document_title: Luke the Evangelist

question_text: what was luke before he became a disciple

text: Luke the Evangelist

text: Life[edit]

text: Many scholars believe that Luke was a Greek physician who lived in the Greek city of Antioch in Ancient Syria, although some other scholars and theologians think Luke was a Hellenic Jew.[2][3] Bart Koet stated that it was widely accepted that the theology of Luke–Acts points to a gentile Christian writing for a gentile audience. Although he concludes that it is more plausible that Luke-Acts is directed to a community made up of both Jewish and gentile Christians, because there is stress on the scriptural roots of the gentile mission (see the use of Isaiah 49,6 in Luke-Acts).[4] [5] Gregory Sterling claims that he was either a Hellenistic Jew or a god-fearer.[3]

text: His earliest notice is in Paul's Epistle to Philemon—Philemon 1:24. He is also mentioned in Colossians 4:14 and 2Timothy 4:11, two works commonly ascribed to Paul.[6][7][8][9][10] The next earliest account of Luke is in the Anti-Marcionite Prologue to the Gospel of Luke, a document once thought to date to the 2nd century, but which has more recently been dated to the later 4th century.[citation needed] Helmut Koester, however, claims that the following part, the only part preserved in the original Greek, may have been composed in the late 2nd century:

text: Luke, was born in Antioch, by profession, was a physician.[11] He had become a disciple of the apostle Paul and later followed Paul until his [Paul's] martyrdom. Having served the Lord continuously, unmarried and without children, filled with the Holy Spirit he died at the age of 84 years. (p. 335)

text: Epiphanius states that Luke was one of the Seventy Apostles (Panarion 51.11), and John Chrysostom indicates at one point that the "brother" Paul mentions in the Second Epistle to the Corinthians 8:18 is either Luke or Barnabas.[citation needed]

text: If one accepts that Luke was in fact the author of the Gospel bearing his name and also the Acts of the Apostles, certain details of his personal life can be reasonably assumed. While he does exclude himself from those who were eyewitnesses to Jesus' ministry, he repeatedly uses the word "we" in describing the Pauline missions in Acts of the Apostles, indicating that he was personally there at those times.[12]

text: There is similar evidence that Luke resided in Troas, the province which included the ruins of ancient Troy, in that he writes in Acts in the third person about Paul and his travels until they get to Troas, where he switches to the first person plural. The "we" section of Acts continues until the group leaves Philippi, when his writing goes back to the third person. This change happens again when the group returns to Philippi. There are three "we sections" in Acts, all following this rule. Luke never stated, however, that he lived in Troas, and this is the only evidence that he did.[citation needed]

text: The composition of the writings, as well as the range of vocabulary used, indicate that the author was an educated man. A quote in the Epistle to the Colossians differentiates between Luke and other colleagues "of the circumcision."

text: 10 My fellow prisoner Aristarchus sends you his greetings, as does Mark, the cousin of Barnabas. 11 Jesus, who is called Justus, also sends greetings. These are the only Jews among my co-workers for the kingdom of God, and they have proved a comfort to me. ... 14 Our dear friend Luke, the doctor, and Demas send greetings. Colossians 4:10–11, 14.

text: This comment has traditionally caused commentators to conclude that Luke was a gentile. If this were true, it would make Luke the only writer of the New Testament who can clearly be identified as not being Jewish. However, that is not the only possibility. Although Luke is considered likely to be a gentile Christian, some scholars believe him to be a Hellenized Jew.[2][3][13] The phrase could just as easily be used to differentiate between those Christians who strictly observed the rituals of Judaism and those who did not.[12]

text: Luke's presence in Rome with the Apostle Paul near the end of Paul's life was attested by 2 Timothy 4:11: "Only Luke is with me". In the last chapter of the Book of Acts, widely attributed to Luke, we find several accounts in the first person also affirming Luke's presence in Rome including Acts 28:16: "And when we came to Rome..." According to some accounts,[who?] Luke also contributed to the authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews.[14]

text: Luke died at age 84 in Boeotia, according to a "fairly early and widespread tradition".[15] According to Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos (Ecclesiastical History 14th century AD., Migne P.G. 145, 876) and others, Luke's tomb was located in Thebes, whence his relics were transferred to Constantinople in the year 357.[citation needed]

text: The authorship of Luke and Acts[edit]

text: The Gospel of Luke does not name its author.[16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24] The Gospel was not written and does not claim to be written by direct witnesses to the reported events, unlike Acts beginning in the sixteenth chapter.[18][25][26]

text: The earliest manuscript of the Gospel, dated circa AD 200, ascribes the work to Luke; as did Irenaeus, writing circa AD 180, and the Muratorian fragment from AD 170.[27]

text: The gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles make up a two-volume work which scholars call Luke–Acts. Together they account for 27.5% of the New Testament, the largest contribution by a single author.[28]

text: As a historian[edit]

text: Most scholars understand Luke's works (Luke–Acts) in the tradition of Greek historiography.[29] The preface of The Gospel of Luke[30] drawing on historical investigation identified the work to the readers as belonging to the genre of history.[31] There is some disagreement about how best to treat Luke's writings, with some historians regarding Luke as highly accurate, and others taking a more critical approach.

text: Based on his accurate description of towns, cities and islands, as well as correctly naming various official titles, archaeologist Sir William Ramsay wrote that "Luke is a historian of the first rank; not merely are his statements of fact trustworthy... [he] should be placed along with the very greatest of historians."[32] Professor of Classics at Auckland University, E.M. Blaiklock, wrote: "For accuracy of detail, and for evocation of atmosphere, Luke stands, in fact, with Thucydides. The Acts of the Apostles is not shoddy product of pious imagining, but a trustworthy record... it was the spadework of archaeology which first revealed the truth."[33] New Testament scholar Colin Hemer has made a number of advancements in understanding the historical nature and accuracy of Luke's writings.[34]

text: On the purpose of Acts, New Testament Scholar Luke Timothy Johnson has noted that "Luke's account is selected and shaped to suit his apologetic interests, not in defiance of but in conformity to ancient standards of historiography."[35] Such a position is shared by most commentators such as Richard Heard who sees historical deficiencies as arising from "special objects in writing and to the limitations of his sources of information."[36]

text: During modern times, Luke's competence as a historian is questioned, depending upon one's a priori view of the supernatural.[37] Since post-Enlightenment historians work with methodological naturalism,[38][39] such historians would see a narrative that relates supernatural, fantastic things like angels, demons etc., as problematic as a historical source. Mark Powell claims that "it is doubtful whether the writing of history was ever Luke's intent. Luke wrote to proclaim, to persuade, and to interpret; he did not write to preserve records for posterity. An awareness of this, has been, for many, the final nail in Luke the historian’s coffin."[37]

text: Robert M. Grant has noted that although Luke saw himself within the historical tradition, his work contains a number of statistical improbabilities such as the sizable crowd addressed by Peter in Acts 4:4. He has also noted chronological difficulties whereby Luke "has Gamaliel refer to Theudas and Judas in the wrong order, and Theudas actually rebelled about a decade after Gamaliel spoke (5:36–7)"[29]

text: As an artist[edit]

text: Christian tradition, starting from the 8th century, states that he was the first icon painter. He is said to have painted pictures of the Virgin Mary and Child, in particular the Hodegetria image in Constantinople (now lost). Starting from the 11th century a number of painted images were venerated as his autograph works, including for example, the Black Madonna of Częstochowa and Our Lady of Vladimir. He was also said to have painted Saints Peter and Paul, and to have illustrated a gospel book with a full cycle of miniatures.[40][41]

text: Late medieval Guilds of St Luke in the cities of Late Medieval Europe, especially Flanders, or the "Accademia di San Luca" (Academy of Saint Luke) in Rome—imitated in many other European cities during the 16th century—gathered together and protected painters. The tradition that Luke painted icons of Mary and Jesus has been common, particularly in Eastern Orthodoxy. The tradition also has support from the Saint Thomas Christians of India who claim to still have one of the Theotokos icons that Saint Luke painted and which St. Thomas brought to India.[42]

text: Symbol[edit]

text: In traditional depictions, such as paintings, evangelist portraits and church mosaics, Saint Luke is often accompanied by an ox or bull, usually having wings. Sometimes only the symbol is shown, especially when in a combination of those of all Four Evangelists.[43][44]

text: Relics[edit]

text: Despot George of Serbia bought the relics from the Ottoman sultan Murad II for 30,000 gold coins.[45][46][not in citation given] After the Ottoman conquest of Bosnia, the kingdom's last queen, George's granddaughter Mary, who had brought the relics with her from Serbia as her dowry, sold them to the Venetian Republic.[47]

text: In 1992, the then Greek Orthodox Metropolitan Ieronymos of Thebes and Levathia (the current Archbishop of Athens and All Greece) requested from Bishop Antonio Mattiazzo of Padua the return of "a significant fragment of the relics of St. Luke to be placed on the site where the holy tomb of the Evangelist is located and venerated today". This prompted a scientific investigation of the relics in Padua, and by numerous lines of empirical evidence (archeological analyses of the Tomb in Thebes and the Reliquary of Padua, anatomical analyses of the remains, Carbon-14 dating, comparison with the purported skull of the Evangelist located in Prague) confirmed that these were the remains of an individual of Syrian descent who died between 416 BC and AD 72.[48] The Bishop of Padua then delivered to Metropolitan Ieronymos the rib of Saint Luke that was closest to his heart to be kept at his tomb in Thebes, Greece.[45][46]

text: Thus, nowadays, the relics of Saint Luke are so divided:

text:
The body, in the Abbey of Santa Giustina in Padua;
The head, in the St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague;
A rib, at his tomb in Thebes.


