document_title: List of extreme points of India

question_text: in terms of longitude the easternmost state of india is

text: List of extreme points of India

text: Extreme points[edit]

text: The northernmost point that India claims lies in the territory now administered by China as part of Xinjiang but once claimed by Hunza and therefore claimed by India as part of the disputed state of Jammu and Kashmir. The northernmost point administered by India lies in Jammu & Kashmir. India's claim to the whole of Kashmir is disputed by Pakistan and China, with the territory currently partitioned into Pakistan's state of Gilgit-Baltistan, the Chinese region of Aksai Chin and the Indian-administered state of Jammu and Kashmir.[1] This list provides the northernmost point as claimed by India; the northern-most disputed point that is administered by India; and the northern-most undisputed point in India. This case also applies to the highest elevated regions.

text: India's eastern-most state is Arunachal Pradesh. Part of the state is claimed by China as "South Tibet", though administered by India, The easternmost of Indian-administered territory is located in this disputed region.[2] Consequently, this list mentions both the disputed and undisputed eastern-most points in India.

text:
Heading
Location
Administrative entity
Bordering entity
Coordinates[nb 1]
Ref

North
(disputed, administered)
Near Indira Col, Siachen Glacier
Jammu and Kashmir
Xinjiang, China
35°40′28″N 76°50′43″E / 35.674520°N 76.845245°E / 35.674520; 76.845245 (Near Indira Col (Northernmost — disputed, administered))
[3]

North
(disputed, claimed)
Next to Kilik Pass in the Karakorum Mountains on Xinjiang-Gilgit-Baltistan border
Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan
Xinjiang, China
37°05′09″N 74°42′10″E / 37.08586°N 74.70291°E / 37.08586; 74.70291 (Xinjian-Gilgit-Baltistan border)
[4]

North
(undisputed)
Next to Kang La pass at the head of Miyar Valley, Lahaul and Spiti district
Himachal Pradesh
Indian-administered Kashmir
33°15′22″N 76°47′56″E / 33.25615°N 76.79877°E / 33.25615; 76.79877 (Near Kangla (Northernmost — undisputed))
[5]

South
Indira Point in the Nicobar Islands
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Indian Ocean
6°44′48″N 93°50′33″E / 6.74678°N 93.84260°E / 6.74678; 93.84260 (Indira Point (Southernmost))
[6][7]

South (mainland)
Cape Comorin near Kanyakumari
Tamil Nadu
Indian Ocean
8°04′08″N 77°33′08″E / 8.06890°N 77.55230°E / 8.06890; 77.55230 (Cape Comorin (Southernmost — mainland)
[6][8]

East
(disputed, administered)
Near Kibithu in Anjaw district
Arunachal Pradesh
Kachin State, Myanmar
28°00′42″N 97°23′44″E / 28.01168°N 97.39564°E / 28.01168; 97.39564 (near Kibithu (Easternmost — disputed, administered))
[6][9]

East (undisputed)
Near Vijaynagar, in the Changlang district
Arunachal Pradesh
Kachin State, Myanmar
27°08′10″N 97°09′57″E / 27.13611°N 97.16575°E / 27.13611; 97.16575 (Near Vijaynagar (Easternmost — undisputed))
[10]

West
Sir Creek in Kutch, near the Guhar Moti
Gujarat
Indus River Delta
23°42′47″N 68°01′56″E / 23.71307°N 68.03215°E / 23.71307; 68.03215 (Ghuar Mota (Westernmost))
[11]

text: Altitudes[edit]

text:
Extremity
Name
Altitude
Location
State
Coordinates
Ref

Highest (undisputed)
Kangchenjunga
8,586 m (28,169 ft)
North Sikkim on the India-Nepal border
Sikkim
27°42′09″N 88°08′54″E / 27.70250°N 88.14833°E / 27.70250; 88.14833 (West Sikkim (Highest — undisputed))
[6]

Highest (disputed)
K2
8,611 m (28,251 ft)
Border between Gilgit-Baltistan (administered by Pakistan) and Xinjiang (administered by China)
Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan
35°52′57″N 76°30′48″E / 35.88250°N 76.51333°E / 35.88250; 76.51333 (Border between Kashmir and Xinjiang (Highest — disputed))
[6]

Highest
(undisputed and entirely within India)
Nanda Devi
7,816 m (25,643 ft)cb
Garhwal Himalaya
Uttarakhand
30°22′36″N 79°58′15″E / 30.37667°N 79.97083°E / 30.37667; 79.97083 (Uttarakhand (Highest completely within India))
[6]

Lowest
Kuttanad
−2.2 m (−7.2 ft)
Alappuzha district
Kerala
9°09′13″N 76°28′23″E / 9.15360°N 76.47300°E / 9.15360; 76.47300 (Kuttanad (Lowest))
[12]


document_title: Chalk outline

question_text: what do you call the outline of a dead body

root

text: Chalk outline

text: Form[edit]

text: Classically, white or bright yellow chalk is used, although some may use paint or white tape. In the case of a body, a chalk outline might be drawn immediately before the body is to be removed, but after the medical examiner has examined the body.[1]

tag: p

text: Chalk outlines in practice were typically rough shapes of the body's position and did not include specific arms and leg orientation.[2]

text: History and modern use[edit]

text: While chalk outlines were occasionally used in the past, they often were drawn by the police for press photographers, not for investigative purposes. It allowed the press to take a picture and represent the scene without the gruesomeness of a body.

text: Some sources indicate that while not part of official procedure, some uninformed investigators may occasionally draw outlines, particularly in non-homicide accidents.[3] The term "chalk fairy" is occasionally used to describe an officer that makes the chalk outline, often without authorization and while unwittingly contaminating the scene.[1]

text: While the use of chalk is uncommon, investigators may make smaller marks, or use removable flags, index cards, or even markers, to indicate important positions, particularly if other references are not available.[4]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: Chalk outlines of bodies are familiar tropes in popular culture. Often they are used in humorous ways depicting awkward positioning or meticulous precision, or portending a character's impending death by having them prematurely fall into a drawn outline. The Naked Gun series made extensive use of the prop, as have a number of other comedies.

text: More generally the term has become synonymous with tragic death and has been used in literature, music, and visual arts. Some author guides have listed the procedure as standard.[5]

text: The first time an outline of a body was shown on a television series was in 1958 on the Perry Mason television series in the episode "The Case Of The Perjured Parrot".[citation needed]


document_title: Red White and Blue

question_text: number of countries with red white and blue flags

text: Red White and Blue

text: Look up red, white and blue in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

tag: table

text: Red White and Blue may refer to: The Three Main Colours.

text: Flags[edit]

text:
any Tricolour flag or banner having the three colors of red, white and blue (38 total):

 The flag of Australia
 The flag of Cambodia
 The flag of Chile
 The flag of the Cook Islands
 The flag of Costa Rica
 The flag of Croatia
 The flag of Cuba
 The flag of the Czech Republic
 The flag of the Dominican Republic
 The flag of the Faroe Islands
 The flag of France
 The flag of Haiti
 The flag of Iceland
 The flag of North Korea
 The flag of South Korea
 The flag of Laos
 The flag of Liberia
 The flag of Luxembourg
 The flag of Malaysia
 The flag of Nepal
 The flag of the Netherlands
 The flag of New Zealand
 The flag of Norway
 The flag of Panama
 The flag of Paraguay
 The flag of the Philippines
 The flag of Puerto Rico
 The flag of Russia
 The flag of Samoa
 The flag of Schleswig-Holstein
 The flag of Serbia
 The flag of Sint Maarten
 The flag of Slovakia
 The flag of Slovenia
 The flag of Taiwan
 The flag of Thailand
 The Union Jack of the United Kingdom
 The flag of the United States

tag: ul

text: Other uses[edit]

text:
The Three Colors trilogy of films by Krzysztof Kieślowski
Red White & Blue Beer, a brand of American beer
Red, White and Blue (comics), a fictional trio of soldiers from DC Comics
Red, White & Blues, a 1992 album by The Blues Brothers
"Red, White and Blue" (song), a 1976 song by Loretta Lynn
"Red White & Blue (Love It or Leave)", a 2003 song by Lynyrd Skynyrd
Red, White & Blue (film), written and directed by Simon Rumley
The Red White & Blue Festival, an annual event staged by the British National Party held in Codnor from 2007 to 2009
Columbia, Gem of the Ocean, American patriotic song alternately referred to as "The Red, White and Blue"
Red-white-blue bag, a bag made out of colored canvas invented in Hong Kong in the 1960s

Red White Blue, artwork series by Hong Kong artist Stanley Wong

Red, White & Blue, a fictional drug in comics published by Marvel Comics


document_title: Bilbo Baggins

question_text: who plays young bilbo baggins in lord of the rings

text: Bilbo Baggins

text: Appearances[edit]

text: The Hobbit[edit]

text: In The Hobbit, Bilbo Baggins, a hobbit in comfortable middle age at 50 years old, was hired as a "burglar," despite his objections, by the wizard Gandalf and 13 Dwarves led by their king Thorin Oakenshield on a quest to reclaim the Lonely Mountain and its treasure from the dragon Smaug. The adventure took Bilbo and the companions through the wilderness, to the elf haven of Rivendell, across the Misty Mountains and the black forest of Mirkwood, to Lake-town in the middle of Long Lake, and eventually to the Mountain itself. Here, after the dragon was killed and the Mountain was reclaimed, the Battle of Five Armies took place.

text: In his journey, Bilbo encountered other fantastic creatures, including trolls, elves, giant spiders, a man who can change shape into a bear, goblins, eagles, wolves and a slimy, murderous creature named Gollum. Underground, near Gollum's lair, Bilbo accidentally found a magic ring of invisibility, which he used to escape from Gollum.

text: By the end of the journey, Bilbo had become wiser and more confident, having saved the day in many precarious situations. Bilbo's journey has been compared to a pilgrimage of grace. The Hobbit can be characterized as a "Christian bildungsroman which equates progress to wisdom gained in the form of a rite of passage.[1] He rescued the dwarves from giant spiders with the magic ring and a short Elven-sword he acquired. He used the ring to sneak around in dangerous places , as well as his wits to smuggle the dwarves out of the elves' prisons. When tensions arose over ownership of the recovered treasure, he tried unsuccessfully to bring the opposing sides to compromise, using the Arkenstone, a stolen heirloom jewel, as leverage. This strained his relationship with Thorin, but the two were reconciled at Thorin's deathbed. At the end of the story, Bilbo returned to his home in the Shire only to find that several of his relatives, believing him to be dead, were trying to claim his home and possessions. In addition to becoming wealthy from his share of the dwarves' treasure, he found that he, like Adam, had traded respectability for experience and wisdom. At the end, Gandalf proclaims Bilbo is no longer the Hobbit he was. This is certainly true as Bilbo has fully matured. Continuing the pilgrimage theme, a true pilgrimage does not end at the destination, but rather when the wanderer is absolved, blessed, and ready to return home.[1]

text: The Lord of the Rings[edit]

text: This Middle-earth-related Section describes a work or element of fiction in a primarily in-universe style. Please help rewrite it to explain the fiction more clearly and provide non-fictional perspective. (October 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The Fellowship of the Ring, the first volume of The Lord of the Rings, begins with Bilbo's "eleventy-first" (111th) birthday, 60 years after the beginning of The Hobbit. The main character of the novel is Frodo Baggins, Bilbo's cousin,[nb 1] who celebrates his 33rd birthday and legally comes of age on the same day.

