document_title: List of prisoners with whole-life orders

question_text: who is the longest serving prisoner in the uk

root

text: Imposed by Home Secretaries[edit]

text: Successive Home Secretaries are known to have imposed whole life orders for at least 23 murderers between 1983 and 2002 (note, this list is incomplete):

tag: p

text:
Name
Nickname
Year
Died
Notes

John Straffen

1952
2007
Britain's longest serving prisoner, who spent 55 years in prison until his death. Straffen was convicted of murdering two pre-teen girls in July 1951. The following year, he escaped for a four-hour period and was convicted of murdering another girl during this short spell at large, although he long proclaimed his innocence. Straffen was reprieved from a death sentence owing to learning difficulties, and instead remained in prison for the rest of his life. He died, aged 77, at Frankland prison in November 2007.[3] For the final five years of his life, he was the oldest prisoner known to be serving a whole life-tariff, following the death of Archibald Hall.

Ian Brady
Moors murderer
1966
2017
One of the Moors Murderers who was convicted, in May 1966, of murdering three children between 1963 and 1965. He was convicted just six months after the abolition of the death penalty, and less than two years after final executions in Britain. His trial judge said it was unlikely that Brady could ever be rehabilitated and considered for parole.
With accomplice Myra Hindley, he buried the children in shallow graves on Saddleworth Moor. From 1985 until his death he was held in a mental hospital and was on long-term hunger strike, which led to him being force-fed through a tube. In 2001, he published a book on serial killing. The body of one of his victims, 12-year-old Keith Bennett, remains undiscovered on the Moor, despite Brady's and Hindley's own heavily guarded efforts to locate the remains themselves after they admitted two further murders in 1986; they did, however, guide police to the buried body of 16-year-old Pauline Reade in 1987.
In 2006, Brady wrote to Keith Bennett's mother to claim he remembered enough to be taken to within 20 yards of the grave, but was not permitted to do so.[4]
Brady died, aged 79, at Ashworth Hospital in May 2017.[5]

Myra Hindley
Moors murderer
1966
2002
The other of the Moors Murderers, Ian Brady's girlfriend and accomplice who was involved in all five murders with Brady. She was convicted of two of three murders which were detected in 1965, and of being an accessory in the third murder, as she was not present when Brady committed the murder. The convictions of Brady and Hindley came just six months after the abolition of the death penalty, and less than two years after the last execution in Britain - although more than 10 years had passed since the last execution of a woman in Britain. In 1986, she and Brady confessed to two more murders and returned to the moors to help police find the body of one of the victims, although the final body has still not been found.
Hindley's trial judge recommended she should serve at least 25 years in prison, which was endorsed in 1982 by the Lord Chief Justice. Reports suggested that Hindley was rehabilitating in prison and had found religion and rejected Brady and her past, but her tariff was increased to 30 years in 1988 and, finally, to a whole-life tariff two years later, although she was not informed of the whole-life tariff until 1994. Hindley's supporters, including penal reformer Lord Longford, journalist David Astor and prison governor Peter Timms, claimed that the increase in Hindley's sentence was the response of a succession of Home Secretaries to public opinion, as there was widespread public opposition to Hindley ever being released. Relatives of the Moors Murders victims were at the centre of a campaign to keep Hindley imprisoned and several of them vowed to kill her[6] if she was ever paroled.
Hindley subsequently made three appeals against the whole life tariff, but each appeal was unsuccessful she died in jail at the age of 60 in November 2002, less than two weeks before a law lords' ruling which could potentially have secured her freedom.[7] Her case prompted more debate than that of any other prisoner of notoriety, with some high-profile backing from the House of Lords, but vitriol from the press and the public, as well as the families of her victims. Lord Longford, who died just over a year before Hindley, regularly condemned the media for their "exploitation" of Ann West, mother of one of the victims, who gave regular newspaper and television interviews to argue against any suggestion of release from prison, and vowed to kill Hindley if she ever was released.
Her death left only Rosemary West (jailed for life for 10 murders in 1995) as a confirmed female prisoner serving a whole-life tariff, until the addition of Joanne Dennehy, in 2014.[8]

Donald Neilson
Black Panther
1976
2011
The Black Panther, nicknamed for wearing a black balaclava, shot dead three postmasters during robberies in various areas of the country, then abducted a 17-year-old heiress from her Shropshire home. He attempted to ransom the heiress, but her body was found two months later in a drain in Staffordshire, being convicted in July 1976 after being caught when two police officers he took hostage overpowered him in December 1975. In 2008, Neilson lost an appeal to have his tariff reduced to 30 years. He remained in prison until his death three years later, having served 35 years.[9][10]

Trevor Hardy
The Beast of Manchester
1976
2012
Trevor Joseph Hardy murdered three teenage girls between December 1974 and March 1976. Janet Lesley Stewart, 15, was murdered on New Year's Eve 1974 and buried in a shallow grave in Newton Heath, North Manchester. She had been stabbed. Wanda Skala, 17, was murdered in July 1975 on Lightbowne Road, Moston. She was hit over the head with a paving stone and sexually assaulted. Sharon Mosoph, 17, was murdered in March 1976, and dumped in the Rochdale Canal at Failsworth, Oldham. She had been strangled and mutilated after walking by when Hardy was attempting to burgle a shopping centre at night. He was suspected of committing other murders. At the height of the hunt for the serial killer, 23,000 people were stopped and searched. The case is not widely known and only one independent publication exists which covers the case. Trevor Hardy was arrested for the murders of Wanda Skala and Sharon Mosoph during 1976. In August 1976 he confessed to both murders and also to that of Janet Lesley Stewart – who until then had been a missing person. Despite the alibis provided by his girlfriend Sheilagh Farrow, Hardy was found guilty of the murders and sentenced to life imprisonment in May 1978. He remained in prison until his death 36 years later, by which time he was one of the longest serving prisoners in Britain.

Robert Maudsley
Hannibal the Cannibal
1977

Robert John Maudsley (born June 1953) is a serial killer who killed four people. He committed three of these murders in prison after receiving a life sentence for a single murder in the mid 1970s. He was alleged to have eaten part of the brain of one of three men he killed in prison, which earned him the nickname "Hannibal the Cannibal" among the British press. He committed his first murder by strangling labourer John Farrell after he allegedly showed him pictures of children he abused and was declared not fit to stand trial and sent to Broadmoor in 1973. In 1977 he and David Chessman took fellow patient David Francis hostage and tortured him to death and as a result was convicted of manslaughter and sent to Wakefield prison. At Wakefield in July 1978 he killed two fellow prisoners, luring Salney Darwood into his cell and slitting his throat and then smashing Bill Roberts head against a wall at a later time, this time being convicted of double murder at his trial in 1979.
He has served much of his sentence in solitary confinement to prevent him from attacking or killing any more inmates, some of it at Parkhurst prison, but mostly at Wakefield prison in a cell said to resemble Hannibal Lecter's in the film The Silence of the Lambs with cardboard furniture. He became Britains longest serving prisoner after the death of Ian Brady in May 2017.[11][12][13][14]

Archibald Hall
Killer Butler or Monster Butler
1978
2002
The Killer Butler or Monster Butler, so named as he committed his murders while working in service to members of the British aristocracy as a butler. Hall, also known as Roy Fontaine, was a Glaswegian thief and confidence trickster with numerous convictions and prison sentences by the time he committed his first murder, of an ex-cellmate, whom he shot and buried after an argument over some jewellery stolen from Hall's employer. Hall moved to London and began serving an elderly ex-MP and his wife, and with accomplice Michael Kitto, he killed and buried them both after late-night plans to rob them were disturbed. They then killed a female acquaintance and dumped her body in a barn after she refused to destroy a fur coat which was potentially incriminating evidence, and lastly Hall murdered his half-brother, a convicted child molester who was asking too many questions, before beginning a journey to Scotland with the intention of again burying the body. Having stopped at a hotel for the night when the weather became too hazardous for driving, Hall and Kitto were caught when the hotelier, concerned that the two suspicious-looking guests might not pay their bill, called the police. They found the body in Hall's car boot, and Hall later showed them the three gruesome burial sites. After trials in London and Edinburgh, Hall received four life sentences and Kitto three at their trial in May 1978, with one judge recommending that Hall should never be freed. This recommendation was upheld when the list of confirmed whole-life tariff prisoners was published, and Hall was the oldest prisoner on the list. He publicly requested the right to die in 1995, and did so of a stroke in 2002, while still in prison. At 78, he was one of the oldest prisoners in Britain. Three years earlier, he had published his autobiography.

John Childs

1979

John Childs was convicted of the murder of six people in contract killings which were committed between 1974 and 1978; he implicated two others and they were convicted in 1980, but they were released on appeal in 2003 after his evidence was called into question.[13][15] He murdered Terence Eve in 1974, Robert Brown in 1975, George Brett and his 10-year-old son Terry Brett later on in 1975, Fred Sherwood in 1978 and Ronald Andrews later on in 1978 and was jailed in December 1979, with the murders being committed by shooting and stabbing. He confessed to a journalist in 1998 of five more murders while in prison, he appealed against his conviction in 2014 and his whole life sentence in 2016 but was rejected each time on account of his crimes being "exceptionally serious".[16][17]

Dennis Nilsen
Muswell Hill Murderer
1983
-
A civil servant and former policeman who murdered and dismembered 15 young men at his homes in North London, storing the body parts inside and around the residences. Nilsen was arrested after workmen investigating a blocked and odorous drain found human flesh. Nilsen's trial judge originally recommended a 25-year minimum sentence in November 1983, but successive Home Secretaries decided that he should never be released from prison. The November 2002 law lords' ruling meant that Nilsen could have been released from prison as early as 2008; however, this has not transpired and he remains imprisoned. Nilsen has also been denied the right to publish his autobiography in addition to music and poetry from prison.