document_title: Antigone (Sophocles play)

question_text: where does creon order antigone to be placed

root

text: Antigone (Sophocles play)

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: Prior to the beginning of the play, brothers Eteocles and Polyneices, leading opposite sides in Thebes' civil war, died fighting each other for the throne. Creon, the new ruler of Thebes, has decided that Eteocles will be honored and Polyneices will be in public shame. The rebel brother's body will not be sanctified by holy rites and will lie unburied on the battlefield, prey for carrion animals like worms and vultures, the harshest punishment at the time. Antigone and Ismene are the sisters of the dead Polyneices and Eteocles. In the opening of the play, Antigone brings Ismene outside the palace gates late at night for a secret meeting: Antigone wants to bury Polyneices' body, in defiance of Creon's edict. Ismene refuses to help her, not believing that it will actually be possible to bury their brother, who is under guard, but she is unable to stop Antigone from going to bury her brother herself.

tag: p

text: Creon enters, along with the Chorus of Theban Elders. He seeks their support in the days to come and in particular, wants them to back his edict regarding the disposal of Polyneices' body. The Leader of the Chorus pledges his support out of deference to Creon. A Sentry enters, fearfully reporting that the body has been given funeral rites and a symbolic burial with a thin covering of earth, though no one saw who had actually committed the crime. Creon, furious, orders the Sentry to find the culprit or face death himself. The Sentry leaves, and the Chorus sings about honouring the gods, but after a short absence, he returns, bringing Antigone with him. The Sentry explains that the watchmen uncovered Polyneices' body and then caught Antigone as she did the funeral rituals. Creon questions her after sending the Sentry away, and she does not deny what she has done. She argues unflinchingly with Creon about the morality of the edict and the morality of her actions. Creon becomes furious, and, thinking Ismene must have known of Antigone's plan, seeing her upset, summons the girl. Ismene tries to confess falsely to the crime, wishing to die alongside her sister, but Antigone will not have it. Creon orders that the two women be temporarily imprisoned.

text: Haemon, Creon's son, enters to pledge allegiance to his father, even though he is engaged to Antigone. He initially seems willing to forsake Antigone, but when Haemon gently tries to persuade his father to spare Antigone, claiming that 'under cover of darkness the city mourns for the girl', the discussion deteriorates, and the two men are soon bitterly insulting each other. When Creon threatens to execute Antigone in front of his son, Haemon leaves, vowing never to see Creon again.

text: Creon decides to spare Ismene and to bury Antigone alive in a cave. By not killing her directly, he hopes to pay the minimal respects to the gods. She is brought out of the house, and this time, she is sorrowful instead of defiant. She expresses her regrets at not having married and dying for following the laws of the gods. She is taken away to her living tomb, with the Leader of the Chorus expressing great sorrow for what is going to happen to her.

text: Tiresias, the blind prophet, enters. Tiresias warns Creon that Polyneices should now be urgently buried because the gods are displeased, refusing to accept any sacrifices or prayers from Thebes. Creon accuses Tiresias of being corrupt. Tiresias responds that because of Creon's mistakes, he will lose "a son of [his] own loins"[2] for the crimes of leaving Polyneices unburied and putting Antigone into the earth (he does not say that Antigone should not be condemned to death, only that it is improper to keep a living body underneath the earth). All of Greece will despise Creon, and the sacrificial offerings of Thebes will not be accepted by the gods. The Leader of the Chorus, terrified, asks Creon to take Tiresias' advice to free Antigone and bury Polyneices. Creon assents, leaving with a retinue of men. The Chorus delivers a choral ode to the god Dionysus (god of wine and of the theater; this part is the offering to their patron god). A Messenger enters to tell the Leader of the Chorus that Antigone has killed herself. Eurydice, Creon's wife and Haemon's mother, enters and asks the Messenger to tell her everything. The Messenger reports that Creon saw to the burial of Polyneices. When Creon arrived at Antigone's cave, he found Haemon lamenting over Antigone, who had hanged herself. After unsuccessfully attempting to stab Creon, Haemon stabbed himself. Having listened to the Messenger's account, Eurydice disappears into the palace.

text: Creon enters, carrying Haemon's body. He understands that his own actions have caused these events and blames himself. A Second Messenger arrives to tell Creon and the Chorus that Eurydice has killed herself. With her last breath, she cursed her husband. Creon blames himself for everything that has happened, and, a broken man, he asks his servants to help him inside. The order he valued so much has been protected, and he is still the king, but he has acted against the gods and lost his children and his wife as a result. After Creon condemns himself, the Leader of the Chorus closes by saying that although the gods punish the proud, punishment brings wisdom.

text: Characters[edit]

text:
Antigone, compared to her beautiful and docile sister, is portrayed as a heroine who recognizes her familial duty. Her dialogues with Ismene reveal her to be as stubborn as her uncle.[3] In her, the ideal of the female character is boldly outlined.[4] She defies Creon’s decree despite the consequences she may face, in order to honor her deceased brother.
Ismene serves as a foil for Antigone, presenting the contrast in their respective responses to the royal decree.[3] Considered the beautiful one, she is more lawful and obedient to authority. She hesitates to bury Polyneices because she fears Creon.
Creon is the current King of Thebes, who views law as the guarantor of personal happiness. He can also be seen as a tragic hero, losing everything for upholding what he believed was right. Even when he is forced to amend his decree to please the gods, he first tends to the dead Polyneices before releasing Antigone.[3]
Eurydice of Thebes is the Queen of Thebes and Creon’s wife. She appears towards the end and only to hear confirmation of her son Haemon’s death. In her grief, she commits suicide, cursing Creon whom she blames for her son’s death.
Haemon is the son of Creon and Eurydice, betrothed to Antigone. Proved to be more reasonable than Creon, he attempts to reason with his father for the sake of Antigone. However, when Creon refuses to listen to him, Haemon leaves angrily and shouts he will never see him again. He commits suicide after finding Antigone dead.
Koryphaios is the assistant to the King (Creon) and the leader of the Chorus. He is often interpreted as a close advisor to the King, and therefore a close family friend. This role is highlighted in the end when Creon chooses to listen to Koryphaios' advice.
Tiresias is the blind prophet whose prediction brings about the eventual proper burial of Polyneices. Portrayed as wise and full of reason, Tiresias attempts to warn Creon of his foolishness and tells him the gods are angry. He manages to convince Creon, but is too late to save the impetuous Antigone.
The Chorus, a group of elderly Theban men, is at first deferential to the king.[4] Their purpose is to comment on the action in the play and add to the suspense and emotions, as well as connecting the story to myths. As the play progresses they counsel Creon to be more moderate. Their pleading persuades Creon to spare Ismene. They also advise Creon to take Tiresias's advice.

tag: ul

text: Historical context[edit]

text: Antigone was written at a time of national fervor. In 441 BC, shortly after the play was performed, Sophocles was appointed as one of the ten generals to lead a military expedition against Samos. It is striking that a prominent play in a time of such imperialism contains little political propaganda, no impassioned apostrophe, and, with the exception of the epiklerate (the right of the daughter to continue her dead father's lineage),[5] and arguments against anarchy, makes no contemporary allusion or passing reference to Athens.[6] Rather than become sidetracked with the issues of the time, Antigone remains focused on the characters and themes within the play. It does, however, expose the dangers of the absolute ruler, or tyrant, in the person of Creon, a king to whom few will speak freely and openly their true opinions, and who therefore makes the grievous error of condemning Antigone, an act which he pitifully regrets in the play's final lines. Athenians, proud of their democratic tradition, would have identified his error in the many lines of dialogue which emphasize that the people of Thebes believe he is wrong, but have no voice to tell him so. Athenians would identify the folly of tyranny.

