document_title: Hollywood blacklist

question_text: the hollywood ten a. what were they accused of

question_tokens: the hollywood ten a. what were they accused of

root

text: Hollywood blacklist

text: History[edit]

text: Background[edit]

text: The Hollywood blacklist was rooted in events of the 1930s and the early 1940s, encompassing the height of the Great Depression and World War II. Two major film industry strikes during the 1930s increased tensions between the Hollywood producers and the unions, particularly the Screen Writers Guild.[3]

tag: p

text: The American Communist Party lost substantial support after the Moscow show trials of 1936-1938 and the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact of 1939. The U.S. government began turning its attention to the possible links between Hollywood and the party during this period. Under then-chairman Martin Dies, Jr., the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) released a report in 1938 claiming that communism was pervasive in Hollywood. Two years later, Dies privately took testimony from a former Communist Party member, John L. Leech, who named forty-two movie industry professionals as Communists. After Leech repeated his charges in supposed confidence to a Los Angeles grand jury, many of the names were reported in the press, including those of stars Humphrey Bogart, James Cagney, Katharine Hepburn, Melvyn Douglas and Fredric March, among other well-known Hollywood figures. Dies said he would "clear" all those who co-operated by meeting with him in what he called "executive session". Within two weeks of the grand jury leak, all those on the list except for actress Jean Muir had met with the HUAC chairman. Dies "cleared" everyone except actor Lionel Stander, who was fired by the movie studio, Republic Pictures, where he was contracted.[4]

text: In 1941, producer Walt Disney took out an ad in Variety, the industry trade magazine, declaring his conviction that "Communist agitation" was behind a cartoonists and animators' strike. According to historians Larry Ceplair and Steven Englund, "In actuality, the strike had resulted from Disney's overbearing paternalism, high-handedness, and insensitivity."[5] Inspired by Disney, California State Senator Jack Tenney, chairman of the state legislature's Joint Fact-Finding Committee on Un-American Activities, launched an investigation of "Reds in movies". The probe fell flat, and was mocked in several Variety headlines.[5]

text: The subsequent wartime alliance between the United States and the Soviet Union brought the American Communist Party newfound credibility. During the war, membership in the party reached a peak of 50,000.[6] As World War II drew to a close, perceptions changed again, with communism increasingly becoming a focus of American fears and hatred. In 1945, Gerald L. K. Smith, founder of the neofascist America First Party, began giving speeches in Los Angeles assailing the "alien minded Russian Jews in Hollywood".[7] Mississippi congressman John E. Rankin, a member of HUAC, held a press conference to declare that "one of the most dangerous plots ever instigated for the overthrow of this Government has its headquarters in Hollywood ... the greatest hotbed of subversive activities in the United States". Rankin promised, "We're on the trail of the tarantula now".[8] Reports of Soviet repression in Eastern and Central Europe in the war's aftermath added more fuel to what became known as the "Second Red Scare". The growth of conservative political influence and the Republican triumph in the 1946 Congressional elections, which saw the party take control of both the House and Senate, led to a major revival of institutional anticommunist activity, publicly spearheaded by HUAC. The following year, the Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals (MPA), a political action group cofounded by Walt Disney, issued a pamphlet advising producers on the avoidance of "subtle communistic touches" in their films. Its counsel revolved around a list of ideological prohibitions, such as "Don't smear the free-enterprise system ... Don't smear industrialists ... Don't smear wealth ... Don't smear the profit motive ... Don't deify the 'common man'... Don't glorify the collective".[9]

text: The blacklist begins (1946-1947)[edit]

text: On July 29, 1946, William R. Wilkerson, publisher and founder of The Hollywood Reporter, published a "TradeView" column entitled "A Vote For Joe Stalin". It named as Communist sympathizers Dalton Trumbo, Maurice Rapf, Lester Cole, Howard Koch, Harold Buchman, John Wexley, Ring Lardner Jr., Harold Salemson, Henry Meyers, Theodore Strauss, and John Howard Lawson. In August and September 1946, Wilkerson published other columns containing names of numerous purported Communists and sympathizers. They became known as "Billy's List" and "Billy's Blacklist".[10][11] In a 65th-anniversary article in 2012, Wilkerson's son apologized for the newspaper's role in the blacklist, saying that his father was motivated by revenge for his own thwarted ambition to own a studio.[12]

text: In October 1947, drawing upon the list named in The Hollywood Reporter, the House Un-American Activities Committee subpoenaed a number of persons working in the Hollywood film industry to testify at hearings. The committee had declared its intention to investigate whether Communist agents and sympathizers had been planting propaganda in U.S. films.[11][13]

text: The hearings opened with appearances by Walt Disney and Ronald Reagan, then president of the Screen Actors Guild. Disney testified that the threat of Communists in the film industry was a serious one, and named specific people who had worked for him as probable Communists.[14] Reagan testified that a small clique within his union was using "communist-like tactics" in attempting to steer union policy, but that he did not know if those (unnamed) members were communists or not, and that in any case he thought the union had them under control.[15] (Later his first wife, actress Jane Wyman stated in her biography with Joe Morella [1985] that Reagan's allegations against friends and colleagues led to tension in their marriage, eventually resulting in their divorce). Actor Adolphe Menjou declared, "I am a witch hunter if the witches are Communists. I am a Red-baiter. I would like to see them all back in Russia."[16]

text: In contrast, several leading Hollywood figures, including director John Huston and actors Humphrey Bogart, Lauren Bacall, and Danny Kaye, organized the Committee for the First Amendment to protest the government's targeting of the film industry.[17] Members of the committee, such as Sterling Hayden, assured Bogart that they were not Communists. During the hearings, a local Washington paper reported that Hayden was a Communist. After returning to Hollywood, Bogart shouted at Danny Kaye, "You fuckers sold me out."[18] The group came under attack as being naive or foolish. Under pressure from his studio, Warner Brothers, to distance himself from the Hollywood Ten, Bogart negotiated a statement that did not denounce the committee, but said that his trip was "ill-advised, even foolish".[19] Billy Wilder told the group that "we oughta fold".[20]

text: Huston later changed his opinion of the Hollywood Ten. In a 1952 letter, he told a colleague: "It was a long time afterward that I discovered the real reasons behind the behavior of the 'Ten' in Washington, and when I did I was shocked beyond words. It seems that some of them had already testified in California, and that their testimony had been false. They had said they were not Communists and now, to have admitted it to the press would have been to lay themselves open to charges of perjury ... And so, when I believed them to have engaged to defend the freedom of the individual, they were really looking after their own skins. Had I so much as suspected such a thing, you may be sure I would have washed my hands of them instantly. But, as I said before, the revelation was a long time coming."[21]

text: Many of the film industry professionals in whom HUAC had expressed interest - primarily screenwriters, but also actors, directors, producers, and others - were either known or alleged to have been members of the American Communist Party. Of the 43 people put on the witness list, 19 declared that they would not give evidence. Eleven of these 19 were called before the committee. Members of the Committee for the First Amendment flew to Washington ahead of this climactic phase of the hearing, which commenced on Monday, October 27.[22] Of the eleven "unfriendly witnesses", one, émigré playwright Bertolt Brecht, ultimately chose to answer the committee's questions.[23][24]

text: The other ten refused, citing their First Amendment rights to freedom of speech and assembly. The crucial question they refused to answer is now generally rendered as "Are you now, or have you ever been, a member of the Communist Party?". Each had at one time or another been a member, as many intellectuals during the Great Depression felt that the Party offered an alternative to capitalism. Some still were members, others had been active in the past, and only briefly. The Committee formally accused these ten of contempt of Congress, and began criminal proceedings against them in the full House of Representatives.

text: In light of the "Hollywood Ten"'s defiance of HUAC - in addition to refusing to testify, many had tried to read statements decrying the committee's investigation as unconstitutional - political pressure mounted on the film industry to demonstrate its "anti-subversive" bona fides. Late in the hearings, Eric Johnston, president of the Association of Motion Picture Producers (AMPP) (and Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA)), declared to the committee that he would never "employ any proven or admitted Communist because they are just a disruptive force, and I don't want them around".[23] On November 17, the Screen Actors Guild voted to make its officers swear a pledge asserting each was not a Communist.

