document_title: List of Los Angeles Dodgers coaches

question_text: who is the hitting coach for the los angeles dodgers

text: List of Los Angeles Dodgers coaches

text: Bench Coach[edit]

text:
Monty Basgall (1980)[1]
Joe Ferguson (1988-1989)[2]
Bill Russell (1990)[3]
Joe Ferguson (1991)[2]
Ben Hines (1992)[4]
Joe Ferguson (1993-1994)[2]
Bill Russell (1996)[3]
Manny Mota (1996)[5]
Mike Scioscia (1997-1998)[6]
Jim Tracy (1999-2000)[7]
Jim Riggleman (2001-2005)[8]
Jim Lett (2005)[9]
Dave Jauss (2006-2007)[10]
Bob Schaefer (2008-2010)[11]
Trey Hillman (2011-2013)[12]
Tim Wallach (2014-2015)[13]
Bob Geren (2016-present)[14]

tag: ul

text: Hitting Coach[edit]

text:
Dixie Walker (1970-1974)[15]
Jim Gilliam (1977-1978)[16]
Jim Lefebvre (1978-1979)[17]
Manny Mota (1980-1989)[5]
Ben Hines (1987-1993)[4]
Reggie Smith (1994-1999)[18]
Rick Down (1999-2000)[19]
Jack Clark (2001-2003)[20]
George Hendrick (2003)[21]
Tim Wallach (2004-2005)[22]
Eddie Murray (2006-2007)[10]
Bill Mueller (2007)[23]
Mike Easler (2008)[24]
Don Mattingly (2008-2010)[11]
Jeff Pentland (2011)[12]
Dave Hansen (2011-2012)[25]
Mark McGwire (2013-2015)[26]
Turner Ward (2016-present)[14]

text: Pitching Coach[edit]

text:
Ted Lyons (1954)[27]
Joe Becker (1955-1964)[28]
Lefty Phillips (1965-1968)[29]
Red Adams (1969-1980)[30]
Ron Perranoski (1981-1994)[31]
Dave Wallace (1995-1997)[32]
Glenn Gregson (1998)[33]
Charlie Hough (1998-1999)[34]
Claude Osteen (1999-2000)[35]
Dave Wallace (2000)
Jim Colborn (2001-2005)[36]
Rick Honeycutt (2006-present)[10]

text: First Base Coach[edit]

text:
Jimmy Johnston (1931)[37]
Freddie Fitzsimmons (1940)[38]
Van Lingle Mungo (1940)[39]
Red Corriden (1941-1946)[38]
Jake Pitler (1947-1957)[40][41][42]
Greg Mulleavy (1958-1960, 1962-1964)[43][44]
Jim Gilliam (1965-1973)[16]
Monty Basgall (1977-1979)[1]
Jim Lefebvre (1978-1979)[17]
Manny Mota (1980)[5]
Monty Basgall (1981-1986)[1]
Joe Ferguson (1990, 1992)[2]
Ben Hines (1993)[4]
Reggie Smith (1994-1998)
John Shelby (1998-2005)[45]
Mariano Duncan (2006-2010)[10]
Davey Lopes (2011-2015)[12]
George Lombard (2016-present)[14]

text: Third Base Coach[edit]

text:
Preston Gómez (1977-1979)[46]
Joey Amalfitano (1983-1998)[47]
Glenn Hoffman (1999-2005)[48]
Rich Donnelly (2006-2007)[10]
Larry Bowa (2008-2010)[11]
Tim Wallach (2011-2013)[12]
Lorenzo Bundy (2014-2015)[13]
Ron Roenicke (2015)[49]
Chris Woodward (2016–present)[14]

text: Bullpen Coach[edit]

text:
Carroll Beringer (1967-1972)[50]
Mark Cresse (1974-1998)[51]
Glenn Hoffman (1999)[48]
Rick Dempsey (1999-2000)[52]
Jim Lett (2001-2004)[9]
Dan Warthen (2006-2007)[10]
Ken Howell (2008-2012)[11]
Chuck Crim (2013-2015)[26]
Josh Bard (2016-present)[14]

text: Assistant Hitting Coach[edit]

text:
Jeff Pentland (2009-2010)[53]
Dave Hansen (2011)[12]
John Valentin (2013-2015)[26]
Tim Hyers (2016-present)[14]

text: Assistant Pitching Coach[edit]

text: Ken Howell (2013-2015)[26]

text: Bullpen catcher[edit]

text:
Travis Barbary (1998-2001)
Rob Flippo (2002-present)
Mike Borzello (2007-2011)
Fumi Ishibashi (2013)[54]
Steve Cilladi (2014-present)[55]

text: Other Assistant Coaches[edit]

text:
Monty Basgall (1973-1976)[1]
Ray Blades (1947-1948)[40]
Bobby Bragan (1960)[56]
Clay Bryant (1961)
Lorenzo Bundy (outfield coach, 2015)[49]
Juan Castro (quality assurance coach 2016-present)[14]
Charlie Dressen (1939-1942, 1945-1946, 1958-1959)[43]
Leo Durocher (1961-1964)[57]
Ben Egan (1925)
Freddie Fitzsimmons (1942)
Preston Gómez (1965-1968)[46]
Jesse Haines (1938)
Roy Hartsfield (1969-1972)
Ray Hayworth (1945)
Andy High (1937-1938)
Joe Kelley (1926)[58][59]
Bill Killefer (1939)
Tommy Lasorda (1973-1976)[60]
Cookie Lavagetto (1951-1953)[61]
Joe McGinnity (1926)[58][59]
Otto Miller (1926-1936)[58][59][62]
Manny Mota (1990-2013)[5]
Ivy Olson (1924, 1930-1931)
Danny Ozark (1965-1972, 1980-1982)
Pee Wee Reese (1959)
Pete Reiser (1960-1964)
Ron Roenicke (1992-1993)[63]
Bill Russell (1987-1989, 1991)[3]
Babe Ruth (1938)
Casey Stengel (1932-1933, 1949-1950)
Zack Taylor (1935)
Ben Tincup (1940)
Rube Walker (1958)
Steve Yeager (catching instructor, 2012-present)


document_title: Matter (philosophy)

question_text: held that all matter is made of four elements earth air fire and water

root

text: Matter (philosophy)

text: Ancient Greek philosophy[edit]

text: In ancient Greek philosophy, arche (ἀρχή) is the beginning or the first principle of the world. Thales of Miletus claimed that the first principle of all things is water. His theory was supported by the observation of moisture throughout the world and coincided with his theory that the earth floated on water.

tag: p

text: Thales's theory was refuted by his pupil and successor, Anaximander. Anaximander noted that water could not be the arche because it could not give rise to its opposite, fire. Anaximander claimed that none of the elements (earth, fire, air, water) could be arche for the same reason. Instead, he proposed the existence of the apeiron, an indefinite substance from which all things are born and to which all things will return.

text: Anaximenes, Anaximander's pupil, advanced yet another theory. He returns to the elemental theory, but this time posits air, rather than water, as the arche. Anaximenes suggests that all is made from air through either rarefication or condensation (thinning or thickening). Rarefied, air becomes fire; condensed, it becomes first wind, then cloud, water, earth, and stone in order.

text: Pythagoras of Samos, a mathematician, mystic, and scientist, taught that number, rather than matter, constitutes the true nature of things. He seems to have influenced Socrates' ideal form.

text: Heraclitus held that all is flux. In such a system there is no need for or possibility of matter. Leucippus held that there exist indivisible particles, atoms, underlying existence.

text: Empedocles held that there are four elements, from which things are derived, Earth, Water, Fire and Air. Some added a fifth element, the Aether, from which the heavens were derived. Socrates accepted (or at least did not reject) that list, as seen from Plato's Timaeus, which identified the five elements with the Platonic solids. Earth was associated with the cube, air with the octahedron, water with the icosahedron, fire with the tetrahedron, and the heavens with the dodecahedron.

text: Aristotle, rejecting the atomic theory, instead analyzed the four terrestrial elements with the sense of touch:

text:
Air is primarily wet and secondarily hot.
Fire is primarily hot and secondarily dry.
Earth is primarily dry and secondarily cold.
Water is primarily cold and secondarily wet.

text: He developed Socrates' ideal form into a theory which aimed to explain existence through the composition of matter and form. He conceived of matter as a passive possibility that something might be actualized by an active principle, a substantial form, giving it real existence. The theory of matter and form came to be known as Hylomorphism.

text: Aristotle's ideas had little impact on the ancient world. The rise of Stoicism represented the return to earlier ideas. Their categories were an attempt to explain all existence without reference to anything incorporeal.

text: Philo held that matter is the basis of evil.

text: Plotinus revived the ideas of Plato and Aristotle. Many Christians, such as Augustine of Hippo, accepted Plotinus as the greatest of the pagan philosophers. Parts of Plotinus' Six Enneads were translated into Arabic as the Theology of Aristotle, leading to a blossoming of Aristotle's philosophy in the Islamic world. This Islamic version of Aristotle eventually reached the University of Paris and the attention of Scholastic philosophy, and the work of Thomas Aquinas.

text: Modern science[edit]

text: From a philosophical viewpoint, the term "matter" still is used to distinguish the material aspects of the universe from those of the spirit.[2] The rise of modern chemistry and physics marked a return to the atomic theories of Leucippus. Quantum physics and Relativity however, complicate the picture through the identification of matter and energy, particle and wave.


document_title: Data Protection Act 1998

question_text: who regulates the data protection act in the uk

text: Data Protection Act 1998

text: Background[edit]

text: The 1998 Act replaced the Data Protection Act 1984 and the Access to Personal Files Act 1987 and implemented the EU Data Protection Directive 1995.

