document_title: List of Test cricket records

question_text: who scored the most runs in test cricket

text: List of Test cricket records

text: Listing criteria

text: In general the top five are listed in each category (except when there is a tie for the last place among the five, when all the tied record holders are noted).

text: Listing notation

text:
(300–3) indicates that a team scored 300 runs for three wickets and the innings was closed, either due to a successful run chase or if no playing time remained
(300–3 d) indicates that a team scored 300 runs for three wickets, and declared its innings closed
(300) indicates that a team scored 300 runs and was all out

text:
(100) indicates that a batsman scored 100 runs and was out
(100*) indicates that a batsman scored 100 runs and was not out

text: (5–100) indicates that a bowler has captured 5 wickets while conceding 100 runs

text: indicates a current Test cricketer

text: Cricket is played during the summer months in most countries. Domestic cricket seasons in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Zimbabwe and the West Indies may therefore span two calendar years, and are by convention said to be played in (e.g.) "2008–09". A cricket season in England is described as a single year. e.g. "2009". An international Test series may be for a much shorter duration, and Cricinfo treats this issue by stating "any series or matches which began between May and September of any given year will appear in the relevant single year season and any that began between October and April will appear in the relevant cross-year season".[23] In the record tables, a two-year span generally indicates that the record was set within a domestic season in one of the above named countries.

text: Team records

text: Team wins, losses and draws

text:
Team
First Test match
Matches
Won
Lost
Tied
Drawn
 % Won

 Australia
000000001877-03-15-000015 March 1877
803
378
216
2
207
47.07

 Bangladesh
000000002000-11-10-000010 November 2000
102
10
77
0
15
14.70

 England
000000001877-03-15-000015 March 1877
989
355
291
0
343
35.89

 India
000000001932-06-25-000025 June 1932
515
142
158
1
214
27.57

 New Zealand
000000001930-01-10-000010 January 1930
422
89
170
0
163
21.09

 Pakistan
000000001952-10-16-000016 October 1952
410
132
120
0
158
32.19

 South Africa
000000001889-03-12-000012 March 1889
415
153
138
0
124
36.86

 Sri Lanka
000000001982-02-17-000017 February 1982
262
82
99
0
81
31.29

 West Indies
000000001928-06-23-000023 June 1928
525
167
184
1
173
31.80

 Zimbabwe
000000001992-10-18-000018 October 1992
102
11
65
0
26
10.78

ICC World XI
000000002005-10-14-000014 October 2005
1
0
1
0
0
0.00

Last updated: 7 September 2017[24]

text: Result records

text: Greatest win margins (by innings)

text:
Margin
Teams
Venue
Season

Innings and 579 runs
 England (903-7 d) beat  Australia (201 & 123)
The Oval, London
1938

Innings and 360 runs
 Australia (652–7 d) beat  South Africa (159 & 133)
New Wanderers Stadium, Johannesburg
2001–02

Innings and 336 runs
 West Indies (614–5 d) beat  India (124 & 154)
Eden Gardens, Kolkata
1958–59

Innings and 332 runs
 Australia (645) beat  England (141 & 172)
Brisbane Cricket Ground
1946–47

Innings and 324 runs
 Pakistan (643) beat  New Zealand (73 & 246)
Gaddafi Stadium, Lahore
2002

Last updated: 12 December 2016[25]

text: Greatest win margin (by runs)

text:
Margin
Teams
Venue
Season

675 runs
 England (521 & 342–8 d) beat  Australia (122 & 66)
Brisbane Exhibition Ground
1928–29

562 runs
 Australia (701 & 327) beat  England (321 & 145)
The Oval, London
1934

530 runs
 Australia (328 & 578) beat  South Africa (205 & 171)
Melbourne Cricket Ground
1910–11

491 runs
 Australia (381 & 361–5 d) beat  Pakistan (179 & 72)
WACA Ground, Perth
2004–05

465 runs
 Sri Lanka (384 & 447–6 d) beat  Bangladesh (208 & 158)
Chittagong Divisional Stadium
2008–09

Last updated: 12 December 2016[26]

text: Matches that finished with scores level

text:
Result
Teams
Venue
Season

Tie
 Australia (505 & 232) vs  West Indies (453 & 284)
The Gabba
1960–61

Tie
 India (397 & 347) vs  Australia (574–7 d & 170–5 d)
MA Chidambaram Stadium, Madras
1986–87

Draw
 Zimbabwe (376 & 234) vs  England (406 & 204–5)
Queens Sports Club, Bulawayo
1996–97

Draw
 India (482 & 242–9) vs  West Indies (590 & 134)
Wankhede Stadium, Mumbai
2011–12

Last updated: 15 June 2016[27][28][29]

text: Narrowest win margin (by wickets)

text:
Margin
Teams
Venue
Season

1 wicket
 England (183 & 263–9) beat  Australia (324 & 121)
The Oval, London
1902

1 wicket
 South Africa (91 & 287–9) beat  England (184 & 190)
Old Wanderers, Johannesburg
1905–06

1 wicket
 England (382 & 282–9) beat  Australia (266 & 397)
Melbourne Cricket Ground
1907–08

1 wicket
 England (183 & 173–9) beat  South Africa (113 & 242)
Newlands Cricket Ground, Cape Town
1922–23

1 wicket
 Australia (216 & 260–9) beat  West Indies (272 & 203)
Melbourne Cricket Ground
1951–52

1 wicket
 New Zealand (249 & 104–9) beat  West Indies (140 & 212)
Carisbrook, Dunedin
1979–80

1 wicket
 Pakistan (256 & 315–9) beat  Australia (337 & 232)
National Stadium, Karachi
1994–95

1 wicket
 West Indies (329 & 311–9) beat  Australia (490 & 146)
Kensington Oval, Bridgetown
1998–99

1 wicket
 West Indies (273 & 216–9) beat  Pakistan (269 & 219)
Antigua Recreation Ground, St. John's
1999–00

1 wicket
 Pakistan (175 & 262–9) beat  Bangladesh (281 & 154)
Ibn-e-Qasim Bagh Stadium, Multan
2003

1 wicket
 Sri Lanka (321 & 352–9) beat  South Africa (361 & 311)
Paikiasothy Saravanamuttu Stadium, Colombo
2006

1 wicket
 India (405 & 216–9) beat  Australia (428 & 192)
Punjab Cricket Association Stadium, Mohali
2010–11

Last updated: 15 June 2016[30]

text: Narrowest win margin (by runs)

text:
Margin
Teams
Venue
Season

1 run
 West Indies (252 & 146) beat  Australia (213 & 184)
Adelaide Oval
1992–93

2 runs
 England (407 & 182) beat  Australia (308 & 279)
Edgbaston, Birmingham
2005

3 runs
 Australia (299 & 86) beat  England (262 & 120)
Old Trafford, Manchester
1902

 England (284 & 294) beat  Australia (287 & 288)
Melbourne Cricket Ground
1982–83

5 runs
 South Africa (169 & 239) beat  Australia (292 & 111)
Sydney Cricket Ground
1993–94

Last updated: 15 June 2016[31]

text: Victory after following-on

text:
Margin
Teams
Venue
Season

10 runs
 England (325 & 437) beat  Australia (586 & 166)
Sydney Cricket Ground
1894–95

18 runs
 England (174 & 356) beat  Australia (401–9 d & 111)
Headingley, Leeds
1981

171 runs
 India (171 & 657–7 d) beat  Australia (445 & 212)
Eden Gardens, Kolkata
2000–01

Last updated: 15 June 2016[32]

text: Most consecutive wins

text:
Wins
Team
First win
Last win

16
 Australia
 Zimbabwe at Harare, 14 October 1999
 India at Mumbai, 27 February 2001

16
 Australia
 South Africa at Melbourne, 26 December 2005
 India at Sydney, 2 January 2008

11
 West Indies
 Australia at Bridgetown, 30 March 1984
 Australia at Adelaide, 7 December 1984

9
 Sri Lanka
 India at Colombo, 29 August 2001
 Pakistan at Lahore, 6 March 2002

9
 South Africa
 Australia at Durban, 15 March 2002
 Bangladesh at Dhaka, 1 May 2003

Last updated: 15 June 2016[33]

text: Team scoring records

text:
Most runs in an innings

Runs
Teams
Venue
Season

952-6 d
 Sri Lanka (v  India)
Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium, Colombo
1997

903-7 d
 England (v  Australia)
The Oval, London
1938

849
 England (v  West Indies)
Sabina Park, Kingston
1929–30

790–3 d
 West Indies (v  Pakistan)
Sabina Park, Kingston
1957–58

765–6 d
 Pakistan (v  Sri Lanka)
National Stadium, Karachi
2008–09

Last updated: 14 September 2017[34]

text:
Fewest runs in a completed innings

Runs
Teams
Venue
Date

26
 New Zealand (v  England)
Eden Park, Auckland
25 March 1955

30
 South Africa (v  England)
St. George's Park, Port Elizabeth
13 February 1896

 South Africa (v  England)
Edgbaston, Birmingham
14 June 1924

35
 South Africa (v  England)
Newlands Cricket Ground, Cape Town
1 April 1899

36
 Australia (v  England)
Edgbaston, Birmingham
29 May 1902

 South Africa (v  Australia)
Melbourne Cricket Ground
12 February 1932

Last updated: 14 September 2017[35]

text:
Highest fourth-innings totals to win

Runs
Teams
Venue
Season

418–7
 West Indies (v  Australia)
Antigua Recreation Ground, St. John's
2002–03

414–4
 South Africa (v  Australia)
WACA Ground, Perth
2008–09

406–4
 India (v  West Indies)
Queen's Park Oval, Port of Spain
1975–76

404–3
 Australia (v  England)
Headingley, Leeds
1948

391–6
 Sri Lanka (v  Zimbabwe)
Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium, Colombo
2017

Last updated: 14 September 2017[36]

text: Individual records

text: Individual records (batting)

text: Career runs

text:
Most career runs

Runs
Player
Period

15,921 (329 innings)
 Sachin Tendulkar
1989–2013

13,378 (287 innings)
 Ricky Ponting
1995–2012

13,289 (280 innings)
 Jacques Kallis
1995–2013

13,288 (286 innings)
 Rahul Dravid
1996–2012

12,400 (233 innings)
 Kumar Sangakkara
2000–2015

Last updated: 15 June 2016[37]

text:
Most career runs – progression of record

Runs
Player
Record held until
Duration of record

239
 Charles Bannerman
4 January 1882
4 years, 295 days

676
 George Ulyett[a]
13 August 1884
2 years, 222 days

860
 Billy Murdoch[b]
14 August 1886
2 years, 1 day

1,277
 Arthur Shrewsbury
23 January 1902
15 years, 162 days

1,293
 Joe Darling[c]
18 February 1902
26 days

1,366
 Syd Gregory[d]
14 June 1902
116 days

1,531
 Archie MacLaren[e]
13 August 1902
60 days

3,412
 Clem Hill
27 December 1924
22 years, 136 days

5,410
 Jack Hobbs
29 June 1937
12 years, 184 days

7,249
 Wally Hammond
27 November 1970
33 years, 151 days

7,459
 Colin Cowdrey[f]
23 March 1972
1 year, 117 days

8,032
 Garfield Sobers
23 December 1981
9 years, 275 days

8,114
 Geoff Boycott
12 November 1983
1 year, 324 days

10,122
 Sunil Gavaskar
25 February 1993
9 years, 105 days

11,174
 Allan Border
25 November 2005
12 years, 273 days

11,953
 Brian Lara
17 October 2008
2 years, 327 days

15,921
 Sachin Tendulkar
current
7003325300000000000♠8 years, 331 days

Last updated: 15 June 2016[38]

