document_title: Knights of Labor

question_text: what groups of workers did the knights of labor represent

text: Knights of Labor

text: Organizational history[edit]

text: Origins[edit]

text: In 1869, Uriah Smith Stephens, James L. Wright, and a small group of Philadelphia tailors founded a secret organization known as the Noble Order of the Knights of Labor. The collapse of the National Labor Union in 1873 left a vacuum for workers looking for organization. The Knights became better organized with a national vision when they replaced Stephens with Terence V. Powderly. The body became popular with Pennsylvania coal miners during the economic depression of the mid-1870s, then it grew rapidly.[4] The KOL was a diverse industrial union open to all workers. The leaders felt that it was best to have a versatile population in order to get points of view from all aspects. The Knights of Labor barred membership from five groups: bankers, land speculators, lawyers, liquor dealers and gamblers.[5] Its members included low skilled workers, railroad workers, immigrants, and steel workers.[6]

text: As membership expanded, the Knights began to function more as a labor union and less of a secret organization. During the 1880's, the Knights of Labor played a huge role in independent and third-party movements.[7] Local assemblies began not only to emphasize cooperative enterprises, but to initiate strikes to win concessions from employers. The Knights of Labor brought together workers of different religion, race and gender and helped them all create a bond and unify all for the same cause.[8] The new leader Powderly, opposed strikes as a "relic of barbarism," but the size and the diversity of the Knights afforded local assemblies a great deal of autonomy.

text: In 1882, the Knights ended their membership rituals and removed the words "Noble Order" from their name. This was to mollify the concerns of Catholic members and the bishops who wanted to avoid any resemblance to freemasonry.[9] Though initially averse to strikes as a method to advance their goals, the Knights aided various strikes and boycotts. The Wabash Railroad strike in 1885 was also a significant success, as Powderly finally supported what became a successful strike on Jay Gould's Wabash Line. Gould met with Powderly and agreed to call off his campaign against the Knights of Labor, which had caused the turmoil originally. These positive developments gave momentum and a surge of members, so by 1886, the Knights had over 700,000 members.

text: The Knights' primary demand was for an eight-hour day; they also called for legislation to end child and convict labor, as well as a graduated income tax. They were eager supporters of cooperatives. The only woman to hold office in the Knights of Labor, Leonora Barry worked as an investigator and described the horrific conditions in factories, conditions tantamount to the abuse of women and children. These reports made Barry the first person to collect national statistics on the American working woman.[10]

text: Powderly and the Organization tried to avoid divisive political issues, but in the early 1880s, many Knights had become followers of Henry George's radical ideology known now as georgism. In 1883, Powderly officially recommended George's book and announced his support of "single tax" on land values. During the New York mayoral election of 1886, Powderly was able to successfully push the organization towards the favor of Henry George.[11]

text: The Knights of Labor was an organization that helped to join together many different types of people from all different walks of life; for example Catholic and Protestant Irish-born workers. The KOL was appealing to them because they worked very closely with the Irish Land League.[12] The Knights of Labor had a mixed history of inclusiveness and exclusiveness, accepting women and blacks (after 1878) and their employers as members, and advocating the admission of blacks into local assemblies, but tolerating the segregation of assemblies in the South. Bankers, doctors, lawyers, stockholders, and liquor manufacturers were excluded because they were considered unproductive members of society. Asians were also excluded, and in November 1885, a branch of the Knights in Tacoma, Washington worked to expel the city's Chinese, who amounted to nearly a tenth of the overall city population at the time. The Union Pacific Railroad came into conflict with the Knights. When the Knights in Wyoming refused to work more hours in 1885, the railroad hired Chinese workers. The result was the Rock Springs massacre, that killed scores of Chinese, and drove all the rest out of Wyoming.[13] About 50 African-American sugar-cane laborers organized by the Knights went on strike and were murdered by strikebreaking thugs in the 1887 Thibodaux massacre in Louisiana. The Knights strongly supported the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and the Contract Labor Law of 1885, as did many other labor groups. But they were not against immigration, the Knights of Labor wanted more regulations, not restrictions.[14]

text: Decline[edit]

text: The Knights of Labor attracted many Catholics, who were a large part of the membership, perhaps a majority. Powderly was also a Catholic. However, the Knights's use of secrecy, similar to the Masons, during its early years concerned many bishops of the church. The Knights used secrecy and deception to help prevent employers from firing members. After the Archbishop of Quebec condemned the Knights in 1884, twelve American archbishops voted 10 to 2 against doing likewise in the United States. Furthermore, Cardinals James Gibbons and John Ireland defended the Knights. Gibbons went to the Vatican to talk to the hierarchy.[15] In 1886, right after the peak of the Knights of Labor, they started to lose more members to the American Federation of Labor. It has been believed that the fall of the Knights of Labor was due to their lack of adaptability and beliefs in the old-style industrial capitalism.[16]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: Though often overlooked, the Knights of Labor contributed to the tradition of labor protest songs in America. The Knights frequently included music in their regular meetings, and encouraged local members to write and perform their work. In Chicago, James and Emily Talmadge, printers and supporters of the Knights of Labor, published the songbook "Labor Songs Dedicated to the Knights of Labor" (1885). The song "Hold the Fort" [also "Storm the Fort"], a Knights of Labor pro-labor revision of the hymn by the same name, became the most popular labor song prior to Ralph Chaplin's IWW (Industrial Workers of the World) anthem "Solidarity Forever". Pete Seeger often performed this song and it appears on a number of his recordings. Songwriter and labor singer Bucky Halker includes the Talmadge version, entitled "Labor's Battle Song," on his CD Don't Want Your Millions (Revolting Records 2000). Halker also draws heavily on the Knights songs and poems in his book on labor song and poetry, For Democracy, Workers and God: Labor Song-Poems and Labor Protest, 1865-1895 (University of Illinois Press, 1991).

text: Footnotes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ "Knights of Labor Facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Knights of Labor". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2015-12-14.
^ Jump up to: a b Kaufman, Jason (2001). "Rise and Fall of a Nation of Joiners". The Knights of Labor Revisited. 31 (4): 553–579.
Jump up ^ Kemmerer and Wickersham, (1950)
Jump up ^ Ware, (1929) pp 23- 37
Jump up ^ Kazin, Michael (1995). The Populist Persuasion. New York: Cornell University Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-8014-8558-9.
Jump up ^ Keene, Jennifer; Saul, Cornell; O'Donnell, Edward (2012). "Visions of America". Power in the Numbers:Organized Labor. 2: 490–495.
Jump up ^ Hild, Matthew (2007). Greenbackers Knights of Labor & Populists. University of Georgia. p. 80.
Jump up ^ Phelan, Craig (2000). Grand Master Workman Terence Powderly and the Knights of Labor. Greenwood Press Westpor. p. 61.
Jump up ^ Robert E. Weir, Beyond labor's veil: the culture of the Knights of Labor (1996) p 94
Jump up ^ Whitman, American Reformers, 57.
Jump up ^ Weir, Robert E. (October 1997). "A Fragile Alliance: Henry George and the Knights of Labor". The American Journal of Economics and Sociology. 56 (4).  |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Hallgrimsdottir, Helga; Benoit, Cecilia (2007). "From Wage Slaves to Wage Workers". Cultural Opportunity Structures and the Evolution of the Wage Demands of the Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor, 1880-1900. 85 (3): 1393–1411.
Jump up ^ Craig Storti, Incident at Bitter Creek: The Story of the Rock Springs Chinese Massacre (1990),
Jump up ^ Parfitt, Steven. Knights Across the Atlantic: The Knights of Labor in Britain and Ireland. Liverpool University Press. p. 43.
Jump up ^ James Hennesey, American Catholics, Oxford University Press, 1981, page 188.
Jump up ^ Wheeler, Hoyt (2002). The Future of the American Labor Movement. Cambridge University Press. p. 85.

text: Grand Master Workmen[edit]

text:
Uriah Smith Stephens (1869–1879)
Terence V. Powderly (1879–1893)
James Sovereign (1893–1901)
John Hayes (1901–1917)


document_title: Template:Largest Metropolitan Areas of Canada

question_text: the two largest metropolitan areas in canada are toronto and

root

text:
Largest census metropolitan areas in Canada by population (2016 Census) viewtalkedit