text: The Privacy and Electronic Communications (EC Directive) Regulations 2003 altered the consent requirement for most electronic marketing to "positive consent" such as an opt in box. Exemptions remain for the marketing of "similar products and services" to existing customers and enquirers, which can still be given permission on an opt out basis.

text: The Jersey data protection law was modelled on the UK law.[2]

text: Contents[edit]

text: Scope of protection[edit]

text: Section 1 defines "personal data" as any data that can be used to identify a living individual. Anonymised or aggregated data is less regulated by the Act, providing the anonymisation or aggregation has not been done in a reversible way. Individuals can be identified by various means including their name and address, telephone number or email address. The Act applies only to data which is held, or intended to be held, on computers ('equipment operating automatically in response to instructions given for that purpose'), or held in a 'relevant filing system'.[3]

text: In some cases a paper address book can be classified as a 'relevant filing system' for example diaries used to support commercial activities, such as a salesperson's diary.[clarification needed]

text: The Freedom of Information Act 2000 modified the act for public bodies and authorities, and the Durant case modified the interpretation of the act by providing case law and precedent.[4]

text: A person who has their data processed has the following rights:[5][6]

text:
under section 7, to view the data an organisation holds on them for a reasonable fee: the maximum fee is £2 for requests to credit reference agencies, £50 for health and educational request, and £10 per individual otherwise,[7]
under section 14, request that incorrect information be corrected. If the company ignores the request, a court can order the data to be corrected or destroyed, and in some cases compensation can be awarded.[8]
under section 10, require that data is not used in any way that may potentially cause damage or distress.[9]
under section 11, require that their data is not used for direct marketing.[10]

text: Data protection principles[edit]

text: Schedule 1 lists eight "data protection principles".

text:
Personal data shall be processed fairly and lawfully and, in particular, shall not be processed unless:

at least one of the conditions in Schedule 2 is met, and
in the case of sensitive personal data, at least one of the conditions in Schedule 3 is also met.

Personal data shall be obtained only for one or more specified and lawful purposes, and shall not be further processed in any manner incompatible with that purpose or those purposes.
Personal data shall be adequate, relevant and not excessive in relation to the purpose or purposes for which they are processed.
Personal data shall be accurate and, where necessary, kept up to date.
Personal data processed for any purpose or purposes shall not be kept for longer than is necessary for that purpose or those purposes.
About the rights of individuals e.g.[11] personal data shall be processed in accordance with the rights of data subjects (individuals).
Appropriate technical and organisational measures shall be taken against unauthorised or unlawful processing of personal data and against accidental loss or destruction of, or damage to, personal data.
Personal data shall not be transferred to a country or territory outside the European Economic Area unless that country or territory ensures an adequate level of protection for the rights and freedoms of data subjects in relation to the processing of personal data.

tag: ol

text: Personal data should only be processed fairly and lawfully. In order for data to be classed as 'fairly processed', at least one of these six conditions must be applicable to that data (Schedule 2).

text:
The data subject (the person whose data is stored) has consented ("given their permission") to the processing;
Processing is necessary for the performance of, or commencing, a contract;
Processing is required under a legal obligation (other than one stated in the contract);
Processing is necessary to protect the vital interests of the data subject;
Processing is necessary to carry out any public functions;
Processing is necessary in order to pursue the legitimate interests of the "data controller" or "third parties" (unless it could unjustifiably prejudice the interests of the data subject).[12]

text: Except under the below mentioned exceptions, the individual needs to consent to the collection of their personal information and its use in the purpose(s) in question. The European Data Protection Directive defines consent as “…any freely given specific and informed indication of his wishes by which the data subject signifies his agreement to personal data relating to him being processed”, meaning the individual may signify agreement other than in writing. However, non-communication should not be interpreted as consent.

text: Additionally, consent should be appropriate to the age and capacity of the individual and other circumstances of the case. E.g., if an organisation "intends to continue to hold or use personal data after the relationship with the individual ends, then the consent should cover this." And even when consent is given, it shouldn't be assumed to last forever. Although in most cases consent lasts for as long as the personal data needs to be processed, individuals may be able to withdraw their consent, depending on the nature of the consent and the circumstances in which the personal information is being collected and used.[13]

text: The Data Protection Act also specifies that sensitive personal data must be processed according to a stricter set of conditions, in particular any consent must be explicit.[13]

text: Exceptions[edit]

text: The Act is structured such that all processing of personal data is covered by the act, while providing a number of exceptions in Part IV.[1] Notable exceptions are:

text:
Section 28 – National security. Any processing for the purpose of safeguarding national security is exempt from all the data protection principles, as well as Part II (subject access rights), Part III (notification), Part V (enforcement), and Section 55 (Unlawful obtaining of personal data).
Section 29 – Crime and taxation. Data processed for the prevention or detection of crime, the apprehension or prosecution of offenders, or the assessment or collection of taxes are exempt from the first data protection principle.
Section 36 – Domestic purposes. Processing by an individual only for the purposes of that individual's personal, family or household affairs is exempt from all the data protection principles, as well as Part II (subject access rights) and Part III (notification).

text: Police and court powers[edit]

text: The Act grants or acknowledges various police and court powers.

text:
Section 29 – Consent of the Data Subject is not required when processing Personal Data to prevent or detect crime, apprehend or prosecute offenders, the assessment and collection of taxes and duties and to discharge a statutory function.[14]
Section 35 – Disclosures required by law or made in connection with legal proceedings. This includes obeying court orders, other laws and are part of legal proceedings.[15]

text: Offences[edit]

text: The Act details a number of civil and criminal offences for which data controllers may be liable if a data controller has failed to gain appropriate consent from a data subject. However, 'consent' is not specifically defined in the Act and so is a common law matter.

text:
Section 21(1) makes it an offence to process personal information without registration.[16]
Section 21(2) makes it an offence to fail to comply with the notification regulations made by the Secretary of State[16] (proposed by the Information Commissioner under section 25 of the Act).[17]
Section 55 makes unlawful obtaining of personal data. This section makes it an offence for people (Other Parties), such as hackers and impersonators, outside the organisation to obtain unauthorised access to the personal data.[18]
Section 56 makes it a criminal offence to require an individual to make a Subject Access Request relating to cautions or convictions for the purposes of recruitment, continued employment, or the provision of services.[19] This section came into force on 10 March 2015.[20]

text: Complexity[edit]

text: The UK Data Protection Act is a large Act that has a reputation for complexity.[21] While the basic principles are honoured for protecting privacy, interpreting the act is not always simple. Many companies, organisations and individuals seem very unsure of the aims, content and principles of the Act. Some hide behind the Act and refuse to provide even very basic, publicly available material quoting the Act as a restriction.[22] The Act also impacts on the way in which organisations conduct business in terms of who can be contacted for marketing purposes, not only by telephone and direct mail but also electronically and has led to the development of permission based marketing strategies.

text: Definition of personal data[edit]

text: The definition of personal data is data relating to a living individual who can be identified

text:
from that data or
from that data and other information in the possession of, or is likely to come into the possession of, the data controller

text: Sensitive personal data concerns the subject's race, ethnicity, politics, religion, trade union status, health, sex life or criminal record.[23]

text: Subject Access Requests[edit]

text: The Information Commissioner's Office website states[24]:

text:
You have the right to get a copy of the information that is held about you. This is known as a subject access request.
This right of subject access means that you can make a request under the Data Protection Act to any organisation processing your personal data. The Act calls these organisations ‘data controllers’.
You can ask the organisation you think is holding, using or sharing the personal information you want, to supply you with copies of both paper and computer records and related information.

tag: div

text: Organisations may charge a fee for responding to a subject access request of up to[24]:

text:
£2 if it is a request to a credit reference agency for information about your financial standing
£50 for health records that are not available in electronic form or only partially available in electronic form
£10 in all other circumstances

text: Information Commissioner[edit]

text: Compliance with the Act is regulated and enforced by an independent authority, the Information Commissioner's Office, which maintains guidance relating to the Act.[25][26]


document_title: Nainital

question_text: in which year there was a heavy landslide in nainital

text: Nainital

text: Geography and climate[edit]

text: Nainital is located at 29°23′N 79°27′E / 29.38°N 79.45°E / 29.38; 79.45.[2] The slopes of the nearby mountains are most populated, with an elevation ranging from 1,940–2,100 m (6,360–6,890 ft). The highest point nearby is Naina Peak or China Peak, with an elevation of 2,619 m (8,593 ft).

text: Nainital experiences subtropical highland climate (Cwb) according to Köppen–Geiger climate classification system as the city's climate is influenced by the elevation. The city is a bit dry during winter and very wet during summer due to South Asian monsoon system. The lowest precipitation total occurs in November with total 7.9 millimetres (0.31 in), while the highest precipitation total occurs in July with total 725 millimetres (28.5 in). Like most places in temperate region, Nainital has relative cool summer. The hottest month is July with temperature ranging from 16.4 °C (61.5 °F) to 23.5 °C (74.3 °F), while the coldest month is January with temperature ranging from 1.7 °C (35.1 °F) to 10.7 °C (51.3 °F).

text: Nainital is said to be one the best shining diamonds of Himalayan Belt. This city has 3 major lakes that contribute to make it cool and calm throughout the year.

text:
[hide]Climate data for Nainital (1953-1979)

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Average high °C (°F)
10.7
(51.3)
12.3
(54.1)
16.3
(61.3)
20.8
(69.4)
23.5
(74.3)
23.5
(74.3)
21.6
(70.9)
21.0
(69.8)
20.7
(69.3)
18.7
(65.7)
15.4
(59.7)
12.9
(55.2)
18.1
(64.6)