Notes:

^[a] Ulyett finished his career with 949 runs
^[b] Murdoch finished his career with 908 runs
^[c] Darling finished his career with 1,657 runs
^[d] Gregory finished his career with 2,282 runs
^[e] MacLaren finished his career with 1,931 runs
^[f] Cowdrey finished his career with 7,624 runs

text: Most runs in each batting position

text:
Batting position
Player
Runs
Average

Opener
 Alastair Cook
10430
45.95

Number 3
 Kumar Sangakkara
11679
60.83

Number 4
 Sachin Tendulkar
13492
54.40

Number 5
 Shivnarine Chanderpaul
6883
56.42

Number 6
 Steve Waugh
3165
51.05

Number 7
 Adam Gilchrist
3948
46.45

Number 8
 Daniel Vettori
2227
39.77

Number 9
 Stuart Broad
1173
20.95

Number 10
 Dale Steyn
502
12.55

Number 11
 Muttiah Muralitharan
623
11.33

Last updated: 17 March 2017[39]

text: Highest career batting average

text:
Average
Player
Period

99.94 (80 innings)
 Donald Bradman
1928–1948

61.87 (31 innings)
 Adam Voges
2015–2016

60.97 (41 innings)
 Graeme Pollock
1963–1970

60.83 (40 innings)
 George Headley
1930–1954

60.73 (84 innings)
 Herbert Sutcliffe
1924–1935

Qualification: 20 innings.
Last updated: 30 August 2017[40]

text: Innings or series

text:
Highest individual score (see also List of Test cricket triple centuries)

Runs
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

400*
 Brian Lara
 England
Antigua Recreation Ground, St. John's
2003–04

380
 Matthew Hayden
 Zimbabwe
WACA Ground, Perth
2003–04

375
 Brian Lara
 England
Antigua Recreation Ground, St. John's
1993–94

374
 Mahela Jayawardene
 South Africa
Sinhalese Sports Club Ground, Colombo
2006

365*
 Garfield Sobers
 Pakistan
Sabina Park, Kingston
1957–58

Last updated: 15 June 2015[41]

text:
Highest individual score – progression of record

Runs
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season
Test match Number

165*
 Charles Bannerman
 England
Melbourne Cricket Ground
1876–77
Test No. 1

211
 Billy Murdoch
 England
The Oval, London
1884
Test No. 16

287
 Tip Foster
 Australia
Sydney Cricket Ground
1903–04
Test No. 78

325
 Andy Sandham
 West Indies
Sabina Park, Kingston
1929–30
Test No. 193

334
 Don Bradman
 England
Headingley, Leeds
1930
Test No. 196

336*
 Wally Hammond
 New Zealand
Eden Park, Auckland
1932–33
Test No. 226

364
 Len Hutton
 Australia
The Oval, London
1938
Test No. 266

365*
 Garfield Sobers
 Pakistan
Sabina Park, Kingston
1957–58
Test No. 452

375
 Brian Lara
 England
Antigua Recreation Ground, St. John's
1993–94
Test No. 1259

380
 Matthew Hayden
 Zimbabwe
WACA Ground, Perth
2003–04
Test No. 1661

400*
 Brian Lara
 England
Antigua Recreation Ground, St. John's
2003–04
Test No. 1696

Last updated: 15 June 2016[42]

text:
Most runs in a match

Runs
Scores
Player
Match

456
333 and 123
 Graham Gooch
v  India at Lord's, 1990

426
334* and 92
 Mark Taylor
v  Pakistan at Peshawar, 1998–99

424
319 and 105
 Kumar Sangakkara
v  Bangladesh at Chittagong, 2013–14

400
400*
 Brian Lara
v  England at St John's, Antigua, 2003–04

380
247* and 133
 Greg Chappell
v  New Zealand at Wellington, 1973–74

380
 Matthew Hayden
v  Zimbabwe at Perth, 2003–04

Last updated: 15 June 2016[43]

text:
Most runs in a series

Runs
Player
Series

974 (7 innings)
 Donald Bradman
v  England, 1930

905 (9 innings)
 Wally Hammond
v  Australia, 1928–29

839 (11 innings)
 Mark Taylor
v  England, 1989

834 (9 innings)
 Neil Harvey
v  South Africa, 1952–53

829 (7 innings)
 Viv Richards
v  England, 1976

827 (10 innings)
 Clyde Walcott
v  Australia, 1955

824 (8 innings)
 Gary Sobers
v  Pakistan, 1957–58

810 (9 innings)
 Donald Bradman
v  England, 1936–37

806 (5 innings)
 Donald Bradman
v  South Africa, 1931–32

798 (8 innings)
 Brian Lara
v  England, 1993–94

Last updated: 15 June 2016[44]

text:
Most runs in a calendar year

Runs
Player
Average
Year

1788
 Mohammad Yousuf
99.33
2006

1710
 Vivian Richards
90.00
1976

1656
 Graeme Smith
72.00
2008

1595
 Michael Clarke
106.33
2012

1562
 Sachin Tendulkar
78.10
2010

Last updated: 15 June 2015[45]

text: Highest scores at each batting position

text:
Batting position
Player
Score
Opponent
Venue
Date

Opener
 Matthew Hayden
380
 Zimbabwe
WACA Ground
9 October 2003

Number 3
 Brian Lara
400*
 England
Antigua Recreation Ground
10 April 2004

Number 4
 Mahela Jayawardene
374
 South Africa
Sinhalese Sports Club Ground
27 July 2006

Number 5
 Michael Clarke
329*
 India
Sydney Cricket Ground
3 January 2012

Number 6
 Ben Stokes
258
 South Africa
Newlands Cricket Ground
2 January 2016

Number 7
 Donald Bradman
270
 England
Melbourne Cricket Ground
1 January 1937

Number 8
 Wasim Akram
257*
 Zimbabwe
Sheikhupura Stadium
17 October 1996

Number 9
 Ian Smith
173
 India
Eden Park
22 February 1990

Number 10
 Walter Read
117
 Australia
Kennington Oval
11 August 1884

Number 11
 Ashton Agar
98
 England
Trent Bridge
10 July 2013

Last updated: 17 March January 2017[46]

text: Innings as captain

text:
Highest individual score as captain

Runs
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

400*
 Brian Lara
 England
Antigua Recreation Ground, St. John's
2003–04

374
 Mahela Jayawardene
 South Africa
Sinhalese Sports Club Ground, Colombo
2006

334*
 Mark Taylor
 Pakistan
Arbab Niaz Stadium, Peshawar
1998

333
 Graham Gooch
 India
Lord's, London
1990

329*
 Michael Clarke
 India
Sydney Cricket Ground, Sydney
2012

Last updated: 15 June 2015[47]

text: Most runs in an over

text:
Runs
Sequence
Batsman
Bowler
Venue
Season

28
4–6–6–4–4–4
 Brian Lara
 Robin Peterson
Wanderers Stadium, Johannesburg
2003–04

4–6–2–4–6–6
 George Bailey
 James Anderson
WACA, Perth
2013–14

27
6–6–6–6–2–1
 Shahid Afridi
 Harbhajan Singh
Gaddafi Stadium, Lahore
2005–06

26
4–4–6–0–6–6
 Mitchell Johnson
 Paul Harris
Wanderers Stadium, Johannesburg
2008–09

4–0–6–6–6–4
 Brian Lara
 Danish Kaneria
Multan Cricket Stadium
2006–07

4–4–4–4–6–4
 Craig McMillan
 Younis Khan
Seddon Park, Hamilton
2000–01

4–6–6–0–4–6
 Brendon McCullum
 Suranga Lakmal
Hagley Oval, Christchurch, New Zealand
2014–15

4–4–6–6–6–0
 Hardik Pandya
 Malinda Pushpakumara
Pallekele International Cricket Stadium,Sri Lanka
2017

Last updated: 14 August 2017[48]

text: Centuries

text: Most Test centuries

text:
Centuries
Player
Matches
Innings
Inns/Century

51
 Sachin Tendulkar
200
329
6.4

45
 Jacques Kallis
166
280
6.2

41
 Ricky Ponting
168
287
7.0

38
 Kumar Sangakkara
132
229
6

36
 Rahul Dravid
164
286
7.9

Last updated: 15 June 2016[49]

text:
Maximum Centuries – progression of record

Centuries
Player
Matches
Venue
Season
Test match Number

1
 Charles Bannerman
1
Melbourne Cricket Ground
1876–77
Test No. 1

2
 Allan Steel
13
Lord's, London
21-Jul-1984
Test No.--

3
 Percy McDonnell
--
---
---
Test No. --

5
 Archie MacLaren
--
---
---
Test No. --

6
 Clem Hill
--
---
---
Test No. --

8
 Victor Trumper
--
---
---
Test No. --

15
 Jack Hobbs
--
---
---
Test No. --

16
 Herbert Sutcliffe
--
---
---
Test No. --

21
 Don Bradman
--
---
---
Test No. --

22
 Walter Hammond
--
---
---
Test No. --

29
 Don Bradman
--
---
---
Test No. --

34
 Sunil Gavaskar
--
---
---
Test No. --

51
 Sachin Tendulkar
--
---
---
Test No. --

Last updated: 9 September 2017[50]

text:
Fastest Test centuries

No. of balls
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

54
 Brendon McCullum
 Australia
Hagley Oval, Christchurch
2015–16

56
 Viv Richards
 England
Antigua Recreation Ground, St. John's
1985–86

 Misbah-ul-Haq
 Australia
Sheikh Zayed Cricket Stadium, Abu Dhabi
2014

57
 Adam Gilchrist
 England
WACA Ground, Perth
2006–07

67
 Jack Gregory
 South Africa
Old Wanderers, Johannesburg
1921–22

Last updated: 15 June 2016[51]

text:
Most Test double centuries

Double centuries
Player
Matches

12
 Donald Bradman
52

11
 Kumar Sangakkara
130

9
 Brian Lara
131

7
 Wally Hammond
85

 Mahela Jayawardene
149

Last updated: 15 June 2016[52]

text:
Most Test triple centuries

Triple centuries
Player
Matches

2
 Donald Bradman
52

 Virender Sehwag
104

 Chris Gayle
103

 Brian Lara
131

Last updated: 11 December 2016[53]

