document_title: Post-Soviet states

question_text: how many independent states emerged after the collapse of the soviet union

root

text: Post-Soviet states

text: Country comparison[edit]

text: States and geographical groupings[edit]

text: The 15 post-Soviet states are typically divided into the following five groupings. Each of these regions has its own common set of traits, owing not only to geographic and cultural factors but also to that region's history in relation to Russia. In addition, there are a number of de facto independent, but internationally unrecognized states (see the section Separatist conflicts below).

tag: p

text: Baltic states

text:
Estonia
 Latvia
 Lithuania

tag: ul

text: Central Asia

text:
Kazakhstan
 Kyrgyzstan
 Tajikistan
 Turkmenistan
 Uzbekistan

text: Eastern Europe

text:
Belarus
 Moldova
 Ukraine

text: Eurasia

text: Russia

text: Transcaucasia

text:
Armenia
 Azerbaijan
 Georgia

text: General statistics[edit]

text:
Country
Coat of arms
Flag
Capital
Independence
Area (km²)
Area (mi²)
Population
Density
(pop./km²)
Density
(pop./mi²)
Date
Population source

Russia
(Russian Federation)

Moscow
1991-12-12[4]
17,098,242
6,601,668
143,975,923
8.42
21.8
January 1, 2015
Official estimate

Ukraine[5]

Kiev
1991-08-24
603,628
233,062
45,377,581
75
194
April 1, 2014
Monthly official estimate

Belarus
(Republic of Belarus)

Minsk
1991-08-25
207,600
80,155
9,765,469
46
119
July 1, 2014
Quarterly official estimate

Uzbekistan
(Republic of Uzbekistan)

Tashkent
1991-08-31
444,103
171,469
30,492,800
69
179
January 1, 2014
Official estimate

Kazakhstan
(Republic of Kazakhstan)

Astana
1991-12-16
2,724,900
1,052,090
17,186,000
6.31
16
February 1, 2014
Monthly official estimate

Georgia

Tbilisi (executive)
Kutaisi (legislative)
1991-04-09
69,700
26,911
4,490,500
64
166
January 1, 2014
Official estimate

Azerbaijan
(Republic of Azerbaijan)

Baku
1991-08-30
86,600
33,436
9,477,100
109
282
December 31, 2013
Official estimate

Lithuania
(Republic of Lithuania)

Vilnius
1918-02-16 (current)
1990-03-11 (restored)
65,300
25,212
2,944,459
45
117
January 1, 2014
Monthly official estimate

Moldova
(Republic of Moldova)

Chișinău
1991-08-27
33,843
13,067
3,550,900
105
272
January 1, 2017
Official estimate

Latvia
(Republic of Latvia)

Riga
1918-11-18 (current)
1991-08-21 (restored)
64,562
24,928
2,005,200
31
80
January 1, 2014
Monthly official estimate

Kyrgyzstan
(Kyrgyz Republic)

Bishkek
1991-08-31
199,945
77,199
5,895,100
29.5
76
2015
Official estimate

Tajikistan
(Republic of Tajikistan)

Dushanbe
1991-09-09
143,100
55,251
8,160,000
57
148
January 1, 2014
Official estimate

Armenia
(Republic of Armenia)

Yerevan
1991-09-21
29,743
11,484
3,024,100
102
264
2012
Official estimate

Turkmenistan

Ashgabat
1991-10-27
491,210
189,657
5,240,000
10.7
27.7
July 1, 2013
UN estimate

Estonia
(Republic of Estonia)

Tallinn
1918-02-24 (current)
1991-08-20 (restored)
45,339
17,505
1,313,271
29
75
January 1, 2015
Official estimate

 Total overall of the former USSR

Moscow
1991-12-26
22,307,815
8,613,096
292,610,734
13.1
34
Various Dates
Various Sources

text: Area includes land and water.

text: Current leaders[edit]

text: Heads of state[edit]

text:
Russia
Vladimir Putin
President of Russia

 Ukraine
Petro Poroshenko
President of Ukraine

 Belarus
Alexander Lukashenko
President of Belarus

 Uzbekistan
Shavkat Mirziyoyev
President of Uzbekistan

 Kazakhstan
Nursultan Nazarbayev
President of Kazakhstan

 Georgia
Giorgi Margvelashvili
President of Georgia

 Azerbaijan
Ilham Aliyev
President of Azerbaijan

 Lithuania
Dalia Grybauskaitė
President of Lithuania

 Moldova
Igor Dodon
President of Moldova

 Latvia
Raimonds Vējonis
President of Latvia

 Kyrgyzstan
Sooronbay Jeenbekov
President of Kyrgyzstan

 Tajikistan
Emomali Rahmon
President of Tajikistan

 Armenia
Armen Sarkissian
President of Armenia

 Turkmenistan
Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow
President of Turkmenistan[6]

 Estonia
Kersti Kaljulaid
President of Estonia

text: Heads of government[edit]

text:
Russia
Dmitry Medvedev
Prime Minister of Russia

 Ukraine
Volodymyr Groysman
Prime Minister of Ukraine

 Belarus
Andrei Kobyakov
Prime Minister of Belarus

 Uzbekistan
Abdulla Aripov
Prime Minister of Uzbekistan

 Kazakhstan
Bakhytzhan Sagintayev
Prime Minister of Kazakhstan

 Georgia
Giorgi Kvirikashvili
Prime Minister of Georgia

 Azerbaijan
Novruz Mammadov
Prime Minister of Azerbaijan

 Lithuania
Saulius Skvernelis
Prime Minister of Lithuania

 Moldova
Pavel Filip
Prime Minister of Moldova

 Latvia
Māris Kučinskis
Prime Minister of Latvia

 Kyrgyzstan
Muhammetkaliy Abulgaziyev
Prime Minister of Kyrgyzstan

 Tajikistan
Kokhir Rasulzoda
Prime Minister of Tajikistan

 Armenia
Nikol Pashinyan
Prime Minister of Armenia

 Turkmenistan
Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow
President of Turkmenistan[6]

 Estonia
Jüri Ratas
Prime Minister of Estonia

text: Economy[edit]

text: The dissolution of the Soviet Union took place as a result and against the backdrop of general economic stagnation, even regression. As the Gosplan, which had set up production chains to cross SSR lines, broke down, the inter-republic economic connections were also disrupted, leading to even more serious breakdown of the post-Soviet economies.

text: Most of the formerly Soviet states began the transition to a market economy from a command economy in 1990-1991 and made efforts to rebuild and restructure their economic systems, with varying results. In all, the process triggered severe economic declines, with Gross Domestic Product (GDP) dropping by more than 40% overall between 1990 and 1995.[7] This decline in GDP was much more intense than the 27% decline that the United States suffered in the wake of the Great Depression between 1930 and 1934.[8] The reconfiguration of public finance in compliance with capitalist principles resulted in dramatically reduced spending on health, education and other social programs, leading to a sharp increase in poverty and economic inequality.[9][10] The economic shocks associated with wholesale privatization resulted in the excess deaths of roughly 1 million working age individuals throughout the former Soviet bloc in the 1990s.[11][12]

text: The initial transition decline was eventually arrested by the cumulative effect of market reforms, and after 1995 the economy in the post-Soviet states began to recover, with GDP switching from negative to positive growth rates. By 2007, 10 of the 15 post-Soviet states had recovered and reached GDP greater than what they had in 1991.[13] Only Moldova, Ukraine, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan had GDP significantly below the 1991 level. The recovery in Russia was marginal, with GDP in 2006-2007 just nudging above the 1991 level. Combined with the aftershocks of the 1998 economic crisis it led to a return of more interventionist economic policies by Vladimir Putin's administration.[citation needed]

text: Change in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in constant prices, 1991-2015[14]

text:
Country
1991*
1996
2001
2006
2011
2015
Turnaround
year**

Eastern European states

Russia
100
63.1
74.5
103.3
118.3
119.8
1997

Ukraine
100
47.2
51.8
73.7
75.9
63.4
2000

Belarus
100
67.9
94.0
141.5
192.5
193.9
1996

Moldova
100
45.2
45.0
62.5
74.5
83.2
1997

Baltic states

Estonia
100
?
?
?
?
?
?

Latvia
100
67.8
92.9
143.1
130.1
145.8
1993

Lithuania
100
64.6
81.5
119.8
123.9
139.6
1995

Central Asia

Kazakhstan
100
69.3
88.5
141.4
185.7
219.0
1996

Kyrgyzstan
100
58.9
76.1
89.6
114.4
133.9
1996

Tajikistan
100
34.1
45.2
56.0
98.1
124.5
1997

Turkmenistan
100
68.4
107.7
215.5
351.8
515.5
1998

Uzbekistan
100
82.9
102.6
137.5
208.4
281.2
1996

Transcaucasus

Armenia
100
63.3
84.2
154.7
172.5
202.6
1994

Azerbaijan
100
42.7
65.2
150.2
241.1
276.5
1996

Georgia
100
39.8
49.8
74.1
93.2
109.3
1995

text: *Economy of most Soviet republics started to decline in 1989-1990, thus indices for 1991 don't match pre-reform maximums.

text: **The year when GDP decline switched to GDP growth.

text: List of the present Gross domestic product (GDP) (figures are given in 2013 United States dollars for the year 2013 according to The World Factbook[15][16][17][18]):

text:
No.
Country
nominal
millions
nominal
per capita
PPP
millions
PPP
per capita

