question_text: according to piaget the second stage of cognitive development is

text: Nature of intelligence: operative and figurative[edit]

text: Piaget noted that reality is a dynamic system of continuous change. Reality is defined in reference to the two conditions that define dynamic systems. Specifically, he argued that reality involves transformations and states.[6] Transformations refer to all manners of changes that a thing or person can undergo. States refer to the conditions or the appearances in which things or persons can be found between transformations. For example, there might be changes in shape or form (for instance, liquids are reshaped as they are transferred from one vessel to another, and similarly humans change in their characteristics as they grow older), in size (a toddler does not walk and run without falling, but after 7 yrs of age, the child's sensory motor anatomy is well developed and now acquires skill faster), or in placement or location in space and time (e.g., various objects or persons might be found at one place at one time and at a different place at another time). Thus, Piaget argued, if human intelligence is to be adaptive, it must have functions to represent both the transformational and the static aspects of reality.[7] He proposed that operative intelligence is responsible for the representation and manipulation of the dynamic or transformational aspects of reality, and that figurative intelligence is responsible for the representation of the static aspects of reality.[8]

text: Operative intelligence is the active aspect of intelligence. It involves all actions, overt or covert, undertaken in order to follow, recover, or anticipate the transformations of the objects or persons of interest.[9] Figurative intelligence is the more or less static aspect of intelligence, involving all means of representation used to retain in mind the states (i.e., successive forms, shapes, or locations) that intervene between transformations. That is, it involves perception, imitation, mental imagery, drawing, and language.[10] Therefore, the figurative aspects of intelligence derive their meaning from the operative aspects of intelligence, because states cannot exist independently of the transformations that interconnect them. Piaget stated that the figurative or the representational aspects of intelligence are subservient to its operative and dynamic aspects, and therefore, that understanding essentially derives from the operative aspect of intelligence.[9]

text: At any time, operative intelligence frames how the world is understood and it changes if understanding is not successful. Piaget stated that this process of understanding and change involves two basic functions: assimilation and accommodation.[10][11][12][13]

text: Assimilation and Accommodation[edit]

text: Through his study of the field of education, Piaget focused on two processes, which he named assimilation and accommodation. To Piaget, assimilation meant integrating external elements into structures of lives or environments, or those we could have through experience. Assimilation is how humans perceive and adapt to new information. It is the process of fitting new information into pre-existing cognitive schemas.[14] Assimilation in which new experiences are reinterpreted to fit into, or assimilate with, old ideas.[15] It occurs when humans are faced with new or unfamiliar information and refer to previously learned information in order to make sense of it. In contrast, accommodation is the process of taking new information in one's environment and altering pre-existing schemas in order to fit in the new information. This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation.[16] Accommodation is imperative because it is how people will continue to interpret new concepts, schemas, frameworks, and more.[17] Piaget believed that the human brain has been programmed through evolution to bring equilibrium, which is what he believed ultimately influences structures by the internal and external processes through assimilation and accommodation.[14]

text: Piaget's understanding was that assimilation and accommodation cannot exist without the other.[18] They are two sides of a coin. To assimilate an object into an existing mental schema, one first needs to take into account or accommodate to the particularities of this object to a certain extent. For instance, to recognize (assimilate) an apple as an apple, one must first focus (accommodate) on the contour of this object. To do this, one needs to roughly recognize the size of the object. Development increases the balance, or equilibration, between these two functions. When in balance with each other, assimilation and accommodation generate mental schemas of the operative intelligence. When one function dominates over the other, they generate representations which belong to figurative intelligence.[19]

text: Sensorimotor stage[edit]

text:
In his theory of Cognitive development, Jean Piaget proposed that humans progress through four developmental stages:
the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational period.[20] The first of these, the sensorimotor stage "extends from birth to the acquisition of language."[21] In this stage, infants progressively construct knowledge and understanding of the world by coordinating experiences (such as vision and hearing) with physical interactions with objects (such as grasping, sucking, and stepping).[22] Infants gain knowledge of the world from the physical actions they perform within it.[23] They progress from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the stage.[23]

text: Children learn that they are separate from the environment. They can think about aspects of the environment, even though these may be outside the reach of the child's senses. In this stage, according to Piaget, the development of object permanence is one of the most important accomplishments.[14] Object permanence is a child's understanding that an object continues to exist even though they cannot see or hear it.[23] Peek-a-boo is a game in which children who have yet to fully develop object permanence respond to sudden hiding and revealing of a face.   By the end of the sensorimotor period, children develop a permanent sense of self and object and will quickly lose interest in Peek-a-boo.[24]

text: Piaget divided the sensorimotor stage into six sub-stages".[24]

text:
Sub-Stage

Age

Description

1 Simple reflexes

Birth-6 weeks

"Coordination of sensation and action through reflexive behaviors".[24] Three primary reflexes are described by Piaget: sucking of objects in the mouth, following moving or interesting objects with the eyes, and closing of the hand when an object makes contact with the palm (palmar grasp). Over the first six weeks of life, these reflexes begin to become voluntary actions. For example, the palmar reflex becomes intentional grasping.[25]

2 First habits and primary circular reactions phase

6 weeks-4 months

"Coordination of sensation and two types of schema: habits (reflex) and primary circular reactions (reproduction of an event that initially occurred by chance). The main focus is still on the infant's body".[24] As an example of this type of reaction, an infant might repeat the motion of passing their hand before their face. Also at this phase, passive reactions, caused by classical or operant conditioning, can begin.[25]

3 Secondary circular reactions phase

4–8 months

Development of habits. "Infants become more object-oriented, moving beyond self-preoccupation; repeat actions that bring interesting or pleasurable results".[24] This stage is associated primarily with the development of coordination between vision and prehension. Three new abilities occur at this stage: intentional grasping for a desired object, secondary circular reactions, and differentiations between ends and means. At this stage, infants will intentionally grasp the air in the direction of a desired object, often to the amusement of friends and family. Secondary circular reactions, or the repetition of an action involving an external object begin; for example, moving a switch to turn on a light repeatedly. The differentiation between means and ends also occurs. This is perhaps one of the most important stages of a child's growth as it signifies the dawn of logic.[25]

4 Coordination of secondary circular reactions stages

8–12 months

"Coordination of vision and touch—hand-eye coordination; coordination of schemas and intentionality".[24] This stage is associated primarily with the development of logic and the coordination between means and ends. This is an extremely important stage of development, holding what Piaget calls the "first proper intelligence". Also, this stage marks the beginning of goal orientation, the deliberate planning of steps to meet an objective.[25]

5 Tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity

12–18 months

"Infants become intrigued by the many properties of objects and by the many things they can make happen to objects; they experiment with new behavior".[24] This stage is associated primarily with the discovery of new means to meet goals. Piaget describes the child at this juncture as the "young scientist," conducting pseudo-experiments to discover new methods of meeting challenges.[25]

6 Internalization of schemas

18–24 months

"Infants develop the ability to use primitive symbols and form enduring mental representations".[24] This stage is associated primarily with the beginnings of insight, or true creativity. This marks the passage into the preoperational stage.

