document_title: Articles of Confederation

question_text: who could declare war in the articles of confederation

question_tokens: who could declare war in the articles of confederation

text: Articles of Confederation

text: Background and context

text: The political push to increase cooperation among the then-loyal colonies began with the Albany Congress in 1754 and Benjamin Franklin's proposed Albany Plan, an inter-colonial collaboration to help solve mutual local problems. The Articles of Confederation would bear some resemblance to it. Over the next two decades, some of the basic concepts it addressed would strengthen and others would weaken, particularly the degree of deserved loyalty to the crown. With civil disobedience resulting in coercive, and what the colonials perceived as intolerable acts of Parliament, and armed conflict resulting in dissidents being proclaimed rebels and outside the King's protection, any loyalty remaining shifted toward independence and how to achieve it. In 1775, with events outpacing communications, the Second Continental Congress began acting as the provisional government that would run the American Revolutionary War and gain the colonies their collective independence.

text: It was an era of constitution writing—most states were busy at the task—and leaders felt the new nation must have a written constitution, even though other nations did not. During the war, Congress exercised an unprecedented level of political, diplomatic, military and economic authority. It adopted trade restrictions, established and maintained an army, issued fiat money, created a military code and negotiated with foreign governments.[5]

text: To transform themselves from outlaws into a legitimate nation, the colonists needed international recognition for their cause and foreign allies to support it. In early 1776, Thomas Paine argued in the closing pages of the first edition of Common Sense that the "custom of nations" demanded a formal declaration of American independence if any European power were to mediate a peace between the Americans and Great Britain. The monarchies of France and Spain in particular could not be expected to aid those they considered rebels against another legitimate monarch. Foreign courts needed to have American grievances laid before them persuasively in a "manifesto" which could also reassure them that the Americans would be reliable trading partners. Without such a declaration, Paine concluded, "[t]he custom of all courts is against us, and will be so, until, by an independence, we take rank with other nations."[6]

text: Beyond improving their existing association, the records of the Second Continental Congress show that the need for a declaration of independence was intimately linked with the demands of international relations. On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee introduced a resolution before the Continental Congress declaring the colonies independent; at the same time he also urged Congress to resolve "to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign Alliances" and to prepare a plan of confederation for the newly independent states. Congress then created three overlapping committees to draft the Declaration, a Model Treaty, and the Articles of Confederation. The Declaration announced the states' entry into the international system; the model treaty was designed to establish amity and commerce with other states; and the Articles of Confederation, which established "a firm league" among the thirteen free and independent states, constituted an international agreement to set up central institutions for the conduct of vital domestic and foreign affairs.[7]

text: Drafting

text: On June 12, 1776, a day after appointing a committee to prepare a draft of the Declaration of Independence, the Second Continental Congress resolved to appoint a committee of 13 to prepare a draft of a constitution for a union of the states. The committee met repeatedly, and chairman John Dickinson presented their results to the Congress on July 12, 1776. There were long debates on such issues as sovereignty, the exact powers to be given the confederate government, whether to have a judiciary, and voting procedures.[8] The final draft of the Articles was prepared in the summer of 1777 and the Second Continental Congress approved them for ratification by the individual states on November 15, 1777, after a year of debate.[9] In practice, the Articles were in use beginning in 1777; the final draft of the Articles served as the de facto system of government used by the Congress ("the United States in Congress assembled") until it became de jure by final ratification on March 1, 1781; at which point Congress became the Congress of the Confederation. Under the Articles, the states retained sovereignty over all governmental functions not specifically relinquished to the national government. The individual articles set the rules for current and future operations of the United States government. It was made capable of making war and peace, negotiating diplomatic and commercial agreements with foreign countries, and deciding disputes between the states, including their additional and contested western territories. Article XIII stipulated that "their provisions shall be inviolably observed by every state" and "the Union shall be perpetual".

text: John Dickinson's and Benjamin Franklin's handwritten drafts of the Articles of Confederation are housed at the National Archives in Washington, DC.

text: Operation

text: The Articles were created by delegates from the states in the Second Continental Congress out of a need to have "a plan of confederacy for securing the freedom, sovereignty, and independence of the United States." After the war, nationalists, especially those who had been active in the Continental Army, complained that the Articles were too weak for an effective government. There was no president, no executive agencies, no judiciary and no tax base. The absence of a tax base meant that there was no way to pay off state and national debts from the war years except by requesting money from the states, which seldom arrived.