text: The following week, on November 24, the House of Representatives voted 346 to 17 to approve citations against the Hollywood Ten for contempt of Congress. The next day, following a meeting of film industry executives at New York's Waldorf-Astoria hotel, AMPP president Johnston issued a press release that is today referred to as the Waldorf Statement.[b] Their statement said that the ten would be fired or suspended without pay and not re-employed until they were cleared of contempt charges and had sworn that they were not Communists. The first Hollywood blacklist was in effect.

text: The list grows (1948-1950)[edit]

text: The HUAC hearings had failed to turn up any evidence that Hollywood was secretly disseminating Communist propaganda, but the industry was nonetheless transformed. The fallout from the inquiry was a factor in the decision by Floyd Odlum, the primary owner of RKO Pictures, to get out of the business.[25] As a result, the studio would pass into the hands of Howard Hughes. Within weeks of taking over in May 1948, Hughes fired most of RKO's employees and virtually shut the studio down for six months as he had the political sympathies of the rest investigated. Then, just as RKO swung back into production, Hughes made the decision to settle a long-standing federal antitrust suit against the industry's Big Five studios. This would be one of the crucial steps in the collapse of the studio system that had governed Hollywood, and ruled much of world cinema, for a quarter-century.

text: In early 1948 all of the Hollywood Ten were convicted of contempt. Following a series of unsuccessful appeals, the cases arrived before the Supreme Court; among the submissions filed in defense of the ten was an amicus curiae brief signed by 204 Hollywood professionals. After the court denied review, the Hollywood Ten began serving one-year prison sentences in 1950. One of the Ten, screenwriter Dalton Trumbo, stated in the 1976 documentary film Hollywood On Trial:

text: As far as I was concerned, it was a completely just verdict. I had contempt for that Congress and have had contempt for several since. And on the basis of guilt or innocence, I could never really complain very much. That this was a crime or misdemeanor was the complaint, my complaint.[26]

text: In September 1950, one of the Ten, director Edward Dmytryk, publicly announced that he had once been a Communist and was prepared to give evidence against others who had been as well. He was released early from jail; following his 1951 HUAC appearance, in which he described his brief membership in the party and named names, his career recovered.[27]

text: The others remained silent and most were unable to obtain work in the American film and television industry for many years. Adrian Scott, who had produced four of Dmytryk's films - Murder, My Sweet; Cornered; So Well Remembered; and Crossfire - was one of those named by his former friend. Scott's next screen credit would not come until 1972 and he would never produce another feature film. Some of those blacklisted continued to write for Hollywood or the broadcasting industry surreptitiously, using pseudonyms or the names of friends who posed as the actual writers (those who allowed their names to be used in this fashion were called "fronts"). Of the 204 who signed the amicus brief, 84 would be blacklisted themselves.[28] There was a more general chilling effect: Humphrey Bogart, who had been one of the most prominent members of the Committee for the First Amendment, felt compelled to write an article for Photoplay magazine denying he was a Communist sympathizer.[29] The Tenney Committee, which had continued its state-level investigations, summoned songwriter Ira Gershwin to testify about his participation in the committee.[30]

text: A number of non-governmental organizations participated in enforcing and expanding the blacklist; in particular, the American Legion, the conservative war veterans' group, was instrumental in pressuring the entertainment industry to exclude those of political sympathies it disagreed with. In 1949, the Americanism Division of the Legion issued its own blacklist - a roster of 128 people whom it claimed were participants in the "Communist Conspiracy". Among the names on the Legion's list was that of well-known playwright Lillian Hellman.[31] Hellman had written or contributed to the screenplays of approximately ten motion pictures up to that point; she would not be employed again by a Hollywood studio until 1966.

text: Another influential group was American Business Consultants Inc., founded in 1947. In the subscription information for its weekly publication Counterattack, "The Newsletter of Facts to Combat Communism", it declared that it was run by "a group of former FBI men. It has no affiliation whatsoever with any government agency." Notwithstanding that claim, it seems the editors of Counterattack had direct access to the files of both the Federal Bureau of Investigation and HUAC; the results of that access became widely apparent with the June 1950 publication of Red Channels. This Counterattack spinoff listed 151 people in entertainment and broadcast journalism, along with records of their involvement in what the pamphlet meant to be taken as Communist or pro-Communist activities.[32] A few of those named, such as Hellman, were already being denied employment in the motion picture, TV, and radio fields; the publication of Red Channels meant that scores more would be placed on the blacklist. That year, CBS instituted a loyalty oath which it required of all its employees.[33]

text: Jean Muir was the first performer to lose employment because of a listing in Red Channels. In 1950, Muir was named as a Communist sympathizer in the pamphlet, and was immediately removed from the cast of the television sitcom The Aldrich Family, in which she had been cast as Mrs. Aldrich. NBC had received between 20 and 30 phone calls protesting her being in the show. General Foods, the sponsor, said that it would not sponsor programs in which "controversial persons" were featured. Though the company later received thousands of calls protesting the decision, it was not reversed.[34]

text: HUAC returns (1951-1952)[edit]

text: In 1951, with the U.S. Congress now under Democratic control, HUAC launched a second investigation of Hollywood and Communism. As actor Larry Parks said when called before the panel,

text: Don't present me with the choice of either being in contempt of this committee and going to jail or forcing me to really crawl through the mud to be an informer. For what purpose? I don't think it is a choice at all. I don't think this is really sportsmanlike. I don't think this is American. I don't think this is American justice.[35]

text: Parks ultimately testified, becoming, however reluctantly, a "friendly witness", and found himself blacklisted, nonetheless.

text: In fact, the legal tactics of those refusing to testify had changed by this time; instead of relying on the First Amendment, they invoked the Fifth Amendment's shield against self-incrimination (though, as before, Communist Party membership was not illegal). While this usually allowed a witness to avoid "naming names" without being indicted for contempt of Congress, "taking the Fifth" before HUAC guaranteed that one would be added to the industry blacklist.[36] Historians at times distinguish between the relatively official blacklist - the names of those who (a) were called by HUAC and, in whatever manner, refused to co-operate and/or (b) were identified as Communists in the hearings - and the so-called graylist - those others who were denied work because of their political or personal affiliations, real or imagined; the consequences, however, were largely the same. The graylist also refers more specifically to those who were denied work by the major studios, but could still find jobs on Poverty Row: Composer Elmer Bernstein, for instance, was called by HUAC when it was discovered that he had written some music reviews for a Communist newspaper. After he refused to name names, pointing out that he had never attended a Communist Party meeting, he found himself composing music for movies such as Cat Women of the Moon.[37]

text: Like Parks and Dmytryk, others also co-operated with the committee. Some friendly witnesses gave broadly damaging testimony with less apparent reluctance, most prominently director Elia Kazan and screenwriter Budd Schulberg. Their co-operation in describing the political leanings of their friends and professional associates effectively brought a halt to dozens of careers and compelled a number of artists to depart for Mexico or Europe. Others were also forced abroad in order to work. Director Jules Dassin was among the best known of these. Briefly a Communist, Dassin had left the party in 1939. He was immediately blacklisted after Edward Dmytryk and fellow filmmaker Frank Tuttle named him to HUAC in 1952. Dassin left for France, and spent much of his remaining career in Greece.[38] Scholar Thomas Doherty describes how the HUAC hearings swept onto the blacklist those who had never even been particularly active politically, let alone suspected of being Communists:

text: [O]n March 21, 1951, the name of the actor Lionel Stander was uttered by the actor Larry Parks during testimony before HUAC. "Do you know Lionel Stander?" committee counsel Frank S. Tavenner inquired. Parks replied he knew the man, but had no knowledge of his political affiliations. No more was said about Stander either by Parks or the committee - no accusation, no insinuation. Yet Stander's phone stopped ringing. Prior to Parks's testimony, Stander had worked on ten television shows in the previous 100 days. Afterwards, nothing.[39]

text: When Stander was himself called before HUAC, he began by pledging his full support in the fight against "subversive" activities:

text: I know of a group of fanatics who are desperately trying to undermine the Constitution of the United States by depriving artists and others of Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness without due process of law ... I can tell names and cite instances and I am one of the first victims of it ... [This is] a group of ex-Fascists and America-Firsters and anti-Semites, people who hate everybody, including Negroes, minority groups, and most likely themselves ... [T]hese people are engaged in a conspiracy outside all the legal processes to undermine the very fundamental American concepts upon which our entire system of democracy exists.[40]

text: Stander was clearly speaking of the committee itself.[41]

