document_title: Neuromuscular junction

question_text: the neurotransmitter used at the neuromuscular junction (nmj) is

question_tokens: the neurotransmitter used at the neuromuscular junction ( nmj ) is

root

text: Neuromuscular junction

text: Structure and function[edit]

text: Quantal transmission[edit]

text:
At the neuromuscular junction presynaptic motor axons terminate  30 nanometers from the cell membrane  or sarcolemma of a muscle fiber.  The sarcolemma at the junction has invaginations called postjunctional folds, which increase its surface area  facing the synaptic cleft.[2]  These postjunctional folds form the motor endplate, which is studded with nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) at a density of 10,000 receptors/micrometer2.[3]  The presynaptic axons terminate in bulges called terminal boutons (or presynaptic terminals) that project toward the postjunctional folds of the sarcolemma.  In the frog each motor nerve terminal contains about 300,000 vesicles, with an average  diameter of 0.05 micrometers.  The vesicles contain acetylcholine.  Some of these vesicles  are gathered  into groups of fifty, positioned at active zones close to the nerve membrane.  Active zones are about 1 micrometer apart.
The 30 nanometer cleft between nerve ending and endplate contains a meshwork of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) at a density of 2,600 enzyme molecules/micrometer2, held in place by  the structural proteins dystrophin and rapsyn.  Also present is the receptor tyrosine kinase protein MuSK, a signaling protein involved in the development of the neuromuscular junction, which is also held in place by rapsyn.[2]

tag: p

text: About once every second in a resting junction randomly one of the synaptic vesicles fuses with the presynaptic neuron's cell membrane in a process mediated by SNARE proteins. Fusion results in the emptying of the vesicle's contents of 7000-10,000 acetylcholine molecules  into the synaptic cleft, a process known as exocytosis.[4] Consequently exocytosis releases  acetylcholine in packets that are called quanta. The acetylcholine quantum diffuses through the acetylcholinesterase meshwork, where the high local transmitter concentration occupies all of the binding sites on the enzyme in its path.  The acetylcholine that reaches the endplate activates ~2,000 acetylcholine receptors, opening their ion channels which permits sodium ions to move into the endplate producing a depolarization of ~0.5 mV known as a miniature endplate potential (MEPP). By the time the acetylcholine is released from the receptors the acetylcholinesterase has destroyed its bound ACh, which takes about ~0.16 ms,  and hence is available to destroy the  ACh released from the receptors.

text: When the motor nerve is stimulated there is a delay of only 0.5 to 0.8 msec between the arrival of the nerve impulse in the motor nerve terminals and the first response of the endplate [5]  The arrival of the motor nerve action potential at the presynaptic neuron terminal opens voltage-dependent calcium channels and Ca2+ ions flow from the extracellular fluid into the presynaptic neuron's cytosol. This influx of Ca2+ causes several hundred neurotransmitter-containing vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic neuron's cell membrane through SNARE proteins to release their acetylcholine quanta by exocytosis. The endplate depolarization by the released acetylcholine is called an endplate potential (EPP). The EPP is accomplished when ACh binds the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) at the motor end plate, and causes an influx of sodium ions. This influx of sodium ions generates the EPP (depolarization), and triggers an action potential which travels along the sarcolemma and into the muscle fiber via the transverse tubules (T-tubules) by means of voltage-gated sodium channels.[6] The conduction of action potentials along the transverse tubules stimulates the opening of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels which are mechanically coupled to Ca2+ release channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum.[7] The Ca2+ then diffuses out of the sarcoplasmic reticulum to the myofibrils so it can stimulate contraction. The endplate potential is thus responsible for setting up an action potential in the muscle fiber which triggers muscle contraction.  The transmission from nerve to muscle is so rapid because each quantum of acetylcholine  reaches the endplate in millimolar concentrations, high enough to combine with a receptor with a low affinity, which then swiftly releases the bound transmitter.

text: Acetylcholine receptors[edit]

text: Ion channel linked receptorIonsLigand (such as acetylcholine)

tag: ol

text: Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter synthesized from dietary choline and acetyl-CoA (ACoA), and is involved in the stimulation of muscle tissue in vertebrates as well as in some invertebrate animals. In vertebrate animals, the acetylcholine receptor subtype that is found at the neuromuscular junction of skeletal muscles is the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR), which is a ligand-gated ion channel.  Each subunit of this receptor has a characteristic "cys-loop", which is composed of a cysteine residue followed by 13 amino acid residues and another cysteine residue. The two cysteine residues form a disulfide linkage which results in the "cys-loop" receptor that is capable of binding acetylcholine and other ligands.  These cys-loop receptors are found only in eukaryotes, but prokaryotes possess ACh receptors with similar properties.[3]  Not all species use a cholinergic neuromuscular junction; e.g. crayfish and fruit flies have a glutamatergic neuromuscular junction.[2]

text: AChRs at the skeletal neuromuscular junction form heteropentamers composed of two α, one β, one ɛ, and one δ subunits.[8]  When a single ACh ligand binds to one of the α subunits of the ACh receptor it induces a conformational change at the interface with the second AChR α subunit.  This conformational change results in the increased affinity of the second α subunit for a second ACh ligand.  AChRs therefore exhibit a sigmoidal dissociation curve due to this cooperative binding.[3]  The presence of the inactive, intermediate receptor structure with a single-bound ligand keeps ACh in the synapse that might otherwise be lost by cholinesterase hydrolysis or diffusion.  The persistence of these ACh ligands in the synapse can cause a prolonged post-synaptic response.[9]

text: Development[edit]

text: The development of the neuromuscular junction requires signaling from both the motor neuron's terminal and the muscle cell's central region. During development, muscle cells produce acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) and express them in the central regions in a process called prepatterning. Agrin, a heparin proteoglycan, and MuSK kinase are thought to help stabilize the accumulation of AChR in the central regions of the myocyte. MuSK is a receptor tyrosine kinase—meaning that it induces cellular signaling by binding phosphate molecules to self regions like tyrosines, and to other targets in the cytoplasm.[10] Upon activation by its ligand agrin, MuSK signals via two proteins called "Dok-7" and "rapsyn", to induce "clustering" of acetylcholine receptors.[11] ACh release by developing motor neurons produces postsynaptic potentials in the muscle cell that positively reinforces the localization and stabilization of the developing neuromuscular junction.[12]

text: These findings were demonstrated in part by mouse "knockout" studies.  In mice which are deficient for either agrin or MuSK, the neuromuscular junction does not form. Further, mice deficient in Dok-7 did not form either acetylcholine receptor clusters or neuromuscular synapses.[13]

text: The development of neuromuscular junctions is mostly studied in model organisms, such as rodents. In addition, in 2015 an all-human neuromuscular junction has been created in vitro using human embryonic stem cells and somatic muscle stem cells.[14]  In this model presynaptic motor neurons are activated by optogenetics and in response synaptically connected muscle fibers twitch upon light stimulation.

text: Research methods[edit]

text: José del Castillo and Bernard Katz used ionophoresis to determine the location and density of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) at the neuromuscular junction.  With this technique, a microelectrode was placed inside the motor endplate of the muscle fiber, and a micropipette filled with acetylcholine (ACh) is placed directly in front of the endplate in the synaptic cleft.  A positive voltage was applied to the tip of the micropipette, which caused a burst of positively charged ACh molecules to be released from the pipette. These ligands flowed into the space representing the synaptic cleft and bound to AChRs.  The intracellular microelectrode monitored the amplitude of the depolarization of the motor endplate in response to ACh binding to nicotinic (ionotropic) receptors.  Katz and del Castillo showed that the amplitude of the depolarization (excitatory postsynaptic potential) depended on the proximity of the micropipette releasing the ACh ions to the endplate.  The farther the micropipette was from the motor endplate, the smaller the depolarization was in the muscle fiber.  This allowed the researchers to determine that the nicotinic receptors were localized to the motor endplate in high density.[2][3]

text: Toxins are also used to determine the location of acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction. α-Bungarotoxin is a toxin found in the snake species Bungarus multicinctus that acts as an ACh antagonist and binds to AChRs irreversibly.  By coupling assayable enzymes such as horseradish peroxidase (HRP) or fluorescent proteins such as green fluorescent protein (GFP) to the α-bungarotoxin, AChRs can be visualized and quantified.[2]

text: Toxins that affect the neuromuscular junction[edit]

text: Nerve gases[edit]

text: Nerve gases and liquor damage this area.

text: Botulinum toxin[edit]

text: Botulinum toxin (aka botulinum neurotoxin, BoNT, and sold under the trade name Botox) inhibits the release of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction by interfering with SNARE proteins.[2] This toxin crosses into the nerve terminal through the process of endocytosis and subsequently interferes with SNARE proteins, which are necessary for ACh release. By doing so, it induces a transient flaccid paralysis and chemical denervation localized to the striated muscle that it has affected. The inhibition of the ACh release does not set in until approximately two weeks after the injection is made. Three months after the inhibition occurs, neuronal activity begins to regain partial function, and six months, complete neuronal function is regained.[15]

text: Tetanus toxin[edit]

text: Tetanus toxin, also known as tetanospasmin is a potent neurotoxin produced by Clostridium tetani and causes the disease state, tetanus. The LD50 of this toxin has been measured to be approximately 1 ng/kg, making it second only to Botulinum toxin D as the deadliest toxin in the world. It functions very similarly to botunlinum neurotoxin (BoNT) by attaching and endocytosing into the presynaptic nerve terminal and interfering with SNARE protein complexes. It differs from BoNT in a few ways, most apparently in its end state, wherein tetanospasmin demonstrates a rigid / spastic paralysis as opposed to the flaccid paralysis demonstrated with BoNT.

text: Latrotoxin[edit]

text: Latrotoxin (α-Latrotoxin) found in venom of widow spiders also affects the neuromuscular junction by causing the release of acetylcholine from the presynaptic cell. Mechanisms of action include binding to receptors on the presynaptic cell activating the IP3/DAG pathway and release of calcium from intracellular stores and pore formation resulting in influx of calcium ions directly. Either mechanism causes increased calcium in presynaptic cell, which then leads to release of synaptic vesicles of acetylcholine. Latrotoxin causes pain, muscle contraction and if untreated potentially paralysis and death.

