document_title: Pokhran-II

question_text: who is the president of india when nuclear tested

text: Pokhran-II

text: India's nuclear bomb project[edit]

text: Efforts towards building the nuclear bomb, infrastructure, and research on related technologies have been undertaken by India since World War II. Origins of India's nuclear program dates back to 1944 when nuclear physicist Homi Bhabha began persuading the Indian Congress towards the harnessing of nuclear energy— a year later he established the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR).

text: In 1950s, the preliminary studies were carried out at the BARC and plans were developed to produce plutonium and other bomb components. In 1962, India and China engaged in the disputed northern front, and was further intimidated with Chinese nuclear test in 1964. Direction towards militarisation of the nuclear program slowed down when Vikram Sarabhai became its head and little interest of Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri in 1965.

text: After Indira Gandhi became Prime Minister in 1966, the nuclear program was consolidated when physicist Raja Ramanna joined the efforts. Another nuclear test by China eventually led to India's decision toward building nuclear weapons in 1967 and conducted its first nuclear test, Smiling Buddha, in 1974.[6]

text: Post-Smiling Buddha[edit]

text: Responding to Smiling Buddha, the Nuclear Suppliers Group severely affected the India's nuclear program.[7] The world's major nuclear powers imposed technological embargo on India and Pakistan, which was technologically racing to meet with India's challenge.[7] The nuclear program struggled for years to gain credibility and its progress crippled by the lack of indigenous resources and dependent on imported technology and technical assistance.[7] At IAEA, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared that India's nuclear program was not militarising despite authorising preliminary work on the hydrogen bomb design.[7]

text: As an aftermath of the state emergency in 1975 that resulted in the collapse of the Prime Minister Indira Gandhi's government, the nuclear program was left with a vacuum of political leadership and even basic management.[7] Work on the hydrogen bomb design continued under M. Srinivasan, a mechanical engineer, but progress was slow.[7]

text: The nuclear program received little attention from Prime Minister Morarji Desai who was renowned for his peace advocacy.[7]  In 1978, Prime Minister Desai transferred physicist Ramanna to Indian MoD, and his government was not entirely without progress in nuclear program and had the program continue to grow at a desirable rate.[7][8]

text: Disturbing news came from Pakistan when the world discovered the Pakistan's clandestine atomic bomb program.[7] Contrary to India's nuclear program, Pakistan's atomic bomb program was akin to United States's Manhattan Project, it was under military oversight with civilian scientists in charge of the scientific aspects of the program.[7]  The Pakistani atomic bomb program was well funded and organised by then; India realised that Pakistan was likely to succeed in its project in matter of two years.[7]

text: In 1980, the general elections marked the return of Indira Gandhi and the nuclear program began to gain momentum under Ramanna in 1981. Requests for additional nuclear tests were continued to be denied by the government when Prime Minister Indira Gandhi saw Pakistan began exercising the brinkmanship, though the nuclear program continued to advance.[7] Initiation towards hydrogen bomb began as well as the launch of the missile programme began under Late president Dr. Abdul Kalam, who was then an aerospace engineer.[7]

text: Political momentum: 1988–1998[edit]

text: In 1989, the general elections witnessed the Janata Dal party led by V.P. Singh, forming the government.[9] Prime Minister V.P. Singh down played the relations with the Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto whose Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) won the general elections in 1988. Foreign relations between India and Pakistan began to severely worsen when India began charging Pakistan of supporting the militancy in Jammu and Kashmir.[9] During this time, the missile program succeeded in the development of the Prithvi missiles.

text: Successive governments in India decided to observe this temporary moratorium for fear of inviting international criticism.[7] The Indian public had been supportive towards the nuclear tests which ultimately led Prime Minister Narasimha Rao deciding to conduct further tests in 1995.[9] Plans were halted after American spy satellites picked up signs of preparations for nuclear testing at Pokhran Test Range in Rajasthan.[9] President Bill Clinton and his administration exerted enormous pressure on Prime Minister Narasimha Rao to stop the preparations.[9] Responding to India, Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto issued harsh and severe statements against India on Pakistan's news channels; thus putting stress on the relations between two countries.[10]

text: Diplomatic tension escalated between two countries when Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto raised the Kashmir issue at the United Nations in 1995[11][12].[13] In a speech delivered by then-Speaker National Assembly Yousaf Raza Gillani, stressed the "Kashmir issue" as continue to endanger the peace and security in the region.[13] The Indian delegation headed by Atal Bihari Vajpayee at the United Nations, reiterated that the "UN resolutions only call upon Pakistan— the occupying force to vacate the "Jammu and Kashmir Area."[13]

text: 1998 Indian general elections[edit]

text: The BJP, came to power in 1998 general elections with an exclusive public mandate.[4] BJP's political might had been growing steadily in strength over the past decade over several issues.

text: In Pakistan, the similar conservative force, the PML(N), was also in power with an exclusive mandate led by Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif who defeated the leftist PPP led by Benazir Bhutto in general elections held in 1997.[14] During the BJP campaign, Atal Bihari Vajpayee indulged in grandstanding— such as when he declared on 25 February that his government would "take back that part of Kashmir that is under Pakistan's control."[4] Before this declaration, the BJP platform had clear intention to "exercise the option to induct nuclear weapons" and "India should become an openly nuclear power to garner the respect on the world stage that India deserved."[4] By 18 March 1998, Vajpayee had publicly begun his lobbying for nuclear explosion and declared that "there is no compromise on national security; all options including the nuclear options will be exercised to protect security and sovereignty."[4]

text: Consultation began between Prime Minister Vajpayee, Dr.Abdul Kalam, R. Chidambaram and officials of the Indian DAE on nuclear options. Chidambaram briefed Prime Minister Vajpayee extensively on the nuclear program; Abdul Kalam presented the status of the missile program. On 28 March 1998, Prime Minister Vajpayee asked the scientists to make preparations in the shortest time possible, and preparations were hastily made.[15]

text: It was time of tense atmosphere when Pakistan, at a Conference on Disarmament, offered a peace rhetoric agreement with India for "an equal and mutual restraint in conventional, missile and nuclear fields."[4] Pakistan's equation was later reemphasised on 6 April and the momentum in India for nuclear tests began to build up which strengthened Vajpayee's position to order the tests.[4]

text: Preparations for the test[edit]

text: Unlike Pakistan's weapon–testing laboratories, there was very little that India could do to hide its activity at Pokhran.[16] Contrary to high-altitude granite mountains in Pakistan, the bushes are sparse and the dunes in the Rajasthan Desert don't provide much cover from probing satellites.[16] The Indian intelligence had been aware of United States spy satellites and the American CIA had been detecting Indian test preparations since 1995; therefore, the tests required complete secrecy in India and also needed to avoid detection by other countries.[16] The 58th Engineer Regiment of Indian Army's Corps of Engineers was commissioned to prepare the test sites without being probed by the United States spy satellites. The 58th Engineer's commander Colonel Gopal Kaushik supervised the test preparations and ordered his "staff officers take all measures to ensure total secrecy."[16]

text: Extensive planning was done by a very small group of scientists, senior military officers and senior politicians to ensure that the test preparations would remain secret, and even senior members of the Indian government didn't know what was going on. The chief scientific adviser and the Director of Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), Dr. Abdul Kalam, and Dr. R. Chidambaram, the Director of the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), were the chief coordinators of this test planning.[4] The scientists and engineers of the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), the Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMDER), and the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) were involved in the nuclear weapon assembly, layout, detonation and obtaining test data.[4] A very small group of senior scientists were involved in the detonation process, all scientists were required to wear army uniforms to preserve the secrecy of the tests. Since 1995, the 58th Engineer Regiment had learned to avoid satellite detection.[4] Work was mostly done during night, and equipment was returned to the original place to give the impression that it was never moved.[4]