text: The hunt for subversives extended into every branch of the entertainment industry. In the field of animation, two studios in particularly were affected: United Productions of America (UPA) was purged of a large portion of its staff, while New York-based Tempo was entirely crushed.[42] The HUAC investigation also effectively destroyed families. Screenwriter Richard Collins, after a brief period on the blacklist, became a friendly witness and dumped his wife, actress Dorothy Comingore, who refused to name names. Divorcing Comingore, Collins took the couple's young son, as well. The family's story was later dramatized in the film Guilty by Suspicion (1991), in which the character based on Comingore "commits suicide rather than endure a long mental collapse".[43] In real life, Comingore succumbed to alcoholism and died of a pulmonary disease at the age of fifty-eight. In the description of historians Paul Buhle and David Wagner, "premature strokes and heart attacks were fairly common [among blacklistees], along with heavy drinking as a form of suicide on the installment plan".[44]

text: For all that, evidence that Communists were actually using Hollywood films as vehicles for subversion remained hard to come by. Schulberg reported that the manuscript of his novel What Makes Sammy Run? (later a screenplay, as well) had been subject to an ideological critique by Hollywood Ten writer John Howard Lawson, whose comments he had solicited. The significance of such interactions was questionable. As historian Gerald Horne describes, many Hollywood screenwriters had joined or associated with the local Communist Party chapter because it "offered a collective to a profession that was enmeshed in tremendous isolation at the typewriter. Their 'Writers' Clinic' had 'an informal "board" of respected screenwriters' - including Lawson and Ring Lardner Jr. - 'who read and commented upon any screenplay submitted to them. Although their criticism could be plentiful, stinging, and (sometimes) politically dogmatic, the author was entirely free to accept it or reject it as he or she pleased without incurring the slightest "consequence" or sanction.'"[45] Much of the onscreen evidence of Communist influence uncovered by HUAC was feeble at best. One witness remembered Stander, while performing in a film, whistling the left-wing "Internationale" as his character waited for an elevator. "Another noted that screenwriter Lester Cole had inserted lines from a famous pro-Loyalist speech by La Pasionaria about it being 'better to die on your feet than to live on your knees' into a pep talk delivered by a football coach."[41]

text: Others disagree about how Communists affected the film industry. The author Kenneth Billingsley, writing in Reason magazine, said that Trumbo wrote in The Daily Worker about films which he said communist influence in Hollywood had prevented from being made: among them were proposed adaptations of Arthur Koestler's anti-totalitarian works Darkness at Noon and The Yogi and the Commissar, which described the rise of communism in Russia.[46] Authors Ronald and Allis Radosh, writing in Red Star over Hollywood: The Film Colony's Long Romance with the Left, said that Trumbo bragged about how he and other party members stopped anti-communist films from being produced.[47]

text: Height (1952-1956)[edit]

text: In 1952, the Screen Writers Guild - which had been founded two decades before by three future members of the Hollywood Ten - authorized the movie studios to "omit from the screen" the names of any individuals who had failed to clear themselves before Congress. Writer Dalton Trumbo, for instance, one of the Hollywood Ten and still very much on the blacklist, had received screen credit in 1950 for writing, years earlier, the story on which the screenplay of Columbia Pictures' Emergency Wedding was based. There would be no more of that until the 1960s. The name of Albert Maltz, who had written the original screenplay for The Robe in the mid-1940s, was nowhere to be seen when the movie was released in 1953.[48]

text: As William O'Neill describes, pressure was maintained even on those who had ostensibly "cleared" themselves:

text: On December 27, 1952, the American Legion announced that it disapproved of a new film, Moulin Rouge, starring José Ferrer, who used to be no more progressive than hundreds of other actors and had already been grilled by HUAC. The picture itself was based on the life of Toulouse-Lautrec and was totally apolitical. Nine members of the Legion had picketed it anyway, giving rise to the controversy. By this time, people were not taking any chances. Ferrer immediately wired the Legion's national commander that he would be glad to join the veterans in their "fight against communism".[49]

text: The group's efforts dragged many others onto the blacklist: In 1954, "[s]creenwriter Louis Pollock, a man without any known political views or associations, suddenly had his career yanked out from under him because the American Legion confused him with Louis Pollack, a California clothier, who had refused to co-operate with HUAC."[50]

text: During this same period, a number of influential newspaper columnists covering the entertainment industry, including Walter Winchell, Hedda Hopper, Victor Riesel, Jack O'Brian, and George Sokolsky, regularly offered up names with the suggestion that they should be added to the blacklist.[51] Actor John Ireland received an out-of-court settlement to end a 1954 lawsuit against the Young & Rubicam advertising agency, which had ordered him dropped from the lead role in a television series it sponsored. Variety described it as "the first industry admission of what has for some time been an open secret - that the threat of being labeled a political non-conformist, or worse, has been used against show business personalities, and that a screening system is at work determining these [actors'] availabilities for roles".[52]

text: The Hollywood blacklist had long gone hand in hand with the Red-baiting activities of J. Edgar Hoover's FBI. Adversaries of HUAC such as lawyer Bartley Crum, who defended some of the Hollywood Ten in front of the committee in 1947, were labeled as Communist sympathizers or subversives and targeted for investigation themselves. Throughout the 1950s, the FBI tapped Crum's phones, opened his mail, and placed him under continuous surveillance. As a result, he lost most of his clients and, unable to cope with the stress of ceaseless harassment, committed suicide in 1959.[54] Intimidating and dividing the left is now seen as a central purpose of the HUAC hearings. Fund-raising for once-popular humanitarian efforts became difficult, and despite the sympathies of many in the industry there was little open support in Hollywood for causes such as the Civil Rights Movement and opposition to nuclear weapons testing.[55]

text: The struggles attending the blacklist were played out metaphorically on the big screen in various ways. As described by film historian James Chapman, "Carl Foreman, who had refused to testify before the committee, wrote the western High Noon (1952), in which a town marshal (played, ironically, by friendly witness Gary Cooper) finds himself deserted by the good citizens of Hadleyville (read: Hollywood) when a gang of outlaws who had terrorized the town several years earlier (read: HUAC) returns."[56] Cooper's lawman cleaned up Hadleyville, but Foreman was forced to leave for Europe to find work. Even more famously, Kazan and Schulberg collaborated on a movie widely seen as justifying their decision to name names. On the Waterfront (1954) became one of the most honored films in Hollywood history, winning eight Academy Awards, including Oscars for Best Film, Kazan's direction, and Schulberg's screenplay. The film featured Lee J. Cobb, one of the best known actors to name names. Time Out Film Guide argues that the film is "undermined" by its "embarrassing special pleading on behalf of informers".[57]

text: After his release from prison, Herbert Biberman of the Hollywood Ten directed Salt of the Earth, working independently in New Mexico with fellow blacklisted Hollywood professionals - producer Paul Jarrico, writer Michael Wilson, and actors Rosaura Revueltas and Will Geer. The film, concerning a strike by Mexican-American mine workers, was denounced as Communist propaganda when it was completed in 1953. Distributors boycotted it, newspapers and radio stations rejected advertisements for it, and the projectionists' union refused to run it. Nationwide in 1954, only around a dozen theaters exhibited it.[58]

text: Breaking the blacklist (1957 - present)[edit]

text: A key figure in bringing an end to blacklisting was John Henry Faulk. Host of an afternoon comedy radio show, Faulk was a leftist active in his union, the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists. He was scrutinized by AWARE, one of the private firms that examined individuals for signs of Communist sympathies and "disloyalty". Marked by the group as unfit, he was fired by CBS Radio. Almost alone among the many victims of blacklisting, Faulk decided to sue AWARE in 1957.[59] Though the case would drag through the courts for years, the suit itself was an important symbol of the building resistance to the blacklist.