text: Snake venom[edit]

text: Snake venoms act as toxins at the neuromuscular junction and can induce weakness and paralysis. Venoms can act as both presynaptic and postsynaptic neurotoxins.[16]

text: Presynaptic neurotoxins, commonly known as β-neurotoxins, affect the presynaptic regions of the neuromuscular junction. The majority of these neurotoxins act by inhibiting the release of neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine, into the synapse between neurons. However, some of these toxins have also been known to enhance neurotransmitter release. Those that inhibit neurotransmitter release create a neuromuscular blockade that prevents signaling molecules from reaching their postsynaptic target receptors. In doing so, the victim of these snake bite suffer from profound weakness. Such neurotoxins do not respond well to anti-venoms. After one hour of inoculation of these toxins, including notexin and taipoxin, many of the affected nerve terminals show signs of irreversible physical damage, leaving them devoid of any synaptic vesicles.[16]

text: Postsynaptic neurotoxins, otherwise known as α-neurotoxins, act oppositely to the presynaptic neurotoxins by binding to the postsynaptic acetylcholine receptors. This prevents interaction between the acetylcholine released by the presynaptic terminal and the receptors on the postsynaptic cell. In effect, the opening of sodium channels associated with these acetylcholine receptors is prohibited, resulting in a neuromuscular blockade, similar to the effects seen due to presynaptic neurotoxins. This causes paralysis in the muscles involved in the affected junctions. Unlike presynaptic neurotoxins, postsynaptic toxins are more easily affected by anti-venoms, which accelerate the dissociation of the toxin from the receptors, ultimately causing a reversal of paralysis. These neurotoxins experimentally and qualitatively aid in the study of acetylcholine receptor density and turnover, as well as in studies observing the direction of antibodies toward the affected acetylcholine receptors in patients diagnosed with myasthenia gravis.[16]

text: Diseases[edit]

text: Any disorder that compromises the synaptic transmission between a motor neuron and a muscle cell is categorized under the umbrella term of neuromuscular diseases. These disorders can be inherited or acquired and can vary in their severity and mortality. In general, most of these disorders tend to be caused by mutations or autoimmune disorders. Autoimmune disorders, in the case of neuromuscular diseases, tend to be humoral mediated, B cell mediated, and result in an antibody improperly created against a motor neuron or muscle fiber protein that interferes with synaptic transmission or signaling.

text: Autoimmune[edit]

text: Myasthenia gravis[edit]

text: Myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disorder where the body makes antibodies against either the acetylcholine receptor (AchR) (in 80% of cases), or against postsynaptic muscle-specific kinase (MuSK) (0–10% of cases). In seronegative myasthenia gravis low density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 4 is targeted by IgG1, which acts as a competitive inhibitor of its ligand, preventing the ligand from binding its receptor. It is not known if seronegative myasthenia gravis will respond to standard therapies.[17]

text: Neonatal MG[edit]

text: Neonatal MG is an autoimmune disorder that affects 1 in 8 children born to mothers who have been diagnosed with myasthenia gravis (MG). MG can be transferred from the mother to the fetus by the movement of AChR antibodies through the placenta. Signs of this disease at birth include weakness, which responds to anticholinesterase medications, as well as fetal akinesia, or the lack of fetal movement. This form of the disease is transient, lasting for about three months. However, in some cases, neonatal MG can lead to other health effects, such as arthrogryposis and even fetal death. These conditions are thought to be initiated when maternal AChR antibodies are directed to the fetal AChR and can last until the 33rd week of gestation, when the γ subunit of AChR is replaced by the ε subunit.[18]

text: Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome[edit]

text: Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome (LEMS) is an autoimmune disorder that affects the presynaptic portion of the neuromuscular junction. This rare disease can be marked by a unique triad of symptoms: proximal muscle weakness, autonomic dysfunction, and areflexia.[19] Proximal muscle weakness is a product of pathogenic autoantibodies directed against P/Q-type voltage-gated calcium channels, which in turn leads to a reduction of acetylcholine release from motor nerve terminals on the presynaptic cell. Examples of autonomic dysfunction caused by LEMS include erectile dysfunction in men, constipation, and, most commonly, dry mouth. Less common dysfunctions include dry eyes and altered perspiration. Areflexia is a condition in which tendon reflexes are reduced and it may subside temporarily after a period of exercise.[20]

text: 50–60% of the patients that are diagnosed with LEMS also have present an associated tumor, which is typically small-cell lung carcinoma (SCLC). This type of tumor also expresses voltage-gated calcium channels.[20] Oftentimes, LEMS also occurs alongside myasthenia gravis.[19]

text: Treatment for LEMS consists of using 3,4-diaminopyridine as a first measure, which serves to increase the compound muscle action potential as well as muscle strength by lengthening the time that voltage-gated calcium channels remain open after blocking voltage-gated potassium channels. In the US, treatment with 3,4-diaminopyridine for eligible LEMS patients is available at no cost under an expanded access program.[21][22] Further treatment includes the use of prednisone and azathioprine in the event that 3,4-diaminopyridine does not aid in treatment.[20]

text: Neuromyotonia[edit]

text: Neuromyotonia (NMT), otherwise known as Isaac’s syndrome, is unlike many other diseases present at the neuromuscular junction. Rather than causing muscle weakness, NMT leads to the hyperexcitation of motor nerves. NMT causes this hyperexcitation by producing longer depolarizations by down-regulating voltage-gated potassium channels, which causes greater neurotransmitter release and repetitive firing. This increase in rate of firing leads to more active transmission and as a result, greater muscular activity in the affected individual. NMT is also believed to be of autoimmune origin due to its associations with autoimmune symptoms in the individual affected.[18]

text: Genetic[edit]

text: Congenital myasthenic syndromes[edit]

text: Congenital myasthenic syndromes (CMS) are very similar to both MG and LEMS in their functions, but the primary difference between CMS and those diseases is that CMS is of genetic origins. Specifically, these syndromes are diseases incurred due to mutations, typically recessive, in 1 of at least 10 genes that affect presynaptic, synaptic, and postsynaptic proteins in the neuromuscular junction. Such mutations usually arise in the ε-subunit of AChR,[18] thereby affecting the kinetics and expression of the receptor itself.  Single nucleotide substitutions or deletions may cause loss of function in the subunit. Other mutations, such as those affecting acetylcholinesterase and acetyltransferase, can also cause the expression of CMS, with the latter being associated specifically with episodic apnea.[23] These syndromes can present themselves at different times within the life of an individual. They may arise during the fetal phase, causing fetal akinesia, or the perinatal period, during which certain conditions, such as arthrogryposis, ptosis, hypotonia, ophthalmoplegia, and feeding or breathing difficulties, may be observed. They could also activate during adolescence or adult years, causing the individual to develop slow-channel syndrome.[18]

text: Treatment for particular subtypes of CMS (postsynaptic fast-channel CMS)[24][25] is similar to treatment for other neuromuscular disorders. 3,4-Diaminopyridine, the first-line treatment for LEMS, is under development as an orphan drug for CMS[26] in the US, and available to eligible patients under an expanded access program at no cost.[21][22]

text: Bulbospinal muscular atrophy[edit]

text: Bulbospinal muscular atrophy, also known as Kennedy’s disease, is a rare recessive trinucleotide, polyglutamine disorder that is linked to the X chromosome. Because of its linkage to the X chromosome, it is typically transmitted through females. However, Kennedy’s disease is only present in adult males and the onset of the disease is typically later in life. This disease is specifically caused by the expansion of a CAG-tandem repeat in exon 1 found on the androgen-receptor (AR) gene on chromosome Xq11-12. Poly-Q-expanded AR accumulates in the nuclei of cells, where it begins to fragment. After fragmentation, degradation of the cell begins, leading to a loss of both motor neurons and dorsal root ganglia.[27]

text: Symptoms of Kennedy’s disease include weakness and wasting of the facial bulbar and extremity muscles, as well as sensory and endocrinological disturbances, such as gynecomastia and reduced fertility. Other symptoms include elevated testosterone and other sexual hormone levels, development of hyper-CK-emia, abnormal conduction through motor and sensory nerves, and neuropathic or in rare cases myopathic alterations on biopsies of muscle cells.[27]

text: Duchenne muscular dystrophy[edit]

text: Duchenne muscular dystrophy is an X-linked genetic disorder that results in the absence of the structural protein dystrophin at the neuromuscular junction.  It affects 1 in 3,600–6,000 males and frequently causes death by the age of 30.  The absence of dystrophin causes muscle degeneration, and patients present with the following symptoms: abnormal gait, hypertrophy in the calf muscles, and elevated creatine kinase.  If left untreated, patients may suffer from respiratory distress, which can lead to death.[28]


document_title: Last Man Standing (U.S. TV series)

question_text: who plays the maid on last man standing

question_tokens: who plays the maid on last man standing

text: Last Man Standing (U.S. TV series)

text: Premise[edit]

text: The series follows Mike Baxter, a senior executive and director of marketing for an outdoor sporting goods store chain based in Denver, Colorado, whose world is filled with his wife, three daughters, and grandson.