Average low °C (°F)
1.7
(35.1)
3.5
(38.3)
7.5
(45.5)
11.9
(53.4)
14.6
(58.3)
16.4
(61.5)
16.5
(61.7)
16.0
(60.8)
14.1
(57.4)
9.7
(49.5)
5.7
(42.3)
3.1
(37.6)
10.1
(50.2)

Average precipitation mm (inches)
80.3
(3.161)
60.4
(2.378)
55.7
(2.193)
33.7
(1.327)
73.8
(2.906)
327.5
(12.894)
725.0
(28.543)
553.4
(21.787)
385.0
(15.157)
135.4
(5.331)
7.9
(0.311)
27.6
(1.087)
2,465.7
(97.075)

Source: India Meteorological Department[3]

tag: table

text: Demographics[edit]

text: As of the 2011 Indian census, Nainital had a population of 41,377.[4] Males constitute 52.3% of the population and females 47.7%. In 2011, Nainital had an average literacy rate of 92.93%, higher than the Uttarakhand state average of 78.82%.[4] In Nainital, 9.54% of the population is under 6 years of age. Kumaoni people form the major part of the town's population along with people from all over India.

text: Mythology[edit]

text: It is believed that the Naini Lake is one of the 64 Shakti Peeths, or religious sites where parts of the charred body of Sati (Parvati) fell on earth while being carried by Lord Shiva.[5] The spot where Sati's eyes (or Nain) fell, came to be called Nain-tal or lake of the eye. The goddess Shakti is worshiped at the Naina Devi Temple, known by locals as Naini Mata Temple on the north shore of the present day lake.[6]

text: History[edit]

text: Early construction[edit]

text: The Kumaon Hills came under British rule after the Anglo-Nepalese War (1814–16). The hill station town of Naini Tal was founded only in 1841, with the construction of the first European house (Pilgrim Lodge) by P. Barron, a sugar trader from Shahjahanpur. In his memoir, he wrote: "It is by far the best site I have witnessed in the course of a 1,500 miles (2,400 km) trek in the Himalayas."[7] In 1846, when a Captain Madden of the Bengal Artillery visited Naini Tal, he recorded that "houses were rapidly springing up in most parts of the settlement: some towards the crest of the military ranges were nearly 7,500 ft (2,300 m) above sea level: the rugged and woody Anyarpatta Aashish (Anyar-patt – in Kumaoni means – complete blackout. The reason for this nomenclature by the locals was because there were minimal sun rays due to its location and dense forests) was being gradually planted and that the favourite sites were on the undulating tract of forest land which stretched back from the head of the lake to the base of China and Deopatta (Camel's Hump). The church, St. John in the Wilderness, was one of the earliest buildings in Nainital, followed by Belvedere, Alma lodge, Ashdale Cottage(1860)..."[8] Soon, the town became a health resort favoured by British soldiers and by colonial officials and their families trying to escape the heat of the plains. Later, the town became the summer residence of the governor of the United Provinces.

text: The landslip of 1880[edit]

text: In September 1880 a landslide ('the landslip of 1880') occurred at the north end of the town, burying 151 people. The first known landslide had occurred in 1866, and in 1879 there was a larger one at the same spot, Alma Hill, but "the great slip occurred in the following year, on Saturday 18 September 1880."[8]

text: "Two days preceding the slip there was heavy rain, ... 20 inches (510 mm) to 35 in (890 mm) fell during the 40 hours ending on Saturday morning, and the downpour still lasted and continued for hours after the slip. This heavy fall naturally brought down streams of water from the hill side, some endangering the Victoria Hotel, ... (which) was not the only building threatened ... Bell's shop, the Volunteer Orderly Room and the Hindu (Naina Devi) temple were scenes of labour with a view to diverting streams. At a quarter to two the landslip occurred burying those in and around the buildings mentioned above."[8]

text: The number of dead and missing were 108 Indian and 43 British nationals. (See poem by Hannah Battersby on the page Literary references to Nainital.) The Assembly Rooms and the Naina Devi Temple were destroyed in the disaster. A recreation area known as 'The Flats' was later built on the site and a new temple was erected. To prevent further disasters, storm water drains were constructed and building bylaws were made stricter.

text: In the latter half of the 19th century a number of "European" schools for boys and girls were founded in Nainital. During the Victorian and Edwardian eras, students in these schools consisted largely of children of the British colonial officials or soldiers. The Diocesan Girls' High School, now known as All Saints' College, was established in 1869, near where the High Court of Uttarakhand stands today. By 1906, there were over half a dozen such schools,[8] including the Diocesan Boys' School (later renamed Sherwood College) and the Philander Smith's college (later renamed Halett War School, currently Birla Vidya Mandir).

text: St. Joseph's College, Nainital (popularly known as SEM), a day-boarding and residential school built by Irish brothers[citation needed] in 1888, celebrated its 125th anniversary in 2013. Another important school for girls, St. Mary's Convent High School, Nainital(popularly known as Ramnee), was established in 1878, and celebrated its 125th anniversary in year 2003.

text: Famous Landmarks[9][edit]

text: A popular hill station, Nainital has numerous tourist spots:

text:
Nainital Lake
Naini Peak
Tiffin Top
Snowview Point
Gurney House
Naina Devi Temple
Cave Garden
Sat Tal
Hanumangarhi
Mall Road
Pt. G.B. Pant High Altitude Zoo, Nainital
Tibetan Market

text: Libraries[edit]

text: There are a number of libraries in the Nainital area. Among them are the Durga Lal Shah Municipal Public Library on the Mall, founded in 1934,[10] the Uttarakhand Academy of Administration, Library and Documentation Center, Mallital,[11] the ARIES Observatory Library,[12] and the Kumaon University Library, Nainital.[13]

text: Famous people[edit]

text:
Elsie Inglis, physician and social reformer
Jim Corbett, hunter of man-eating tigers, author, conservationist and namesake of Jim Corbett National Park. Educated at St. Joseph's College.
Govind Ballabh Pant, statesman and leader of India's independence movement, first Indian Premier of British India, the first Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh and the third Home Minister of India
Sam Manekshaw, Indian Army Chief of Staff during Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. Educated at Sherwood College.
Som Nath Sharma, India's first Param Vir Chakra award winner. Educated at Sherwood College.

Naini lake night view from mall road

Krishna Chandra Pant, former Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission of India. Educated at St. Joseph's College.
Rajendra K. Pachauri, chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Sudhir Kakar, renowned psychoanalyst
Shivani, Hindi poet
Anup Jalota, singer
Lalet Bist, Film Director
Sukirti Kandpal, TV actress
Amitabh Bachchan, Bollywood actor. Educated at Sherwood College.
Naseeruddin Shah, Bollywood actor. Educated at St. Joseph's College.
Kabir Bedi, Bollywood Actor. Educated at Sherwood College.

A view of the Nainital town, 1885

Danny Denzongpa, Bollywood actor studied in Birla Vidya Mandir
Nirmal Pandey, Bollywood actor and singer
Dilip Tahil, Bollywood actor. Educated at Sherwood College.
Manish Pandey, cricketer who plays for Karnataka and Bangalore
Eric Maturin, British actor
Lalit Modi, Indian Premier League (IPL) chairman. Educated at St. Joseph's College.
Narayan Dutt Tiwari, Indian leader and politician, former Governor of Andhra Pradesh, former Chief Minister of Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh, and former Finance Minister of India.
Hastings Ismay, 1st Baron Ismay, first secretary general of NATO
Percy Hobart, British major general and military engineer
Orde Charles Wingate, British general and commander of the Chindits in Burma during World War II

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Panoramic view of Nainital from Naini Lake

Nainital overview

Urban Areas

The Mall Road, 2006.

Ramlila Bhawan, Mallital, Nainital.

A view from Hotel Naini Retreat's Balcony.

Naini Lake after snowfall (2007)

Nainital lake in the morning

Nainital in May 2011

Yachts in Naini Lake in March 2011

Nainital Lake in 2009.

Statue of Govind Ballabh Pant, at Mall Road, Nainital.

Golu Devta temple, at Ghorakhal near Nainital.

Naini Lake

Boats on the Lake.

Gurney House-the home of Jim Corbett

A Bear in the Pt. G B Pant High Altitude Zoo, Nainital.

