document_title: India at the Olympics

question_text: first indian man to win olympic gold medal

text: India at the Olympics

text: History[edit]

text: Early history[edit]

text: India sent its first athlete to the Olympics for the 1900 games, but an Indian national team did not compete at the Olympics until 1920. Ahead of the 1920 Olympics, Sir Dorab Tata and Governor of Bombay George Lloyd helped India secure representation at the International Olympic Council, enabling it to participate in the Olympic Games (see India at the 1920 Olympic Games). India then sent a team to the 1920 Olympics, comprising four athletes, two wrestlers, and managers Sohrab Bhoot and A H A Fyzee. The Indian Olympic movement was then established during the 1920s: some founders of this movement were Dorab Tata, A.G. Noehren (Madras College of Physical Education), H.C. Buck (Madras College of Physical Education), Moinul Haq (Bihar sports associations), S. Bhoot (Bombay Olympic Association), A.S. Bhagwat (Deccan Gymkhana), and G.D. Sondhi (Punjab Olympic Association); Lt.Col H.L.O. Garrett (from the Government College Lahore and Punjab Olympic Association) and Sagnik Poddar (of St.Stephen's School) helped organise some early national games; and prominent patrons included Maharajas and royal princes Bhupinder Singh of Patiala, Ranji of Nawanagar, the Maharaja of Kapurthala, and the Maharaja of Burdwan.

text: In 1923, a provisional All India Olympic Committee was formed, and in Feb 1924 the All India Olympic Games (that later became the National Games of India) were held to select a team for the Paris Olympics. The Indian delegation at the Paris Olympics comprised seven athletes, seven tennis players and team manager Harry Buck.

text: In 1927, the provisional Indian Olympic Committee formally became the Indian Olympic Association (IOA)-its main tasks were to promote the development of sports in India, choose host cities for the national games, and send teams-selected from the national games-to the Olympics. Thus, at the 1928 national games, it selected seven athletes to represent India at the next Olympics, with G. D. Sondhi as manager for the Olympic team. By this time, the Indian Hockey Federation (IHF) had also been established and it sent a hockey team to the Olympics. The national hockey team and additional sportspersons were similarly sent to the Olympic Games in 1932 (four athletes and one swimmer) and 1936 (four athletes, three wrestlers, one Burmese weight-lifter), along with three officials headed by team manager Sondhi.

text: From 1948 onward, because of the Indian Olympic Association's wider outreach, India began sending delegations of over 50 sportspersons representing several sports – each selected by its sports federation – to the Olympics. The delegation was headed by a chef-de-mission.

text: Thus, India’s Olympic delegation in the early Olympic Games was as follows:

text:
1900: One athlete
1920: 6 competitors (four athletes, two wrestlers) and managers Bhoot and Fyzee
1924: 14 competitors (seven athletes, seven tennis players) and manager Harry Crowe Buck
1928: 21 competitors (seven athletes and a hockey team of 14) and manager G D Sondhi
1932: 20 competitors (four athletes, one swimmer, and a hockey team of 15) and three officials headed by manager G D Sondhi
1936: 27 competitors (four athletes, three wrestlers, one Burmese weight-lifter, and a hockey team of 19) and three officials including manager G D Sondhi
1948: 79 competitors and a few officials headed by chef-de-mission Moin ul Haq
1952: 64 competitors and some officials headed by chef-de-mission Moin ul Haq

text: Recent history[edit]

text: At the 2008 Beijing Olympics, Abhinav Bindra won gold in the Men's 10 metre air rifle event becoming the first Indian to win an individual gold medal at the Olympic Games. Vijender Singh got the country's first medal in boxing with his bronze medal in Middleweight category.

text: The 2012 Summer Olympics saw an 83-member Indian contingent participating in the games and setting a new best for the country with a total of six medals. Wrestler Sushil Kumar became the first Indian with multiple individual Olympic medals (bronze at the 2008 Beijing Olympics and silver at the 2012 Summer Olympics) since Norman Pritchard in 1900. Saina Nehwal won bronze medal in badminton in Women's singles getting the country's first Olympic medal in badminton. Pugilist Mary Kom became the first Indian woman to win a medal in boxing with her bronze medal finish in Women's flyweight category.

text: At the 2016 Summer Olympics, a record number of 118 athletes competed. Sakshi Malik became the first Indian woman wrestler to win an Olympic medal with her bronze medal finish in Women's freestyle 58 kg category. Shuttler P. V. Sindhu became the first Indian woman to win a silver medal in Olympics and also the youngest Indian Olympic medallist.

text: List of competitors[edit]

text: This list provides a comparative compendium of all the participants/competitors of India in the summer Olympic games.

text:
Games
Sports
Men
Women
Total
Change
01 ! Gold
02 ! Silver
03 ! Bronze
Total
Change

1900
1
1
0
1
NA
0
2
0
2
NA

1920
2
6
0
6
+5
0
0
0
0
−2

1924
2
13
2
15
+8
0
0
0
0
0

1928
2
21
0
21
+7
1
0
0
1
+1

1932
3
30
0
30
+9
1
0
0
1
0

1936
3–4
27
0
27
−3
1
0
0
1
0

1948
10
79
0
79
+52
1
0
0
1
0

1952
11
60
4
64
−15
1
0
1
2
+1

1956
8
58
1
59
−5
1
0
0
1
−1

1960
6
45
0
45
−14
0
1
0
1
0

1964
8
52
1
53
+8
1
0
0
1
0

1968
5
25
0
25
−28
0
0
1
1
0

1972
7
40
1
41
+16
0
0
1
1
0

1976
2
20
0
20
−21
0
0
0
0
−1

1980
1
58
18
76
+56
1
0
0
1
+1

1984

48
−28
0
0
0
0
−1

1988
7

46
−2
0
0
0
0
0

1992
5

53
+7
0
0
0
0
0

1996
13
44
4
49
−4
0
0
1
1
+1

2000
7

65
+16
0
0
1
1
0

2004
14
48
25
73
+8
0
1
0
1
0

2008
12
31
25
56
−17
1
0
2
3
+2

2012
13
60
23
83
+27
0
2
4
6
+3

2016
15
66
54
118
+35
0
1
1
2
−4

text: This list provides a comparative compendium of all the participants/competitors of India in the winter Olympic games.

text:
Games
Sports
Men
Women
Total
Change
01 ! Gold
02 ! Silver
03 ! Bronze
Total
Change

1964
1
1
0
1
NA
0
0
0
0
NA

1968
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0

1988
1
2
1
3
+2
0
0
0
0
0

1992
1
2
0
2
−1
0
0
0
0
0

1998
1
1
0
1
−1
0
0
0
0
0

2002
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0

2006
3
3
1
4
+3
0
0
0
0
0

2010
3
3
0
3
−1
0
0
0
0
0

2014
3
3
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0

text: Medal tables[edit]

text: Medals by Summer Games[edit]

text:
Games
01 ! Gold
02 ! Silver
03 ! Bronze
Total
Rank

 1896 Athens
did not participate

 1900 Paris
0
2
0
2[1]
17

 1904 St. Louis
did not participate

 1908 London
did not participate

 1912 Stockholm
did not participate

 1920 Antwerp
0
0
0
0
-

 1924 Paris
0
0
0
0
-

 1928 Amsterdam
1
0
0
1[2]
23

 1932 Los Angeles
1
0
0
1[3]
19

 1936 Berlin
1
0
0
1[4]
20

 1948 London
1
0
0
1[5]
22

 1952 Helsinki
1
0
1
2[5]
26

 1956 Melbourne
1
0
0
1[5]
24

 1960 Rome
0
1
0
1[6]
32

 1964 Tokyo
1
0
0
1[7]
24

 1968 Mexico City
0
0
1
1[8]
42

 1972 Munich
0
0
1
1[9]
43

 1976 Montreal
0
0
0
0
-

 1980 Moscow
1
0
0
1[10]
23

 1984 Los Angeles
0
0
0
0
-

 1988 Seoul
0
0
0
0
-

 1992 Barcelona
0
0
0
0
-

 1996 Atlanta
0
0
1
1[11]
71

 2000 Sydney
0
0
1
1[12]
71

 2004 Athens
0
1
0
1[13]
65

 2008 Beijing
1
0
2
3[13]
50

 2012 London
0
2
4
6[13]
55

 2016 Rio de Janeiro
0
1[14]
1[15]
2[16]
67

Total
9
7
12
28

text: Medals by sport[edit]

text:
Sport
01 ! Gold
02 ! Silver
03 ! Bronze
Total
Rank

 Field hockey
8
1
2
11
1

 Shooting
1
2
1
4
34

 Athletics
0
2
0
2
71

 Wrestling
0
1
4
5
43

 Badminton
0
1
1
2
9

 Boxing
0
0
2
2
64

 Tennis
0
0
1
1
30

 Weightlifting
0
0
1
1

56

Total
9
7
12
28

text: List of medalists[edit]

text:
Medal
Name/Team
Games
Sport
Event

02 ! Silver
Pritchard, NormanNorman Pritchard[1][17]
 1900 Paris
Athletics
Men's 200 metres

02 ! Silver
Pritchard, NormanNorman Pritchard[1][17]
 1900 Paris
Athletics
Men's 200 metre hurdles

01 ! Gold
National team[2]
 1928 Amsterdam
Field hockey
Men's competition

01 ! Gold
National team[3]
 1932 Los Angeles
Field hockey
Men's competition

01 ! Gold
National team[4]
 1936 Berlin
Field hockey
Men's competition

01 ! Gold
National team[5]
 1948 London
Field hockey
Men's competition

01 ! Gold
National team[5]
 1952 Helsinki
Field hockey
Men's competition

03 ! Bronze
Jadhav, Khashaba DadasahebKhashaba Dadasaheb Jadhav[5]
 1952 Helsinki
Wrestling
Men's freestyle bantamweight

01 ! Gold
National team[5]
 1956 Melbourne
Field hockey
Men's competition

02 ! Silver
National team[6]
 1960 Rome
Field hockey
Men's competition

01 ! Gold
National team[7]
 1964 Tokyo
Field hockey
Men's competition

03 ! Bronze
National team[8]
 1968 Mexico City
Field hockey
Men's competition

03 ! Bronze
National team[9]
 1972 Munich
Field hockey
Men's competition

01 ! Gold
National team[10]
 1980 Moscow
Field hockey
Men's competition

03 ! Bronze
Paes, LeanderLeander Paes[11]
 1996 Atlanta
Tennis
Men's singles

03 ! Bronze
Malleswari, KarnamKarnam Malleswari[12]
 2000 Sydney
Weightlifting
Women's 69 kg

02 ! Silver
Rathore, Rajyavardhan SinghRajyavardhan Singh Rathore[13]
 2004 Athens
Shooting
Men's double trap

01 ! Gold
Bindra, AbhinavAbhinav Bindra[13]
 2008 Beijing
Shooting
Men's 10 m Air Rifle

03 ! Bronze
Singh, VijenderVijender Singh[13]
 2008 Beijing
Boxing
Middleweight

03 ! Bronze
Kumar, SushilSushil Kumar[13]
 2008 Beijing
Wrestling
Men's freestyle 66 kg

02 ! Silver
Vijay Kumar[13]
 2012 London
Shooting
Men's 25 Rapid Fire Pistol

02 ! Silver
Kumar, SushilSushil Kumar[13]
 2012 London
Wrestling
Men's freestyle 66 kg

03 ! Bronze
Saina Nehwal[13]
 2012 London
Badminton
Women's singles

03 ! Bronze
Mary Kom[13]
 2012 London
 Boxing
Women's flyweight

03 ! Bronze
Narang, GaganGagan Narang[13]
 2012 London
Shooting
Men's 10m Air Rifle