text: In 1788, with the approval of Congress, the Articles were replaced by the United States Constitution and the new government began operations in 1789.[10]

text: Ratification

text: Congress began to move for ratification of the Articles of Confederation in 1777:

text: Permit us, then, earnestly to recommend these articles to the immediate and dispassionate attention of the legislatures of the respective states. Let them be candidly reviewed under a sense of the difficulty of combining in one system the various sentiments and interests of a continent divided into so many sovereign and independent communities, under a conviction of the absolute necessity of uniting all our councils and all our strength, to maintain and defend our common liberties...[11]

text: The document could not become officially effective until it was ratified by all 13 states. The first state to ratify was Virginia on December 16, 1777; the thirteenth state to ratify was Maryland on February 2, 1781. A ceremonial confirmation of this thirteenth, final ratification took place in the Congress on March 1, 1781, at high noon.[12][13][14] Twelve states had ratified the Articles by February 1779, 14 months into the process. Maryland, however, refused to go along until the landed states, especially Virginia, had indicated they were prepared to cede their claims west of the Ohio River to the Union.[15] It would be two years before the Maryland legislature became satisfied that they would follow through, and voted to ratify. The various states ratified the Articles of Confederation on the following dates:[16]

text:
State
Date

13 !1
 Virginia
000000001777-12-16-0000December 16, 1777

12 !2
 South Carolina
000000001778-02-05-0000February 5, 1778

08 !3
 New York
000000001778-02-06-0000February 6, 1778

11 !4
 Rhode Island
000000001778-02-09-0000February 9, 1778

01 !5
 Connecticut
000000001778-02-12-0000February 12, 1778

03 !6
 Georgia
000000001778-02-26-0000February 26, 1778

06 !7
 New Hampshire
000000001778-03-04-0000March 4, 1778

10 !8
 Pennsylvania
000000001778-03-05-0000March 5, 1778

05 !9
 Massachusetts
000000001778-03-10-0000March 10, 1778

09 !10
 North Carolina
000000001778-04-05-0000April 5, 1778

07 !11
 New Jersey
000000001778-11-19-0000November 19, 1778

02 !12
 Delaware
000000001779-02-01-0000February 1, 1779

04 !13
 Maryland
000000001781-02-02-0000February 2, 1781

text: Article summaries

text: The Articles of Confederation contain a preamble, thirteen articles, a conclusion, and a signatory section. The preamble declares that the states "agree to certain articles of Confederation and perpetual Union." What follows here summarizes the purpose and content of each of the thirteen articles.

text:
Establishes the name of the confederation with these words: "The stile of this confederacy shall be 'The United States of America.'"
Asserts the sovereignty of each state, except for the specific powers delegated to the confederation government: "Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this Confederation expressly delegated."
Declares the purpose of the confederation: "The said States hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretense whatever."
Elaborates upon the intent "to secure and perpetuate mutual friendship and intercourse among the people of the different States in this union," and to establish equal treatment and freedom of movement for the free inhabitants of each state to pass unhindered between the states, excluding "paupers, vagabonds, and fugitives from justice." All these people are entitled to equal rights established by the state into which they travel. If a crime is committed in one state and the perpetrator flees to another state, he will be extradited to and tried in the state in which the crime was committed.
Allocates one vote in the Congress of the Confederation (the "United States in Congress Assembled") to each state, which is entitled to a delegation of between two and seven members. Members of Congress are to be appointed by state legislatures. No congressman may serve more than three out of any six years.
Only the central government may declare war, or conduct foreign political or commercial relations. No state or official may accept foreign gifts or titles, and granting any title of nobility is forbidden to all. No states may form any sub-national groups. No state may tax or interfere with treaty stipulations already proposed. No state may wage war without permission of Congress, unless invaded or under imminent attack on the frontier; no state may maintain a peacetime standing army or navy, unless infested by pirates, but every State is required to keep ready, a well-trained, disciplined, and equipped militia.
Whenever an army is raised for common defense, the state legislatures shall assign military ranks of colonel and below.
Expenditures by the United States of America will be paid with funds raised by state legislatures, and apportioned to the states in proportion to the real property values of each.
Powers and functions of the United States in Congress Assembled.