text: Notable features[edit]

text: The Chorus in Antigone departs significantly from the chorus in Aeschylus' Seven Against Thebes, the play of which Antigone is a continuation. The chorus in Seven Against Thebes is largely supportive of Antigone's decision to bury her brother. Here, the chorus is composed of old men who are largely unwilling to see civil disobedience in a positive light. The chorus also represents a typical difference in Sophocles' plays from those of both Aeschylus and Euripides. A chorus of Aeschylus' almost always continues or intensifies the moral nature of the play, while one of Euripides' frequently strays far from the main moral theme. The chorus in Antigone lies somewhere in between; it remains within the general moral and the immediate scene, but allows itself to be carried away from the occasion or the initial reason for speaking.[7]

text: Significance and interpretation[edit]

text: Antigone deals with three main questions:

text:
whether Polyneices ought to be given burial rituals
whether someone who buried him in defiance of state ought to be punished
whether Creon's actions are just or thoughtless

tag: ol

text: Creon was perfectly justified in issuing the edict which deprived funeral rites to Polyneices, who led a foreign army to lay siege to his own city. Creon, as head of the state, viewed exemplary punishment as appropriate. Antigone had a right to assert that in defying Creon's edict she was loyal to an unwritten law which had a higher sanction.[8] Once the initial premises behind the characters in Antigone have been established, the action of the play moves steadily and inevitably towards the outcome.[9] Once Creon has discovered that Antigone buried her brother against his orders, the ensuing discussion of her fate is devoid of arguments for mercy because of youth or sisterly love from the Chorus, Haemon or Antigone herself. Most of the arguments to save her center on a debate over which course adheres best to strict justice.[10]

text: Both Antigone and Creon claim divine sanction for their actions; but Tiresias the prophet supports Antigone's claim that the gods demand Polyneices' burial. It is not until the interview with Tiresias that Creon transgresses in act and is guilty of sin. He had had no divine intimation before that his edict was displeasing to the Gods and against their will. He is here warned that it is, but he defends it and insults the prophet of the Gods. This is his sin, and it is this which leads to his punishment. The terrible calamities, then, which overtake Creon are not the result of his exalting the law of the state over the unwritten and divine law which Antigone vindicates, but his intemperance which led him to disregard the warnings of Tiresias until it was too late. This is emphasized by the Chorus in the lines which conclude the play.[8]

text: This section needs expansion with: a summary of Heidegger's reading of Antigone and its importance. You can help by adding to it. (May 2017)

tag: table

text: The German poet Friedrich Hölderlin, whose translation of the play would have strong impact on the reading of the play by the philosopher Martin Heidegger, brings out a more subtle reading of the play: he focuses on Antigone's legal and political status within the palace, her privilege to be the hearth (according to the legal instrument of the epiklerate) and thus protected by Zeus. According to the legal practice of classical Athens, Creon is obliged to marry his closest relative (Haemon) to the late king's daughter in an inverted marriage rite, which would oblige Haemon to produce a son and heir for his dead father in law. Creon would be deprived of grandchildren and heirs to his lineage – a fact which provides a strong realistic motif for his hatred against Antigone. This modern perspective has remained submerged for a long time.[11]

text: The problem of the second burial[edit]

text: An important issue still debated regarding Sophocles' Antigone is the problem of the second burial. When she poured dust over her brother's body, Antigone completed the burial rituals and thus fulfilled her duty to him. Having been properly buried, Polyneices' soul could proceed to the underworld whether or not the dust was removed from his body. However, Antigone went back after his body was uncovered and performed the ritual again, an act that seems to be completely unmotivated by anything other than a plot necessity so that she could be caught in the act of disobedience, leaving no doubt of her guilt. More than one commentator has suggested that it was the gods, not Antigone, who performed the first burial, citing both the guard's description of the scene and the chorus's observation.[12]

text: Richard Jebb suggests that the only reason for Antigone's return to the burial site is that the first time she forgot the Choaí (libations), and "perhaps the rite was considered completed only if the Choaí were poured while the dust still covered the corpse."[13]

text: Gilbert Norwood explains Antigone's performance of the second burial in terms of her stubbornness. His argument says that had Antigone not been so obsessed with the idea of keeping her brother covered, none of the deaths of the play would have happened. This argument states that if nothing had happened, nothing would have happened, and doesn't take much of a stand in explaining why Antigone returned for the second burial when the first would have fulfilled her religious obligation, regardless of how stubborn she was. This leaves that she acted only in passionate defiance of Creon and respect to her brother's earthly vessel.[14]

text: Tycho von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff justifies the need for the second burial by comparing Sophocles' Antigone to a theoretical version where Antigone is apprehended during the first burial. In this situation, news of the illegal burial and Antigone's arrest would arrive at the same time and there would be no period of time in which Antigone's defiance and victory could be appreciated.

text: J. L. Rose maintains that the solution to the problem of the second burial is solved by close examination of Antigone as a tragic character. Being a tragic character, she is completely obsessed by one idea, and for her this is giving her brother his due respect in death and demonstrating her love for him and for what is right. When she sees her brother's body uncovered, therefore, she is overcome by emotion and acts impulsively to cover him again, with no regards to the necessity of the action or its consequences for her safety.[14]

text: Bonnie Honig uses the problem of the second burial as the basis for her claim that Ismene performs the first burial, and that her pseudo-confession before Creon is actually an honest admission of guilt.[15]

text: Themes[edit]

text: Civil disobedience[edit]

text: A well established theme in Antigone is the right of the individual to reject society's infringement on her freedom to perform a personal obligation.[16] Antigone comments to Ismene, regarding Creon's edict, that "He has no right to keep me from my own."[17] Related to this theme is the question of whether Antigone's will to bury her brother is based on rational thought or instinct, a debate whose contributors include Goethe.[16]

text: The contrasting views of Creon and Antigone with regard to laws higher than those of state inform their different conclusions about civil disobedience. Creon demands obedience to the law above all else, right or wrong. He says that "there is nothing worse than disobedience to authority" (An. 671). Antigone responds with the idea that state law is not absolute, and that it can be broken in civil disobedience in extreme cases, such as honoring the gods, whose rule and authority outweigh Creon's.

text: Natural law and contemporary legal institutions[edit]

text: In Antigone, Sophocles asks the question, which law is greater: the gods' or man's. Sophocles votes for the law of the gods. He does this in order to save Athens from the moral destruction which seems imminent. Sophocles wants to warn his countrymen about hubris, or arrogance, because he believes this will be their downfall. In Antigone, the hubris of Creon is revealed.

text: Creon's decree to leave Polyneices unburied in itself makes a bold statement about what it means to be a citizen, and what constitutes abdication of citizenship. It was the firmly kept custom of the Greeks that each city was responsible for the burial of its citizens. Herodotus discussed how members of each city would collect their own dead after a large battle to bury them.[18] In Antigone, it is therefore natural that the people of Thebes did not bury the Argives, but very striking that Creon prohibited the burial of Polyneices. Since he is a citizen of Thebes, it would have been natural for the Thebans to bury him. Creon is telling his people that Polyneices has distanced himself from them, and that they are prohibited from treating him as a fellow-citizen and burying him as is the custom for citizens.

text: In prohibiting the people of Thebes from burying Polyneices, Creon is essentially placing him on the level of the other attackers—the foreign Argives. For Creon, the fact that Polyneices has attacked the city effectively revokes his citizenship and makes him a foreigner. As defined by this decree, citizenship is based on loyalty. It is revoked when Polyneices commits what in Creon's eyes amounts to treason. When pitted against Antigone's view, this understanding of citizenship creates a new axis of conflict. Antigone does not deny that Polyneices has betrayed the state, she simply acts as if this betrayal does not rob him of the connection that he would have otherwise had with the city. Creon, on the other hand, believes that citizenship is a contract; it is not absolute or inalienable, and can be lost in certain circumstances. These two opposing views – that citizenship is absolute and undeniable and alternatively that citizenship is based on certain behavior – are known respectively as citizenship 'by nature' and citizenship 'by law.'[18]

text: Fidelity[edit]

text: Antigone's determination to bury Polyneices arises from a desire to bring honor to her family, and to honor the higher law of the gods. She repeatedly declares that she must act to please "those that are dead" (An. 77), because they hold more weight than any ruler, that is the weight of divine law. In the opening scene, she makes an emotional appeal to her sister Ismene saying that they must protect their brother out of sisterly love, even if he did betray their state. Antigone believes that there are rights that are inalienable because they come from the highest authority, or authority itself, that is the divine law.

text: While he rejects Antigone's actions based on family honor, Creon appears to value family himself. When talking to Haemon, Creon demands of him not only obedience as a citizen, but also as a son. Creon says "everything else shall be second to your father's decision" ("An." 640–641). His emphasis on being Haemon's father rather than his king may seem odd, especially in light of the fact that Creon elsewhere advocates obedience to the state above all else. It is not clear how he would personally handle these two values in conflict, but it is a moot point in the play, for, as absolute ruler of Thebes, Creon is the state, and the state is Creon. It is clear how he feels about these two values in conflict when encountered in another person, Antigone: loyalty to the state comes before family fealty, and he sentences her to death.

text: Portrayal of the gods[edit]

text: In Antigone as well as the other Theban Plays, there are very few references to the gods. Hades is the god who is most commonly referred to, but he is referred to more as a personification of Death. Zeus is referenced a total of 13 times by name in the entire play, and Apollo is referenced only as a personification of prophecy. This lack of mention portrays the tragic events that occur as the result of human error, and not divine intervention. The gods are portrayed as chthonic, as near the beginning there is a reference to "Justice who dwells with the gods beneath the earth." Sophocles references Olympus twice in Antigone. This contrasts with the other Athenian tragedians, who reference Olympus often.

text: Love for family[edit]

text: Antigone's love for family is shown when she buries her brother, Polyneices. Haemon was deeply in love with his cousin and fiancée Antigone, and he killed himself in grief when he found out that his beloved Antigone had hanged herself. It can also be argued however that Antigone's stubbornness which eventually killed her was an act of selfishness contrary to the widely believed concept of love for the family. In a family you cannot love only one person and claim that you love family, furthermore you cannot love the dead more than the living. If not for this stubbornness, most people who died would not have lost their lives in such a tragic fashion.