Note:
21 other players have scored a triple century in a Test: see List of Test cricket triple centuries for more details[54]

text:
Most Test quadruple centuries

Quadruple centuries
Player
Matches

1
 Brian Lara
131

Last updated: 15 June 2016[55]

text: Half Centuries

text: Most Test 50+

text:
50+
Player
Matches
Innings

119
 Sachin Tendulkar
200
329

103
 Jacques Kallis
166
280

103
 Ricky Ponting
168
287

99
 Rahul Dravid
164
286

96
 Shivnarine Chanderpaul
164
280

Last updated: 15 June 2016[56]

text:
Fastest Test half-centuries

No. of balls
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

21
 Misbah-ul-Haq
 Australia
Sheikh Zayed Stadium, Abu Dhabi
2014/15

24
 Jacques Kallis
 Zimbabwe
Newlands Cricket Ground, Cape Town
2004/05

25
 Shane Shillingford
 New Zealand
Sabina Park, Kingston
2014

26
 Shahid Afridi
 India
M Chinnaswamy Stadium, Bangalore
2004/05

 Mohammad Ashraful
 India
Sher-e-Bangla Cricket Stadium, Mirpur
2007

 Dale Steyn
 West Indies
St. George's Park, Port Elizabeth
2014/15

Last updated: 15 June 2016[57]

text: Most fours in career

text:
Fours
Player
Innings

2058+
 Sachin Tendulkar
329

1654
 Rahul Dravid
286

1559
 Brian Lara
232

1509
 Ricky Ponting
287

1491
 Kumar Sangakkara
233

Last updated: 15 February 2016[58] Notes:

^[a] "+" means the completed career records aren't known

text: Individual records (bowling)

text: Career

text:
Most wickets in a career

Wickets
Player
Matches
Average

800
 Muttiah Muralitharan
133
22.72

708
 Shane Warne
145
25.41

619
 Anil Kumble
132
29.65

563
 Glenn McGrath
124
21.64

519
 Courtney Walsh
132
24.44

Last updated: 15 June 2016[59]

text:
Most wickets in a career – Progression of record

Wickets
Player
Matches
Average
Record held until
Duration of record

8[a]
 Alfred Shaw
1
10.75
31 March 1877
16 days

14
 Tom Kendall
2
15.35
4 January 1879
1 year, 279 days

94[b]
 Fred Spofforth
18
18.41
12 January 1895
16 years, 8 days

118
 Johnny Briggs
33
17.75
2 January 1904
8 years, 355 days

141
 Hugh Trumble
32
21.78
13 December 1913
9 years, 345 days

189
 Sydney Barnes
27
16.43
4 January 1936
22 years, 22 days

216
 Clarrie Grimmett
37
24.21
24 July 1953
17 years, 201 days

236
 Alec Bedser
51
24.89
26 January 1963
9 years, 186 days

242[c]
 Brian Statham
67
24.27
15 March 1963
48 days

307
 Fred Trueman
67
21.57
1 February 1976
12 years, 323 days

309
 Lance Gibbs
79
29.09
27 December 1981
5 years, 329 days

355
 Dennis Lillee
70
23.92
21 August 1986
4 years, 237 days

373[d]
 Ian Botham
94
27.86
12 November 1988
2 years, 83 days

431
 Richard Hadlee
86
22.29
8 February 1994
5 years, 88 days

434
 Kapil Dev
131
29.64
27 March 2000
6 years, 48 days

519
 Courtney Walsh
132
24.44
8 May 2004
4 years, 42 days

532[e]
 Muttiah Muralitharan
91
22.87
15 October 2004
160 days

708
 Shane Warne
145
25.41
3 December 2007
3 years, 49 days

800
 Muttiah Muralitharan
133
22.72
Current
7003357200000000000♠9 years, 284 days

Notes
^[a] Allen Hill took the first Test wicket, but only two in the First Test match. Alfred Shaw (3/51 & 5/35) and Tom Kendall (1/54 & 7/55) both took eight wickets, but as Australia batted first Shaw was the first to take five wickets in an innings and the first to take eight Test wickets. Kendall overtook him in the Second Test and Shaw subsequently increased his total to 12 wickets (15.35) in seven Tests[60]
^[b] Johnny Briggs equalled Fred Spofforth's record of 94 Test wickets on 29 December 1894 in the Second Test at Melbourne, as did Charles Turner two days later. Briggs overook Turner and Spofforth in the Third Test at Adelaide, which Turner missed, and became the first man to claim 100 Test wickets on 1 February 1895 in the Fourth Test at Sydney. Turner became the second three days later and ended with a total of 101 wickets (16.53) in 17 Tests[61]
^[c] Fred Trueman overtook Brian Statham's then record of 242 Test wickets and Statham subsequently increased his total to 252 wickets (24.84) in 70 Tests
^[d] Richard Hadlee overtook Ian Botham's then record of 373 Test wickets and Botham subsequently increased his total to 383 wickets (28.40) in 102 Tests
^[e] Shane Warne overtook Muttiah Muralitharan's then record of 532 Test wickets and Muralitharan subsequently increased his total to 800 wickets (22.72) in 133 Tests[62]

text:
Best career average

Average
Player
Balls
Wickets

10.75
 George Lohmann
3,830
112

12.70
/ John Ferris[a]
2,302
61

15.54
 Billy Barnes
2,289
51

16.42
 Billy Bates
2,364
50

16.43
 Sydney Barnes
7,873
189

Qualification: 2000 balls bowled
Last updated: 15 June 2016[63]

Note: If the qualification is removed, the best career average record is at 0.00 runs per wicket (i.e. no runs were conceded). This record is shared by Englishmen A N Hornby, Wilf Barber and New Zealander, Bruce Murray who took one wicket without conceding a run[64]

^[a] John Ferris was one of a few cricketers to play Test cricket for more than one country. He played in eight Tests for Australia from 1886–87 and a single Test for England in South Africa in 1891–92.[65]

text:
Best career strike rate

Strike rate
Player
Balls
Wickets

34.1
 George Lohmann
3,830
112

37.7
 /  J. J. Ferris
2,302
61

38.7
 Shane Bond
3,372
87

41.4
 Dale Steyn
17,286
417

41.6
 Sydney Barnes
7,873
189

Qualification: 2000 balls bowled
Last updated: 2 September 2017[66]

text:
Most 5 wickets in an innings

5 wickets in an innings
Player
Matches

67
 Muttiah Muralitharan
133

37
 Shane Warne
145

36
 Richard Hadlee
86

35
 Anil Kumble
132

29
 Glenn McGrath
124

Last updated: 15 June 2016[67]

text:
Most 10 wickets in a match

10 wickets in a match
Player
Matches

22
 Muttiah Muralitharan
133

10
 Shane Warne
145

9
 Richard Hadlee
86

8
 Rangana Herath
83

 Anil Kumble
132

Last updated: 2 September 2017[68]

text: Series

text:
Most wickets in a series

Wickets
Player
Series

49 (4 Tests)
 Sydney Barnes
v  South Africa 1913–14

46 (5 Tests)
 Jim Laker
v  Australia, 1956

44 (5 Tests)
 Clarrie Grimmett
v  South Africa 1935–36

42 (6 Tests)
 Terry Alderman
v  England, 1981

41 (6 Tests)
 Terry Alderman
v  England, 1989

 Rodney Hogg
v  England, 1978–79

Last updated: 15 June 2016[69]

text: Innings

text:
Best figures in an innings

Bowling
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

10–53
 Jim Laker
 Australia (2nd innings)
Old Trafford, Manchester
1956

10–74
 Anil Kumble
 Pakistan
Feroz Shah Kotla Ground, Delhi
1998–99

9–28
 George Lohmann
 South Africa
Old Wanderers, Johannesburg
1895–96

9–37
 Jim Laker
 Australia (1st innings)
Old Trafford, Manchester
1956

9–51
 Muttiah Muralitharan
 Zimbabwe
Asgiriya Stadium, Kandy
2001–02

Last updated: 15 June 2016[70]

text:
Best figures in an innings – progression of record

Bowling
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

7–55
 Tom Kendall
(in the inaugural Test match)
 England
Melbourne Cricket Ground
1876–77

7–44
 Fred Spofforth
 England
The Oval, London
1882

7–28
 Billy Bates
 Australia
Melbourne Cricket Ground
1882–83

8–35
 George Lohmann
 Australia
Sydney Cricket Ground
1886–87

8–11
 Johnny Briggs
 South Africa
Newlands Cricket Ground, Cape Town
1888–89

8–7
 George Lohmann
 South Africa
St. George's Park, Port Elizabeth
1895–96

9–28
 George Lohmann
 South Africa
Old Wanderers, Johannesburg
1895–96

10–53
 Jim Laker
 Australia
Old Trafford, Manchester
1956

Calculated at the conclusion of each Test
Last updated: 15 June 2016

text: Match records

text:
Best figures in a match

Bowling
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

19–90
 Jim Laker
 Australia
Manchester, England,
1956

17–159
 Sydney Barnes
 South Africa
Old Wanderers, Johannesburg
1913–14

16–136
 Narendra Hirwani
 West Indies
M. A. Chidambaram Stadium, Chennai
1987–88

16–137
 Bob Massie
 England
Lord's, London
1972

16–220
 Muttiah Muralitharan
 England
The Oval, London
1998

Last updated: 15 June 2016[71]

text: Innings as captain

text:
Best figures in an innings as captain

Bowling
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

9–83
 Kapil Dev
 West Indies
Sardar Patel Stadium, Ahmedabad
1983

8–60
 Imran Khan
 India
National Stadium, Karachi, Karachi
1982

8–63
 Rangana Herath
 Zimbabwe
Harare Sports Club, Harare
2016

8–106
 Kapil Dev
 Australia
Adelaide Oval, Adelaide
1985

7–37
 Courtney Walsh
 New Zealand
Basin Reserve, Wellington
1995

Last updated: 16 March 2017[72]

text: Match records as captain

text:
Best figures in a match

Bowling
Player
Opponent
Venue
Season

13–55
 Courtney Walsh
 New Zealand
Basin Reserve, Wellington, New Zealand
1995

13–135
 Waqar Younis
 Zimbabwe
Southend Club Cricket Stadium, Karachi, Pakistan
1993

13–152
 Rangana Herath
 Zimbabwe
Harare Sports Club, Harare, Zimbabwe
2016

12–100
 Fazal Mahmood
 West Indies
Bangabandhu National Stadium, Dhaka, Bangladesh
1959