03 ! Bronze
Yogeshwar Dutt[13]
 2012 London
Wrestling
Men's freestyle 60 kg

02 ! Silver
P. V. Sindhu[14]
 2016 Rio de Janeiro
Badminton
Women's singles

03 ! Bronze
Sakshi Malik[15]
 2016 Rio de Janeiro
Wrestling
Women's freestyle 58 kg


document_title: Saint Joseph

question_text: who is the patron saint of canada whos feast day march 19

root

text: Saint Joseph

text: In the New Testament[edit]

text: The Pauline epistles make no reference to Jesus' father; nor does the Gospel of Mark.[9] The first appearance of Joseph is in the gospels of Matthew and Luke. Each contains a genealogy of Jesus showing ancestry from king David, but through different sons; Matthew follows the major royal line from Solomon, while Luke traces another line back to Nathan, another son of David and Bathsheba. Consequently, all the names between David and Joseph are different. Some scholars, such as Harry A. Ironside reconcile the genealogies by viewing the Solomonic lineage in Matthew as Joseph's major royal line, and the Nathanic lineage in Luke to be Mary's minor line.[10]

tag: p

text: The epistles of Paul are generally regarded as the oldest extant Christian writings. These mention Jesus' mother (without naming her), but do not refer to his father. The Book of Mark, believed to be the first gospel to be written and with a date about two decades after Paul, also does not mention Jesus' father.[9] Joseph first appears in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, both dating from around 80-90 AD. The issue of reconciling the two accounts has been the subject of debate.

text: Like the two differing genealogies, the infancy narratives appear only in Matthew and Luke and take different approaches to reconciling the requirement that the Messiah be born in Bethlehem with the tradition that Jesus in fact came from Nazareth. In Matthew, Joseph obeys the direction of an angel to marry Mary. Following the birth of Jesus in Bethlehem, Joseph and family stay in Bethlehem for an unspecified period (perhaps two years)[11] until after the visit of the Three Magi, when Joseph is told by an angel in a dream to take the family to Egypt to escape the massacre of the children of Bethlehem planned by Herod, the ruler of the Roman province of Judea. Once Herod has died, an angel tells Joseph to return, but to avoid Herod's son he takes his wife and the child to Nazareth in Galilee and settles there. Thus in Matthew, the infant Jesus, like Moses, is in peril from a cruel king, like Moses he has a (fore)father named Joseph who goes down to Egypt, like the Old Testament Joseph this Joseph has a father named Jacob, and both Josephs receive important dreams foretelling their future.[12]

text: In Luke, Joseph already lives in Nazareth, and Jesus is born in Bethlehem because Joseph and Mary have to travel there to be counted in a census. Subsequently, Jesus was born there. Luke's account makes no mention of angels and dreams, the Massacre of the Innocents, or of a visit to Egypt.

text: The last time Joseph appears in person in any Gospel is in the story of the Passover visit to the Temple in Jerusalem when Jesus is 12 years old, found only in Luke. No mention is made of him thereafter.[13] The story emphasizes Jesus' awareness of his coming mission: here Jesus speaks to his parents (both of them) of "my father," meaning God, but they fail to understand.(Luke 2:41-51).

text: Christian tradition represents Mary as a widow during the adult ministry of her son. Joseph is not mentioned as being present at the Wedding at Cana at the beginning of Jesus' mission, nor at the Passion at the end. If he had been present at the Crucifixion, he would under Jewish custom have been expected to take charge of Jesus' body, but this role is instead performed by Joseph of Arimathea. Nor would Jesus have entrusted his mother to the care of John the Apostle if her husband had been alive.[14]

text: While none of the Gospels mentions Joseph as present at any event during Jesus' adult ministry, the synoptic Gospels share a scene in which the people of Nazareth, Jesus' hometown, doubt Jesus' status as a prophet because they know his family. In Mark 6:3, they call Jesus "Mary's son" instead of naming his father. In Matthew, the townspeople call Jesus "the carpenter's son," again without naming his father. (Matthew 13:53-55) In Luke 3:23 "And Jesus himself began to be about thirty years of age, being (as was supposed) the son of Joseph, which was [the son] of Heli."(Luke 4:16-30) In Luke the tone is positive, whereas in Mark and Matthew it is disparaging.[15] This incident does not appear at all in John, but in a parallel story the disbelieving neighbors refer to "Jesus the son of Joseph, whose father and mother we know" (John 6:41-51).

text: Gospel harmony[edit]

text: Joseph is mentioned in the gospels of Matthew, Luke, and John. Mark's gospel contains no reference to this Joseph by name.

text:
No.
Event
Matthew
Mark
Luke
John

1
Joseph lived in Nazareth

Luke 2:4

2
Genealogy of Jesus
Matthew 1:1–17 Solomon to Jacob

Luke 3:23 Nathan to Heli

3
Joseph Betrothed to Mary
Matthew 1:18

4
Angel visits Joseph (1st dream)
Matthew 1:20–21

5
Joseph and Mary travel to Bethlehem

Luke 2:8–15

6
Birth of Jesus
Matthew 1:25

Luke 2:6–7

7
Temple presentation

Luke 2:22–24

8
Angel tells Joseph to flee (2nd dream)
Matthew 2:13

9
Flight into Egypt
Matthew 2:14–15

10
Angel tells Joseph to return to Nazareth (3rd dream)
Matthew 2:19–20

11
Joseph and family settle in Nazareth
Matthew 2:21–23

Luke 2:39

12
Finding Jesus in the Temple

Luke 2:41–51

13
Holy Family

John 6:41–42

tag: table

text: Lineage[edit]

text: Joseph appears in Luke as the father of Jesus and in a "variant reading in Matthew".[16] Matthew and Luke both contain a genealogy of Jesus showing his ancestry from David, but through different sons; Matthew follows the major royal line from Solomon, while Luke traces another line back to Nathan, another son of David and Bathsheba. Consequently, all the names between David and Joseph are different. According to Matthew 1:16 "Jacob begat Joseph the husband of Mary", while according to Luke 3:23, Joseph is said to be "the son of Heli".

text: The variances between the genealogies given in Matthew and Luke are explained in a number of ways, although one possibility is that Matthew's genealogy traces Jesus' legal descent, according to Jewish law, through Joseph; while Luke's genealogy traces his actual physical descent through Mary.[10][17]

text: Professional life[edit]

text: The gospels describe Joseph as a "tekton" (τέκτων). Tekton has been traditionally translated into English as "carpenter", but is a rather general word (from the same root that gives us "technical" and "technology") that could cover makers of objects in various materials.[18] The Greek term evokes an artisan with wood in general, or an artisan in iron or stone.[19] But the specific association with woodworking is a constant in Early Christian tradition; Justin Martyr (died c. 165) wrote that Jesus made yokes and ploughs, and there are similar early references.[20]

text: Other scholars have argued that tekton could equally mean a highly skilled craftsman in wood or the more prestigious metal, perhaps running a workshop with several employees, and noted sources recording the shortage of skilled artisans at the time.[21] Geza Vermes has stated that the terms 'carpenter' and 'son of a carpenter' are used in the Jewish Talmud to signify a very learned man, and he suggests that a description of Joseph as 'naggar' (a carpenter) could indicate that he was considered wise and highly literate in the Torah.[22]

text: At the time of Joseph, Nazareth was an obscure village in Galilee, about 65 kilometres (40 mi) from the Holy City of Jerusalem, which is barely mentioned in surviving non-Christian texts and documents.[23][24][25][26] Archaeology over most of the site is made impossible by subsequent building, but from what has been excavated and tombs in the area around the village, it is estimated that the population was at most about 400.[27] It was, however, only about 6 kilometres from the city of Tzippori (ancient "Sepphoris"), which was destroyed by the Romans in 4 BC, and thereafter was expensively rebuilt. Analysis of the landscape and other evidence suggest that in Joseph's lifetime Nazareth was "oriented towards" the nearby city,[28] which had an overwhelmingly Jewish population although with many signs of Hellenization,[29] and historians have speculated that Joseph and later Jesus too might have traveled daily to work on the rebuilding. Specifically the large theatre in the city has been suggested, although this has aroused much controversy over dating and other issues.[30] Other scholars see Joseph and Jesus as the general village craftsmen, working in wood, stone and metal on a wide variety of jobs.[31]

text: Modern appraisal[edit]

text: The name "Joseph" is found almost exclusively in the genealogies and the infancy narratives.[32][33] Modern positions on the question of the relationship between Joseph and the Virgin Mary vary. The Eastern Orthodox Church, which names Joseph's first wife as Salome, holds that Joseph was a widower and merely betrothed, but never married, to Mary,[34] and that references to Jesus' "brothers" are to children of Joseph and Salome. The position of the Catholic Church, derived from the writings of Saint Jerome, is that Joseph was the husband of Mary, but that references to Jesus' "brothers" should be understood to mean cousins or step-brothers. In both cases, the church doctrine of the Perpetual Virginity means that Joseph and Mary never had sexual relations. The Protestant churches, following the tenet of Virgin Birth but not that of Perpetual Virginity, hold no strong views on the subject.[35]

text: The term kiddushin, which refers to the first part of a two-part marriage, is frequently translated as "betrothal". Couples who fulfil the requirements of the kiddushin are married, until death or divorce.[36][37][38]

text: Later apocryphal writings[edit]

text: The canonical gospels created a problem: they stated clearly that Mary was a virgin when she conceived Jesus, and that Joseph was not his father; yet Joseph's paternity was essential to establish Jesus' Davidic descent. The theological situation was complicated by the gospel references to Jesus' "brothers and sisters" (repeated in Paul, where James is called the "brother of Christ"), and by the fact that Jesus was described unambiguously by John and Mark as "Joseph's son" and "the carpenter's son."[39] From the 2nd century to the 5th writers tried to explain how Jesus could be simultaneously the "son of God" and the "son of Joseph".[39]

text: The first to offer a solution was the apocryphal Protoevangelium of James, written about 150 AD. The original gospels never refer to Joseph's age, but the author presents him as an old man chosen by lot (i.e., by God) to watch over the Virgin. Jesus' brothers are presented as Joseph's children by an earlier marriage, and his years and righteousness explain why he has not yet had sex with his wife: "I received her by lot as my wife, and she is not yet my wife, but she has conceived by the Holy Spirit."[40]

text: The Protoevangelium was extremely popular, but it leaves open the possibility that Joseph might have had relations with Mary after the birth of Jesus ("she is not yet my wife..."). A few centuries later the developing doctrine that Mary was a virgin not only at the time of the conception and birth of Christ, but throughout her life, meant that this possibility had to be excluded.