text: The initial cracks in the entertainment industry blacklist were evident on television, specifically at CBS. In 1957, blacklisted actor Norman Lloyd was hired by Alfred Hitchcock as an associate producer for his anthology series Alfred Hitchcock Presents, then entering its third season on the network.[60] On November 30, 1958, a live CBS production of Wonderful Town, based on short stories written by then-Communist Ruth McKenney, appeared with the proper writing credit of blacklisted Edward Chodorov, along with his literary partner, Joseph Fields.[61] The following year, actress Betty Hutton insisted that blacklisted composer Jerry Fielding be hired as musical director for her new series, also on CBS.[62] The first main break in the Hollywood blacklist followed soon after. On January 20, 1960, director Otto Preminger publicly announced that Dalton Trumbo, one of the best known members of the Hollywood Ten, was the screenwriter of his forthcoming film Exodus. Six-and-a-half months later, with Exodus still to debut, the New York Times announced that Universal Pictures would give Trumbo screen credit for his role as writer on Spartacus, a decision star Kirk Douglas is now recognized as largely responsible for.[63] On October 6, Spartacus premiered - the first movie to bear Trumbo's name since he had received story credit on Emergency Wedding in 1950. Since 1947, he had written or co-written approximately seventeen motion pictures without credit. Exodus followed in December, also bearing Trumbo's name. The blacklist was now clearly coming to an end, but its effects continue to reverberate even until the present.[64]

text: John Henry Faulk won his lawsuit in 1962. With this court decision, the private blacklisters and those who used them were put on notice that they were legally liable for the professional and financial damage they caused. This helped to bring an end to publications such as Counterattack.[65] Like Adrian Scott and Lillian Hellman, however, a number of those on the blacklist remained there for an extended period - Lionel Stander, for instance, could not find work in Hollywood until 1965.[66] Some of those who named names, like Kazan and Schulberg, argued for years after that they had made an ethically proper decision. Others, like actor Lee J. Cobb and director Michael Gordon, who gave friendly testimony to HUAC after suffering on the blacklist for a time, "concede[d] with remorse that their plan was to name their way back to work".[67] And there were those more gravely haunted by the choice they had made. In 1963, actor Sterling Hayden declared,

text: I was a rat, a stoolie, and the names I named of those close friends were blacklisted and deprived of their livelihood.[68]

text: Scholars Paul Buhle and Dave Wagner state that Hayden "was widely believed to have drunk himself into a near-suicidal depression decades before his 1986 death".[68]

text: Into the 21st century, the Writers Guild pursued the correction of screen credits from movies of the 1950s and early 1960s to properly reflect the work of blacklisted writers such as Carl Foreman and Hugo Butler.[69] On December 19, 2011, the guild, acting on a request for an investigation made by his dying son Christopher Trumbo, announced that Dalton Trumbo would get full credit for his work on the screenplay for the 1953 romantic comedy Roman Holiday, almost sixty years after the fact.[70]

text: The Hollywood Ten and other 1947 blacklistees[edit]

text: The Hollywood Ten[edit]

text: The following ten individuals were cited for contempt of Congress and blacklisted after refusing to answer questions about their alleged involvement with the Communist Party:[71]

text:
Alvah Bessie, screenwriter
Herbert Biberman, screenwriter and director
Lester Cole, screenwriter
Edward Dmytryk, director
Ring Lardner Jr., screenwriter
John Howard Lawson, screenwriter
Albert Maltz, screenwriter
Samuel Ornitz, screenwriter
Adrian Scott, producer and screenwriter
Dalton Trumbo, screenwriter

tag: ul

text: In late September 1947, HUAC subpoenaed 79 individuals on a claim that they were subversive and the supposition that they injected Communist propaganda into their films. Although never substantiating this claim, the investigators charged them with contempt of Congress when they refused to answer the questions about their membership in the Screen Writers Guild and Communist Party. The Committee demanded they admit their political beliefs and name names of other Communists. Nineteen of those refused to co-operate, and due to illnesses, scheduling conflicts, and exhaustion from the chaotic hearings, only 10 appeared before the Committee. These men became known as the Hollywood Ten.[72]

text: Belonging to the Communist Party did not constitute a crime, and the Committee's right to investigate these men was questionable in the first place. These men relied on the First Amendment's right to privacy, freedom of speech, and freedom of thought, but the Committee charged them with contempt of Congress for refusing to answer questions. Later defendants - except Pete Seeger - tried different strategies.[73]

text: Acknowledging the potential for punishment, the Ten still took bold stands, resisting the authority of HUAC. They yelled at the Chairman and treated the Committee with open indignation, emanating negativity and discouraging outside public favor and help. Upon receiving their contempt citations, they believed the Supreme Court would overturn the rulings, which did not turn out to be the case, and as a result, they were convicted of contempt and fined $1,000 each (or, over $10,700 USD in 2016 dollars, when adjusted for inflation), and sentenced to six-months to one-year prison terms.[74][better source needed]

text: HUAC did not treat the Ten with respect either, refusing to allow most of them to speak for more than just a few words at a time. Meanwhile, witnesses who had arranged to co-operate with the Committee (such as the anti-Communist screenwriter Ayn Rand) were allowed to speak at length.[75]

text: Martin Redish suggests that at this time, the First Amendment's right of free expression in these cases was used to protect the powers of the government accuser(s), instead of the rights of the citizen-victims.[76] After witnessing the well-publicized ineffectiveness of the Ten's defense strategy, later defendants chose to plead the Fifth Amendment (against self-incrimination), instead.

text: Public support for the Hollywood Ten wavered, as everyday citizen-observers were never really sure what to make of them. Some of these men later wrote about their experiences as part of the Ten. John Howard Lawson, the Ten's unofficial leader, wrote a book attacking Hollywood for appeasing HUAC. While mostly criticizing the studios for their weakness, Lawson also defends himself/the Ten and criticizes Edward Dmytryk for being the only one to recant and eventually co-operate with HUAC.[77]

text: In his 1981 autobiography, Hollywood Red, screenwriter Lester Cole stated that all of the Hollywood Ten had been Communist Party USA members at some point.[78] Other members of the Hollywood Ten, such as Dalton Trumbo[79] and Edward Dmytryk,[80] publicly admitted to being Communists while testifying before the Committee.

text: When Dmytryk wrote his memoir about this period, he denounced the Ten, and defended his decision to work with HUAC. He claimed to have left the Communist Party before having been subpoenaed, defining himself as the "odd man out". He condemns the Ten's legal tactic of defiance, and regrets staying with the group for as long as he did.[81]

text: Others[edit]

text:
Hanns Eisler, composer[82]
Bernard Gordon, screenwriter[83]
Joan LaCour Scott, screenwriter[84]

text: People first blacklisted between January 1948 and June 1950[edit]

text: (an asterisk after the entry indicates the person was also listed in Red Channels)

text:
Ben Barzman, screenwriter[85]
Paul Draper, actor and dancer*[86]
Sheridan Gibney, screenwriter[87]
Paul Green, playwright and screenwriter[88]
Lillian Hellman, playwright and screenwriter*[89]
Canada Lee, actor[90]
Paul Robeson, actor and singer[91]
Edwin Rolfe, screenwriter and poet[92]
William Sweets, radio personality*[93]
Richard Wright, writer[88]

text: The Red Channels list[edit]

text: (see, e. g., Schrecker [2002], p. 244; Barnouw [1990], pp. 122–124)

text:
Larry Adler, actor and musician
Luther Adler, actor and director
Stella Adler, actor and teacher
Edith Atwater, actor
Howard Bay, scenic designer
Ralph Bell, actor
Leonard Bernstein, composer and conductor
Walter Bernstein, screenwriter
Marc Blitzstein, composer
Millen Brand, writer
Oscar Brand, folk singer
Joseph Edward Bromberg, actor
Himan Brown, producer and director
John Brown, actor
Abe Burrows, playwright and lyricist
Morris Carnovsky, actor
Cliff Carpenter, actor
Vera Caspary, writer
Edward Chodorov, screenwriter and producer
Jerome Chodorov, writer
Mady Christians, actor
Lee J. Cobb, actor
Marc Connelly, playwright
Aaron Copland, composer
Norman Corwin, writer
Howard Da Silva, actor
Roger De Koven, actor
Dean Dixon, conductor
Olin Downes, music critic
Alfred Drake, actor and singer
Paul Draper, actor and dancer
Howard Duff, actor
Clifford J. Durr, attorney
Richard Dyer-Bennet, folk singer
José Ferrer, actor
Louise Fitch (Lewis), actor
Martin Gabel, actor
Arthur Gaeth, radio commentator
William S. Gailmor, journalist and radio commentator
John Garfield, actor
Will Geer, actor
Jack Gilford, actor and comedian
Tom Glazer, folk singer
Ruth Gordon, actor and screenwriter
Lloyd Gough, actor
Morton Gould, pianist and composer
Shirley Graham, writer
Ben Grauer, radio and TV personality
Mitchell Grayson, radio producer and director
Horace Grenell, conductor and music producer

