document_title: Cagney & Lacey

question_text: who played lacey's husband in cagney and lacey

question_tokens: who played lacey 's husband in cagney and lacey

text: Cagney & Lacey

text: Development[edit]

text: Producer Barney Rosenzweig was influenced by the feminist movement through his then-girlfriend Barbara Corday, who recommended to him Molly Haskell's book From Reverence to Rape. After learning through Haskell that there had never been a female buddy film, Rosenzweig sought to make one, a comedy initially titled Newman & Redford (before changing the title for legal reasons). Corday & Barbara Avedon wrote the script. No studio wanted to make the film, so Corday considered taking it to television. Rosenzweig took the script, removed the main plot (leaving only the character development), and took it to all networks, but only CBS picked it up.[1]

text: Original cast[edit]

text: Actress Loretta Swit played the role of Christine Cagney in the original television movie (October 1981), but she was forced to decline the role in the series when the producers of M*A*S*H refused to let her out of her contract. The movie was then picked up as a series, first airing with six episodes as a midseason replacement in the spring of 1982, with Meg Foster playing the role of Cagney. The show was then picked up for a regular season beginning with the 1982–83 season, but Foster was then replaced by Sharon Gless because CBS deemed Foster too aggressive and too likely to be perceived as a lesbian by the viewers.[2]

text: CBS executives hoped Gless would portray Cagney as more conventionally "feminine" and attempted to pressure the producers to remake Christine into a more "high-class", snobbish woman from wealthy parents. Barney Rosenzweig and Barbara Corday initially refused to change Christine Cagney from a tough, witty, working-class woman. Shortly into Gless's tenure on the program, Rosenzweig and Corday compromised with the network brass. They further developed Cagney's background, explaining gradually in a loose storyline that she may have been born to a somewhat well-to-do professional mother, who had a relationship with police officer Charles Cagney who came from working-class roots. Charles and Maureen soon separated after Christine and her brother Brian were born. She was partially raised in an uptown Westchester world, which she appreciated; however, the trappings of the upper-middle social strata sometimes drove her to miss her father's lifestyle, and she and her father therefore established a special bond.

text: Cagney was a bit quieter and more reserved than her vivacious, talkative, loud partner Mary Beth Lacey, but could still relate to the world with attitudes that could be shared by people across the social spectrum.

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: Al Waxman co-starred as Cagney and Lacey's good-natured and sometimes blustery supervisor, Lt. Bert Samuels. Carl Lumbly and Martin Kove played, respectively, fellow detectives Marcus Petrie and Victor Isbecki. Sidney Clute played veteran detective Paul La Guardia.  John Karlen co-starred as Mary Beth's husband, Harvey Lacey, and Tony La Torre and Troy Slaten played their sons, Harvey Lacey, Jr. and Michael Lacey, respectively. Harvey Atkin played desk sergeant Ronald Coleman. Jason Bernard originally had the recurring role of Deputy Inspector Marquette during the first two seasons. When the show was brought back in March 1984 following its second cancellation, Marquette had been replaced by Dep. Inspector Knelman (Michael Fairman), who lasted the duration of the series. In the fourth season, Christine entered into a relationship with Sgt. Dory McKenna (Barry Primus), who battled a drug addiction. After a tumultuous courtship, Christine left him and soon after took up with a more stable suitor, David Keeler (Stephen Macht), a local attorney.

text: One of the most significant cast changes occurred early in the fifth season, upon the death of Sidney Clute in October 1985. Off screen, Det. LaGuardia had retired from the 14th Precinct and had moved to New Jersey with a new female companion less than half his age. Clute had completed filming a few episodes of the 1985–86 season prior to his death. In his honor, the producers kept Clute's name in the opening credits for the rest of the series.

text: LaGuardia's immediate replacement in the fifth season was Det. Jonah Newman (Dan Shor), a boyish ingenue with an elevated sense of himself. Newman, while popular with the guys, was not above stepping on anyone in order to get the coveted promotion of Detective Second Grade. As a result, Chris and Mary Beth had to force a strained relationship with him at best. Newman developed a crush on Chris but she never knew. Eventually, Newman was partnered with veteran Al Corassa (Paul Mantee), who became a regular midway through season five (Mantee had made three guest appearances in late 1985, in which his character's name was Det. Thomas in the first two episodes, and Corassa in the third) and officially took up the role of experience that LaGuardia had vacated. Their partnership met a sad end in May 1986, when Newman was killed from a random gunshot outside of the local district court, just after receiving his promotion to Second Grade.

text: The beginning of the sixth season saw the arrival of Manny Esposito (Robert Hegyes), a young, street-savvy detective who became Corassa's new partner. There was quite a clash between the two, as Esposito's freewheeling lifestyle (represented by his casual dress on the job, the desire to make a quick buck, and three ex-wives) put him in contrast with Corassa, the older, more conservative family man with a heightened sense of professionalism. Supporting characters added to the precinct at this time were rookie Officer Tom Basil (Barry Laws) and Officer Beverley Faverty (Beverley Faverty). The following year, Petrie was promoted to sergeant and then departed the 14th Precinct (Carl Lumbly had decided to leave the series). In his place, singer Merry Clayton joined the cast as Verna Dee Jordan, the first new female detective at the precinct since the additions of Cagney and Lacey. Jordan had joined law enforcement in middle age to better herself, after having been a single mother raising four children (now grown) on welfare.

text: Dick O'Neill played a recurring role as Cagney's alcoholic father, Charlie Cagney, a former NYPD officer who regaled her with stories of the old days; Christine later fought alcoholism as well.[3] In the fourth season, Mary Beth becomes pregnant; she and Harvey welcome in a baby daughter, Alice, in the fall of 1985. Alice Lacey was played by alternating twins Dana & Paige Bardolph from 1985 to 1987, with toddler Michelle Sepe taking over for the seventh season.

text: Cancellation and return[edit]

text: Cagney & Lacey premiered in March 1982 with high hopes from the industry, in the wake of the TV movie. Reviews of the series, however, with Meg Foster in place of Loretta Swit, were mixed. Critics praised the level of storytelling, but put emphasis on the aggressiveness that both Daly and Foster expressed with their characters. As soon as the six episode order was finished in late April, CBS canceled the program due to poor ratings. Executive producer Barney Rosenzweig was determined to reverse the network's decision. Gless had been initially unavailable for the movie and series, which were produced by Orion, because of her long-running contract to Universal Television (she was the last actress ever to be signed to a long-term contract with a studio, in 1972). Gless was even actively utilizing her Universal contract at the time the series went into production, having taken over as female lead (from Lynn Redgrave who left the series in a dispute with producers) on the CBS sitcom House Calls. However, rumors were also rampant that House Calls was getting the axe that spring.

text: Prior to the unveiling of that year's network upfronts, a CBS executive noted to the press that the cancellation of Cagney & Lacey was highly motivated by the jarringly tough nature of the female leads as well as low ratings. The official claimed in response to the strong portrayal of Daly and Foster that "we've perceived them as dykes." This remark set off massive protest, and put Rosenzweig into high gear in his dealings with CBS. The cancellation of House Calls was announced among insider circles just before upfronts, and Rosenzweig pressured CBS executives to relaunch Cagney & Lacey in the fall with Gless replacing Foster. Gless met with Cagney & Lacey producers again to consider the role, but while always having taken to the character, had doubts about joining for the fall of 1982 because, after House Calls, she "didn't want to make a career of replacing actresses."

text: Ratings, however, were still low during the first year Daly and Gless co-starred on the series. Cagney & Lacey was canceled by CBS a second time in May 1983, but after almost a year of decreased buzz about the show, an ever-larger public outcry exploded upon the series's axing. Fans of the show, organized by Rosenzweig,[4] staged a letter-writing campaign. At the same time, CBS switched its time slot for what was to have been its final three months on the air during summer reruns. This relocation resulted in the ratings suddenly rising. The viewer protest, coupled with the post-cancellation improvement in the Nielsens and the Emmy nomination that year (which Tyne Daly won in September), resulted in success for the public. That fall, CBS announced the return of Cagney & Lacey as a mid-season entry. The network would have wanted to return it sooner, but not long after the second cancelation came to pass,  the sets at Orion had already been destroyed, and the cast had been let out of their contracts. One cast member, Tony La Torre, had already joined another series, the ABC sitcom 9 to 5. When nearly all of the Cagney & Lacey cast received new contracts in late 1983, La Torre returned as well after 9 to 5 was canceled by ABC just weeks into the 1983–84 season. Cagney & Lacey went back into production in January 1984 and returned to air on March 19 of that year.

text: TV Guide celebrated the show's return with the cover reading "Welcome Back, Cagney & Lacey – You want them! You've got them!". The show finished in the top 10 for the 1983–84 season, and went on to earn 36 Emmy Award nominations and 14 wins throughout its run until 1988, including six nominations for stars Daly and Gless: four wins for Daly and two for Gless. The series itself won two consecutive Emmy Awards for Best Drama Series in 1985 and 1986. The show's ratings leveled out to where it hovered around 30th place in the Nielsens during seasons four to six, a period where many state the show to have been in its creative peak.

