronto Express trains to provide air conditioned travel to youth of the country. Sixty percent of the seats of these trains were reserved for passengers between 18 – 45 years of age. These trains did not enjoy much success. Today these trains only operate on the Delhi - Howrah and Delhi - Mumbai routes.

12
Jan Shatabdi Express
Jan Shatabdi Express are more affordable variety of the Shatabdi Express, which have both AC and non-AC classes. The maximum speed is 110 km/h (68 mph). They have fewer stops.

13
Sampark Kranti Express
These are a series of trains which provide super fast Express-like connectivity to the national capital Delhi. Currently many pairs of these trains operate on the network.

14
Kavi Guru Express
These trains were introduced in honor of Rabindranath Tagore. Currently four pairs of these trains operate on the network.

15
Vivek Express
These trains were introduced to commemorate the 150th birth Anniversary of Swami Vivekananda in 2013. Currently four pairs of Vivek Express run in the country.

16
Rajya Rani Express
These trains were introduced to connect state capitals to important cities in that state.

17
Mahamana Express
It is the new version of coaches with modern benefits and facilities. The livery of the train is also different from other train. It is a tri-weekly superfast train service which runs between the city of Varanasi and New Delhi via Jaunpur, Sultanpur, Lucknow and Moradabad.

18
Intercity Express
These trains were introduced to connect important cities for short routes. These appear in both Superfast Express speed and Express speed category. Some of the famous legendary Intercity Express are Deccan Queen and Flying Ranee.

19
Antyodaya Express
These are fully non reserved SUPERFAST TRAINS. Antyodaya Express operates on peak routes. These trains are run to reduce the pressure on other trains on that route.

20
Jan Sadharan Express
These are fully non reserved EXPRESS TRAINS. Jan Sadharan Express operates on peak routes. These trains are run to reduce the pressure on other trains on that route.

21
Superfast Express/Mail
These trains travel at a speed greater than 100–110 km/h (62–68 mph). Tickets for these trains have an additional superfast surcharge.

22
Express/Mails
These are the most common kind of trains in India. They have more stops than their super-fast counterparts, but they stop only at relatively important intermediate stations.

23
Fast Passenger and Passenger
These are slow trains that stop at most or every station along the route and are the cheapest trains. The trains generally have unreserved seating accommodation but some night trains have sleeper and 3-tier AC compartments. These trains travel at about 40–80 km/h (25–50 mph).

24
Suburban trains
These trains operate in the urban areas of Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Pune and between Kanpur and Lucknow, usually stop at every stations and have unreserved seating accommodation.

25
Metro
These trains are designed for city transport. The first metro constructed was Kolkata Metro for the city of Kolkata. Now metro railway services are found in New Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Bangalore, Jaipur and Gurgaon.

26
Luxury Trains
IR also operate luxurious trains like Palace on Wheels, Royal Rajasthan on Wheels, Maharaja Express, Deccan Odyssey, The Golden Chariot, Mahaparinirvan Express. Fairy Queen has also gained tourist attraction because it is the oldest steam engine in the world in operation, also hauling a luxurious train from Delhi to Alwar.

27
Mountain railways of India
These are railways that run in hilly regions in India. Three of these lines were combined declared a World Heritage site as "Mountain Railways of India" by UNESCO.[73]

text: Luxury trains[edit]

text:
Palace on Wheels is a specially designed luxury tourist train service, frequently hauled by a steam locomotive, for promoting tourism in Rajasthan.[74] The train has a 7 nights & 8 days itinerary, it departs from New Delhi (Day 1), and covers Jaipur (Day 2), Sawai Madhopur and Chittaurgarh (Day 3), Udaipur (Day 4), Jaisalmer (Day 5), Jodhpur (Day 6), Bharatpur and Agra (Day 7), return to Delhi (Day 8).
Royal Rajasthan on Wheels a luxury tourist train service covers various tourist destinations in Rajasthan. The train takes tourists on a 7-day/8-night tour through Rajasthan. The train starts from New Delhi's Safdarjung railway station (Day 1), and has stops at Jodhpur (Day 2), Udaipur and Chittaurgarh (Day 3), Ranthambore National Park and Jaipur (Day 4), Khajuraho (Day 5), Varanasi and Sarnath (Day 6), Agra (Day 7) and back to Delhi (Day 8).[75]
Maharaja Express a luxury train operated by IRCTC runs on five circuits[76] covering more than 12 destinations across North-West and Central India, mainly centered around Rajasthan between the months of October to April.