text: Modern adaptations[edit]

text: Drama[edit]

text:
Felix Mendelssohn composed a suite of incidental music for Ludwig Tieck's staging of the play in 1841. It includes an overture and seven choruses.
French playwright Jean Anouilh's tragedy Antigone was inspired by both Sophocles' play and the myth itself. Anouilh's play premièred in Paris at the Théâtre de l'Atelier in February 1944, during the Nazi occupation of France.
Right after World War II, Bertolt Brecht composed an adaptation, Antigone, which was based on a translation by Friedrich Hölderlin and was published under the title Antigonemodell 1948.
The Haitian writer and playwright Félix Morisseau-Leroy translated and adapted Antigone into Haitian Creole under the title, Antigòn (1953). Antigòn is noteworthy in its attempts to insert the lived religious experience of many Haitians into the content of the play through the introduction of several Loa from the pantheon of Haitian Vodou as voiced entities throughout the performance.
Antigone inspired the 1967 Spanish-language novel La tumba de Antígona (English title: Antigone's Tomb) by María Zambrano.
Puerto Rican playwright Luis Rafael Sánchez's 1968 play La Pasión según Antígona Pérez sets Sophocles' play in a contemporary world where Creon is the dictator of a fictional Latin American nation, and Antígona and her 'brothers' are dissident freedom fighters.
In 1977, Antigone was translated into Papiamento for an Aruban production by director Burny Every together with Pedro Velásquez and Ramon Todd Dandaré. This translation retains the original iambic verse by Sophocles.
In 2004, theatre companies Crossing Jamaica Avenue and The Women's Project in New York City co-produced the Antigone Project written by Tanya Barfield, Karen Hartman, Chiori Miyagawa, Pulitzer Prize winner Lynn Nottage and Caridad Svich, a five-part response to Sophocles' text and to the US Patriot Act. The text was published by NoPassport Press as a single edition in 2009 with introductions by classics scholar Marianne McDonald and playwright Lisa Schlesinger.
There are four operas: Antigone (1977) by Dinos Constantinides, on an English libretto by Fitts and Fitzgerald, Antigone (1986) by Marjorie S. Merryman, Antigone (1988) with music by Vassily Lobanov and libretto (in Russian) by Alexey Parin and the fourth – The Burial at Thebes (2007–2008) by Dominique Le Gendre and libretto by Seamus Heaney, based on his translation for the normal spoken theatre. The production features conductor William Lumpkin, stage director Jim Petosa, and six singers and ten instrumentalists.[19]
Bangladeshi director Tanvir Mokammel in his 2008 film Rabeya (The Sister) also draws inspiration from Antigone to parallel the story to the martyrs of the 1971 Bangladeshi Liberation War who were denied a proper burial.[20]
In 2000, Peruvian theatre group Yuyachkani and poet José Watanabe adapted the play into a one-actor piece which remains as part of the group's repertoire.[21]
An Iranian absurdist adaptation of Antigone was written and directed by Homayoun Ghanizadeh and staged at the City Theatre in Tehran in 2011.[22]
Roy Williams’s 2014 adaptation of Antigone for the Pilot Theatre relocates the setting to contemporary street culture.[23]
Syrian playwright Mohammad Al-Attar adapted Antigone for a 2014 production at Beirut, performed by Syrian refugee women.[24]
"Antigona," a 90-minute flamenco version, performed by Soledad Barrio and Noche Flamenca, with Barrio as Antigona. Martín Santangelo, Artistic Director and Producer, with Choreography by Soledad Barrio and additional choreography by Isabel Bayon; Consulting Director, Lee Breuer; Mask Design based on the work of Mary Frank; Music by Eugenio Iglesias, Salva de Maria and Martín Santangelo. Presented at the West Park Presbyterian Church, 165 West 86th Street, New York, NY 10024, July 13 to August 15, 2015.
In 2012, the Royal National Theatre adapted Antigone to modern times. Directed by Polly Findlay,[25] the production transformed the dead Polyneices into a terrorist threat and Antigone into a "dangerous subversive."[26]

text: Cinema[edit]

text: Yorgos Tzavellas adapted the play into a 1961 film which he also directed. It featured Irene Papas as Antigone.

text: Liliana Cavani's 1970 I Cannibali is a contemporary political fantasy based upon the Sophocles play, with Britt Ekland as Antigone and Pierre Clémenti as Tiresias.

text: A 2011 Hungarian film version starred Kamilla Fátyol as Antigone, Zoltán Mucsi as Creon and Emil Keres as Tiresias.

text: Television[edit]

text: In 1986, Juliet Stevenson starred as Antigone with John Shrapnel as Creon and Sir John Gielgud as Tiresias in the BBC's The Theban Plays.

text: Antigone at the Barbican was a 2015 filmed-for-TV version of a production at the Barbican directed by Ivo van Hove; the translation was by Anne Carson and the film starred Juliette Binoche as Antigone and Patrick O'Kane as Kreon.

text: Other TV adaptations of Antigone have starred Irene Worth (1949) and Dorothy Tutin (1959), both broadcast by the BBC.

text: Translations and adaptations[edit]

text:
1839 – Johann Jakob Christian Donner, German verse
1865 – Edward H. Plumptre, verse (Harvard Classics Vol. VIII, Part 6. New York: P.F. Collier & Son, 1909–14); full text
1888 – Sir George Young, verse (Dover, 2006; ISBN 978-0-486-45049-0)
1899 – G. H. Palmer, verse (Boston: Houghton and Mifflin, 1899)
1904 – Richard C. Jebb, prose: full text
1911 – Joseph Edward Harry, verse (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke, 1911)
1912 – F. Storr, verse: full text
1931 – Shaemas O'Sheel, prose
1938 – Dudley Fitts and Robert Fitzgerald, verse: full text
1946 – Jean Anouilh, (modern French translation)
1947 – E.F. Watling, verse (Penguin classics)
1949 – Robert Whitelaw, verse (Rinehart Editions)
1950 – Theodore Howard Banks, verse
1950 – W. J. Gruffydd (translation into Welsh)
1953 – Félix Morisseau-Leroy (translated and adapted into Haitian Creole)
1954 – Elizabeth Wyckoff, verse
1954 – F. L. Lucas, verse translation
1956 – Shahrokh Meskoob (into Persian)
1958 – Paul Roche, verse
1962 – H. D. F. Kitto, verse
1962 – Michael Townsend, (Longman, 1997; ISBN 978-0-8102-0214-6)
1973 – Richard Emil Braun, verse
1982 – Robert Fagles, verse with introduction and notes by Bernard Knox
1986 – Don Taylor, prose (The Theban Plays, Methuen Drama; ISBN 978-0-413-42460-0)
1991 – David Grene, verse
1994 – Hugh Lloyd-Jones, verse (Sophocles, Volume II: Antigone, The Women of Trachis, Philoctetes, Oedipus at Colonus, Loeb Classical Library No. 21, 1994; ISBN 978-0-674-99558-1)
1997 – George Judy, adaptation for children (Pioneer Drama, 1997)
1998 – Ruby Blondell, prose with introduction and interpretive essay (Focus Classical Library, Focus Publishing/R Pullins Company; ISBN 0-941051-25-0)
2000 – Marianne MacDonald, (Nick Hern Books, 2000; ISBN 978-1-85459-200-2)
2001 – Paul Woodruff, verse (Hackett, 2001; ISBN 978-0-87220-571-0)
2003 – Reginald Gibbons and Charles Segal, verse (Oxford UP, 2007; ISBN 978-0-19-514310-2)
2004 – Seamus Heaney, The Burial at Thebes – verse adaptation (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005; ISBN 978-0-374-53007-5), also adapted as an opera in 2008
2005 – Ian Johnston, verse (modern English): full text
2006 – George Theodoridis, prose: full text
2006 – A. F. Th. van der Heijden, 'Drijfzand koloniseren' ("Colonizing quicksand"), prose, adapting Antigone's story using characters from the author's 'Homo Duplex' saga.
2009 – Tanya Barfield, Karen Hartman, Lynn Nottage, Chiori Miyagawa, Caridad Svich, play adaptation (NoPassport Press, 2009; ISBN 978-0-578-03150-7)
2011 - Diane Rayor, Sophocles’ Antigone: A New Translation. Cambridge University Press.
2012 – Anne Carson, play adaptation (Antigonick, New Directions Press, 2012; ISBN 978-0-811-21957-0)
2013 – George Porter, verse ("Black Antigone: Sophocles' tragedy meets the heartbeat of Africa", ISBN 978-1-909-18323-0)
2014 – Marie Slaight and Terrence Tasker, verse and art ('"The Antigone Poems, Altaire Productions, 2014, ISBN 978-0-9806447-0-8)
2016 - Translation by Slavoj Zizek, with introduction by Hanif Kureishi, Pub. by Bloomsbury, New York
2017 - Kamila Shamsie 'Home Fire' - novel. An adaptation in a contemporary context, Pub by Bloomsbury Circus, Great Britain. ISBN 978-1-4088-8677-9
2017 - Brad Poer 'Antigone: Closure', play adaptation (contemporary American prose adaptation set post-fall of United States government)