Arthur Hutchinson

1984
-
A fugitive who in 1983 gatecrashed a wedding reception at a house in Sheffield shortly after the bride and groom had left and stabbed to death the bride's father, mother and brother, before raping her sister at knifepoint. Police quickly labelled him as the killer after identifying a handprint on a champagne bottle and a bitemark in a piece of cheese. He was already on the run from answering a charge of violent rape and had previous convictions for offences of violence, indecent assault and dishonesty. He was convicted in 1984 and sentenced to life imprisonment with a recommended minimum term of 18 years in September 1984. However, he remains in prison more than 30 years on, having been issued with a whole-life tariff by the Home Secretary, Leon Brittan. Hutchinson has since appealed against this ruling twice through the High Court, but the court upheld the decision of the Home Secretary on both occasions, meaning he is likely to die in prison. Appeals to the European Court of Human Rights in February 2015 and January 2017 were also unsuccessful, with the court's Grand Chamber ruling that whole life sentences could still be issued provided they were reviewed within 25 years.

Jeremy Bamber

1986
-
In October 1986, he was found guilty of shooting dead his adoptive parents, sister and six-year-old twin nephews at the family farmhouse in Essex 14 months earlier, in order to claim a six-figure inheritance while also laying evidence to suggest his sister, a schizophrenic, had committed the murders before killing herself. This was the police's original line of inquiry and the media reported the deaths as a murder-suicide, but within weeks of the murders being committed the line of the police investigation had changed and Bamber was charged with five murders.
His trial judge said in sentencing him that he found the idea of ever seeing Bamber free again "difficult to foresee", and advised that he should serve at least 25 years behind bars before release could even be considered. Before the law lords' ruling in November 2002, Bamber was told by at least one Home Secretary that his life sentence would mean life.

Anthony Entwistle

1987
-
Entwhistle, then aged 38, murdered 16-year old Michelle Calvy in April 1987, abducting her from a towpath in Blackburn, raping her, and strangling her with her T-shirt.[18] He dumped her body in Tockholes. The murder was 18 days after his release from a 10-year sentence in 1980 for rape, which followed another seven-year sentence in 1974 for sexually assaulting two women. He was found guilty of Calvy's murder at Preston Crown Court in March 1988, and sentenced to life imprisonment with trial judge Mr. Justice Rose recommending a minimum term of 25 years.[18] He was later given a whole-life tariff by the Home Secretary Douglas Hurd.[10][19][20] In 2009, Mr. Justice Davis ruled at the High Court that Entwistle could be considered for release after 25 years (less 10 months spent on remand) if he was judged to no longer be a threat to the public, rather than imposing a whole life tariff, saying that "He can only be released if ever (and it may be never) he is assessed as no longer a danger to the public."[21][22] The parole board turned down his request for release in June 2013.[23]

Victor Miller

1988
-
A predator who abducted, sexually assaulted and battered to death a 14-year-old boy from Hagley in Worcestershire in February 1988. He confessed after being arrested for an unrelated crime soon afterwards and led detectives to the body. Police later revealed they believed Miller was responsible for almost 30 unsolved sexual assaults. In court later that year, he confessed openly to the killing and asked for the maximum sentence available. Although he was set a tariff of 25 years which was reactivated after the November 2002 law lords' ruling, meaning he could be considered for release in 2013. Since his trial, Miller has asked that the appropriate authorities should not consider him for release at any point in the future, and therefore actively wishes to die in prison. Miller's trial judge had also expressed doubt as to whether it would ever be safe to release him.

John Duffy
Railway Killer
1988
-
The Railway Killer, who attacked numerous women in the south of England, raping all of them and murdering three, before revolutionary psychological profiling helped police to catch him, although they got no nearer the accomplice they knew Duffy worked with. He was given a 30-year tariff for two murders and seven rapes which, after the law lords' ruling, was reactivated, meaning that he could be considered for release in 2018. After 12 years in prison, Duffy went on a conscience-clearing exercise, admitting to a third killing of which he had been originally acquitted, and implicating schoolfriend David Mulcahy as his accomplice. He also revealed his part in countless other rapes, for which he received a further 12 years. After Duffy gave evidence against him, Mulcahy was jailed for life for three murders and seven rapes in 2001 but is not believed to be among the prisoners who have been issued with a whole life tariff.

Anthony Arkwright

1989
-
Arkwright was arrested after he hacked and battered to death three people, including his elderly grandfather, a two-day killing spree in South Yorkshire during August 1988 when aged 21, which means he is likely to be the youngest offender to have been issued with a whole life tariff by any of the appropriate authorities. He was convicted of all three murders and sentenced to life imprisonment the following year. He was also suspected of a fourth murder committed around the same time but never charged.[24]

Mark Robinson

1989
-
Mark Robinson killed Patrica Anne Wagner at the age of 17 after she threatened to tell his mother about the affair the two were having, to which Robinson responded by strangling her. When he was released in 1989, he met Sharon Morley in Wakefield, with the two moving to Billingham shortly after, however Sharon wanted to move back to Wakefield which caused arguments. On 19 September 1989 he discovered a photo of her former boyfriend and in the argument that followed, he beat and stabbed her to death. He was sentenced to life imprisonment at his trial and was later issued with a whole-life tariff.[25]

Victor Castigador

1990
2017
A Filipino illegal immigrant who led a gang of robbers on a grudge attack at a London amusement arcade where he himself worked. Four members of staff were tied up, locked in a cage within the vault before being doused in white spirit and set alight. Two died, two suffered serious burns. Castigador received an initial 25-year tariff from his trial judge which was duly extended to a whole life tariff, but the November 2002 law lords' ruling means that he could have been released from prison as early as 2015 (by which time he will have been 61 years old) if the parole board decided he was no longer a danger to the public, however Castigador was charged with murder on 20 June 2016 after murdering a fellow inmate.[26] He admitted the murder and was sentenced to another whole-life tariff in October.[27] He died in Woodhill prison in March 2017.[28] One of his teenage accomplices was sentenced to life with a recommended minimum of 20 years; a subsequent appeal against this recommendation at the High Court was rejected.

Malcolm Green

1991
-
Malcolm Green was jailed for life in 1971 for the brutal murder of a Cardiff prostitute. He spent 18 years in prison before being released on parole in 1989. Soon afterwards, he bludgeoned to death a young tourist from New Zealand. Green dismembered the body, wrapped it in plastic bags, and dumped it in different places along a road in South Wales. He was sentenced to life again in October 1991, with a recommendation that he should serve a minimum of 25 years, but was given a whole-life tariff by the Home Secretary.[29]

Colin Ireland
Gay Slayer
1993
2012
The Gay Slayer, who set about achieving a New Year's resolution to become a serial killer by targeting patrons of a public house frequented by gay men. Ireland pretended to be homosexual in order to be taken to each of his victims' homes, where he took advantage of their desire for S&M activity to truss, torture and murder them, often then robbing them to cover his travelling expenses as he was unemployed. He was able to continue as police found initial difficulty in linking the killings to one perpetrator. Ireland was caught when he visited police to try and explain his sighting on closed-circuit television with his final victim, however his fingerprint was subsequently matched to one found at the man's flat. He confessed to the other murders while in custody and pleaded guilty to all charges in court. His original recommended tariff was never publicised. Ireland remained in prison for nearly 20 years and died behind bars on 21 February 2012 at the age of 57.[30]

Colin Hatch

1994
2011
A paedophile who was convicted of sexual assault on boys in 1991 and 1992 but jailed for only three years after it was decided he was not dangerous enough to be held involuntarily in a Secure Hospital, against the advice of the psychiatrist. He was paroled early and committed the sexually motivated murder of seven-year-old Sean Williams in summer 1993, for which he received a whole-life tariff; Judge Lowry said it was "not possible to envisage" a time when Hatch could be released safely, so "life should mean life". He remained imprisoned until his death in February 2011; he was found dead in his cell and it was reported that he had been murdered by another prisoner. His killer was convicted robber Damien Fowkes, who also wounded another child killer, Ian Huntley.[31]

Robert Black

1994
2016
A paedophile who abducted, raped and killed four girls aged between 5 and 11 years between 1982 and 1986 before dumping all three at roadsides hundreds of miles from their homes. He was already serving a life sentence for a 1990 attempted abduction when he was convicted of three murders (and one further abduction of a girl who survived) in 1994, and the trial judge recommended a minimum term of 35 years - which would make him ineligible for release until 2029 and the age of 82. He was later given a whole life-tariff by the home secretary, although the November 2002 law lords' ruling means that he could still receive early release. Black has been long suspected of involvement in the disappearances of numerous other children in the 1970s and 1980s including the disappearances of Genette Tate and April Fabb, but questioning of him has proved inconclusive; no bodies have ever been found in these cases and the files remain open. In 2011 he was convicted of the murder of Jennifer Cardy a nine-year-old girl in 1981 and sentenced to 25 years in prison. He died on 12 January 2016 in HMP Maghaberry Northern Ireland of natural causes at the age of 68, weeks away from being charged with the murder of Gennette Tate.[32]

Rosemary West

1995
-
Convicted in November 1995 of the murder of ten women and girls at her home in Gloucester, including one of her daughters and a step-daughter, between 1970 and 1987. Her husband, Frederick West, committed suicide in jail before he could stand trial for a total of 12 murders (two of which occurred just before the couple met in 1968). Hindley's death in November 2002 left West as the only confirmed female prisoner on the whole-life tariff register,[10] until the addition of Joanne Dennehy, in 2014.[8]

Peter Moore
The Man In Black
1996
-
Moore murdered four men in apparently sexually motivated attacks in Wales. He confessed to police but claimed at trial it was in fact a fictional lover, "Jason", who had killed them. Following his conviction the judge said he would urge the Home Secretary to impose the whole-life tariff; it was revealed in 2011 that he remained subject to this after the press reported he was one of three prisoners challenging the legality of the order before the European Court of Human Rights.[33]

Anthony Sawoniuk

1999
2005
Belorussian Nazi collaborator who was convicted of murder committed outside the UK against non-UK citizens, during the Holocaust, based on the principle of universal jurisdiction. He is the only person sentenced to a whole life tariff under the War Crimes Act and was one of the oldest prisoners in Britain when he died aged 84 in Norwich L wing, for elderly men serving life or other long sentences, in 2005. He had been in prison for six years.