CMA

Province

Population

CMA

Province

Population

Toronto
Ontario
5,928,040

London
Ontario
494,069

Montreal
Quebec
4,098,927

St. Catharines–Niagara
Ontario
406,074

Vancouver
British Columbia
2,463,431

Halifax
Nova Scotia
403,390

Calgary
Alberta
1,392,609

Oshawa
Ontario
379,848

Ottawa–Gatineau
Ontario–Quebec
1,323,783

Victoria
British Columbia
367,770

Edmonton
Alberta
1,321,426

Windsor
Ontario
329,144

Quebec
Quebec
800,296

Saskatoon
Saskatchewan
295,095

Winnipeg
Manitoba
778,489

Regina
Saskatchewan
236,481

Hamilton
Ontario
747,545

Sherbrooke
Quebec
212,105

Kitchener–Cambridge–Waterloo
Ontario
523,894

St. John's
Newfoundland and Labrador
205,955

tag: table


document_title: Arguin

question_text: the island of arguim was used by the portuguese as a

text: Arguin

text: Arguin (Portuguese: Arguim) is an island off the western coast of Mauritania in the Bay of Arguin. It is approximately 6x2 km in size, with extensive and dangerous reefs around it.[1] The island is now part of the Banc d'Arguin National Park.[2]

tag: p

text: History[edit]

text: The island changed hands frequently during the colonial era. The first European to visit the island was the Portuguese explorer Nuno Tristão, in 1443.[3] In 1445, Prince Henry the Navigator set up a trading post on the island, which acquired gum arabic and slaves for Portugal. By 1455, 800 slaves were shipped from Arguin to Portugal every year.[4]

text: In 1633, during its war against Spain (which then controlled Portugal), the Netherlands seized control of Arguin. It remained under Dutch rule until 1678, with a brief interruption by English rule in 1665. France took over the island in September 1678, but it was then abandoned until 1685.[5] Arguin's aridity and its lack of a good anchorage made long-term European settlement difficult.[1]

text: In 1685 Captain Reers of the frigate Rother Löwe occupied the old Portuguese fort on the island. He successfully concluded a treaty with the native king in which Brandenburg was accepted as a protecting power. The treaty was ratified in 1687 and was renewed in 1698.[6] Arguin remained a colony of Brandenburg until 1721 when the French successfully assaulted the fort and then took control of the island. The Dutch took the fort and island from the French the following year only to lose it again in 1724 to the French. This period of French rule lasted four years; in 1728, it reverted to the control of indigenous peoples.[5]  The island was included in the territory of the French colony of Mauritania, and it remained under Mauritanian rule when that country became independent in 1960.[2]

text: In July 1816, the French frigate Méduse, bound for Senegal, was wrecked off Arguin and 350 lives were lost.[1]

text: Sources[edit]

text:
^ Jump up to: a b c  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Arguin". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 482.

^ Jump up to: a b Le Parc National du Banc d'Arguin

Jump up ^ Huish, John. "Travels of Richard and John Lander into the interior of Africa".

Jump up ^ Slave Routes - Europe Portugal Archived November 10, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.

^ Jump up to: a b Cahoon, Ben. "Mauritania". www.worldstatesmen.org.

Jump up ^ van der Heyden, Ulrich (1993). Rote Adler an Afrikas Küste: Die brandenburgisch-preußische Kolonie Großfriedrichsburg in Westafrika (second ed.). Berlin: Selignow. ISBN 3-933889-04-9.

tag: ol

text:
showvtePortuguese overseas empireshowNorth Africa

15th century

 1415–1640 Ceuta 1458–1550 Alcácer Ceguer (El Qsar es Seghir) 1471–1550 Arzila (Asilah) 1471–1662 Tangier 1485–1550 Mazagan (El Jadida) 1487–16th century Ouadane 1488–1541 Safim (Safi) 1489 Graciosa

16th century

 1505–1541 Santa Cruz do Cabo de Gué (Agadir) 1506–1525 Mogador (Essaouira) 1506–1525 Aguz (Souira Guedima) 1506–1769 Mazagan (El Jadida) 1513–1541 Azamor (Azemmour) 1515–1541 São João da Mamora (Mehdya) 1577–1589 Arzila (Asilah)

showSub-Saharan Africa

15th century

 1455–1633 Anguim 1462–1975 Cape Verde 1470–1975 São Tomé1 1471–1975 Príncipe1 1474–1778 Annobón 1478–1778 Fernando Poo (Bioko) 1482–1637 Elmina (São Jorge da Mina) 1482–1642 Portuguese Gold Coast 1508–15472 Madagascar3 1498–1540 Mascarene Islands

16th century

 1500–1630 Malindi 1501–1975 Portuguese Mozambique 1502–1659 Saint Helena 1503–1698 Zanzibar 1505–1512 Quíloa (Kilwa) 1506–1511 Socotra 1557–1578 Accra 1575–1975 Portuguese Angola 1588–1974 Cacheu4 1593–1698 Mombassa (Mombasa)

17th century

 1645–1888 Ziguinchor 1680–1961 São João Baptista de Ajudá 1687–1974 Bissau4
18th century

 1728–1729 Mombassa (Mombasa) 1753–1975 Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe
19th century

 1879–1974 Portuguese Guinea 1885–1974 Portuguese Congo5

1 Part of São Tomé and Príncipe from 1753.2 Or 1600.3 A factory (Anosy Region) and small temporary coastal bases.4 Part of Portuguese Guinea from 1879.5 Part of Portuguese Angola from the 1920s.showMiddle East [Persian Gulf]

16th century

 1506–1615 Gamru (Bandar Abbas) 1507–1643 Sohar 1515–1622 Hormuz (Ormus) 1515–1648 Quriyat 1515–? Qalhat 1515–1650 Muscat 1515?–? Barka 1515–1633? Julfar (Ras al-Khaimah) 1521–1602 Bahrain (Muharraq • Manama) 1521–1529? Qatif 1521?–1551? Tarut Island 1550–1551 Qatif 1588–1648 Matrah

17th century

 1620–? Khor Fakkan 1621?–? As Sib 1621–1622 Qeshm 1623–? Khasab 1623–? Libedia 1624–? Kalba 1624–? Madha 1624–1648 Dibba Al-Hisn 1624?–? Bandar-e Kong

showIndian subcontinent

15th century

 1498–1545 Laccadive Islands(Lakshadweep)
16th century
Portuguese India

  • 1500–1663 Cochim (Kochi)  • 1501–1663 Cannanore (Kannur)  • 1502–1658 1659–1661 Quilon(Coulão / Kollam)  • 1502–1661 Pallipuram (Cochin de Cima)  • 1507–1657 Negapatam (Nagapatnam)  • 1510–1961 Goa  • 1512–1525 1750 Calicut(Kozhikode)  • 1518–1619 Portuguese Paliacate outpost (Pulicat)  • 1521–1740 Chaul

   (Portuguese India)  • 1523–1662 Mylapore  • 1528–1666 Chittagong(Porto Grande De Bengala)  • 1531–1571 Chaul  • 1531–1571 Chalé  • 1534–1601 Salsette Island  • 1534–1661 Bombay (Mumbai)  • 1535 Ponnani  • 1535–1739 Baçaím (Vasai-Virar)  • 1536–1662 Cranganore (Kodungallur)  • 1540–1612 Surat  • 1548–1658 Tuticorin (Thoothukudi)  • 1559–1961 Daman and Diu  • 1568–1659 Mangalore

   (Portuguese India)  • 1579–1632Hugli  • 1598–1610Masulipatnam (Machilipatnam)
 1518–1521 Maldives 1518–1658 Portuguese Ceylon (Sri Lanka) 1558–1573 Maldives
17th century
Portuguese India

  • 1687–1749 Mylapore
18th century
Portuguese India

  • 1779–1954 Dadra and Nagar Haveli

showEast Asia and Oceania

16th century

 1511–1641 Portuguese Malacca [Malaysia] 1512–1621 Maluku [Indonesia]  • 1522–1575  Ternate  • 1576–1605  Ambon  • 1578–1650  Tidore 1512–1665 Makassar 1557–1999 Macau [China] 1580–1586 Nagasaki [Japan]
17th century

 1642–1975 Portuguese Timor (East Timor)1

19th century
Portuguese Macau

  • 1864–1999 Coloane  • 1851–1999 Taipa  • 1890–1999 Ilha Verde
20th century
Portuguese Macau

  • 1938–1941 Lapa and Montanha (Hengqin)

1 1975 is the year of East Timor's Declaration of Independence and subsequent invasion by Indonesia. In 2002, East Timor's independence was fully recognized.showNorth America & North Atlantic

15th century [Atlantic islands]

 1420 Madeira 1432 Azores

16th century [Canada]

 1500–1579? Terra Nova (Newfoundland) 1500–1579? Labrador 1516–1579? Nova Scotia

showSouth America & Antilles

16th century

 1500–1822 Brazil  • 1534–1549  Captaincy Colonies of Brazil  • 1549–1572  Brazil  • 1572–1578  Bahia  • 1572–1578  Rio de Janeiro  • 1578–1607  Brazil  • 1621–1815  Brazil 1536–1620 Barbados

17th century

 1621–1751 Maranhão 1680–1777 Nova Colónia do Sacramento
18th century

 1751–1772 Grão-Pará and Maranhão 1772–1775 Grão-Pará and Rio Negro 1772–1775 Maranhão and Piauí

19th century

 1808–1822 Cisplatina (Uruguay) 1809–1817 Portuguese Guiana (Amapá) 1822 Upper Peru (Bolivia)