text: Bomb shafts were dug under camouflage netting and the dug-out sand was shaped like dunes. Cables for sensors were covered with sand and concealed using native vegetation.[4] Scientists would not depart for Pokhran in groups of two or three.[4] They travelled to destinations other than Pokhran under pseudonyms, and were then transported by the army. Technical staff at the test range wore military uniform, to prevent detection in satellite images.[16]

text: Nuclear weapon designs and development[edit]

text: Development and test teams[edit]

text: The main technical personnel involved in the operation were:[1]

text:
Project Chief Coordinators
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam (later, President of India), Scientific Adviser to the prime minister and Head of the DRDO.
Dr. R. Chidambaram, Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission and the Department of Atomic energy.
Defence Research & Development Organization (DRDO)
Dr. K. Santhanam; Director, Test Site Preparations.
Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research
Dr. G. R. Dikshitulu; Senior Research Scientist B.S.O.I Group, Nuclear Materials Acquisition
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC)
Dr. Anil Kakodkar, Director of BARC.
Dr. Satinder Kumar Sikka, Director; Thermonuclear Weapon Development.
Dr. M. S. Ramakumar, Director of Nuclear Fuel and Automation Manufacturing Group; Director, Nuclear Component Manufacture.
Dr. D.D. Sood, Director of Radiochemistry and Isotope Group; Director, Nuclear Materials Acquisition.
Dr. S.K. Gupta, Solid State Physics and Spectroscopy Group; Director, Device Design & Assessment.
Dr. G. Govindraj, Associate Director of Electronic and Instrumentation Group; Director, Field Instrumentation.

text: Movement and logistics[edit]

text: Three laboratories of the DRDO were involved in designing, testing and producing components for the bombs, including the advanced detonators, the implosion and high-voltage trigger systems. These were also responsible for weaponising, systems engineering, aerodynamics, safety interlocks and flight trials.[1] The bombs were transported in four Indian Army trucks under the command of Colonel Umang Kapur; all devices from BARC were relocated at 3 am on 1 May 1998. From the Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport, the bombs were flown in an Indian Air Force's AN-32 plane to the Jaisalmer army base. They were transported to Pokhran in an army convoy of four trucks, and this required three trips. The devices were delivered to the device preparation building, which was designated as 'Prayer Hall'.[1]

text: The test sites was organised into two government groups and were fired separately, with all devices in a group fired at the same time. The first group consisted of the thermonuclear device (Shakti I), the fission device (Shakti II), and a sub-kiloton device (Shakti III). The second group consisted of the remaining two sub-kiloton devices Shakti IV and V. It was decided that the first group would be tested on 11 May and the second group on 13 May. The thermonuclear device was placed in a shaft code named 'White House', which was over 200 metres (660 ft) deep, the fission bomb was placed in a 150 metres (490 ft) deep shaft code named 'Taj Mahal', and the first sub-kiloton device in 'Kumbhkaran'. The first three devices were placed in their respective shafts on 10 May, and the first device to be placed was the sub-kiloton device in the 'Kumbhkaran' shaft, which was sealed by the army engineers by 8:30 pm. The thermonuclear device was lowered and sealed into the 'White House' shaft by 4 am, and the fission device being placed in the 'Taj Mahal' shaft was sealed at 7:30 am, which was 90 minutes before the planned test time. The shafts were L-shaped, with a horizontal chamber for the test device.[1]

text: The timing of the tests depended on the local weather conditions, with the wind being the critical factor. The tests were underground, but due to a number of shaft seal failures that had occurred during tests conducted by the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom, the sealing of the shaft could not be guaranteed to be leak-proof. By early afternoon, the winds had died down and the test sequence was initiated. Dr. K. Santhanam of the DRDO, in charge of the test site preparations, gave the two keys that activated the test countdown to Dr. M. Vasudev, the range safety officer, who was responsible for verifying that all test indicators were normal. After checking the indicators, Vasudev handed one key each to a representative of BARC and the DRDO, who unlocked the countdown system together. At 3:45 pm the three devices were detonated.[1]

text: Specifications and detonation[edit]

text: Five nuclear devices were Made during Operation Shakti.[17] All devices were weapon-grade plutonium[1] and they were:[1]

text:
Shakti I – A thermonuclear device yielding 45 kt, but designed for up to 200 kt.
Shakti II – A plutonium implosion design yielding 15 kt and intended as a warhead that could be delivered by bomber or missile. It was an improvement of the device detonated in the 1974 Smiling Buddha (Pokhran-I) test of 1974, developed using simulations on the PARAM supercomputer.
Shakti III – An experimental linear implosion design that used "non-weapon grade"[18] plutonium, but which likely omitted the material required for fusion, yielding 0.3 kt.
Shakti IV- A 0.5 kt experimental device.
Shakti V – A 0.2 kt experimental device.

text: An additional, sixth device (Shakti VI) is suspected to have been present but not detonated.[1]

text: At 3:43 pm IST; three nuclear bombs (specifically, the Shakti I, II and III) were detonated simultaneously, as measured by international seismic monitors.[4] On 13 May, at 12.21 p.m.IST 6:51 UTC, two sub-kiloton devices (Shakti IV and V) were detonated. Due to their very low yield, these explosions were not detected by any seismic station.[4] On 13 May 1998, India declared the series of tests to be over after this.[19]

text: Announcement[edit]

text: Following the Pokhran-II tests, India became the sixth country to join the nuclear club.[20] Shortly after the tests, a press meet was convened at the Prime Minister's residence in New Delhi. Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee appeared before the press corps and made the following short statement:

text:
“

Today, at 15:45 hours, India conducted three underground nuclear tests in the Pokhran range. The tests conducted today were with a fission device, a low yield device and a thermonuclear device. The measured yields are in line with expected values. Measurements have also confirmed that there was no release of radioactivity into the atmosphere. These were contained explosions like the experiment conducted in May 1974. I warmly congratulate the scientists and engineers who have carried out these successful tests.[21]

”

text: Reactions to tests[edit]

text: Domestic reactions[edit]

text: News of the tests were greeted with jubilation and large-scale approval by society in India.[22] The Bombay Stock Exchange registered significant gains. Newspapers and television channels praised the government for its bold decision; editorials were full of praise for the country's leadership and advocated the development of an operational nuclear arsenal for the country's armed forces.[22] The Indian opposition, led by Congress Party criticised the Vajpayee administration for carrying out the series of nuclear tests.[22] The Congress Party spokesman, Salman Khursheed, accused the BJP of trying to use the tests for political ends rather than to enhance the country's national security.[22]

text: By the time India had conducted tests, the country had a total of $44bn in loans in 1998, from IMF and the World Bank.[23] The industrial sectors of the Indian economy such as the chemicals industry, were likely to be hurt by sanctions.[23] The Western consortium companies, which had invested heavily in India, especially in construction, computing and telecoms, were generally the ones who were harmed by the sanctions.[23] In 1998, Indian government announced that it had already allowed for some economic response and was willing to take the consequences.[23]

text: International reactions[edit]

text: United States[edit]

text: The United States issued a strong statement condemning India and promised that sanctions would follow. The American intelligence community was embarrassed as there had been "a serious intelligence failure of the decade" in detecting the preparations for the test.[24]

text: In keeping with its preferred approach to foreign policy in recent decades, and in compliance with the 1994 anti-proliferation law, the United States imposed economic sanctions on India.[5] The sanctions on India consisted of cutting off all assistance to India except humanitarian aid, banning the export of certain defence material and technologies, ending American credit and credit guarantees to India, and requiring the US to oppose lending by international financial institutions to India.[25]