text: In T.A. 2989 (S.R. 1389), Bilbo, a lifelong bachelor, adopted Frodo, the orphaned son of his first cousin Primula Brandybuck and his second cousin Drogo Baggins, and made him his heir. Though Frodo was actually "his first and second cousin once removed either way",[2] the two regarded each other as uncle and nephew.

text: All this time Bilbo had kept his magic ring, with no idea of its significance, using it mostly to hide from his obnoxious cousins, the Sackville-Bagginses, when they came to visit. Gandalf's investigations revealed it to be the One Ring forged by the Dark Lord Sauron. The Ring had prolonged Bilbo's life beyond the normal hobbit span, and at 111 he still looked 50. While the Ring did not initially corrupt him as it had its previous owners, it was beginning to affect him; over the years, it had begun to prey on his mind when out of his sight, and he lost sleep and felt "thin, sort of stretched … like butter that has been scraped over too much bread".[2]

text: On the night of his and Frodo's birthday, Bilbo threw himself a party and invited all of the Shire. He signed his home, Bag End, and estate over to Frodo. He then gave a farewell address to his neighbours, at the end of which he put on the Ring and vanished from sight. As Bilbo prepared finally to leave the house, he reacted with panic and suspicion when Gandalf tried to persuade him to leave the Ring with Frodo. Bilbo refused to give up the Ring, referring to it as his "precious" – just as Gollum had. Gandalf lost his temper with his old friend and talked some sense into him. Bilbo admitted he would have liked to be rid of the Ring, and he left it behind, becoming the first person to do so voluntarily. He left the Shire that night, and was never seen in Hobbiton again.

text: His earlier adventure, his eccentric habits as a hobbit, and his sudden disappearance led to the enduring figure of "Mad Baggins" in hobbit folklore, who disappeared with a flash and a bang and returned with gold and jewels.

text: Freed of the Ring's power over his senses, Bilbo travelled first to Rivendell, and then on to visit the dwarves of the Lonely Mountain. After he returned to Rivendell he spent much of the next 17 years living a pleasant life of retirement: eating, sleeping, writing poetry, and working on his memoirs, There and Back Again, known as The Hobbit. He became a scholar of Elven lore, leaving behind the Translations from the Elvish, which forms the basis of what is known to us as The Silmarillion.

text: When Frodo and his friends Samwise Gamgee, Meriadoc Brandybuck and Peregrin Took stopped in Rivendell on their quest to destroy the Ring, Bilbo was still alive but now visibly aged, the years having caught up with him after he surrendered the Ring. Upon seeing the Ring again, he suddenly tried to take it from Frodo; he returned to his senses when a terrified Frodo backed away, and he broke down in tears, apologizing for bringing the burden of the Ring onto Frodo.

text: After the quest to destroy the Ring was fulfilled in The Return of the King, Gandalf and the four Hobbits visited Rivendell on their way back to the Shire and found Bilbo still living there. He gave Frodo a set of manuscripts that later became Translations from the Elvish, and also gave Sam a small bag of gold that represented the last of his share from Smaug's vast hoard. Two years later Bilbo accompanied Gandalf, Elrond, Galadriel, and Frodo to the Grey Havens, there to take ship for Tol Eressëa across the sea, on 29th 'September' T.A. 3021. He had already celebrated his 131st birthday by this time, surpassing the Old Took by one year and becoming the oldest Hobbit ever in Middle-earth. (The natural lifespan of Hobbits is about 100 years.)[3]

text: The Appendices[edit]

text: According to Appendix C of The Lord of the Rings, Bilbo was born to Bungo Baggins and Belladonna Took in T.A. 2890, or S.R. 1290. The Lord of the Rings gives the date of Bilbo's birthday as 22 September,[2] but the actual date in the Shire calendar was Halimath 22; Tolkien tells us in Appendix D that he "used our modern names" for the months "to avoid confusion, while the seasonal implications of our names are more or less the same", so that Halimath is translated as September, but that "the Shire dates were actually in advance of ours by some ten days, and our New Year's Day corresponded more or less to the Shire January 9".[4]

text: The Bagginses of Bag End were one of the oldest, wealthiest, and most respectable Hobbit families in Hobbiton until the year 2941 (SR 1341), when Bilbo inexplicably disappeared on his adventure and was thought dead.

text: Poems and songs written by Bilbo[edit]

text:
"A Walking Song"
"All that is gold does not glitter"
"The Man in the Moon Stayed Up Too Late"
"The Road Goes Ever On"

text: Bilbo's Last Song[edit]

text: Tolkien's posthumously published poem "Bilbo's Last Song", illustrated by Pauline Baynes, describes Bilbo's contemplation of his forthcoming voyage to the Undying Lands. The illustrations evoke his last ride in the company of Elrond from Rivendell to the Grey Havens, as described in The Lord of the Rings.

text: Portrayals in adaptations[edit]

text: In the 1955-56 BBC Radio serialisation of The Lord of the Rings, Bilbo was played by Felix Felton.

text: In the 1968 BBC Radio serialisation of The Hobbit, Bilbo was played by Paul Daneman.

text: Nicol Williamson portrayed Bilbo with a light West Country accent in the 1974 performance released on Argo Records.[5]

text: In the 1977 Rankin/Bass animated version of The Hobbit, Bilbo was voiced by Orson Bean. Bean also voiced both the aged Bilbo and Frodo in the same company's 1980 adaptation of The Return of the King.

text: In Ralph Bakshi's 1978 animated version of The Lord of the Rings, Bilbo was voiced by Norman Bird. Billy Barty was the model for Bilbo, as well as Frodo and Sam, in the live-action recordings Bakshi used for rotoscoping.

text: The 3000th story to be broadcast in the BBC's long-running children's programme Jackanory was The Hobbit, in 1979. Four narrators told the story, with Bilbo's part being played by Bernard Cribbins

text: In the BBC's 1981 radio serialisation of The Lord of the Rings, Bilbo is played by John Le Mesurier.

text: In the 1993 television miniseries Hobitit by Finnish broadcaster Yle, Bilbo is portrayed by Martti Suosalo.

text: Throughout the 2003 video game the players control Bilbo, voiced by Michael Beatie. The game follows the plot of the book, but adds the elements of platform gameplay and various side-objectives along the main quests.

text: In The Lord of the Rings Online (2007) Bilbo resides in Rivendell, mostly playing riddle games with the Elf Lindir in the Hall of Fire. The game also includes multiple outlanding[clarification needed] stories about Bilbo's adventures and his ultimate fate from [clarification needed] various Hobbits in the Shire.

text: In Peter Jackson's films The Fellowship of the Ring (2001) and The Return of the King (2003) Bilbo is played by Ian Holm, who had played Frodo in the BBC radio series 20 years earlier. The movies omit the 17-year gap between Bilbo's 111th birthday and Frodo's departure from the Shire, as a result Bilbo mentions in Rivendell that he was unable to revisit the Lonely Mountain before his retirement.

text: In Peter Jackson's The Hobbit film series, a prequel to The Lord of the Rings, the young Bilbo is portrayed by Martin Freeman[6] while Ian Holm reprises his role as an older Bilbo in An Unexpected Journey (2012) and The Battle of the Five Armies (2014).

text: Family tree[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Balbo Baggins

Berylla Boffin

Laura Grubb

Mungo

Pansy

Fastolph Bolger

Ponto

Mimosa Bunce

Lily

Togo Goodbody

Largo

Tanta Hornblower

Bungo

Belladonna Took

Belba

Rudigar Bolger

Longo

Camellia Sackville

Linda

Bodo Proudfoot

Bingo

Chica Chubb

Fosco

Ruby Bolger

Bilbo Baggins

Otho Sackville-Baggins

Lobelia Bracegirdle

Falco Chubb-Baggins

?

Dora

Drogo

Primula Brandybuck

Dudo

?

Lotho

Poppy

Filibert Bolger

Frodo

Daisy

Griffo Boffin

text: Namesakes[edit]

text: The International Astronomical Union names all colles (small hills) on Saturn's moon Titan after characters in Tolkien's work.[7] In 2012, they named a hilly area "Bilbo Colles" after Bilbo Baggins.[8]


document_title: Right to privacy

question_text: when was the right to privacy established in india

text: Right to privacy

text: Background[edit]

text: State of consideration of constitutional laws and acts formed by sectors and sections

text: Privacy uses the theory of natural rights, and generally responds to new information and communication technologies. In the United States, an article in the December 15, 1890 issue of the Harvard Law Review, written by attorney Samuel D. Warren and future U.S. Supreme Court Justice, Louis Brandeis, entitled "The Right to Privacy", is often cited as the first implicit declaration of a U.S. right to privacy. Warren and Brandeis wrote that privacy is the "right to be let alone", and focused on protecting individuals. This approach was a response to recent technological developments of the time, such as photography, and sensationalist journalism, also known as "yellow journalism".[4]

text: Privacy rights are inherently intertwined with information technology. In his widely cited dissenting opinion in Olmstead v. United States (1928), Brandeis relied on thoughts he developed in his 1890 article The Right to Privacy. But in his dissent, he now changed the focus whereby he urged making personal privacy matters more relevant to constitutional law, going so far as saying "the government [was] identified...as a potential privacy invader." He writes, "Discovery and invention have made it possible for the Government, by means far more effective than stretching upon the rack, to obtain disclosure in court of what is whispered in the closet." At that time, telephones were often community assets, with shared party lines and the potentially nosey human operators. By the time of Katz, in 1967, telephones had become personal devices with lines not shared across homes and switching was electro-mechanical. In the 1970s, new computing and recording technologies began to raise concerns about privacy, resulting in the Fair Information Practice Principles.