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Sophocles (1986). The Three Theban Plays: Antigone, Oedipus the King, Oedipus at Colonus. Translated by Robert Fagles. New York: Penguin. p. 35.
Jump up ^ Sophocles (1947). Sophocles: The Theban Plays (Penguin Classics). Translated by E.F. Watling. The Penguin Group.
^ Jump up to: a b c McDonald, Marianne (2002), Sophocles' Antigone (PDF), Nick Hern Books
^ Jump up to: a b Bates, Alfred, ed. (1906). The Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization, Vol. 1. London: Historical Publishing Company. pp. 112–123.
Jump up ^ Rosenfield, Kathrin H. (2010). Antigone: Sophocles' Art, Hölderlin's Insight. Translated by Charles B. Duff. Aurora, Colorado: The Davies Group, Publishers. pp. 1–22. ISBN 978-1934542224.
Jump up ^ Letters, F. J. H. (1953). The Life and Work of Sophocles. London: Sheed and Ward. pp. 147–148.
Jump up ^ Letters, p. 156.
^ Jump up to: a b Collins, J. Churtin (1906). "The Ethics of Antigone". Sophocles' Antigone. Translated by Robert Whitelaw. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Jump up ^ Else, Gerald F. (1976). The Madness of Antigone. Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag. p. 43.
Jump up ^ Letters, p. 147.
Jump up ^ Rosenfield, p. 99–121.
Jump up ^ Ferguson, John (2013). A Companion to Greek Tragedy. University of Texas Press. p. 173. ISBN 9780292759701.
Jump up ^ Jebb, Sir Richard C. (1900). "Verse 429". Sophocles: The Plays and Fragments, with critical notes, commentary, and translation in English prose. Part III: The Antigone. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
^ Jump up to: a b Rose, J.L. (March 1952). "The Problem of the Second Burial in Sophocles' Antigone". The Classical Journal. 47 (6): 220-221. JSTOR 3293220.
Jump up ^ Honig, Bonnie (2011). "ISMENE'S FORCED CHOICE: SACRIFICE AND SORORITY IN SOPHOCLES' ANTIGONE" (PDF). Arethusa. The Johns Hopkins University Press. 44: 29–68.
^ Jump up to: a b Levy, Charles S. (1963). "Antigone's Motives: A Suggested Interpretation". Transactions of the American Philological Association. 94: 137–44. doi:10.2307/283641. JSTOR 283641.
Jump up ^ Sophocles (1991). Sophocles: Oedipus the King, Oedipus at Colonus, Antigone. Translated by David Grene. University of Chicago Publishers. p. Line 48. ISBN 978-0-226-30792-3.
^ Jump up to: a b MacKay, L. (1962). "Antigone, Coriolanus, and Hegel". Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association. 93: 178–179. JSTOR 283759.
Jump up ^ Medrek, T.J. (November 6, 1999). "BU Opera fest's 'Antigone' is a lesson in excellence". Boston Herald. p. 22. Retrieved March 8, 2010.
Jump up ^ Press Trust of India (March 11, 2010). "Bangla director dedicates new film to 1971 war martyrs". NDTV Movies. New Delhi: NDTV Convergence Limited. Archived from the original on July 14, 2011.
Jump up ^ Grupo Cultural Yuyachkani: Antígona [Yuyachkani Cultural Group: Antigone]. Scalar (in Spanish). 11 March 2011. Retrieved 24 March 2018.
Jump up ^ "نگاهی به نمایش "آنتیگونه" نوشته و کار "همایون غنی‌زاده"" [Take a look at the "Antigone" display of Homayoun Ghanizadeh]. Irani Art (in Persian). February 1389. Retrieved 24 March 2018.
Jump up ^ Hickling, Alfred (September 23, 2014). "Antigone Review – engaging Gangland Sophocles". The Guardian.
Jump up ^ Fordham, Alice (December 13, 2014). "Syrian Women Displaced By War Make Tragedy Of 'Antigone' Their Own". National Public Radio.
Jump up ^ "Antigone: Cast & creative". National Theatre. The Royal National Theatre. Archived from the original on 31 August 2012.
Jump up ^ Billington, Michael (31 May 2012). "Antigone – review". The Guardian. Retrieved 5 December 2015.

text: Further reading[edit]

text:
Butler, Judith (2000). Antigone's Claim: Kinship Between Life and Death. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-11895-3.
Heaney, Seamus (December 2004). "The Jayne Lecture: Title Deeds: Translating a Classic" (PDF). Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 148 (4): 411–426. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-10-18.
Heidegger, Martin; Gregory Fried; Richard Polt (2000). An Introduction to Metaphysics. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 156–176. ISBN 978-0-300-08328-6.
Heidegger, Martin; McNeill, William; Davis, Julia (1996). Hölderlin's Hymn "The Ister". Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Lacan, Jacques (1992). The Seminar of Jacques Lacan, Book VII: The Ethics of Psychoanalysis. Dennis Porter, translator. New York: W.W. Norton. pp. 240–286. ISBN 0-393-31613-0.
Miller, Peter (2014). "Helios , vol. 41 no. 2, 2014 © Texas Tech University Press 163 Destabilizing Haemon: Radically Reading Gender and Authority in Sophocles' Antigone". Helios. 41 (2): 163–185. Retrieved 25 January 2017.
Segal, Charles (1999). Tragedy and Civilization: An Interpretation of Sophocles. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 266. ISBN 978-0-8061-3136-8.
Steiner, George (1996). Antigones: How the Antigone Legend Has Endured in Western Literature, Art, and Thought. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-06915-4.


document_title: Geography of West Bengal

question_text: name the rivers that have made the plains of west bengal fertile

text: Geography of West Bengal

text: Location and extent[edit]

text: West Bengal is on the eastern bottleneck of India, stretching from the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south. It lies between 85 degree 50 minutes and 89 degree 50 minutes east longitude, and 21 degrees 38 minutes and 27 degrees 10 minutes north latitude.[1] The state has a total area of 88,752 square kilometres (34,267 sq mi).[2] With Bangladesh, which lies on its eastern border, the state forms the ethno-linguistic region of Bengal. To its northeast lie the states of Assam and Sikkim and the country Bhutan, and to its southwest, the state of Orissa. To the west it borders the state of Jharkhand and Bihar, and to the northwest, Nepal. The capital of the state is Kolkata, the third-largest urban agglomeration and the seventh-largest city in India.

text: Political geography[edit]

text: There are 23 districts and 5 divisions in West Bengal. The Burdwan Division consists of Paschim Bardhaman district, Purba Bardhaman, Birbhum, and Hooghly, Midnapur Division consists of Purba Midnapore, Paschim Medinipur, Jhargram, Bankura and Purulia, the Jalpaiguri Division consists of Alipurduar, Cooch Behar, Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, and Kalimpong, the Malda Division consists of Uttar Dinajpur, Dakshin Dinajpur, Murshidabad and Malda, and the Presidency Division consists of Kolkata, Nadia, North 24 Parganas, South 24 Parganas and Howrah.

text: Each district is governed by a district collector or district magistrate, appointed either by the Indian Administrative Service or the West Bengal Civil Service. Each district is subdivided into Sub-Divisions, governed by a sub-divisional magistrate, and again into Blocks. Blocks consists of panchayats (village councils) and town municipalities[1] Often the districts north of the Ganges i.e., Cooch Behar, Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, Alipurduar, North Dinajpur, South Dinajpur and Malda are together termed as North Bengal.

text: The capital and largest city of the state is Kolkata – the third-largest urban agglomeration[3] and the seventh-largest city[4] in India.Asansol is the second largest city & urban agglomeration in West Bengal after Kolkata.[3] Siliguri is an economically important city, strategically located in the northeastern Siliguri Corridor (Chicken's Neck) of India. Other major cities and towns in West Bengal are Howrah, Durgapur, Raniganj, Haldia, Jalpaiguri, Kharagpur, Burdwan, Darjeeling, Midnapore, and Malda.[4]

text: Landforms[edit]

text: Darjeeling Himalayan hill region[edit]

text: Darjeeling Himalayan hill region is situated on the north-western side of the state. This region belongs to the Eastern Himalaya range. The whole of the Darjeeling district except the Siliguri division and a narrow part in the northern part of Jalpaiguri district constitutes the region. It starts abruptly up from the Terai region. The deep gorge of Teesta River has divided this mountainous region into two parts: the Singalila and Darjeeling ranges run from north to south in the western part. The Singalila range is located along the border of Darjeeling and Nepal; it has four important peaks – Sandakfu, Falut, Sabargam and Tonglu. Among the Himalayan ranges of this region, Singalila range hosts Sandakfu which at 3,636 metres (11,929 ft) is the highest point of West Bengal.Also to mention Sandakfu & Phalut are the only place in West Bengal from where Mt. Everest is visible. Two high peaks, Tiger Hill and Ghoom are seen near the town of Darjeeling. Many ranges branch off in different directions from Tiger Hill. Durpindara is an important mountain in the eastern part of the mountainous region. A few hills also occur in the Terai or Dooars region at the foot of the Himalayas. Some remnants of the Siwaliks can be seen in the Jalpaiguri district, where they are known as the Buxa-Jayanti Hills.