text: From 1998–1999, the United States held series of bilateral talks with India over the issue of India becoming party of the CTBT and NPT.[26] In addition, the United States also made an unsuccessful attempt of holding talks regarding the rollback of India's nuclear program.[27] India took a firm stand against the CTBT and refusing to be signatory party of it despite under pressure by the US President Bill Clinton, and noted the treaty as it was not consistent with India's national security interest.[27]

text: Canada, Japan, and other countries[edit]

text: Strong criticism was drawn from Canada on India's actions and its High Commissioner.[28] Sanctions were also imposed by Japan on India and consisted of freezing all new loans and grants except for humanitarian aid to India.[29]

text: Some other nations also imposed sanctions on India, primarily in the form of suspension of foreign aid to India and government-to-government credit lines.[30] However, the United Kingdom, France, and Russia refrained from condemning India.[30]

text: China[edit]

text: On 12 May the Chinese Foreign Ministry stated: "The Chinese government is seriously concerned about the nuclear tests conducted by India," and that the tests "run counter to the current international trend and are not conducive to peace and stability in South Asia.".[31] The next day the Chinese Foreign Ministry issued the statement clearly stating that "it is shocked and strongly condemned" the Indian nuclear tests and called for the international community to "adopt a unified stand and strongly demand that India immediate stop development of nuclear weapons".[32] China further rejected India's stated rationale of needing nuclear capabilities to counter a Chinese threat as "totally unreasonable".[32] In a meeting with Masayoshi Takemura of Democratic Party of Japan, Foreign Minister of the People's Republic of China Qian Qichen was quoted as saying that India's nuclear tests were a "serious matter," particularly because they were conducted in light of the fact that more than 140 countries have signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. "It is even more unacceptable that India claims to have conducted the tests to counter what it called a "China threat".[32] On 24 November 1998, the Chinese Embassy, New Delhi issued a formal statement:

text: (sic).... But regrettably, India conducted nuclear tests last May, which has run against the contemporary historical trend and seriously affected peace and stability in South Asia. Pakistan also conducted nuclear tests later on. India's nuclear tests have not only led to the escalation of tensions between India and Pakistan and provocation of nuclear arms races in South Asia, but also dealt a heavy blow to international nuclear disarmament and the global nonproliferation regime. It is only natural that India's nuclear tests have met with extensive condemnation and aroused serious concern from the international community.

text: Pakistan[edit]

text: The most vehement and strong reaction to India's nuclear explosion was from a neighbouring country, Pakistan. Great ire was raised in Pakistan, which issued a severe statement blaming India for instigating a nuclear arms race in the region.[4] Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif vowed that his country would give a suitable reply to India.[4] The day after the first tests, Foreign Minister Gohar Ayub Khan indicated that Pakistan was ready to conduct a nuclear test. He stated: "Pakistan is prepared to match India, we have the capability.... We in Pakistan will maintain a balance with India in all fields", he said in an interview. "We are in a headlong arms race on the subcontinent."[4]

text: On 13 May 1998, Pakistan bitterly condemned the tests, and Foreign Minister Gohar Ayub was quoted as saying that Indian leadership seemed to "have gone berserk [sic] and was acting in a totally unrestrained way."[34] Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif was much more subdued, maintaining ambiguity about whether a test would be conducted in response: "We are watching the situation and we will take appropriate action with regard to our security", he said.[4]  Sharif sought to mobilise the entire Islamic world in support of Pakistan and criticised India for nuclear proliferation.[4]

text: Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif had been under intense pressure regarding the nuclear tests by President Bill Clinton and Opposition leader Benazir Bhutto at home.[35] Initially surprising the world, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif authorised nuclear testing program and the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) carried out nuclear testings under the codename Chagai-I on 28 May 1998 and Chagai-II on 30 May 1998. These six underground nuclear tests at the Chagai and Kharan test site were conducted fifteen days after India's last test. The total yield of the tests was reported to be 40 kt (see codename: Chagai-I).[36]

text: Pakistan's subsequent tests invited similar condemnation from the United States.[37] American President Bill Clinton was quoted as saying "Two wrongs don't make a right", criticising Pakistan's tests as reactionary to India's Pokhran-II.[35] The United States and Japan reacted by imposing economic sanctions on Pakistan. According to the Pakistan's science community, the Indian nuclear tests gave an opportunity to Pakistan to conduct nuclear tests after 14 years of conducting only cold tests (See: Kirana-I).[38]

text: Pakistan's leading nuclear physicist, Pervez Hoodbhoy, held India responsible for Pakistan's nuclear test experiments in Chagai.[39]

text: U.N. sanctions[edit]

text: The reactions from abroad started immediately after the tests were advertised. On 6 June, the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 1172 condemning the test and that of Pakistan's.[40] China issued a vociferous condemnation calling upon the international community to exert pressure on India to sign the NPT and eliminate its nuclear arsenal. With India joining the group of countries possessing nuclear weapons, a new strategic dimension had emerged in Asia, particularly South Asia.[40]

text: Effects on Indian economy[edit]

text: Overall, the effect of international sanctions on Indian economy was minimal; the technological progress was marginal. Most nations did not call for embargoes against India as the exports and imports together constituted only 4.0% of its GDP, with United States trade accounting for only 10.0% of this total. Far more significant were the restrictions on lending imposed by the United States and its representatives on international finance bodies. Most of the sanctions were lifted within five years.

text: Legacy[edit]

text: The Indian government has officially declared the 11 May as National Technology Day in India to commemorate the first of the five nuclear tests that were carried out on 11 May 1998.[41]

text: It was officially signed by then-Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in 1998 and the day is celebrated by giving awards to various individuals and industries in the field of science and technology.[41]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: Parmanu: The Story of Pokhran is a 2018 Bollywood movie based on India's underground Pokhran-II nuclear test.


document_title: Rajya Sabha

question_text: which state elected maximum member of the rajya sabha

root

text: Rajya Sabha

text: Qualifications[edit]

text: Article 84 of the Constitution lays down the qualifications for membership of Parliament. A member of the Rajya Sabha must:[6]

tag: p

text:
Be a citizen of India.
Make and subscribe before some person authorized in that behalf by the Election Commission an oath or affirmation according to the form set out for the purpose in the Third Schedule to the Constitution.
Be at least 30 years old.
Be elected by the Legislative Assembly of States and Union territories by means of Single transferable vote through Proportional representation.[7]
Not be a proclaimed criminal.
Not be an insolvent, i.e. he/she should not be in debt that he/she is not capable of repaying in a current manner and should have the ability to meet his/her financial expenses.
Not hold any other office of profit under the Government of India.
Not be of unsound mind.
Possess such other qualifications as may be prescribed in that behalf by or under any law made by Parliament.

tag: ul

text: In addition, twelve members are nominated by the President of India having special knowledge in various areas like arts and science. However, they are not entitled to vote in Presidential elections as per Article 55 of the Constitution.

text: Limitations[edit]

text: The Constitution of India places some restrictions on Rajya Sabha which makes Lok Sabha more powerful in certain areas in comparison.

