document_title: Sweat gland

question_text: what glands release their product directly into hair follicles

text: Sweat gland

text: Structure[edit]

text: Generally, sweat glands consist of a secretory unit consisting of a base rolled into a glomerulum, and a duct that carries the sweat away.[13] The secretory coil or base, is set deep in the lower dermis and hypodermis, and the entire gland is surrounded by adipose tissue.[2][14][8]  In both sweat gland types, the secretory coils are surrounded by contractile myoepithelial cells that function to facilitate excretion of secretory product.[15][16]  The secretory activities of the gland cells and the contractions of myoepithelial cells are controlled by both the autonomic nervous system and by the circulating hormones. The distal or apical part of the duct that opens to the skin's surface is known as the acrosyringium.[17]

text: Each sweat gland receives several nerve fibers that branch out into bands of one or more axons and encircle the individual tubules of the secretory coil. Capillaries are also interwoven among sweat tubules.[18]

text:
Differences Between Eccrine & Apocrine Sweat Glands

Eccrine Glands
Apocrine Glands

Overall diameter of secretory coil

500-700 µm

800 µm

Diameter of individual secretory tubule

30-40 µm

80-100 µm[19]

Composition of secretory unit

single layer, mixed clear cells & dark cells

single layer columnar cells[17]

Composition of ductal epithelium

two or more layers of cuboidal cells

double layer of cuboidal cells [20]

Duct opens to

skin surface

hair follicle, sometimes nearby skin surface

text: Distribution[edit]

text: The number of active sweat glands varies greatly among different people, though comparisons between different areas (ex. axillae vs. groin) show the same directional changes (certain areas always have more active sweat glands while others always have fewer).[21] According to Henry Gray's estimates, the palm has around 370 sweat glands per cm2; the back of the hand has 200 per cm2; the forehead has 175 per cm2; the breast, abdomen, and forearm have 155 per cm2; and the back and legs have 60–80 per cm2.[2]

text: In the finger pads, sweat glands are somewhat irregularly spaced on the epidermal ridges. There are no pores between the ridges, though sweat tends to spill into them.[21] The thick epidermis of the palms and soles causes the sweat glands to become spirally coiled.[2]

text: Animals[edit]

text: Non-primate mammals have eccrine sweat glands only on the palms and soles. Apocrine glands cover the rest of the body, though they are not as effective as humans' in temperature regulation (with the exception of horses').[8] Prosimians have a 1:20 ratio of follicles with apocrine glands versus follicles without.[22] They have eccrine glands between hairs over most of their body (while humans have them between the hairs on their scalp).[9]

text: The overall distribution of sweat glands varies among primates: the rhesus and patas monkeys have them on the chest; the squirrel monkey has them only on the palms and soles; and the stump-tailed macaque, Japanese monkey, and baboon have them over the entire body.[23]

text: Domestic animals[which?] have apocrine glands at the base of each hair follicle, but eccrine glands only in foot pads and snout. Their apocrine glands, like those in humans, produce an odorless oily milky secretion evolved not to evaporate and cool but rather coat and stick to hair so odor-causing bacteria can grow on it.[24] Eccrine glands on their foot pads, like those on palms and soles of humans, did not evolve to cool either but rather increase friction and enhance grip.

text: Dogs and cats have apocrine glands that are specialized in both structure and function located at the eyelids (Moll's glands), ears (ceruminous glands), anal sac, prepuce vulva, and circumanal area.[25]

text: Types[edit]

text: Eccrine[edit]

text: Eccrine sweat glands are everywhere except the lips, ear canal, prepuce, glans penis, labia minora, and clitoris. They are ten times smaller than apocrine sweat glands, do not extend as deeply into the dermis, and excrete directly onto the surface of the skin.[8][5][26][4] The proportion of eccrine glands decreases with age.[27]

text: The clear secretion produced by eccrine sweat glands is termed sweat or sensible perspiration. Sweat is mostly water, but it does contain some electrolytes, since it is derived from blood plasma. The presence of sodium chloride gives sweat a salty taste.

text: The total volume of sweat produced depends on the number of functional glands and the size of the surface opening. The degree of secretory activity is regulated by neural and hormonal mechanisms (men sweat more than women). When all of the eccrine sweat glands are working at maximum capacity, the rate of perspiration for a human being may exceed three liters per hour,[28] and dangerous losses of fluids and electrolytes can occur.

text: Eccrine glands have three primary functions:

text:
Thermoregulation: sweat cools the surface of the skin and reduces body temperature.[29]
Excretion: eccrine sweat gland secretion can also provide a significant excretory route for water and electrolytes.[30]
Protection: eccrine sweat gland secretion aids in preserving the skin's acid mantle, which helps protect the skin from colonization from bacteria and other pathogenic organisms.[31]

text: Apocrine[edit]

text: Apocrine sweat glands are found in the armpit, areola (around the nipples), perineum (between the anus and genitals), in the ear, and in the eyelids. The secretory portion is larger than that of eccrine glands (making them larger overall). Rather than opening directly onto the surface of the skin, apocrine glands secrete sweat into the pilary canal of the hair follicle.[8]

text: Before puberty, the apocrine sweat glands are inactive;[32] hormonal changes in puberty cause the glands to increase in size and begin functioning.[33] The substance secreted is thicker than eccrine sweat and provides nutrients for bacteria on the skin: the bacteria's decomposition of sweat is what creates the acrid odor.[34] Apocrine sweat glands are most active in times of stress and sexual excitement.[35]

text: In mammals (including humans), apocrine sweat contains pheromone-like compounds to attract other organisms within their species. Study of human sweat has revealed differences between men and women in apocrine secretions and bacteria.[36]

text: Apoeccrine[edit]

text: Some human sweat glands cannot be classified as either apocrine or eccrine, having characteristics of both; such glands are termed apoeccrine.[37] They are larger than eccrine glands, but smaller than apocrine glands.[38] Their secretory portion has a narrow portion similar to secretory coils in eccrine glands as well as a wide section reminiscent of apocrine glands.[39]

text: Apoeccrine, found in the armpits and perianal region, have ducts opening onto the skin surface.[40] They are presumed to have developed in puberty from the eccrine glands,[41] and can comprise up to 50% of all axillary glands. Apoeccrine glands secrete more sweat than both eccrine and apocrine glands, thus playing a large role in axillary sweating.[42] Apoeccrine glands are sensitive to cholinergic activity, though they can also be activated via adrenergic stimulation.[37] Like eccrine glands, they continuously secrete a thin, watery sweat.[42]

text: Others[edit]

text: Specialized sweat glands, including the ceruminous glands, mammary glands, ciliary glands of the eyelids, and sweat glands of the nasal vestibulum, are modified apocrine glands.[43][5] Ceruminous glands are near the ear canals, and produce cerumen (earwax) that mixes with the oil secreted from sebaceous glands.[44][43] Mammary glands use apocrine secretion to produce milk.[45]

text: Sweat[edit]

text: Sweat glands are used to regulate temperature and remove waste by secreting water, sodium salts, and nitrogenous waste (such as urea) onto the skin surface.[30][46] The main electrolytes of sweat are sodium and chloride,[47] though the amount is small enough to make sweat hypotonic at the skin surface.[48] Eccrine sweat is clear, odorless, and is composed of 98–99% water; it also contains NaCl, fatty acids, lactic acid, citric acid, ascorbic acid, urea, and uric acid. Its pH ranges from 4 to 6.8.[49] On the other hand, the apocrine sweat has a pH of 6 to 7.5; it contains water, proteins, carbohydrate waste material, lipids, and steroids. The sweat is oily, cloudy, viscous, and originally odorless;[49] it gains odor upon decomposition by bacteria. Because both apocrine glands and sebaceous glands open into the hair follicle, apocrine sweat is mixed with sebum.[41]

text: Mechanism[edit]

text: It was originally thought that both apocrine and eccrine sweat glands used merocrine secretion, where vesicles in the gland released sweat via exocytosis, leaving the entire cell intact.[37][7] More recent studies have revealed that apocrine glands release sweat in the hair follicle via apocrine secretion, where portions of the cell are actually pinched off, and disintegrate later to excrete sweat.[50][7]

text: In both apocrine and eccrine sweat glands, the sweat is originally produced in the gland's coil, where it is isotonic with the blood plasma there.[51] When the rate of sweating is low, salt is conserved and reabsorbed by the gland's duct; high sweat rates, on the other hand, lead to less salt reabsorption and allow more water to evaporate on the skin (via osmosis) to increase evaporative cooling.[52]

text: Secretion of sweat occurs when the myoepithelial cell cells surrounding the secretory glands contract.[20] Eccrine sweat increases the rate of bacterial growth and volatilizes the odor compounds of apocrine sweat, strengthening the latter's acrid smell.[53]

text: Normally, only a certain number of sweat glands are actively producing sweat. When stimuli call for more sweating, more sweat glands are activated, with each then producing more sweat.[54][13]

text: Stimuli[edit]

text: Thermal[edit]

text: Both eccrine and apocrine sweat glands participate in thermal (thermoregulatory) sweating,[55] which is directly controlled by the hypothalamus. Thermal sweating is stimulated by a combination of internal body temperature and mean skin temperature.[29] In eccrine sweat glands, stimulation occurs via activation by acetylcholine, which binds to the gland's muscarinic receptors.[56]

text: Emotional[edit]

text: Emotional sweating is stimulated by stress, anxiety, fear, and pain; it is independent of ambient temperature. Acetylcholine acts on the eccrine glands and adrenaline acts on both eccrine and apocrine glands to produce sweat.[37] Emotional sweating can occur anywhere, though it is most evident on the palms, soles of the feet, and axillary regions.[29] Sweating on the palms and soles is thought to have evolved as a fleeing reaction in mammals: it increases friction and prevents slipping when running or climbing in stressful situations.[55]

text: Gustatory[edit]

text: Gustatory sweating refers to thermal sweating induced by the ingestion of food. The increase in metabolism caused by ingestion raises body temperature, leading to thermal sweating. Hot and spicy foods also leads to mild gustatory sweating in the face, scalp and neck: capsaicin (the compound that makes spicy food taste "hot"), binds to receptors in the mouth that detect warmth. The increased stimulation of such receptors induces a thermoregulatory response.[37]

text: Antiperspirant[edit]

text: Unlike deodorant, which simply reduces axillary odor without affecting body functions, antiperspirant reduces both eccrine and apocrine sweating.[57][49] Antiperspirants, which are classified as drugs, cause proteins to precipitate and mechanically block eccrine (and sometimes apocrine) sweat ducts.[58] The metal salts found in antiperspirants alters the keratin fibrils in the ducts; the ducts then close and form a "horny plug". The main active ingredients in modern antiperspirants are aluminum chloride, aluminum chlorohydrate, aluminum zirconium chlorohydrate, and buffered aluminum sulfate.[49]