text: The apocryphal History of Joseph the Carpenter, written in the 5th century and framed as a biography of Joseph dictated by Jesus, describes how Joseph, aged 90 (the Protoevangelium had not given Joseph a specific age), a widower with four sons and two daughters, is given charge of the twelve-year-old Mary, who then lives in his household raising his youngest son James the Less (the supposed author of the Protoevangelium) until she is ready to be married at age 14½. Joseph's death at the age of 111, attended by angels and asserting the perpetual virginity of Mary, takes up approximately half the story.[41]

text: According to the bishop of Salamis, Epiphanius, in his work The Panarion (AD 374-375) "Joseph became the father of James and his three brothers (Joses, Simeon, Judah) and two sisters (a Salome and a Mary)[42] or (a Salome and an Anna)[43] with James being the elder sibling. James and his siblings were not children of Mary but were Joseph's children from a previous marriage. After Joseph's first wife died, many years later when he was eighty, "he took Mary (mother of Jesus)".[44][45]

text: Eusebius of Caesarea relates in his Church History (Book III, ch. 11) that "Hegesippus records that Clopas was a brother of Joseph and an uncle of Jesus."[46] Epiphanius adds that Joseph and Cleopas were brothers, sons of "Jacob, surnamed Panther."[47]

text: The Catholic Encyclopedia citing the texts contained in the apocryphal writings writes that:

text: When forty years of age, Joseph married a woman called Melcha or Escha by some, Salome by others; they lived forty-nine years together and had six children, two daughters and four sons, the youngest of whom was James (the Less, "the Lord's brother"). A year after his wife's death, as the priests announced through Judea that they wished to find in the tribe of Judah a respectable man to espouse Mary, then twelve to fourteen years of age. Joseph, who was at the time ninety years old, went up to Jerusalem among the candidates; a miracle manifested the choice God had made of Joseph, and two years later the Annunciation took place. These dreams, as St. Jerome styles them [...] are void of authority; they nevertheless acquired in the course of ages some popularity; in them some ecclesiastical writers sought the answer to the well-known difficulty arising from the mention in the Gospel of "the Lord's brothers"; from them also popular credulity has, contrary to all probability, as well as to the tradition witnessed by old works of art, retained the belief that St. Joseph was an old man at the time of marriage with the Mother of God.[48]

text: Veneration[edit]

text: The earliest records of a formal devotional following for Saint Joseph date to the year 800 and references to him as Nutritor Domini (educator/guardian of the Lord) began to appear in the 9th century, and continued growing to the 14th century.[49][50][51] Saint Thomas Aquinas discussed the necessity of the presence of Saint Joseph in the plan of the Incarnation for if Mary had not been married, the Jews would have stoned her and that in his youth Jesus needed the care and protection of a human father.[52][53]

text: In the 15th century, major steps were taken by Saint Bernardine of Siena, Pierre d'Ailly and Jean Gerson.[49] Gerson wrote Consideration sur Saint Joseph and preached sermons on Saint Joseph at the Council of Constance.[54] In 1889 Pope Leo XIII issued the encyclical Quamquam pluries in which he urged Catholics to pray to Saint Joseph, as the patron of the Church in view of the challenges facing the Church.[55]

text: Josephology, the theological study of Saint Joseph, is one of the most recent theological disciplines.[56] In 1989, on the occasion of the centenary of Quamquam pluries Pope John Paul II issued Redemptoris Custos (Guardian of the Redeemer), which presented Saint Joseph's role in the plan of redemption, as part of the "redemption documents" issued by John Paul II such as Redemptoris Mater to which it refers.[57][58][59][60]

text: Together with the Blessed Virgin Mary and the Child Jesus, Joseph is one of the three members of the Holy Family; since he only appears in the birth narratives of the Gospels, Jesus is depicted as a child when with him. The formal veneration of the Holy Family began in the 17th century by François de Laval.

text: In 1962, Pope John XXIII inserted the name of Joseph in the Canon of the Mass, immediately after that of the Blessed Virgin Mary. In 2013, Pope Francis had his name added to the three other Eucharistic Prayers.[61]

text: Feast days[edit]

text: March 19, Saint Joseph's Day, has been the principal feast day of Saint Joseph in Western Christianity[62][63] since the 10th century, and is celebrated by Catholics, Anglicans, many Lutherans and other denominations.[64] In Eastern Orthodoxy, the feast day of Saint Joseph is celebrated on the First Sunday after the Nativity of Christ. In the Roman Catholic church, the Feast of St. Joseph (19 March) is a Solemnity (first class if using the Tridentine calendar), and is transferred to another date if impeded (i.e., 19 March falling on Sunday or in Holy Week).

text: In 1870, Pope Pius IX declared Joseph patron of the universal Church and instituted another feast, with an octave, to be held in his honour on Wednesday in the second week after Easter. This was abolished by Pope Pius XII, when in 1955 he established the Feast of "St. Joseph the Worker", to be celebrated on 1 May. This date joins with the May Day (International Workers' Day), a union, workers' and socialists' holiday commemorating the Haymarket affair in Chicago, and reflects Joseph's status as what many Catholics and other Christians consider the "patron of workers" and "model of workers." Catholic and other Christian teachings and stories about or relating to Joseph and the Holy Family frequently stress his patience, persistence, courage, and hard work.

text: The Feast of Saint Joseph the Worker (1 May) is an Optional Memorial, and so is omitted if impeded, unless the day is raised to a higher rank because Saint Joseph is the patron of the church, diocese, place, or institution. (However, the 1 May celebration is 1st class in the Tridentine calendar, so in it Saint Joseph the Worker was celebrated on 2 May in 2008 because 1 May was Ascension Thursday and in 2011 because 1 May was in the Easter octave.)

text: Patronage[edit]

text: Pope Pius IX proclaimed Saint Joseph the patron of the Universal Church in 1870. Having died in the "arms of Jesus and Mary" according to Catholic tradition, he is considered the model of the pious believer who receives grace at the moment of death, in other words, the patron of a happy death.[65]

text: Saint Joseph is the patron saint of a number of cities, regions and countries, among them the Americas, Austria, Belgium, Canada, China, Croatia, Mexico, Korea, Peru, the Philippines and Vietnam, as well as of families, fathers, expectant mothers (pregnant women), travelers, immigrants, house sellers and buyers, craftsmen, engineers, and working people in general.

text: Places, churches and Institutions[edit]

text: Many cities, towns, and locations are named after Saint Joseph. According to the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, the Spanish form, San Jose, is the most common place name in the world. Probably the most-recognized San Joses are San José, Costa Rica, and San Jose, California, United States, given their name by Spanish colonists. Joseph is the patron saint of the New World; and of the regions Carinthia, Styria, Tyrol, Sicily; and of several main cities and dioceses.

text: Many churches, monasteries and other institutions are dedicated to Saint Joseph. Saint Joseph's Oratory is the largest church in Canada, with the largest dome of its kind in the world after that of Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome. Elsewhere in the world churches named after the saint may be known as those of San Giuseppe, e.g. San Giuseppe dei Teatini, San José, e.g. Metropolitan Cathedral of San José or São José, e.g. in Porto Alegre, Brazil.

text: The Sisters of St. Joseph were founded as an order in 1650 and have about 14,013 members worldwide. In 1871, the Josephite Fathers of the Roman Catholic Church were created under the patronage of Joseph, intending to work with the poor. The first Josephites in America re-devoted their part of the Order to ministry within the newly emancipated African American community. The Oblates of St. Joseph were founded in 1878 by St. Joseph Marello. In 1999 their Shrine of Saint Joseph the Guardian of the Redeemer was named after the Apostolic exhortation Redemptoris Custos.[66]

text: Prayers and devotions[edit]

text: In the Eastern Orthodox Church, during the feast day of Saint Joseph the following hymn is chanted:

text:
Verily, Joseph the betrothed, saw clearly in his old age that the foresayings of the Prophets had
been fulfilled openly; for he was given an odd earnest,
receiving inspiration from the angels,
who cried, Glory to God; for he hath bestowed peace on earth.

text: In the Catholic tradition, just as there are prayers for the Seven Joys of Mary and Seven Sorrows of Mary, so there are also prayers for the seven joys and seven sorrows of Saint Joseph; these include prayers for daily protection, vocation, happy marriage, happy death, and hopeless cases;[67] specific prayers, novenas and devotions include the Prayer to Saint Joseph and the Novena to Saint Joseph.[68] St. Francis de Sales included Saint Joseph along with Virgin Mary as saints to be invoked during prayers in his Introduction to the Devout Life,[69] Saint Teresa of Avila attributed her recovery of health to Saint Joseph and recommended him as an advocate,[70] and Saint Therese of Lisieux stated that for a period of time, every day she prayed to "Saint Joseph, Father and Protector of Virgins..." and felt safe and protected from danger as a result,[71] and Pius X composed a prayer to Saint Joseph which begins:[72]

text:
Glorious St. Joseph, pattern of all who are devoted to toil,
obtain for me the grace to toil, in the spirit of penance,
in order to thereby atone for my many sins...

text: There is a belief that planting a statue of St. Joseph on a house will help sell the house.[73]

text: In art[edit]

text: Up to about the 17th century Joseph tends to be depicted as a man advanced in years, with grey hair, often balding, occasionally frail, a comparatively marginal figure alongside Mary and Jesus if not entirely in the background, passive other than when leading them on their flight to Egypt. Joseph is shown mostly with a beard, not only in keeping with Jewish custom, but also because – although the Gospel accounts do not give his age – later literature tends to present him as an old man at the time of his wedding to Mary. This depiction arose to allay concerns about both the celibacy of the newly wedded couple,[citation needed] the mention of brothers and sisters of Jesus in the canonical Gospels,[74] and Joseph's other children spoken of in apocryphal literature – concerns discussed very frankly by Jean Gerson for example, who nonetheless favoured showing him as a younger man.[75]

text: In recent centuries – in step with a growing interest in Joseph's role in Gospel exegesis – he himself has become a focal figure in representations of the Holy Family. He is now often portrayed as a younger or even youthful man (perhaps especially in Protestant depictions), whether going about his work as a carpenter, or participating actively in the daily life of Mary and Jesus as an equal and openly affectionate member.[76] Art critic Waldemar Januszczak however emphasises the preponderance of Joseph's representation as an old man and sees this as the need, " to explain away his impotence: indeed to symbolise it. In Guido Reni's Nativity, Mary is about 15, and he is about 70 - for the real love affair - is the one between the Virgin Mary and us. She is young. She is perfect. She is virginal - it is Joseph's task to stand aside and let us desire her, religiously. It takes a particularly old, a particularly grey, a particularly kindly and a particularly feeble man to do that. ...Banished in vast numbers to the backgrounds of all those gloomy stables in all those ersatz Bethlehems, his complex iconographic task is to stand aside and let his wife be worshipped by the rest of us."[77] However Carolyn Wilson challenges the long-held view that pre-Tridentine images were often intended to demean him.[78] According to Charlene Villaseñor Black, "Seventeenth-century Spanish and Mexican artists reconceptualized Joseph as an important figure, ... representing him as the youthful, physically robust, diligent head of the Holy Family."[79] Bartolomé Esteban Murillo's The Two Trinities, Saint Joseph is given the same prominence as the Virgin.

text: Full cycles of his life are rare in the Middle Ages, although the scenes from the Life of the Virgin or Life of Christ where he is present are far more often seen. The Mérode Altarpiece of about 1425, where he has a panel to himself, working as a carpenter, is an early example of what remained relatively rare depictions of him pursuing his métier.

text: Some statues of Joseph depict his staff as topped with flowers, recalling the non-canonical Protoevangelion's account of how Mary's spouse was chosen by collecting the walking sticks of widowers in Palestine, and Joseph's alone bursting into flower, thus identifying him as divinely chosen. The Golden Legend, which derives its account from the much older Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew, tells a similar story, although it notes that all marriageable men of the Davidic line and not only widowers were ordered by the High Priest to present their rods at the Temple. Several Eastern Orthodox Nativity icons show Joseph tempted by the Devil (depicted as an old man with furled wings) to break off his betrothal, and how he resists that temptation. There are some paintings with him wearing a Jewish hat.