text: Money bills[edit]

text: The definition of a money bill is given in article 110 of constitution of India. A money bill can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha by a minister and only on recommendation of President of India. When the Lok Sabha passes a money bill then the Lok Sabha sends money bill to the Rajya Sabha council of states for 14 days during which it can make recommendations. Even if Rajya Sabha fails to return the money bill in 14 days to the Lok Sabha, that bill is deemed to have passed by both the Houses. Also, if the Lok Sabha rejects any (or all) of the amendments proposed by the Rajya Sabha, the bill is deemed to have been passed by both Houses of Parliament of India in the form the Lok Sabha finally passes it.  This is because the Lok Sabha has largest number of representatives of peoples of India and so the Lok Sabha lower house also called house of the peoples is more powerful in comparison with Rajya Sabha council of states upper house. Hence, Rajya Sabha can only give recommendations for a money bill but Rajya Sabha cannot amend a money bill this is to ensure that Rajya Sabha must not add any non money matters in money bill. Lok Sabha can reject all the recommendations of Rajya Sabha or can accept some or all of the recommendations. Decisions of the speaker of the Lok Sabha are final. There is no joint sitting of both the houses with respect to money bills, because all final decisions are taken by the Lok Sabha.[8]

text: Joint Sitting of the Parliament[edit]

text: Article 108 provides for a joint sitting of the two Houses of Parliament in certain cases. A joint sitting can be convened by the President of India when one house has either rejected a bill passed by the other house, has not taken any action on a bill transmitted to it by the other house for six months, or has disagreed to the amendments proposed by the Lok Sabha on a bill passed by it. Considering that the numerical strength of Lok Sabha is more than twice that of Rajya Sabha, Lok Sabha tends to have a greater influence in a joint sitting of Parliament. A joint session is chaired by the Speaker of Lok Sabha. Also, because the joint session is convened by the President on advice of the government, which already has a majority in Lok Sabha, the joint session is usually convened to get bills passed through a Rajya Sabha in which the government has a minority.

text: Joint sessions of Parliament are a rarity, and have been convened three times in last 71 years, for the purpose of passage of a specific legislative act, the latest time being in 2002:

text:
1961: Dowry Prohibition Act, 1958
1978: Banking Services Commission (Repeal) Act, 1977
2002: Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002

text: No-confidence motion[edit]

text: Unlike the Lok Sabha, a member of the Rajya Sabha cannot bring to the house a no-confidence motion against the government.

text: Powers[edit]

text: In Indian federal structure, Rajya Sabha is a representative of the States in the Union legislature (Hence the name, Council of States). Hence, Rajya Sabha is granted powers that protect the rights of States against the Union.

text: Union-States Relations[edit]

text: The Constitution empowers Parliament of India to make laws on the matters reserved for States (States List). However, this can only be done if Rajya Sabha first passes a resolution by two-thirds special majority granting such a power to the Union Parliament. The union government cannot make a law on a matter reserved for states without any authorisation from Rajya Sabha.

text: Creation of All-India Services[edit]

text: Rajya Sabha, by a two-thirds super majority can pass a resolution empowering the Government of India to create more All-India Services common to both Union and States, including a judicial service.

text: Membership and Composition[edit]

text: Seats are allotted in proportion to the population of people of each state or union territory in such a manner that smaller states have slight advantage over more populous states.[9] As the members are elected by the state legislature, smaller Union Territories which are not States and do not have legislatures cannot have representation in Rajya Sabha. Hence, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Chandigarh, Daman & Diu and Dadra & Nagar Haveli do not send any representatives to Rajya Sabha. 12 members are nominated by the President.[10][11]

text: As per the Fourth Schedule to the Constitution of India on 26 January 1950, the Rajya Sabha was to consist of 216 members of which 12 members were to be nominated by the President and the remaining 204 elected to represent the States.[11] The present strength, however, is 245 members of whom 233 are representatives of the states and union territories and 12 are nominated by the President.[11] The twelve nominated members of the Rajya Sabha are persons who are eminent in particular fields, and are well known contributors in the particular field. A few examples of such nominated persons are cricketing icon Sachin Tendulkar, former RBI Governor Bimal Jalan and famous lyricist and poet Javed Akhtar. As of March 2014, each state or union territory specified in the first column of the following table, there shall be allotted the number of seats specified in the second column thereof opposite to that State or that union territory, as the case may be:[12]

text: List of constituencies by States/Union Territories[edit]

text:
Name of state and union territory

No. of Seats

Andhra Pradesh[13]

11

Arunachal Pradesh

1

Assam

7

Bihar

16

Chhattisgarh

5

Goa

1

Gujarat

11

Haryana

5

Himachal Pradesh

3

Jammu & Kashmir

4

Jharkhand

6

Karnataka

12

Kerala

9

Madhya Pradesh

11

Maharashtra

19

Manipur

1

Meghalaya

1

Mizoram

1

Nagaland

1

National Capital Territory of Delhi

3

Nominated

12

Odisha

10

Puducherry

1

Punjab

7

Rajasthan

10

Sikkim

1

Tamil Nadu

18

Telangana[13]

7

Tripura

1

Uttar Pradesh

31

Uttarakhand

3

West Bengal

16

Total

245

tag: table

text: Membership by party[edit]

text: Rajya Sabha Secretariat (As of 15 July 2018):[14]

text:
Alliances

Party

MP

National Democratic AllianceSeats: 87

Bharatiya Janata Party

71

Janata Dal (United)

6

Shiromani Akali Dal

3

Shiv Sena

3

Bodoland People's Front

1

Naga People's Front

1

Republican Party of India (A)

1

Sikkim Democratic Front

1

United Progressive AllianceSeats: 57

Indian National Congress

50

Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam

4

Indian Union Muslim League

1

Janata Dal (Secular)

1

Kerala Congress (M)

1

Janata ParivarSeats: 6

Rashtriya Janata Dal

5

Indian National Lok Dal

1

Other PartiesSeats: 82

All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam

13

All India Trinamool Congress

13

Samajwadi Party

13

Biju Janata Dal

9

Telugu Desam Party

6

Telangana Rashtra Samithi

6

Communist Party of India (Marxist)

5

Bahujan Samaj Party

4

Nationalist Congress Party

4

Aam Aadmi Party

3

Communist Party of India

2

Jammu and Kashmir Peoples Democratic Party

2

YSR Congress Party

2

Nominated

6

Independents

6

Vacant Seats

1 Seat from Bihar

1

Total

245

text: Officers[edit]

text: Leader of the House[edit]

text: Besides the Chairman (Vice-President of India) and the Deputy Chairman, there is also a position called Leader of the House. This is a cabinet minister – the prime minister if he is a member of the House, or another nominated minister. The Leader has a seat next to the Chairman, in the front row.

text: Leader of the Opposition[edit]

text: Besides the Leader of the House, who is leading the majority, there is also a Leader of the Opposition (LOP) – leading the opposition parties. The function was only recognized in the Salary and Allowances of Leaders of the Opposition in Parliament Act 1977. This is commonly the leader of the largest non-government party, and is recognized as such by the Chairman.

text: The following people have been the Leader of the Opposition in the Rajya Sabha:

text:
Sr No

Name

Portrait

Term of office

Political party(Alliance)

Prime Minister

1

Shyam Nandan Mishra

December 1969

March 1971

INC (O)

Indira Gandhi

2

M. S. Gurupadaswamy

March 1971

April 1972

3

Kamalapati Tripathi

30 March 1977

15 February 1978

INC

Morarji Desai

4

Bhola Paswan Shastri

24 February 1978

23 March 1978

INC (O)