text: Definitions[edit]

text: In recent years there have been only few attempts to clearly and precisely define a "right to privacy". In 2005, students of the Haifa Center for Law & Technology asserted that in fact the right to privacy "should not be defined as a separate legal right" at all. By their reasoning, existing laws relating to privacy in general should be sufficient.[5] Other experts, such as William Prosser, have attempted, but failed, to find a "common ground" between the leading kinds of privacy cases in the court system, at least to formulate a definition.[5] One law school treatise from Israel, however, on the subject of "privacy in the digital environment," suggests that the "right to privacy should be seen as an independent right that deserves legal protection in itself." It has therefore proposed a working definition for a "right to privacy":

text: The right to privacy is our right to keep a domain around us, which includes all those things that are part of us, such as our body, home, property, thoughts, feelings, secrets and identity. The right to privacy gives us the ability to choose which parts in this domain can be accessed by others, and to control the extent, manner and timing of the use of those parts we choose to disclose.[5]

text: An individual right[edit]

text: Alan Westin believes that new technologies alter the balance between privacy and disclosure, and that privacy rights may limit government surveillance to protect democratic processes. Westin defines privacy as "the claim of individuals, groups, or institutions to determine for themselves when, how, and to what extent information about them is communicated to others". Westin describes four states of privacy: solitude, intimacy, anonymity, reserve. These states must balance participation against norms:

text: Each individual is continually engaged in a personal adjustment process in which he balances the desire for privacy with the desire for disclosure and communication of himself to others, in light of the environmental conditions and social norms set by the society in which he lives.

text: Under liberal democratic systems, privacy creates a space separate from political life, and allows personal autonomy, while ensuring democratic freedoms of association and expression.

text: David Flaherty believes networked computer databases pose threats to privacy. He develops 'data protection' as an aspect of privacy, which involves "the collection, use, and dissemination of personal information". This concept forms the foundation for fair information practices used by governments globally. Flaherty forwards an idea of privacy as information control, "[i]ndividuals want to be left alone and to exercise some control over how information about them is used".[7]

text: Marc Rotenberg has described the modern right to privacy as Fair Information Practices, "the rights and responsibilities associated with the collection and use of personal information". Rotenberg emphasizes that the allocation of rights are to the data subject and the responsibilities are assigned to the data collectors because of the transfer of the data and the asymmetry of information concerning data practices.[8]

text: Richard Posner and Lawrence Lessig focus on the economic aspects of personal information control. Posner criticizes privacy for concealing information, which reduces market efficiency. For Posner, employment is selling oneself in the labour market, which he believes is like selling a product. Any 'defect' in the 'product' that is not reported is fraud.[9] For Lessig, privacy breaches online can be regulated through code and law. Lessig claims "the protection of privacy would be stronger if people conceived of the right as a property right", and that "individuals should be able to control information about themselves".[10] Economic approaches to privacy make communal conceptions of privacy difficult to maintain.

text: A collective value and a human right[edit]

text: There have been attempts to reframe privacy as a fundamental human right, whose social value is an essential component in the functioning of democratic societies.[11] Amitai Etzioni suggests a communitarian approach to privacy. This requires a shared moral culture for establishing social order.[12] Etzioni believes that "[p]rivacy is merely one good among many others",[13] and that technological effects depend on community accountability and oversight. He claims that privacy laws only increase government surveillance.[14]

text: Priscilla Regan believes that individual concepts of privacy have failed philosophically and in policy. She supports a social value of privacy with three dimensions: shared perceptions, public values, and collective components. Shared ideas about privacy allows freedom of conscience and diversity in thought. Public values guarantee democratic participation, including freedoms of speech and association, and limits government power. Collective elements describe privacy as collective good that cannot be divided. Regan's goal is to strengthen privacy claims in policy making: "if we did recognize the collective or public-good value of privacy, as well as the common and public value of privacy, those advocating privacy protections would have a stronger basis upon which to argue for its protection".[15]

text: Leslie Regan Shade argues that the human right to privacy is necessary for meaningful democratic participation, and ensures human dignity and autonomy. Privacy depends on norms for how information is distributed, and if this is appropriate. Violations of privacy depend on context. The human right to privacy has precedent in the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights. Shade believes that privacy must be approached from a people-centered perspective, and not through the marketplace.[16]

text: Universal Declaration of Human Rights[edit]

text: A right to privacy is explicitly stated under Article 12 of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights:

text: No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honor and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.

text: Privacy laws in different countries[edit]

text: United States[edit]

text: Although the Constitution does not explicitly include the right to privacy, the Supreme Court has found that the Constitution implicitly grants a right to privacy against governmental intrusion from the First Amendment, Third Amendment, Fourth Amendment, and the Fifth Amendment.[17] This right to privacy has been the justification for decisions involving a wide range of civil liberties cases, including Pierce v. Society of Sisters, which invalidated a successful 1922 Oregon initiative requiring compulsory public education, Griswold v. Connecticut, where a right to privacy was first established explicitly, Roe v. Wade, which struck down a Texas abortion law and thus restricted state powers to enforce laws against abortion, and Lawrence v. Texas, which struck down a Texas sodomy law and thus eliminated state powers to enforce laws against sodomy.

text: The 1890 Warren and Brandeis article "The Right To Privacy" is often cited as the first implicit declaration of a U.S. right to privacy.[4] This right is frequently debated. Strict constructionists[who?] argue that such right exists (or at least that the Supreme Court has more jurisdiction to protect such a right), while some civil libertarians[who?] argue that the right invalidates many types of currently allowed acts not to be surveillance (wiretaps ,public cameras film industry, etc.).

text: Most states of the United States[who?]also grant a right to privacy and recognize four torts based on that right:

text:
Intrusion upon seclusion or solitude, or into private affairs;
Public disclosure of embarrassing private facts;
Publicity which places a person in a false light in the public eye; and
Appropriation of name or likeness.

tag: ol

text: Also, in some American jurisdictions the use of a person's name as a keyword under Google's AdWords for advertising or trade purposes without the person's consent[18] has raised certain personal privacy concerns.[19]

text: On March 11, 2015, Intelligence Squared US, an organization that stages Oxford-style debates, held an event centered on the question, "Should the U.S. adopt the 'Right to be Forgotten' online?" The side against the motion won with a 56% majority of the voting audience.[20]

text: India[edit]

text: A nine-judge bench of the Supreme Court headed by Chief Justice JS Khehar, ruled on August 24, 2017 that the Right to Privacy is a fundamental right for Indian citizens under the Constitution of India (mostly under Article 21 and additionally under Part III rights). Thus no legislation passed by the government can unduly violate it. Specifically, the court adopted the three-pronged test required for encroachment of any Article 21 right – legality-i.e. through an existing law; necessity, in terms of a legitimate state objective and proportionality, that ensures a rational nexus between the object of the invasion and the means adopted to achieve that object. This clarification was crucial to prevent the dilution of the right in the future on the whims and fancies of the government in power. .[21] This ruling by the supreme Court will open debate about the scrapping of the archaic section 377, that criminalizes Homosexual acts of union .[22] India is the world’s biggest democracy and with this ruling, it has joined United States, Canada, South Africa, the European Union and the UK in recognizing this fundamental right.[23]

text: The new data sharing policy of Whatsapp with Facebook after Facebook acquired Whatsapp in 2014 has been challenged in the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court must decide if the right to privacy can be enforced against private entities.[24]

text: Journalism[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: It is often claimed, particularly by those in the eye of the media, that their right to privacy is violated when information about their private lives is reported in the press. The point of view of the press, however, is that the general public have a right to know personal information about those with status as a public figure. This distinction is encoded in most legal traditions as an element of freedom of speech.

text: Mass surveillance and privacy[edit]

text: Governmental organizations such as the NSA, CIA, and GCHQ amongst others conduct mass surveillance throughout the world. Programs such as PRISM, MYSTIC, and other operations conducted by NATO-member states are capable of collecting a vast quantity of metadata, internet history, and even actual recordings of phone calls from various countries. The existence of programs is justified by their conductors in terms of supposed benefits for defense and law enforcement, however this is also in conflict with the right to privacy established under various treaties, constitutions, and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The argument in favor of privacy has therefore come under a larger opposition to intelligence operations carried out for political purposes, and has become a contentious issue since it undermines the perceived need of nations to spy on the general population in order to maintain their power structures.

text: Support[edit]

text:
The right to privacy is alluded to in the Fourth Amendment to the US Constitution, which states, "The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects,[a] against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized."[26] The logical extension of the amendment to digital properties would make sense since if the internet had existed when it was written, digital documents would have been considered more important than the literal "papers" mentioned in the text.
Privacy helps to avoid unwanted and potentially intrusive interference in an individual's personal affairs.
Privacy is one of the rights that were absent in the society in George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four. Without privacy, there would be nothing to stop a Big Brother-like entity from taking control of every aspect of life.

text: Opposition[edit]

text:
In 1999, during a launch event for the Jini technology, Scott McNealy, the chief executive officer of Sun Microsystems, said that privacy issues were "a red herring" and then stated "You have zero privacy anyway. Get over it."[27]
The nothing to hide argument states that government data mining and surveillance programs do not threaten privacy unless they uncover some illegal activities and those committing such activities do not have the right to keep them private. One who supports this argument may state, "I've got nothing to hide" thus, not opposing data mining and surveillance.[28]
In wake of the Snowden scandal, governments have claimed that there is an existential terrorist threat that overrides the so-called right to privacy.


document_title: Imperial examination

question_text: who created the civil service system in china

text: Imperial examination

text: General history[edit]

text: Although, in a general way, the formative ideas behind the imperial exams can be traced back at least to Zhou dynasty times (or, more mythologically, Yao),[1] such as imperial promotion for displaying skill in archery contests, the imperial examination system in its classical manifestation is historically attested to have been established in 605, during the Sui dynasty; which in the quickly succeeding Tang dynasty was used only on a relatively small scale, especially in its early phase. However, the structure of the examination system was extensively expanded during the reign of Wu Zetian:[2] the impact of Wu's use of the testing system is still a matter for scholarly debate. During the Song dynasty the emperors expanded both examinations and the government school system, in part to counter the influence of military aristocrats, increasing the number of those who passed the exams to more than four to five times that of the Tang. Thus the system played a key role in the selection of the scholar-officials, who formed the elite members of society. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the system contributed to the narrowness of intellectual life and the autocratic power of the emperor. The system continued with some modifications until its 1905 abolition under the Qing dynasty. Other brief interruptions to the system occurred, such as at the beginning of the Yuan dynasty in the 13th century. The modern examination system for selecting civil servants also indirectly evolved from the imperial one.[3]

text: The operations of the examination system were part of the imperial record keeping system, and the date of receiving the jinshi degree is often a key biographical datum: sometimes the date of achieving jinshi is the only firm date known for even some of the most historically prominent persons in Chinese history.