text: Chronology of Saint Joseph's life in art[edit]

text:
Joseph and Joachim, Dürer, 1504

At work in the Mérode Altarpiece, 1420s

Joseph's dream, Rembrandt, c. 1645

Marriage to the Virgin, Perugino, c. 1448

Nativity of Jesus, Marten de Vos 1577

The Adoration of the Magi, Hans Memling, c. 1480

Temple presentation, di Fredi, 1388

Dream of Flight, Daniele Crespi, c. 1625

Flight to Egypt, Giotto, 14th century

Finding in the Temple, Book of Hours, 15th century

Death of Joseph, St. Martin's at Florac

Coronation of Joseph, Valdés Leal, c. 1670

Joseph with the Child and the Flowering Rod, Alonso Miguel de Tovar

tag: ul


document_title: NBA Rookie of the Year Award

question_text: who won 2017 nba rookie of the year

question_tokens: who won 2017 nba rookie of the year

text: NBA Rookie of the Year Award

text: Winners[edit]

text:
Key

^
Denotes player who is still active in the NBA

*
Elected to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame

Denotes unanimous winners

DP #
Draft pick number

DY
Draft year

T
Territorial pick

text:
Rookie of the Year

Season
Player
Position
Nationality
Team
DP #
DY

1952–53
Meineke, DonDon Meineke
Forward/Center
 United States
Fort Wayne Pistons
12 !12
1952

1953–54
Felix, RayRay Felix
Center
 United States
Baltimore Bullets
01 !1
1953

1954–55
Pettit, BobBob Pettit*
Forward/Center
 United States
Milwaukee Hawks
02 !2
1954

1955–56
Stokes, MauriceMaurice Stokes*
Forward/Center
 United States
Rochester Royals
02 !2
1955

1956–57
Heinsohn, TomTom Heinsohn*
Forward
 United States
Boston Celtics
99 !T
1956

1957–58
Sauldsberry, WoodyWoody Sauldsberry
Forward/Center
 United States
Philadelphia Warriors
60 !60
1957

1958–59
Baylor, ElginElgin Baylor*
Forward
 United States
Minneapolis Lakers
01 !1
1958

1959–60
Chamberlain, WiltWilt Chamberlain*[a]
Center
 United States
Philadelphia Warriors
99 !T
1959

1960–61
Robertson, OscarOscar Robertson*
Guard
 United States
Cincinnati Royals
01 !1/T
1960

1961–62
Bellamy, WaltWalt Bellamy*
Center
 United States
Chicago Packers
01 !1
1961

1962–63
Dischinger, TerryTerry Dischinger
Forward/Guard
 United States
Chicago Zephyrs
08 !8
1962

1963–64
Lucas, JerryJerry Lucas*[b]
Forward/Center
 United States
Cincinnati Royals
99 !T
1962[b]

1964–65
Reed, WillisWillis Reed*
Center/Forward
 United States
New York Knicks
08 !8
1964

1965–66
Barry, RickRick Barry*
Forward
 United States
San Francisco Warriors
02 !2
1965

1966–67
Bing, DaveDave Bing*
Guard
 United States
Detroit Pistons
02 !2
1966

1967–68
Monroe, EarlEarl Monroe*
Guard
 United States
Baltimore Bullets
02 !2
1967

1968–69
Unseld, WesWes Unseld*[a]
Center/Forward
 United States
Baltimore Bullets
02 !2
1968

1969–70
Alcindor, LewLew Alcindor*
Center
 United States
Milwaukee Bucks
01 !1
1969

1970–71[c]
Cowens, DaveDave Cowens*
Center/Forward
 United States
Boston Celtics
04 !4
1970

1970–71[c]
Petrie, GeoffGeoff Petrie
Guard
 United States
Portland Trail Blazers
08 !8
1970

1971–72
Wicks, SidneySidney Wicks
Forward/Center
 United States
Portland Trail Blazers
02 !2
1971

1972–73
McAdoo, BobBob McAdoo*
Center/Forward
 United States
Buffalo Braves
02 !2
1972

1973–74
DiGregorio, ErnieErnie DiGregorio
Guard
 United States
Buffalo Braves
03 !3
1973

1974–75
Wilkes, JamaalJamaal Wilkes*
Forward/Guard
 United States
Golden State Warriors
11 !11
1974

1975–76
Adams, AlvanAlvan Adams
Center/Forward
 United States
Phoenix Suns
04 !4
1975

1976–77
Dantley, AdrianAdrian Dantley*
Forward/Guard
 United States
Buffalo Braves
06 !6
1976

1977–78
Davis, WalterWalter Davis
Guard/Forward
 United States
Phoenix Suns
05 !5
1977

1978–79
Ford, PhilPhil Ford
Guard
 United States
Kansas City Kings
02 !2
1978

1979–80
Bird, LarryLarry Bird*[d]
Forward
 United States
Boston Celtics
06 !6
1978[d]

1980–81
Griffith, DarrellDarrell Griffith
Guard
 United States
Utah Jazz
02 !2
1980

1981–82
Williams, BuckBuck Williams
Forward/Center
 United States
New Jersey Nets
03 !3
1981

1982–83
Cummings, TerryTerry Cummings
Forward
 United States
San Diego Clippers
02 !2
1982

1983–84
Sampson, RalphRalph Sampson*
Center/Forward
 United States
Houston Rockets
01 !1
1983

1984–85
Jordan, MichaelMichael Jordan*
Guard
 United States
Chicago Bulls
03 !3
1984

1985–86
Ewing, PatrickPatrick Ewing*
Center
 United States[e]
New York Knicks
01 !1
1985

1986–87
Person, ChuckChuck Person
Forward
 United States
Indiana Pacers
04 !4
1986

1987–88
Jackson, MarkMark Jackson
Guard
 United States
New York Knicks
18 !18
1987

1988–89
Richmond, MitchMitch Richmond*
Guard
 United States
Golden State Warriors
05 !5
1988

1989–90
Robinson, DavidDavid Robinson*[f]
Center
 United States
San Antonio Spurs
01 !1
1987[f]

1990–91
Coleman, DerrickDerrick Coleman
Forward
 United States
New Jersey Nets
01 !1
1990

1991–92
Johnson, LarryLarry Johnson
Forward
 United States
Charlotte Hornets
01 !1
1991

1992–93
O'Neal, ShaquilleShaquille O'Neal*
Center
 United States
Orlando Magic
01 !1
1992

1993–94
Webber, ChrisChris Webber
Forward/Center
 United States
Golden State Warriors
01 !1
1993

1994–95[c]
Hill, GrantGrant Hill*
Forward/Guard
 United States
Detroit Pistons
03 !3
1994

1994–95[c]
Kidd, JasonJason Kidd*
Guard
 United States
Dallas Mavericks
02 !2
1994

1995–96
Stoudamire, DamonDamon Stoudamire
Guard
 United States
Toronto Raptors
07 !7
1995

1996–97
Iverson, AllenAllen Iverson*
Guard
 United States
Philadelphia 76ers
01 !1
1996

1997–98
Duncan, TimTim Duncan
Forward/Center
 United States[g]
San Antonio Spurs
01 !1
1997

1998–99
Carter, VinceVince Carter^
Guard/Forward
 United States
Toronto Raptors
05 !5
1998

1999–00[c]
Brand, EltonElton Brand
Forward
 United States
Chicago Bulls
01 !1
1999

1999–00[c]
Francis, SteveSteve Francis
Guard
 United States
Houston Rockets
02 !2
1999

2000–01
Miller, MikeMike Miller
Forward/Guard
 United States
Orlando Magic
05 !5
2000

2001–02
Gasol, PauPau Gasol^
Forward/Center
 Spain
Memphis Grizzlies
03 !3
2001

2002–03
Stoudemire, Amar'eAmar'e Stoudemire
Forward/Center
 United States
Phoenix Suns
09 !9
2002

2003–04
James, LeBronLeBron James^
Forward
 United States
Cleveland Cavaliers
01 !1
2003

2004–05
Okafor, EmekaEmeka Okafor^
Center/Forward
 United States
Charlotte Bobcats
02 !2
2004

2005–06
Paul, ChrisChris Paul^
Guard
 United States
New Orleans/Oklahoma City Hornets
04 !4
2005

2006–07
Roy, BrandonBrandon Roy
Guard
 United States
Portland Trail Blazers
06 !6
2006

2007–08
Durant, KevinKevin Durant^
Forward
 United States
Seattle SuperSonics
02 !2
2007

2008–09
Rose, DerrickDerrick Rose^
Guard
 United States
Chicago Bulls
01 !1
2008

2009–10
Evans, TyrekeTyreke Evans^
Guard/Forward
 United States
Sacramento Kings
04 !4
2009

2010–11
Griffin, BlakeBlake Griffin^[h]
Forward
 United States
Los Angeles Clippers
01 !1
2009[h]

2011–12
Irving, KyrieKyrie Irving^
Guard
 United States
Cleveland Cavaliers
01 !1
2011

2012–13
Lillard, DamianDamian Lillard^
Guard
 United States
Portland Trail Blazers
06 !6
2012

2013–14
Carter-Williams, MichaelMichael Carter-Williams^
Guard
 United States
Philadelphia 76ers
11 !11
2013

2014–15
Wiggins, AndrewAndrew Wiggins^
Forward/Guard
 Canada
Minnesota Timberwolves
01 !1
2014

2015–16
Towns, Karl-AnthonyKarl-Anthony Towns^
Center
 United States[i]
Minnesota Timberwolves
01 !1
2015

2016–17
Brogdon, MalcolmMalcolm Brogdon^
Guard
 United States
Milwaukee Bucks
36 !36
2016

text: Unofficial winners[edit]

text: Prior to the 1952–53 season, the Rookie of the Year was selected by newspaper writers;[17] however, the NBA does not officially recognize those players as winners. The league did publish the pre-1953 winners in their 1994–95 edition of the Official NBA Guide and the 1994 Official NBA Basketball Encyclopedia, but those winners have not been listed in subsequent publications.[17][18][19]

text:
Season
Player
Position
Nationality
Team
DP #
DY

1947–48
Hoffman, PaulPaul Hoffman
Guard/Forward
 United States
Baltimore Bullets
70
1947

1948–49
Shannon, HowieHowie Shannon
Guard/Forward
 United States
Providence Steamrollers
01 !1
1949

1949–50
Groza, AlexAlex Groza
Center
 United States
Indianapolis Olympians
02 !2
1949

1950–51
Arizin, PaulPaul Arizin*
Forward/Guard
 United States
Philadelphia Warriors
99 !T
1950

1951–52[c]
Tosheff, BillBill Tosheff
Guard
 United States
Indianapolis Olympians
32 !32
1951

1951–52[c]
Hutchins, MelMel Hutchins
Forward/Center
 United States
Milwaukee Hawks
02 !2
1951


document_title: Pulmonary alveolus

question_text: the walls of the alveoli are mostly made of

text: Pulmonary alveolus

text: Structure[edit]

text: The alveoli are located in the respiratory zone of the lungs, at the ends of the alveolar ducts and alveolar sac, representing the smallest units in the respiratory tract. They provide total surface area of about 75 m2.[5]

text: A typical pair of human lungs contain about 700 million alveoli, producing 70m2 of surface area.[6] Each alveolus is wrapped in a fine mesh of capillaries covering about 70% of its area. An adult alveolus has an average diameter of 200 micrometres, with an increase in diameter during inhalation.[7]

text: Microanatomy[edit]

text: The alveoli consist of an epithelial layer and an extracellular matrix surrounded by small blood vessels called capillaries. In some alveolar walls there are pores between alveoli called Pores of Kohn. The alveoli contain some collagen and elastic fibres. The elastic fibres allow the alveoli to stretch as they are filled with air during inhalation. They then spring back during exhalation in order to expel the carbon dioxide-rich air.

text: There are three major types of cell in the alveolar wall–two types of alveolar cell and a phagocyte.

text:
Type I cells are thin and flat and form the structure of the alveoli
Type II cells secrete surfactant to lower the surface tension of water and allows the membrane to separate, therefore increasing its capability to exchange gases. Surfactant is continuously released by exocytosis. It forms an underlying aqueous protein-containing hypophase and an overlying phospholipid film composed primarily of dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine.
The phagocytes are macrophages, that destroy foreign material, such as bacteria.