text: Terai region[edit]

text: The ‘‘Terai’’ ("moist land") is a belt of marshy grasslands, savannas, and forests at the base of the Himalaya range stretching southwards to about 38 km. Above the Terai belt lies the Bhabar, a forested belt of rock, gravel, and soil eroded from the Himalayas. The Terai zone is composed of alternate layers of clay and sand, with a high water table that creates many springs and wetlands. The Terai zone is inundated yearly by the monsoon-swollen rivers of the Himalaya. The Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands is an ecoregion that stretches across the middle of the Terai belt. The Terai-Duar savanna and wetlands are a mosaic of tall grasslands, savannas and evergreen and deciduous forests. The Terai and Dooars region politically constitute the plains of Darjeeling District, whole of Jalpaiguri and Alipurduar district and upper region of Cooch Behar District in West Bengal. The slope of the land is gentle, from north to south. The general height of the land is 80 to 100 m. The entire region is made up of sand, gravel and pebbles laid down by the Himalayan rivers like the Teesta, Torsa, Raidak, Jaldhaka, Sankosh and several other small rivulets. The Teesta has divided the area into two parts- the western part is known as the Terai whereas the eastern part is known as the Dooars or Duars. The Dooars region can be further subdivided into the Siliguri or Western Dooars, the middle or Jalpaiguri Dooars and the eastern or Alipur Dooars.

text: North Bengal plains[edit]

text: North Bengal plain start from the south of Terai region and continues up to the left bank of the Ganges. The southern parts of the district Jalpaiguri, North Dinajpur baring some extreme northern regions, South Dinajpur, Malda, Alipurduar and southern part of Cooch Behar districts constitute this geographical region. The narrow land mass in the North Dinajpur district is known as Mahananda Corridor. This corridor runs north to south joining Malda with the plains of Jalpaiguri, Alipurduar and Cooch Behar. The entire part of North and South Dinajpur is silt laden plain.

text: Mahananda River divides the district of Malda into two parts. The eastern part consists of undulating plains and some tilas and is made up of old alluvium and is a part of the Ganges delta. It is also known as Barind or Barendrabhumi. In contrast to the eastern part, the western part is made up of new alluvium and in this part River Kalindi joins the Mahananda River. The part of Malda lying to the north of river Kalindi is known as tal. This is a lowland and covered with swamps and beels (small water bodies). Whereas the area south of the Kalindi is a very fertile land and is known as diara.

text: The plain in the south of Jalpaiguri, Alipurduar and Cooch Behar district is also made of new alluvium deposited by numerous rivers like the Teesta, Torsa, Raidak, Jaldhaka, Sankosh, Balason, Punarbhaba, Atrai and several other small rivulets.

text: Rarh region[edit]

text: Rarh is the region that intervenes between the Vajjabhumi and the Ganges Delta. Parts of the districts Murshidabad, Birbhum, Bankura, Purba Bardhaman, Paschim Bardhaman, Purba Medinipur and Paschim Medinipur constitute this region. The region is about 50 to 100  m above the sea level. This region is believed to be created from the soil from the Deccan plateau. The area is formed by the silt brought by the tributaries of Bhagirathi, Mayurakshi River, Ajay River, Damodar and Rupnarayan River which flow over the western plateau region made up of laterite soil make the soil of the area red in colour. The land slope is from west to the south-east and formation of natural levees along the river banks is a common phenomenon.

text: Coastal plain[edit]

text: A small coastal region is on the extreme south of the state. A part of the district of Purba Medinipur along the Bay of Bengal constitutes the coastal plain. This emergent coastal plain is made up of sand and mud deposited by rivers and by wind. Parallel to the coast are colonies of sand dunes and marshy areas. The Digha dune lies nearest to the Bay of Bengal while the Kanthi dune is the farthest from it. In some areas dunes occur at a distance of 15–16 km from the coast and are 11–12 m high.

text: Sunderbans[edit]

text: The Sundarbans delta is the largest mangrove forest in the world situated in the South 24 Parganas district. It lies at the mouth of the Ganges and is spread across areas of Bangladesh and West Bengal, India. The Bangladeshi and Indian portions of the jungle are listed in the UNESCO world heritage list separately as the Sundarbans and Sundarbans National Park respectively, though they are parts of the same forest. The Sundarbans are intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests, and presents an excellent example of ongoing ecological processes. The general average height of the area is 10 m. This area has been created by deposition of silt by its numerous rivers namely, Hoogly, Matla River, Jamira River, Gosaba River, Saptamukhi River, Haribhanga River and their tributaries. The formation of the delta is an ongoing process and new bars and islands are being created along the rivers and at the river mouth. A large section of the area remains under water during incoming times.

text: The area is known for its wide range of fauna. The most famous among these is the royal Bengal tiger, but numerous species of birds, spotted deer, crocodiles and snakes also inhabit it. It is estimated that there are now 400 Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area.

text: Western plateau and high lands[edit]

text: The Western plateau and highlands forms the eastern fringes of the Chota Nagpur Plateau and is made up of igneous rocks of the Archaean era as well as coal-bearing mudstone and quartzite rocks of Carboniferous period. The western part of Purulia, Bankura, Birbhum, Bardhaman and Paschim Medinipur district constitutes this area. Because of long and continuous erosion, the whole region has been transformed into an undulating peneplain. This area is interspersed by small monadnocks locally known as tila. Some of the important hills in the area include Ajodhya Hills (677 m), Panchet(643 m) and Baghmundi of Purulia, Biharinath (452 m) and Susunia (442 m) of Bankura. The area has a slope from the west to the east. The altitude in the area ranges from 500 to 100 m. Gorgaburu in the Ayodhya Hills (677 m) is the highest point in the region.

text: Ganges delta[edit]

text: The Ganges delta consists of the whole of Murshidabad district, Nadia, Kolkata, Hooghly, and Howrah and the northern part of North and South 24 Parganas. River Ganges passes through this vast area and divides into three distinct parts – the old delta, the mature delta and the active delta.

text: The old delta consists of the districts of Murshidabad and Nadia. The formation of delta is complete and the rivers here are heavily silted and many have even dried up in due course of time. Silted rivers, swamps, beels and oxbow lakes forms the area. This area is also known as Bagri region.The districts of Kolkata, Hooghly, and Howrah and part of North 24 Parganas form mature delta region. The rivers are slow and meandering and frequently shift their courses. Swamps, beels and oxbow lakes characterises the scenery. The northern portion of South 24 Parganas district is known to be the active delta of the Ganges, where the formation of delta is still an ongoing process.

text: Agro-climatic groups[edit]

text: Depending on soil and climate variations, West Bengal can be divided into six broad divisions:[5]

text:
The hill region in the north
The terai and Teesta alluvial region of North Bengal
The laterectic, red and gravely undulating region in the west
The coastal alluvial region in the south
The gangetic alluvial region in the west
The Vindhya alluvial region in the centre

text: Rivers[edit]

text: Ganges enters West Bengal near Rajmahal and then flows in a south-easterly direction. It divides into two near north of Dhulian in Murshidabad district.[6] One branch enters Bangladesh as the Padma or Pôdda, while the other flows through West Bengal as the Bhagirathi River and Hooghly River in a southern direction. The Bhagirathi is the main river in West Bengal which flows past some of the important cities like Murshidabad, Baharampur, Nabadwip, Chinsura, Chandannagar, Srirampur, Howrah, Kolkata, Diamond Harbour and Haldia. It empties its water into Bay of Bengal near Sagar Island in the South 24 Parganas.[6]

text: The Mayurakshi, Ajay, Damodar, Kangsabati, Rupnarayan and their tributaries which rise in the Western plateau and high lands flow eastwards through the different districts of West Bengal and joins the Bhagirathi on the right bank.[6] The Mayurakshi, which is fed by tributaries Brahmani, Dwarka, Bakreshwar and Kopai joins the Bhagirathi near Kandi, Murshidabad, the Ajay, which rises in the hills of Bihar, joined by the Kunur, flows down the plateau fringe, marking the boundary between Bardhaman and Birbhum districts joins it near Katwa and Damodar, with its small meandering distributaries, small streams, Khari, Banka and Behula joins the Bhagirathi near Uluberia. The Damodar is known as the sorrow of Bengal, is now controlled by making the Damodar Valley Project. The Dwarakeswar and Shilabati rivers join to form Rupnarayan and the Kangsabati and Keleghai rivers join to form the Haldi.[6] The Rupnarayan and Haldi fall into the Bhagirathi in the East Midnapure district. The Subarnarekha River after flowing for a short distance in West Bengal reenters into Orissa. These rivers carry with them plenty of water thus keeping the Bhagirathi river submerged with water throughout the year. The rivers along with water carry silt and sand eroded from the western plateaus and deposits them in the Bhagirathi and the rivers themselves. This silting is causing great inconvenience for the Kolkata Port and often result flooding in the years of heavy rain.[6]

text: The distributaries of the Padma River like Bhairab, Jalangi, Mathabhanga River and their tributaries enters West Bengal and joins the Bhagirathi on its left bank.[6] The Bhairab and the Jalangi meet and their joined waters known as Jalangi falls into Bhagirathi. The Mathabhanga divides into branches namely; Churni and Ichhamati, while the Churni meets the Bhagirathi while the other flows southwards and joins the Kalindi.[6]

text: The Sunderbans region is covered by numerous estuaries and streams, mainly distributaries of main rivers. The rivers are interconnected and are fed by tidal waters. The major rivers of the area are Hoogly, Matla, Gosaba, Saptamukhi, Haribhanga, Piyali, Thakuran/ Jamira, Raimangal, Kalindi and Ichhamati.[6]

text: The Teesta flows cutting deep gorges from north to south in the mountainous Darjeeling district, it enters the plains at Sevoke and flows in a mighty stream on straight line towards the south east until it pours its waters into the Brahamaputra in Bangladesh.[6] Torsa, Jaldhaka, Kaljani, Raidak, Sankosh and Mahananda rivers are in the northern hilly region which rise in the Himalayas and flow in a southerly direction through the districts of Darjeeling, Alipurduar, Jalpaiguri, Cooch Behar and North and South Dinajpur and enters Bangladesh. As most of the rivers are snow fed, so most of the rivers are perennial in nature and often floods during the rainy season.[6] The entire region is made up of sand, gravel and pebbles laid down by these rivers.[6] The Mahananda rises from the Dow Hills forest, near the town of Darjeeling and are fed by similar small rivers like, Mahanadi, Balason, and Machi and runs in a zig-zag way through the district of Malda and joins the Padma in Bangladesh. In the central region, the main river is the Mahananda. The Tangon and Punarbhabha, and Atrai arises in the plains, while the former two joins together and flows into Mahanadi, Atrai flows into the Padma.