11–79
 Imran Khan
 India
National Stadium, Karachi, Pakistan
1982

Last updated: 15 June 2016[73]

text: Individual records (fielding)

text: Most catches in Test career

text:
Catches
Player
Matches

210
 Rahul Dravid
164

205
 Mahela Jayawardene
149

200
 Jacques Kallis
166

196
 Ricky Ponting
168

181
 Mark Waugh
128

Note:The list excludes catches made as wicket-keeper[74] Last updated: 15 June 2016

text: Individual records (wicket-keeping)

text:
Most dismissals

Dismissals
Player
Matches

555 (532 catches + 23 stumpings)
 Mark Boucher
147

416 (379 catches + 37 stumpings)
 Adam Gilchrist
96

395 (366 catches + 29 stumpings)
 Ian Healy
119

355 (343 catches + 12 stumpings)
 Rod Marsh
96

294 (256 catches + 38 stumpings)
 MS Dhoni
90

Last updated: 15 June 2016[75]

text:
Most catches

Catches
Player
Matches

532
 Mark Boucher
147

379
 Adam Gilchrist
96

366
 Ian Healy
119

343
 Rod Marsh
96

265
 Jeff Dujon
81

Last updated: 15 June 2016[76]

text:
Most stumpings

Stumpings
Player
Matches

52
 Bert Oldfield
54

46
 Godfrey Evans
91

38
 Syed Kirmani
88

 MS Dhoni
90

37
 Adam Gilchrist
96

Last updated: 15 June 2016[77]

text: Individual records (as an all-rounder)

text:
10 Wickets and a Century in a Test match

Player
Runs
Wickets
Date
Opponent
Venue

 Ian Botham[78]
114
13/109
15 February 1980
 India
Mumbai, India

 Imran Khan[78]
117
11/180
3 January 1983
 India
Faisalabad, Pakistan

 Shakib Al Hasan[78]
137
10/124
3 November 2014
 Zimbabwe
Khulna, Bangladesh

Last updated: 15 June 2016[79]

text: Individual records (other)

text:
Most matches played

Matches
Player
Period

200
 Sachin Tendulkar
1989–2013

168
 Steve Waugh
1985–2004

 Ricky Ponting
1995–2012

166
 Jacques Kallis
1995–2013

164
 Rahul Dravid
1996–2012

 Shivnarine Chanderpaul
1994–2015

Last updated: 15 June 2016[80]

text:
Most matches played as captain

Matches
Player
Won
Lost
Drawn
Tied

109
 Graeme Smith
53
29
27
0

93
 Allan Border
32
22
38
1

80
 Stephen Fleming
28
27
25
0

77
 Ricky Ponting
48
16
13
0

74
 Clive Lloyd
36
12
26
0

Last updated: 15 June 2016[81]

text:
Most matches won as captain

Won
Player
Lost
Drawn
Ties
Matches

53
 Graeme Smith
26
26
0
109

48
 Ricky Ponting
16
13
0
77

41
 Steve Waugh
9
7
0
57

36
 Clive Lloyd
12
26
0
74

32
 Allan Border
22
38
1
93

Last updated: 15 June 2016[82]

text: Partnership records

text: Highest partnership for each wicket

text:
Partnership
Runs
Team
Players
Opposition
Venue
Season

1st wicket
415
 South Africa
Graeme Smith (232)
Neil McKenzie (226)
 Bangladesh
Chittagong Divisional Stadium
2008

2nd wicket
576
 Sri Lanka
Sanath Jayasuriya (340)
Roshan Mahanama (225)
 India
Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium, Colombo
1997–98

3rd wicket
624
 Sri Lanka
Kumar Sangakkara (287)
Mahela Jayawardene (374)
 South Africa
Sinhalese Sports Club Ground, Colombo
2006

4th wicket
449
 Australia
Adam Voges (269*)
Shaun Marsh  (182)
 West Indies
Bellerive Oval, Hobart
2015–16

5th wicket
405
 Australia
Sid Barnes (234)
Donald Bradman (234)
 England
Sydney Cricket Ground
1946–47

6th wicket
399
 England
Ben Stokes  (258)
Jonny Bairstow  (150*)
 South Africa
Newlands Cricket Ground, Cape Town
2015–16

7th wicket
347
 West Indies
Denis Atkinson (219)
Clairmonte Depeiaza (122)
 Australia
Kensington Oval, Bridgetown
1954–55

8th wicket
332
 England
Jonathan Trott (184)
Stuart Broad  (169)
 Pakistan
Lord's, London
2010

9th wicket
195
 South Africa
Mark Boucher (78)
Pat Symcox (108)
 Pakistan
New Wanderers Stadium, Johannesburg
1997–98

10th wicket
198
 England
Joe Root  (154*)
James Anderson  (81)
 India
Trent Bridge, Nottingham
2014

Last updated: 15 June 2016[83]

text: Highest partnerships

text:
Runs
Team
Players
Opposition
Venue
Season

624 (3rd wicket)
 Sri Lanka
Kumar Sangakkara (287)
Mahela Jayawardene (374)
 South Africa
Sinhalese Sports Club Ground, Colombo
2006

576 (2nd wicket)
 Sri Lanka
Sanath Jayasuriya (340)
Roshan Mahanama (225)
 India
Ranasinghe Premadasa Stadium, Colombo
1997–98

467 (3rd wicket)
 New Zealand
Andrew Jones (186)
Martin Crowe (299)
 Sri Lanka
Basin Reserve, Wellington
1990–91

451 (2nd wicket)
 Australia
Bill Ponsford (266)
Donald Bradman (244)
 England
The Oval, London
1934

451 (3rd wicket)
 Pakistan
Mudassar Nazar (231)
Javed Miandad (280*)
 India
Niaz Stadium, Hyderabad
1982–83

Last updated: 15 June 2016[84]


document_title: Rick Allen (drummer)

question_text: how did the drummer in def leppard lose his arm

root

text: Rick Allen (drummer)

text: Early life[edit]

text: Allen started playing drums at the age of nine. He performed in bands called Grad, Smokey Blue, Rampant, and the Johnny Kalendar Band.[3] When Allen was 14, his mother replied on his behalf to an advertisement placed by a band called "Def Leppard" looking for a drummer to replace Tony Kenning ("Leppard loses skins" was the advertisement's headline). Later, on 1 November 1978, his 15th birthday, Allen joined the band. In 1979, he dropped out of school (other band members left their jobs around the same time) to concentrate on a career in music. In September 1979, they opened for Sammy Hagar at London's Hammersmith Odeon. Subsequently, Def Leppard played shows as a support act for AC/DC during October and November 1979. Allen celebrated his 16th birthday with a performance at the Hammersmith Odeon. On 14 March 1980, the band released their first album, On Through the Night. Since their first album, Allen continues to record and tour with the band.

tag: p

text: Accident and recovery[edit]

text:
"What I've experienced through losing my arm, I wouldn't change. The human spirit is so strong."
Rick Allen[4]

tag: div

text: On the afternoon of 31 December 1984, Allen was involved in a car accident with his girlfriend Miriam Barendsen in the English countryside a few miles west of Sheffield.[5] While trying to pass another car at a high speed, he lost control of his Corvette C4, which hit a dry stone wall and entered a field. He was thrown from the car because his seatbelt had been improperly fastened, causing his left arm to be severed, while his girlfriend suffered head injuries, resulting in grade 2 concussion and brain swelling; she also suffered neck and spine injuries from severe whiplash. Doctors initially reattached Allen's arm, but because of an infection, it had to be re-amputated. His right shoulder was also severely broken in the accident.[6][7]

text: Gear[edit]

text: Allen has used custom-manufactured cable routing by Whirlwind. He uses four electronic pedals for his left foot to play the pieces he used to play with his left arm, which from left to right trigger sounds of a closing hi-hat, bass drum, snare drum, and a tom drum.[8] He is ranked No. 7 on the UK website Gigwise in The Greatest Drummers of All Time list.[9]

text: On 16 October 2009, Yamaha announced the addition of Rick Allen to their artist roster.[10] Allen plays Yamaha Oak Custom drums with a matching subkick.[11]

text: Along with Yamaha Oak Custom drums, Allen also uses Remo drumheads (usually he has coated ambassadors on his drums and a clear powerstroke 3 on his bass drum), Zildjian cymbals (mostly K customs and A customs), and a LP rock cowbell.

text: Rick Allen had used Vater drumsticks and Zildjian drumsticks from the 1980s until 1994. In 1995, he began to use Easton Ahead drumsticks.[citation needed]

text: Raven Drum Foundation[edit]

text: Allen and his wife Lauren Monroe are the co-founders of The Raven Drum Foundation, a charity located in Malibu, California, with a mission to serve, educate, and empower veterans and people in crisis.[12] The Raven Drum Foundation commonly works to help individuals and communities in crisis through healing arts programs, drum circle events, and collaborative partnerships. Allen described the foundations involvement with Camp Kilpatrick in 2009:

text: Rhythm is such a big part of their culture and their own way of communicating, so we were able to go in there and design a program around them. It developed into drum council, which is an ongoing program that we provided for the camp. We had tremendous success.[13]

text: One Hand Drum Company[edit]

text: The One Hand Drum Company was created by Allen to assist in providing awareness and funding for his Raven Drum Foundation.  Currently, the primary focus of the One Hand Drum Company is promoting StikRick, a drawing by Rick of a one-armed drummer that he sometimes uses with his autograph.  The StikRick site sells T-shirts, hats, and other items with the StikRick drawing along with a "Life Is Great!! Be A Rockstar!!" slogan.  Proceeds from the One Hand Drum Company go to support the Raven Drum Foundation charity.[14]

text: Side projects[edit]

text: In May and June 2000, Allen played two shows with the Mark Mason Project, featuring guitarist Mark Englert previously of Dramarama.  Allen has written music with his wife Lauren as well as played on her albums.[15]  In November 2004, Allen collaborated with Krishna Das in the recording of a CD entitled All One.

text: Personal life[edit]

text: Allen was married to his wife Stacy from 1991 to 2000; they had a daughter in 1997. In 1995, Allen was arrested for spousal abuse. He pleaded guilty to the charge and was sentenced on 6 August 1996 to attend Alcoholics Anonymous meetings, sought counselling, and served 30 days community service on a graffiti-removal work crew.[16]


document_title: Alaska boundary dispute

question_text: which agreement settled a boundary dispute between british canada and the united states

text: Alaska boundary dispute

text: Background[edit]

text: In 1825 Russia and Britain signed a treaty to define the borders of their respective colonial possessions, the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1825. Part of the wording of the treaty was that:

text: the said line shall ascend to the north along the channel called Portland Channel as far as the point of the continent where it strikes the 56th degree of north latitude; from this last-mentioned point, the line of demarcation shall follow the summit of the mountains situated parallel to the coast as far as the point of intersection of the 141st degree of west longitude[3]

text: The vague phrase "the mountains parallel to the coast" was further qualified thus:

text: Whenever the summit of the mountains... shall prove to be at the distance of more than ten marine leagues from the ocean, the limit... shall be formed by a line parallel to the winding of the coast, and which shall never exceed the distance of ten marine leagues therefrom.[3]

text: This part of the treaty language was an agreement on general principles for establishing a boundary in the area in the future, rather than any exact demarcated line.

text: Signed in 1839, the RAC-HBC Agreement created an understanding between the Russian-American Company and the Hudson's Bay Company. Typically referred to as the lisière, a stretch of the Alaskan Panhandle from Cross Sound to 54-40 was given to the HBC as a fur trade monopoly in exchange for the agricultural and pastoral products produced by its subsidiary, the Puget Sound Agricultural Company, along with an annual amount of furs given to the Russian company. The lease was renewed until the end of Russian America. This lease was later brought up by the Province of British Columbia as bearing upon its own territorial interests in the region, but was ignored by Ottawa and London.[4]

text: The United States bought Alaska in 1867 from Russia in the Alaska Purchase, but the boundary terms were ambiguous. In 1871, British Columbia united with the new Canadian Confederation. The Canadian government requested a survey of the boundary, but the United States rejected it as too costly; the border area was very remote and sparsely settled, and without economic or strategic interest. In 1898, the national governments agreed on a compromise, but the government of British Columbia rejected it. U.S. President McKinley proposed a permanent lease to Canada of a port near Haines, but Canada rejected that compromise.