text: Pre-operational stage[edit]

text: By observing sequences of play, Piaget was able to demonstrate that, towards the end of the second year, a qualitatively new kind of psychological functioning occurs, known as the pre-operational stage, the second of Piaget's four developmental stages.[26][27] It starts when the child begins to learn to speak at age two and lasts up until the age of seven. During the pre-operational stage of cognitive development, Piaget noted that children do not yet understand concrete logic and cannot mentally manipulate information.[28] Children's increase in playing and pretending takes place in this stage. However, the child still has trouble seeing things from different points of view. The children's play is mainly categorized by symbolic play and manipulating symbols. Such play is demonstrated by the idea of checkers being snacks, pieces of paper being plates, and a box being a table. Their observations of symbols exemplifies the idea of play with the absence of the actual objects involved.

text: The pre-operational stage is sparse and logically inadequate in regard to mental operations. The child is able to form stable concepts as well as magical beliefs. The child, however, is still not able to perform operations, which are tasks that the child can do mentally, rather than physically. Thinking in this stage is still egocentric, meaning the child has difficulty seeing the viewpoint of others. The Pre-operational Stage is split into two substages: the symbolic function substage, and the intuitive thought substage. The symbolic function substage is when children are able to understand, represent, remember, and picture objects in their mind without having the object in front of them. The intuitive thought substage is when children tend to propose the questions of "why?" and "how come?" This stage is when children want to understand everything.[27]

text: Symbolic function substage[edit]

text: At about two to four years of age, children cannot yet manipulate and transform information in a logical way. However, they now can think in images and symbols. Other examples of mental abilities are language and pretend play. Symbolic play is when children develop imaginary friends or role-play with friends. Children's play becomes more social and they assign roles to each other. Some examples of symbolic play include playing house, or having a tea party. The type of symbolic play in which children engage is connected with their level of creativity and ability to connect with others.[29] Additionally, the quality of their symbolic play can have consequences on their later development. For example, young children whose symbolic play is of a violent nature tend to exhibit less prosocial behavior and are more likely to display antisocial tendencies in later years.[30]

text: In this stage, there are still limitations, such as egocentrism and precausal thinking.

text: Egocentrism occurs when a child is unable to distinguish between their own perspective and that of another person. Children tend to stick to their own viewpoint, rather than consider the view of others. Indeed, they are not even aware that such a concept as "different viewpoints" exists.[31] Egocentrism can be seen in an experiment performed by Piaget and Swiss developmental psychologist Bärbel Inhelder, known as the three mountain problem. In this experiment, three views of a mountain are shown to the child, who is asked what a traveling doll would see at the various angles. The child will consistently describe what they can see from the position from which they are seated, regardless of the angle from which they are asked to take the doll's perspective. Egocentrism would also cause a child to believe, "I like Sesame Street, so Daddy must like Sesame Street, too."

text: Similar to preoperational children's egocentric thinking is their structuring of a cause and effect relationships. Piaget coined the term "precausal thinking" to describe the way in which preoperational children use their own existing ideas or views, like in egocentrism, to explain cause-and-effect relationships. Three main concepts of causality as displayed by children in the preoperational stage include: animism, artificialism and transductive reasoning.[32]

text: Animism is the belief that inanimate objects are capable of actions and have lifelike qualities. An example could be a child believing that the sidewalk was mad and made them fall down, or that the stars twinkle in the sky because they are happy. Artificialism refers to the belief that environmental characteristics can be attributed to human actions or interventions. For example, a child might say that it is windy outside because someone is blowing very hard, or the clouds are white because someone painted them that color. Finally, precausal thinking is categorized by transductive reasoning. Transductive reasoning is when a child fails to understand the true relationships between cause and effect.[27][33] Unlike deductive or inductive reasoning (general to specific, or specific to general), transductive reasoning refers to when a child reasons from specific to specific, drawing a relationship between two separate events that are otherwise unrelated. For example, if a child hears the dog bark and then a balloon popped, the child would conclude that because the dog barked, the balloon popped.

text: Intuitive thought substage[edit]

text:
At between about the ages of 4 and 7, children tend to become very curious and ask many questions, beginning the use of primitive reasoning. There is an emergence in the interest of reasoning and wanting to know why things are the way they are. Piaget called it the "intuitive substage" because children realize they have a vast amount of knowledge, but they are unaware of how they acquired it. Centration, conservation, irreversibility, class inclusion, and transitive inference are all characteristics of preoperative thought.
Centration is the act of focusing all attention on one characteristic or dimension of a situation, whilst disregarding all others. Conservation is the awareness that altering a substance's appearance does not change its basic properties. Children at this stage are unaware of conservation and exhibit centration. Both centration and conservation can be more easily understood once familiarized with Piaget's most famous experimental task.

text: In this task, a child is presented with two identical beakers containing the same amount of liquid. The child usually notes that the beakers do contain the same amount of liquid. When one of the beakers is poured into a taller and thinner container, children who are younger than seven or eight years old typically say that the two beakers no longer contain the same amount of liquid, and that the taller container holds the larger quantity (centration), without taking into consideration the fact that both beakers were previously noted to contain the same amount of liquid. Due to superficial changes, the child was unable to comprehend that the properties of the substances continued to remain the same (conservation).

text: Irreversibility is a concept developed in this stage which is closely related to the ideas of centration and conservation. Irreversibility refers to when children are unable to mentally reverse a sequence of events. In the same beaker situation, the child does not realize that, if the sequence of events was reversed and the water from the tall beaker was poured back into its original beaker, then the same amount of water would exist. Another example of children's reliance on visual representations is their misunderstanding of "less than" or "more than". When two rows containing equal amounts of blocks are placed in front of a child, one row spread farther apart than the other, the child will think that the row spread farther contains more blocks.[27][34]

text: Class inclusion refers to a kind of conceptual thinking that children in the preoperational stage cannot yet grasp. Children's inability to focus on two aspects of a situation at once inhibits them from understanding the principle that one category or class can contain several different subcategories or classes.[32] For example, a four-year-old girl may be shown a picture of eight dogs and three cats. The girl knows what cats and dogs are, and she is aware that they are both animals. However, when asked, "Are there more dogs or animals?" she is likely to answer "more dogs". This is due to her difficulty focusing on the two subclasses and the larger class all at the same time. She may have been able to view the dogs as dogs or animals, but struggled when trying to classify them as both, simultaneously.[35][36] Similar to this is concept relating to intuitive thought, known as "transitive inference".

text: Transitive inference is using previous knowledge to determine the missing piece, using basic logic. Children in the preoperational stage lack this logic. An example of transitive inference would be when a child is presented with the information "A" is greater than "B" and "B" is greater than "C". This child may have difficulty here understanding that "A" is also greater than "C".

text: Concrete operational stage[edit]

text: The concrete operational stage is the third stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development. This stage, which follows the preoperational stage, occurs between the ages of 7 and 11 (preadolescence) years,[37] and is characterized by the appropriate use of logic. During this stage, a child's thought processes become more mature and "adult like". They start solving problems in a more logical fashion. Abstract, hypothetical thinking is not yet developed in the child, and children can only solve problems that apply to concrete events or objects. At this stage, the children undergo a transition where the child learns rules such as conservation.[38] Piaget determined that children are able to incorporate Inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning involves drawing inferences from observations in order to make a generalization. In contrast, children struggle with deductive reasoning, which involves using a generalized principle in order to try to predict the outcome of an event. Children in this stage commonly experience difficulties with figuring out logic in their heads. For example, a child will understand that "A is more than B" and "B is more than C". However, when asked "is A more than C?", the child might not be able to logically figure the question out in his or her head.