1
 Russian Federation
2,113,000
14,600
2,553,000
18,100

2
 Ukraine
175,500
3,800
337,400
7,400

3
 Belarus
69,240
7,500
150,400
16,100

4
 Uzbekistan
55,180
1,900
112,600
3,800

5
 Kazakhstan
224,900
12,700
243,600
14,100

6
 Georgia
15,950
3,200
27,300
6,100

7
 Azerbaijan
76,010
7,900
100,400
10,800

8
 Lithuania
46,710
15,300
67,430
22,600

9
 Moldova
7,880
2,200
12,680
3,600

10
 Latvia
30,380
15,400
38,870
19,100

11
 Kyrgyzstan
7,234
1,300
14,300
2,500

12
 Tajikistan
8,537
1,000
19,000
2,300

13
 Armenia
10,440
3,400
20,610
6,300

14
 Turkmenistan
40,560
7,900
55,160
9,700

15
 Estonia
24,280
18,300
29,940
22,400

text: Developmental progress[edit]

text: The post-Soviet states listed according to their Human Development Index scores in 2016 (the report was launched on 21 March 2017).[19]

text: Very High Human Development:

text:
Estonia: 0.865
 Lithuania: 0.848
 Latvia: 0.830
 Russia: 0.804

text: High Human Development:

text:
Belarus: 0.796
 Kazakhstan: 0.794
 Georgia: 0.769
 Azerbaijan: 0.759
 Armenia: 0.743
 Ukraine: 0.743
 Uzbekistan: 0.701

text: Medium Human Development:

text:
Moldova: 0.699
 Turkmenistan: 0.691
 Kyrgyzstan: 0.664
 Tajikistan: 0.627

text: Regional organizations[edit]

text: A number of regional organizations and cooperating blocs have sprung up since the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Only organizations that are mainly (or completely) composed of post-Soviet states are listed in this section; organizations with wider memberships are not discussed. The 15 post-Soviet states are divided in their participation to the regional blocs:

text:
Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine founded the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in December 1991. It was conceived as a successor organization to the USSR, and in December 1993 it included 12 of the 15 former Soviet republics (except the three Baltic states).[20] It currently consists of nine of the 15 former Soviet republics, with one participating state (Ukraine) and one associate state (Turkmenistan). Georgia withdrew from the CIS in August 2008.
The three Baltic states have not sought membership in any of these post-Soviet organizations, seeking and achieving membership in the European Union and NATO instead, although their electricity and rail systems remain closely connected with former Soviet organizations. The sole exception to the above has been their recent membership in the Community of Democratic Choice.
The Central Asian states of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan (as well as Belarus) are members of the CIS and participate in several regional organizations that have Russia as a primary mover. Such organizations are the Eurasian Economic Community (later merged with Eurasian Economic Union, which Tajikistan and Uzbekistan are not members of), Collective Security Treaty Organization, and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. The last two groups only became distinct once Uzbekistan withdrew from GUAM and sought membership in EurAsEc and CSTO (which it subsequently withdrew from in 2008 and 2012, respectively).
Armenia, besides its membership in CIS participates in Collective Security Treaty Organization and the Eurasian Economic Union.
Ukraine, Moldova, and Azerbaijan participate in the CIS but other than that they mostly cooperate within regional organizations that are not dominated by Russia. Such organizations are GUAM and the Community of Democratic Choice. Although Ukraine is one of the three founding countries of the CIS, it is legally not a member because it has never ratified the 1993 CIS Charter.[20]
Turkmenistan is an associate member of CIS (having withdrawn from full membership in August 2005)[21] and a member in the Economic Cooperation Organization; it has not sought closer integration in any of the other Western or post-Soviet organizations.
In 2008, Georgia notified the CIS executive bodies of its decision to leave the regional organization,[22][23] and according to the CIS Charter (sec. 1, art. 9) this decision went into force 12 months after the notification date.[24]

text: Commonwealth of Independent States[edit]

text: The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) consists of 10 former Soviet Republics that differ in their membership status. As of December 2010, 9 countries have ratified the CIS charter and are full CIS members (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan), one country (Turkmenistan) is an associate member and two countries (Georgia, Ukraine) left the organization in 2009 and in 2018. In 2014, Ukraine declined its CIS chairmanship and considered withdrawal from the organization.[25]

text: In 1994, the CIS countries agreed to create a free trade area, but the agreements were never signed. On October 19, 2011 Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, and Ukraine signed a free trade agreement.[26] Uzbekistan joined the free trade area in 2013.[27]

text: Eurasian Economic Community[edit]

text: The Eurasian Economic Community (EURASEC), formerly the CIS Customs Union, was established by Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. Ukraine and Moldova have observer status in the community; however, Ukraine has declared its desire not to become a full member state. Because having common borders with the rest of the community is a prerequisite for full membership, Moldova is barred from seeking it. Uzbekistan applied for membership in October 2005,[28] when the process of merging Central Asian Cooperation Organization and the Eurasian Economic Community began; it joined on 25 January 2006. Uzbekistan subsequently suspended its membership in 2008.[29]

text: On 10 October 2014 an agreement on the termination of the Eurasian Economic Community was signed in Minsk after a session of the Interstate Council of the EAEC. The Eurasian Economic Community was terminated from 1 January 2015 in connection with the launch of the Eurasian Economic Union.[30]

text: Customs Union of Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia[edit]

text: Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan created a customs union that entered into force in July 2010. Ukraine, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan indicated interest in joining at the time.[31][32] Russia has been eager for Armenia, Moldova and Ukraine to join the custom union instead of the European Union, and the Moldovan break-away state of Transnistria has supported this. In 2013, Kyrgyzstan and Armenia announced plans to seek membership, but division over the issue in Ukraine led to the 2014 Ukrainian revolution after the Ukrainian government backed out of an EU Eastern Partnership in favor of the union. In 2014, voters in the Moldovan autonomous region of Gagauzia rejected closer ties to the EU in favor of the union.[33]

text: On 1 January 2012, Russia, Kazakhstan and Belarus established the Single Economic Space which ensures the effective functioning of a single market for goods, services, capital and labour, and to establish coherent industrial, transport, energy and agricultural policies.[34][35] The agreement included a roadmap for future integration and established the Eurasian Economic Commission (modelled on the European Commission).[36] The Eurasian Economic Commission serves as the regulatory agency for the Eurasian Customs Union, the Single Economic Space and the Eurasian Economic Union.[34]

text: Eurasian Economic Union[edit]

text: The Eurasian Economic Union is an economic union of post-Soviet states. The treaty aiming for the establishment of the EAEU was signed on 29 May 2014 by the leaders of Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia, and came into force on 1 January 2015.[37] Treaties aiming for Armenia's and Kyrgyzstan's accession to the Eurasian Economic Union were signed on 9 October 2014 and 23 December respectively. Armenia's accession treaty came into force on 2 January 2015.[38] Although Kyrgyzstan's accession treaty will not come into force until May 2015, provided it has been ratified,[39] it will participate in the EAEU from the day of its establishment as an acceding state.[40][41][42][43][44] Moldova and Tajikistan are prospective members.

text: Collective Security Treaty Organization[edit]

text: Seven CIS member states, namely Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Armenia, have enhanced their military cooperation, establishing the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO), this being an expansion of the previous Collective Security Treaty (CST). Uzbekistan which (alongside Georgia and Azerbaijan) withdrew from the CST in 1999, joined GUAM. Then in 2005 it withdrew from GUAM and joined the CSTO in 2006. On 28 June 2012, Uzbekistan suspended its membership in the CSTO.[45]

text: North Atlantic Treaty Organization[edit]

text: Three former Soviet states are members of NATO: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Georgia, where both public opinion and the ruling government favor NATO membership, is in the Intensified Dialogue program with NATO. Ukraine also declared joining NATO as its geopolitical goal once again in 2017 (first time being right after the Orange revolution and in the beginning of presidency of Viktor Yushchenko), after the presidency of Viktor Yanukovych, during which the government officially declared neutrality and ceased to seek NATO membership.[46][47]

text: Other states in the Partnership for Peace and Individual Partnership Action Plan program include Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.

text: GUAM[edit]

text: Four member states, namely Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan and Moldova established the GUAM group that was largely seen as intending to counter Russian dominance in the region. Notably, these four nations do not participate in any of the other regional organizations that sprang up in the region since the dissolution of the Soviet Union (other than the CIS).

text: Union of Russia and Belarus[edit]

text: The Union of Russia and Belarus was originally formed on 2 April 1996 under the name Commonwealth of Russia and Belarus, before being tightened further on 8 December 1999. It was initiated by the president of Belarus, Alexander Lukashenko. On paper, the Union of Russia and Belarus intends further integration, beyond the scope of mere cooperation, including the introduction of the ruble as a common currency.

text: Other regional organizations[edit]

text: Economic Cooperation Organization[edit]

text: The Economic Cooperation Organization was originally formed in 1985 by Turkey, Iran and Pakistan but in 1992 the organization was expanded to include Afghanistan and the six primarily Muslim former Soviet republics: Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.

text: Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations[edit]

text: The post-Soviet disputed states of Abkhazia, Artsakh, South Ossetia, and Transnistria are all members of the Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations which aims to forge closer integration.

text: Community of Democratic Choice[edit]

text: The Community of Democratic Choice (CDC) was formed in December 2005 at the primary instigation of Ukraine and Georgia, and composed of six post-Soviet states (Ukraine, Georgia, Moldova, and the three Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) and three other countries of Eastern and Central Europe (Slovenia, Romania and the Republic of Macedonia). The Black Sea Forum (BSF) is a closely related organization. Observer countries include Armenia, Bulgaria, and Poland.

text: Just like GUAM before it, this forum is largely seen as intending to counteract Russian influence in the area. This is the only international forum centered in the post-Soviet space in which the Baltic states also participate. In addition, the other three post-Soviet states in it are all members of GUAM.

text: Shanghai Cooperation Organisation[edit]

text: The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), is composed of China and five post-Soviet states, namely Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The organization was founded in 2001, though its predecessor, the Shanghai Five grouping, has existed since 1996. Its aims revolve around security-related issues such as border demarcation, terrorism and energy.[48]

text: Economic cooperation organizations[edit]

text:
Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) with Moldova (it includes also non post-Soviet countries of the former Yugoslavia; previously, also included other Central European countries that left CEFTA when joining the European Union; CEFTA plays a role in Central Europe similar to what European Free Trade Association (EFTA) provides in Western Europe for non EU-members; this alliance an economical organization with strong cooperation with the European Union, for countries that do not want to participate in EurAsEC centered on Russia but that are seeking alliances to the West); even if Moldova is the only CEFTA country that is still within a weakening CIS, it no longer participates to the CSTO for most of the common security policy (but cannot join the EU because of incompatibility with WEU stability rules and the unsolved problem of Transnistria) but can still benefit from the Free Trade Area notably with Romania and Bulgaria (in the EU).
Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) with Russia, Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, Moldova, Turkey, Albania, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia and Armenia (an economic organisation closely related to the SCO but more focused regionally to include also Armenia; it also aims for the harmonious development of democracy for increasing the commerce in South-East Europe and includes some EU members, so it cannot be a regional free-trade union).
The European Union (EU) with the three Baltic countries that were the first ones to declare independence from the former USSR and have never joined CIS after the collapse of USSR (it includes also now some post-communist countries in Central Europe, that have left CEFTA when entering the EU : Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and Slovenia).