text: Wetlands[edit]

text: The Sundarbans delta is the largest mangrove forest in the world. It lies at the mouth of the Ganges and is spread across areas of Bangladesh and West Bengal, India. The Bangladeshi and Indian portions of the jungle are listed in the UNESCO world heritage list separately as the Sundarbans and Sundarbans National Park respectively, though they are parts of the same forest. The Sundarbans are intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests, and presents an excellent example of ongoing ecological processes.

text: The area is known for its wide range of fauna. The most famous among these is the Bengal tiger, but numerous species of birds, spotted deer, crocodiles and snakes also inhabit it. It is estimated that there are now 400 Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area.[citation needed]

text: Climate[edit]

text: West Bengal's climate varies from tropical savannah in the southern portions to humid subtropical in the north. The main seasons are summer, rainy season, a short autumn, and winter. While the summer in the delta region is noted for excessive humidity, the western highlands experience a dry summer like northern India, with the highest day temperature ranging from 38 °C (100 °F) to 45 °C (113 °F).[7] At nights, a cool southerly breeze carries moisture from the Bay of Bengal. In early summer brief squalls and thunderstorms known as "kal-baisakhi" often arrive from the north or northwest.[8] Monsoons bring rain to the whole state from June to September. West Bengal receives the Bay of Bengal branch of the Indian Ocean monsoon that moves in a northwest direction. Winter (December–January) is mild over the plains with average minimum temperatures of 15 °C (59 °F).[7] A cold and dry northern wind blows in the winter, substantially lowering the humidity level. However, the Darjeeling Himalayan Hill region experiences a harsh winter, with occasional snowfall at places.

text: Natural resources[edit]

text: West Bengal stands third in the country in terms of mineral production. The state contributes about one-fifth to the total production of minerals in the country.[6] Coal constitutes 99% of the minerals extracted in West Bengal; fireclay, china clay, limestone, copper, iron, wolfram, manganese and dolomite are mined in small quantities.[6] There are good possibilities of obtaining mineral oil and natural gas in the areas near the Bay of Bengal, in Purba Medinipur, Sundarbans, South 24 Parganas and North Bengal plains.[6] Research is undergoing for finding natural gas in various places.

text: West Bengal is the third largest state for coal production, accounting for about half of India's total.[6] Coal is extracted from about 228 mines in the Raniganj and Asansol region of Bardhaman district.[6] High grade bituminous coal is mined at Raniganj, Dishergarh, Santaldih, Kulti, Barakar, Ghushik, Kajora. Coalfields stretch over an area of about 1,550 km2 (598 sq mi). The coalfields of Raniganj support the Asansol-Durgapur industrial belt by providing fuel to the industries as well as generation of thermal power. Lignite mined in Darjeeling is used to make briquettes. Coal deposits are also found along the Ajoy river in Birbhum district.[6]

text: West Bengal ranks next to Bihar and Madhya Pradesh in production of fireclay.[6] Most of this mineral is extracted in the Raniganj region along with few amount is also extracted from Birbhum and Purulia. China clay used in the pottery, paper, textile, rubber and paint industries is unearthed at Mohammad Bazar in Birbhum and Mejia in Bankura. Rest of the production comes from Purulia, Bardhaman, Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri. In 1993–94 1.24 lakh metric tons of fireclay were produced in West Bengal.[6]

text: Limestone which is used in cement industry is mined in Bankura, Purulia, Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri.[6] There are copper mines in Jalpaiguri and Darjeeling. Small quantities of low quality iron-ore are mined in Bardhaman, Purulia, Birbhum and Darjeeling.[6] There are manganese in the Jhargram region of Paschim Medinipur, Purulia and Bardhaman. Wolfram is mined at Jhilimili in Bankura.[6] The state’s production of dolomite comes from the Dooars region of Jalpaiguri. 38.5 thousand tonnes of dolomite were raised in 1993–94.[6]


document_title: Practical Magic

question_text: where did they film the movie practical magic

text: Practical Magic

text: Plot[edit]

text: Maria Owens, a young witch, is exiled to Maria's Island in Massachusetts with her unborn child for escaping her execution. When her lover does not come to rescue her, she desperately casts a spell upon herself to stop falling in love due to heartbreak, only to die soon after. The spell becomes a curse for several generations. In the present day, Gillian and Sally Owens, two descendants of the Owens family, are taken in by their maternal aunts Frances and Jet after the death of their parents. Sally is the more gifted of the two while Gillian's talents are more in charm and persuasion, and both have been subject to ridicule during their youth. After witnessing their aunts cast a spell on a man for a woman who seems obsessed with having his love, Gillian decides to fall in love and Sally casts a true love spell to protect herself.

text: The sisters cast an oath to each other using blood from both of their hands and Gillian leaves for Los Angeles. Sally meets and marries Michael, a local apple salesman. Years later, the two open their botanical shop Verbena and have two young daughters, Kylie and Antonia. Michael is killed after being hit by a truck. Devastated, Sally and her daughters return to the Owens home to live with the aunts, and realize that the aunts cast a spell so she could fall in love hoping that it would circumvent the curse. Sally decides that she and her daughters will not perform magic. As Gillian begins a relationship with Jimmy Angelov in Orlando, she can feel Sally's emotional state, and feeling that Sally needs her she drugs Jimmy to return to Massachusetts.

text: Gillian returns to Sally after Jimmy becomes abusive, but the sisters are kidnapped. Sally puts belladonna into Jimmy's tequila, inadvertently killing him. The sisters resurrect him using the forbidden spell from their aunts' book of spells, but Jimmy attempts to kill Gillian after being revived. Sally kills him again, and the sisters bury his remains in their home's garden. Telltale signs begin occurring, indicating that the nieces did something wrong, yet they do not confess to their aunts when confronted. Frances and Jet take a leave of absence after giving Kylie and Antonia protection wards, and a message to pass on: "clean up your own mess!"

text: State investigator Gary Hallett arrives from Tucson, Arizona in search of Jimmy, who is also a serial killer. As Gary begins to suspect Sally, Gillian, Kylie and Antonia create a potion to banish Gary; however, the girls realize he is the one described in Sally's true love spell, and remove the potion. Later, Sally has Gary record her testimony and sees the letter she had once written Gillian, and realizes he must have read it more times than he had let on. Unable to deny their feelings for each other, they kiss and Sally realizes that he was there because of the spell she cast years earlier.

text: Sally discovers that Jimmy's spirit has possessed Gillian's body and Gary sees Jimmy's spirit emerge. Jimmy attempts to possess Gary, only to be hurt by his silver star-shaped badge and is temporarily exiled. Later, Sally tells Gary that he is there because of her spell and the feelings they have for each other are not real. Gary replies that curses are only true if one believes in them and reveals that he also wished for her, before returning to Tucson.

text: Jimmy possesses Gillian again and attempts to kill Sally before Frances and Jet return. Sally, realizing she must embrace magic to save her sister, asks the aid of the townswomen and they form a coven to exorcise Jimmy's spirit. Sally makes them stop when she sees that the effort might kill Gillian. Getting inside the circle, Sally and the townswomen reenact her oath with Gillian. They are able to break the Owens curse, exorcising Jimmy's spirit and allowing the coven to exile him permanently. After leaving for Tucson, Gary clears the sisters of any suspicion of wrongdoing in Jimmy's case and decides to return to Massachusetts to be with Sally. The Owens women celebrate Halloween dressed up in witch costumes, and are embraced and welcomed by the townsfolk.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Sandra Bullock as Sally Owens, a witch who becomes widowed after the Owens’ curse kills her husband.

Camilla Belle as young Sally

Nicole Kidman as Gillian Owens, younger sister of one year of Sally, who grows bored with small town life and becomes the victim of an abusive relationship.

