document_title: List of Game of Thrones episodes

question_text: when does new episode of game of thrones come out

text: List of Game of Thrones episodes

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired
Avg. viewers
(millions)

First aired
Last aired

1
10
April 17, 2011 (2011-04-17)
June 19, 2011 (2011-06-19)
2.52[14]

2
10
April 1, 2012 (2012-04-01)
June 3, 2012 (2012-06-03)
3.80[14]

3
10
March 31, 2013 (2013-03-31)
June 9, 2013 (2013-06-09)
4.97[15]

4
10
April 6, 2014 (2014-04-06)
June 15, 2014 (2014-06-15)
6.84[16]

5
10
April 12, 2015 (2015-04-12)
June 14, 2015 (2015-06-14)
6.88[17]

6
10
April 24, 2016 (2016-04-24)
June 26, 2016 (2016-06-26)
7.69[18]

7
7
July 16, 2017 (2017-07-16)
August 27, 2017 (2017-08-27)
10.26[19]

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2011)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

1
1
"Winter Is Coming"
Tim Van Patten
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
April 17, 2011 (2011-04-17)
0.22[20]

2
2
"The Kingsroad"
Tim Van Patten
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
April 24, 2011 (2011-04-24)
0.20[21]

3
3
"Lord Snow"
Brian Kirk
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 1, 2011 (2011-05-01)
0.44[22]

4
4
"Cripples, Bastards, and Broken Things"
Brian Kirk
Bryan Cogman
May 8, 2011 (2011-05-08)
1.05[23]

5
5
"The Wolf and the Lion"
Brian Kirk
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 15, 2011 (2011-05-15)
0.58[24]

6
6
"A Golden Crown"
Daniel Minahan
Story by : David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
Teleplay by : Jane Espenson and David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 22, 2011 (2011-05-22)
1.14[25]

7
7
"You Win or You Die"
Daniel Minahan
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 29, 2011 (2011-05-29)
0.40[26]

8
8
"The Pointy End"
Daniel Minahan
George R. R. Martin
June 5, 2011 (2011-06-05)
0.72[27]

9
9
"Baelor"
Alan Taylor
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
June 12, 2011 (2011-06-12)
0.66[28]

10
10
"Fire and Blood"
Alan Taylor
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
June 19, 2011 (2011-06-19)
0.74[29]

text: Season 2 (2012)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

11
1
"The North Remembers"
Alan Taylor
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
April 1, 2012 (2012-04-01)
3.86[30]

12
2
"The Night Lands"
Alan Taylor
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
April 8, 2012 (2012-04-08)
3.76[31]

13
3
"What Is Dead May Never Die"
Alik Sakharov
Bryan Cogman
April 15, 2012 (2012-04-15)
3.77[32]

14
4
"Garden of Bones"
David Petrarca
Vanessa Taylor
April 22, 2012 (2012-04-22)
3.65[33]

15
5
"The Ghost of Harrenhal"
David Petrarca
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
April 29, 2012 (2012-04-29)
3.90[34]

16
6
"The Old Gods and the New"
David Nutter
Vanessa Taylor
May 6, 2012 (2012-05-06)
3.88[35]

17
7
"A Man Without Honor"
David Nutter
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 13, 2012 (2012-05-13)
3.69[36]

18
8
"The Prince of Winterfell"
Alan Taylor
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 20, 2012 (2012-05-20)
3.86[37]

19
9
"Blackwater"
Neil Marshall
George R. R. Martin
May 27, 2012 (2012-05-27)
3.38[38]

20
10
"Valar Morghulis"
Alan Taylor
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
June 3, 2012 (2012-06-03)
4.20[39]

text: Season 3 (2013)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

21
1
"Valar Dohaeris"
Daniel Minahan
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
March 31, 2013 (2013-03-31)
4.37[40]

22
2
"Dark Wings, Dark Words"
Daniel Minahan
Vanessa Taylor
April 7, 2013 (2013-04-07)
4.27[41]

23
3
"Walk of Punishment"
David Benioff
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
April 14, 2013 (2013-04-14)
4.72[42]

24
4
"And Now His Watch Is Ended"
Alex Graves
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
April 21, 2013 (2013-04-21)
4.87[43]

25
5
"Kissed by Fire"
Alex Graves
Bryan Cogman
April 28, 2013 (2013-04-28)
5.35[44]

26
6
"The Climb"
Alik Sakharov
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 5, 2013 (2013-05-05)
5.50[45]

27
7
"The Bear and the Maiden Fair"
Michelle MacLaren
George R. R. Martin
May 12, 2013 (2013-05-12)
4.84[46]

28
8
"Second Sons"
Michelle MacLaren
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 19, 2013 (2013-05-19)
5.13[47]

29
9
"The Rains of Castamere"
David Nutter
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
June 2, 2013 (2013-06-02)
5.22[48]

30
10
"Mhysa"
David Nutter
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
June 9, 2013 (2013-06-09)
5.39[49]

text: Season 4 (2014)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

31
1
"Two Swords"
D. B. Weiss
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
April 6, 2014 (2014-04-06)
6.64[50]

32
2
"The Lion and the Rose"
Alex Graves
George R. R. Martin
April 13, 2014 (2014-04-13)
6.31[51]

33
3
"Breaker of Chains"
Alex Graves
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
April 20, 2014 (2014-04-20)
6.59[52]

34
4
"Oathkeeper"
Michelle MacLaren
Bryan Cogman
April 27, 2014 (2014-04-27)
6.95[53]

35
5
"First of His Name"
Michelle MacLaren
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 4, 2014 (2014-05-04)
7.16[54]

36
6
"The Laws of Gods and Men"
Alik Sakharov
Bryan Cogman
May 11, 2014 (2014-05-11)
6.40[55]

37
7
"Mockingbird"
Alik Sakharov
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 18, 2014 (2014-05-18)
7.20[56]

38
8
"The Mountain and the Viper"
Alex Graves
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
June 1, 2014 (2014-06-01)
7.17[57]

39
9
"The Watchers on the Wall"
Neil Marshall
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
June 8, 2014 (2014-06-08)
6.95[58]

40
10
"The Children"
Alex Graves
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
June 15, 2014 (2014-06-15)
7.09[59]

text: Season 5 (2015)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

41
1
"The Wars to Come"
Michael Slovis
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
April 12, 2015 (2015-04-12)
8.00[60]

42
2
"The House of Black and White"
Michael Slovis
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
April 19, 2015 (2015-04-19)
6.81[61]

43
3
"High Sparrow"
Mark Mylod
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
April 26, 2015 (2015-04-26)
6.71[62]

44
4
"Sons of the Harpy"
Mark Mylod
Dave Hill
May 3, 2015 (2015-05-03)
6.82[63]

45
5
"Kill the Boy"
Jeremy Podeswa
Bryan Cogman
May 10, 2015 (2015-05-10)
6.56[64]

46
6
"Unbowed, Unbent, Unbroken"
Jeremy Podeswa
Bryan Cogman
May 17, 2015 (2015-05-17)
6.24[65]

47
7
"The Gift"
Miguel Sapochnik
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 24, 2015 (2015-05-24)
5.40[66]

48
8
"Hardhome"
Miguel Sapochnik
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 31, 2015 (2015-05-31)
7.01[67]

49
9
"The Dance of Dragons"
David Nutter
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
June 7, 2015 (2015-06-07)
7.14[68]

50
10
"Mother's Mercy"
David Nutter
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
June 14, 2015 (2015-06-14)
8.11[69]

text: Season 6 (2016)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

51
1
"The Red Woman"
Jeremy Podeswa
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
April 24, 2016 (2016-04-24)
7.94[70]

52
2
"Home"
Jeremy Podeswa
Dave Hill
May 1, 2016 (2016-05-01)
7.29[71]

53
3
"Oathbreaker"
Daniel Sackheim
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 8, 2016 (2016-05-08)
7.28[72]

54
4
"Book of the Stranger"
Daniel Sackheim
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 15, 2016 (2016-05-15)
7.82[73]

55
5
"The Door"
Jack Bender
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
May 22, 2016 (2016-05-22)
7.89[74]

56
6
"Blood of My Blood"
Jack Bender
Bryan Cogman
May 29, 2016 (2016-05-29)
6.71[75]

57
7
"The Broken Man"
Mark Mylod
Bryan Cogman
June 5, 2016 (2016-06-05)
7.80[76]

58
8
"No One"
Mark Mylod
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
June 12, 2016 (2016-06-12)
7.60[77]

59
9
"Battle of the Bastards"
Miguel Sapochnik
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
June 19, 2016 (2016-06-19)
7.66[78]

60
10
"The Winds of Winter"
Miguel Sapochnik
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
June 26, 2016 (2016-06-26)
8.89[79]

text: Season 7 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

61
1
"Dragonstone"
Jeremy Podeswa
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
July 16, 2017 (2017-07-16)
10.11[80]

62
2
"Stormborn"
Mark Mylod
Bryan Cogman
July 23, 2017 (2017-07-23)
9.27[81]

63
3
"The Queen's Justice"
Mark Mylod
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
July 30, 2017 (2017-07-30)
9.25[82]

64
4
"The Spoils of War"
Matt Shakman
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
August 6, 2017 (2017-08-06)
10.17[83]

65
5
"Eastwatch"
Matt Shakman
Dave Hill
August 13, 2017 (2017-08-13)
10.72[84]

66
6
"Beyond the Wall"
Alan Taylor
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
August 20, 2017 (2017-08-20)
10.24[85]

67
7
"The Dragon and the Wolf"
Jeremy Podeswa
David Benioff & D. B. Weiss
August 27, 2017 (2017-08-27)
12.07[86]

text: Home media releases[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
DVD and Blu-ray release date

Region 1
Region 2
Region 4

1
10
March 6, 2012[87]
March 5, 2012[88]
August 10, 2012[89]

2
10
February 19, 2013[90]
March 4, 2013[91]
March 6, 2013[92]

3
10
February 18, 2014[93]
February 17, 2014[94]
February 19, 2014[95]

4
10
February 17, 2015[96]
February 16, 2015[97]
February 18, 2015[98]

5
10
March 15, 2016[99]
March 14, 2016[100]
March 16, 2016[101]

6
10
November 15, 2016[102]
November 14, 2016[103]
November 16, 2016[104]

7
7
December 12, 2017[105]
December 11, 2017[106]
December 11, 2017[107]

text: Ratings[edit]

text:
Season
Ep. 1
Ep. 2
Ep. 3
Ep. 4
Ep. 5
Ep. 6
Ep. 7
Ep. 8
Ep. 9
Ep. 10
Average

1
2.22
2.20
2.44
2.45
2.58
2.44
2.40
2.72
2.66
3.04
2.52[108]

2
3.86
3.76
3.77
3.65
3.90
3.88
3.69
3.86
3.38
4.20
3.80[108]

3
4.37
4.27
4.72
4.87
5.35
5.50
4.84
5.13
5.22
5.39
4.97[109]

4
6.64
6.31
6.59
6.95
7.16
6.40
7.20
7.17
6.95
7.09
6.84[110]

5
8.00
6.81
6.71
6.82
6.56
6.24
5.40
7.01
7.14
8.11
6.88[111]

6
7.94
7.29
7.28
7.82
7.89
6.71
7.80
7.60
7.66
8.89
7.69[112]

7
10.11
9.27
9.25
10.17
10.72
10.24
12.07
N/A
10.26[113]


document_title: Typography of Apple Inc.

