document_title: List of most polluted cities by particulate matter concentration

question_text: air pollution in this city is the highest in the world

text: This list contains the top 500 cities by PM2.5 annual mean concentration measurement whose measurement is greater than or equal to the air quality guideline (AQG) of 10[1] as documented by the World Health Organization covering the period from 2008 to 2015, with the majority of values being more recent than 2013. The 2016 version of the WHO database contains results of ambient (outdoor) air pollution monitoring from almost 3000 towns and cities in 103 countries. Air quality in the database is represented by the annual mean concentration of particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5, i.e. particles smaller than 10 or 2.5 micrometres, respectively).[2][3][4]

text:
Position
Country
Town/City
PM2.5
PM2.5 Year
PM10
PM10 Year

1
Iran
Zabol
217
2012
527
2012

2
India
Gwalior
176
2012
329
2012

3
India
Allahabad
170
2012
317
2012

4
Saudi Arabia
Riyadh
156
2014
368
2014

5
Saudi Arabia
Al Jubail
152
2014
359
2014

6
India
Patna
149
2013
167
2012

7
India
Raipur
144
2012
268
2012

8
Cameroon
Bamenda
132
2012
141
2012

9
China
Xingtai
128
2014
193
2014

10
China
Baoding
126
2014
190
2014

11
India
Delhi
122
2013
229
2012

12
India
Ludhiana
122
2012
228
2012

13
China
Shijiazhuang
121
2014
305
2013

14
Saudi Arabia
Dammam
121
2014
286
2014

15
India
Kanpur
115
2012
215
2012

16
India
Khanna
114
2012
213
2012

17
India
Firozabad
113
2012
212
2012

18
India
Lucknow
113
2012
211
2012

19
China
Handan
112
2014
169
2014

20
Pakistan
Peshawar
111
2010
540
2010

21
India
Amritsar
108
2012
202
2012

22
India
Gobindgarh
108
2012
201
2012

23
Pakistan
Rawalpindi
107
2010
448
2010

24
China
Hengshui
107
2014
161
2014

25
Bangladesh
Narayangonj
106
2014
191
2014

26
Iran
Bushehr
105
2010
255
2010

27
India
Agra
105
2012
196
2012

28
Uganda
Kampala
104
2013
170
2013

29
China
Tangshan
102
2014
153
2014

30
India
Jodhpur
101
2012
189
2012

31
India
Dehradun
100
2012
188
2012

32
India
Jaipur
100
2012
187
2012

33
India
Howrah
100
2012
186
2012

34
India
Ahmedabad
100
2013
83
2012

35
India
Faridabad
98
2012
184
2012

36
Saudi Arabia
Yanbu
97
2014
230
2014

37
China
Langfang
96
2014
144
2014

38
Iran
Ahvaz
95
2010
231
2010

39
India
Dhanbad
95
2012
178
2012

40
Bangladesh
Chittagong
95
2014
135
2014

41
India
Bhopal
93
2012
173
2012

42
Qatar
Doha
93
2012
168
2012

43
Nigeria
Kaduna
90
2013
423
2013

44
India
Khurja
90
2012
168
2012

45
Bangladesh
Dhaka
90
2014
158
2014

46
Bangladesh
Gazipur
89
2014
155
2014

47
Pakistan
Karachi
88
2009
290
2009

48
Kuwait
Al Shuwaikh
88
2014
212
2014

49
Iraq
Baghdad
88
2015
208
2015

50
China
Cangzhou
88
2014
133
2014

51
India
Raebareli
87
2012
163
2012

52
China
Tianjin
87
2014
150
2013

53
Afghanistan
Kabul
86
2009
260
2009

54
China
Zhengzhou
86
2014
171
2013

55
Qatar
Al Wakrah
85
2012
152
2012

56
Bangladesh
Barisal
85
2014
142
2014

57
China
Beijing
85
2014
108
2013

58
India
Kota
84
2012
156
2012

59
India
Udaipur
83
2012
155
2012

60
India
Alwar
81
2012
152
2012

61
Republic of Macedonia
Tetovo
81
2013
140
2013

62
China
Wuhan
80
2014
124
2013

63
India
Chandrapur
79
2012
148
2012

64
China
Anyang
79
2014
119
2014

65
China
Hefei
79
2014
115
2013

66
Myanmar
Pyin Oo Lwin
78
2012
140
2012

67
China
Shouguang
78
2014
117
2014

68
Egypt
Greater Cairo
76
2013
179
2013

69
India
Indore
76
2012
143
2012

70
Myanmar
Taungoo
76
2013
137
2013

71
Myanmar
Kyaukphyu
76
2009
136
2009

72
Mongolia
Ulaanbaatar
75
2010
165
2010

73
India
Jalandhar
75
2012
140
2012

74
Kuwait
Ali Subah Al-Salem
74
2014
179
2014

75
Saudi Arabia
Makkah
74
2014
176
2014

76
India
Akola
74
2012
139
2012

77
India
Varanasi
74
2012
138
2012

78
China
Jingzhou
74
2014
112
2014

79
China
Changsha
74
2014
94
2013

80
India
Noida
73
2012
136
2012

81
China
Nanjing
72
2014
137
2013

82
China
Shenyang
72
2014
129
2013

83
Egypt
Delta region
71
2013
167
2013

84
China
Chengdu
71
2014
150
2013

85
Myanmar
Namkham
71
2012
127
2012

86
China
Harbin
71
2014
119
2013

87
China
Xi'an
70
2014
189
2013

88
India
Jalgaon
70
2012
130
2012

89
China
Kaifeng
70
2014
106
2014

90
China
Yichang
70
2014
106
2014

91
China
Pingdingshan
70
2014
105
2014

92
China
Xiangtan
70
2014
105
2014

93
China
Yangquan
70
2014
105
2014

94
India
Meerut
69
2012
129
2012

95
Myanmar
Mawlamyaing
69
2012
124
2012

96
China
Zhuzhou
69
2014
105
2014

97
Afghanistan
Mazar-e Sharif
68
2009
334
2009

98
Pakistan
Lahore
68
2010
198
2010

99
Kuwait
Al-Mansouriya
68
2014
165
2014

100
Saudi Arabia
Jeddah
68
2014
161
2014

101
China
Jiaozuo
68
2014
103
2014

102
China
Laiwu
68
2014
103
2014

103
China
Jiangyin
68
2014
102
2014

104
China
Suqian
68
2014
102
2014

105
China
Weinan
68
2014
102
2014

106
China
Taiyuan
67
2014
157
2013

107
Mauritius
Beau Bassin/Rose Hill, Coromandel
67
2011
131
2011

108
India
Raniganj
67
2012
126
2012

109
Myanmar
Yenanchaung
67
2009
120
2009

110
Turkey
Batman
67
2012
109
2012

111
Turkey
Hakkari
67
2012
109
2012

112
Cameroon
Bafoussam
67
2012
105
2012

113
China
Changzhi
67
2014
101
2014

114
China
Wuxi
67
2014
101
2014

115
Nigeria
Onitsha
66
2009
594
2009

116
Bahrain
Hamad Town
66
2012
318
2012

117
Pakistan
Islamabad
66
2011
217
2011

118
Turkey
Gaziantep
66
2012
108
2012

119
China
Xuzhou
66
2014
100
2014

120
China
Zhenjiang
66
2014
99
2014

121
Saudi Arabia
Medina
65
2014
153
2014

122
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Tuzla
65
2010
106
2010

123
China
Changzhou
65
2014
99
2014

124
China
Anshan
65
2014
98
2014

125
China
Baoji
65
2014
98
2014

126
China
Huai'an
65
2014
98
2014

127
China
Liuzhou
65
2014
98
2014

128
China
Xianyang
65
2014
98
2014

129
China
Jurong
65
2014
97
2014

130
China
Yangzhou
65
2014
97
2014

131
Bahrain
Ma'ameer
64
2012
257
2012

132
Kuwait
Al-Ahmadi
64
2014
168
2014

133
Kuwait
Al-Salam
64
2014
153
2014

134
China
Urumqi
64
2014
146
2013

135
China
Changchun
64
2014
130
2013

136
India
Navi Mumbai
64
2012
120
2012

137
India
Jammu
64
2012
119
2012

138
China
Shaoxing
64
2014
105
2013

139
China
Suzhou
64
2014
97
2014

140
China
Tongchuan
64
2014
97
2014

141
China
Zigong
64
2014
97
2014

142
China
Sanmenxia
64
2014
96
2014

143
Chile
Coyhaique
64
2014
75
2014

144
India
Bangalore
63
2012
118
2012

145
India
Mumbai
63
2013
117
2012

146
China
Huzhou
63
2014
111
2013

147
China
Jinhua
63
2014
99
2013

148
China
Liaocheng
63
2014
96
2014

149
China
Xining
62
2014
163
2013

150
United Arab Emirates
Al Gharbia - Bida Zayed
62
2013
146
2013

151
China
Linfen
62
2014
94
2014

152
Bangladesh
Sylhet
61
2014
170
2014

153
United Arab Emirates
Al Gharbia - Gayathi
61
2013
145
2013

154
India
Kolkata
61
2014
135
2012

155
Bangladesh
Khulna
61
2014
109
2014

156
China
Chongqing
61
2014
106
2013

157
China
Hangzhou
61
2014
106
2013

158
Turkey
Siirt
61
2012
101
2012

159
China
Lianyungang
61
2014
92
2014

160
China
Wuhu
61
2014
92
2014

161
China
Taizhou
61
2014
82
2013

162
South Africa
Hartebeespoort
60
2014
119
2014

163
Turkey
Afyon
60
2012
98
2012

164
China
Heze
60
2014
91
2014

165
China
Qinhuangdao
60
2014
91
2014

166
China
Zhangjiagang
60
2014
91
2014

167
China
Fuyang
60
2014
90
2014

168
China
Nantong
60
2014
90
2014

169
India
Chandigarh
59
2012
110
2012

170
India
Jhansi
59
2012
110
2012

171
India
Kolhapur
59
2012
110
2012

172
China
Dezhou
59
2014
90
2014

173
China
Wafangdian
59
2014
88
2014

174
China
Yiwu
59
2014
88
2014

175
China
Zhuji
59
2014
88
2014

176
India
Hyderabad
59
2014
79
2012

177
Bahrain
Nabih Saleh
58
2012
244
2012

178
China
Lanzhou
58
2014
153
2013

179
Kuwait
Al-Rumaithyia
58
2014
141
2014

180
India
Rishikesh
58
2012
109
2012

181
India
Sibsagar
58
2012
109
2012

182
India
Durgapur
58
2012
108
2012

183
China
Pingdu
58
2014
88
2014

184
China
Korla
58
2014
87
2014

185
China
Lin'an
58
2014
87
2014

186
India
Angul
57
2012
106
2012

187
China
Quzhou
57
2014
94
2013

188
Turkey
Karaman
57
2012
93
2012

189
China
Maanshan
57
2014
87
2014

190
China
Nanchong
57
2014
86
2014

191
China
Yancheng
57
2014
86
2014

192
United Arab Emirates
Al Gharbia - Liwa Oasis
56
2013
133
2013

193
United Arab Emirates
Abu Dhabi
56
2013
132
2013

194
China
Jiaxing
56
2014
94
2013

195
China
Luoyang
56
2014
85
2014

196
China
Panjin
56
2014
85
2014

197
China
Wujiang
56
2014
85
2014

198
China
Dalian
56
2014
84
2014

199
China
Huludao
56
2014
84
2014

200
China
Laixi
56
2014
84
2014

201
China
Laizhou
56
2014
84
2014

202
China
Linyi
56
2014
84
2014

203
India
Bhilai
55
2012
103
2012

204
India
Nagda
55
2012
103
2012

205
India
Nagpur
55
2012
103
2012

206
India
Vadodara
55
2012
102
2012

207
China
Zhaoqing
55
2014
85
2013

208
China
Jinzhou
55
2014
84
2014

209
China
Guilin
55
2014
83
2014

210
China
Taian
55
2014
83
2014

211
China
Taicang
55
2014
82
2014

212
China
Zhaoyuan
55
2014
82
2014

213
China
Zibo
55
2014
82
2014

214
Jordan
Al-Zarqa
54
2015
128
2015

215
India
Jamnagar
54
2012
101
2012

216
India
Amravati
54
2012
100
2012

217
India
Vapi
54
2012
100
2012

218
Turkey
Igdir
54
2012
88
2012

219
China
Benxi
54
2014
81
2014

220
China
Dongying
54
2014
81
2014

221
China
Jining
54
2014
81
2014

222
China
Yixing
54
2014
81
2014

223
Iran
Kermanshah
53
2011
130
2011

224
India
Anklesvar
53
2012
100
2012

225
India
Baddi
53
2012
99
2012

226
India
Rajkot
53
2012
99
2012

227
China
Binzhou
53
2014
80
2014

228
China
Changde
53
2014
80
2014

229
China
Chengde
53
2014
80
2014

230
China
Fushun
53
2014
80
2014

231
China
Jiaonan
53
2014
79
2014

232
China
Jiaozhou
53
2014
79
2014

233
China
Jinan
52
2014
199
2013

234
United Arab Emirates
Al Ain
52
2013
123
2013

235
India
Rourkela
52
2012
98
2012

236
India
Surat
52
2012
97
2012

237
Turkey
Isparta
52
2012
86
2012

238
Turkey
Duzce
52
2012
85
2012

239
China
Shanghai
52
2014
84
2013

240
China
Liyang
52
2014
78
2014

241
China
Yibin
52
2014
78
2014

242
India
Nashik
51
2012
95
2012

243
Myanmar
Nyaung Oo
51
2013
91
2013

244
Turkey
Bitlis
51
2012
84
2012

245
China
Baotou
51
2014
77
2014

246
China
Haimen
51
2014
77
2014

247
China
Jimo
51
2014
77
2014

248
South Africa
Pretoria
51
2014
63
2014

249
Myanmar
Kyauk Pa Taung
50
2013
89
2013

250
Turkey
Cankiri
50
2012
83
2012

251
Turkey
Muş
50
2012
83
2012

252
Turkey
Osmaniye
50
2012
82
2012

253
Turkey
Sakarya
50
2012
82
2012

254
China
Jilin
50
2014
76