text: The series continued to air Monday nights at 10:00 p.m. EST/9:00 p.m. CST until the middle of the 1987–88 season, holding its own against ABC's Monday Night Football and NBC Monday Night at the Movies. Midway through its seventh season, Cagney & Lacey was moved to Tuesdays at 10:00 p.m. EST/9:00 p.m. CST, where it began to compete against thirtysomething (ABC) and Crime Story (NBC). Cagney & Lacey lost viewers to the first-year critical success of thirtysomething, which, despite being the time slot winner, only ranked #45 overall. CBS' reason for relocating Cagney & Lacey was because it was believed that its Monday slot would further build an audience for Wiseguy, another new critical hit of the season that had average ratings at best. By the end of the season, Cagney & Lacey was left at 53rd place, and the 20-point drop from the previous season was enough for CBS to have doubts about renewing the show. With the final episode of the seventh season ending on a cliffhanger, CBS was considering bringing the show back, but when May 1988 upfronts were released, Cagney & Lacey's cancellation was confirmed. For the summer of 1988, the series moved one last time, not back to its familiar Monday time slot, but to Thursdays at 10 pm EST/9 CST. The series garnered considerable popularity internationally. It was originally shown in the UK on BBC1 where it regularly made the top 10.

text: Theme music[edit]

text: The first-season main-titles are accompanied by the theme song "Ain't That the Way" by Michael Stull, sung by Marie Cain, and show the two lead characters being promoted to plainclothes detectives and later disguised as prostitutes. This was replaced the following season by an instrumental theme composed by Bill Conti set to a collage of action and comical scenes featuring the characters from the series.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Nielsen ratings[edit]

text:
Season

Rank

Rating

1) 1981–1982

Not in the Top 30

2) 1982–1983

3) 1983–1984

#10

20.9

4) 1984–1985

#28

16.9

5) 1985–1986

#31

16.7

6) 1986–1987

#37

15.1

7) 1987–1988

#52

13.0

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: Primetime Emmy Awards[edit]

text:
1983 Nomination for Outstanding Drama Series
1983 Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series (Tyne Daly)
1983 Nomination for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series (Sharon Gless)
1984 Nomination for Outstanding Drama Series
1984 Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series (Tyne Daly)
1984 Nomination for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series (Sharon Gless)
1985 Award for Outstanding Drama Series
1985 Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series (Tyne Daly)
1985 Award for Outstanding Directing in a Drama Series (Karen Arthur)
1985 Nomination for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series (Sharon Gless)
1985 Nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (John Karlen)
1986 Award for Outstanding Drama Series
1986 Nomination for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series (Tyne Daly)
1986 Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series (Sharon Gless)
1986 Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (John Karlen)
1986 Award for Outstanding Directing in a Drama Series (Georg Stanford Brown)
1987 Nomination for Outstanding Drama Series
1987 Nomination for Outstanding Directing in a Drama Series (Sharron Miller)
1987 Nomination for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series (Tyne Daly)
1987 Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series (Sharon Gless)
1987 Nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (John Karlen)
1988 Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series (Tyne Daly)
1988 Nomination for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series (Sharon Gless)

text: Golden Globe Awards[edit]

text:
1983 Nomination for Best Actress in a Drama Series (Tyne Daly)
1983 Nomination for Best Drama Series
1984 Nomination for Best Actress in a Drama Series (Tyne Daly)
1984 Nomination for Best Actress in a Drama Series (Sharon Gless)
1984 Nomination for Best Drama Series
1985 Nomination for Best Actress in a Drama Series (Tyne Daly)
1985 Award for Best Actress in a Drama Series (Sharon Gless)
1985 Nomination for Best Drama Series
1986 Nomination for Best Actress in a Drama Series (Tyne Daly)
1986 Nomination for Best Actress in a Drama Series (Sharon Gless)
1986 Nomination for Best Drama Series
1987 Nomination for Best Actress in a Drama Series (Sharon Gless)
1988 Nomination for Best Actress in a Drama Series (Sharon Gless)

text: Directors Guild Awards[edit]

text: 1987 Nomination for Best Director in a Drama Series (Sharron Miller)

text: After the series[edit]

text: The series was followed by four television movies which reunited the characters Christine Cagney (promoted and now working at the District Attorney's office) and Mary Beth Lacey (now retired from the police force).

text:
Cagney & Lacey: The Return (1994)
Cagney & Lacey: Together Again (1995)
Cagney & Lacey: The View Through the Glass Ceiling (1995)
Cagney & Lacey: True Convictions (1996)

text: Following the conclusion of Cagney & Lacey, Tyne Daly and Sharon Gless have reunited onscreen three times: all three times playing different characters. Daly guest-starred in an episode of Gless's 1990 series The Trials of Rosie O'Neill; Gless then guest-starred in 2003 on an episode of Daly's successful TV series, Judging Amy, while Daly appeared in 2010 in an episode of Gless's new series, Burn Notice.

text: DVD releases[edit]

text: On May 8, 2007, MGM Home Entertainment and 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment released Season 1 of Cagney & Lacey on DVD in  Region 1.  The release coincided with the 25th anniversary of the series and it features the first full season of the show (which is actually the second season of the series) when Sharon Gless joined the cast as Cagney.[5]

text: The quartet of TV movies entitled The Menopause Years was released in 2009 by S'more Entertainment. The deluxe set contains the complete collection of post-series TV movies.[6] In addition, one of the features, Cagney & Lacey: The Return, was released separately on the same day.  As of 2012, these releases have been discontinued and are out of print.

text: In November 2012, Visual Entertainment released Cagney & Lacey – The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1.[7]  The 32-disc set contains all episodes of the series featuring Tyne Daly and Sharon Gless (seasons 2–7).  They also released a separate season 2 release on the same day.[8]

text: A separate collection only available to purchase online, entitled Cagney & Lacey – 30th Anniversary Limited Edition was released on November 27, 2012.   This 38-disc set contains all the content from The Complete Series set as well as the pilot episode, the complete first season with Meg Foster as Cagney and Tyne Daly as Lacey, all four post-series Cagney & Lacey: The Menopause Years made-for-TV movies and special bonus features exclusive to this collection, such as an autographed photo from Sharon Gless and Tyne Daly, an audio book of Barney Rosenzweig's "Cagney & Lacey ... and Me" An Inside Hollywood Story OR How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Blonde, and footage of the British Film Institute's Cagney & Lacey 30th Anniversary Event from London.  The Limited Edition DVD set  is available through the official Cagney & Lacey website.

text:
DVD Name

Ep #

Release Date

Additional Information

The Complete First Season

22

May 8, 2007

"Breaking The Laws of TV" featurette

The Complete Second Season

22

November 13, 2012

The Menopause Years

4

September 29, 2009

Includes all 4 post-series tele-films

30th Anniversary – The Complete Series

119

November 13, 2012

Includes all Cagney & Lacey season 2–7 episodes

30th Anniversary – The Complete Series Limited Edition with bonus features

125

November 8, 2012

Includes all Cagney & Lacey  season 1–7 episodes, the original made-for-TV movie starring Loretta Swit plus extra features

text: Downloads[edit]

text: Since October 2009, all 125 episodes of Cagney & Lacey have been available as a digital download on iTunes in the UK and North America and were also licensed to Netflix for American viewers via the streaming option, which expired in April 2012, and is no longer available.  In 2011 the four post-series telefilms were also added to the streaming option after they were licensed to Netflix partner Starz. That partnership ended in February 2012 and the telefilms ceased to be running on Netflix streaming.

text:
Cagney & Lacey: The Lost Episodes — 6 episodes from Season 1
Cagney & Lacey: The True Beginning — 22 episodes from Season 2
Season 3 — 7 episodes from Season 3
Season 4 — 22 episodes from Season 4
Season 5 — all 24 episodes from Season 5
Season 6 — all 22 episodes from Season 6
Season 7 — all 22 episodes from Season 7

text: Cancelled reboot[edit]

text: On January 26, 2018, CBS announced it had ordered a pilot for a reboot of the series, along with another hit show from the 1980s, Magnum, P.I.[9] On March 13, it was announced that Sarah Drew and Michelle Hurd were cast as Cagney and Lacey, respectively, with Bridget Carpenter writing the pilot and Rosemary Rodriguez directing.[10] On March 19, Ving Rhames was announced in the role of police Captain Stark.[11] On May 11, 2018, CBS passed on the pilot.[12]


document_title: Cellular respiration

question_text: the first electron acceptor in cellular respiration is

root

text: Cellular respiration

text: Aerobic respiration

text: Aerobic respiration requires oxygen (O2) in order to create ATP. Although carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are consumed as reactants, it is the preferred method of pyruvate breakdown in glycolysis and requires that pyruvate enter the mitochondria in order to be fully oxidized by the Krebs cycle. The products of this process are carbon dioxide and water, but the energy transferred is used to break bonds in ADP as the third phosphate group is added to form ATP (adenosine triphosphate), by substrate-level phosphorylation, NADH and FADH2

tag: p

text:
Simplified reaction:
C6H12O6 (s) + 6 O2 (g) → 6 CO2 (g) + 6 H2O (l) + heat

ΔG = −2880 kJ per mol of C6H12O6

tag: table

text: The negative ΔG indicates that the reaction can occur spontaneously.