text: Political integration and security alliances[edit]

text:
Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe (SPforSEE) with Moldova (similar in structure to CEFTA, but does not focus on economy but security, for those countries that are not NATO members); this organization largely cooperates with NATO, and is related to the group of observers at Western European Union (WEU).
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), for Baltic countries, Poland, and Central European countries that have also joined the EU (the EU membership includes also WEU membership because they follow the Common Foreign and Security Policy and European Security and Defence Policy policies shared now by the EU, the WEU and all European NATO members).
The other remaining countries are those part of the former Yugoslavia, but their recent conflict and political tensions still does not allow them to cooperate efficiently for their political integration and for their mutual security; in addition, they still do not have full sovereignty in this domain (some of them are still under surveillance by EU or NATO, as mandated by UNO). They still need to find an internal stability and they can collaborate economically with the help of other organizations focusing on economy or political cooperation and development. However a more limited cooperation for security is possible through their membership to the larger Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).
The only exception is Belarus (whose post-soviet democratic transition did not occur) that still rejects political integration, and all security alliances with NATO, OSCE, WEU or other countries in Europe other than Russia (which the process of reintegration of Belarus has been tightened in almost all domains).

text: Organizations in other domains[edit]

text:
Southeast European Cooperation Process (SEECP) with Moldova (similar to SPforSEE, but focuses on political integration than cooperation for security, and to CEFTA but does not focus on trade).
Southeast European Cooperative Initiative (SECI) with Moldova (closely related to SEECP).
Central European Initiative (CEI) with Moldova, Ukraine and Belarus (and also Central and South-Western European countries in the European Union; it aims at helping Eastern European countries to reach the EU standards and cooperate politically and find a better economic development and a strong, working but more democratic legal system); it is the only regional organization where Belarus is still a member (but the political cooperation with Belarus is almost stalled, as it is the only country of the former Communist block country that balances in favor of stronger cooperation with Russia and against integration with EU and NATO ; however Belarus remains isolated and still does not cooperate too in the SCO group led by Russia and China).
Black Sea Forum for Partnership and Dialogue (BSF) with Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, Moldova and Armenia (also non post-soviet countries that are NATO members, interested in their maintaining political stability and avoiding conflicts in the region: Romania, Bulgaria and Turkey, whose first two are also now EU and CEI members, using EU rules for their political development); however this organization does not focus on helping countries to join the EU, but reaching common standards and good governance and internal stability and democracy like in the CEI.
None of these organizations are incompatible with the policy required for accessing EU membership in the domain of political cooperation and development.[citation needed]
Merging the CEI and BSF is desired by Central European countries, that are members of both (often in addition to EU with stronger objectives) that would like to simplify the development process, and also members of the Council of Europe that federates (but at very slow pace) all European efforts of political cooperation and development through the various regional organizations.[citation needed]
Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations

text: Other organizations[edit]

text: Apart from above, the former Soviet republics also hold membership in a number of multinational organizations such as:

text:
Baltic Basketball League
FIBA
FIFA
International Ice Hockey Federation
International Olympic Committee
International Paralympic Committee
Kontinental Hockey League (Belarus, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Russia)
Miss Universe
UNESCO
World Health Organization
World Trade Organization

text: Politics[edit]

text: Regarding political freedom in the former Soviet republics, Freedom House's 2015 report listed the following:

text:
Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania as "free" countries.
Armenia, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, and Ukraine were listed as "partly free."
Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan were listed as "not free", with Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan being noted as among the "worst of the worst".

text: Similarly, the Worldwide Press Freedom Index published by Reporters Without Borders in 2015, recorded the following as regards press freedom:

text:
A good situation in Estonia
A satisfactory situation in Latvia and Lithuania
Noticeable problems in Armenia, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, and Moldova
A difficult situation in Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Ukraine
A very serious situation in Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan

text: It has been remarked that several post-Soviet states have not changed leadership since their independence, such as Nursultan Nazarbayev in Kazakhstan and Islam Karimov in Uzbekistan, until his death in September 2016. All of these had originally more limited terms but through decrees or referendums prolonged their stay in office (a practice also followed by Presidents Alexander Lukashenko of Belarus and Emomalii Rahmon of Tajikistan) Askar Akayev of Kyrgyzstan had likewise served as President since its independence until he was forced to resign as a result of the Kyrgyz revolution of 2005. Saparmurat Niyazov in Turkmenistan ruled from independence until his death in 2006, creating a personality cult around himself.

text: The issue of dynastical succession has been another element affecting the politics of some post-Soviet States. Heydar Aliyev, after constructing an extensive and ongoing cult of personality, handed the Presidency of Azerbaijan to his son, Ilham Aliyev. Theories about the children of other leaders in Central Asia being groomed for succession abound.[49] The participation of Akayev's son and daughter in the 2005 Kyrgyz parliamentary elections boosted fears of dynastic succession being used in Kyrgyzstan as well, and may have contributed to the anti-Akayev climate that led to his overthrow.

text: Separatist conflicts[edit]

text:
show

v
t
e

Post-Soviet conflicts

Nagorno-Karabakh

1988–94 War
2016 War

Georgia

1st South Ossetia
1st Abkhazia

Transnistria
Tajikistan
North Ossetia
1993 Moscow
1st Chechnya
2nd Abkhazia
Dagestan
2nd Chechnya
Kodori
North Caucasus

Ingushetia

Russo-Georgian
Kyrgyzstan
Eastern Tajikistan
Ukraine

Revolution
Russian intervention
Crimea
Donbass
Odessa

text: Economic, political, national, military, and social problems have all been factors in separatism in the Post-Soviet space. In many cases, problems due to factors such as ethnic divisions existed before the fall of the Soviet Union, and upon the fall of the union were brought into the open.[50] Such territories and resulting military conflicts have so far been:

text: Current declared states[edit]

text:
Abkhazia, which is de facto independent from Georgia. Tensions in the area broke out when Georgia sent in troops in 1992 to control groups who wanted separation. The troops and most of the Georgian and Mingrelian speaking population were forced out in 1993, and the region declared independence in 1999. The 2008 war between Georgian forces and the separatist and Russian forces led to Russia's recognition of Abkhazia's independence.[51]
 Republic of Artsakh, which is de facto independent from Azerbaijan. Ethnic conflict between Armenians and Azerbaijanis began in 1988, and expanded into war which lasted till a ceasefire in 1994. Sporadic attempts at negotiating a final peace and sporadic bursts of violence have continued since then.[52]
 Donetsk People's Republic and  Lugansk People's Republic, unrecognized states which declared independence from Ukraine in 2014.
 South Ossetia, which is de facto independent from Georgia. The region declared its intent to seek independence in 1990, leading to a conflict which led to a ceasefire in 1992. Separatism became powerful after the election of Georgian President Mikhail Saakashvili in 2004, and a referendum in 2006 was in favour of declaring independence. The 2008 war between Georgian forces and the separatist and Russian forces led to Russia's recognition of South Ossetia's independence.[53]
 Transnistria, which is de facto independent from Moldova. It declared independence in 1990, due to its majority Russian-speaking population fearing union with Romania. A ceasefire between Transnistrian forces and Moldovan forces has been in place since 1992, enforced by the presence of Russian forces in Transnistria.[54]

text: Former declared states[edit]

text:
Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, where Dzhokhar Dudayev declared independence from Russia in 1991, leading to a violent war between local separatist forces and the Russian army. Russia first invaded in 1994, withdrawing after a deal for increased autonomy was granted in 1996. Tensions have continued in the years since then, and the conflict has spilled over into neighbouring regions such as Dagestan, Ingushetia and North Ossetia–Alania. Russia claims that the situation in Chechnya has normalised.[55]
 Gagauzia, declared itself the "Gagauz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic" within Moldova on 12 November 1989, and the "Gagauz Soviet Socialist Republic", independent of Moldova but still within the Soviet Union, on 19 August 1990, but was reintegrated into Moldova as an autonomous region on 23 December 1994.[56][57][58]
 Republic of Crimea. The entire Crimean Peninsula has been outside the control of Ukrainian authorities since late February 2014, when Russian special forces and pro-Russian militias occupied the region.[59][60][61][62] In March 2014, a popular referendum in favor of accession to Russia was held in Crimea and Sevastopol, although Ukraine[63] and most of the international community refused to recognize the vote. The next day, the Republic of Crimea declared independence, and within days Russia absorbed the peninsula. Ukraine continues to claim Crimea as an integral part of its territory.

text: Civil wars[edit]

text: Civil wars unrelated to separatist movements have occurred twice in the region:

text:
The Georgian Civil War between the forces of Zviad Gamsakhurdia and Eduard Shevardnadze. The war ended after Russian forces intervened in support of Shevardnadze's government, which in turn agreed to join the Commonwealth of Independent States.
The Tajikistani Civil War that lasted between 1992 and 1997.

text: Colour revolutions[edit]

text: Since 2003, a number of (largely) peaceful "colour revolutions" have happened in some post-Soviet states after disputed elections, with popular protests bringing into power the former opposition.

text:
The Rose Revolution in Georgia, leading to the fall from office of Eduard Shevardnadze.
The Orange Revolution in Ukraine, bringing into power Viktor Yushchenko.
The Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan, leading to the resignation of Askar Akayev.

text: Russian population in post-Soviet states[edit]

text: There is a significant Russophone population in most of the post-Soviet states, whose political position as an ethnic minority varies from country to country.[64] While Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, in addition to Russia, have kept Russian as an official language, the language lost its status in other post-Soviet states after the end of the Soviet Union. It maintains semi-official status in all CIS member states, because it is the organisation's official working language, but in the three Baltic States, the Russian language is not recognized in any official capacity. Georgia, since its departure from the CIS in 2009, has begun operating its government almost exclusively in the Georgian language.

text: Religion[edit]

text: While the Soviet system placed severe restrictions on religious intellectual life, traditions continued to survive. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Islamic movements have emerged alongside ethnic and secular ones. Vitaly Naumkin gives the following assessment: "Throughout the time of change, Islam has served as a symbol of identity, a force for mobilization, and a pressure for democracy. This is one of the few social disasters that the church has survived, in which it was not the cause. But if successful politically, it faces economic challenges beyond its grasp."[65]

text: The Central Asian states (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan) plus Azerbaijan from Southern caucasus are Muslim, except for their dwindling Russian and other European minorities. The Baltic States are historically Western Christian (Protestant and Roman Catholic), which adds another layer of pro-Western orientation to those countries, although the vast majority of what was the Protestant population (Estonia and northern Latvia) there is now irreligious. The dominant religion in the remaining former Soviet countries (Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, Russia, and Ukraine) is Orthodox Christianity. In most countries, religiosity has increased since the Soviet collapse.