Grants to the United States in Congress assembled the sole and exclusive right and power to determine peace and war; to exchange ambassadors; to enter into treaties and alliances, with some provisos; to establish rules for deciding all cases of captures or prizes on land or water; to grant letters of marque and reprisal (documents authorizing privateers) in times of peace; to appoint courts for the trial of pirates and crimes committed on the high seas; to establish courts for appeals in all cases of captures, but no member of Congress may be appointed a judge; to set weights and measures (including coins), and for Congress to serve as a final court for disputes between states.
The court will be composed of jointly appointed commissioners or Congress shall appoint them. Each commissioner is bound by oath to be impartial. The court's decision is final.
Congress shall regulate the post offices; appoint officers in the military; and regulate the armed forces.
The United States in Congress assembled may appoint a president who shall not serve longer than one year per three-year term of the Congress.
Congress may request requisitions (demands for payments or supplies) from the states in proportion with their population, or take credit.
Congress may not declare war, enter into treaties and alliances, appropriate money, or appoint a commander in chief without nine states assented. Congress shall keep a journal of proceedings and adjourn for periods not to exceed six months.

When Congress is in recess, any of the powers of Congress may be executed by "The committee of the states, or any nine of them", except for those powers of Congress which require nine states in Congress to execute.
If "Canada" (as the British-held Province of Quebec was also known) accedes to this confederation, it will be admitted.[17] No other colony could be admitted without the consent of nine states.
Reaffirms that the Confederation accepts war debt incurred by Congress before the existence of the Articles.
Declares that the Articles shall be perpetual, and may be altered only with the approval of Congress and the ratification of all the state legislatures.

tag: ol

text: While still at war with Britain, the revolution's leaders were divided between forming a national government with powers either strong and centralized (the "federalists"), or strictly limited (the "anti federalists"). The Continental Congress compromised by dividing sovereignty between the states and the central government, with a unicameral legislature that protected the liberty of the individual states. It empowered Congress to regulate military and monetary affairs, for example, but provided no mechanism to compel the States to comply with requests for either troops or funding. This left the military vulnerable to inadequate funding, supplies, or even food.[18]

text: End of the Revolutionary War

text: The Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended hostilities with Great Britain, languished in Congress for months because several state representatives failed to attend sessions of the national legislature to ratify it. Yet Congress had no power to enforce attendance. In September 1783, George Washington complained that Congress was paralyzed.[19] Many revolutionaries had gone to their respective home countries after the war, and local government and self-rule seemed quite satisfactory.

text: Function

text: The Army

text: The Articles supported the Congressional direction of the Continental Army, and allowed the states to present a unified front when dealing with the European powers. As a tool to build a centralized war-making government, they were largely a failure: Historian Bruce Chadwick wrote:

text: George Washington had been one of the very first proponents of a strong federal government. The army had nearly disbanded on several occasions during the winters of the war because of the weaknesses of the Continental Congress. ... The delegates could not draft soldiers and had to send requests for regular troops and militia to the states. Congress had the right to order the production and purchase of provisions for the soldiers, but could not force anyone to supply them, and the army nearly starved in several winters of war.[20]

text: The Continental Congress, before the Articles were approved, had promised soldiers a pension of half pay for life. However Congress had no power to compel the states to fund this obligation, and as the war wound down after the victory at Yorktown the sense of urgency to support the military was no longer a factor. No progress was made in Congress during the winter of 1783–84. General Henry Knox, who would later become the first Secretary of War under the Constitution, blamed the weaknesses of the Articles for the inability of the government to fund the army. The army had long been supportive of a strong union.[21] Knox wrote:

text: The army generally have always reprobated the idea of being thirteen armies. Their ardent desires have been to be one continental body looking up to one sovereign. ... It is a favorite toast in the army, "A hoop to the barrel" or "Cement to the Union".[22]

text: As Congress failed to act on the petitions, Knox wrote to Gouverneur Morris, four years before the Philadelphia Convention was convened, "As the present Constitution is so defective, why do not you great men call the people together and tell them so; that is, to have a convention of the States to form a better Constitution."[22]