text: The potential of NADH and FADH2 is converted to more ATP through an electron transport chain with oxygen as the "terminal electron acceptor". Most of the ATP produced by aerobic cellular respiration is made by oxidative phosphorylation. This works by the energy released in the consumption of pyruvate being used to create a chemiosmotic potential by pumping protons across a membrane. This potential is then used to drive ATP synthase and produce ATP from ADP and a phosphate group. Biology textbooks often state that 38 ATP molecules can be made per oxidised glucose molecule during cellular respiration (2 from glycolysis, 2 from the Krebs cycle, and about 34 from the electron transport system).[2] However, this maximum yield is never quite reached because of losses due to leaky membranes as well as the cost of moving pyruvate and ADP into the mitochondrial matrix, and current estimates range around 29 to 30 ATP per glucose.[2]

text: Aerobic metabolism is up to 15 times more efficient than anaerobic metabolism (which yields 2 molecules ATP per 1 molecule glucose). However some anaerobic organisms, such as methanogens are able to continue with anaerobic respiration, yielding more ATP by using other inorganic molecules (not oxygen) as final electron acceptors in the electron transport chain. They share the initial pathway of glycolysis but aerobic metabolism continues with the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. The post-glycolytic reactions take place in the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells, and in the cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells.

text: Aerobic Respiration Summed Up

text: 1. Glycosis:

text: --- 2 ATPs + Glucose → 2 Pyruvic Acid + 4 Hydrogen + 4 ATPs

text: 2. Formation of Acetyl CoA:

text: --- 2 Pyruvic Acid + 2 CoA → 2 Acetyl CoA + 2 Carbon Dioxide + 2 Hydrogen

text: 3. Krebs Cycle:

text: --- 2 Acetyl CoA + 3 O2 → 6 Hydrogen + 4 Carbon Dioxide + 2 ATPs

text: 4. Electron Transport System:

text: --- 12 Hydrogen + 3 O2 → 6 Water + 32 ATPs

text: Overall Reaction:

text: --- Glucose + 6 O2 → 6 Carbon Dioxide + 6 Water + 36 ATPs

text: Glycolysis

text: Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that takes place in the cytosol of cells in all living organisms. This pathway can function with or without the presence of oxygen. In humans, aerobic conditions produce pyruvate and anaerobic conditions produce lactate. In aerobic conditions, the process converts one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate (pyruvic acid), generating energy in the form of two net molecules of ATP. Four molecules of ATP per glucose are actually produced, however, two are consumed as part of the preparatory phase. The initial phosphorylation of glucose is required to increase the reactivity (decrease its stability) in order for the molecule to be cleaved into two pyruvate molecules by the enzyme aldolase. During the pay-off phase of glycolysis, four phosphate groups are transferred to ADP by substrate-level phosphorylation to make four ATP, and two NADH are produced when the pyruvate are oxidized. The overall reaction can be expressed this way:

text: Starting with glucose, 1 ATP is used to donate a phosphate to glucose to produce glucose 6-phosphate. Glycogen can be converted into glucose 6-phosphate as well with the help of glycogen phosphorylase. During energy metabolism, glucose 6-phosphate becomes fructose 6-phosphate. An additional ATP is used to phosphorylate fructose 6-phosphate into fructose 1,6-disphosphate by the help of phosphofructokinase. Fructose 1,6-diphosphate then splits into two phosphorylated molecules with three carbon chains which later degrades into pyruvate.

text: Glycolysis can be literally translated as "sugar splitting".[3]

text: Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate

text: Pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl-CoA and CO2 by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC). The PDC contains multiple copies of three enzymes and is located in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells and in the cytosol of prokaryotes. In the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA, one molecule of NADH and one molecule of CO2 is formed.

text: Citric acid cycle

text: This is also called the Krebs cycle or the tricarboxylic acid cycle. When oxygen is present, acetyl-CoA is produced from the pyruvate molecules created from glycolysis. Once acetyl-CoA is formed, aerobic or anaerobic respiration can occur.[4] When oxygen is present, the mitochondria will undergo aerobic respiration which leads to the Krebs cycle. However, if oxygen is not present, fermentation of the pyruvate molecule will occur. In the presence of oxygen, when acetyl-CoA is produced, the molecule then enters the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) inside the mitochondrial matrix, and is oxidized to CO2 while at the same time reducing NAD to NADH. NADH can be used by the electron transport chain to create further ATP as part of oxidative phosphorylation. To fully oxidize the equivalent of one glucose molecule, two acetyl-CoA must be metabolized by the Krebs cycle. Two waste products, H2O and CO2, are created during this cycle.

text: The citric acid cycle is an 8-step process involving 18 different enzymes and co-enzymes.[4] During the cycle, acetyl-CoA (2 carbons) + oxaloacetate (4 carbons) yields citrate (6 carbons), which is rearranged to a more reactive form called isocitrate (6 carbons). Isocitrate is modified to become α-ketoglutarate (5 carbons), succinyl-CoA, succinate, fumarate, malate, and, finally, oxaloacetate.

text: The net gain of high-energy compounds from one cycle is 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 GTP; the GTP may subsequently be used to produce ATP. Thus, the total yield from 1 glucose molecule (2 pyruvate molecules) is 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 ATP.

text: Oxidative phosphorylation

text: In eukaryotes, oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondrial cristae. It comprises the electron transport chain that establishes a proton gradient (chemiosmotic potential) across the boundary of inner membrane by oxidizing the NADH produced from the Krebs cycle. ATP is synthesized by the ATP synthase enzyme when the chemiosmotic gradient is used to drive the phosphorylation of ADP. The electrons are finally transferred to exogenous oxygen and, with the addition of two protons, water is formed.

text: Efficiency of ATP production

text: The table below describes the reactions involved when one glucose molecule is fully oxidized into carbon dioxide. It is assumed that all the reduced coenzymes are oxidized by the electron transport chain and used for oxidative phosphorylation.

text:
Step
coenzyme yield
ATP yield
Source of ATP

Glycolysis preparatory phase

−2
Phosphorylation of glucose and fructose 6-phosphate uses two ATP from the cytoplasm.

Glycolysis pay-off phase

4
Substrate-level phosphorylation

2 NADH
3 or 5
Oxidative phosphorylation : Each NADH produces net 1.5 ATP (instead of usual 2.5) due to NADH transport over the mitochondrial membrane

Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate
2 NADH
5
Oxidative phosphorylation

Krebs cycle

2
Substrate-level phosphorylation

6 NADH
15
Oxidative phosphorylation

2 FADH2
3
Oxidative phosphorylation

Total yield
30 or 32 ATP
From the complete oxidation of one glucose molecule to carbon dioxide and oxidation of all the reduced coenzymes.

text: Although there is a theoretical yield of 38 ATP molecules per glucose during cellular respiration, such conditions are generally not realized because of losses such as the cost of moving pyruvate (from glycolysis), phosphate, and ADP (substrates for ATP synthesis) into the mitochondria. All are actively transported using carriers that utilize the stored energy in the proton electrochemical gradient.

text:
Pyruvate is taken up by a specific, low Km transporter to bring it into the mitochondrial matrix for oxidation by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.
The phosphate carrier (PiC) mediates the electroneutral exchange (antiport) of phosphate (H2PO4−; Pi) for OH− or symport of phosphate and protons (H+) across the inner membrane, and the driving force for moving phosphate ions into the mitochondria is the proton motive force.
The ATP-ADP translocase (also called adenine nucleotide translocase, ANT) is an antiporter and exchanges ADP and ATP across the inner membrane. The driving force is due to the ATP (−4) having a more negative charge than the ADP (−3), and thus it dissipates some of the electrical component of the proton electrochemical gradient.

tag: ul

text: The outcome of these transport processes using the proton electrochemical gradient is that more than 3 H+ are needed to make 1 ATP. Obviously this reduces the theoretical efficiency of the whole process and the likely maximum is closer to 28–30 ATP molecules.[2] In practice the efficiency may be even lower because the inner membrane of the mitochondria is slightly leaky to protons.[5] Other factors may also dissipate the proton gradient creating an apparently leaky mitochondria. An uncoupling protein known as thermogenin is expressed in some cell types and is a channel that can transport protons. When this protein is active in the inner membrane it short circuits the coupling between the electron transport chain and ATP synthesis. The potential energy from the proton gradient is not used to make ATP but generates heat. This is particularly important in brown fat thermogenesis of newborn and hibernating mammals.

text: According to some of newer sources the ATP yield during aerobic respiration is not 36–38, but only about 30–32 ATP molecules / 1 molecule of glucose [6], because:

text:
ATP : NADH+H+ and ATP : FADH2 ratios during the oxidative phosphorylation appear to be not 3 and 2, but 2.5 and 1.5 respectively. Unlike in the substrate-level phosphorylation, the stoichiometry here is difficult to establish.