text: LGBT rights[edit]

text: Post-Soviet nostalgia[edit]

text: Ever since the dissolution of the Soviet Union a certain number of people have expressed a longing for the Soviet period and its values. The level of post-Soviet nostalgia varies across the former republics. For example, certain groups of people may blend the Soviet and post-Soviet experience in their daily lives.[clarification needed].[66]

text: According to July 2012 polling in Ukraine by RATING, 42% of respondents supported the formation of a unified state of Ukraine, Russia and Belarus; earlier in 2012 this support had been 48%.[67]

text: A 2016 poll of Russian citizens conducted by Levada Center showed that the majority viewed the collapse of the USSR negatively and felt that it could have been avoided, and an even greater number would openly welcome a revival of the Soviet system.[68]


document_title: Preamble to the Constitution of India

question_text: who proposed creation of preamble in indian constitution

text: Preamble to the Constitution of India

text: Historic background[edit]

text: The preamble is based on the Objectives which was drafted and moved in the Constituent Assembly by Jawaharlal Nehru on 13 December 1946.[2] B. R. Ambedkar said about the preamble:

text: It was, indeed, a way of life, which recognizes liberty, equality, and fraternity as the principles of life and which cannot be divorced from each other: Liberty cannot be divorced from equality; equality cannot be divorced from liberty. Nor can liberty and equality be divorced from fraternity. Without equality, liberty would produce the supremacy of the few over the many. Equality without liberty would kill individual initiative. Without fraternity, liberty and equality could not become a natural course of things.[3]

text: The Supreme Court of India originally stated in the BeruBari case presidential reference [4] that the preamble is not an integral part of the Indian constitution, and therefore it is not enforceable in a court of law. However, the same court, in the 1973 Kesavananda case, overruled earlier decisions and recognised that the preamble may be used to interpret ambiguous areas of the constitution where differing interpretations present themselves. In the 1995 case of Union Government Vs LIC of India, the Supreme Court once again held that the Preamble is an integral part of the Constitution.

text: As originally enacted the preamble described the state as a "sovereign democratic republic", to which the terms "Secular" and "Socialist" were later added by the 42nd Amendment.[5]

text: The preamble-page, along with other pages of the original Constitution of India, was designed and decorated by the renowned painter Beohar Rammanohar Sinha of Jabalpur who was at Shantiniketan with acharya Nandalal Bose at that time. Nandalal Bose endorsed Beohar Rammanohar Sinha's artwork without any alteration whatsoever. As such, the page bears Beohar Rammanohar Sinha's short signature Ram in Devanagari lower-right corner. The calligraphy was done by Prem Behari Narain Raizada.

text: Preamble[edit]

text:
“
WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens:
JUSTICE, social, economic and political;
LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship;
EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation;
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this 26th day of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.

”

tag: table

text: Sovereignty[edit]

text: India is a sovereign state in the sense that it is internally supreme and externally independent. Internally supreme in the sense that the Central government or the Indian Constitution controls all other states and she is externally independent in the sense that India is not under the control of any other foreign countries. She is free to conduct external relations with other countries of the world. According to preamble, the constitution of India has been pursuance of the solemn resolution of the people of India to constitute India into a ‘Sovereign Democratic Republic’, and to secure well defined objects set forth in the preamble. Sovereignty denotes supreme and ultimate power. It may be real or normal, legal or political, individual or pluralistic. In monarchial orders, sovereignty was vested in the person of monarchs. But, in republican form of governments, which mostly prevail in the contemporary world, sovereignty is shifted to the elected representatives of the people. According to D.D Basu, the word ‘sovereign’ is taken from article 5 of the constitution of Ireland. ‘Sovereign or supreme power is that which is absolute and uncontrolled within its own sphere’. In the words of Cooley, “A state is sovereign when there resides within itself supreme and absolute power, acknowledging no superior”. Sovereignty, in short, means the independent authority of a state. It has two aspects- external and internal. External sovereignty or sovereignty in international law means the independence of a state of the will of other states, in her conduct with other states in the comity of nations. Sovereign in its relation between states and among states signifies independence. The external sovereignty of India means that it can acquire foreign territory and also cede any part of the Indian territory, subject to limitations(if any) imposed by the constitution. On the other hand, internal sovereignty refers to the relationship between the states and the individuals within its territory. Internal sovereignty relates to internal and domestic affairs, and is divided into four organs, namely, the executive, the legislature, the judiciary and the administrative. Though India became a sovereign country on 26th January, 1950, having equal status with the other members of the international community, she decided to remain in the Commonwealth of Nations. Pandit Nehru declared that India will continue – “her full membership of the Commonwealth of Nations and her acceptance of the King as the symbol of the free association of the independent nations and as such the Head of the Commonwealth”. Her membership of the Commonwealth of Nations and that of the United Nations Organization do not affect her sovereignty to any extent. It is merely a voluntary association of India and it is open to India to cut off this association at her will, and that it has no constitutional significance.

text: Socialist[edit]

text: Before the term was added by the 42nd Amendment in 1976, the Constitution had a socialist content in the form of certain Directive Principles of State Policy. The term socialist here means democratic socialism i.e. achievement of socialistic goals through democratic, evolutionary and non-violent means.Socialist state basically means that wealth is generated socially and should be shared equally by society through distributive justice.It shall not be concentrated in the hands of few. Government should regulate the ownership of land and industry to reduce socio-economic inequalities.

text: Secular[edit]

text: Secular means that the relationship between the government and the people which is determined according to constitution and law. By the 42nd Amendment in 1976, the term "Secular" was also incorporated in the Preamble. There is no difference of religion i.e. all religion are equally respected and moreover there is no state religion. All the citizens of India are allowed to profess, practise and propagate any religion. Explaining the meaning of secularism as adopted by India, Alexander Owics has written, "Secularism is a part of the basic of the Indian Constitution and it means equal freedom and respect for all religions.

text: Democratic[edit]

text: The people of India elect their governments by a system of universal adult franchise; popularly known as "one man one vote". Every citizen of India, 18 years of age and above and not otherwise debarred by law, is entitled to vote.The word 'democratic' not only refers to political but also to social & economic democracy.

text: Republic[edit]

text: In a republic form of government, the head of the state is an elected person and not a heredity monarch . This word denotes a government where no one holds a public power as proprietary right . As opposed to a monarchy, in which the head of state is appointed on hereditary basis for a lifetime or until he abdicates from the throne, a democratic republic is an entity in which the head of state is elected, directly or indirectly, for a fixed tenure.

text: Justice[edit]

text: India seeks to secure social, economic and political justice for its people.

text: (i) Social Justice:

text: Social Justice means the absence of socially privileged classes in the society and no discrimination against any citizen on grounds of caste, creed, colour, religion, sex or place of birth. India stands for eliminating all forms of exploitations from the society.

text: (ii) Economic Justice:

text: Economic Justice means no discrimination between man and woman on the basis of income, wealth and economic status. It stands for equitable distribution of wealth, economic equality, end of monopolistic control over means of production and distribution, decentralisation of economic resources, and securing of adequate opportunities to all for earning their living.

text: (iii) Political Justice:

text: Political Justice means equal, free and fair opportunities to the people for participation in the political process. It stands for the grant of equal political rights to all the people without any discrimination. The Constitution of India provides for a liberal democracy in which all the people have the right and freedom to participate.

text: Liberty[edit]

text: The idea of Liberty refers to the freedom on the activities of Indian nationals. This establishes that there are no unreasonable restrictions on Indian citizens in term of what they think, their manner of expressions and the way they wish to follow up their thoughts in action. This is found to be an important tool in ensuring democratic framework. However, liberty does not mean freedom to do anything, and it must be exercised within the constitutional limits.This is second provision.

text: Equality[edit]

text: This envisages that no section of the society enjoys special privileges and individuals are provided with adequate opportunities without any discrimination.All are equal in front of law. Again, there are three dimensions of Equality - Political, Economic & Civic.

text: Fraternity[edit]

text: This refers to a feeling of brotherhood and a sense of belonging with the country among its people. It embraces psychological as well as territorial dimensions of National Integration. It leaves no room for regionalism, communalism, casteism etc,which hinders the Unity of the State.The inclusion of the word "Fraternity" was proposed by Dr. B.R Ambedkar.

text: Amendability[edit]

text: In Berubari Case (1960), The amendability & the Significance of the same came to the force. An important & very interesting question was raised relating to the powers of the Parliament to cede Indian territory to a foreign country, as an interpretation of the Article 3. Supreme Court had held that the power of Parliament to diminish the area of a state as guaranteed in article 3 of the Constitution does not cover cession of the Indian territory to a foreign country. Hence, Indian territory can be ceded to a foreign country only by means of amendment of the Constitution under the Article 368. Consequently, the 9th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1960 was enacted to transfer the Berubari Union to Bangladesh (erstwhile East Pakistan). Supreme Court also held the view that Preamble can not be a part of the constitution but later in Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973), the Supreme Court gave a comprehensive verdict. It said that Preamble is Part of Constitution and is subject to the amending power of the parliament as any other provisions of the Constitution, provided the basic structure of the constitution is not destroyed.

text: It has been clarified by the Supreme Court of India that being a part of Constitution, the Preamble can be subjected to Constitutional Amendments exercised under article 368, however, the basic structure cannot be altered.