text: On apocrine glands, antiperspirants also contain antibacterial agents such as trichlorocarbanilide, hexamethylene tetramine, and zinc ricinoleate.[59][60] The salts are dissolved in ethanol and mixed with essential oils high in eugenol and thymol (such as thyme and clove oils). Antiperspirants may also contain levomethamphetamine[60]

text: Pathology[edit]

text: Diseases of the sweat glands include:

text: Tumors[edit]

text: Sweat gland tumors include:[67]

text:
Acrospiroma
Aggressive digital papillary adenocarcinoma
Apocrine gland carcinoma
Ceruminoma
Cutaneous myoepithelioma
Cylindroma
Eccrine carcinoma
Hidradenoma papilliferum
Hidrocystoma
Microcystic adnexal carcinoma
Mucinous carcinoma
Papillary eccrine adenoma
Syringadenoma papilliferum
Syringofibroadenoma
Syringoma

text: Adenolipomas are lipomas associated with eccrine sweat glands.[68]

text: As signs in other illnesses[edit]

text: Many diseases cause sweat gland dysfunction:

text:
Acromegaly, a result of excess growth hormone, causes the size of sweat glands increase, which leads to thicker skin.[69]
Aquagenic wrinkling of the palms, in which white papules develop on the palms after exposure to water, can sometimes come with abnormal aquaporin 5 in the sweat glands.[70]
Cystic fibrosis can be diagnosed by a sweat test, as  the disease causes the sweat glands ducts to reabsorb less chloride, leading to higher concentrations of chloride in the secreted sweat.[71]
Ectodermal dysplasia can present a lack of sweat glands.[72]
Fabry disease, characterized by excess globotriaosylceramide (GL3), causes a decrease in sweat gland function due to GL3 deposits in the eccrine glands.[73]
GM1 gangliosidoses, characterized by abnormal lipid storage, leads to vacuolization in eccrine sweat gland cells.[74]
Hunter syndrome can include metachromin granules and mucin in the cytoplasm of the eccrine sweat gland cells.[75]
Hypothyroidism's low levels of thyroid hormone lead to decreased secretions from sweat glands; the result is dry, coarse skin.[76]
Kearns–Sayre syndrome, a disease of the mitochondria, involves abnormal mitochondria in eccrine sweat glands.[77]
Lafora disease is a rare genetic disorder marked by the presence of abnormal polyglucosan deposits. These "Lafora bodies" appear in the ducts of sweat glands, as well as the myoepithelial cells of apocrine glands.[78]
Lichen striatus, a self-limited eruption of small, slightly scaly papules, includes a lymphoid infiltrate around eccrine sweat glands.[79]
Metachromatic leukodystrophy, a lysosomal storage disease, leads to the accumulation of lipopigments and lysosomal residual bodies in the epithelial cells of sweat glands.[80]
Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis causes abnormal deposits of lipopigment in sweat gland epithelial cells (among other places).[81]
Neutral lipid storage disease includes abnormal lipid deposits in cells, including those of the sweat gland.[82]
Niemann-Pick disease type C, another lipid storage disease, includes abnormal lipid storage in sweat glands.[83]
Schindler disease causes cytoplasmic vacuoles that appear to be empty or contain filamentous material to manifest in eccrine sweat gland cells.[84]
Small fiber peripheral neuropathy can damage the nerves that control the sweat glands. The sweat gland nerve fiber density test can diagnose this condition.[85]


document_title: Magic: The Gathering rules

question_text: how many cards in hand magic the gathering

question_tokens: how many cards in hand magic the gathering

root

text: Magic: The Gathering rules

text: Beginning and ending the game[edit]

text: Each player uses their own deck to play the game. In most formats, a deck must have a minimum of 60 cards [1]; there is no maximum deck size, as long as you can shuffle your deck without assistance[2]. With lands, most people stick to 17-24 depending on deck size. If players have cards that cost large amounts of mana, they usually add more lands to their deck. Some gameplay formats have exceptions or additional limitations to the above rules. In tournaments, players may be allowed the use of a sideboard containing up to 15 cards. Sideboard cards can be swapped for cards in the main deck in between games against the same opponent.

tag: p

text: At the beginning of a game, each player shuffles his or her deck. Players then decide who will start, using any mutually agreeable method (flipping a coin, for example). Each player then draws seven cards from his or her deck, otherwise known as a library[3], in order to form his or her starting hand. In turn order, each player may then decide to mulligan; that player shuffles his or her hand and library together and draws a new hand of one fewer card. A player can do this all the way down to a zero-card hand if he or she wishes, drawing one fewer card each time. In multiplayer games, players can mulligan for free one time, drawing seven cards a second time. Any further mulligans draw one card fewer each time, as normal.

text: A player wins the game by eliminating all opponents. Players typically begin the game with 20 life and lose when any of the following conditions are met:

text:
That player has 0 or fewer life
That player is required to draw a card but has no cards left in his or her library
That player has 10 or more poison counters (although cards that apply poison are not printed frequently)
That player concedes
Specific cards may also dictate (or prevent) other ways of winning or losing the game

tag: ul

text: Zones[edit]

text: At any given time, every card is located in one of the following "zones":

text: Library: The portion of the player's deck that is kept face down and is normally in random order (shuffled). When drawing a card, it is always the top card of the library. This is often erroneously referred to as a player's deck. However, the rules of Magic state that all cards in play (on the battlefield), in a player's hand, in the graveyard, exiled by any means, and even in the sideboard technically make up the player's "deck".

text: Hand: A player's hand of cards that can be played. They are kept hidden from other players. If a player has more than seven cards in hand at the end of his or her turn, any extras must be discarded.

text: Battlefield: The zone where permanents (see Types of cards) are placed and stay until otherwise removed. Unlike other zones, the battlefield is shared by all players.

text: Graveyard: A player's discard pile. When a card on the battlefield is destroyed, a card is discarded from hand, or after a single-use card is used (such as an instant or sorcery card), it is put in its owner's graveyard. These cards are face up, and can be examined by any player at any time.

text: The stack: This is the place for spells and abilities that have been cast or played, but have not yet resolved. While there are any spells or abilities on the stack, no player may play any spells that are not instants or allowed to be played as instants. This zone is also shared by all players. See the stack. Playing a land does not use the stack.

text: Exile: Cards that have been exiled by specific effects are put here. Unless a card says otherwise, cards in this zone are face-up. Comparatively few cards and abilities affect cards in the exile zone.

text: Command: Used mainly in some variant formats of play, cards that have a special status or abilities within the game are kept here. Examples are the "scheme" cards used in Archenemy or "plane" cards used for a Planechase game. Cards in the Command Zone can be affected by virtually nothing that affects cards in the other zones.

text: Paying costs[edit]

text: Tapping and untapping[edit]

text: Some spells or abilities require the player to tap a permanent as part of their cost. To indicate that a card in play has been tapped, it is turned sideways. An ability or spell that requires tapping cannot be used if the permanent is already tapped. Furthermore, a tapped creature cannot be declared as an attacker or blocker.

text: Instead of a cost, tapping can also be the effect of a spell or ability. In such a case, it makes no difference if that permanent was already tapped. A creature that attacks also gets tapped, unless it has vigilance, but a defending creature does not. Unless stated otherwise, tapping does not stop continuous abilities (e.g. enchantments or equipments) or triggered abilities from taking effect, nor does it disallow the use of abilities that do not require tapping.

text: At the beginning of each player's turn, that player untaps all cards he or she controls (unless otherwise stated by a card's effect) and can be tapped again as normal.

text: Mana[edit]

text: When a player uses an ability that produces mana, that mana is put in his or her "mana pool". There are five colors of mana: white, blue, black, red and green. Mana can also be colorless.

text: Mana in the mana pool can be used to pay costs. For example, a player plays a Swamp, then taps that swamp to add 1 black mana to his mana pool. Then, he uses that mana to cast Dark Ritual. Dark Ritual adds 3 black mana to that player's mana pool. He then uses two black mana to cast Night's Whisper, which costs 1 generic and 1 black mana (1B). The player has now used two of the three black mana in his mana pool. The one left over is "floating", meaning it can be used any time during the remainder of the phase. Any floating mana left over when a player proceeds to the next phase is depleted.

text: Mana costs and colors[edit]

text: Most cards other than lands have a mana cost. This is the amount of mana that must be spent to cast that card as a spell. Each mana symbol in the top right corner of the card represents one mana of that color that must be paid. A number in a gray circle next to the mana symbols represents how much additional generic mana must be paid; this additional mana can be of any color or colorless. For example, the cards Underworld Dreams, Hypnotic Specter, Warpath Ghoul and Whispersilk Cloak all cost three mana. However, the first card requires three black mana, while the last can be paid for with three mana of any color or combination of colors. The middle two cards require two and one mana, respectively, that must be black; the remainder can be any color. Note that the first three cards are black, but Whispersilk Cloak is colorless.

text: Some cards may require their owner to pay mana of two or more colors. These cards are multicolored. Some multicolored cards also use hybrid mana, which can be paid with one of two different colors. For example, the card Golgari Guildmage can be cast by spending either two black, two green, or one black and one green mana. Some cards have costs which can be paid with any color of mana, but are cheaper when a color requirement is met. For example, Beseech the Queen costs either three black mana, two black and two other, one black and four other, or six mana of any color. In all cases, a card's color is determined by the mana symbols in its cost, and not by the specific mana used to cast it.

text: Abilities[edit]

text: There are four general categories of abilities:

text: Spell abilities are abilities that are followed as instructions while an instant or sorcery spell is resolving. Any text on an instant or sorcery spell is a spell ability unless it's an activated ability, a triggered ability, or a static ability that fits the criteria described in rule 112.6.

text: Activated abilities have a cost and an effect. They are written as "[Cost]: [Effect.] [Activation instructions (if any).]" A player may activate such an ability whenever he or she has priority. Doing so puts it on the stack, where it remains until it's countered, it resolves, or it otherwise leaves the stack. See rule 602, "Activating Activated Abilities"[4].

text: Triggered abilities have a trigger condition and an effect. They are written as "[Trigger condition], [effect]", and begin with the word "when", "whenever", or "at". Whenever the trigger event occurs, the ability is put on the stack the next time a player would receive priority and stays there until it's countered, it resolves, or it otherwise leaves the stack. See rule 603, "Handling Triggered Abilities"[5].

text: Static abilities are written as statements. They're simply true, and do not use the stack. Static abilities create continuous effects which are active while the permanent with the ability is on the battlefield and has the ability, or while the object with the ability is in the appropriate zone. See rule 604, "Handling Static Abilities"[6].

text: Types of cards[edit]

text: All objects that remain on the battlefield are called permanents. Types of permanents include lands, creatures, enchantments, artifacts, and planeswalkers. In contrast, sorceries and instants go to the graveyard immediately after they are used.