ATP synthase produces 1 ATP / 3 H+. However the exchange of matrix ATP for cytosolic ADP and Pi (antiport with OH− or symport with H+) mediated by ATP–ADP translocase and phosphate carrier consumes 1 H+ / 1 ATP as a result of regeneration of the transmembrane potential changed during this transfer, so the net ratio is 1 ATP : 4 H+.
The mitochondrial electron transport chain proton pump transfers across the inner membrane 10 H+ / 1 NADH+H+ (4 + 2 + 4) or 6 H+ / 1 FADH2 (2 + 4).

text:
ATP : NADH+H+ coming from glycolysis ratio during the oxidative phosphorylation is

1.5, as for FADH2, if hydrogen atoms (2H++2e−) are transferred from cytosolic NADH+H+ to mitochondrial FAD by the glycerol phosphate shuttle located in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
2.5 in case of malate-aspartate shuttle transferring hydrogen atoms from cytosolic NADH+H+ to mitochondrial NAD+

text: So finally we have, per molecule of glucose

text:
Substrate-level phosphorylation: 2 ATP from glycolysis + 2 ATP (directly GTP) from Krebs cycle
Oxidative phosphorylation

2 NADH+H+ from glycolysis: 2 × 1.5 ATP (if glycerol phosphate shuttle transfers hydrogen atoms) or 2 × 2.5 ATP (malate-aspartate shuttle)
2 NADH+H+ from the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate and 6 from Krebs cycle: 8 × 2.5 ATP
2 FADH2 from the Krebs cycle: 2 × 1.5 ATP

text: Altogether this gives 4 + 3 (or 5) + 20 + 3 = 30 (or 32) ATP per molecule of glucose

text: The total ATP yield in ethanol or lactic acid fermentation is only 2 molecules coming from glycolysis, because pyruvate is not transferred to the mitochondrion and finally oxidized to the carbon dioxide (CO2), but reduced to ethanol or lactic acid in the cytoplasm.[6]

text: Fermentation

text: Without oxygen, pyruvate (pyruvic acid) is not metabolized by cellular respiration but undergoes a process of fermentation. The pyruvate is not transported into the mitochondrion, but remains in the cytoplasm, where it is converted to waste products that may be removed from the cell. This serves the purpose of oxidizing the electron carriers so that they can perform glycolysis again and removing the excess pyruvate. Fermentation oxidizes NADH to NAD+ so it can be re-used in glycolysis. In the absence of oxygen, fermentation prevents the buildup of NADH in the cytoplasm and provides NAD+ for glycolysis. This waste product varies depending on the organism. In skeletal muscles, the waste product is lactic acid. This type of fermentation is called lactic acid fermentation. In strenuous exercise, when energy demands exceed energy supply, the respiratory chain cannot process all of the hydrogen atoms joined by NADH. During anaerobic glycolysis, NAD+ regenerates when pairs of hydrogen combine with pyruvate to form lactate. Lactate formation is catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase in a reversible reaction. Lactate can also be used as an indirect precursor for liver glycogen. During recovery, when oxygen becomes available, NAD+ attaches to hydrogen from lactate to form ATP. In yeast, the waste products are ethanol and carbon dioxide. This type of fermentation is known as alcoholic or ethanol fermentation. The ATP generated in this process is made by substrate-level phosphorylation, which does not require oxygen.

text: Fermentation is less efficient at using the energy from glucose: only 2 ATP are produced per glucose, compared to the 38 ATP per glucose nominally produced by aerobic respiration. This is because the waste products of fermentation still contain chemical potential energy that can be released by oxidation. Ethanol, for example, can be burned in an internal combustion engine like gasoline. Glycolytic ATP, however, is created more quickly. For prokaryotes to continue a rapid growth rate when they are shifted from an aerobic environment to an anaerobic environment, they must increase the rate of the glycolytic reactions. For multicellular organisms, during short bursts of strenuous activity, muscle cells use fermentation to supplement the ATP production from the slower aerobic respiration, so fermentation may be used by a cell even before the oxygen levels are depleted, as is the case in sports that do not require athletes to pace themselves, such as sprinting.

text: Anaerobic respiration

text: Cellular respiration is the process by which biological fuels are oxidised in the presence of an inorganic electron acceptor (such as oxygen) to produce large amounts of energy, to drive the bulk production of ATP.

text: Anaerobic respiration is used by some microorganisms in which neither oxygen (aerobic respiration) nor pyruvate derivatives (fermentation) is the final electron acceptor. Rather, an inorganic acceptor such as sulfate or nitrate is used. Such organisms are typically found in unusual places such as underwater caves or near hydrothermal vents at the bottom of the ocean.


document_title: Small intestine

question_text: where does absorption take place in the small intestine

text: Small intestine

text: Structure[edit]

text: Size[edit]

text: The length of the small intestine can vary greatly, from as short as 2.75 m (9.0 ft) to as long as 10.49 m (34.4 ft).[3] The average length in a living person is 3m-5m.[4][5] The length depends both on how tall the person is and how the length is measured.[3] Taller people generally have a longer small intestine and measurements are generally longer after death and when the bowel is empty.[3]

text: It is approximately 1.5 cm in diameter in newborns after 35 weeks of gestational age,[6] and 2.5–3 cm (1 inch) in diameter in adults. On abdominal X-rays, the small intestine is considered to be abnormally dilated when the diameter exceeds 3cm.[7][8] On CT scans, a diameter of over 2.5 cm is considered abnormally dilated.[7][9] The surface area of the human small intestinal mucosa, due to enlargement caused by folds, villi and microvilli, averages 30 square meters.[10]

text: Parts[edit]

text: The small intestine is divided into three structural parts.

text:
The duodenum is a short structure (about 20–25 cm long) shaped like a "C".[11] It surrounds the head of the pancreas. It receives gastric chyme from the stomach, together with digestive juices from the pancreas (digestive enzymes) and the liver (bile). The digestive enzymes break down proteins and bile and emulsify fats into micelles. The duodenum contains Brunner's glands, which produce a mucus-rich alkaline secretion containing bicarbonate. These secretions, in combination with bicarbonate from the pancreas, neutralize the stomach acids contained in gastric chyme.
The jejunum is the midsection of the small intestine, connecting the duodenum to the ileum. It is about 2.5 m long, and contains the plicae circulares, and villi that increase its surface area. Products of digestion (sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids) are absorbed into the bloodstream here. The suspensory muscle of duodenum marks the division between the duodenum and the jejunum.
The ileum: The final section of the small intestine. It is about 3 m long, and contains villi similar to the jejunum. It absorbs mainly vitamin B12 and bile acids, as well as any other remaining nutrients. The ileum joins to the cecum of the large intestine at the ileocecal junction.

text: The jejunum and ileum are suspended in the abdominal cavity by mesentery. The mesentery is part of the peritoneum. Arteries, veins, lymph vessels and nerves travel within the mesentery.[12]

text: Blood supply[edit]

text: The small intestine receives a blood supply from the coeliac trunk and the superior mesenteric artery. These are both branches of the aorta. The duodenum receives blood from the coeliac trunk via the superior pancreaticoduodenal artery and from the superior mesenteric artery via the inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery. These two arteries both have anterior and posterior branches that meet in the midline and anastomose. The jejunum and ileum receive blood from the superior mesenteric artery.[13] Branches of the superior mesenteric artery form a series of arches within the mesentery known as arterial arcades, which may be several layers deep. Straight blood vessels known as vasa recta travel from the arcades closest to the ileum and jejunum to the organs themselves.[13]

text: Histology[edit]

text: The three sections of the small intestine look similar to each other at a microscopic level, but there are some important differences. The parts of the intestine are as follows:

text:
Layer
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum

Serosa
1st part serosa, 2nd–4th adventitia
Normal
Normal

Muscularis externa
Longitudinal and circular layers, with Auerbach's (myenteric) plexus in between
Same as duodenum
Same as duodenum

Submucosa
Brunner's glands and Meissner's (submucosal) plexus
No BG
No BG

Mucosa: muscularis mucosae
Normal
Normal
Normal

Mucosa: lamina propria
No PP
No PP
Peyer's patches

Mucosa: intestinal epithelium
Simple columnar. Contains goblet cells, Paneth cells
Similar to duodenum
 ?

text: Development[edit]

text: The small intestine develops from the midgut of the primitive gut tube.[14] By the fifth week of embryological life, the ileum begins to grow longer at a very fast rate, forming a U-shaped fold called the primary intestinal loop. The loop grows so fast in length that it outgrows the abdomen and protrudes through the umbilicus. By week 10, the loop retracts back into the abdomen. Between weeks six and ten the small intestine rotates anticlockwise, as viewed from the front of the embryo. It rotates a further 180 degrees after it has moved back into the abdomen. This process creates the twisted shape of the large intestine.[14]

text: Function[edit]

text: Food from the stomach is allowed into the duodenum through the pylorus by a muscle called the pyloric sphincter.

text: Digestion[edit]

text: The small intestine is where most chemical digestion takes place. Many of the digestive enzymes that act in the small intestine are secreted by the pancreas and liver and enter the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. Pancreatic enzymes and bile from the gallbladder enter the small intestine in response to the hormone cholecystokinin, which is produced in the small intestine in response to the presence of nutrients. Secretin, another hormone produced in the small intestine, causes additional effects on the pancreas, where it promotes the release of bicarbonate into the duodenum in order to neutralize the potentially harmful acid coming from the stomach.