Harold Shipman
Dr Death
2000
2004
Former GP who was convicted of killing 15 of his patients at his surgery in Hyde, Greater Manchester, in the 1990s, giving them lethal doses of diamorphine. Suspicion was raised in 1998 when the daughter of his last victim found that Shipman had crudely forged her mother's will. Shipman was sentenced to life imprisonment at the end of his trial in January 2000, with the trial judge recommending that he should never be released, and two years later the Home Secretary agreed. An official inquiry in July 2002 concluded that there was enough evidence to decide that Shipman had killed 215 of his patients, making him Britain's most prolific serial killer, and that he had committed his first murder in 1970 when practicing in North Yorkshire. Some reports claimed that he may have committed over 400 murders. Shipman, who never confessed to the murders, hanged himself in his prison cell on 13 January 2004 and the full extent of his crimes will probably be never known as a consequence.

tag: table

text: Sentenced by judges[edit]

text: Since the European Court of Human Rights decision, only trial judges and the High Court have had the right to decide that a killer should never be released. In that time, there have been at least 45 instances of trial judges recommending that an offender should never be released.

text: Several of these prisoners have had their whole-life tariffs reduced on appeal by the High Court.

text:
Name
Nickname
Year
Died
Notes

Paul Glen

2004
-
Glen was employed as a hitman and in 2004 had been hired to murder Vincent Smart, but instead he murdered Mr Smart's friend Robert Bogle.[34] After his trial, it was revealed that Glen had a previous conviction for murder, having killed hotelier Ivor Usher in February 1989, and served 13 years of his original life sentence before being paroled in 2002, killing again just two years later.[34]

Andrzej Kunowski

2004
2009
A Polish murderer who was imprisoned in England. Kunowski murdered a 12-year-old Macedonian girl, Katerina Koneva, in West London in May 1997, but was not caught for six years. Kunowski served just over five years of his life sentence before he died in Frankland Prison on 23 September 2009. He was identified by the police as a serial sex offender.[35]

Phillip Heggarty

2004
-
Convicted of murdering his friend, Derek Bennett, in a hammer attack in 2003.[36] He later set fire to a Renault Laguna after placing Bennett's body in it which was so severely burnt that it had to be identified by dental records.[36] The trial judge recommended a minimum term of 30 years for Heggarty, but the High Court later ruled that his life sentence must mean life.

Thomas McDowell

2004
-
A psychopath who strangled and cut up a gay trainee rabbi with a ripsaw. McDowell throttled Andreas Hinz, then dumped his head, limbs and torso in bin bags in Camden, North London. McDowell suffered abuse as a child and grew up hating homosexuals.[37]

Mark Martin
Sneinton Strangler
2005
-
He killed three homeless women in Nottingham between December 2004 and January 2005, declaring his ambition to become "Nottingham's first serial killer". Two of his accomplices were convicted alongside him in 2005 but received 14 and 25-year recommended minimum terms.

Mark Hobson

2005
-
Murdered his girlfriend Claire Sanderson at their home near Selby in July 2004, before luring her twin sister Diane there and murdering her several days later. He then fled the property and murdered an elderly couple who lived several miles away before going on the run with the whole nation's police looking for him. He was arrested soon after, when he was spotted hiding in bushes near a petrol station in North Yorkshire. Hobson, a binman who had a history of violence, drug addiction and alcoholism, pleaded guilty to all charges in April 2005 and was sentenced to life imprisonment with the judge advising that his life sentence should mean exactly that. Later that year, Hobson applied for a lower tariff to be set on the grounds that he merited some credit for admitting to the crimes at an early opportunity in order to avoid a lengthy trial, but this was rejected by the Lord Chief Justice.

William Horncy

2005
-
Achieved notoriety in 2005 when he was convicted of murdering millionaire Amarjit Chohan as well as Chohan's wife, mother-in-law and two sons in an effort to take over the Chohan family freight business to ship drugs into the UK.[38] The bodies of Chohan's two sons were never found.[38]

Kenneth Regan

2005
-
Achieved notoriety in 2005 as he too was involved, with William Horncy, in the murder of millionaire Amarjit Chohan as well as Chohan's wife, mother-in-law and two sons, whose bodies were never found.[38] He was a former drug dealer who turned to being a Police supergrass to gain himself early release from prison for a prior crime.[39] He murdered Amarjit Chohan and his family in an effort to take over the Chohan family freight business to ship drugs into the UK.[38]

Paul Culshaw

2005
2013
A British convicted murderer and sex offender. In 2005, he was found guilty of murdering Clare Benson-Jowry the previous year. After his trial, it was revealed that Culshaw had previous convictions for crimes including rape, attempted murder and indecent assault. Culshaw was found collapsed in his cell at Frankland Prison on 5 February 2013 and died the following day in hospital apparently of natural causes, aged 45.[40]

Glyn Dix

2005
-
Found guilty of murdering his wife Hazel, having stabbed her to death and chopped her body into 16 pieces at their home in Redditch, Worcestershire in the previous year. It was then revealed that he had already been out of prison on life licence following a previous conviction for murdering Pia Overbury in the 1970s.

Daniel Gonzalez
Freddy Krueger Killer or Mummy's Boy Killer
2006
2007
A drug addict, inspired by horror films, who stabbed to death four randomly chosen people (including three pensioners) over a 24-hour period and tried to kill two more. His mother had previously begged for help from the authorities, chillingly (but rhetorically) asking in one letter if her son might "have to commit murder" before anyone would do something about him. He tried to escape conviction through reasons of insanity but was found guilty of murder and attempted murder and given six life sentences, with the judge advising that he should never be released from prison. He committed suicide in a mental hospital just over a year later.

Viktor Dembovskis

2006
-
A Latvian immigrant who raped and murdered a 17-year-old female neighbour as she walked home from school in West London, before fleeing back to Latvia. Dembovskis was deported from Latvia after a joint operation by British and Latvian police. It was revealed that Dembovskis had a string of convictions in Latvia stretching back 25 years including two rapes in the 1990s. Given his appalling record, the trial judge advised that Dembovskis should never be freed – a rare recommendation for someone guilty of a single murder.

John McGrady

2006
-
A convicted rapist who strangled and mutilated a 15-year-old female neighbour in Catford, London, before dumping her dismembered remains in bin bags.[41] He slit his wrists and confessed to his girlfriend after the attack, but his suicide bid was thwarted and he was successfully brought to justice, admitting the murder in court several months later.[41] However, much was made in court of his refusal to co-operate with the police and other authorities, especially on the issue of how or why the teenager was in his flat at the outset, although police remain convinced she did not go willingly. The judge said that McGrady, who had previous convictions for raping and kidnapping women, was a highly dangerous predator and should never be released from prison.[41] The victim's family later criticised heavily the nature of the media's distressingly over-descriptive reporting of the murder.[41] McGrady later appealed for a lower minimum term to be set by the Court of Appeal, but this was rejected in January 2007.

Stephen McColl

2006
-
Underworld figure who worked as an informer for Greater Manchester Police after offering his services was rejected by three other police forces, was convicted of two murders. The victims included a member of his own gang, Michael Doran who ironically, he suspected of being an informer for Manchester police, two months before he became one himself and he tortured and murdered another man, Philip Noakes after he humiliated him in public. Was convicted in August 2006 of the two murders, while being suspected of a third one, a firefighter in Glasgow.[42][43]

Rahan Arshad

2007
-
Taxi driver who murdered his wife and three children, who were found dead in their home in Cheadle Hulme, Stockport, Greater Manchester, in August 2006.[44]

Andrew Randall

2007
-
Murdered his seven-week-old daughter Jessica Randall in Kettering, Northamptonshire, in 2005 after he threw the baby girl headfirst into a settee in their home after abusing her since birth. He told officers he resented her since she was born and he was handed a whole-life tariff as a result at Northampton Crown Court. There were concerns about Jessica's welfare by doctors and staff on the maternity ward, with visits by social services, along with an investigation into her care and death in the weeks before she died.[45] Andrew Randall was blinded completely in one eye from an assault in 2011 by convicted murderer John Jay, who was jailed for 20 years as a result. Randall was attacked in prison again in 2013.[46]

David Tiley

2007
-
Two months after he was released from prison for a double rape, he stabbed to death his disabled fiancée Susan Hale, who suffered from a degenerative brain disorder, and then killed her carer Sarah Merritt at their home in Southampton.[47]

Michael Smith

2007
-
Murdered 35-year-old Peter Summers in an attack with a bottle in Stoke-on-Trent in August 2006. He was convicted of this murder nine months later. Smith had been previously convicted of murdering his 18-year-old girlfriend Sheila Deakin in 1975 and spent 30 years in prison, only being released on parole 12 months before he went on to murder Peter Summers.[48]

Steve Wright
Suffolk Strangler
2008
-
Jailed for life in February 2008 after being found guilty of murdering five prostitutes whose bodies were found in the Ipswich area during December 2006. See also: Ipswich serial murders.[10]

Levi Bellfield
The Bus-Stop Stalker
2008
-
Attacked three young women, killing two and seriously injuring the third in sexually motivated attacks in London and Surrey between February 2003 and August 2004. He was first arrested in November 2004, before being re-arrested and charged in March 2006.[49] After being convicted of these murders, Surrey Police identified him as the prime suspect in the murder of Walton-on-Thames teenager Amanda "Milly" Dowler, whose body was found in Hampshire in September 2002, six months after she went missing on her way home from school. He was charged with the murder three years later, and in June 2011 was found guilty. The trial judge in this case also sentenced Bellfield to life imprisonment with the recommendation that life should mean life. Bellfield has also been identified as a suspect – but never charged – over other unsolved murders and attacks on women in the South-East since the early 1990s.[50] Bellield is currently the only prisoner in the United Kingdom who has been sentenced to two separate whole-life orders for two separate crimes.