text: Lands[edit]

text: Land cards tap to produce mana that is used to cast spells and activate abilities. They cost no mana to play; however, a player may play no more than one land per turn, and only during the main phase of his or her own turn. There are six types of basic lands (Plains, Island , Swamp, mountain, Forest, and Wastes), one for each color (plus Wastes for colorless). These lands can each be tapped to produce one mana of the appropriate color. Other lands are non-basic and may produce other combinations or amounts of mana, or may have other abilities. Lands are not spells and cannot be countered. Playing a land does not use the stack and therefore occurs immediately, with no way for any player to stop it. Players are allowed to have any number of basic lands in a deck, but nonbasic lands follow the usual restriction of four copies of any one card per deck.

text: Creatures[edit]

text: Creatures represent people or beasts that are summoned to the battlefield to attack opposing creatures or players and defend their controller from the attacks of enemy creatures. They normally cannot attack or use an ability with the "tap symbol" on the first turn they enter the battlefield. This is known as "summoning sickness". A creature with summoning sickness can block opposing creatures. Creatures have two values that represent their strength in combat, printed on the lower right-hand corner of the card. The first number is the creature's power, the amount of damage it deals in combat. The second number is its toughness; if it receives that much damage in a single turn, the creature is not destroyed but is still placed in the graveyard.

text: Creatures usually have at least one creature type, located after the word "creature" in the type line. Creature types are simply markers and have no inherent abilities; for example, having the Bird type does not automatically give a creature the "flying" ability. Some non-creature cards have the "Tribal" type, which allows them to have creature types without being creatures themselves.

text: Enchantments[edit]

text: Enchantments represent persistent magical effects; they are spells that remain on the battlefield and alter some aspect of the game.

text: Some enchantments are attached to other cards on the battlefield (often creatures); these are known as Auras. They describe what they can be attached to in their "Enchant <something>" ability. For example, an Aura with "Enchant green creature" can only be attached to a green creature. If the card an Aura is attached to leaves the battlefield, or stops matching the Enchant ability, the Aura goes to the graveyard.

text: Early in Magic, there was a subset of enchantments known as "World Enchantments" that effected all players equally (for example, forcing them to play with their top card of their library revealed). Such enchantments no longer need to carry the "World" designations. Later, Tribal Enchantments (Enchantments with creature types) were introduced, as were Curses, enchantments that targeted one player specifically.

text: Artifacts[edit]

text: Artifacts represent magical items, animated constructs, pieces of equipment, or other objects and devices. Like enchantments, artifacts remain on the battlefield until something removes them. Many artifacts are also creatures; artifact creatures may attack and block as other creatures, and are affected by things that affect creatures.

text: Some artifacts are Equipment. Equipment cards enter the battlefield just like any other artifact, but may be attached to creatures using their Equip ability. This ability may only be used at the same time a player would be able to play a sorcery (i.e. only during the main phase of the player who controls it). The player who controls the Equipment pays the Equip cost and attaches it to a creature he or she also controls, unattaching it from any creature it was already attached to. In this way, the Equipment may be "unequipped" from a creature by paying the Equip cost and moving it to another creature. However, it may not be "unequipped" by choosing no creature; if for any reason the Equip ability cannot move the Equipment, it remains attached to its current creature. Like Auras, if control of the equipped creature changes, control of the Equipment does not change, nor is it unequipped. Unlike Auras, if an equipped creature is destroyed or otherwise leaves the battlefield, the Equipment stays on the battlefield unattached to anything; its controller can still attach it to a different creature by activating the Equip ability again. You can only equip equipment to creatures you control.

text: Planeswalkers[edit]

text: Planeswalkers are extremely powerful spellcasters that can be called upon for aid. According to Magic lore, the player is a "planeswalker", a wizard of extraordinary power who can travel ("walk") between different realms or universes ("planes"); as such, planeswalker cards are meant to represent scaled-down versions of other players, with their decks represented by the card's abilities, and originally were designed to move through a roster of effects without player control, as though they had a mind of their own.[7] Each planeswalker has a planeswalker type, which is a truncated version of his or her name. Only one version of a planeswalker card may be on the battlefield at one time. If two or more copies of the same planeswalker card are on the battlefield, their owner chooses one and the other is put into the owner's graveyards, though the rule was changed in Magic 2014 allowing two or more planeswalkers with the same type to exist on the battlefield if not controlled by the same player. Starting with Ixalan,all planeswalkers past, present, and future gained the supertype legendary and became subject to the "legend rule". Thus, if a player controls more than one legendary planeswalker with the same name, that player chooses one and puts the other into their owner's graveyard.[8]

text: Planeswalkers' abilities are based on their loyalty, which is tracked with counters. The number printed in the lower right corner indicates how many loyalty counters the planeswalker enters the battlefield with. Planeswalkers' loyalty abilities each have a positive or negative loyalty cost; this is how many counters must be added (if positive) or removed (if negative) to activate that ability. Abilities with negative loyalty costs may only be activated if there are enough loyalty counters to remove. Regardless of the loyalty costs, a single planeswalker may only use one loyalty ability once per turn, and only on its controller's turn during his or her main phase.[9]

text: Note that planeswalkers are neither creatures nor players, so most spells and abilities cannot target them directly. There are, however, two ways to deal damage to a planeswalker. If a player uses any spell or ability that would deal damage to an opponent, the player may instead choose to deal the damage to one of that opponent's planeswalkers. Additionally, if a player attacks an opponent who controls a planeswalker, the player may declare any or all of the attacking creatures to be attacking the planeswalker instead. Those creatures may be blocked normally, but if not blocked deal damage to the planeswalker instead of the player. Whenever damage is dealt to a planeswalker, that many loyalty counters are removed from it. A planeswalker with no loyalty counters, either through use of its abilities or through damage, is put into the player's graveyard.

text: Sorceries and instants[edit]

text: Sorceries and instants both represent one-shot or short-term magical spells. They never enter the battlefield. Instead, they take effect and then are immediately put into their owner's graveyard.

text: Sorceries and instants differ only in when they can be cast. Sorceries may only be cast during the player's own main phase, and only when the stack is empty. Instants, on the other hand, can be cast at any time, including during other players' turns and while another spell or ability is waiting to resolve (see timing and the stack).

text: In sets released prior to 1999, a third type of one-shot spell card existed called Interrupts. Interrupts functioned similar to instants but altered how the stack was resolved. Interrupts received an errata which stated that, from that point forward, interrupts were treated exactly the same as instants.[10]

text: Parts of a turn[edit]

text: Beginning phase[edit]

text: The beginning phase is composed of three parts, or "steps". The first thing a player does is untap all cards he or she controls in the "untap step". Then, any abilities that trigger on the "upkeep step" happen. Starting with the player of the current turn. These often include cards that require mana payments every turn. Then the player draws a card in the "draw step". In two-player games, the player who takes the first turn does not draw a card for that turn.

text: No player receives priority during the untap step, meaning that no cards or abilities can be played at that time. During the upkeep and draw steps, however, players can cast instants and activate abilities as normal.

text: First main phase[edit]

text: The main phase occurs immediately after the draw phase. During the main phase, a player may play any card from his or her hand unless that card specifies otherwise, and as long as he or she has the mana to pay its casting cost. This means creature, planeswalker, sorcery, instant, land, enchantment, and artifact cards are all acceptable to play. This is a player's chance to bring something onto the field.

text: Usually, players will start their main phase by playing a land. Then, as long as they have the mana to pay the casting cost, they will play any number of cards from their hand, reading the card's name so that other players may hear.

text: Once a player is ready to attack, he or she may end their main phase by declaring that the combat phase has started, or by simply attacking with their creatures.

text: Combat phase[edit]

text: The combat phase is split into four steps. It represents a point in the magical duel where the active player sends his or her creatures to attack the opposing player, in the hopes of doing damage to the player or the player's creatures. Aside from instants, activated abilities, and spells that are specifically noted as being able to be played at any time (i.e., creatures with flash), players may not cast spells during combat. Multiple creatures may attack at the same time, but the turn player may only declare their list of attackers once.

text: Beginning of combat[edit]

text: No specific actions take place at the beginning of combat step. This step mainly exists to allow players to cast spells and activate abilities that may alter how combat progresses. As the most common example, only untapped creatures may attack, so the defending player may cast instants or activate abilities that will tap a creature, preventing it from attacking.

text: Declare attackers[edit]

text: The player whose turn it is declares which creatures he or she controls will attack. In most cases, creatures that are tapped, or that entered the battlefield this turn (i.e., creatures with summoning sickness) may not attack. Attacking causes a creature to become tapped. Both players are given a chance to cast instants and activate abilities after attackers have been declared.

text: Declare blockers[edit]

text: After the attacking player declares attackers, the defending player chooses which creatures he or she will block with. A creature must be untapped in order for it to block. Unlike attacking, the act of blocking does not cause the blocking creatures to tap, and creatures with summoning sickness can block. Each creature can only block a single attacker, but the defending player may choose to block an attacking creature with more than one creature. Both players are given a chance to cast instants and activate abilities after blockers have been declared. If the blocker decides to combine defenses, the attacker gets to decide how attack points are distributed between the combined cards.

text: End of combat[edit]

text: Like the beginning of combat, nothing normally happens during this. Then the phase ends.

text: Second main phase[edit]

text: After the combat phase there is another main phase. The second main phase is identical to the first, except you can not put down land unless you did not in your first main phase.

text: Ending phase[edit]

text: The ending phase has two steps: "end step" and "cleanup". During the end step, abilities that trigger "at the beginning of the end step" go on the stack. This is the last chance players have to cast instants or activate abilities this turn.

text: During the cleanup step, the active player discards down to his or her maximum hand size(usually 7 (seven)), then simultaneously, all damage marked on permanents is removed and all "until end of turn" and "this turn" effects end. The game then checks for any state based actions that need to be performed or if any triggered abilities are waiting to be put on to the stack, if there are, all state based actions are performed and then all triggered abilities are put on to the stack and the active player gets priority. once the stack is empty and all players pass priority, a new cleanup step begins. If there are no triggered abilities put onto the stack during the cleanup step, no player receives priority during the cleanup step, so no spells can be cast and no activated abilities can be activated.

text: Timing and the stack[edit]

text: The most versatile aspect of Magic is that after most spells and abilities are cast or activated, but before they actually take effect ("resolve"), all players get a chance to "respond" to them. This means they can cast a different spell or activate another ability that will resolve first, often either invalidating or reinforcing the effect of the first spell. The mechanism that accomplishes this is called "the stack". It is where spells and abilities go to wait for any responses that may get played.

text: Spells that are permanents that end up on the battlefield; sorcery spells; and abilities that say "activate this ability only any time you could cast a sorcery" cannot be cast or activated as responses. They can only be cast or activated when the stack is empty, only on the turn of whoever casts or activates them, and only in a main phase. In contrast, activated abilities, instant spells, and spells that have the ability flash can be played on anybody's turn and in most steps of the game, go on the stack "on top of" anything that is already there, and will resolve first. Many players refer to this difference as "speed", but that is a misleading term, because neither is "faster" than the other; the only difference is when they can be played.

text: Playing lands, most abilities that produce mana, and certain other special actions do not use the stack; they bypass the rules below and take effect immediately.