text: Forty-second Amendment[edit]

text: The preamble has been amended only once so far. On 18 December 1976, during the Emergency in India, the Indira Gandhi government pushed through several changes in the Forty-second Amendment of the constitution. A committee under the chairmanship of Sardar Swaran Singh recommended that this amendment be enacted after being constituted to study the question of amending the constitution in the light of past experience. Through this amendment the words "socialist" and "secular" were added between the words "Sovereign" and "democratic" and the words "unity of the Nation" were changed to "unity and integrity of the Nation".[5]


document_title: My Sweet Lord

question_text: who sang background vocals on my sweet lord

text: My Sweet Lord

text: Background[edit]

text: George Harrison began writing "My Sweet Lord" in December 1969, when he, Billy Preston and Eric Clapton were in Copenhagen, Denmark,[3][5] as guest artists on Delaney & Bonnie's European tour.[6][7] By this time, Harrison had already written the gospel-influenced "Hear Me Lord" and "Gopala Krishna", and (with Preston) the African-American spiritual "Sing One for the Lord". He had also produced two religious-themed hit singles on the Beatles' Apple record label: Preston's "That's the Way God Planned It" and Radha Krishna Temple (London)'s "Hare Krishna Mantra".[6][8][9] The latter was a musical adaptation of the 5000-year-old Vaishnava Hindu mantra, performed by members of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), colloquially known as "the Hare Krishna movement".[10][11] Harrison now wanted to fuse the messages of the Christian and Gaudiya Vaishnava faiths[12] into what musical biographer Simon Leng terms "gospel incantation with a Vedic chant".[5]

text: The Copenhagen stopover marked the end of the Delaney & Bonnie tour, with a three-night residency at the Falkoner Theatre on 10–12 December.[13][14] According to Harrison's 1976 court testimony, "My Sweet Lord" was conceived while the band members were attending a backstage press conference and he had ducked out to an upstairs room at the theatre.[15] Harrison recalled vamping chords on guitar and alternating between sung phrases of "hallelujah" and "Hare Krishna".[16][17] He later took the idea to the others, and the chorus vocals were developed further.[15] Band leader Delaney Bramlett's more recent version of events is that the idea originated from Harrison asking him how to go about writing a genuine gospel song,[7] and that Bramlett demonstrated by scat singing the words "Oh my Lord" while wife Bonnie and singer Rita Coolidge added gospel "hallelujah"s in reply.[18] British music journalist John Harris has questioned the accuracy of Bramlett's account, however, comparing it to a fisherman's "It was this big"-type bragging story.[7]

text: Using as his inspiration the Edwin Hawkins Singers' rendition of an eighteenth-century Christian hymn, "Oh Happy Day",[3][19] Harrison continued working on the theme.[20] He completed the song, with some help from Preston, once they had returned to London.[16][17]

text: Composition[edit]

text: The song's lyrics reflect Harrison's often-stated desire for a direct relationship with God, expressed in simple words that all believers could affirm, regardless of their religion.[21][22] Author Ian Inglis observes a degree of "understandable" impatience in the first verse's line, "Really want to see you, Lord, but it takes so long, my Lord".[21] By the end of the song's second verse, Harrison declares a wish to "know" God also[23][24] and attempts to reconcile the impatience:[21]

text:
I really want to know you
Really want to go with you
Really want to show you, Lord, that it won't take long, my Lord

text: Following this verse, in response to the main vocal's repetition of the song title, Harrison devised a choral line singing the Hebrew word of praise, "hallelujah", common in the Christian and Jewish religions.[19] Later in the song, after an instrumental break, these voices return, now chanting the first twelve words of the Hare Krishna mantra, known more reverentially as the Maha mantra:[10][19]

text:
Hare Krishna, Hare Krishna
Krishna Krishna, Hare Hare
Hare Rama, Hare Rama

text: These Sanskrit words are the main mantra of the Hare Krishna faith, with which Harrison identified,[6][25][26] although he did not belong to any spiritual organisation.[27][28] In his 1980 autobiography, I, Me, Mine, Harrison explained that he intended repeating and alternating "hallelujah" and "Hare Krishna" to show that the two terms meant "quite the same thing", as well as to have listeners chanting the mantra "before they knew what was going on!"[20]

text: Following the Sanskrit lines, "hallelujah" is sung twice more before the mantra repeats,[29] along with an ancient Vedic prayer.[23] According to Hindu tradition, this prayer is dedicated to a devotee's spiritual teacher, or guru, and equates the teacher to the divine Trimurti – Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva (or Maheshvara) – and to the Godhead, Brahman.[30]

text:
Gurur Brahmā, gurur Viṣṇur
gurur devo Maheśvaraḥ
gurus sākṣāt, paraṃ Brahma
tasmai śrī gurave namaḥ.

text: Former Krishna devotee Joshua Greene translates the lines as follows: "I offer homage to my guru, who is as great as the creator Brahma, the maintainer Vishnu, the destroyer Shiva, and who is the very energy of God."[30] The prayer is the third verse of the Guru Stotram, a fourteen-verse hymn in praise of Hindu spiritual teachers.[31]

text: Some Christian fundamentalist anti-rock activists objected that chanting "Hare Krishna" in "My Sweet Lord" was anti-Christian or satanic, while some born-again Christians adopted the song as an anthem.[32] Several commentators cite the mantra and the simplicity of Harrison's lyrics as central to the song's universality.[21][33] The "lyrics are not directed at a specific manifestation of a single faith's deity," Inglis writes, "but rather to the concept of one god whose essential nature is unaffected by particular interpretations and who pervades everything, is present everywhere, is all-knowing and all-powerful, and transcends time and space ... All of us – Christian, Hindu, Muslim, Jew, Buddhist – can address our gods in the same way, using the same phrase ['my sweet Lord']."[21]

text: Billy Preston's version[edit]

text:
"My Sweet Lord"

Single by Billy Preston

from the album Encouraging Words

B-side
"Little Girl"

Released
3 December 1970

Format
7-inch vinyl

Genre
Soul, gospel

Length
3:21

Label
Apple

Songwriter(s)
George Harrison

Producer(s)
George Harrison, Billy Preston

Billy Preston singles chronology

"All That I've Got"
(1970)
"My Sweet Lord"
(1970)
"I Wrote a Simple Song"
(1971)

"All That I've Got"
(1970)
"My Sweet Lord"
(1970)
"I Wrote a Simple Song"
(1971)

text: With the Beatles still together officially in December 1969, Harrison had no plans to make a solo album of his own and reportedly intended to offer "My Sweet Lord" to Edwin Hawkins.[34][35] Instead, following the Delaney & Bonnie tour, he decided to record it with Billy Preston,[3] for whom Harrison was co-producing a second Apple album, Encouraging Words.[36][37] Recording took place at Olympic Studios in London, in January 1970,[9] with Preston as principal musician,[17] supported by the guitarist, bass player and drummer from the Temptations' backing band.[12] The Edwin Hawkins Singers happened to be on tour in the UK as well, so Harrison invited them to participate;[12][34] Hawkins' gospel group also overdubbed vocals onto the Harrison–Preston collaboration "Sing One for the Lord" at this time.[5]

text: Preston's version of "My Sweet Lord" differs from Harrison's later reading in that the "hallelujah" refrain appears from the start of the song and, rather than the full mantra section, the words "Hare Krishna" are sung only twice throughout the whole track.[12] With the Vedic prayer likewise absent, Simon Leng views this original recording as a possible "definitive 'roots' take'" of the song, thanks to its "pure gospel groove" and Hawkins' participation.[5] In his review of Encouraging Words, Bruce Eder of AllMusic describes "My Sweet Lord" and "All Things Must Pass" (another Harrison composition originally given to Preston to record[38]) as "stunning gospel numbers ... that make the Harrison versions seem pallid".[39]

text: Preston's "My Sweet Lord" was a minor hit in Europe when issued as a single there in September 1970,[38] but otherwise, Encouraging Words made little impression commercially.[39][40] The album and single releases were delayed for at least two months in the United States, where "My Sweet Lord" would climb to number 90 on the Billboard Hot 100 by the end of February 1971,[41] helped by the enormous success of Harrison's version.[42]

text: Recording[edit]

text: Five months after the Olympic session, with the Beatles having now broken up, "My Sweet Lord" was one of 30 or more tracks that Harrison recorded for his All Things Must Pass triple album.[43] It was a song he had been reluctant to record, for fear of committing himself publicly to such an overt religious message.[44][45] "I was sticking my neck out on the chopping block because now I would have to live up to something," Harrison explained in I Me Mine, "but at the same time I thought 'Nobody's saying it; I wish somebody else was doing it.'"[20]

text: With Phil Spector co-producing the sessions at Abbey Road Studios,[46] Preston again played on the track, along with Clapton, Ringo Starr, Jim Gordon and all four members of Badfinger.[47] The identity of the remaining musicians has traditionally been open to question, with drummer Alan White once claiming he played on the song, with Carl Radle on bass, Starr on tambourine[44] and John Lennon among the rhythm guitarists.[34] The common view, following research by Simon Leng, is that Harrison and Spector chose from a number of rhythm tracks before selecting the master take, which featured, among others, Klaus Voormann on bass and Gary Wright on a second keyboard;[47] Bruce Spizer suggests that Peter Frampton may have added acoustic guitar after the main session.[44] Harrison's original vocal appears to have been acceptable, according to notes written by Spector in August,[48] but the chorus vocals (all sung by Harrison and credited to "the George O'Hara-Smith Singers"[49]), his harmonised slide guitar parts, and John Barham's orchestral arrangement were overdubbed during the next two months,[50] partly at Trident Studios in central London.[34]

text: Leng describes the recording as a "painstakingly crafted tableau" of sound, beginning with a bank of "chiming" acoustic guitars and the "flourish" of zither strings that introduces Harrison's slide-guitar motif.[51] At close to the two-minute mark, after the tension-building bridge, a subtle two-semitone shift in key (from E major to the rarely used key of F-sharp major, via a C# dominant seventh chord) signals the song's release from its extended introduction.[52] This higher register is then complemented by Harrison's "increasingly impassioned" vocal and the subsequent "timely reappearance" of his twin slide guitars,[21] before the backing vocals "deftly" switch to the Sanskrit mantra and prayer.[29] Leng also notes the Indian music aspects of the production, in the "swarmandal-like" zithers, representing the sympathetic strings of a sitar, and the slide guitars' evocation of sarangi, dilruba and other string instruments.[53] In an interview for Martin Scorsese's 2011 documentary on George Harrison, Spector recalls that he liked the results so much, he insisted that "My Sweet Lord" be the lead single from the album.[45]

text: This later, rock version of the song was markedly different from the "Oh Happy Day"-inspired gospel arrangement in musical and structural terms,[9] aligning Harrison's composition with pop music conventions, but also drawing out the similarities of its melody line with that of the Chiffons' 1963 hit "He's So Fine".[3] Spizer suggests that this was due to Harrison being "so focused on the feel of his record",[54] while Record Collector editor Peter Doggett wrote in 2001 that, despite Harrison's inspiration for "My Sweet Lord" having come from "Oh Happy Day", "in the hands of producer and arranger Phil Spector, it came out as a carbon copy of the Chiffons' [song]".[55] Chip Madinger and Mark Easter remark on the "sad" fact that Spector, as "master of all that was 'girl-group' during the early '60s", failed to recognise the similarities.[34]

text: Release[edit]