Douglas Vinter

2008
-
Strangled and murdered his wife Anne White in Normanby, Teesside, on 10 February 2008. He admitted the murder in court two months later, and was already on life licence having spent nine years in prison for the murder of local railway worker Carl Edon in August 1995.[51] Vinter applied to the High Court for lesser minimum term to be set, but this appeal was rejected in June 2009.
Vinter was among the killers who mounted the successful legal challenge against the whole-life tariff in July 2013, with the Court of Appeal later ruling in February 2014 that such sentences were justified.[52]
In February 2016, Vinter was given a third life sentence for the attempted murder of fellow prisoner Lee Newell (also serving a whole-life tariff) at HMP Woodhill, with the judge once again reiterating that he should never be released. In November 2012, Vinter had also admitted wounding child killer Roy Whiting in prison.[53]

Marc Chivers

2009
-
Strangled his ex-girlfriend Maria Stubbings with a dog lead in December 2008. He pleaded guilty to the crime in court 12 months later and was jailed for life. He had previously served 15 years in prison in Germany for murdering another ex-girlfriend and was deported to the UK in January 2008. Chivers had a string of previous convictions for some extreme cases of violent behaviour.[54]

Peter Tobin

2009
-
Convicted in 2009 of the murder of Dinah McNicol in Margate, Kent, in 1991. Tobin had already been convicted in Scotland for the murder that same year of Vicky Hamilton, whose body was found in Tobin's back garden alongside that of McNicol, and also for the murder of Angelika Kluk in a Glasgow church in 2006. Tobin was already serving two concurrent prison sentences in Scotland (which does not have the whole-life tariff) of 21 years and 30 years for the murders of Angelika Kluk and Vicky Hamilton respectively, but in December 2009 he was found guilty of Dinah McNicol's murder and sentenced to life imprisonment – this time with a recommendation that life must mean life. However, the minimum terms Tobin was already serving for the two other murders were effectively "whole life" sentences as he was over 60 years old when sentenced.[55]

Royston Jackson

2010
-
Convicted of the murder of convicted sex offender Gordon Boon in October 2008, after being released on licence two years earlier following his conviction for another murder he had committed in 1989.[56]

Peter Sutcliffe
Yorkshire Ripper
2010
-
The Yorkshire Ripper, who murdered 13 women and attacked seven others between 1975 and 1980 in West Yorkshire and Greater Manchester. He was caught by chance while sitting in his car with a prostitute and potential victim in Sheffield in January 1981, and made a full confession to each attack to the police, even though they had only arrested him for having false number plates. At his trial later in 1981 he pleaded guilty to manslaughter but was convicted of 13 murders and was jailed for life. He was initially held in a mainstream prison before being transferred to Broadmoor Hospital. He was returned to a mainstream prison in 2016.
It was frequently reported in the media that he was among the prisoners to have been issued with a whole-life tariff, but he was not on a list of 35 such prisoners which was published in December 2006. A whole-life tariff was imposed by the High Court on 16 July 2010.

Ernest Wright

2010
-
Convicted of the execution-style murder of Neville Corby (aged 42) with a shotgun and the simultaneous attempted murder of Corby's partner. Had been previously convicted of murder in 1971 and served 26 years.[57]

Anthony Hardy
Camden Ripper
2010
-
Killing of three women to "satisfy depraved and perverted needs".[58] Police believe he was involved in six other murders of women but these cases have not been brought to court.

John Maden

2010
-
Drugged, raped and killed his 12-year-old niece Tia Rigg at his Manchester home after luring her there on the pretext of babysitting. He then phoned police and told them that he had murdered her "because he felt like it". He had previously developed an obsession with violent pornography and images of extreme child abuse.[59]

Desmond Lee

2010
-
Convicted in 2010 of murdering his lover Christopher Pratt by breaking his voice box and a bone in his neck in his flat in Ravensthorpe, then using his credit cards to go on a shopping spree before dumping his body. Served 14 years of a life sentence from 1990 to 2004 after murdering his landlady Shirley Carr after she taunted him over the breakdown of his relationship.[60]

Wilbert Dyce

2010
-
Convicted in 2010 of a 1982 triple murder in which a mother and her two young daughters were killed. The murder was initially treated as racially motivated, as racist slogans had been spray-painted over the walls of the family's home, but Dyce was eventually linked to the crimes by advances in DNA technology, and it was established that the hallmarks of a racially motivated attack had been part of a plot by Dyce (who was also Afro-Caribbean) to try to avoid capture.[61]

Stephen Griffiths
Crossbow Cannibal
2010
-
Convicted of murdering three women in Bradford, one murder involving the use of a crossbow.[62] He dismembered his victims before dumping the remains in the River Aire. Griffiths also claimed to have cannibalised his victims, though this has never been definitively proven.

John Sweeney
Canal killer
2011
-
Convicted of murdering two women whose bodies were found mutilated and dumped in canals in London and the Netherlands.[63]

George Norman Johnson

2011
-
Convicted in 2011 of the premeditated murder of 89-year-old Florence Habesch in February that year to fund his drug addiction. Wolverhampton-born Johnson had already served 20 years of a life sentence imposed in 1986 for the murder of a man in a burglary at his house.[64]

John Cooper
The Bullseye Killer
2011
-
Convicted in 2011 of two double murders in Pembrokeshire, Wales, the first in 1985 and the second in 1989.[65]

David Baxendale

2011
-
Convicted in March 2011 of the murder by repeated stabbing of a woman in Nutfield, Surrey, in June 2010. Baxendale, who had a history of violence stretching back some 20 years, had previously been convicted of murder in Spain, where he had repeatedly stabbed his victim; for this crime he was sentenced to 11 years in prison at his trial in 2001 and served seven years of his sentence before being deported back to Britain.[66]

Andrew Dawson
The Angel of Mercy Killer
2011

Convicted of the murder of John David Matthews and Paul Hancock in July 2010. He was out on licence from a previous murder conviction committed in the 1980s.[67]

David Cook

2012

Convicted in 1988 of strangling a young woman to death, Cook was released in 2009. Cook strangled a second victim when on parole, and the second judge gave him a whole-life tariff.[68]

David Oakes

2012
2013
Convicted and sentenced to a whole life term for the double murder, using a double-barrelled shotgun, of his ex-girlfriend Christine Chambers and their two-year-old daughter following the breakdown of their relationship and just hours before a custody hearing to agree access rights to their daughter. Christine had been assaulted over a period of several hours before being shot. Oakes was said to be jealous and frustrated over the ending of the relationship and did not want another father figure in his daughter's life.[69] Oakes died in hospital of natural causes less than a year into his life sentence.[70]

Stephen Farrow

2012

Farrow, a vagrant with a history of psychiatric illness, was convicted of the murders of Betty Yates (aged 77) and the Reverend John Suddards (aged 59).[71] Mr Justice Field, sentencing, said: "The sentence for murder is a mandatory life sentence and in respect of each count I pass a life sentence. I next have to consider whether you should be made the subject of a whole-life sentence or whether a minimum term should be set. I am satisfied that in your case a whole-life sentence is an appropriate sentence in each of these dreadful, horrific killings."[72]

Mark Bridger

2013

Bridger was found guilty of abducting and murdering five-year old April Jones, who was last seen alive on 1 October 2012, in Machynlleth, Wales. He claimed to have accidentally run her over while driving and that he could not remember where he had hidden her body due to being intoxicated. On 30 May 2013, he was found guilty of abduction, murder and perverting the course of justice and was sentenced to life imprisonment with a recommendation that he should never be released. Although April Jones's body has never been found, police linked her DNA profile to bone fragments and blood found in Bridger's house and concluded that she had suffered unsurvivable injuries, and were able to press murder charges within a week of her disappearance despite having not found her body, which they believe may have been dismembered.
Bridger later planned to appeal against his sentence, but dropped his appeal bid in January 2014 just before it was due to be heard.[73]

Dale Cregan

2013

Cregan murdered Police Constables Nicola Hughes and Fiona Bone, two Greater Manchester Police officers, in a gun and grenade attack on 18 September 2012. He also pleaded guilty to two separate killings of two members of the same family earlier in 2012, as part of a gangland feud in Manchester. Cregan received a whole-life prison term on 13 June 2013.[74]

Gary Smith

2013

Smith, along with accomplice Lee Newell, murdered convicted child killer Subhan Anwar in his cell at HMP Long Lartin on 14 February 2013 by strangling him with tracksuit trousers. Smith was already serving a life sentence for a previous murder committed in 1998. He received a whole-life sentence on 23 September 2013.[75]

Lee Newell

2013

Convicted alongside Gary Smith for the February 2013 murder of convicted child killer Subhan Anwar in his cell at HMP Long Lartin. Newell was already serving a life sentence for a previous murder committed in 1988 and received a whole-life sentence on 23 September 2013.[75]

Jamie Reynolds

2013

Pleaded guilty to murdering 17-year-old Georgia Williams after luring her to his home in Wellington, Shropshire, in May 2013. He then dumped her body near Wrexham, North Wales, where it was found just after his arrest in Glasgow several days later.
In 2008 Reynolds tried to strangle a girl, but this merely resulted in a final warning when police investigated. In 2011, Reynolds drove his car into that of a girl who had rejected his advances, but police did not connect this with the 2008 incident. The Justice Liaison Service and police were told about violent pornography Reynolds had viewed, as well as images he had created of young women and teenage girls he personally knew. This was also not taken sufficiently seriously and the girls were not warned.[76] Several agencies were involved with Reynolds but there was no co-ordinated approach to managing or monitoring him, and consequently few people who knew him were aware of these incidents.
In the aftermath of his conviction for the murder of Georgia Williams, media sources stated that the murder could have been prevented if police and social services had acted on information they had received about Reynolds, which would have led to him being monitored and registered as a sex offender when at liberty, even if he had not been jailed for these offences.[77]
Reynolds, 23 at the time his trial began and still 22 when he murdered Williams, confessed to the murder on 2 December 2013. Sentencing was delayed until 19 December, when the judge sentenced him to life imprisonment and recommended that he should never be released, after reading reports from psychiatrists stating that Reynolds had the potential to progress into a serial killer if not apprehended and was likely to remain a danger to women for the rest of his life. The court also heard of pornographic material found on his computer, including 72 graphic videos and more than 16,000 graphic images.[78] A murderer at the age of 22 and sentenced to life at 23, Reynolds is one of the youngest people in British history to be handed a whole-life tariff. In April 2014 it was reported that he would be appealing for a reduction in his sentence, despite his solicitor announcing shortly after the trial that Reynolds was resigned to spending the rest of his life in prison and would not be challenging his sentence. His appeal was rejected on 31 October 2014.
Since he was remanded in custody during 2013, Reynolds has been held at Ashworth Hospital, Merseyside. In September 2016, the Welsh media reported that Reynolds was lodging a fresh appeal to the European Court of Human Rights which was likely to be heard during 2017.[79]