Naina Devi Temple, after which the place gets its name.


document_title: Generation X

question_text: where did the term generation x come from

text: Generation X

text: Origin of term

text: The term "Generation X" has been used at various times throughout history to describe alienated youth. In the 1950s, Hungarian photographer Robert Capa used Generation X as the title for a photo-essay about young men and women growing up immediately following World War II.[1] In 1976, English musician Billy Idol used the moniker as the name for a punk rock band,[2] based on the title of a 1965 book on popular youth culture by two British journalists, Jane Deverson and Charles Hamblett.[3]

text: The term acquired its modern definition after the release of Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture, a 1991 novel written by Canadian author Douglas Coupland. Demographer Neil Howe noted the delay in naming this demographic cohort saying, "Over 30 years after their birthday, they didn't have a name. I think that's germane." Previously, the cohort had been referred to as Post-Boomers, Baby Busters, New Lost Generation, latchkey kids, MTV Generation, and the 13th Generation (the 13th generation since American independence).[2][4][5][6][7]

text: Demographer William Strauss observed that Coupland applied the term to older members of the cohort born between 1961 and 1964, who were sometimes told by demographers that they were baby boomers, but who did not feel like boomers. Strauss also noted that around the time Coupland's 1991 novel was published the symbol "X" was prominent in popular culture, as the film Malcolm X was released in 1992, and that the name "Generation X" ended up sticking. The "X" refers to an unknown variable or to a desire not to be defined.[4][8][9]

text: Birth dates

text: Generation X is the demographic cohort following the post–World War II baby boom, representing a generational change from the baby boomers, but there is debate over what this means because the end date of the baby boomer generation is disputed. Research from MetLife examining the boomers split their cohort into "older boomers", which they defined as born between 1946 and 1955, and "younger boomers", which they defined as born between 1956 and 1964. They found much of the cultural identity of the baby boomer generation is associated with the "older boomers", while half of the "younger boomers" were averse to being associated with the baby boomer cohort and a third of those born between 1956 and 1964 actively identified as members of Generation X.[10]

text: Demographers William Strauss and Neil Howe rejected the frequently used 1964 end date of the baby boomer cohort (which results in a 1965 start year for Generation X), saying that a majority of those born between 1961 and 1964 do not self-identify as boomers, and that they are culturally distinct from boomers in terms of shared historical experiences. Howe says that while many demographers use 1965 as a start date for Generation X, this is a statement about fertility in the population (birth rates which began declining in 1957, declined more sharply following 1964) and fails to take into consideration the shared history and cultural identity of the individuals. Strauss and Howe define Generation X as those born between 1961 and 1981.[11][12][13][14]

text: Many researchers and demographers continue to use dates which correspond to the strict fertility patterns in the population, which results in a Generation X starting date of 1965, such as Pew Research Center which uses a range of 1965–1980,[15] MetLife which uses 1965–1976,[4] Australia's McCrindle Research Center which uses 1965–1979,[16] and Gallup which also uses 1965–1979.[17]

text: Others use dates similar to Strauss and Howe's such as the National Science Foundation's  Generation X Report, a quarterly research report from The Longitudinal Study of American Youth, which defines Generation X as those born between 1961 and 1981.[18] Generation X, a six-part 2016 documentary series produced by National Geographic also uses a 1961–1981 birth year range.[19][20] PricewaterhouseCoopers, a multinational professional services network headquartered in London, describes Generation X employees as those born from the early 1960s to the early 1980s.[21]

text: Author Jeff Gordinier, in his 2008 book X Saves the World, defines Generation X as those born roughly between 1961 and 1977 but possibly as late as 1980.[22] Canadian author and professor David Foot divides the post-boomer generation into two groups: Generation X, born between 1960 and 1966; and the "Bust Generation", born between 1967 and 1979, In his book Boom Bust & Echo: How to Profit from the Coming Demographic Shift.[23][24] On the American television program Survivor, for their 33rd season, subtitled Millennials vs. Gen X, the "Gen X tribe" consisted of individuals born between 1963 and 1982.[25]

text: Other demographers and researchers use a wide range of dates to describe Generation X, with the beginning birth year ranging from as early as 1960[26][27] to as late as 1965,[16] and with the final birth year ranging from as early as 1976[28] to as late as 1984.[29][30] Due in part to the frequent birth-year overlap and resulting incongruence existing between attempts to define Generation X and Millennials, a number of individuals born in the late 1970s or early 1980s see themselves as being on the cusp "between" the two generations.[31][32][33][34] Names given to those born on the Generation X/Millennial cusp years include Xennials, The Lucky Ones, Generation Catalano, and the Oregon Trail Generation.[34][35][36][37][38]

text: Demographics

text: United States

text: A 2010 Census report counted approximately 84 million people living in the U.S. who are defined by birth years ranging from the early 1960s to the early 80s.[39] In a 2012 article for the Joint Center for Housing Studies of Harvard University, George Masnick wrote that the "Census counted 82.1 million" Gen Xers in the U.S. The Harvard Center uses 1965 to 1984 to define Gen X so that Boomers, Xers, and Millennials "cover equal 20-year age spans".[29] Masnick concluded that immigration filled in any birth year deficits during low fertility years of the late 1960s and early 1970s.[29]

text: Jon Miller at the Longitudinal Study of American Youth at the University of Michigan wrote that "Generation X refers to adults born between 1961 and 1981" and it "includes 84 million people".[40]

text: In their 1991 book "Generations" authors and demographers Neil Howe and William Strauss, used 1961 to 1981 for Gen X birth years. At the time it was published they wrote that there are approximately 88.5 million U.S. Gen Xers.[41]

text: The birth control pill, introduced in the early 1960s, was one contributing factor of declining birth rates seen in the late 1960s and 70s. However, increased immigration partially offset declining birth rates and contributed to making Generation X an ethnically and culturally diverse demographic cohort.[2][30]

text: As children and adolescents

text: Demographers William Strauss and Neil Howe, who authored several books on generations, including the 1993 book, 13th Gen: Abort, Retry, Ignore, Fail?, specifically on Generation X reported that Gen Xers were children at a time when society was less focused on children and more focused on adults.[13]  Gen Xers were children during a time of increasing divorce rates, with divorce rates doubling in the mid-1960s, before peaking in 1980.[2][42][43] Strauss and Howe described a cultural shift where the long-held societal value of staying together for the sake of the children was replaced with a societal value of parental and individual self-actualization. Strauss wrote that society "moved from what Leslie Fiedler called a 1950s-era 'cult of the child' to what Landon Jones called a 1970s-era 'cult of the adult'."[13][44] The Generation Map, a report from Australia's McCrindle Research Center writes of Gen X children: "their Boomer parents were the most divorced generation in Australian history".[45]

text: The Gen X childhood coincided with the sexual revolution, which Susan Gregory Thomas described in her book In Spite of Everything as confusing and frightening for children in cases where a parent would bring new sexual partners into their home. Thomas also discussed how divorce was different during the Gen X childhood, with the child having a limited or severed relationship with one parent following divorce, often the father, due to differing societal and legal expectations. In the 1970s, only 9 U.S states allowed for joint custody of children, which has since been adopted by all 50 states following a push for joint custody during the mid-1980s.[46][47]

text: The time period of the Gen X childhood saw an increase in latchkey children, leading to the terminology of the "latchkey generation" for Generation X.[48][49][50]  These latchkey children lacked adult supervision in the hours between the end of the school day and when a parent returned home from work in the evening, and for longer periods of time during the summer. Latchkey children became common among all socioeconomic demographics, but were particularly common among middle and upper class children. The higher the educational attainment of the parents, the higher the odds the children of this time would be latchkey children, due to increased maternal participation in the workforce at a time before childcare options outside the home were widely available.[49][51][52][53][54][55] McCrindle Research Center described the cohort as "the first to grow up without a large adult presence, with both parents working", stating this led to Gen Xers being more peer-oriented than previous generations.[45]

text:
The United Kingdom's Economic and Social Research Council described Generation X as "Thatcher's children" because the cohort grew up while Margaret Thatcher was Prime Minister from 1979 to 1990, "a time of social flux and transformation".[56]
In South Africa, Gen Xers spent their formative years of the 1980s during the "hyper-politicized environment of the final years of apartheid".[57] In the US, Generation X was the first cohort to grow up post-integration. They were described in a marketing report by Specialty Retail as the kids who "lived the civil rights movement." They were among the first children to be bused to attain integration in the public school system. In the 1990s, Strauss reported Gen Xers were "by any measure the least racist of today's generations".[58][59] In the US, Title IX, which passed in 1972, provided increased athletic opportunities to Gen X girls in the public school setting.[60] In Russia, Generation Xers are referred to as "the last Soviet children", as the last children to come of age prior to the downfall of communism in their nation and prior to the fall of the Soviet Union.[16]

text: Politically, in the United States, the Gen X childhood coincided with a time when government funding tended to be diverted away from programs for children and often instead directed toward the elderly population, with cuts to Medicaid and programs for children and young families, and protection and expansion of Medicare and Social Security for the elderly population. One in five American children grew up in poverty during this time. These programs for the elderly were not tied to economic need. Congressman David Durenberger criticized this political situation, stating that while programs for poor children and for young families were cut, the government provided "free health care to elderly millionaires".[58][61]

text: Gen Xers came of age or were children during the crack epidemic, which disproportionately impacted urban areas and also the African-American community in the US. Drug turf battles increased violent crime, and crack addiction impacted communities and families. Between 1984 and 1989, the homicide rate for black males aged 14 to 17 doubled in the US, and the homicide rate for black males aged 18 to 24 increased almost as much. The crack epidemic had a destabilizing impact on families with an increase in the number of children in foster care.[62][63] Generation X was the first cohort to come of age with MTV and are sometimes called the MTV Generation.[64][65] They experienced the emergence of music videos, grunge, alternative rock and hip hop.[66]

text: The emergence of AIDS coincided with Gen X's adolescence, with the disease first clinically observed in the United States in 1981. By 1985, an estimated one to two million Americans were HIV positive. As the virus spread, at a time before effective treatments were available, a public panic ensued. Sex education programs in schools were adapted to address the AIDS epidemic which taught Gen X students that sex could kill you.[67][68] Gen Xers were the first children to have access to computers in their homes and schools.[45] Generally, Gen Xers are the children of the Silent Generation and older Baby Boomers.[22][45]

text: As young adults

text: In the 1990s, media pundits and advertisers struggled to define the cohort, typically portraying them as "unfocused twentysomethings". A MetLife report noted: "media would portray them as the Friends generation: rather self-involved and perhaps aimless...but fun." [64][69] In France, Gen Xers were sometimes referred to as 'Génération Bof' because of their tendency to use the word 'bof', which translated into English means 'whatever".[16] Gen Xers were often portrayed as apathetic or as "slackers", a stereotype which was initially tied to Richard Linklater's comedic and essentially plotless 1991 film Slacker. After the film was released, "journalists and critics thought they put a finger on what was different about these young adults in that 'they were reluctant to grow up' and 'disdainful of earnest action'."[69][70]