Uta Hagen, actor and teacher
Dashiell Hammett, writer
E. Y. "Yip" Harburg, lyricist
Robert P. Heller, television journalist
Lillian Hellman, playwright and screenwriter
Jon Hering, intern
Nat Hiken, writer and producer
Rose Hobart, actor
Judy Holliday, actor and comedian
Roderick B. Holmgren, journalist
Lena Horne, singer and actor
Langston Hughes, writer
Marsha Hunt, actor
Leo Hurwitz, director
Charles Irving, actor
Burl Ives, folk singer and actor
Sam Jaffe, actor
Leon Janney, actor
Joe Julian, actor
Garson Kanin, writer and director
George Keane, actor
Donna Keath, radio actor
Pert Kelton, actor
Alexander Kendrick, journalist and author
Adelaide Klein, actor
Howard Koch, screenwriter
Tony Kraber, actor
Millard Lampell, screenwriter
John La Touche, lyricist
Arthur Laurents, writer
Gypsy Rose Lee, actor and ecdysiast
Madeline Lee, actress[d]
Ray Lev, classical pianist
Philip Loeb, actor
Ella Logan, actor and singer
Alan Lomax, folklorist and musicologist
Avon Long, actor and singer
Joseph Losey, director
Peter Lyon, television writer
Aline MacMahon, actor
Paul Mann, director and teacher
Margo, actor and dancer
Myron McCormick, actor
Paul McGrath, radio actor
Burgess Meredith, actor
Arthur Miller, playwright
Henry Morgan, actor
Zero Mostel, actor and comedian
Jean Muir, actor
Meg Mundy, actor
Lyn Murray, composer and choral director

Ben Myers, attorney
Dorothy Parker, writer
Arnold Perl, producer and writer
Minerva Pious, actor
Samson Raphaelson, screenwriter and playwright
Bernard Reis, accountant
Anne Revere, actor
Kenneth Roberts, writer
Earl Robinson, composer and lyricist
Edward G. Robinson, actor
William N. Robson, radio and TV writer
Harold Rome, composer and lyricist
Norman Rosten, writer
Selena Royle, actor
Coby Ruskin, TV director
Robert William St. John, journalist, broadcaster
Hazel Scott, jazz and classical musician
Pete Seeger, folk singer
Lisa Sergio, radio personality
Artie Shaw, jazz musician
Irwin Shaw, writer, playwright
Robert Lewis Shayon, former president of radio and TV directors' guild
Ann Shepherd, actor
William L. Shirer, journalist, broadcaster
Allan Sloane, radio and TV writer
Howard K. Smith, journalist, broadcaster
Gale Sondergaard, actor
Hester Sondergaard, actor
Lionel Stander, actor
Johannes Steel, journalist, radio commentator
Paul Stewart, actor
Elliott Sullivan, actor
William Sweets, radio personality
Helen Tamiris, choreographer
Betty Todd, director
Louis Untermeyer, poet
Hilda Vaughn, actor
J. Raymond Walsh, radio commentator
Sam Wanamaker, actor
Theodore Ward, playwright
Fredi Washington, actor
Margaret Webster, actor, director and producer
Orson Welles, actor, writer and director
Josh White, blues musician
Irene Wicker, singer and actor
Betty Winkler (Keane), actor
Martin Wolfson, actor
Lesley Woods, actor
Richard Yaffe, journalist, broadcaster

tag: table

text: Others first blacklisted after June 1950[edit]

text:
Eddie Albert, actor[94]
Lew Amster, screenwriter[95]
Richard Attenborough, actor, director and producer[96]
Norma Barzman, screenwriter[97]
Sol Barzman, screenwriter[98]
Orson Bean, actor[99]
Albert Bein, screenwriter[95]
Harry Belafonte, actor and singer[100]
Barbara Bel Geddes, actress[101]
Ben Bengal, screenwriter[102]
Seymour Bennett, screenwriter[103]
Leonardo Bercovici, screenwriter[43]
Herschel Bernardi, actor[104]
John Berry, actor, screenwriter and director[105]
Henry Blankfort, screenwriter[106]
Laurie Blankfort, artist[106]
Roman Bohnen, actor[107]
Allen Boretz, screenwriter and songwriter[108]
Phoebe Brand, actress[109]
John Bright, screenwriter[110]
Phil Brown, actor[111]
Harold Buchman, screenwriter[112]
Sidney Buchman, screenwriter[113]
Luis Buñuel, director[114]
Val Burton, screenwriter[115]
Hugo Butler, screenwriter[116]
Alan Campbell, screenwriter[117]
Charles Chaplin, actor, director and producer[118]
Maurice Clark, screenwriter[119]
Richard Collins, screenwriter[120]
Charles Collingwood, radio commentator[121]
Dorothy Comingore, actress[122]
Jeff Corey, actor[123]
George Corey, screenwriter[124]
Irwin Corey, actor and comedian[125]
Oliver Crawford, screenwriter[126]
John Cromwell, director[127]
Charles Dagget, animator[128][e]
Danny Dare, choreographer[129][f]
Jules Dassin, director[130]
Ossie Davis, actor[131]
Ruby Dee, actress[132]
Dolores del Río, actress[133]
Karen DeWolf, screenwriter[134]
Howard Dimsdale, writer[44]
Ludwig Donath, actor[107]
Arnaud d'Usseau, screenwriter[135]
Phil Eastman, cartoon writer[136]
Leslie Edgley, screenwriter[137]
Edward Eliscu, screenwriter[138]
Faith Elliott, animator[139]
Cy Endfield, screenwriter and director[140]
Guy Endore, screenwriter[135]
Francis Edward Faragoh, screenwriter[141]
Frances Farmer, actress[142]
Howard Fast, writer[143]
John Henry Faulk, radio personality[144]
Jerry Fielding, composer[62]
Carl Foreman, producer and screenwriter[145]
Anne Froelick, screenwriter[44]
Lester Fuller, director[146]
Bert Gilden, screenwriter[147]
Lee Gold, screenwriter[148]
Harold Goldman, screenwriter[149]
Michael Gordon, director[150]
Jay Gorney, screenwriter[151]
Lee Grant, actress[152]
Morton Grant, screenwriter[153]
Anne Green, screenwriter[154]
Jack T. Gross, producer[155]
Margaret Gruen, screenwriter[156]
David Hilberman, animator[157]
Tamara Hovey, screenwriter[158]
John Hubley, animator[159]
Edward Huebsch, screenwriter[160]
Ian McLellan Hunter, screenwriter[161]
Kim Hunter, actress[162]
John Ireland, actor[52]
Daniel James, screenwriter[163]
Paul Jarrico, producer and screenwriter[164]
Gordon Kahn, screenwriter[44]
Victor Kilian, actor[165]
Sidney Kingsley, playwright[166]
Alexander Knox, actor[167]
Mickey Knox, actor[168]
Lester Koenig, producer[169]
Charles Korvin, actor[170]
Hy Kraft, screenwriter[171]
Constance Lee, screenwriter[172]
Will Lee, actor and comic
Robert Lees, screenwriter[161]
Carl Lerner, editor and director[173]
Irving Lerner, director[174]
Sam Levene, actor[175]
Lewis Leverett, actor[176]
Alfred Lewis Levitt, screenwriter[177]
Helen Slote Levitt, screenwriter[177]
Mitch Lindemann, screenwriter[155]
Norman Lloyd, actor[178]
Ben Maddow, screenwriter[179]
Arnold Manoff, screenwriter[180]
John McGrew, animator[181]
Ruth McKenney, writer[182]
Bill Meléndez, animator[183]
John "Skins" Miller, actor[184]
Paula Miller, actress[176]
Josef Mischel, screenwriter[185]
Karen Morley, actress[186]
Henry Myers, screenwriter[187]
Mortimer Offner, screenwriter[138]
Alfred Palca, writer and producer[188]
Larry Parks, actor[189]
Leo Penn, actor[190]
George Pepper (film producer)[191]
Jeanette Pepper, economist [192]
Irving Pichel, director[193]
Louis Pollock, screenwriter[50]
Abraham Polonsky, screenwriter and director[153]
William Pomerance, animation executive[157]
Vladimir Pozner, screenwriter[194]
Stanley Prager, director[158]
John Randolph, actor[195]
Maurice Rapf, screenwriter[196]
Rosaura Revueltas, actress[197]
Robert L. Richards, screenwriter[163]
Frederic I. Rinaldo, screenwriter[198]
Martin Ritt, actor and director[199]
W. L. River, screenwriter[134]
Marguerite Roberts, screenwriter[200]
David Robison, screenwriter[201]
Naomi Robison, actress[201]
Louise Rousseau, screenwriter[114]
Jean Rouverol (Butler), actress and writer[202]
Shimen Ruskin, actor[137]
Madeleine Ruthven, screenwriter[203]
Waldo Salt, screenwriter[204]
John Sanford, screenwriter[205]
Bill Scott, voice actor[128]
Martha Scott, actress[50]
Robert Shayne, actor
Joshua Shelley, actor[190]
Madeleine Sherwood, actress[206]
Reuben Ship, screenwriter[207]
Viola Brothers Shore, screenwriter[194]
George Sklar, playwright[114]
Art Smith, actor[176]
Louis Solomon, screenwriter and producer[208]
Ray Spencer, screenwriter[155]
Janet Stevenson, writer[107]
Philip Stevenson, writer[107]
Donald Ogden Stewart, screenwriter[209]
Arthur Strawn, screenwriter[210]
Bess Taffel, screenwriter[158]
Julius Tannenbaum, producer[112]
Frank Tarloff, screenwriter[211]
Shepard Traube, director and screenwriter[115]
Dorothy Tree, actress[212]
Paul Trivers, screenwriter[213]
George Tyne, actor[190]
Michael Uris, writer[214]
Peter Viertel, screenwriter[215]
Bernard Vorhaus, director[216]
John Weber, producer[217]
Richard Weil, screenwriter[160]
Hannah Weinstein, producer[218]
John Wexley, screenwriter[219]
Michael Wilson, screenwriter[220]
Nedrick Young, actor and screenwriter[221]
Julian Zimet, screenwriter[135]