text: The three major classes of nutrients that undergo digestion are proteins, lipids (fats) and carbohydrates:

text:
Proteins are degraded into small peptides and amino acids before absorption.[15] Chemical breakdown begins in the stomach and continues in the small intestine. Proteolytic enzymes, including trypsin and chymotrypsin, are secreted by the pancreas and cleave proteins into smaller peptides. Carboxypeptidase, which is a pancreatic brush border enzyme, splits one amino acid at a time. Aminopeptidase and dipeptidase free the end amino acid products.
Lipids (fats) are degraded into fatty acids and glycerol. Pancreatic lipase breaks down triglycerides into free fatty acids and monoglycerides. Pancreatic lipase works with the help of the salts from the bile secreted by the liver and stored in the gall bladder. Bile salts attach to triglycerides to help emulsify them, which aids access by pancreatic lipase. This occurs because the lipase is water-soluble but the fatty triglycerides are hydrophobic and tend to orient towards each other and away from the watery intestinal surroundings. The bile salts emulsify the triglycerides in the watery surroundings until the lipase can break them into the smaller components that are able to enter the villi for absorption.
Some carbohydrates are degraded into simple sugars, or monosaccharides (e.g., glucose). Pancreatic amylase breaks down some carbohydrates (notably starch) into oligosaccharides. Other carbohydrates pass undigested into the large intestine and further handling by intestinal bacteria. Brush border enzymes take over from there. The most important brush border enzymes are dextrinase and glucoamylase, which further break down oligosaccharides. Other brush border enzymes are maltase, sucrase and lactase. Lactase is absent in some adult humans and, for them, lactose, like most poly-saccharides, is not digested in the small intestine. Some carbohydrates, such as cellulose, are not digested at all, despite being made of multiple glucose units. This is because the cellulose is made out of beta-glucose, making the inter-monosaccharidal bindings different from the ones present in starch, which consists of alpha-glucose. Humans lack the enzyme for splitting the beta-glucose-bonds, something reserved for herbivores and bacteria from the large intestine.

text: Absorption[edit]

text: Digested food is now able to pass into the blood vessels in the wall of the intestine through either diffusion or active transport. The small intestine is the site where most of the nutrients from ingested food are absorbed. The inner wall, or mucosa, of the small intestine is lined with simple columnar epithelial tissue. Structurally, the mucosa is covered in wrinkles or folds called plicae circulares, which are considered permanent features in the wall of the organ. They are distinct from rugae which are considered non-permanent or temporary allowing for distention and contraction. From the plicae circulares project microscopic finger-like pieces of tissue called villi (Latin for "shaggy hair"). The individual epithelial cells also have finger-like projections known as microvilli. The functions of the plicae circulares, the villi, and the microvilli are to increase the amount of surface area available for the absorption of nutrients, and to limit the loss of said nutrients to intestinal fauna.

text: Each villus has a network of capillaries and fine lymphatic vessels called lacteals close to its surface. The epithelial cells of the villi transport nutrients from the lumen of the intestine into these capillaries (amino acids and carbohydrates) and lacteals (lipids). The absorbed substances are transported via the blood vessels to different organs of the body where they are used to build complex substances such as the proteins required by our body. The material that remains undigested and unabsorbed passes into the large intestine.

text: Absorption of the majority of nutrients takes place in the jejunum, with the following notable exceptions:

text:
Iron is absorbed in the duodenum.
Vitamin B12 and bile salts are absorbed in the terminal ileum.
Water and lipids are absorbed by passive diffusion throughout the small intestine.
Sodium bicarbonate is absorbed by active transport and glucose and amino acid co-transport.
Fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion.

text: Immunological[edit]

text: The small intestine supports the body's immune system.[16] The presence of gut flora appears to contribute positively to the host's immune system. Peyer's patches, located within the ileum of the small intestine, are an important part of the digestive tract's local immune system. They are part of the lymphatic system, and provide a site for antigens from potentially harmful bacteria or other microorganisms in the digestive tract to be sampled, and subsequently presented to the immune system.[17]

text: Gene and protein expression[edit]

text: About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and 70 % of these genes are expressed in the normal duodenum.[18][19] Some 300 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the duodenum with very few genes expressed only in the small intestine. The corresponding specific proteins are expressed in glandular cells of the mucosa, such as fatty acid binding protein FABP6.  Most of the more specifically expressed genes in the small intestine are also expressed in the duodenum, for example FABP2 and the DEFA6 protein expressed in secretory granules of Paneth cells.[20]

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: The small intestine is a complex organ, and as such, there are a very large number of possible conditions that may affect the function of the small bowel. A few of them are listed below, some of which are common, with up to 10% of people being affected at some time in their lives, while others are vanishingly rare.

text:
Small intestine obstruction or obstructive disorders

Paralytic ileus
Volvulus
Hernia
Intussusception
Adhesions
Obstruction from external pressure
Obstruction by masses in the lumen (foreign bodies, bezoar, gallstones)

Infectious diseases

Giardiasis
Ascariasis
Tropical sprue
Tape worm (Diphyllobothrium latum, Taenia solium, Hymenolepsis nana)
Hookworm (e.g. Necator americanus, Ancylostoma duodenale)
Nematodes (e.g. Ascaris lumbricoides)
Other Protozoa (e.g. Cryptosporidium parvum, Cyclospora, Microsporidia, Entamoeba histolytica)
Bacterial infections

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli
Salmonella enterica
Campylobacter
Shigella
Yersinia
Clostridium difficile (antibiotic-associated colitis, Pseudomembranous colitis)
Mycobacterium (Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis, disseminated Mycobacterium tuberculosis)
Whipple's disease
Vibrio (cholera)
Enteric (typhoid) fever (Salmonella enterica var. typhii) and paratyphoid fever
Bacillus cereus
Clostridium perfringens (gas gangrene)

Viral infections

Rotavirus
Norovirus
Astrovirus
Adenovirus
Calicivirus

Neoplasms (cancers)

Adenocarcinoma
Carcinoid
Gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST)
Lymphoma
Sarcoma
Leiomyoma
Metastatic tumors, especially SCLC or melanoma

Developmental, congenital or genetic conditions

Duodenal (intestinal) atresia
Hirschsprung's disease
Meckel's diverticulum
Pyloric stenosis
Pancreas divisum
Ectopic pancreas
Enteric duplication cyst
Situs inversus
Cystic fibrosis
Malrotation
Persistent urachus
Omphalocele
Gastroschisis
Disaccharidase (lactase) deficiencies
Primary bile acid malabsorption
Gardner syndrome
Familial adenomatous polyposis syndrome (FAP)

Other conditions

Crohn's disease, and the more general inflammatory bowel disease
Typhlitis (neutropenic colitis in the immunosuppressed
Coeliac disease (sprue or non-tropical sprue)
Mesenteric ischemia
Embolus or thrombus of the superior mesenteric artery or the superior mesenteric vein
Arteriovenous malformation
Gastric dumping syndrome
Irritable bowel syndrome
Duodenal (peptic) ulcers
Gastrointestinal perforation
Hyperthyroidism
Diverticulitis
Radiation enterocolitis
Mesenteric cysts
Peritoneal Infection
Sclerosing retroperitonitis
Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth

text: Other animals[edit]

text: The small intestine is found in all tetrapods and also in teleosts, although its form and length vary enormously between species. In teleosts, it is relatively short, typically around one and a half times the length of the fish's body. It commonly has a number of pyloric caeca, small pouch-like structures along its length that help to increase the overall surface area of the organ for digesting food. There is no ileocaecal valve in teleosts, with the boundary between the small intestine and the rectum being marked only by the end of the digestive epitheliu [21]

text: In tetrapods, the ileocaecal valve is always present, opening into the colon. The length of the small intestine is typically longer in tetrapods than in teleosts, but is especially so in herbivores, as well as in mammals and birds, which have a higher metabolic rate than amphibians or reptiles. The lining of the small intestine includes microscopic folds to increase its surface area in all vertebrates, but only in mammals do these develop into true villi.[21]

text: The boundaries between the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum are somewhat vague even in humans, and such distinctions are either ignored when discussing the anatomy of other animals, or are essentially arbitrary.[21]

text: There is no small intestine as such in non-teleost fish, such as sharks, sturgeons, and lungfish. Instead, the digestive part of the gut forms a spiral intestine, connecting the stomach to the rectum. In this type of gut, the intestine itself is relatively straight, but has a long fold running along the inner surface in a spiral fashion, sometimes for dozens of turns. This valve greatly increases both the surface area and the effective length of the intestine. The lining of the spiral intestine is similar to that of the small intestine in teleosts and non-mammalian tetrapods.[21]

text: In lampreys, the spiral valve is extremely small, possibly because their diet requires little digestion. Hagfish have no spiral valve at all, with digestion occurring for almost the entire length of the intestine, which is not subdivided into different regions.[21]

text: Society and culture[edit]

text: In traditional Chinese medicine, the small intestine is a yang organ.[22]

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
Small intestine in situ, greater omentum folded upwards.

Third state of the development of the intestinal canal and peritoneum, seen from in front (diagrammatic). The mode of preparation is the same as in Fig 400

Second stage of development of the intestinal canal and peritoneum, seen from in front (diagrammatic). The liver has been removed and the two layers of the ventral mesogastrium (lesser omentum) have been cut. The vessels are represented in black and the peritoneum in the reddish tint.