Anwar Rosser

2014

"Psychotic, bullying alcoholic" 33 year old Anwar Rosser, a former soldier, murdered sleeping four-year-old Riley Turner in a "savage and sadistic" attack on 20 January 2013 while Rosser was staying at the Turner family home. The motive for the killing remains unknown. He admitted the murder in court a year later and was sentenced to life in prison. His appeal against his sentence in October 2014 was rejected.[80]

Ian McLoughlin

2014

Ian McLoughlin committed his first killing in 1984, when he bludgeoned 49-year-old Len Delgatty with a hammer before strangling him. The jury chose to convict him of manslaughter (rather than murder) on 19 September 1984, and he was sentenced to 10 years imprisonment. On 27 June 1985, this was reduced to eight years on appeal. In September 1990, just over a year after being let out of prison for killing Len Delgatty, he murdered Peter Halls in Brighton, and was sentenced to life at Lewes Crown Court in July 1992, with the Lord Chief Justice recommending a minimum term of 14 years. 21 years later, on 13 July 2013, he was released on temporary licence, and on that day, during the course of a robbery murdered Graham Buck, an innocent man investigating his neighbour's cries for help. McLoughlin was convicted of robbery and murder, and was initially sentenced to life with a minimum term of 40 years, and 8 years concurrent for the robbery. His trial judge believed that he no longer had the power to recommend that a life sentence could mean life, following the European Court of Human Rights ruling two months earlier. However, McLoughlin was already 55 years old and this meant that he would not be considered for parole unless he lived to be at least 95.
Following a ruling by UK judges in February 2014 that whole-life tariffs were lawful, McLoughlin's 40-year sentence was quashed, and a whole-life order was applied to him.[81]

Michael Adebolajo

2014

On the afternoon of 22 May 2013, a British Army soldier, Drummer Lee Rigby of the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers, was attacked and killed by Michael Adebolajo and Michael Adebowale near the Royal Artillery Barracks in Woolwich, southeast London. Both men were Muslim converts. 29-year-old Adebolajo was found guilty of Rigby's murder on 19 December 2013, as was Adebowale, but their sentencing was delayed due to the pending outcome of the High Court's decision on life sentences following the European Court of Human Rights ruling in July that year. On 26 February 2014, after the High Court ruled that whole-life sentences were still lawful provided they were reviewed after 25 years, Adebolajo was sentenced at the Central Criminal Court, to a Whole life term. Adebowale avoided a whole-life sentence but instead received a 45-year minimum term and is unlikely to be released until at least 2058, when he will be 67.[82]

Joanne Dennehy

2014

Described by the judge as a "cruel, calculating, selfish and manipulative serial killer". Convicted of murdering three men in seemingly random attacks which were committed in March 2013. She confessed to all three murders at the Old Bailey on 18 November 2013. Sentencing was delayed until 28 February 2014, when she was jailed for life with a whole-life tariff, making her one of only three women to be handed a whole-life sentence and the first woman ever to be given this sentence by a judge. Three men were found guilty of taking part in the crimes but all three received lesser sentences.[83]

Paul O'Hara

2014

Described by police as "a predatory, violent individual", O’Hara was sentenced to a whole life term on 30 June 2014 after admitting murdering his girlfriend Cherylee Shennan. On 17 March 2014, Shennan was in her own home giving evidence to two police officers about domestic abuse suffered at O'Hara's hands when he burst in, attacked the two officers with a hammer and chased Shennan into the street where he then fatally stabbed her. O’Hara had been previously sentenced to life in 1998 for murdering girlfriend Janine Waterworth in "very similar circumstances", and had only been released on licence in 2013.[84]

Ryan Matthews

2015

62-year-old convicted murderer Matthews was sentenced to a whole life term on 9 January 2015, after pleading guilty to the murder of healthcare assistant Sharon Wall at Wotton Hill Hospital in Gloucester on 9 July 2014. Matthews left Broadmoor Secure Hospital in 1999 under the Mental Health Act and his mental health had "deteriorated" throughout stays in various hospitals following his release. Matthews had originally been jailed for life after being convicted in 1983 (under the name Stephen Cecil King) of two other murders and a count of conspiracy to murder.[85]

David Mitchell

2015

On 11 December 2013, 47-year-old David Mitchell killed his homosexual lover, convicted sex offender Robert Hind, in a drunken rage. The body was dismembered and dumped in several trash bags in or by a canal a short distance from his home. Mitchell had previously served 23 years of a life sentence for the murder of his girlfriend in 1990 and was released only four months before the murder.[86]

Jason Gomez

2015

On 25 March 2015, 45-year-old Jason Gomez and 33-year-old Paul Wadkin lured a fellow prisoner 46-year-old Darren Flynn into a cell at HMP Swaleside and then stabbed him over 190 times with a thin black handle and a knife wrapped in material. Jason Gomez was already serving life for a previous murder committed in 2001 when he stabbed his business partner Robert Jones to death and while he admitted his part in Flynn's murder before the trial got started, the judge still gave him a whole-life sentence.[87][88] In July 2016, Gomez had an appeal against the sentence rejected.[89]

Ian Birley

2015

On 13 July 2015, 43-year old Ian Birley and his girlfriend, 39-year old Helen Nichols, followed 65-year-old John Gogarty to his home in Wombwell, near Barnsley, South Yorkshire, before demanding his PIN and stabbing him 69 times.
This was the second murder that Birley was convicted of. In 1996, Birley had been convicted of the murder of 69-year-old Maurice Hoyle in his house in Barnsley and served 18 years of a life sentence before being released on licence. As a result of having already been convicted of one murder, Birley was given a whole-life tariff for the murder of Mr Gogarty. His partner, Helen Nichols, was told she must serve a minimum of 20 years for her part in the murder.[90][91]

Russell Oliver

2016

On 31 May 2015, previously convicted murderer Russell Anthony Oliver, 46, attacked John York in his cell at high-security HMP Long Lartin. York, who was jailed for life in 2013 for beating a man to death, died from head injuries. Mr Justice Haddon-Cave handed Oliver a whole-life sentence at Birmingham Crown Court on Thursday 24 March 2016. Co-accused Stephen Boorman, 31, from Irthlingborough, Northamptonshire, was cleared of killing York.[92]

Anthony Ayres

2016

On 19 November 2015, Anthony Ayres murdered 36-year-old mother-of-one Kelly Pearce at a friend's flat in Canvey, Essex, by stabbing her 40 times and then beating her to death. Ayres had a previous murder conviction dating back to 1994 for murdering his then-girlfriend Dawn Wisdom in 1993, and had been released on licence in May 2012. On 26 July 2016 he was handed a whole-life sentence at Chelmsford Crown Court by Judge Maura McGowan QC.[93][94]

Christopher Halliwell

2016

On 19 October 2012, Christopher Halliwell pleaded guilty to the murder of Sian O’Callaghan who he picked up outside a nightclub in Swindon in March 2011 before stabbing her to death. He was sentenced to life imprisonment with a minimum term of 25 years.[95] While under arrest in connection with O'Callaghan's disappearance, Halliwell confessed to killing another woman several years earlier, 20-year-old Becky Godden, who went missing in Swindon in 2003. He led police to both her and O'Callaghan's remains, but the High Court later ruled this was inadmissible as evidence as the investigating officer, Detective Superintendent Steve Fulcher, had breached the guidelines of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 by failing to caution Halliwell and denying him access to a solicitor during the period that the confession was obtained.[96] As there was no other evidence linking him to Godden's murder other than his confession, police were unable to try him and the charge had to be dropped.[97]
Four years later, Halliwell was tried for Godden's murder after Wiltshire Police uncovered new evidence in the case.[98] On 19 September 2016, a jury convicted him of Godden's murder and, on 23 September, he was given a whole-life sentence with the judge describing him as a "calculating and devious" individual. Police are also investigating the possibility he may have killed more women.[99]

Arthur Simpson-Kent

2016

Murdered his partner, former EastEnders actress Sian Blake, 43, and their two sons Zachary, aged eight, and Amon, four, by beating and stabbing them to death at their home in Erith, London, in December 2015.
Police believe he committed the murders because she was planning to leave him.[100] He buried their bodies in the garden and later fled to Ghana in an attempt to evade justice, but was caught and returned to the UK.[101] On 5 October 2016, he was given a whole-life sentence after he pleaded guilty to the murders.[100]

Thomas Mair

2016

Murdered Jo Cox, Labour MP, in Birstall, West Yorkshire on 16 June 2016. Mair had researched and laid out an assassination plan. Because of the severity of the offence, including the political motivation (the trial judge said that he had no doubt that the murder was committed for the purpose of advancing a political, racial and ideological cause, namely that of violent white supremacism and exclusive nationalism most associated with Nazism[102]), the judge imposed a whole-life tariff.[103]