2014

255
China
Luzhou
50
2014
75
2014

256
China
Mudanjiang
50
2014
75
2014

257
Nigeria
Aba
49
2009
373
2009

258
Kuwait
Al-Jahra
49
2014
117
2014

259
China
Nanchang
49
2014
116
2013

260
India
Dewas
49
2012
92
2012

261
India
Guwahati
49
2012
92
2012

262
India
Pune
49
2012
92
2012

263
Nepal
Kathmandu
49
2013
88
2013

264
China
Guiyang
49
2014
85
2013

265
Turkey
Bolu
49
2012
80
2012

266
Turkey
Nigde
49
2012
80
2012

267
China
Changshu
49
2014
74
2014

268
China
Dandong
49
2014
74
2014

269
China
Zunyi
49
2014
74
2014

270
China
Weifang
49
2014
73
2014

271
China
Yueyang
49
2014
73
2014

272
Cameroon
Yaoundé
49
2012
65
2012

273
India
Silchar
48
2012
91
2012

274
India
Dimapur
48
2012
90
2012

275
Peru
Lima
48
2013
88
2013

276
China
Shaoguan
48
2014
73
2014

277
China
Yan'an
48
2014
73
2014

278
China
Zaozhuang
48
2014
73
2014

279
China
Guangzhou
48
2014
72
2013

280
China
Jintan
48
2014
72
2014

281
China
Rushan
48
2014
72
2014

282
China
Yinchuan
47
2014
118
2013

283
Kuwait
Al-Mutla
47
2014
114
2014

284
Iran
Hamadan
47
2013
114
2013

285
Iran
Pakdasht
47
2013
113
2013

286
China
Nanning
47
2014
90
2013

287
India
Naya Nangal
47
2012
89
2012

288
Turkey
Burdur
47
2012
78
2012

289
Turkey
Ankara
47
2012
77
2012

290
Turkey
Kayseri
47
2012
77
2012

291
Turkey
Kutahya
47
2012
77
2012

292
China
Zhangjiajie
47
2014
71
2014

293
China
Zhangqiu
47
2014
71
2014

294
Kuwait
Saad Al-Abdullah
46
2014
112
2014

295
Iran
Isfahan
46
2012
111
2012

296
China
Qingdao
46
2014
106
2013

297
China
Wenzhou
46
2014
94
2013

298
China
Kunshan
46
2014
69
2014

299
China
Penglai
46
2014
69
2014

300
China
Wendeng
46
2014
69
2014

301
Iran
Yasuj
45
2013
109
2013

302
Iran
Shiraz
45
2012
108
2012

303
China
Ningbo
45
2014
86
2013

304
Turkey
Edirne
45
2012
74
2012

305
Republic of Macedonia
Skopje
45
2013
74
2013

306
Turkey
Çorum
45
2012
73
2012

307
Turkey
Denizli
45
2012
73
2012

308
China
Deyang
45
2014
68
2014

309
Bahrain
Ras Hayan
44
2012
250
2012

310
Nigeria
Owerri
44
2009
158
2009

311
Kuwait
Al-Fahaheel
44
2014
107
2014

312
Brazil
Santa Gertrudes
44
2014
95
2014

313
Philippines
Baguio City
44
2013
84
2013

314
China
Foshan
44
2014
83
2013

315
India
Solapur
44
2012
83
2012

316
India
Balasore
44
2012
82
2012

317
India
Kohima
44
2012
82
2012

318
Bolivia
La Paz
44
2013
82
2013

319
India
Nalbari
44
2012
82
2012

320
India
Ramagundam
44
2012
82
2012

321
Myanmar
Sintgaing
44
2009
80
2009

322
Myanmar
Thaungtha
44
2009
80
2009

323
Turkey
Urfa
44
2012
72
2012

324
Turkey
Adiyaman
44
2012
71
2012

325
China
Mianyang
44
2014
66
2014

326
India
Chennai
44
2014
57
2012

327
China
Hohhot
43
2014
146
2013

328
Iran
Robatkarim
43
2013
105
2013

329
India
Bhubaneswar
43
2012
81
2012

330
India
Korba
43
2012
81
2012

331
India
Aurangabad
43
2012
80
2012

332
India
Berhampur
43
2012
80
2012

333
India
Parwanoo
43
2012
80
2012

334
India
Sangli
43
2012
80
2012

335
India
Ujjain
43
2012
80
2012

336
Bhutan
Thimphu
43
2012
78
2012

337
China
Jiangmen
43
2014
77
2013

338
Turkey
Aydin
43
2012
71
2012

339
Turkey
Kahramanmaras
43
2012
71
2012

340
Turkey
Mugla
43
2012
71
2012

341
Turkey
Zonguldak
43
2012
71
2012

342
China
Lishui
43
2014
69
2013

343
China
Chaozhou
43
2014
65
2014

344
China
Dongguan
43
2014
65
2013

345
Poland
Pszczyna
43
2013
58
2013

346
Poland
Zywiec
43
2013
58
2013

347
Iran
Varamin
42
2013
102
2013

348
India
Nagaon
42
2012
79
2012

349
India
Nalgonda
42
2012
79
2012

350
Montenegro
Pljevlja
42
2014
77
2014

351
El Salvador
San Salvador
42
2014
77
2014

352
Myanmar
Kathar
42
2013
76
2013

353
Turkey
Diyarbakir
42
2012
69
2012

354
Turkey
Gumushane
42
2012
69
2012

355
Turkey
Tekirdag
42
2012
69
2012

356
Turkey
Uşak
42
2012
69
2012

357
Turkey
Malatya
42
2012
68
2012

358
China
Datong
42
2014
63
2014

359
China
Qingyuan
42
2014
63
2014

360
Bulgaria
Dimitrovgrad
42
2013
59
2013

361
Bahrain
Hidd
41
2012
178
2012

362
Iran
Sanandaj
41
2010
100
2010

363
South Africa
Johannesburg
41
2011
85
2010

364
Turkey
Aksaray
41
2012
68
2012

365
Turkey
Kirikkale
41
2012
67
2012

366
China
Shizuishan
41
2014
62
2014

367
Guatemala
Guatemala
41
2013
56
2013

368
Colombia
La Estrella
41
2014
47
2014

369
Nigeria
Umuahia
40
2009
274
2009

370
India
Davanagere
40
2012
75
2012

371
India
Guntur
40
2012
75
2012

372
India
Trichy
40
2012
75
2012

373
India
Kurnool
40
2012
74
2012

374
Republic of Macedonia
Bitola
40
2013
69
2013

375
Iran
Tabriz
40
2013
68
2012

376
Turkey
Van
40
2012
65
2012

377
China
Yingkou
40
2014
61
2014

378
China
Beihai
40
2014
60
2014

379
China
Chifeng
40
2014
60
2014

380
China
Heyuan
40
2014
60
2014

381
China
Jieyang
40
2014
60
2014

382
China
Jiujiang
40
2014
60
2014

383
Poland
Rybnik
40
2013
53
2013

384
India
Thane
39
2012
73
2012

385
Turkey
Bayburt
39
2012
65
2012

386
Turkey
Konya
39
2012
65
2012

387
Poland
Opoczno
39
2013
53
2013

388
Poland
Sucha Beskidzka
39
2013
53
2013

389
Poland
Wodzislaw Slaski
39
2013
53
2013

390
Tunisia
Tunis
38
2010
90
2010

391
India
Kochi
38
2012
70
2012

392
China
Zhongshan
38
2014
66
2013

393
China
Rizhao
38
2014
57
2014

394
China
Rongcheng
38
2014
57
2014

395
China
Shantou
38
2014
57
2014

396
Bulgaria
Dolny Voden
38
2013
54
2013

397
Poland
Godow
38
2013
51
2013

398
Iran
Shahryar
37
2013
91
2013

399
Iran
Urmia
37
2011
91
2011

400
Iran
Sari
37
2012
90
2012

401
Tunisia
Sfax
37
2010
87
2010

402
Bangladesh
Rajshahi
37
2014
64
2014

403
Turkey
Ardahan
37
2012
61
2012

404
Madagascar
Antananarivo
37
2008
60
2008

405
Turkey
Bartin
37
2012
60
2012

406
Bulgaria
Montana
37
2013
52
2013

407
Poland
Krakow
37
2013
51
2013

408
Poland
Skawina
37
2013
50
2013

409
Mexico
Monterrey
36
2011
86
2011

410
Jordan
Amman
36
2015
68
2015

411
India
Coimbatore
36
2012
68
2012

412
India
Cuttack
36
2012
68
2012

413
India
Panaji
36
2012
67
2012

414
Sri Lanka
Colombo
36
2011
64
2011

415
China
Xiamen
36
2014
62
2013

416
Honduras
Tegucigalpa
36
2013
59
2013

417
Turkey
Kilis
36
2012
58
2012

418
China
Daqing
36
2014
54
2014

419
Bulgaria
Varna
36
2013
51
2013

420
Poland
Knurow
36
2013
48
2013

421
Poland
Niepolomice
36
2013
48
2013

422
Poland
Tuchow
36
2013
48
2013

423
Poland
Nowy Sacz
36
2013
45
2013

424
Oman
Muscat
35
2009
82
2009

425
India
Shillong
35
2012
65
2012

426
India
Vishakhapatnam
35
2012
65
2012

427
Chile
Padre las Casas
35
2014
64
2014

428
China
Huizhou
35
2014
59
2013

429
China
Zhuhai
35
2014
59
2013

430
Turkey
Trabzon
35
2012
58
2012

431
Turkey
Erzurum
35
2012
57
2012

432
Chile
Osorno
35
2014
54
2014

433
China
Qiqihar
35
2014
52
2014

434
Poland
Nowa Ruda
35
2013
47
2013

435
Poland
Wadowice
35
2013
47
2013

436
Poland
Zabrze
35
2013
47
2013

437
Poland
Gliwice
35
2013
46
2013

438
Poland
Katowice
35
2013
45
2013

439
Senegal
Dakar
34
2013
141
2013

440
China
Kunming
34
2014
82
2013

441
Tunisia
Bizerte
34
2010
80
2010

442
India
Singrauli
34
2012
64
2012

443
India
Kothagudem
34
2012
63
2012

444
China
Shenzhen
34
2014
61
2013

445
Bulgaria
Plovdiv
34
2013
59
2013

446
South Africa
Vereeniging
34
2014
58
2014

447
Turkey
Kocaeli
34
2012
55
2012

448
China
Meizhou
34
2014
51
2014

449
China
Nantou
34
2014
51
2014

450
China
Zhangjiakou
34
2014
51
2014

451
Poland
Brzeziny
34
2013
46
2013

452
Poland
Proszowice
34
2013
46
2013

453
Italy
Soresina
34
2013
42
2013

454
Poland
Bielsko Biala
34
2013
41
2013

455
Mexico
Toluca
33
2011
80
2011

456
Ecuador
Santo Domingo
33
2012
69
2012

457
India
Patiala
33
2012
63
2012

458
India
Nellore
33
2012
62
2012

459
Indonesia
Bandung
33
2014
59
2014

460
Myanmar
Meikhtilar
33
2013
59
2013

461
Turkey
Istanbul
33
2012
53
2012

462
China
Karamay
33
2014
50
2014

463
Bulgaria
Ruse
33
2013
47
2013

464
Bulgaria
Haskovo
33
2013
46
2013

465
Bulgaria
Pazardzhik
33
2013
46
2013

466
Czech Republic
Cesky Tesin
33
2013
45
2013

467
Czech Republic
Havirov
33
2013
45
2013

468
Poland
Zdunska Wola
33
2013
45
2013

469
Czech Republic
Orlová
33
2013
44
2013

470
Poland
Rawa Mazowiecka
33
2013
44
2013

471
Poland
Sosnowiec
33
2013
44
2013

472
Lebanon
Zahle
33
2014
40
2014

473
Poland
Kędzierzyn-Koźle
33
2013
39
2013

474
Italy
Settimo Torinese
33
2013
39
2013

475
Iran
Bojnord
32
2010
78
2010

476
Iran
Mashhad
32
2011
78
2011

477
Iran
Tehran
32
2014
77
2014

478
Ecuador
Milagro
32
2012
66
2012

479
Philippines
San Carlos City
32
2013
61
2013

480
Bolivia
Cochabamba
32
2014
60
2014

481
India
Salem
32
2012
60
2012

482
Thailand
Nakhon Sawan
32
2014
57
2014

483
Turkey
İçel
32
2012
53
2012

484
Turkey
Nevsehir
32
2012
53
2012

485
Turkey
Ordu
32
2012
53
2012

486
Turkey
Kars
32
2012
52
2012

487
China
Maoming
32
2014
49
2014

488
Taiwan
Changhua
32
2014
48
2014

489
China
Jinchang
32
2014
48
2014

490
China
Kinmen
32
2014
48
2014

491
China
Panzhihua
32
2014
48
2014

492
China
Quanzhou
32
2014
48
2014

493
China
Qujing
32
2014
48
2014

494
China
Yangjiang
32
2014
48
2014

495
Poland
Naklo
32
2013
44
2013

496
Poland
Dabrowa Gornicza
32
2013
43
2013

497
Poland
Jaroslaw
32
2013
43
2013

498
Czech Republic
Karvina
32
2013
43
2013

499
Poland
Tomaszow Mazowiecki
32
2013
43
2013

500
Poland
Tychy
32
2013
43
2013


document_title: History of the potato

question_text: when was the potato first introduced to ireland

root

text: History of the potato

text: History by region[edit]

text: South America[edit]

text: Cultivation of potatoes in South America may go back 10,000 years,[3] yet the tubers do not preserve well in archaeological record, and there are problems with exact identification of those that are found.

tag: p

text: The earliest archaeologically verified potato tuber remains have been found at the coastal site of Ancón (central Peru), dating to 2500 BC.[4] Potatoes dating to about 2000 BC have been found at Huaynuma, in the Casma Valley of Peru,[5] and early potatoes dating to 800-500 BC were also uncovered at the Altiplano site of Chiripa on the east side of Lake Titicaca.[6][7]

text: In the Altiplano, potatoes provided the principal energy source for the Inca Empire, its predecessors, and its Spanish successor. In Bolivia and Peru above 10,000 feet altitude, tubers exposed to the cold night air turned into chuño;[8] when kept in permanently frozen underground storehouses, chuño can be stored for years with no loss of nutritional value. The Spanish fed chuño to the silver miners who produced vast wealth in the 16th century for the Spanish government.[2]