First stage of the development of the intestinal canal and the peritoneum, seen from the side (diagrammatic). From colon 1 the ascending and transverse colon will be formed and from colon 2 the descending and sigmoid colons and the rectum.


document_title: Social class in ancient Rome

question_text: who were the plebeians in the early roman republic

text: Social class in ancient Rome

text: Patricians and plebeians[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: In the Roman Kingdom and the early Roman Republic the most important division in Roman society was between the patricians and the plebeians. The patricians were a small elite whose ancestry was traced to the first Senate established by Romulus,[3] who monopolised political power. The plebeians comprised the majority of Roman citizens (see below). Adult males who were not Roman citizens, whether free or slave, fall outside this division. Women and children were also not citizens, but took the social status of their father or husband, which granted them various rights and protections not available to the women and children of men of lower rank.

text: The common assumptions that the patricians and the Roman elite were one and the same throughout the history of ancient Rome, and that all plebeians were of non-elite status throughout the history of ancient Rome, are entirely incorrect. From the Late Republic era onward many members of the elite, including an increasing proportion of senators, came from plebeian families. The first Roman Emperor, Augustus, was of plebeian origin, as were many of his successors. By the Late Empire, few members of the Senate were from the original patrician families, most of which had died out. Rome continued to have a hierarchical class system, but it was no longer dominated by the distinction between patricians and plebeians.

text: Originally, all public offices were open only to patricians, and the classes could not intermarry. Plebeians and Patricians were always at odds due to the fact that Plebeians wanted to increase their power.[4] A series of social struggles (see Conflict of the Orders) saw the plebs secede from the city on three occasions, the last in 297 BCE, until their demands were met. They won the right to stand for office, the abolition of the intermarriage law, and the creation of office of tribune of the plebs. This office, founded in 494 BCE as a result of a plebeian secession, was the main legal bulwark against the powers of the patrician class, and only plebeians were eligible. The tribunes originally had the power to protect any plebeian from a patrician magistrate. Later revolts forced the Senate to grant the tribunes additional powers, such as the right to veto legislation. A tribune’s person was sacrosanct, and he was obliged to keep an open house at all times while in office. Some patricians, notably Clodius Pulcher in the late 60s BCE, petitioned to be assigned plebeian status, in order to accumulate the political influence among the people that the office of tribune afforded. The conflict between the classes came to a climax in 287 BCE when patricians and plebeians were declared equal under the law.

text: Following these changes the distinction between patrician and plebeian status became less important, and by the Late Republic the only patrician prerogatives were certain priesthoods. Over time, some patrician families declined, some plebeian families rose in status, and the composition of the ruling class changed. A plebeian who was the first of his line to become consul was known as a novus homo (“new man”), and he and his descendants became “noble” (nobiles). Notable examples of novi homines are the seven-time consul Marius, and Cicero, whose rise was unusual in that it was driven by his oratorical and intellectual abilities rather than, as with Marius, military success. During the Empire, patricius became a title of nobility bestowed by emperors.[5][6]

text: Property-based classes[edit]

text: The census divided citizens into six complex classes based on property. The richest were the senatorial class, who during the Late Republic had to be worth at least 400,000 sestertii, the same as the equites; when Augustus reformed the senate during the first years of the Principate, he raised the property requirement to 1,000,0000 sestertii.[7] The wealth of the senatorial class was based on ownership of large agricultural estates, and by custom members did not engage in commercial activity.

text: Below the senatores in rank, but above others were the equites (“equestrians” or “knights”), with 400,000 sestertii, who could engage in commerce and formed an influential business class. Certain political and quasi-political positions were filled by equites, including tax farming and, under the Principate, leadership of the Praetorian Guard. Below the equites were three more classes of property-owning citizens; and lastly the proletarii, whose property was valued below 11,000 asses.[8]

text:
Analysis of Roman Centuriate Organisation 509-241 BCE *[9]

Class
Census property rating
money (property)

Electoral
assembly
votes per
person
Military Equipment
(self-supplied)

Patricians (historical aristocracy)

Senatores
400,0000 sestertii (1,000,0000 sestertii)

Equites**
400,000 sestertii

Horse, ...

Plebians (commoners)

First
100,000 As (100 iugera)
2
Helm, round shield, cuirass, greaves, sword, and spear.

Second
75,000 As (75 iugera)
1
Helm, round shield, greaves, sword and spear.

Third
50,000 As (50 iugera)
1
Helm, oblong shield, sword and spear.

Fourth
25,000 As (25 iugera)
1
Oblong shield, Spear or Sword, Javelin

Fifth
11,000 As (11 iugera)
12,500 As (12 iugera)
1
Slings or Javelins (velites)

Proles (landless poor)

Proletarii
below 11,000 asses

Fleets (oarsmen)

* This was the system of the Centuriate Assembly and was the practice of the Servian constitution. Information arranged by Tim Cornell based on the works of Livy, Polybius, and Dionysius of Hallicarnasus.
For a contrasting version of the same or similar data, see the table in the Equites article.

** The equites class was available for both plebians and patricians, and favored by ambitious young men in both groups.

At the period this was valid 1 Denarius was worth about 10 As; Luuk de Ligt puts the value of an iugerium at 1,000 As or 100 denarii as a recommended baseline because values fluctuate a lot and because of many factors.[10]

text: Citizenship[edit]

text: Women[edit]

text: Free-born women in ancient Rome were citizens (cives), but could not vote or hold political office.[11] The form of Roman marriage called conubium, for instance, requires that both spouses be citizens; like men from towns granted civitas sine suffragio, women eligible for legal marriage were citizens without suffrage. The legal status of a mother as a citizen affected her son's citizenship.[12] The phrase ex duobus civibus Romanis natos (“children born of two Roman citizens”) indicates that a Roman woman was regarded as having citizen status, in specific contrast to a peregrina.

text: Latin Right[edit]

text: The Latin Right was a form of citizenship with limited rights. It was conferred originally on the allied towns of Latium in the Republican era, and gradually extended to communities throughout the Empire. Latin citizens had rights, but not the vote, although their leading magistrates could become full citizens.

text: Peregrini[edit]

text: Free-born foreign subjects were known as peregrini, and special laws existed to govern their conduct and disputes. These distinctions continued until 212 CE, when Caracalla extended full Roman citizenship to all free-born men in the empire.

text: Slaves[edit]

text: Slaves (servi) were not citizens, and lacked even the legal standing accorded free-born foreigners. For the most part, slaves descended from debtors and from prisoners of war, especially women and children captured during sieges and other military campaigns in Greece, Italy, Spain, and Carthage. In the later years of the Republic and into the Empire, more slaves came from newly conquered areas of Gaul, Britain, North Africa, and Asia Minor. Many slaves were created as the result of Rome's conquest of Greece, but Greek culture was considered in some respects superior to that of Rome: hence Horace's famous remark Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit ("Captured Greece took her savage conqueror captive"). The Roman playwright Terence is thought to have been brought to Rome as a slave. Thus slavery was regarded as a circumstance of birth, misfortune, or war; it was defined in terms of legal status, or rather the lack thereof, and was neither limited to or defined by ethnicity or race, nor regarded as an inescapably permanent condition.

text: Slaves who lacked skills or education performed agricultural or other forms of manual labor. Those who were violent or disobedient, or who for whatever reason were considered a danger to society, might be sentenced to labor in the mines, where they suffered under inhumane conditions. Slaves subjected to harsh labor conditions also had few if any opportunities to obtain their freedom.

text: Since slaves were legally property, they could be disposed of by their owners at any time. All children born to female slaves were slaves. Some slave owners, as for instance Tacitus,[citation needed] freed slaves whom they believed to be their natural children. Slaves who had the education or skills to earn a living were often manumitted upon the death of their owner as a condition of his will. Slaves who conducted business for their masters were also permitted to earn and save money for themselves, and some might be able to buy their own freedom.

text: Over time, legislation was passed to protect the lives and health of slaves. Although many prostitutes were slaves, for instance, the bill of sale for some slaves stipulated that they could not be used for commercial prostitution.[13]

text: Freed men[edit]

text: Freed men (libertieu) were freed slaves, whose free-born children were full citizens. The status of liberti developed throughout the Republic as their number increased. Livy states[citation needed] that freedmen in the Early Republic mainly joined the lower classes of the plebeians. Juvenal, writing during the Empire when financial Freedmen were often highly educated and made up the bulk of the civil service during the early Empire. The Augustan poet Horace was himself the child of a freedman from Venusia in southern Italy. Many became enormously wealthy as the result of bribes, fraud, or other forms of corruption, or were given large estates by the Emperor they served.[citation needed] Other freedmen engaged in commerce, amassing vast fortunes often only rivalled by those of the wealthiest nobiles. Many of the Satires of Juvenal contain angry denouncements of the pretensions of wealthy freedmen, some 'with the chalk of the slave market still on their heel'. Juvenal saw these successful men as nouveaux riches who were far too ready to show off their (often ill-gotten) wealth. Another famous caricature is seen in the absurdly extravagant character of Trimalchio in Satyricon. The majority of freedmen, however, joined the plebeian classes, and often worked as farmers or tradesmen.