text: Once the war had been won, the Continental Army was largely disbanded. A very small national force was maintained to man the frontier forts and to protect against Native American attacks. Meanwhile, each of the states had an army (or militia), and 11 of them had navies. The wartime promises of bounties and land grants to be paid for service were not being met. In 1783, George Washington defused the Newburgh conspiracy, but riots by unpaid Pennsylvania veterans forced Congress to leave Philadelphia temporarily.[23]

text: The Congress from time to time during the Revolutionary War requisitioned troops from the states. Any contributions were voluntary, and in the debates of 1788 the Federalists (who supported the proposed new Constitution) claimed that state politicians acted unilaterally, and contributed when the Continental army protected their state's interests. The Anti-Federalists claimed that state politicians understood their duty to the Union and contributed to advance its needs. Dougherty (2009) concludes that generally the States' behavior validated the Federalist analysis. This helps explain why the Articles of Confederation needed reforms.[24]

text: Foreign policy

text: Even after peace had been achieved in 1783, the weakness of the Confederation government frustrated the ability of the government to conduct foreign policy. In 1789, Thomas Jefferson, concerned over the failure to fund an American naval force to confront the Barbary pirates, wrote to James Monroe, "It will be said there is no money in the treasury. There never will be money in the treasury till the Confederacy shows its teeth. The states must see the rod."[25]

text: Furthermore, the Jay–Gardoqui Treaty with Spain in 1789 also showed weakness in foreign policy. In this treaty — which was never ratified due to its immense unpopularity — the United States was to give up rights to use the Mississippi River for 25 years, which would have economically strangled the settlers west of the Appalachian Mountains. Finally, due to the Confederation's military weakness, it could not compel the British army to leave frontier forts which were on American soil — forts which, in 1783, the British promised to leave, but which they delayed leaving pending U.S. implementation of other provisions such as ending action against Loyalists and allowing them to seek compensation. This incomplete British implementation of the Treaty of Paris (1783) was superseded by the implementation of Jay's Treaty in 1795 under the new U.S. Constitution.

text: Taxation and commerce

text: Under the Articles of Confederation, the central government's power was kept quite limited. The Confederation Congress could make decisions, but lacked enforcement powers. Implementation of most decisions, including modifications to the Articles, required unanimous approval of all thirteen state legislatures.[26]

text: Congress was denied any powers of taxation: it could only request money from the states. The states often failed to meet these requests in full, leaving both Congress and the Continental Army chronically short of money. As more money was printed by Congress, the continental dollars depreciated. In 1779, George Washington wrote to John Jay, who was serving as the president of the Continental Congress, "that a wagon load of money will scarcely purchase a wagon load of provisions."[27] Mr. Jay and the Congress responded in May by requesting $45 million from the States. In an appeal to the States to comply, Jay wrote that the taxes were "the price of liberty, the peace, and the safety of yourselves and posterity."[28] He argued that Americans should avoid having it said "that America had no sooner become independent than she became insolvent" or that "her infant glories and growing fame were obscured and tarnished by broken contracts and violated faith."[29] The States did not respond with any of the money requested from them.

text: Congress had also been denied the power to regulate either foreign trade or interstate commerce and, as a result, all of the States maintained control over their own trade policies. The states and the Confederation Congress both incurred large debts during the Revolutionary War, and how to repay those debts became a major issue of debate following the War. Some States paid off their war debts and others did not. Federal assumption of the states' war debts became a major issue in the deliberations of the Constitutional Convention.

text: Accomplishments of the Confederation

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Nevertheless, the Confederation Congress did take two actions with long-lasting impact. The Land Ordinance of 1785 and Northwest Ordinance created territorial government, set up protocols for the admission of new states and the division of land into useful units, and set aside land in each township for public use. This system represented a sharp break from imperial colonization, as in Europe, and provided the basis for the rest of American continental expansion through the 19th Century.

text: The Land Ordinance of 1785 established both the general practices of land surveying in the west and northwest and the land ownership provisions used throughout the later westward expansion beyond the Mississippi River. Frontier lands were surveyed into the now-familiar squares of land called the township (36 square miles), the section (one square mile), and the quarter section (160 acres). This system was carried forward to most of the States west of the Mississippi (excluding areas of Texas and California that had already been surveyed and divided up by the Spanish Empire). Then, when the Homestead Act was enacted in 1867, the quarter section became the basic unit of land that was granted to new settler-farmers.