text: Potato was the staple food of most Pre‑Columbian Mapuches, "specially in the southern and coastal [Mapuche] territories where maize did not reach maturity".[9]

text: Europe[edit]

text: Sailors returning from the Andes to Spain with silver presumably brought maize and potatoes for their own food on the trip.[10] Historians speculate that leftover tubers (and maize) were carried ashore and planted: "We think that the potato arrived some years before the end of the 16th century, by two different ports of entry: the first, logically, in Spain around 1570, and the second via the British Isles between 1588 and 1593 ... we find traces of the transport of potatoes travelling from the Canaries to Antwerp in 1567 ... we can say that the potato was introduced there [the Canary islands] from South America around 1562 ... the first written mention of the potato [is] ... a receipt for delivery dated 28 November 1567 between Las Palmas in the Grand Canaries and Antwerp."[11] In 1553, in the book Crónica del Peru, Pedro Cieza de León mentions he saw it in Quito, Popayán and Pasto in 1538. Basque fishermen from Spain used potatoes as ships' stores for their voyages across the Atlantic in the 16th century, and introduced the tuber to western Ireland, where they landed to dry their cod. The English privateer Sir Francis Drake, returning from his circumnavigation, or Sir Walter Raleigh's employee Thomas Harriot[12] are commonly credited with introducing potatoes into England. In 1588, botanist Carolus Clusius made a painting of what he called "Papas Peruanorum" from a specimen in the Low Countries; in 1601 he reported that potatoes were in common use in northern Italy for animal fodder and for human consumption.[13]

text: The Spanish had an empire across Europe, and brought potatoes for their armies. Peasants along the way adopted the crop, which was less often pillaged by marauding armies than above-ground stores of grain. Across most of Northern Europe, where open fields prevailed, potatoes were strictly confined to small garden plots because field agriculture was strictly governed by custom that prescribed seasonal rhythms for plowing, sowing, harvesting and grazing animals on fallow and stubble. This meant that potatoes were barred from large-scale cultivation because the rules allowed only grain to be planted in the open fields.[14] In France and Germany government officials and noble landowners promoted the rapid conversion of fallow land into potato fields after 1750. The potato thus became an important staple crop in northern Europe. Famines in the early 1770s contributed to its acceptance, as did government policies in several European countries and climate change during the Little Ice Age, when traditional crops in this region did not produce as reliably as before.[15][16] At times and places when and where most other crops failed, potatoes could still typically be relied upon to contribute adequately to food supplies during colder years.[17]

text: In France, at the end of the 16th century, the potato had been introduced to the Franche-Comté, the Vosges of Lorraine and Alsace. By the end of the 18th century it was written in the 1785 edition of Bon Jardinier: "There is no vegetable about which so much has been written and so much enthusiasm has been shown ... The poor should be quite content with this foodstuff."[18] It had widely replaced the turnip and rutabaga by the 19th century.[19]

text: French physician Antoine Parmentier studied the potato intensely and in Examen chymique des pommes de terres ("Chemical examination of potatoes") (Paris, 1774) showed their enormous nutritional value. King Louis XVI and his court eagerly promoted the new crop, with Queen Marie Antoinette even wearing a headdress of potato flowers at a fancy dress ball. The annual potato crop of France soared to 21 million hectoliters[clarification needed] in 1815 and 117 million in 1840, allowing a concomitant growth in population while avoiding the Malthusian trap. Although potatoes had become widely familiar in Russia by 1800, they were confined to garden plots until the grain failure in 1838–39 persuaded peasants and landlords in central and northern Russia to devote their fallow fields to raising potatoes. Potatoes yielded from two to four times more calories per acre than grain did, and eventually came to dominate the food supply in Eastern Europe. Boiled or baked potatoes were cheaper than rye bread, just as nutritious, and did not require a gristmill for grinding. On the other hand, cash-oriented landlords realised that grain was much easier to ship, store and sell, so both grain and potatoes coexisted.[20]

text: Throughout Europe, the most important new food in the 19th century was the potato, which had three major advantages over other foods for the consumer: its lower rate of spoilage, its bulk (which easily satisfied hunger) and its cheapness. The crop slowly spread across Europe, such that, for example, by 1845 it occupied one-third of Irish arable land.[citation needed] Potatoes comprised about 10% of the caloric intake of Europeans.[citation needed] Along with several other foods that either originated in the Americas or were successfully grown or harvested there, potatoes sustained European populations.[21]

text: In Britain, the potato promoted economic development by underpinning the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century. It served as a cheap source of calories and nutrients that was easy for urban workers to cultivate on small backyard plots. Potatoes became popular in the north of England, where coal was readily available, so a potato-driven population boom provided ample workers for the new factories. Marxist Friedrich Engels even declared that the potato was the equal of iron for its "historically revolutionary role".[13] The Dutch potato-starch industry grew rapidly in the 19th century, especially under the leadership of entrepreneur Willem Albert Scholten (1819–92).[22]

text: In Ireland, the expansion of potato cultivation was due entirely to the landless labourers, renting tiny plots from landowners who were interested only in raising cattle or in producing grain for market. A single acre of potatoes and the milk of a single cow was enough to feed a whole Irish family a monotonous but nutritionally adequate diet for a healthy, vigorous (and desperately poor) rural population. Often even poor families grew enough extra potatoes to feed a pig that they could sell for cash.[23]

text: A lack of genetic diversity from the low number of varieties left the crop vulnerable to disease. In the early 1800s, a strain of potato blight (Phytophthora infestans) known as HERB-1 began to spread in the Americas, especially Central and North America destroying many crops. The blight spread to Europe in the 1840s where, because of an extreme lack of genetic diversity, the potato crops were even more susceptible. In Northern Europe there were major crop losses lasting throughout the rest of the 19th century. Ireland in particular, because of the extreme dependence of the poor, especially western Ireland, on this single staple crop, was devastated by the blight's arrival in 1845.[24][25]

text: The Lumper potato, widely cultivated in western and southern Ireland before and during the Great Famine, was bland, wet and poorly resistant to the potato blight, but yielded large crops and usually provided adequate calories for peasants and labourers. Heavy dependence on this potato led to disaster when the blight quickly turned harvest-ready and newly harvested potatoes into a putrid mush. The Irish Famine in the western and southern parts of Ireland between 1845–49 was a catastrophic failure in the food supply that led to approximately a million deaths from famine and (especially) diseases that attacked weakened bodies, and to massive emigration to Britain, the U.S., Canada and elsewhere.[26] During the famine years roughly one million Irish emigrated; this tide was not turned until the 20th century, when Ireland's population stood at less than half of the pre-famine level of 8 million.

text: Africa[edit]

text: It is generally believed that potatoes entered Africa with colonists, who consumed them as a vegetable rather than as a staple starch.[27] Shipping records from 1567 show that the first place outside of Central and South America where potatoes were grown were the Canary Islands.[28] As in other continents, despite its advantages as an anti-famine, high-elevation alternative to grain, potatoes were first resisted by local farmers who believed they were poisonous. Colonialists also promoted them as a low cost food and so it was a symbol of domination. In former European colonies of Africa, potatoes were initially consumed only occasionally, but increased production made them a staple in certain areas. Potatoes tended to become more popular in wartime due to their being able to be stored in the ground. It was well established as a crop by the mid-20th century [16] and in present-day Africa they have become a vegetable or co-staple crop.[27]

text: In higher regions of Rwanda, potatoes have become a new staple food crop. Prior to the 1994 Rwandan genocide, consumption was as high as 153 to 200 kg per year – higher than in any Western European country. Recently farmers have developed the potato as a cash crop after introducing several new varieties brought back by migrant laborers from Uganda and other varieties from Kenya.[27]

text: Asia[edit]

text: The potato diffused widely after 1600, becoming a major food resource in Europe and East Asia. Following its introduction into China toward the end of the Ming dynasty, the potato immediately became a delicacy of the imperial family. After the middle period of the Qianlong era (1735–96) in the Qing dynasty, population increases and a subsequent need to increase grain yields coupled with greater peasant geographic mobility led to the rapid spread of potato cultivation throughout China, and it was acclimated to local natural conditions.

text: Boomgaard (2003) looks at the adoption of various root and tuber crops in Indonesia throughout the colonial period and examines the chronology and reasons for progressive adoption of foreign crops: sweet potato, Irish potato, bengkuang (yam beans), and cassava.