Coats of arms of Portuguese colonies
Evolution of the Portuguese Empire
Portuguese colonial architecture
Portuguese colonialism in Indonesia
Portuguese colonization of the Americas
Theory of the Portuguese discovery of Australia

text:
showvteTerritories and provinces of Prussia (1525–1947)Before 1701
Duchy of Prussia
Margraviate of Brandenburg
Cleves / Mark / Ravensberg (1614)
Farther Pomerania / Minden / Halberstadt (1648)
Lauenburg–Bütow / Draheim (1657)
Magdeburg (1680)
Colonies
Gold Coast
Arguin
St. Thomas
After 1701
Neuchâtel (1707)
Guelders (1713)
Minden-Ravensberg (1719)
Western Pomerania (1720 / 1815)
Silesia / Glatz (1742)
East Frisia (1744)
East / West Prussia (1772–73)
South Prussia (1793)
New East Prussia / New Silesia (1795)
Post-Congress ofVienna (1814–15)
Brandenburg
Principality of Neuchâtel (1814–1848)
Pomerania
Grand Duchy of Posen1
Saxony
Silesia
Westphalia
Rhine Province2 (1822)
Province of Prussia (1824–1878)
Hohenzollern (1850)
Schleswig-Holstein / Hanover / Hesse-Nassau (1866–68)
Territorial reformsafter 1918
Lower / Upper Silesia (1919)
Greater Berlin (1920)
Posen-West Prussia (1922)
Halle-Merseburg / Magdeburg / Kurhessen / Nassau (1944)
1 Became Province of Posen in 1848.   2 From the Lower Rhine and Jülich-Cleves-Berg.

text:
showvteDutch EmpireshowColonies and trading posts of the Dutch East India Company (1602–1798)Governorate General
Batavia
Governorates
Ambon
Banda Islands
Cape Colony
Celebes
Ceylon
Coromandel
Formosa
Malacca
Moluccas
Northeast coast of Java
Directorates
Bengal
Persia
Suratte
Commandments
Bantam
Malabar
West coast of Sumatra
Residencies
Bantam
Banjarmasin
Batavia
Cheribon
Palembang
Preanger
Pontianak
Opperhoofd settlements
Myanmar
Canton
Dejima
Mauritius
Siam
Timor
Tonkin
hideColonies and trading posts of the Dutch West India Company (1621–1792)Colonies in the Americas
Berbice 1
Brazil
Cayenne
Curaçao and Dependencies
Demerara
Essequibo
New Netherland
Pomeroon
Sint Eustatius and Dependencies
Surinam 2
Tobago
Virgin Islands
Trading posts in Africa
Arguin
Gold Coast
Loango-Angola
Senegambia
Slave Coast

1 Governed by the Society of Berbice
2 Governed by the Society of Suriname
showSettlements of the Noordsche Compagnie (1614–1642)Settlements
Jan Mayen
Smeerenburg
showColonies of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815–1962)Until 1825
Bengal
Coromandel
Malacca
Suratte
Until 1853
Dejima
Until 1872
Gold Coast
Until 1945
Dutch East Indies
Until 1954
Curaçao and Dependencies 3
Surinam 3
Until 1962
New Guinea

3 Became constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands; Suriname gained full independence in 1975, Curaçao and Dependencies was renamed to the Netherlands Antilles, which was eventually dissolved in 2010.
showKingdom of the Netherlands (1954–present)Constituent countries
Aruba
Curaçao
Netherlands
Sint Maarten
Public bodies of the Netherlands
Bonaire
Saba
Sint Eustatius

text:
showvteFrench overseas empireFormershowvteFormer French colonies in Africa and the Indian OceanFrench North Africa
Algeria
Morocco
Tunisia
French West Africa
Côte d'Ivoire
Dahomey
French Sudan
Guinea
Mauritania
Arguin Island
Niger
Senegal
Upper Volta

French Togoland
James Island
Albreda
French Equatorial Africa
Chad
Gabon
Middle Congo
Ubangi-Shari
French Cameroons
French Comoros
Anjouan
Grande Comore
Mohéli

French Somaliland (Djibouti)
Madagascar
Isle de France
showvteFormer French colonies in the AmericasNew France
Acadia
Louisiana
Canada
Terre Neuve
French Caribbean
Dominica
Grenada
The Grenadines
Saint-Domingue
Haïti, Dominican Republic
Saint Kitts & Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent
Tobago
Virgin Islands
Equinoctial France
Berbice
France Antarctique
Inini

French colonization of the Americas
French West India Company
showvteFormer French colonies in Asia and OceaniaFrench India
Chandernagor
Coromandel Coast
Madras
Mahé
Pondichéry
Karaikal
Yanaon
Indochinese Union
Cambodia
Laos
Vietnam
Cochinchina
Annam
Tonkin
Kouang-Tchéou-Wan, China
French Mandate for Syriaand the Lebanon
State of Syria
Aleppo
Damascus
Alawite State
Greater Lebanon
Jabal al-Druze
Sanjak of Alexandretta
Oceania
New Hebrides
Vanuatu
Port Louis-Philippe (Akaroa)

France–Asia relations
French East India Company
PresentshowvteOverseas FranceshowInhabited areasOverseas departments1
French Guiana
Guadeloupe
Martinique
Mayotte2
Réunion
Overseas collectivities
French Polynesia
St. Barthélemy
St. Martin
St. Pierre and Miquelon
Wallis and Futuna
Sui generis collectivity
New Caledonia
showUninhabited areasPacific Ocean
Clipperton Island
Overseas territory (French  Southern and Antarctic Lands)
Île Amsterdam
Île Saint-Paul
Crozet Islands
Kerguelen Islands
Adélie Land
Scattered islands in  the Indian Ocean
Bassas da India3
Europa Island3
Glorioso Islands2, 3
Juan de Nova Island3
Tromelin Island4

1 Also known as overseas regions
2 Claimed by Comoros
3 Claimed by Madagascar
4 Claimed by Mauritius

text: Coordinates: 20°36′N 16°27′W / 20.600°N 16.450°W / 20.600; -16.450

text: Islands of MauritaniaFormer Portuguese coloniesFormer Dutch coloniesFormer German colonies1445 establishments in the Portuguese Empire1633 disestablishments in the Portuguese Empire1633 establishments in the Dutch Empire1678 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire1678 establishments in the French colonial empire1685 disestablishments in the French colonial empire1721 establishments in the French colonial empire1722 disestablishments in the French colonial empire1722 establishments in the Dutch Empire1724 disestablishments in the Dutch Empire1724 establishments in the French colonial empire1728 disestablishments in the French colonial empire1728 establishments in Africa

tag: ul

text: Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource referenceWebarchive template wayback linksArticles containing Portuguese-language textCoordinates on Wikidata


document_title: Spanish Golden Age theatre

question_text: spanish golden age playwright who is said to have written 1 500 plays

text: Spanish Golden Age theatre

text: Overview[edit]

text: Theatre was an accessible art form for all participants in Renaissance Spain, being both highly sponsored by the aristocratic class and highly attended by the lower classes.[3] The volume and variety of Spanish plays during the Golden Age was unprecedented in the history of world theatre, surpassing even the dramatic production of the English Renaissance by a factor of at least four.[1][3][4] This volume has been as much a source of criticism as praise for Spanish Golden Age theatre, for emphasizing quantity before quality.[5] A large number of the plays of this period (10,000 to 30,000)[3][5] are still considered masterpieces today.[6][7] This prolific production greatly contributed to the accessibility of theatre in Spain.[3] For modern theatre historians, however, it has contributed to the difficulty of researching theatre from this period. The vast majority of plays have remained virtually untouched, in terms of both production and scholarly analysis, since the seventeenth century. Combined with the error prone printing techniques that plagued the publication of Spanish plays, this has vastly undercut the study of Spanish Golden Age theatre.[3] Although a thorough inclusive analysis remains difficult or even impossible, Spanish Golden Age theatre represents an area of active and productive research for theatre historians.[1][3]

text: Genres[edit]

text: Noted for its variety, the theatre of Renaissance Spain was the only in Europe to simultaneously include secular and religious dramas.[4] Additionally, state sponsored drama existed harmoniously alongside popular for-profit theatre,[8] with many theatre artists contributing significantly to both. Stylistically, plays ranged from straight plays to operas and from bawdy comedies to epic tragedies.[9] Spain also introduced its own forms and genres of theatre with the development of the Comedia nueva[10] and the zarzuela.[11]

text: Religious drama[edit]

text:
Autos sacramentales celebrated the mystery of the Eucharist by mixing the human, supernatural, and allegorical.[2][12]
They were performed in two or four carros (two-story wagons) in parades around Madrid and other cities as part of the Corpus Christi processions.[2][12]
They were produced by trade guilds until the mid-sixteenth century when municipal authorities produced them at great expense.[2]
Starting in the 1550s they were performed by professional acting troupes and mixed civic and religious authority.[2]
A special introductory prologue called a Loa sometimes preceded Autos Sacramentales. Each Loa was specific to the play it was performed with and to the audience it was performed for,[2] and were designed to get the audience interested in the play they were about to see. The word Loa means to compliment and garner good will.[12]

text: Public theatre[edit]

text:
Professional public theatre was established in Spain's major cities during the 1570s. The Corral de la Cruz, built in 1579, was Madrid's first permanent theatre.[2][13]
Corrales de comedias originated from courtyard performances, and were constructed within rectangular courtyards enclosed by buildings on three sides. The stage was raised with a permanent backdrop, and a patio for standing spectators was placed in the upper levels.[2][13]
Alojerias were refreshment booths and above them were galleries for more spectators: cazuelas (reserved for women), and aposentos (box seats). Audiences were often lively and unruly.[2][13]
Corrales were originally licensed to charitable organizations, which used performance to support hospitals and aid the poor.[2]