text: Before arriving in New York on 28 October to carry out mastering on All Things Must Pass, Harrison had announced that no single would be issued – so as not to "detract from the impact" of the triple album.[56] Apple's US executive, Allan Steckler, together with business manager Allen Klein and Spector all pushed for "My Sweet Lord" to be released immediately, however,[45][57] even though Billy Preston's version was already scheduled for release as a single in America the following month.[44] Film director Howard Worth recalls a preliminary finance meeting for the Raga documentary (for which Harrison would provide emergency funding through Apple Films[58]) that began with the ex-Beatle asking him to listen to a selection of songs and pick his favourite, which was "My Sweet Lord".[59]

text: Harrison relented, and "My Sweet Lord" was issued as the album's lead single around the world, but not in Britain;[45] the release date was 23 November 1970 in the United States.[60] The mix of the song differed from that found on All Things Must Pass by featuring less echo and a slightly altered backing-vocal track.[34][44] Both sides of the North American picture sleeve consisted of a Barry Feinstein photo of Harrison taken through a window at his recently purchased Friar Park home, with some of the estate's trees reflected in the glass.[54] Released as a double A-side with "Isn't It a Pity", with Apple catalogue number 2995 in America, both sides of the disc featured a full Apple label.[54]

text: Public demand via constant airplay in Britain led to a belated UK release,[61] on 15 January 1971.[62] There, as Apple R 5884, the single was backed by "What Is Life", a song that Apple soon released elsewhere internationally as the follow-up to "My Sweet Lord".[63]

text: Harrison's version of "My Sweet Lord" was an international number 1 hit by the end of 1970 and through the early months of 1971[64] – the first solo single by a Beatle to reach the top,[65] and the biggest seller by any of the four throughout the 1970s.[66][67] Without the support of any concert appearances or promotional interviews by Harrison, the single's commercial success was due to its impact on radio,[35] where, Harrison biographer Gary Tillery writes, the song "rolled across the airwaves like a juggernaut, with commanding presence, much the way Dylan's 'Like a Rolling Stone' had arrived in the mid-sixties".[68] Elton John recalls first hearing "My Sweet Lord" in a taxi and names it as the last of the era's great singles: "I thought, 'Oh my God,' and I got chills. You know when a record starts on the radio, and it's great, and you think, 'Oh, what is this, what is this, what is this?' The only other record I ever felt that way about [afterwards] was 'Brown Sugar' ..."[69] In his 40-page Harrison tribute article for Rolling Stone in 2002, Mikal Gilmore credited "My Sweet Lord" as being "as pervasive on radio and in youth consciousness as anything the Beatles had produced".[70]

text: The single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America on 14 December 1970 for sales of over 1 million copies.[35][71] It reached number 1 on the US Billboard Hot 100 on 26 December,[72] remaining on top for four weeks, three of which coincided with All Things Must Pass's seven-week reign atop the Billboard albums chart.[73][74] In Britain, "My Sweet Lord" entered the charts at number 7, before hitting number 1 on 30 January[75] and staying there for five weeks.[76] It was the biggest-selling single of 1971 in the UK[77][78] and performed similarly well around the world,[49] particularly in France and Germany, where it held the top spot for nine and ten weeks, respectively.[79] In his 2001 appraisal of Harrison's Apple recordings, for Record Collector, Doggett described Harrison as "arguably the most successful rock star on the planet" over this period, adding: "'My Sweet Lord' and All Things Must Pass topped charts all over the world, easily outstripping other solo Beatles projects later in the year, such as Ram and Imagine."[64]

text: The single's worldwide sales amounted to 5 million copies by 1978, making it one of the best-selling singles of all time.[79] By 2010, according to Inglis, "My Sweet Lord" had sold over 10 million copies.[80] The song returned to the number 1 position again in the UK when reissued in January 2002, two months after Harrison's death from cancer at the age of 58.[76]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Peter Lavezzoli, author of The Dawn of Indian Music in the West, has written of Harrison's first solo single: "'My Sweet Lord' was everything that people wanted to hear in November 1970: shimmering harmonies, lustrous acoustic guitars, a solid Ringo Starr backbeat, and an exquisite [Harrison] guitar solo."[33] Reviewing the single for Rolling Stone, Jon Landau called the track "sensational".[81] In an era when songs by Radha Krishna Temple and adaptations of the Christian hymns "Oh Happy Day" and "Amazing Grace" were all worldwide hits,[82] Ben Gerson of Rolling Stone observed that the substituting of Harrison's "Hare Krishna" refrain for the trivial "Doo-lang, doo-lang, doo-lang"s of "He's So Fine" was "a sign of the times".[83] John Lennon told a reporter, "Every time I put the radio on, it's 'Oh my Lord' – I'm beginning to think there must be a God."[40] In his December 1970 album review for NME, Alan Smith bemoaned the apparent lack of a UK single release for "My Sweet Lord" and noted that the song "seems to owe something" to "He's So Fine".[84][85] To Gerson, it was an "obvious re-write" of the Chiffons hit,[83] and within two months US music publisher Bright Tunes had served a writ on Harrison citing unauthorised copyright infringement.[17] In a January 1971 review for NME, Derek Johnson expressed surprise at Apple's delay in releasing the single in the UK, before declaring: "In my opinion, this record – finally and irrevocably – establishes George as a talent equivalent to either Lennon or McCartney."[85]

text: More recently, AllMusic's Richie Unterberger explains the international popularity of Harrison's single: "'My Sweet Lord' has a quasi-religious feel, but nevertheless has enough conventional pop appeal to reach mainstream listeners who may or may not care to dig into the spiritual lyrical message."[86] Added to this was a slide guitar riff that Simon Leng describes as "among the best-known guitar passages in popular music".[87] Ian Inglis highlights the combination of Harrison's "evident lack of artifice" and Spector's "excellent production", such that "My Sweet Lord" can be heard "as a prayer, a love song, an anthem, a contemporary gospel track, or a piece of perfect pop".[21]

text: Due to the ensuing plagiarism suit, "My Sweet Lord" became somewhat stigmatised by association,[88] to the point where no mention of the song was complete without a reference to "He's So Fine".[86][89] "My Sweet Lord" was ranked 460th on Rolling Stone magazine's list of "the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time" in 2004, yet the accompanying text only briefly mentioned the success of the single and Harrison's "teardrop slide licks" before concentrating on the controversial lawsuit.[4] While acknowledging the common ground between the two songs, music critic David Fricke describes Harrison's composition as "the honest child of black American sacred song".[6] Writing around the time of All Things Must Pass's 2001 reissue, again for Rolling Stone, Anthony DeCurtis described "My Sweet Lord" as "capturing the sweet satisfactions of faith",[90] while to Mikal Gilmore, it is an "irresistible devotional".[70]

text: At the end of 1971, "My Sweet Lord" topped the Melody Maker reader's polls for both "Single of the Year" and "World's Single of the Year";[91] in the US publication Record World, the song was also voted best single and Harrison was honoured as "Top Male Vocalist of 1971".[78] In June 1972, Harrison won two Ivor Novello songwriter's awards for "My Sweet Lord".[92] In 2010, AOL Radio listeners voted "My Sweet Lord" the best song from George Harrison's solo years.[93] Mick Jagger and Keith Richards have both named it among their personal favourites of all Harrison's songs, along with "While My Guitar Gently Weeps".[94] According to the website Acclaimed Music, "My Sweet Lord" has also appeared in the following critics' best-song lists and books, among others: The 7,500 Most Important Songs of 1944–2000 by author Bruce Pollock (2005), Dave Thompson's 1000 Songs That Rock Your World (2011; ranked at number 247), Ultimate Classic Rock's "Top 100 Classic Rock Songs" (2013; number 56), the NME's "100 Best Songs of the 1970s" (2012; number 65), and the same magazine's "500 Greatest Songs of All Time" (2014; number 270).[95]

text: Copyright infringement suit[edit]

text: Initial action[edit]

text: On 10 February 1971, Bright Tunes filed suit against Harrison and associated organisations (including Harrisongs, Apple Records and BMI), alleging copyright infringement of the late Ronnie Mack's song "He's So Fine".[17] In I Me Mine, Harrison admits to having thought "Why didn't I realise?" when others started pointing out the similarity between the two songs;[20] by June that year, country singer Jody Miller had released a cover of "He's So Fine" incorporating Harrison's "My Sweet Lord" slide-guitar riffs,[96] thus "really putting the screws in" from his point of view.[97] On Harrison's behalf, manager Allen Klein entered into negotiations with Bright Tunes to resolve the issue, by offering to buy the financially ailing publisher's entire catalogue, but no settlement could be reached before the company was forced into receivership.[17]

text: While comparing the two compositions, author and musicologist Dominic Pedler writes that both songs have a three-syllable title refrain ("My sweet Lord", "He's so fine") followed by a 5-3-2 descent of the major scale in the tonic key (E major for "My Sweet Lord" and G major for "He's So Fine"); respective tempos are similar: 121 and 145 beats per minute.[98] In the respective B sections ("I really want to see you" and "I dunno how I'm gonna do it"), there is a similar ascent through 5-6-8, but the Chiffons distinctively retain the G tonic for four bars and, on the repeat of the motif, uniquely go to an A-note 9th embellishment over the first syllable of "gonna".[52] Harrison, on the other hand, introduces the more complex harmony of a relative minor (C#m), as well as the fundamental and distinctly original slide-guitar motif.[52]

text: While the case was on hold, Harrison and his former bandmates Lennon and Starr chose to sever ties with Klein at the end of March 1973 – an acrimonious split that led to further lawsuits for the three ex-Beatles.[99] Bright Tunes and Harrison later resumed their negotiations; his final offer of 40 per cent of "My Sweet Lord"'s US composer's and publisher's royalties, along with a stipulation that he retain copyright for his song, was viewed as a "good one" by Bright's legal representation, yet the offer was rejected.[97] It later transpired that Klein had renewed his efforts to purchase the ailing company, now solely for himself, and to that end was supplying Bright Tunes with insider details regarding "My Sweet Lord"'s sales figures and copyright value.[17][100] In the build-up to the case going to court, the Chiffons recorded a version of "My Sweet Lord", with the aim of drawing attention to the lawsuit.[96] Beatles author Alan Clayson has described the plagiarism suit as "the most notorious civil action of the decade",[101] the "extremity" of the proceedings provoked by a combination of the commercial success of Harrison's single and the intervention of "litigation-loving Mr Klein".[102]

text: Court hearing and ruling[edit]

text: Bright Tunes Music v. Harrisongs Music finally went to the United States district court on 23 February 1976, to hear evidence on the allegation of plagiarism.[17][100] Harrison attended the proceedings in New York, with a guitar, and each side called musical experts to support its argument.[96]

text: After reconvening in September 1976, the court found that Harrison had "subconsciously" copied the earlier tune, since he admitted to having been aware of the Chiffons' recording.[103] Judge Richard Owen said in his conclusion to the proceedings:[104]

text: Did Harrison deliberately use the music of He's So Fine? I do not believe he did so deliberately. Nevertheless, it is clear that My Sweet Lord is the very same song as He's So Fine with different words, and Harrison had access to He's So Fine. This is, under the law, infringement of copyright, and is no less so even though subconsciously accomplished.