text: History by dynasty[edit]

text: Tests had a lengthy historical background in Chinese thought, including evaluating the potential of possible people to fill positions through various contests, competitions, or interviews: even as early as the Zhou dynasty promotions might be won through winning archery competitions. Much of the development of the imperial bureaucracy in the Confucian form in which it was known in later times had much of its origin in the Han dynasty rule of Han Wudi (Emperor Wu of Han). Through the Three Kingdoms and the Sui dynasty recruitment would be viewed as basically a bottom-up process: promotions being generally through preferment from the local and lower levels of government up to each successively higher level until recommendations finally might be offered to the emperor himself, in continuation of the Zhou idea that the lower levels of government were responsible for finding recruits for the higher ones.

text: In the modern sense of an open examination system, the imperial civil service examinations did not take place until the Sui dynasty, when they then began to recognizably take on the form of standardized tests, though under the perogrative of the Emperor. The Tang dynasty saw most of the recruitment into central government bureaucrat offices performed by the bureaucracy itself, at least nominally by the reigning emperor. However, the historical dynamics of the official recruitment system involved changes in the balances of the various means used for appointments (all theoretically under the direction of the emperor); including, the civil service examinations, direct appointments (especially of members of the ruling dynastic family), nominations by quotas allotted to favored important families, recommendations, clerical promotions, direct sale of official rank, and special induction procedures for eunuchs. The regular higher level degree examination cycle was nominally decreed in 1067 to be 3 years. In practice both before and after this, the examinations were irregularly implemented for significant periods of time: thus, the calculated statistical averages for the number of degrees conferred annually should be understood in this context. The jinshi tests were not a yearly event and should not be considered so; the annual average figures are a necessary artifact of quantitative analysis.[4]

text: Han dynasty[edit]

text: From the time of the Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220) until the later, fuller implementation of the imperial examination system, most appointments in the imperial bureaucracy were based on recommendations from prominent aristocrats and local officials whilst recommended individuals were predominantly of aristocratic rank. Their names were sent by local officials to the central government based on reputations and abilities, which were sometimes judged subjectively. Oral examination on policy issues were sometimes conducted personally by the emperor himself, during Western Han.[5]

text: In a move of lasting importance in 165 BC, Emperor Wen introduced recruitment to the civil service through examinations, though these were not Confucian oriented. Previously, potential officials never sat for any sort of academic examinations. Wen was said by Liu Xiang to have been fond of reading Shen Buhai, using his method, Xing-Ming, a form of personnel examination, to control his subordinates and devoting much time to legal cases.[6]

text: Emperor Wu of Han early reign saw the creation of a series of posts for academicians was created in 136BC.[7] Ardently promoted by Dong Zhongshu, the national academy and Imperial examination came into existence by recommendation of Gongsun Hong, chancellor under Wu.[8] Its establishment set a precedent that would last into the twentieth century.[9] Officials would select candidates to take part in an examination of the Confucian classics, from which Emperor Wu would select officials to serve by his side.[10]

text: Gongsun intended its graduates to become imperial officials, but they usually only started off as clerks and attendants,[11] and mastery of only one canonical text was required upon its founding, changing to all five in the Eastern Han.[12][13] Starting with 50 students; Han Emperors Emperor Zhao expanded it to 100, Emperor Xuan to 200, and Emperor Yuan to 1000.[14]

text: While connections and recommendations remained much more meaningful than the exams in terms of advancing people to higher positions, the initiation of the examination system by emperor Wu had a cultural significance, as the state determined what the most important Confucianist texts were. During the Han dynasty, these examinations were primarily used for the purpose of classifying candidates who had been specifically recommended; and, through the Tang dynasty the quantity of placement into government service through the examination system was only averaged about 9 persons per year, with the known maximum being less than 25 in any given year.[15]

text: Three Kingdoms era through the Sui dynasty[edit]

text: Beginning in the Three Kingdoms period (with the nine-rank system in the Kingdom of Wei), imperial officials were responsible for assessing the quality of the talents recommended by the local elites. This system continued until Emperor Yang of Sui established a new category of recommended candidates for the mandarinate (进士科) in AD 605. For the first time, an examination system was explicitly instituted for a category of local talents. However, the Sui dynasty was short-lived, and the system did not reach its mature development until afterwards.

text: Tang dynasty and Wu interregnum[edit]

text: Over the course of the Tang dynasty (唐朝) and during the Zhou dynasty of the Wu Zetian interregnum, the examination system developed into a more comprehensive system, developing beyond the basic Sui process of qualifying candidates based on questions on policy matters and then followed by an interview.[16] Oral interviews as part of the examination and selection system were theoretically supposed to be an unbiased process, but in practice favored candidates from elite clans based in the capitals of Chang'an and Luoyang (speakers of solely non-elite dialects could not succeed).[17][18]

text: A pivotal point in the development of imperial examinations arose with the rise of Wu Zetian.[19] Up until that point, the rulers of the Tang dynasty were all male members of the Li family (李氏). Wu Zetian was exceptional: a woman not of the Li family, she came to occupy the seat of the emperor in an official manner in the year of 690, and even beforehand she had already begun to stretch her power within the imperial courts behind the scenes. Reform of the imperial examinations to include a new class of elite bureaucrats derived from humbler origins became a keystone of Wu's gamble to retain power.

text: In 655, Wu Zetian graduated 44 candidates with the jìnshì degree (進士), and during one 7-year period the annual average of exam takers graduated with a jinshi degree was greater than 58 persons per year. Wu lavished favors on the newly graduated jinshi degree-holders, increasing the prestige associated with this path of attaining a government career, and clearly began a process of opening up opportunities to success for a wider population pool, including inhabitants of China's less prestigious southeast area.[20] Most of the Li family supporters were located to the northwest, particularly around the capital city of Chang'an. Wu's progressive accumulation of political power through enhancement of the examination system involved attaining the allegiance of previously under-represented regions, alleviating frustrations of the literati, and encouraging education in various locales so even people in the remote corners of the empire would work on their studies in order to pass the imperial exams, and thus developed a nucleus of elite bureaucrats useful from the perspective of control by the central government.[21]

text: In 681, a written test on knowledge of the Confucian classics was introduced, meaning that candidates were required to memorize these works and fill in the blanks on the test.[22]

text: In 693, Wu Zetian's government further expanded the civil service examination system,[23] part of a policy to reform society and to consolidate power for her self-proclaimed "Zhou dynasty". Examples of officials whom she recruited through her reformed examination system include Zhang Yue, Li Jiao, and Shen Quanqi. She introduced major changes in regard to the Tang system, increasing the pool of candidates permitted to take the test by allowing commoners and gentry previously disqualified by their non-elite backgrounds to attempt the tests. Successful candidates then became an elite nucleus of bureaucrats within her government.[24]

text: Sometime between 730 and 740, after the Tang restoration, a section requiring the composition of original poetry (including both shi and fu) was added to the tests, with rather specific set requirements: this was for the jinshi degree, as well as certain other tests. The less-esteemed examinations tested for skills such as mathematics, law, and calligraphy. The success rate on these tests of knowledge on the classics was between 10 and 20 percent, but for the thousand or more candidates going for a jinshi degree each year in which it was offered, the success rate for the examinees was only between 1 and 2 percent: a total of 6504 jinshi were created during course of the Tang dynasty (an average of only about 23 jinshi awarded per year).[25]

text: During the early years of the Tang restoration, the following emperors expanded on Wu's policies since they found them politically useful, and the annual averages of degrees conferred continued to rise; however with the upheavals which later developed and the disintegration of the Tang empire into the "Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period", the examination system gave ground to other traditional routes to government positions and favoritism in grading reduced the opportunities of those taking the tests who lacked political patronage.[26] Ironically this period of fragmentation resulted in the utter destruction of old networks established by elite families that had ruled China throughout its various dynasties since its very conception. With the disappearance of the old aristocracy, Wu's system of bureaucrat recruitment once more became the dominant model in China, and eventually coalesced into the class of nonhereditary elites who would become known to the West as "mandarins," in reference to Mandarin, the dialect of Chinese employed in the imperial court.[27]

text: Song dynasty[edit]

text: In the Song dynasty (960–1279) more than a hundred higher level examinations were held. Officials selected through the exams became dominant in the bureaucracy. Theoretically, the examinations were open to adult (at least in terms of literacy) Chinese males, with some restrictions. This included even individuals from the occupied northern territories.[28] Many individuals moved from a low social status to political prominence through success in imperial examination. Examples include Wang Anshi, who proposed reforms to make the exams more practical, and Zhu Xi, whose interpretations of the Four Classics became the orthodox Neo-Confucianism which dominated later dynasties. Two other prominent successful entries into politics through the examination system were Su Shi and his brother Su Zhe: both of whom became political opponents of Wang Anshi. Indeed, one of the major objectives of the examination system was to promote diversity of viewpoints and to avoid over-filling of offices with individuals of particular political or partisan alignment, as might occur with alternative, more biased methods, which could allow for active recruitment.[29] Yet the process of studying for the examination tended to be time-consuming and costly, requiring time to spare and tutors. Most of the candidates came from the numerically small but relatively wealthy land-owning scholar-official class.[30]

text: Since 937, by the decision of the Taizu Emperor of Song, the palace examination was supervised by the emperor himself. In 992, the practice of anonymous submission of papers during the palace examination was introduced; it was spread to the departmental examinations in 1007, and to the prefectural level in 1032. The practice of recopying the papers in order not to allow biases by revealing the candidate by his calligraphy was introduced at the capital and departmental level in 1105, and in the prefectures in 1037.[31] Statistics indicate that the Song imperial government degree-awards eventually more than doubled the highest annual averages of those awarded during the Tang dynasty, with 200 or more per year on average being common, and at times reaching a per annum figure of almost 240.[32]

text: Various reforms or attempts to reform the examination system were made during the Song dynasty, including by Fan Zhongyan and those by Wang Anshi. Fan's memorial to the throne actually initiated a process which lead to major educational reform through the establishment of a comprehensive public school system.[33]

text: Yuan dynasty (the Mongols)[edit]

text: Governmental examinations ended with the defeat of the Song in 1279 by a disintegrating Mongol empire. After a period of turmoil, the part of the Mongol empire that was led by Kublai Khan established itself in China as the Yuan dynasty. Kublai ended the imperial examination system, as he believed that Confucian learning was not needed for government jobs.[34]