text: Edward Terry mentioned the potato in his travel accounts of the banquet at Ajmer by Asaph Khan to Sir Thomas Roe, the British Ambassador in 1675. It is the earliest mention in history of India[clarification needed]. The vegetables gardens of Surat and Karnataka had potatoes as mentioned in Fyer's travel record of 1675. The Portuguese introduced potatoes, which they called 'Batata', to India in the early seventeenth century when they cultivated it along the western coast. British traders introduced potatoes to Bengal as a root crop, 'Alu'. By the end of the 18th century, it was cultivated across northern hill areas of India.[16] Potatoes were introduced to Tibet by the 19th century through trade route from India.[29]

text: The potato was introduced to the Philippines during the late 16th century, and to Java and China during the 17th century.[citation needed]

text: North America[edit]

text: Potatoes were planted in Idaho as early as 1838; by 1900 the state's production exceeded a million bushels (about 27,000 tonnes[31]). Prior to 1910, the crops were stored in barns or root cellars, but, by the 1920s, potato cellars or barns came into use. U.S. potato production has increased steadily; two-thirds of the crop comes from Idaho, Washington, Oregon, Colorado, and Maine, and potato growers have strengthened their position in both domestic and foreign markets.

text: By the 1960s, the Canadian Potato Research Centre in Fredericton, New Brunswick, was one of the top six potato research institutes in the world. Established in 1912 as a Dominion Experimental Station, the station began in the 1930s to concentrate on breeding new varieties of disease-resistant potatoes. In the 1950s–1960s, the growth of the French fry industry in New Brunswick led to a focus on developing varieties for the industry. By the 1970s, the station's potato research was broader than ever before, but the station and its research programs had changed, as emphasis was placed on serving industry rather than potato farmers in general. Scientists at the station even began describing their work using engineering language rather than scientific prose.[32] Potatoes are Canada's most important vegetable crop; they are grown commercially in all its provinces, led by Prince Edward Island.[33] In modern days potatoes have grown in popularity due to their versatility and ability to be used for many different dishes of food.

text: The first potatoes to arrive in North America from Europe were sent to Gov. Francis Wyatt of Virginia at Jamestown by Nathaniel Butler. There were two large cedar boxes that were filled with different vegetables, among them were potatoes. The very first potatoes grown in North America were planted in Derry New Hampshire in the year 1719. Idaho didn't begin growing potatoes until 1836.[citation needed]


document_title: Sagittarius (constellation)

question_text: what is the name of the asterism that is found in sagittarius

text: Sagittarius (constellation)

text: Visualizations[edit]

text: As seen from the northern hemisphere, the constellation's brighter stars form an easily recognizable asterism known as 'the Teapot'. The stars δ Sgr (Kaus Media), ε Sgr (Kaus Australis), ζ Sgr (Ascella), and φ Sgr form the body of the pot; λ Sgr (Kaus Borealis) is the point of the lid; γ2 Sgr (Alnasl) is the tip of the spout; and σ Sgr (Nunki) and τ Sgr the handle. These same stars originally formed the bow and arrow of Sagittarius.[1]

text: Marking the bottom of the teapot's "handle" (or the shoulder area of the archer), are the bright star (2.59 magnitude) Zeta Sagittarii (ζ Sgr), named Ascella, and the fainter Tau Sagittarii (τ Sgr).

text: To complete the teapot metaphor, under good conditions, a particularly dense area of the Milky Way can be seen rising in a north-westerly arc above the spout, like a puff of steam rising from a boiling kettle.[2]

text: The constellation as a whole is often depicted as having the rough appearance of a stick-figure archer drawing its bow, with the fainter stars providing the outline of the horse's body. Sagittarius famously points its arrow at the heart of Scorpius, represented by the reddish star Antares, as the two constellations race around the sky. Following the direct line formed by Delta Sagittarii (δ Sgr) and Gamma2 Sagittarii (γ2 Sgr) leads nearly directly to Antares. Fittingly, Gamma2 Sagittarii is Alnasl, the Arabic word for "arrowhead", and Delta Sagittarii is called Kaus Media, the "center of the bow," from which the arrow protrudes. Kaus Media bisects Lambda Sagittarii (λ Sgr) and Epsilon Sagittarii (ε Sgr), whose names Kaus Borealis and Kaus Australis refer to the northern and southern portions of the bow, respectively.[3]

text: Notable features[edit]

text: Stars[edit]

text: α Sgr (Rukbat, meaning "the archer's knee"[4]) despite having the "alpha" appellation, is not the brightest star of the constellation, having a magnitude of only 3.96 (not shown on the main map as it is located below the map's southeastern corner, north is up). Instead, the brightest star is Epsilon Sagittarii (ε Sgr) ("Kaus Australis," or "southern part of the bow"), at magnitude 1.85.[5]

text: Sigma Sagittarii (σ Sgr) ("Nunki") is the constellation's second-brightest star at magnitude 2.08. Nunki is a B2V star approximately 260 light years away.[4] "Nunki" is a Babylonian name of uncertain origin, but thought to represent the sacred Babylonian city of Eridu on the Euphrates, which would make Nunki the oldest star name currently in use.[3]

text: Zeta Sagittarii (ζ Sgr) ("Ascella"), with apparent magnitude 2.61 of A2 spectra, is actually a double star whose two components have magnitudes 3.3 and 3.5.[6]

text: Delta Sagittarii (δ Sgr) ("Kaus Meridionalis"), is a K2 spectra star with magnitude 2.71 and only 85 light years from Earth.[6]

text: Eta Sagittarii (η Sgr) is a double star with component magnitudes of 3.18 and 10, while Pi Sagittarii (π Sgr) is actually a triple system whose components have magnitudes 3.7, 3.8, and 6.0.[6]

text: The Bayer designation Beta Sagittarii (Beta Sgr, β Sagittarii, β Sgr) is shared by two star systems, β¹ Sagittarii, with apparent magnitude 3.96, and β² Sagittarii, magnitude 7.4. The two stars are separated by 0.36° in the sky and are 378 light years from earth. Beta Sagittarii, located at a position associated with the forelegs of the centaur, has the traditional name Arkab, meaning "achilles tendon."

text: Nova Sagittarii 2015 No. 2 was discovered on March 15, 2015,[7] by John Seach of Chatsworth Island, NSW, Australia. It lies near the center of the constellation. It reached a peak magnitude of 4.3 before steadily fading.

text: Deep-sky objects[edit]

text: The Milky Way is at its densest near Sagittarius, as this is where the galactic center lies. As a result, Sagittarius contains many star clusters and nebulae.

text: Nebulae[edit]

text: Sagittarius contains several well-known nebulae, including the Lagoon Nebula (Messier 8), near λ Sagittarii; the Omega Nebula (Messier 17), also known as the Horseshoe Nebula or Swan Nebula, near the border with Scutum; and the Trifid Nebula (Messier 20), a large nebula containing some very young, hot stars.

text:
The Lagoon Nebula (M8) is an emission nebula that is located 5,000 light-years from Earth and measures 140 light-years by 60 light-years (1.5°). Though it appears grey in telescopes to the unaided eye, long-exposure photographs reveal its pink hue, common to emission nebulae.[8] It is fairly bright, with an integrated magnitude of 3.0.[9] The Lagoon Nebula was discovered independently by John Flamsteed in 1680,[10] Guillaume Le Gentil in 1747,[8] and Charles Messier in 1764.[10] The central area of the Lagoon Nebula is also known as the Hourglass Nebula, so named for its distinctive shape. The Hourglass Nebula has its shape because of matter propelled by Herschel 36. The Lagoon Nebula also features three dark nebulae catalogued in Barnard's Catalog.[8] The Lagoon Nebula was instrumental in the discovery of Bok globules, as Bart Bok studied prints of the nebula intensively in 1947. Approximately 17,000 Bok globules were discovered in the nebula nine years later as a part of the Palomar Sky Survey; studies later showed that Bok's hypothesis that the globules held protostars was correct.[11]
The Omega Nebula is a fairly bright nebula; it has an integrated magnitude of 6.0 and is 4890 light-years from Earth. It was discovered in 1746 by Philippe Loys de Chésaux; observers since him have differed greatly in how they view the nebula, hence its myriad of names. Most often viewed as a checkmark, it was seen as a swan by George F. Chambers in 1889, a loon by Roy Bishop, and as a curl of smoke by Camille Flammarion.[12]
The Trifid Nebula (M20, NGC 6514) is an emission nebula in Sagittarius that lies less than two degrees from the Lagoon Nebula. Discovered by French comet-hunter Charles Messier, it is located between 2,000 and 9,000 light-years from Earth and has a diameter of approximately 50 light-years. The outside of the Trifid Nebula is a bluish reflection nebula; the interior is pink with two dark bands that divide it into three areas, sometimes called "lobes". Hydrogen in the nebula is ionized, creating its characteristic color, by a central triple star, which formed in the intersection of the two dark bands.[8] M20 is associated with a cluster that has a magnitude of 6.3.[13]
The Red Spider Nebula (NGC 6537) is a planetary nebula located at a distance of about 4000 light-years from Earth.
NGC 6559 is a star-forming region located at a distance of about 5000 light-years from Earth, in the constellation of Sagittarius, showing both emission (red) and reflection (bluish) regions.

tag: ul

text: The grouping of the Lagoon Nebula, the Trifid Nebula, and NGC 6559 is often called the Sagittarius triplet.

text: In addition, several other nebulae have been located within Sagittarius and are of interest to astronomers.

text:
M24, also called the Small Sagittarius Star Cloud, is a star cluster with an approximate magnitude of 3. About 9400 light-years away, it has a diameter of approximately 330 light-years. Embedded in M24 is NGC 6603, a smaller star cluster that is very dense. NGC 6567, a dim planetary nebula, and Barnard 92, a Bok globule, are also nearby.[14]
NGC 6445 is a planetary nebula with an approximate magnitude of 11. A large nebula at over one arcminute in diameter, it appears very close to the globular cluster NGC 6440.[15]
NGC 6638 is a dimmer globular at magnitude 9.2, though it is more distant than M71 at a distance of 26,000 light-years. It is a Shapley class VI cluster; the classification means that it has an intermediate concentration at its core. It is approximately a degree away from the brighter globulars M22 and M28; NGC 6638 is southeast and southwest of the clusters respectively.[16]

text: Other deep sky objects[edit]

text: In 1999 a violent outburst at V4641 Sgr was thought to have revealed the location of the closest known black hole to Earth,[18] but later investigation increased its estimated distance by a factor of 15.[19] The complex radio source Sagittarius A is also in Sagittarius, near its western boundary with Ophiuchus. Astronomers believe that one of its components, known as Sagittarius A*, is associated with a supermassive black hole at the center of the galaxy, with a mass of 2.6 million solar masses.[20] The Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy is located just outside the Milky Way.

text: Baade's Window is an area with very little obscuring dust that shows objects closer to the Milky Way's center that would normally be visible. NGC 6522, magnitude 8.6, and NGC 6528, magnitude 9.5, are both globular clusters visible through Baade's Window. 20,000 and 24,000 light-years from Earth, with Shapley classes of VI and V respectively, both are moderately concentrated at their cores. NGC 6528 is closer to the galactic core at an approximate distance of 2,000 light-years.[21]

text: 2MASS-GC02, also known as Hurt 2, is a globular cluster at a distance of about 16 thousand light-years from Earth. It was discovered in 2000 by Joselino Vasquez, and confirmed by a team of astronomers under the leadership of R. J. Hurt at 2MASS.[22]

text: Exploration[edit]

text: The space probe New Horizons is moving on a trajectory out of the Solar System as of 2016 that places the probe in front of Sagittarius as seen from the Earth.[23] New Horizons will exhaust its radioisotope thermoelectric generator long before it reaches any other stars.

text: The Wow! signal was a strong narrowband radio signal that appeared to have come from the direction of Sagittarius.

text: Mythology[edit]

text: The Babylonians identified Sagittarius as the god Nergal, a strange centaur-like creature firing an arrow from a bow.[24] It is generally depicted with wings, with two heads, one panther head and one human head, as well as a scorpion's stinger raised above its more conventional horse's tail. The Sumerian name Pabilsag is composed of two elements – Pabil, meaning 'elder paternal kinsman' and Sag, meaning 'chief, head'. The name may thus be translated as the 'Forefather' or 'Chief Ancestor'.[25] The figure is reminiscent of modern depictions of Sagittarius.