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Tim Allen as Mike Baxter: Mike is a father of three daughters and the director of marketing for the Outdoor Man chain of sporting goods stores. He fervently supports traditional American values, is a Protestant, and is politically conservative. Mike loves his daughters but says his favorite is Eve, the youngest and most athletic daughter, and whose political opinions and interests mirror his own. He is proud of her ability to excel at anything she tries, including school work, hunting, and playing sports. Mike often finds himself annoyed with Outdoor Man's young slow-witted employee Kyle, and with Ryan, his politically liberal son-in-law and the father of Mike's grandson Boyd. The video blog or "vlog" that Mike does for Outdoor Man is frequently used as a vehicle to rant about his political views. Mike is a graduate of the University of Michigan, and an amateur radio operator using the call sign KA0XTT.[4]
Nancy Travis as Vanessa Baxter, Mike's wife: Vanessa is a geologist working in the energy industry for a company that does hydraulic fracturing, or "fracking". In season four, Vanessa becomes frustrated with her job and decides to become a high school science teacher. Vanessa was ambiguous in her political views until season five, when she announces she is supporting Hillary Clinton for president, mainly because she thinks it will advance women's causes. She is also shown drinking wine frequently, and nearly as frequently mocked by Mike and her daughters about it. She is a graduate of Ohio State University. Vanessa has a tendency to put her foot in her mouth when around people of other races. Despite this, she and her African-American neighbor Carol Larabee seem to get along. Vanessa's humor tends to include puns.
Amanda Fuller (seasons 2–6) and Alexandra Krosney (season 1) as Kristin Beth Baxter, the oldest daughter: Kristin, unlike her father, espouses more liberal beliefs. During her senior year of high school, Kristin became pregnant with her son, Boyd. She was a single mom living in the Baxter home until moving out in the season two finale. She began to reconcile with Boyd's father, Ryan, in season three, and the two get married between seasons four and five. Kristin worked at a diner until landing a job at an upscale restaurant run by a former co-worker at the end of season two. In season four, she becomes the manager of the new restaurant opened by Outdoor Man. Kristin tends to work extra hard in this new job to prove she did not get the position through nepotism, despite Mike and Ed frequently telling her she was qualified. Alexandra Krosney portrayed Kristin in the show's first season, but she was replaced by Amanda Fuller prior to season two for unspecified creative reasons.[5]
Molly Ephraim as Amanda Elaine "Mandy" Baxter-Anderson, the middle daughter: Mandy is nowhere near as intelligent as her sisters, but excels in social situations. Interested in fashion, she was one of the most popular girls at her high school. Mandy is very confident and creative, demonstrating traits found in her father. Unlike the rest of the family, she is lazy, conceited, insulting, and selfish, but occasionally displays moments of generosity and caring. She started dating Kyle in season 2. As of season three, she is attending a local college and working at the diner where Kristin used to work. Later that same season, she begins an online clothing business, selling her self-designed fashions which she assembles in the basement of her parents' house. Kyle asks her to marry him in season 5, the 100th episode. She marries Kyle in season six, but they have yet to move out of the Baxter home. Up until she turned 21, a running gag on the show was Mike, Vanessa, and occasionally Kristin snatching glasses of alcohol out of Mandy's hand, usually followed by Mandy making a lame excuse.
Kaitlyn Dever as Eve Baxter, the youngest daughter: Eve is an intelligent, athletic tomboy and generally has the same interests as Mike, including camping, sports, guns, and the military. She is Mike's favorite daughter, and excels at her hobbies. She frequently outplays the boys in soccer and makes the boys' football team as their placekicker. She is well aware of being the favorite over her two sisters. Eve has also inherited her father's sense of humor, and her trademark sarcastic wit is frequently directed at clueless sister Mandy. Eve is a member of Army Junior ROTC and works toward gaining admittance to West Point. Her attempt to do so is unsuccessful. In season six, Eve has decided to take a "personal year" rather than immediately attend college. She spends some of this time singing and playing guitar for money, but this proves to be unfruitful. During her gap year, Eve applies to the Air Force Academy in nearby Colorado Springs, and is accepted.
Christoph Sanders as Kyle Anderson, a young employee at Outdoor Man: Kyle is universally recognized as a good guy. Kyle idolizes Mike, having grown up without a father figure. Kyle takes care of his grandmother who has dementia, and it is implied he grew up in her home. Kyle is often oblivious to social cues and is slow to catch on to the events happening around him. Kyle dated Kristin in season one and started dating Mandy in season two before proposing in season five, and marrying Mandy in season six.
Héctor Elizondo as Edward "Ed" Alzate, Mike's longtime boss: Ed started a bait and tackle shop many years ago and hired Mike, who helped turn the shop into the 20-store Outdoor Man chain.[6] Ed is perhaps fifteen years older than Mike, but the two men bond over similar outdoor hobbies and shared conservative values. Mike regularly talks to Ed about the happenings in his home and occasionally seeks advice. Having been divorced four times, Ed's suggestions are rarely helpful. Ed is a Vietnam veteran, although he saw no combat in Vietnam, stating that he was a clerk in Saigon. He continues to help fellow veterans at the local Veterans of Foreign Wars hall with their Veteran Affairs paperwork. Ed is also a recurring target for jokes about his age and lack of hair, most often from Mike. It is revealed in season 6 that Ed has early onset dementia.
Flynn Morrison (regular, seasons 2–6) and Evan and Luke Kruntchev (recurring, season 1) as Boyd Baxter, Kristin's son: Mike enjoys spending quality time with his grandson Boyd, and affectionately views him as the son he never had. Mike and Ryan often clash on how he should be raised. Boyd enjoys activities encouraged by both his father and grandfather.
Jordan Masterson (regular, seasons 2–6) and Nick Jonas (guest star, season 1) as Ryan Vogelson, Boyd's Canadian father: Though Ryan initially fled when Kristin got pregnant, the two reconciled and got engaged at the end of season 3. Ryan holds staunchly liberal views, both politically and philosophically. He and Mike routinely clash over their fundamentally opposing values, especially when it comes to child-rearing. Mike is often quick to point that many of Ryan's atheistic and liberal views are hypocritical. Ryan wishes to raise his son without religion and patriotism, but neither Mike nor Kristin allow this. His vegan diet, political correctness, views on discipline, and general sensitivity are an affront to Mike's beliefs. On rare occasions, Ryan agrees with Mike on what is best for Boyd's future, but this usually winds up creating rifts with Kristin or Vanessa.
Jonathan Adams as Chuck Larabee (regular, seasons 4–6; recurring, seasons 2–3), Mike and Vanessa's neighbor: Chuck is a retired U.S. Marine and a veteran of the first Gulf War who runs a private security business and later takes charge of security for the Denver Outdoor Man. Chuck is an African-American, and often jokes with Mike about racial stereotypes. Mike and Chuck regularly exchange barbs as if they don't like each other. In reality, they are good friends, despite being unwilling to admit it. Vanessa sees right through their heated exchanges, often telling them to "get a room".

tag: ul

text: Recurring cast[edit]

text:
Robert Forster as Bud Baxter (seasons 1, 3–4), Mike's widower father who is initially in the construction business, but later opens a marijuana store after it becomes legal in Colorado.
Erika Alexander as Carol Larabee (seasons 2–5), Chuck's wife and Mike and Vanessa's neighbor. She is also Vanessa's best friend. Vanessa often goes overboard trying to act racially open-minded around her, but usually ends up looking foolish and annoying Carol.
Carla Jimenez as Blanca Alvarez (seasons 2–4), the Baxters' Guatemalan-born housekeeper who also helps Mandy with her fashion business. The Baxters were happy to celebrate with Blanca after she was sworn in as an American citizen.
Sarah Gilman as Cammy Harris (seasons 2–6), Eve's soccer teammate and extremely chatty best friend.
Jonathan Taylor Thomas as John Baker (seasons 2–3), Kristin's boss at a fancy restaurant where she works. Thomas also guest-starred as "Randy" (a nod to his Home Improvement character) in the season 4 episode "Helen Potts", with fellow Home Improvement co-star Patricia Richardson.
Christina Moore as April (seasons 1 & 3), Vanessa's air-headed and immature younger sister. She is always asking for money.
Danielle Bisutti as Michelle (season 1), Vanessa's friend and next-door neighbor; she is a meteorologist who gets most of her data from a free phone app.
Tye Sheridan as Justin (seasons 3–4), Eve's fellow Jr. ROTC member and football teammate who becomes her boyfriend. The two break up in season 4.
Zachary Gordon as Andrew (season 3), Eve's nerdy classmate who worships her and desperately wants to be her boyfriend.
Joely Fisher as Wendi Gracin (seasons 3–5), Ed's meddling younger girlfriend, whom he meets near the end of season three. Ed routinely has to put her in her place, particularly when she tries to get involved in decisions pertaining to his business. Wendi deserts Ed offscreen between Seasons 4 and 5, but the two patch things up and reunite.
Jay Leno as Joe Leonard (seasons 5–6), a semi-retired auto technician from whom Vanessa buys a classic car for Mike. Joe later works in the repair shop at Outdoor Man, servicing ATVs and snowmobiles.
Travis Tope as Rob (season 6), Eve's boyfriend who is studying criminal justice at UC Boulder. He's a recovering alcoholic, which worries Mike and Vanessa when they first meet him.

text: Notable guest stars[edit]

text: Several notable guest stars have appeared throughout the series, including appearances made from cast members of Tim Allen's previous series, Home Improvement.[citation needed]

text:
Jere Burns (4.22) as Victor Vogelson, Ryan's estranged father
Blake Clark (5.16) as Clark, the owner of a club in which Eve performed. Clark played Harry Turner, Tim's friend and owner of the hardware store on Home Improvement
Andrew Daly (1.16)
Bill Engvall (5.21, 6.7 & 6.18) as Reverend Paul
Brad Leland (6.17) as Wayne Sizemore
Michael Gross (3.19) as Mr. Hardin
Tony Hawk (1.12) as himself
Nick Jonas (1.10) as Ryan in his first appearance
Kim Kardashian (1.16) as herself
Richard Karn (2.9 & 2.17) as Bill McKendree. Karn portrayed Al Borland, co-worker and friend to Tim Allen's character on Home Improvement
Reba McEntire (5.19) as Billie Cassidy, Mike's college girlfriend
Frankie Muniz (1.18) as Richard
Melanie Paxson (1.23) as Liz
Cassandra Peterson (1.4) as Elvira
Patricia Richardson (4.12 & 5.17) as Helen Potts, the Baxters's widowed neighbor. Richardson portrayed Jill Taylor, the wife of Tim Allen's character in Home Improvement
Robin Roberts (5.17) as Teresa, a tank mechanic and Persian Gulf War veteran
Si Robertson (3.1)
Willie Robertson (3.1)
Mike Rowe (1.18) as Jimmy Baxter, Mike's younger brother
Jamie-Lynn Sigler (1.13) as Gabriella Alzate, one of Ed's five daughters
Tony Stewart (1.17) as himself
Paul F. Tompkins (1.2) as Chester McAllister

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
24
October 11, 2011 (2011-10-11)
May 8, 2012 (2012-05-08)

2
18
November 2, 2012 (2012-11-02)
March 22, 2013 (2013-03-22)

3
22
September 20, 2013 (2013-09-20)
April 25, 2014 (2014-04-25)

4
22
October 3, 2014 (2014-10-03)
April 17, 2015 (2015-04-17)

5
22
September 25, 2015 (2015-09-25)
April 22, 2016 (2016-04-22)