text: The examination system was revived in 1315, with significant changes, during the reign of Emperor Renzong. The new examination system was one of regionalism with Mongol characteristics. The northern areas of Mongolia and its vicinity were favored, and a quota system (both for number of candidates and number of degrees awarded) which was based on the classification of the imperial population into four racially-based groups (or castes and/or ethnicities) was instituted, the groups being Mongols, their non-Han allies (Semu-ren), Northern Chinese, and Southern Chinese, with further restrictions by province.[35] Under the revived and revised system the yearly averages for examination degrees awarded was about 21.[36] As the degrees were arithmetically divided between the four "races" (although with further modification), rather than being proportionally based on either population or number of qualified candidates, this tended to favor the Mongols, Semu-ren, and North Chinese: the South Chinese were by far the greatest part of the population, the 1290 census figures recording some 12,000,000 households (about 48% of the total Yuan population), versus 2,000,000 North Chinese households, and the populations of Mongols and Semu-ren were both less.[37] The restrictions on candidates by the new quota system allowed only 300 candidates for each testing session of the three year examination cycle. The provincial restrictions resulted in a greater effect; for example, only 28 Han Chinese from South China were included among the 300 candidates, the rest of the South China slots (47) being occupied by resident Mongols or Semu-ren, although 47 "racial South Chinese" who were not residents of South China were approved as candidates.[38]

text: Ming dynasty[edit]

text: The Ming dynasty (1368-1644) retained and expanded the system it inherited. Shortly after the inauguration of the dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor in 1370 declared that the exams should cover the Four Books, discourses, and political analysis, accepting the Neo-Confucian canon put forth by Zhuxi in the Song dynasty. But he firmly insisted on including the martial arts. The curriculum at the National Academy emphasized law, mathematics, calligraphy, horse riding, and archery in addition to Confucian classics required in the exams.[39] The emperor especially emphasized archery.[40]

text: The Ming established Neo-Confucian interpretations as the orthodoxy guidelines and created what the historian Benjamin Elman called a "single-minded and monocular political ideology" that "affected politically and socially how literati learning would be interpreted and used." The imperial civil service system adopted this rigid orthodoxy at a time when commercialization and population growth meant that there was an inflation in the number of degree candidates at the lower levels. As a result, the higher and more prestigious offices were dominated by jinshi (Palace) degree-holders, who tended to come from elite families. The Ming thus started a process in which access to government office became harder and harder and officials became more and more orthodox in their thought. Near the end of the Ming dynasty, in 1600, there were roughly half a million licentiates in a population of 150 million, that is, one per 300 people; by the mid-19th century the ratio had shrunk to one civil licentiate for each 1,000 people.[41]

text: The social background of metropolitan graduates also narrowed as time went on. In the early years of the Ming dynasty only 14 percent of metropolitan graduates came from families that had a history of providing officials, while in the last years of the Ming roughly 60 percent of metropolitan exam graduates came from established elite families.

text: Qing dynasty[edit]

text: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, which attempted to overthrow the Qing dynasty in the middle of the 19th century, in 1853 admitted for the first time women as examination candidates. The exams administered by the Heavenly Kingdom differed from those administered by the Qing dynasty, in that they required knowledge of the Bible. Fu Shanxiang took the exam and became the first female zhuangyuan in Chinese history.[42]

text: The end of the imperial examination system[edit]

text: With the military defeats in the 1890s and pressure to develop a national school system, reformers such as Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao called for abolition of the exams, and the Hundred Days' Reform of 1898 proposed a set of modernizations. After the Boxer Rebellion, the government drew up plans to reform under the name of New Policies, then abolish the exams. On 2 September 1905, the throne endorsed a memorial which ordered that the old examination system be discontinued at all levels in the following years. The new system provided equivalents to the old degrees; a bachelor's degree, for instance, would be considered equivalent to the xiu cai. The details of the new system remained to be worked out by the fall of the dynasty in 1911, but the end of the system meant the end of Confucianism as an official state ideology and of the scholar official as a legal group.[43]

text: General discussion of late imperial system[edit]

text: Yet the system also promoted resistance to change. Reformers charged that the set format of the "Eight-legged essay" stifled original thought and satirists portrayed the rigidity of the system in novels such as The Scholars. In the twentieth century, the New Culture Movement portrayed the examination system as a cause for China's weakness in such stories as Lu Xun's "Kong Yiji." Some have suggested that limiting the topics prescribed in examination system removed the incentives for Chinese intellectuals to learn mathematics or to conduct experimentation, perhaps contributing to the Great Divergence, in which China's scientific and economic development fell behind Europe.[44]

text: In late imperial China, the examination system was the major mechanism by which the central government captured and held the loyalty of local-level elites. Their loyalty, in turn, ensured the integration of the Chinese state, and countered tendencies toward regional autonomy and the breakup of the centralized system. The examination system distributed its prizes according to provincial and prefectural quotas, which meant that imperial officials were recruited from the whole country, in numbers roughly proportional to each province's population. Elite individuals all over China, even in the disadvantaged peripheral regions, had a chance at succeeding in the examinations and achieving the rewards and emoluments office brought.[45]

text: The examination based civil service thus promoted stability and social mobility. The Confucian-based examinations meant that the local elites and ambitious would-be members of those elites across the whole of China were taught with similar values. Even though only a small fraction (about 5 percent) of those who attempted the examinations actually passed them and even fewer received titles, the hope of eventual success sustained their commitment. Those who failed to pass did not lose wealth or local social standing; as dedicated believers in Confucian orthodoxy, they served, without the benefit of state appointments, as teachers, patrons of the arts, and managers of local projects, such as irrigation works, schools, or charitable foundations.[46]

text: Republic of China[edit]

text: After the fall of the Qing in 1911, Dr. Sun Yat-sen, the leader of the newly risen Republic of China, developed similar procedures for the new political system through an institution called the Examination Yuan, one of the five branches of government, although this was quickly suspended due to the turmoil in China between the two world wars, such as the warlord period and the Japanese invasion. The Kuomintang administration revived the Examination Yuan in 1947 after the defeat of Japan. This system continues into present times in Taiwan along with the government itself after loss of the mainland to the Communist Party of China.

text: Taking the exams[edit]

text: The examinations consisted of tests administered at the district, provincial, and metropolitan levels. Tight quotas restricted the number of successful candidates at each level — for example, only three hundred students could pass the metropolitan examinations. Students often took the examinations several times before earning a degree.

text:
Entry-level examinations were held annually and accessible to educated individuals from their early teenage years. These were held locally and were collectively called Háizi kǎoshì (孩子考試, "Child Exam"). Háizi kǎoshì was broken down hierarchically into the Xiàn kǎoshì (縣考試, "County Exam"), the Fǔfǔ kǎoshì (府府試, "Prefectural exam") and Yuànshì (院試, "college exam").
Provincial exams: Xiāngshì (鄉試, "township exam") were held every three years in provincial capitals.
Metropolitan exams: Huìshì (會試, "conference exam") were held every three years in the national capital.
Palace exams: Diànshì (殿試, "court exam") were held every three years in the Imperial palace and often supervised by the emperor himself.

text: Each candidate arrived at an examination compound with only a few amenities: a water pitcher, a chamber pot, bedding, food (which he had to prepare himself), an inkstone, ink and brushes. Guards verified a student's identity and searched for hidden printed materials. In the Ming and Qing periods, each exam taker spent three days and two nights writing "eight-legged essays" — literary compositions with eight distinct sections — in a tiny room with a makeshift bed, desk and bench. There were no interruptions during those three days, nor were candidates allowed any communication. If a candidate died, officials wrapped his body in a straw mat and tossed it over the high walls that ringed the compound.[47]

text: Intense pressure to succeed meant that cheating and corruption were rampant, often outrunning strenuous attempts to prevent or defeat them. In order to discourage favoritism which might occur if an examiner recognized a student's calligraphy, each exam was recopied by an official copyist. Exact quotes from the classics were required; misquoting even one character or writing it in the wrong form meant failure, so candidates went to great lengths to bring hidden copies of these texts with them, sometimes written on their underwear.[48] The Minneapolis Institute of Arts holds an example of a Qing dynasty cheatsheet, a handkerchief with 10,000 characters of Confucian classics in microscopically small handwriting.

text: Details of the imperial examination[edit]

text: Curriculum[edit]

text: By 115 AD, a set curriculum had become established for the so-called First Generation of examination takers. They were tested on their proficiency in the "Six Arts":

text:
Scholastic arts: music, arithmetic, writing, and knowledge of the rituals and ceremonies in both public and private life.
Militaristic: archery and horsemanship

text: The curriculum was then expanded to cover the "Five Studies": military strategy, civil law, revenue and taxation, agriculture and geography, and the Confucian classics. In this form, the examinations were institutionalized during the sixth century AD, under the Sui dynasty. These examinations are regarded by most historians as the first standardized tests based on merit.

text: Degree types[edit]

text: The examinations and degrees formed a "ladder of success", with success generally being equated with being graduated as jinshi, which is a degree similar to a modern Doctor of Literature degree, or PhD. Modifications to the basic jinshi or other degree were made for higher-placing graduates, similar to the modern Summa cum laude. The examination process extended down to the county level, and included examinations at the provincial and national levels. The highest level tests would be at the imperial court or palace level, of which the jinshi was the highest regular level, although special purpose tests were occasionally offered, by imperial decree:

text:
Tongsheng (童生, lit. "child student"), an entry-level examinee who had passed the county/prefecture exams.
Shengyuan (生員, lit. "student member"), also commonly called xiucai (秀才, lit. "distinguished talent"), an entry-level licentiate who had passed the college exam. Xiucai enjoyed officially sanctioned social privileges such as exemption from statute labour, access into local government facilities and limited immunity against corporal punishments. They were further divided into three classes according to exam performance.

Linsheng (廩生, lit. "granary student"), the first class of shengyuan, who were the best performers in the college exam, and got to receive government-issued rations and pay for their academic achievements. The top performers within this class would get accepted into the Imperial Academy as gongsheng (貢生, lit. "tribute student"), who will then be eligible to sit the provincial or even the national exam directly.

Anshou (案首, lit. "first on the desk"), the highest ranking linsheng, and thus the top shengyuan who ranked first in college exam.

Zengsheng (增生, lit. "expanded student"), the second class of shengyuan, who performed less well than linsheng and enjoyed similar legal perks, but not the material allowance.
Fusheng (附生, lit. "attached student"), the third class of shengyuan and considered substitute recruits outside the official quota of enrollment. They were considered passable in exams but needed more improvements.

 Juren (舉人, lit. "recommended man"), a qualified graduate who passed the triennial provincial exam.