Lora Anne Criswell as young Gillian

Goran Visnjic as James 'Jimmy' Angelov, boyfriend of Gillian, who becomes abusive and kidnaps the sisters, and is ultimately killed by them, twice.
Stockard Channing as Aunt Frances Owens, aunt of Sally and Gillian, who tends to be more outgoing and fun-loving. She also loves to meddle in people's love lives.
Dianne Wiest as Aunt Bridget 'Jet' Owens, aunt of Sally and Gillian, who tends to be more tenderhearted and quiet.
Aidan Quinn as Investigator Gary Hallet, a lawman from Tucson, Arizona, who investigates Sally and Gillian in the murder of Jimmy Angelov and falls in love with Sally.
Caprice Benedetti as Maria Owens, matriarch of the Owens clan.
Evan Rachel Wood as Kylie Owens, daughter of Sally Owens, who lives with her mom and aunts after the death of her father, Michael. She looks and acts a lot like her Aunt Gillian.
Alexandra Artrip as Antonia Owens, daughter of Sally Owens, who lives with her mom and aunts after the death of her father, Michael. She looks a lot like her mother.
Mark Feuerstein as Michael, husband of Sally Owens, and father of Kylie and Antonia Owens. He is a victim of the "Owens' Curse", which resulted in his death.
Peter Shaw as Jack, Sally and Gillian's father, who died from the Owens' curse when they were children.
Caralyn Kozlowski as Regina, Sally and Gillian's mother, who died of a broken heart after losing her husband to the Owens' curse.
Chloe Webb as Carla, a friend of Sally's, and works at her shop.
Lucinda Jenney as Sara, one of the town women, who initially fears the Owens but later responds to Sally's call for help.
Margo Martindale as Linda Bennett, one of town women who responds to Sally's call for help.
Martha Gehman as Patty, one of town women who responds to Sally's call for help.

text: Production[edit]

text: Practical Magic was partially filmed on an artificial set in California. The film's producers said the house was a big part of the depiction of the Owens' culture, so they knew they had to build a house to accurately depict this. They built it in Coupeville, Washington.[2] They brought much of the set from California and placed it inside the house, but it still took almost a year to perfect the image of the house and the interior.[3] The house used is owned by the Sundstrom Family and is located on San Juan Valley Road, San Juan Island. They built a replica of the outside of the house on the west side of San Juan Island so that it looked like the house was on the waterfront, but in actuality it is in the valley. They built the house in San Juan County Park but since the house was built only for this filming, it was torn down after the movie was released. Many of the small town scenes were filmed in downtown Coupeville, Washington, located on Whidbey Island.

text: According to Sandra Bullock in the DVD commentary, in the scene where the Owens women are drunk and slinging insults, the actresses actually got drunk on very bad tequila brought by Kidman. The cast also thinks that the supernatural elements of the house started to affect them; the cast and crew say that they have heard ghost noises while filming the coven scene at the end of the film. For the final scene with all of the townspeople at the Owens' home, the entire population of the town where filming took place was invited to show up in costume and appear as townsfolk.

text: Music[edit]

text:
Practical Magic

Photo by Suzanne Tenner

Soundtrack album by Various artists

Released
October 6, 1998 (original pressing)

Recorded
August 15–16, 1998,
Abbey Road Studios (Michael Nyman tracks)

Genre
Soundtrack, pop, minimalism, orchestral

Length
56:58 (Nyman pressing); 51:46 (Silvestri pressing)

Language
English

Label
Reprise/WEA

Producer
Danny Bramson, Sandra Bullock

Michael Nyman chronology

Strong on Oaks, Strong on the Causes of Oaks
(1998)
Practical Magic
(1998)
Ravenous
(1999)

Alan Silvestri chronology

The Parent Trap
(1998) The Parent Trap1998
Practical Magic
(1998) Practical Magic1998
Stuart Little
(1999) Stuart Little1999

text: Composer Michael Nyman's score to the movie was abruptly replaced with music by Alan Silvestri for the theatrical release. This last-minute change resulted in the release of two soundtracks, although as primarily a compilation album, only the two tracks of newly created material were changed. A 50-track demo (the last two tracks being "Convening the Coven" and "Maria Owens") of Nyman's score has been circulating among fans as a bootleg. The complete Nyman score runs 62:30 and contains music that would later appear, in altered form, in Ravenous and The Actors, as well as a bit of his stepwise chord progression theme from Out of the Ruins/String Quartet No. 3/Carrington/The End of the Affair/The Claim. "Convening the Coven", though not "Maria Owens", was subsequently reissued on The Very Best of Michael Nyman: Film Music 1980–2001, and music that uses material related to this piece has not been used elsewhere.

text: Singer Stevie Nicks headlined the soundtrack's published advertisements, promoting her songs "If You Ever Did Believe" and a new recording of her song "Crystal", both songs featuring Sheryl Crow on back-up vocals.

text:
"If You Ever Did Believe" – Stevie Nicks
"This Kiss" – Faith Hill
"Got to Give It Up (Pt.1)" – Marvin Gaye
"Is This Real?" – Lisa Hall
"Black Eyed Dog" – Nick Drake
"A Case of You" – Joni Mitchell
"Nowhere and Everywhere" – Michelle Lewis
"Always on My Mind" – Elvis Presley
"Everywhere" – Bran Van 3000
"Coconut" – Harry Nilsson
"Crystal" – Stevie Nicks
"Practical Magic" – Alan Silvestri / "Convening the Coven" – The Michael Nyman Orchestra
"Amas Veritas" – Alan Silvestri / "Maria Owens" – The Michael Nyman Orchestra

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Practical Magic opened at #1 with $13.1 million in ticket sales. The film went on to gross $68.1 million worldwide, less than its $75 million production budget.[1]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: Practical Magic received negative reviews from film critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a 20% approval rating, based on 55 reviews, with an average rating of 4.4/10 and the site's consensus states: "Comedy, romance and horror mix with unsatisfying results."[4] Another review aggregator, Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 1–100 reviews from film critics, calculated an average rating score of 46 based on 22 reviews.[5]

text: Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave Practical Magic a negative review, calling it "a witch comedy so slapdash, plodding, and muddled it seems to have had a hex put on it."[6] Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times said that the film "doesn't seem sure what tone to adopt, veering uncertainly from horror to laughs to romance."[7]

text: Accolades [edit]

text:
Year
Nominated work
Award
Result

1999
Funniest Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture
Dianne Wiest
American Comedy Award
Nominated

1999
Favorite Supporting Actress – Comedy/Romance
Stockard Channing
Blockbuster Entertainment Award
Won

1999
Favorite Actor – Comedy/Romance
Aidan Quinn
Blockbuster Entertainment Award
Nominated

1999
Favorite Song from a Movie
Faith Hill
For the song "This Kiss".
Blockbuster Entertainment Award
Nominated

1999
Favorite Supporting Actress – Comedy/Romance
Dianne Wiest
Blockbuster Entertainment Award
Nominated

1999
Best Performance in a Feature Film – Supporting Young Actress
Camilla Belle
Young Artist Award
Nominated

1999
Best Performance in a Feature Film – Supporting Young Actress
Evan Rachel Wood
Young Artist Award
Nominated

text: Efforts for television series[edit]

text: In 2004, Warner Bros. and CBS produced Sudbury, a television pilot written by Becky Hartman Edwards, starring Kim Delaney in the role played by Bullock in the film, and Jeri Ryan in the role played by Kidman. The series, named for the Sudbury, Massachusetts location of the novel and film, was not picked up.

text: In 2010, Warner Bros. and ABC Family attempted to develop a reboot television series.[8]


document_title: Servants of India Society

question_text: in 1905 who founded the servants of india society aimed at promoting education

text: Servants of India Society

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The Servants of India Society was formed in Pune, Maharashtra, on June 12, 1905 by Gopal Krishna Gokhale,[1] who left the Deccan Education Society to form this association. Along with him were a small group of educated Indians, as Natesh Appaji Dravid, Gopal Krishna Deodhar and Anant Patwardhan who wanted to promote social and human development and overthrow the British rule in India. The Society organized many campaigns to promote education, sanitation, health care and fight the social evils of untouchability and discrimination, alcoholism, poverty, oppression of women and domestic abuse. The publication of The Hitavada, the organ of the Society in English from Nagpur commenced in 1911.

text: Prominent Indians were its members and leaders. It chose to remain away from political activities and organizations like the Indian National Congress.

text: The base of the Society shrank after Gokhale's death in 1915, and in the 1920s with the rise of Mahatma Gandhi as president of Congress, who launched social reform campaigns on a mass scale throughout the nation and attracted young Indians to the cause. However, it still continues its activities albeit with a small membership. It has its H.Q. in the city of Pune, Maharashtra. It has its branches in various other states like Uttar Pradesh, Odisha and Uttarakhand. It has its Branch office at Allahabad, U.P.. It runs Primary Schools, Residential Hostel for Tribal Boys, Ashram Type Schools for tribal girls, chreche centres etc. in U.P..

text: In Uttarakhand the Servants of India Society runs Primary Schools, Ashram Type School for girls, Buxa Boys Hostel for tribal boys, a Secondary School, a Senior Secondary School, chreche centres etc. In Uttarakhand its central office is in the town of Bazpur, in the Udham Singh Nagar District.

text: In Odisha it has its centres at Cuttak, Choudwar and Rayagada. It runs an orphanage in Odisha.

text: Notes[edit]

text: Jump up ^ "Servants of India Society to celebrate centenary". Indian Express. June 9, 2005. Retrieved 2009-07-14.

text:
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