text: Klondike gold rush[edit]

text: In 1897–98 the Klondike Gold Rush in Yukon, Canada, enormously increased the population of the general area, which reached 30,000, composed largely of Americans. Some 100,000 fortune seekers moved through Alaska to the Klondike gold region.[5]

text: The presence of gold and a large new population greatly increased the importance of the region and the desirability of fixing an exact boundary. Canada wanted an all-Canadian route from the gold fields to a seaport. There are claims that Canadian citizens were harassed by the U.S. as a deterrent to making any land claims.[6]

text: The head of Lynn Canal was the main gateway to the Yukon, and the North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) sent a detachment to secure the location for Canada. This was based on Canada's assertion that that location was more than ten marine leagues from the sea, which was part of the 1825 boundary definition. A massive influx of American stampeders through Skagway very quickly forced the Canadian police to retreat. They set up posts on the desolate summits of Chilkoot and White Passes, complete with a mounted Gatling gun at each post. This was still disputed territory, as many Americans believed that the head of Lake Bennett, another 12 miles (19 km) north, should be the location of the border. To back up the police in their sovereignty claim, the Canadian government also sent the Yukon Field Force, a 200-man Army unit, to the territory. The soldiers set up camp at Fort Selkirk so that they could be fairly quickly dispatched to deal with problems at either the coastal passes or the 141st Meridian.

text: Arbitration[edit]

text: The posts set up on the passes by the NWMP were effective in the short term, as the provisional boundary was accepted, if grudgingly. In September 1898, serious negotiations began between the United States and Canada to settle the issue, but those meetings failed.

text: The treaty of 1825 was drawn in French and the 1903 English advocates discussed the meaning of words like "côte-coast", "lisière strip" and "crête-crest". The maps of George Vancouver, which were used as a fixing line by the commission of 1825, showed a continuous line of mountains parallel to the coast — however, the mountain range is neither parallel to the coast nor continuous.[7]

text: Finally, in 1903, the Hay-Herbert Treaty between the United States and Britain entrusted the decision to an arbitration by a mixed tribunal of six members: three Americans (Elihu Root, Secretary of War; Henry Cabot Lodge, senator from Massachusetts; and George Turner, ex-senator from Washington), two Canadians (Sir Louis A. Jette, Lieutenant Governor of Quebec; and Allen B. Aylesworth, K.C., from Toronto), and one Briton (Baron Alverstone). All sides respected Root, but he was a member of the U.S. Cabinet. Canadians ridiculed the choice of the obscure ex-Senator Turner and, especially, Lodge, a leading historian and diplomatic specialist whom they saw as an unobjective.[8]

text: The tribunal considered six main points:[8]

text:
Where the boundary began.
What "Portland Channel" meant, and how to draw the boundary line through it. Four islands were in dispute.
The definition of the line from "the southernmost point of Prince of Wales Island to Portland Channel", which depended on the answer to the previous question.
The line from Portland Channel to the 56th parallel.
The width of the lisière (border or edge), and how to measure it.
Whether mountain ranges existed in the area.

tag: ul

text: The British member Lord Alverstone sided with the U.S. position on these basic issues, although the final agreed demarcation line fell significantly short of the maximal U.S. claim (it was a compromise falling roughly between the maximal U.S. and maximal British/Canadian claim). The BC Panhandle (the Tatshenshini-Alsek region) was not quite exclaved from the rest of British Columbia.

text: In 1929 Canadian scholar Hugh L.L. Keenlyside concluded, "The Americans, of course, did have the better case." He judged that most of the tribunal's decisions were fair. Regarding the key issue of the islands in the Portland Channel, however,[8]

text: there can be little doubt that the tribunal in this instance accepted a compromise, which, however justified by the political considerations involved, was a direct violation of the judicial character of the court. Instead of accepting either the American or the British claim in toto, the line was drawn through Tongas Passage, thus giving each country a portion of its claim, but entirely disregarding the real problem involved. The original negotiators might, logically, have intended the line to be drawn either as the British claimed or as the Americans claimed; certainly they had no intention of dividing the channel islands between the two ... There can be scarcely any doubt that Lord Alverstone's final pronouncement was merely an attempt to rationalize a political expedient ... In all but one case they seem justified by the facts, and yet that one case of political compromise tarnished the whole award.[8]

text: This was one of several concessions that Britain offered to the United States (the others being on fisheries and the Panama Canal). It was part of a general policy of ending the chill in Anglo–U.S. relations, achieving rapprochement, winning American favour and resolving outstanding issues (the Great Rapprochement).[9]

text: Aftermath[edit]

text: Growth of a distinct Canadian identity[edit]

text: Keenlyside and Brown wrote that[8]

text: Had the United States been willing to submit her case to The Hague, or to an impartial juridical body, as Canada had desired, the result would have been, in all probability, substantially the same, except that Canadians could not feel that they had been unfairly treated. ... Had justices of the United States Supreme Court been appointed in the place of the two Senators, Canadian criticism of the award would not have been audible.[8]

text: The Canadian judges refused to sign the award, issued on 20 October 1903, due to the Canadian delegates' disagreement with Lord Alverstone's vote. Canadians protested the outcome, not so much the decision itself but that the Americans had chosen politicians instead of jurists for the tribunal, and that the British had helped its own interests by betraying Canada's.[8] This led to intense anti-British emotions erupting throughout Canada (including Quebec) as well as a surge in Canadian nationalism as separate from an imperial identity.[10] Although suspicions of the U.S. provoked by the award may have contributed to Canada's rejection of a free trade with the United States in the 1911 "reciprocity election",[8] historian F.W. Gibson concluded that Canadians vented their anger less upon the United States and "to a greater degree upon Great Britain for having offered such feeble resistance to American aggressiveness. The circumstances surrounding the settlement of the dispute produced serious dissatisfaction with Canada's position in the British Empire."[11] Infuriated, like most Canadians, Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier explained to Parliament, "So long as Canada remains a dependency of the British Crown the present powers that we have are not sufficient for the maintenance of our rights."[12] Canadian anger gradually subsided, but the feeling that Canada should control its own foreign policy may have contributed to the Statute of Westminster.[8]


document_title: List of Madam Secretary episodes

question_text: when is madam secretary season 4 episode 13 airing

text: List of Madam Secretary episodes

text: Series overview[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
22
September 21, 2014 (2014-09-21)
May 3, 2015 (2015-05-03)

2
23
October 4, 2015 (2015-10-04)
May 8, 2016 (2016-05-08)

3
23
October 2, 2016 (2016-10-02)
May 21, 2017 (2017-05-21)

4
TBA
October 8, 2017 (2017-10-08)
TBA

tag: table

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2014–15)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

1
1
"Pilot"
David Semel
Barbara Hall
September 21, 2014 (2014-09-21)
14.75[3]

2
2
"Another Benghazi"
David Semel
Barbara Hall
September 28, 2014 (2014-09-28)
12.72[4]

3
3
"The Operative"
Jeremy Webb
David Grae
October 5, 2014 (2014-10-05)
12.18[5]

4
4
"Just Another Normal Day"
Eric Stoltz
Joan Rater & Tony Phelan
October 12, 2014 (2014-10-12)
11.45[6]

5
5
"Blame Canada"
Eriq La Salle
Paul Redford
October 19, 2014 (2014-10-19)
12.28[7]

6
6
"The Call"
Mark Piznarski
Matt Ward
October 26, 2014 (2014-10-26)
11.71[8]

7
7
"Passage"
Martha Coolidge
Alex Cooley
November 2, 2014 (2014-11-02)
13.21[9]

8
8
"Need to Know"
Dennie Gordon
Alexander Maggio
November 9, 2014 (2014-11-09)
12.54[10]

9
9
"So It Goes"
James Whitmore, Jr.
David Grae
November 16, 2014 (2014-11-16)
12.77[11]

10
10
"Collateral Damage"
Eric Stoltz
Matt Ward
November 23, 2014 (2014-11-23)
12.41[12]

11
11
"Game On"
Randy Zisk
Paul Redford
November 30, 2014 (2014-11-30)
13.24[13]

12
12
"Standoff"
Gloria Muzio
Joseph C. Muscat
January 4, 2015 (2015-01-04)
11.69[14]

13
13
"Chains of Command"
Michael Waxman
Alex Cooley
January 11, 2015 (2015-01-11)
12.13[15]

14
14
"Whisper of the Ax"
Eric Stoltz
Barbara Hall
March 1, 2015 (2015-03-01)
11.64[16]

15
15
"The Ninth Circle"
Nicole Rubio
Alexander Maggio
March 8, 2015 (2015-03-08)
10.82[17]

16
16
"Tamerlane"
Jonathan Brown
David Grae
March 15, 2015 (2015-03-15)
11.26[18]

17
17
"Face the Nation"
Rob Greenlea
Matt Ward
March 22, 2015 (2015-03-22)
10.79[19]

18
18
"The Time is at Hand"
Anna Foerster
Joy Gregory
March 29, 2015 (2015-03-29)
11.47[20]

19
19
"Spartan Figures"
Tate Donovan
Lyla Oliver
April 5, 2015 (2015-04-05)
9.27[21]

20
20
"The Necessary Art"
Dennie Gordon
Paul Redford
April 12, 2015 (2015-04-12)
11.39[22]

21
21
"The Kill List"
Ed Ornelas
David Grae
April 26, 2015 (2015-04-26)
10.46[23]

22
22
"There But For the Grace of God"
Eric Stoltz
Barbara Hall
May 3, 2015 (2015-05-03)
9.67[24]

text: Season 2 (2015–16)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

23
1
"The Show Must Go On"
Morgan Freeman
Barbara Hall
October 4, 2015 (2015-10-04)
11.79[25]

24
2
"The Doability Doctrine"
Eric Stoltz
David Grae
October 11, 2015 (2015-10-11)
11.15[26]

25
3
"The Rusalka"
Dennie Gordon
Matt Ward
October 18, 2015 (2015-10-18)
9.61[27]

26
4
"Waiting for Taleju"
Felix Alcalá
Joy Gregory
October 25, 2015 (2015-10-25)
10.81[28]

27
5
"The Long Shot"
Rob J. Greenlea
Moira Kirland
November 1, 2015 (2015-11-01)
9.47[29]

28
6
"Catch and Release"
Charlotte Brandstrom
Alex Cooley
November 8, 2015 (2015-11-08)
10.59[30]

29
7
"You Say You Want a Revolution"
Tate Donovan
Joan Rater & Tony Phelan
November 15, 2015 (2015-11-15)
10.61[31]

30
8
"Lights Out"
Dennie Gordon
Alexander Maggio
November 22, 2015 (2015-11-22)
9.91[32]