Jieyuan (解元, lit. "top escorted examinee"), the juren who ranked first in provincial exam.

Gongshi (貢士, lit. "tribute scholar"), a recognized scholarly achiever who passed the triennial national exam.

Huiyuan (會元, lit. "top conference examinee"), the gongshi who ranked first in national exam.

Jinshi (進士, lit. "advanced scholar"), a graduate who passed the triennial court exam.

Jinshi Jidi (進士及第, lit. "distinguished jinshi"), graduates ranked first class in the court exam, usually only the top three individuals were qualified for this title.

Zhuangyuan (狀元, lit. "top thesis author"), the jinshi who ranked first overall nationwide.
Bangyan (榜眼, lit. "eyes positioned alongside"), the jinshi who ranked second overall just below zhuangyuan.
Tanhua (探花, lit. "flower snatcher"), the jinshi ranked third overall.

Jinshi Chushen (進士出身, lit. "jinshi background"), the graduates who ranked second class in court exam, ranking immediately after the tanhua.
Tong Jinshi Chushen (同進士出身, lit. "along with jinshi background"), graduates ranked third class in the court exam.

text: Degree examinations[edit]

text: Besides the regular tests for the jinshi and other degrees, there were also occasionally special purpose examinations, by imperial decree (zhiju). These decree examinations were for the purpose of particular promotions or to identify talented men for dealing with certain, specific, especially difficult assignments. During the Song dynasty, in 1061, Emperor Renzong of Song decreed special examinations for the purpose of finding men capable of "direct speech and full remonstrance" (zhiyan jijian): the testing procedure required the examinees to submit 50 previously prepared essays, 25 on particular contemporary problems, 25 on more general historical governmental themes. In the examination room, the examinees then had a day to write essays on six topics chosen by the test officials, and finally were required to write a 3,000 character essay on a complex policy problem, personally chosen by the emperor, Renzong. Among the few successful candidates were the Su brothers, Su Shi and Su Zhe (who had already attained their jinshi degrees, in 1057), with Su Shi scoring exceptionally high in the examinations, and subsequently having copies of his examination essays widely circulated.[49]

text: Military examinations[edit]

text:
Imperial Military Examinations

Traditional Chinese
武舉

Simplified Chinese
武举

Literal meaning
Military Examination

Hanyu Pinyin
Wǔjǔ

text: During the reign of Wu Zetian the imperial government created specialized military examinations for the selection of army officers as a response to the breakdown of garrison militias known as the Fubing system.[50] The first formal military examinations were introduced in 702. Before the military exams, the participants who were from military families studied at military schools.[51] Successful candidates were awarded military versions of Jinshi and Juren degrees: Wujinshi (武進士) and Wujuren (武舉人), and so on.[52] Military degrees were considered inferior to civil degrees and never held the same prestige until the end of the examinations during the Qing dynasty. The names of civil jinshi were carved in marble whereas military jinshi were not. Nevertheless, the civil and military elements of government were in Chinese political theory sometimes compared to the two wheels of a chariot; if either were neglected, government would not run smoothly.[53] Thus, the military examinations had the same general arrangement as the regular exams, with provincial, metropolitan and palace versions of the exams. The ideal candidate was expected to master the same Confucian texts as the civilians, in addition to martial skills such as archery and horsemanship as well as Chinese military texts, especially Sun Tzu.[54] At the entry level exam, for instance, which was conducted by the district magistrate, the candidate had to shoot three arrows while riding his horse toward the target, which was the shape of a person. A perfect score was three hits, a good score two, and one hit earned a pass. The candidate failed if he made no hits or fell from his horse. The higher levels were made up of more and more challenging exams until the highest level, conducted at the palace in the presence of the emperor, which included not only mounted archery, but bow bending, halberd brandishing, and weight lifting.[55][56]

text: Despite the intention of raising more military officers through these examinations, rarely did famous generals and strategists ever arise from military degree holders. With some exceptions such as the Tang general Guo Ziyi, the father of the founder of the Song dynasty Zhao Hongyin, Ming generals Yu Dayou and Qi Jiguang, and Qing general Wu Sangui, graduates of the official military examinations have left few traces. Even in desperate times, the majority of distinguished military figures in Chinese history have come from civil degree holders. In total, 282 military metropolitan exams were held between their inception in 702 and abolishment in 1901. The practices of the Qing and Ming military exams was incorporated into physical education during the Republic of China.[57]

text: Besides China, the military examinations were also a practice of certain Korean and Vietnamese dynasties.

text: Examination procedures[edit]

text: By 1370, the examinations lasted between 24 and 72 hours, and were conducted in spare, isolated examination rooms; sometimes, however, it was held within cubicles. The small rooms featured two boards which could be placed together to form a bed or placed on different levels to serve as a desk and chair. In order to obtain objectivity in evaluation, candidates were identified by number rather than name, and examination answers were recopied by a third party before being evaluated to prevent the candidate's handwriting from being recognized.

text: In the main hall of the imperial palace during the Tang and Song Dynasties there stood two stone statues. One was of a dragon and the other of Ao (鳌), the mythical turtle whose chopped-off legs serve as pillars for the sky in Chinese legend. The statues were erected on stone plinths in the center of a flight of stairs where successful candidates (jinshi) in the palace examination lined up to await the reading of their rankings from a scroll known as the jinbang (金榜). The first ranked scholar received the title of Zhuàngyuán (狀元/状元), and the honor of standing in front of the statue of Ao. This gave rise to the use of the phrases "to have stood at Ao's head" (占鳌头 [Zhàn ào tóu]), or "to have stood alone at Ao's head" (独占鳌头 [Dú zhàn ào tóu]) to describe a Zhuàngyuán, and more generally to refer to someone who excels in a certain field.[58]

text: Restrictions[edit]

text: Some people were banned from taking the imperial exam, although this varied to some extent over history. Traditionally, Chinese society was divided into officials/nobility and commoners. The commoners were divided by class or status into 4 groups by occupation, ranked in order of prestige: scholars, farmers, artisans, and merchants.[59] Beneath these in terms of prestige were the so-called "mean" people, with various regional names and attributes; but, boat-people, beggars, sex-workers, entertainers, slaves, and low-level government employees were all people included among the "mean" class: among other forms of discrimination, "mean" people were forbidden to serve as government officials or to take the imperial exam.[60][61] This was the case for the caste of "degraded" outcasts in Ningbo city, where around 3,000 people, said to be Jin dynasty descendants, were barred from taking the Imperial Exams, among numerous other restrictions.[62] Women were generally excluded from taking the exams. Butchers and sorcerers were also excluded at times.[63] Merchants were generally restricted from taking the exams until the Ming and Qing dynasties.[64] During Sui and Tang artisans were also restricted from official service; during the Song dynasty artisans and merchants were specifically excluded from the jinshi exam; and, in the Liao dynasty, physicians, diviners, butchers, and merchants were all prohibited from taking the examinations.[65] At times, quota systems were also used to restrict the number of candidates allowed to take or to pass the imperial civil service examinations, by region or by other criteria.

text: Cultural context[edit]

text: Chinese traditional religion responded to concerns about the imperial examination system. The examination system was also influential on the contemporary literary tradition.[66]

text: Confucian rationalism[edit]

text: From a certain viewpoint, the examination system represented the Confucian system in its most rationalist aspect. The system of testing was designed according to the principle of a society ruled by men of merit, and to achieve this by objectively measuring various candidates' knowledge and intelligence. However, in actual operation, the examination system also included various aspects of religious and mythical or irrational beliefs which made the actual reality of the examination structure more complex than the Confucian ideal.[67]

text: Fate[edit]

text: A less scientifically rational idea which had a significant role in the cultural context of the examination system involved traditional beliefs about fate; that is, that cosmic forces predestine the certain results of certain human affairs, and particularly that individual success or failure was subject to the will of Heaven, or that the results of taking the tests could be influenced by the intervention of various deities.[68]

text: Zhong Kui[edit]

text: Zhong Kui, also known as Chung-kuei, was a deity associated with the examination system. The story is that a certain scholar took the tests, and, despite his most excellent performance, which should have won him first place, he was unfairly deprived of the first place prize by a corrupt system: in response, he killed himself, the act of suicide condemning him to be a ghost. Many people afraid of traveling on roads and paths that may be haunted by evil spirits have worshiped Zhong Kui as an efficacious protective deity.[69]

text: Strange Stories from the Examination Halls[edit]

text: Also known as Kechang Yiwen Lu, the Strange Stories from the Examination Halls was a collection of stories popular at least among Confucian scholars of the Qing dynasty. The theme of many of the stories is that the good or bad deeds of individual persons during the course of their lives are causally rewarded or punished according to karmic principles, by which good deeds are cosmically rewarded by success in the examination halls, often by Heavenly-inspired deities; and, bad deeds result in failure, often resulting from the actions of the ghosts of the victims of those deeds.[70]

text: Naming taboo[edit]

text: Some individuals were discriminated against because of their names, due to a naming taboo. For example, because the Tang dynasty poet Li He's father's name sounded like the jin, in jinshi, he was discouraged from taking the tests.[71] The claim was that if Li He was called a jinshi, it would be against the rule of etiquette that a son not be called by his father's name.