The Maharajas Express, one of the world's most luxurious trains.

Deccan Odyssey luxury tourist train service covers various tourist destinations in Maharashtra and Goa. The 7 Nights / 8 Days tour starts from Mumbai (Day 1) and covers Jaigad Fort, Ganapatipule and Ratnagiri (Day 2), Sindhudurg, Tarkarli and Sawantwadi (Day 3), Goa (Day 4), Kolhapur and Pune (Day 5), Aurangabad and Ellora Caves (Day 6), Ajanta Caves and Nashik (Day 7), and back to Mumbai (Day 8).[77]
The Golden Chariot luxury train runs on two circuits Pride of the South[78] and Splendor of the South.[79]
Mahaparinirvan Express an a/c train service also known as Buddhist Circuit Train which is run by IRCTC to attract Buddhist pilgrims. The 7 nights/8 Days tour starts from New Delhi (Day 1) and covers Bodh Gaya (Day 2), Rajgir and Nalanda (Day 3), Varanasi and Sarnath (Day 4), Kushinagar and Lumbini (Day 5 and 6), Sravasti (Day 7), Taj Mahal (Agra) (Day 8) before returning to New Delhi on (Day 8).[80]

text: Ticketing[edit]

text: India has some of the lowest train fares in the world, and passenger traffic is heavily subsidised by more expensive higher class fares.[81] Until the late 1980s, Indian Railway ticket reservations were done manually. In late 1987, the Railways started using a computerised ticketing system. The entire ticketing system went online in 1995 to provide up to date information on status and availability. Today the ticketing network is computerised to a large extent, with the exception of some remote places. Computerized tickets can be booked for any two points in the country. Tickets can also be booked through the internet and via mobile phones, though this method carries an additional surcharge.

text: Discounted tickets are available for senior citizens (above sixty years) and some other categories of passengers including the disabled, students, sports persons, persons affected by serious diseases, or persons appearing for competitive examinations. One compartment of the lowest class of accommodation is earmarked for ladies in every passenger carrying train. Some berths or seats in sleeper class and second class are also earmarked for ladies.[82] Season tickets permitting unlimited travel on specific sections or specific trains for a specific time period may also be available. Foreign tourists can buy an Indrail Pass,[83] which is modelled on the Eurail Pass, permitting unlimited travel in India for a specific time period.

text: For long-distance travel, reservation of a berth can be done for comfortable travel up to 120 days before the date of intended travel.[82] Details such as the name, age and concession (if eligible) are required and are recorded on the ticket. The ticket price usually includes the base fare, which depends on the classification of the train (example: super-fast surcharge if the train is classified as a super-fast), the class in which one wishes to travel and the reservation charge for overnight journeys.

text: If a seat is not available, then the ticket is given a wait listed number; else the ticket is confirmed, and a berth number is printed on the ticket. A person receiving a wait listed ticket must wait until there are enough cancellations to enable him to move up the list and obtain a confirmed ticket.[82][83] If his ticket is not confirmed on the day of departure, he may not board the train. Some of the tickets are assigned to the RAC or Reservation against Cancellation, which is between the waiting list and the confirmed list.[82][83] These allow the ticket holder to board the train and obtain an allotted seat decided by a ticket collector, after the ticket collector has ascertained that there is a vacant (absentee) seat.