5

Kamalapati Tripathi

23 March 1978

8 January 1980

INC

Charan Singh

6

Lal Krishna Advani

21 January 1980

7 April 1980

Janata Party

Indira Gandhi

7

P. Shiv Shankar

18 December 1989

2 January 1991

INC

V. P. Singh

Chandra Shekhar

8

M. S. Gurupadaswamy

28 June 1991

21 July 1991

Janata Dal

P. V. Narasimha Rao

9

S. Jaipal Reddy

22 July 1991

29 June 1992

10

Sikander Bakht

7 July 1992

23 May 1996

BJP

11

Shankarrao Chavan

23 May 1996

1 June 1996

INC

Atal Bihari Vajpayee

12

Sikander Bakht

1 June 1996

19 March 1998

BJP

H. D. Deve Gowda

I. K. Gujral

13

Manmohan Singh

21 March 1998

21 May 2004

INC

Atal Bihari Vajpayee

14

Jaswant Singh

3 June 2004

16 May 2009

BJP

Manmohan Singh

15

Arun Jaitley

3 June 2009

26 May 2014

16

Ghulam Nabi Azad

8 June 2014

Incumbent

INC

Narendra Modi

text: Secretariat[edit]

text: The Secretariat of Rajya Sabha was set up pursuant to the provisions contained in Article 98 of the Constitution. The said Article, which provides for a separate secretarial staff for each House of Parliament, reads as follows:- 98. Secretariat of Parliament – Each House of Parliament shall have a separate secretarial staff: Provided that nothing in this clause shall be construed as preventing the creation of posts common to both Houses of Parliament. (2) Parliament may by law regulate the recruitment and the conditions of service of persons appointed to the secretarial staff of either House of Parliament.

text: The Rajya Sabha Secretariat functions under the overall guidance and control of the Chairman. The main activities of the Secretariat inter alia include the following :

text:
(i) providing secretarial assistance and support to the effective functioning of the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) possible to Members of Rajya Sabha;
(iv) servicing the various Parliamentary Committees;
(v) preparing research and reference material and bringing out various publications;
(vi) recruitment of manpower in the Sabha Secretariat and attending to personnel matters; and
(vii) preparing and publishing a record of the day-to-day proceedings of the Rajya Sabha and bringing out such other publications, as may be required concerning the functioning of the Rajya Sabha and its Committees.

text:
In the discharge of his constitutional and statutory responsibilities, the Chairman, Rajya Sabha is assisted by the Secretary-General, who holds the rank equivalent[16] to the Cabinet Secretary to the Government of India. The Secretary-General, in turn, is assisted by senior functionaries at the level of Secretary, Additional Secretary, Joint Secretary and other officers and staff of the Secretariat.
Present secretary-general is Desh Deepak Sharma, IAS. [15]

text: Media[edit]

text: Rajya Sabha Television (RSTV) is a 24-hour a day, seven day a week parliamentary TV channel fully owned and operated by the Rajya Sabha. The channel is aimed at providing in-depth coverage and analysis of parliamentary affairs especially the functioning of and developments related to Rajya Sabha. During sessions of Parliament, apart from telecasting live coverage of the proceedings of Rajya Sabha, RSTV presents incisive analysis of the proceedings of the House as well as other day-to-day parliamentary events and developments.[16]


document_title: Days in inventory

question_text: what is the average days to sell inventory

text: Days in inventory

text: Days in inventory (also known as 'Inventory Days of Supply(DoS)', 'Days Inventory Outstanding' or 'the Inventory Period'[1]) is an efficiency ratio that measures the average number of days the company holds its inventory before selling it. The ratio measures the number of days funds are tied up in inventory. Inventory levels (measured at cost) are divided by sales per day (also measured at cost rather than selling price.)

text: The formula for DII is:

text:
D
I
I
=

a
v
e
r
a
g
e

i
n
v
e
n
t
o
r
y

C
O
G
S

/

D
a
y
s

{\displaystyle DII={\dfrac {average~inventory}{COGS/Days}}}

text: where the average inventory is the average of inventory levels at the beginning and end of an accounting period, and COGS/day is calculated by dividing the total cost of goods sold per year by 365 days.[2]

text: This is equivalent to the 'average days to sell the inventory' which is calculated as:[3]

text: The article on Inventory turnover provides a more complete discussion of issues related to the diagnosis of inventory effectiveness, although it does not provide these synonyms.


document_title: Leaving Las Vegas

question_text: actress who was oscar nominated for the 1999 film leaving las vegas

text: Leaving Las Vegas

text: Plot[edit]

text: Ben Sanderson is a Hollywood screenwriter whose alcoholism costs him his job, family, and friends. With nothing left to live for, and a sizable severance check from his boss, he heads to Las Vegas to drink himself to death. One early morning he gets into his BMW and drives drunkenly from his Los Angeles home down to the Las Vegas Strip; he nearly hits a woman, Sera, on the crosswalk. She chastises him and walks away.

text: Sera is a prostitute working for an abusive pimp, Yuri Butsov, a Latvian immigrant. Polish mobsters are after Yuri, so he ends his relationship with Sera in fear that the Poles may hurt her.

text: On his second day in Las Vegas, Ben goes looking for Sera, introduces himself and offers her $500 to come to his room for an hour. Sera agrees but Ben does not want sex. Instead, they talk and develop a rapport; Sera invites Ben to move into her apartment. Ben instructs Sera never to ask him to stop drinking. Sera asks Ben not to criticize her occupation, and he agrees.

text: At first, they are happy, but they soon become frustrated with the other's behavior. Sera begs Ben to see a doctor which makes him furious. While Sera is out working Ben goes to a casino and returns with another prostitute. Sera returns to find them in her bed and throws Ben out.

text: Shortly afterward Sera is approached by three college students at the Excalibur Hotel and Casino. She initially rejects their offer by stating that she only "dates" one at a time, but eventually acquiesces when she is offered an increased price. When she enters their hotel room, the college students change the deal and demand anal sex, which she refuses. When she attempts to leave, they gang-rape her.

text: The next morning, she is spotted by her landlady returning home bruised and is evicted. Sera receives a call from Ben, who is on his deathbed. Sera visits Ben, and the two make love. He dies shortly thereafter. Later, Sera explains to her therapist that she accepted Ben for who he was and loved him.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Nicolas Cage as Ben Sanderson
Elisabeth Shue as Sera
Julian Sands as Yuri Butso
Richard Lewis as Peter
Steven Weber as Marc Nussbaum
Emily Procter as Debbie
Valeria Golino as Terri
Thomas Kopache as Mr. Simpson
Laurie Metcalf as Landlady

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: Mike Figgis based Leaving Las Vegas on a 1990 autobiographical novel by John O'Brien, who committed suicide in April 1994, shortly after finding out his novel was being used as the basis for a film.[7][8] Despite basing most of his screenplay on O'Brien's novel, Figgis spoke of a personal attachment with the novel, stating "Anything I would do would be because I had a sympathetic feeling towards it. That's why I did Mr. Jones, because I think manic-depression is a fascinating, sad, and amazing phenomenon. It's not a coincidence that some of the greatest artists have been manic-depressive[s]. That made it, to me, a fascinating subject that, alas, did not come out in the film."[9]

text: Casting[edit]

text: Figgis encouraged the lead actors to experience their characters' ordeals first-hand by extensive research. He told Film Critic: "It was just a week and a half of rehearsal. A lot of conversations. A lot of communication in the year before we made the film. Reading the book. I encouraged them [Cage and Shue] to do their own research, which they wanted to do anyway, and then ultimately the three of us got together and just started talking...talking about anything, not necessarily about the film or the script, about anything that came up."[9] Cage researched by binge drinking in Dublin for two weeks and had a friend videotape him so he could study his speech. He also visited hospitalized career alcoholics.[10] He said "it was one of the most enjoyable pieces of research I've ever had to do for a part."[10] Shue spent time interviewing several Las Vegas prostitutes.