6
22
September 23, 2016 (2016-09-23)
March 31, 2017 (2017-03-31)

tag: table

text: Production[edit]

text: Development and casting[edit]

text: Last Man Standing first appeared on ABC's development slate in late 2010 when writer Jack Burditt received a put pilot commitment from the network under the original title Man Up.[7] In January 2011, ABC green-lighted production of a pilot episode under the title Last Days of Man.[8][9] On February 18, Tim Allen, who had been attached to the potential series from the beginning, officially joined the project in the lead role.[10][11][12] At the end of March, Nancy Travis joined the cast in the leading female role as Allen's "smart and loving wife who doesn't miss much".[13][14][15] Soon thereafter, Héctor Elizondo came on board in a supporting role as the boss to Allen's character.[16]

text: Filming[edit]

text: On May 13, 2011, ABC picked up the pilot for the 2011–2012 television season under the new title Last Man Standing.[17] On May 17, 2011, ABC announced that the series would air on Tuesday nights at 8 Eastern/7 Central.[18] It debuted on October 11, 2011, with the first two episodes airing in a one-hour premiere.[19]

text: On November 3, 2011, the series was picked up for a full season of twenty-two episodes.[20] On January 12, 2012, the order was increased to twenty-four episodes.[21]

text: On May 11, 2012, ABC renewed the series for a second season set to air in the 2012–2013 season in November.[22][23]

text: On June 11, 2012, Tim Doyle was hired as the new showrunner of the series. Doyle was the third showrunner that the series had had since it entered production. Doyle replaced Kevin Abbott, who joined the staff as the showrunner mid-way in the first season. Abbott replaced series creator Jack Burditt, who was the showrunner for the first thirteen episodes. Unlike Burditt, who is no longer credited as an executive producer, Abbott continued to serve as an executive producer while showrunning the fellow ABC sitcom Malibu Country starring Reba McEntire. Both Last Man Standing and Malibu Country aired as a part of ABC's Friday night lineup for the 2012–2013 primetime television season.[24] On November 8, 2012, Abbott re-joined the Last Man Standing crew full-time, after a stint in rehab, and gave Nastaran Dibai full showrunning duties of Malibu Country.[25]

text: On June 11, 2012, it was announced that Alexandra Krosney (Kristin) was let go from the show for creative reasons.[26] Krosney was replaced by Amanda Fuller in season 2.[27] On June 19, 2012, it was also announced that twins Luke and Evan Kruntchev, who played the role of Boyd in season 1, would not be returning; they were replaced by Flynn Morrison in season 2.[28] The character of Boyd was also age-advanced from two years old to five years old.[29] Jordan Masterson plays Ryan, Boyd's father, in a recurring role beginning in season 2.[30] The role was previously played by Nick Jonas, who guest-starred in one episode in season 1.[31]

text: The second season initially received a 13-episode order. ABC announced on November 12, 2012, that an additional three scripts had been ordered.[32] On November 27, five more episodes were ordered to bring the second-season episode total to 18.[33]

text: On May 10, 2013, the series was renewed for a third season,[34] which premiered on September 20, 2013, and ended on April 25, 2014, after 22 episodes.[35]

text: On May 10, 2014, ABC renewed Last Man Standing for a fourth season, which premiered on October 3, 2014.[36] Allen and Elizondo guest-starred as their Last Man Standing characters in a crossover episode with the fellow ABC Friday sitcom Cristela.[37]

text: On May 10, 2015, ABC announced the show had been renewed for a fifth season. Last Man Standing had become a solid performer for the Friday night lineup at ABC, which with the help of Shark Tank and 20/20 has become the top network among adults 18–49 for the night. Leading off Friday night for ABC, the sitcom averaged a 1.8 rating in adults 18–49 and 8.2 million viewers overall, according to Nielsen's Live+7 estimates.[38][39]

text: On May 13, 2016, ABC renewed the series for a sixth and final season, which premiered on September 23, 2016.[40]

text: Cancellation[edit]

text: On May 10, 2017, ABC canceled Last Man Standing after six seasons, despite the series being the second most-watched ABC sitcom during the 2016–17 season (based on Live+7 figures), with ratings remaining mostly steady during its sixth season.[41] A rep for 20th Century Fox TV said cancellation decisions are made by ABC. "This was a scheduling decision," wrote Jori Arancio, senior vice president of ABC Entertainment and ABC Studios. ABC and its production partner for the show, 20th Century Fox TV, typically negotiate licensing fees prior to each season; however, the network decided to cancel the show without doing so. Also, the contract between 20th Century Fox Television and ABC for the show, in which 20th Century Fox Television covered the cost of production, had expired after six seasons. Had the series been renewed for a seventh season, ABC would have been required to pick up Last Man Standing's production costs, which the network was unwilling to do.[42]

text: The cancellation was met with outrage from the show's fans, many of whom took to social media to voice their displeasure and petition for another network to pick up the show.[43] It also happened some months after lead actor Tim Allen (who is also a real-life Republican) said in an interview on Jimmy Kimmel Live!, that being a Republican in Hollywood is "like 1930s Germany. You gotta be real careful around here, you know. You'll get beat up if you don't believe what everybody believes." His comment was widely criticized, especially his comparing the treatment of Republicans in Hollywood with Nazi Germany.[44]

text: A viewer petition on the website Change.org calling for ABC to reinstate Last Man Standing surpassed 380,000 signatures as of May 23, 2017.[45] In a conference call with reporters earlier in May, ABC president Channing Dungey stated, "Last Man Standing was a challenging one for me, because it was a steady performer. Once we made the decision not to continue with comedy on Friday, it was just kind of that's where we landed." Dungey cited studio ownership, future creative direction, ratings and viewer engagement as all factors in her decision.[46]

text: Tim Allen voiced his displeasure with the cancellation, tweeting on May 16: "Stunned and blindsided by the network I called home for the last six years."[47]

text: On May 20, 2017, Howard Kurtzman, president of 20th Century Fox Television, reportedly showed some interest in his studio continuing to produce the show. "We're starting to explore that," Kurtzman said. "...[Fox Co-President] Jonnie [Davis] and I are hopeful that we can find another home for it."[48] Variety also confirmed in an exclusive report that 20th Century Fox Television would shop the series to other networks and streaming services in hopes it would be picked up for a seventh season;[49] another home was not found, however.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: While popular among viewers (receiving an 82% "Fresh" rating on Rotten Tomatoes[50] and 7.5/10 stars on IMDb[51]), Last Man Standing received generally negative reviews from critics. Season one has an approval rating of 16% on Rotten Tomatoes[52] and a score of 33 out of 100 on Metacritic.[53] The Hollywood Reporter commented: "A predictable sitcom with a stupid premise and bad acting."[54] Los Angeles Times: "The jokes and plots have been efficiently constructed, but most have no traction; they slide right off you, and the characters themselves seem disconnected from one another."[55] Entertainment Weekly offered a slightly more favorable review of the show: "When I look at the now-rounded softness of Tim Allen, and note once again how his sandpaper voice contrasts winningly with his hopeful eyes, it's impossible to plunge a shiv into this series."[56]

text: Season two scored 40% at Rotten Tomatoes.[57] Entertainment Weekly commented: "I think it's time the folks involved with Last take a closer look at All in the Family, in which the prejudice was built around real jokes."[58] The A.V. Club: "The problem with Last Man Standing's attempts to go political is exemplified by the first scene of the season première, which remains one of the most uncomfortable scenes of television I've ever watched ... doing its best to push buttons in the audience that don't need to be pushed, as if it thinks what made [Norman] Lear's sitcoms a success was the yelling or the mentions of social issues that people sometimes argued about."[59] Philly.com wrote about season three: "The unlikely comeback vehicle for Tim Allen, Last Man Standing on ABC, is a thoroughly traditional, absolutely charming sitcom. [...] Last Man is both economical and efficient, getting excellent comic mileage out of the most marginal bit players."[60]

text: The series was particularly popular among conservatives, many of whom viewed the show as a counterpoint to Modern Family, another 20th Century Fox sitcom that aired on ABC at the same time and featured more liberal ideologies.[42] A study conducted during the 2016 US Presidential Election found that it was the tenth most popular show on television with Republicans.[61]

text: Ratings[edit]

text: ABC's series premiere of Last Man Standing drew a 3.5 adults 18–49 rating. That was 9% better than the 3.2 adults 18–49 rating for the series premiere of No Ordinary Family in the same time-slot the previous year (which was two weeks earlier in the season). Season 2 of Last Man Standing premiered with a 2.0, down about 38% from its first-season premiere, but up about 18% from the previous season's finale.[62]

text:
Season
Timeslot (ET)
No. of
episodes
Premiered
Ended
TV season
Rank
Viewers
(million)
Live + DVR
viewers

Date
Premiere viewers
(million)
Premiere 18–49
rating/share
Date
Finale viewers
(million)
Finale 18–49
rating/share

1
Tuesday 8:00 pm
24
October 11, 2011
12.93[63]
3.4/10[63]
May 8, 2012
6.62[64]
1.7/5[64]
2011–12
50
9.12[65]
9.76[66]

2
Friday 8:00 pm
18
November 2, 2012
8.07[67]
2.0/7[67]
March 22, 2013
7.85[68]
1.6/6[68]
2012–13
53[69]
7.93[70]
8.34[71]

3
22
September 20, 2013
6.67[72]
1.5/6[72]
April 25, 2014
6.10[73]
1.4/6[73]
2013–14
58
7.17[74]
7.92[75]

4
22
October 3, 2014
6.91[76]
1.3/5[76]
April 17, 2015
6.16[77]
1.1/5[77]
2014–15
60[78]
8.18[78]
8.52[79]

5
22
September 25, 2015
6.26[80]
1.1/5[80]
April 22, 2016
5.94[81]
1.0/4[81]
2015–16
56[82]
7.96[82]
TBA

6
22
September 23, 2016
5.95[83]
1.1/5[83]
March 31, 2017
6.06[84]
1.1/5[84]
2016–17
41[85]
8.06[85]
TBA

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: Last Man Standing was nominated for a 2012 People's Choice Award for "Favorite New TV Comedy", but lost to CBS's 2 Broke Girls.

text:
Year
Association
Category
Nominee / episode
Outcome

2011
ASCAP Film and Television Music Awards
Top Television Series[citation needed]
Carl Thiel (composer)
Won

2012
People's Choice Awards
Favorite New TV Comedy
Last Man Standing
Nominated

Kids' Choice Awards
Favorite TV Actor
Tim Allen
Nominated

TV Guide Magazine's Fan Favorites Awards
Favorite Comeback[86]
Won

Young Artist Awards
Best Performance in a TV Series (Comedy or Drama) – Supporting Young Actress
Kaitlyn Dever
Nominated

2013
Environmental Media Awards
Television Episodic Comedy[87]
"Mother Fracker"
Won

ASCAP Film and Television Music Awards
Top Television Series[88]
Carl Thiel (composer)
Won

2014
Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards
Outstanding Cinematography For A Multi-Camera Series
Donald A. Morgan – "Eve's Boyfriend"
Nominated

ASCAP Film and Television Music Awards
Top Television Series[89]
Carl Thiel (composer)
Won