31
9
"Russian Roulette"
Jonathan Brown
Barbara Hall
November 29, 2015 (2015-11-29)
9.96[33]

32
10
"The Greater Good"
Eric Stoltz
David Grae
December 13, 2015 (2015-12-13)
10.14[34]

33
11
"Unity Node"
Jet Wilkinson
Matt Ward
January 10, 2016 (2016-01-10)
8.97[35]

34
12
"The Middle Way"
James Whitmore, Jr.
Lyla Oliver
January 17, 2016 (2016-01-17)
11.87[36]

35
13
"Invasive Species"
Tony Phelan
Moira Kirland
January 31, 2016 (2016-01-31)
10.20[37]

36
14
"Left of the Boom"
Rob Greenlea
Joy Gregory
February 14, 2016 (2016-02-14)
10.06[38]

37
15
"Right of the Boom"
Jonathan Brown
Alexander Maggio
February 21, 2016 (2016-02-21)
10.73[39]

38
16
"Hijriyyah"
Charlotte Brandstrom
Alex Cooley
March 6, 2016 (2016-03-06)
10.19[40]

39
17
"Higher Learning"
Heather Cappiello
Kelly Jane Costello
March 20, 2016 (2016-03-20)
9.41[41]

40
18
"On the Clock"
Zetna Fuentes
Barbara Hall and David Grae
March 27, 2016 (2016-03-27)
8.50[42]

41
19
"Desperate Remedies"
Rob Greenlea
Matt Ward
April 10, 2016 (2016-04-10)
9.86[43]

42
20
"Ghost Detainee"
Charlotte Brandstrom
Moira Kirland
April 17, 2016 (2016-04-17)
9.57[44]

43
21
"Connection Lost"
Jonathan Brown
Joy Gregory
April 24, 2016 (2016-04-24)
9.57[45]

44
22
"Render Safe"
Felix Alcala
David Grae
May 1, 2016 (2016-05-01)
9.90[46]

45
23
"Vartius"
Eric Stoltz
Barbara Hall
May 8, 2016 (2016-05-08)
9.99[47]

text: Season 3 (2016–17)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

46
1
"Sea Change"
Morgan Freeman
Barbara Hall
October 2, 2016 (2016-10-02)
9.20[48]

47
2
"The Linchpin"
Eric Stoltz
David Grae
October 16, 2016 (2016-10-16)
9.10[49]

48
3
"South China Sea"
Rob Greenlea
Matt Ward
October 23, 2016 (2016-10-23)
9.04[50]

49
4
"The Dissent Memo"
Felix Alcala
Joy Gregory
October 30, 2016 (2016-10-30)
7.91[51]

50
5
"The French Revolution"
Jonathan Brown
Moira Kirland
November 6, 2016 (2016-11-06)
8.24[52]

51
6
"The Statement"
Jet Wilkinson
Alex Cooley
November 13, 2016 (2016-11-13)
9.26[53]

52
7
"Tectonic Shift"
Arlene Sanford
Lyla Oliver
November 20, 2016 (2016-11-20)
8.52[54]

53
8
"Breakout Capacity"
James Whitmore
Alexander Maggio
November 27, 2016 (2016-11-27)
8.97[55]

54
9
"Snap Back"
Sam Hoffman
Shalisha Francis
December 11, 2016 (2016-12-11)
7.82[56]

55
10
"The Race"
Eric Stoltz
David Grae
December 18, 2016 (2016-12-18)
9.05[57]

56
11
"Gift Horse"
Jonathan Brown
Barbara Hall
January 8, 2017 (2017-01-08)
9.00[58]

57
12
"The Detour"
Martha Mitchell
Matt Ward
January 15, 2017 (2017-01-15)
7.54[59]

58
13
"The Beautiful Game"
Felix Alcala
Joy Gregory
January 29, 2017 (2017-01-29)
8.71[60]

59
14
"Labor of Love"
Charlotte Brandstrom
Moira Kirland
March 5, 2017 (2017-03-05)
7.44[61]

60
15
"Break in Diplomacy"
Maggie Greenwald
Lyla Oliver
March 12, 2017 (2017-03-12)
8.23[62]

61
16
"Swept Away"
Felix Alcala
Alex Cooley
March 19, 2017 (2017-03-19)
7.62[63]

62
17
"Convergence"
James Whitmore
Alexander Maggio
March 26, 2017 (2017-03-26)
8.77[64]

63
18
"Good Bones"
Rob Greenlea
Joy Gregory
April 9, 2017 (2017-04-09)
7.58[65]

64
19
"Global Relief"
Jet Wilkinson
Moira Kirland
April 23, 2017 (2017-04-23)
7.87[66]

65
20
"Extraordinary Hazard"
Charlotte Brandstrom
Mark Steilen
April 30, 2017 (2017-04-30)
7.88[67]

66
21
"The Seventh Floor"
Deborah Reinisch
Matt Ward
May 7, 2017 (2017-05-07)
7.58[68]

67
22
"Revelation"
Jonathan Brown
David Grae
May 14, 2017 (2017-05-14)
7.83[69]

68
23
"Article 5"
Eric Stoltz
Barbara Hall
May 21, 2017 (2017-05-21)
7.44[70]

text: Season 4 (2017–18)[edit]

text:
No.
overall
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
U.S. viewers
(millions)

69
1
"News Cycle"
Morgan Freeman
Barbara Hall
October 8, 2017 (2017-10-08)
7.21[71]

70
2
"Off the Record"
Eric Stoltz
David Grae
October 15, 2017 (2017-10-15)
6.36[72]

71
3
"The Essentials"
Charlotte Brandstrom
Matt Ward
October 22, 2017 (2017-10-22)
6.43[73]

72
4
"Shutdown"
Felix Alcala
Joy Gregory
October 29, 2017 (2017-10-29)
5.83[74]

73
5
"Persona Non Grata"
John Murray
Alexander Maggio
November 5, 2017 (2017-11-05)
5.92[75]

74
6
"Loophole"
Maggie Greenwald
Moira Kirland
November 12, 2017 (2017-11-12)
6.63[76]

75
7
"North to the Future"
Sunu Gonera
Kristi Korzec
November 19, 2017 (2017-11-19)
5.86[77]

76
8
"The Fourth Estate"
Sam Hoffman
Matt Chester
November 26, 2017 (2017-11-26)
5.82[78]

77
9
"Minefield"
Rob Greenlea
Matt Ward
December 10, 2017 (2017-12-10)
6.45[79]

78
10
"Women Transform the World"
Eric Stoltz
Lyla Oliver
December 17, 2017 (2017-12-17)
5.53[80]

79
11
"Mitya"
Geoffrey Arend
Alexander Maggio
January 7, 2018 (2018-01-07)
6.11[81]

80
12
"Sound and Fury"
Debbie Reinsich
Barbara Hall & David Grae
January 14, 2018 (2018-01-14)
7.25[82]

81
13
"Reading the Signs"[83]
Phil Bertelsen
Moira Kirland
March 11, 2018 (2018-03-11)
TBD

82
14
"Refuge"[84]
Eric Stoltz
Kristi Korzec
March 18, 2018 (2018-03-18)
TBD


document_title: Wilmot Proviso

question_text: who proposed a counter proposal to the wilmot proviso

text: Wilmot Proviso

text: Background[edit]

text: After an earlier attempt to acquire Texas by treaty had failed to receive the necessary two-thirds approval of the Senate, the United States annexed the Republic of Texas by a joint resolution of Congress that required simply a majority vote in each house of Congress. President John Tyler signed the bill on March 1, 1845, a few days before his term ended.  As many expected, the annexation led to war with Mexico.  After the Capture of New Mexico and California in the first phases of the war, the political focus shifted to how much territory would be acquired from Mexico.  The key to this was the determination of the future status of slavery in any new territory.

text: Both major political parties had labored long to keep divisive slavery issues out of national politics.  The Democrats had generally been successful in portraying those within their party attempting to push a purely sectional issue as extremists that were well outside the normal scope of traditional politics.[2] However, midway through Polk's term, Democratic dissatisfaction with the administration was growing within the Martin Van Buren, or Barnburner, wing of the Democratic Party over other issues. Many felt that Van Buren had been unfairly denied the party's nomination in 1844 when southern delegates resurrected a convention rule, last used in 1832, requiring that the nominee had to receive two-thirds of the delegate votes.  Many in the North were also upset with the Walker tariff which reduced the tariff rates; others were opposed to Polk's veto of a popular river and harbor improvements bill, and still others were upset over the Oregon settlement with Great Britain where it appeared that Polk did not pursue the northern territory with the same vigor he used to acquire Texas. Polk was seen more and more as enforcing strict party loyalty primarily to serve southern interests.[3]

text: The Whigs faced a different scenario. The victory of James K. Polk (Democrat) over Henry Clay (Whig) in the 1844 presidential election had caught the Southern Whigs by surprise.  The key element of this defeat, which carried over into the congressional and local races in 1845 and 1846 throughout the South, was the party's failure to take a strong stand favoring Texas annexation.  Southern Whigs were reluctant to repeat their mistakes on Texas, but, at the same time, Whigs from both sections realized that victory and territorial acquisition would again bring out the issue of slavery and the territories.  In the South in particular, there was already the realization, or perhaps fear, that the old economic issues that had defined the Second Party System were already dead. Their political goal was to avoid any sectional debate over slavery which would expose the sectional divisions within the party.[4]

text: Introduction and debate on the proviso[edit]

text: On Saturday August 8, 1846 President Polk submitted to Congress a request for $2,000,000 in order to facilitate negotiations with Mexico over the final settlement of the war. The request came with no public warning after Polk had failed to arrange for approval of the bill with no Congressional debate. With Congress scheduled to adjourn that Monday, Democratic leadership arranged for the bill to be immediately considered in a special night session. Debate was to be limited to two hours with no individual speech to last more than ten minutes.[5]

text: David Wilmot, a Democratic congressman from Pennsylvania, and a group of other Barnburner Democrats including Preston King and Timothy Jenkins of New York, Hannibal Hamlin of Maine, Gideon Welles of Connecticut, and Jacob Brinkerhoff of Ohio,[6] had already been meeting in early August strategy meetings.  Wilmot had a strong record of supporting the Polk Administration and was close to many Southerners.  With the likelihood that Wilmot would have no trouble gaining the floor in the House debate, he was chosen to present the amendment to the appropriations bill that would carry his name.[7] Wilmot offered the following to the House in language modeled after the Northwest Ordinance of 1787:

text: Provided, That, as an express and fundamental condition to the acquisition of any territory from the Republic of Mexico by the United States, by virtue of any treaty which may be negotiated between them, and to the use by the Executive of the moneys herein appropriated, neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever exist in any part of said territory, except for crime, whereof the party shall first be duly convicted.