text: The stack[edit]

text: When a player casts a spell or activates an ability, it does not immediately take effect. Instead, it is placed on the stack. That player then receives priority again, which gives him or her a chance to respond to it with spells or abilities. Each new spell or ability is put on top of the stack in turn, with the newest on top and the oldest at the bottom. A player with priority can add as many spells or abilities to the stack as he or she can pay for, but is not required to; if a player declines to respond to the latest spell or ability, he or she "passes priority" to the next player in turn order.

text: When all players have passed priority in succession, the top-most spell or ability on the stack resolves. If it was a sorcery, instant, or ability, the player carries out the instructions; if it would create a permanent, it enters the battlefield. Every time a spell or ability finishes resolving, players (starting with the player whose turn it is) can once again add more to the stack; if they don't, the new top-most spell or ability will resolve.

text: When the stack is empty, the player whose turn it is gets priority first. If all players pass priority while the stack is empty, the game proceeds to the next step or phase of the turn.

text: Example[edit]

text: Tom is attacking Norman with a Hill Giant, a 3/3 creature (meaning it has 3 power and 3 toughness). Norman chooses to block with his Grizzly Bears, a weaker 2/2 creature. If nothing else happened, the Hill Giant would deal 3 damage to the Grizzly Bears and kill them, while the Bears would deal 2 damage to the Giant, making Hill Giant "the winner".

text: However, Norman decides to cast his Giant Growth spell to give +3/+3 to his Grizzly Bears before combat damage is dealt. He taps a Forest to pay for the spell, and puts Giant Growth on the stack. Tom, who does not want to give the Grizzly Bears a chance to grow to 5/5 and kill his Hill Giant, responds by casting Shock targeting the Grizzly Bears. He taps one Mountain to pay for the spell, and puts Shock on the stack on top of Giant Growth. If Norman had no other spells, then Tom's Shock would resolve first and deal 2 damage to the Grizzly Bears, killing them. His Giant Growth would then go to the graveyard with no effect because the Bears would no longer be on the battlefield and would thus be an illegal target. Fortunately for Norman, he has another spell to cast. He taps a Plains and casts Mending Hands targeting his Grizzly Bears. Now Mending Hands is on top of the stack, with Shock and then Giant Growth beneath it.

text: Since both players are out of spells to cast, the top spell on the stack resolves. Mending Hands creates a "damage prevention shield" that will prevent up to 4 points of damage to Norman's Bears, and is put into Norman's graveyard after it resolves. Neither player chooses to cast anything else at this point, so Tom's Shock resolves. It attempts to deal 2 damage to Grizzly Bears, but Norman's Mending Hands prevents the damage, and Shock is put into Tom's graveyard. Finally, Norman's Giant Growth resolves and makes Grizzly Bears a 5/5 creature until end of turn. Giant Growth then goes to Norman's graveyard.

text: Once combat damage is dealt, the now 5/5 Grizzly Bears deal 5 damage to the Hill Giant and easily kills it. Hill Giant attempts to deal 3 damage to the Grizzly Bears, but the remainder of Norman's damage prevention shield prevents a further 2 damage (totaling 4 damage) and Grizzly Bears only takes 1 damage.

text: When Tom's turn ends, the single point of damage is removed from the Grizzly Bears, and the Giant Growth effect wears off at the same time. As Norman's turn begins, his Grizzly Bears are undamaged and 2/2.

text: Countering[edit]

text: Certain spells (and abilities) allow a player to counter other spells (or abilities). These spells must be cast while the spells they will affect are still on the stack. If a spell is countered, it is moved from the stack to its owner's graveyard when counterspell resolves. It does not resolve, and has no effect unless the card states otherwise. If the spell would create a permanent, it never enters the battlefield. Some spells state that they cannot be countered.

text: There is one other way for a spell to be "countered". If the spell targets something (such as Giant Growth or Shock), then the target must be legal both when the spell is cast and when it resolves. A spell can't be cast without a legal target; if the target becomes illegal while the spell is on the stack, then the spell is countered by the game rules (for having an illegal target) just before it would start to resolve. If a spell is countered this way, then no part of the spell — even a non-targeting part of the spell's effect — takes place. This is referred to as 'Countered Upon Resolution' (formerly "Fizzling").

text: Countered upon resolution[edit]

text: When certain spells and abilities allow a player to target other spells, abilities, or permanents, if the spell or ability is responded to in a way that makes the targeted spell, ability, or permanent illegal, the targeting spell will be countered upon resolution (this used to be referred to as "fizzling") and no effects of the countered spell will resolve.

text: If a spell has multiple targets, then all of them must be legal for it to be cast, and all must be made illegal for the spell to be countered. For example, the card Reckless Spite destroys two target nonblack creatures, but its controller will lose 5 life. If there is only one legal target for Reckless Spite, then it cannot be cast. If it is initially cast on two legal targets, but one legal target becomes an illegal target before Reckless Spite resolves (for example, if an instant is cast that grants shroud to that creature) the other will still be destroyed and Reckless Spite's caster will lose 5 life. If it is initially cast on two legal targets, and both targets are both made illegal targets before Reckless Spite resolves, then the entire spell is countered.

text: Keyword abilities[edit]

text: Some cards have abilities that are not fully explained on the card. These are known as "keyword" abilities, and consist of a word or phrase whose meaning is defined by the rules. Keyword abilities are usually given reminder text in the set in which they are introduced. There are over forty such abilities. In most cases, multiple instances of the same keyword on an object have no additional effect.

text: The Various different keywords can be classified into two different types: Evergreen or Mechanics[11]. Some common evergreen keywords are Flying(Creature can only be blocked by creatures with flying or reach), Indestructible(Creature cannot be destroyed or damaged), Trample(Excess damage dealt beyond killing blocking creature can be dealt to defending player), or Life-link(Attacking player Gains lift equal to damage dealt). The mechanics however are not as common due to them rotating out in various formats. In spite of this some of them have gained popularity. These being: Flashback(Pay cost and recast a spell that is already in your graveyard), Cycling(Pay cost and discard the card to draw a card), Storm(The spell is repeated for the number of spells cast in that turn), Madness(If the spell is discarded pay the cost and cast it).


document_title: I Can Only Imagine (film)

question_text: who played michael smith in i can only imagine

text: I Can Only Imagine (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Coming from a home with an abusive father, 10-year-old Bart Millard is dropped off at a Christian camp by his mother, where he meets Shannon. Upon his return from camp, Bart finds his mother has left and movers are removing her belongings, leading to a physical confrontation with his father Arthur, who takes custody of him.

text: Years later, Millard is in Lakeside high school and dating Shannon. Hoping to impress his father, he begins playing football. However, he is injured, breaking both ankles and ending his career. In order to make up the credits he would miss from football, he signs up for music class, the only available class left. Initially, Millard is assigned to be a sound technician. After the director catches him singing in the empty auditorium of Lakeside high school, she casts him as Curly, the lead role in the school production of Oklahoma. He doesn't tell his father of his role in the play, and while Bart has risen to the singing demands of the part, Arthur subsequently collapses with severe abdominal pain, but refuses to tell Bart or Shannon about his cancer diagnosis. The following morning, Millard voices his frustrations with his father and is assaulted by his father, who smashes a plate over his head. Shannon presses Bart to open up, but he responds by breaking up with her and leaving to seek his fortune in the city after graduation.

text: Millard then connects with the band who would become MercyMe, and eventually attracts the attention of Christian music producer Scott Brickell (Trace Adkins), who coaches Millard and gets them a showcase in Nashville, leading to meetings with Amy Grant (Nicole DuPort) and Michael W. Smith (Jake B. Miller). Millard has been unable to reconcile with Shannon, who rejects his invitation to tour with the band to their upcoming Nashville showcase. While the band felt their performance was the best of their career, industry representatives reject the band as not being good enough to sell records. In despair, Millard quits the band. After talking with Brickell, who encourages him to resolve his issues with his father, Millard rejoins the band but asks they wait for him to confront his father and settle the conflict before they play again.

text: Millard returns home and is greeted enthusiastically by his father, who prepares breakfast for him the next morning. His father claims to have become a Christian, but Bart is initially skeptical and rejects his father's offer to start over. In anger, Arthur takes a baseball bat and hits his old Jeep, which he had hoped to repair with his son. As Bart prepares to leave, he finds out his father has terminal cancer. Bart and his father reconcile and form a deep bond before Arthur dies of his illness.

text: After his father's funeral, Millard rejoins the band and writes "I Can Only Imagine". Brickell sends the demo tape to several artists, including Grant, who, deeply moved by the song, asks to record it herself as her next single. The band accepts Grant's offer. Millard is seated in the audience when Grant intends to unveil the song live in concert. However, Grant decides that Millard should be the one to sing the song, and offers it back to him, calling him to the microphone to sing it before the large audience. Millard's unexpected performance is wildly applauded and he reunites with Shannon, who had also been in attendance at the concert. The band releases the song as their first single, achieving success on Christian and mainstream radio.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
J. Michael Finley as Bart Millard

Brody Rose as Young Bart

Dennis Quaid as Arthur Millard, Bart's father
Cloris Leachman as Meemaw, Bart's grandmother
Madeline Carroll as Shannon, Bart's girlfriend

Taegen Burns as Young Shannon

Trace Adkins as Scott Brickell, MercyMe's manager
Priscilla Shirer as Mrs. Fincher, Bart's teacher
Nicole DuPort as Amy Grant
Jake B. Miller as Michael W. Smith
Mark Furze as Nathan

text: Production[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2018)

tag: table

text: The film was announced in December 2016.[4] Dennis Quaid joined the cast in January 2017.[5] Broadway actor J. Michael Finley makes his film debut as Bart Millard.[1] The same month, it was announced that the film was slated for release in the spring of 2018.[5] In August 2017, Lionsgate and Roadside Attractions signed on as distributors for the film for a nationwide release in the United States.[1][6]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: As of May 13, 2018[update], I Can Only Imagine has grossed $82.4 million in the United States, and Canada and $1.1 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $83.5 million, against a production budget of $7 million.[2] It is the third-highest grossing music biopic of all-time in the United States, behind Straight Outta Compton and Walk the Line.[7]

text: The film was released on March 16, 2018, alongside Tomb Raider and Love, Simon, and was originally projected to gross $2–4 million from 1,620 theaters in its opening weekend.[8] However, after making $6.2 million on its first day (including $1.3 million from Thursday night previews), weekend estimates were increased to $14 million.[9] It ended up grossing $17.1 million, exceeding expectations and finishing third at the box office behind Black Panther and Tomb Raider. 67% of the opening weekend audience was female while 80% was over the age of 35.[10] It was the fourth best-ever opening for a faith-based film, following The Passion of the Christ ($83.8 million), Son of God ($25.6 million) and Heaven Is for Real ($22.5 million).[11] In its second weekend the film was added to 624 additional theaters and dropped just 19% to $13.8 million, again finishing third.[12] It was added to another 395 venues and finished fourth in its third weekend, making $10.4 million (including $3 million on Easter Sunday).[13] The film will be released on DVD, Blu-ray and available at iTunes Store and Google Play Store, June 5, 2018.