text: Greek mythology[edit]

text: In Greek mythology, Sagittarius is usually identified as a centaur: half human, half horse. However, perhaps due to the Greeks' adoption of the Sumerian constellation, some confusion surrounds the identity of the archer.[3] Some identify Sagittarius as the centaur Chiron, the son of Philyra and Cronus, who was said to have changed himself into a horse to escape his jealous wife, Rhea, and tutor to Jason. As there are two centaurs in the sky, some identify Chiron with the other constellation, known as Centaurus.[3] Or, as an alternative tradition holds, that Chiron devised the constellations Sagittarius and Centaurus to help guide the Argonauts in their quest for the Golden Fleece.[26]

text: A competing mythological tradition, as espoused by Eratosthenes, identified the Archer not as a centaur but as the satyr Crotus, son of Pan, who Greeks credited with the invention of archery.[3][27] According to myth, Crotus often went hunting on horseback and lived among the Muses, who requested that Zeus place him in the sky, where he is seen demonstrating archery.[3]

text: The arrow of this constellation points towards the star Antares, the "heart of the scorpion", and Sagittarius stands poised to attack should Scorpius ever attack the nearby Hercules, or to avenge Scorpius's slaying of Orion.[28]

text: Astrology[edit]

text: As of 2002[update], the Sun appears in the constellation Sagittarius from 18 December to 18 January. In tropical astrology, the Sun is considered to be in the sign Sagittarius from 22 November to 21 December, and in sidereal astrology, from 16 December to 14 January.[citation needed]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Star Tales: The Bow and Arrow of Sagittarius
Jump up ^ P.K. Chen (Sky Publishing 2007) A Constellation Album: Stars and Mythology of the Night Sky (ISBN 978-1931559386).
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Ridpath, Ian (1988). Star Tales. James Clarke & Co. pp. 112–114. ISBN 9780718826956.
^ Jump up to: a b Chartrand III, Mark R. (1983). Skyguide: A Field Guide for Amateur Astronomers. New York, NY: Golden Press. p. 184. ISBN 0-307-13667-1.
Jump up ^ James B. Kaler, Prof. Emeritus of Astronomy, University of Illinois, http://stars.astro.illinois.edu/sow/sowlist.html
^ Jump up to: a b c Baker, David (1978). The Henry Holt Guide to Astronomy. New York, NY: The Hamlyn Publishing Group, Ltd. p. 132. ISBN 0805011978.
Jump up ^ "Transient Object Followup Reports". cbat.eps.harvard.edu. Retrieved 24 March 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Wilkins, Jamie; Dunn, Robert (2006). 300 Astronomical Objects: A Visual Reference to the Universe (1st ed.). Buffalo, New York: Firefly Books. ISBN 978-1-55407-175-3.
Jump up ^ Levy 2005, p. 108.
^ Jump up to: a b Levy 2005, p. 109.
Jump up ^ Levy 2005, pp. 111–112.
Jump up ^ Levy 2005, p. 103.
Jump up ^ Levy 2005, p. 114.
Jump up ^ Levy 2005, pp. 143–144.
Jump up ^ Levy 2005, p. 133.
Jump up ^ Levy 2005, pp. 167–168.
Jump up ^ "First Globular Cluster Outside the Milky Way". ESA/Hubble Photo of the Week. Retrieved 9 November 2011.
Jump up ^ "Dramatic Outburst Reveals Nearest Black Hole". National Radio Astronomy Observatory. Retrieved 30 August 2008.
Jump up ^ A Black Hole in the Superluminal Source SAX J1819.3-2525 (V4641 SGR), 2001: "Finally, we find a distance in the range 7.40 ≤ d ≤ 12.31 kpc (90% confidence), which is at least a factor of ≈ 15 larger than the initially assumed distance of ≈ 500 pc."
Jump up ^ Levy 2005, p. 143.
Jump up ^ Levy 2005, pp. 174–175.
Jump up ^ "2MASS-GC02, Hurt 2". Retrieved 15 January 2016.
Jump up ^ https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2014/16oct_kbos/
Jump up ^ Page 15 of Origins of the ancient constellations: I. The Mesopotamian traditions, by J. H. Rogers
Jump up ^ White, Gavin (2008). Babylonian Star-lore. Solaria Pubs. p. 155.
Jump up ^ Richard H. Allen (1899), Star Names: Their Lore and Meaning, G. E. Stechert, p. 353 OCLC 30773662
Jump up ^ Theony Condos, Ph.D. (Red Wheel/Weiser 1997) Star Myths of the Greeks and Romans: A Sourcebook, p. 186 (ISBN 9781609256784.)
Jump up ^ Milton D. Heifetz (Cambridge University Press 2004) A Walk Through the Heavens: A Guide to Stars and Constellations and Their Legends, p. 66 (ISBN 9780521544153).

tag: ol


document_title: CHiPs

question_text: what was erik estrada's name in chips

question_tokens: what was erik estrada 's name in chips

text: CHiPs

text: Plot[edit]

text: CHiPs is an action crime dramedy. Over-the-top freeway pileups, which occurred frequently, especially in the later seasons, were a signature of the show. There was little violence on CHiPs, and the show can be classified as a light drama. The episodes filled a standard hour-long time slot, which at the time required 48 minutes of actual programming. For filming, traffic on Los Angeles freeways was non-existent and most chase scenes were done on back roads, usually dirt roads.

text: The show was created by Rick Rosner, and starred Erik Estrada as macho, rambunctious Officer Francis ("Frank") Llewellyn "Ponch" Poncherello and Larry Wilcox as his straitlaced partner, Officer Jonathan ("Jon") Andrew Baker. With Ponch the more trouble-prone of the pair, and Jon generally the more level-headed one trying to keep him out of trouble with the duo's gruff yet fatherly commanding officer Sergeant Joseph Getraer (Robert Pine), the two were Highway Patrolmen of the Central Los Angeles office of the California Highway Patrol (CHP, hence the name CHiPs).

text: As real-life CHP motor officers rarely ride in pairs, in early episodes this was explained away by placing the trouble-prone Ponch on probationary status, with Jon assigned as his field training officer. Eventually, by the end of the first season, this subplot faded away (Ponch completed his probation) as audiences were used to seeing the two working as a team.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Larry Wilcox as Officer Jonathan Andrew "Jon" Baker (1977–82) / 7-Mary-3
Erik Estrada as Officer Francis (Frank) Llewelyn "Ponch" Poncherello / 7-Mary-4 (15-Mary-6 in the final season)
Robert Pine as Sergeant Joseph (Joe) Getraer / S-4
Lew Saunders as Officer Gene Fritz (1977–79) / 5-David-5 (7-David in some episodes)
Brodie Greer as Officer Barry "Bear" Baricza (1977–82) / 7-Adam (7-David in two episodes)
Paul Linke as Officer Arthur (Artie) "Grossie" Grossman / 7-Mary-5
Lou Wagner as Harlan Arliss, Automobile/Motorcycle Mechanic, CHP (1978–83)
Brianne Leary as Officer Sindy Cahill (1978–79) / 7-Charles
Randi Oakes as Officer Bonnie Clark (1979–82) / 7-Charles
Michael Dorn as Officer Jedediah Turner (1979–82) / 7-David
Bruce Jenner as Officer Steve McLeish (1981–82)
Tom Reilly as Officer Bobby "Hot Dog" Nelson (1982–83) / 15-Mary-7
Tina Gayle as Officer Kathy Linahan (1982–83) / 7-Mary-10
Bruce Penhall as Cadet/Officer Bruce Nelson (1982–83) / 15-Mary-8
Clarence Gilyard, Jr. as Officer Benjamin Webster (1982–83) / 15-Adam-9

text: Cast changes[edit]

text: In the fifth season (1981–82), Estrada went on strike over a dispute over syndication profits. As a result, he did not appear in seven episodes; for that period he was replaced by Jenner (Officer Steve McLeish).[1][2]

text: Despite their successful pairing on-screen, Wilcox and Estrada did not always get along behind the camera.[3] However, it was Wilcox's falling-out with the producers over what he saw as continual favoritism toward Estrada that saw Wilcox not return for the sixth and final season. Wilcox was replaced by Tom Reilly (Officer Bobby Nelson).

text: Bruce Penhall, a native of Balboa Island, Newport Beach and a Motorcycle speedway rider who had won the 1981 and 1982 Speedway World Championships, was also introduced as cadet–probationary officer Bruce Nelson, Bobby's younger brother in 1982–83. The season 6 episode "Speedway Fever" (aired November 7, 1982) centered on Penhall's character Nelson winning the 1982 Speedway World Final at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, with scenes filmed in the pits during the meeting. The episode also used television coverage of the final (with dubbed commentary). Penhall later admitted that having a bodyguard and having to have makeup done in the pits in full view of his competitors at the World Final only added to the pressure he was under both as a rider and a rookie actor and that it felt weird having to "buddy up to Ponch" in front of the other riders while the World Final was taking place. In order to become a full-time member of the CHiPs cast, Penhall had officially announced his retirement from speedway racing on the podium of the 1982 World Final.

text: Estrada apparently did not approve of Reilly's work ethic[citation needed] and was very displeased with Reilly's real life arrest by the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) for possession of controlled substances during a traffic stop. As a result, Bobby was featured somewhat less prominently in later episodes of the season, with Bruce becoming Ponch's partner in the third to last episode, "Fast Company."

text: Production[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: According to a 1998 TV Guide article, show creator Rick Rosner was a reserve deputy with the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department.[citation needed] During a coffee break on an evening patrol shift in the mid-1970s he saw two young CHP officers on motorcycles which gave him the idea for this series. He later created 240-Robert, which seemed like a hybrid of CHiPs and Emergency!.[citation needed]

text: Episodes occasionally reference Jon Baker's service in Vietnam. This makes his character one of the earliest regular (and one of the more positive) portrayals of a Vietnam veteran on television.[citation needed] Larry Wilcox served 13 months in Vietnam as a Marine artilleryman.

text: Despite the Ford Motor Company's credit as a vehicle provider for nearly 4 of the series' 6 seasons, cars and trucks were supplied by several manufacturers; many of the police cars seen were Dodge models.

text: Although doubles were used for far-off shots and various stunt or action sequences, Wilcox and Estrada did a great deal of their own motorcycle riding, and performed many smaller stunts themselves. Although Wilcox emerged relatively injury-free, Estrada suffered various injuries several times throughout the run of the series. In several early first season episodes, a huge bruise or scar can be seen on his arm after he was flung from one of the motorcycles and skidded along the ground. But his worst accident came when he was seriously injured in a motorcycle accident while filming a season three episode in August 1979, fracturing several ribs and breaking both wrists. The accident and Estrada's subsequent hospitalization was incorporated into the series' storyline.

text: Prior to being cast in CHiPs Estrada had no experience with motorcycles, so he underwent an intensive eight-week course, learning how to ride. In 2007 it was revealed that he did not hold a motorcycle license at the time CHiPs was in production, and only qualified for a license after three attempts, while preparing for an appearance on the reality television show Back to the Grind.

text: Estrada and Wilcox never drew their firearms over the course of the series. (This did occur in "National Lampoon's Loaded Weapon 1" and in the made-for-TV reunion movie CHiPs '99.) The only character on the series depicted as drawing his firearm was Baricza (Brodie Greer), and he did so three times. The first was his radio car's Ithaca 37 shotgun in season 1's episode "Rainy Day",[4] where the CHiPs conduct a felony traffic stop of a motorhome-based casino.[5] The second was in season 2's premiere, "Peaks and Valleys", against two hillbillies armed with a Tommy-gun and a double-barrel shotgun who had ambushed his unattended patrol car for fun. Here the action was only implied, with his hand motion just below camera range. The last was in season 4's "Karate", in which a karate-trained car burglar (Danny Bonaduce) attacked him with a Bō, but Baricza drew his gun to stop Bonaduce.

text: NBC aired reruns of this series on its 1982 daytime schedule from April to September.

text: During the original run of the series, syndicated reruns of older episodes were retitled CHiPs Patrol to avoid confusion.[6] Later syndicated reruns after the show went out of production reverted to the original title.