text: Theatre at court[edit]

text:
Court performances emerged during the seventeenth century during Philip III's reign (1598–1621) at Alcazar, the royal palace.[2][8]
In 1633 Buen Retiro—a new palace on the outskirts of Madrid—became the center for court entertainment; in 1640 by Italian set designers supervised the establishment of the Coliseo, a permanent outdoor theatre.[2]
Cosimo Lotti (1571–1643) engineered a special stage above lake waters with a silver chariot drawn across the surface by two large fish, and a mountain was transformed into a palace in Calderon's Love, the Greatest Enchantment (1635).[2][8]

text: Themes[edit]

text: Honor is a major theme in Spanish Golden Age drama.[6] Theatre was used as a metaphor for life, and honor was therefore represented in a number of ways on stage, for example, reputation, and juxtaposed against disillusionment and hypocrisy. Right versus wrong is a common theme in plays from this period and Lope de Vega himself believed that everyone reacts to honor.[14] Honorable (Christian) conduct is enforced by the public and to lose your honor is to live in shame and despair. A large number of plots focus on the fear of lost reputation and on masculine honor based on women's chastity. While women seem to control their men's honor, gender roles are only very conservatively challenged. While poverty is everywhere, the plays are filled with picturesque scenes, glorious churches, and courts.[15] Still, the playwrights of the time throw a bit of cynicism in their work. The stock character of the gracioso (disillusioned clown) survives the stories without even wondering about right and wrong.

text: Playwrights[edit]

text:
Lope de Vega (November 25, 1562 – August 27, 1635) One of the key figures in the Spanish Golden Century of Baroque literature. His reputation in the world of Spanish literature is second only to that of Cervantes, while the sheer volume of his literary output (between 800 and 1800 plays) is unequalled, making him one of the most prolific authors in the history of literature. His most notable play is Fuenteovejuna (1613).[16][17]
Calderón de la Barca (January 17, 1600 – May 25, 1681) During certain periods of his life he was also a soldier and a Roman Catholic priest. Born when the theatre was being defined by Lope de Vega, he developed it further, his work being regarded as the culmination of the Spanish Baroque theatre. As such, he is regarded as one of Spain's foremost dramatists and one of the finest playwrights of world literature.[18] One of his most notable plays is Life is a Dream (1629–1635). He also wrote about 80 Autos Sacramentales.
Lope de Rueda (1510–1565) A very versatile writer, he wrote dramas, comedies, farces, and pasos. He was the precursor to what is considered the golden age of Spanish literature. His predecessors wrote mostly for court, but he was able to use his abundance of riotous humour, great knowledge of low life, and a most happy gift of dialogue to create a taste for drama. His works were issued posthumously in 1567 by Timoneda and include Eufemia, Med Ora, Arinelina, and Los Engañados.[19]
Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz (November 12, 1651 – April 17, 1695) An important female Mexican self-taught playwright, poet, and nun. While she lived in colonial era Mexico during the time when it was ruled by Spain, she is considered both a Mexican and Spanish Golden Age dramatist.[2] One of her notable works include Loa to the Divine Narcissus. She is also pictured on the 200 pesos bill issued by the Banco de Mexico.[20]
Juan del Encina (July 12, 1468 – late 1529 or early 1530) Often called the Founder of Spanish Drama.[21] One of his notable works is Cancionero (1496), a collection of lyrical and dramatic poems.[22]
Gil Vicente (1465–1536) Called the Trobadour, he was a Portuguese playwright and poet who acted in and directed his own plays. He worked in Portuguese as much as he worked in Spanish and is thus, with Juan del Encina, considered joint-father of Spanish drama.[23]
Tirso de Molina (March 24, 1579 – March 12, 1648) A Baroque dramatist, poet, and Roman Catholic monk. During his lifetime he wrote around four hundred plays, of which only eighty still exist. One of his most famous plays is El Burlador de Sevilla y convidado de piedra (The Trickster of Seville and the Stone Guest), the piece in which Don Juan is first presented on the stage.[24]
Francisco de Rojas Zorrilla (October 4, 1607 – January 23, 1648) Many of his works were adapted outside of Spain. His main pieces are Del rey abajo ninguno and No hay padre siendo rey, both published in the 1640s.[25]

text: Actors and companies[edit]

text: After 1603 only licensed companies could work in Spain, and licenses were limited in availability. Unemployed actors joined the compañías de la legua (“companies of the road”) and performed in the countryside. Companies could not perform in one place for more than two months annually, and only one company was permitted to perform at that location.[2] In 1615, Madrid assumed control and hired companies made up of actor-managers (autores), actors, and apprentices, subject to government rules.[2] These companies were licensed by the Royal Council and highly paid to perform Autos Sacramentales both in court and at public theatres. Actors generally worked for managers under a 1 to 2-year contract[8] and a typical schedule had actors study their role from 2am to 9am, rehearse until noon, take a break to eat, then perform until 7pm. While women were licensed to perform starting in 1587, this practice remained controversial until 1599, when a royal decree stipulated that only women married to company members could perform.[2] Important performers included Lope de Rueda and later Juan Rana.[26][27]

text: Costumes[edit]

text: Costumes during this time were very similar to Elizabethan or English Renaissance theatre costumes. Actors dressed as lavishly as finances permitted and contracts even had special allowances for costumes. Records show that actors paid anywhere from 1/5 to 1/2 of their salary for one costume and some even petitioned civic officials for extra funds for costumes. Towns gave awards for acting and costumes, showing that the quality of the costumes was quite important to the audience.[28] The government made many rules dictating the specifications of costumes. For example, actors performing in Auto Sacramentales had to wear silk or velvet and women were forbidden to wear strange headdresses, décolleté necklines, or wide-hooped or non-floor length skirts. As well, actors were only allowed to wear one costume per play, unless it was specifically stated in the text.[2]

text: Design elements[edit]

text: Three kinds of scenic background were utilized: the facade; the curtains concealing the facade, which were used when the location was not particularly important; and medieval-type mansions, which were sometimes erected on the main stage. As spectacle increased after 1650, painted flats with doors and windows were set into the facade in place of curtains. After a period of time, awnings were rigged over the seating, and, eventually, the addition of a permanent roof made it an indoor theatre.[12] In the 1640s and 1650s set designs of new public and court theatres were supervised by Italian designers.[2] Machines that simulated wind and the sounds of thunder (created with metal sheets or dropping planks of wood), rain (similar to a large rainstick, and a swelling ocean were quite common and delighted theatregoers of this time. Musicians were also commonly used to create moods and important sound effects.[29]

text: Significance[edit]

text: Unlike the rest of Europe, Spain had unique theatre traditions. Religious plays continued to be produced and popular into the 1700s, religious and secular theatre thrived side by side,[9] and actors were accepted in church and as worthwhile members of society. As well, Spain pioneered a three-act model for plays instead of the classic five acts,[6] allowed women on stage,[2] and had an organized and efficient system of actor contracts, travel stipends, licenses, and booking. Most importantly, Spanish Golden Age theatre produced wonderful politically and philosophically allegorical plays such as Calderon's Life is a Dream, and Lope de Vega's Fuente Ovejuna, that spoke specifically to the audience of the time.[30]

text: The sources of influence for the emerging national theatre of Spain were as diverse as the theatre that nation produced during the Golden Age. Storytelling traditions originating in Italian Commedia dell'arte[15] and the uniquely Spanish expression of Western Europe's traveling minstrel entertainments[31][32] contributed a populist influence on the narratives and the music, respectively, of early Spanish theatre. Neo-Aristotelian criticism and liturgical dramas, on the other hand, contributed literary and moralistic perspectives.[9][33] In turn, Spanish Golden Age theatre has dramatically influenced the theatre of later generations in Europe and throughout the world. Spanish drama had an immediate and significant impact on the contemporary developments in English Renaissance theatre.[6] It has also had a lasting impact on theatre throughout the Spanish speaking world.[34] Currently, a growing number of works are being translated, increasing the reach of Spanish Golden Age theatre and strengthening its reputation among critics and theatre patrons.[30]


document_title: The Song of Roland

question_text: who was roland in the song of roland

question_tokens: who was roland in the song of roland

text: The Song of Roland

text: Manuscripts and dating[edit]

text: Set in the Carolingian era, it was written much later. There is a single extant manuscript of the Song of Roland in Old French, held at the Bodleian Library at Oxford[2]. This copy dates between 1129 and 1165 and was written in Anglo-Norman.[3] There are also eight further manuscripts, and three fragments, of other poems on the subject of Roland.[4]

text: Some scholars estimate that the poem was written, possibly by a poet named Turold (Turoldus in the manuscript itself), between approximately 1040 and 1115, and most of the alterations were performed by about 1098. Some favor an earlier dating, because it allows one to say that the poem was inspired by the Castilian campaigns of the 1030s, and that the poem went on to be a major influence in the First Crusade. Those who prefer a later dating do so on grounds of what they interpret as brief references made in the poem to events of the First Crusade.