text: Reserved Railway Tickets can be booked through the website of Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation Ltd.[84] and also through mobile Phones and SMS. Tickets booked through this site are categorised into iTickets and eTickets. iTickets are booked by a passenger and then printed and delivered to the passenger for carrying during journey. eTickets are printed by the passenger and carried while travelling. While travelling on an eTicket, one must carry one of the authorised valid Photo Identity Cards. Cancellation of eTickets are also done online, without the requirement for the passenger to go to any counter. Unreserved tickets are available for purchase on the platform at any time before departure. An unreserved ticket holder may only board the general compartment class. All suburban networks issue unreserved tickets valid for a limited time period. For frequent commuters, a season pass (monthly or quarterly) guarantees unlimited travel between two stops.

text: Freight services[edit]

text: In 1999, the Konkan Railway Corporation introduced the Roll on Roll off (RORO) service, a unique road-rail synergy system, on the section between Kolad in Maharashtra and Verna in Goa,[85] which was extended up to Surathkal in Karnataka in 2004.[86][87] The RORO service, the first of its kind in India, allowed trucks to be transported on flatbed trailers. It was highly popular,[88] carrying about 110,000 trucks and bringing in about ₹ 740 million worth of earnings to the corporation till 2007.[89]

text: Urban rail[edit]

text: Suburban rail[edit]

text: The Mumbai Suburban Railway is the first rail system in India which began services in Mumbai in 1853, transports 6.3 million passengers daily and has the highest passenger density in the world.[90] The Kolkata Suburban Railway, was established in Kolkata in 1854.[91]

text: The operational suburban rail systems in India are in Mumbai Suburban Railway, Kolkata Suburban Railway, Lucknow-Kanpur Suburban Railway, Chennai Suburban Railway, Delhi Suburban Railway, Pune Suburban Railway, Hyderabad Multi-Modal Transport System, Barabanki-Lucknow Suburban Railway and Pernem-Karwar Suburban Railway.[92]

text: Other planned systems are Bengaluru Commuter Rail, Ahmedabad Suburban Railway and Coimbatore Suburban Railway.

text:
A suburban train in Mumbai

A suburban train in Kolkata

A suburban train in Chennai

A suburban train in Delhi

A suburban train in Pune

A suburban train in Hyderabad

text: Metro[edit]

text: The first modern rapid transit in India is the Kolkata Metro and started its operations in 1984, this is also the 17th Zone of the IR.[93] The Delhi Metro in New Delhi is India's second conventional metro and began operations in 2002. The Namma Metro in Bangalore is India's third operational rapid transit and began operations in 2011.

text: The operational systems are Kolkata Metro, Delhi Metro, Namma Metro, Rapid MetroRail Gurgaon, Mumbai Metro, Jaipur Metro, Chennai Metro, Kochi Metro, Hyderabad Metro and Lucknow Metro.

text: The planned systems are Noida Metro, Ghaziabad Metro, Navi Mumbai Metro, Nagpur Metro, Metro-Link Express for Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad, Varanasi Metro, Kanpur Metro, Pune Metro, Vijayawada Metro, Patna Metro, Meerut Metro, Guwahati Metro, Chandigarh Metro, Bhopal Metro, Kozhikode Light Metro, Indore Metro, Thiruvananthapuram Light Metro, Agra Metro, Coimbatore Metro, Visakhapatnam Metro, Dehradun Metro, Surat Metro, Srinagar Metro, Greater Gwalior Metro, Jabalpur Metro and Greater Nashik Metro.

text: Currently, rapid transit are under construction or in planning in several major cities of India and will be opened shortly.

text:
A metro in Kolkata

A metro in Delhi

A metro in Bengaluru

Hyderabad metro rail

A metro in Hyderabad

A metro in Gurgaon

A metro in Mumbai

A metro in Jaipur

A metro in Chennai

A metro in Kochi

A metro in Lucknow

text: Monorail[edit]

text: Monorail is generally considered as feeder system for the Metro trains in India. The Mumbai Monorail, which started in 2014, is the first operational monorail network in India[94] (excluding the Skybus Metro) since the Patiala State Monorail Trainways closed in 1927.