question_text: what is the font apple uses on its website

root

text: Typography of Apple Inc.

text: Marketing[edit]

text: For at least 18 years, Apple's corporate typeface was a custom variant of the ITC Garamond typeface called Apple Garamond. It was used alongside the Apple logo for product names on computers, in many ads and printed materials, and on the company's website. Starting in 2001, Apple gradually shifted towards using Myriad in its marketing. Starting with iPhone 7 in 2016, Apple switched the typeface of the word mark "iPhone" to San Francisco on products and its website.

tag: p

text: Hand-drawn logo[edit]

text: Prior to adopting the bitten Apple as its logo, Apple used a complex logo featuring Isaac Newton sitting below an apple tree. The words APPLE COMPUTER CO. were drawn on a ribbon banner ornamenting the picture frame. The frame itself held a quotation from Wordsworth: "Newton...A Mind Forever Voyaging Through Strange Seas of Thought...Alone." The logo was hand drawn and thus did not use an established font. However, the type is similar to Caslon, with some idiosyncratic details, such as an R deviating from the general style.

text: Motter Tektura[edit]

text: Before the introduction of the first Macintosh, alongside the Apple logo, Apple used a typeface called Motter Tektura,[1] which was designed in Austria by Othmar Motter of Vorarlberger Graphik in 1975 and distributed by Letraset (and also famously used by Reebok).[2] At the time, the typeface was considered new and modern. One modification to the typeface was the removal of the dot over the i. The s was also modified for the label on the Disk II 5.25-inch floppy disk drive.

text: According to the logo designer, Rob Janoff, the typeface was selected for its playful qualities and techno look, which were in line with Apple's mission statement of making high technology accessible to anyone. Janoff designed the logo in 1977 while working with Palo Alto marketer Regis McKenna.[3] The Apple logo's bite mark was originally designed to fit snugly with the Motter Tektura a.

text: In the early 1980s, the logo was simplified by removing computer ınc. from the logo. Motter Tektura was also used for the Apple II logo. This typeface has sometimes been mislabeled Cupertino, a similar bitmap font probably created to mimic Motter Tektura.

text: Apple Garamond[edit]

text: Since the introduction of the Macintosh in 1984, Apple adopted a new corporate font called Apple Garamond. It was a variation of the classic Garamond typeface, both narrower and having a taller x-height. Specifically, ITC Garamond (created by Tony Stan in 1977) was condensed to 80% of its normal width. Presumably, Apple felt that the existing ITC Garamond Condensed, at 64%, was too narrow. Bitstream condensed the font, subtly adjusted the stroke widths, and performed the hinting required to create the font, which was delivered to Apple as the Postscript font "apgaram".

text: In cases where the Apple logo was accompanied by text, it was always set in Apple Garamond. Aside from the company name, most of Apple's advertising and marketing slogans, such as "Think different.", used the font as well.

text: The typeface was virtually synonymous with Apple for almost two decades and formed a large part of the company's brand recognition. It was used not only in conjunction with the logo, but also in manuals and ads and to label products with model names.

text: Apple has not released the true Apple Garamond font. ITC briefly sold ITC Garamond Narrow—Apple Garamond without the custom hinting—as part of its Apple Font Pack in the 1990s. A version of the font was also included under a different name in some versions of Mac OS X prior to 10.3 as it was used by the Setup Assistant installation program.

text: Gill Sans[edit]

text: In the marketing of the Newton/Notepad/MessagePad PDA (starting in 1992), Apple used Gill Sans instead of the regular Apple Garamond. Gill Sans Regular was used in the logo, for the model name on the computer, on the keyboard and in advertisement materials, though it was not used as a screen font (except as part of the Newton logo).

text: Myriad[edit]

text: In 2003, Apple gradually started using a variant of the Adobe Myriad font family in its marketing and packaging. As new revisions of its products were released, the text changed from the serif Apple Garamond to the sans-serif Myriad Apple. The family's bolds were used for headlines, and other weights accordingly.

text: The Myriad font family was designed by Robert Slimbach and Carol Twombly for Adobe. Adobe's most recent version of Myriad is Myriad Pro, which has some additional enhancements and character set extensions, but is not significantly changed in design. Myriad Apple, a modification produced by Galápagos Design Group, incorporates minor spacing and weight differences from the standard varieties, and includes Apple-specific characters, such as the company logo. In 2006, Myriad Apple was superseded by Myriad Set, which contains extra ligatures and other minor changes.

text: As of November 2013, lighter fonts are prevalent in Apple's marketing, with headlines in Myriad Pro Light. Occasionally an even lighter variant of Myriad is used for specialized marketing materials and press releases.

text: San Francisco[edit]

text: Starting with the release of the Apple Watch, Apple has begun usage of San Francisco as the typeface of word marks such as "iPhone", "AirPods", and "MacBook Pro" on the devices themselves. This change is also reflected on some headlines on product marketing webpages. Apple modified the majority of its website's text to use the San Francisco font on January 24, 2017, and San Francisco became the universal official font for Apple.

text: User interface[edit]

text: Apple has used a variety of system fonts for the user interface of its products.

text: Early fonts[edit]

text: Apple's earliest computers, along with other personal computers of the period, had extremely limited graphical capabilities and could originally display only uppercase ASCII using a set bitmap font. The IIc and Enhanced Apple IIe expanded on this, supporting 40 or 80 columns of text and an extended character set called MouseText. It was used to simulate simple graphical user interfaces, similar to the use of ANSI X3.64.

text: The first Apple computer with a purely bitmapped display, the Lisa, shipped in 1983. It used a system font with distinctive V and W letterforms.

text: Chicago and Charcoal[edit]

text: The Macintosh, introduced in 1984, used a bitmap font, Chicago, designed by Susan Kare. In Mac OS 8, introduced in 1997, the system font of Mac OS was changed to Charcoal. Charcoal was designed to be easier to read than Chicago, while retaining similar metrics for backward compatibility with existing application software.

text: When released in 2001, Apple's iPod music player reused the Macintosh font Chicago as the system font. Later versions of the iPod drew from the larger character repertoire of the TrueType Chicago, adding a number of characters not present in the bitmap Chicago, such as Greek and Cyrillic. Even though the screen supported grayscale, the characters were not anti-aliased.[citation needed]

text: Geneva[edit]

text: For smaller user interface elements, such as the names of files displayed with icons in the Finder, Apple used the Geneva typeface, a redesigned version of Helvetica.

text: Shaston[edit]

text: Introduced in 1986, the Apple IIGS, had very rectangular pixels (640 by 200), thus requiring a stout, 8-point bitmap font called Shaston 8 as the system font (for menus, window titles, etc.). Shaston was described in Apple IIGS technote #41 as "a modified Helvetica", but the similarities are not striking. The fonts of the original Macintosh were also available for the GS.

text: Espy Sans[edit]

text: In 1993, Apple's Human Interface Group designed the typeface Espy Sans specifically for on-screen use. It was first used for the Newton OS GUI. The Newton used the font Apple Casual to display text entered using the Rosetta handwriting recognition engine in the Newton. The same font found its way into the Rosetta-derived writing recognition system in Mac OS X—Inkwell. The TrueType font can be made available to any application by copying the font file, which is embedded in a system component, to any font folder. (See List of fonts in Mac OS X for more information.) The Newton logo featured the Gill Sans typeface, which was also used for the Newton keyboard.

text: Espy Sans was later used as the font for Apple's eWorld online service in 1994. (eWorld also used the larger bold condensed bitmap font eWorld Tight for headlines. The metrics of eWorld Tight were based on Helvetica Ultra Compressed.) The iPod mini, released in 2004, also used Espy Sans.

text: Lucida Grande[edit]

text: Since its introduction in 2000 up through OS X Mavericks, Lucida Grande was the system font used in Mac OS X user interface elements, such as menus, dialog boxes, and other widgets. It has been superseded by Helvetica Neue.

text: Podium Sans[edit]

text: Starting in 2004, the iPod photo, 5th-generation iPod, and 1st- through 2nd-generation iPod nano feature a bitmap font known as Podium Sans, displacing the use of Chicago as the iPod system font. Although originally promoted as Myriad, Podium Sans is missing Myriad's trademark features, such as the splayed "M" and distinctive "y".

text: Helvetica[edit]

text: Since the introduction of the 1st-generation iPhone in 2007, Apple has used Helvetica in its software design. iOS for the iPhone, iPod touch, iPad, and Apple TV employs the font, alongside its use on iPods beginning with the 6th-generation iPod classic and 3rd-generation iPod nano.

text: In conjunction with the iPhone 4 in 2010, Apple began using Helvetica Neue on devices with Retina display, while keeping use of Helvetica on non-Retina devices.

text: Around 2012, Apple started using Helvetica in macOS (then named OS X) application software. iTunes, iMovie, iPhoto, GarageBand, and Apple's professional applications started to feature heavy use of Helvetica, while the majority of the OS X (now named macOS) environment retained the comparatively more legible Lucida Grande typeface, which was designed specifically for on-screen use.

text: After the introduction of iOS 7 in June 2013, Apple began using an extra-thin weight of Helvetica Neue for the user interface of iOS 7, arousing numerous complaints about the less legible typography. For the final release of the operating system, Apple changed the system's font to a slightly thicker weight of Helvetica Neue, although some have complained that readability is still compromised compared to the font weight used in former versions of iOS. Older iOS devices continue to use Helvetica or Helvetica Neue in regular font weights that display with higher contrast on low-resolution displays.

text: With the introduction of OS X 10.10 "Yosemite" in June 2014, Apple started using Helvetica Neue as the system font on the Mac. This brought all of Apple's user interfaces in line, using Helvetica Neue throughout.

text: San Francisco[edit]

text: San Francisco is currently used for user interface across all of Apple's product line, including watchOS, macOS and iOS. It was first introduced alongside the Apple Watch,[4] where it was used for enhanced legibility and taller x-heights for easy reading on a small display. The design references a number of different other typefaces, notably FF DIN (used in the UI of the Camera app in iOS 7 and above), Helvetica (used in the UI in iOS 6 and below), Helvetica Neue (used in the UI of iOS 7 and OS X Yosemite), Roboto (Google's new UI typeface), and Univers (used on Apple's early keyboard designs).[citation needed]

text: It was widely speculated that San Francisco was going to be the long-awaited font that Apple had reportedly been developing for independent use in their products, and the font's name was leaked in November 2014 when the WatchKit SDK was released to developers. On June 8, 2015, at the WWDC 2015 conference, San Francisco replaced Helvetica Neue as the system font for both macOS and iOS operating systems.[5] The version used, known as "SF UI", was modified to make it wider than its Apple Watch counterpart, more akin to the previously used Helvetica Neue. The original version has since been renamed "SF Compact".

text: Keyboards[edit]

text: Apple's keyboards were long labeled with Univers 57 (Condensed Oblique), a design choice by Apple's industrial design partner, Frog Design. This began in 1984 with the Apple IIc, which had tilted front-panel buttons to match the inclination of the lettering.

text: Univers was eventually replaced on Apple's keyboards by VAG Rounded, which was used on all iBook models, PowerBooks introduced after 2003, and MacBooks, MacBooks Pro, MacBooks Air, and Apple Keyboards from August 2007 until early 2015. The font was developed by Sedley Place Ltd. for German car manufacturer Volkswagen and was used in much of their marketing materials.[6]

text: On March 9, 2015, Apple introduced a new generation of MacBook[7] that utilizes the Apple designed San Francisco typeface.