text: Stereotypes of Gen X young adults also included that they were "bleak, cynical, and disaffected". Such stereotypes prompted sociological research at Stanford University to study the accuracy of the characterization of Gen X young adults as cynical and disaffected. Using the national General Social Survey, the researchers compared answers to identical survey questions asked of 18–29-year-olds in three different time periods. Additionally, they compared how older adults answered the same survey questions over time. The surveys showed 18–29-year-old Gen Xers did exhibit higher levels of cynicism and disaffection than previous cohorts of 18–29-year-olds surveyed; however, they also found that cynicism and disaffection had increased among all age groups surveyed over time, not just young adults, making this a period effect, not a cohort effect. In other words, adults of all ages were more cynical and disaffected in the 1990s, not just Generation X.[71][72]

text: In 1990, Time magazine published an article titled "Living: Proceeding with Caution", which described those in their 20s as aimless and unfocused; however, in 1997, they published an article titled "Generation X Reconsidered", which retracted the previously reported negative stereotypes and reported positive accomplishments, citing Gen Xers' tendency to found technology start-ups and small businesses as well as Gen Xers' ambition, which research showed was higher among Gen X young adults than older generations.[69][73][74] As the 1990s and 2000s progressed, Gen X gained a reputation for entrepreneurship. In 1999, The New York Times dubbed them "Generation 1099", describing them as the "once pitied but now envied group of self-employed workers whose income is reported to the Internal Revenue Service not on a W-2 form, but on Form 1099".[75] In 2002, Time magazine published an article titled Gen Xers Aren't Slackers After All, reporting four out of five new businesses were the work of Gen Xers.[59][76]

text: In 2001, sociologist Mike Males reported confidence and optimism common among the cohort saying "surveys consistently find 80% to 90% of Gen Xers self-confident and optimistic."[77] In August 2001, Males wrote "these young Americans should finally get the recognition they deserve", praising the cohort and stating that "the permissively raised, universally deplored Generation X is the true 'great generation,' for it has braved a hostile social climate to reverse abysmal trends", describing them as the hardest-working group since the World War II generation, which was dubbed by Tom Brokaw as "The Greatest Generation". He reported Gen Xers' entrepreneurial tendencies helped create the high-tech industry that fueled the 1990s economic recovery.[77][78]

text: In the US, Gen Xers were described as the major heroes of the September 11 terrorist attacks by demographer William Strauss. The firefighters and police responding to the attacks were predominantly Generation Xers. Additionally, the leaders of the passenger revolt on United Airlines Flight 93 were predominantly Gen Xers.[73][79][80] Demographer Neil Howe reported survey data showed Gen Xers were cohabitating and getting married in increasing numbers following the terrorists attacks, with Gen X survey respondents reporting they no longer wanted to live alone.[81] In October 2001, Seattle Post-Intelligencer wrote of Generation Xers: "now they could be facing the most formative events of their lives and their generation".[82] The Greensboro News & Record reported Gen Xers "felt a surge of patriotism since terrorists struck" reporting many were responding to the crisis of the terrorist attacks by giving blood, working for charities, donating to charities, and by joining the military to fight The War on Terror.[83] The Jury Expert, a publication of The American Society of Trial Consultants, reported: "Gen X members responded to the terrorist attacks with bursts of patriotism and national fervor that surprised even themselves".[73]

text: In midlife

text: Guides regarding managing multiple generations in the workforce describe Gen Xers as: independent, resourceful, self-managing, adaptable, cynical, pragmatic, skeptical of authority, and as seeking a work life balance.[64][84][85][86] In a 2007 article published in the Harvard Business Review, demographers Strauss & Howe wrote of Generation X; "They are already the greatest entrepreneurial generation in U.S. history; their high-tech savvy and marketplace resilience have helped America prosper in the era of globalization."[87] In the 2008 book, X Saves the World: How Generation X Got the Shaft but Can Still Keep Everything from Sucking, author Jeff Gordinier describes Generation X as a "dark horse demographic" which "doesn't seek the limelight". Gordiner cited examples of Gen Xers' contributions to society such as: Google, Wikipedia, Amazon.com and YouTube, arguing if Boomers had created them, "we'd never hear the end of it". In the book, Gordinier contrasts Gen Xers to Baby Boomers, saying Boomers tend to trumpet their accomplishments more than Gen Xers do, creating what he describes as "elaborate mythologies" around their achievements. Gordiner cites Steve Jobs as an example, while Gen Xers, he argues, are more likely to "just quietly do their thing".[22][88]

text: In 2011, survey analysis from the Longitudinal Study of American Youth found Gen Xers to be "balanced, active, and happy" in midlife (between ages of 30 and 50) and as achieving a work-life balance. The Longitudinal Study of Youth is an NIH-NIA funded study by the University of Michigan which has been studying Generation X since 1987. The study asked questions such as "Thinking about all aspects of your life, how happy are you? If zero means that you are very unhappy and 10 means that you are very happy, please rate your happiness." LSA reported that "mean level of happiness was 7.5 and the median (middle score) was 8. Only four percent of Generation X adults indicated a great deal of unhappiness (a score of three or lower). Twenty-nine percent of Generation X adults were very happy with a score of 9 or 10 on the scale."[18][89][90][91]

text: In terms of advocating for their children in the educational setting, demographer Neil Howe describes Gen X parents as distinct from Baby Boomer parents. Howe argues that Gen Xers are not helicopter parents, which Howe describes as a parenting style of Boomer parents of Millennials. Howe described Gen Xers instead as "stealth fighter parents", due to the tendency of Gen X parents to let minor issues go and to not hover over their children in the educational setting, but to intervene forcefully and swiftly in the event of more serious issues.[92] In 2012, the Corporation for National and Community Service ranked Gen X volunteer rates in the U.S. at "29.4% per year", the highest compared with other generations. The rankings were based on a three-year moving average between 2009 and 2011.[93][94]

text: In the United Kingdom, a 2016 study of over 2,500 office workers conducted by Workfront found that survey respondents of all ages selected those from Generation X as the hardest-working employees in today's workforce (chosen by 60%). Gen X was also ranked highest among fellow workers for having the strongest work ethic (chosen by 59.5%), being the most helpful (55.4%), the most skilled (54.5%), and the best troubleshooters/problem solvers (41.6%).[95][96]

text: In 2016, a global consumer insights project from Viacom International Media Networks and Viacom, based on over 12,000 respondents across 21 countries,[97] reported on Gen X's unconventional approach to sex, friendship and family,[98] their desire for flexibility and fulfillment at work[99] and the absence of midlife crisis for Gen Xers.[100] The project also included a 20 min documentary titled Gen X Today.[101] Pew Research, a nonpartisan American think tank, describes Generation X as intermediary between baby boomers and Millennials on multiple factors such as attitudes on political or social issues, educational attainment, and social media use.[102]

text: Arts and culture

text: Music

text: Gen Xers were the first cohort to come of age with MTV. They experienced the emergence of music videos and are sometimes called the MTV Generation.[64][65] Gen Xers were responsible for the alternative rock movement of the 1990s and 2000s, including the grunge subgenre.[74][103] Hip Hop and rap have also been described as defining music of the generation including: Tupac Shakur, N.W.A. and The Notorious B.I.G.[66]

text: Grunge

text: A notable example of alternative rock is grunge music and the associated subculture that developed in the Pacific Northwest of the US. Grunge song lyrics have been called the "...product of Generation X malaise".[105] Vulture commented: "the best bands arose from the boredom of latchkey kids". "People made records entirely to please themselves because there was nobody else to please" commented producer Jack Endino.[106] Grunge lyrics are typically dark, nihilistic,[107] angst-filled, anguished, and often addressing themes such as social alienation, despair and apathy.[108] The Guardian wrote that grunge "didn't recycle banal cliches but tackled weighty subjects".[109] Topics of grunge lyrics included homelessness, suicide, rape,[110] broken homes, drug addiction, self-loathing,[111] misogyny, domestic abuse and finding "meaning in an indifferent universe."[109] Grunge lyrics tended to be introspective and aimed to enable the listener to see into hidden personal issues and examine depravity in the world.[104]  Notable grunge bands include: Nirvana, Pearl Jam, Alice in Chains, Hole, Stone Temple Pilots and Soundgarden.[109][112]

text: Hip hop

text: The mainstream hip hop music made in the late 1980s and early 1990s, typically by artists originating from the New York metropolitan area.[113] was characterized by its diversity, quality, innovation and influence after the genre's emergence and establishment in the previous decade.[114][115][116][117][118] There were various types of subject matter, while the music was experimental and the sampling eclectic.[119] The artists most often associated with the period are LL Cool J, Run–D.M.C., Public Enemy, the Beastie Boys, KRS-One, Eric B. & Rakim, De La Soul, Big Daddy Kane, EPMD, A Tribe Called Quest, Slick Rick, Ultramagnetic MC's,[120] and the Jungle Brothers.[121] Releases by these acts co-existed in this period with, and were as commercially viable as, those of early gangsta rap artists such as Ice-T, Geto Boys and N.W.A, the sex raps of 2 Live Crew and Too Short, and party-oriented music by acts such as Kid 'n Play, The Fat Boys, DJ Jazzy Jeff & The Fresh Prince and MC Hammer.[122]