Stephen Port

2016

Murdered Gabriel Kovari, 22, from Lewisham, Daniel Whitworth, 21, from Gravesend, Kent, Anthony Walgate, 23, from Dagenham, east London, and Jack Taylor, 25, also from Dagenham, between August 2014 and September 2015. Port, a former chef, met his victims on dating websites, including Grindr, and coaxed them to his home in Barking for sex before giving them fatal doses of drugs. Their bodies were all found dumped in or near a graveyard within 500m of his house. The Metropolitan Police admitted it missed "potential opportunities" in investigating the deaths.[104] At his trial, the Judge accepted that Port's intention was only to cause really serious harm and not death, but made the point that Port must have foreseen that there was a high risk of death, especially after the death of his first victim.[105] This was sufficient for him to be convicted of murder in English law. The Judge said that he had carried out the murders to "satisfy his lust for sex with young men who were rendered unconscious" and gave him a whole-life term.[106]

Leroy Campbell

2017

Raped and murdered nurse Lisa Skidmore by strangling with a ligature in Bilston and attempted to murder her mother by strangling with a vacuum cord, who came to visit her daughter at her home. He tried to cover his tracks by setting fire to Lisa's room and leaving items with other peoples DNA on them. He was released 4 months earlier after serving 17 years in prison after raping a woman in her home she shared with her son, while having previous convictions for aggravated burglary and indecent assault. He was handed a whole life sentence after pleading guilty to murder, attempted murder, rape and arson with intent by judge Mark Wall at Birmingham Crown Court.[107]

Billy White

2017

Murdered his girlfriend Lucy Ayris in 2015 and sentenced to life with a minimum term of 15 years by Judge Gerald Gordon at the Old Bailey on 11 May 2016.[108] White later murdered fellow prisoner Brett Rogers (himself a convicted murderer) whilst a prisoner at HMP Long Lartin in Worcestershire. Judge Robert Juckes QC increased White's term to a whole life order on 25 September 2017 at Worcester Crown Court.[109]

Alan Maidment

2017

Murdered a man who he believed had assaulted his girlfriend by stabbing him 32 times in Swinton, nine months after he was released on license from a previous murder conviction on the 21st March, 2017. Was sentenced to a whole life sentence at his trial on the 10th October 2017, along with a six-year sentence for a series of robberies and a two-year sentence for possessing a knife.[110]

text: Quashed whole-life orders[edit]

text:
Patrick Magee, who bombed the Grand Hotel in Brighton which killed five and nearly killed his intended target Margaret Thatcher and her cabinet was convicted in 1985 of five counts of murder and several explosive and terrorism offences as well, with a recommendation that he serve 35 years in prison, which was increased later to whole life by Michael Howard. He was however released after 14 years, served in mainland British prisons in 1999 as part of the Good Friday Agreement.[111]
Joe O'Connell, Eddie Butler, Hugh Doherty and Harry Duggan were members of a so-called IRA 'active Service Unit' that terrorised London in the early 1970s killing at least 16 people, injuring many others and planning more attacks.[112][113] They were caught after they took an elderly couple hostage in their flat in Marylebone while attempting to escape police pursuit and surrendered after 6 days.[114] They were later each given whole life tariffs by the home secretary, however they were released as part of the Good Friday Agreement.[115] During their trial they admitted to the Woolwich and Birmingham Pub Bombings which others were convicted of and served time for.[116]
Ronald William Barton was convicted of murdering his 14-year-old step-daughter Keighley Barton in October 1986, in what was believed as an attempt on Barton's part to stop Keighley from testifying against him for child abuse and to gain revenge of her mother. He had several previous convictions for gross indecency against Keighley and sexual assault against other teenage girls, one of which he had been in prison for. After his conviction he was handed a minimum term of 25 years, but the Lord Chief Justice then recommended that life must mean life, which the home secretary agreed with. The term was reset in 1997 to the original 25 years, which was reduced again to 23 years in 2006.[117]
Thomas Quigley and Paul Kavanagh were both convicted of two murders in a bomb attack in 1981 by the Chelsea Barracks which also injured 39 people.[118] They were both sentenced to 35 years in prison each in 1985 and were told in 1996 by the home secretary Michael Howard that they were to receive whole life tariffs, however the order was reversed by the Belfast High Court in 1997 after an appeal by the two men and they were released under the Good Friday Agreement.[119][120]
David Wynne Roberts was convicted of murdering a pensioner who was a friend of his grandmothers in Anglesey, Wales when he was 14 in 1969 and served seven years in youth detention before being released in 1976 and moving to the North West of England. In 1985, he went to Blackpool where he met a staff from a hotel in Ambleside, Cumbria and stayed with them until he disappeared in early 1986 when the body of the hotel owner was discovered in a cottage, where she was stabbed and strangled with her own scarf. He gave himself in to police in London within a month after the crime and was convicted of murder where his tariff was set at 18 years, which was increased by the home secretary in 1988 and then changed to 22 years in 2005 on appeal.[121][122]
Howard Hughes, who was convicted in July 1996 of the Murder of Sophie Hook in Llandudno 12 months earlier. He denied the murder of Sophie, of Great Budworth, Cheshire, who was seven years old when she died, but was found guilty of rape and murder at Chester Crown Court and jailed for life with a recommendation that he should never be released. Two subsequent appeals against his conviction were rejected. In November 2002, Hughes was one of four convicted child murderers who received 50-year minimum terms imposed by the then Home Secretary David Blunkett shortly before politicians were stripped of their powers to decide minimum terms for life sentence prisoners. However, the 50-year minimum term meant that Hughes would not be able to apply for parole until he was 80 years old.[123]
Timothy Morss and Brett Tyler, who murdered nine-year-old Daniel Handley from East London in October 1994 and buried his body near Bristol, where it was found five months later. They were sentenced to life imprisonment in May 1996 and the trial judge recommended that they should never be released, as he felt they would never cease to pose a danger to children.[124] In November 2002, the pair were among four convicted child murderers who were issued with 50-year minimum terms by the then Home Secretary David Blunkett, just before politicians were stripped of their powers to set minimum terms for life sentence prisoners; this meant that Morss and Tyler would both be over 80 years old before parole could be considered.[125]
Roy Whiting, who murdered Sarah Payne in West Sussex in July 2000, was told by his trial judge when convicted in December 2001 that his crime (combined with the fact that he had a previous conviction for child abduction and indecent assault) was a rare case for which a life sentence should mean life.[126] In November 2002, Home Secretary David Blunkett ruled that Whiting should serve at least 50 years in prison, meaning he would only qualify for parole if he lived to the age of 92 or beyond, although this in practice revoked the whole life tariff recommended in court.[127] Whiting appealed against this ruling, his lawyers arguing that Blunkett's ruling had been politically motivated as he was on the verge of losing his powers to set minimum terms for life sentence prisoners, and that the government was under mounting pressure from the British public due to the recent start of a firefighters strike. The crime had also attracted widespread media and public attention, and led to calls for tighter laws regarding the monitoring of convicted sex offenders. Whiting's appeal was heard in June 2010, when the High Court (which by this stage now had the final say on how long a life sentence prisoner should serve before being considered for parole) reduced Whiting's minimum sentence to 40 years, which still means he cannot apply for parole until he is at least 82.[128]
John Taylor admitted the murder of teenager Leanne Tiernan from Leeds in July 2002 and was told by the trial judge to expect to spend the rest of his life in prison. Leanne Tiernan, who was 16 when she went missing, disappeared on 26 November 2000 and her body was found in woodland just outside the city nine months later. Taylor was arrested for her murder soon after the body was found.[129] After Taylor was sentenced, West Yorkshire police spoke of their belief that he was responsible for other unsolved murders and sex attacks on women in the county, and seven months into his sentence he received a further two life sentences for raping two women in Leeds during the late 1980s.[130] In November 2006, the High Court set Taylor's minimum term at 30 years, meaning that he cannot be considered for parole until at least 2031, when he will be 75.[131]
David Morris was convicted in 2002 murdering three generations of the same family in 1999. His victims were 80-year-old Doris Dawson, her 34-year-old daughter Mandy Power and her two daughters, 10-year-old Katie and 8-year-old Emily by beating them with a pole and then setting the house on fire where their bodies were discovered by firefighters and was given a whole life sentence by the judge for the "exceptional savagery" of the murders.[132] However, in July 2007, the sentenced was reduced to a recommendation of 32 years in prison.[133]
David Bieber, an American former marine who fatally shot an already wounded prone policeman in the head and wounded two others in Leeds on Boxing Day 2003 and was jailed for life in December 2004. The whole life tariff was quashed in July 2008 and replaced by one of 37 years, but this means he will be at least 75 before parole can be even considered.[134]
Stephen Ayre, who was paroled in 2005 after serving 20 years of a life sentence for the murder of a 25-year-old woman, committed rape of a 10-year-old boy at knifepoint in Bradford within months of his release. He was sentenced to life imprisonment again at his trial in April 2006, and told that he should never be released, a recommendation normally only made in the case of people convicted of murder. However, his whole life tariff was later quashed on appeal.[135]
Trevor Hamilton, jailed for life in August 2006 for the murder of 65-year-old librarian Attracta Haron in Northern Ireland in December 2003. Hamilton, who was 21 when he committed the murder and 24 when jailed, had his whole life tariff reduced to 35 years on appeal in June 2008, meaning that he will be well into his fifties before parole can be considered.[136]
Clement McNally who was serving a life term for stabbing a friend outside a house in 2002, strangled his cellmate Anthony Hesketh in Manchester's Strangeway Prison in September 2003 and pleaded guilty to manslaughter and was given a whole life tariff as a result. However, in October 2009 it was reduced on appeal to 20 years in prison on account of his mentally abnormal condition.[137]
Reginald Wilson, who was convicted in 1991 of murdering skin specialist David Birkett with a hammer in 1990 and was sentenced to life in prison, however he was told three years later by the Home Secretary that life should mean life, It was however later reduced to a 30-year tariff in 2008. He has proven to be a disruptive and dangerous prisoner by trying to stab a prison officer 1999 and was transferred to the prisons close supervision center unit and is held in the exceptional risk unit.[138][139]
John Hilton was convicted of murder with two other men, Philip Kelly and Charles Connelly during the Mitcham Co-Op Robbery and was sentenced to life in prison, while his accomplice George Thatcher was sentenced to death by hanging for capital murder in 1963, only to have his death sentence quashed soon afterwards and replaced with a life sentence from which he was paroled after 18 years.[140][141] John served 15 years and was released on license in 1978, where a month after he shot and killed a diamond jeweller and accidentally shot his partner who then bled to death, he was then given a whole life tariff.[142] The sentence was later reduced to 25 years in prison in 2009.[143]
Peter Bryan is a murderer who killed once in 1993, murdering Nisha Sheth, the daughter of an employer who sacked him for stealing with a hammer. He was released in 2004 and by agreement of the doctors at the Newham General Hospital allowed to leave the ward on which he was staying whenever he liked. On this ward, he murdered Bryan Cherry by dismembering him and then eating a part of his brain.[144] When he was admitted to Broadmoor, he killed Richard Loudwell, who was awaiting trial for murder by bashing his head against the floor and strangling him and as a result was given a whole life tariff.[145] It was reduced on appeal to 15 years in 2006 on the basis that the trial judge didn't give enough consideration to his mental health.[146]
Danilo Restivo was convicted in 2011 of the 2002 murder of Heather Barnet.[147] In a second trial Restivo was later sentenced to 30 years in prison for the murder of a teenager in his native Italy in 1993.[148] 2012 saw his term reduced to 40 years as part of a joint appeal by several prisoners with long sentences.[149]
Michael Roberts was convicted in 2012 of numerous offences between 1988 and 2005,[150] including rapes.[149] His sentence was reduced to life with a 25-year minimum at the same appeal that reduced Restivo's sentence.[149] Roberts was unique, in that he was the only person serving a whole life tariff who had never committed murder.
David Martin Simmons had originally received a whole-life term for rape and false imprisonment. This was reduced to a ten-year minimum when he appealed alongside Restivo, Roberts, and others whose appeals were not successful.[149]
Donald Andrews had received a whole-life term for rape and kidnapping in 2012, while having two previous convictions for manslaughter. This was reduced to a twelve-year minimum when he appealed in 2015, making him eligible for release in 2024.[151]