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 70% based on 23 reviews, and an average rating of 6/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "I Can Only Imagine's message will have the most impact among Christian audiences, but overall, its performances and storytelling represent a notable evolution in faith-based cinema."[14] On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 29 out of 100, based on 7 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".[15] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A+" on an A+ to F scale, one of fewer than 80 films in the history of the service to earn such a score.[9]

text: The Arizona Republic's James Ward gave the film 4/5 stars and wrote, "Too often faith-based films — say anything with Kirk Cameron or the terrible God's Not Dead series — tend to preach to the choir or hector their audience. The Erwins’ films — I Can Only Imagine definitely among them — are more inclusive, charitable of spirit and hopeful, all qualities that are always appreciated, be they rooted in Christian faith or otherwise."[16] David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film a "C–" saying: "There’s a reason why all of these movies are so amateurishly made; why they all end with links to religious websites; why they all look like they were shot on an iPhone by a Walmart-brand Janusz Kaminski who lit each interior like the white light of heaven was streaming through every window...Art can be affirmation, but affirmation cannot be art."[17]


document_title: Karyotype

question_text: a karyotype with an extra set of chromosomes indicates

text: Karyotype

text: History of karyotype studies[edit]

text: Chromosomes were first observed in plant cells by Carl Wilhelm von Nägeli in 1842. Their behavior in animal (salamander) cells was described by Walther Flemming, the discoverer of mitosis, in 1882. The name was coined by another German anatomist, Heinrich von Waldeyer in 1888. It is New Latin from Ancient Greek κάρυον karyon, "kernel", "seed", or "nucleus", and τύπος typos, "general form").

text: The next stage took place after the development of genetics in the early 20th century, when it was appreciated that chromosomes (that can be observed by karyotype) were the carrier of genes. Lev Delaunay (ru) seems to have been the first person to define the karyotype as the phenotypic appearance of the somatic chromosomes, in contrast to their genic contents (1922).[6][7] The subsequent history of the concept can be followed in the works of C. D. Darlington[8] and Michael JD White.[2][9]

text: Investigation into the human karyotype took many years to settle the most basic question: how many chromosomes does a normal diploid human cell contain?[10] In 1912, Hans von Winiwarter reported 47 chromosomes in spermatogonia and 48 in oogonia, concluding an XX/XO sex determination mechanism.[11] Painter in 1922 was not certain whether the diploid of humans was 46 or 48, at first favoring 46,[12] but revised his opinion from 46 to 48, and he correctly insisted on humans having an XX/XY system.[13] Considering the techniques of the time, these results were remarkable.

text: In textbooks, the number of human chromosomes remained at 48 for over thirty years. New techniques were needed to correct this error. Joe Hin Tjio working in Albert Levan's lab[14] was responsible for finding the approach:

text:
Using cells in tissue culture
Pretreating cells in a hypotonic solution, which swells them and spreads the chromosomes
Arresting mitosis in metaphase by a solution of colchicine
Squashing the preparation on the slide forcing the chromosomes into a single plane
Cutting up a photomicrograph and arranging the result into an indisputable karyogram.

tag: ol

text: The work took place in 1955, and was published in 1956. The karyotype of humans includes only 46 chromosomes.[15][16] Rather interestingly, the great apes have 48 chromosomes. Human chromosome 2 is now known to be a result of an end-to-end fusion of two ancestral ape chromosomes.[17][18]

text: Observations on karyotypes[edit]

text: Staining[edit]

text: The study of karyotypes is made possible by staining. Usually, a suitable dye, such as Giemsa,[19] is applied after cells have been arrested during cell division by a solution of colchicine usually in metaphase or prometaphase when most condensed. In order for the Giemsa stain to adhere correctly, all chromosomal proteins must be digested and removed. For humans, white blood cells are used most frequently because they are easily induced to divide and grow in tissue culture.[20] Sometimes observations may be made on non-dividing (interphase) cells. The sex of an unborn fetus can be determined by observation of interphase cells (see amniotic centesis and Barr body).

text: Observations[edit]

text: Six different characteristics of karyotypes are usually observed and compared:[21]

text:
Differences in absolute sizes of chromosomes. Chromosomes can vary in absolute size by as much as twenty-fold between genera of the same family. For example, the legumes Lotus tenuis and Vicia faba each have six pairs of chromosomes, yet V. faba chromosomes are many times larger. These differences probably reflect different amounts of DNA duplication.
Differences in the position of centromeres. These differences probably came about through translocations.
Differences in relative size of chromosomes. These differences probably arose from segmental interchange of unequal lengths.
Differences in basic number of chromosomes. These differences could have resulted from successive unequal translocations which removed all the essential genetic material from a chromosome, permitting its loss without penalty to the organism (the dislocation hypothesis) or through fusion. Humans have one pair fewer chromosomes than the great apes. Human chromosome 2 appears to have resulted from the fusion of two ancestral chromosomes, and many of the genes of those two original chromosomes have been translocated to other chromosomes.
Differences in number and position of satellites. Satellites are small bodies attached to a chromosome by a thin thread.
Differences in degree and distribution of heterochromatic regions. Heterochromatin stains darker than euchromatin. Heterochromatin is packed tighter. Heterochromatin consists mainly of genetically inactive and repetitive DNA sequences as well as containing a larger amount of Adenine-Thymine pairs. Euchromatin is usually under active transcription and stains much lighter as it has less affinity for the giemsa stain.[22] Euchromatin regions contain larger amounts of Guanine-Cytosine pairs. The staining technique using giemsa staining is called G banding and therefore produces the typical "G-Bands".[22]

text: A full account of a karyotype may therefore include the number, type, shape and banding of the chromosomes, as well as other cytogenetic information.

text: Variation is often found:

text:
between the sexes,
between the germ-line and soma (between gametes and the rest of the body),
between members of a population (chromosome polymorphism),
in geographic specialization, and
in mosaics or otherwise abnormal individuals.[9]

text: Human karyotype[edit]

text: The normal human karyotypes contain 22 pairs of autosomal chromosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes (allosomes). Normal karyotypes for females contain two X chromosomes and are denoted 46,XX; males have both an X and a Y chromosome denoted 46,XY. Any variation from the standard karyotype may lead to developmental abnormalities.

text: Diversity and evolution of karyotypes[edit]

text: Although the replication and transcription of DNA is highly standardized in eukaryotes, the same cannot be said for their karyotypes, which are highly variable. There is variation between species in chromosome number, and in detailed organization, despite their construction from the same macromolecules. This variation provides the basis for a range of studies in evolutionary cytology.

text: In some cases there is even significant variation within species. In a review, Godfrey and Masters conclude:

text: In our view, it is unlikely that one process or the other can independently account for the wide range of karyotype structures that are observed ... But, used in conjunction with other phylogenetic data, karyotypic fissioning may help to explain dramatic differences in diploid numbers between closely related species, which were previously inexplicable.[23]

text: Although much is known about karyotypes at the descriptive level, and it is clear that changes in karyotype organization has had effects on the evolutionary course of many species, it is quite unclear what the general significance might be.

text: We have a very poor understanding of the causes of karyotype evolution, despite many careful investigations ... the general significance of karyotype evolution is obscure.

text: Changes during development[edit]

text: Instead of the usual gene repression, some organisms go in for large-scale elimination of heterochromatin, or other kinds of visible adjustment to the karyotype.

text:
Chromosome elimination. In some species, as in many sciarid flies, entire chromosomes are eliminated during development.[25]
Chromatin diminution (founding father: Theodor Boveri). In this process, found in some copepods and roundworms such as Ascaris suum, portions of the chromosomes are cast away in particular cells. This process is a carefully organised genome rearrangement where new telomeres are constructed and certain heterochromatin regions are lost.[26][27] In A. suum, all the somatic cell precursors undergo chromatin diminution.[28]
X-inactivation. The inactivation of one X chromosome takes place during the early development of mammals (see Barr body and dosage compensation). In placental mammals, the inactivation is random as between the two Xs; thus the mammalian female is a mosaic in respect of her X chromosomes. In marsupials it is always the paternal X which is inactivated. In human females some 15% of somatic cells escape inactivation,[29] and the number of genes affected on the inactivated X chromosome varies between cells: in fibroblast cells up about 25% of genes on the Barr body escape inactivation.[30]

text: Number of chromosomes in a set[edit]

text: A spectacular example of variability between closely related species is the muntjac, which was investigated by Kurt Benirschke and his colleague Doris Wurster. The diploid number of the Chinese muntjac, Muntiacus reevesi, was found to be 46, all telocentric. When they looked at the karyotype of the closely related Indian muntjac, Muntiacus muntjak, they were astonished to find it had female = 6, male = 7 chromosomes.[31]

text: They simply could not believe what they saw ... They kept quiet for two or three years because they thought something was wrong with their tissue culture ... But when they obtained a couple more specimens they confirmed [their findings].

text: The number of chromosomes in the karyotype between (relatively) unrelated species is hugely variable. The low record is held by the nematode Parascaris univalens, where the haploid n = 1; and an ant: Myrmecia pilosula.[32] The high record would be somewhere amongst the ferns, with the adder's tongue fern Ophioglossum ahead with an average of 1262 chromosomes.[33] Top score for animals might be the shortnose sturgeon Acipenser brevirostrum at 372 chromosomes.[34] The existence of supernumerary or B chromosomes means that chromosome number can vary even within one interbreeding population; and aneuploids are another example, though in this case they would not be regarded as normal members of the population.

text: Fundamental number[edit]

text: The fundamental number, FN, of a karyotype is the number of visible major chromosomal arms per set of chromosomes.[35][36] Thus, FN ≤ 2 x 2n, the difference depending on the number of chromosomes considered single-armed (acrocentric or telocentric) present. Humans have FN = 82,[37] due to the presence of five acrocentric chromosome pairs: 13, 14, 15, 21, and 22 (the human Y chromosome is also acrocentric). The fundamental autosomal number or autosomal fundamental number, FNa[38] or AN,[39] of a karyotype is the number of visible major chromosomal arms per set of autosomes (non-sex-linked chromosomes).

text: Ploidy[edit]

text: Ploidy is the number of complete sets of chromosomes in a cell.

text:
Polyploidy, where there are more than two sets of homologous chromosomes in the cells, occurs mainly in plants. It has been of major significance in plant evolution according to Stebbins.[40][41][42][43] The proportion of flowering plants which are polyploid was estimated by Stebbins to be 30–35%, but in grasses the average is much higher, about 70%.[44] Polyploidy in lower plants (ferns, horsetails and psilotales) is also common, and some species of ferns have reached levels of polyploidy far in excess of the highest levels known in flowering plants.
Polyploidy in animals is much less common, but it has been significant in some groups.[45]
Polyploid series in related species which consist entirely of multiples of a single basic number are known as euploid.