document_title: List of districts of Rajasthan

question_text: how many district in rajasthan as per the census 2011

text: List of districts of Rajasthan

text: The Indian state of Rajasthan is divided into 33 districts for administrative purposes.[1] The responsibilities of district management are carried out by All-India officials and state-appointed officials. The All-India officials in each district are a Deputy Commissioner or district Magistrate (from the Indian Administrative Service), a Superintendent of Police (from the Indian Police Service) and a Deputy Conservator of Forests (from the Indian Forest Service), each of which is assisted by officers of various Rajasthan state services. The state-appointed officials are responsible for matters such as health, education, and agriculture in each district. The 33 districts are grouped into seven divisions:

text:
District
Headquarters
Area (km²)
Population (2011)
Division
URL

Ajmer
Ajmer
8,481
2,584,913
Ajmer
http://ajmer.rajasthan.gov.in

Alwar
Alwar
8,380
3,671,999
Jaipur
http://alwar.rajasthan.gov.in

Banswara
Banswara
5,037
1,798,194
Udaipur
http://banswara.rajasthan.gov.in

Baran
Baran
6,955
1,223,921
Kota
http://baran.rajasthan.gov.in

Barmer
Barmer
28,387
2,604,453
Jodhpur
http://barmer.rajasthan.gov.in

Bharatpur
Bharatpur
5,066
2,549,121
Bharatpur
http://bharatpur.rajasthan.gov.in

Bhilwara
Bhilwara
10,455
2,410,459
Ajmer
http://bhilwara.rajasthan.gov.in

Bikaner
Bikaner
28,466
2,367,745
Bikaner
http://bikaner.rajasthan.gov.in

Bundi
Bundi
5,550
1,113,725
Kota
http://www.bundi.rajasthan.gov.in

Chittorgarh
Chittorgarh
10,856
15,44,392
Udaipur
http://chittorgarh.rajasthan.gov.in

Churu
Churu
13,858
2,041,172
Bikaner
http://churu.rajasthan.gov.in

Dausa
Dausa
3,432
1,637,226
Jaipur
http://dausa.rajasthan.gov.in

Dholpur
Dholpur
3,033
1,207,293
Bharatpur
http://dholpur.rajasthan.gov.in

Dungarpur
Dungarpur
3,770
1,388,906
Udaipur
http://dungarpur.rajasthan.gov.in

Hanumangarh
Hanumangarh
12,645
1,779,650
Bikaner
http://hanumangarh.rajasthan.gov.in

Jaipur
Jaipur
14,068
6,663,971
Jaipur
http://jaipur.rajasthan.gov.in

Jaisalmer
Jaisalmer
38,401
672,008
Jodhpur
http://jaisalmer.rajasthan.gov.in

Jalor
Jalore
10,640
1,830,151
Jodhpur
http://jalore.rajasthan.gov.in

Jhalawar
Jhalawar
6,219
1,411,327
Kota
http://jhalawar.rajasthan.gov.in

Jhunjhunu
Jhunjhunu
5,928
2,139,658
Jaipur
http://jhunjhunu.rajasthan.gov.in

Jodhpur
Jodhpur
22,850
3,685,681
Jodhpur
http://jodhpur.rajasthan.gov.in

Karauli
Karauli
5530
1,458,459
Bharatpur
http://karauli.rajasthan.gov.in

Kota
Kota
5,446
1,950,491
Kota
http://kota.rajasthan.gov.in

Nagaur
Nagaur
17,718
3,309,234
Ajmer
http://nagaur.rajasthan.gov.in

Pali
Pali
12,387
2,038,533
Jodhpur
http://pali.rajasthan.gov.in

Pratapgarh[2]
Pratapgarh
4,117
868,231
Udaipur
http://pratapgarh.rajasthan.gov.in

Rajsamand
Rajsamand
4,768
1,158,283
Udaipur
http://rajsamand.rajasthan.gov.in

Sawai Madhopur
Sawai Madhopur
10,527
1,338,114
Bharatpur
http://sawaimadhopur.rajasthan.gov.in

Sikar
Sikar
7,732
2,677,737
Jaipur
http://sikar.rajasthan.gov.in

Sirohi
Sirohi
5,136
1,037,185
Jodhpur
http://sirohi.rajasthan.gov.in

Sri Ganganagar
Sri Ganganagar
11,154
1,969,520
Bikaner
http://sriganganagar.rajasthan.gov.in

Tonk
Tonk
7,194
1,421,711
Ajmer
http://tonk.rajasthan.gov.in

Udaipur
Udaipur
13,883
3,067,549
Udaipur
http://udaipur.rajasthan.gov.in

Rajasthan
Jaipur
342,239
68,621,012
-
http://rajasthan.gov.in

tag: table


document_title: Jean-Bertrand Aristide

question_text: where did the president of haiti flee to in 1991

text: Jean-Bertrand Aristide

text: Background and church vocation[edit]

text: Jean-Bertrand Aristide was born into poverty in Port-Salut, Sud on 15 July 1953. His father died three months after Aristide was born,[7] and he later moved to Port-au-Prince with his mother.[8] At age five, Aristide started school with priests of the Salesian order.[9] He was educated at the Collège Notre-Dame in Cap-Haïtien, graduating with honors in 1974. He then took a course of novitiate studies in La Vega, Dominican Republic, before returning to Haiti to study philosophy at the Grand Séminaire Notre Dame and psychology at the State University of Haiti. After completing his post-graduate studies in 1979, Aristide travelled in Europe, studying in Italy, Greece, [2][dead link] and in the Palestinian town of Beit Jala at the Cremisan Monastery. He returned to Haiti in 1982 for his ordination as a Salesian priest,[10] and was appointed curate of a small parish in Port-au-Prince.

text: Between 1957 and 1986, Haiti was ruled by the family dictatorships of François "Papa Doc" and Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier. The misery endured by Haiti's poor made a deep impression on Aristide himself,[8] and he became an outspoken critic of Duvalierism.[11] Nor did he spare the hierarchy of the country's church, since a 1966 Vatican Concordat granted Duvalier one-time power to appoint Haiti's bishops.[12] An exponent of liberation theology, Aristide denounced Duvalier's regime in one of his earliest sermons. This did not go unnoticed by the regime's top echelons. Under pressure, the provincial delegate of the Salesian Order sent Aristide into three years of exile in Montreal.[10] By 1985, as popular opposition to Duvalier's regime grew, Aristide was back preaching in Haiti. His Easter Week sermon, "A call to holiness", delivered at the cathedral of Port-au-Prince and later broadcast throughout Haiti, proclaimed: "The path of those Haitians who reject the regime is the path of righteousness and love."[13]

text: Aristide became a leading figure in the Ti Legliz movement, whose name means "little church" in Kreyòl.[14] In September 1985, he was appointed to St. Jean Bosco church, in a poor neighborhood in Port-au-Prince. Struck by the absence of young people in the church, Aristide began to organize youth, sponsoring weekly youth Masses.[15] He founded an orphanage for urban street children in 1986 called Lafanmi Selavi [Family is Life].[16]:214 Its program sought to be a model of participatory democracy for the children it served.[17] As Aristide became a leading voice for the aspirations of Haiti's dispossessed, he inevitably became a target for attack.[18] He survived at least four assassination attempts.[9][19] The most widely publicized attempt, the St. Jean Bosco massacre, occurred on 11 September 1988,[20] when over one hundred armed Tontons Macoute wearing red armbands forced their way into St. Jean Bosco as Aristide began Sunday Mass.[21] As army troops and police stood by, the men fired machine guns at the congregation and attacked fleeing parishioners with machetes. Aristide's church was burned to the ground. Thirteen people are reported to have been killed, and 77 wounded. Aristide survived and went into hiding.[16]

text: Subsequently, Salesian officials ordered Aristide to leave Haiti, but tens of thousands of Haitians protested, blocking his access to the airport.[22] In December 1988, Aristide was expelled from his Salesian order.[23] A statement prepared by the Salesians called the priest's political activities an "incitement to hatred and violence", out of line with his role as a clergyman.[24] Aristide appealed the decision, saying: "The crime of which I stand accused is the crime of preaching food for all men and women."[25] In a January 1988 interview, he said "The solution is revolution, first in the spirit of the Gospel; Jesus could not accept people going hungry. It is a conflict between classes, rich and poor. My role is to preach and organize...."[7] In 1994, Aristide left priesthood, ending years of tension with the church over his criticism of its hierarchy and his espousal of liberation theology.[26] The following year, Aristide married Mildred Trouillot, with whom he had two daughters.[27]

text: First presidency (1991–96)[edit]

text: Following the violence at the aborted national election of 1987, the 1990 election was approached with caution. Aristide announced his candidacy for the presidency. Following a six-week campaign, during which he dubbed his followers the "Front National pour le Changement et la Démocratie" (National Front for Change and Democracy, or FNCD), Aristide was elected president in 1990 with 67% of the vote in what is generally recognized as the first honest election in Haitian history. However, just eight months into his presidency he was overthrown by a bloody military coup. He broke from FNCD and created the Struggling People's Organization (OPL, Organisation Politique "Lavalas") – "the flood" or "torrent" in Kréyòl.

text: A coup attempt against Aristide had taken place on 6 January, even before his inauguration, when Roger Lafontant, a Tonton Macoute leader under Duvalier, seized the provisional president Ertha Pascal-Trouillot and declared himself president. After large numbers of Aristide supporters filled the streets in protest and Lafontant attempted to declare martial law, the army crushed the incipient coup.[28]

text: During Aristide's short-lived first period in office, he attempted to carry out substantial reforms, which brought passionate opposition from Haiti's business and military elite.[29] He sought to bring the military under civilian control, retiring the commander in chief of the army Hérard Abraham, initiated investigations of human rights violations, and brought to trial several Tontons Macoute who had not fled the country.[29] He also banned the emigration of many well known Haitians until their bank accounts had been examined.[29] His relationship with the National Assembly soon deteriorated, and he attempted repeatedly to bypass it on judicial, Cabinet and ambassadorial appointments.[29] His nomination of his close friend and political ally, René Préval, as prime minister, provoked severe criticism from political opponents overlooked, and the National Assembly threatened a no-confidence vote against Préval in August 1991. This led to a crowd of at least 2000 at the National Palace, which threatened violence; together with Aristide's failure to explicitly reject mob violence this permitted the junta which would topple him to accuse him of human rights violations.[29]

text: 1991 coup d'état[edit]

text: In September 1991 the army performed a coup against him (1991 Haitian coup d'état), led by army general Raoul Cédras, who had been promoted by Aristide in June to commander in chief of the army. Aristide was deposed on 29 September 1991, and after several days sent into exile, his life only saved by the intervention of U.S., French and Venezuelan diplomats.[30] In accordance with the requirements of article 149 of the Haitian Constitution, Superior Court justice Joseph Nérette was installed as président provisoire to serve until elections were held within 90 days of Aristide's resignation. However, real power was held by army commander Raoul Cédras.[31] The elections were scheduled, but were cancelled under pressure from the United States government. Aristide and other sources claim that both the coup and the election cancellation were the result of pressure from the American government.[32][33][34] High-ranking members of the Haitian National Intelligence Service (SIN), which had been set up and financed in the 1980s by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) as part of the war on drugs, were involved in the coup, and were reportedly still receiving funding and training from the CIA for intelligence-gathering activities at the time of the coup, but this funding reportedly ended after the coup.[35] The New York Times said that "No evidence suggests that the C.I.A backed the coup or intentionally undermined President Aristide."[35] However, press reports about possible CIA involvement in Haitian politics before the coup sparked congressional hearings in the United States.[36]