2015
ASCAP Screen Music Awards
Top Television Series[90]
Carl Thiel (composer)
Won

text: Syndication[edit]

text: On September 4, 2015, the series joined the CMT Network with a mini-marathon of episodes. On September 3, 2015, it was announced that ABC Family (now Freeform) had obtained syndication rights to the series, which began airing episodes on September 28, 2015.[91] Additionally, on May 15, 2015, it was announced that Hallmark Channel has obtained the rights to the sitcom and began airing the series in January 2016.[92] Five seasons are available for streaming on Netflix and the sixth and final season is also available on Hulu. The syndication of Last Man Standing is a major success in a time when few off-network reruns were becoming hits.[42]

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: Last Man Standing aired on ABC in the U.S.,[93] on Fox8, Network Ten and Eleven (previously aired on One) in Australia,[94] City in Canada, and TV3 in New Zealand.[95] In the United Kingdom and Ireland, it premiered on October 9, 2012.[96] The second season premiered on January 30, 2014.[97]


document_title: U.S. history of alcohol minimum purchase age by state

question_text: when did the drinking age change to 21 in nj

text: The alcohol laws of the United States regarding minimum age for purchase have changed over time.  This history is given in the table below.  Unless otherwise noted, if different alcohol categories have different minimum purchase ages, the age listed below is set at the lowest age given (e.g. if the purchase age is 18 for beer and 21 for wine or spirits, as was the case in several states, the age in the table will read as "18", not "21").  In addition, the purchase age is not necessarily the same as the minimum age for consumption of alcoholic beverages, although they have often been the same.

text:
As one can see in the table below, there has been much volatility in the states' drinking ages since the
repeal of Prohibition in 1933.  Shortly after the ratification of the 21st amendment in December, most states set their purchase ages at 21 since that was the Voting age at the time. Most of these limits remained constant until the early 1970s.  From 1969 to 1976, some 30 states lowered their purchase ages, generally to 18. This was primarily because the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 in 1971 with the 26th amendment. Many states started to lower their minimum drinking age in response, most of this occurring in 1972 or 1973.[1][2][3] Twelve states kept their purchase ages at 21 since repeal of Prohibition and never changed them.

text: From 1976 to 1983, several states voluntarily raised their purchase ages to 19 (or, less commonly, 20 or 21), in part to combat drunk driving fatalities.[citation needed] In 1984, Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act, which required states to raise their ages for purchase and public possession to 21 by October 1986 or lose 10% of their federal highway funds. By mid-1988, all 50 states and the District of Columbia had raised their purchase ages to 21 (but not Puerto Rico, Guam, or the Virgin Islands, see Additional Notes below). South Dakota and Wyoming were the final two states to comply with the age 21 mandate. The current drinking age of 21 remains a point of contention among many Americans, because of it being higher than the age of majority (18 in most states) and higher than the drinking ages of most other countries. The National Minimum Drinking Age Act is also seen as a congressional sidestep of the tenth amendment. Although debates have not been highly publicized, a few states have proposed legislation to lower their drinking age,[4] while Guam has raised its drinking age to 21 in July 2010.[5]

text:
State
Pre-Prohibition(prior to 1919)
Post-Prohibition(after 1933)
1970s / 26th Amendment(adopted in 1971)
1980s / Drinking Age Act of 1984
21st century

Alabama

Pre 1881:None1881:21 (none with consent of parent)[6]
21
1975:Lowered to 19[7]
1986:Raised to 21[8]
21  (no one underage is allowed consumption Section 28-1)

Alaska

?
21[7]
1970:Lowered to 19[9]
1984:Raised to 21 with grandfather clause (if born before January 1, 1965)[10][11]
21

Arizona

?
21[11]
1972:Lowered to 19[12][13]
1985:Raised to 21[8]
21

Arkansas

Pre 1925:None[7]1925:21[7]
21
21[14]
21[8]
21

California

Pre 1891:Regulated by municipality/county (common age was 16)[15][16][17]1891:18 (statewide)[18]
1933:21[7]
21
21[8]
21 (except small amounts for religious ceremonies)

Colorado

None[11]
1945:18: for beer21: for wine and liquor[7]
18[19]
Raised to 21 in 1987[8]
21

Connecticut

?
21[11]
1972:Lowered to 18[20]
1982:Raised to 191983:Raised to 201985:Raised to 21[21]
21 (exemptions: (1) a person over age eighteen who is an employee or permit holder under section 30-90a and who possesses alcoholic liquor in the course of such person's employment or business, (2) a minor who possesses alcoholic liquor on the order of a practicing physician, or (3) a minor who possesses alcoholic liquor while accompanied by a parent, guardian or spouse of the minor, who has attained the age of twenty-one. Nothing in this subsection shall be construed to burden a person's exercise of religion under section 3 of article first of the Constitution of the state in violation of subsection (a) of section 52-571b.[22]

Delaware

?
21[11]
1972:Lowered to 20[13]
1984:Raised to 21[8]
21

District of Columbia

?
18: for beer and wine[11]21: for liquor[23][24]
18: for beer and wine[13][24]21: for liquor
1986:Raised to 21 with grandfather clause.[25][26]
21

Florida

?
18[7]
1980:19[27]
1985:Raised to 21 with grandfather clause[27]
21[28]

Georgia

?
21[11]
1972: Lowered to 18[12]
1984:Raised to 19[14]1985:Raised to 20[14]1986:Raised to 21[14]
21

Hawaii

?
21[7]
1972:Lowered to 18[13]
1986:Raised to 21[8]
21

Idaho

?
20: for beer[29][30]21: for wine and liquor[11][31]
1972:Lowered to 19 (all)[13][32]
1987:Raised to 21 in 1987 (Apr 11) with grandfather clause[8][33]
21

Illinois

1872:Age of majority (none with written consent of parent)[34]
pre 1961: Age of majority      1961:  Raised to 21[35]
1973:Lowered to 19: for beer and wine21: for liquor[36]
1980:Raised to 21[37]
21

Indiana

?
Post-1934:21[7]
21[14]
21[8]
21

Iowa

?
21[7]
1972:Lowered to 19 in 1972 (Jul 1)1973:Lowered to 18 in 1973 (Jul 1)1978:Raised to 19 in 1978 (Jul 1)[38]
1986:Raised to 21 in 1986 (Jul 1) with grandfather clause.[14][38]
21

Kansas

?
1949:18: for beer and wine with less than 4% ABV21: for liquor[7]
18: for beer and wine with less than 4% ABV[14]21: for beer and wine with 4% ABV or more[14]21: for liquor[14][19]
1985:Raised to 21[8]
21 (However, anyone under 21 may consume cereal malt beverages with parental supervision on their own property)

Kentucky

?
1938:21[7]
21[14]
21[8]
21

Louisiana

?
As of 1948:18[13]
18[19]
1987:Raised to 21 de jure in 1987,[8]but de facto age was still 18 until 1995 due to a sale loophole.1995:De facto age raised to 21 in 1995 when loophole was closed.[39]1996:In 1996, briefly lowered by Louisiana Supreme Court to 18 until it reversed its decision, raising to 21 three months later.[40]Other exceptions still remain.[41]
21 (Exceptions to state law include:[42]
For an established religious purpose;When a person under twenty-one years of age is accompanied by a parent, spouse, or legal guardian twenty-one years of age or older;For medical purposes when purchased as an over the counter medication, or when prescribed or administered by a licensed physician, pharmacist, dentist, nurse, hospital, or medical institution;In a private residence, which shall include a residential dwelling and up to twenty contiguous acres, on which the dwelling is located, owned by the same person who owns the dwelling;The sale, handling, transport, or service in dispensing of any alcoholic beverage pursuant to lawful ownership of an establishment or to lawful employment of a person under twenty-one years of age by a duly licensed manufacturer, wholesaler, or retailer of beverage alcohol.)

Maine

?
21[7]1969:Lowered to 20
1972:Lowered to 18[12]1977:Raised to 20[8][43]
1985:Raised to 21[8]
21

Maryland

?
21[7]
1974:Lowered to 18: for beer and wine21: for liquor[44][45]
1982:Raised to 21 with grandfather clause[8][46]
21 (however anyone can drink when parents, spouses, teachers are present)

Massachusetts

?
21[11]
1973:Lowered to 181979:Raised to 20 in 1979 (Apr 16)[47][48][49]
Raised to 21 in 1985[8]
21

Michigan

?
21[7]
1972:Lowered to 18 in 1972 (Jan 1)[50]
1978:Raised to 19 in 1978 (Dec 3)[51][52]1978:Raised to 21 in 1978 (Dec 21), 18 days later.[8]First state to raise age to 21 since it was lowered
21

Minnesota

?
21[11]
1973:Lowered to 18 (June 1)1976:Raised to 19 (Sept 1)[53]First state to raise age after lowering.

1986:Raised to 21[54]
21

Mississippi

?
1966:18: for beer and wine21: for liquor[7](alcohol not legalized until 1966)
18[19]
Raised to 21 in 1986[8]
21

Missouri

?
1945:21[7]
21
21[8]
21

Montana

?
21[11]
1971:Lowered to 19[55]1973:Lowered to 18[56][57]1979:Raised to 19
1987:Raised to 21[8][58]
21

Nebraska

?
21[59]1969:Lowered to 20
1972:Lowered to 19[59]
1980:Raised to 20[14]1985:Raised to 21[14]
21

Nevada

?
1933:21[7]
21
21[8]
21

New Hampshire

?
21[11]
1973:Lowered to 18[60]1979:Raised to 20
1985:Raised to 21[8][21]
21

New Jersey

Before 1880:NonePost-1880:18 (penalties only against businesses)[61][62][63]
21[citation needed]
1973:Lowered to 18[12]
1980:Raised to 191983:Raised to 21[8][64]
21

New Mexico

?
1934:21[7]
21[14]
21[8]
21

New York

21
18[65]
18
1982:Raised to 19 in 1982 (Dec)1985:Raised to 21 in 1985 (Dec)[21][66][67]
21

North Carolina

?
18[11]
18: for beer and wine[19] 21: for liquor
1983:19: for beer and wine 21: for liquor1986:Raised to 21 in 1986 (Sep 1)[8][26]
21

North Dakota

?
1936:21[7]
21[14]
21[68]
21

Ohio

?
1935:18: for 3.2% ABW beer21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor[69]
18: for 3.2% ABW beer21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor
1982 (Aug. 19 to Oct. 1):19: for 3.2% ABW beer[14]21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor[14]1982 (From Oct. 1):19: beer21: wine and liquor[70]1988:21[14]
21 (However, anyone can drink with parents or legal-age spouse)