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
22
September 15, 1977
April 1, 1978

2
23
September 16, 1978
May 12, 1979

3
24
September 22, 1979
March 30, 1980

4
21
September 21, 1980
May 17, 1981

5
27
October 4, 1981
May 23, 1982

6
22
October 10, 1982
May 1, 1983

TV Movie
October 27, 1998

text: CHiPs episodes were usually a combination of light comedy and drama. A typical episode would start with Ponch and Jon on routine patrol or being assigned to an interesting beat, such as Malibu or the Sunset Strip. In roll call briefing, Sgt. Getraer would alert his officers to be on the lookout for a particular criminal operation, such as people staging accidents as part of an insurance scam or punks breaking into cars. A few interesting, unrelated vignettes often transpired during "routine" traffic enforcement.

text: A light-hearted subplot would also be included, such as Harlan trying to hide a stray dog from Getraer at the office. A more serious theme, such as Ponch trying to keep a kid from his old neighborhood out of a potential life of crime, might also be included. After a few failed attempts to apprehend the gang that had been menacing L.A.'s freeways, the episode would invariably culminate in Ponch and Jon leading a chase of the suspects (often assisted by other members of their division), climaxing with a spectacular series of stunt vehicle crashes.

text: The show then typically featured a dénouement of Ponch and Jon participating in a new activity (such as jet skiing or skydiving), designed to showcase the pair's glamorous Southern California lifestyle. Often, Ponch would attempt to impress a woman he had met during the episode with his athletic prowess or disco dancing, only to fail and provide Jon, Getraer, and others with many laughs. As the preliminary end credits would start, the image would freeze multiple times, showing various characters laughing or otherwise enjoying the social scene.

text: Some of the more outlandish plots included Ponch and his Season 6 partner Bobby Nelson helping a girl who believed that she was being targeted by UFOs and them racing against time to defuse a battery about to explode on an intelligent experimental police robot.

text: CHP Officers almost never drew their guns in the series; in the TV Movie however, guns were used more prominently, especially in one of the final scenes in which Jon and McFall are held hostage on a tour bus, the entire CHP are shown holding guns at the bus.

text: Broadcast history[edit]

text: (all times Eastern/Pacific Time; subtract one hour for Central/Mountain Time)

text:
September 1977 – March 1978: NBC Thursday, 8–9PM
April 1978: NBC Saturday, 8–9PM
May – August 1978: NBC Thursday, 8–9PM
September 1978 – March 1980: NBC Saturday, 8–9PM
March 1980 – March 1983: NBC Sunday, 8–9PM
April – May 1983: NBC Sunday, 7–8PM
May – July 1983: NBC Sunday, 8–9PM

text: NBC aired reruns of the series weekdays at 3PM EST between April 26, 1982 – September 10, 1982 Currently the show airs on Me-TV.

text: International[edit]

text: In the United Kingdom, the series was broadcast by ITV but was not simulcast nationally. The series started in January 1979 in the London region, but began with Season Two (the first episode shown was episode 2x02 "The Volunteers") by February most other ITV regions originally screened in the Saturday tea-time slot around 17:35 but moved to the Sunday teatime slot in 1980. By 1981, as with many imported programmes of the era, the series was being broadcast at different times during the weekend throughout the year by the different ITV regions. The series shared its Saturday teatime slot with other series such as The A-Team, Knight Rider, Magnum, P.I. and Whiz Kids.

text: During 1984, most ITV station continued with the Saturday teatime slot except for Anglia Television, Scottish Television (STV) and Television South West (TSW), who broadcast episodes during the weekend mornings or Sunday afternoons. By early 1985, the series was being broadcast during Saturday mornings by Anglia, Central, Grampian, Granada, STV and Tyne Tees, who all completed the series by end of the 1985. HTV and Yorkshire completed the series by 1986, while LWT, TVS and TSW finished series six in 1987 after starting in 1985. A few companies repeated the series in 1987.

text: The entire series was shown in New Zealand on TVNZ in the 1980s.

text: CHiPs debuted in France on channel Antenne 2 as an eight-episode mini-series beginning September 18, 1983 at 2:25pm. The episodes included in the mini-series are from season 1 and 2. On April 24, 1986, CHiPs began airing on La Cinq at 8pm. La Cinq aired the first two seasons until August 28, 1987. On May 30, 1988, CHiPs began airing on TF1, showing all episodes of the series.[7]

text: Home media[edit]

text: Warner Home Video released the first two seasons of CHiPs on DVD in Regions 1, 2 & 4 between 2007/2008. On March 3, 2015 (over 6 years later), the third season was released on DVD in Region 1.[8] The fourth season was released in Region 1 on March 15, 2016.[9] The fifth season was released in Region 1 on March 14, 2017.[10][11][12] The sixth season and the complete series were released in Region 1 on June 6, 2017.[13]

text: All 139 episodes are at the iTunes Store.[14][15]

text:
DVD title
No. of
episodes
Release dates

Region 1
Region 2 (UK)
Region 4

The Complete First Season
22
June 5, 2007
August 20, 2007
September 6, 2007

The Complete Second Season
23
June 3, 2008
September 22, 2008
September 3, 2008

The Complete Third Season
23
March 3, 2015
TBA
TBA

The Complete Fourth Season
21
March 15, 2016
TBA
TBA

The Complete Fifth Season
27
March 14, 2017
TBA
TBA

The Complete Sixth Season
22
June 6, 2017
TBA
TBA

The Complete Series
139
June 6, 2017
TBA
TBA

text: Spin-offs[edit]

text: CHiPs '99[edit]

text:
CHiPs '99

CHiPs 99 Movie Poster

Directed by
Jon Cassar

Produced by

Chris Morgan
Rick Rosner
Larry Wilcox

Written by

Rick Rosner
Morgan Gendel

Starring

Larry Wilcox
Erik Estrada
Robert Pine
Paul Korver
David Ramsey
Brodie Greer
Bruce Penhall
Paul Linke

Music by
Stacy Widelitz

Cinematography
David Geddes

Edited by
Ron Spang

Distributed by
Turner Films

Running time

94 minutes

Country
United States

Language
English

text: CHiPs '99 is a 1998 made-for-television film and a sequel to the series. It was directed by Jon Cassar. Several cast members from the original series make a return. Original cast with promotions were Jon Baker as a Captain and Joe Getraer as the CHP Commissioner. Other original cast members were Officer Frank Poncherello returning from a 15-year hiatus with the CHP, Officer Barry Baricza and Arthur (Artie) "Grossie" Grossman as a Detective. Bruce Penhall also returns as newly promoted Sergeant Bruce Nelson.

text:
Larry Wilcox as Captain Jonathan (Jon) A. Baker / 79 Charles
Erik Estrada as Officer Francis (Frank) Llewelyn "Ponch" Poncherello / 79-Mary-4
Robert Pine as CHP Commissioner Joseph (Joe) Getraer
Paul Korver as Officer Peter Roulette / 79-Mary-13
David Ramsey as Officer Sergeant McFall
Brodie Greer as Officer Barry "Bear" Baricza
Bruce Penhall as Officer/Sergeant Bruce Nelson / 79-S-10
Paul Linke as Detective Arthur (Artie) "Grossie" Grossman

text: Feature film[edit]

text: In 2005, a theatrical release motion picture version of the show was announced, starring Wilmer Valderrama as Ponch,[16] though as of 2013 this production was still "stalled".[17] Erik Estrada and Larry Wilcox were rumored to make cameo appearances. In a 2002 episode of MADtv, Valderrama and fellow That '70s Show cast member Danny Masterson were featured in two parodies of CHiPs, which featured the two actors as Ponch and Baker respectively. Mila Kunis also appeared in the second sketch. In a 2002 episode of That '70s Show, Valderrama's character, Fez, was seen in the "most likely" section of the yearbook as "most likely to appear as Ponch in a musical version of CHiPs".

text: On September 2, 2014, Warner Bros. Pictures announced a film adaptation of the show, which Andrew Panay would be producing along with Dax Shepard.[18] Shepard will also write, direct and star in the film as Officer Jon Baker; Michael Peña will play Frank "Ponch" Poncherello while Vincent D’Onofrio is in negotiations to play the villain.[19][20]

text: Merchandise[edit]

text: A series of 3 3⁄4" action figures was released by Mego in the late 1970s. Due to the materials used to construct the figures, many of them have discolored (typically turning green) or started to decompose over the years, making good conditioned examples quite hard to find on the collectors market.[citation needed] There was also a series of six die-cast model vehicles produced by Imperial Toys.

text: In the UK, as was common with many popular US series of the era, a series of tie-in annuals were produced by World International Publishing Ltd, containing stories, photos, puzzles and features on the stars. There are four annuals in total, one each for 1980–83.[citation needed]

text: In 2006, a limited edition soundtrack was released on CD by Turner Classic Movies' music division via Film Score Monthly, featuring the original recordings of the main theme by John Parker (Parker's theme replaced an unused composition by Mike Post and Pete Carpenter, who scored the pilot) and in-episode musical scores from many episodes of the second season, as composed and conducted by Alan Silvestri, the series' primary (and from seasons three to five sole) composer until the final season. Silvestri also arranged the theme as heard from season two onwards, and it is this version that is heard here—the soundtrack album also includes the "Trick or Treat" score composed and conducted by Bruce Broughton, his only work for the series.[21] In 2008, music from the third season was released; an album of music from the fourth season followed in 2010.

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: In the Galactica 1980 episode "The Super Scouts, Part I", a California Highway Patrol motor officer references CHiPs by lamenting to his partner, "How come this never happens to those two guys on TV?" when the two Colonial Warriors, Captain Troy (Kent McCord) and Lieutenant Dillon (Barry Van Dyke), escape the CHP duo by using flying motorcycles.[22]

text: The alternative rock band Seven Mary Three gets its name from Jon's call sign.[23]

text: Both Estrada and Wilcox reprised their roles in the 1993 film National Lampoon's Loaded Weapon 1.

text: The show was referenced in the Hawaii Five-0 episode "He Kane Hewaʻole" (An Innocent Man), in which cops pursue a suspect on the Kamehameha Highway and discover a severed head inside the suspect's car, sparking a murder investigation.

text: The 2014 Walt Disney Pictures film Planes: Fire & Rescue features a parody TV series titled CHoPs, with Estrada providing the voice of helicopter officer Nick "Loop'n" Lopez.[24]

text: On February 2, 2014, Estrada reprised his role as Ponch in the RadioShack Super Bowl XLVIII commercial "The '80s Called".[25]


document_title: I Know What You Did Last Summer

question_text: where is i know what you did last summer set

text: I Know What You Did Last Summer

text: Plot[edit]

text: On the Fourth of July in Southport, North Carolina, senior high schooler Julie James, her boyfriend Ray Bronson, her best friend Helen Shivers, and Helen's boyfriend Barry Cox are all driving home from Helen's queen coronation at the Croaker beauty pageant. Along the road, they accidentally hit a pedestrian. Max, who has a crush on Julie, stops by but is convinced to leave. After some arguing, the group decides to dispose of the body. However, the man awakes while they're tossing him into the sea. Shocked, the group agrees to never again discuss what had happened.

text: One year later, a disheartened Julie is home from college for the summer. She and Ray have broken up, and Julie, once a model student, has been failing exams all year. She receives a letter with no return address, stating, "I know what you did last summer." Julie informs Helen, who works at her family store and feels similarly dispirited. They take the note to Barry, who immediately thinks Max responsible. They go to the docks, where Max works, and Barry threatens him with a hook. Julie meets Ray who's now working as a fisherman; he tries to reconcile with her, in vain. Later, Max is killed by a figure in a rain slicker wielding a hook. Barry discovers a note in his gym locker saying "I know." His jacket is stolen and he's almost run over by the slicker guy driving Barry's car.

text: Helen and Julie, who had previously learned their victim was identified as one David Egan, visit Missy, David's sister. Missy tells them that a friend of David's named Billy Blue also visited her.

text: Later, the killer sneaks into Helen's house, cuts off her hair while she sleeps, and writes "Soon" on her mirror. Julie finds Max's corpse wearing Barry's jacket in the trunk of her car. When she calls the others, the body is missing. Ray claims to have received a threatening letter, too. Helen rides with Barry as the reigning Croaker Queen in the Fourth of July parade; they notice a man wearing a slicker, Barry chases him, but it turns out to be a red herring.

text: Julie goes back to Missy, who reveals David allegedly committed suicide, out of guilt for the death of his girlfriend Susie in the crash of the car David was driving. Missy shows David's suicide note to Julie. As the writing matches that of the note she received, Julie realizes it wasn't a suicide note but a death threat. At the Croaker Pageant, Helen witnesses Barry being murdered on the balcony. She rushes up there with a police officer but finds no sign of the killer or Barry.

text: While driving Helen home, the officer is stopped by a stalled truck, then killed by a dark figure with a hook. Helen rushes to her family's store, but the killer follows her inside and kills Helen's sister Elsa. Helen manages to flee, but the killer chases her into an alley and slashes her to death, her screams drowned out by the noise of the parade.