text:
In addition to lyrical self-glorification, hip hop was also used as a form of social protest. Lyrical content from the era often drew attention to a variety of social issues including afrocentric living, drug use, crime and violence, religion, culture, the state of the American economy, and the modern man's struggle. Conscious and political hip hop tracks of the time were a response to the effects of American capitalism and former President Reagan's conservative political economy. According to Rose Tricia, "In rap, relationships between black cultural practice, social and economic conditions, technology, sexual and racial politics, and the institution policing of the popular terrain are complex and in constant motion. Even though hip hop was used as a mechanism for different social issues it was still very complex with issues within the movement itself.[123] There was also often an emphasis on black nationalism. Hip hop artists often talked about urban poverty and the problems of alcohol, drugs, and gangs in their communities.[citation needed] Public Enemy's most influential song, "Fight the Power," came out at this time; the song speaks up to the government, proclaiming that people in the ghetto have freedom of speech and rights like every other American. One line in the song, "We got to pump the stuff to make us tough from the heart"[124]
grabbed listeners' attention and gave them motivation to speak out for themselves.[citation needed]

text: Indie films

text: Gen Xers were largely responsible for the "indie film" movement of the 1990s, both as young directors and in large part as the movie audiences fueling demand for such films.[74][103] In cinema, directors Kevin Smith, Quentin Tarantino, Sofia Coppola, John Singleton, Spike Jonze, David Fincher, Steven Soderbergh,[125][126] and Richard Linklater[127][128] have been called Generation X filmmakers. Smith is most known for his View Askewniverse films, the flagship film being Clerks, which is set in New Jersey circa 1994, and focuses on two convenience-store clerks in their twenties. Linklater's Slacker similarly explores young adult characters who were interested in philosophizing.[129] While not a member of Gen X himself, director John Hughes has been recognized as having created a series of classic films with Gen X characters which "an entire generation took ownership of," including The Breakfast Club,[130][131] Sixteen Candles, Weird Science and Ferris Bueller's Day Off.[132]

text: Economy

text: United States

text: Studies done by the Pew Charitable Trusts, the American Enterprise Institute, the Brookings Institution, the Heritage Foundation and the Urban Institute challenged the notion that each generation will be better off than the one that preceded it.[133][134][135]

text: Workforce participation and income

text: A report titled Economic Mobility: Is the American Dream Alive and Well? focused on the income of males 30–39 in 2004 (those born April 1964 – March 1974). The study was released on May 25, 2007 and emphasized that this generation's men made less (by 12%) than their fathers had at that same age in 1974, thus reversing a historical trend. It concluded that per year increases in household income generated by fathers/sons have slowed (from an average of 0.9% to 0.3%), barely keeping pace with inflation. "Family incomes have risen though (over the period 1947 to 2005) because more women have gone to work",[136][137][133][138] "supporting the incomes of men, by adding a second earner to the family. And as with male income, the trend is downward".[137][133][138]

text: Generation Flux is a neologism and psychographic designation coined by Fast Company for American employees who need to make several changes in career throughout their working lives because of the chaotic nature of the job market following the Financial crisis of 2007–08. Those in "Generation Flux" have birth years in the ranges of Gen X and Millennials.

text: Entrepreneurship

text: According to authors Michael Hais and Morley Winograd:

text: Small businesses and the entrepreneurial spirit that Gen Xers embody have become one of the most popular institutions in America. There's been a recent shift in consumer behavior and Gen Xers will join the "idealist generation" in encouraging the celebration of individual effort and business risk-taking. As a result, Xers will spark a renaissance of entrepreneurship in economic life, even as overall confidence in economic institutions declines. Customers, and their needs and wants (including Millennials) will become the North Star for an entire new generation of entrepreneurs.[139]

text: A 2015 study by Sage Group reports Gen Xers "dominate the playing field" with respect to founding startups in the United States and Canada, with Gen Xers launching the majority (55%) of all new businesses in 2015.[140][141]


document_title: Camcorder

question_text: when did the first vhs camcorder come out

text: Camcorder

text: History[edit]

text: Video cameras originally designed for television broadcast were large and heavy, mounted on special pedestals and wired to remote recorders in separate rooms. As technology improved, out-of-studio video recording was possible with compact video cameras and portable video recorders; a detachable recording unit could be carried to a shooting location. Although the camera itself was compact, the need for a separate recorder made on-location shooting a two-person job.[3] Specialized videocassette recorders were introduced by JVC (VHS) and Sony (U-matic, with Betamax) releasing a model for mobile work. Portable recorders meant that recorded video footage could be aired on the early-evening news, since it was no longer necessary to develop film.

text: In 1983, Sony released the first camcorder, the Betacam system, for professional use.[4] A key component was a single camera-recorder unit, eliminating a cable between the camera and recorder and increasing the camera operator's freedom. The Betacam used the same cassette format (0.5 inches or 1.3 centimetres tape) as the Betamax, but with a different, incompatible recording format. It became standard equipment for broadcast news.[4]

text: Sony released the first consumer camcorder in 1983, the Betamovie BMC-100P.[4] It used a Betamax cassette and rested on the operator's shoulder, due to a design not permitting a single-handed grip. That year, JVC released the first VHS-C camcorder.[3] Kodak announced a new camcorder format in 1984, the 8 mm video format.[5] Sony introduced its compact 8 mm Video8 format in 1985. That year, Panasonic, RCA and Hitachi began producing camcorders using a full-size VHS cassette with a three-hour capacity. These shoulder-mount camcorders were used by videophiles, industrial videographers and college TV studios. Full-size Super-VHS (S-VHS) camcorders were released in 1987, providing an inexpensive way to collect news segments or other videographies. Sony upgraded Video8, releasing the Hi8 in competition with S-VHS.

text: Digital technology emerged with the Sony D1, a device which recorded uncompressed data and required a large amount of bandwidth for its time. In 1992 Ampex introduced DCT, the first digital video format with data compression using the discrete cosine transform algorithm present in most commercial digital video formats. In 1995 Sony, JVC, Panasonic and other video-camera manufacturers launched DV, which became a de facto standard for home video production, independent filmmaking and citizen journalism. That year, Ikegami introduced Editcam (the first tapeless video recording system).

text: In 1995, Ikegami introduced Editcam, the first tapeless video recording system.

text: Camcorders using DVD media were popular at the turn of the 21st century due to the convenience of being able to drop a disc into the family DVD player; however, DVD capability, due to the limitations of the format, is largely limited to consumer-level equipment targeted at people who are not likely to spend any great amount of effort video editing their video footage.

text: High definition (HD)[edit]

text: Panasonic launched DVCPRO HD in 2000, expanding the DV codec to support high definition (HD). The format was intended for professional camcorders, and used full-size DVCPRO cassettes. In 2003 Sony, JVC, Canon and Sharp introduced HDV as the first affordable HD video format, due to its use of inexpensive MiniDV cassettes.

text: Tapeless[edit]

text: Sony introduced the XDCAM tapeless video format in 2003, introducing the Professional Disc (PFD). Panasonic followed in 2004 with its P2 solid state memory cards as a recording medium for DVCPRO-HD video. In 2006 Panasonic and Sony introduced AVCHD as an inexpensive, tapeless, high-definition video format. AVCHD camcorders are produced by Sony, Panasonic, Canon, JVC and Hitachi.

text: In 2010, after the success of James Cameron's 2009 3D film Avatar, full 1080p HD 3D camcorders entered the market. With the proliferation of file-based digital formats, the relationship between recording media and recording format has declined; video can be recorded onto different media. With tapeless formats, recording media are storage for digital files.

text: In 2011 Panasonic released a camcorder capable of shooting in 3D, the HDC-SDT750. It is a 2D camcorder which can shoot in HD; 3D is achieved by a detachable conversion lens. Sony released a 3D camcorder, the HDR-TD10. The Sony's 3D lens is built in, but it can shoot 2D video. Panasonic has also released 2D camcorders with an optional 3D conversion lens. The HDC-SD90, HDC-SD900, HDC-TM900 and HDC-HS900 are sold as "3D-ready": 2D camcorders, with optional 3D capability at a later date.

text: 4K Ultra HD[edit]

text: In CES (January) 2014, Sony announced the first consumer/low-end professional ("prosumer" or "consufessional") camcorder Sony FDR-AX100 with a 1" 20.9MP sensor able to shoot 4K video in 3840x2160 pixels 30fps or 24fps in the XAVC-S format; in standard HD the camcorder can also deliver 60fps. When using the traditional format AVCHD, the camcorder supports 5.1 surround sound from its built-in microphone, this is however not supported in the XAVC-S format. The camera also has a 3-step ND filter switch for maintaining a shallow depth of field or a softer appearance to motion. For one hour video shooting in 4K the camera needs about 32 GB to accommodate a data transfer rate of 50 Mbit/s. The camera's MSRP in the US is USD $2,000.[6]

text: In early 2014 Sony released the FDR-AX100 which represents the next generation of camcorders. It is capable of shooting in 4K resolution. It currently has a price tag of £1,699 and 4K camcorders are not expected to come into the mainstream market for at least another eight to ten years as most current Blu-ray players are not capable of playing 4K video. Virtually all mainstream TVs are not 4K ready either with the only 4K TVs available being very expensive at £2,500 or over. The only means of archiving 4K video is the 100 GB Blu-ray Disc XL but the discs are very expensive.[7]

text: However, in 2015, consumer UHD (3840x2160) camcorders below USD $1000 have become available. Sony released the FDRAX33, and Panasonic has released the HC-WX970K and the HC-VX870.[citation needed]

text: In September 2014 Panasonic announced and claimed 4K Ultra HD Camcorder HC-X1000E as the first conventional camcorder design that can capture up to 60fps at 150 Mbit/s or alternatively standard HD recording at up to 200 Mbit/s in ALL-I mode with MP4, MOV and AVCHD formats all offered depending on the resolution and frame rate. With use 1/2.3" small sensor as commonly is used by bridge cameras, the camcorder has 20x optical zoom in a compact body with dual XLR audio inputs, Internal ND filters and separate control rings for focus, iris and zoom. In HD capture, the camcorder get benefit to reduce noises of small sensor by in-camera downscaling of the 4K image to HD.[8]

text: As of January 2017, the only major manufacturer to announce new consumer camcorders at CES (Consumer Electronic Show) in Las Vegas was Canon with its entry-level HD models. Panasonic only announced details regarding their Mirrorless Micro Four Thirds Digital Camera called the LUMIX GH5, capable of shooting 4K in 60p. This is the first time in decades that Panasonic & Sony haven't announced new traditional camcorders at CES, & instead carried over 2016's models, such as Sony's FDR-AX53. This is due to there being far less demand in the market for traditional camcorders as more & more consumers prefer to record video with their 4K-capable smartphones, DSLRs, and action cameras from GoPro, Xiaomi, Sony, Nikon, and many others.