Oklahoma

?
Men:21Women:18: 3.2% ABW beer21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor[71]
1976:Lowered to 18 (for 3.2% ABW beer) for both sexes in 1976 (Dec)[72]Last state to lower the drinking age.
1983:Raised to 21[11][73]
21

Oregon

?
1933:21[7]
21
21[8]
21

Pennsylvania

?
1935:21[7]
21
21[8][52]
21

Rhode Island

?
21[11]
1970:Lowered to 18[12][74]
1980:Raised to 191981:Raised to 201984:Raised to 21[21]
21

South Carolina

21[75]
1935:18: for beer and wine21: for liquor[7]
18: for beer and wine[19]21: for liquor
1984:19: for beer and wine[7]21: for liquor1986:Raised to 21[8]
21

South Dakota

?
1934:21 (all)1939:Lowered to 18: for 3.2% beerRaised to 19: for 3.2% beer[76]
1972:18: for beer and wine21: for liquor[13]
1984:19: for beer and wine21: for liquor[8]1988:Raised to 21[58]
21

Tennessee

Pre 1881:None1881:21[77]
21[7]1964:Lowered to 18[7]
1979:Raised to 19
1984:Raised to 21[8]
21

Texas

Pre 1909:21None (with written permission of parent or guardian)Post 1909:21[78][79]
21[7]
1973:Lowered to 18[80]
1981:Raised to 19[81]1986:Raised to 21 in 1986 (Sep 1)[8][26]
21

Utah

?
1935:21[7]
21[14]
21[8]
21

Vermont

?
21[7]
1971:Lowered to 18[82][83]
1986:Raised to 21[21][83]
21

Virginia

?
21[84]
1974:Lowered to 18: for beer and wine(21: for liquor remained)[84]
1981:Raised to 19 for off-premises consumption1983:Raised to 19 (all beer)1985:Raised to 21[84]
21

Washington

"Age of majority"since 1877[85]
21[citation needed]
21
21[8]
21

West Virginia

?
18: for beer and wine 21: for liquor[11]
1972:Lowered to 18 (all)[86]
1983:Raised to 19(& 21 for non-residents)[8][43]1986:Raised to 21[8]
21

Wisconsin

1839–1866:18: for wine and liquorNone: for beerPost-1866:21 (all)[87]
18: for beer21: for wine and spirits1957:21: for residents of bordering states with age limit 21.[88]1963:Raised to 21 (off-premises beer sales, remained 18 for on-premises).[88]
1972:Lowered to 18 (all) in 1972 (Mar)[88]1977:Border state restriction lifted.[88]
1984:Raised to 191986:Raised to 21 (September 1, 1986)[88]
21 (however anyone can drink when parents, spouses, teachers are present)[citation needed]

Wyoming

?
21[7]
1973:Lowered to 19[13]
1988:Raised to 21 in 1988 (Jul 1)[89][90]Last state to raise de jure drinking age to 21
21

American Samoa

?
?
?
21?
21[91]

Northern Mariana Islands

–
–
?
21?
21[92]

Puerto Rico

?
18
18
Kept at 18despite 10% highway fundingpenalty under Drinking Age Act.
18[93]

Virgin Islands

?
?
?
18
18[94]

Guam

?
21?
18
18
Raised to 21 in 2010[5]

text: Additional notes[edit]

text:
Contrary to popular belief, since the National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984, not all states specifically prohibit minors' and young adults' consumption of alcohol in private settings.  That is because the federal law is concerned only with purchase and public possession, not private consumption, and contains several exceptions. As of January 1, 2007, 14 states and the District of Columbia ban underage consumption outright, 19 states do not specifically ban underage consumption outright, and 17 states have family member or location exceptions to their underage consumption laws. Federal law explicitly provides for religious, medical, employment and private club possession exceptions; as of 2005, 31 states have family member or location exceptions to their underage possession laws.[41]
In the 1960s the age for buying or drinking beer and wine in the District of Columbia (Washington, D.C.) was 18; the age for hard liquor was 21.[23][24] Residents from Virginia and Maryland would often drive to D.C. to obtain alcohol. In Louisiana, the 1987 law raising the age from 18 to 21 was deliberately written solely to comply with the National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984 to avoid losing highway funding, while still allowing 18- to 20-year-olds to drink as before.  Not only did it still allow 18- to 20-year-olds to consume in private, it contained a major loophole allowing bars and stores to sell alcohol to 18- to 20-year-olds without penalty (despite purchase being technically illegal) which meant that the de facto age was still 18.[39] In other words, the drinking age was 21 only on paper. This loophole was closed in 1995, but in 1996 the Louisiana Supreme Court declared a drinking age of 21 unconstitutional.[39]  That briefly lowered the de jure purchase age to 18, causing an uproar which prompted the Louisiana Supreme Court to reverse its decision, raising the age to 21 three months later.[40] Other exceptions still remain to this day, including drinking in a private residence,[41] and Louisiana still has some of the most liberal general alcohol laws of any state.
Some states were "dry" well before national Prohibition was enacted in 1919, in some cases since achieving statehood.  Also, some states did not become fully "wet" until several years after the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 (e.g. Mississippi in 1966).  Since 1966, all states and territories of the USA have been "wet", but dry counties and towns still exist in some states.


document_title: List of Prime Ministers of India

question_text: who is the second prime minister of the india

text: List of Prime Ministers of India

text: Key[edit]

text:
Colour key for party of the prime ministers
  Bharatiya Janata Party
  Indian National Congressdesignated Indian National Congress (I) 1977–1996[5]
  Janata Dal
  Janata Party
  Janata Party (Secular)
  Samajwadi Janata Party

Other key
№: Incumbent number
†  Assassinated or died in office
§  Returned to office after a previous term
RES  Resigned
NC  Resigned following a no-confidence motion

text: Prime Ministers of India[edit]

text:
№

Name(birth–death)

Portrait

Prior Office

Party(Alliance)

Elected constituency

Term of office[6]

Appointed by

Lok Sabha[a]

1

Jawaharlal Nehru(1889–1964)

Vice President of Executive Council

Indian National Congress

Phulpur, Uttar Pradesh

15 August 1947

15 April
1952

16 years, 286 days

Lord Mountbatten

Constituent Assembly[b]

15 April 1952

17 April 1957

Rajendra Prasad

1st

17 April 1957

2 April 1962

2nd

2 April 1962

27 May1964[†]

3rd

–

Gulzarilal Nanda (acting) (1898–1998)

Minister of Labour and Employment

Indian National Congress

Sabarkantha, Gujarat

27 May1964

9 June1964

13 days

Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan

2

Lal Bahadur Shastri(1904–1966)

Minister of Home Affairs

Indian National Congress

Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh

9 June1964

11 January1966[†]

1 year, 216 days

Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan

–

Gulzarilal Nanda (acting)(1898–1998)

Minister of Home Affairs

Indian National Congress

Sabarkantha, Gujarat

11 January1966

24 January1966

13 days

Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan

3

Indira Gandhi(1917–1984)

Minister of Information and Broadcasting

Prime Minister
(Re-elected)

Indian National Congress

Rajya Sabha MP for Uttar Pradesh

24 January1966

4 March 1967

11 years, 59 days

Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan

4 March 1967

15 March 1971

V. V. Giri

4th

15 March 1971

24 March1977

5th

4

Morarji Desai(1896–1995)

Minister of Finance and Deputy Prime Minister of India before he resigned in 1969

Janata Party

Surat, Gujarat

24 March1977

28 July1979[RES]

2 years, 126 days

B. D. Jatti
(acting President)

6th

5

Charan Singh(1902–1987)

Minister of Finance

Janata Party (Secular)with INC

Baghpat, Uttar Pradesh

28 July1979

14 January1980[RES]

170 days

Neelam Sanjiva Reddy

(3)

Indira Gandhi(1917–1984)

Former Prime Minister

Indian National Congress (I)

Medak, Andhra Pradesh

14 January1980[§]

31 October1984[†]

4 years, 291 days

Neelam Sanjiva Reddy

7th

6

Rajiv Gandhi(1944–1991)

MP for Amethi

Indian National Congress (I)

Amethi, Uttar Pradesh

31 October1984

31 December 1984

5 years, 32 days

Zail Singh

31 December 1984

2 December1989

8th

7

Vishwanath Pratap Singh(1931–2008)

Minister of Defence

Janata Dal(National Front)

Fatehpur, Uttar Pradesh

2 December1989

10 November1990[NC]

343 days

R. Venkataraman

9th

8

Chandra Shekhar(1927–2007)

MP for Ballia

Samajwadi Janata Partywith INC

Ballia, Uttar Pradesh

10 November1990

21 June1991[c]

223 days

R. Venkataraman

9

Pamulaparti Venkata Narasimha Rao(1921–2004)

Minister of External Affairs

Indian National Congress (I)

Nandyal, Andhra Pradesh

21 June1991

16 May1996

4 years, 330 days

R. Venkataraman

10th

10

Atal Bihari Vajpayee(born 1924)

Minister of External Affairs

Bharatiya Janata Party

Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

16 May1996

1 June1996[RES]

16 days

Shankar Dayal Sharma

11th

11

Haradanahalli Doddegowda Deve Gowda(born 1933)

Chief Minister of Karnataka

Janata Dal(United Front)

Rajya Sabha MP for Karnataka

1 June1996

21 April1997[RES]

324 days

Shankar Dayal Sharma

12

Inder Kumar Gujral(1919–2012)

Minister of External Affairs

Janata Dal(United Front)

Rajya Sabha MP for Bihar

21 April1997

19 March1998

332 days

Shankar Dayal Sharma

(10)

Atal Bihari Vajpayee(born 1924)

Former Prime Minister

Bharatiya Janata Party(NDA)

Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

19 March1998[§]

10 October 1999

6 years, 64 days

K. R. Narayanan

12th

10 October 1999

22 May2004

13th

13

Manmohan Singh(born 1932)

Minister of Finance

Indian National Congress(UPA)

Rajya Sabha MP for Assam

22 May2004

22 May 2009

10 years, 4 days

A. P. J. Abdul Kalam

14th

22 May 2009

26 May2014

Pratibha Patil

15th

14

Narendra Modi(born 1950)

Chief Minister of Gujarat

Bharatiya Janata Party(NDA)

Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh

26 May2014[7]

Incumbent

4 years, 75 days

Pranab Mukherjee

16th

text:
Jump up ^ Although the Prime Minister can be a member of either house of the Parliament, they have to command the confidence of the Lok Sabha. Upon dissolution of the Lok Sabha, the outgoing PM remains in office until their successor is sworn-in.