text: Damages and subsequent litigation[edit]

text: With liability established, the court then recommended an amount for the damages to be paid by Harrison and Apple to Bright Tunes, which Owen totalled at $1,599,987[105] – amounting to three-quarters of the royalty revenue raised in North America from "My Sweet Lord", as well as a significant proportion of that from the All Things Must Pass album.[17] This figure has been considered over-harsh and unrealistic by some observers,[106] since it both underplayed the unique elements of Harrison's recording – the universal spiritual message of its lyrics, the signature guitar hook, and its production – and ignored the critical acclaim his album received in its own right.[17][107] Elliot Huntley observes: "People don't usually hear a single and then automatically go and buy an expensive boxed-set triple album on the off-chance."[108] The award factored in the royalty revenue raised from "My Sweet Lord"'s inclusion on the recent Best of George Harrison compilation, though at a more moderate percentage than for the 1970 album.[17]

text: The ruling set new legal precedents and was a personal blow for Harrison, who admitted he was too "paranoid" to write anything new for some time afterwards.[109][110] Early reaction in the music industry saw Little Richard claim for breach of copyright in a track recorded by the Beatles in 1964 for the Beatles for Sale album,[96] as well as Ringo Starr credit songwriter Clifford T. Ward as the inspiration for his Ringo's Rotogravure song "Lady Gaye".[111] In the UK, the corresponding damages suit, brought by Peter Maurice Music, was swiftly settled out of court in July 1977.[102]

text: During the drawn-out damages portion of the US suit, events played into Harrison's hands when Klein's ABKCO Industries finally purchased the copyright to "He's So Fine", and with it all litigation claims,[106] after which Klein proceeded to negotiate sale of the song to Harrison.[17] On 19 February 1981, the court decided that due to Klein's duplicity in the case, Harrison would only have to pay ABKCO $587,000 instead of the $1.6 million award and he would also receive the rights to "He's So Fine" – $587,000 being the amount Klein had paid Bright Tunes for the song in 1978.[17][105] The court ruled that the former manager's actions had been in breach of the fiduciary duty owed to Harrison, a duty that continued "even after the principal–agent relationship ended".[17] The litigation continued through to the early 1990s, however, as the finer points of the settlement were ironed out; in his 1993 essay on Bright Tunes v. Harrisongs, Joseph Self describes it as "without question, one of the longest running legal battles ever to be litigated in [the United States]".[17] Matters would not ultimately be concluded until March 1998.[54]

text: Subsequent charges of plagiarism in the music industry have resulted in a policy of swift settlement and therefore limited damage to an artist's credibility: the Rolling Stones' "Anybody Seen My Baby?", Oasis' "Shakermaker", "Whatever" and "Step Out", and the Verve's "Bitter Sweet Symphony" are all examples of songs whose writing credits were hastily altered to acknowledge composers of a potentially plagiarised work, with the minimum of litigation.[112][113][114]

text: Shortly before the ruling was handed down in September 1976, Harrison wrote and recorded a song inspired by the court case – the upbeat "This Song"[115] – which includes the line "This tune has nothing 'Bright' about it".[116] The 1960s soul hits "I Can't Help Myself (Sugar Pie Honey Bunch)" and "Rescue Me", as well as his own composition "You", are all name-checked in the lyrics,[117] as if to demonstrate the point that, as he later put it, "99% of the popular music that can be heard is reminiscent of something or other."[118][119]

text: In a 1980 interview with Playboy magazine, John Lennon expressed his doubts about the notion of "subconscious" plagiarism, saying: "He must have known, you know. He's smarter than that ... He could have changed a couple of bars in that song and nobody could ever have touched him, but he just let it go and paid the price. Maybe he thought God would just sort of let him off."[120][121] Ringo Starr's reaction was more charitable: "There's no doubt that the tune is similar but how many songs have been written with other melodies in mind? George's version is much heavier than The Chiffons – he might have done it with the original in the back of his mind, but he's just very unlucky that someone wanted to make it a test case in court."[122]

text: Speaking to his friend and I, Me, Mine editor Derek Taylor in 1979, Harrison said of the episode: "I don't feel guilty or bad about it, in fact it saved many a heroin addict's life. I know the motive behind writing the song in the first place and its effect far exceeded the legal hassle."[20]

text: Re-releases and alternative versions[edit]

text: Since its initial release on All Things Must Pass, "My Sweet Lord" has appeared on the 1976 compilation The Best of George Harrison and 2009's career-spanning Let It Roll: Songs by George Harrison.[123] The original UK single (with "What Is Life" as the B-side) was reissued on Christmas Eve 1976 in Britain[124] – a "provocative" move by EMI, given the publicity the lawsuit had attracted that year for the song.[125] The song appears in the 2017 Marvel Studios sequel film, Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2, and it is included on the movie's soundtrack.[126]

text: 1975 – "The Pirate Song"[edit]

text: On 26 December 1975, Harrison made a guest appearance on his friend Eric Idle's BBC2 comedy show Rutland Weekend Television,[127][128] sending up his serious public image, and seemingly about to perform "My Sweet Lord".[129]

text: As a running gag throughout the half-hour show, Harrison interrupts the sketches, trying to land an acting role as a pirate (and dressed accordingly),[128] but gets turned down each time by RWT regulars Idle and Neil Innes, who simply want him to play the part of "George Harrison".[130] He then reappears at the end in more normal attire, strumming the well-known introduction to "My Sweet Lord" on an acoustic guitar, and backed by the house band;[131] instead of continuing with the song, Harrison finally takes his chance to play "Pirate Bob"[127] by abruptly segueing into a sea shanty[132] – to the horror of the "greasy" compère, played by Idle.[130] The other musicians follow Harrison's lead, after which a group of dancers appear on stage and the show's closing credits roll.

text: This performance is known as "The Pirate Song", co-written by Harrison and Idle,[133] and the recording is only available unofficially on bootleg compilations such as Pirate Songs.[131] Observing the parallels with Harrison's real-life reluctance to play the pop star, Simon Leng writes, "there was great resonance within these gags."[130]

text: 2001 – "My Sweet Lord (2000)"[edit]

text: In January 2001, Harrison included a new version of the song as a bonus track on the remastered All Things Must Pass album.[6] "My Sweet Lord (2000)" featured Harrison sharing vocals with Sam Brown, daughter of his friend Joe Brown,[134] backed by mostly new instrumentation, including acoustic guitar by his son Dhani and tambourine by Ray Cooper.[135][136] The track opens with a "snippet" of sitar, to "emphasize its spiritual roots", Leng suggests.[137] On release, Harrison explained that his motivation for remaking the song was partly to "play a better slide guitar solo";[87] he also cited the "spiritual response" that the song had traditionally received, together with his interest in reworking the tune to avoid the contentious musical notes, as further reasons.[138] Of the extended slide-guitar break on "My Sweet Lord (2000)", Leng writes: "[Harrison] had never made so clear a musical statement that his signature bottleneck sound was as much his tool for self-expression as his vocal cords."[137] Elliot Huntley opines that Harrison's vocal was more "gospel inflected" and perhaps even more sincere than on the original recording, "given his deteriorating health" during the final year of his life.[136]

text: This version also appeared on the January 2002 posthumous release of the "My Sweet Lord" single – a three-song charity CD comprising the original 1970–71 hit, the acoustic run-through of "Let It Down" (with recent overdubs, another 2001 bonus track), and Harrison's reworking of the title song.[139] Proceeds from the single went to the Material World Charitable Foundation,[140][141] set up by Harrison in April 1973.[142] For some months after the single's release, a portion of "My Sweet Lord (2000)" played on Harrison's official website, on a constant loop, over screen images of lotus petals scattering and then re-forming.[143] The song also appears on the 2014 Apple Years 1968–75 reissue of All Things Must Pass.[144]

text: 2011 – Demo version[edit]

text: In November 2011, a demo of "My Sweet Lord", with Harrison backed by just Voormann and Starr,[145] was included on the deluxe edition CD accompanying the British DVD release of Martin Scorsese's George Harrison: Living in the Material World documentary.[146] Described as an early "live take" by compilation producer Giles Martin,[147] and an "acoustic hosanna" by David Fricke of Rolling Stone,[148] it was recorded at the start of the All Things Must Pass sessions and was later released internationally on Early Takes: Volume 1 in May 2012.[146]

text: Live versions[edit]

text: Harrison performed "My Sweet Lord" at every one of his relatively few solo concerts,[149] starting with the two Concert for Bangladesh shows at New York's Madison Square Garden on 1 August 1971.[150] The recording released on the subsequent live album was taken from the evening show[151] and begins with Harrison's spoken "Hare Krishna" over his opening acoustic-guitar chords.[152] Among the 24 backing musicians was a "Soul Choir" featuring singers Claudia Linnear, Dolores Hall and Jo Green,[153] but it was Harrison who sung the end-of-song Guru Stotram prayer in his role as lead vocalist, unlike on the studio recording (where it was sung by the backing chorus);[154] the slide guitar parts were played by Eric Clapton and Jesse Ed Davis.[155]

text: During his 1974 North American tour, Harrison's only one there as a solo artist, "My Sweet Lord" was performed as the encore at each show.[156] In contrast with the subtle shift from "hallelujah"s to Sanskrit chants on his 1970 original,[29] Harrison used the song to engage his audience in the practice of "chanting the holy names of the Lord", or kirtan – from "Om Christ!" and Krishna, to Buddha and Allah[157] – with varying degrees of success.[158][159] Backed by a band that again included Billy Preston, Harrison turned "My Sweet Lord" into an "R&B-styled" extended gospel-funk piece, closer in its arrangement to Preston's Encouraging Words version and lasting up to ten minutes.[160] The performance of the song at Tulsa's Assembly Center on 21 November marked the only guest appearance of the tour when Leon Russell joined the band on stage.[161]