text: Two other important processes in the concrete operational stage are logic and the elimination of egocentrism.

text: Egocentrism is the inability to consider or understand a perspective other than one's own. It is the phase where the thought and morality of the child is completely self focused.[39] During this stage, the child acquires the ability to view things from another individual's perspective, even if they think that perspective is incorrect. For instance, show a child a comic in which Jane puts a doll under a box, leaves the room, and then Melissa moves the doll to a drawer, and Jane comes back. A child in the concrete operations stage will say that Jane will still think it's under the box even though the child knows it is in the drawer. (See also False-belief task.)

text: Children in this stage can, however, only solve problems that apply to actual (concrete) objects or events, and not abstract concepts or hypothetical tasks. Understanding and knowing how to use full common sense has not yet been completely adapted.

text: Piaget determined that children in the concrete operational stage were able to incorporate inductive logic. On the other hand, children at this age have difficulty using deductive logic, which involves using a general principle to predict the outcome of a specific event. This includes mental reversibility. An example of this is being able to reverse the order of relationships between mental categories. For example, a child might be able to recognize that his or her dog is a Labrador, that a Labrador is a dog, and that a dog is an animal, and draw conclusions from the information available, as well as apply all these processes to hypothetical situations.[40]

text: The abstract quality of the adolescent's thought at the formal operational level is evident in the adolescent's verbal problem solving ability.[40] The logical quality of the adolescent's thought is when children are more likely to solve problems in a trial-and-error fashion.[40] Adolescents begin to think more as a scientist thinks, devising plans to solve problems and systematically test opinions.[40] They use hypothetical-deductive reasoning, which means that they develop hypotheses or best guesses, and systematically deduce, or conclude, which is the best path to follow in solving the problem.[40] During this stage the adolescent is able to understand love, logical proofs and values. During this stage the young person begins to entertain possibilities for the future and is fascinated with what they can be.[40]

text: Adolescents also are changing cognitively by the way that they think about social matters.[40] Adolescent egocentrism governs the way that adolescents think about social matters, and is the heightened self-consciousness in them as they are, which is reflected in their sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility.[40] Adolescent egocentrism can be dissected into two types of social thinking, imaginary audience that involves attention-getting behavior, and personal fable, which involves an adolescent's sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility.[40] These two types of social thinking begin to affect a child's egocentrism in the concrete stage. However, it carries over to the formal operational stage when they are then faced with abstract thought and fully logical thinking.

text: Testing for concrete operations[edit]

text: Piagetian tests are well known and practiced to test for concrete operations. The most prevalent tests are those for conservation. There are some important aspects that the experimenter must take into account when performing experiments with these children.

text:
One example of an experiment for testing conservation is the water level task.[41]
An experimenter will have two glasses that are the same size, fill them to the same level with liquid, which the child will acknowledge is the same. Then, the experimenter will pour the liquid from one of the small glasses into a tall, thin glass. The experimenter will then ask the child if the taller glass has more liquid, less liquid, or the same amount of liquid. The child will then give his answer. The experimenter will ask the child why he gave his answer, or why he thinks that is.

text:
Justification: After the child has answered the question being posed, the experimenter must ask why the child gave that answer. This is important because the answers they give can help the experimenter to assess the child's developmental age.[42]
Number of times asking: Some argue that if a child is asked if the amount of liquid in the first set of glasses is equal then, after pouring the water into the taller glass, the experimenter asks again about the amount of liquid, the children will start to doubt their original answer. They may start to think that the original levels were not equal, which will influence their second answer.[43]
Word choice: The phrasing that the experimenter uses may affect how the child answers. If, in the liquid and glass example, the experimenter asks, "Which of these glasses has more liquid?", the child may think that his thoughts of them being the same is wrong because the adult is saying that one must have more. Alternatively, if the experimenter asks, "Are these equal?", then the child is more likely to say that they are, because the experimenter is implying that they are.

text: Formal operational stage[edit]

text: The final stage is known as the formal operational stage (adolescence and into adulthood, roughly ages 11 to approximately 15–20): Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. This form of thought includes "assumptions that have no necessary relation to reality."[44] At this point, the person is capable of hypothetical and deductive reasoning. During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts.

text: Piaget stated that "hypothetico-deductive reasoning" becomes important during the formal operational stage. This type of thinking involves hypothetical "what-if" situations that are not always rooted in reality, i.e. counterfactual thinking. It is often required in science and mathematics.

text:
Abstract thought emerges during the formal operational stage. Children tend to think very concretely and specifically in earlier stages, and begin to consider possible outcomes and consequences of actions.
Metacognition, the capacity for "thinking about thinking" that allows adolescents and adults to reason about their thought processes and monitor them.[45]
Problem-solving is demonstrated when children use trial-and-error to solve problems. The ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and methodical way emerges.

text: While children in primary school years mostly used inductive reasoning, drawing general conclusions from personal experiences and specific facts, adolescents become capable of deductive reasoning, in which they draw specific conclusions from abstract concepts using logic. This capability results from their capacity to think hypothetically.[46]

text: "However, research has shown that not all persons in all cultures reach formal operations, and most people do not use formal operations in all aspects of their lives".[47]

text: Experiments[edit]

text: Piaget and his colleagues conducted several experiments to assess formal operational thought.[48]

text: In one of the experiments, Piaget evaluated the cognitive capabilities of children of different ages through the use of a scale and varying weights. The task was to balance the scale by hooking weights on the ends of the scale. To successfully complete the task, the children must use formal operational thought to realize that the distance of the weights from the center and the heaviness of the weights both affected the balance. A heavier weight has to be placed closer to the center of the scale, and a lighter weight has to be placed farther from the center, so that the two weights balance each other.[46] While 3- to 5- year olds could not at all comprehend the concept of balancing, children by the age of 7 could balance the scale by placing the same weights on both ends, but they failed to realize the importance of the location. By age 10, children could think about location but failed to use logic and instead used trial-and-error. Finally, by age 13 and 14, in early adolescence, some children more clearly understood the relationship between weight and distance and could successfully implement their hypothesis.[49]

text: The stages and causation[edit]

text: Piaget sees children's conception of causation as a march from "primitive" conceptions of cause to those of a more scientific, rigorous, and mechanical nature. These primitive concepts are characterized as supernatural, with a decidedly non-natural or non-mechanical tone. Piaget has as his most basic assumption that babies are phenomenists. That is, their knowledge "consists of assimilating things to schemas" from their own action such that they appear, from the child's point of view, "to have qualities which, in fact, stem from the organism". Consequently, these "subjective conceptions," so prevalent during Piaget's first stage of development, are dashed upon discovering deeper empirical truths.

text: Piaget gives the example of a child believing that the moon and stars follow him on a night walk. Upon learning that such is the case for his friends, he must separate his self from the object, resulting in a theory that the moon is immobile, or moves independently of other agents.