tag: ul


document_title: Moe's Southwest Grill

question_text: where did moe get the names for their food

text: Moe's Southwest Grill

text: Fare names[edit]

text: Many of the menu items have names drawn from popular culture such as:

text:
"Art Vandalay" and "Close Talker" (both from the television series Seinfeld, where "Art Vandalay" refers to George's alias as an architect and importer/exporter. "Close Talker" refers to Elaine's boyfriend who talks unusually close to people.)[8]
"Who is Kaiser Salsa", a reference to the infamous and mysterious villain in The Usual Suspects.
"El Guapo's Infamous Salsa", named after the villain in the movie Three Amigos.
The "Triple Lindy" burrito (no longer on the menu), a reference to the movie Back to School.
The "John Coctostan" quesadilla, a reference to the movie Fletch.
The "Billy Barou" nachos, a reference to the movie Caddyshack - Now named "Alright, Alright, Alright".
The "Ruprict" may be a mistaken reference to[weasel words] Steve Martin's character "Ruprecht" in a scene from the movie Dirty Rotten Scoundrels.
The "Julia Gulia" stack, a reference to the movie The Wedding Singer
The "Earmuffs" burrito bowl, a reference to the movie Old School
The "Wrong Doug" stack, a reference to the movie The Hangover where the main characters mistake comedian Mike Epps of color named Doug for their Caucasian friend.

text: Fare[edit]

text: Moe’s offers various types of southwest food on its menu for everyone. Burritos, tacos, quesadillas, nachos, salads, stacks, burrito bowls, and salsas are all served exactly how someone would like. More than twenty garden fresh ingredients are available to customers to create their own unique meal. These entrees list specific ingredients within it, but ingredients can be added or subtracted from it. Some ingredients may be an additional cost. Every order comes with chips and salsa on the side. The following list describes the food available to order:

text: • Ingredients offered for a meal creation are pork carnitas, grilled 100% grass-fed sirloin steak, grilled all natural-chicken, ground beef, organic tofu, bacon, guacamole, queso, rice, black or pinto beans, grilled or fresh onions, grilled green pepper, grilled mushrooms, shredded Monterey cheddar jack, iceberg lettuce, romaine lettuce, pico de gallo, diced tomato, jalapenos fresh or pickled, black olives, chopped cucumber, sour cream, southwest vinaigrette, chipotle ranch, hard rock n roll sauce, roasted corn pico de gallo, and fresh cilantro.[9]

text: • Joey bag of donuts, the homewrecker, and art vandalay are burritos offered at Moe’s. Every burrito comes in a junior size, for example, “homewrecker Jr.”. Both the homewrecker and joey bag of donuts have protein options, which includes grass-fed steak, chicken, pork carnitas, ground beef, and organic tofu. The art vandalay burrito does not contain any protein options since it is the vegetarian option. When ordering the joey bag of donuts, a person has the ability to choose a type of protein, flour or whole-grain tortilla, season rice, beans, shredded cheese, and pico de gallo. The homewrecker includes similar options to create a meal, such as protein, lettuce, seasoned rice, beans, flour or whole-grain tortilla, sour cream, and guacamole. The vandalay burrito consists of a flour or corn tortilla, beans, pico de gallo, seasoned rice, lettuce, shredded cheese, sour cream, and guacamole. [10]

text: • Moe’s has four different types of tacos: the overachiever, funk meister, unanimous decision, and taco called wanda. Both the overachiever and funk meister have the choice of protein (steak, chicken, pork carnitas, ground beef or organic tofu) in a flour or hard shell corn tortilla, shredded cheese, pico de gallo, lettuce, and beans, however the overachiever includes guacamole and sour cream. The vegetarian taco, unanimous decision, is served in a flour or crispy tortilla, with guacamole, beans, pico de gallo, shredded cheese, and lettuce. Unlike the other items on the menu, the taco called Wanda has fish as its source of protein in a flour or corn tortilla with freshly made pico de gallo, coleslaw, cilantro, and lime wedge.[11]

text: • Moe’s serves three types of quesadillas: chicken club, john coctostan, and super kingpin. Chicken club is served in flour or whole-grain tortilla with chicken, lettuce, tomato, beans, shredded cheese, side of pico de gallo, sour cream, and chipotle ranch dressing. The john coctostan comes with the choice of flour or whole-grain tortilla with beans, shredded cheese, side of pico de gallo, and sour cream. Similar to the other entrees offered, a vegetarian option is available. The super kingpin is served in a flour or whole-grain tortilla with beans, shredded cheese, side of pico de gallo, and sour cream. [12]

text: • The billy barou and ruprict are the two types of nachos served at Moe’s. The billy barou is served with a pick of protein, beans, queso, pico de gallo, jalapenos, and black olives. A vegetarian option, ruprict, has beans, queso, pico de gallo, jalapenos, and black olives.[13]

text: • The close talker and personal trainer are the salads on the menu. The close talker has romaine lettuce, choice of protein, beans, pico de gallo, shredded cheese, cucumbers, black olives, chipotle ranch, southwest vinaigrette or LimeLite vinaigrette dressing. A vegetarian option, personal trainer, contains the same vegetables and dressings as the close talker.[14]

text: • Two types of stacks offered at Moe’s are wrong doug and julia gulia. The wrong doug contains an option of meat, beans, shredded cheese, pico de gallo, and queso stacked between two crunchy corn shells wrapped in a grilled flour or whole-grain tortilla. Julia gulia, the vegetarian option, has the same ingredients besides the protein. [15]

text: • Burrito bowls on the menu are earmuffs and band camp. Earmuffs have a selection of protein, seasoned rice beans, shredded cheese, pico de gallo, and guacamole. The vegetarian option, band camp, has the same ingredients minus the protein. [16]

text: • Three types of salsas are offered: el guapo salsa, who is kaiser salsa, and tomatillo salsa.[17]

text: • Children do have the option to order a kids meal. A child can order a moo moo Mr. cow burrito, power wagon taco, or mini masterpiece quesadilla. Each kids meal comes with a drink, chips and salsa, and cookie. [18]

text: International locations[edit]

text: Moe's has locations in Turkey and Russia. According to the company 'newsroom' website (moessouthwestgrill.wordpress.com), franchise partners also exist in Costa Rica [19] and Jamaica.[20]

text: Turkey[edit]

text: In 2011 Moe's opened its first location outside the United States in Turkey.[21]

text: Russia[edit]

text: In September 2012 Moe's opened its first Russian franchise[22] located in the center of Moscow near the Kremlin on Pyatnitskaya Street.[23][24]


document_title: Lane

question_text: how wide is a standard lane of traffic

question_tokens: how wide is a standard lane of traffic

text: Lane

text: Capacity[edit]

text: Lane capacity varies widely due to conditions such as neighboring lanes, lane width, elements next to the road, number of driveways, presence of parking, speed limits, number of heavy vehicles and so on – the range can be as low as 1000 passenger cars / hour to as high as 4800 passenger cars /hour but mostly falls between 1500 and 2400 passenger cars / hour.[2]

text: Types[edit]

text:
A traffic lane or travel lane is a lane for the movement of vehicles traveling from one destination to another, not including shoulders.
A through lane or thru lane is a traffic lane for through traffic. At intersections, these may be indicated by arrows on the pavement pointing straight ahead.
An express lane of a road is used for faster moving traffic and has less access to exits/off ramps. In other areas, an express lane may refer to a HOV lane (see below).
A reversible lane (contraflow lane) is a lane where the direction of traffic can be changed to match the peak flow. They are used to accommodate periods of high traffic flow, especially rush hour where the flow is predominantly in one direction, on roads that cannot be easily widened such as over bridges. One or more lanes are removed from the opposing flow and added to the peak flow.
An auxiliary lane is a lane other than a through lane, used to separate entering, exiting or turning traffic from the through traffic.