text: Other planned systems are Chennai Monorail, Kolkata Monorail, Allahabad Monorail, Bengaluru Monorail, Delhi Monorail, Indore Monorail, Kanpur Monorail, Navi Mumbai Monorail, Patna Monorail, Pune Monorail, Ahmedabad Monorail, Aizawl Monorail, Bhubaneswar Monorail, Jodhpur Monorail, Kota Monorail, Nagpur Monorail and Nashik Monorail.

text: Light rail[edit]

text: Like monorail, light rail is also considered as a feeder system for the Metro systems. The planned systems are Kolkata Light Rail Transit and Delhi Light Rail Transit.

text: Tram[edit]

text: The British rule in India saw trams in addition to trains, being introduced in many cities. The trams in Kolkata is currently the only tram system in the country and provides an emission-free means of transport in Kolkata while the other tram systems in India were phased out. The nationalised Calcutta Tramways Company is in the process of upgrading the existing tramway network at a cost of ₹240 million (US$3.7 million).[95]

text: Private railways[edit]

text: Though state-owned companies like the IR and the various metro companies enjoy a near monopoly in India, a few private railways do exist. All of these railway lines are used to carry only freight and not for passenger traffic.

text: There are railway lines owned and operated by companies for their own purposes, by plantations, sugar mills, collieries, mines, dams, harbours and ports, etc. The Mumbai Port Trust runs a BG railway of its own, as does the Madras Port Trust.[96] The Calcutta Port Commission Railway of Calcutta Port Trust is a BG railway. The Visakhapatnam Port Trust has BG railway. The Bhilai Steel Plant has a BG railway network.[96] The Tatas (a private concern) operate funicular railways at Bhira and at Bhivpuri Road (as well as the Kamshet–Shirawta Dam railway line). The Pipavav Rail Corporation holds a 33-year concession for building and operating a railway line from Pipavav to Surendranagar.[96] The Kutch Railway Company, a joint venture of the Gujarat state government and private parties, is involved (along with the Kandla Port Trust and the Gujarat Adani Port) to build a Gandhidham–Palanpur railway line.[96]

text: Issues[edit]

text: The IR receive rail subsidies of around Rs 260 billion ($3.8 billion), of which around 60% of which goes to commuter rail and short-haul trips.[97]

text: IR earns about 70% of its revenues from freight traffic (₹686.2 billion from freight and ₹304.6 billion from passengers in 2011–12). Most of its profits come from transporting freight, and this makes up for losses on passenger traffic. It deliberately keeps its passenger fares low and cross-subsidises the loss-making passenger traffic with the profit-making freight traffic.

text: According to the Report of High Level Safety Review Committee of 2012, from 2007–08 to October 2011 casualties in train accidents accounted for 1,019 deaths and 2,118 injuries. In the same period, 1,600 railway staff were killed and 8,700 injured. The committee estimates as well that almost 15,000 persons get killed each year by what is called unlawful trespassing.[98] A Daily Telegraph article[99] says that Indian railway officials believe that a large proportion of bodies found dead on railways died elsewhere and were put on the railway in dishonest attempts to get compensation from the railway authorities and companies.

text: IR announced that by 2022 all trains would be electric trains so as to reduce carbon footprint.[100]

text: UNESCO world heritage sites[edit]

text: There are two UNESCO World Heritage Sites on IR, the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus[101] and the Mountain Railways of India.[102] The latter consists of three separate railway lines located in different parts of India, the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, a 610 mm (2 ft) narrow gauge railway in Lesser Himalayas in West Bengal, the Nilgiri Mountain Railway, a 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 3⁄8 in) metre gauge rack railway in the Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu and the Kalka-Shimla Railway, a 762 mm (2 ft 6 in) narrow gauge railway in the Siwalik Hills in Himachal Pradesh.[102]

text: Future[edit]

text: IR has a full-fledged organisation known as Research Designs and Standards Organisation (RDSO), located at Lucknow for all research, designs and standardisation tasks.