text: William W. Wick, Democrat of Indiana, attempted to eliminate total restriction of slavery by proposing an amendment that the Missouri Compromise line of latitude 36°30' simply be extended west to the Pacific.  This was voted down 89–54.  The vote to add the proviso to the bill was then called,  and it passed by 83–64.  A last-ditch effort by southerners to table the entire bill was defeated by 94–78, and then the entire bill was approved 85–80. These votes fell overwhelmingly along sectional rather than party lines.[8]

text: The Senate took up the bill late in its Monday session. Southern Democrats hoped to reject the Wilmot Proviso and send the bill back to the House for a quick approval of the bill without the restrictions on slavery.  Whig John Davis of Massachusetts attempted to forestall this effort by holding the floor until it would be too late to return the bill to the House, forcing the Senate to accept or reject the appropriation with the proviso intact.  However, before he could call the vote, due to an eight-minute difference in the official House and Senate clocks, the House had adjourned and the Congress was officially out of session.[9]

text: The issue resurfaced at the end of the year when Polk, in his annual message to Congress, renewed his request with the amount needed increased to three million dollars.  Polk argued that, while the original intent of the war had never been to acquire territory (a view hotly contested by his opponents), an honorable peace required territorial compensation to the United States.[10] The Three Million Dollar Bill, as it was called, was the sole item of business in the House from February 8, 1847 until February 15. Preston King reintroduced the Wilmot Proviso, but this time the exclusion of slavery was expanded beyond merely the Mexican territory to include "any territory on the continent of America which shall hereafter be acquired". This time Representative Stephen Douglas, Democrat of Illinois, reintroduced the proposal to simply extend the Missouri Compromise line to the west coast, and this was again defeated 109–82. The Three Million Dollar Bill with the proviso was then passed by the House 115–106. In the Senate, led by Thomas Hart Benton (Democrat), the bill was passed without the proviso. When the bill was returned to the House the Senate bill prevailed; every Northern Whig still supported the proviso, but 22 Northern Democrats voted with the South.[11]

text: In 1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ending the war was submitted to the Senate for approval.  Douglas, now in the Senate, was among those who joined with the South to defeat an effort to attach the Wilmot Proviso to the treaty.[12]   In the prior year's debate in the House, Douglas had argued that all of the debate over slavery in the territories was premature; the time to deal with that issue was when the territory was actually organized by Congress.[13] Lewis Cass (Democrat) in December 1847, in his famous letter to A. O. P. Nicholson in Tennessee, further defined the concept of popular sovereignty which would soon evolve as the mainstream Democratic alternative to the Wilmot Proviso:

text: Leave it to the people, who will be affected by this question to adjust it upon their own responsibility, and in their own manner, and we shall render another tribute to the original principles of our government, and furnish another for its permanence and prosperity.[14]

text: Aftermath[edit]

text: With the approval of the treaty, the issue moved from one of abstraction to one involving practical matters. The nature of the Constitution, slavery, the value of free labor, political power, and ultimately political realignment were all involved in the debate.[15]  Historian Michael Morrison argues that from 1820 to 1846 a combination of "racism and veneration of the Union" had prevented a direct Northern attack on slavery.[10]  While the original Southern response to the Wilmot Proviso was measured, it soon became clear to the South that this long postponed attack on slavery had finally occurred.  Rather than simply discuss the politics of the issue, historian William Freehling noted, "Most Southerners raged primarily because David Wilmot's holier-than-thou stance was so insulting."[16]

text: In the North, the most immediate repercussions involved Martin Van Buren and the state of New York.  The Barnburners were successfully opposed by their conservative opposition, the Hunkers, in their efforts to send a pro-proviso batch of delegates to the 1848 Democratic National Convention.  The Barnburners held their own separate convention and sent their own slate of delegates to the convention in Baltimore.  Both delegations were seated with the state's total votes split between them.  When the convention rejected a pro-proviso plank[17] and selected Lewis Cass as the nominee, the Barnburners again bolted and were the nucleus of forming the Free Soil Party.[18]  Historian Leonard Richards writes of these disaffected Democrats:

text: Overall, then, Southern Democrats during the 1840s lost the hard core of their original doughface support.  No longer could they count on New England and New York Democrats to provide them with winning margins in the House. ...To them [Free Soil Democrats] the movement to acquire Texas, and the fight over the Wilmot Proviso, marked the turning point, when aggressive slavemasters stole the heart and soul of the Democratic Party and began dictating the course of the nation's destiny.[19]

text: Historian William Cooper presents the exactly opposite Southern perspective:

text: Southern Democrats, for whom slavery had always been central, had little difficulty in perceiving exactly what the proviso meant for them and their party.  In the first place the mere existence of the proviso meant the sectional strains that had plagued the Whigs on Texas now beset the Democrats on expansion, the issue the Democrats themselves had chosen as their own.  The proviso also announced to southerners that they had to face the challenge of certain northern Democrats who indicated their unwillingness to follow any longer the southern lead on slavery.  That circumstance struck at the very roots of the southern conception of party.  The southerners had always felt that their Northern colleagues must toe the southern line on all slavery-related issues.[20]

text: In Alabama, with no available candidate sufficiently opposed to the proviso, William L. Yancey secured the adoption by the state Democratic convention of the so-called "Alabama Platform", which was endorsed by the legislatures of Alabama and Georgia and by Democratic state conventions in Florida and Virginia. The platform called for no federal restrictions of slavery in the territories, no restrictions on slavery by territorial governments until the point where they were drafting a state constitution in order to petition Congress for statehood, opposition to any candidates supporting either the proviso or popular sovereignty, and positive federal legislation overruling Mexican anti-slavery laws in the Mexican Cession.  However the same Democratic Convention that had refused to endorse the proviso also rejected incorporating the Yancey proposal into the national platform by a 216–36 vote.  Unlike the Barnburner walkout, however, only Yancey and one other Alabama delegate left the convention. Yancey's efforts to stir up a third party movement in the state failed.[21]

text: Southerner Whigs looked hopefully to slaveholder and war hero General Zachary Taylor as the solution to the widening sectional divide even though he took no public stance on the Wilmot Proviso.  However Taylor, once nominated and elected, showed that he had his own plans.  Taylor hoped to create a new non-partisan coalition that would once again remove slavery from the national stage.  He expected to be able to accomplish this by freezing slavery at its 1849 boundaries and by immediately bypassing the territory stage and creating two new states out of the Mexican Cession.[22]

text: The opening salvo in a new level of sectional conflict occurred on December 13, 1848 when John G. Palfrey (Whig) of Massachusetts introduced a bill to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia. Throughout 1849 in the South "the rhetoric of resistance to the North escalated and spread".  The potentially secessionist Nashville Convention was scheduled for June 1850.[23] When President Taylor in his December 1849 message to Congress urged the admission of California as a free state, a state of crisis was further aggravated.  Historian Allan Nevins sums up the situation which had been created by the Wilmot Proviso:

text: Thus the contest was joined on the central issue which was to dominate all American history for the next dozen years, the disposition of the Territories.  Two sets of extremists had arisen: Northerners who demanded no new slave territories under any circumstances, and Southerners who demanded free entry for slavery into all territories, the penalty for denial to be secession.  For the time being, moderates who hoped to find a way of compromise and to repress the underlying issue of slavery itself – its toleration or non-toleration by a great free Christian state – were overwhelmingly in the majority.  But history showed that in crises of this sort the two sets of extremists were almost certain to grow in power, swallowing up more and more members of the conciliatory center.[24]

text: Combined with other slavery related issues, the Wilmot Proviso led to the Compromise of 1850, which helped buy another shaky decade of peace.  Radical secessionists were temporarily at bay as the Nashville Convention failed to endorse secession.  Moderates rallied around the Compromise as the final solution to the sectional issues involving slavery and the territories.  At the same time, however, the language of the Georgia Platform, widely accepted throughout the South, made it clear that the South's commitment to Union was not unqualified; they fully expected the North to adhere to their part of the agreement.


document_title: Earth's rotation

question_text: what is the speed of the earths rotation

text: Earth's rotation

text: History[edit]

text: Among the ancient Greeks, several of the Pythagorean school believed in the rotation of the earth rather than the apparent diurnal rotation of the heavens. Perhaps the first was Philolaus (470–385 BCE), though his system was complicated, including a counter-earth rotating daily about a central fire.[3]

text: A more conventional picture was that supported by Hicetas, Heraclides and Ecphantus in the fourth century BCE who assumed that the earth rotated but did not suggest that the earth revolved about the sun. In the third century BCE, Aristarchus of Samos suggested the sun's central place.

text: However, Aristotle in the fourth century BCE criticized the ideas of Philolaus as being based on theory rather than observation. He established the idea of a sphere of fixed stars that rotated about the earth.[4] This was accepted by most of those who came after, in particular Claudius Ptolemy (2nd century CE), who thought the earth would be devastated by gales if it rotated.[5]

text: In 499 CE, the Indian astronomer Aryabhata wrote that the spherical earth rotates about its axis daily, and that the apparent movement of the stars is a relative motion caused by the rotation of the Earth. He provided the following analogy: "Just as a man in a boat going in one direction sees the stationary things on the bank as moving in the opposite direction, in the same way to a man at Lanka the ﬁxed stars appear to be going westward."[6][7]

text: In the 10th century, some Muslim astronomers accepted that the Earth rotates around its axis.[8] According to al-Biruni, Abu Sa'id al-Sijzi (d. circa 1020) invented an astrolabe called al-zūraqī based on the idea believed by some of his contemporaries "that the motion we see is due to the Earth's movement and not to that of the sky."[9][10] The prevalence of this view is further confirmed by a reference from the 13th century which states: "According to the geometers [or engineers] (muhandisīn), the earth is in constant circular motion, and what appears to be the motion of the heavens is actually due to the motion of the earth and not the stars."[9] Treatises were written to discuss its possibility, either as refutations or expressing doubts about Ptolemy's arguments against it.[11] At the Maragha and Samarkand observatories, the Earth's rotation was discussed by Tusi (b. 1201) and Qushji (b. 1403); the arguments and evidence they used resemble those used by Copernicus.[12]

text: In medieval Europe, Thomas Aquinas accepted Aristotle's view[13] and so, reluctantly, did John Buridan[14] and Nicole Oresme[15] in the fourteenth century. Not until Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543 adopted a heliocentric world system did the contemporary understanding of earth's rotation begin to be established. Copernicus pointed out that if the movement of the earth is violent, then the movement of the stars must be very much more so. He acknowledged the contribution of the Pythagoreans and pointed to examples of relative motion. For Copernicus this was the first step in establishing the simpler pattern of planets circling a central sun.[16]

text: Tycho Brahe, who produced accurate observations on which Kepler based his laws, used Copernicus's work as the basis of a system assuming a stationary earth. In 1600, William Gilbert strongly supported the earth's rotation in his treatise on the earth's magnetism[17] and thereby influenced many of his contemporaries.[18] Those like Gilbert who did not openly support or reject the motion of the earth about the sun are often called "semi-Copernicans".[19] A century after Copernicus, Riccioli disputed the model of a rotating earth due to the lack of then-observable eastward deflections in falling bodies;[20] such deflections would later be called the Coriolis effect. However, the contributions of Kepler, Galileo and Newton gathered support for the theory of the rotation of the Earth.