text: Filming[edit]

text: The limited budget dictated the production and Figgis ended up filming in super 16mm and composing his own score.[6][11] He remarked, "We didn't have any money, and we weren't pretending to be something we weren't. We couldn't shut down The Strip to shoot".[9]

text: Figgis had problems because permits were not issued for some street scenes.[12] This caused him to film some scenes on the Las Vegas strip in one take to avoid the police, which Figgis said benefited production and the authenticity of the acting, remarking "I've always hated the convention of shooting on a street, and then having to stop the traffic, and then having to tell the actors, 'Well, there's meant to be traffic here, so you're going to have to shout.' And they're shouting, but it's quiet and they feel really stupid, because it's unnatural. You put them up against a couple of trucks, with it all happening around them, and their voices become great".[9][12]

text: Release[edit]

text: Leaving Las Vegas had a limited release on October 27, 1995. After praise from critics and four Academy Award nominations, the film was released nationwide February 9, 1996. United Artists company distributed the film in North America, RCV Film Distribution with Atalanta Filmes in Europe, and in Australia 21st Century Film Corporation distributed the film.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Leaving Las Vegas was received very well by critics. Critics such as Roger Ebert from Chicago Sun-Times and Rick Groen from The Globe and Mail gave the film high marks. Ebert wrote, "They [the characters] are the drunk and the whore with a heart of gold. Cage and Shue make these clichés into unforgettable people". Ebert named the film "best of 1995" and included it with his "best of the decade" list (Leaving Las Vegas was #8).[13] Leonard Klady from Variety said Leaving Las Vegas was "certainly among a scant handful of films that have taken an unflinching view of dependency".[14] On Rotten Tomatoes, the film received an approval rating of 90% based on 52 reviews, with an average rating of 7.7/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Oscar-awarded Nicolas Cage finds humanity in his character as it bleeds away in this no frills, exhilaratingly dark portrait of destruction."[15] It also holds a score of 82 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on 23 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".[16]  Overall, the film was a success at the box office, particularly considering its budget, grossing $32,029,928.[17]

text: Awards[edit]

text:
Award

Category

Subject

Result

Academy Award

Best Actor

Nicolas Cage

Won

Best Actress

Elisabeth Shue

Nominated

Best Director

Mike Figgis

Nominated

Best Adapted Screenplay

Nominated

BAFTA Award

Best Actor

Nicolas Cage

Nominated

Best Actress

Elisabeth Shue

Nominated

Best Adapted Screenplay

Mike Figgis

Nominated

Golden Globe Award

Best Director

Nominated

Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama

Nicolas Cage

Won

Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama

Elisabeth Shue

Nominated

Best Motion Picture – Drama

Lila Cazès & Annie Stewart

Nominated

Independent Spirit Award

Best Film

Won

Best Director

Mike Figgis

Won

Best Screenplay

Nominated

Best Female Lead

Elisabeth Shue

Won

Best Male Lead

Nicolas Cage

Nominated

Best Cinematography

Declan Quinn

Won

text: Home media releases[edit]

text: Video cassettes and DVD of the film were distributed by MGM.[18] The video cassettes were distributed on November 12, 1996 in two languages, English and Russian, while the DVD was distributed on January 1, 1998 in English for USA and Canada. Australian and UK editions were later released.[19][20] The DVD contains a supplemental "Hidden Page" menu feature.[18] The film was also released on Blu-ray, HD DVD and LaserDisc.

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: A soundtrack album, consisting mainly of film score composed and performed by Mike Figgis, was released November 7, 1995.[21] The soundtrack also included three jazz standards performed by Sting and excerpts of dialogue from the film. A version of "Lonely Teardrops" performed by Michael McDonald that features in the film is not included.

text: All tracks written by Mike Figgis except as noted.

text: No.TitleWriter(s)PerformerLength1."Intro Dialogue" (dialogue) Nicolas Cage as BenElisabeth Shue as Sera0:322."Angel Eyes"Matt Dennis, Earl BrentSting4:023."Are You Desirable?" Mike Figgis2:434."Ben & Bill" (dialogue) Nicolas Cage as Ben0:305."Leaving Las Vegas" Mike Figgis3:126."Sera's Dark Side" Mike Figgis1:267."Mara" Mike Figgis4:288."Burlesque" Mike Figgis2:409."On The Street" (dialogue) Nicolas Cage as BenElisabeth Shue as Sera0:2810."Bossa Vega" Mike Figgis3:1411."Ben Pawns His Rolex/Sera Talks to Her Shrink" (dialogue) Nicolas Cage as BenElisabeth Shue as Sera0:3712."My One and Only Love"Robert Mellin, Guy WoodSting3:3613."Sera Invites Ben to Stay" (dialogue) Nicolas Cage as BenElisabeth Shue as Sera0:3114."Come Rain or Come Shine"Harold Arlen, Johnny MercerDon Henley3:4115."Ben and Sera – Theme" (dialogue) Nicolas Cage as BenElisabeth Shue as Sera2:1816."Ridiculous"Phil Roy, Nicolas CageNicolas Cage1:0317."Biker Bar" Mike Figgis3:4418."Ben's Hell" Mike Figgis1:3719."It's a Lonesome Old Town"Harry Tobias, Charles KiscoSting2:3720."Blues For Ben" Mike Figgis1:5621."Get Out" Mike Figgis1:4922."Reunited" Mike Figgis3:2823."Sera Talks to the Cab Driver" (dialogue) Elisabeth Shue as SeraLou Rawls as Concerned Cabbie0:2324."She Really Loved Him" Mike Figgis1:1725."I Won't Be Going South For a While"Angelo PalladinoThe Palladinos4:27


document_title: Dell Parker

question_text: who does dell end up with in private practice

text: Dell Parker

text: Storylines[edit]

text: Season 1[edit]

text: Dell was abused as a child, which allows him to relate to patients of the practice who have similar experiences. In the first season, Dell falls in love with Naomi Bennett, his boss, despite the fact she later becomes involved with Sam Bennett, her former husband. In the season one finale, Dell finally expresses his feelings and tries to kiss Naomi.[3]

text: Season 2[edit]

text: In the season two premiere, Dell tries to help Naomi hide the practice's budding financial struggles, under the pretenses of "going green," but does so without her knowledge.[4] However, believing he wants to talk to her regarding his crush on her, Naomi continually ignores his pleas to discuss the matter, forcing Dell to concede and quit his job.

text: After leaving his job at the Oceanside Wellness Group, Dell works as a nurse at St. Ambrose Hospital.[5] Upon learning this, Naomi tries to convince Dell to return to the practice without much luck. After a pep talk from Addison, Dell wishes to return to the practice as long as a list of demands are met, one of which states that he is to be exempt from wearing pink scrubs. Sam, the head of the practice at the time, refuses to rehire him. This forces Naomi to fight for his reinstatement to which Sam finally agrees.

text: Dell later ends up arguing with Addison, who has since become the head of the practice, over whether or not he should have his own office; but he eventually ends up setting one aside for himself without permission. However, Addison does not punish him and allows him to keep the office when it is revealed that he has a six-year-old daughter, Betsy, from an unsuccessful relationship with Heather when he was seventeen; and he was just trying to impress his daughter.

text: Dell enrolled as a student in the South Bay School of Holistic Midwifery and Family Nursing. He earned credit towards his degree in midwifery by assisting staff doctors with obstetrical exams and childbirths. Dell's hobbies included surfing during his lunch breaks.

text: When Heather gets a promotion at work, she talks to Dell, informing him the promotion is in St. Louis. Dell does not want this to happen, and they fight about it. Later on, when Dell goes to talk to her, he finds her apartment empty, and Betsy gone.

text: Season 3[edit]

text: Dell married Heather, and most of the group at the Practice did not approve of it. He later yelled at Violet and Naomi due to their opposition of his marriage.