text: A campaign of terror against Aristide supporters was started by Emmanuel Constant after Aristide was forced out. In 1993, Constant, who had been on the CIA's payroll as an informant since 1992, organized the Front for the Advancement and Progress of Haïti (FRAPH), which targeted and killed Aristide supporters.[36][37][38]

text: Aristide spent his exile first in Venezuela and then in the United States, working to develop international support. A United Nations trade embargo during Aristide's exile, intended to force the coup leaders to step down, was a strong blow to Haiti's already weak economy.[39] President George H.W. Bush granted an exemption from the embargo to many U.S. companies doing business in Haiti, and president Bill Clinton extended this exemption.[40][41]

text: In addition to this trade with the United States, the coup regime was supported by massive profits from the drug trade thanks to the Haitian military's affiliation with the Cali Cartel; Aristide publicly stated that his own pursuit of arresting drug dealers was one event that prompted the coup by drug-affiliated military officials Raul Cedras and Michel Francois (a claim echoed by his former secretary of State Patrick Elie). Representative John Conyers (D-Michigan) expressed concern that the only U.S. government agency to publicly recognize the Haitian junta's role in drug trafficking was the DEA, and that, despite a wealth of evidence provided by the DEA proving the junta's drug connections, the Clinton administration downplayed this factor rather than use it as a hedge against the junta (as the U.S. government had done against Manuel Noriega). Nairn in particular alleged that the CIA's connections to these drug traffickers in the junta not only dated to the creation of SIN, but were ongoing during and after the coup. Nairn's claims are confirmed in part by revelations of Emmanuel Constant regarding the ties of his FRAPH organization to the CIA before and during the coup government.

text: 1994 return[edit]

text: Following massive peaceful public pro-Aristide demonstrations by Haitian expats (estimated over 250,000 people at a demonstration in New York City) urging Bill Clinton to deliver on his election promise to return Aristide to Haiti, U.S. and international pressure (including United Nations Security Council Resolution 940 on 31 July 1994), persuaded the military regime to back down and U.S. troops were deployed in the country by President Bill Clinton. On 15 October 1994, the Clinton administration returned Aristide to Haiti to complete his term in office.

text: Opposition (1996–2001)[edit]

text: In late 1996, Aristide broke from the OPL over what he called its "distance from the people"[32] and created a new political party, the Fanmi Lavalas. The OPL, holding the majority in the Sénat and the Chambre des Députés, renamed itself the Organisation du Peuple en Lutte, maintaining the OPL acronym.

text: Fanmi Lavalas won the 2000 legislative election in May, but a handful of Senate seats were allocated to Lavalas candidates that critics claimed should have had second-round runoffs (as the votes of some smaller parties were eliminated in final vote counts, which had also been done in earlier elections). Critics argue that FL had not achieved a first-round majority for this handful of senate seats. Critics also charge that Fanmi Lavalas controlled the Provisional Election Commission which made the decision, but their criticism is of a vote count technique used prior in Haiti history.[42] Aristide then was elected later that year in the 2000 presidential election, an election boycotted by most opposition political parties, now organised into the Convergence Démocratique. Although the U.S. government claimed that the election turnout was hardly over 10%, international observers saw turnout of around 50%, and at the time, CNN reported a turnout of 60% with over 92% voting for Aristide.[43] The U.S. Bush regime and the local opposition to FL would use the criticism over the election to justify an embargo on aid to the government.

text: Second presidency (2001–2004)[edit]

text: Aristide called for France, the former colonizer of the country, to pay $21 billion[44] in restitution to Haiti for the 90 million gold francs supplied to France by Haiti in restitution for French property that was misappropriated in the Haitian rebellion, over the period from 1825 to 1947.[45]

text: 2004 coup d'état[edit]

text: Between early 2001 and 2004 rightwing ex-army paramilitary groups conducted a violent insurgency murdering dozens of Lavalas activists, officials, and civilians--as documented in the book "Paramilitarism and the assault on democracy in haiti" (Monthly Review, 2012). Based in the Dominican Republic, these groups formed ties with narco criminals in the port city of Gonaives and among elite led opposition groups in Port-au-Prince. In February 2004, the killing of gang leader Amiot Metayer was used to spark violent attacks on police in Gonaives. Amiot's brother, Buteur Metayer, blamed Aristide for the assassination, and used this as an argument given in order to support the right-wing paramilitary group known as the National Revolutionary Front for the Liberation of Haiti.[46] The paramilitary campaign was headed by ex-army/police chief and convicted narco trafficker Guy Philippe and former FRAPH death squad founder Louis Jodel Chamblain [47]. The rebels soon took control of the North, and eventually laid siege to, and then invaded, the capital. Under disputed circumstances, Aristide was flown out of the country by the U.S. with help from Canada and France on 28 February 2004.[48] Jamaican prime minister P. J. Patterson released a statement saying "we are bound to question whether his resignation was truly voluntary, as it comes after the capture of sections of Haiti by armed insurgents and the failure of the international community to provide the requisite support. The removal of president Aristide in these circumstances sets a dangerous precedent for democratically elected governments anywhere and everywhere, as it promotes the removal of duly elected persons from office by the power of rebel forces."[5]

text: After Aristide was removed from Haiti, looters raided his villa.[49] Most barricades were lifted the day after Aristide left as the shooting had stopped; order was maintained by Haitian police, along with armed rebels and local vigilante groups.[50] Almost immediately after the Aristide family were transported from Haiti, the prime minister of Jamaica, P. J. Patterson, dispatched a member of parliament, Sharon Hay-Webster, to the Central African Republic. The leadership of that country agreed that Aristide and his family could go to Jamaica. The Aristide family were in the island for several months until the Jamaican government gained acceptance by the Republic of South Africa for the family to relocate there.

text: Aristide later stated that France and the U.S. had a role in what he termed "a kidnapping" that took him from Haiti to South Africa via the Central African Republic.[51] However, authorities said his temporary asylum there had been negotiated by the United States, France and Gabon.[52] On 1 March 2004, U.S. congresswoman Maxine Waters (D-CA), along with Aristide family friend Randall Robinson, reported Aristide had told them that he had been forced to resign and had been abducted from the country by the United States and that he had been held hostage by an armed military guard.[53] According to representative Maxine Waters D-California, Mildred Aristide called her at her home at 6:30 am to inform her "the coup d'etat has been completed", and Jean-Bertrand Aristide said the U.S. embassy in Haiti's chief of staff came to his house to say he would be killed "and a lot of Haitians would be killed" if he refused to resign immediately and said he "has to go now".[5] Aristide's letter, which is described as his resignation, does not actually have Aristide as clearly and officially resigning. Representative Charles Rangel, D-New York, expressed similar words, saying Aristide had told him he was "disappointed that the international community had let him down" and "that he resigned under pressure" – "As a matter of fact, he was very apprehensive for his life. They made it clear that he had to go now or he would be killed."[5] When asked for his response to these statements Colin Powell said that "it might have been better for members of Congress who have heard these stories to ask us about the stories before going public with them so we don't make a difficult situation that much more difficult" and he alleged that Aristide "did not democratically govern or govern well".[5] CARICOM, an organization of Caribbean countries that included Haiti, called for a United Nations investigation into Aristide's removal, but were reportedly pressured by the U.S. and France to drop their request. Some observers suggest the rebellion and removal of Aristide were covertly orchestrated by these two countries and Canada.[54][55] In a 2006 interview, Aristide said the United States went back on their word regarding compromises he made with them over privatization of enterprises to ensure that part of the profits would go to the Haitian people and then "relied on a disinformation campaign" to discredit him.[32]

text: Exile (2004–11)[edit]

text: After being cast into exile, in mid-2004 Aristide, his family, and bodyguards were welcomed to South Africa by several cabinet ministers, 20 senior diplomats, and a guard of honour.[56][57] Receiving a salary from and provided staff by the South African government,[58] Aristide lived with his family in a government villa in Pretoria.[59] In South Africa, Aristide became an honorary research fellow at the University of South Africa, learned Zulu, and, on 25 April 2007, received a doctorate in African languages.[60]

text: On 21 December 2007, a speech by Aristide marking the new year and Haiti's Independence Day was broadcast, the fourth such speech since his exile; in the speech he criticized the 2006 presidential election in which Préval was elected, describing it as a "selection", in which "the knife of treason was planted" in the back of the Haitian people.[61]

text: Since the election, some high-ranking members of Lavalas have been targets for violence.[62][63] Lovinsky Pierre-Antoine, a leading human rights organizer in Haiti and a member of Lavalas, disappeared in August 2007.[64] His whereabouts remain unknown and a news article states: "Like many protesters, he [Wilson Mesilien, coordinator of the pro-Aristide 30 September Foundation] wore a T-shirt demanding the return of foundation leader Lovinsky Pierre-Antoine, a human rights activist and critic of both U.N. and U.S. involvement in Haiti who disappeared in August."[65]

text: Return to Haiti[edit]

text: In a 2008 United States embassy cable, former U.S. ambassador to Haiti Janet Sanderson emphasized that: "A premature departure of MINUSTAH would leave the [Haitian] government...vulnerable to...resurgent populist and anti-market economy political forces—reversing gains of the last two years. MINUSTAH is an indispensable tool in realizing core USG [U.S. government] policy interests in Haiti."[66]

text: At a meeting with U.S. State Department officials on 2 August 2006, former Guatemalan diplomat Edmond Mulet, then chief of MINUSTAH, "urged U.S. legal action against Aristide to prevent the former president from gaining more traction with the Haitian population and returning to Haiti".

text: At Mulet’s request, UN secretary general Kofi Annan urged South Africa’s president Thabo Mbeki "to ensure that Aristide remained in South Africa".[67]

text: U.S. ambassador James Foley wrote in a confidential 22 March 2005 cable that an August 2004 poll "showed that Aristide was still the only figure in Haiti with a favorability rating above 50%".[68]

text: After René Préval, a former ally of Aristide, was elected president of Haiti in 2006, he said it would be possible for Aristide to return to Haiti.[69][70]

text: On 16 December 2009, several thousand protesters marched through Port-au-Prince calling for Aristide's return to Haiti, and protesting the exclusion of Aristide's Fanmi Lavalas party from upcoming elections.[71]

text: On 12 January 2010, Aristide sent his condolences to victims of the earthquake in Haiti just a few hours after it occurred, and stated that he wishes to return to help rebuild the country.[59][72]

text: On 7 November 2010, in an exclusive interview (the last given before his return to Haiti) with independent reporter Nicolas Rossier in Eurasia Review and the Huffington Post, Aristide declared that the 2010 elections were not inclusive of his party Fanmi Lavalas and therefore not fair and free. He also confirmed his wishes to go back to Haiti but that he was not allowed to travel out of South Africa.[73]

text: In February 2011, Aristide announced "I will return to Haiti" within days of the ruling Haitian government removing impediments to him receiving his Haitian passport.[74] On 17 March 2011, Aristide departed for Haiti from his exile in South Africa. U.S. president Barack Obama had asked South African president Jacob Zuma to delay Aristide's departure to prevent him from returning to Haiti before a presidential run-off election scheduled for Sunday. Aristide's party was barred from participating in the election, and the U.S. fear his return could be "destabilizing".[75] On Friday, 18 March 2011, he and his spouse arrived at Port-au-Prince Airport, and was greeted by thousands of supporters.[76] He told the crowd waiting at the airport: "The exclusion of Fanmi Lavalas is the exclusion of the Haitian people. In 1804, the Haitian revolution marked the end of slavery. Today, may the Haitian people end exiles and coups d’État, while peacefully moving from social exclusion to inclusion."[6]

text: Post-exile (2011-present)[edit]

text: Since Aristide returned to Haiti, he has abstained from political involvement. However, on 12 September 2014, Aristide was ordered under house arrest by Judge Lamarre Belzaire while under a corruption investigation.[77] Aristide's lawyers and supporters of Fanmi Lavalas questioned the legality of the judge's order under Haitian law as well as the judge's impartiality.