text: The second stage, from around three to eight years of age, is characterized by a mix of this type of magical, animistic, or "non-natural" conceptions of causation and mechanical or "naturalistic" causation. This conjunction of natural and non-natural causal explanations supposedly stems from experience itself, though Piaget does not make much of an attempt to describe the nature of the differences in conception. In his interviews with children, he asked questions specifically about natural phenomena, such as: "What makes clouds move?", "What makes the stars move?", "Why do rivers flow?" The nature of all the answers given, Piaget says, are such that these objects must perform their actions to "fulfill their obligations towards men". He calls this "moral explanation".[50]

text: Practical applications[edit]

text: Parents can use Piaget's theory when deciding how to determine what to buy in order to support their child's growth.[51] Teachers can also use Piaget's theory, for instance, when discussing whether the syllabus subjects are suitable for the level of students or not.[52] For example, recent studies have shown that children in the same grade and of the same age perform differentially on tasks measuring basic addition and subtraction fluency. While children in the preoperational and concrete operational levels of cognitive development perform combined arithmetic operations (such as addition and subtraction) with similar accuracy,[53] children in the concrete operational level of cognitive development have been able to perform both addition problems and subtraction problems with overall greater fluency.[54]

text: The stage of cognitive growth of a person differ from another. Cognitive development or thinking is an active process from the beginning to the end of life. Intellectual advancement happens because people at every age and developmental period looks for cognitive equilibrium. To achieve this balance, the easiest way is to understand the new experiences through the lens of the preexisting ideas. Infants learn that new objects can be grabbed in the same way of familiar objects, and adults explain the day's headlines as evidence for their existing worldview.[55]

text: However, the application of standardized Piagetian theory and procedures in different societies established widely varying results that lead some to speculate not only that some cultures produce more cognitive development than others but that without specific kinds of cultural experience, but also formal schooling, development might cease at certain level, such as concrete operational level.[citation needed] A procedure was done following methods developed in Geneva (i.e. water level task). Participants were presented with two beakers of equal circumference and height, filled with equal amounts of water. The water from one beaker was transferred into another with taller and smaller circumference. The children and young adults from non-literate societies of a given age were more likely to think that the taller, thinner beaker had more water in it. On the other hand, an experiment on the effects of modifying testing procedures to match local cultural produced a different pattern of results. In the revised procedures, the participants explained in their own language and indicated that while the water was now "more", the quantity was the same.[56] Piaget's water level task has also been applied to the elderly by Formann and results showed an age-associated non-linear decline of performance.[41]

text: Postulated physical mechanisms underlying schemas and stages[edit]

text: In 1967, Piaget considered the possibility of RNA molecules as likely embodiments of his still-abstract schemas (which he promoted as units of action)—though he did not come to any firm conclusion.[57] At that time, due to work such as that of Swedish biochemist Holger Hydén, RNA concentrations had, indeed, been shown to correlate with learning, so the idea was quite plausible.

text: However, by the time of Piaget's death in 1980, this notion had lost favor. One main problem was over the protein which, it was assumed, such RNA would necessarily produce, and that did not fit in with observation. It was determined that only about 3% of RNA does code for protein.[58] Hence, most of the remaining 97% (the "ncRNA") could theoretically be available to serve as Piagetian schemas (or other regulatory roles in the 2000s under investigation). The issue has not yet been resolved experimentally, but its theoretical aspects were reviewed in 2008[58] — then developed further from the viewpoints of biophysics and epistemology.[59][60] Meanwhile, this RNA-based approach also unexpectedly offered explanations for other several biological issues unresolved, thus providing some measure of corroboration.[citation needed]

text: Relation to psychometric theories of intelligence[edit]

text: Piaget designed a number of tasks to verify hypotheses arising from his theory. The tasks were not intended to measure individual differences, and they have no equivalent in psychometric intelligence tests. Notwithstanding the different research traditions in which psychometric tests and Piagetian tasks were developed, the correlations between the two types of measures have been found to be consistently positive and generally moderate in magnitude. A common general factor underlies them. It has been shown that it is possible to construct a battery consisting of Piagetian tasks that is as good a measure of general intelligence as standard IQ tests.[61][62][63]

text: Challenges to Piagetian stage theory[edit]

text: Piagetian accounts of development have been challenged on several grounds. First, as Piaget himself noted, development does not always progress in the smooth manner his theory seems to predict. Décalage, or progressive forms of cognitive developmental progression in a specific domain, suggest that the stage model is, at best, a useful approximation.[64] Furthermore, studies have found that children may be able to learn concepts and capability of complex reasoning that supposedly represented in more advanced stages with relative ease (Lourenço & Machado, 1996, p. 145).[65][66] More broadly, Piaget's theory is "domain general," predicting that cognitive maturation occurs concurrently across different domains of knowledge (such as mathematics, logic, and understanding of physics or language).[64] Piaget did not take into account variability in a child's performance notably how a child can differ in sophistication across several domains.

text: During the 1980s and 1990s, cognitive developmentalists were influenced by "neo-nativist" and evolutionary psychology ideas. These ideas de-emphasized domain general theories and emphasized domain specificity or modularity of mind.[67] Modularity implies that different cognitive faculties may be largely independent of one another, and thus develop according to quite different timetables, which are "influenced by real world experiences".[67] In this vein, some cognitive developmentalists argued that, rather than being domain general learners, children come equipped with domain specific theories, sometimes referred to as "core knowledge," which allows them to break into learning within that domain. For example, even young infants appear to be sensitive to some predictable regularities in the movement and interactions of objects (for example, an object cannot pass through another object), or in human behavior (for example, a hand repeatedly reaching for an object has that object, not just a particular path of motion), as it becomes the building block of which more elaborate knowledge is constructed.

text: Piaget's theory has been said to undervalue the influence that culture has on cognitive development. Piaget demonstrates that a child goes through several stages of cognitive development and come to conclusions on their own but in reality, a child's sociocultural environment plays an important part in their cognitive development. Social interaction teaches the child about the world and helps them develop through the cognitive stages, which Piaget neglected to consider.[68][69]

text: More recent work has strongly challenged some of the basic presumptions of the "core knowledge" school, and revised ideas of domain generality—but from a newer dynamic systems approach, not from a revised Piagetian perspective. Dynamic systems approaches harken to modern neuroscientific research that was not available to Piaget when he was constructing his theory. One important finding is that domain-specific knowledge is constructed as children develop and integrate knowledge. This enables the domain to improve the accuracy of the knowledge as well as organization of memories.[67] However, this suggests more of a "smooth integration" of learning and development than either Piaget, or his neo-nativist critics, had envisioned. Additionally, some psychologists, such as Lev Vygotsky and Jerome Bruner, thought differently from Piaget, suggesting that language was more important for cognition development than Piaget implied.[67][70]

text: Post-Piagetian and neo-Piagetian stages[edit]

text: In recent years, several theorists attempted to address concerns with Piaget's theory by developing new theories and models that can accommodate evidence which violates Piagetian predictions and postulates.

text:
The neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development, advanced by Robbie Case, Andreas Demetriou, Graeme S. Halford, Kurt W. Fischer, Michael Lamport Commons, and Juan Pascual-Leone, attempted to integrate Piaget's theory with cognitive and differential theories of cognitive organization and development. Their aim was to better account for the cognitive factors of development and for intra-individual and inter-individual differences in cognitive development. They suggested that development along Piaget's stages is due to increasing working memory capacity and processing efficiency by "biological maturation".[71] Moreover, Demetriou's theory ascribes an important role to hypercognitive processes of "self-monitoring, self-recording, self-evaluation, and self-regulation", and it recognizes the operation of several relatively autonomous domains of thought (Demetriou, 1998; Demetriou, Mouyi, Spanoudis, 2010; Demetriou, 2003, p. 153).[72]
Piaget's theory stops at the formal operational stage, but other researchers have observed the thinking of adults is more nuanced than formal operational thought. This fifth stage has been named post formal thought or operation.[73][74] Post formal stages have been proposed. Michael Commons presented evidence for four post formal stages in the model of hierarchical complexity: systematic, meta-systematic, paradigmatic, and cross-paradigmatic (Commons & Richards, 2003, p. 206–208; Oliver, 2004, p. 31).[75][76][77] There are many theorists, however, who have criticized "post formal thinking," because the concept lacks both theoretical and empirical verification. The term "integrative thinking" has been suggested for use instead.[78][79][80][81][82]

text:
A "sentential" stage, said to occur before the early preoperational stage, has been proposed by Fischer, Biggs and Biggs, Commons, and Richards.[83][84]
Searching for a micro-physiological basis for human mental capacity, Robert R. Traill (1978, Section C5.4; 1999, Section 8.4) proposed that there may be "pre-sensorimotor" stages ("M−1L", "M−2L", …), which are developed in the womb and/or transmitted genetically.[85][86]
Jerome Bruner has expressed views on cognitive development in a "pragmatic orientation" in which humans actively use knowledge for practical applications, such as problem solving and understanding reality.[87]
Michael Lamport Commons proposed the model of hierarchical complexity (MHC) in two dimensions: horizontal complexity and vertical complexity (Commons & Richards, 2003, p. 205).[76][88][89]
Kieran Egan has proposed five stages of understanding: "somatic", "mythic", "romantic", "philosophic", and "ironic", which is developed through cognitive tools such as "stories", "binary oppositions", "fantasy" and "rhyme, rhythm, and meter" to enhance memorization to develop a long-lasting learning capacity.[90]
Lawrence Kohlberg developed three stages of moral development: "Preconventional", "Conventional" and "Postconventional".[90][91] Each level is composed of two orientation stages, with a total of six orientation stages: (1) "Punishment-Obedience", (2) "Instrumental Relativist", (3) "Good Boy-Nice Girl", (4) "Law and Order", (5) "Social Contract", and (6) "Universal Ethical Principle".[90][91]
Andreas Demetriou has expressed neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development.
Jane Loevinger's stages of ego development occur through "an evolution of stages".[92] "First is the Presocial Stage followed by the Symbiotic Stage, Impulsive Stage, Self-Protective Stage, Conformist Stage, Self-Aware Level: Transition from Conformist to Conscientious Stage, Individualistic Level: Transition from Conscientious to the Autonomous Stage, Conformist Stage, and Integrated Stage".[92]
Ken Wilber has incorporated Piaget's theory in his multidisciplinary field of integral theory. The human consciousness is structured in hierarchical order and organized in "holon" chains or "great chain of being", which are based on the level of spiritual and psychological development.[93]

text:
The process of initiation[clarification needed] is a modification of Piaget's theory integrating Abraham Maslow's concept of self-actualization.[94][dubious  – discuss]
Cheryl Armon has proposed five stages of " the Good Life": "Egoistic Hedonism", "Instrumental Hedonism", "Affective/Altruistic Mutuality", "Individuality", and "Autonomy/Community" (Andreoletti & Demick, 2003, p. 284) (Armon, 1984, p. 40–43).[95][96]
Christopher R. Hallpike proposed that human evolution of cognitive moral understanding had evolved from the beginning of time from its primitive state to the present time.[97][98]
Robert Kegan extended Piaget's developmental model to adults in describing what he called constructive-developmental psychology.[99]


document_title: List of amendments to the United States Constitution

question_text: when was the last time the us constitution changed

root

text: Ratified amendments

text: Synopsis of each ratified amendment

text:
No.

Subject

Date submitted for Ratification[4]

Date ratification completed[4]

Ratification time span

1st

Prohibits Congress from making any law respecting an establishment of religion, impeding the free exercise of religion, abridging the freedom of speech, infringing on the freedom of the press, interfering with the right to peaceably assemble or prohibiting the petitioning for a governmental redress of grievances.

September 25, 1789

December 15, 1791

2 years2 months20 days

2nd

Protects the right to keep and bear arms.

September 25, 1789

December 15, 1791

2 years2 months20 days

3rd

Places restrictions on the quartering of soldiers in private homes without the owner's consent, prohibiting it during peacetime.

September 25, 1789

December 15, 1791

2 years2 months20 days

4th

Prohibits unreasonable searches and seizures and sets out requirements for search warrants based on probable cause as determined by a neutral judge or magistrate.

September 25, 1789

December 15, 1791

2 years2 months20 days

5th

Sets out rules for indictment by grand jury and eminent domain, protects the right to due process, and prohibits self-incrimination and double jeopardy.

September 25, 1789

December 15, 1791

2 years2 months20 days

6th

Protects the right to a fair and speedy public trial by jury, including the rights to be notified of the accusations, to confront the accuser, to obtain witnesses and to retain counsel.

September 25, 1789

December 15, 1791

2 years2 months20 days

7th

Provides for the right to trial by jury in certain civil cases, according to common law.

September 25, 1789

December 15, 1791

2 years2 months20 days

8th

Prohibits excessive fines and excessive bail, as well as cruel and unusual punishment.

September 25, 1789

December 15, 1791

2 years2 months20 days

9th

Protects rights not enumerated in the Constitution.

September 25, 1789

December 15, 1791

2 years2 months20 days

10th

Reinforces the principle of federalism by stating that the federal government possesses only those powers delegated to it by the states or the people through the Constitution.

September 25, 1789

December 15, 1791

2 years2 months20 days

11th

Makes states immune from suits from out-of-state citizens and foreigners not living within the state borders; lays the foundation for sovereign immunity.

March 4, 1794

February 7, 1795

11 months3 days

12th

Revises presidential election procedures by having the President and Vice President elected together as opposed to the Vice President being the runner up.

December 9, 1803

June 15, 1804

6 months6 days

13th

Abolishes slavery, and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime.

January 31, 1865

December 6, 1865

10 months6 days

14th

Defines citizenship, contains the Privileges or Immunities Clause, the Due Process Clause, the Equal Protection Clause, and deals with post–Civil War issues.

June 13, 1866

July 9, 1868

2 years0 months26 days

15th

Prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on race, color or previous condition of servitude.

February 26, 1869

February 3, 1870

11 months8 days

16th

Permits Congress to levy an income tax without apportioning it among the states or basing it on the United States Census.

July 12, 1909

February 3, 1913

3 years6 months22 days

17th

Establishes the direct election of United States Senators by popular vote.

May 13, 1912

April 8, 1913

10 months26 days

18th

Prohibited the manufacturing or sale of alcohol within the United States.(Repealed December 5, 1933, via 21st Amendment.)

December 18, 1917

January 16, 1919

1 year0 months29 days

19th

Prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on sex.