text: Function[edit]

text: Type I cells are thin, flat cells lining the alveolar walls. Each alveolus is surrounded by numerous capillaries, and is the site of gas exchange, which occurs by diffusion. The relatively low solubility (and hence rate of diffusion) of oxygen necessitates the large internal surface area (about 80 square m [96 square yards]) and very thin walls of the alveoli. Weaving between the capillaries and helping to support them is an extracellular matrix, a meshlike fabric of elastic and collagenous fibres. The collagen fibres, being more rigid, give the wall firmness, while the elastic fibres permit expansion and contraction of the walls during breathing.

text: Type II cells in the alveolar wall contain secretory granular organelles known as lamellar bodies that fuse with the cell membranes and secrete pulmonary surfactant. This surfactant is a film of fatty substances that contributes to the lowering of alveolar surface tension. Without this coating, the alveoli would collapse and very large forces would be required to re-expand them. Another type of cell, known as an alveolar macrophage, resides on the internal surfaces of the air cavities of the alveoli, the alveolar ducts, and the bronchioles. They are mobile scavengers that serve to engulf foreign particles in the lungs, such as dust, bacteria, carbon particles, and blood cells from injuries.[8]

text: Reinflation of the alveoli following exhalation is made easier by pulmonary surfactant, which is a phospholipid and protein mixture that reduces surface tension in the thin fluid coating within all alveoli. The fluid coating is produced by the body in order to facilitate the transfer of gases between blood and alveolar air. The surfactant is produced by the type II cells which are the most numerous cells in the alveoli, yet do not cover as much surface area as the squamous alveolar cells (a squamous epithelium).

text: Type II cells also repair the endothelium of the alveolus when it becomes damaged. Insufficient surfactant in the alveoli can contribute to atelectasis (collapse of part or all of the lung). Without pulmonary surfactant, atelectasis is a certainty; however, there are other causes of lung collapse such as trauma (pneumothorax), COPD, and pleuritis.[9]

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Diseases[edit]

text:
Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a severe inflammatory disease of the lung. Usually triggered by other pulmonary pathology, the uncontrolled inflammation leads to impaired gas exchange, pulmonary oedema and/or collapse, and systemic inflammatory response syndrome. It usually requires mechanical ventilation in an intensive care unit setting.[10]:187
Infant respiratory distress syndrome (IRDS) is a syndrome caused by lack of surfactant in the lungs of premature infants.
In asthma, the bronchioles, or the "bottle-necks" into the sac are restricted, causing the amount of air flow into the lungs to be greatly reduced. It can be triggered by irritants in the air, photochemical smog for example, as well as substances that a person is allergic to.
Emphysema is another disease of the lungs, whereby the elastin in the walls of the alveoli is broken down by an imbalance between the production of neutrophil elastase (elevated by cigarette smoke) and alpha-1-antitrypsin (the activity varies due to genetics or reaction of a critical methionine residue with toxins including cigarette smoke). The resulting loss of elasticity in the lungs leads to prolonged times for exhalation, which occurs through passive recoil of the expanded lung. This leads to a smaller volume of gas exchanged per breath.
Chronic bronchitis occurs when an abundance of mucus is produced by the lungs. The production of this substance occurs naturally when the lung tissue is exposed to irritants. In chronic bronchitis, the air passages into the alveoli, the broncholiotes, become clogged with mucus. This causes increased coughing in order to remove the mucus, and is often a result of extended periods of exposure to cigarette smoke.
Cystic fibrosis is a genetic condition. A mutation of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator gene causes defective CFTR proteins, which are transmembrane proteins that function in Cl− transport in wet epithelia. Because wet epithelium is such a ubiquitous and multipurpose tissue type, CF has myriad deleterious effects, some of the most serious of which are severe respiratory problems. Many of the mechanisms by which CF causes damage or inadequate function in the wet epithelia of other tissues, such as the digestive and reproductive tracts, are well understood. CF's mechanisms in causing lung disease, however, remain poorly elucidated. One popular hypothesis suggests increased viscosity due to increased salinity of the mucus secreted by glands of the pseudostratified respiratory epithelium, causing difficulty in maintaining normal respiratory tract mucociliary clearance. The frequency of certain specific bacterial infections (Pseudomonas, Haemophilus influenzae, Staphylococcus) has prompted two other popular categories of hypotheses: that the high salt content may interfere with defensins and lysosome, and/or may encourage the growth of the several bacterial species typically infecting the ordinarily-sterile lower lungs of CF patients. Regular treatment is usually required—primarily percussive therapy and antibiotics. Promising research into gene therapies is taking place.
Diffuse interstitial fibrosis
Lung cancer is a common form of cancer causing the uncontrolled growth of cells in the lung tissue. Due to the sensitivity of lung tissue, such malignant growth is often hard to treat effectively.
Pneumonia is an infection of the lung parenchyma, which can be caused by both viruses and bacteria. Cytokines and fluids are released into the alveolar cavity and/or interstitium in response to infection, causing the effective surface area of gas exchange in the lungs to be reduced. If this happens to such a degree that the patient cannot draw enough oxygen from his or her environment to maintain cellular respiration, then the victim may need supplemental oxygen.
Cavitary pneumonia is a process in which the alveoli are destroyed and produce a cavity. As the alveoli are destroyed, the surface area for gas exchange to occur becomes reduced. Further changes in blood flow can lead to decline in lung function.
Pulmonary contusion is a bruise of the lung tissue.


document_title: Telephone numbers in Israel

question_text: how many digits in an israeli phone number

text: Telephone numbers in Israel

text: History[edit]

text: In 1965, many Israeli phone numbers had 6 digits, but some had 5, according to the Tel-Aviv-area phone book. [1]  There were ten area codes at that time: 02 Jerusalem, Bet Shemesh; 03 Tel Aviv, Petah Tikva, Rehovot, Ashdod; 04 Haifa and western Galilee; 051 Ashkelon; 053 Netanya; 057 Beersheva and most of the Negev; 059 Eilat; 065 Afula, Nazareth; 063 Hadera, Zichron Yaakov; and 067 Tiberias, Zefat and eastern Galilee.  [2]

text: As recently as the 1990s, most telephone numbers in Israel had 6 digits (without area code digit). Currently there are 5 geographic area codes and 2 more non-geographic area codes, and numbers has 7 or 8 digits (without area code digit).

text: With the influence of VoIP long distance was deregulated in Israel. According to the Israel Ministry of Communication a VoIP number may be ported to a landline carrier and vice versa providing the option to have, say, a northern number in the south of the country. Numbers may not be ported, say, from the north to the south of the country on the same kind of line (e.g., VoIP to VoIP or landline to landline). Mobile number portability was introduced in late 2007.

text: Structure and format[edit]

text: The format for calls to landlines within the same area code is XXX-XXXX (7 digits subscriber number). For calls to a landline outside the local area, the area code is prefixed and the format becomes (0A) XXX-XXXX for calls to landlines, where "0A" is the area code.

text: The format for calls to cellular mobile phones is 05N-XXX-XXXX, where "05N" is the mobile operator indicator. The format for calls to VoIP lines is 07N-XXX-XXXX, where "07N" is the VoIP operator indicator.

text: When calling from outside of Israel, the leading "0" in area codes is not dialed, and the format is +972-A-XXX-XXXX for calls to landlines, +972-5N-XXX-XXXX for calls to mobile lines, +972-7N-XXX-XXXX for calls to VoIP lines.

text:
Prefix

Service type

Local format

International format

00, 01x

International call prefix (from Israel to other countries)

00 or 01x

02, 03, 04, 08, 09

Geographic area codes

(0A) XXX-XXXX

+972 A XXX-XXXX

05

Area code for cellular and mobile devices

05N XXX-XXXX

+972 5N XXX-XXXX

07

Non-Geographic area code for landline, VoIP and VoC services

07N XXX-XXXX

+972 7N XXX-XXXX

10, 11, 12

Short codes for emergency services

10X or 11X or 12XX

Not available from abroad[3]

151

Voice mail

151-X(X) XXX-XXXX

+972 151-X(X) XXX-XXXX

153

Fax box

153-X(X) XXX-XXXX

+972 153-X(X) XXX-XXXX

1599

Business Toll

1 599 XXX-XXX

+972 1599 XXX-XXX

1700

Business Toll

1 700 XXX-XXX

+972 1700 XXX-XXX[4]

180X

Toll free

1 80X XXX-XXX

+972 180X XXX-XXX[5]

19XX

Premium rate

1 9XX XXX-XXX

Not available from abroad

text: International call prefix[edit]

text: For calling from Israel to another country: choose operator, and dial its international access code, then dial destination country code and then the rest of the local number.

text:
00 or + – short code (only registered customers)
012 – 012smile service
013 – 013 NetVision service
014 – Bezeq International service
015 – Hallo 015 service
016 – Golan Telecom service
017 – Hot Mobile service
018 – Xfone service
019 – 019 Telzar service

text: Area codes[edit]

text: Due to mobile number portability, a mobile phone with a prefix of one provider can be associated with a different provider.

text: Geographic area codes[edit]

text: When dialing within one of the geographical area codes (2, 3, 4, 8, 9) the prefix can be dropped (so instead of dialing (0A)XXX-XXXX you can dial XXX-XXXX).

text:
Local Format

International format

Description

(02) XXX-XXXX

+972 2 XXX-XXXX

Jerusalem District area code

(03) XXX-XXXX

+972 3 XXX-XXXX

Tel Aviv District & Central District area code

(04) XXX-XXXX

+972 4 XXX-XXXX

Haifa District & Northern District area code

(08) XXX-XXXX

+972 8 XXX-XXXX

Lowland & Southern District area code

(09) XXX-XXXX

+972 9 XXX-XXXX

Sharon area code

text: In the geographic area codes, first digits of the local number are identifying service operator:

text:
Local Format

International format

Operator

(0A) 2XX-XXXX

+972 A 2XX-XXXX

Paltel (In the Palestinian Territories)

(0A) 30X-XXXX (0A) 31X-XXXX(0A) 32X-XXXX

+972 A 30X-XXXX+972 A 31X-XXXX+972 A 32X-XXXX

Hot (Altice)

(0A) 370-XXXX

+972 A 370-XXXX

Cellact

(0A) 371-XXXX

+972 A 371-XXXX

Xfone (Inoperative)

(0A) 372-XXXX

+972 A 372-XXXX

Partner (012smile)

(0A) 373-XXXX

+972 A 373-XXXX

Cellcom

(0A) 374-XXXX

+972 A 374-XXXX

Partner

(0A) 375-XXXX

+972 A 375-XXXX

Hallo 015

(0A) 376-XXXX

+972 A 376-XXXX

Bezeq International

(0A) 377-XXXX

+972 A 377-XXXX

Veidan

(0A) 379-XXXX

+972 A 379-XXXX

Bynet Businesses (Inoperative)

(0A) 5XX-XXXX(0A) 6XX-XXXX (0A) 7XX-XXXX(0A) 8XX-XXXX(0A) 9XX-XXXX

+972 A 5XX-XXXX+972 A 6XX-XXXX+972 A 7XX-XXXX+972 A 8XX-XXXX+972 A 9XX-XXXX

Bezeq

text: Cellular and mobile devices area code 05[edit]

text:
Local Format

International format

Operator

050 XXX-XXXX

+972 50 XXX-XXXX

Pelephone

051 XXX-XXXX

+972 51 XXX-XXXX

We4G (Xfone)

052 XXX-XXXX

+972 52 XXX-XXXX

Cellcom

053 XXX-XXXX

+972 53 XXX-XXXX

Hot mobile (Altice) [6]