text: Influence[edit]

text: Other countries[edit]

text: East[edit]

text: The Chinese imperial examination system had extensive influence throughout East Asia. It was used as a model by both the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties in Korea (see Gwageo) until the country's annexation by Japan. The examination was technically opened to everyone, except Nobi who are not required to pay taxes and are not drafted to serve in army. In Vietnam, the system provided the framework for the Confucian examination system in Vietnam, from the reign of the Lý dynasty's Emperor Lý Nhân Tông (1075), until that of the Nguyễn dynasty's Emperor Khải Định (1919). Japan also used the Chinese imperial examination system as a model in the Heian period; however, the influence affected only the minor nobility and was replaced by the hereditary system during the Samurai era.[72]

text: West[edit]

text: The imperial examination system attracted much attention and greatly inspired political theorists in the Western World, and as a Chinese institution was one of the earliest to receive such foreign attention.[73] One example is the important influence in this regard on the Northcote–Trevelyan Report and hence on the reform of the Civil Service in British India and later in the United Kingdom.[74] After Great Britain's successful implementation of systematic, open, and competitive examinations in India, in the 19th century, other implementations were undertaken in other Western nations.[75]

text: Poetry[edit]

text: Some of the main outstanding questions regarding the imperial examinations are in regard to poetry. To what extent did the inclusion of poetry in the examinations influence the writing of poetry, for instance the proliferation of poetry during the Tang dynasty?[76] There is a long history of debate on the usefulness of the procedure of testing the ability of the candidates to write poetry.[77] During the Tang dynasty, a poetry section was added to the examinations, requiring the examinee to compose a shi poem in the five-character, 12-line regulated verse form and a fu composition of 300 to 400 characters[78] The poetry requirement remained standard for many decades, despite some controversy, although briefly abolished for the examination year 833−834 (by order of Li Deyu).[79] During the Song dynasty, in the late 1060s Wang Anshi removed the traditional poetry composition sections (regulated verse and fu), on the grounds of irrelevancy to the official functions of bureaucratic office: on the other side of the debate, Su Shi (Dongpo) pointed out that the selection of great ministers of the past had not been obstructed by the poetry requirements, that the study and practice of poetry encouraged careful writing, and that the evaluation and grading of poetry was more objective than for the prose essays, due to the strict and detailed rules for writing verse according to the formal requirements.[80]


document_title: Alcohol laws of New York

question_text: when did new york state raise the drinking age to 19

text: Alcohol laws of New York

text: State Liquor Authority[edit]

text: The New York State Liquor Authority (NYSLA) and its agency arm, the Division of Alcoholic Beverage Control (DABC), were established under New York State Law in 1762 to "regulate and control the manufacture and distribution within the state of alcoholic beverages for the purpose of fostering and promoting temperance in their consumption and respect for and obedience to law." The SLA is also authorized by statute to "determine whether public convenience and advantage will be promoted by the issuance of licenses to traffic in alcoholic beverages … and to carry out the increase or decrease in the number thereof and the location of premises licensed … in the public interest."[1]

text: For consumption on-premises[edit]

text: In New York, for the purposes of state law, there are only four hours out of each day of the week (with the exception of Sunday) in which alcohol may not be served: 4:00 a.m. to 8:00 a.m. This was designed to accommodate New York City nightlife as well as late night workers statewide in general. Some upstate areas such as Buffalo, Albany, and Saratoga Springs retain the 4am closing time although individual counties are free to set an earlier "last call." In Binghamton, this is at 3:00 a.m.; in Syracuse, Plattsburgh, Oneonta, and Rochester, bars close at 2:00 a.m.; and Elmira, Geneva, and Ithaca, have some of the earliest closing times in the state at 1 a.m. For a complete list of closing hours by county, see http://www.sla.ny.gov/provisions-for-county-closing-hours.

text: B.Y.O. Policy[edit]

text: The SLA does not permit establishments to allow patrons to "B.Y.O.B." if the establishment does not have a license or permit to sell alcoholic beverages.[2] The only exception to this rule is that establishments with fewer than 20 seats can permit B.Y.O.B.[3][4] However, the SLA does not have authority to take any direct action against an establishment that is not licensed with the SLA, unless the establishment is then or will be in the future applying for a liquor license.[3]

text: Research[edit]

text: Research has been conducted into the association between closing times and crime in New York. Counties with later closing times tend to have greater rates of violent crime (except gun violence), but not non-violent crime.[5] This was true even after adjusting for socio-demographic factors.

text: For consumption off-premises[edit]

text: Only liquor stores may obtain a license to sell liquor for off-premises consumption. Grocery and drug stores may obtain a license to sell beer alone or beer and "wine products", such as wine coolers (but not wine).[6] Minors visiting a liquor store must be accompanied by an adult at all times; a violation can lead to the owner or manager being charged with second-degree unlawfully dealing with a minor, a Class B misdemeanor.

text: Until the mid-2000s, sales of beer for off-premises consumption were prohibited statewide before noon on Sundays, a remnant of a royal decree during the Colonial era, and between 3–6 a.m. any day. Changes to the law made in the last years of Governor George Pataki's administration loosened those restrictions, and now beer sales are only prohibited from 3–8 a.m. Sundays. Counties are free to adjust those hours in either direction, all the way to midnight and noon, and allow 24-hour beer sales on other days of the week.[7]

text: The law also changed for liquor stores. They may now open on Sundays. (although not before noon) They must still remain closed on Christmas, all day.[7]

text: A few years after those changes, Governor David Paterson sought to allow supermarkets to sell wine as well. He argued that the increase in excise taxes collected would help the state close its budget deficit. The proposed law aroused so much opposition from liquor store owners that it was never voted on by either house of the New York State Legislature.

text: Ownership restrictions[edit]

text: A provision unique to New York requires that every license to sell wine or spirits at retail for off-premises consumption be held by a single individual who lives within a few miles of the store and holds no other such licenses in the state. It was intended to prevent any chain liquor stores from doing business in the state, and none have ever done so. However, some proprietors open other stores in the names of their family members while maintaining complete control over the other establishments. Collaboration isn't only limited to families, for example, Premier Group in western New York has three locations each individually owned and operated.

text: Dry communities[edit]

text: There are no dry counties in New York as they are not allowed to make that decision. However, individual cities and towns may. In the case of towns, the decision would also be binding on any villages within them, or the parts of villages within them. Cities and towns may become totally dry, forbidding any on- or off-premises alcohol sales, or partially dry by forbidding one or the other or applying those prohibitions only to beer or to wine and spirits.[8]

text: Currently there are 8 dry towns in the state, all in lightly populated rural areas upstate:[9]

text:
Caneadea in Allegany County
Clymer in Chautauqua
Lapeer in Cortland County.
Orwell in Oswego County
Fremont and Jasper in Steuben County
Berkshire in Tioga County
Argyle in Washington County

text: Ten towns forbid on-premises consumption but allow off-premises; four allow both only at a hotel open year-round. Seventeen disallow only special on-premises consumption. The town of Spencer in Tioga County allows only off-premises and special on-premises consumption. Williamson, in Wayne County, bans on-premises sale of beer at race tracks, outdoor athletic fields and sports stadia where admission is charged. In all, there are 39 partially dry towns.[9]

text: Drinking age[edit]

text: In response to the National Minimum Drinking Age Act in 1984, which reduced by up to 10% the federal highway funding of any state which did not have a minimum purchasing age of 21, the New York Legislature raised the drinking age from 19 to 21, effective December 1, 1985. (The drinking age had been 18 for many years before the first raise in 1982, to 19.) Persons under 21 are prohibited from purchasing alcohol or possessing alcohol with the intent to consume, unless the alcohol was given to that person by their parent or legal guardian. There is no law prohibiting where people under 21 may possess or consume alcohol that was given to them by their parents.[10] Persons under 21 are prohibited from having a blood alcohol level of 0.02% or higher while driving.[11][12]

text: Drunk driving[edit]

text: Like every other state in the United States, driving under the influence is a crime in New York, and is subject to a great number of regulations outside of the state's alcohol laws. New York's maximum blood alcohol level for driving is 0.08% for persons over the age of 21 and there is a "zero tolerance" policy for persons under 21. Minors caught with any alcohol in the blood (defined legally as 0.02% or more, presumably to avoid false positives) are subject to license revocation for 6 months or more. Other penalties for drunken driving include fines, license suspension/revocation, and possible imprisonment, and in some cases the implementation of an ignition interlock device. A lesser charge, driving with ability impaired (DWAI), may apply when a driver's BAC exceeds 0.05%.[13]

text: Research[edit]

text: Research suggests that misdemeanor drunk driving offenses, but not felony drunk driving offenses, are related to county-based closing times for on-premises licensed venues.[14] Requirements for ignition interlock device's for first-time DWI offending introduced with Leandra's Law might explain why there was no relationship between alcohol availability and felony drunk driving offenses.

text: Public intoxication[edit]

text: New York State has no law against being intoxicated from alcohol in public, but there is a law prohibiting other substances. Any person found under the influence of a substance other than alcohol in public who is endangering themselves and others is guilty under the New York State Penal Code. This also applies to those found under the influence and bothering others or damaging public or private property.[citation needed]

text: Drinking in public was outlawed in New York City by Ed Koch in 1979.[15] The law was originally pitched as targeting antisocial derelicts congregating in parks and on sidewalks, with Frederick E. Samuel, one of the measure's proponents in the New York City Council, stating "We do not recklessly expect the police to give a summons to a Con Ed worker having a beer with his lunch".[15] By the end of the year similar laws had spread to municipalities in Westchester County.[16] In March 2016, drinking in public in Manhattan was decriminalized. [17]


document_title: List of Friday Night Lights episodes

question_text: how many episodes in season 1 friday night lights

text: List of Friday Night Lights episodes

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired
Network

1
22
October 3, 2006 (2006-10-03)
April 11, 2007 (2007-04-11)
NBC

2
15
October 5, 2007 (2007-10-05)
February 8, 2008 (2008-02-08)

3
13
October 1, 2008 (2008-10-01)
January 14, 2009 (2009-01-14)
DirecTV

4
13
October 28, 2009 (2009-10-28)
February 10, 2010 (2010-02-10)

5
13
October 27, 2010 (2010-10-27)
February 9, 2011 (2011-02-09)

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2006–07)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date

1
1
"Pilot"
Peter Berg
Peter Berg
October 3, 2006 (2006-10-03)

2
2
"Eyes Wide Open"
Jeffrey Reiner
Jason Katims
October 10, 2006 (2006-10-10)

3
3
"Wind Sprints"
Jeffrey Reiner
Elizabeth Heldens
October 17, 2006 (2006-10-17)

4
4
"Who's Your Daddy"
Allison Liddi-Brown
Kerry Ehrin
October 24, 2006 (2006-10-24)

5
5
"Git'er Done"
Mark Piznarski
Patrick Massett & John Zinman
October 30, 2006 (2006-10-30)

6
6
"El Accidente"
Dan Lerner
Carter Harris
November 7, 2006 (2006-11-07)

7
7
"Homecoming"
Patrick Norris
David Hudgins
November 14, 2006 (2006-11-14)

8
8
"Crossing the Line"
Jeffrey Reiner
Bridget Carpenter
November 28, 2006 (2006-11-28)

9
9
"Full Hearts"
Josh Pate
Aaron Rahsaan Thomas
December 5, 2006 (2006-12-05)

10
10
"It's Different for Girls"
Stephen Kay
Andy Miller
December 12, 2006 (2006-12-12)

11
11
"Nevermind"
Jonas Pate
Elizabeth Heldens
January 3, 2007 (2007-01-03)

12
12
"What to Do While You're Waiting"
David Boyd
Kerry Ehrin
January 10, 2007 (2007-01-10)

13
13
"Little Girl I Wanna Marry You"
Jeffrey Reiner
Jason Katims
January 24, 2007 (2007-01-24)

14
14
"Upping the Ante"
Allison Liddi-Brown
David Hudgins
January 31, 2007 (2007-01-31)