June 4, 1919

August 18, 1920

1 year2 months14 days

20th

Changes the date on which the terms of the President and Vice President (January 20) and Senators and Representatives (January 3) end and begin.

March 2, 1932

January 23, 1933

10 months21 days

21st

Repeals the 18th Amendment and makes it a federal offense to transport or import intoxicating liquors into US states and territories where such transport or importation is prohibited by the laws of those states and territories.

February 20, 1933

December 5, 1933

9 months15 days

22nd

Limits the number of times that a person can be elected president: a person cannot be elected president more than twice, and a person who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected cannot be elected more than once.

March 24, 1947

February 27, 1951

3 years11 months6 days

23rd

Grants the District of Columbia electors (the number of electors being equal to the least populous state) in the Electoral College.

June 16, 1960

March 29, 1961

9 months12 days

24th

Prohibits the revocation of voting rights due to the non-payment of a poll tax or any other tax.

September 14, 1962

January 23, 1964

1 year4 months27 days

25th

Addresses succession to the Presidency and establishes procedures both for filling a vacancy in the office of the Vice President, as well as responding to Presidential disabilities.

July 6, 1965

February 10, 1967

1 year7 months4 days

26th

Prohibits the denial of the right of US citizens, eighteen years of age or older, to vote on account of age.

March 23, 1971

July 1, 1971

3 months8 days

27th

Delays laws affecting Congressional salary from taking effect until after the next election of representatives.

September 25, 1789

May 5, 1992[5]

202 years7 months10 days

tag: table

text: Summation of ratification data for each ratified amendment

text:
" Y " indicates that state ratified amendment

" N " indicates that state rejected amendment

" Y(‡) " indicates that state ratified amendment after first rejecting it

" Y(×) " indicates that state ratified amendment, later rescinded that ratification, but subsequently re-ratified it

" — " indicates that state did not complete action on amendment

" … " indicates that amendment was ratified before state joined the Union

State(in order of statehood)

1–10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

 Delaware

Y
Y
N
Y(‡)
Y(‡)
Y(‡)
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Pennsylvania

Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—

 New Jersey

Y
—
Y
Y(‡)
Y(×)
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Georgia

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
—
Y
Y(‡)
Y
—
Y
—
—
—
Y
Y

 Connecticut

Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Massachusetts

Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
—

 Maryland

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 South Carolina

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
—
Y
Y(‡)
Y
N
Y
—
—
Y
Y
Y

 New Hampshire

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Virginia

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
N
—
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y

 New York

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y(×)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—

 North Carolina

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Rhode Island

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
Y
N
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Vermont

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Kentucky

 …
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y(‡)
Y(‡)
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
—
Y
Y
—
Y

 Tennessee

 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Ohio

 …
 …
Y
Y
Y(×)
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Louisiana

 …
 …
 …
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
—
Y
—
—
Y
Y
Y

 Indiana

 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Mississippi

 …
 …
 …
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y(‡)
Y
—
Y
—
N
Y
—
—

 Illinois

 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Alabama

 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Maine

 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Missouri

 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Arkansas

 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
N
—
Y
Y
Y

 Michigan

 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Florida

 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
—
—
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
—
Y

 Texas

 …
 …
 …
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Iowa

 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Wisconsin

 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 California

 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Minnesota

 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Oregon

 …
 …
 …
Y
Y(×)
Y(‡)
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Kansas

 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 West Virginia

 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Nevada

 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y

 Nebraska

 …
 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Colorado

 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

  North Dakota

 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
—
—
Y

 South Dakota

 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
—
—
Y

 Montana

 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Washington

 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Idaho

 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Wyoming

 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
Y
Y

 Utah

 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
N
N
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y

 Oklahoma

 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
N
Y
—
Y
Y
Y

 New Mexico

 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y

 Arizona

 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
—
Y
—
Y
Y
Y

 Alaska

 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

 Hawaii

 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
 …
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

State(in order of statehood)

1–10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

text: Unratified amendments

text: Synopsis of each unratified amendment

text:
Title

Subject

Status

Congressional Apportionment Amendment

Would strictly regulate the size of congressional districts for representation in the House of Representatives.

Pending since September 25, 1789

Titles of Nobility Amendment

Would strip citizenship from any United States citizen who accepts a title of nobility from a foreign country.

Pending since May 1, 1810

Corwin Amendment

Would make the states' "domestic institutions" (slavery) impervious to the constitutional amendment procedures established in Article V and immune to abolition or interference from Congress.

Pending since March 2, 1861

Child Labor Amendment

Would empower the federal government to limit, regulate, and prohibit child labor.

Pending since June 2, 1924

Equal Rights Amendment

Would have prohibited deprivation of equality of rights by the federal or state governments on account of sex.

Initial ratification period ended March 22, 1979, and extension period ended June 30, 1982; amendment failed

District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment

Would have treated the District of Columbia as if it were a state regarding representation in the United States Congress (including repealing the 23rd Amendment), representation in the Electoral College and participation in the process by which the Constitution is amended.

Ratification period ended August 22, 1985; amendment failed

text: Summation of ratification data for each unratified amendment

text:
" Y " indicates that state ratified amendment

" N " indicates that state rejected amendment

" Y(‡) " indicates that state ratified amendment after first rejecting it

" Y(×) " indicates that state ratified amendment, but later recinded that ratification

" ⋈ " indicates that state did not complete action on amendment during stated ratification period.

"  " An empty cell indicates that state has not completed action on pending amendment.

State(in alphabetical order)

Congressional Apportionment

Titles of Nobility

Corwin

Child Labor

Equal Rights

District of Columbia Voting Rights

 Alabama

⋈
⋈

 Alaska

Y
⋈

 Arizona

Y
⋈
⋈

 Arkansas

Y
⋈
⋈

 California

Y
Y
⋈

 Colorado

Y
Y
⋈

 Connecticut

N
N

N
Y
Y

 Delaware

N
Y

N
Y
Y

 Florida

N
⋈
⋈

 Georgia

N
Y

N
⋈
⋈

 Hawaii

Y
Y

 Idaho

Y
Y(×)
⋈

 Illinois

Y
Y
⋈Y
⋈

 Indiana

Y(‡)
Y
⋈

 Iowa

Y
Y
Y

 Kansas

Y(‡)
Y
⋈

 Kentucky

Y
Y
Y
Y(‡)
Y(×)
⋈

 Louisiana

N
⋈
Y

 Maine

Y(‡)
Y
Y

 Maryland

Y
Y
Y(×)
N
Y
Y

 Massachusetts

N
Y

N
Y
Y

 Michigan

Y
Y
Y

 Minnesota

Y(‡)
Y
Y

 Mississippi

⋈
⋈

 Missouri

N
⋈
⋈

 Montana

Y
Y
⋈

 Nebraska

Y(×)
⋈

 Nevada

Y
⋈Y
⋈

 New Hampshire

Y
Y

Y(‡)
Y
⋈

 New Jersey

Y
Y

Y
Y
Y

 New Mexico

Y(‡)
Y
⋈

 New York

Y
N

Y
⋈

 North Carolina

Y
Y

N
⋈
⋈

  North Dakota

Y
Y
⋈

 Ohio

Y
Y(×)
Y
Y
Y

 Oklahoma

Y
⋈
⋈

 Oregon

Y
Y
Y

 Pennsylvania

Y(‡)
Y

Y(‡)
Y
⋈

 Rhode Island

Y
N
Y

Y
Y

 South Carolina

Y

N
⋈
⋈

 South Dakota

N
Y(×)
⋈

 Tennessee

Y

N
Y(×)
⋈

 Texas

N
Y
⋈

 Utah

Y(‡)
⋈
⋈

 Vermont

Y
Y

N
Y
⋈

 Virginia

Y

N
⋈
⋈

 Washington

Y
Y
⋈

 West Virginia

Y
Y
Y

 Wisconsin

Y
Y
Y

 Wyoming

Y
Y
⋈

Number of ratifications:
11
12
5(×2)
28
37(×5,⋈2)
16


document_title: Heart development

question_text: when does the heart form in an embryo

question_tokens: when does the heart form in an embryo

text: Heart development

text: Early development[edit]