054 XXX-XXXX

+972 54 XXX-XXXX

Partner (also operates 012mobile[7])

055 XXX-XXXX

+972 55 XXX-XXXX

Mobile virtual network operators (MVNO's)

055 2XX-XXXX

+972 55 2XX-XXXX

Cellcom (Formerly Home Cellular)

055 3XX-XXXX

+972 55 3XX-XXXX

Free Telecom (Inoperative)

055 4XX-XXXX

+972 55 4XX-XXXX

Cellran (Tadiran) (Inoperative)

055 5XX-XXXX

+972 55 5XX-XXXX

Sipme \ Gali Phone (Inoperative)

055 6XX-XXXX

+972 55 6XX-XXXX

Rami Levy

055 7XX-XXXX

+972 55 7XX-XXXX

Cellact

055 7XX-XXXX

+972 55 7XX-XXXX

Bynet Businesses (Inoperative)

055 8XX-XXXX

+972 55 8XX-XXXX

Pelephone (Formerly YouPhone)

055 9XX-XXXX

+972 55 9XX-XXXX

019 Mobile (019 Telzar)

056 XXX-XXXX

+972 56 XXX-XXXX

Wataniya Mobile (in the Palestinian territories)

058 XXX-XXXX

+972 58 XXX-XXXX

Golan Telecom

059 XXX-XXXX

+972 59 XXX-XXXX

Jawwal (in the Palestinian territories)

text: Non-geographic nationwide area code 07[edit]

text: Non-geographic nationwide area code can be used by Landline and VoIP operators.

text:
Local Format

International format

Operator

071 8XX-XXXX

+972 71 8XX-XXXX

Xfone (Inoperative)

072 2XX-XXXX 072 3XX-XXXX

+972 72 2XX-XXXX +972 72 3XX-XXXX

Partner (012smile)

073 2XX-XXXX 073 3XX-XXXX

+972 73 2XX-XXXX +972 73 3XX-XXXX

Cellcom

073 7XX-XXXX

+972 73 7XX-XXXX

Veidan

074 7XX-XXXX

+972 74 7XX-XXXX

Partner

076 5XX-XXXX

+972 76 5XX-XXXX

Bezeq International

076 8XX-XXXX

+972 76 8XX-XXXX

Bezeq

077 XXX-XXXX

+972 77 XXX-XXXX

Hot (Altice)

078 2XX-XXXX

+972 78 2XX-XXXX

Golan Telecom (Inoperative)

079 2XX-XXXX

+972 79 2XX-XXXX

Free Telecom (Inoperative)

079 3XX-XXXX

+972 79 3XX-XXXX

Bynet Businesses (Inoperative)

079 5XX-XXXX

+972 79 5XX-XXXX

Hallo 015

079 7XX-XXXX

+972 79 7XX-XXXX

Cellact

079 9XX-XXXX

+972 79 9XX-XXXX

019 Telzar

text: Special numbers[edit]

text: Special numbers include emergency and aid services, along with technical support and other provider services:[8]

text: Kosher numbers[edit]

text:
Kosher phones and networks are essentially phones with Haredi rabbinical approval that can be used for communication without entertainment functionality or connectivity. This is a line that has a pre-defined
prefix and it is blocked to content that Haredi activists feel is not appropriate for their community.
Such blocking includes cellular internet access, chat rooms, SMS, etc.
This does not mean that other phones are not kosher according to Jewish law, as evidenced by the fact that a very large number - if not the majority - of observant Orthodox Jews worldwide do not restrict themselves to "kosher" phones; rather the description "kosher" phones is a loose one, implying an added level of stringency accepted by some communities.

text: The companies who provides "kosher numbers" allocated exclusive ranges for those lines, which are:


document_title: College Station, Texas

question_text: how far is college station from dallas tx

text: College Station, Texas

text: History[edit]

text: The origins of College Station date from 1860, when the Houston and Texas Central Railway began to build through the region.[5] Eleven years later, the site was chosen as the location for the proposed Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, a land-grant school.[5] In 1876, as the nation celebrated its centennial, the school (renamed Texas A&M University in 1963) opened its doors as the first public institution of higher education in the state of Texas.[5]

text: The population of College Station grew slowly, reaching 350 in 1884 and 391 at the turn of the century.[5] However, during this time, transportation improvements took place in the town. In 1900, the I&GN Railroad was extended to College Station[6] (the line was abandoned by the Missouri Pacific Railroad Company in 1965),[7] and 10 years later, electric interurban service was established between Texas A&M and the neighboring town of Bryan.[5] The interurban was replaced by a city bus system in the 1920s.[5]

text: In 1930, the community to the north of College Station, known as North Oakwood, was incorporated as part of Bryan.[5] College Station did not incorporate until 1938 with John H. Binney as the first mayor.[5] Within a year, the city established a zoning commission, and by 1940, the population had reached 2,184.[5]

text: The city grew under the leadership of Ernest Langford, called by some the "Father of College Station", who began a 26-year stretch as mayor in 1942. Early in his first term, the city adopted a council-manager system of city government.[5]

text: Population growth accelerated following World War II as the nonstudent population reached 7,898 in 1950, 11,396 in 1960, 17,676 in 1970, 30,449 in 1980, 52,456 in 1990, and 67,890 in 2000.[5] The population for the Bryan-College Station metropolitan area will range from an estimated 250,846 to 271,773 by 2030.[8]

text: In the 1990s, College Station and Texas A&M University drew national attention when the George Bush Presidential Library opened in 1997 and, more tragically, when 12 people were killed and 27 injured when the Aggie Bonfire collapsed while being constructed in 1999.

text: Geography[edit]

text: College Station is located south of the center of Brazos County at 30°36′5″N 96°18′52″W / 30.60139°N 96.31444°W / 30.60139; -96.31444 (30.601433, -96.314464).[9] It is bordered by the city of Bryan to the northwest.

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 49.6 sq mi (128.5 km2), of which 49.4 sq mi (128.0 km2) is land and 0.19 sq mi (0.5 km2), or 0.35%, is covered by water.[2]

text: Climate[edit]

text: The local climate is subtropical and temperate and winters are mild with periods of low temperatures usually lasting less than two months.

text: Snow and ice are rare; most recently, College Station received 5 inches (13 cm) of snowfall on December 7, 2017.[10]

text: Summers are warm and hot with occasional showers being the only real variation in weather.

text:
Average annual rainfall: 39 in (1000 mm)
Average elevation: 367 ft (112 m) above sea level
Average Temperature: 69.0 °F (20.6 °C)
Agricultural Resources: Cattle, corn, cotton, eggs, hay, sorghum
Mineral Resources: Sand, gravel, lignite, gas, oil

text:
[hide]Climate data for College Station, Texas (Easterwood Airport), 1981–2010 normals,[a] extremes 1882–present[b]

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Record high °F (°C)
90
(32)
99
(37)
96
(36)
98
(37)
101
(38)
108
(42)
110
(43)
110
(43)
112
(44)
102
(39)
94
(34)
89
(32)
112
(44)

Mean maximum °F (°C)
78.5
(25.8)
81.5
(27.5)
85.2
(29.6)
89.2
(31.8)
93.5
(34.2)
97.3
(36.3)
100.1
(37.8)
102.3
(39.1)
98.7
(37.1)
92.6
(33.7)
84.7
(29.3)
79.5
(26.4)
103.4
(39.7)

Average high °F (°C)
61.0
(16.1)
64.8
(18.2)
71.7
(22.1)
78.9
(26.1)
85.8
(29.9)
91.7
(33.2)
94.8
(34.9)
96.2
(35.7)
90.5
(32.5)
81.4
(27.4)
71.0
(21.7)
62.3
(16.8)
79.2
(26.2)

Average low °F (°C)
41.2
(5.1)
44.4
(6.9)
51.0
(10.6)
58.1
(14.5)
66.6
(19.2)
72.7
(22.6)
74.6
(23.7)
74.5
(23.6)
69.4
(20.8)
60.3
(15.7)
50.5
(10.3)
42.2
(5.7)
58.9
(14.9)

Mean minimum °F (°C)
24.9
(−3.9)
26.7
(−2.9)
32.2
(0.1)
40.1
(4.5)
52.4
(11.3)
64.1
(17.8)
69.0
(20.6)
68.5
(20.3)
54.9
(12.7)
42.5
(5.8)
32.8
(0.4)
24.9
(−3.9)
20.3
(−6.5)

Record low °F (°C)
−3
(−19)
1
(−17)
17
(−8)
28
(−2)
42
(6)
53
(12)
60
(16)
55
(13)
41
(5)
29
(−2)
19
(−7)
2
(−17)
−3
(−19)

Average precipitation inches (mm)
3.24
(82.3)
2.85
(72.4)
3.17
(80.5)
2.66
(67.6)
4.33
(110)
4.45
(113)
2.14
(54.4)
2.68
(68.1)
3.18
(80.8)
4.91
(124.7)
3.22
(81.8)
3.23
(82)
40.06
(1,017.5)

Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in)
8.4
8.1
8.3
6.5
8.3
8.5
5.7
5.8
6.7
7.6
8.1
8.8
90.8

Source: NOAA[12][13]

text: Demographics[edit]

text:
Historical population

Census
Pop.

%±

1940
2,184

—

1950
7,925

262.9%

1960
11,396

43.8%

1970
17,676

55.1%

1980
37,272

110.9%

1990
52,456

40.7%

2000
67,890

29.4%

2010
93,857

38.2%

Est. 2016
112,141
[14]
19.5%

U.S. Decennial Census[15]
2013 Estimate[16]

text: As of the census of 2000, 67,890 people, 24,691 households, and 10,370 families resided in the city. Of the 24,691 households, 21.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 32.2% were married couples living together, 6.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 58.0% were not families. About 27.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 2.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.32 and the average family size was 2.98.

text: In the city, the population was distributed as 14.4% under the age of 18, 51.2% from 18 to 24, 21.3% from 25 to 44, 9.4% from 45 to 64, and 3.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 22 years. For every 100 females, there were 104.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 104.0 males.

text: The median income for a household[clarification needed] in the city was $21,180, and for a family[clarification needed] was $53,147. Males had a median income of $38,216 versus $26,592 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,170. About 15.4% of families and 37.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.4% of those under age 18 and 7.7% of those age 65 or over.

text: Government[edit]

text: The city of College Station has a council-manager form of government. Voters elect the members of a city council, who pass laws and make policy. The council hires a professional city manager who is responsible for day-to-day operations of the city and its public services.[17]

text: The Texas Department of Criminal Justice (TDCJ) operates the Bryan District Parole Office in College Station.[18]

text: The United States Postal Service operates the College Station and Northgate College Station post offices.[19][20]

text: Districts[edit]

text: Northgate[edit]

text: Northgate is a mixed-use district north of Texas A&M University that features a combination of businesses, restaurants, apartments, churches, and entertainment. It is a vibrant part of the city known for its eclectic mix of restaurants and bars.[21][22] A large portion of the stores, bars, and restaurants in Northgate are frequented and patronized by Texas A&M students, and the establishments employ A&M students, as well.[22] In total, the district spans about 145 acres (0.59 km2), bounded by Wellborn Road to the west, South College Avenue to the east, the College Station city limits to the north, and University Drive to the south. The district is the home of the Dixie Chicken and of the first Texas location for the regional fast-food chain Freebirds World Burrito.