text: Julie finds an article mentioning Susie's father, Ben Willis, and realizes it's Ben they ran over, moments after he had killed David Egan to avenge his daughter. She at goes to the docks to tell Ray, who's skeptical. Julie notices Ray's boat is called "Billy Blue" and runs away before Ray can explain that he went to see Missy to relieve his conscience. Ben shows up, knocks Ray out and invites Julie to hide on his boat. Looking around, she finds photos and articles about her and her friends, and pictures of Susie. Ben's boat leaves the docks, as Ray regains consciousness and steals a motorboat to rescue Julie, who's being chased all around Ben's boat. Ray ultimately uses the rigging to sever Ben's hook-carrying hand and send him overboard. When the police question them, they deny knowing why Ben attempted to kill them, but they're relieved not to have actually killed anybody the previous summer, and reconcile.

text: A year later, Julie is in college in Boston. As she enters the shower, she notices the words "I still know" on the mirror. Moments later, a dark figure crashes through it.

text: Production[edit]

text: Although the movie is set in coastal North Carolina, most of the opening scenes were filmed in Sonoma County, California. In the first scene, the movie opens with an aerial shot over the ocean at sunset that transitions to David Eagan, who is sitting on a coastal cliff at sunset. This scene was filmed at Kolmer Gulch, just north of the town of Jenner, California on Highway 1.[6] The night time beach scene was filmed just south of Jenner, California. The ensuing car scene where Julie, Helen, Barry and Ray accidentally hit the pedestrian (David Eagan) was also filmed at Kolmer Gulch on California Highway 1.[7] The remaining scenes were filmed primarily around the vicinity of Southport, North Carolina.[8]

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Jennifer Love Hewitt as Julie James
Sarah Michelle Gellar as Helen Shivers
Ryan Phillippe as Barry Cox
Freddie Prinze Jr. as Ray Bronson
Bridgette Wilson as Elsa Shivers
Anne Heche as Missy Egan
Muse Watson as Ben Willis
Johnny Galecki as Max Neurick

text: Music[edit]

text: The film produced two soundtracks. One of them featured the score composed by John Debney, while the other contained various rock songs found in the film.

text:
I Know What You Did Last Summer (Original Motion Picture Score)

Film score (Digital download)/Audio CD by John Debney

Released
October 7, 1997

Genre
Film score

Length
50:44

Label
Super Tracks Music Group

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
I Know What You Did Last Summer (The Album)

Soundtrack album (Digital download)/Audio CD by Various

Released
October 7, 1997

Genre
Alternative rock, alternative metal[9]

Length
51:14

Label
Columbia Records

text:
"Hush" by Kula Shaker (2:55)
"Summer Breeze" by Type O Negative (4:57)
"D.U.I." by The Offspring (2:26)
"Kid" by Green Apple Quick Step (3:17)
"This Ain't the Summer of Love" by L7 (3:09)
"Losin' It" by Soul Asylum (3:01)
"Hey Bulldog" by Toad the Wet Sprocket (2:31)
"My Baby's Got the Strangest Ways" by Southern Culture on the Skids (3:59)
"Waterfall" by The Din Pedals (3:47)
"Clumsy" by Our Lady Peace (4:27)
"One Hundred Days" by Flick (3:40)
"Great Life" by Goatboy (3:50)
"2 Wicky" by Hooverphonic (4:44)
"Don't Mean Anything" by Adam Cohen (3:43)
"Proud" by Korn (3:17)

text: Reception[edit]

text: The film received mixed reviews upon release, inevitably drawing both positive and negative comparisons to Scream, also written by Williamson. Mick LaSalle thought it inferior to 'Scream',[10] but Richard Harrington compared it favorably, stating that it was "...a smart, sharply drawn genre film with a moral center and a solid cast of young actors to hold it."[11] Variety was also enthusiastic, calling it a "polished genre piece with superior fright elements that should perform at better than average theatrical levels."[12] On Rotten Tomatoes, 35% of reviews were positive.[13] Metacritic reported an aggregate score of 52 out of 100 based on 17 reviews.[14] Critic Roger Ebert gave the film 1/4 stars and wrote in his review, "The best shot in this film is the first one. Not a good sign."[15]

text: Jennifer Love Hewitt was praised for her performance as Julie James. An Entertainment Weekly columnist stated that Hewitt knows how to scream with soul.[16]

text: Box office[edit]

text: In its opening weekend the film grossed $15,818,645 in 2,524 theaters in the United States and Canada, ranking #1. By the end of its run, I Know What You Did Last Summer grossed $72,586,134 domestically and $53 million internationally for a worldwide total of $126 million.

text: Home media[edit]

text: The film was released on DVD by Columbia TriStar Home Entertainment in the US on June 16, 1998. Special features included a theatrical trailer and filmmaker's commentary. It was released on DVD & video in the UK by Entertainment in Video with no special features. The film was released on Blu-ray for the first time ever on July 22, 2008, with more special features including the director's short film: "Joyride" with optional commentary, a featurette titled "Now I Know What You Did Last Summer", a music video of Hush by Kula Shaker and also included the theatrical trailer and filmmaker's commentary from the DVD. Though it was released in the US, it is available to be watched in regions A, B & C. The Blu-ray was re-released by Mill Creek Entertainment on September 30, 2014 in the US. It contains no special features and is only available in Region A.

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year
Ceremony
Category
Nominee
Result

1997
ASCAP Award
Top Box Office Films
John Debney
Won

1998
Saturn Award
Best Horror Film
I Know What You Did Last Summer
Nominated

Blockbuster Entertainment Award
Favorite Female Newcomer
Jennifer Love Hewitt
Won

Favorite Actress

Favorite Supporting Actress – Horror
Sarah Michelle Gellar

Favorite Actor – Horror
Freddie Prinze Jr.
Nominated

Favorite Actress – Horror
Jennifer Love Hewitt

Favorite Supporting Actor
Ryan Phillippe

International Horror Guild Award
Best Movie
I Know What You Did Last Summer

MTV Movie Awards
Best Breakthrough Performance
Sarah Michelle Gellar

Young Artist Award
Best Performance in a Feature Film – Leading Young Actress
Jennifer Love Hewitt

text: Sequels and remake[edit]

text: The film was followed by two sequels: I Still Know What You Did Last Summer (1998) and I'll Always Know What You Did Last Summer (2006), which went direct-to-video. Both were critically panned. In the first sequel, Jennifer Love Hewitt, Freddie Prinze Jr. and Muse Watson reprise their roles. The second sequel has very little relation to the first two, other than the premise, the villain, and the producers. It featured new characters and a different setting.

text: On September 14, 2014 Sony reported that they have plans to remake the film; Mike Flanagan and Jeff Howard are writing a script. In a June 1, 2016 Blumhouse.com "Shockwaves" podcast, writer Mike Flanagan revealed and further confirmed this new iteration and re-imagination of the franchise would not have any inventions of the Lois Duncan novel (the antagonist being a central character) nor the 1997 feature (the fisherman Ben Willis and 4 primary protagonists Julie James, Helen Shivers, Barry Cox, and Ray Bronson). Further, the new direction and scope of the film necessitates an estimated budget of $15–20 million. Sony also states that the film is a high priority and is set for a release somewhere between 2017-2020.[17]


document_title: Samson

question_text: who had his haircut and lost his strength

text: Samson

text: Biblical narrative[edit]

text: Birth[edit]

text: According to the account in the Book of Judges, Samson lived during a time of repeated conflict between Israel and Philistia, when God was disciplining the Israelites by giving them "into the hand of the Philistines".[4] Manoah was an Israelite from Zorah, descended from the Danites,[5] and his wife had been unable to conceive.[6][7] The Angel of the Lord appeared to Manoah's wife and proclaimed that the couple would soon have a son who would begin to deliver the Israelites from the Philistines.[8]

text: The Angel of the Lord stated that Manoah's wife was to abstain from all alcoholic drinks, and her promised child was not to shave or cut his hair. He was to be a Nazirite from birth. In ancient Israel, those wanting to be especially dedicated to God for a time could take a Nazirite vow which included abstaining from wine and spirits, not cutting hair or shaving, and other requirements.[6][7][8] The wife believed the Angel of the Lord; her husband was not present, so he prayed and asked God to send the messenger once again to teach them how to raise the boy who was going to be born.

text: After the Angel of the Lord returned, Manoah asked him his name, but he said, "Why do you ask my name? It is beyond understanding."[9] Manoah then prepared a sacrifice, but the Angel of the Lord would only allow it to be for God. He touched it with his staff, miraculously engulfing it in flames, and then ascended into the sky in the fire — and, in doing so, revealed that he was not simply an angel but was God in angelic form. This was such dramatic evidence of the nature of the Messenger that Manoah feared for his life, since it was said that no one could live after seeing God. However, his wife convinced him that, if God planned to slay them, he would never have revealed such things to them. In due time, their son Samson was born, and he was raised according to the provisions.[7][8]

text: Marriage to a Philistine[edit]

text: When he was a young adult, Samson left the hills of his people to see the cities of Philistia. He fell in love with a Philistine woman from Timnah, whom he decided to marry, ignoring the objections of his parents, who were concerned because the Israelites were forbidden to marry Gentiles.[7][8][10][11] In the development of the narrative, the intended marriage was shown to be part of God's plan to strike at the Philistines.[8]

text: According to the biblical account, Samson was repeatedly seized by the "Spirit of the Lord," who blessed him with immense strength. The first instance of this is seen when Samson was on his way to ask for the Philistine woman's hand in marriage, when he was attacked by a lion. He simply grabbed it and ripped it apart, as the spirit of God divinely empowered him. However, Samson kept it a secret, not even mentioning the miracle to his parents.[8][12][13] He arrived at the Philistine's house and became betrothed to her. He returned home, then came back to Timnah some time later for the wedding. On his way, Samson saw that bees had nested in the carcass of the lion and made honey.[8][13] He ate a handful of the honey and gave some to his parents.[8]

text: At the wedding feast, Samson told a riddle to his thirty groomsmen (all Philistines). If they could solve it, he would give them thirty pieces of fine linen and garments, but if they could not solve it, they would give him thirty pieces of fine linen and garments.[7][8] The riddle was a veiled account of two encounters with the lion, at which only he was present:[8][13]

text:
Out of the eater came something to eat.
Out of the strong came something sweet.[14]

text: The Philistines were infuriated by the riddle.[8] The thirty groomsmen told Samson's new wife that they would burn her and her father's household if she did not discover the answer to the riddle and tell it to them.[8][13] At the urgent and tearful imploring of his bride, Samson told her the solution, and she told it to the thirty groomsmen.[7][8]

text: Before sunset on the seventh day they said to him,

text:
What is sweeter than honey?
and what is stronger than a lion?

text: Samson said to them,

text:
If you had not plowed with my heifer,
you would not have solved my riddle.[15]

text: Samson then traveled to Ashkelon (a distance of roughly 30 miles) where he slew thirty Philistines for their garments; he then returned and gave those garments to his thirty groomsmen.[7][13][16] In a rage, Samson returned to his father's house. The family of his would-have-been bride instead gave her to one of the groomsmen as wife.[7][13][16] Some time later, Samson returned to Timnah to visit his wife, unaware that she was now married to one of his former groomsmen. But her father refused to allow Samson to see her, offering to give Samson a younger sister instead.[7][16]

text: Samson went out, gathered 300 foxes, and tied them together in pairs by their tails. He then attached a burning torch to each pair of foxes' tails and turned them loose in the grain fields and olive groves of the Philistines.[17] The Philistines learned why Samson burned their crops and burned Samson's wife and father-in-law to death in retribution.[7][16][18]

text: In revenge, Samson slaughtered many more Philistines, saying, "I have done to them what they did to me."[7][16] Samson then took refuge in a cave in the rock of Etam.[7][16][19] An army of Philistines came to the Tribe of Judah and demanded that 3,000 men of Judah deliver them Samson.[7][19] With Samson's consent, they tied him with two new ropes and were about to hand him over to the Philistines when he broke free of the ropes.[18][19] Using the jawbone of a donkey, he slew 1,000 Philistines.[18][19][20]

text: Delilah[edit]

text: Later, Samson travels to Gaza, where he stays at a harlot's house.[16][21] His enemies wait at the gate of the city to ambush him, but he tears the gate from its very hinges and frame and carries it to "the hill that is in front of Hebron".[16][21]

text: He then falls in love with Delilah in the valley of Sorek.[16][18][21][22] The Philistines approach Delilah and induce her with 1,100 silver coins to find the secret of Samson's strength so that they can capture their enemy,[16][21] but Samson refuses to reveal the secret and teases her, telling her that he will lose his strength if he is bound with fresh bowstrings.[16][21] She does so while he sleeps, but when he wakes up he snaps the strings.[16][21] She persists, and he tells her that he can be bound with new ropes. She ties him up with new ropes while he sleeps, and he snaps them, too.[16][21] She asks again, and he says that he can be bound if his locks are woven into a weaver's loom.[16][21] She weaves them into a loom, but he simply destroys the entire loom and carries it off when he wakes.[16][21]