text: In the poem, the term d'oltre mer or l'oltremarin comes up three times in reference to named Muslims who came from oltre mer to fight in Spain and France. Oltre mer, modern French Outremer, literally "oversea, beyond sea, other side of the sea", is a native French term from the classical Latin roots ultra = "beyond" and mare = "sea". The name was commonly used by the Crusaders to refer to Palestine.[citation needed]

text: The occurrence of this term in the poem cannot be interpreted as showing influence from the Crusades in the poem; on the contrary, the way it is used in the poem, in which it is simply a Muslim land, indicates that the author of the poem was unacquainted with the Crusades, and that the term was in French before the Crusades began meaning the far side of the Mediterranean Sea. The bulk of the poem is adjudged to date from before the Crusades (which started in 1098), but there are a few items where questions remain about these items being late additions shortly after the Crusades started.

text: After two manuscripts were found in 1832 and 1835, the Song of Roland became recognized as France's national epic when an edition was published in 1837.[5]

text: AOI[edit]

text: Certain lines of the Oxford manuscript end with the letters "AOI". The meaning of this word or annotation is unclear. Scholars have hypothesized that the marking may have played a role in public performances of the text, such as indicating a place where a jongleur would change the tempo.[6]

text: Critical opinions[edit]

text: Oral performance of the Song compared to manuscript versions[edit]

text: Scholarly consensus has long accepted that the Song of Roland differed in its presentation depending on oral or textual transmission; namely, although a number of different versions of the song containing varying material and episodes would have been performed orally, the transmission to manuscript resulted in greater cohesiveness across versions.

text: Early editors of the Song of Roland, informed in part by patriotic desires to produce a distinctly French epic, could thus overstate the textual cohesiveness of the Roland tradition. This point is clearly expressed by Andrew Taylor, who notes,[7] "[T]he Roland song was, if not invented, at the very least constructed. By supplying it with an appropriate epic title, isolating it from its original codicological context, and providing a general history of minstrel performance in which its pure origin could be located, the early editors presented a 4,002 line poem as sung French epic".

text: Plot[edit]

text: Charlemagne's army is fighting the Muslims in Spain. They have been there for seven years, and the last city standing is Saragossa, held by the Muslim King Marsile. Threatened by the might of Charlemagne's army of Franks, Marsile seeks advice from his wise man, Blancandrin, who councils him to conciliate the Emperor, offering to surrender and giving hostages. Accordingly, Marsile sends out messengers to Charlemagne, promising treasure and Marsile's conversion to Christianity if the Franks will go back to France.

text: Charlemagne and his men, tired of fighting, accept his peace offer and select a messenger to Marsile's court. The protagonist Roland, Charlemagne's nephew, nominates his stepfather Ganelon as messenger. Ganelon, who fears to be murdered by the enemy and accuses Roland of intending this, takes revenge by informing the Saracens of a way to ambush the rear guard of Charlemagne's army, led by Roland, as the Franks re-enter France through the mountain passes.

text: As Ganelon predicted, Roland leads the rear guard, with the wise and moderate Oliver and the fierce Archbishop Turpin. The Muslims ambush them at Roncesvalles and the Christians are overwhelmed. Oliver pleads with Roland to blow his horn to call for help, but Roland tells him that blowing his horn in the middle of the battle would be an act of cowardice. If Roland continues to refuse, Oliver will not let Roland see his sister again whom Roland loves the most. However, Archbishop Turpin intervenes and tells them that the battle will be fatal for all of them and so instructs Roland to blow his horn oliphant (the word is an old alternative to "elephant", and was used to refer to a hunting horn made from an elephant tusk) to call for help from the Frankish army. The emperor hears the call on their way to France. Charlemagne and his noblemen gallop back even though Count Ganelon tries to trick them.

text: The Franks fight well, but are outnumbered, until almost all Roland's men are dead and he knows that Charlemagne's army can no longer save them. Despite this, he blows his olifant to summon revenge, until his temples burst and he dies a martyr's death. Angels take his soul to Paradise.

text: When Charlemagne and his men reach the battlefield, they find the dead bodies of Roland's men, who have been utterly annihilated. They pursue the Muslims into the river Ebro, where the Muslims drown. Meanwhile, Baligant, the powerful emir of Babylon, has arrived in Spain to help Marsile. His army encounters that of Charlemagne at Roncesvalles, where the Christians are burying and mourning their dead. Both sides fight valiantly. When Charlemagne kills Baligant, the Muslim army scatters and flees, leaving the Franks to conquer Saragossa. With Marsile's wife Bramimonde, Queen of Saragossa, Charlemagne and his men ride back to Aix, their capital in France.

text: The Franks discover Ganelon's betrayal and keep him in chains until his trial, where Ganelon argues that his action was legitimate revenge, not treason. While the council of barons assembled to decide the traitor's fate is initially swayed by this claim, one man, Thierry, argues that because Roland was serving Charlemagne when Ganelon delivered his revenge on him, Ganelon's action constitutes a betrayal.

text: Ganelon's friend Pinabel challenges Thierry to trial by combat. By divine intervention, Thierry kills Pinabel. By this the Franks are convinced of Ganelon's treason. Thus, he is torn apart by having four galloping horses tied one to each arm and leg and thirty of his relatives are hanged.

text: Form[edit]

text: The poem is written in stanzas of irregular length known as laisses. The lines are decasyllabic (containing ten syllables), and each is divided by a strong caesura which generally falls after the fourth syllable. The last stressed syllable of each line in a laisse has the same vowel sound as every other end-syllable in that laisse. The laisse is therefore an assonal, not a rhyming stanza.

text: On a narrative level, the Song of Roland features extensive use of repetition, parallelism, and thesis-antithesis pairs. Roland proposes Ganelon for the dangerous mission to Sarrogossa; Ganelon designates Roland to man the rearguard. Charlemagne is contrasted with Baligant.[8] Unlike later Renaissance and Romantic literature, the poem focuses on action rather than introspection. The characters are presented through what they do, not through what they think or feel.

text: The narrator gives few explanations for characters' behavior. The warriors are stereotypes defined by a few salient traits; for example, Roland is loyal and trusting while Ganelon, though brave, is traitorous and vindictive.

text: The narrator is openly biased towards the Franks. His moral view is very black-and-white: the Franks are good, and the pagans are bad.

text: The story moves at a fast pace, occasionally slowing down and recounting the same scene up to three times but focusing on different details or taking a different perspective each time. The effect is similar to a film sequence shot at different angles so that new and more important details come to light with each shot.

text: Characters[edit]

text: Principal characters[edit]

text:
Andriodos, helpless boy; despite the honor came from King Charlemagne.
Baligant, emir of Babylon; Marsile enlists his help against Charlemagne.
Blancandrin, wise pagan; suggests bribing Charlemagne out of Spain with hostages and gifts, and then suggests dishonouring a promise to allow Marsile's baptism
Bassalt, came from the name of rocks that are solid and may occur in the second phrase of the poem; captured the horse of the king.
Bramimonde, Queen of Saragossa, King Marsile's wife; captured and converted by Charlemagne after the city falls.
Charlemagne, Holy Roman Emperor; his forces fight the Saracens in Spain.
Ganelon, treacherous lord and Roland's stepfather who encourages Marsile to attack the French army.
King Marsile, Saracen king of Spain; Roland wounds him and he dies of his wound later.
Naimon, Charlemagne's trusted adviser.
Oliver, Roland's friend; mortally wounded by Margarice. He represents wisdom.
Roland, the hero of the Song; nephew of Charlemagne; leads the rear guard of the French forces; bursts his temples by blowing his olifant-horn, wounds from which he eventually dies facing the enemy's land.
Turpin, Archbishop of Rheims, represents the force of the Church.

text: Secondary characters[edit]

text:
Aude, the fiancée of Roland and Oliver's sister
Basan, French baron, murdered while serving as Ambassador of Marsile.
Bérengier, one of the twelve paladins killed by Marsile’s troops; kills Estramarin; killed by Grandoyne.
Besgun, chief cook of Charlemagne's army; guards Ganelon after Ganelon's treachery is discovered.
Geboin, guards the French dead; becomes leader of Charlemagne's 2nd column.
Godefroy, standard bearer of Charlemagne; brother of Thierry, Charlemagne’s defender against Pinabel.
Grandoyne, fighter on Marsile’s side; son of the Cappadocian King Capuel; kills Gerin, Gerier, Berenger, Guy St. Antoine, and Duke Astorge; killed by Roland.
Hamon, joint Commander of Charlemagne's Eighth Division.
Lorant, French commander of one of the first divisions against Baligant; killed by Baligant.
Milon, guards the French dead while Charlemagne pursues the Saracen forces.
Ogier, a Dane who leads the third column in Charlemagne's army against Baligant's forces.
Othon, guards the French dead while Charlemagne pursues the Saracen forces.
Pinabel, fights for Ganelon in the judicial combat.
Thierry, fights for Charlemagne in the judicial combat.

text: Durandal[edit]

text: According to the Song of Roland, the legendary sword called Durandal was first given to Charlemagne by an angel. It contained one tooth of Saint Peter, blood of Saint Basil, hair of Saint Denis, and a piece of the raiment of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and was supposedly the sharpest sword in all existence. In the story of the Song of Roland, the weapon is given to Roland, and he uses it to defend himself single-handedly against thousands of Muslim attackers. According to one 12th-century legend from the French town of Rocamadour, Roland threw the sword into a cliffside. You can still see a sword there, allegedly Durandal, embedded into the cliff-face.

text: Historical adaptations[edit]

text: A Latin poem, Carmen de Prodicione Guenonis, was composed around 1120, and a Latin prose version, Historia Caroli Magni (often known as "The Pseudo-Turpin") even earlier. Around 1170, a version of the French poem was translated into the Middle High German Rolandslied by Konrad der Pfaffe[8] (formerly thought to have been the author of the Kaiserchronik). In his translation Konrad replaces French topics with generically Christian ones. The work was translated into Middle Dutch in the 13th century.

text: It was also rendered into Occitan verse in the 14th- or 15th-century poem of Ronsasvals, which incorporates the later, southern aesthetic into the story. An Old Norse version of the Song of Roland exists as Karlamagnús saga, and a translation into the artificial literary language of Franco-Venetian is also known; such translations contributed to the awareness of the story in Italy. In 1516 Ludovico Ariosto published his epic Orlando Furioso, which deals largely with characters first described in the Song of Roland.

text: There is also Faroese adoption of this ballad named "Runtsivalstríðið" (Battle of Roncevaux).[9] The ballad is one of many sung during the Faroese folkdance tradition of chain dancing.

text: Modern adaptations[edit]

text: The Chanson de Roland has an important place in the background of Graham Greene's The Confidential Agent, published in 1939. The book's protagonist had been a Medieval scholar specialising in this work, until the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War forced him to become a soldier and secret agent. Throughout the book, he repeatedly compares himself and other characters with the characters of "Roland". Particularly, the book includes a full two pages of specific commentary, which is relevant to its 20th-century plot line: "Oliver, when he saw the Saracens coming, urged Roland to blow his horn and fetch back Charlemagne – but Roland wouldn't blow. A big brave fool. In war one always chooses the wrong hero. Oliver should have been the hero of that song, instead of being given second place with the blood-thirsty Bishop Turpin.(...) In the Oxford version Oliver is reconciled in the end, he gives Roland his death-blow by accident, his eyes blinded by wounds. [But] the story had been tidied up. In truth, Oliver strikes his friend down in full knowledge – because of what he has done to his men, all the wasted lives. Oliver dies hating the man he loves – the big boasting courageous fool who was more concerned with his own glory than with the victory of his faith. This makes the story tragedy, not just heroics".[10]

text: It is also adapted by Stephen King, in the Dark Tower series in which Roland Deschain wishes to save the Dark Tower from the Crimson King.

text: The Song of Roland is part of the Matter of France (the Continental counterpart to the Arthurian legendarium known as the Matter of Britain), and related to Orlando Furioso. The names Roland and Orlando are cognates.

text: Emanuelle Luzzati’s animated short film, I paladini di Francia, together with Giulio Gianini, in 1960, was turned into the children’s picture-story book, with verse narrative, I Paladini de Francia ovvero il tradimento di Gano di Maganz, which translates literally as “The Paladins of France or the treachery of Gano of Maganz” (Ugo Mursia Editore, 1962). This was then republished, in English, as Ronald and the Wizard Calico (1969). The Picture Lion paperback edition (William Collins, London, 1973) is a paperback imprint of the Hutchinson Junior Books edition (1969), which credits the English translation to Hutchinson Junior Books.

text: Luzatti’s original verse story in Italian is about the plight of a beautiful maiden called Biancofiore – White Flower, or Blanchefleur – and her brave hero, Captain Rinaldo, and Ricardo and his paladins – the term used for Christian knights engaged in Crusades against the Saracens and Moors. Battling with these good people are the wicked Moors – North African Muslims and Arabs – and their Sultan, in Jerusalem. With the assistance of the wicked and treacherous magician, Gano of Maganz, Biancofiore is stolen from her fortress castle, and taken to become the reluctant wife of the Sultan. The catalyst for victory is the good magician, Urlubulu, who lives in a lake, and flies through the air on the back of his magic blue bird. The English translators, using the original illustrations, and the basic rhyme patterns, slightly simplify the plot, changing the Christians-versus-Muslim-Moors conflict into a battle between good and bad magicians and between golden knights and green knights. The French traitor in The Song of Roland, who is actually Roland’s cowardly step-father, is Ganelon – very likely the inspiration for Luzzati’s traitor and wicked magician, Gano. Orlando Furioso (literally, Furious or Enraged Orlando, or Roland), includes Orlando’s cousin, the paladin Rinaldo, who, like Orlando, is also in love with Angelica, a pagan princess. Rinaldo is, of course, the Italian equivalent of Ronald. Flying through the air on the back of a magic bird is equivalent to flying on a magic hippogriff.

text: On July 22, 2017, Michael Eging and Steve Arnold released a novel ″The Silver Horn Echoes: A Song of Roland," inspired by the La Chanson de Roland. This work is more closely based on a screenplay written by Michael Eging in 2008, simply known as "Song of Roland" and first optioned to Alan Kaplan at Cine LA that same year. The book explores the untold story of how Roland finds himself at Ronceveaux, betrayed by Ganelon and facing the expansive Saragossan host. Primary characters in the novel include Charles (Charlemagne), Ganelon, Bishop Turpin, Oliver, Aude, Marsilion, Blancandarin and others recognizable from the poem. Introduced in this tale are additional characters that inject intrigue and danger to the story, including Charles oldest son, Pepin, Marsilion's treacherous son, Saleem, and the scheming Byzantine emissary, Honorius. The cover artwork was hand painted by Jordan Raskin. The authors determined when writing both the screenplay and the novel to remain in the world created by the poem; thus Charles remains an older man near the end of his long reign rather than in 778 when the attack on the rearguard actually occurred. Further, this novel bookends the story with William the Conqueror's use of the poem as a motivator for Norman forces prior to the Battle of Hastings in 1066.[11]


document_title: Kevin (Probably) Saves the World

question_text: who plays in kevin probably saves the world

text: Kevin (Probably) Saves the World

text: Premise[edit]

text: Kevin, a down-on-his-luck man, moves in with his twin sister Amy, an engineer, and Amy's teenage daughter Reese. Shortly after, he discovers a celestial being named Yvette; Yvette claims that God has tasked Kevin with saving the world, and sent Yvette to guide and protect him. Only Kevin can see and hear Yvette, so his conversations appear to be hallucinations to those around him.[3]

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Jason Ritter as Kevin Finn
JoAnna Garcia Swisher as Amy Cabrera
Kimberly Hebert Gregory as Yvette[4]
India de Beaufort as Kristin Allen
J. August Richards as Nathan Purcell
Chloe East as Reese Cabrera
Dustin Ybarra as Tyler Medina

text: Guest[edit]

text:
Barbara Eve Harris as Colonel O'Donnell
Michael Harney as Karl Gilmore
Sam Huntington as Jake Gilmore
Lesley Boone as Lucille
Emma Bell as Deb
Christian Ochoa as Ben
Lauren Blumenfeld as Ava
Richard Masur as Dr. Sloane

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

1
"Pilot"
Paul McGuigan
Michele Fazekas & Tara Butters
October 3, 2017 (2017-10-03)
4.17[5]

2
"Listen Up"[6]
Kevin Dowling
Craig DiGregorio & Jack Kenny
October 10, 2017 (2017-10-10)
TBD

3
"Sweet Little Lies"[7]
Peter Leto
Chris Dingess & Davah Avena
October 17, 2017 (2017-10-17)
TBD

text: Production[edit]

text: Cristela Alonzo, who played a role in the original pilot, was replaced by Kimberly Hebert Gregory after the series was picked up.[4]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Ratings[edit]

text:
No.
Title
Air date
Rating/share
(18–49)
Viewers
(millions)
DVR
(18–49)
DVR viewers
(millions)
Total
(18–49)
Total viewers
(millions)

1
"Pilot"
October 3, 2017
1.0/4
4.17[5]
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

2
"Listen Up"
October 10, 2017
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

3
"Sweet Little Lies"
October 17, 2017
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 67% approval rating with an average rating of 6.71/10 based on 15 reviews.[8] Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 59 out of 100 based on 18 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[9]


document_title: Governor-General of India

question_text: who was the governor general when india became independent

text: Governor-General of India

text: History[edit]

text: Many parts of the Indian subcontinent were governed by the East India Company, which nominally acted as the agent of the Mughal Emperor. In 1773, motivated by corruption in the Company, the British government assumed partial control over the governance of India with the passage of the Regulating Act of 1773. A Governor-General and Supreme Council of Bengal were appointed to rule over the Presidency of Fort William in Bengal. The first Governor-General and Council were named in the Act.

text: The Charter Act 1833 replaced the Governor-General and Council of Fort William with the Governor-General and Council of India. The power to elect the Governor-General was retained by the Court of Directors, but the choice became subject to the Sovereign's approval.

text: After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the East India Company's territories in India were put under the direct control of the Sovereign. The Government of India Act 1858 vested the power to appoint the Governor-General in the Sovereign. The Governor-General, in turn, had the power to appoint all lieutenant governors in India, subject to the Sovereign's approval.

text: India and Pakistan acquired independence in 1947, but Governors-General continued to be appointed over each nation until republican constitutions were written. Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma remained Governor-General of India for some time after independence, but the two nations were otherwise headed by native Governors-General. India became a secular republic in 1950; Pakistan became an Islamic one in 1956.

text: Functions[edit]

text: The Governor-General originally had power only over the Presidency of Fort William in Bengal. The Regulating Act, however, granted them additional powers relating to foreign affairs and defence. The other Presidencies of the East India Company (Madras, Bombay and Bencoolen) were neither allowed to declare war on nor make peace with an Indian prince without receiving the prior approval of the Governor-General and Council of Fort William.[citation needed]

text: The powers of the Governor-General in respect of foreign affairs were increased by the India Act 1784. The Act provided that the other Governors under the East India Company could not declare war, make peace or conclude a treaty with an Indian prince unless expressly directed to do so by the Governor-General, or by the Company's Court of Directors.

text: While the Governor-General thus became the controller of foreign policy in India, he was not the explicit head of British India. This status only came with the Charter Act 1833, which granted him "superintendence, direction and control of the whole civil and military Government" of all of British India. The Act also granted legislative powers to the Governor-General and Council.

text: After 1858, the Governor-General (henceforth usually known as the Viceroy) functioned as the chief administrator of India and as the Sovereign's representative. India was divided into numerous provinces, each under the head of a Governor, Lieutenant Governor or Chief Commissioner or Administrator. Governors were appointed by the British Government, to whom they were directly responsible; Lieutenant Governors, Chief Commissioners, and Administrators, however, were appointed by and were subordinate to the Viceroy. The Viceroy also oversaw the most powerful princely rulers: the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Maharaja of Mysore, the Maharaja (Scindia) of Gwalior, the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir and the Gaekwad (Gaekwar) Maharaja of Baroda. The remaining princely rulers were overseen either by the Rajputana Agency and Central India Agency (which were headed by representatives of the Viceroy), or by provincial authorities.

text: The Chamber of Princes was an institution established in 1920 by a Royal Proclamation of the King-Emperor to provide a forum in which the princely rulers could voice their needs and aspirations to the government. The chamber usually met only once a year, with the Viceroy presiding, but it appointed a Standing Committee which met more often.

text: Upon independence in August 1947, the title of Viceroy was abolished. The representative of the British Sovereign became known once again as the Governor-General. C. Rajagopalachari became the only Indian Governor-General. However, once India acquired independence, the Governor-General's role became almost entirely ceremonial, with power being exercised on a day-to-day basis by the Indian cabinet. After the nation became a republic in 1950, the President of India continued to perform the same functions.

text: Council[edit]

text: The Governor-General was always advised by a Council on the exercise of his legislative and executive powers. The Governor-General, while exercising many functions, was referred to as the "Governor-General in Council."

text: The Regulating Act 1773 provided for the election of four counsellors by the East India Company's Court of Directors. The Governor-General had a vote along with the counsellors, but he also had an additional vote to break ties. The decision of the Council was binding on the Governor-General.

text: In 1784, the Council was reduced to three members; the Governor-General continued to have both an ordinary vote and a casting vote. In 1786, the power of the Governor-General was increased even further, as Council decisions ceased to be binding.

text: The Charter Act 1833 made further changes to the structure of the Council. The Act was the first law to distinguish between the executive and legislative responsibilities of the Governor-General. As provided under the Act, there were to be four members of the Council elected by the Court of Directors. The first three members were permitted to participate on all occasions, but the fourth member was only allowed to sit and vote when legislation was being debated.

text: In 1858, the Court of Directors ceased to have the power to elect members of the Council. Instead, the one member who had a vote only on legislative questions came to be appointed by the Sovereign, and the other three members by the Secretary of State for India.

text: The Indian Councils Act 1861 made several changes to the Council's composition. Three members were to be appointed by the Secretary of State for India, and two by the Sovereign. (The power to appoint all five members passed to the Crown in 1869). The Viceroy was empowered to appoint an additional six to twelve members (changed to ten to sixteen in 1892, and to sixty in 1909). The five individuals appointed by the Sovereign or the Indian Secretary headed the executive departments, while those appointed by the Viceroy debated and voted on legislation.

text: In 1919, an Indian legislature, consisting of a Council of State and a Legislative Assembly, took over the legislative functions of the Viceroy's Council. The Viceroy nonetheless retained significant power over legislation. He could authorise the expenditure of money without the Legislature's consent for "ecclesiastical, political [and] defense" purposes, and for any purpose during "emergencies." He was permitted to veto, or even stop debate on, any bill. If he recommended the passage of a bill, but only one chamber cooperated, he could declare the bill passed over the objections of the other chamber. The Legislature had no authority over foreign affairs and defence. The President of the Council of State was appointed by the Viceroy; the Legislative Assembly elected its President, but the election required the Viceroy's approval.

text: Style and title[edit]

text: Until 1833, the title of the position was "Governor-General of Bengal". The Government of India Act 1833 converted the title into "Governor-General of India." The title "Viceroy and Governor-General" was first used in the queen's proclamation appointing Viscount Canning in 1858.[3] It was never conferred by an act of parliament, but was used in warrants of precedence and in the statutes of knightly orders. In usage, "viceroy" is employed where the governor-general's position as the monarch's representative is in view.[4] The viceregal title was not used when the sovereign was present in India. It was meant to indicate new responsibilities, especially ritualistic ones, but it conferred no new statutory authority. The governor-general regularly used the title in communications with the Imperial Legislative Council, but all legislation was made only in the name of the Governor-General-in-Council (or the Government of India).[5]

text: The Governor-General was styled Excellency and enjoyed precedence over all other government officials in India. He was referred to as 'His Excellency' and addressed as 'Your Excellency'. From 1858 to 1947, the Governor-General was known as the Viceroy of India (from the French roi, meaning 'king'), and wives of Viceroys were known as Vicereines (from the French reine, meaning 'queen'). The Vicereine was referred to as 'Her Excellency' and was also addressed as 'Your Excellency'. Neither title was employed while the Sovereign was in India. However, the only reigning British Sovereign to visit India during the period of British rule was King George V, who accompanied by his consort Queen Mary attended the Delhi Durbar in 1911.[citation needed]

text: When the Order of the Star of India was founded in 1861, the Viceroy was made its Grand Master ex officio. The Viceroy was also made the ex officio Grand Master of the Order of the Indian Empire upon its foundation in 1877.

text: Most Governors-General and Viceroys were peers. Frequently, a Viceroy who was already a peer would be granted a peerage of higher rank, as with the granting of a marquessate to Lord Reading and an earldom and later a marquessate to Freeman Freeman-Thomas. Of those Viceroys who were not peers, Sir John Shore was a baronet, and Lord William Bentinck was entitled to the courtesy title 'Lord' because he was the son of a Duke. Only the first and last Governors-General – Warren Hastings and Chakravarti Rajagopalachari – as well as some provisional Governors-General, had no honorific titles at all.

text: Flag[edit]

text: From around 1885, the Viceroy of India was allowed to fly a Union Flag augmented in the centre with the 'Star of India' surmounted by a Crown. This flag was not the Viceroy's personal flag; it was also used by Governors, Lieutenant Governors, Chief Commissioners and other British officers in India. When at sea, only the Viceroy flew the flag from the mainmast, while other officials flew it from the foremast.

text: From 1947 to 1950, the Governor-General of India used a dark blue flag bearing the royal crest (a lion standing on the Crown), beneath which was the word 'India' in gold majuscules. The same design is still used by many other Commonwealth Realm Governors-General. This last flag was the personal flag of the Governor-General only.

text: Residence[edit]

text: The Governor-General of Fort William resided in Belvedere House, Calcutta, until the early nineteenth century, when Government House was constructed. In 1854, the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal took up residence there. Now, the Belvedere Estate houses the National Library of India.

text: Lord Wellesley, who is reputed to have said that 'India should be governed from a palace, not from a country house', constructed a grand mansion, known as Government House, between 1799 and 1803. The mansion remained in use until the capital moved from Calcutta to Delhi in 1912. Thereafter, the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal, who had hitherto resided in Belvedere House, was upgraded to a full Governor and transferred to Government House. Now, it serves as the residence of the Governor of the Indian state of West Bengal, and is referred to by its Bengali name Raj Bhavan.

text: After the capital moved from Calcutta to Delhi, the Viceroy occupied the newly built Viceroy's House, designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens. Though construction began in 1912, it did not conclude until 1929; the palace was not formally inaugurated until 1931. The final cost exceeded £877,000 (over £35,000,000 in modern terms) – more than twice the figure originally allocated. Today the residence, now known by the Hindi name of 'Rashtrapati Bhavan', is used by the President of India.

text: Throughout the British administration, Governors-General retreated to the Viceregal Lodge (Rashtrapati Niwas) at Shimla each summer to escape the heat, and the government of India moved with them. The Viceregal Lodge now houses the Indian Institute of Advanced Study.

text: Insignia[edit]

text:
Badge of the Governor-General (1885–1947)

Standard of the Governor-General (1885–1947)

Standard of the Governor-General (1947–50)


document_title: List of North American cities by population

question_text: what are the five largest cities in the north american region

text: List[edit]

text:
City
Image
Country
Population
Year

1
Mexico City

 Mexico
8,918,653[a][3][4]
2015[b]

2
New York City

 United States
8,550,405[5]
2015

3
Los Angeles

 United States
3,971,883[5]
2015

4
Toronto

 Canada
2,826,498[c][7]
2015

5
Chicago

 United States
2,720,546[5]
2015

6
Houston

 United States
2,296,224[5]
2015

7
Havana

 Cuba
2,117,625[8]
2015

8
Montreal

 Canada
1,753,034[9]
2015

9
Ecatepec de Morelos

 Mexico
1,677,678[d][3][4]
2015[b]

10
Philadelphia

 United States
1,567,442[5]
2015

11
Phoenix

 United States
1,563,025[5]
2015

12
San Antonio

 United States
1,469,845[5]
2015

13
Guadalajara

 Mexico
1,460,148[d][3][4]
2015[b]

14
Puebla

 Mexico
1,437,939[e][10]
2015[b]

15
San Diego

 United States
1,394,928[5]
2015

16
Juárez

 Mexico
1,382,753[e][10]
2015[b]

17
León

 Mexico
1,349,224[e][10]
2015[b]

18
Dallas

 United States
1,300,092[5]
2015

19
Tijuana

 Mexico
1,298,475[e][10]
2015[b]

20
Calgary

 Canada
1,230,915[2]
2015[f]

21
Tegucigalpa

 Honduras
1,190,230[12]
2015

22
Zapopan

 Mexico
1,179,681[e][10]
2015[b]

23
Monterrey

 Mexico
1,109,171[d][3][4]
2015[b]

24
Managua

 Nicaragua
1,048,134[13]
2015

25
Nezahualcóyotl

 Mexico
1,039,867[d][3][4]
2015[b]

26
San Jose

 United States
1,026,908[5]
2015

27
Santo Domingo

 Dominican Republic
1,007,997[14]
2015

28
Guatemala City

 Guatemala
994,078[15]
2015

29
Port-au-Prince

 Haiti
987,310[16]
2015

30
Naucalpan

 Mexico
970,012[g][10]
2015[b]

31
Ottawa

 Canada
956,710[h][7]
2015

32
Austin

 United States
931,830[5]
2015

33
Edmonton

 Canada
899,447[18]
2016[i]

34
Mérida

 Mexico
892,363[d][3][4]
2015[b]

35
Querétaro

 Mexico
878,931[d][3][4]
2015[b]

36
Toluca

 Mexico
873,536[d][3][4]
2015[b]

37
Jacksonville

 United States
868,031[5]
2015

38
Chihuahua

 Mexico
867,736[e][10]
2015[b]

39
San Francisco

 United States
864,816[5]
2015

40
Indianapolis

 United States
853,173[j][5]
2015

41
Columbus

 United States
850,106[5]
2015

42
Fort Worth

 United States
833,319[5]
2015

43
Charlotte

 United States
827,097[5]
2015

44
Hermosillo

 Mexico
819,999[e][10]
2015[b]

45
Saltillo

 Mexico
791,074[e][10]
2015[b]

46
Aguascalientes

 Mexico
785,942[e][3]
2015[b]

47
Mississauga

 Canada
761,300[19]
2015

48
San Luis Potosí

 Mexico
759,854[e][10]
2015[b]

49
Veracruz

 Mexico
752,171[k][3][4]
2015[b]

50
San Pedro Sula

 Honduras
742,118[12]
2015

51
Santiago de los Caballeros

 Dominican Republic
723,162[20]
2015

52
Culiacán

 Mexico
720,798[e][10]
2015[b]

53
Winnipeg

 Canada
718,400[21]
2015

54
Mexicali

 Mexico
717,628[e][10]
2015[b]

55
Cancún

 Mexico
711,682[e][10]
2015[b]

56
Acapulco

 Mexico
710,261[e][10]
2015[b]

57
Tlalnepantla

 Mexico
700,734[d][3][4]
2015[b]

58
Seattle

 United States
684,451[5]
2015

59
Guadalupe

 Mexico
682,880[d][3][4]
2015[b]

60
Denver

 United States
682,545[5]
2015

61
El Paso

 United States
681,124[5]
2015

62
Chimalhuacán

 Mexico
679,811[d][3][4]
2015[b]

63
Detroit

 United States
677,116[5]
2015

64
Washington, D.C.

 United States
672,228[5]
2015

65
Kingston

 Jamaica
669,627[22]
2015

66
Boston

 United States
667,137[5]
2015

67
Tlaquepaque

 Mexico
664,193[d][3][4]
2015[b]

68
Memphis

 United States
655,770[5]
2015

69
Nashville

 United States
654,610[l][5]
2015

70
Torreón

 Mexico
653,150[e][10]
2015[b]

71
Vancouver

 Canada
648,608[23]
2015

72
Portland

 United States
632,309[5]
2015

73
Reynosa

 Mexico
631,611[e][10]
2015[b]

74
Oklahoma City

 United States
631,346[5]
2015

75
Las Vegas

 United States
623,747[5]
2015

76
Baltimore

 United States
621,849[5]
2015

77
Brampton

 Canada
620,700[19]
2016

78
Louisville

 United States
615,366[m][5]
2015

79
Morelia

 Mexico
608,190[e][10]
2015[b]

80
Milwaukee

 United States
600,155[5]
2015

81
Tuxtla Gutiérrez

 Mexico
598,710[d][3][4]
2015[b]

82
Apodaca

 Mexico
597,207[d][3][4]
2015[b]

83
Durango

 Mexico
590,893[e][10]
2015[b]

84
Villa Nueva

 Guatemala
564,686[15]
2015

85
Albuquerque

 United States
559,121[5]
2015

86
Hamilton

 Canada
556,359[n][7]
2015

87
Quebec City

 Canada
540,994[9]
2015

88
Tonalá

 Mexico
536,111[d][3][4]
2015[b]

89
Tucson

 United States
531,641[5]
2015

90
Cuautitlán Izcalli

 Mexico
531,041[d][3][4]
2015[b]

91
Surrey

 Canada
526,004[23]
2015

92
Ciudad López Mateos

 Mexico
523,296[d][3][4]
2015[b]

93
Tultitlán

 Mexico
520,557[d][3][4]
2015[b]

94
Fresno

 United States
520,052[5]
2015

95
Carrefour

 Haiti
501,768[16]
2015


document_title: List of members of the Forbes 400

question_text: who has the highest net worth in the us

question_tokens: who has the highest net worth in the us

text: List of members of the Forbes 400

text: Forbes 400[edit]

text: The following are the top 20 wealthiest Americans from the Forbes 400 in 2016.[4]

text:
[hide]Legend

Icon
Description

Position unchanged from the 2015 list[5]

Higher position than on the 2015 list

Lower position than on the 2015 list

text:
#
Name
Net worth on the 2016 list (USD)
Source(s) of wealth
Participation in The Giving Pledge

7000100000000000000♠1
Bill Gates
$81 billion
Cascade Investments LLC
Yes; Founder

7000200000000000000♠2
Jeff Bezos
$67 billion
Amazon.com
No

7000300000000000000♠3
Warren Buffett
$65.5 billion
Berkshire Hathaway
Yes; Founder

7000400000000000000♠4
Mark Zuckerberg
$55.5 billion
Facebook
Yes

7000500000000000000♠5
Larry Ellison
$49.3 billion
Oracle Corporation
Yes

6
Michael Bloomberg
$45 billion
Bloomberg LP
Yes

7
Charles Koch
$42 billion
Koch Industries
No

8
David H. Koch
$42 billion
Koch Industries
No

7000900000000000000♠9
Larry Page
$38.5 billion
Google
No

7001100000000000000♠10
Sergey Brin
$37.5 billion
Google
No

7001110000000000000♠11
Jim Walton
$35.6 billion
Wal-Mart, inherited
No

12
S. Robson Walton
$35.5 billion
Wal-Mart, inherited
No

13
Alice Walton
$35.4 billion
Wal-Mart, inherited
No

7001140000000000000♠14
Sheldon Adelson
$31.8 billion
Las Vegas Sands
No

15
Steve Ballmer
$27.5 billion
Microsoft
No

16
Jacqueline Mars
$27 billion
Mars, Inc., inherited
No

7001170000000000000♠17
John Franklyn Mars
$27 billion
Mars, Inc., inherited
No

18
Phil Knight
$25.5 billion
Nike, Inc.
No

7001190000000000000♠19
George Soros
$24.9 billion
Soros Fund Management
No

20
Michael Dell
$20 billion
Dell
No

text:
Bill Gates is the wealthiest American

Warren Buffett is ranked third

Larry Ellison of Oracle Corporation is ranked fifth