text: Northgate's roots started in the 1930s as the city began enjoying rapid population growth from the influx of Texas A&M University students, professors, and their families. Realizing that proximity to the campus would be a boon for revenues, the first business district was established in College Station near the campus, taking its name for the closest on-campus landmark: the north gate. When the city was incorporated in 1938, its first City Hall was opened in the new district. In 1994, restoration efforts began to revitalize the ailing area. A four-day music festival, "North By Northgate", was introduced in 1998 and has become an annual tradition, renamed the "Northgate Music Festival" in 2002. In 2006, the city council incorporated Northgate as a special tax zone to finance additional improvements and expansions.[23]

text: Live music is a major draw to the Northgate area, with venues such as Church Street BBQ and Hurricane Harry's consistently providing evening concerts. Many well-known musicians, especially in the Texas country music scene, have gotten their starts playing on the porches and stages found in the Northgate area. Notable names include Robert Earl Keen, Grammy award-winner Lyle Lovett, Dub Miller, and Roger Creager. The district is bisected to the north by Church Street, made famous by the Robert Earl Keen and Lyle Lovett duet "The Front Porch Song".

text: Wolf Pen Creek District[edit]

text: Wolf Pen Creek District is a large commercial development adjacent to Post Oak Mall and between two of the city's main commercial thoroughfares: Earl Rudder Freeway and Texas Avenue. The area consists of a greenway with trails, a $1.5 million amphitheater and entertainment area, a small lake, the Spirit Ice Arena, and is the home of the Arts Council of the Brazos Valley. The amphitheater has hosted a variety of musical events, including the annual Starlight Music Series, a concert series that starts in late spring and runs through late summer. Wolf Pen often has sidewalk for a scenic run that when completed is about 1 mi (2 km).

text: Wellborn District[edit]

text: Wellborn became a community in 1867 as a construction camp on the Houston and Texas Central Railroad. The town's name has been attributed to a well at the construction camp, a foreman named E.W. Wellborn, or a landowner named W.W. Willburn. Also in 1867, a post office opened in the community under the name Wellborn Station. In 1870, the name was shortened to Wellborn.[24] On April 14, 2011, the City Council of College Station voted 5-2 to annex Wellborn, thus making the community the Wellborn district. Wellborn is often mispronounced as well-born but is pronounced by locals as Well-burn.[25]

text: Business parks[edit]

text:
Business Center at College Station

A 200-acre (81 ha), class "A" business center 5 miles (8 km) from the university, its current residents include firms involved in telecommunications, software development, and technology manufacturing.

Spring Creek Corporate Campus

A 100-acre (40 ha), class "A" business center, a greenbelt surrounds most of the campus and provides a buffer between the new development and adjacent land uses which include the Pebble Creek Country Club and Woodland Hills Subdivision.

Texas A&M University Research Park

This 324-acre (131 ha) research park was established to provide businesses direct partnering opportunities with Texas A&M University. Several companies and nonprofit research interests have located in the park, including Schlumberger, Lynntech, AdventGX, Notequill, the Institute of Food Science and Engineering, the Electron Beam Food Research Facility, the Academy of Advanced Telecommunications and Learning Technologies, and the International Ocean Discovery Program.

Crescent Pointe

Crescent Pointe is a master-planned, mixed-use development of roughly 192 acres (78 ha), with frontage on University Drive (Highway 60) and Harvey Road (Highway 30).

text: Transportation[edit]

text: Mass transit[edit]

text:
The Brazos Transit District (formerly Brazos Valley Transit Authority) provides public bus transportation in the Bryan/College Station area.
Texas A&M Transportation Services provides bus transportation throughout College Station and Bryan for students, faculty, and staff of Texas A&M University and Blinn College. On Texas A&M football game days, the department provides additional park-and-ride service to and from Kyle Field.
Starline Travel offers weekend service from Texas A&M's campus to downtown Houston, with additional Houston service for Aggie game days and additional service to Dallas during major A&M breaks.
Groundshuttle provides daily shuttles to and from Houston airports (Hobby and Bush).

text: Major roads[edit]

text:
State Highway 6: Earl Rudder Freeway (East Bypass)
State Highway 6 Business: Texas Avenue South
State Highway 30: Harvey Road
State Highway 40: William D. Fitch Parkway
State Highway 47
State Highway 308: College Avenue
Farm to Market Road 60: University Drive / Raymond Stotzer Parkway
Farm to Market Road 2154: Wellborn Road
Farm to Market Road 2347: George Bush Drive
Farm to Market Road 2818: Harvey Mitchell Parkway (West Bypass)

text: Railroads[edit]

text: Union Pacific Railroad line: Union Pacific Corporation (NYSE: UNP)

text: Airport[edit]

text: Easterwood Airport, owned by Texas A&M, is located three miles (5 km) southwest of College Station and has flights to Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport and George Bush Intercontinental Airport in Houston.

text: Economy[edit]

text: As of May 2008, the local unemployment hovered around 3 to 4%, among the lowest in Texas. This rate is largely attributed to the significant role the university plays in the local economy.[26][27] However, underemployment is an ongoing issue.[28]

text: Major employers[edit]

text:
Texas A&M University System - education - 16,248[8]
Bryan Independent School District - education - 1,949[8]
St. Joseph Regional Health Center - health services - 1,590[8]
Sanderson Farms - poultry processing - 1,539[8]
College Station Independent School District - education - 1,400[8]
Reynolds and Reynolds/Rentsys - computer hardware/software - 959[8]
City of Bryan - government - 889[8]
City of College Station - government - 865[8]
Walmart - retail - 650[8]
Ply Gem - windows - 611[8]
H-E-B Grocery - retail - 590[8]

text: Headquarters[edit]

text: Until its 2007 acquisition by Tavistock Group, Freebirds World Burrito had its corporate headquarters in College Station.[29][30]

text: Post Oak Mall[edit]

text: Post Oak Mall was the city's first mall and is currently the largest mall in the Brazos Valley. The 82-acre (330,000 m2) mall is home to 125 stores; its opening on February 17, 1982, helped create the impetus for growing economic and commercial developments for College Station.[31] It is currently the largest taxpayer in College Station and the second-largest in the Brazos Valley, though the anchor stores are free-standing units that are privately owned and taxed separate from the mall proper.[32] Over 75% of retail sales in the Brazos Valley come from sales at the mall's stores.[31]

text: Sports facilities[edit]

text:
Football: Kyle Field (capacity: 102,733 <106,000 in 2014 only, during reconstruction>[33])
Racing: Texas World Speedway (capacity 23,000)
Basketball/volleyball: Reed Arena (largest crowd: 13,657 for basketball)
Baseball: Olsen Field (largest crowd: 11,052)
Soccer: Ellis Field (largest crowd: 8,204)
Track and field: Anderson Track and Field Complex (capacity: 3,500)
Tennis: George P. Mitchell Tennis Center (largest crowd: 2,339)
Softball: Aggie Softball Complex (largest crowd: 2,341)
Hockey: Spirit Ice Arena (capacity: 500)
Golf: Texas A&M Traditions Club
Bowling: Grand Station Entertainment (capacity: 600+)

text: Media and journalism[edit]

text: Television stations[edit]

text: Local channels are NBC affiliate KAGS-LD, CBS affiliate KBTX, ABC affiliate KRHD-CD, Fox affiliate KYLE-TV, and PBS affiliate KAMU, which is owned by Texas A&M University.

text: Radio stations[edit]

text: College Station is part of the Bryan-College Station Arbitron market #238.

text:
KAMU-FM 90.9 NPR affiliate and sister station to KAMU-TV
KEOS 89.1 Community Radio for the Brazos Valley

text:
[show]

v
t
e

Radio stations in the College Station–Bryan market

By FM frequency

89.1
90.5
90.9
91.5
91.5
92.3
92.5
94.1
95.1
96.1
96.9
98.3
98.5
99.5
99.7
100.5
100.9
101.7
101.9
103.1
103.9
104.7
105.3
106.1
107.3
107.7

By AM frequency

590
1150
1220
1240
1280
1330
1510
1550
1620

NOAA Weather Radio
frequency

162.550

Internet radio

KANM1

By callsign

KACB-LP
KAGC
KAGG
KAMU-FM
KANJ-FM
KANM
KAPN
KBXT
KEOS
KHML
KJXJ
KKYS
KLBJ
KLTR
KMVL
KMVL-FM
KNDE
KNFX-FM
KNRG
KORA-FM
KPWJ
KRXT
KSAM-FM
KSHU-FM
KTAM
KTON
KTTX
KTWL
KVJM
KVMK
KVST
KWBC
KWHI
KWUP
KZNE
WTAW
WXK30

Nearby radio markets
Austin
Dallas–Fort Worth
Houston
Huntsville
Killeen–Temple
Lufkin–Nacogdoches
San Antonio
Waco

1 = Part 15 station with notability.

See also
List of radio stations in Texas

text: Area newspapers[edit]

text:
The Bryan/College Station Eagle (city newspaper)
The Battalion (Texas A&M University newspaper)
Maroon Weekly (Aggie-owned and operated independent newspaper, Bryan/College Station)
The Touchstone (left/progressive, alt/indie newspaper)
The Jail Times (Locally-owned and operated independent newspaper, Bryan/College Station)

text: Area magazines[edit]

text:
12th Man Magazine
Aggieland Illustrated
Insite Magazine
AgriLeader Magazine

text: Healthcare[edit]

text:
College Station Medical Center
The Physicians Centre Hospital
Scott & White Hospital
St. Joseph Regional Health Center
St. Joseph Emergency Center - College Station

text: Education[edit]

text: Local colleges and universities[edit]

text:
Texas A&M University (approximately 68,000 students)
Texas A&M Health Science Center

text: Local school districts[edit]

text:
College Station Independent School District

Operates two high schools: A&M Consolidated High School and College Station High School

text: Tallest buildings[edit]

text:
Buildings with seven or more floors

Kyle Field: 118 feet (36 m)[34]
Rise at Northgate: 18 floors[35]
Oceanography and Meteorology Building: 15 floors/151 feet (46 m)[36][34]
Albritton Bell Tower: 138 feet (42 m)[37]
Rudder Tower: 12 floors[38]
College Station Hilton: 11 floors[39]
Momentum Plaza (formerly Adam Corporation Building and formerly First American Bank headquarters): 121.49 ft; 10 floors[40]
Richardson Petroleum Engineering: 10 floors[41]
Civil Engineering/Texas Transportation Institute: eight floors[42]
Regents Building: eight floors[43]
Brown Engineering: seven floors[44]
Harrington: seven floors[45]
Bright Building: seven floors[46]
McFerrin Indoor Athletic Practice Facility: over 100 feet (30 m)[47]
Texas A&M University System Building: seven floors[48]
Evans Library: seven floors

text: Surrounding cities[edit]

text: Nearest cities[edit]

text:
Cities within 30 mi (48 km)

Bryan, Texas 5.7 mi (9.2 km)
Wixon Valley, Texas 11.1 mi (17.9 km)
Snook, Texas 13.2 mi (21.2 km)
Navasota, Texas 21.5 mi (34.6 km)
Somerville, Texas 23.1 mi (37.2 km)
Anderson, Texas 23.8 mi (38.3 km)
Caldwell, Texas 27.0 mi (43.5 km)
Hearne, Texas 27.2 mi (43.8 km)
Kurten, Texas 14.2 mi (22.9 km)

text: Nearest major cities[edit]

text:
Cities with population over 500,000 within 200 mi (320 km)