Jump up ^  The Constituent Assembly of India consisted of 389 members elected in 1946 by the provincial assemblies by a single, transferable-vote system of proportional representation. The Assembly was replaced by the Provisional Parliament of India after adoption of the Constitution on 26 January 1950 until the first general elections.

Jump up ^ Chandra Shekhar officially resigned as Prime Minister on 13 March 1991, but he and his ministers continued in office until Rao succeeded him.


document_title: Where the Heart Is (2000 film)

question_text: who played forney's sister in where the heart is

question_tokens: who played forney 's sister in where the heart is

text: Where the Heart Is (2000 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: After..... 17-year-old and seven months pregnant Novalee Nation (Natalie Portman) is abandoned by boyfriend Willy Jack Pickens (Dylan Bruno) at the local Walmart in Sequoyah when she uses the restroom and buys new shoes, she meets Thelma "Sister" Husband (Stockard Channing) who presents her with a buckeye tree, and Moses Whitecotton (Keith David), a local photographer who advises her to give her baby a strong name. A sickly and homeless Novalee is forced to live in the Walmart, undetected. Novalee is also acquainted with surly librarian Forney Hull (James Frain) who looks after his alcoholic sister Mary Elizabeth (Margaret Hoard). During a thunderstorm Novalee, alone at Walmart, goes into labor. Forney, who is now in awe of Novalee, smashes through the Walmart window to help deliver her child whom she names Americus. Novalee instantly becomes a media darling, and in hospital is befriended by Nurse Lexie Coop (Ashley Judd). Her estranged mother Mama Lil (Sally Field), visits after seeing her daughter on television, and disappears with the money donated by well-wishers.  Sister Husband arrives and offers to take in Novalee and Americus. Three years later, Novalee becomes a photographer with the help of Moses. When a tornado blows through Sequoyah, Sister Husband is killed. In her memory, Novalee shoots a picture of Americus and the still-standing buckeye tree amidst the damage from the storm. After the funeral, Novalee finds out that she is the beneficiary of Sister's estate, totaling around $40,000. Novalee builds a new home for herself and Americus on Sister's land.

text: Meanwhile, after a spell in prison and travelling to Nashville, Willy Jack becomes a one-hit-wonder after a slow start with Beat Of A Heart, a song he wrote in jail. He teams with cranky music agent Ruth Meyers (Joan Cusack), who gives him a makeover and the stage name "Billy Shadow." At the same time, Novalee arrives Las Vegas to accept an award in a photo contest she has won, narrowly missing Willy Jack who happens to be in the same hotel where Ruth breaks into his hotel room to inform Willy Jack his old cellmate Tommy Reynolds is suing him for plagiarism and drops him as a client for disloyalty. Upon her return to Sequoyah, Novalee discovers Lexie has been attacked by a new love interest who molested her two eldest children, nearly beating her to death as she attempted to protect them. Lexie's injuries hinder her nursing job, and she and her children have to move in with Novalee and Americus. A guilty Lexie breaks down feeling guilty and angry, tearfully regretting her choice in men.

text: Mary Elizabeth later passes away and when Forney does not appear at the funeral, Novalee finds him in a hotel and comforts him. They act on the feelings they have denied for so long and spend the night together. Forney confesses his love for her, but Novalee confides in Lexie she has never considered herself good enough for Forney and is confused about her feelings for him. Her continued feelings of unworthiness become overwhelming when he says that he intends to stay with her rather than resume his studies at Bowdoin College in Maine. Believing his life would be a dead end with her in Sequoyah, Novalee struggles to lie to Forney saying she does not love him. Heartbroken and rejected by Novalee, Forney returns to college in Maine. Novalee learns that Lexie is seeing Ernie (Bob Coonrod), an exterminator who does not possess the physical attributes that have in the past attracted her interest, but she falls in love with him after learning he gave his ex-wife his restored 1967 Chevy Camaro in exchange for custody of his step-daughter whom he adopted as his own. The couple marry, and Lexie tells Novalee that she's pregnant.

text: Severely depressed at his ruined career following the lawsuit, Willy Jack becomes a depressed alcoholic while driving with a woman across country. He wanders off drunk and collapses on a railroad track where he is unable to move as a train approaches. On Americus's 5th birthday, Novalee picks up a newspaper and sees an article about Willy Jack having lost his legs some months before and recently being robbed of his wheelchair. Novalee visits Willy Jack in the hospital and he confesses his whole life would've been different if he hadn't left her. She sees how Willy Jack is a changed man and is able to finally forgive and let go of him, but she warns him never to contact Americus. Novalee realizes now her lies are similar mistakes with Forney. She drives Willy Jack home to Tennessee and continues to Maine to find Forney at Bowdoin. Novalee tells him she really does love him and they return to Oklahoma and marry. The final scene is of their wedding, which takes place in a Walmart.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Natalie Portman as Novalee Nation
Ashley Judd as Lexie Coop
Stockard Channing as Thelma "Sister" Husband
Joan Cusack as Ruth Meyers
James Frain as Forney Hull
Dylan Bruno as Willy Jack Pickens
Keith David as Moses Whitecotton
Richard Andrew Jones as Mr. Sprock
Sally Field as Mama Lil
Angee Hughes as Religious woman
Margaret Hoard as Mary Elizabeth Hull
Mackenzie Fitzgerald as Americus Nation
David Alvarado as Tommy Reynolds
Richard Nance as Johnny DeSotto
Bob Coonrod as Ernie
Cody Linley as Brownie Coop
Heather Kafka as Delphia
Adrian Garza as Young Brownie (uncredited)

text: Differences between novel and film[edit]

text:
Novalee finds the number 5 unlucky in the movie, and the number 7 unlucky in the novel.
Sister Husband has white hair in the movie, and blue hair in the novel.
In the novel, Lexie marries Leon Yoder.
In the film, Forney returns to school. In the novel, Forney instead travels for some time before settling in Chicago.
Novalee's marriage to Forney only occurs in the film.
In the novel, Lexie is obese. She is constantly trying new fad diets and weight loss schemes. This aspect of her character is removed from the film version.
In the novel, Benny Goodluck gives Novalee a buckeye tree for good luck. In the film, the buckeye tree was given to Novalee by Sister Husband.
In the novel, Moses has a wife named Certain whom Novalee also becomes close with. She is entirely omitted from the film, as is Benny Goodluck.

text: Music[edit]

text: Original music for the film was produced by Mason Daring. A soundtrack of the original music was released by RCA Records, as well as a music compilation soundtrack featuring songs used in the film by artists such as Emmylou Harris, Lyle Lovett, Martina McBride, and John Hiatt.

text: The song "That's the Beat of a Heart" was performed by The Warren Brothers and Sara Evans. A music video was made for the song, which is included as a bonus extra on the DVD release, and features a number of scenes from the film.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The film received mostly negative reviews. Metacritic gives it a score of 30% based on reviews from 28 critics.[1] Rotten Tomatoes gives it a 35% approval rating, based on reviews from 97 critics, with the sites consensus stating that the film's "poor script and messy plot undermines the decent cast."[2]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The film opened in theaters in the United States on April 28, 2000. Where the Heart Is accumulated (USD)$8,292,939 in its opening weekend, opening at number 4.

text: The film went on to make $33,772,838 at the North American box office, and an additional $7,090,880 internationally for a worldwide total of $40,863,718.[3]


document_title: Claire Kincaid

question_text: on law and order what happened to claire kincaid

text: Claire Kincaid

text: Character overview[edit]

text: Kincaid is introduced in the episode "Sweeps" as an Assistant District Attorney in the Manhattan DA's office.[1] She is portrayed as an idealistic, outspoken feminist[2] and agnostic[3] who becomes increasingly disillusioned with her job. She is vocally pro-choice, opposes the death penalty, and has ambivalent feelings about drug prohibition.[4] These political views often come into conflict with the realities of the legal system. She graduated from Harvard Law School, where her stepfather Mac Geller (played by Len Cariou) had been one of her professors.[5]

text: It is suggested throughout the fifth and sixth season that Kincaid and Executive ADA Jack McCoy (Sam Waterston) have a sexual relationship. However, it is not explicitly stated until season 9, long after the character had exited the show.

text: Notable episodes[edit]

text: During her first season on the show, she is paired with Executive ADA Ben Stone (Michael Moriarty). During the prosecution of a rape case, he threatens to fire her after she fails to share key information she learned while interviewing a witness, which subsequently comes out in trial, jeopardizing the case. Stone eventually relents and refuses to accept her resignation, relating to her because of a key mistake he made early in his career.[6] In another case, Kincaid temporarily resigns after it is revealed she and a judge that the DA's office is prosecuting were once lovers, possibly jeopardizing the case against him.[7]

text: After Stone resigns from the DA's office,[8] she is paired with Jack McCoy (Sam Waterston), the new Executive ADA.[2] In the two seasons they appear in together, she and the brash, competitive McCoy often butt heads over the social and political implications of their trial strategies, as well as McCoy's penchant for going to legal extremes to get a conviction. The two eventually form a close bond, however, and it is hinted in several episodes that the two become lovers.

text: In the episode "Aftershock", Kincaid is killed just as she is considering leaving the DA's office; her car is struck by a drunk driver as she takes an inebriated Lennie Briscoe (Jerry Orbach) home from a bar.[5] McCoy is haunted by her death, as evidenced by his intense, legally questionable efforts to prosecute a drunk driver[9] and his indignation at being questioned about the circumstances of her death.[10] Following her death, Briscoe re-enters Alcoholics Anonymous and remains sober for the rest of his life; it is implied that he feels his drinking was responsible for her death.[11]

text: In one episode of Season 6, "Corpus Delicti", Kincaid was played by Jill Hennessy's identical twin sister, Jacqueline Hennessy, in certain courtroom scenes.[12] This was because Jill was filming in Baltimore for the crossover episode of Homicide: Life on the Street, which was broadcast a few weeks later.[13] Jacqueline Hennessy's performance was uncredited.