text:
An acceleration lane or merge lane allows traffic entering a highway to accelerate to the speed of through traffic before merging with it.
A deceleration lane is a lane adjacent to the primary road or street used to improve traffic safety by allowing drivers to pull out of the through lane and decelerate safely before turning off a surface street or exiting a freeway.
A turn lane is set aside for slowing down and making a turn, so as not to disrupt traffic. By removing turning traffic from the through lanes, motorist safety is improved and delay is removed, but crossing distances for pedestrians are lengthened, increasing their exposure to collisions.
A two-way center turn lane is a lane in the center of a roadway to allow drivers traveling in either direction to pause before turning across oncoming traffic (a left turn in right-driving countries, or a right turn in left-driving countries) while waiting for a gap in traffic.
A passing lane is sometimes provided on busy two-lane roads to allow drivers to pass slower vehicles without having to cross the center line and risking a head-on collision.
A climbing lane, truck lane, or crawler lane is often provided on steep mountain grades, in order to allow smaller vehicles to pass larger, slower ones. The lane is marked only on the uphill stretch and usually a short distance afterward (for regaining speed).
An operational lane or auxiliary lane is an extra lane on the entire length of highway between interchanges, giving drivers more time to merge in or out. The lane is created when an entrance ramp meets the highway, and drops out (with an "exit only" sign) to become the ramp at the next exit.[3]
A transfer lane of a road is used to move from express lanes to collector lanes, or vice versa; it is somewhat similar to an auxiliary lane.
A collector lane of a road is used for slower moving traffic and has more access to exits/off ramps.

text: Dedicated lanes are traffic lanes set aside for particular types of vehicles.

text:
A high occupancy vehicle or carpool lane is reserved for carpooling. In the US, they may be marked with a diamond icon every few hundred feet (hence the nickname "diamond lane"), or separated from other lanes by double broken white lines, a continuous pair of double yellow lines, or just a single broken white line.
A high-occupancy toll lane is a combination of an HOV lane and toll collection technology that allows drivers without passengers to use the HOV lane by paying a premium price for the privilege
A designated bicycle lane is a portion of the roadway or shoulder designated for the exclusive or preferential use of bicyclists. This designation is indicated by special word and/or symbol markings on the pavement and "BIKE LANE" signs.
A motorcycle lane is provided at certain roads and highways such as the Federal Highway in Malaysia to segregate the motorcycle traffic from the main roadways to reduce motorcycle-related accidents. The motorcycle lane may form a part of the hard shoulder, or may be one or more completely separated lanes.
A bus lane is reserved for buses providing public transportation on a fixed route, sometimes with overhead catenary for trolleybuses. In some countries, bus lanes may also be used by some other traffic, such as taxis, bicycles and motorbikes.
A tram lane is a lane reserved for the use of buses, trams and taxicabs. It is usually encountered in cities with curbside tram network, such as Zagreb.
A truckway is a dedicated lane for longer length trucks; for instance, the Florida Turnpike allows 96-foot long double trailer combinations,[4] in contrast to normal Florida highways' 53-foot limit.[5] Since the major cost of trucking is the fixed cost of the same trailer with its driver the cost per ton of operating with truckway size and weight allowances is 35 to 40 percent below the cost of operations on the non-truckways.[6]

text: In some areas, the lane adjacent to the curb is reserved for non-moving vehicles.

text:
A parking lane is reserved for parallel parking of vehicles.
A fire lane is the area next to a curb, which is reserved for firefighting equipment, ambulances, or other emergency vehicles. Parking in these areas, often marked by red lines, usually warrants a parking ticket.
A loading lane (loading zone in the United States) is an area next to a curb, which is reserved for loading and unloading passengers and/or freight. It may be marked by a sign ("LOADING ONLY" or "LOADING ZONE") or by a yellow or white-painted curb.
A hard shoulder is sometimes called an emergency lane or a breakdown lane, when it is reserved for vehicle breakdowns, and for emergency vehicles. On some congested roads, the shoulder is used as a vehicle lane during peak travel hours.

text: By law or custom, inside lanes are often reserved for faster traffic, and outside lanes are used by slower traffic.

text:
An overtaking lane is the lane furthest from the shoulder of a multi-lane carriageway/roadway (sometimes called the fast lane, although this is deprecated by the authorities).
The slow lane is the lane nearest to the shoulder of a multi-lane carriageway/roadway.

text: Lane width[edit]

text: While in general, wider lanes are associated with a reduction in crashes,[7] in urban settings both narrow (less than 2.8 m) and wide (over 3.1~3.2 m) lanes increase crash risks.[8] Wider lanes (over 3.3~3.4m) are associated with 33% higher impact speeds, as well as higher crash rates. Carrying capacity is also maximal at a width of 3 to 3.1 metres (9.8 to 10.2 ft), both for motor traffic and for bicycles. Pedestrian volume declines as lanes widen, and intersections with narrower lanes provide the highest capacity for bicycles.[9] As lane width decreases, traffic speed diminishes.[10]

text: Advocates for safety of people walking and people on bikes, and many new urbanists disagree with traditional thinking in traffic engineering, saying that safety and capacity are not adversely impacted by reducing lanes widths to as little as 10 feet (3.0 m).[11] Moreover, wider travel lanes also increase exposure and crossing distance for pedestrians at intersections and midblock crossings.

text: The widths of vehicle lanes typically vary from 9 to 15 feet (2.7 to 4.6 m). Lane widths are commonly narrower on low volume roads and wider on higher volume roads. The lane width depends on the assumed maximum vehicle width with an additional space to allow for lateral motion of the vehicle.

text: The maximum truck width had been 96 inches (2.438 m) in the Code of Federal Regulations of 1956 which matches with the width of eight-foot for shipping containers. This had been increased to 102 inches (2.591 m) in 1976 which explicitly states to be read as the slightly larger metric 2.6 metres (102.36 in) width respecting international harmonization.[12] The same applies to standards in Europe which had increased the allowable size of road vehicles with a current maximum of 2.55 metres (100.39 in) for most trucks and allowing 2.6 metres (102.36 in) for refrigerator trucks. The minimum extra space had been 0.20 metres (7.87 in) and it is currently assumed to be at least 0.25 metres (9.84 in) on each side. For roads with a lower amount of traffic it is allowed to build the second or third lane in the same direction to an assumed lower width for cars like 1.75 metres (68.90 in), however this is not recommended as a design principle for new roads as changes in the amount of traffic could make for unnecessarily increased risks in the future.

text: The Interstate Highway standards for the U.S. Interstate Highway System uses a 12-foot (3.7 m) standard for lane width, while narrower lanes are used on lower classification roads. In Europe, as laws and road width vary by country, the minimum widths of lanes is generally between 2.5 to 3.25 metres (8.2 to 10.7 ft).[13] The federal Bundesstraße interurban network in Germany defines a minimum of 3.5 metres (11 ft 6 in) for each lane for the smallest two lane roads with an additional 0.25 metres (9.84 in) on the outer sides and shoulders being at least 1.5 metres (59.06 in) on each side. A modern Autobahn divided highway will have two lanes per direction which are 3.75 metres (12 ft 4 in) wide with an additional clearance of 0.50 metres (19.69 in) on each side, while three lanes per direction are set at 3.75 metres (12 ft 4 in) for the rightmost lane and 3.5 metres (11 ft 6 in) for the other lanes. Urban access roads and roads in low-density areas may have lanes as small as 2.75 metres (9 ft 0 in) in width per lane with shoulders being at least 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) wide.[14]

text: Lane markings[edit]

text: Painted lane markings vary widely from country to country. In the United States, Canada, Mexico, Honduras, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands and Norway, yellow lines separate traffic going opposite directions and white separates lanes of traffic traveling the same direction, but such is not the case in many European countries.

text: Lane markings are mostly lines painted on the road by a road marking machine, which can adjust the marking widths according to the lane type.[15]

text: Numbering of freeway lanes in California[edit]

text: Traffic reports in California often refer to accidents being "in the number X lane." The California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) assigns the numbers from left to right.[16] The far left passing lane is the number 1 lane. The number of the slow lane (closest to freeway onramps/offramps) depends on the total number of lanes, and could be anywhere from 2 to 8.

text: History[edit]

text: For much of human history, roads did not need lane markings because most people walked or rode horses at relatively slow speeds. Another reason for not using lane markings is that they are expensive to maintain.

text: When automobiles, trucks, and buses came into widespread use during the first two decades of the 20th century, head-on collisions became more common.

text: Without the guidance provided by lane markings, drivers in the early days often erred in favor of keeping closer to the middle of the road, rather than risk going off-road into ditches or trees[citation needed]. This practice often left inadequate room for opposing traffic.

text: The history of lane markings is connected to the mass automobile construction in Detroit. It resulted in the formation of the first Road Commission of Wayne County, Michigan in 1906 which was trying to make roads safer (Henry Ford served on the board in the first year).[17] The commission would order the construction of the first concrete road in 1909 (the Woodard Avenue in Detroit) and it conceived the centerline for highways in 1911. Hence the chairmen of the Road Commission, Edward N. Hines is widely credited as the inventor of line markings.[18]

text: The introduction as a common standard is connected to June McCarroll, a physician in Indio, California who started experimenting with painting lines on roads in 1917 after she was run off a highway by a truck driver. In November 1924, after years of lobbying by Dr. McCarroll and her allies, California officially adopted a policy of painting lines on its highways. A portion of Interstate 10 near Indio has been named the Dr. June McCarroll Memorial Freeway in her honor.

text: The first lane markings in Europe were painted at an accident hotspot in the small town of Sutton Coldfield near Birmingham, England in 1921. The success of this experiment made its way to other hotspots and later standardization of white paint for line markings in Great Britain.[19]

text: The first lane markings in Germany were used in Berlin in 1925 using white paint for line markings and road edge markings. When the standard for the new autobahn network was conceived in the 1930s it mandated the usage of black paint for the center line for each carriageway as black was better visible on the bright surface of the concrete roads.

text: By 1939, lane markings had become so popular that they were officially standardized throughout the United States. The concept of line markings spread throughout the world becoming standard for most roads. Originally the lines were drawn manually with normal paint which would bleach out quickly. After the war, the first machines for line markings were invented[20] and a plastic strip was becoming standard in the 1950s which led to gradually find line markings on all roads.

text: Right- and left-hand traffic[edit]