document_title: Love & Hip Hop: New York

question_text: what season is cardi b on love and hip hop

text: Love & Hip Hop: New York

text: Development[edit]

text: In 2006, rapper Jim Jones approached VH1 executives to make a reality show about him.[2] Jim Ackerman, senior vice president of development and production at the time, was intrigued by the idea[3] and paired him with producers Stefan Springman and Toby Barraud of Eastern TV. Jones was unwilling to fully commit to the gruelling filming schedule and was dealing with the murder of a friend at the time, leading him to lash out violently at the producers and filming crew. The production issues were worked into the show's concept, which now focused on the culture clash between the gangsta rapper and the "honky" television producers.[2] The 11-minute presentation tape, Keeping Up with the Joneses,[4] also featured Jones' longtime girlfriend Chrissy Lampkin and his mother Nancy. According to Springman, VH1 loved the footage but were unsure if audiences would be invested in the concept full time.[5]

text: Jones' manager, Yandy Smith, approached Mona Scott-Young, her former employer at Violator, to retool the show.[6] The concept was tweaked to include Jim's girlfriend Chrissy Lampkin and her circle of friends, influenced by the female ensemble-driven reality shows of the time.[7] The original cast consisted of Lampkin, Olivia Longott, Swizz Beatz's ex-wife Mashonda Tifrere and Misa Hylton-Brim, the mother of Puffy Daddy's eldest son, pitched as a "black version of Sex and the City".[8][9] Hylton was eventually replaced with stylist Emily Bustamante, the mother of Fabolous's son. Mashonda was downgraded to a supporting role per her request.[10] Aspiring rapper Somaya Reece was brought on late into production to replace her.[11] Reece's ex Joe Budden was approached to appear in the first season, but declined.[12]

text: The series was first announced in VH1's programming development report in April 2010, under the title Diary of a Hip Hop Girlfriend.[13] On January 4, 2011, VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop would debut on March 6, 2011.[14][15]

text: Series synopsis[edit]

text: Overview and casting[edit]

text: Love & Hip Hop: New York revolves around the everyday lives of women working in the male-dominated world of hip hop. The first two seasons focus on the personal and professional struggles of four women, two of which are girlfriends of famous rappers, and two are aspiring recording artists. Subsequent seasons expanded to include talent managers and producers, DJs and radio personalities, stylists, video vixens, glamour models and groupies. The show has a sprawling supporting cast, consisting mostly of men in the industry, who (in most cases) share the same amount of screen time and storyline focus as the show's leads.

text: The first season starred Jim Jones' girlfriend Chrissy Lampkin, Fabolous's girlfriend Emily Bustamante, Olivia Longott and aspiring rapper Somaya Reece, with Jim Jones, his mother Nancy Jones, Somaya's manager Maurice Aguilar and Olivia's manager Rich Dollaz in supporting roles. Swiss Beatz's ex-wife Mashonda would appear in a minor supporting role.

text: All main cast members from the previous season returned for a second season, along with new cast members Kimbella Vanderhee, the girlfriend of Juelz Santana, and Yandy Smith, Jim Jones' manager.[16] Teairra Marí and Erica Mena appeared as supporting cast members.

text: The show underwent major cast changes in season three after last season's reunion special, in which all four original cast members accused their producers of manipulating storylines for drama. On September 7, 2012, VH1 announced that Chrissy Lampkin and Jim Jones would leave the show to star in their own spin-off show Chrissy & Mr. Jones, along with Emily Bustamante and Jim's mother Nancy Jones.[17] Somaya Reece quit the show all together, while Olivia Longott's role would be diminished significantly, appearing only as a supporting cast member. Rich Dollaz and Yandy Smith were the only major cast members from the first two seasons to remain on the show, with Yandy taking over for Chrissy as the lead. Erica Mena was promoted to the main cast, along with author and former hip hop groupie Winter Ramos, who had a brief guest appearance last season. They were joined by video vixen Tahiry Jose, radio personalities Raqi Thunda and Jen the Pen and celebrity stiletto expert Rashidah Ali. Joe Budden, Yandy's boyfriend Mendeecees Harris, Consequence and aspiring rapper Lore'l appeared as supporting cast members, with Joe's girlfriend Kaylin Garcia appearing in a minor supporting role. Former main cast member Kimbella Vanderhee returned as a guest star for two episodes.

text: The cast was once again retooled in season four, with only Yandy Smith, Erica Mena and Tahiry Jose returning from last season's main cast. They were joined by Peter Gunz' girlfriend Tara Wallace, Amina Buddafly, Saigon's baby mama Erica Jean and former Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta cast member K. Michelle. Peter Gunz joined the supporting cast, along with stripper Nya Lee, Saigon and Erica's girlfriend Cyn Santana. Former main cast member Rashidah Ali appeared as a guest star in several episodes.

text: With the exception of Tahiry Jose, Erica Jean and K. Michelle, all of who left or were fired from the show, the rest of the main cast members returned in season five, along with Cyn Santana, who was promoted to the main cast, and Chink Santana's girlfriend Chrissy Monroe.[18][19] Producer Cisco Rosado joined the supporting cast, along with Darryl Strawberry's daughter Diamond Strawberry, Chink Santana and aspiring performers Precious Paris and Jhonni Blaze.[20]

text: The cast underwent a major cast change for the third time in the show's history for season six, with only Yandy Smith, Tara Wallace and Amina Buddafly returning from last season's main cast. They were joined by Remy Ma, social media personality Cardi B and aspiring rappers Miss Moe Money, Sexy Lexxy and Mariahlynn.[21] Radio personality DJ Self joined the supporting cast, along with Papoose, Bianca Bonnie, and Self's girlfriend Yorma Hernandez. Rose, a stylist, appeared in a minor supporting role.

text: In season seven, Kimbella Vanderhee returned as a series regular after being absent from the show since the second season. Bianca Bonnie was promoted to the main cast, along with The Wire star Felicia "Snoop" Pearson. Juelz Santana joined the supporting cast, along with Cam'ron's girlfriend Juju C., Snoop's girlfriend J. Adrienne, radio personality DJ Drewski, his girlfriend Sky Landish, Mendeecees' baby mamas Samantha Wallace and Erika DeShazo, Mendeecees' mother Judy Harris, Samantha's mother Kim Wallace, Cardi's sister Hennessy Carolina and producer Swift Star. Aspiring singers Sofi Green and Major Galore, Rich's daughter Ashley Trowers, Rich's girlfriend Jade Wifey and Swift's girlfriend Asia Cole appeared in minor supporting roles. Love & Hip Hop: Hollywood star Moniece Slaughter made a special crossover appearance in two episodes.

text: With the exception of Kimbella Vanderhee and Cardi B who left the show, all main cast members from the previous season have returned for season eight. Cam'ron's fianceé Juju C. was promoted to the main cast, alongside newcomers Anaís and Lil' Mo. Karl Dargan, Safaree Samuels, Navarro Gray, his girlfriend Ashley Diaz, her sister Ayisha Diaz, rapper Jaquáe, his girlfriend Sophia Body, Bad Girls Club star DreamDoll, rapper Brittney Taylor, singer James R., K. Michelle: My Life cast member Jonathan Fernandez and his boyfriend Trent Crews would join the supporting cast.[22] Grafh and Kiyanne would also appear in supporting roles.

text: Timeline of main cast members[edit]

text:
Name
Seasons

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Chrissy Lampkin
Main

Emily Bustamante
Main

Olivia Longott
Main
Supporting

Somaya Reece
Main

Guest1

Kimbella Vanderhee

Main
Guest

Guest

Main
Guest1 2

Yandy Smith-Harris
Cameo
Main

Erica Mena

Supporting
Main

Guest1

Jen the Pen

Main

Raqi Thunda

Main

Winter Ramos

Guest
Main

Rashidah Ali

Main
Guest
Supporting

Tahiry Jose

Main

Guest1 2

Tara Wallace

Main
Supporting
Cameo

Erica Jean

Main

Amina Buddafly

Main
Supporting

K. Michelle

Main
Guest3

Cyn Santana

Supporting
Main

Chrissy Monroe

Main

Cardi B

Main

Moe Money & Sexxy Lexxy

Main

Mariahlynn

Main

Remy Ma

Main

Bianca Bonnie

Supporting
Main

Felicia "Snoop" Pearson

Main

Juju C.

Cameo
Supporting
Main

Anaís

Main

Lil' Mo

Main

text: Note:

text:
^ Appears in the Dirty Little Secrets special only.
^ Appears in the Love Edition special only.
^ Appears in the Love & Hip Hop Live: The Wedding special only.

tag: ol

text: Storylines[edit]

text: Love & Hip Hop: New York explores the role of women in the male-dominated industry of hip hop, their relationship struggles, as well as the intense and violent rivalries between the women in New York's hip hop scene. Over the seasons, the show has explored addiction, substance abuse, race relations, colorism, religion and the impact of incarceration on black families.

text: Several female cast members identify as bisexual, lesbian or sexually fluid, and the show is one of the few television shows to explore LGBT issues from a black and latino perspective. In season eight, openly gay stylist Jonathan Fernandez joins the cast and in one episode reveals the horrors he suffered as a child in conversion therapy in the Dominican Republic.[23]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The show's first season, which focused on the female cast's struggles within the male-dominated industry of hip hop, initially received a positive critical response. Jon Caramanica of The New York Times praised the show's deconstruction of the public image of rappers, as well as the quality of the production values with "slick, beautiful shots of the women driving spectacular cars with no men in sight". However, he was critical of the "needless filler drama" between Lampkin and Reese,[24] a criticism that was shared by other critics who felt the "endless catty arguments and trashy behavior" detracted from the show's message[25] and was too derivative of The Real Housewives franchise.[26]

text: Subsequent seasons, particularly the spin-off Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta, have largely been overshadowed by criticism and controversy, with the franchise referred to as "ratchet TV" for its seemingly negative and stereotypical portrayal of black women and its focus on dysfunctional relationships, materialism, hyper-sexuality and violence.[27] Series creator Mona Scott-Young has been singled out in particular for allegedly "exploiting (black women) in her quest for the almighty dollar".[28][29] Scott-Young has continuously defended the show against these accusations, saying it was not created to represent all African-Americans: "It's set in a specific world and I don’t think that there’s anybody who’s navigated that world who would deny that these things happen.”[30] Despite the criticism, the franchise has dominated the ratings since its inception, and has been described as "riveting",[31] "addictive"[32] "bawdy and hilarious"[33] and a "guilty pleasure".[34] In 2014, Complex named Joe Budden, Chrissy Lampkin and Mama Jones as some of the greatest VH1 reality stars of all time.[35]

text: Scripting allegations[edit]

text: Love & Hip Hop is often criticized for appearing to fabricate much of its storyline. Scott-Young has denied those claims: “I can’t stress enough that the stuff they deal with on (Love & Hip Hop) is real. We may frame it within a production construct that allows us to shoot on a schedule, but we’re not making up the stuff that they’re going through.”[36] In October 2013, Peter Gunz admitted in an interview with Sway in the Morning to exploiting his romantic situation for a check,[37] stating "I was gonna get busted (for cheating) anyway. Let me get paid to get busted. Fuck it." In December 2016, the show received criticism from fans after it was revealed that Yandy Smith and Mendeecees Harris were never legally married, despite taking part in a marriage ceremony live on VH1 as part of the special Love & Hip Hip Live: The Wedding.[38] In an interview with The Breakfast Club in November 2017, Cam'ron outed Kimberly Osorio as a storyline writer for the show.[39]

text: Ratings[edit]

text: Love & Hip Hop is one of the highest rated unscripted franchises in cable television history.[40] In an overview of the television cultural divide, The New York Times reported that Love & Hip Hop was most popular show in the black belt.[41]

text: After a modest start, the show's audience grew substantially in its second season, averaging 2.8 million total viewers per episode, making it VH1's highest rated series in over three and a half years.[42] Overall, the series was the #8 highest rating series on cable in 2011.[43] However, following a cast retooling after nearly all of the original cast left the show, the show was met with mixed reception from audiences, with the third season garnering some of the lowest ratings in the franchise's history.[44] Following another cast retooling and a much publicised love triangle storyline involving Peter Gunz, Tara and Amina (reminiscent of the more popular Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta), the show's ratings improved significantly, up 54% over the previous season's average and attracting an average of 3 million total viewers per episode.[45] The show maintained a steady viewership of about two million viewers per episode for the next few seasons, until the poorly received eighth season, where ratings dipped below 2 million viewers for the first time in four years.

text: Cultural impact[edit]

text: During a speech at a campaign rally in North Carolina on November 4, 2016, President Barack Obama referenced the show, comparing the 2016 presidential race to reality television, saying "I mean, its like some Love & Hip Hop stuff." [46]

text: On a 2013 episode of the BET television series The Game, Wendy Raquel Robinson's character Tasha makes reference to the franchise, saying "Back in the day we weren't carrying ourselves like them damn crazies you see on Love & Hip Hop, we conducted ourselves as upstanding women who were looked up to in the community". In the 2016 film Barbershop: The Next Cut, when Eve and Common's characters get into an argument over their relationship, Cedric the Entertainer's character makes a reference to the franchise, saying "This ain't no Love & Hip Hop reunion." In the 2017 pilot of the Netflix television adaptation Dear White People, a character attempts to break up an argument between two female characters by saying "Yo, fam, can we cut the Love & Hip Hop auditions and get to it?"

text: Nicki Minaj references the show on her remix of Ciara's "I'm Out". Remy Ma ends her diss track "Shether" with the line: "you just got bodied by a Love & Hip Hop bitch". Cardi B references her time on the show in her hit single "Bodak Yellow": "I just run and check the mail, another check from Mona Scott".

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired
Extra episodes

First aired
Last aired
Reunion
Specials

1
9
March 6, 2011 (2011-03-06)
May 2, 2011 (2011-05-02)
May 16, 2011
N/A

2
11
November 14, 2011 (2011-11-14)
January 23, 2012 (2012-01-23)
February 6, 2012
N/A

3
14
January 7, 2013 (2013-01-07)
April 1, 2013 (2013-04-01)
April 8, 2013
April 15, 2013
N/A

4
14
October 28, 2013 (2013-10-28)
January 27, 2014 (2014-01-27)
February 3, 2014
February 10, 2014
October 24, 2013

5
17
December 15, 2014 (2014-12-15)
March 30, 2015 (2015-03-30)
April 6, 2015
April 13, 2015
May 25, 2015

6
14
December 14, 2015 (2015-12-14)
March 7, 2016 (2016-03-07)
March 21, 2016
March 28, 2016
N/A

7
16
November 21, 2016 (2016-11-21)
February 13, 2017 (2017-02-13)
February 20, 2017
February 27, 2017
N/A

8
18
October 30, 2017 (2017-10-30)
February 26, 2018 (2018-02-26)
March 5, 2018 (2018-03-05)
March 12, 2018 (2018-03-12)
October 18, 2017
December 18, 2017

text: Broadcast history[edit]

text: Love & Hip Hop's first season commenced airing on March 6, 2011. Initially intended to be an eight-episode series, the first season was expanded to nine episodes in order to include the first season reunion, which aired on May 16, 2011.[47] On May 25, 2011, the series was renewed for a second season, which premiered on November 14, 2011.[48] It concluded with the special

text: The third season of Love & Hip Hop, now titled Love & Hip Hop: New York in promotional material, premiered on January 7, 2013, with nearly a whole new cast.[49]

text: On October 10, 2013, VH1 announced Love & Hip Hop: New York would be returning for a fourth season on October 28, 2013. The season premiered back-to-back with the second season of Chrissy & Mr. Jones.[50]

text: On December 2, 2014, VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop: New York would be returning for a fifth season on December 15, 2014.[51]

text: On November 2, 2015, VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop: New York would be returning for a sixth season on December 14, 2015.[52]

text: On November 14, 2016, VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop: New York would be returning for a seventh season on November 21, 2016.[53]

text: On October 2, 2017, VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop: New York would return for an eighth season on October 30, 2017.

text: Spin-offs[edit]

text: On May 15, 2012, VH1 announced Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta, the Atlanta-based spin-off of Love & Hip Hop, would make its series premiere on June 18, 2012.[54]

text: On September 7, 2012, VH1 announced that Chrissy Lampkin and Jim Jones would leave Love & Hip Hop, to star in their own spin-off show Chrissy & Mr. Jones.[55] Jim's mother Nancy received her own web series, Mama Jones' World.[56]

text: On August 18, 2014, VH1 announced Love & Hip Hop: Hollywood, the Los Angeles-based spin-off of Love & Hip Hop, would make its series premiere on September 15, 2014.[57]

text: K. Michelle join the cast in season four, with her purpose on the show mainly served to set up her own spin-off series, as such, she appeared in infrequently and barely interacted with the rest of the cast. Her future co-stars on the show, Paris Phillips and Tracie Renee, appeared as guest stars. On October 15, 2014, VH1 announced the spin-off K. Michelle: My Life, starring cast member K. Michelle, would make its series premiere on November 3, 2014.[58]

text: On December 2, 2015, VH1 announced the spin-off Stevie J & Joseline: Go Hollywood, starring Stevie J and Joseline Hernandez, would make its series premiere on January 25, 2016, back-to-back with the second season of K. Michelle: My Life.[59]

text: On December 1, 2016, VH1 announced the spin-off Leave It To Stevie, starring Stevie J, would make its series premiere on December 19, 2016, back-to-back with the third season of K. Michelle: My Life.[60]

text: Specials[edit]

text: The fourth season was preceded by 40 Greatest Love & Hip Hop Moments, a 2 hour clip show hosted by Mona Scott-Young. The special aired on October 24, 2013, and showcased the franchise's most "shocking, scandalous and dramatic Love & Hip Hop moments", featuring clips from the show's first three seasons, as well as the first two seasons of its spin-off Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta.[61]

text: On April 14, 2015, VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop: The Wedding, a two-hour special featuring the marriage between cast members Yandy Smith and Mendeecees Harris, would air live on May 25, 2015. The special was preceded by six exclusive webisodes that were made available on VH1's website from May 12, 2015.[62] The special aired to over 2 million viewers and featured appearances from other VH1 reality stars, including cast mates from Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta, Love & Hip Hop: Hollywood, Black Ink Crew, Mob Wives, as well as from Bravo's The Real Housewives of Atlanta.

text: On October 18, 2017, nearly two weeks before the season eight premiere, VH1 aired Dirty Little Secrets, a special featuring unseen footage and deleted scenes from the show's first seven seasons, along with interviews with the show's cast and producers.[63]

text: On November 16, 2017, VH1 announced that Remy & Papoose: A Merry Mackie Holiday, a holiday special starring Remy Ma and Papoose, would air on December 18, 2017.[64]

text: Game[edit]

text: On August 8, 2016, VH1 and 345 Games announced the release of Love & Hip Hop: The Game, a mobile game for iOS and Android. It was released worldwide on September 22, 2016.[65]

text: Distribution[edit]

text: Love & Hip Hop episodes air regularly on VH1 in the United States.[66][67] Episodes in the first season run from around 21–24 minutes, episodes in subsequent seasons run from around 41–44 minutes. The first two seasons were broadcast in standard definition, while subsequent seasons are broadcast in high definition. The series' episodes are also available on demand through the official VH1 website, as well as for digital download at the iTunes Store and Amazon.

text: VH1 have released the first four seasons, as well as the sixth season, on DVD. The fifth, seventh and eighth seasons are currently only available on digital platforms.