text: Delilah, however, persists and Samson finally wears down and tells Delilah that God supplies his power because of his consecration to God as a Nazirite, symbolized by the fact that a razor has never touched his head, and that if his hair is cut off he will lose his strength.[23][24][16][22] Delilah then woos him to sleep "in her lap" and calls for a servant to shave his hair.[16] Samson loses his strength and he is captured by the Philistines who blind him by gouging out his eyes.[16] They then take him to Gaza, imprison him, and put him to work turning a large millstone and grinding corn.[21]

text: Death[edit]

text: One day, the Philistine leaders assemble in a temple for a religious sacrifice to Dagon, one of their most important deities, for having delivered Samson into their hands.[21][25] They summon Samson so that people can watch him perform for them. The temple is so crowded that people are even climbing onto the roof to watch—and all the rulers of the entire government of Philistia have gathered there too, some 3,000 people in all.[22][25][26] Samson is led into the temple, and he asks his captors to let him lean against the supporting pillars to rest. He prays for strength and God gives him strength to break the pillars, causing the temple to collapse, killing him and the people inside.[27]

text: After his death, Samson's family recovered his body from the rubble and bury him near the tomb of his father Manoah.[25] A tomb structure which some attribute to Samson and his father stands on the top of the mountain in Tel Tzora.[28] At the conclusion of Judges 16, it is said that Samson had "judged" Israel for twenty years.[19] The Bible does not mention the fate of Delilah.[22]

text: Religious interpretations[edit]

text: Rabbinic literature[edit]

text: Rabbinic literature identifies Samson with Bedan,[7] a Judge mentioned by Samuel in his farewell address (1 Samuel 12:11) among the Judges who delivered Israel from their enemies.[29] However, the name "Bedan" is not found in the Book of Judges.[29] The name "Samson" is derived from the Hebrew word šemeš, which means "sun",[7][1][30] so that Samson bore the name of God, who is called "a sun and shield" in Psalms 84:11;[7] and as God protected Israel, so did Samson watch over it in his generation, judging the people even as did God.[7] Samson's strength was divinely derived (Talmud, Tractate Sotah 10a).[7][31]

text: Jewish legend records that Samson's shoulders were sixty cubits broad.[7] (Many Talmudic commentaries, however, explain that this is not to be taken literally, for a person that size could not live normally in society. Rather, it means that he had the ability to carry a burden 60 cubits wide (approximately 30 meters) on his shoulders).[32] He was lame in both feet[33] but, when the spirit of God came upon him, he could step with one stride from Zorah to Eshtaol, while the hairs of his head arose and clashed against one another so that they could be heard for a like distance.[7][34] Samson was said to be so strong that he could uplift two mountains and rub them together like two clods of earth,[35] yet his superhuman strength, like Goliath's, brought woe upon its possessor.[7][36]

text: In licentiousness, he is compared with Amnon and Zimri, both of whom were punished for their sins.[7][37] Samson's eyes were put out because he had "followed them" too often.[7][38] It is said that, in the twenty years during which Samson judged Israel, he never required the least service from an Israelite,[39] and he piously refrained from taking the name of God in vain.[7] Therefore, as soon as he told Delilah that he was a Nazarite of God, she immediately knew that he had spoken the truth.[7][38] When he pulled down the temple of Dagon and killed himself and the Philistines, the structure fell backward so that he was not crushed, his family being thus enabled to find his body and to bury it in the tomb of his father.[7][40]

text: In the Talmudic period, some seem to have denied that Samson was a historical figure, regarding him instead as a purely mythological personage. This was viewed as heretical by the rabbis of the Talmud, and they attempted to refute this. They named Hazelelponi as his mother in Numbers Rabbah Naso 10 and in Bava Batra 91a and stated that he had a sister named "Nishyan" or "Nashyan".[7]

text: Christian interpretations[edit]

text: Samson's story has also garnered commentary from a Christian perspective; the Epistle to the Hebrews praises him for his faith.[41] Ambrose, following the portrayal of Josephus and Pseudo-Philo,[42] represents Delilah as a Philistine prostitute,[42] and declares that "men should avoid marriage with those outside the faith, lest, instead of love of one's spouse, there be treachery."[42] Caesarius of Arles interpreted Samson's death as prefiguring the crucifixion of Jesus,[42] remarking: "Notice here an image of the cross. Samson extends his hands spread out to the two columns as to the two beams of the cross."[42] He also equates Delilah with Satan,[42] who tempted Christ.[42]

text: Following this trend, more recent Christian commentators have viewed Samson as a type of Jesus Christ, based on similarities between Samson's story and the life of Jesus in the New Testament.[43][44] Samson's and Jesus' births were both foretold by angels,[43] who predicted that they would save their people.[43] Samson was born to a barren woman,[43] and Jesus was born of a virgin.[43] Samson defeated a lion; Jesus defeated Satan, whom the First Epistle of Peter describes as a "roaring lion looking for someone to devour".[45] Samson's betrayal by Delilah has also been compared to Jesus' betrayal by Judas Iscariot;[44] both Delilah and Judas were paid in pieces of silver for their respective deeds.[46] Ebenezer Cobham Brewer notes in his A Guide to Scripture History: The Old Testament that Samson was "blinded, insulted [and] enslaved" prior to his death, and that Jesus was "blindfolded, insulted, and treated as a slave" prior to his crucifixion.[47] Brewer also compares Samson's death among "the wicked" with Christ being crucified between two thieves.[47]

text: Scholarly interpretations[edit]

text: Academics have interpreted Samson as a demigod (such as Heracles or Enkidu) enfolded into Jewish religious lore,[48] or as an archetypical folk hero.[30]

text: In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, some comparative mythologists interpreted Samson as a euhemerized solar deity,[49][50][51][30] arguing that Samson's name is derived from the Hebrew word šemeš, meaning "sun",[30][1] and that his long hair might represent the sun's rays.[30] These solar theorists also pointed out that the legend of Samson is set within the general vicinity of Beth Shemesh, a village whose name means "Temple of the Sun".[30] They argued that the name Delilah may have been a wordplay with the Hebrew word for night, layla, which "consumes" the day.[52] Although this hypothesis is still sometimes promoted in scholarly circles,[30] it has generally fallen out of favor due to the superficiality of supporting evidence.[30]

text: An interpretation far more popular among current scholars holds that Samson is a Hebrew variant of the same international Near Eastern folk hero which inspired the earlier Mesopotamian Enkidu and the later Greek Heracles (and, by extension, his Roman Hercules adaptation).[53][30][1] Heracles and Samson both slew a lion bare-handed (the former killed the Nemean lion).[30][1] Likewise, they were both believed to have once been extremely thirsty and drunk water which poured out from a rock,[53] and to have torn down the gates of a city.[53] They were both betrayed by a woman (Heracles by Deianira, Samson by Delilah),[30] who led them to their respective dooms.[30] Both heroes, champions of their respective peoples, die by their own hands:[30] Heracles ends his life on a pyre; whereas Samson makes the Philistine temple collapse upon himself and his enemies.[30] In this interpretation, the annunciation of Samson's birth to his mother is a censored account of divine conception.[53] Samson also strongly resembles Shamgar,[30] another hero mentioned in the Book of Judges,[30] who, in Judges 3:31, is described as having slain 600 Philistines with an ox-goad.[30]

text: These views are disputed by traditional and conservative biblical scholars who consider Samson to be a literal historical figure and thus reject any connections to mythological heroes.[30] The concept of Samson as a "solar hero" has been described as "an artificial ingenuity".[54] Joan Comay, co-author of Who's Who in the Bible: The Old Testament and the Apocrypha, The New Testament, believes that the biblical story of Samson is so specific concerning time and place that Samson was undoubtedly a real person who pitted his great strength against the oppressors of Israel.[55] In contrast, James King West considers that the hostilities between the Philistines and Hebrews appear to be of a "purely personal and local sort".[56] He also considers that Samson stories have, in contrast to much of Judges, an "almost total lack of a religious or moral tone".[56] Conversely, Elon Gilad of Haaretz writes "some biblical stories are flat-out cautions against marrying foreign women, none more than the story of Samson".[57] Gilad notes how Samson's parents disapprove of his desire to marry a Philistine woman and how Samson's relationship with Delilah leads to his demise.[57] He contrasts this with what he sees as a more positive portrayal of intermarriage in the Book of Ruth.[57]

text: In August 2012, archaeologists from Tel Aviv University announced the discovery of a circular stone seal,[58] approximately 15 millimetres in diameter,[58] which was found on the floor of a house at Beth Shemesh[58] and appears to depict a long-haired man slaying a lion.[58] The seal is dated to the 12th century BCE.[58] Professor Shlomo Bunimovitz, a co-director of the dig, was reported as saying that the artifact helps "anchor the story [of Samson] in an archaeological setting."[58]

text: Zvi Lederman, the other co-director of the dig, believes that Beth Shemesh was a cultural meeting point on the border of Israelite, Canaanite, and Philistine areas[58] and calls the stories of Samson "border sagas",[58] noting that Samson could cross boundaries to seek out a Philistine wife, but also to fight and kill Philistines:[58] "When you cross the border, you have to fight the enemy and you encounter dangerous animals. You meet bad things. These are stories of contact and conflict, of a border that is more cultural than political."[58] According to Haaretz, "excavation directors Prof. Shlomo Bunimovitz and Dr. Zvi Lederman of Tel Aviv University say they do not suggest that the human figure on the seal is the biblical Samson. Rather, the geographical proximity to the area where Samson lived, and the time period of the seal, show that a story was being told at the time of a hero who fought a lion, and that the story eventually found its way into the biblical text and onto the seal."[59]

text: Cultural influence[edit]

text: As an important biblical character, Samson has been referred to in popular culture and depicted in a vast array of films, artwork, and popular literature. John Milton's closet drama Samson Agonistes is an allegory for the downfall of the Puritans and the restoration of the English monarchy[60] in which the blinded and imprisoned Samson represents Milton himself,[60] the "Chosen People" represent the Puritans,[60] and the Philistines represent the English Royalists.[60] The play combines elements of ancient Greek tragedy and Biblical narrative.[61] Samson is portrayed as a hero,[62] whose violent actions are mitigated by the righteous cause in whose name they are enacted.[62] The play casts Delilah as an unrepentant, but sympathetic, deceiver[63] and speaks approvingly of the subjugation of women.[63]

text: In 1735, George Frideric Handel wrote the opera Samson,[64] with a libretto by Newburgh Hamilton, based on Samson Agonistes.[64] The opera is almost entirely set inside Samson's prison[64] and Delilah only briefly appears in Act II.[64] In 1877, Camille Saint-Saëns composed the opera Samson and Delilah with a libretto by Ferdinand Lemaire in which the entire story of Samson and Delilah is retold.[64] In the libretto, Delilah is portrayed as a seductive femme fatale,[64] but the music played during her parts invokes sympathy for her.[64]

text: The 1949 Biblical drama Samson and Delilah, directed by Cecil B. DeMille and starring Victor Mature and Hedy Lamarr in the titular roles, was widely praised by critics for its cinematography, lead performances, costumes, sets, and innovative special effects.[65] It became the highest-grossing film of 1950,[66] and was nominated for five Academy Awards, winning two.[67] According to Variety, the film portrays Samson as a stereotypical "handsome but dumb hulk of muscle".[68]

text: Samson has been especially honored in Russian artwork[69] because the Russians defeated the Swedes in the Battle of Poltava on the feast day of St. Sampson, whose name is homophonous with Samson's.[69] The lion slain by Samson was interpreted to represent Sweden, as a result of the lion's placement on the Swedish coat of arms.[69] In 1735, C. B. Rastrelli's bronze statue of Samson slaying the lion was placed in the center of the great cascade of the fountain at Peterhof Palace in Saint Petersburg.[69]

text: Samson is the emblem of Lungau, Salzburg[70] and parades in his honor are held annually in ten villages of the Lungau and two villages in the north-west Styria (Austria).[70] During the parade, a young bachelor from the community carries a massive figure made of wood or aluminum said to represent Samson.[70] The tradition, which was first documented in 1635,[70] was entered into the UNESCO list of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Austria in 2010.[70][71] Samson is one of the giant figures at the "Ducasse" festivities, which take place at Ath, Belgium.[72]