text: In August 2013, IR entered into a partnership with Indian Institute of Technology (Madras) to develop technology to trap solar energy for lighting and air-conditioning in the coaches. This would significantly reduce the fossil fuel dependency for IR.[103]

text: Recently it developed and tested the Improved Automated Fire Alarm System in Rajdhani Express Trains. It is intended that the system be applied to AC coaches of all regular trains.[104]

text: In recent years, IR has undertaken several initiatives to upgrade its ageing infrastructure and enhance its quality of service. The Indian government plans to invest ₹9.05 trillion (US$140 billion) to upgrade the railways by 2020.[105] IR is refurbishing 12–15 year old coaches at Carriage Rehabilitation Workshop in Bhopal to enhance passenger amenities and fire safety measures.[106][107] Selected passengers with confirmed tickets will now be allowed to transfer them to someone else, but only once.IRCTC is now offering a pay-on-delivery option for train tickets on its website and app, where the customers can book the tickets and pay when it is delivered.

text: High-speed rail[edit]

text: India does not have any railways classified as high-speed rail (HSR), which have operational speeds in excess of 200 km/h (120 mph).[108] The fastest train in India is the Gatimaan Express with a top speed of 160 km/h (99 mph),[109][110] which runs between Delhi and Agra.[111]

text: Prior to the 2014 general election, the two major national parties (Bharatiya Janata Party and Indian National Congress(INC)) pledged to introduce high-speed rail. The INC pledged to connect all of India's million-plus cities by high-speed rail,[112] whereas BJP, which won the election, promised to build the Diamond Quadrilateral project, which would connect the cities of Chennai, Delhi, Kolkata, and Mumbai via high-speed rail.[113] This project was approved as a priority for the new government in the incoming president's speech.[114] Construction of one kilometer of high speed railway track will cost ₹100 crore (US$16 million) – ₹140 crore (US$22 million) which is 10–14 times higher than the construction of standard railway.[115]

text: India's prime minister Narendra Modi approved the choice of Japan to build India's first high-speed railway. The planned rail would run some 500 km (310 mi) between Mumbai and the western city of Ahmedabad, at a top speed of 320 km/h (200 mph).[116][117] Under the proposal, construction is expected to begin in 2017 and be completed in 2023. It would cost about ₹980 billion (US$15 billion) and be financed by a low-interest loan from Japan.[118] India will use the wheel-based 300 km/hr HSR technology, instead of new maglev 600 km/hr technology of the Japan used in Chūō Shinkansen. India is expected to have its HSR line operational from 2025 onwards, once the safety checks are completed.

text: Locomotive factories[edit]

text: In 2015, plans were disclosed for building two locomotive factories in the state of Bihar, at Madhepura (electric locomotive) and at Marhaura (Diesel Locomotive).[119] Both factories involve foreign partnerships. The diesel locomotive works will be jointly operated in a partnership with General Electric, which has invested ₹20.52 billion (US$320 million) for its construction, and the electric locomotive works with Alstom, which has invested ₹12.935 billion (US$200 million). The factories will provide IR with 800 electric locomotives of 12,000 horse power each, and a mix of 1,000 diesel locomotives of 4,500 and 6,000 horsepower each.[120] In November 2015, further details of the ₹146.56 billion (US$2.3 billion) partnership with GE were announced: IR and GE would engage in an 11-year joint venture in which GE would hold a majority stake of 74%. Under the terms of the joint venture, IR would purchase 100 goods locomotives a year for 10 years beginning in 2017; the locomotives would be modified versions of the GE Evolution series.[121] The diesel locomotive works will be built by 2018; GE will import the first 100 locomotives and manufacture the remaining 900 in India from 2019, also assuming responsibility for their maintenance over a 13-year period.[122] In the same month, a ₹200 billion (US$3.1 billion) partnership with Alstom to supply 800 electric locomotives from 2018 to 2028 was announced.[105]


document_title: NFL Scouting Combine

question_text: who has the highest bench press in the nfl

text: NFL Scouting Combine

text: History[edit]