text: Harrison's second and final solo tour took place in Japan in December 1991, with Clapton's band.[162][163] A live version of "My Sweet Lord" recorded at the Tokyo Dome, on 14 December, was released the following year on the Live in Japan album.[164]

text: Personnel[edit]

text: The following musicians are believed to have played on Harrison's original version of "My Sweet Lord":[47][165]

text:
George Harrison – vocals, acoustic guitar, slide guitars, backing vocals
Eric Clapton – acoustic guitar
Pete Ham – acoustic guitar
Tom Evans – acoustic guitar
Joey Molland – acoustic guitar
Billy Preston – piano
Gary Wright – electric piano
Klaus Voormann – bass
Ringo Starr – drums, percussion
Jim Gordon – drums, percussion
Mike Gibbins – tambourine
John Barham – string and woodwind arrangements
Bobby Whitlock – harmonium, backing vocals
uncredited – zithers

text: Cover versions[edit]

text:
Andy Williams covered "My Sweet Lord" on his 1971 Love Story album, backed by members of the choir of the Wee Kirk o' the Valley of Reseda, California.[166]
Ronnie Aldrich, British easy listening pianist, covered the song, as well as Harrison's "What Is Life", on his 1971 album, also entitled Love Story[167] (after the equally popular theme song to the 1970 movie Love Story, by Francis Lai[168]).
Tony Orlando and Dawn performed the song on their television series in the 1970s.
Homer Louis Randolph III recorded a version of "My Sweet Lord" for his eponymous 1971 album.[169]
Peggy Lee recorded "My Sweet Lord" in April 1971 for her album Where Did They Go, arranged by Don Sebesky; it was issued on CD in 2008.[170]
Ray Coniff's version was released on another 1971 album titled Love Story.[169]
Bola Sete's version was released on his 1971 album Shebaba.[171]
Johnny Mathis covered "My Sweet Lord" on his Love Story album.[169]
Edwin Starr recorded a version in 1971, produced by Norman Whitfield, which was released as a single and appeared on his Involved album.[172]
A version by Eddy Arnold appeared on his 1971 album Welcome to My World.[169]
Also in 1971, John Holt recorded a reggae version of "My Sweet Lord", without the background chorus of "hallelujahs" and Krishna references.[173]
Another 1971 easy listening version of "My Sweet Lord" was recorded by Stu Phillips & The Hollyridge Strings, for their Beatles tribute album The George, John, Paul & Ringo Songbook.[174]
Marion Williams covered "My Sweet Lord" on her 1971 album Standing Here Wondering Which Way to Go;[169] the song was later released on Daytrippers: Songs of the Beatles.[166]
French orchestral leader Franck Pourcel recorded the song for his Friends album in 1971.[169]
Swedish jazz singer Monica Zetterlund recorded the Swedish-language cover "Du mitt liv" in 1971.[175]
Another French orchestrator, Paul Mauriat, recorded "My Sweet Lord" for his 1972 album Le Grand Orchestre de Paul Mauriat Joue Les Beatles.[169][176]
Italian singer Iva Zanicchi covered the song on her album Fantasia n. 2: The Beatles in 1972.[169]
Nina Simone performed an 18-minute gospel reworking of "My Sweet Lord" at Fort Dix before a group of African-American soldiers, a version released on her 1972 album Emergency Ward! (along with her cover of Harrison's "Isn't It a Pity").[169] She interspersed the song with the David Nelson poem "Today Is a Killer", at the end of which, God is accused of being a killer, giving the otherwise exuberant atmosphere of the performance an apocalyptic ending.[177] No references to Krishna appear in Simone's version.
Richie Havens covered the song on his 1972 live album Richie Havens on Stage,[169] a version later released on the 1987 album Sings Beatles and Dylan.[178]
In 1975, Julio Iglesias covered the song on his album El Amor, singing it in English even though the song was retitled in Spanish as "Mi Dulce Señor (My Sweet Lord)".[179]
The Chiffons' version of the song was released as a non-album single in 1975.[169][176]
Larry Norman covered "My Sweet Lord" on his 1977 album Streams of White Light into Darkened Corners, and like John Holt, omitted the "hallelujah" refrains and references to Krishna.[166]
On her 1978 Christmas TV special, Dolly Parton performed the song as part of a spiritual medley, with guest Cher and a choir, with only "hallelujah" being chanted.[180]
The song was briefly included in Stars on 45's medley of songs, released as a single in May 1981.[169]
For his 1981 Don't Give In album, Leon Patillo recorded a heavily revised version of "My Sweet Lord". (Among other things, because this was a Christian release, the entire background "hallelujah" section is replaced with the refrain "Jesus".)[181]
Five Thirty covered the song for the anti-poll tax album Alvin Lives (In Leeds), released in 1990.[166]
Boy George recorded a version of the song in 1992 for the Ruby Trax: The NME's Roaring Forty compilation album.[182]
Spanish house music band PCA released their version of "My Sweet Lord" as a single in 1995.[169]
Stacey Q covered "My Sweet Lord" on her 1997 album Boomerang.[166]
Swedish band Brainpool recorded the song as a medley with "He's So Fine" and released it as a single in 1997, titled "My Sweet Lord (She's So Fine)".[176][183]
In December 1997, Megadeth played the song live (with modified lyrics) at their concert at the Centro Cultural Recoleta in Buenos Aires.[184]
The Wailing Souls covered "My Sweet Lord" for their 1998 album Psychedelic Souls.[166]
In 1999, an instrumental version of "My Sweet Lord" was included on Aretha Franklin's Amazine Grace: The Complete Recordings collection, a repackaging of her bestselling album Amazing Grace, recorded live in a Los Angeles Baptist church in January 1972.[185]
David Young recorded the song for his 2000 covers album Songbook.[169]
At the American Music Awards in January 2002, soul singer Luther Vandross performed a medley of "Something" and "My Sweet Lord" in tribute to Harrison, among others who died in 2001.[186]
In April 2002, Elton John, Sting, James Taylor, Ravi Shankar, Anoushka Shankar and others performed "My Sweet Lord" to close the Harrison-tribute opening portion of the Rock for the Rainforest benefit concert, held at Carnegie Hall in New York City.[187]
Richard Clayderman recorded a cover of "My Sweet Lord" for his 2002 album Everybody Loves Somebody Sometime.[188]
At the Concert for George on 29 November 2002, the song was performed by Billy Preston, with Sam Brown joining on backing vocals.[166][189]
In 2003, Brazilian artist Emmerson Nogueira included a cover of "My Sweet Lord" on his album Versão Acústica 3.[169]
BeBe Winans recorded a version with specifically Christian, additional verses (and without Krishna references) on his album My Christmas Prayer.[169]
Girlyman also covered this song, released on their 2003 album Remember Who I Am.[169]
Reggae artist Little Roy (Earl Lowe), a Rastafarian, recorded the song for his 2005 album Children of the Most High, replacing the background chorus with sung references to Rastafari.[190]
Les Fradkin's cover was released in 2005 on his Something for George tribute album, featuring guest appearances from Richie Furay and former Apple recording artist Lon Van Eaton.[191]
Joel Harrison covered "My Sweet Lord" on his album Harrison on Harrison: Jazz Explorations of George Harrison, released in October 2005.[169]
Nina Hagen recorded a version of "My Sweet Lord" (with Loka Nunda) in 2008.[166]
John Mayer performed the song live throughout 2008, notably during his performance at that year's Glastonbury Festival.[192]
Osibisa covered this track on their 2009 album Osee Yee.[193]
Jim James (under the name Yim Yames) covered six of Harrison's songs, including "My Sweet Lord", on his 2009 EP Tribute To.[194]
Klaus Voormann, who had played bass on Harrison's studio version and on the Concert for Bangladesh performance of the song, included a cover of "My Sweet Lord" on his 2009 solo album A Sideman's Journey; Bonnie Bramlett supplied lead vocals on the track.[195]
Kevin Max has covered this song, with no references to Krishna, for Christian audiences.[196]
Elliott Smith performed "My Sweet Lord" live with Grandaddy.[197]
Jose Feliciano has also played this song live.[176]
Hurray for the Riff Raff contributed "My Sweet Lord" to Harrison Covered,[198] a tribute CD accompanying the November 2011 issue of Mojo magazine.[199]
In 2014, Brian Wilson performed the song with his band (including Al Jardine) at the George Fest concert tribute to Harrison.[200]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: Grammy Awards[edit]

text:
Year
Nominee/work
Award
Result

1972
"My Sweet Lord"
Record of the Year[201]
Nominated

text: Chart performance[edit]

text: Weekly singles charts[edit]

text:
Original release

Chart (1970–71)
Peak
position

Australian Kent Music Report[202]
1

Austrian Singles Chart[203]
1

Belgian Ultratop Singles Chart[204]
1

Canadian RPM Singles Chart[205]
1

Dutch Singles Chart[206]
1

French SNEP Singles Chart[207]
1

German Media Control Singles Chart[208]
1

Irish Singles Chart[209]
1

Italian Singles Chart[210]
1

Japanese Oricon Singles Chart[211]
4

New Zealand Singles Chart[79]
1

Norwegian Singles Chart[212]
1

South African Springbok Singles Chart[213]
3

Spanish Singles Chart[214]
1

Swedish Kvällstoppen Chart[215]
1

Swiss Singles Chart[216]
1

UK Singles Chart[76]
1

US Billboard Hot 100[217]
1

Posthumous reissue

Chart (2002)
Peak
position

Brazil (ABPD)[218]
98

Canadian Singles Chart[219]
1

Dutch Singles Chart[220]
46

Irish Singles Chart[209]
5

Italian Singles Chart[221]
12

Japanese Oricon Weekly Singles Chart[222]
96

Norwegian Singles Chart[223]
18

Swedish Singles Chart[224]
56

Swiss Singles Chart[225]
61

UK Singles Chart[76]
1

US Billboard Hot 100[219]
94

text: Year-end charts[edit]

text:
Chart (1971)
Rank

Australian Singles Chart[202]
2

Austrian Singles Chart[226]
2

Canadian RPM Singles Chart[227]
7

Dutch Singles Chart[228]
21

Italian Singles Chart[210]
4

Japanese Oricon Singles Chart[211]
38

UK Singles Chart[229]
1

US Billboard Year-End Singles[230]
31

text: Certifications and sales[edit]

text:
Region
Certification
Certified units/Sales

Japan (RIAJ)[231]
2× Platinum
269,000[211]

United Kingdom (BPI)[232]
Silver
250,000^

United States (RIAA)[233]
Gold
1,000,000^

*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone