document_title: Visa requirements for Australian citizens

question_text: visa requirements for australian citizens travelling to south korea

question_tokens: visa requirements for australian citizens travelling to south korea

root

text: Visa requirements for Australian citizens

text: Visa requirements map[edit]

text: Visa requirements[edit]

text: Each country has a multitude of visa types, each with its particular purpose and requirements. Rules for short visits by ordinary passport holders are as follows:

tag: p

text:
Country

Visa requirement

Allowed stay

Notes (excluding departure fees)

 Afghanistan

Visa required[2]

Due to safety concerns, Australian government advises its citizens not to visit Afghanistan.[3]

 Albania

Visa not required[4]

90 days

 Algeria

Visa required[5]

 Andorra

Visa not required[6]

 Angola

eVisa[7][8]

30 days

Visitors who have been granted an online pre-visa or have requested such pre-visa from the consulates of Angola abroad, are then issued with a visa on arrival at the country's border check points.
For a maximum total stay of 90 days within a one year period.[9]
Besides having printed confirmation that a visa will be issued upon arrival, passengers must: have a return/onward ticket, and have a hotel reservation confirmation.[10]

 Antigua and Barbuda

Visa not required[11]

1 month

 Argentina

Visa not required[12]

90 days

 Armenia

Visa not required[13]

180 days

 Austria

Visa not required[14]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area regardless of previous time spent in other Schengen countries

 Azerbaijan

eVisa[15]

30 days[16]

 Bahamas

Visa not required[17]

3 months

 Bahrain

eVisa / Visa on arrival[18]

14 days

 Bangladesh

Visa on arrival[19]

30 days

Not available at all entry points.[20]

 Barbados

Visa not required[21]

6 months

 Belarus

Visa not required[22]

30 days

Must arrive and depart via Minsk International Airport.

 Belgium

Visa not required[23]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area. Additionally bilateral agreement permits 2 months on top of this.

 Belize

Visa not required[24]

1 month[25]

 Benin

eVisa / Visa on arrival[26][27]

30 days / 8 days

Must have an international vaccination certificate.

 Bhutan

Visa required[28]

Visa approved via tour operators only.

 Bolivia

Visa not required[29]

90 days

 Bosnia and Herzegovina

Visa not required[30]

90 days

90 days within any 6-month period

 Botswana

Visa not required[31]

90 days

90 days within year period

 Brazil

eVisa[32]

90 days

90 days within year period

 Brunei

Visa on arrival[33]

30 days

 Bulgaria

Visa not required[34]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period

 Burkina Faso

Visa on arrival[35]

1 month

 Burundi

Visa required[36]

Due to safety concerns, Australian government advises its citizens not to visit Burundi.[37]

 Cambodia

eVisa / Visa on arrival[38]

30 days

Visa is also obtainable online.[39]

 Cameroon

Visa required[40]

 Canada

Visa not required[41]

6 months

eTA required if arriving by air.[42]

 Cape Verde

Visa on arrival[43]

Not available at all entry points.[44]

 Central African Republic

Visa required[45]

Due to safety concerns, Australian government advises its citizens not to visit Central African Republic.[46]

 Chad

Visa required[47]

Letter of invitation required.

 Chile

Visa not required[48]

90 days

Australian tourists entering Chile through Santiago International Airport are required to pay a "reciprocity fee" of US$117.

 China

Visa required[49]

72-hour visit without a visa when in transit at Changsha, Chengdu, Chongqing, Guangzhou, Guilin, Harbin, Kunming, Qingdao, Wuhan, Xi'an and Xiamen.144-hours visit without a visa when in transit through Beijing Capital International Airport,[50] Dalian, Hangzhou, Shijiazhuang Zhengding International Airport in Hebei,[51] Nanjing, Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport and Shanghai Pudong International Airport, Shanghai Railway Station and the Port of Shanghai); Shenyang and Tianjin Binhai International Airport[52]
Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan do count as third countries under the 72 and 144-hours visa-free visit transit policy.

 Colombia

Visa not required[53]

180 days

90 days - extendable up to 180-days stay within a one-year period

 Comoros

Visa on arrival[54]

 Republic of the Congo

Visa required[55]

Visa and invitation letters approved via tour operators only.

 Democratic Republic of the Congo

Visa required[56]

Visa not required for Congolese-born visitors

 Costa Rica

Visa not required[57]

90 days

 Côte d'Ivoire

eVisa[58]

3 months

eVisa holders must arrive via Port Bouet Airport.

 Croatia

Visa not required[59]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period

 Cuba

Tourist Card required[60]

Visitors travelling to Cuba can purchase a tourist card at the Cuban embassy or nearest travel agent that sells authorized cards.

 Cyprus

Visa not required[61]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period

 Czech Republic

Visa not required[62]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area

 Denmark

Visa not required[63]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area regardless of previous time spent in other Schengen countries (except the other Nordic countries)

 Djibouti

eVisa[64]

31 days

 Dominica

Visa not required[65]

6 months

 Dominican Republic

Visa not required[66]

90 days

 Ecuador

Visa not required[67]

90 days[25]

 Egypt

eVisa / Visa on arrival[68][69]

30 days

 El Salvador

Visa not required[70]

3 months

 Equatorial Guinea

Visa required[71]

Letter of invitation required.

 Eritrea

Visa required[72]

A tourist visa for Australian citizens is issued for a stay of 1 month from arrival to Eritrea.

 Estonia

Visa not required[73]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area

 Ethiopia

eVisa / Visa on arrival[74]

Not available at all entry points.[75]

 Fiji

Visa not required[76]

4 months

 Finland

Visa not required[77]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area regardless of previous time spent in other Schengen countries

 France

Visa not required[78]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area (in Regions of France) regardless of previous time spent in other Schengen countries

 Gabon

eVisa / Visa on arrival[79]

Electronic visa holders must arrive via Libreville International Airport.[80]

 Gambia

Visa not required[81]

90 days

 Georgia

Visa not required[82]

360 days[83]

 Germany

Visa not required[84]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period regardless of previous time spent in Schengen countries

 Ghana

Visa required[85][86]

 Greece

Visa not required[87]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area

 Grenada

Visa not required[88]

3 months[25]

 Guatemala

Visa not required[89]

90 days

 Guinea

Visa required[90]

 Guinea-Bissau

eVisa / Visa on arrival[91]

90 days

 Guyana

Visa not required[92]

3 months

 Haiti

Visa not required[93]

3 months

 Honduras

Visa not required[94]

3 months

 Hungary

Visa not required[95]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area

 Iceland

Visa not required[96]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area regardless of previous time spent in other Schengen countries

 India

e-Visa[97]

60 days

e-Visa holders must arrive via 26 designated airports[Note 1] or 3 designated seaports.[Note 2][98]
An Indian e-Tourist Visa can only be obtained twice in one calendar year.

 Indonesia

Visa not required[99][100]

30 days

 Iran

Visa on arrival[101]

30 days[102]

 Iraq

Visa required[103]

Due to safety concerns, Australian government advises its citizens not to visit Iraq.[104]

 Ireland

Visa not required[105]

3 months

 Israel

Visa not required[106]

3 months

 Italy

Visa not required[107]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area regardless of previous time spent in other Schengen countries

 Jamaica

Visa not required[108]

 Japan

Visa not required[109]

90 days

 Jordan

Visa on arrival[110]

Conditions apply.[111]
Not available at all entry points.[112]

 Kazakhstan

Visa not required[113]

30 days

 Kenya

eVisa / Visa on arrival[114]

3 months

 Kiribati

Visa not required[115]

120 days

 North Korea

Visa required[116]

 South Korea

Visa not required[117]

90 days

 Kuwait

eVisa / Visa on arrival[118]

3 months

 Kyrgyzstan

Visa not required[119]

60 days

A single or multiple tourist or business e-visa for 90 days is also available.[120]

 Laos

Visa on arrival[121]

30 days

Conditions apply.
Available at international airports Luangphabang, Pakse, Savannakhet and Vientiane, and at 4 land borders Friendship Bridge,[Note 3] and at 13 border crossings[Note 4] as well as Tanalaeng train station in Vientiane, which connects to the train station in Nongkai, Thailand.[122]
Entry points Lalai, Lantui, Meuang mom, Pakxan, and Phoudou are open only to visa holders.
Extendable up to 60 days.

 Latvia

Visa not required[123]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area

 Lebanon

Visa on arrival[124]

1 month

Visa extendible for 2 additional months
Granted free of charge at Beirut International Airport or any other port of entry if there is no Israeli visa or seal, holding a telephone number, an address in Lebanon, and a non refundable return or circle trip ticket.

 Lesotho

Visa not required[125]

14 days[25]

 Liberia

Visa required[126]

 Libya

Visa required[127]

Due to safety concerns, Australian government advises its citizens not to visit Libya.[128]

 Liechtenstein

Visa not required[129]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area

 Lithuania

Visa not required[130]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area

 Luxembourg

Visa not required[131]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area regardless of previous time spent in other Schengen countries

 Macedonia

Visa not required[132]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period

 Madagascar

Visa on arrival[133]

30 days

Free of charge.

 Malawi

Visa on arrival[134]

 Malaysia

Visa not required[135]

3 months

 Maldives

Visa on arrival[136]

30 days[25]

 Mali

Visa required[137]

 Malta

Visa not required[138]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area

 Marshall Islands

Visa on arrival[139]

90 days

 Mauritania

Visa on arrival[140]

Available at Nouakchott–Oumtounsy International Airport.

 Mauritius

Visa not required[141]

90 days

 Mexico

Visa not required[142]

180 days

 Micronesia

Visa not required[143]

30 days

 Moldova

Visa not required[144]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period

 Monaco

Visa not required[145]

 Mongolia

Visa required[146]

Registration upon arrival for stays longer than 30 days is mandatory.

 Montenegro

Visa not required[147]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period

 Morocco

Visa not required[148]

3 months

 Mozambique

Visa on arrival[149]

30 days

Conditions apply[150]

 Myanmar

eVisa[151]

28 days

eVisa holders must arrive via Yangon, Nay Pyi Taw or Mandalay airports or via land border crossings with Thailand — Tachileik, Myawaddy and Kawthaung or India — Rih Khaw Dar and Tamu.
eVisa available for both tourism or business purposes.

 Namibia

Visa not required[152]

3 months

 Nauru

Visa required[153]

Criminal record and medical fitness certificates are not required for Australian citizens.[154]

   Nepal

Visa on arrival[155]

90 days

 Netherlands

Visa not required[156]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area (European Netherlands) regardless of previous time spent in other Schengen countries

 New Zealand

Freedom of movement[157]

Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement

 Nicaragua

Visa not required[158]

90 days

 Niger

Visa required[159]

 Nigeria

Visa required[160]

Visa not required for Nigerian-born citizens.

 Norway

Visa not required[161]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area regardless of previous time spent in other Schengen countries (except other Nordic countries)

 Oman

eVisa[162]

30 days

 Pakistan

Visa required[163]

Visa on arrival when travelling on business valid for 30 days.
Conditions apply.[164]

 Palau

Visa on arrival[165]

30 days

 Panama

Visa not required[166]

180 days

 Papua New Guinea

Free Visa on arrival[167]

30 days

Available at Gurney Airport (Alotau), Mount Hagen Airport, Port Moresby Airport and Tokua Airport (Rabaul).

 Paraguay

Visa on arrival[168]

90 days

Only available at Silvio Pettirossi International Airport in Luque.
Reciprocity fee applies.

 Peru

Visa not required[169]

183 days

 Philippines

Visa not required[170]

30 days

 Poland

Visa not required[171]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area

 Portugal

Visa not required[172]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area

 Qatar

Visa not required[173]

30 days

 Romania

Visa not required[174]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period

 Russia

Visa required[175]

Registration required after 2 business days.

 Rwanda

eVisa / Visa on arrival[176]

30 days

 Saint Kitts and Nevis

Visa not required[177]

3 months

 Saint Lucia

Visa not required[178]

6 weeks

 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

Visa not required[179]

1 month

 Samoa

Entry Permit on arrival[180]

60 days

 San Marino

Visa not required[181]

 São Tomé and Príncipe

eVisa[182]

 Saudi Arabia

Visa required[183]

 Senegal

Visa on arrival[184]

90 days

 Serbia

Visa not required[185]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period

 Seychelles

Visitor's Permit on arrival[186]

3 months[25]

 Sierra Leone

Visa required[187]

 Singapore

Visa not required[188]

90 days

 Slovakia

Visa not required[189]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area

 Slovenia

Visa not required[190]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area

 Solomon Islands

Visitor's permit on arrival[191]

3 months

 Somalia

Visa on arrival[192]

Due to safety concerns, Australian government advises its citizens not to visit Somalia.[193]

 South Africa

Visa not required[194]

90 days

 South Sudan

Visa required[195]

Due to safety concerns, Australian government advises its citizens not to visit South Sudan.[196]

 Spain

Visa not required[197]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area regardless of previous time spent in other Schengen countries

 Sri Lanka

eVisa / Visa on arrival[198]

30 days

 Sudan

Visa required[199]

Visa not required for Sudanese-born citizens.

 Suriname

Visa required[200]

Visitors arriving from Australia without a representation from Suriname can obtain a visa on arrival with a maximum stay of 2 months if holding a pre-arranged approval.

 Swaziland

Visa not required[201]

30 days[25]

 Sweden

Visa not required[202]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area regardless of previous time spent in other Schengen countries (except other Nordic countries)

  Switzerland

Visa not required[203]

90 days

90 days within any 180 day period in the Schengen Area

 Syria

Visa required[204]

Due to safety concerns, Australian government advises its citizens not to visit Syria.[205]

 Tajikistan

Visa on arrival[206]

45 days

At Dushanbe International Airport.
Visa also available online.
E-visa holders can enter through all border points.[207]

 Tanzania

Visa on arrival[208]

 Thailand

Visa not required[209]

30 days

Maximum two visits annually if not arriving by air.

 Timor-Leste

Visa on arrival[210]

30 days

Not available at all entry points.[211]

 Togo

Visa on arrival[212]

7 days

 Tonga

Visa on arrival[213]

31 days

 Trinidad and Tobago

Visa on arrival[214]

30 days

 Tunisia

Visa not required[215][216]

3 months

 Turkey

eVisa[217]

3 months[218]

Cruise ship passengers do not require a visa for up to 72 hours.[219]

 Turkmenistan

Visa required[220]

 Tuvalu

Visa on arrival[221]

1 month[25]

 Uganda

eVisa / Visa on arrival[222]

Determined at the port of entry.
May apply online.[223]

 Ukraine

eVisa / Visa on arrival[224][225]

15 days

Visa on arrival for business or tourism purposes, available at Kyiv Boryspil Airport, Kyiv International Airport (Zhuliany) and Odessa International Airport.[226]

 United Arab Emirates

Visa on arrival[227]

30 days

 United Kingdom and Crown dependencies

Visa not required[228]

6 months

 United States

Visa Waiver Program[229]

90 days

On arrival from overseas; ESTA (valid for 2 years when issued) required if arriving by air or cruise ship.[230]
ESTA is not required for Guam and Northern Mariana Islands.

 Uruguay

Visa not required[231]

3 months

 Uzbekistan

eVisa[232][233]

30 days

5-day visa free transit when in transit at the international airports on condition of holding a confirmed onward ticket for a flight to a third country.[234]

 Vanuatu

Visa not required[235]

30 days[25]

  Vatican City

Visa not required[236]

 Venezuela

Visa not required[237]

90 days

 Vietnam

eVisa[238]

30 days

 Yemen

Visa required[239]

Due to safety concerns, Australian government advises its citizens not to visit Yemen.[240]

 Zambia

eVisa / Visa on arrival[241]

90 days

Also eligible for a universal visa allowing access to Zimbabwe. eVisa available.

 Zimbabwe

eVisa / Visa on arrival[242]

3 months

Strictly tourism purposes only.
Also eligible for a universal visa allowing access to Zambia. eVisa available.

tag: table

text: Dependent, disputed, or restricted territories[edit]

text:
Territory

Conditions of access

Notes

 Abkhazia

Visa required[243]

 Kosovo

Visa not required[244]

90 days

 Northern Cyprus

Visa not required[245]

3 months

 Artsakh

Visa required[246]

Travellers with Artsakh visa (expired or valid) or evidence of travel to Artsakh (stamps) will be permanently denied entry to Azerbaijan.[247]

 Palestine

Visa not required[248]

Arrival by sea to Gaza Strip not allowed.[249]

 Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic

Undefined visa regime in the Western Sahara controlled territory.

 Somaliland

Visa on arrival

30 days for 30 US dollars, payable on arrival.[250][251]

 South Ossetia

Visa not required[252]

Multiple entry visa to Russia and three day prior notification are required to enter South Ossetia.[253][254]

 Taiwan

Visa not required[255][256]

90 days

 Transnistria

Visa not required[257]

Registration required after 24h.[258][259]

text:
Territory

Conditions of access

Notes

China

 Hong Kong

Visa not required[260]

90 days

 Macau

Visa not required[261]

30 days

Denmark

 Faroe Islands

Visa not required[262]

 Greenland

Visa not required[263]

France

 French Guiana

Visa not required[264]

3 months

 French Polynesia

Visa not required[265]

90 days within 180 days

 French West Indies

Visa not required

Includes overseas departments of Guadeloupe and Martinique and overseas collectivities of Saint Barthélemy and Saint Martin.

 Mayotte

Visa not required[266]

3 months

 New Caledonia

Visa not required[267]

3 months

 Réunion

Visa not required[268]

3 months

 Saint Pierre and Miquelon

Visa not required[269]

3 months

 Wallis and Futuna

Visa not required[270]

3 months

Netherlands

 Aruba

Visa not required[271]

30 days, extendable to 180 days

 Caribbean Netherlands

Visa not required[272]

90 days. Includes Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba.

 Curaçao

Visa not required[273]

90 days

 Sint Maarten

Visa not required[274]

90 days

New Zealand

 Cook Islands

Visa not required[275]

31 days

 Niue

Visa not required[276]

30 days

 Tokelau

Visa required[277]

United Kingdom

 Akrotiri and Dhekelia

Visa not required[278]

Stays longer than 28 days per 12-month period require a permit.[279]

 Anguilla

Visa not required[280]

3 months

 Bermuda

Visa not required[281]

Up to 6 months, decided on arriva

 British Indian Ocean Territory

Special permit required

Special permit required.[282]

 British Virgin Islands

Visa not required[283]

30 days, extensions possible

 Cayman Islands

Visa not required[284]

6 months

 Falkland Islands

Visa not required[285]

 Gibraltar

Visa not required[286]

 Montserrat

Visa not required[287]

6 months

 Pitcairn Islands

Visa not required

14 days visa free and landing fee 35 USD or tax of 5 USD if not going ashore.[288][289][290]

 Ascension Island

Entry Permit required

Entry Permit must be obtained minimum 28 days in advance (3 months for 20/30 pounds sterling, single/double entry).[291]

 Saint Helena

Visitor's Pass required

Visitor's Pass granted on arrival valid for 4/10/21/60/90 days for 12/14/16/20/25 pound sterling.[292]

 Tristan da Cunha

Permission required

Permission to land required for 15/30 pounds sterling (yacht/ship passenger) for Tristan da Cunha Island or 20 pounds sterling for Gough Island, Inaccessible Island or Nightingale Islands.[293]

 South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands

Permit required

Pre-arrival permit from the Commissioner required (72 hours/1 month for 110/160 pounds sterling).[294][295]

 Turks and Caicos Islands

Visa required[296]

90 days

United States

 American Samoa

Electronic authorization[297]

30 days

 Guam

Visa not required[298]

45 days

 Northern Mariana Islands

Visa not required[299]

45 days

 Puerto Rico

Visa not required[300]

Under the Visa Waiver Program, for 90 days on arrival from overseas for 2 years. ESTA required.

 U.S. Virgin Islands

Visa not required[301]

Under the Visa Waiver Program, for 90 days on arrival from overseas for 2 years. ESTA required.

Antarctica and adjacent islands

Special permits required for  Bouvet Island,  British Antarctic Territory,  French Southern and Antarctic Lands,  Argentine Antarctica,  Australian Antarctic Territory,  Chilean Antarctic Territory,  Heard Island and McDonald Islands,  Peter I Island,  Queen Maud Land,  Ross Dependency.[302][303][304][305][306][307][308][309][310][311][312][313]

text:
Territory

Conditions of access

Notes

 Brest and Grodno

Visa not required

Visa-free for 10 days[314]

 China Hainan

Visa on arrival[315]

15 days. Available at Haikou Meilan International Airport and Sanya Phoenix International Airport.Visa not required for 15 days for traveling as part of a tourist group (5 or more people)[316]

 China Tibet Autonomous Region

TTP required

Tibet Travel Permit required (10 US Dollars).[317][318][319]

 Crimea

Visa required

Visa issued by Russia is required.[320]

 Ecuador  Galápagos

Pre-registration required

Online pre-registration is required. Transit Control Card must also be obtained at the airport prior to departure.[321]

 Eritrea outside Asmara

Travel permit required

To travel in the rest of the country, a Travel Permit for Foreigners is required (20 Eritrean nakfa).[322]

 Greece  Mount Athos

Special permit required

Special permit required (4 days: 25 euro for Orthodox visitors, 35 euro for non-Orthodox visitors, 18 euro for students). There is a visitors' quota: maximum 100 Orthodox and 10 non-Orthodox per day and women are not allowed.[323][324]

 India PAP/RAP

PAP/RAP required

Protected Area Permit (PAP) required for whole states of Nagaland and Sikkim and parts of states Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Jammu and Kashmir, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh.Restricted Area Permit (RAP) required for all of Andaman and Nicobar Islands and parts of Sikkim. Some of these requirements are occasionally lifted for a year.[325][326][327]

 Iran Kish Island

Visa not required

Visitors to Kish Island do not require a visa.[328]

 Iraqi Kurdistan

Visa on arrival

Visa on arrival for 15 days is available at Erbil and Sulaymaniyah airports.[329]

 Fiji Lau Province

Special permission required

Special permission required.[330]

 France Clipperton Island

Special permit required

Special permit required.[331]

 Kazakhstan

Special permission required

Special permission required for the town of Baikonur and surrounding areas in Kyzylorda Oblast, and the town of Gvardeyskiy near Almaty.[332]

 North Korea outside Pyongyang

Special permit required

People are not allowed to leave the capital city, tourists can only leave the capital with a governmental tourist guide (no independent moving)

 Malaysia Sabah and Sarawak

Visa not required

These states have their own immigration authorities and passport is required to travel to them, however the same visa applies.[333]

 Maldives outside Malé

Permission required

With the exception of the capital Malé, tourists are generally prohibited from visiting non-resort islands without the express permission of the Government of Maldives.[334]

 Norway Jan Mayen

Permit required

Permit issued by the local police required for staying for less than 24 hours[335] and permit issued by the Norwegian police for staying for more than 24 hours.[336]

 Svalbard of  Norway

Visa not Required

Unlimited Stay (Idefinite Stay).

 Novorossiya

Restricted area

Crossing from Ukraine requires visit purpose to be explained to Ukrainian passport control on exit and those who entered from Russia are not allowed to proceed further into Ukraine.[337][338]

 Russia

Special authorization required

Several closed cities and regions in Russia require special authorization.[339]

 Sudan outside Khartoum

Travel permit required

All foreigners traveling more than 25 kilometers outside of Khartoum must obtain a travel permit.

 Sudan Darfur

Travel permit required

Separate travel permit is required.[340]

 Tajikistan Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province

OIVR permit required

OIVR permit required (15+5 Tajikistani Somoni) and another special permit (free of charge) is required for Lake Sarez.[341][342][343]

 UN Buffer Zone in Cyprus

Access Permit required[344]

Access Permit is required for travelling inside the zone, except Civil Use Areas.

 Korean Demilitarized Zone

Restricted zone.

 UNDOF Zone and Ghajar

Restricted zone.

 United States Minor Outlying Islands

Special permits required

Special permits required for Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Johnston Atoll, Kingman Reef, Midway Atoll, Palmyra Atoll and Wake Island.[345][346][347][348][349][350][351]

 Venezuela Margarita Island

Visa not required

All visitors are fingerprinted.[352]

 Vietnam Phú Quốc

Visa not required

30 days[353]

 Yemen outside Sana’a or Aden

Special permission required

Special permission needed for travel outside Sana’a or Aden.[354]

text: Reciprocity issues[edit]

text: Some countries regard Australia's requirement for obtaining an Electronic Travel Authority (ETA) prior to travel as being equivalent to offering visa-free travel when deciding whether to grant the same to Australians wishing to enter their territory. The United States, for example, offers their Visa Waiver Program to Australian passport-holders,[355] and one of the conditions for joining this scheme is that "Governments provide reciprocal visa-free travel for U.S. citizens for 90 days for tourism or business purposes".[356] However, the United States has required from January 2009 a similar ETA from citizens of Australia and some more countries. This system is not called a visa, but Electronic System for Travel Authorization, therefore the USA still allows visa-free travel for Australians. As of December 1998, Japan has also granted visa-free access to Australians.[357] Other ETA eligible countries and territories including Canada,[358] Hong Kong,[359] Malaysia,[360] Singapore,[361] South Korea (90 days)[362] and Taiwan (90 days)[363] also grant visa-free access to Australians while Brunei grants Australians a 30-day visa on arrival.[364]

text: Additional rules[edit]

text: Visa exemptions for Schengen states[edit]

text: A stay in the Schengen Area as a whole of more than three months (but no more than three months in any individual member state)[edit]

text:
The Australian Government has signed bilateral visa waiver agreements with a number of the individual countries who are Schengen signatories, which allow Australian citizens to spend up to three months in the relevant country, without reference to time spent in other Schengen signatory states. Since these agreements continue to remain valid despite the implementation of the Schengen agreement, the European Commission has confirmed that in practice if Australians visit Schengen countries which have signed these types of bilateral agreements with Australia, then the terms of these agreements override the conditions normally imposed as a result of the Schengen visa exemption agreement.[365] However, amendments are under consideration to restrict exit from the Schengen area only through the territory of the Member State which is
a Contracting Party to the bilateral agreement and the authorities of which have extended the stay.
[366]

text: Australia has individual bilateral visa waiver agreements with the following Schengen signatories:

text:
Austria[367]
 Belgium[368]
 Denmark[369][370]
 Finland[371]
 France[372]
 Germany[373][374]

 Iceland[375]
 Italy[376]
 Luxembourg[377]
 Netherlands[378][379]
 Spain[380]
 Norway[381]
 Sweden[382]

text: Consequently, Australian citizens can visit the above Schengen member states visa-free for periods of up to three months in each country. If, however, an Australian citizen then visits another Schengen state not included in the list above, the restriction of no more than three months out of a six-month period in the Schengen area as a whole applies. Therefore, if an Australian citizen has already spent three months in one or more of the above Schengen countries, any visits to another Schengen country without a bilateral visa waiver agreement with Australia may lead to difficulties with local law enforcement agencies (e.g. being accused of having overstayed upon leaving a Schengen country which is not in the list above).

text: A stay in the Schengen Area as a whole of up to three months[edit]

text: Australian citizens are classified as 'Annex II' foreign nationals, and so are permitted to stay visa-free in the 26 member states of the Schengen Area as a whole — rather than each country individually — for a period not exceeding 3 months every 6 months.

text: During the visa exemption period, Australian citizens are permitted to work in Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Slovenia and Sweden.[383] In addition, Australian citizens intending to stay and work in Estonia for up to 90 days can do so without a visa as long as the employer has completed a 'registration of short-term employment'.[384]

text: A stay in the Schengen Area as a whole of more than 3 months (and more than 3 months in an individual member state)[edit]

text: In general, any person who is not a European Union, European Economic Area or Swiss citizen and who wishes to stay in a Schengen member state for more than 3 months is required to obtain a national long-stay 'D' visa and/or a residence permit. Australian citizens aged 18–30 (or 18-35 in some cases) are able to obtain a national long-stay 'D' visa and/or a residence permit from some Schengen member states on the basis of a working holiday (see below). Schengen member states also issue national long-stay 'D' visas and residence permits for other reasons to those fulfilling criteria laid out in their national immigration policies (e.g. skilled workers, students, au pair).

text: In general, the national long-stay 'D' visa/residence permit needs to be obtained in advance through the member state's embassy/consulate. However, some Schengen member states offer exceptions for Australian citizens.

text: Austria allows Australian citizens to enter the country without a visa and to apply for a temporary residence permit or a 'Red-White-Red Card' (issued to permanent immigrants) after arrival, rather than in advance through an Austrian embassy/consulate.[385][386]

text: The  Czech Republic allows Australian citizens to apply for a work visa under a special scheme known as a 'Green Card' (rather than a 'Blue Card' or work permit which is required by most non-EU citizens). The application for a Green Card can be lodged at any Czech embassy/consulate (or, in some circumstances, within the Czech Republic if the applicant is already resident there) and is usually processed within 60 days.[387] Note that 'Green Cards' are no longer issued after 24 June 2014.[388]

text: Germany permits Australian citizens intending to stay in the country for over 3 months to enter without a visa and to apply for a residence permit after arrival (whilst for many other non-EEA and Swiss citizens, a residence permit and visa for a stay over 3 months must be applied for in advance at a German foreign mission).[389][390]

text: Estonia permits Australian citizens to stay and work in Estonia for more than 90 days but less than 6 months as long as they obtain a category 'D' long-stay visa at a cost of €80 in advance at an Estonian foreign mission after the employer has completed a 'registration of short-term employment'.[391] Australian citizens intending to stay and work in Estonia for more than 6 months can apply for a temporary residence permit for employment after arrival in the country.[392]

text: Hungary allows Australian citizens who wish to stay for more than 90 days in the country to apply for a residence card from the regional directorate of the Office of Immigration and Nationality within 90 days of arrival and do not need to obtain a residence permit prior to arrival in Hungary (unlike most other non-EEA and Swiss foreign nationals).[393]

text: Latvia permits Australian citizens intending to stay in the country for over 3 months as self-employed persons or as businesspersons to enter Latvia without a visa and to apply for a residence permit after arrival (whilst for many non-EEA and Swiss citizens, an application for a residence permit must be lodged in advance at a Latvian foreign mission).[394]

text: Netherlands exempts Australian citizens from the requirement to obtain a Schengen category "D" visa (the visa issued for long term stays in The Netherlands of over 90 days, known in Dutch as the "MVV" visa) - an exemption which goes beyond the visa waiver afforded to most other non-EEA and non-Swiss foreign nationals who are usually only given a visa waiver of up to 90 days in a 180-day period.[395]

text: Norway permits Australian citizens who have qualifications as a skilled worker to stay in the country without a visa for up to 6 months to seek employment as a skilled worker or a specialist (except as a religious leader/teacher or an ethnic cook), as long as they register with the police within 3 months of arriving in Norway.[396]

text: Visa exemptions and requirements for the United Kingdom[edit]

text: Australian citizens are able to visit the United Kingdom for up to 6 months (or 3 months if they enter from the Republic of Ireland) without the need to apply for a visa as long as they fulfil all of the following criteria:

text:
they do not work during their stay in the UK
they must not register a marriage or register a civil partnership during their stay in the UK
they can present evidence of sufficient money to fund their stay in the UK (if requested by the border inspection officer)
they intend to leave the UK at the end of their visit and can meet the cost of the return/onward journey
they have completed a landing card and submitted it at passport control unless in direct transit to a destination outside the Common Travel Area[397]
if under the age of 18, they can demonstrate evidence of suitable care arrangements and parental (or guardian's) consent for their stay in the UK[398]

tag: ul

text: However, even though, strictly speaking, he or she is not required to apply for a visa if he or she satisfies all of the above criteria, an Australian citizen who falls into any of the following categories has been strongly advised by the UK Border Agency (replaced by UK Visas and Immigration) to apply for a visa prior to travelling to the UK:

text:
he/she has any unspent criminal convictions in any country
he/she has previously been refused or breached the terms of any entry to the UK, or been deported or otherwise removed from the UK
he/she has previously applied for a visa and been refused one
he/she has been warned by a UK official that he/she should obtain a visa before travelling to the UK

text: Australian citizens who were born before 1983[citation needed] and qualify for the right of abode are able to live and work in the United Kingdom indefinitely.

text: Australian citizens with a grandparent born either in the United Kingdom, Channel Islands or Isle of Man at any time or in the Republic of Ireland on or before 31 March 1922 can apply for UK Ancestry Entry Clearance, which enables them to work in the UK for five years, after which they can apply to settle indefinitely.

text: Australian citizens aged 18 to 30 can apply for a Youth Mobility Scheme visa which allows them to pursue a working holiday in the UK for two years.

text: Visa exemption for New Zealand[edit]

text: By virtue of the Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement, Australian citizens are exempt from the requirement to hold a permit on arrival in New Zealand and may reside or work for an indefinite period as long as:[399]

text:
they present a valid Australian passport OR hold a foreign passport showing their Australian Citizen Endorsement or Australian Citizen Declaratory Visa (either with a label or a confirmation letter) as evidence of their Australian citizenship
they have no criminal convictions
they have no untreated tuberculosis
they have not been deported, excluded or removed from any country

text: Travel ban[edit]

text: It is an offence for Australians to travel or remain in Declared Areas. Those are currently parts of northern Iraq and parts of northern Syria.

text: APEC Business Travel Card[edit]

text: Holders of an APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC)  travelling on business do not require a visa to the following countries:[400]

text:
Brunei1
 Chile1
 China2
 Hong Kong2
 Indonesia2
 Japan1
 South Korea1
 Malaysia2
 Mexico1

 New Zealand1
 Papua New Guinea2
 Peru1
 Philippines3
 Russia1
 Singapore2
 Taiwan1
 Thailand1
 Vietnam2

text:
1 – up to 90 days
2 – up to 60 days
3 – up to 59 days

text: The card must be used in conjunction with a passport and has the following advantages:[401]

text:
no need to apply for a visa or entry permit to APEC countries, as the card is treated as such (except by  Canada and  United States)
undertake legitimate business in participating economies
expedited border crossing in all member economies, including transitional members
expedited scheduling of visa interview (USA)

text: Consular protection of Australian citizens abroad[edit]

text: There are currently over 100 Australian missions overseas.

text:
In some countries Australians may also receive consular assistance from Canadian missions under the Canada–Australia Consular Services Sharing Agreement.

See also: List of diplomatic missions of Australia.

text: Foreign travel statistics[edit]

text: According to the statistics these are the numbers of Australian visitors to various countries per annum in 2015 (unless otherwise noted):

text:
Foreign travel statistics

Destination
Number of Australian visitors

 American Samoa[note 1][402][403]

775

 Angola[404]

702

 Antarctica[note 1][405]

4,488

 Antigua and Barbuda[note 1][406]

761

 Austria[note 2][note 3][407]

143,000

 Azerbaijan[note 3][408]

1,851

 Bahamas[note 4][409]

3,858

 Barbados[note 2][note 3][410]

2,301

 Belgium[note 3][411]

43,276

 Bhutan[note 1][412]

2,249

 Bolivia[note 3][413]

11,044

 Bosnia and Herzegovina[note 1][414]

8,632

 Botswana[415]

15,607

 Brazil[note 1][416]

33,862

 Brunei[note 5][417]

18,845

 Cambodia[note 3][418]

146,806

 Canada[note 1][419]

392,364

 Cayman Islands[note 1][note 6][420]

1,303

 Chile[note 3][421]

50,968

 China[note 3][422][423]

673,200

 Colombia[424]

13,356

 Congo[note 7][425]

69

 Cook Islands[note 1][426][427]

25,912

 Costa Rica[note 1][428]

12,320

 Croatia[note 1][429]

186,323

 Cyprus[note 1][430]

14,655

 Dominica[431]

437

 Dominican Republic[note 1][432]

2,723

 Ecuador[note 8][433]

13,686

 Estonia[note 2][note 1][434]

7,431

 Fiji[note 1][435]

365,689

 Finland[436]

26,959

 France[437]

1,266,509

 French Polynesia[note 1][438]

7,363

 Georgia[note 1][439]

4,611

 Germany[note 3][440]

314,014

 Greece[441]

183,165

 Guatemala[note 8][442]

17,206

 Guam[note 1][note 6][443]

2,255

 Hong Kong[note 1][444]

567,881

 Hungary[note 2][note 3][445]

41,231

 Indonesia[note 3][446]

1,302,291

 India[note 1][447]

324,243

 Israel[note 1][448]

39,900

 Italy[note 3][449]

884,000

 Jamaica[note 1][450]

2,574

 Japan[note 1][451]

495,100

 Jordan[note 3][452]

21,857

 Kazakhstan[note 1][453]

4,225

 Kiribati[note 1][454][455]

1,097

 Kyrgyzstan[note 1][456]

2,500

 Laos[note 3][457]

33,077

 Latvia[note 2][note 1][458]

7,421

 Lebanon[note 3][459]

72,743

 Luxembourg[note 3][note 2][460]

3,525

 Macau[note 1][461]

88,988

 Macedonia[note 3][note 2][462]

5,557

 Madagascar[463]

1,098

 Malaysia[note 1][464]

351,232

 Malawi[note 9][465]

10,250

 Maldives[note 1][466]

27,360

 Mali[note 8][467]

860

 Malta[note 1][468]

35,875

 Marshall Islands[note 1][469]

234

 Mauritius[note 1][470]

21,271

 Mexico[note 1][note 6][471]

84,225

 Micronesia[note 1][472][473]

942

 Mongolia[note 1][474]

6,689

 Montenegro[note 2][note 3][475]

6,103

 Myanmar[note 3][476]

34,010

 Namibia[477]

7,888

 Nauru[note 1][478]

2,171

   Nepal[479]

18,619

 Netherlands[note 8][480]

188,000

 New Caledonia[note 1][481][482]

23,705

 New Zealand[note 1][483]

1,472,160

 Niue[note 1][484][485]

951

 Oman[note 1][486]

17,441

 Pakistan[note 9][487]

13,200

 Palau[note 1][488][489]

661

 Panama[490]

4,349

 Papua New Guinea[note 1][491][492]

70,112

 Peru[note 1][493]

41,810

 Philippines[note 1][494]

259,433

 Qatar[note 1][495]

42,765

 Romania[note 3][496]

16,978

 Russia[note 1][497]

49,259

 Samoa[note 1][498][499]

32,431

 Serbia[note 1][note 2][500]

13,559

 Seychelles[501]

1,661

 Singapore[note 1][502]

1,081,987

 Slovakia[note 3][note 2][503]

7,888

 Slovenia[note 1][note 2][504]

34,205

 Solomon Islands[note 1][505]

10,161

 South Africa[506]

99,205

 South Korea[note 1][507]

150,408

 Sri Lanka[note 1][508]

81,281

 Suriname[note 1][509]

453

 Swaziland[note 3][510]

3,132

 Taiwan[note 1][511]

107,157

 Tanzania[note 3][512]

15,356

 Tonga[note 1][513][514]

12,924

 Thailand[note 1][515]

817,091

 Timor-Leste[note 1][516][note 10][517]

15,186

 Turkey[note 1][518]

77,153

 Tuvalu[note 1][519][520]

320

 Uganda[note 4][521]

7,842

 Ukraine[note 1][522]

5,743

 United Arab Emirates[note 1][523]

279,000

 United Kingdom[note 1][524]

831,000

 United States[note 3][note 11][525][526]

1,529,987

 Vanuatu[note 1][527][528]

57,384

 Vietnam[note 1][529]

370,438

 Zambia[530]

12,363

 Zimbabwe[531]

22,016

text:
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn Data for 2017

^ a b c d e f g h i j k Counting only guests in tourist accommodation establishments.

^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Data for 2016

^ a b Data for 2013

^ Data for 2011

^ a b c Data for arrivals by air only.

^ Data for 2012

^ a b c d Data for 2014

^ a b Data for 2009

^ Data for arrivals by air only.

^ Total number includes tourists, business travelers, students, exchange visitors, temporary workers and families, diplomats and other representatives and all other classes of nonimmigrant admissions (I-94).

text: Non-visa restrictions[edit]

text: Many countries have entry restrictions on foreigners that go beyond the common requirement of having either a valid visa or a visa exemption. Such restrictions may be health related or impose additional documentation requirements on certain classes of people for diplomatic or political purposes.

text: Passport validity length[edit]

text: In the absence of specific bilateral agreements, countries requiring passports to be valid at least 6 months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain,[532] Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Costa Rica, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Israel,[533] Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Kuwait, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mongolia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nepal, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Rwanda, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela and Vietnam.[534]

text: Turkey requires passports to be valid for at least 150 days upon entry.

text: Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia.

text: Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months beyond the period of intended stay include European Union countries (except the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom), Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland (and always excepting EU/EEA/Swiss nationals), Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Nauru, Moldova, New Zealand and 3 months validity on arrival in Albania, Honduras, Macedonia, Panama, Qatar and Senegal.

text: Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry.

text: Countries that require a passport validity of at least one month beyond the period of intended stay include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Lebanon, Macau and South Africa.

text: Other countries require either a passport valid on arrival or a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay. Some countries have bilateral agreements with other countries to shorten the period of passport validity required for each other's citizens[535][536] or even accept passports that have already expired (but not been cancelled).[537]

text: Blank passport pages[edit]

text: Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages in the passport being presented, generally one or two pages.[538] Endorsement pages, which often appear after the visa pages, are not counted as being available.

text: Vaccination[edit]

text: Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Zambia, require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination.

text: Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area or has recently visited one.[539]

text: Israeli stamps[edit]

text: Kuwait,[540] Lebanon,[541] Libya,[542] Saudi Arabia,[543] Sudan,[544] Syria[545] and Yemen[546] do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt.

text: To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel, the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel. Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport, giving passengers a card instead that reads: "Since January 2013 a pilot scheme has been introduced whereby visitors are given an entry card instead of an entry stamp on arrival. You should keep this card with your passport until you leave. This is evidence of your legal entry into Israel and may be required, particularly at any crossing points into the Occupied Palestinian Territories." [547] Passports are still (as of  22 June 2017[update]) stamped at Erez when travelling into and out of Gaza. Also, passports are still stamped (as of  22 June 2017[update]) at the Jordan Valley/Sheikh Hussein and Yitzhak Rabin/Arava land borders with Jordan.

text: Iran refuses admission to holders of passports containing an Israeli visa or stamp that is less than 12 months old.

text: Armenian ethnicity[edit]

text: Due to a state of war existing between Armenia and Azerbaijan, the government of Azerbaijan not only bans entry of citizens from Armenia, but also all citizens and nationals of any other country who are of Armenian descent, to the Republic of Azerbaijan[548][549] (although there have been exceptions, notably for Armenia's participation at the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan).

text: Azerbaijan also strictly bans any visit by foreign citizens to the separatist region of Nagorno-Karabakh[550] (the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh), its surrounding territories and the Azerbaijani exclaves of Karki, Yuxarı Əskipara, Barxudarlı and Sofulu which are de jure part of Azerbaijan but under control of Armenia, without the prior consent of the government of Azerbaijan. Foreign citizens who enter these occupied territories will be permanently banned from entering the Republic of Azerbaijan[551] and will be included in their "list of personae non gratae".[552] As of April 2018 the list contains 710 persons.

text: Upon request, the authorities of the largely unrecognized Republic of Artsakh may attach their visa and/or stamps to a separate piece of paper in order to avoid detection of travel to their country.

text: Criminal record[edit]

text: Some countries (for example: Australia, Canada, Fiji, New Zealand and the United States  [553]) routinely deny entry to non-citizens who have a criminal record.

text: Persona non grata[edit]

text: The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata, banning their entry into that country. In non-diplomatic use, the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner  persona non grata permanently or temporarily, usually because of unlawful activity. Attempts to enter the Gaza strip by sea may attract a 10-year ban on entering Israel.[554]

text: Fingerprinting[edit]

text: Several countries mandate that all travellers, or all foreign travellers, be fingerprinted on arrival and will refuse admission to or even arrest those travellers that refuse to comply. In some countries, such as the United States, this may apply even to transit passengers who merely wish to quickly change planes rather than go landside.[555]

text:
Fingerprinting countries include Afghanistan,[556][557] Argentina,[558]
Brunei,
Cambodia,[559]
China when entering through Shenzhen airport,[560]
Ethiopia,[561]
Ghana, India,
Japan,[562][563]
Malaysia upon entry and departure,[564]
Paraguay, Saudi Arabia,[565] Singapore, South Korea,[566] and Taiwan.[567]

text: Additionally, the United Arab Emirates conducts iris scanning on visitors who need to apply for a visa.[568][569]


document_title: Pine nut

question_text: what is the difference between pine nuts and pinon nuts

text: Pine nut

text: Species and geographic spread[edit]

text: In Europe and places with a Mediterranean climate species are widely harvested, Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis) in northeast Asia (the most important species in international trade), and chilgoza pine (Pinus gerardiana) in the western Himalaya. Four other species, Siberian pine (Pinus sibirica), Siberian dwarf pine (Pinus pumila), Chinese white pine (Pinus armandii) and lacebark pine (Pinus bungeana), are also used to a lesser extent. Russia is the largest producer of Pinus sibirica nuts in the world followed by Mongolia which produces over 10,000 tonnes of forest grown nuts annually, the majority of harvest is exported to China. Afghanistan is an important source of pine nuts, behind China and Korea.[4]

text: Pine nuts produced in Europe mostly come from the stone pine (Pinus pinea), which has been cultivated for its nuts for over 5,000 years, and harvested from wild trees for far longer. The Swiss pine (Pinus cembra) is also used to a very small extent.

text: In North America, the main species are three of the pinyon pines: Colorado pinyon (Pinus edulis), single-leaf pinyon (Pinus monophylla), and Mexican pinyon (Pinus cembroides). The other eight pinyon species are used to a small extent, as are gray pine (Pinus sabineana), Coulter pine (Pinus coulteri), Torrey pine (Pinus torreyana), sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana) and Parry pinyon (Pinus quadrifolia). Here, the nuts themselves are known by the Spanish name for the pinyon pine: piñon (plural: piñones).

text: In the United States, pine nuts are mainly harvested by Native American and Hispano communities, particularly in the Western United States and Southwestern United States, by the Uto-Aztecan Shoshone, Paiute, Navajo, Pueblo, Hopi, Washoe, and Hispanos of New Mexico.[5] Certain treaties negotiated by tribes and laws in Nevada guarantee Native Americans' right to harvest pine nuts,[6] and the state of New Mexico protects the use of the word piñon for use with pine nuts from certain species of indigenous New Mexican pines.[7]

text: The Pinus monophylla seeds, commonly known as the Nevada Soft Shell Pine Nut, are harvested by commercial harvesters in Nevada, and sold throughout the western US.[8]

text: Species list[edit]

text: For those seeking to grow edible landscapes, these are the more commonly used species.

text:
Old World
Pinus pinea – Mediterranean Stone pine
Pinus cembra – Swiss pine
Pinus koraiensis – Korean pine
Pinus gerardiana – Chilgoza pine
Pinus sibirica – Siberian pine
Pinus pumila – Siberian dwarf pine
Pinus armandii – Chinese white pine
Pinus bungeana – lacebark pine
New World
Pinus cembroides – Mexican pinyon
Pinus orizabensis – Orizaba pinyon
Pinus johannis – Johann's pinyon (includes P. discolor – Border pinyon)
Pinus culminicola – Potosi pinyon
Pinus remota – Texas pinyon or papershell pinyon
Pinus edulis – Two-needle piñon or Colorado pinyon (when grown in Colorado)
Pinus monophylla – Single-leaf pinyon
Pinus quadrifolia – Parry pinyon

text: Pollination and seed development[edit]

text: The pine nut (seed) species will take a time that depends on the exact species (e.g. 36 months for a stone pine seed) to complete its maturity; to reach full maturity, the environmental conditions must be favorable for the tree and its cone.

text: For some American species development begins in early spring with pollination. A tiny cone, about the size of a small marble, will form from mid-spring to the end of summer; the premature cone will then become and remain dormant (with a cessation of growth) until the following spring. The cone will then commence growth until it reaches maturity near the end of summer.[9] The mature piñon pine cone is ready to harvest ten days before the green cone begins to open. A cone is harvested by placing it in a burlap bag and exposing it to a heat source such as the sun to begin the drying process. It takes about 20 days until the cone fully opens. Once it is fully open and dry, the seed can be easily extracted in various ways. The most common and practical extraction method used is the repeated striking of the burlap bag containing the cone(s) against a rough surface to cause the cone(s) to shatter, leaving just the job of separating by hand the seed from the residue within the bag.

text: Another option for harvesting is to wait until the cone opens on the tree (as it naturally will) and harvest the cone from the piñon pine, followed by the extracting process mentioned above. Fallen seed can also be gathered beneath the trees.[10]

text: Ecology and status[edit]

text: In the United States, millions of hectares of productive pinyon pine woods have been destroyed due to conversion of lands, and in China, destructive harvesting techniques (such as breaking off whole branches to harvest the cones) and the removal of trees for timber have led to losses in production capacity.[2]

text: Elevation and pinecone production[edit]

text: The elevation of the pinyon pine is an important determinant of the quantity of pine cone production, and therefore, will largely determine the amount of pine nuts the tree will yield.[11]

text: American Pinyon pine cone production is most commonly found at an elevation between 6,000 feet (1,800 m) and 8,500 feet (2,600 m), and ideally at 7,000 feet (2,100 m).  This is due to higher temperatures at elevations lower than 6,000 feet (1,800 m) during the spring, which dry up humidity and moisture content (particularly snow packs) that provide for the tree throughout the spring and summer, causing little nourishment for pine cone maturity.

text: Although there are several other environmental factors that determine the conditions of the eco-system (such as clouds and rain), without sufficient water the trees tend to abort cones. High humidity encourages cone development.[citation needed] There are certain topographical areas found in lower elevations, such as shaded canyons, where the humidity remains constant throughout the spring and summer, allowing pine cones to fully mature and produce seed.

text: At elevations above 8,500 feet (2,600 m), the temperature substantially drops, drastically affecting the state of the dormant cone.  During the winter, frequent dramatic changes in temperature, along with drying, gusty winds, make the cones susceptible to freeze-drying that damages them permanently; in this case, growth is stunted and the seeds wither away.[12]

text: Physical characteristics[edit]

text: Pine nuts contain 10–34% protein depending on species, with stone pine having the highest content.[2] They are also a source of dietary fiber. When first extracted from the pine cone, they are covered with a hard shell (seed coat), thin in some species, thick in others. The nutrition is stored in the embryo (sporophyte) in the centre. Although a nut in the culinary sense, in the botanical sense pine nuts are seeds; being a gymnosperm, they lack a carpel (fruit) outside.

text: The shell must be removed before the pine nut can be eaten. Unshelled pine nuts have a long shelf life if kept dry and refrigerated (−5 °C (23 °F) to 2 °C (36 °F)); shelled nuts (and unshelled nuts in warm conditions) deteriorate rapidly, becoming rancid within a few weeks or even days in warm humid conditions. Pine nuts are commercially available in shelled form, but due to poor storage, can have poor flavor and may be already rancid at the time of purchase. Consequently, pine nuts are often frozen to preserve their flavor.[13]

text: European pine nuts may be distinguished from Asian ones by their greater length in comparison to girth; Asian pine nuts are stubbier, shaped somewhat like long kernels of corn.  The American piñon nuts are known for their large size and ease of shelling. In the United States, P. edulis, the hard shell of New Mexico and Colorado, became a sought-after species due to the trading post system, and the Navajo people who used the nuts as a means of commerce.  The Italian pine nut (P. pinea) was brought to the United States by immigrants, and became a favored treat along the East Coast in the early 1930s, when bumper crops of American pine nuts were readily available at low prices.

text: Culinary uses[edit]

text:
Nuts, pine nuts, shelled, driedNutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)Energy
2,815 kJ (673 kcal)
Carbohydrates
13.1 gStarch
1.4 gSugars
3.6 gDietary fiber
3.7 g

Fat
68.4 gSaturated
4.9 gMonounsaturated
18.7 gPolyunsaturated
34.1 g

Protein
13.7 g

Vitamins
Quantity %DV†Vitamin A equiv.beta-Carotene
0% 1 μg0%17 μgThiamine (B1)
35% 0.4 mgRiboflavin (B2)
17% 0.2 mgNiacin (B3)
29% 4.4 mgPantothenic acid (B5)
6% 0.3 mgVitamin B6
8% 0.1 mgFolate (B9)
9% 34 μgCholine
11% 55.8 mgVitamin C
1% 0.8 mgVitamin E
62% 9.3 mgVitamin K
51% 53.9 μg

Minerals
Quantity %DV†Calcium
2% 16 mgCopper
65% 1.3 mgIron
42% 5.5 mgMagnesium
71% 251 mgManganese
419% 8.8 mgPhosphorus
82% 575 mgPotassium
13% 597 mgSelenium
1% 0.7 μgZinc
67% 6.4 mg

Other constituents
QuantityWater
2.3 g

Units
μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
IU = International units

†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient Database

text: Pine nuts have been eaten in Europe and Asia since the Paleolithic period. They are frequently added to meat, fish, salads and vegetable dishes or baked into bread.

text: In Italian they are called pinoli (in the US they are often called pignoli, but in Italy pignolo is actually a word far more commonly used to describe a fussy, overly fastidious or extremely meticulous person)[14] and are an essential component of Italian pesto sauce; the upsurge in the popularity of this sauce since the 1990s has increased the visibility of the nut in America, primarily on the West Coast. Torta della nonna (literally "granny's cake") is a generic Italian dish name that in most families indicates an old family recipe for any kind of cake but often is used for a tart or a pie filled with custard, topped with pine nuts and optionally dusted with icing sugar. Pignoli cookies, an Italian American specialty confection (in Italy these would be called biscotti ai pinoli), are made of almond flour formed into a dough similar to that of a macaroon and then topped with pine nuts.

text: In Catalonia, a sweet is made of small marzipan balls covered with pine nuts, painted with egg and lightly cooked, and those are called "Panellets". Pine nuts are also featured in the salade landaise of southwestern France. The Nevada, or Great Basin, pine nut has a sweet fruity flavor and is promoted for its large size, sweet flavor and ease of peeling. Pine nuts are also widely used in Middle Eastern cuisine, reflected in a diverse range of dishes such as kibbeh, sambusak, desserts such as baklava, and many others.

text: Throughout Europe and Middle East the pine nuts used are traditionally from Pinus pinea (stone pine).[dubious  – discuss] They are easily distinguished from the Asian pine nuts by their more slender shape and more homogeneous flesh. Because of the lower price, Asian pine nuts are also often used, especially in cheaper preparations. Pine nuts contain thiamine (vitamin B1) and protein.

text: Pine nut coffee, known as piñón (Spanish for pine nut), is a specialty found in the southwest United States, especially New Mexico, and is typically a dark roast coffee having a deep, nutty flavor; roasted and lightly salted pine nuts can often be found sold on the side of the road in cities across New Mexico to be used for this purpose, as well as a snack.

text: Taste disturbances[edit]

text: Pine nuts can cause taste disturbances, lasting from a few days to a few weeks after consumption. A bitter, metallic, unpleasant taste is reported. There are no known lasting effects, with the FDA reporting that there are "no apparent adverse clinical side effects".[15] This phenomenon was first described in a scientific paper in 2001.[16]

text: The Nestlé Research Centre has hypothesized that nuts from Pinus armandii, which occurs mostly in China, are the cause of the problem. The nuts of this species are smaller, duller, and more rounded than typical pine nuts.[17] A 2011 study found results consistent with this hypothesis and also suggested that chemicals used in the shelling process might be responsible.[18]

text: Metallic taste disturbance, known as metallogeusia, is typically reported 1–3 days after ingestion, being worse on day two and typically lasting up to two weeks. Cases are self-limited and resolve without treatment.[19][20] Möller has postulated a hypothesis—to explain both the delayed onset of, and the long-lasting nature of, the metallic or bitter taste sensation—involving a well-known physiological process known as enterohepatic recirculation (EHR), which Möller describes as a "remove-recycle-repeat" digestive process where toxins could potentially circulate through the digestive tract multiple times.[21]

text: Nutritional information (per 100 g)[edit]

text:
Calories: 673 kcal
Carbohydrates: 13.08 g
Fats: 68.37 g
Fibers: 3.7 g
Protein: 13.69 g
Cholesterol: 0 mg

text: Pine nut oil[edit]

text: Pine nuts can be pressed to extract pine nut oil, which is valued for its mild, nutty flavor. One study indicates that Korean pine nut oil may suppress appetite.[22]

text: Other uses[edit]

text: Pine nuts have long been a dietary staple in some Native American tribes. Today, though some tribes still use pine nuts in traditional cooking, others use the hard outer shell of the pine nut as a bead for decorative purposes in traditional regalia and jewelry. In the Great Basin area of the US, collecting pine nuts is a protected right through state law and treaty.[23]

text: In the northern California regions, pine nuts are collected from the Grey Pine (or Bull Pine.) Tribes burn designs into the hard shell, reflecting the same design they use in baskets, however oftentimes they are left in blank, or burned to blacken. These are more often used in women's regalia and jewelry.[24]


document_title: Private school

question_text: where does funding for private schools come from

text: Private school

text: Types of private school[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: In the United Kingdom and several other Commonwealth countries including Australia and Canada, the use of the term is generally restricted to primary and secondary educational levels; it is almost never used of universities and other tertiary institutions. Private education in North America covers the whole gamut of educational activity, ranging from pre-school to tertiary level institutions. Annual tuition fees at K-12 schools range from nothing at so called 'tuition-free' schools to more than $45,000 at several New England preparatory schools.[3]

text: The secondary level includes schools offering years 7 through 12 (year twelve is known as lower sixth) and year 13 (upper sixth). This category includes university-preparatory schools or "prep schools", boarding schools and day schools. Tuition at private secondary schools varies from school to school and depends on many factors, including the location of the school, the willingness of parents to pay, peer tuitions and the school's financial endowment[4]. High tuition, schools claim, is used to pay higher salaries for the best teachers and also used to provide enriched learning environments, including a low student-to-teacher ratio, small class sizes and services, such as libraries, science laboratories and computers. Some private schools are boarding schools and many military academies are privately owned or operated as well.

text: Religiously affiliated and denominational schools form a subcategory of private schools. Some such schools teach religious education, together with the usual academic subjects to impress their particular faith's beliefs and traditions in the students who attend. Others use the denomination as more of a general label to describe on what the founders based their belief, while still maintaining a fine distinction between academics and religion. They include parochial schools[5], a term which is often used to denote Roman Catholic schools. Other religious groups represented in the K–12 private education sector include Protestants, Jews, Muslims and the Orthodox Christians.

text: Many educational alternatives, such as independent schools, are also privately financed. Private schools often avoid some state regulations, although in the name of educational quality, most comply with regulations relating to the educational content of classes. Religious private schools often simply add religious instruction to the courses provided by local public schools.

text: Special assistance schools aim to improve the lives of their students by providing services tailored to very specific needs of individual students. Such schools include tutoring schools and schools to assist the learning of handicapped children.

text: Situation by country[edit]

text: Australia[edit]

text: Private schools are one of three types of school in Australia, the other two being government schools (state schools) and religious. Whilst private schools are sometimes considered "public" schools (as in the Associated Public Schools of Victoria), the term "public school" is usually synonymous with a government school.

text: Private schools in Australia may be favored for many reasons: prestige and the social status of the "old school tie"; better quality physical infrastructure and more facilities (e.g. playing fields, swimming pools, etc.), higher-paid teachers; and/or the belief that private schools offer a higher quality of education. Some schools offer the removal of the purported distractions of co-education; the presence of boarding facilities; or stricter discipline based on their power of expulsion, a tool not readily available to government schools. Student uniforms for Australian private schools are generally stricter and more formal than in government schools – for example, a compulsory blazer. Private schools in Australia are always more expensive than their public counterparts[6]

text: There are two main categories of private schools in Australia: Catholic schools and Independent schools.[7]

text: Catholic schools[edit]

text: Catholic schools form the second largest sector after government schools, with around 21% of secondary enrollments. Most Australian Catholic schools belong to a system, like government schools, are typically co-educational and attempt to provide Catholic education evenly across the states. These schools are also known as "systemic". Systemic Catholic schools are funded mainly by state and federal government and have low fees.

text: Parramatta Marist High School is the oldest Catholic school in Australia, established in 1820[8]

text: Catholic schools, both systemic and independent, typically have a strong religious focus, and usually most of their staff and students will be Catholic.[7]

text: Independent schools[edit]

text: Independent schools make up the last sector and are the most popular form of schooling for boarding students. Independent schools are non-government institutions that are generally not part of a system.

text: Although most are non-aligned, some of the best known independent schools also belong to the large, long-established religious foundations, such as the Anglican Church, Uniting Church and Presbyterian Church, but in most cases, they do not insist on their students' religious allegiance. These schools are typically viewed as "elite schools". Many of the "grammar schools" also fall in this category. They are usually expensive schools that tend to be up-market and traditional in style, some Catholic schools fall into this category as well, e.g. St Joseph's College, Gregory Terrace, Saint Ignatius' College, Riverview, St Gregory's College, Campbelltown, St Aloysius' College (Sydney) and St Joseph's College, Hunters Hill, as well as Loreto Kirribilli, Monte Sant Angelo Mercy College, St Ursula's College and Loreto Normanhurst for girls.

text: Lower-fee independent schools exist and are often conducted by religious affiliations such as the Greek Orthodox church and other less prominent Christian denominations.

text: Canada[edit]

text: In 1999, 5.6% of Canadian students were enrolled in private schools,[9] some of which are religious or faith-based schools, including Christian, Catholic, Jewish, and Islamic schools. Some private schools in Canada are considered world class, especially some boarding schools with a long and illustrious history. Private schools have sometimes been controversial, with some[10] in the media and in Ontario's Provincial Ministry of Education asserting that students may buy inflated grades from private schools.[11]

text: Germany[edit]

text: The right to create private schools in Germany is in Article 7, Paragraph 4 of the Grundgesetz and cannot be suspended even in a state of emergency. It is also not possible to abolish these rights. This unusual protection of private schools was implemented to protect these schools from a second Gleichschaltung or similar event in the future. Still, they are less common than in many other countries. Overall, between 1992 and 2008 the percent of pupils in such schools in Germany increased from 6.1% to 7.8% (including rise from 0.5% to 6.1% in the former GDR). Percent of students in private high schools reached 11.1%.[12]

text: There are two types of private schools in Germany, Ersatzschulen (literally: substitute schools) and Ergänzungsschulen (literally: auxiliary schools). There are also private Hochschulen (private colleges and universities) in Germany, but similar to the UK, the term private school is almost never used of universities or other tertiary institutions.

text: Ersatzschulen are ordinary primary or secondary schools, which are run by private individuals, private organizations or religious groups. These schools offer the same types of diplomas as public schools. Ersatzschulen lack the freedom to operate completely outside government regulation. Teachers at Ersatzschulen must have at least the same education and at least the same wages as teachers at public schools, an Ersatzschule must have at least the same academic standards as a public school and Article 7, Paragraph 4 of the Grundgesetz, also forbids segregation of pupils according to the means of their parents (the so-called Sonderungsverbot). Therefore, most Ersatzschulen have very low tuition fees and/or offer scholarships, compared to most other Western European countries. However, it is not possible to finance these schools with such low tuition fees, which is why all German Ersatzschulen are additionally financed with public funds. The percentages of public money could reach 100% of the personnel expenditures. Nevertheless, Private Schools became insolvent in the past in Germany.

text: Ergänzungsschulen are secondary or post-secondary (non-tertiary) schools, which are run by private individuals, private organizations or rarely, religious groups and offer a type of education which is not available at public schools. Most of these schools are vocational schools. However, these vocational schools are not part of the German dual education system. Ergänzungsschulen have the freedom to operate outside government regulation and are funded in whole by charging their students tuition fees.

text: Italy[edit]

text: In Italy, private schools account for about one-fifth of the Italian schools, as education is predominantly public. About one out of 10 Italian students attends a private school, while others go to public school. The Italian constitution states that education be public, free[13] and compulsory for at least 8 years.

text: The majority of schools not administered by the state are Catholic. In the period 2008–2009 Catholic schools were about 57% of all private schools, with a tendency to decrease.

text: India[edit]

text: In India, private schools are called independent schools, but since some private schools receive financial aid from the government, it can be an aided or an unaided school. So, in a strict sense, a private school is an unaided independent school. For the purpose of this definition, only receipt of financial aid is considered, not land purchased from the government at a subsidized rate. It is within the power of both the union government and the state governments to govern schools since Education appears in the Concurrent list of legislative subjects in the constitution. The practice has been for the union government to provide the broad policy directions while the states create their own rules and regulations for the administration of the sector. Among other things, this has also resulted in 30 different Examination Boards or academic authorities that conduct examinations for school leaving certificates. Prominent Examination Boards that are present in multiple states are the CBSE and the CISCE, NENBSE

text: Legally, only non-profit trusts and societies can run schools in India. They will have to satisfy a number of infrastructure and human resource related criteria to get Recognition (a form of license) from the government. Critics of this system point out that this leads to corruption by school inspectors who check compliance and to fewer schools in a country that has the largest adult illiterate population in the world. While official data does not capture the real extent of private schooling in the country, various studies have reported unpopularity of government schools and an increasing number of private schools. The Annual Status of Education Report (ASER), which evaluates learning levels in rural India, has been reporting poorer academic achievement in government schools than in private schools. A key difference between the government and private schools is that the medium of education in private schools is English while it is the local language in government schools.

text: Indonesia[edit]

text: In Indonesia, private schools are usually in larger cities. All private schools in Indonesia are established by foundations. The costs of education are not subsidised from the government. The differences between private schools and public schools depends on each school. Each private school applies policies from the Indonesian Government, and all private schools give the opportunity of additional activities whether cultural or for sport.

text: Ireland[edit]

text: In Ireland, private schools (Irish: scoil phríobháideach) are unusual because a certain number of teacher's salaries are paid by the State. If the school wishes to employ extra teachers they are paid for with school fees, which tend to be relatively low in Ireland compared to the rest of the world. There is, however, a limited element of state assessment of private schools, because of the requirement that the state ensure that children receive a certain minimum education; Irish private schools must still work towards the Junior Certificate and the Leaving Certificate, for example. Many private schools in Ireland also double as boarding schools. The average fee is around €5,000 annually for most schools, but some of these schools also provide boarding and the fees may then rise up to €25,000 per year. The fee-paying schools are usually run by a religious order, i.e., the Society of Jesus or Congregation of Christian Brothers, etc.

text: There are also a small number of private international schools in Ireland, including a French school, a Japanese school and a German school.

text: Lebanon[edit]

text: In Lebanon the vast majority of students attend private schools, most of which are owned and operated by the Maronite Church. Government owned schools do exist, but only a small percentage of the population attend these aging structures, most of which were built in the mid-twentieth century. Educational standards are very high in Lebanon, but only those who can afford them are found in these schools. This presents a massive issue as not only does it place a burden on parents and younger families, but it also prevents certain individuals from realizing their full potential.

text: Lebanon utilizes an unusual mixed system, with French, English and American systems intertwining, sometimes in the same facility. As of 2015, approximately 85% of Secondary and High School graduates continued on to university.

text: Malaysia[edit]

text: Chinese schools were being founded by the ethnic Chinese in Malaya as early as the 19th century. The schools were set up with the main intention of providing education in the Chinese language. As such, their students remain largely Chinese to this day even though the school themselves are open to people of all races and backgrounds.

text: After Malaysia's independence in 1957, the government instructed all schools to surrender their properties and be assimilated into the National School system. This caused an uproar among the Chinese and a compromise was achieved in that the schools would instead become "National Type" schools. Under such a system, the government is only in charge of the school curriculum and teaching personnel while the lands still belonged to the schools. While Chinese primary schools were allowed to retain Chinese as the medium of instruction, Chinese secondary schools are required to change into English-medium schools. Over 60 schools converted to become National Type schools.

text: Nepal[edit]

text: In much of Nepal, the schooling offered by the state governments would technically come under the category of "public schools". They are federal or state funded and have zero or minimal fees.

text: The other category of schools are those run and partly or fully funded by private individuals, private organizations and religious groups. The ones that accept government funds are called 'aided' schools. The private 'un-aided' schools are fully funded by private parties. The standard and the quality of education is quite high. Technically, these would be categorized as private schools, but many of them have the name "Public School" appended to them, e.g., the Galaxy Public School in Kathmandu. Most of the middle-class families send their children to such schools, which might be in their own city or far off, like boarding schools. The medium of education is English, but as a compulsory subject, Nepali and/or the state's official language is also taught. Preschool education is mostly limited to organized neighbourhood nursery schools.

text: Netherlands[edit]

text: In The Netherlands over two-thirds of state-funded schools operate autonomously, with many of these schools being linked to faith groups.[14] The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, ranks the education in the Netherlands as the 9th best in the world as of 2008, being significantly higher than the OECD average.[15]

text: New Zealand[edit]

text: As of April 2014, there were 88 private schools in New Zealand, catering for around 28,000 students or 3.7% of the entire student population.[16] Private school numbers have been in decline since the mid-1970s as a result of many private schools opting to become state-integrated schools, mostly due of financial difficulties stemming from changes in student numbers and/or the economy. State-integrated schools keep their private school special character and receives state funds in return for having to operate like a state school, e.g. they must teach the state curriculum, they must employ registered teachers, and they can't charge tuition fees (they can charge "attendance dues" for the upkeep on the still-private school land and buildings). The largest decline in private school numbers occurred between 1979 and 1984, when the nation's then-private Catholic school system integrated. As a result, private schools in New Zealand are now largely restricted to the largest cities (Auckland, Hamilton, Wellington and Christchurch) and niche markets.

text: Private schools are almost fully funded by tuition fees paid by students' parents, but they do receive some government subsidies. Private schools are popular for academic and sporting performance, prestige, exclusivity and old boys/girls networks; however, many state-integrated schools and some prestigious single-sex state schools, such as Auckland Grammar School and Wellington College, are actively competitive with private schools in academic and sporting achievement, history and character.

text: Private schools are often Anglican, such as King's College and Diocesan School for Girls in Auckland, St Paul's Collegiate School in Hamilton, St Peter's School in Cambridge, Samuel Marsden Collegiate School in Wellington, and Christ's College and St Margaret's College in Christchurch; or Presbyterian, such as Saint Kentigern College and St Cuthbert's College in Auckland, Scots College and Queen Margaret College in Wellington, and St Andrew's College and Rangi Ruru Girls' School in Christchurch. However, the Catholic schismatic group, the Society of St Pius X in Wanganui operates three private schools (including the secondary school, St Dominic's College).

text: A recent group of private schools run as a business has been formed by Academic Colleges Group; with schools throughout Auckland, including ACG Senior College in Auckland’s CBD, ACG Parnell College in Parnell, and international school ACG New Zealand International College.

text: Oman[edit]

text: Oman retains a number of independent private coeducational day schools of international renown and a majority of which are private educational grammar establishments offering Classics beyond Latin and Greek to include the ancient literary studies of Sanskrit, Hebrew and Arabic. Notable ones include the American British Academy, the British School Muscat, the Pakistan School Muscat, the Indian School Al Ghubra and The Sultan's School (also see List of Private Schools in Oman).

text: Philippines[edit]

text: In the Philippines, the private sector has been a major provider of educational services, accounting for about 7.5% of primary enrollment, 32% of secondary enrollment and about 80% of tertiary enrollment. Private schools have proven to be efficient in resource utilization. Per unit costs in private schools are generally lower when compared to public schools. This situation is more evident at the tertiary level. Government regulations have given private education more flexibility and autonomy in recent years, notably by lifting the moratorium on applications for new courses, new schools and conversions, by liberalizing tuition fee policy for private schools, by replacing values education for third and fourth years with English, mathematics and natural science at the option of the school, and by issuing the revised Manual of Regulations for Private Schools in August 1992.

text: The Education Service Contracting scheme of the government provides financial assistance for tuition and other school fees of students turned away from public high schools because of enrollment overflows. The Tuition Fee Supplement is geared to students enrolled in priority courses in post-secondary and non-degree programmes, including vocational and technical courses. The Private Education Student Financial Assistance is made available to underprivileged, but deserving high school graduates, who wish to pursue college/technical education in private colleges and universities.

text: In the school year 2001/02, there were 4,529 private elementary schools (out of a total of 40,763) and 3,261 private secondary schools (out of a total of 7,683). In 2002/03, there were 1,297 private higher education institutions (out of a total of 1,470).

text: Portugal[edit]

text: In Portugal, private schools were traditionally set up by foreign expatriates and diplomats in order to cater for their educational needs. Portuguese speaking private schools are mainly concentrated in Lisbon and Porto. The Ministério da Educação acts as the supervisory and regulatory body for all schools, including international schools.

text: Singapore[edit]

text: In Singapore, after Primary School Leaving Examination or PSLE for short, students can choose to enter a private high school.

text: South Africa[edit]

text: Some of the oldest schools in South Africa are private church schools that were established by missionaries in the early nineteenth century. The private sector has grown ever since. After the abolition of apartheid, the laws governing private education in South Africa changed significantly. The South African Schools Act of 1996[17] recognizes two categories of schools: "public" (state-controlled) and "independent" (which includes traditional private schools and schools which are privately governed

text: In the final years of the apartheid era, parents at white government schools were given the option to convert to a "semi-private" form called Model C, and many of these schools changed their admissions policies to accept children of other races. Following the transition to democracy, the legal form of "Model C" was abolished, however, the term continues to be used to describe government schools formerly reserved for white children.[18] These schools tend to produce better academic results than government schools formerly reserved for other race groups.[19] Former "Model C" schools are not private schools, as they are state-controlled. All schools in South Africa (including both independent schools and public schools) have the right to set compulsory school fees, and formerly model C schools tend to set much higher school fees than other public schools.

text: Sweden[edit]

text: In Sweden, pupils are free to choose a private school and the private school gets paid the same amount as municipal schools. Over 10% of Swedish pupils were enrolled in private schools in 2008. Sweden is internationally known for this innovative school voucher model that provides Swedish pupils with the opportunity to choose the school they prefer.[20][21][22][23][24] For instance, the biggest school chain, Kunskapsskolan (“The Knowledge School”), offers 30 schools and a web-based environment, has 700 employees and teaches nearly 10,000 pupils.[20] The Swedish system has been recommended to Barack Obama.[25]

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: Private schools generally prefer to be called independent schools, because of their freedom to operate outside government and local government control. Some of these are also known as public schools. Preparatory schools in the UK prepare pupils up to 13 years old to enter public schools. According to The Good Schools Guide about 9% of children being educated in the UK are at fee-paying schools at GCSE level and 13% at A-level.[citation needed] Many independent schools are single-sex (though this is becoming less common).[26] Fees range from under £3,000 to £21,000 and above per year for day pupils, rising to £27,000+ per year for boarders.[27] For details in Scotland, see "Meeting the Cost".[28]

text: On August 15, 2010 The Observer reported that the gap in A Level achievement between private schools and state schools in the UK was set to widen, with three times as many privately educated students achieving the new grade A*. The paper also noted that according to the fair access watchdog bright students from the poorest backgrounds are seven times less likely to go to a top university than their richer peers.[29]

text: One in four children come from postcodes on or below national average income and one in three receives fee assistance.[30] However, since actual pupils' family incomes, which may be well above the average for a particular postcode area, were not determined, these figures are somewhat meaningless.

text: Evidence from a major longitudinal study suggests that British private schools provide advantages in educational attainment and access to top universities,[31] and that graduates of private schools have a labour market advantage even controlling for their educational qualifications.[32]

text: United States[edit]

text: In the United States, the term "private school" can be correctly applied to any school for which the facilities and funding are not provided by the federal, state or local government; as opposed to a "public school", which is operated by the government or in the case of charter schools, independently with government funding and regulation. The majority of private schools in the United States are operated by religious institutions and organizations.[33]

text: Private schools are generally exempt from most educational regulations at the Federal level but are highly regulated at the state level.[34] These typically require them to follow the spirit of regulations concerning the content of courses in an attempt to provide a level of education equal to or better than that available in public schools.

text: In the nineteenth century, as a response to the perceived domination of the public school systems by Protestant political and religious ideas, many Roman Catholic parish churches, dioceses and religious orders established schools, which operate entirely without government funding. For many years, the vast majority of private schools in the United States were Catholic schools.

text: A similar perception (possibly relating to the evolution vs. creationism debates) emerged in the late twentieth century among Protestants, which has resulted in the widespread establishment of new, private schools.[citation needed]

text: In many parts of the United States, after the 1954 decision in the landmark court case Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka that demanded United States schools desegregate "with all deliberate speed", local families organized a wave of private "Christian academies". In much of the U.S. South, many white students migrated to the academies, while public schools became in turn more heavily concentrated with African-American students (see List of private schools in Mississippi). The academic content of the academies was usually College Preparatory. Since the 1970s, many of these "segregation academies" have shut down, although some continue to operate.[citation needed]

text: Funding for private schools is generally provided through student tuition, endowments, scholarship/school voucher funds, and donations and grants from religious organizations or private individuals. Government funding for religious schools is either subject to restrictions or possibly forbidden, according to the courts' interpretation of the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment or individual state Blaine Amendments. Non-religious private schools theoretically could qualify for such funding without hassle, preferring the advantages of independent control of their student admissions and course content instead of the public funding they could get with charter status.

text: A similar concept, recently emerging from within the public school system, is the concept of "charter schools", which are technically independent public schools, but in many respects operate similarly to non-religious private schools.

text: Private schooling in the United States has been debated by educators, lawmakers and parents, since the beginnings of compulsory education in Massachusetts in 1852. The Supreme Court precedent appears to favor educational choice, so long as states may set standards for educational accomplishment. Some of the most relevant Supreme Court case law on this is as follows: Runyon v. McCrary, 427 U.S. 160 (1976); Wisconsin v. Yoder, 406 U.S. 205 (1972); Pierce v. Society of Sisters, 268 U.S. 510 (1925); Meyer v. Nebraska, 262 U.S. 390 (1923).

text: There is a potential conflict between the values espoused in the above cited cases and the limitations set forward in Article 29 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, which is below described.[35]

text: As of 2012, quality private schools in the United States charged substantial tuition, close to $40,000 annually for day schools in New York City, and nearly $50,000 for boarding schools. However, tuition did not cover operating expenses, particularly at boarding schools. The leading schools such as the Groton School had substantial endowments running to hundreds of millions of dollars supplemented by fundraising drives. Boarding schools with a reputation for quality in the United States have a student body drawn from throughout the country, indeed the globe, and a list of applicants which far exceeds their capacity.[36]