text: During the elections of 1990 and 2000 of Aristide and the 1995 and 2006 elections of Rene Preval the turnout of the total voting population hovered at around 60-70%. But in the years following the 2010 earthquake turnout in elections has dropped significantly to 20%. During this period the rightwing has risen to power with mass-voter disenfranchisement. In late-2016 Aristide for the first time in many years returned to electioneering, touring around the country to promote Fanmi Lavalas candidates, but the election results (decried by his party as illegitimate) returned to power rightwing forces in the country with a low 20% turn out.

text: Accomplishments[edit]

text: Under president Aristide's leadership, his party implemented many major reforms. These included greatly increasing access to health care and education for the general population, increasing adult literacy and protections for those accused of crimes, improving training for judges, prohibiting human trafficking, disbanding the Haitian military (which primarily had been used against the Haitian people), establishing improved human rights and political freedom; doubling the minimum wage, instituting land reform and assistance to small farmers, providing boat construction training to fishermen, establishing a food distribution network to provide low cost food to the poor at below market prices, building low-cost housing, and attempting to reduce the level of government corruption.[78]

text: Achievements in education[edit]

text: During successive Lavalas administrations, Jean-Bertrand Aristide and René Préval built 195 new primary schools and 104 secondary schools. Prior to Aristide's election in 1990, there were just 34 secondary schools nationwide. Lavalas also provided thousands of scholarships so that children could afford to attend church/private schools. Between 2001 and 2004, the percentage of children enrolled in primary school education rose to 72%, and an estimated 300,000 adults took part in Lavalas sponsored adult literacy campaigns. This helped the adult literacy rate rise from 35% to 55%.[79]

text: Achievements in health care[edit]

text: In addition to numerous educational advances, Aristide and Lavalas embarked on an ambitious plan to develop the public primary health care system with Cuban assistance. Since the devastation unleashed by Hurricane Georges in 1998, Cuba entered a humanitarian agreement with Haiti whereby Haitian doctors would be trained in Cuba, and Cuban doctors would work in rural areas. At the time of 2010 Haiti earthquake, 573 doctors had been trained in Cuba.[80]

text: Despite operating under an aid embargo, the Lavalas administration succeeded in reducing the infant mortality rate as well as reducing the percentage of underweight newborns. A successful AIDS prevention and treatment program was also established, leading the Catholic Institute for International Relations to state: the "incredible feat of slowing the rate of new infections in Haiti has been achieved despite the lack of international aid to the Haitian government, and despite the notable lack of resources faced by those working in the health field".[81]

text: Disbanding the military and paramilitaries - the Fad'H, Tonton Macoutes, and Attaches[edit]

text: The Lavalas political project has long been dedicated to promoting a civilian police force and disbanding the long-time tools of elite repression in Haiti which have been the country's brutal military and paramilitary forces. The government under Aristide launched the first trial of paramilitary death squads and successfully jailed many after aired on Haitian public television trials of FAdH [82] and FRAPH [83] members involved in massacres of civilians.

text: Trials were held bringing to justice a handful of wealthy individuals from among Haiti's upper class that had financed paramilitary death squads. These included individuals such as Judy C Roy (who has acknowledged her financing of the FLRN death squads), and others some of whom held close ties with the former dictators Raoul Cedras and Jean-Claude Duvalier.[84] Reforming the country's security services though posed a constant problem for Lavalas, as the U.S. sought to undermine these reform efforts by seeking to re-insert its rightwing allies into the police force. The Lavalas government also faced a lack of resources as U.S. officials under the Bush regime between 2000 and 2004 supported a cut off in aid to the government. Meanwhile the corrupting influence of the narco-trade continued to be present among the police as it had in earlier periods.[85]

text: Wikileaks and Aristide[edit]

text: The release of many documents through Wikileaks has provided a great deal of insight into how the international community (United States, Canada, France and Brazil) has regarded Aristide, his lasting influence, the coup, and his exile.

text: November 2004 Dominican president Leonel Fernandez gave a speech in front of other regional leaders in which he said Aristide commanded "great popular support" within Haiti and called for his inclusion in the country’s democratic future.[86]

text: January 2005 USA pressuring South Africa to hold Aristide, or face the loss of potential UN Security Council seat

text: "Bienvenu later offered to express our shared concerns in Pretoria, perhaps under the pretext that as a country desiring to secure a seat on the UN Security Council, South Africa could not afford to be involved in any way with the destabilization of another country....2 (S) Bienvenu speculated on exactly how Aristide might return, seeing a possible opportunity to hinder him in the logistics of reaching Haiti. If Aristide traveled commercially, Bienvenu reasoned, he would likely need to transit certain countries in order to reach Haiti. Bienvenu suggested a demarche to CARICOM countries by the U.S. and EU to warn them against facilitating any travel or other plans Aristide might have.... Both Bienvenu and Barbier confided that South African mercenaries could be heading towards Haiti, with Bienvenu revealing the GOF had documented evidence that 10 South African citizens had come to Paris and requested Dominican visas between February and the present."[87]

text: A June 2005 cable states: "the GOB (Government of Brazil) officials made clear continued Brazilian resolve to keep Aristide from returning to the country or exerting political influence. The GOB had been encouraged by recent South African Government commitments to Brazil that the GSA (Government of South Africa) would not allow Aristide to use his exile there to undertake political efforts."[88]

text: Fall of 2008: On Preval's fear Aristide would return to Haiti via Venezuela

text: President René Préval made reference to these rumors, telling the ambassador that he did not want Aristide "anywhere in the hemisphere". Subsequent to that, he remarked that he was concerned that Aristide would accept the Chávez offer but deflected any discussion of whether Préval himself was prepared to raise the matter with Chávez.[89]

text: Criticism[edit]

text: Accusations of human rights abuses[edit]

text: Human Rights Watch accused the Haitian police force under president Aristide and his political supporters of attacks on opposition rallies. They also said that the emergence of armed rebel groups seeking to overthrow Aristide reflected "the failure of the country's democratic institutions and procedures".[90] A detailed study on the armed rebel paramilitaries has found that these groups received vital support from a handful of Haitian elites, Dominican governmental sectors, and foreign intelligence. The undermanned Haitian police faced difficulties in fending off cross-border attacks led by the ex-army paramilitary rebels.[85]

text: Videos surfaced showing a portion of a speech by Aristide on 27 August 1991, which took place just after army and death squad members attempted to assassinate him, where he says "Don't hesitate to give him what he deserves. What a beautiful tool! What a beautiful instrument! What a beautiful piece of equipment! It's beautiful, yes it's beautiful, it's cute, it's pretty, it has a good smell, wherever you go you want to inhale it."[91] Critics allege that he was endorsing the practice of "necklacing" opposition activists – placing a gasoline-soaked tire around a person's neck and setting the tire ablaze[92] – others argue he was actually speaking about people using the constitution to empower themselves. Earlier in the speech he is quoted as saying "Your tool in hand, your instrument in hand, your constitution in hand! Don't hesitate to give him what he deserves. Your equipment in hand, your trowel in hand, your pencil in hand, your Constitution in hand, don't hesitate to give him what he deserves."[91][93]

text: Although there were accusations of human rights abuses, the OAS/UN International Civilian Mission in Haiti, known by the French acronym MICIVIH, found that the human rights situation in Haiti improved dramatically following Aristide's return to power in 1994.[94] Amnesty International reported that, after Aristide's departure in 2004, Haiti was "descending into a severe humanitarian and human rights crisis".[95] BBC correspondents say Mr Aristide is seen as a champion of the poor, and remains popular with many in Haiti.[96] Aristide continues to be among the most important political figures in the country, and is considered by many to be the only really popular, democratically elected leader Haiti has ever had.[97] Yet his second administration was targeted for destabilization and is remembered as a time of great difficulty of many.

text: Accusations of corruption[edit]

text: Some officials have been indicted by a U.S. court.[98] Companies that allegedly made deals with Aristide's government included IDT, Fusion Telecommunications, and Skytel; critics claim the two first companies had political links. AT&T reportedly declined to wire money to "Mont Salem".[99][100][101][102] Aristide's supporters say corruption charges against the former president are a deliberate attempt to keep a popular leader from running in elections.[103]

text: Views[edit]

text: In 2000 Aristide published The Eyes of the Heart: Seeking a Path for the Poor in the Age of Globalization, which accused the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund of working on behalf of the world's wealthiest nations rather than in the interest of genuine international development. Aristide called for "a culture of global solidarity" to eliminate poverty as an alternative to the globalization represented by neocolonialism and neoliberalism.[104]

text: Publications[edit]

text:
(With Laura Flynn) Eyes of the Heart: Seeking a Path for the Poor in the Age of Globalization, Common Courage Press, 2000.
Dignity, University of Virginia Press, 1996; translated from Dignité, Éditions du Seuil, 1994.
Névrose vétéro-testamentaire, Editions du CIDIHCA, 1994.
Aristide: An Autobiography, Orbis Books, 1993.
Tout homme est un homme, Éditions du Seuil, 1992.
Théologie et politique, Editions du CIDIHCA, 1992.
(With Amy Wilentz) In the Parish of the Poor: Writings from Haiti, Orbis Books, 1990.