text: The heart derives from embryonic mesodermal germ-layer cells that differentiate after gastrulation into mesothelium, endothelium, and myocardium. Mesothelial pericardium forms the outer lining of the heart. The inner lining of the heart, lymphatic and blood vessels, develop from endothelium.[4]

tag: p

text: Endocardial tubes[edit]

text: In the splanchnopleuric mesenchyme on either side of the neural plate, a horseshoe-shaped area develops as the cardiogenic region. This has formed from cardiac myoblasts and blood islands as forerunners of blood cells and vessels.[5] By day 19, an endocardial tube begins to develop in each side of this region. These two tubes grow and by the third week have converged towards each other to merge, using programmed cell death to form a single tube, the tubular heart.[6]

text: From splanchnopleuric mesenchyme, the cardiogenic region develops cranially and laterally to the neural plate. In this area, two separate angiogenic cell clusters form on either side and coalesce to form the endocardial tubes. As embryonic folding continues, the two endocardial tubes are pushed into the thoracic cavity, where they begin to fuse together, and this is completed at about 22 days.[7]

text: At around 18 to 19 days after fertilisation, the heart begins to form. This early development is critical for subsequent embryonic and prenatal development. The heart is the first functional organ to develop and starts to beat and pump blood at around day 21 or 22.[1] The heart begins to develop near the head of the embryo in the cardiogenic area.[1] Following cell signalling, two strands or cords begin to form in the cardiogenic region[1] As these form, a lumen develops within them, at which point, they are referred to as endocardial tubes.[1] At the same time that the tubes are forming other major heart components are also being formed.[8] The two tubes migrate together and fuse to form a single primitive heart tube, the tubular heart which quickly forms five distinct regions.[1] From head to tail, these are the truncus arteriosus, bulbus cordis, primitive ventricle, primitive atrium, and the sinus venosus.[1] Initially, all venous blood flows into the sinus venosus, and contractions propel the blood from tail to head, or from the sinus venosus to the truncus arteriosus.[1] The truncus arteriosus will divide to form the aorta and pulmonary artery; the bulbus cordis will develop into the right ventricle; the primitive ventricle will form the left ventricle; the primitive atrium will become the front parts of the left and right atria and their appendages, and the sinus venous will develop into the posterior part of the right atrium, the sinoatrial node and the coronary sinus.[1]

text: Heart tube position[edit]

text: The central part of cardiogenic area is in front of the oropharyngeal membrane and the neural plate. The growth of the brain and the cephalic folds push the oropharyngeal membrane forward, while the heart and the pericardial cavity move first to the cervical region and then into the chest. The curved portion of the horseshoe-shaped area expands to form the future ventricular infundibulum and the ventricular regions, as the heart tube continues to expand. The tube starts receiving venous drainage in its caudal pole and will pump blood out of the first aortic arch and into the dorsal aorta through its polar head. Initially the tube remains attached to the dorsal part of the pericardial cavity by a mesodermal tissue fold called the dorsal mesoderm. This mesoderm disappears to form the two pericardial sinuses the transverse and the oblique pericardial sinuses, which connect both sides of the pericardial cavity.[5]

text: The myocardium thickens and secretes a thick layer of rich extracellular matrix containing hyaluronic acid which separates the endothelium. Then mesothelial cells form the pericardium and migrate to form most of the epicardium. Then the heart tube is formed by the endocardium, which is the inner endothelial lining of the heart, and the myocardial muscle wall which is the epicardium that covers the outside of the tube.[5]

text: Heart folding[edit]

text: The heart tube continues stretching and by day 23, in a process called morphogenesis, cardiac looping begins. The cephalic portion curves in a frontal clockwise direction. The atrial portion starts moving in a cephalic ally and then moves to the left from its original position. This curved shape approaches the heart and finishes its growth on day 28. The conduit forms the atrial and ventricular junctions which connect the common atrium and the common ventricle in the early embryo. The arterial bulb forms the trabecular portion of the right ventricle. A cone will form the infundibula blood of both ventricles. The arterial trunk and the roots will form the proximal portion of the aorta and the pulmonary artery. The junction between the ventricle and the arterial bulb will be called the primary intra-ventricular hole. The tube is divided into cardiac regions along its craniocaudal axis: the primitive ventricle, called primitive left ventricle, and the trabecular proximal arterial bulb, called the primitive right ventricle.[9]

text: Heart chambers[edit]

text: Sinus venosus[edit]

text: In the middle of the fourth week, the sinus receives venous blood from the poles of right and left sinus. Each pole receives blood from three major veins: the vitelline vein, the umbilical vein and the common cardinal vein. The sinus opening moves clockwise. This movement is caused mainly by the left to right shunt of blood, which occurs in the venous system during the fourth and fifth week of development.[10]

text: When the left common cardinal vein disappears in the tenth week, with only the oblique vein of the left atrium and the coronary sinus remaining. The right pole joins the right atrium to form the wall portion of the right atrium. The right and left venous valves fuse and form a peak known as the septum spurium. At the beginning, these valves are large but the left venous valve and the septum spurium fuse with the developing atrial septum. The upper right venous valve disappearing. The bottom evolves into: the inferior valve of the vena cava and the coronary sinus valve.[10]

text: Heart wall[edit]

text: The main walls of the heart are formed between day 27 and 37 of the development of the early embryo. The growth consists of two tissue masses actively growing that approach one another until they merge and split light into two separate conduits. Tissue masses called endocardial cushions develop into atrioventricular and conotroncal regions. In these places, the cushions will help in the formation of auricular septum, ventricular conduits, atrio-ventricular valves and aortic and pulmonary channels.[11]

text: Atria[edit]

text: At the end of the fourth week, a crest grows that leaves the cephalic part. This crest is the first part of the septum primum. The two ends of the septum extend into the interior of the endocardial cushions in the atrioventricular canal. The opening between the bottom edge of the septum primum and endocardial cushions is the ostium primum (first opening). The extensions of the upper and lower endocardial pads grow along the margin of the septum primum and close the ostium primum. Coalescence of these perforations will form the ostium secundum (second opening), which allows blood to flow freely from the right atrium to the left.