text: Components[edit]

text: Camcorders have three major components: lens, imager and recorder. The lens gathers light, focusing it on the imager. The imager (usually a CCD or CMOS sensor; earlier models used vidicon tubes) converts incident light into an electrical signal. The recorder converts the electrical signal to video, encoding it in a storable form. The lens and imager comprise the "camera" section.

text: Lens[edit]

text: The lens is the first component of the light path. Camcorder optics generally have one or more of the following controls:

text:
Aperture (or iris): Regulates exposure and controls depth of field
Zoom: Controls focal length and angle of view
Shutter speed: Regulates exposure to maintain desired motion portrayal
Gain: Amplifies signal strength in low-light conditions
Neutral density filter: Regulates exposure intensity

text: In consumer units these adjustments are often automatically controlled by the camcorder, but can be adjusted manually if desired. Professional-grade units offer user control of all major optical functions.

text: Imager[edit]

text: The imager converts light into an electrical signal. The camera lens projects an image onto the imager surface, exposing the photosensitive array to light. This light exposure is converted into an electrical charge. At the end of the timed exposure, the imager converts the accumulated charge into a continuous analog voltage at the imager's output terminals. After the conversion is complete, the photosites reset to start the exposure of the next video frame.

text: Recorder[edit]

text: The recorder writes the video signal onto a recording medium, such as magnetic videotape. Since the record function involves many signal-processing steps, some distortion and noise historically appeared on the stored video; playback of the stored signal did not have the exact characteristics and detail as a live video feed. All camcorders have a recorder-controlling section, allowing the user to switch the recorder into playback mode for reviewing recorded footage, and an image-control section controlling exposure, focus and color balance.

text: The image recorded need not be limited to what appeared in the viewfinder. For documenting events (as in law enforcement), the field of view overlays the time and date of the recording along the top and bottom of the image. The police car or constable badge number to which the recorder was given, the car's speed at the time of recording, compass direction and geographical coordinates may also be seen.

text: Types[edit]

text: Analog and digital[edit]

text: Camcorders are often classified by their storage device; VHS, VHS-C, Betamax, Video8 are examples of late 20th century videotape-based camcorders which record video in analog form. Digital video camcorder formats include Digital8, MiniDV, DVD, hard disk drive, direct to disk recording and solid-state, semiconductor flash memory. While all these formats record video in digital form, Digital8, MiniDV, DVD and hard-disk drives[9] have no longer been manufactured in consumer camcorders since 2006.

text: In the earliest analog camcorders the imaging device is vacuum-tube technology, in which the charge of a light-sensitive target was directly proportional to the amount of light striking it; the Vidicon is an example of such an imaging tube. Newer analog, and digital camcorders use a solid-state charge-coupled imaging device (CCD) or a CMOS imager. Both are analog detectors, using photodiodes to pass a current proportional to the light striking them. The current is then digitised before being electronically scanned and fed to the imager's output. The main difference between the two devices is how the scanning is done. In the CCD the diodes are sampled simultaneously, and the scan passes the digitised data from one register to the next. In CMOS devices, the diodes are sampled directly by the scanning logic.

text: Digital video storage retains higher-quality video than analog storage, especially on the prosumer and strictly consumer levels. MiniDV storage allows full-resolution video (720x576 for PAL, 720x480 for NTSC), unlike analog consumer-video standards. Digital video does not experience colour bleeding, jitter, or fade.

text: Unlike analog formats, digital formats do not experience generation loss during dubbing; however, they are more prone to complete loss. Although digital information can theoretically be stored indefinitely without deterioration, some digital formats (like MiniDV) place tracks only about 10 micrometers apart (compared with 19–58 μm for VHS). A digital recording is more vulnerable to wrinkles or stretches in the tape which could erase data, but tracking and error-correction code on the tape compensates for most defects. On analog media, similar damage registers as "noise" in the video, leaving a deteriorated (but watchable) video. DVDs may develop DVD rot, losing large chunks of data. An analog recording may be "usable" after its storage media deteriorates severely, but[10] slight media degradation in digital recordings may trigger an "all or nothing" failure; the digital recording will be unplayable without extensive restoration.

text: Recording media[edit]

text: Older digital camcorders record video onto tape digitally, microdrives, hard drives, and small DVD-RAM or DVD-Rs. Newer machines since 2006 record video onto flash memory devices and internal solid-state drives in MPEG-1, MPEG-2 or MPEG-4 format.[11] Because these codecs use inter-frame compression, frame-specific editing requires frame regeneration, additional processing and may lose picture information. Codecs storing each frame individually, easing frame-specific scene editing, are common in professional use.

text: Other digital consumer camcorders record in DV or HDV format on tape, transferring content over FireWire or USB 2.0 to a computer where large files (for DV, 1GB for 4 to 4.6 minutes in PAL/NTSC resolutions) can be edited, converted and recorded back to tape. The transfer is done in real time, so the transfer of a 60-minute tape requires one hour to transfer and about 13GB of disk space for the raw footage (plus space for rendered files and other media).

text: Tapeless[edit]

text: A tapeless camcorder is a camcorder that does not use video tape for the digital recording of video productions as 20th century ones did. Tapeless camcorders record video as digital computer files onto data storage devices such as optical discs, hard disk drives and solid-state flash memory cards.[12]

text: Inexpensive pocket video cameras use flash memory cards, while some more expensive camcorders use solid-state drives or SSD; similar flash technology is used on semi-pro and high-end professional video cameras for ultrafast transfer of high-definition television (HDTV) content.

text: Most consumer-level tapeless camcorders use MPEG-2, MPEG-4 or its derivatives as video coding formats. They are normally capable of still-image capture to JPEG format additionally.

text: Consumer-grade tapeless camcorders include a USB port to transfer video onto a computer. Professional models include other options like Serial digital interface (SDI) or HDMI. Some tapeless camcorders are equipped with a Firewire (IEEE-1394) port to ensure compatibility with magnetic tape-based DV and HDV formats.

text: Consumer market[edit]

text: Since the consumer market favors ease of use, portability and price, most consumer-grade camcorders emphasize handling and automation over audio and video performance. Most devices with camcorder capability are camera phones or compact digital cameras, in which video is a secondary capability. Some pocket cameras, mobile phones and camcorders are shock-, dust- and waterproof.[13]

text: This market has followed an evolutionary path driven by miniaturization and cost reduction enabled by progress in design and manufacture. Miniaturization reduces the imager's ability to gather light; designers have balanced improvements in sensor sensitivity with size reduction, shrinking the camera imager and optics while maintaining relatively noise-free video in daylight. Indoor or dim-light shooting is generally noisy, and in such conditions artificial lighting is recommended. Mechanical controls cannot shrink below a certain size, and manual camera operation has given way to camera-controlled automation for every shooting parameter (including focus, aperture, shutter speed and color balance). The few models with manual override are menu-driven. Outputs include USB 2.0, Composite and S-Video and IEEE 1394/Firewire (for MiniDV models).

text: The high end of the consumer market emphasizes user control and advanced shooting modes. More-expensive consumer camcorders offer manual exposure control, HDMI output and external audio input, progressive-scan frame rates (24fps, 25fps, 30fps) and higher-quality lenses than basic models. To maximize low-light capability, color reproduction and frame resolution, multi-CCD/CMOS camcorders mimic the 3-element imager design of professional equipment. Field tests have shown that most consumer camcorders (regardless of price) produce noisy video in low light.

text: Before the 21st century, video editing required two recorders and a desktop video workstation to control them. A typical home personal computer can hold several hours of standard-definition video, and is fast enough to edit footage without additional upgrades. Most consumer camcorders are sold with basic video editing software, so users can create their own DVDs or share edited footage online.

text: Since 2006, nearly all camcorders sold are digital. Tape-based (MiniDV/HDV) camcorders are no longer popular, since tapeless models (with an SD card or internal SSD) cost almost the same but offer greater convenience; video captured on an SD card can be transferred to a computer faster than digital tape. None of the consumer-class camcorders announced at the 2006 International Consumer Electronics Show recorded on tape.[1]

text: Other devices[edit]

text: Video-capture capability is not confined to camcorders. Cellphones, digital single-lens reflex and compact digicams, laptops and personal media players offer video-capture capability, but most multipurpose devices offer less video-capture functionality than an equivalent camcorder. Most lack manual adjustments, audio input, autofocus and zoom. Few capture in standard TV-video formats (480p60, 720p60, 1080i30), recording in either non-TV resolutions (320x240, 640x480) or slower frame rates (15 or 30 fps).