tag: ul

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ "Military ousts Haiti's leader, claims power President Aristide en route to France; fighting kills 26". The Boston Globe. 1 October 1991.
Jump up ^ "Haiti: The impact of the 1991 coup". International Journal of Refugee Law. June 1992.
Jump up ^ How Our Governments Snuffed Out a Democracy And Kidnapped a President: A Modern Parable, Johann Hari, The Huffington Post, 17 September 2010
Jump up ^ Damning the Flood Archived 25 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine., Richard Pithouse, Mute Magazine, 14 October 2008
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Aristide says U.S. deposed him in 'coup d'etat'". CNN. 2 March 2004. Retrieved 6 May 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Randal C. Archibold (18 March 2011). "Just Days Before Election, Aristide Returns to Cheers and Uncertainty in Haiti". New York Times.
^ Jump up to: a b Portrait of a Folk-Hero: Father Jean-Bertrand Aristide Archived 22 August 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b Danner, Mark (4 November 1993). "Haiti on the Verge". The New York Review. Retrieved 20 May 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b "Aristide no stranger to struggle". Associated Press. 16 February 2004. Archived from the original on 1 January 1996. Retrieved 30 January 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Danner, Mark (18 November 1993). "The Prophet". The New York Review. Archived from the original on 8 September 2008. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Gallo, Michael F. (Fall 1989). "Hope in Haiti? An interview with Jean-Bertrand Aristide". Touchstone Magazine. Chicago, Illinois, USA: Fellowship of St. James. 3 (3). Retrieved 10 May 2010.
Jump up ^ "Concordat Watch: Papa Doc's Concordat (1966)". Retrieved 10 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Hallward, Peter (May–June 2004). "Option Zero in Haiti". New Left Review. London. 27 (May–June 200). Retrieved 20 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Rohter, Larry (24 July 1994). "Liberal Wing of Haiti's Church Resists Military". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Farmer, Paul (2005). The Uses of Haiti, 3rd edition. Common Courage Press. p. 104. ISBN 978-1-56751-344-8.
^ Jump up to: a b Wilentz, Amy (1989). The Rainy Season: Haiti Since Duvalier. Simon and Schuster. pp. 348–353. ISBN 0-671-64186-7.
Jump up ^ Bernat, J. Christopher (1999). "Children and the Politics of Violence in Haitian Context: Statist violence, scarcity and street child agency in Port-au-Prince". Critique of Anthropology. London, Thousand Oaks, California, and New Delhi: SAGE Publications. 19 (2): 121–138. doi:10.1177/0308275x9901900202. Retrieved 10 May 2010.
Jump up ^ French, Howard (24 September 1988). "Attack on Priest Called Haiti Catalyst". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Farmer, Paul. "Who is Aristide, from Uses of Haiti". Common Courage Press. Retrieved 17 February 2014.
Jump up ^ Belleau, Jean-Philippe (2 April 2008). Massacres perpetrated in the 20th Century in Haiti. Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence. ISSN 1961-9898. Retrieved 17 February 2014.
Jump up ^ Treaster, Joseph B. (23 September 1988). "Haiti Terrorists Form in New Groups". The New York Times. Retrieved 23 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Farmer, Paul (2005). The Uses of Haiti, 3rd edition. Common Courage Press. p. 122. ISBN 978-1-56751-344-8.
Jump up ^ Treaster, Joseph B. (18 December 1988). "A Haitian Priest is Ousted by Order". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Corbett, Bob. "Aristide resigning his priesthood?". Archived from the original on 29 May 2010. Retrieved 20 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Farmer, Paul (2005). The Uses of Haiti, 3rd edition. Common Courage Press. pp. 124–125. ISBN 978-1-56751-344-8.
Jump up ^ Rohter, Larry (17 November 1994). "Aristide decides to quit as priest". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Jean-Bertrand Aristide's Tumultuous Career
Jump up ^ Collins, Edward Jr., Cole, Timothy M. (1996), "Regime Legitimation in Instances of Coup-Caused Governments-in-Exile: The Cases of Presidents Makarios and Aristide", Journal of International Law & Practice 5(2), p 220.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Collins, Edward Jr., Cole, Timothy M. (1996), "Regime Legitimation in Instances of Coup-Caused Governments-in-Exile: The Cases of Presidents Makarios and Aristide", Journal of International Law & Practice 5(2), p 219.
Jump up ^ Collins, Edward Jr., Cole, Timothy M. (1996), "Regime Legitimation in Instances of Coup-Caused Governments-in-Exile: The Cases of Presidents Makarios and Aristide", Journal of International Law & Practice 5(2), p 199.
Jump up ^ "Leader of Haiti Ousted Military Takes Over After Seizing Aristide". St. Louis Post-Dispatch. 1 October 1991. Archived from the original (reprint) on 10 November 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b c Peter Hallward (22 February 2007). "An Interview with Jean-Bertrand Aristide". London Review of Books.
Jump up ^ Marc Weisbrot (13 December 2005). "U.S. Is Still Undermining Haiti". Z Magazine. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007.
Jump up ^ Vincent Browne (17 January 2010). "Haiti's never-ending tragedy has American roots". The Sunday Business Post on-line.
^ Jump up to: a b French, Howard W.; Time Weiner (14 November 1993). "C.I.A. Formed Haitian Unit Later Tied to Narcotics Trade". New York Times. Retrieved 6 May 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Jim Mann (2 November 1993). "Congress to Probe CIA-Haiti Ties". Los Angeles Times.
Jump up ^ Rupert Cornwell (7 October 1994). "CIA 'helped to set up terror group' in Haiti". London: The Independent.
Jump up ^ Mark Weisbrot (22 November 2005). "Undermining Haiti". The Nation.
Jump up ^ Victoria Graham (27 August 1993). "UN Ready To End Haiti Sanctions". The Seattle Times.
Jump up ^ Sydney P. Freedberg, Rachel L. Swarns (3 November 1994). "Poorly Enforced Sanctions Botch U.S. Embargo of Haiti". The Seattle Times.
Jump up ^ Carl Hartman (18 February 1994). "Americans Step Up Business With Haiti Despite Sanctions". The Seattle Times.
Jump up ^ Dailey, Peter (13 March 2003). "Haiti: The Fall of the House of Aristide". New York Review of Books. www.nybooks.com. 50 (4). Retrieved 14 February 2010.
Jump up ^ "Election watch Haiti". CNN. 26 November 2000. Retrieved 6 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Rhodes-Pitts, Sharifa (4 January 2004). "A call for $21 billion from France aims to lift Haiti's bicentennial blues". Boston Globe. Retrieved 25 January 2010.
Jump up ^ MacDonald, Isabel (16 August 2010). "France's debt of dishonour to Haiti". The Guardian. London.
Jump up ^ Klarreich, Kathie (23 February 2004). "Letter From Haiti: A Battle of Cannibals And Monsters". Time Magazine.
Jump up ^ Steven, Dudley (15 February 2004). "Disparate forces behind the violent opposition in Haiti". Boston Globe.
Jump up ^ "Haiti's Aristide defiant in exile". BBC News. 8 March 2004.
Jump up ^ Associated Press (1 March 2004). "Looters pick through Aristide's villa: Letters about the CIA, FBI left behind". CNN. Archived from the original on 5 March 2004. Retrieved 21 February 2017.
Jump up ^ Reuters (1 March 2004). "Haitians emerge to work, or party". CNN. Retrieved 29 January 2010.
Jump up ^ Paul Farmer (15 April 2004). "Who removed Aristide?". London Review of Books.
Jump up ^ Associated Press (1 March 2004). "Aristide arrives for African exile". CNN International. Archived from the original on 5 March 2004. Retrieved 21 February 2017.
Jump up ^ "Rep Maxine Waters: Aristide Says 'I Was Kidnapped'". Democracy Now. Retrieved 19 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Thalif Deen (13 April 2004). "US, France Block UN Probe of Aristide Ouster". Inter Press Service.
Jump up ^ Mark Weisbrot (22 November 2005). "Undermining Haiti". The Nation. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Munnion, Christopher (1 June 2004). "Mbeki rolls out the red carpet for exile Aristide". London: the Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 14 February 2010.
Jump up ^ Momberg, Eleanor (1 June 2004). "Warm welcome for Aristide". Independent Online (IOL). Retrieved 14 February 2010.
Jump up ^ Political Bureau (25 June 2009). "Ex president living it up in SA". Independent Online (IOL). Retrieved 14 February 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b Smith, David (15 January 2010). "Haiti's exiled former president vows to return". London: Guardian News and Media. Retrieved 6 May 2010.
Jump up ^ "Exiled Aristide gets SA doctorate" Archived 28 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine., iafrica.com, 26 April 2007.
Jump up ^ "Exiled former Haitian president stirs supporters with speech", Associated Press (International Herald Tribune), 22 December 2007.
Jump up ^ "Dr. Maryse Narcisse Kidnapped in Haiti" Archived 2 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Dr. Maryse Narcisse – a member of the National Commission of the Fanmi Lavalas Party – was kidnapped in Octerber 2007, and later freed after a ransom was paid.
Jump up ^ Amnesty International Index: AMR 36/008/2007 – Wilson Mésilien, the successor to Lovinsky Pierre-Antoine, had to go into hiding following death threats.
Jump up ^ Fondasyon Mapou and the Haitian Priorities Project (14 August 2007). "We are urging for the safe return of Lovinsky Pierre-Antoine". Press release. Toronto Haiti Action Committee. Retrieved 14 February 2010.
Jump up ^ Katz, Jonathan M.; AP (29 February 2008). "Thousands march in Haiti on anniversary of Aristide's departure". San Diego Union-Tribune. Retrieved 14 February 2010.
Jump up ^ "SUBJECT: WHY WE NEED CONTINUING MINUSTAH PRESENCE IN HAITI" U.S. Embassy Port Au Prince, 2008-10-01 15:48
Jump up ^ "Haiti: A/s Shannon's Meeting With Minustah Srsg" U.S. Embassy Port Au Prince (Haiti), Wed, 2 August 2006 19:01 UTC
Jump up ^ "LAVALAS TORN BETWEEN BOYCOTTING ELECTIONS AND MOVING FORWARD" U.S. Embassy Port Au Prince
Jump up ^ "Haiti 'to allow' Aristide return". BBC. 23 February 2006.
Jump up ^ "Thousands demand Aristide return". BBC. 16 July 2006.
Jump up ^ "Aristide supporters protest election ban in Haiti". Reuters. 17 December 2009.
Jump up ^ "Aristide wishes to leave SA for Haiti". IOL News. 15 Jan 2010. Retrieved 19 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Rossier, Nicolas (15 February 2011). "An Exclusive Interview With Former Haitian President Jean-Bertrand Aristide". Huffington Post.
Jump up ^ "Haiti's former president Jean-Bertrand Aristide vows to return". Retrieved 17 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "Returning to Haiti, Aristide says Haitians who fought for democracy are happy he's coming home". Washington Post. 18 March 2011. [dead link]
Jump up ^ Joseph Guyler Delva and Pascal Fletcher (19 March 2011). "Aristide makes triumphant Haiti return before vote". Reuters Africa.
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ Stephen Lendman (16 December 2005). "Achievements Under Aristide, Now Lost". ZNet. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Hallward, Peter. Damming the Flood: Haiti, Aristide and the Politics of Containment. Verso Press, 2007, p. 133.
Jump up ^ Edmonds, Kevin. The Undermining of Haitian Healthcare: Setting the Stage for Disaster. NACLA, 22 February 2010.
Jump up ^ Hallward, Peter. Damming the Flood: Haiti, Aristide and the Politics of Containment. Verso Books, 2007, p. 134.
Jump up ^ Sprague, Jeb. Paramilitarism and the Assault on Democracy in Haiti. Monthly Review Press, 2012.
Jump up ^ Sprague, Jeb. Paramilitarism and the Assault on Democracy in Haiti. Monthly Review Press, 2012.
Jump up ^ Sprague, Jeb. Paramilitarism and the Assault on Democracy in Haiti. Monthly Review Press, 2012.
^ Jump up to: a b "Paramilitarism and the Assault on Democracy in Haiti". Monthly Review Press. 15 August 2012.
Jump up ^ "16.11.2004: DOMINICAN POLITICS #8: FERNANDEZ, THE RIO GROUP AND HAITI". WikiLeaks. 16 November 2004. WikiLeaks cable: 04SANTO DOMINGO006213. Retrieved 19 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "01.07.2005: FRENCH SHARE CONCERNS ON POSSIBLE ARISTIDE RETURN TO HAITI". WikiLeaks. 1 July 2005. WikiLeaks cable: 05PARIS004660. Retrieved 19 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "06.10.2005: SENION GOB OFFICIALS DISCUSS HAITI WITH AMBASSADOR AND WHA DAS FISK". WikiLeaks. 6 October 2005. WikiLeaks cable: 05BRASILIA1578. Retrieved 19 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "03.10.2008: RUMORS ABOUND REGARDING ARISTIDE´S POSSIBLE MOVE TO VENEZUELA". WikiLeaks. 3 October 2008. WikiLeaks cable: 08PORTAUPRINCE001392. Retrieved 19 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "Haiti: Aristide Should Uphold Rule of Law". Human Rights Watch. 13 February 2004.
^ Jump up to: a b Haïti Observateur (27 September 1992). "Aristide's "Pe Lebrun" speech". Haïti Observateur. Retrieved 10 January 2011.
Jump up ^ Associated Press (17 February 2004). "Haiti's Aristide prepares for a fight". USA Today. Retrieved 14 February 2010.
Jump up ^ Lisa Pease (1 February 2010). "America's Sad History with Haiti, Part 2". Consortium News.
Jump up ^ "Three Years of Defending Human Rights". United Nations. September 1995. Archived from the original on 10 March 2008.
Jump up ^ "Haiti Human Rights". Amnesty International. Archived from the original on 10 February 2010.
Jump up ^ "UN troops disperse Haiti protesters supporting Aristide". BBC News. August 2014.
Jump up ^ "America's subversion of Haiti's democracy continues". The Guardian. 13 March 2012.
Jump up ^ "Indictments in Alleged Aristide Corruption Case". Press release. Haiti Democracy Project. 8 December 2009. Retrieved 14 February 2010.
Jump up ^ O'Grady, Mary Anastasia (28 July 2008). "Aristide's American Profiteers". Opinion. Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 14 February 2010.
Jump up ^ O'Grady, Mary Anastasia (3 June 2005). "Aristide's Past Deserves More Intense Scrutiny". Opinion. Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 14 February 2010.
Jump up ^ O'Grady, Mary Anastania (12 February 2007). "The Haiti File". Opinion. Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 14 February 2010.
Jump up ^ Vardi, Nathan (10 December 2009). "Will Bribery Probe Hit IDT? Company dealt with indicted Haitian telco official". Forbes. Retrieved 14 February 2010.
Jump up ^ "Aristide supporters clash with Haiti police". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 23 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Jean-Bertrand Aristide, "Introduction", The Haitian Revolution by Toussaint L'Ouverture (New York and London, Verso, 2008), p. xxxiii.