document_title: Tea bag

question_text: when were tea bags first used in the uk

question_tokens: when were tea bags first used in the uk

text: Tea bag

text: History[edit]

text: Packing tea in paper goes back to medieval 8th century China, during the Tang Dynasty when paper was folded and sewn into square bags to preserve tea flavoring and aromas. Then the paper tea bags were stitched from all sides to create protective casings for the tea leaves.[1][2][3]

text: The first modern tea bags in the Western World were hand-sewn fabric bags; tea bag patents date as early as 1903.[4] First appearing commercially around 1904, tea bags were successfully marketed about 1908 by the tea and coffee importer Thomas Sullivan from New York, who shipped his silk tea bags around the world.[5] The loose tea was intended to be removed from the bags by customers, but they found it easier to brew the tea with the tea still enclosed in the porous bags.[6] The first tea bag packing machine was invented 1929 by Adolf Rambold for the German company Teekanne.

text: Modern tea bags are usually made of paper fiber. The heat-sealed paper fiber tea bag was patented in 1930 by William Hermanson,[7] one of the founders of Technical Papers Corporation of Boston,[citation needed] who sold his patent to the Salada Tea Company.[citation needed]

text: The rectangular tea bag was not invented until 1944. Prior to this, tea bags resembled small sacks.[8]

text: Production[edit]

text: Teas[edit]

text: A broad variety of teas as well as other infusions like herbal teas, are available in tea bags. Typically, tea bags use fannings, the left-overs after larger leaf pieces are gathered for sale as loose tea, but some companies sell teabags containing whole-leaf tea.[9]

text: Paper[edit]

text: Tea bag paper is related to paper found in milk and coffee filters and is a blend of wood and vegetable fibers. The latter is bleached pulp abaca hemp, a plantation banana plant grown for its fiber, mostly in the Philippines and Colombia. Some bags have a heat-sealable thermoplastic such as PVC or polypropylene as a component fiber on the inner tea bag surface.[citation needed]

text: Tea bag manufacturing machines[edit]

text: A few of the leading tea bag production machine companies are MAI from Mar del Plata, Argentina;[10] Teepack from Meerbusch, Germany;[11] and IMA, from Bologna, Italy.[12] A standard machine produced by the MAI company can fill 120 rectangular bags per minute[13] containing up to 3.3 grams per bag, which allows the packaging of herbal teas. Another company, the Italian Tecnomeccanica, has a faster design capable of filling 250 tetrahedral bags per minute.[14]

text: Shapes and use[edit]

text: Traditionally, tea bags have been square or rectangular in shape. More recently circular and tetrahedral bags have come on the market and are often claimed by their manufacturers to improve the quality of the brew. Environmentalists prefer silk to nylon because of health and biodegradability issues.[15] Another material for tea bags is Soilon, made from corn starch.[16] Empty tea bags are also available for consumers to fill with tea leaves themselves. These are typically open-ended pouches with long flaps. The pouch is filled with an appropriate quantity of leaf tea and the flap is closed into the pouch to retain the tea. Such tea bags combine the ease of use of a commercially produced tea bag with the wider tea choice and better quality control of loose leaf tea.

text: Coffee bags[edit]

text: The concept of pre-measured portions to be infused in disposable bags has also been applied to coffee in the form of coffee bags, although this has not achieved such wide acceptance as tea bags.

text: Tea bag-related activities[edit]

text: Decorative tea bag labels have become the basis for large collections and many collectors collect tea bags from around the world.

text: Teabag folding began in the Netherlands and is often credited to Tiny van der Plas. It is a form of origami in which identical squares of patterned paper (cut from the front of tea bag wrappers) are folded, and then arranged in rosettes. These rosettes are usually used to decorate gift cards and it has become a popular craft in both the US and UK since 2000.[17]


document_title: Parking space

question_text: how long is a typical parallel parking space

text: Parking space

text: Patterns[edit]

text: For most motorised vehicles, there are three commonly used arrangements of parking spaces — parallel parking, perpendicular parking, and angle parking. These are self-park configurations where the vehicle driver is able to access the parking independently.

text: Parallel parking[edit]

text: With parallel parking of cars, these are arranged in a line, with the front bumper of one car facing the back bumper of an adjacent one. This is done parallel to a curb, when one is provided. Parallel parking is the most common mode of streetside parking for cars. It may also be used in parking lots and parking structures, but usually only to supplement parking spaces that use the other modes.

text: Perpendicular parking[edit]

text: With perpendicular parking, also known as bay parking, cars are parked side to side, perpendicular to an aisle, curb, or wall. This type of car parking fits more cars per length of road (or curb) than parallel parking, and is therefore commonly used in car parking lots and car parking structures.

text: Often, in car parking lots using perpendicular parking, two rows of parking spaces may be arranged front to front, with aisles in between. If no other cars are blocking, a driver may perform a "pullthrough" by driving through one parking space into the connecting space to avoid having to reverse out of a parking space upon their return.

text: Sometimes, a single row of perpendicular car parking spaces is marked in the center of a street. This arrangement eliminates reversing from the manoeuvre; cars are required to drive in forwards and drive out forwards.

text: Angle parking/echelon parking[edit]

text: Angle parking, known as echelon parking in Britain, is similar to perpendicular parking for these vehicles, except that cars are arranged at an angle to the aisle (an acute angle with the direction of approach). The gentler turn allows easier and quicker parking, narrower aisles, and thus higher density than perpendicular parking. While in theory the aisles are one-way, in practice they are typically wide enough to allow two cars to pass slowly when drivers go down the aisles the wrong way.

text: Angle parking is very common in car parking lots. It may also be used in streetside car parking in the U.S. when there is more width available for car parking than would be needed for parallel parking of cars, as it creates a larger number of parking spaces. Some cities have utilized angled parking on-street (as compared to off-street parking facilities). This has been done mostly in residential, retail and mixed use areas where additional parking compared to parallel parking is desired and traffic volumes are lower. Most angled parking is design in a head-in configuration while a few cities (Seattle, Portland, Baltimore, and Indianapolis are examples) have some back-in angled parking (typically on hills or low traffic volume streets).

text: Angle parking is considered dangerous by cycling organisations, especially in the head-in configuration, but unwelcome in either form. When comparing to parallel parking:

text:
There is a significant risk to cyclists from vehicles reversing out, as approaching bicycles are in the blind spot of the reversing and turning vehicles.[2]
Longer vehicles project further into the road; this can inconvenience/endanger other road users,
The "surplus" road space which enables angle parking could also be used for bicycle lanes.

tag: ol

text: Hence organisations such as the Cyclists Touring Club are usually opposed to all proposed echelon parking schemes, though there are some alternatives, such as "back in" angle parking (slanted the "wrong" way, with the driver reversing into the space, rather than reversing out), which can overcome many of the issues of safety.