text: Jamie Ross (Carey Lowell) replaced Kincaid as McCoy's assistant.[11]

text: Behind the scenes[edit]

text: The Kincaid character was written out after Hennessy expressed concern about being typecast as an "uptight lawyer".[14] Kincaid was originally intended to be portrayed as paralyzed and leaving the DA's office for private practice after the events of "Aftershock". This was eventually changed to Kincaid's death, which wasn't officially confirmed until Season 9 as for two and a half years, Kincaid's fate was ambiguous. This was much to the surprise of Hennessy, who rejects claims she refused to come back for a follow-up episode: "I made it clear I wanted to come back. I found out they killed me off from a friend who watched the show and told me, 'Jill, they said you were dead!' I was surprised, because I always thought I would return. Even now, I'd love to come back for some bizarre flashbacks."[14]


document_title: Chromatid

question_text: before prophase i chromatid arms in a chromosome are

text: Chromatid

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: A chromatid (Greek khrōmat- 'color' + -id) is one copy of a newly copied chromosome which is still joined to the original chromosome by a single centromere.

text: Before replication, one chromosome is composed of one DNA molecule. Following replication, each chromosome is composed of two DNA molecules; in other words, DNA replication itself increases the amount of DNA but does not increase the number of chromosomes. The two identical copies—each forming one half of the replicated chromosome—are called chromatids.[1] During the later stages of cell division these chromatids separate longitudinally to become individual chromosomes.[2]

text: Chromatid pairs are normally genetically identical, and said to be homozygous; however, if mutation(s) occur, they will present slight differences, in which case they are heterozygous. The pairing of chromatids should not be confused with the ploidy of an organism, which is the number of homologous versions of a chromosome.

text: Chromonema is the fibre-like structure in prophase in the primary stage of DNA condensation. In metaphase, they are called chromatids.

text: Sister chromatids[edit]

text: Chromatids may be sister or non-sister chromatids. A sister chromatid is either one of the two chromatids of the same chromosome joined together by a common centromere. A pair of sister chromatids is called a dyad. Once sister chromatids have separated (during the anaphase of mitosis or the anaphase II of meiosis during sexual reproduction), they are again called chromosomes. Although having the same genetic mass as the individual chromatids that made up its parent, the daughter "molecules" are called chromosomes in a similar way that one child of a pair of twins is not referred to as a single twin. The DNA sequence of two sister chromatids is completely identical (apart from very rare DNA copying errors).

text: Sister chromatid exchange (SCE) is the exchange of genetic information between two sister chromatids. SCEs can occur during mitosis or meiosis. SCEs appear to primarily reflect DNA recombinational repair processes responding to DNA damage (see articles Sister chromatids and Sister chromatid exchange).

text: Non-sister chromatids, on the other hand, refers to either of the two chromatids of paired homologous chromosomes, that is, the pairing of a paternal chromosome and a maternal chromosome. In chromosomal crossovers, non-sister (homologous) chromatids form chiasmata to exchange genetic material during the prophase I of meiosis (See Homologous recombination).


document_title: Cape Fear (1991 film)

question_text: where is the movie cape fear set in

question_tokens: where is the movie cape fear set in

text: Cape Fear (1991 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Sam Bowden is a lawyer in the town of New Essex, North Carolina. Max Cady is a former client whom Bowden defended 14 years earlier when he was working as a public defender in Atlanta. Cady was tried for the violent rape and battery of a young woman. Bowden, appalled by Cady's crime, buried evidence that might have lightened Cady's sentence or even secured his acquittal. After his release from prison, Cady tracks down Bowden. He studied law in prison and assumed his own defense, unsuccessfully appealing his conviction several times. Cady hints he has learned about Bowden burying the report.

text: Several incidents involving Cady impact the Bowden family, which consists of Bowden's wife Leigh and their teenage daughter Danielle. The family dog is poisoned. Cady lurks near their property. Bowden attempts to have Cady arrested, but police lieutenant Elgart, says there is no evidence of a crime. At a bar, Cady meets Bowden's colleague Lori Davis. At her house, Cady cuffs her hands, breaks her arm, and rapes her. Lori refuses to press charges, ashamed of what happened. Bowden hires private investigator Claude Kersek to follow Cady.

text: Cady approaches Danielle at her school by impersonating her new drama teacher and kisses her. Bowden warns him to leave his family and him alone or suffer the consequences. Cady secretly tapes the conversation with a hidden recorder. Kersek persuades Bowden to hire three men to beat Cady, but as Bowden watches from a hiding place, Cady turns the tide on his attackers and viciously beats them. Cady uses the recording of Bowden's threat and an exaggerated display of his own injuries to file for a restraining order against Bowden. Cady's new lawyer, Lee Heller, files a complaint with the North Carolina State Bar, vowing to have Bowden disbarred.

text: Kersek reasons that Cady may try to enter the Bowden house during Bowden's appearance at a bar hearing out of town. They fake Bowden's departure and hide in the house, hoping that Cady will break in so that he can be shot in self-defense. Cady kills Kersek and a housekeeper before escaping. Bowden, Leigh, and Danielle discover the bodies. Horrified, they flee to their houseboat, which is docked upstate along Cape Fear. Cady follows them by tying himself to the chassis of their car. He attacks the family on the boat, beating and tying up Bowden, and prepares to rape Leigh and Danielle while making Bowden watch. Danielle sprays Cady with lighter fluid while he lights a cigar, engulfing him in flames and causing him to jump off the boat. However, Cady clings to a rope and pulls himself back on board.

text: As the boat is rocked by a violent thunderstorm, a badly burned Cady confronts Bowden. The storm knocks him off his feet, allowing Bowden to gain the upper hand once the women make it to shore. Bowden uses Cady's handcuffs to shackle Cady to the boat. When the boat hits a rock and is destroyed, the fight continues on shore. A raging tide carries Cady away, and he drowns. Bowden washes the blood from his hands before rejoining Leigh and Danielle.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Robert De Niro as Max Cady
Nick Nolte as Sam Bowden
Jessica Lange as Leigh Bowden
Juliette Lewis as Danielle Bowden
Joe Don Baker as Claude Kersek
Robert Mitchum as Lt. Elgart
Gregory Peck as Lee Heller
Illeana Douglas as Lori Davis
Fred Dalton Thompson as Tom Broadbent

text: Production[edit]

text: The film was adapted by Wesley Strick from the original screenplay by James R. Webb, which was an adaptation from the novel The Executioners by John D. MacDonald.

text: It was originally developed by Steven Spielberg, who eventually decided it was too violent and traded it to Scorsese to get back Schindler's List, which Scorsese had decided not to make. Spielberg stayed on as a producer, through his Amblin Entertainment, but chose not to be credited personally on the finished film.[2]

text: Nick Nolte is taller than Robert De Niro, but for the movie, Nolte lost weight and De Niro developed muscles until De Niro appeared to be the stronger man. De Niro reportedly took his body fat down to 4%.[3] De Niro also paid a doctor $20,000 to grind down his teeth for the role to give the character a more menacing look.[4]

text: The work of Alfred Hitchcock was also influential on the style of Cape Fear. As with the 1962 film version, where director J. Lee Thompson specifically acknowledged Hitchcock's influence, strove to use Hitchcock's style, and had Bernard Hermann write the score, Scorsese made his version in the Hitchcock manner, especially through the use of unusual camera angles, lighting, and editing techniques. Additionally, Scorsese's version has opening credits designed by regular Hitchcock collaborator Saul Bass and the link to Hitchcock is cemented by the reuse of the original score by Bernard Herrmann, albeit reworked by Elmer Bernstein.[5]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The film was a box office success, making $182,291,969 worldwide[6] on a $35 million budget.

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The film received generally positive reviews by critics, with praise garnered towards its performances, direction, cinematography and editing. It received a 74% "Certified Fresh" rating on the film aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes based on 46 reviews, with an average score of 7.1 out of 10. The consensus reads, "Smart and stylish, Cape Fear is a gleefully mainstream shocker from Martin Scorsese, with a terrifying Robert De Niro performance."[7] On Metacritic, the film holds a score of 73 out of 100 based on 9 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews."[8] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.[9]

text: Roger Ebert gave the film three stars, commenting: "Cape Fear is impressive moviemaking, showing Scorsese as a master of a traditional Hollywood genre who is able to mold it to his own themes and obsessions. But as I look at this $35 million movie with big stars, special effects and production values, I wonder whether it represents a good omen from the finest director now at work."[10]

text: Awards and honors[edit]

text:
Award
Category
Subject
Result

Academy Awards
Best Actor
Robert De Niro
Nominated

Best Supporting Actress
Juliette Lewis
Nominated

Golden Globe Awards
Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama
Robert De Niro
Nominated

Best Supporting Actress – Motion Picture
Juliette Lewis
Nominated

BAFTA Awards
Best Cinematography
Freddie Francis
Nominated

Best Editing
Thelma Schoonmaker
Nominated

Berlin International Film Festival
Golden Berlin Bear[11]
Martin Scorsese
Nominated

Broadcast Music, Inc.
BMI Film Music Award
Elmer Bernstein
Won

CFCA Awards
Best Director
Martin Scorsese
Nominated

Best Supporting Actress
Juliette Lewis
Nominated

Most Promising Actress
Won

David di Donatello Award
Best Foreign Actor
Robert De Niro
Nominated

Jupiter Award
Best International Actor
Won

Kansas City Film Critics Circle Award
Best Supporting Actress
Juliette Lewis
Won

MTV Movie Awards
Best Kiss
Nominated

Robert De Niro
Nominated

Best Male Performance
Nominated

Best Villain
Nominated

National Society of Film Critics Award
Best Supporting Actress
Juliette Lewis
2nd place

New York Film Critics Circle Awards
Best Supporting Actress
2nd place

Best Cinematographer
Freddie Francis
2nd place

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: The film was parodied in the 1993 Simpsons episode "Cape Feare", with Sideshow Bob in the role of Cady. They also pay homage to another Robert Mitchum film The Night of the Hunter in which Sideshow Bob's knuckles (scaled down for a cartoon character with one fewer finger on each hand) say "Luv" (Love) and "Hāt" (Hate, with the diacritical mark providing the long vowel).

text: In 1995, professional wrestler Waylon Mercy made his WWE (then WWF) debut, with his gimmick based on De Niro's portrayal of Max Cady. However, he only lasted a few months with the company due to a buildup of previous injuries, and the character was abandoned. In 2013, WWE debuted Bray Wyatt, another character partly based on De Niro's portrayal.[12]

text: In the Seinfeld episode "The Red Dot", as Elaine's boyfriend rampages through her office to get revenge on Jerry for making him lose his job, Elaine makes a reference to the film.

text: In the Rick and Morty episode "Ricksy Business", Lucy (the deranged maid who tries to rape Jerry) is shown clinging to the underside chassis of their car as they drive home, maniacally shouting "Ha, I'm doing like in Cape Fear!"