tag: ol


document_title: Lysosome

question_text: which organelle makes the digestive enzymes of lysosome

text: Lysosome

text: Discovery[edit]

text: Christian de Duve, the chairman of the Laboratory of Physiological Chemistry at the Catholic University of Louvain in Belgium, had been studying the mechanism of action of a pancreatic hormone insulin in liver cells. By 1949, he and his team had focused on the enzyme called glucose 6-phosphatase, which is the first crucial enzyme in sugar metabolism and the target of insulin. They already suspected that this enzyme played a key role in regulating blood sugar levels. However, even after a series of experiments, they failed to purify and isolate the enzyme from the cellular extracts. Therefore, they tried a more arduous procedure of cell fractionation, by which cellular components are separated based on their sizes using centrifugation.

text: They succeeded in detecting the enzyme activity from the microsomal fraction. This was the crucial step in the serendipitous discovery of lysosomes. To estimate this enzyme activity, they used that of standardised enzyme acid phosphatase, and found that the activity was only 10% of the expected value. One day, the enzyme activity of purified cell fractions which had been refrigerated for five days was measured. Surprisingly, the enzyme activity was increased to normal of that of the fresh sample. The result was the same no matter how many times they repeated the estimation, and led to the conclusion that a membrane-like barrier limited the accessibility of the enzyme to its substrate, and that the enzymes were able to diffuse after a few days (and react with their substrate). They described this membrane-like barrier as a "saclike structure surrounded by a membrane and containing acid phosphatase."[10]

text: It became clear that this enzyme from the cell fraction came from a membranous fractions, which were definitely cell organelles, and in 1955 De Duve named them "lysosomes" to reflect their digestive properties.[11] The same year, Alex B. Novikoff from the University of Vermont visited de Duve's laboratory, and successfully obtained the first electron micrographs of the new organelle. Using a staining method for acid phosphatase, de Duve and Novikoff confirmed the location of the hydrolytic enzymes of lysosomes using light and electron microscopic studies.[12][13] de Duve won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1974 for this discovery.

text: Originally, De Duve had termed the organelles the "suicide bags" or "suicide sacs" of the cells, for their hypothesized role in apoptosis.[14] However, it has since been concluded that they only play a minor role in cell death.[15]

text: Function and structure[edit]

text: Lysosomes contain a variety of enzymes, enabling the cell to break down various biomolecules it engulfs, including peptides, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids. The enzymes responsible for this hydrolysis require an acidic environment for optimal activity.

text: In addition to being able to break down polymers, lysosomes are capable of fusing with other organelles & digesting large structures or cellular debris; through cooperation with phagosomes, they are able to conduct autophagy, clearing out damaged structures. Similarly, they are able to break-down virus particles or bacteria in phagocytosis of macrophages.

text: The size of lysosomes varies from 0.1 μm to 1.2 μm.[16] With a pH ranging from 4.5 to 5.0, the interior of the lysosomes is acidic compared to the slightly basic cytosol (pH 7.2). The lysosomal membrane protects the cytosol, and therefore the rest of the cell, from the degradative enzymes within the lysosome. The cell is additionally protected from any lysosomal acid hydrolases that drain into the cytosol, as these enzymes are pH-sensitive and do not function well or at all in the alkaline environment of the cytosol. This ensures that cytosolic molecules and organelles are not destroyed in case there is leakage of the hydrolytic enzymes from the lysosome.

text: The lysosome maintains its pH differential by pumping in protons (H+ ions) from the cytosol across the membrane via proton pumps and chloride ion channels. Vacuolar H+-ATPases are responsible for transport of protons, while the counter transport of chloride ions is performed by ClC-7 Cl−/H+ antiporter. In this way a steady acidic environment is maintained.[17][18]

text: It sources its versatile capacity for degradation by import of enzymes with specificity for different substrates; cathepsins are the major class of hydrolytic enzymes, while lysosomal alpha-glucosidase (GAA) is responsible for carbohydrates, and ACP2 is necessary to release phosphate groups of phospholipids.

text: Formation[edit]

text: Many components of animal cells are recycled by transferring them inside or embedded in sections of membrane. For instance, in endocytosis (more specifically, macropinocytosis), a portion of the cell's plasma membrane pinches off to form a vesicle that will eventually fuse with an organelle within the cell. Without active replenishment, the plasma membrane would continuously decrease in size. It is thought that lysosomes participate in this dynamic membrane exchange system and are formed by a gradual maturation process from endosomes.[19][20]

text: The production of lysosomal proteins suggests one method of lysosome sustainment. Lysosomal protein genes are transcribed in the nucleus. mRNA transcripts exit the nucleus into the cytosol, where they are translated by ribosomes. The nascent peptide chains are translocated into the rough endoplasmic reticulum, where they are modified. Upon exiting the endoplasmic reticulum and entering the Golgi apparatus via vesicular transport, a specific lysosomal tag, mannose 6-phosphate, is added to the peptides. The presence of these tags allow for binding to mannose 6-phosphate receptors in the Golgi apparatus, a phenomenon that is crucial for proper packaging into vesicles destined for the lysosomal system.[21]

text: Upon leaving the Golgi apparatus, the lysosomal enzyme-filled vesicle fuses with a late endosome, a relatively acidic organelle with an approximate pH of 5.5. This acidic environment causes dissociation of the lysosomal enzymes from the mannose 6-phosphate receptors. The enzymes are packed into vesicles for further transport to established lysosomes.[21] The late endosome itself can eventually grow into a mature lysosome, as evidenced by the transport of endosomal membrane components from the lysosomes back to the endosomes.[19]

text: Pathogen entry[edit]

text: As the endpoint of endocytosis, the lysosome also acts as a safeguard in preventing pathogens from being able to reach the cytoplasm before being degraded. Pathogens often hijack endocytotic pathways such as pinocytosis in order to gain entry into the cell. The lysosome prevents easy entry into the cell by hydrolyzing the biomolecules of pathogens necessary for their replication strategies; reduced Lysosomal activity results in an increase in viral infectivity, including HIV.[22] In addition, AB5 toxins such as cholera hijack the endosomal pathway while evading lysosomal degradation.[22]

text: Disease[edit]

text: Lysosomes are responsible for a group of genetically inherited disorders called lysosomal storage diseases (LSD). They are a type of inborn errors of metabolism caused by malfunction of one of the enzymes. The rate of incidence is estimated to be 1 in 5,000 live births, and the true figure expected to be higher as many cases are likely to be undiagnosed or misdiagnosed. The primary cause is deficiency of an acidic hydrolase (a hydrolase which functions best in acidic environments). Other conditions are due to defects in lysosomal membrane proteins that fail to transport the enzyme, non-enzymatic soluble lysosomal proteins. The initial effect of such disorders is accumulation of specific macromolecules or monomeric compounds inside the endosomal–autophagic–lysosomal system.[8] This results in abnormal signaling pathways, calcium homeostasis, lipid biosynthesis and degradation and intracellular trafficking, ultimately leading to pathogenetic disorders. The organs most affected are brain, viscera, bone and cartilage.[23][24]

text: There is no direct medical treatment to cure LSDs.[25] The most common LSD is Gaucher's disease, which is due to deficiency of the enzyme glucocerebrosidase. Consequently, the enzyme substrate, the fatty acid glucosylceramide accumulates, particularly in white blood cells, which in turn affects spleen, liver, kidneys, lungs, brain and bone marrow. The disease is characterized by bruises, fatigue, anaemia, low blood platelets, osteoporosis, and enlargement of the liver and spleen.[26][27]

text: Metachromatic leukodystrophy is another lysosomal storage disease that also affects sphingolipid metabolism.

text: Lysosomotropism[edit]

text: Weak bases with lipophilic properties accumulate in acidic intracellular compartments like lysosomes. While the plasma and lysosomal membranes are permeable for neutral and uncharged species of weak bases, the charged protonated species of weak bases do not permeate biomembranes and accumulate within lysosomes. The concentration within lysosomes may reach levels 100 to 1000 fold higher than extracellular concentrations. This phenomenon is called "lysosomotropism"[28], "acid trapping" or "proton pump" effect [29]. The amount of accumulation of lysosomotropic compounds may be estimated using a cell-based mathematical model.[30]

text: A significant part of the clinically approved drugs are lipophilic weak bases with lysosomotropic properties. This explains a number of pharmacological properties of these drugs, such as high tissue-to-blood concentration gradients or long tissue elimination half-lifes; these properties have been found for drugs such as haloperidol,[31] levomepromazine,[32] and amantadine.[33] However, high tissue concentrations and long elimination half-lives are explained also by lipophilicity and absorption of drugs to fatty tissue structures. Important lysosomal enzymes, such as acid sphingomyelinase, may be inhibited by lysosomally accumulated drugs.[34][35] Such compounds are termed FIASMAs (functional inhibitor of acid sphingomyelinase)[36] and include for example fluoxetine, sertraline, or amitriptyline.