Haplo-diploidy, where one sex is diploid, and the other haploid. It is a common arrangement in the Hymenoptera, and in some other groups.
Endopolyploidy occurs when in adult differentiated tissues the cells have ceased to divide by mitosis, but the nuclei contain more than the original somatic number of chromosomes.[46] In the endocycle (endomitosis or endoreduplication) chromosomes in a 'resting' nucleus undergo reduplication, the daughter chromosomes separating from each other inside an intact nuclear membrane.[47]
In many instances, endopolyploid nuclei contain tens of thousands of chromosomes (which cannot be exactly counted). The cells do not always contain exact multiples (powers of two), which is why the simple definition 'an increase in the number of chromosome sets caused by replication without cell division' is not quite accurate.
This process (especially studied in insects and some higher plants such as maize) may be a developmental strategy for increasing the productivity of tissues which are highly active in biosynthesis.[48]
The phenomenon occurs sporadically throughout the eukaryote kingdom from protozoa to humans; it is diverse and complex, and serves differentiation and morphogenesis in many ways.[49]
See palaeopolyploidy for the investigation of ancient karyotype duplications.

text: Aneuploidy[edit]

text: Aneuploidy is the condition in which the chromosome number in the cells is not the typical number for the species. This would give rise to a chromosome abnormality such as an extra chromosome or one or more chromosomes lost. Abnormalities in chromosome number usually cause a defect in development. Down syndrome and Turner syndrome are examples of this.

text: Aneuploidy may also occur within a group of closely related species. Classic examples in plants are the genus Crepis, where the gametic (= haploid) numbers form the series x = 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7; and Crocus, where every number from x = 3 to x = 15 is represented by at least one species. Evidence of various kinds shows that trends of evolution have gone in different directions in different groups.[50] Closer to home, the great apes have 24x2 chromosomes whereas humans have 23x2. Human chromosome 2 was formed by a merger of ancestral chromosomes, reducing the number.[51]

text: Chromosomal polymorphism[edit]

text: Some species are polymorphic for different chromosome structural forms.[52] The structural variation may be associated with different numbers of chromosomes in different individuals, which occurs in the ladybird beetle Chilocorus stigma, some mantids of the genus Ameles,[citation needed] the European shrew Sorex araneus.[53] There is some evidence from the case of the mollusc Thais lapillus (the dog whelk) on the Brittany coast, that the two chromosome morphs are adapted to different habitats.[54]

text: Species trees[edit]

text: The detailed study of chromosome banding in insects with polytene chromosomes can reveal relationships between closely related species: the classic example is the study of chromosome banding in Hawaiian drosophilids by Hampton L. Carson.

text: In about 6,500 sq mi (17,000 km2), the Hawaiian Islands have the most diverse collection of drosophilid flies in the world, living from rainforests to subalpine meadows. These roughly 800 Hawaiian drosophilid species are usually assigned to two genera, Drosophila and Scaptomyza, in the family Drosophilidae.

text: The polytene banding of the 'picture wing' group, the best-studied group of Hawaiian drosophilids, enabled Carson to work out the evolutionary tree long before genome analysis was practicable. In a sense, gene arrangements are visible in the banding patterns of each chromosome. Chromosome rearrangements, especially inversions, make it possible to see which species are closely related.

text: The results are clear. The inversions, when plotted in tree form (and independent of all other information), show a clear "flow" of species from older to newer islands. There are also cases of colonization back to older islands, and skipping of islands, but these are much less frequent. Using K-Ar dating, the present islands date from 0.4 million years ago (mya) (Mauna Kea) to 10mya (Necker). The oldest member of the Hawaiian archipelago still above the sea is Kure Atoll, which can be dated to 30 mya. The archipelago itself (produced by the Pacific plate moving over a hot spot) has existed for far longer, at least into the Cretaceous. Previous islands now beneath the sea (guyots) form the Emperor Seamount Chain.[55]

text: All of the native Drosophila and Scaptomyza species in Hawaiʻi have apparently descended from a single ancestral species that colonized the islands, probably 20 million years ago. The subsequent adaptive radiation was spurred by a lack of competition and a wide variety of niches. Although it would be possible for a single gravid female to colonise an island, it is more likely to have been a group from the same species.[56][57][58][59]

text: There are other animals and plants on the Hawaiian archipelago which have undergone similar, if less spectacular, adaptive radiations.[60][61]

text: Chromosome banding[edit]

text: Chromosomes display a banded pattern when treated with some stains. Bands are alternating light and dark stripes that appear along the lengths of chromosomes. Unique banding patterns are used to identify chromosomes and to diagnose chromosomal aberrations, including chromosome breakage, loss, duplication, translocation or inverted segments. A range of different chromosome treatments produce a range of banding patterns: G-bands, R-bands, C-bands, Q-bands, T-bands and NOR-bands.

text: Depiction of karyotypes[edit]

text: Types of banding[edit]

text: Cytogenetics employs several techniques to visualize different aspects of chromosomes:[20]

text:
G-banding is obtained with Giemsa stain following digestion of chromosomes with trypsin. It yields a series of lightly and darkly stained bands — the dark regions tend to be heterochromatic, late-replicating and AT rich. The light regions tend to be euchromatic, early-replicating and GC rich. This method will normally produce 300–400 bands in a normal, human genome.
R-banding is the reverse of G-banding (the R stands for "reverse"). The dark regions are euchromatic (guanine-cytosine rich regions) and the bright regions are heterochromatic (thymine-adenine rich regions).
C-banding: Giemsa binds to constitutive heterochromatin, so it stains centromeres.The name is derived from centromeric or constitutive heterochromatin. The preparations undergo alkaline denaturation prior to staining leading to an almost complete depurination of the DNA. After washing the probe the remaining DNA is renatured again and stained with Giemsa solution consisting of methylene azure, methylene violet, methylene blue, and eosin. Heterochromatin binds a lot of the dye, while the rest of the chromosomes absorb only little of it. The C-bonding proved to be especially well-suited for the characterization of plant chromosomes.
Q-banding is a fluorescent pattern obtained using quinacrine for staining. The pattern of bands is very similar to that seen in G-banding.They can be recognized by a yellow fluorescence of differing intensity. Most part of the stained DNA is heterochromatin. Quinacrin (atebrin) binds both regions rich in AT and in GC, but only the AT-quinacrin-complex fluoresces. Since regions rich in AT are more common in heterochromatin than in euchromatin, these regions are labelled preferentially. The different intensities of the single bands mirror the different contents of AT. Other fluorochromes like DAPI or Hoechst 33258 lead also to characteristic, reproducible patterns. Each of them produces its specific pattern. In other words: the properties of the bonds and the specificity of the fluorochromes are not exclusively based on their affinity to regions rich in AT. Rather, the distribution of AT and the association of AT with other molecules like histones, for example, influences the binding properties of the fluorochromes.
T-banding: visualize telomeres.
Silver staining: Silver nitrate stains the nucleolar organization region-associated protein. This yields a dark region where the silver is deposited, denoting the activity of rRNA genes within the NOR.

text: Classic karyotype cytogenetics[edit]

text: In the "classic" (depicted) karyotype, a dye, often Giemsa (G-banding), less frequently mepacrine (quinacrine), is used to stain bands on the chromosomes. Giemsa is specific for the phosphate groups of DNA. Quinacrine binds to the adenine-thymine-rich regions. Each chromosome has a characteristic banding pattern that helps to identify them; both chromosomes in a pair will have the same banding pattern.

text: Karyotypes are arranged with the short arm of the chromosome on top, and the long arm on the bottom. Some karyotypes call the short and long arms p and q, respectively. In addition, the differently stained regions and sub-regions are given numerical designations from proximal to distal on the chromosome arms. For example, Cri du chat syndrome involves a deletion on the short arm of chromosome 5. It is written as 46,XX,5p-. The critical region for this syndrome is deletion of p15.2 (the locus on the chromosome), which is written as 46,XX,del(5)(p15.2).[62]

text: Multicolor FISH (mFISH) and spectral karyotype (SKY technique)[edit]

text: Multicolor FISH and the older spectral karyotyping are molecular cytogenetic techniques used to simultaneously visualize all the pairs of chromosomes in an organism in different colors. Fluorescently labeled probes for each chromosome are made by labeling chromosome-specific DNA with different fluorophores. Because there are a limited number of spectrally distinct fluorophores, a combinatorial labeling method is used to generate many different colors. Fluorophore combinations are captured and analyzed by a fluorescence microscope using up to 7 narrow-banded fluorescence filters or, in the case of spectral karyotyping, by using an interferometer attached to a fluorescence microscope. In the case of an mFISH image, every combination of fluorochromes from the resulting original images is replaced by a pseudo color in a dedicated image analysis software. Thus, chromosomes or chromosome sections can be visualized and identified, allowing for the analysis of chromosomal rearrangements.[63] In the case of spectral karyotyping, image processing software assigns a pseudo color to each spectrally different combination, allowing the visualization of the individually colored chromosomes.[64]

text: Multicolor FISH is used to identify structural chromosome aberrations in cancer cells and other disease conditions when Giemsa banding or other techniques are not accurate enough.

text: Digital karyotyping[edit]

text: Digital karyotyping is a technique used to quantify the DNA copy number on a genomic scale. Short sequences of DNA from specific loci all over the genome are isolated and enumerated.[65] This method is also known as virtual karyotyping.

text: Chromosome abnormalities[edit]

text: Chromosome abnormalities can be numerical, as in the presence of extra or missing chromosomes, or structural, as in derivative chromosome, translocations, inversions, large-scale deletions or duplications. Numerical abnormalities, also known as aneuploidy, often occur as a result of nondisjunction during meiosis in the formation of a gamete; trisomies, in which three copies of a chromosome are present instead of the usual two, are common numerical abnormalities. Structural abnormalities often arise from errors in homologous recombination. Both types of abnormalities can occur in gametes and therefore will be present in all cells of an affected person's body, or they can occur during mitosis and give rise to a genetic mosaic individual who has some normal and some abnormal cells.

text: Chromosomal abnormalities that lead to disease in humans include

text:
Turner syndrome results from a single X chromosome (45,X or 45,X0).
Klinefelter syndrome, the most common male chromosomal disease, otherwise known as 47,XXY, is caused by an extra X chromosome.
Edwards syndrome is caused by trisomy (three copies) of chromosome 18.
Down syndrome, a common chromosomal disease, is caused by trisomy of chromosome 21.
Patau syndrome is caused by trisomy of chromosome 13.
Trisomy 9, believed to be the 4th most common trisomy, has many long lived affected individuals but only in a form other than a full trisomy, such as trisomy 9p syndrome or mosaic trisomy 9. They often function quite well, but tend to have trouble with speech.
Also documented are trisomy 8 and trisomy 16, although they generally do not survive to birth.