text: Other parking methods[edit]

text: Besides these basic modes of motor vehicle parking, there are instances where a more ad hoc approach to arranging motor vehicles is appropriate. For example, in parts of some large cities, such as Chicago, where land is expensive and therefore parking space is at a premium, there are parking lots for motor vehicles where the driver leaves the keys to the vehicle with an attendant who arranges vehicles so as to maximize the number of vehicles that can be parked in the lot. Vehicles may be packed up to five vehicles deep in combinations of perpendicular and/or parallel parking with limited circulation aisles for the parking attendant. Such arrangements are known as attendant parking. When the lot or facility is provided to serve the customers of a business, it is considered valet parking.

text: Inner city parking lots are often temporary, the operators renting land which is vacant pending the construction of a new office building. Some inner city lots are equipped with individual lifts, allowing cars to be stored above each other.

text: Another ad hoc arrangement is tandem parking. This is sometimes done with residential motor vehicle parking where two motor vehicles park nose-to-end in tandem. The first motor vehicle does not have independent access, and the second motor vehicle must move to provide access. As with attendant parking, the purpose is to maximize the number of motor vehicles that can park in a limited space.

text: Marks and space size[edit]

text: The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (December 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: In parking lots, parking is allowed only where marked.[3]

text: In North America, the width of angled and perpendicular parking spaces usually ranges from 7.5 to 9.0 feet (2.3–2.7 m). For example, normal parking spaces in the city of Dallas, Texas are 8.5 feet (2.6 m) wide, while compact spaces are 7.5 feet (2.3 m) wide.[4]

text: Because the boundary between parking space and driving area is not always well-defined, the length of a parking space is more difficult to establish. However, most angled and perpendicular spaces are considered to be between 10 and 18 feet (3.0–5.5 m) in length. Though, in the United States, a parking space 10 feet (3.0 m) deep is uncommon and most parking spaces will be within 16 to 20 feet (4.9–6.1 m), with 19 feet (5.8 m) feet deep being the standard DOT recommended depth for standard perpendicular parking.

text: Parallel parking spaces are typically cited as being approximately 9.1 feet (2.8 m) wide by 20 feet (6.1 m) long.

text: During construction, the specific dimensions of a parking space are decided by a variety of factors. A high cost of land will encourage smaller dimensions and the introduction of compact spaces.[5] Many garages and parking lots have spaces designated for a Compact car only. These spaces are narrower than traditional spaces, thus allowing more cars to park.[6]

text: According to French standard “Norme NF P 91-100”, minimum width of parking spaces range from 2.20 to 2.30 metres (7.2–7.5 ft) (See fr:Marquage du stationnement en France). Narrow parking spaces such as in Vevey, Switzerland might make opening the door difficult in a larger vehicle.

text: Larger cars are an issue when the size of the parking spot is fixed. Automobile associations warn of this issue.[7] A Swiss Association regulating parking space wants to consider this issue for 2016.

text: In the United Kingdom the recommended standard Parking bay size is 2.4 metres (7.9 ft) wide by 4.8 metres (16 ft) long. Recently there has been some controversy about most UK parking spaces being too small to fit modern cars, which have grown significantly since standards were set decades ago.[8]

text: Barriers[edit]

text: Parking spaces commonly contain a parking chock (wheel stop), which is used to prevent cars from pulling too far into the space and

text:
obstructing a neighboring parking space, curb, or sidewalk.
contacting with and then damaging a building wall.

text: This barrier is usually made of concrete and will normally be a horizontal bar to stop the tires from moving forward or a vertical bar that may cause damage to the vehicle if contact is made. In a parking garage, the barrier will often be a concrete wall.

text: Parking spaces for the disabled[edit]

text: Some parking spaces are reserved as handicapped parking, for individuals with disabilities. Handicapped parking spaces are typically marked with the International Symbol of Access, though in practice, the design of the symbol varies widely.[9]

text: In the United States the Access Board provides guidelines on parking spaces.[10][11]

text: Women's parking spaces[edit]

text: In some countries, women's parking spaces have been established in more visible spots to reduce the chance of sexual attacks,[12] facilitate parking for women, or to provide spaces that are closer to shopping centers or employment.[13][14]

text: US curb markings[edit]

text: Curb markings in the United States are prescribed by the Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD).[15] Local highway agencies may prescribe special colors for curb markings to supplement standard signs for parking regulation. California has designated an array of colors for curb regulations. A white curb designates passenger pick up or drop off. The green curb is for time limited parking. The yellow curb is for loading, and the blue curb is for disabled persons with proper vehicle identification. The red curb is for emergency vehicles only - fire lanes (no stopping, standing, or parking). In Oregon and Florida, the yellow curb is utilized to indicate no parking. In Georgia either red or yellow can be used to indicate no parking. In Seattle, Washington, alternating red and yellow curb markings indicate a bus stop.


document_title: Indian Rajya Sabha elections, 2018

question_text: for how many seats of chhattisgarh state rajya sabha election 2018 was held

text: Indian Rajya Sabha elections, 2018

text: Elections[edit]

text: The elections held to elect 3 members from National Capital Territory of Delhi and 1 member from Sikkim. 3 members from National Capital Territory of Delhi retired on 27 January 2018 and 1 member from Sikkim retired on 23 February 2018. Elections for 58 seats and By-election for 1 seat were held on 23 March 2018. The election will be held for 3 seats of kerala on 21 June 2018.

text:
State
Members retiring
Date of retirement

Delhi
3
27 January 2018

Sikkim
1
23 February 2018

Andhra Pradesh
3
2 April 2018

Bihar
6
2 April 2018

Chhattisgarh
1
2 April 2018

Gujarat
4
2 April 2018

Haryana
1
2 April 2018

Himachal Pradesh
1
2 April 2018

Karnataka
4
2 April 2018

Madhya Pradesh
5
2 April 2018

Maharashtra
6
2 April 2018

Telangana
3
2 April 2018

Uttar Pradesh
10
2 April 2018

Uttarakhand
1
2 April 2018

West Bengal
5
2 April 2018

Odisha
3
3 April 2018

Rajasthan
3
3 April 2018

Jharkhand
2
3 May 2018

Kerala
3
1 July 2018

text: Members Elected[edit]

text: National Capital Territory of Delhi[edit]

text: Delhi had an election for 3 Rajya Sabha seats on 16 January 2018 to replace members retiring on 27 January 2018.

text:
Seat No
Former MP
Former Party
Elected MP
Elected Party
Reference

1
Karan Singh

INC
Sanjay Singh

AAP

2
Parvez Hashmi
Sushil Gupta

3
Janardan Dwivedi
N. D. Gupta

text: Sikkim[edit]

text: Sikkim had an election for 1 Rajya Sabha seat on 16 January 2018 to replace member retiring on 23 February 2018.

text:
Seat No
Former MP
Former Party
Elected MP
Elected Party
Reference

1
Hishey Lachungpa

SDF
Hishey Lachungpa

SDF

text: Andhra Pradesh[edit]

text: From Andhra Pradesh State, 3 members are elected unopposed for the Rajya Sabha seats on 15 March 2018, to replace members retiring on 2 April 2018.[2]

text:
Seat No
Former MP
Former Party
Elected MP
Elected Party
Reference

1
Tulla Devender Goud

TDP
C. M. Ramesh

TDP
[2]

2
Renuka Chowdhury

INC
Kanakamedala Ravindra Kumar

3
Chiranjeevi
Vemireddy Prabhakar Reddy

YSRCP

text: Bihar[edit]

text: From Bihar State, 6 members are elected unopposed for the Rajya Sabha seats on 15 March 2018, to replace members retiring on 2 April 2018.[3]

text:
Seat No
Former MP
Former Party
Elected MP
Elected Party
Reference

1
Ravi Shankar Prasad

BJP
Ravi Shankar Prasad

BJP
[3]

2
Dharmendra Pradhan
Akhilesh Prasad Singh

INC

3
Mahendra Prasad

JD(U)
Mahendra Prasad

JD(U)

4
Bashistha Narain Singh
Bashistha Narain Singh

5
Anil Kumar Sahani
Ashfaque Karim

RJD

6
Vacant (Ali Anwar)
Manoj Jha

text: Chhattisgarh[edit]

text: From Chhattisgarh State, 1 member is elected for the Rajya Sabha seat on 23 March 2018, to replace member retiring on 2 April 2018.[4]

text:
Seat No
Former MP
Former Party
Elected MP
Elected Party
Reference

1
Bhushan Lal Jangde

BJP
Saroj Pandey

BJP
[5][4]

text: Gujarat[edit]

text: From Gujarat State, 4 members are elected unopposed for the Rajya Sabha seats on 15 March 2018, to replace members retiring on 2 April 2018.[6]

text:
Seat No
Former MP
Former Party
Elected MP
Elected Party
Reference

1
Parshottam Rupala

BJP
Parshottam Rupala

BJP
[6]

2
Mansukh L. Mandaviya
Mansukh L. Mandaviya

3
Arun Jaitley
Naranbhai Rathwa

INC

4
Shankarbhai Vegad
Amee Yajnik

text: Haryana[edit]

text: From Haryana State, 1 member is elected unopposed for the Rajya Sabha seats on 15 March 2018, to replace member retiring on 2 April 2018.[7]

text:
Seat No
Former MP
Former Party
Elected MP
Elected Party
Reference

1
Shadi Lal Batra

INC
D.P. Vats

BJP
[7]

text: Himachal Pradesh[edit]

text: From Himachal Pradesh State, 1 member is elected unopposed for the Rajya Sabha seats on 15 March 2018, to replace member retiring on 2 April 2018.[8]

text:
Seat No
Former MP
Former Party
Elected MP
Elected Party
Reference

1
Jagat Prakash Nadda

BJP
Jagat Prakash Nadda

BJP
[8][7]

text: Jharkhand[edit]

text: From Jharkhand State, 2 members are elected for the Rajya Sabha seats on 23 March 2018, to replace members retiring on 3 May 2018.[9]

text:
Seat No
Former MP
Former Party
Elected MP
Elected Party
Reference

1
Sanjiv Kumar

JMM
Sameer Oraon

BJP
[9][5]

2
Pradeep Kumar Balmuchu

INC
Dhiraj Prasad Sahu

INC

text: Karnataka[edit]

text: From Karnataka State, 4 members are elected for the Rajya Sabha seats on 23 March 2018, to replace members retiring on 2 April 2018.[10]

text:
Seat No
Former MP
Former Party
Elected MP
Elected Party
Reference

1
R Ramakrishna

BJP
Syed Naseer Hussain

INC
[5][10]

2
Basavaraj Patil Sedam
L. Hanumanthaiah

3
K. Rahman Khan

INC
G C Chandrasekhar

4
Vacant (Rajeev Chandrasekhar)

Independent
Rajeev Chandrasekhar

BJP

text: Madhya Pradesh[edit]

text: From Madhya Pradesh State, 5 members are elected unopposed for the Rajya Sabha seats on 15 March 2018, to replace members retiring on 2 April 2018.[11]

text:
Seat No
Former MP
Former Party
Elected MP
Elected Party
Reference

1
Satyavrat Chaturvedi

INC
Rajmani Patel

INC
[11]

2
Meghraj Jain

BJP
Dharmendra Pradhan

BJP

3
Prakash Javadekar
Kailash Soni

4
La Ganesan
Ajay Pratap Singh

5
Thawar Chand Gehlot
Thawar Chand Gehlot

text: Maharashtra[edit]

text: From Maharashtra State, 6 members are elected unopposed for the Rajya Sabha seats on 15 March 2018, to replace members retiring on 2 April 2018.[12]

text:
Seat No
Former MP
Former Party
Elected MP
Elected Party
Reference

1
Ajay Sancheti

BJP
Prakash Javadekar

BJP
[12]

2
D. P. Tripathi

NCP
Narayan Rane

3
Rajeev Shukla

INC
V. Muraleedharan

4
Rajni Patil
Kumar Ketkar

INC

5
Vandana Chavan

NCP
Vandana Chavan

NCP

6
Anil Desai

SS
Anil Desai

SS

text: Odisha[edit]

text: From Odisha State, 3 members are elected unopposed for the Rajya Sabha seats on 15 March 2018, to replace members retiring on 3 April 2018.[13]

text:
Seat No
Former MP
Former Party
Elected MP
Elected Party
Reference

1
Ananga Udaya Singh Deo

BJD
Prashanta Nanda

BJD
[13]

2
Dilip Tirkey
Achyuta Samanta

3
A V Swamy

Independent
Soumya Ranjan Patnaik

text: Rajasthan[edit]

text: From Rajasthan State, 3 members are elected unopposed for the Rajya Sabha seats on 15 March 2018, to replace members retiring on 3 April 2018.[14]

text:
Seat No
Former MP
Former Party
Elected MP
Elected Party
Reference

1
Abhishek Singhvi

INC
Kirodi Lal Meena

BJP
[14]

2
Narendra Budania
Madan Lal Saini

3
Bhupender Yadav

BJP
Bhupender Yadav

text: Telangana[edit]

text: From Telangana State, 3 members are elected for the Rajya Sabha seats on 23 March 2018, to replace members retiring on 2 April 2018.[15]

text:
Seat No
Former MP
Former Party
Elected MP
Elected Party
Reference

1
C. M. Ramesh

TDP
Joginapally Santosh Kumar

TRS
[5][15]

2
Rapolu Ananda Bhaskar

INC
Lingamaiah Yadav

3
Vacant (P. Govardhan Reddy)
Banda Prakash

text: Uttarakhand[edit]

text: From Uttarakhand State, 1 member is elected unopposed for the Rajya Sabha seats on 15 March 2018, to replace member retiring on 2 April 2018.[16]

text:
Seat No
Former MP
Former Party
Elected MP
Elected Party
Reference

1
Mahendra Singh Mahra

INC
Anil Baluni

BJP
[16]

text: Uttar Pradesh[edit]

text: From Uttar Pradesh State, 10 members are elected for the Rajya Sabha seats on 23 March 2018, to replace members retiring on 2 April 2018.[17]

text:
Seat No
Previous MP
Previous Party
Elected MP
Elected Party
Reference

1
Jaya Bachchan

SP
Jaya Bachchan

SP
[5][17]

2
Naresh Chandra Agrawal
Arun Jaitley

BJP

3
Alok Tiwari
Anil Jain

4
Munvvar Saleem
Ashok Bajpai

5
Darshan Singh Yadav
Harnath Singh Yadav

6
Kiranmay Nanda
Anil Agrawal

7
Munquad Ali

BSP
Sakal Deep Rajbhar

8
Vacant (Mayawati)
Kanta Kardam

9
Pramod Tiwari

INC
G. V. L. Narasimha Rao

10
Vinay Katiyar

BJP
Vijaypal Singh Tomar

text: West Bengal[edit]

text: From West Bengal State, 5 members are elected for the Rajya Sabha seats on 23 March 2018, to replace members retiring on 2 April 2018.

text:
Seat No
Previous MP
Previous Party
Elected MP
Elected Party
Reference

1
Tapan Kumar Sen

CPI(M)
Abhishek Singhvi

INC
[5][5]

2
Nadimul Haque

AITC
Nadimul Haque

AITC

3
Vivek Gupta
Abir Biswas

4
Kunal Kumar Ghosh
Santunu Sen

5
Vacant (Mukul Roy)
Subhasish Chakraborty

text: By-elections[edit]

text: In addition to scheduled elections, unforeseen vacancies, caused by members' resignation, death or disqualification, may also be filled via By-elections.

text:
On 2 September 2017, Manohar Parrikar resgined from membership of the Rajya Sabha from Uttar Pradesh, due to his election as the member of Goa Legislative Assembly on 23 August by-poll.[18]
On 4 December 2017, Sharad Yadav disqualified from Rajya Sabha by Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.
On 20 December 2017, M. P. Veerendra Kumar resigned from Rajya Sabha due to disqualification of Sharad Yadav.

text:
State
Former MP
Party
Date of appointment
Date of resign/death/disqualification
Elected MP
Party
Date of appointment
Date of retirement
Reference

Uttar Pradesh
Manohar Parrikar

BJP
26 November 2014
2 September 2017
Hardeep Singh Puri

BJP
9 January 2018
25 November 2020
[18]

Kerala
M. P. Veerendra Kumar

JD(U)
3 April 2016
20 December 2017
M. P. Veerendra Kumar

IND[19]
24 March 2018
2 April 2022
[19]

Bihar
Sharad Yadav

JD(U)
8 July 2016
4 December 2017
TBD

TBD
TBD
7 July 2022