text: One night when Dell was heading out for work, his home exploded. Betsy escapes with minor injuries, but Heather received third degree burns on her body. Later on, the explosion was revealed to have been caused by Heather cooking crystal meth on the stove. After this revelation, Dell was furious and told Heather to go die and suffer a miserable death for putting their daughter in danger, then proceeded to not allow Betsy see her mother. Later in the hospital that night, Heather died due to her injuries, never having the chance to say good-bye to Dell or Betsy.

text: Dell later befriended Naomi and Sam's daughter Maya, who had gotten pregnant and didn't have her mother's support. Dell supported Maya when she decided to marry Dink, the father of her baby, and later helped them out during her pregnancy. When Maya goes into labor, she calls Dell who picks her up and drives her to the hospital. They are involved in a car crash and Maya is in a critical state, as well as her baby. With everything going on with Maya and the baby, nobody checks on Dell, who suddenly passes out and is revealed to have an initially undetected brain hemorrhage. Naomi will not let Amelia out of Maya's spinal surgery to fix Dell, and Charlotte and Amelia eventually operate on him, but during surgery he goes into cardiac arrest and Charlotte and Amelia were not able to resuscitate him on the table.[6]


document_title: Alpha particle

question_text: when a radioactive atom emits an alpha particle the original atom's mass number decreases by

question_tokens: when a radioactive atom emits an alpha particle the original atom 's mass number decreases by

text: Alpha particle

text: Name[edit]

text: Some science authors use doubly ionized helium nuclei (He2+) and alpha particles as interchangeable terms. The nomenclature is not well defined, and thus not all high-velocity helium nuclei are considered by all authors to be alpha particles. As with beta and gamma particles/rays, the name used for the particle carries some mild connotations about its production process and energy, but these are not rigorously applied.[4] Thus, alpha particles may be loosely used as a term when referring to stellar helium nuclei reactions (for example the alpha processes), and even when they occur as components of cosmic rays. A higher energy version of alphas than produced in alpha decay is a common product of an uncommon nuclear fission result called ternary fission. However, helium nuclei produced by particle accelerators (cyclotrons, synchrotrons, and the like) are less likely to be referred to as "alpha particles".

text: Sources of alpha particles[edit]

text: Alpha decay[edit]

text: The best-known source of alpha particles is alpha decay of heavier (> 106 u atomic weight) atoms. When an atom emits an alpha particle in alpha decay, the atom's mass number decreases by four due to the loss of the four nucleons in the alpha particle. The atomic number of the atom goes down by exactly two, as a result of the loss of two protons – the atom becomes a new element. Examples of this sort of nuclear transmutation are when uranium becomes thorium, or radium becomes radon gas, due to alpha decay.

text: Alpha particles are commonly emitted by all of the larger radioactive nuclei such as uranium, thorium, actinium, and radium, as well as the transuranic elements. Unlike other types of decay, alpha decay as a process must have a minimum-size atomic nucleus that can support it. The smallest nuclei that have to date been found to be capable of alpha emission are beryllium-8 and the lightest nuclides of tellurium (element 52), with mass numbers between 106 and 110. The process of alpha decay sometimes leaves the nucleus in an excited state, wherein the emission of a gamma ray then removes the excess energy.

text: Mechanism of production in alpha decay[edit]

text: In contrast to beta decay, the fundamental interactions responsible for alpha decay are a balance between the electromagnetic force and nuclear force. Alpha decay results from the Coulomb repulsion[2] between the alpha particle and the rest of the nucleus, which both have a positive electric charge, but which is kept in check by the nuclear force. In classical physics, alpha particles do not have enough energy to escape the potential well from the strong force inside the nucleus (this well involves escaping the strong force to go up one side of the well, which is followed by the electromagnetic force causing a repulsive push-off down the other side).

text: However, the quantum tunnelling effect allows alphas to escape even though they do not have enough energy to overcome the nuclear force. This is allowed by the wave nature of matter, which allows the alpha particle to spend some of its time in a region so far from the nucleus that the potential from the repulsive electromagnetic force has fully compensated for the attraction of the nuclear force. From this point, alpha particles can escape, and in quantum mechanics, after a certain time, they do so.

text: Ternary fission[edit]

text: Especially energetic alpha particles deriving from a nuclear process are produced in the relatively rare (one in a few hundred) nuclear fission process of ternary fission. In this process, three charged particles are produced from the event instead of the normal two, with the smallest of the charged particles most probably (90% probability) being an alpha particle. Such alpha particles are termed "long range alphas" since at their typical energy of 16 MeV, they are at far higher energy than is ever produced by alpha decay. Ternary fission happens in both neutron-induced fission (the nuclear reaction that happens in a nuclear reactor), and also when fissionable and fissile actinides nuclides (i.e., heavy atoms capable of fission) undergo spontaneous fission as a form of radioactive decay. In both induced and spontaneous fission, the higher energies available in heavy nuclei result in long range alphas of higher energy than those from alpha decay.

text: Accelerators[edit]

text: Energetic helium nuclei may be produced by cyclotrons, synchrotrons, and other particle accelerators, but they are not normally referred to as "alpha particles."

text: Solar core reactions[edit]

text: As noted, helium nuclei may participate in nuclear reactions in stars, and occasionally and historically these have been referred to as alpha reactions (see for example triple alpha process).

text: Cosmic rays[edit]

text: In addition, extremely high energy helium nuclei sometimes referred to as alpha particles make up about 10 to 12% of cosmic rays. The mechanisms of cosmic ray production continue to be debated.

text: Energy and absorption[edit]

text: The energy of the alpha emitted in alpha decay is mildly dependent on the half-life for the emission process, with many orders of magnitude differences in half-life being associated with energy changes of less than 50% (see alpha decay).

text: The energy of alpha particles emitted varies, with higher energy alpha particles being emitted from larger nuclei, but most alpha particles have energies of between 3 and 7 MeV (mega-electron-volts), corresponding to extremely long and extremely short half-lives of alpha-emitting nuclides, respectively.

text: This energy is a substantial amount of energy for a single particle, but their high mass means alpha particles have a lower speed (with a typical kinetic energy of 5 MeV; the speed is 15,000 km/s, which is 5% of the speed of light) than any other common type of radiation (β particles, neutrons, etc.)[5] Because of their charge and large mass, alpha particles are easily absorbed by materials, and they can travel only a few centimetres in air. They can be absorbed by tissue paper or the outer layers of human skin (about 40 micrometres, equivalent to a few cells deep).

text: Biological effects[edit]

text: Due to the short range of absorption and inability to penetrate the outer layers of skin, alpha particles are not, in general, dangerous to life unless the source is ingested or inhaled.[6] Because of this high mass and strong absorption, if alpha-emitting radionuclides do enter the body (upon being inhaled, ingested, or injected, as with the use of Thorotrast for high-quality X-ray images prior to the 1950s), alpha radiation is the most destructive form of ionizing radiation. It is the most strongly ionizing, and with large enough doses can cause any or all of the symptoms of radiation poisoning. It is estimated that chromosome damage from alpha particles is anywhere from 10 to 1000 times greater than that caused by an equivalent amount of gamma or beta radiation, with the average being set at 20 times. A study of European nuclear workers exposed internally to alpha radiation from plutonium and uranium found that when relative biological effectiveness is considered to be 20, the carcinogenic potential (in terms of lung cancer) of alpha radiation appears to be consistent with that reported for doses of external gamma radiation i.e. a given dose of alpha-particles inhaled presents the same risk as a 20-times higher dose of gamma radiation.[7] The powerful alpha emitter polonium-210 (a milligram of 210Po emits as many alpha particles per second as 4.215 grams of 226Ra) is suspected of playing a role in lung cancer and bladder cancer related to tobacco smoking.[8] 210Po was used to kill Russian dissident and ex-FSB officer Alexander V. Litvinenko in 2006.[9]

text: History of discovery and use[edit]

text: In the years 1899 and 1900, physicists Ernest Rutherford (working in McGill University in Montreal, Canada) and Paul Villard (working in Paris) separated radiation into three types: eventually named alpha, beta, and gamma by Rutherford, based on penetration of objects and deflection by a magnetic field.[10] Alpha rays were defined by Rutherford as those having the lowest penetration of ordinary objects.