text: Some disorders arise from loss of just a piece of one chromosome, including

text:
Cri du chat (cry of the cat), from a truncated short arm on chromosome 5. The name comes from the babies' distinctive cry, caused by abnormal formation of the larynx.
1p36 Deletion syndrome, from the loss of part of the short arm of chromosome 1.
Angelman syndrome – 50% of cases have a segment of the long arm of chromosome 15 missing; a deletion of the maternal genes, example of imprinting disorder.
Prader-Willi syndrome – 50% of cases have a segment of the long arm of chromosome 15 missing; a deletion of the paternal genes, example of imprinting disorder.

text: Chromosomal abnormalities can also occur in cancerous cells of an otherwise genetically normal individual; one well-documented example is the Philadelphia chromosome, a translocation mutation commonly associated with chronic myelogenous leukemia and less often with acute lymphoblastic leukemia.


document_title: Back-pass rule

question_text: where is the goalie allowed to pick up the ball

text: Back-pass rule

text: Award[edit]

text: Goalkeepers are normally allowed to handle the ball within their own penalty area, and once they have control of the ball in their hands opposition players may not challenge them for it. However the back-pass rule prohibits goalkeepers from handling the ball after it has been deliberately kicked to them by a team-mate, or after receiving it directly from a throw-in taken by a team-mate.[1] Back-passes with parts of the body other than the foot, such as headers, are not prohibited. Despite the popular name "back-pass rule", there is no requirement in the laws that the kick or throw-in must be backwards; handling by the goalkeeper is forbidden regardless of the direction the ball travels.

text: The penalty for the offence is an indirect free kick. This is awarded from the position where the handling occurred, unless it is within the 6-yard goal area, in which the kick is taken from the point on the 6-yard line closest to the point of the offence.

text: Tricks to circumvent the rule[edit]

text: Goalkeepers are allowed to handle the ball if the ball is played back to them by an action other than a kick or throw-in (such as a header), but defenders are not permitted to attempt to use a deliberate trick to pass the ball to the goalkeeper with a part of the body other than the foot to circumvent the rule. This would include flicking the ball up with the foot and then heading the ball back to the goalkeeper, or heading a ball on the ground that would otherwise be regularly playable with the foot.

text: If a player uses such a trick, they are cautioned for unsporting behaviour, and the opponents are awarded an indirect free kick from where the trick was performed. It is irrelevant as to whether the goalkeeper subsequently handles the ball or not.[2]

text: Interpretation[edit]

text: The United States Soccer Federation (USSF) has provided the following guidance on how this offence should be judged by referees:

text: The offense rests on three events occurring in the following sequence:

text:
The ball is kicked (played with the foot, not the knee, thigh, or shin) by a teammate of the goalkeeper,
This action is deemed to be deliberate, rather than a deflection or miskick, and
The goalkeeper handles the ball directly (no intervening touch of play of the ball by anyone else)

text: When, in the opinion of the referee, these three conditions are met, the violation has occurred. It is not necessary for the ball to be “passed,” it is not necessary for the ball to go “back,” and it is not necessary for the deliberate play by the teammate to be “to” the goalkeeper.

text: History[edit]

text: The back-pass rule was introduced in 1992[4] to discourage time-wasting and overly defensive play after the 1990 World Cup was described as exceedingly dull, rife with back-passing and goalkeepers holding up the ball.[5] The first games played with the new rule were at the 1992 Summer Olympics.[6] Early matches with the new rule resulted in some confusion in defences, indeed in the very first game Italy fell foul of the new rule and USA were able to score after being awarded an indirect free kick 15 yards from goal.[7]

text: In 1997, the back-pass rule was extended to prevent goalkeepers handling the ball when received directly from a team-mate's throw in.[8]

text: The back pass rule is considered one the most popular and successful rule changes in the modern game.[5]


document_title: List of National Football League career passing touchdowns leaders

question_text: who has 500 touchdown passes in the nfl

question_tokens: who has 500 touchdown passes in the nfl

text: Players with at least 200 passing touchdowns

text:
Key

^

Inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame

*

Denotes player who is still active in the NFL

text: Through Week 8 of 2018 season in progress.

text:
Rank

Player

Team(s) by season

Touchdowns

1

Peyton Manning

Indianapolis Colts (1998–2011)Denver Broncos (2012–2015)

539

2

Brett Favre^

Atlanta Falcons (1991)Green Bay Packers (1992–2007)New York Jets (2008)Minnesota Vikings (2009–2010)

508

3

Tom Brady*

New England Patriots (2000–present)

504

4

Drew Brees*

San Diego Chargers (2001–2005)New Orleans Saints (2006–present)

501

5

Dan Marino^

Miami Dolphins (1983–1999)

420

6

Philip Rivers*

San Diego/Los Angeles Chargers (2004–present)

359

7

Eli Manning*

New York Giants (2004–present)

346

8

Fran Tarkenton^

Minnesota Vikings (1961–1966), (1972–1978)New York Giants (1967–1971)

342

9

Ben Roethlisberger*

Pittsburgh Steelers (2004–present)

341

10

Aaron Rodgers*

Green Bay Packers (2005–present)

325

11

John Elway^

Denver Broncos (1983–1998)

300

12

Carson Palmer

Cincinnati Bengals (2003–2010)Oakland Raiders (2011–2012)Arizona Cardinals (2013–2017)

294

13

Warren Moon^

Houston Oilers (1984–1993)Minnesota Vikings (1994–1996)Seattle Seahawks (1997–1998)Kansas City Chiefs (1999–2000)

291

14

Johnny Unitas^

Baltimore Colts (1956–1972)San Diego Chargers (1973)

290

15

Matt Ryan*

Atlanta Falcons (2008–present)

275

Vinny Testaverde

Tampa Bay Buccaneers (1987–1992)Cleveland Browns (1993–1995)Baltimore Ravens (1996–1997)New York Jets (1998–2003, 2005)Dallas Cowboys (2004)New England Patriots (2006)Carolina Panthers (2007)

17

Joe Montana^

San Francisco 49ers (1979–1992)Kansas City Chiefs (1993–1994)

273

18

Dave Krieg

Seattle Seahawks (1980–1991)Kansas City Chiefs (1992–1993)Detroit Lions (1994)Arizona Cardinals (1995)Chicago Bears (1996)Tennessee Oilers (1997–1998)

261

19

Sonny Jurgensen^

Philadelphia Eagles (1957–1963)Washington Redskins (1964–1974)

255

20

Dan Fouts^

San Diego Chargers (1973–1987)

254

21

Drew Bledsoe

New England Patriots (1993–2001)Buffalo Bills (2002–2004)Dallas Cowboys (2005–2006)

251

22

Tony Romo

Dallas Cowboys (2003–2016)

248

23

Boomer Esiason

Cincinnati Bengals (1984–1992, 1997)New York Jets (1993–1995)Arizona Cardinals (1996)

247

24

John Hadl

San Diego Chargers (1962–1972)Los Angeles Rams (1973–1974[a])Green Bay Packers (1974–1975)Houston Oilers (1976–1977)

244

25

Len Dawson^

Pittsburgh Steelers (1957–1959)Cleveland Browns (1960–1961)Dallas Texans (1962)Kansas City Chiefs (1963–1975)

239

26

Jim Kelly^

Buffalo Bills (1986–1996)

237

27

George Blanda^

Chicago Bears (1949, 1950[b]–1958)Baltimore Colts (1950)Houston Oilers (1960–1966)Oakland Raiders (1967–1975)

236

28

Donovan McNabb

Philadelphia Eagles (1999–2009)Washington Redskins (2010)Minnesota Vikings (2011)

234

29

Steve Young^

Tampa Bay Buccaneers (1985–1986)San Francisco 49ers (1987–1999)

232

30

Matthew Stafford*

Detroit Lions (2009–present)

228

31

Jay Cutler

Denver Broncos (2006–2008)Chicago Bears (2009–2016)Miami Dolphins (2017)

227

32

John Brodie

San Francisco 49ers (1957–1973)

214

33

Terry Bradshaw^

Pittsburgh Steelers (1970–1983)

212

Matt Hasselbeck

Green Bay Packers (1998–2000)Seattle Seahawks (2001–2010)Tennessee Titans (2011–2012)Indianapolis Colts (2013–2015)

Y. A. Tittle^[c]

Baltimore Colts (1950)San Francisco 49ers (1951–1960)New York Giants (1961–1964)

36

Joe Flacco*

Baltimore Ravens (2008–present)

211

37

Jim Hart

St. Louis Cardinals (1966–1983)Washington Redskins (1984)

209

38

Kerry Collins

Carolina Panthers (1995–1998)New Orleans Saints (1998)New York Giants (1999–2003)Oakland Raiders (2004–2005)Tennessee Titans (2006–2010)Indianapolis Colts (2011)

208

Kurt Warner^

St. Louis Rams (1998–2003)New York Giants (2004)Arizona Cardinals (2005–2009)

40

Randall Cunningham

Philadelphia Eagles (1985–1995)Minnesota Vikings (1997–1999)Dallas Cowboys (2000)Baltimore Ravens (2001)

207

41

Jim Everett

Los Angeles Rams (1986–1993)New Orleans Saints (1994–1996)San Diego Chargers (1997)

203

42

Roman Gabriel

Los Angeles Rams (1962–1972)Philadelphia Eagles (1973–1977)

201

text: Notes

text:
Jump up ^ Hadl was traded during the 1974 season; he played six games for the Rams and eight for the Packers.

Jump up ^ Blanda was traded during the 1950 season; he played one game for the Colts and eleven games for the Bears.

Jump up ^ Tittle's 30 touchdown passes in the All-America Football Conference (AAFC) are not including in this total, as the NFL does not recognize statistics accumulated in the AAFC.[1][2][3]

text: Active players with 160–199 touchdowns

text: Through Week 8 of 2018 season.

text:
Alex Smith, 190
Ryan Fitzpatrick, 184
Andy Dalton, 182
Russell Wilson, 174
Cam Newton, 169

text: Most career touchdown passes including playoff games

text: Bold indicates player active.

text:
Peyton Manning, 579
Tom Brady, 575
Brett Favre, 552
Drew Brees, 530
Dan Marino, 452

text: Historical passing touchdowns leaders

text: Fourteen players are recognized as having held outright or tied the record as the NFL's career passing touchdowns leader[4]. The longest record holder was Fran Tarkenton who held the record for 20 years.

text:
Reign
Player
Team(s) while leader
Career passing touchdowns
Season(s)

1921–1922(2 years)
Elmer Oliphant [5]
Buffalo All-Americans
7
1921–1922

1923
Lou Smyth [6]
Canton Bulldogs
8
1923

1924–1928(5 years)
Curly Lambeau^  [7]
Green Bay Packers
14
1924

19
1925

22
1926

23
1927

24
1928

Tied 1928
Red Dunn [8]
Green Bay Packers

1929–1942(14 years)
Benny Friedman^  [9]
New York Giants 1929-1931  Brooklyn Dodgers 1932-1934
40
1929