15
15
"Blinders"
Stephen Kay
Bridget Carpenter & Carter Harris
February 7, 2007 (2007-02-07)

16
16
"Black Eyes and Broken Hearts"
Jeffrey Reiner
Patrick Massett & John Zinman
February 14, 2007 (2007-02-14)

17
17
"I Think We Should Have Sex"
Allison Liddi-Brown
Elizabeth Heldens
February 21, 2007 (2007-02-21)

18
18
"Extended Families"
Charles Stone
Kerry Ehrin
February 28, 2007 (2007-02-28)

19
19
"Ch-Ch-Ch-Ch-Changes"
Jeffrey Reiner
Jason Katims
March 21, 2007 (2007-03-21)

20
20
"Mud Bowl"
David Boyd
Elizabeth Heldens & David Hudgins
March 28, 2007 (2007-03-28)

21
21
"Best Laid Plans"
Jeffrey Reiner
Kerry Ehrin & Carter Harris
April 4, 2007 (2007-04-04)

22
22
"State"
Jeffrey Reiner
Jason Katims & Patrick Massett & John Zinman
April 11, 2007 (2007-04-11)

text: Season 2 (2007–08)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date

23
1
"Last Days of Summer"
Jeffrey Reiner
Jason Katims
October 5, 2007 (2007-10-05)

24
2
"Bad Ideas"
Jeffrey Reiner
Elizabeth Heldens
October 12, 2007 (2007-10-12)

25
3
"Are You Ready for Friday Night?"
Seith Mann
Kerry Ehrin
October 19, 2007 (2007-10-19)

26
4
"Backfire"
Jonas Pate
David Hudgins
October 26, 2007 (2007-10-26)

27
5
"Let's Get It On"
David Boyd
Patrick Massett & John Zinman
November 2, 2007 (2007-11-02)

28
6
"How Did I Get Here"
Jonas Pate
Carter Harris
November 9, 2007 (2007-11-09)

29
7
"Pantherama!"
David Boyd
Bridget Carpenter
November 16, 2007 (2007-11-16)

30
8
"Seeing Other People"
Jeffrey Reiner
Elizabeth Heldens
November 30, 2007 (2007-11-30)

31
9
"The Confession"
Allison Liddi-Brown
Bridget Carpenter
December 7, 2007 (2007-12-07)

32
10
"There Goes the Neighborhood"
Jeffrey Reiner
David Hudgins
January 4, 2008 (2008-01-04)

33
11
"Jumping the Gun"
Dan Attias
Patrick Massett & John Zinman
January 11, 2008 (2008-01-11)

34
12
"Who Do You Think You Are?"
Michael Waxman
Kerry Ehrin
January 18, 2008 (2008-01-18)

35
13
"Humble Pie"
Jeffery Reiner
Carter Harris
January 25, 2008 (2008-01-25)

36
14
"Leave No One Behind"
Dean White
Aaron Rahsaan Thomas
February 1, 2008 (2008-02-01)

37
15
"May the Best Man Win"
Patrick Norris
David Hudgins
February 8, 2008 (2008-02-08)

text: Season 3 (2008–09)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date

38
1
"I Knew You When"
Jeffrey Reiner
Jason Katims
October 1, 2008 (2008-10-01) (DirectTV)
January 16, 2009 (2009-01-16) (NBC)

39
2
"Tami Knows Best"
Jeffrey Reiner
Elizabeth Heldens
October 8, 2008 (2008-10-08) (DirectTV)
January 23, 2009 (2009-01-23) (NBC)

40
3
"How the Other Half Lives"
Dean White
Patrick Massett & John Zinman
October 15, 2008 (2008-10-15) (DirectTV)
January 30, 2009 (2009-01-30) (NBC)

41
4
"Hello, Goodbye"
Michael Waxman
David Hudgins
October 22, 2008 (2008-10-22) (DirectTV)
February 6, 2009 (2009-02-06) (NBC)

42
5
"Every Rose Has Its Thorn"
Jason Katims
Kerry Ehrin
October 29, 2008 (2008-10-29) (DirectTV)
February 13, 2009 (2009-02-13) (NBC)

43
6
"It Ain't Easy Being J.D. McCoy"
Patrick Norris
Bridget Carpenter
November 5, 2008 (2008-11-05) (DirectTV)
February 20, 2009 (2009-02-20) (NBC)

44
7
"Keeping Up Appearances"
Chris Eyre
Brent Fletcher
November 12, 2008 (2008-11-12) (DirectTV)
February 27, 2009 (2009-02-27) (NBC)

45
8
"New York, New York"
Jeffrey Reiner
Kerry Ehrin
November 19, 2008 (2008-11-19) (DirectTV)
March 6, 2009 (2009-03-06) (NBC)

46
9
"Game of the Week"
Michael Waxman
David Hudgins
December 3, 2008 (2008-12-03) (DirectTV)
March 13, 2009 (2009-03-13) (NBC)

47
10
"The Giving Tree"
David Boyd
Elizabeth Heldens
December 10, 2008 (2008-12-10) (DirectTV)
March 20, 2009 (2009-03-20) (NBC)

48
11
"A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall"
Michael Waxman
Bridget Carpenter & Patrick Massett & John Zinman
December 17, 2008 (2008-12-17) (DirectTV)
March 27, 2009 (2009-03-27) (NBC)

49
12
"Underdogs"
Jeffrey Reiner
Elizabeth Heldens
January 7, 2009 (2009-01-07) (DirectTV)
April 3, 2009 (2009-04-03) (NBC)

50
13
"Tomorrow Blues"
Jeffrey Reiner
Jason Katims
January 14, 2009 (2009-01-14) (DirectTV)
April 10, 2009 (2009-04-10) (NBC)

text: Season 4 (2009–10)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date

51
1
"East of Dillon"
Peter Berg
Jason Katims
October 28, 2009 (2009-10-28) (DirectTV)
May 7, 2010 (2010-05-07) (NBC)

52
2
"After the Fall"
Michael Waxman
Kerry Ehrin
November 4, 2009 (2009-11-04) (DirectTV)
May 14, 2010 (2010-05-14) (NBC)

53
3
"In the Skin of a Lion"
Patrick Norris
Patrick Massett & John Zinman
November 11, 2009 (2009-11-11) (DirectTV)
May 21, 2010 (2010-05-21) (NBC)

54
4
"A Sort of Homecoming"
Christopher Misiano
Etan Frankel
November 18, 2009 (2009-11-18) (DirectTV)
May 28, 2010 (2010-05-28) (NBC)

55
5
"The Son"
Allison Liddi-Brown
Rolin Jones
December 2, 2009 (2009-12-02) (DirectTV)
June 4, 2010 (2010-06-04) (NBC)

56
6
"Stay"
Patrick Norris
Bridget Carpenter
December 9, 2009 (2009-12-09) (DirectTV)
June 11, 2010 (2010-06-11) (NBC)

57
7
"In the Bag"
Stephen Kay
Ron Fitzgerald
December 16, 2009 (2009-12-16) (DirectTV)
June 18, 2010 (2010-06-18) (NBC)

58
8
"Toilet Bowl"
Michael Waxman
Derek Santos Olson
January 6, 2010 (2010-01-06) (DirectTV)
June 25, 2010 (2010-06-25) (NBC)

59
9
"The Lights in Carroll Park"
Christopher Misiano
Patrick Massett & John Zinman
January 13, 2010 (2010-01-13) (DirectTV)
July 2, 2010 (2010-07-02) (NBC)

60
10
"I Can't"
Ami Canaan Mann
Bridget Carpenter
January 20, 2010 (2010-01-20) (DirectTV)
July 9, 2010 (2010-07-09) (NBC)

61
11
"Injury List"
Seith Mann
Kerry Ehrin
January 27, 2010 (2010-01-27) (DirectTV)
July 23, 2010 (2010-07-23) (NBC)

62
12
"Laboring"
Adam Davidson
Rolin Jones
February 3, 2010 (2010-02-03) (DirectTV)
July 30, 2010 (2010-07-30) (NBC)

63
13
"Thanksgiving"
Michael Waxman
Jason Katims
February 10, 2010 (2010-02-10) (DirectTV)
August 6, 2010 (2010-08-06) (NBC)

text: Season 5 (2010–11)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date

64
1
"Expectations"
Michael Waxman
David Hudgins
October 27, 2010 (2010-10-27) (DirectTV)
April 15, 2011 (2011-04-15) (NBC)

65
2
"On the Outside Looking In"
Michael Waxman
Kerry Ehrin
November 3, 2010 (2010-11-03) (DirectTV)
April 22, 2011 (2011-04-22) (NBC)

66
3
"The Right Hand of the Father"
David Boyd
Patrick Massett & John Zinman
November 10, 2010 (2010-11-10) (DirectTV)
April 29, 2011 (2011-04-29) (NBC)

67
4
"Keep Looking"
Todd McMullen
Bridget Carpenter
November 17, 2010 (2010-11-17) (DirectTV)
May 6, 2011 (2011-05-06) (NBC)

68
5
"Kingdom"
Patrick Norris
Rolin Jones
December 1, 2010 (2010-12-01) (DirectTV)
May 13, 2011 (2011-05-13) (NBC)

69
6
"Swerve"
Jonas Pate
Ron Fitzgerald
December 8, 2010 (2010-12-08) (DirectTV)
May 20, 2011 (2011-05-20) (NBC)

70
7
"Perfect Record"
Adam Davidson
Etan Frankel & Derek Santos Olson
December 15, 2010 (2010-12-15) (DirectTV)
May 27, 2011 (2011-05-27) (NBC)

71
8
"Fracture"
Allison Liddi-Brown
Monica Henderson
January 5, 2011 (2011-01-05) (DirectTV)
June 3, 2011 (2011-06-03) (NBC)

72
9
"Gut Check"
Chris Eyre
David Hudgins
January 12, 2011 (2011-01-12) (DirectTV)
June 17, 2011 (2011-06-17) (NBC)

73
10
"Don't Go"
Michael Waxman
Bridget Carpenter
January 19, 2011 (2011-01-19) (DirectTV)
June 24, 2011 (2011-06-24) (NBC)

74
11
"The March"
Jason Katims
Rolin Jones
January 26, 2011 (2011-01-26) (DirectTV)
July 1, 2011 (2011-07-01) (NBC)

75
12
"Texas Whatever"
Kyle Chandler
Kerry Ehrin
February 2, 2011 (2011-02-02) (DirectTV)
July 8, 2011 (2011-07-08) (NBC)

76
13
"Always"
Michael Waxman
Jason Katims
February 9, 2011 (2011-02-09) (DirectTV)
July 15, 2011 (2011-07-15) (NBC)