text: A multipurpose device used as a camcorder offers inferior handling, audio and video performance, which limits its utility for extended or adverse shooting situations. The camera phone developed video capability during the early 21st century, reducing sales of low-end camcorders.

text: DSLR cameras with high-definition video were also introduced early in the 21st century. Although they still have the handling and usability deficiencies of other multipurpose devices, HDSLR video offers the shallow depth-of-field and interchangeable lenses lacking in consumer camcorders. Professional video cameras with these capabilities are more expensive than the most expensive video-capable DSLR. In video applications where the DSLR's operational deficiencies can be mitigated, DSLRs such as the Canon 5D Mark II provide depth-of-field and optical-perspective control.

text: Combo-cameras combine full-feature still cameras and camcorders in a single unit. The Sanyo Xacti HD1 was the first such unit, combining the features of a 5.1 megapixel still camera with a 720p video recorder with improved handling and utility. Canon and Sony have introduced camcorders with still-photo performance approaching that of a digicam, and Panasonic has introduced a DSLR body with video features approaching that of a camcorder. Hitachi has introduced the DZHV 584E/EW, with 1080p resolution and a touch screen.

text: Flip Video[edit]

text: The Flip Video was a series of tapeless camcorders introduced by Pure Digital Technologies in 2006. Slightly larger than a smartphone, the Flip Video was a basic camcorder with record, zoom, playback and browse buttons and a USB jack for uploading video. The original models recorded at a 640x480-pixel resolution; later models featured HD recording at 1280x720 pixels. The Mino was a smaller Flip Video, with the same features as the standard model. The Mino was the smallest of all camcorders, slightly wider than a MiniDV cassette and smaller than most smartphones on the market. In fact the Mino was small enough to fit inside the shell of a VHS cassette. Later HD models featured larger screens. In 2011, the Flip Video (more recently manufactured by Cisco) was discontinued.[14]

text: Interchangeable lenses[edit]

text: Interchangeable-lens camcorders can capture HD video with DSLR lenses and an adapter.[15]

text: Built-in projector[edit]

text: In 2011, Sony launched its HDR-PJ range of HD camcorders: the HDR-PJ10, 30 and 50. Known as Handycams, they were the first camcorders to incorporate a small image projector on the side of the unit. This feature allows a group of viewers to watch video without a television, a full-size projector or a computer. These camcorders were a huge success and Sony subsequently released further models in this range. Sony's current 2014 line up comprises the HDR-PJ240, HDR-PJ330 (entry level models), HDR-PJ530 (mid-range model) and the HDR-PJ810 (top of the range).[16] Specifications vary by model.[17]

text: Uses[edit]

text: Media[edit]

text: Camcorders are used by nearly all electronic media, from electronic-news organizations to current-affairs TV productions. In remote locations, camcorders are useful for initial video acquisition; the video is subsequently transmitted electronically to a studio or production center for broadcast. Scheduled events (such as press conferences), where a video infrastructure is readily available or can be deployed in advance, are still covered by studio-type video cameras "tethered" to production trucks.

text: Home video[edit]

text: Camcorders often cover weddings, birthdays, graduations, children's growth and other personal events. The rise of the consumer camcorder during the mid- to late 1980s led to the creation of TV shows such as America's Funniest Home Videos, which showcases homemade video footage.

text: Politics[edit]

text: Political protesters use camcorders to film what they believe unjust. Animal rights protesters who break into factory farms and animal testing labs use camcorders to film the conditions in which the animals are living. Anti-hunting protesters film fox hunts. People investigating political crimes use surveillance cameras for evidence-gathering. Activist videos often appear on Indymedia.

text: Police use camcorders to film riots, protests and crowds at sporting events. The film can be used to spot troublemakers, who can then be prosecuted. In countries such as the United States, the use of compact dashcams in police cars allows the police to retain a record of activity in front of the car (such as interaction with a stopped motorist).

text: Entertainment[edit]

text: Camcorders are used in the production of low-budget TV shows if the production crew does not have access to more expensive equipment. Movies have been shot entirely on consumer camcorder equipment (such as The Blair Witch Project, 28 Days Later and Paranormal Activity). Academic filmmaking programs have also switched from 16mm film to digital video in early 2010s, due to the reduced expense and ease of editing of digital media and the increasing scarcity of film stock and equipment. Some camcorder manufacturers cater to this market; Canon and Panasonic support 24p (24 fps, progressive scan—the same frame rate as cinema film) video in some high-end models for easy film conversion.

text: Education[edit]

text: Schools in the developed world increasingly use digital media and digital education. Students use camcorders to record video diaries, make short films and develop multi-media projects across subject boundaries. Teacher evaluation involves a teacher's classroom lessons being recorded for review by officials, especially for questions of teacher tenure.

text: Student camcorder-created material and other digital technology are used in new-teacher preparation courses. The University of Oxford Department of Education PGCE programme and NYU's Steinhardt School's Department of Teaching and Learning MAT programme are examples.

text: The USC Rossier School of Education goes further, insisting that all students purchase their own camcorder (or similar) as a prerequisite to their MAT education programs (many of which are delivered online). These programs employ a modified version of Adobe Connect to deliver the courses. Recordings of MAT student work are posted on USC's web portal for evaluation by faculty as if they were present in class. Camcorders have allowed USC to decentralize its teacher preparation from Southern California to most American states and abroad; this has increased the number of teachers it can train.

text: Formats[edit]

text: The following list covers consumer equipment only (for other formats, see videotape):

text: Analog[edit]

text:
BCE (1954): First tape storage for video, manufactured by Bing Crosby Entertainment from Ampex equipment
BCE Color (1955): First color tape storage for video, manufactured by Bing Crosby Entertainment from Ampex equipment
Simplex (1955): Developed commercially by RCA and used to record live broadcasts by NBC
Quadruplex videotape (1955): Developed formally by Ampex, this was the recording standard for 20 years.
Vision electronic recording apparatus (Vera) (1955): An experimental recording standard developed by the BBC, it was never used or sold commercially.
U-matic (1971): Tape originally used by Sony to record video
U-matic S (1974): A smaller version of U-matic, used for portable recorders
Betamax (1975): Used on old Sony and Sanyo camcorders and portables; obsolete by the late 1980s in the consumer market
VHS (1976): Compatible with VHS VCRs; no longer manufactured
VHS-C (1982): Originally designed for portable VCRs, this standard was later adapted for compact consumer camcorders; identical in quality to VHS; cassettes play in VHS VCRs with an adapter. Still available in the low-end consumer market. Relatively short running time compared to other formats.
Video8 (1985): Small-format tape developed by Sony to compete with VHS-C's palm-sized design; equivalent to VHS or Betamax in picture quality

text:
U-matic BVU (1982): Largely used in high-end consumer and professional equipment
U-matic BVU-SP (1985): Largely used in high-end consumer and professional equipment
S-VHS (1987): Largely used in mid-range consumer and prosumer equipment
S-VHS-C (1987): Limited to low-end consumer market
Hi8 (1988): Used in low to mid-range consumer equipment but also was available as prosumer/industrial equipment

text: Digital[edit]

text:
DV (1995): Initially developed by Sony, the DV standard became the most widespread standard-definition digital camcorder technology for the next decade. The DV format was the first to make capturing footage for video editing possible without special hardware, using the 4- or 6-pin Firewire sockets common on computers at the time.[18]
DVCPRO (1995): Panasonic released its own variant of the DV format for broadcast news-gathering.
DVCAM (1996): Sony's answer to the DVCPRO
DVD recordable (1996): A variety of recordable optical disc standards were released by multiple manufacturers during the 1990s and 2000s, of which DVD-RAM was the first. The most common in camcorders was MiniDVD-R, which used recordable 8 cm discs holding 30 minutes of MPEG video.
D-VHS (1998): JVC's VHS tape supporting 720p/1080i HD; many units also supported IEEE 1394 recording.
Digital8 (1999): Uses Hi8 tapes; most can read older Video8 and Hi8 analog tapes.
MICROMV (2001): Matchbox-sized cassette. Sony was the only electronics manufacturer for this format, and editing software was proprietary to Sony and only available on Microsoft Windows; however, open source programmers did manage to create capture software for Linux.[19]
Blu-ray Disc (2003): Manufactured by Hitachi
HDV (2004): Records up to an hour of HDTV MPEG-2 signal on a MiniDV cassette
MPEG-2 codec-based format: Records MPEG-2 program stream or MPEG-2 transport stream to various kinds of tapeless standard and HD media (hard disks, solid-state memory, etc.).
H.264: Compressed video using the H.264 codec in an MPEG-4 file; usually stored in tapeless media
AVCHD: Puts H.264 video into a transport-stream file format; compressed in H.264 format (not MPEG-4)
Multiview Video Coding: Amendment to H.264/MPEG-4 AVC video compression for sequences captured from multiple cameras using a single video stream; backwards-compatible with H.264

text: Operating systems[edit]

text: Since most manufacturers focus their support on Windows and Mac users, users of other operating systems have difficulty finding support for their devices. However, open-source products such as Cinelerra and Kino (written for the Linux operating system) allow editing of some digital formats on alternative operating systems; software to edit DV streams is available on most platforms.

text: Digital forensics[edit]

text: The issue of digital-camcorder forensics to recover data (e.g. video files with timestamps) has been addressed.[20]