53
1930

56
1931

61
1932

66
1933–1942

Tied 1940–1942(3 years)
Arnie Herber^  [10]
Green Bay Packers
1940–1942

1943–1961(19 years)
Sammy Baugh^  [11]
Washington Redskins
80
1943

84
1944

95
1945

103
1946

128
1947

150
1948

168
1949

178
1950

185
1951

187
1952–1961

Tied 1961–1962(2 years)
Bobby Layne^  [12]
Pittsburgh Steelers
1961

196
1962

1962–1966(5 years)
Y. A. Tittle^  [13]
New York Giants
1962

232
1963

242
1964–1966

1967–1974(8 years)
Johnny Unitas^  [14]
Baltimore Colts (1967–1972)San Diego Chargers (1973)
252
1967

254
1968

266
1969

280
1970

283
1971

287
1972

290
1973 – 1974

1975–1994(20 years)
Fran Tarkenton^  [15]
Minnesota Vikings
291
1975

308
1976

317
1977

342
1978 – 1994

1995–2006(12 years)
Dan Marino^  [16]
Miami Dolphins
352
1995

369
1996

385
1997

408
1998

420
1999 – 2006

2007–2013(7 years)
Brett Favre^  [17]
Green Bay Packers (2007)New York Jets (2008)Minnesota Vikings (2009–2010)
442
2007

464
2008

497
2009

508
2010 – 2013

Since 2014(5 years)
Peyton Manning  [18]
Denver Broncos
530
2014

539
Since 2015


document_title: Slide Rock State Park

question_text: where does the water from slide rock come from

text: Slide Rock State Park

text:
Slide Rock State Park

Arizona State Park

Slide Rock State Park

Country
United States

State
Arizona

County
Coconino

Location
Sedona

 - elevation
4,930 ft (1,503 m)

 - coordinates
34°54′55″N 111°43′52″W / 34.91528°N 111.73111°W / 34.91528; -111.73111Coordinates: 34°54′55″N 111°43′52″W / 34.91528°N 111.73111°W / 34.91528; -111.73111

Area
43 acres (17 ha)

Founded
1985

Management
Arizona State Parks, U.S. Forest Service

Location of Slide Rock State Park in Arizona

text: Slide Rock State Park is a state park of Arizona, USA, taking its name from a natural water slide formed by the slippery bed of Oak Creek. The park is located in Oak Creek Canyon 7 miles (11 km) north of Sedona. Slide Rock State Park is located on Coconino National Forest land and is co-managed by the Arizona State Parks agency and the U.S. Forest Service. Tall red rock formations that are typical of the region also surround the park, which contains a 43-acre (17 ha) working apple farm.

text: The land was first developed by Frank L. Pendley, who arrived in the canyon in 1907 and acquired title to the land under the Homestead Act in 1910. Pendley developed an irrigation system (which is still in use today) and planted an apple orchard in 1912. The state completed a road through the canyon in 1914, and Pendley built rustic tourist cabins in 1933 that in part survive today. Several films were shot in the area: Angel and the Badman (1946), Broken Arrow (1950), Drum Beat (1954), and Gun Fury (1953).

text: The park was purchased by Arizona State Parks from the Arizona Parklands Foundation on July 10, 1985, and dedicated as Slide Rock State Park in October 1987. The Pendley Homestead Historic District was accepted onto the National Register of Historic Places on December 23, 1991. The apple farm is one of the few homesteads still preserved in Oak Creek Canyon.

text: There are three hiking trails in Slide Rock State Park: Pendley Homestead Trail (.25 miles), Slide Rock Route (.3 miles), and Clifftop Nature Trail (.25).

text: Slide Rock State Park attracted 254,584 visitors in 2005 and is one of the most visited tourist attractions in Arizona.

text: In 2014, Slide Rock was named one of Fordor's Travel top 10 state parks in the United States. Most recently, USA Today readers voted Slide Rock as the 5th best swimming hole in the country.


document_title: List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union

question_text: when was the last state added to the united states

text: List of U.S. states[edit]

text:
State
Order
Date of admission
Formed from

08 ! Delaware
01 !1
000000001787-12-07-0000December 7, 1787[8]
Crown Colony of Delaware[b]

38 ! Pennsylvania
02 !2
000000001787-12-12-0000December 12, 1787[10]
Crown Colony of Pennsylvania

30 ! New Jersey
03 !3
000000001787-12-18-0000December 18, 1787[11]
Crown Colony of New Jersey

10 ! Georgia
04 !4
000000001788-01-02-0000January 2, 1788[8]
Crown Colony of Georgia

07 ! Connecticut
05 !5
000000001788-01-09-0000January 9, 1788[12]
Crown Colony of Connecticut

21 ! Massachusetts
06 !6
000000001788-02-06-0000February 6, 1788[8]
Crown Colony of Massachusetts Bay

20 ! Maryland
07 !7
000000001788-04-28-0000April 28, 1788[8]
Crown Colony of Maryland

40 ! South Carolina
08 !8
000000001788-05-23-0000May 23, 1788[8]
Crown Colony of South Carolina

29 ! New Hampshire
09 !9
000000001788-06-21-0000June 21, 1788[8]
Crown Colony of New Hampshire

46 ! Virginia
10 !10
000000001788-06-25-0000June 25, 1788[8]
Crown Colony of Virginia

32 ! New York
11 !11
000000001788-07-26-0000July 26, 1788[13]
Crown Colony of New York

33 ! North Carolina
12 !12
000000001789-11-21-0000November 21, 1789[14]
Crown Colony of North Carolina

39 ! Rhode Island
13 !13
000000001790-05-29-0000May 29, 1790[8]
Crown Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations

45 ! Vermont
14 !14
000000001791-03-04-0000March 4, 1791[15]
Vermont !Vermont Republic (also known as the New Hampshire Grants[c])

17 ! Kentucky
15 !15
000000001792-06-01-0000June 1, 1792[16]
Virginia (District of Kentucky: Fayette, Jefferson, and Lincoln counties[d])

42 ! Tennessee
16 !16
000000001796-06-01-0000June 1, 1796[18]
Southwest Territory

35 ! Ohio
17 !17
000000001803-03-01-0000March 1, 1803[19][e]
Northwest Territory (part)

18 ! Louisiana
18 !18
000000001812-04-30-0000April 30, 1812[21]
Orleans !Territory of Orleans

14 ! Indiana
19 !19
000000001816-12-11-0000December 11, 1816
Indiana Territory

24 ! Mississippi
20 !20
000000001817-12-10-0000December 10, 1817[22]
Mississippi Territory

13 ! Illinois
21 !21
000000001818-12-03-0000December 3, 1818[23]
Illinois Territory (part)

01 ! Alabama
22 !22
000000001819-12-14-0000December 14, 1819[24]
Alabama Territory

19 ! Maine
23 !23
000000001820-03-15-0000March 15, 1820[25]
Massachusetts (District of Maine[f])

25 ! Missouri
24 !24
000000001821-08-10-0000August 10, 1821[26]
Missouri Territory (part)

04 ! Arkansas
25 !25
000000001836-06-15-0000June 15, 1836[27]
Arkansas Territory

22 ! Michigan
26 !26
000000001837-01-26-0000January 26, 1837[28]
Michigan Territory

09 ! Florida
27 !27
000000001845-03-03-0000March 3, 1845
Florida Territory

43 ! Texas
28 !28
000000001845-12-29-0000December 29, 1845
Texas !Republic of Texas

15 ! Iowa
29 !29
000000001846-12-28-0000December 28, 1846
Iowa Territory (part)

49 ! Wisconsin
30 !30
000000001848-05-29-0000May 29, 1848[29]
Wisconsin Territory (part)

05 ! California
31 !31
000000001850-09-09-0000September 9, 1850[30]
Unorganized !unorganized territory (part)

23 ! Minnesota
32 !32
000000001858-05-11-0000May 11, 1858[31]
Minnesota Territory (part)

37 ! Oregon
33 !33
000000001859-02-14-0000February 14, 1859
Oregon Territory (part)

16 ! Kansas
34 !34
000000001861-01-29-0000January 29, 1861[32]
Kansas Territory (part)

48 ! West Virginia
35 !35
000000001863-06-20-0000June 20, 1863[33]
Virginia (Trans-Allegheny region counties[g])

28 ! Nevada
36 !36
000000001864-10-31-0000October 31, 1864
Nevada Territory

27 ! Nebraska
37 !37
000000001867-03-01-0000March 1, 1867
Nebraska Territory

06 ! Colorado
38 !38
000000001876-08-01-0000August 1, 1876[36]
Colorado Territory

34 !  North Dakota
39 !39[h]
000000001889-11-02-0000November 2, 1889[38][i]
Dakota Territory (part)

41 ! South Dakota
40 !40
Dakota Territory (part)

26 ! Montana
41 !41
000000001889-11-08-0000November 8, 1889[39]
Montana Territory

47 ! Washington
42 !42
000000001889-11-11-0000November 11, 1889[40]
Washington Territory

12 ! Idaho
43 !43
000000001890-07-03-0000July 3, 1890
Idaho Territory

50 ! Wyoming
44 !44
000000001890-07-10-0000July 10, 1890
Wyoming Territory

44 ! Utah
45 !45
000000001896-01-04-0000January 4, 1896[41]
Utah Territory

36 ! Oklahoma
46 !46
000000001907-11-16-0000November 16, 1907[42]
Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory

31 ! New Mexico
47 !47
000000001912-01-06-0000January 6, 1912
New Mexico Territory

03 ! Arizona
48 !48
000000001912-02-14-0000February 14, 1912
Arizona Territory

02 ! Alaska
49 !49
000000001959-01-03-0000January 3, 1959
Alaska !Territory of Alaska

11 ! Hawaii
50 !50
000000001959-08-21-0000August 21, 1959
Hawaii !Territory of Hawaii

text: Articles of Confederation ratification dates[edit]

text: The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles of Confederation for ratification by the individual states on November 15, 1777. The Articles of Confederation came into force on March 1, 1781, after being ratified by all 13 states. On March 4, 1789, the general government under the Articles was replaced with the federal government under the present Constitution.[43]

text:
State
Order
Date

13 ! Virginia
01 !1
000000001777-12-16-0000December 16, 1777

12 ! South Carolina
02 !2
000000001778-02-05-0000February 5, 1778

08 ! New York
03 !3
000000001778-02-06-0000February 6, 1778

11 ! Rhode Island
04 !4
000000001778-02-09-0000February 9, 1778

015 ! Connecticut
05 !5
000000001778-02-12-0000February 12, 1778

03 ! Georgia
06 !6
000000001778-02-26-0000February 26, 1778

06 ! New Hampshire
07 !7
000000001778-03-04-0000March 4, 1778

10 ! Pennsylvania
08 !8
000000001778-03-05-0000March 5, 1778

05 ! Massachusetts
09 !9
000000001778-03-10-0000March 10, 1778

09 ! North Carolina
10 !10
000000001778-04-05-0000April 5, 1778

07 ! New Jersey
11 !11
000000001778-11-19-0000November 19, 1778

02 ! Delaware
12 !12
000000001779-02-01-0000February 1, 1779

04 ! Maryland
13 !13
000000001781-02-02-0000February 2, 1781