text: Rutherford's work also included measurements of the ratio of an alpha particle's mass to its charge, which led him to the hypothesis that alpha particles were doubly charged helium ions (later shown to be bare helium nuclei).[11] In 1907, Ernest Rutherford and Thomas Royds finally proved that alpha particles were indeed helium ions.[12] To do this they allowed alpha particles to penetrate a very thin glass wall of an evacuated tube, thus capturing a large number of the hypothesized helium ions inside the tube. They then caused an electric spark inside the tube, which provided a shower of electrons that were taken up by the ions to form neutral atoms of a gas. Subsequent study of the spectra of the resulting gas showed that it was helium and that the alpha particles were indeed the hypothesized helium ions.

text: Because alpha particles occur naturally, but can have energy high enough to participate in a nuclear reaction, study of them led to much early knowledge of nuclear physics. Rutherford used alpha particles emitted by radium bromide to infer that J. J. Thomson's Plum pudding model of the atom was fundamentally flawed. In Rutherford's gold foil experiment conducted by his students Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, a narrow beam of alpha particles was established, passing through very thin (a few hundred atoms thick) gold foil. The alpha particles were detected by a zinc sulfide screen, which emits a flash of light upon an alpha particle collision. Rutherford hypothesized that, assuming the "plum pudding" model of the atom was correct, the positively charged alpha particles would be only slightly deflected, if at all, by the dispersed positive charge predicted.

text: It was found that some of the alpha particles were deflected at much larger angles than expected (at a suggestion by Rutherford to check it) and some even bounced almost directly back. Although most of the alpha particles went straight through as expected, Rutherford commented that the few particles that were deflected was akin to shooting a fifteen-inch shell at tissue paper only to have it bounce off, again assuming the "plum pudding" theory was correct. It was determined that the atom's positive charge was concentrated in a small area in its center, making the positive charge dense enough to deflect any positively charged alpha particles that came close to what was later termed the nucleus.

text: Prior to this discovery, it was not known that alpha particles were themselves atomic nuclei, nor was the existence of protons or neutrons known. After this discovery, J.J. Thomson's "plum pudding" model was abandoned, and Rutherford's experiment led to the Bohr model (named for Niels Bohr) and later the modern wave-mechanical model of the atom.

text: Rutherford went on to use alpha particles to accidentally produce what he later understood as a directed nuclear transmutation of one element to another, in 1917. Transmutation of elements from one to another had been understood since 1901 as a result of natural radioactive decay, but when Rutherford projected alpha particles from alpha decay into air, he discovered this produced a new type of radiation which proved to be hydrogen nuclei (Rutherford named these protons). Further experimentation showed the protons to be coming from the nitrogen component of air, and the reaction was deduced to be a transmutation of nitrogen into oxygen in the reaction

text: This was the first-discovered nuclear reaction.

text: To the adjacent pictures: According to the energy-loss curve by Bragg it is recognizable that the alpha particle indeed loses more energy on the end of the trace.[13]

text: Anti-alpha particle[edit]

text: In 2011, members of the international STAR collaboration using the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider at the U.S. Department of Energy's Brookhaven National Laboratory detected the antimatter partner of the helium nucleus, also known as the anti-alpha.[14] The experiment used gold ions moving at nearly the speed of light and colliding head on to produce the antiparticle.[15]

text: Applications[edit]

text:
Some smoke detectors contain a small amount of the alpha emitter americium-241. The alpha particles ionize air within a small gap. A small current is passed through that ionized air. Smoke particles from fire that enter the air gap reduce the current flow, sounding the alarm. The isotope is extremely dangerous if inhaled or ingested, but the danger is minimal if the source is kept sealed. Many municipalities have established programs to collect and dispose of old smoke detectors, to keep them out of the general waste stream.
Alpha decay can provide a safe power source for radioisotope thermoelectric generators used for space probes and artificial heart pacemakers. Alpha decay is much more easily shielded against than other forms of radioactive decay. Plutonium-238, a source of alpha particles, requires only 2.5 mm of lead shielding to protect against unwanted radiation.
Static eliminators typically use polonium-210, an alpha emitter, to ionize air, allowing the "static cling" to more rapidly dissipate.
Researchers are currently trying to use the damaging nature of alpha emitting radionuclides inside the body by directing small amounts towards a tumor. The alphas damage the tumor and stop its growth, while their small penetration depth prevents radiation damage of the surrounding healthy tissue. This type of cancer therapy is called unsealed source radiotherapy.

text: Alpha radiation and DRAM errors[edit]

text: In computer technology, dynamic random access memory (DRAM) "soft errors" were linked to alpha particles in 1978 in Intel's DRAM chips. The discovery led to strict control of radioactive elements in the packaging of semiconductor materials, and the problem is largely considered to be solved.[16]


document_title: Dead man's hand

question_text: where did the term aces and eights come from

text: Dead man's hand

text: Earliest details[edit]

text: The expression "dead man's hand" appears to have had some currency in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, although no one connected it to Hickok until the 1920s.[1] The earliest detailed reference to it was 1886, where it was described as a "full house consisting of three jacks and a pair of tens".[2] Jacks and sevens are called the dead man's hand in the 1903 Encyclopaedia of Superstitions, Folklore, and the Occult Sciences.[3] Edmond Hoyle refers to it as Jacks and eights in 1907.[4]

text: Hickok's hand[edit]

text: What is considered the dead man's hand card combination of today gets its notoriety from a legend that it was the five-card stud hand held by James Butler Hickok (better known as "Wild Bill" Hickok) when he was shot in the back of the head by Jack McCall on August 2, 1876, in Nuttal & Mann's Saloon at Deadwood, Dakota Territory. Reportedly, Hickok's final hand included the aces and eights of both black suits.[5]

text: The make-up[edit]

text: According to a book by Western historian Carl W. Breihan, the cards were retrieved from the floor by a man named Neil Christy, who then passed them on to his son. The son, in turn, told Mr. Breihan of the composition of the hand. "Here is an exact identity of these cards as told to me by Christy's son: the ace of diamonds with a heel mark on it; the ace of clubs; the two black eights, clubs and spades, and the queen of hearts with a small drop of Hickock's blood on it."[6]

text: Hickok biographer Joseph Rosa wrote about the make-up of the hand: "The accepted version is that the cards were the ace of spades, the ace of clubs, two black eights, and the queen of clubs as the 'kicker'."[7] However, Rosa said that no contemporaneous source can be found for this exact hand.[8] The solidification in gamers parlance of the dead man's hand as two pairs, aces and eights, didn't come about until after the 1926 publication of Frank Wilstach's book Wild Bill Hickok: The Prince of Pistoleers—50 years after Hickok's death.[1]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: The Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department Homicide Division, the Los Angeles Police Department CRASH squad, and the Armed Forces Medical Examiner System all use the dead man's hand in their insignia.[9][10] The western-themed collectible card game Doomtown makes it the highest rank in the game, with the Jack of diamonds as the fifth card.[11]