text: Empirical tests[edit]

text: The earth's rotation implies that the equator bulges and the poles are flattened. In his Principia, Newton predicted this flattening would occur in the ratio of 1:230, and pointed to the 1673 pendulum measurements by Richer as corroboration of the change in gravity,[21] but initial measurements of meridian lengths by Picard and Cassini at the end of the 17th century suggested the opposite. However measurements by Maupertuis and the French Geodesic Mission in the 1730s established the flattening, thus confirming both Newton and the Copernican position.[22]

text: In the Earth's rotating frame of reference, a freely moving body follows an apparent path that deviates from the one it would follow in a fixed frame of reference. Because of the Coriolis effect, falling bodies veer slightly eastward from the vertical plumb line below their point of release, and projectiles veer right in the northern hemisphere (and left in the southern) from the direction in which they are shot. The Coriolis effect is mainly observable at a meteorological scale, where it is responsible for the differing rotation direction of cyclones in the northern and southern hemispheres.

text: Hooke, following a 1679 suggestion from Newton, tried unsuccessfully to verify the predicted eastward deviation of a body dropped from a height of 8.2 meters, but definitive results were only obtained later, in the late 18th and early 19th century, by Giovanni Battista Guglielmini in Bologna, Johann Friedrich Benzenberg in Hamburg and Ferdinand Reich in Freiberg, using taller towers and carefully released weights.[n 1] A ball dropped from a height of 158.5 m (520 ft) departed by 27.4 mm (1.08 in) from the vertical compared with a calculated value of 28.1 mm (1.11 in).

text: The most celebrated test of Earth's rotation is the Foucault pendulum first built by physicist Léon Foucault in 1851, which consisted of a lead-filled brass sphere suspended 67 m from the top of the Panthéon in Paris. Because of the Earth's rotation under the swinging pendulum, the pendulum's plane of oscillation appears to rotate at a rate depending on latitude. At the latitude of Paris the predicted and observed shift was about 11 degrees clockwise per hour. Foucault pendulums now swing in museums around the world.

text: Rotation period [edit]

text: True solar day[edit]

text: Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun (solar noon to solar noon) is its true solar day or apparent solar day. It depends on the Earth's orbital motion and is thus affected by changes in the eccentricity and inclination of Earth's orbit. Both vary over thousands of years, so the annual variation of the true solar day also varies. Generally, it is longer than the mean solar day during two periods of the year and shorter during another two.[n 2] The true solar day tends to be longer near perihelion when the Sun apparently moves along the ecliptic through a greater angle than usual, taking about 10 seconds longer to do so. Conversely, it is about 10 seconds shorter near aphelion. It is about 20 seconds longer near a solstice when the projection of the Sun's apparent motion along the ecliptic onto the celestial equator causes the Sun to move through a greater angle than usual. Conversely, near an equinox the projection onto the equator is shorter by about 20 seconds. Currently, the perihelion and solstice effects combine to lengthen the true solar day near 22 December by 30 mean solar seconds, but the solstice effect is partially cancelled by the aphelion effect near 19 June when it is only 13 seconds longer. The effects of the equinoxes shorten it near 26 March and 16 September by 18 seconds and 21 seconds, respectively.[24][25][26]

text: Mean solar day[edit]

text: The average of the true solar day during the course of an entire year is the mean solar day, which contains 86,400 mean solar seconds. Currently, each of these seconds is slightly longer than an SI second because Earth's mean solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to tidal friction. The average length of the mean solar day since the introduction of the leap second in 1972 has been about 0 to 2 ms longer than 86,400 SI seconds.[27][28][29] Random fluctuations due to core-mantle coupling have an amplitude of about 5 ms.[30][31] The mean solar second between 1750 and 1892 was chosen in 1895 by Simon Newcomb as the independent unit of time in his Tables of the Sun. These tables were used to calculate the world's ephemerides between 1900 and 1983, so this second became known as the ephemeris second. In 1967 the SI second was made equal to the ephemeris second.[32]

text: The apparent solar time is a measure of the Earth's rotation and the difference between it and the mean solar time is known as the equation of time.

text: Stellar and sidereal day[edit]

text: Earth's rotation period relative to the fixed stars, called its stellar day by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS), is 86,164.098 903 691 seconds of mean solar time (UT1) (23h 56m 4.098 903 691s, 0.997 269 663 237 16 mean solar days).[33][n 3] Earth's rotation period relative to the precessing or moving mean vernal equinox, named sidereal day, is 86,164.090 530 832 88 seconds of mean solar time (UT1) (23h 56m 4.090 530 832 88s, 0.997 269 566 329 08 mean solar days).[33] Thus the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4 ms.[35]

text: Both the stellar day and the sidereal day are shorter than the mean solar day by about 3 minutes 56 seconds. The mean solar day in SI seconds is available from the IERS for the periods 1623–2005[36] and 1962–2005.[37]

text: Recently (1999–2010) the average annual length of the mean solar day in excess of 86,400 SI seconds has varied between 0.25 ms and 1 ms, which must be added to both the stellar and sidereal days given in mean solar time above to obtain their lengths in SI seconds (see Fluctuations in the length of day).

text: Angular speed[edit]

text: The angular speed of Earth's rotation in inertial space is (7.2921150 ± 0.0000001) ×10−5 radians per SI second (mean solar second).[33] Multiplying by (180°/π radians)×(86,400 seconds/mean solar day) yields 360.9856°/mean solar day, indicating that Earth rotates more than 360° relative to the fixed stars in one solar day. Earth's movement along its nearly circular orbit while it is rotating once around its axis requires that Earth rotate slightly more than once relative to the fixed stars before the mean Sun can pass overhead again, even though it rotates only once (360°) relative to the mean Sun.[n 4] Multiplying the value in rad/s by Earth's equatorial radius of 6,378,137 m (WGS84 ellipsoid) (factors of 2π radians needed by both cancel) yields an equatorial speed of 465.1 m (1,526 ft) per second, or 1,674.4 km (1,040.4 mi) per hour.[38] Some sources state that Earth's equatorial speed is slightly less, or 1,669.8 km/h.[39] This is obtained by dividing Earth's equatorial circumference by 24 hours. However, the use of only one circumference unwittingly implies only one rotation in inertial space, so the corresponding time unit must be a sidereal hour. This is confirmed by multiplying by the number of sidereal days in one mean solar day, 1.002 737 909 350 795,[33] which yields the equatorial speed in mean solar hours given above of 1,674.4 km/h.

text: The tangential speed of Earth's rotation at a point on Earth can be approximated by multiplying the speed at the equator by the cosine of the latitude.[40] For example, the Kennedy Space Center is located at latitude 28.59° N, which yields a speed of: cos 28.59° × 1,674.4 km/h (1,040.4 mph; 465.1 m/s) = 1,470.23 km/h (913.56 mph; 408.40 m/s)

text: Changes in rotation[edit]

text: Change in rotational axis[edit]

text: The Earth's rotation axis moves with respect to the fixed stars (inertial space); the components of this motion are precession and nutation. It also moves with respect to the Earth's crust; this is called polar motion.

text: Precession is a rotation of the Earth's rotation axis, caused primarily by external torques from the gravity of the Sun, Moon and other bodies. The polar motion is primarily due to free core nutation and the Chandler wobble.

text: Change in rotational velocity[edit]

text: Tidal interactions[edit]

text:
Over millions of years, the Earth's rotation slowed significantly by tidal acceleration through gravitational interactions with the Moon. In this process, angular momentum is slowly transferred to the Moon at a rate proportional to

r

−
6

{\displaystyle r^{-6}}

, where

r

{\displaystyle r}

 is the orbital radius of the Moon. This process gradually increased the length of day to its current value and resulted in the moon's being tidally locked with the Earth.

text: This gradual rotational deceleration is empirically documented with estimates of day lengths obtained from observations of tidal rhythmites and stromatolites; a compilation of these measurements[41] found the length of day to increase steadily from about 21 hours at 600Myr ago[42] to the current 24 hour value. By counting the microscopic lamina that form at higher tides, tidal frequencies (and thus day lengths) can be estimated, much like counting tree rings, though these estimates can be increasingly unreliable at older ages.[43]

text: Resonant stabilization[edit]

text: The current rate of tidal deceleration is anomalously high, implying the Earth's rotational velocity must have decreased more slowly in the past. Empirical data[41] tentatively shows a sharp increase in rotational deceleration about 600Myr ago. Some models suggest that the Earth maintained a constant day length of 21 hours throughout much of the Precambrian.[42] This day length corresponds to the semidiurnal resonant period of the thermally-driven atmospheric tide; at this day length, the decelerative lunar torque could have been canceled by an accelerative torque from the atmospheric tide, resulting in no net torque and a constant rotational period. This stabilizing effect could have been broken by a sudden change in global temperature. Recent computational simulations support this hypothesis and suggest the Marinoan or Sturtian glaciations broke this stable configuration about 600Myr ago, citing the resemblance of simulated results and existing paleorotational data.[44]

text: Global events[edit]

text: Additionally, some large scale events, such as the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, have caused the rotation to speed up by around 3 microseconds by affecting the Earth's moment of inertia.[45] Post-glacial rebound, ongoing since the last Ice age, is also changing the distribution of the Earth's mass thus affecting the moment of inertia of the Earth and, by the conservation of angular momentum, the Earth's rotation period.[46]

text: Measurement[edit]

text: The permanent monitoring of the Earth's rotation is performed with very-long-baseline interferometry coordinated with the Global Positioning System, satellite laser ranging, and other satellite techniques. This provides an absolute reference for the determination of universal time, precession, and nutation.[47]

text: Ancient observations[edit]

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text: There are preserved observations of solar and lunar eclipses from Babylonian astronomy and Chinese astronomy beginning from the 8th century BCE. These observations, as well as further astronomical historical records from astronomy in the medieval Islamic world and elsewhere, can be used to determine the actual changes in the rotation of the Earth over the last 27 centuries: The calculation to describe the place and time of eclipse is dependent on the rotation of the Earth. The ancient observations are consistent with the Earth having rotated a significant fraction of a total turn than would result from today's value of the speed of rotation would indicate: The Earth was turning ever faster throughout the past. The cumulative effect of the faster turn, of a magnitude of milliseconds per day per century, 36,525 days per century, shows up in a magnitude of hours and thousands of kilometers in observations. Scholars have combed the ancient records and calculated by modern models the magnitude of the long term historical slowing down of the Earth's rotation.[48][49]

text: Origin[edit]

text: The Earth's original rotation was a vestige of the original angular momentum of the cloud of dust, rocks, and gas that coalesced to form the Solar System. This primordial cloud was composed of hydrogen and helium produced in the Big Bang, as well as heavier elements ejected by supernovas. As this interstellar dust is heterogeneous, any asymmetry during gravitational accretion resulted in the angular momentum of the eventual planet.[50]

text: However, if the giant-impact hypothesis for the origin of the Moon is correct, this primordial rotation rate would have been reset by the Theia impact 4.5 billion years ago. Regardless of the speed and tilt of the Earth's rotation before the impact, it would have experienced a day some five hours long after the impact.[51] Tidal effects would then have slowed this rate to its modern value.