text: When the right of the atrium expands due to the incorporation of the pole of the sinus, a new fold appears, called the septum secundum. At its right side it is fused with the left venous valve and the septum spurium. A free opening will then appear, called the foramen ovale. The remains of the upper septum primum, will become the valves of the foramen ovale. The passage between the two atrial chambers consists of a long oblique slit through which blood flows from the right atrium to the left.[11]

text: Ventricles[edit]

text: Initially, a single pulmonary vein develops in the form of a bulge in the back wall of the left atrium. This vein will connect with the veins of the developing lung buds. As development proceeds the pulmonary vein and its branches are incorporated into the left atrium and they both form the smooth wall of the atrium. The embryonic left atrium remains as the trabecular left atrial appendage, and the embryonic right atrium remains as the right atrial appendage.[12]

text: Septum formation of the atrioventricular canal[edit]

text: At the end of the fourth week, two atrioventricular endocardial cushions appear. Initially the atrioventricular canal gives access to the primitive left ventricle, and is separated from arterial bulb by the edge of the ventricular bulb. In the fifth week, the posterior end terminates in the center part of the upper endocardial cushion. Because of this, blood can access both the left primitive ventricle and the right primitive ventricle. As the anterior and posterior pads project inwardly, they merge to form a right and left atrioventricular orifice.[13]

text: Atrioventricular valves[edit]

text: When forming intra-atrial septa, atrio-ventricular valves will begin to grow. An intra-muscular ventricular septum begins to grow from the common ventricle to the atrio-ventricular endocardial cushions. The division begins in the common ventricle where a furrow in the outer surface of the heart will appear the interventricular foramen eventually disappears. This closure is achieved by further growth muscular interventricular septum, a contribution of trunk crest-conal tissue and a membranous component.[14]

text: Valves and outflow tracts[edit]

text: Truncus septum formation and arterial cone[edit]

text: The arterial cone is closed by the infundibular cushions. The trunk cones are closed by the forming of an infundibulotroncal septum, which is made from a straight proximal portion and distal spiral portion. Then, the narrowest portion of the aorta is in the left and dorsal portion. The distal portion of the aorta is pushed forward to the right. The proximal pulmonary artery is right and ventral, and the distal portion of the pulmonary artery is in the left dorsal portion.[11]

text: Pacemaker and conduction system[edit]

text: The rhythmic electrical depolarization waves that trigger myocardial contraction is myogenic, which means that they begin in the heart muscle spontaneously and are then responsible for transmitting signals from cell to cell. Myocytes that were obtained in the primitive heart tube, start beating as they connect together by their walls in a syncytium. Myocytes initiate rhythmic electrical activity, before the fusion of the endocardial tubes. The heartbeat begins in the region of the pacemaker which has a spontaneous depolarization time faster than the rest of myocardium.[15]

text: The primitive ventricle acts as initial pacemaker. But this pacemaker activity is actually made by a group of cells that derive from the sinoatrial right venous sinus. These cells form an ovoid sinoatrial node (SAN), on the left venous valve. After the development of the SAN, the superior endocardial cushions begin to form a pacemaker as known as the atrioventricular node. With the development of the SAN, a band of specialized conducting cells start to form creating the bundle of His that sends a branch to the right ventricle and one to the left ventricle. Most conduction pathways originate from the cardiogenic mesoderm but the sinus node may be derived from the neural crest.[15]

text: The human embryonic heart begins beating approximately 21 days after fertilization, or five weeks after the last normal menstrual period (LMP), which is the date normally used to date pregnancy in the medical community. The electrical depolarizations that trigger cardiac myocytes to contract arise spontaneously within the myocyte itself. The heartbeat is initiated in the pacemaker regions and spreads to the rest of the heart through a conduction pathway. Pacemaker cells develop in the primitive atrium and the sinus venosus to form the sinoatrial node and the atrioventricular node respectively. Conductive cells develop the bundle of His and carry the depolarization into the lower heart. Cardiac activity is visible beginning at approximately 5 weeks of pregnancy.

text: The human heart begins beating at a rate near the mother’s, about 75-80 beats per minute (BPM). The embryonic heart rate (EHR) then accelerates linearly for the first month of beating, peaking at 165-185 BPM during the early 7th week, (early 9th week after the LMP). This acceleration is approximately 3.3 BPM per day, or about 10 BPM every three days, an increase of 100 BPM in the first month.[16]

text: After peaking at about 9.2 weeks after the LMP, it decelerates to about 150 BPM (+/-25 BPM) during the 15th week after the LMP. After the 15th week the deceleration slows reaching an average rate of about 145 (+/-25 BPM) BPM at term.


document_title: List of Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles of 1992

question_text: what was the number one song on november 17 1992

text: This is a list of the U.S. Billboard magazine Hot 100 number-ones of 1992. The longest running number-one single of 1992 is "I Will Always Love You" by Whitney Houston, which stayed at the top of the chart for 14 weeks. "I Will Always Love You" became the longest running song at number one when it reached 14 weeks, breaking the record that Boyz II Men's "End of the Road" had just set at 13 weeks.

text: "End of the Road" broke the record previously set at 11 weeks by Elvis Presley in 1956 with "Hound Dog"/"Don't Be Cruel". "I Will Always Love You" would hold the record as the longest-running song on the Hot 100 until "One Sweet Day" by Mariah Carey and Boyz II Men topped the chart for 16 weeks in 1995.

text: Although "I Will Always Love You" spent nine of its weeks atop the Hot 100 in 1993, it is considered the longest-running song of 1992 because that is when its run began.

text:
Key

The yellow background indicates the #1 song on Billboard's 1992 Year-End Chart of Pop Singles.

text:
Issue date

Song

Artist(s)

Reference

January 4

"Black or White"

Michael Jackson

[1]

January 11

[2]

January 18

[3]

January 25

"All 4 Love"

Color Me Badd

[4]

February 1

"Don't Let the Sun Go Down on Me"

George Michael and Elton John

[5]

February 8

"I'm Too Sexy"

Right Said Fred

[6]

February 15

[7]

February 22

[8]

February 29

"To Be with You"

Mr. Big

[9]

March 7

[10]

March 14

[11]

March 21

"Save the Best for Last"

Vanessa Williams

[12]

March 28

[13]

April 4

[14]

April 11

[15]

April 18

[16]

April 25

"Jump"

Kris Kross

[17]

May 2

[18]

May 9

[19]

May 16

[20]

May 23

[21]

May 30

[22]

June 6

[23]

June 13

[24]

June 20

"I'll Be There"

Mariah Carey featuring Trey Lorenz

[25]

June 27

[26]

July 4

"Baby Got Back"

Sir Mix-a-Lot

[27]

July 11

[28]

July 18

[29]

July 25

[30]

August 1

[31]

August 8

"This Used to Be My Playground"

Madonna

[32]

August 15

"End of the Road"

Boyz II Men

[33]

August 22

[34]

August 29

[35]

September 5

[36]

September 12

[37]

September 19

[38]

September 26

[39]

October 3

[40]

October 10

[41]

October 17

[42]

October 24

[43]

October 31

[44]

November 7

[45]

November 14

"How Do You Talk to an Angel"

The Heights

[46]

November 21

[47]

November 28

"I Will Always Love You"

Whitney Houston

[48][49]

December 5

[50][51]

December 12

[52][53]

December 19

[54][55]

December 26

[56][57]