text: Tex Schramm, the president and general manager of the Dallas Cowboys from 1960 to 1989, proposed to the NFL competition committee a centralization of the evaluation process for NFL teams. Prior to 1982, teams had to schedule individual visits with players to run them through drills and tests.[5] The national invitational camp (NIC) was first held in Tampa, Florida, in 1982.[6] It was originated by National Football Scouting, Inc. as a means for member organizations to look at NFL draft prospects. For non-member teams, two other camps were created and used 1982–1984. The NIC was renamed the NFL scouting combine following the merger of the three camps in 1985 to cut the cost of running the extra camps. The NIC was held in New Orleans, Louisiana, in 1984 before the merger. It was held in Arizona in 1985 and once again in New Orleans in 1986 before permanently moving to Indianapolis in 1987. The NFL is now questioning the drills and may change them in the next few years.[7]

text: Tests and evaluations[edit]

text: Tests/evaluations include:

text:
40-yard dash[8]
Bench press (225 lb repetitions)[8]
Vertical jump[8]
Broad jump[8]
20-yard shuttle[8]
3 cone drill[8]
60-yard shuttle[8]
Position-specific drills[8]
Interviews – each team is allowed 60 interviews in 15-minute intervals[9]
Physical measurements[9]
Injury evaluation[9]
Drug screen[9]
The Cybex test[9]
The Wonderlic test[10]

text: Sports writers question whether these tests have any relationship with future NFL performance.[11] Empirical research conducted by Brian D. Lyons, Brian J. Hoffman, John W. Michel, and Kevin J. Williams (2011) found that the 40-yard dash, vertical jump, 20-yard shuttle, and 3 cone drill tests have limited validity in predicting future NFL performance.[12] In fact, the Lyons et al. (2011) study suggests that a prospect's past performance in college is a better indicator of future NFL performance than the aforementioned physical ability tests.

text: Bench press records[edit]

text: At the NFL combine, bench press is used as a test of strength and stamina, in which athletes lift 225 pounds (102 kg) as many times as possible.[13] Since 1998, only fifteen men at the combine have managed to achieve more than 40 "reps" (repetitions).

text:
51 reps: Justin Ernest (1999)[14]
49 reps: Stephen Paea (2011)[15]
45 reps: Mike Kudla (2006), and Mitch Petrus (2010) Leif Larsen (2000)[16]
44 reps: Brodrick Bunkley (2006), Jeff Owens (2010), and Dontari Poe (2012)
43 reps: Scott Young (2005)
42 reps: Isaac Sopoaga (2004), Tank Tyler (2007), Russell Bodine (2014)
41 reps: Igor Olshansky (2004), Terna Nande (2006), and David Molk (2012)

text: Scouting organizations[edit]

text: The NFL's first scouting organization, LESTO (Lions, Eagles and Steelers Talent Organization), was started in 1963 by the teams mentioned in its name with headquarters in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.[17] It became BLESTO when the Bears joined the following year and BLESTO-V when the Vikings came on board later in the decade; by 1971 the Bills, Colts and Dolphins had joined and the group was known as BLESTO-VIII.[18] It is now known simply as BLESTO despite the fact that the Bears and Eagles are no longer members.[19] The group's offices stayed in Pittsburgh until 2007 when the headquarters moved to Jacksonville, Florida, with support offices remaining in Pittsburgh.[17]

text: CEPO (Central Eastern Personnel Organization), formed in 1964, was a joint venture of the Colts, Browns, Packers and Cardinals. Its name was changed to United Scouting after the Falcons, Giants and Redskins joined, then to National Football Scouting in 1983 to avoid confusion with the United States Football League, which began operations that year. National Football Scouting is now known simply as The National.[19]

text: Another scouting organization formed in 1964 was Troika, launched by the Cowboys, Rams and 49ers. It was renamed Quadra when the Saints joined in 1967.[19] Quadra no longer exists; its former members now all belong to The National.