text: Ambroxol is a lysosomotropic drug of clinical use to treat conditions of productive cough for its mucolytic action. Ambroxol triggers the exocytosis of lysosomes via neutralization of lysosomal pH and calcium release from acidic calcium stores.[37] Presumably for this reason, Ambroxol was also found to improve cellular function in some disease of lysosomal origin such as Parkinson's or lysosomal storage disease.[38][39]

text: Controversy in botany[edit]

text: By scientific convention, the term lysosome is applied to these vesicular organelles only in animals, and the term vacuole is applied to those in plants, fungi and algae (some animal cells also have vacuoles). Discoveries in plant cells since the 1970s started to challenge this definition. Plant vacuoles are found to be much more diverse in structure and function than previously thought.[40][41] Some vacuoles contain their own hydrolytic enzymes and perform the classic lysosomal activity, which is autophagy.[42][43][44] These vacuoles are therefore seen as fulfilling the role of the animal lysosome. Based on de Duve's description that "only when considered as part of a system involved directly or indirectly in intracellular digestion does the term lysosome describe a physiological unit", some botanists strongly argued that these vacuoles are lysosomes.[45] However, this is not universally accepted as the vacuoles are strictly not similar to lysosomes, such as in their specific enzymes and lack of phagocytic functions.[46] Vacuoles do not have catabolic activity and do not undergo exocytosis as lysosomes do.[47]

text: Etymology and pronunciation[edit]

text: The word lysosome (/ˈlaɪsoʊsoʊm/, /ˈlaɪzəzoʊm/) is New Latin that uses the combining forms lyso- (referring to lysis and derived from the Latin lysis, meaning "to loosen", via Ancient Greek λύσις [lúsis]), and -some, from soma, "body", yielding "body that lyses" or "lytic body". The adjectival form is lysosomal. The forms *lyosome and *lyosomal are much rarer; they use the lyo- form of the prefix but are often treated by readers and editors as mere unthinking replications of typos, which has no doubt been true as often as not.


document_title: Address Resolution Protocol

question_text: arp operates at which layer of the osi model

text: Address Resolution Protocol

text: Operating scope[edit]

text: The Address Resolution Protocol is a request and response protocol whose messages are encapsulated by a link layer protocol. It is communicated within the boundaries of a single network, never routed across internetwork nodes. This property places ARP into the link layer of the Internet Protocol Suite.[2] Although ARP was not developed in the OSI model, it is often described here as residing in layer 3, being encapsulated by Layer 2 protocols.[citation needed]

text: Packet structure[edit]

text: The Address Resolution Protocol uses a simple message format containing one address resolution request or response. The size of the ARP message depends on the upper layer and lower layer address sizes, which are given by the type of networking protocol (usually IPv4) in use and the type of hardware or virtual link layer that the upper layer protocol is running on. The message header specifies these types, as well as the size of addresses of each. The message header is completed with the operation code for request (1) and reply (2). The payload of the packet consists of four addresses, the hardware and protocol address of the sender and receiver hosts.

text: The principal packet structure of ARP packets is shown in the following table which illustrates the case of IPv4 networks running on Ethernet. In this scenario, the packet has 48-bit fields for the sender hardware address (SHA) and target hardware address (THA), and 32-bit fields for the corresponding sender and target protocol addresses (SPA and TPA). Thus, the ARP packet size in this case is 28 bytes. The EtherType for ARP is 0x0806. (This appears in the Ethernet frame header when the payload is an ARP packet. Not to be confused with PTYPE below, which appears within this encapsulated ARP packet.)

text:
Internet Protocol (IPv4) over Ethernet ARP packet

octet offset
0
1

0
Hardware type (HTYPE)

2
Protocol type (PTYPE)

4
Hardware address length (HLEN)
Protocol address length (PLEN)

6
Operation (OPER)

8
Sender hardware address (SHA) (first 2 bytes)

10
(next 2 bytes)

12
(last 2 bytes)

14
Sender protocol address (SPA) (first 2 bytes)

16
(last 2 bytes)

18
Target hardware address (THA) (first 2 bytes)

20
(next 2 bytes)

22
(last 2 bytes)

24
Target protocol address (TPA) (first 2 bytes)

26
(last 2 bytes)

text: ARP protocol parameter values have been standardized and are maintained by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA).[6]

text: Example[edit]

text: Two computers in an office (computer 1 and computer 2) are connected to each other in a local area network by Ethernet cables and network switches, with no intervening gateways or routers. Computer 1 has a packet to send to Computer 2. Through DNS, it determines that Computer 2 has the IP address 192.168.0.55. To send the message, it also requires Computer 2's MAC address. First, Computer 1 uses a cached ARP table to look up 192.168.0.55 for any existing records of Computer 2's MAC address (00:eb:24:b2:05:ac). If the MAC address is found, it sends an Ethernet frame with destination address 00:eb:24:b2:05:ac, containing the IP packet onto the link. If the cache did not produce a result for 192.168.0.55, Computer 1 has to send a broadcast ARP message (destination FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF MAC address), which is accepted by all computers, requesting an answer for 192.168.0.55. Computer 2 responds with its MAC and IP addresses. Computer 2 may insert an entry for Computer 1 into its ARP table for future use. Computer 1 caches the response information in its ARP table and can now send the packet.[7]

text: ARP probe[edit]

text: An ARP probe is an ARP request constructed with an all-zero sender IP address (SPA). The term is used in the IPv4 Address Conflict Detection specification (RFC 5227). Before beginning to use an IPv4 address (whether received from manual configuration, DHCP, or some other means), a host implementing this specification must test to see if the address is already in use, by broadcasting ARP probe packets.[8]

text: ARP announcements[edit]

text: ARP may also be used as a simple announcement protocol. This is useful for updating other hosts' mappings of a hardware address when the sender's IP address or MAC address has changed. Such an announcement, also called a gratuitous ARP message, is usually broadcast as an ARP request containing the sender's protocol address (SPA) in the target field (TPA=SPA), with the target hardware address (THA) set to zero. An alternative way is to broadcast an ARP reply with the sender's hardware and protocol addresses (SHA and SPA) duplicated in the target fields (TPA=SPA, THA=SHA).

text: The gratuitous ARP request message and the gratuitous ARP reply messages are standards-based methods,[9][10] but the "ARP Request" is preferred.[11] Some devices may be configured for the use of either of these two types of GARP.[12]

text: An ARP announcement is not intended to solicit a reply; instead it updates any cached entries in the ARP tables of other hosts that receive the packet. The operation code may indicate a request or a reply because the ARP standard specifies that the opcode is only processed after the ARP table has been updated from the address fields.[13][14][15]

text: Many operating systems perform gratuitous ARP during startup. That helps to resolve problems which would otherwise occur if, for example, a network card was recently changed (changing the IP-address-to-MAC-address mapping) and other hosts still have the old mapping in their ARP caches.

text: Gratuitous ARP is also used by some interface drivers to provide load balancing for incoming traffic. In a team of network cards, it is used to announce a different MAC address within the team that should receive incoming packets.

text: ARP announcements can be used to defend link-local IP addresses in the Zeroconf protocol (RFC 3927), and for IP address takeover within high-availability clusters.[clarification needed][examples needed]

text: ARP mediation[edit]

text: ARP mediation refers to the process of resolving Layer 2 addresses through a Virtual Private Wire Service (VPWS) when different resolution protocols are used on the connected circuits, e.g., Ethernet on one end and Frame Relay on the other. In IPv4, each Provider Edge (PE) device discovers the IP address of the locally attached Customer Edge (CE) device and distributes that IP address to the corresponding remote PE device. Then each PE device responds to local ARP requests using the IP address of the remote CE device and the hardware address of the local PE device. In IPv6, each PE device discovers the IP address of both local and remote CE devices and then intercepts local Neighbor Discovery (ND) and Inverse Neighbor Discovery (IND) packets and forwards them to the remote PE device.[16]

text: Inverse ARP and Reverse ARP[edit]

text: Inverse Address Resolution Protocol (Inverse ARP or InARP) is used to obtain Network Layer addresses (for example, IP addresses) of other nodes from Data Link Layer (Layer 2) addresses. It is primarily used in Frame Relay (DLCI) and ATM networks, in which Layer 2 addresses of virtual circuits are sometimes obtained from Layer 2 signaling, and the corresponding Layer 3 addresses must be available before those virtual circuits can be used.[17]

text: Since ARP translates Layer 3 addresses to Layer 2 addresses, InARP may be described as its inverse. In addition, InARP is implemented as a protocol extension to ARP: it uses the same packet format as ARP, but different operation codes.

text: The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (Reverse ARP or RARP), like InARP, translates Layer 2 addresses to Layer 3 addresses. However, in In ARP the requesting station queries the Layer 3 address of another node, whereas RARP is used to obtain the Layer 3 address of the requesting station itself for address configuration purposes. RARP is obsolete; it was replaced by BOOTP, which was later superseded by the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).[18]

text: ARP spoofing and Proxy ARP[edit]

text: Because ARP does not provide methods for authenticating ARP replies on a network, ARP replies can come from systems other than the one with the required Layer 2 address. An ARP proxy is a system which answers the ARP request on behalf of another system for which it will forward traffic, normally as a part of the network's design, such as for a dialup internet service. By contrast, in ARP spoofing the answering system, or spoofer, replies to a request for another system's address with the aim of intercepting data bound for that system. A malicious user may use ARP spoofing to perform a man-in-the-middle or denial-of-service attack on other users on the network. Various software exists to both detect and perform ARP spoofing attacks, though ARP itself does not provide any methods of protection from such attacks.[19]

text: Alternatives to ARP[edit]

text: Each computer maintains its own table of the mapping from Layer 3 addresses (e.g. IP addresses) to Layer 2 addresses (e.g. ethernet MAC addresses). In a modern computer this is maintained almost entirely by ARP packets on the local network and is thus often called the 'ARP cache' as opposed to 'Layer 2 address table'. In older computers, where broadcast packets were considered an expensive resource, other methods were used to maintain this table, such as static configuration files,[20] or centrally maintained lists.

text: Since at least the 1980s,[21] networked computers have had a command called 'arp' for interrogating or manipulating this table, and practically all modern personal operating systems have a variant of this.[22][23][24]

text: ARP stuffing[edit]

text: Embedded systems such as networked cameras[25] and networked power distribution devices,[26] which lack a user interface, can use so-called ARP stuffing to make an initial network connection, although this is a misnomer, as ARP is not involved.

text: This is a solution to an issue in network management of consumer devices, specifically the allocation of IP addresses of ethernet devices where:

text:
the user doesn't have the ability to control DHCP or similar address allocation protocols
the device doesn't have a user interface to configure it with
the user's computer can't communicate with it because it has no suitable IP address.

text: The solution adopted is as follows:

text:
The user's computer has an IP address stuffed manually into its address table (normally with the arp command with the MAC address taken from a label on the device)
The computer sends special packets to the device, typically a ping packet with a non-default size.
The device then adopts this IP address
The user then communicates with it by telnet or web protocols to complete the configuration.

text: Such devices typically have a method to disable this process once the device is operating normally, as it is vulnerable to attack.

text: Standards documents[edit]

text:
RFC 826 - Ethernet Address Resolution Protocol, Internet Standard STD 37.
RFC 903 - Reverse Address Resolution Protocol, Internet Standard STD 38.
RFC 2390 - Inverse Address Resolution Protocol, draft standard
RFC 5227 - IPv4 Address Conflict Detection, proposed standard