Houston 69.7 mi (112.2 km) (population: 2,145,146; metro population: 6,086,538)
Austin 107.7 mi (173.3 km) (population: 820,611; metro population: 1,783,519)
San Antonio 169 mi (272 km) (population: 1,359,758; metro population: 2,194,927)
Fort Worth 173 mi (278 km) (population: 758,738; metro population: 6,145,037)
Dallas 187 mi (301 km) (population: 1,223,229; metro population: 6,145,037)

text: Notable people[edit]

text: The following people have lived or are currently living in College Station:

text:
Sara Alpern, professor of women's history at Texas A&M University
Seth McKinney, former NFL football player and now owner of Crossfit Aggieland in College Station
Gary Clayton Anderson, American historian and specialist in American Indian studies, resided in College Station in the early 1980s.
George Bass (archaeologist), archaeologist, called the Father of Underwater Archaeology.
Garland Bayliss, American historian and administrator at Texas A&M, resided in both Bryan and College Station.[49]
David Bereit, anti-abortion activist[50]
Matthew Berry, ESPN fantasy sport analyst[51] and son of College Station mayor Nancy Berry
Norman Borlaug, "The Man Who Saved a Billion Lives", agronomist, humanitarian, and Nobel laureate who has been called "the father of the Green Revolution"
Robert A. Calvert, historian[52]
John David Crow, late athletic director at Texas A&M University; former football player and coach
Henry C. Dethloff, historian and author
Robert Gates, former Texas A&M University president and former Secretary of Defense[53]
Kristy Hawkins, IFBB professional bodybuilder
Dick Hervey, mayor of College Station from 1971 to 1974; third secretary of the TAMU Association of Former Students from 1947 to 1964; president of Community Savings and Loan, 1964-1982; interred at College Station Cemetery[54]
Brianna Hildebrand, actress
Kyle Kacal, member of the Texas House of Representatives from College Station since 2013[55]
Arnold Krammer, historian at TAMU, 1974-retirement in 2015[56]
David M. Lee, physics professor at TAMU, 1996 Nobel Prize Laureate in Physics[57][58]
R. Bowen Loftin, former president of Texas A&M University
Lyle Lovett, singer-songwriter
Martin V. Melosi, environmental historian at TAMU, head of the Institute for Public History at the University of Houston[59]
Ilan Mitchell-Smith, actor, starring in Weird Science, Journey to the Center of the Earth, among others; professor of English at California State University, Long Beach
John N. Raney, member of the Texas House of Representatives from College Station since 2011, owner of Aggieland Book Store since 1969
Rico Rodriguez, actor, known for his role of Manny Delgado in the ABC sitcom Modern Family
Thomas Sadoski, award-winning actor, starring in HBO's The Newsroom, among others
Brek Shea, soccer player, member of FC Dallas and the United States Men's National Soccer Team
R. C. Slocum, former Texas A&M University head football coach (1989–2002)
Bjarne Stroustrup, computer scientist, designer, and original implementor of C++; Distinguished Professor at Texas A&M University; AT&T Fellow
Tiffany Thornton, actress, starring in Disney Channel's Sonny With a Chance
Patrick Zurek, Roman Catholic Bishop of Amarillo, founding pastor of St. Thomas Aquinas Parish[60]
David Konderla, Roman Catholic Bishop of Tulsa

text: Points of interest[edit]

text:
George Bush Presidential Library
D. A. "Andy" Anderson Arboretum

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Mean monthly maxima and minima (i.e. the highest and lowest temperature readings during an entire month or year) calculated based on data at said location from 1981 to 2010.
Jump up ^ Official records for College Station have been kept at Easterwood Airport since August 1951 and at an undisclosed location 6 mi (9.7 km) to the southwest of the city center from 1 May 1882 until July 1951.[11]

tag: ol


document_title: The Cage (Star Trek: The Original Series)

question_text: who played spock on the original star trek

text: Primary cast[edit]

text:
Jeffrey Hunter as Captain Christopher Pike
Susan Oliver as Vina
Leonard Nimoy as Mr. Spock
Majel Barrett as Number One
John Hoyt as Dr. Phillip Boyce
Peter Duryea as Lieutenant José Tyler
Laurel Goodwin as Yeoman J. M. Colt

text: Overview[edit]

text: "The Cage" had many of the features of the eventual series, but there were numerous differences. The Captain of the starship USS Enterprise was not James T. Kirk, but Christopher Pike. Spock was present, but not as First Officer. That role was taken by a character known only as Number One, played by Majel Barrett. Spock's character differs somewhat from that seen in the rest of Star Trek; he displays a youthful eagerness that contrasts with the later more reserved and logical Spock. He also delivers the first line in all of Star Trek: "Check the circuit!" followed by, "Can't be the screen then."[1] The weaponry used in the pilot was also different from that seen in the series proper, identified as lasers rather than phasers, and different props were used for the communicator and handheld weapon (which made the change to "phasers" easy to retcon as an upgraded technology).

text: NBC reportedly called the pilot "too cerebral," "too intellectual," and "too slow" with "not enough action."[2] Rather than rejecting the series outright, though, the network commissioned a second pilot, "Where No Man Has Gone Before."[3][4] This was accepted and Star Trek began production.

text: During the first season, the producers' need for new episodes to be delivered to the network to meet the original series commitment became urgent, and a frame was written allowing most of the original footage from "The Cage" to be used within the series continuity as a two-part episode "The Menagerie".[5] The original pilot episode "The Cage" is sometimes listed as episode 99 when shown. On the VHS home video releases, it was identified as Episode 1.

text: The process of editing the pilot into "The Menagerie" disassembled the original camera negative of "The Cage," and thus, for many years it was considered partly lost. Roddenberry's black-and-white 16mm print made for reference purposes was the only existing print of the show, and was frequently shown at conventions. Early video releases of "The Cage" used Roddenberry's 16mm print, intercut with the color scenes from "The Cage" that were used in "The Menagerie." It was only in 1987 that a film archivist found an unmarked (mute) 35mm reel in a Hollywood film laboratory with the negative trims of the unused scenes. Upon realizing what he had found, he arranged for the return of the footage to Roddenberry's company.[6]

text: "The Cage" was first released on VHS in 1986,[4] with a special introduction by Roddenberry, and was aired for the first time in its entirety, and in full color, in late November 1988 as part of The Star Trek Saga: From One Generation to the Next,[4] a two-hour retrospective special hosted by Patrick Stewart. It contained interviews with Gene Roddenberry, Maurice Hurley, Rick Berman, Mel Harris, cast members from Star Trek and Star Trek: The Next Generation, clips from both series and the Star Trek films I through IV with a small preview of Star Trek V. It was later rebroadcast on UPN in 1996 with a behind the scenes look at Star Trek: First Contact.

text: According to "The Menagerie," the events of "The Cage" take place thirteen years before the first season of Star Trek. No stardate was given.

text: Plot summary[edit]

text: The USS Enterprise, under the command of Captain Christopher Pike, receives a radio distress call from the fourth planet in the Talos star group. A landing party is assembled and beamed down to investigate. Tracking the distress signal to its source, the landing party discovers a camp of survivors from a scientific expedition that has been missing for eighteen years. Amongst the survivors is a beautiful young woman named Vina.

text: Captivated by her beauty, Pike is caught off guard and is captured by the Talosians, a race of humanoids with bulbous heads who live beneath the planet's surface. It is revealed that the distress call, and the crash survivors, except for Vina, are just illusions created by the Talosians to lure the Enterprise to the planet. While imprisoned, Pike uncovers the Talosians' plans to repopulate their ravaged planet using himself and Vina as breeding stock for a race of slaves.

text: The Talosians try to use their power of illusion to interest Pike in Vina, and present her in various guises and settings, first as a Rigellian princess, a loving compassionate farm girl, then a seductive, green-skinned Orion. Pike resists all forms. After an earlier landing party failed to gain entry from the surface, six members of the Enterprise crew prepare to beam into the Talosians underground complex, but only Pike's first officer and yeoman—both women—materialize in Pike's cell to offer further temptation. By then, however, Pike has discovered that primitive human emotions can block the Talosians' ability to read his mind, and he manages to escape to the surface of the planet along with the two members of his landing party.

text: The Talosians confront Pike and his companions before they can transport back to the Enterprise. The captain tries to negotiate, but the first officer sets her weapon on a buildup to overload. Pike and Vina move closer to her, agreeing with her preference for death rather than captivity. After all, as Vina explains, if the Talosians have even one human being, they might try again. This demonstration of fatal resolve confirms what the Talosians have been gleaning from the records they've accessed from the Enterprise's computers: the human race despises captivity far too much to be useful.

text: Despite their last hope having been proven unsuitable, the Talosians are not vengeful. They let the humans go. The first officer and yeoman beam up immediately, but Pike remains behind with Vina, urging her to leave with him. Vina explains that she cannot leave. An expedition had indeed crash-landed on Talos IV; Vina was the sole survivor, but was badly injured. The Talosians were able to save her, but as they had no understanding of human physiology or aesthetics at the time, she was left horribly disfigured. With the aid of the Talosians' illusions, she is able to appear beautiful and in good health, as much to herself as to any others.

text: Realizing that the continued Talosian illusion of health and beauty is necessary for Vina, Pike is ready to return to the Enterprise without her. In an act of goodwill, the aliens show him that Vina sees an image of Pike next to her, and they walk up to the entrance that takes them into the Talosian habitat. Pike then beams up after the Keeper's closing words: "She has an illusion and you have reality. May you find your way as pleasant."

text: Casting[edit]

text: Jeffrey Hunter had a six-month exclusive option for the role of Captain Pike.[7] Although he was required to continue if the series was picked up by the network, he was not required to film the second pilot that NBC requested. Deciding to concentrate on motion pictures instead, he declined the role.[8] Gene Roddenberry wrote to him on April 5, 1965:

text: I am told you have decided not to go ahead with Star Trek. This has to be your own decision, of course, and I must respect it. You may be certain I hold no grudge or ill feelings and expect to continue to reflect publicly and privately the high regard I learned for you during the production of our pilot.[9]

text: Two weeks after the option expired on June 1, 1965, Hunter formally gave his letter requesting separation from the project. He died on May 27, 1969, one week before the original series ended its run. Roddenberry later suggested that he was the one who—unhappy with interference by Hunter's then-wife Dusty Bartlett—had decided not to rehire Hunter.[10] However, executive producer Herbert F. Solow, who was present when Bartlett, acting as manager, refused the role on behalf of her husband, later said in his memoir, Inside Star Trek, that it was the other way around.[11]

text: Production[edit]

text: "The Cage" was filmed at Desilu Productions' studio (now known as Culver Studios) in Culver City, California, from November 27 to mid-December 1964. Post-production work (pick-up shots, editing, scoring, special photographic and sound effects) continued to January 18, 1965.[12]

text: Gene Roddenberry paid a lot of attention to what The Outer Limits team was doing at the time, and he was often present in their studios. He hired several Outer Limits alumni, among them Robert Justman and Wah Chang, for the production of Star Trek.[13] One of the creatures in the cages was reused from the episode "The Duplicate Man" of The Outer Limits, where it was called a megasoid. The prop head from The Outer Limits episode "Fun and Games" was used to make a Talosian appear as a vicious creature. The process used to make pointed ears for David McCallum in "The Sixth Finger" was reused in Star Trek as well. The "ion storm" seen in "The Mutant" (a projector beam shining through a container holding glitter in liquid suspension) became the transporter effect.

text: All of the Talosians were portrayed by women, with their telepathic voices recorded by male actors. This was done to give the impression that the Talosians had focused their efforts on mental development to the detriment of their physical strength and size, and also to give that much more of an alien feel to the Talosians. However, the deep voice of Malachi Throne as the Keeper in "The Cage" was electronically processed to sound higher-pitched[14] for "The Menagerie", as Throne also portrayed Commodore Mendez in the latter. The Keeper's voice from "The Menagerie" was kept for both the remastered and new "original" versions of "The Cage" which would be released later. Throne's unaltered voice work as The Keeper only survives as a brief sample that can be found in the preview trailer for "The Menagerie" (Part II).

text: The laser cannon prop appears only in this episode, although its clear, circular sighting grid was recycled for use in the shuttlecraft in "The Galileo Seven" and other Star Trek episodes.