text: As of the 2015 season, eighteen franchises participate in The National (Arizona Cardinals, Atlanta Falcons, Carolina Panthers, Cincinnati Bengals, Dallas Cowboys, Denver Broncos, Green Bay Packers, Houston Texans, Kansas City Chiefs, New Orleans Saints, New York Jets, Philadelphia Eagles, Los Angeles Rams, Los Angeles Chargers, San Francisco 49ers, Seattle Seahawks, Tampa Bay Buccaneers, and Tennessee Titans), with eight served by BLESTO (Buffalo Bills, Detroit Lions, Jacksonville Jaguars, Miami Dolphins, Minnesota Vikings, New York Giants, Pittsburgh Steelers, and Washington Redskins). Each of the six non-affiliated teams (Baltimore Ravens, Chicago Bears, Cleveland Browns, Indianapolis Colts, New England Patriots, and Oakland Raiders) relies on its in-house scouting staffs.[19][20]

text: Combine invitations[edit]

text: In a typical year, there are about 330 invited players. About 250 invitations are sent before bowl games are completed to those who have completed their seasons. However, underclassmen have until mid-January to confirm their draft status. Invitations are made to those receiving supermajority support from the selection committee.[21]

text: Criticism[edit]

text: The combine however is not without its critics. Sports writer Steve Silverman explains, in an article he wrote, what happened to Terrell Suggs in 2003. Suggs was a star player for Arizona State but when Suggs ran a slow 4.83 40 he was downgraded. Later, he became a star player for the Ravens.[22] Doug Tatum of Times-Picayune argues that it is unlikely players will be asked to run a 40-yard dash again during their career.[23] Silverman says that the best way to scout is to simply watch them play.[22] Others think the value in the 40 depends on the position; Daniel Jeremiah, a former scout and an analyst on the NFL Network says "The position where the 40 holds the most weight is cornerback. If you're a receiver who runs a 4.6 like (Anquan) Boldin, but you have short-area quickness and strong hands, the 40 isn't a big deal. But if you're a cornerback who runs a 4.6 and you're facing a receiver who runs a 4.4, it doesn't matter how good your ball skills are."[24]

text: Television[edit]

text: The NFL scouting combine was first shown on television in 2004. Media and cameras were historically prohibited, but with the launch of NFL Network on November 4, 2003, six installments of one-hour shows to recap the day's events aired in February 2004.[25] NFL Network has exclusive access to the Scouting Combine, whereas ESPN, a competitor network, does not.[26] NFL Network aired two hours of combine workouts for each workout day in 2005,[27] 26 total hours of coverage in 2006,[28] 27 hours in 2007,[5] and 25 hours in 2009.[29] It began airing over 30 hours of Combine coverage starting in 2010,[30] which received 5.24 million viewers.[31]

text: Regional combines[edit]

text: Beginning in 2011, a series of eleven regional combines for players not invited to the main scouting combine, as well as other free agents, were held in eight cities (Los Angeles, Houston, Baltimore, Tampa, East Rutherford, Chicago, Atlanta, and Cleveland) from January to March. The best players from these regional combines were invited to the NFL super regional combine at Ford Field in Detroit in late March.[32] In 2016, the NFL went away from this format only holding five Combines in Houston, Arizona, Baltimore, Minnesota and New Orleans.[33]

text: Veteran combine[edit]

text: The first NFL Veteran Combine was scheduled on March 22, 2015 at the Arizona Cardinals's team facility. The combine corresponded with the NFL owners' meetings also being held in Phoenix from March 22–24, 2015. The combine featured veteran free agents, and all 32 clubs in attendance. There were over 2,000 applications from players to participate, although only a select few were chosen. Some of the notable players included Adam Carriker, Felix Jones, Michael Sam, and Brady Quinn.[34] However, only two players participating in the combine (linebacker Brandon Copeland and tight end Ifeanyi Momah) were still on NFL rosters by Week 1 of the 2015 regular season.[35]

text: The NFL cancelled the planned 2016 Veteran Combine, citing a lack of player interest.[36]

text: On December 16, 2016, the NFL announced it would bring back the veteran combine renaming it the Pro Player Combine and focus its attention on younger players instead of veterans trying to get another chance in the NFL.[37]