text: The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 noted the agreement of the original states to give up northwestern land claims, organized the Northwest Territory and laid the groundwork for the eventual creation of new states. While it didn't happen under the articles, the land north of the Ohio River and west of the (present) western border of Pennsylvania ceded by Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, eventually became the states of: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, and the part of Minnesota east of the Mississippi River. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 also made great advances in the abolition of slavery. New states admitted to the union in this territory would never be slave states.

text: No new states were admitted to the Union under the Articles of Confederation. The Articles provided for a blanket acceptance of the Province of Quebec (referred to as "Canada" in the Articles) into the United States if it chose to do so. It did not, and the subsequent Constitution carried no such special provision of admission. Additionally, ordinances to admit Frankland (later modified to Franklin), Kentucky, and Vermont to the Union were considered, but none were approved.

text: The United States of America under the Articles

text: The peace treaty left the United States independent and at peace but with an unsettled governmental structure. The Articles envisioned a permanent confederation, but granted to the Congress—the only federal institution—little power to finance itself or to ensure that its resolutions were enforced. There was no president and no national court.[30][31] Although historians generally agree that the Articles were too weak to hold the fast-growing nation together, they do give credit to the settlement of the western issue, as the states voluntarily turned over their lands to national control.[32]

text: By 1783, with the end of the British blockade, the new nation was regaining its prosperity. However, trade opportunities were restricted by the mercantilism of the British and French empires. The ports of the British West Indies were closed to all staple products which were not carried in British ships. France and Spain established similar policies. Simultaneously, new manufacturers faced sharp competition from British products which were suddenly available again. Political unrest in several states and efforts by debtors to use popular government to erase their debts increased the anxiety of the political and economic elites which had led the Revolution. The apparent inability of the Congress to redeem the public obligations (debts) incurred during the war, or to become a forum for productive cooperation among the states to encourage commerce and economic development, only aggravated a gloomy situation. In 1786–87, Shays' Rebellion, an uprising of dissidents in western Massachusetts against the state court system, threatened the stability of state government.[33]

text: The Continental Congress printed paper money which was so depreciated that it ceased to pass as currency, spawning the expression "not worth a continental". Congress could not levy taxes and could only make requisitions upon the States. Less than a million and a half dollars came into the treasury between 1781 and 1784, although the governors had been asked for two million in 1783 alone.[34]

text: When John Adams went to London in 1785 as the first representative of the United States, he found it impossible to secure a treaty for unrestricted commerce. Demands were made for favors and there was no assurance that individual states would agree to a treaty. Adams stated it was necessary for the States to confer the power of passing navigation laws to Congress, or that the States themselves pass retaliatory acts against Great Britain. Congress had already requested and failed to get power over navigation laws. Meanwhile, each State acted individually against Great Britain to little effect. When other New England states closed their ports to British shipping, Connecticut hastened to profit by opening its ports.[35]

text: By 1787 Congress was unable to protect manufacturing and shipping. State legislatures were unable or unwilling to resist attacks upon private contracts and public credit. Land speculators expected no rise in values when the government could not defend its borders nor protect its frontier population.[36]

text: The idea of a convention to revise the Articles of Confederation grew in favor. Alexander Hamilton realized while serving as Washington's top aide that a strong central government was necessary to avoid foreign intervention and allay the frustrations due to an ineffectual Congress. Hamilton led a group of like-minded nationalists, won Washington's endorsement, and convened the Annapolis Convention in 1786 to petition Congress to call a constitutional convention to meet in Philadelphia to remedy the long-term crisis.[37]

text: Signatures

text: The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles for distribution to the states on November 15, 1777. A copy was made for each state and one was kept by the Congress. On November 28, the copies sent to the states for ratification were unsigned, and the cover letter, dated November 17, had only the signatures of Henry Laurens and Charles Thomson, who were the President and Secretary to the Congress.

text: The Articles, however, were unsigned, and the date was blank. Congress began the signing process by examining their copy of the Articles on June 27, 1778. They ordered a final copy prepared (the one in the National Archives), and that delegates should inform the secretary of their authority for ratification.

text: On July 9, 1778, the prepared copy was ready. They dated it, and began to sign. They also requested each of the remaining states to notify its delegation when ratification was completed. On that date, delegates present from New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia and South Carolina signed the Articles to indicate that their states had ratified. New Jersey, Delaware and Maryland could not, since their states had not ratified. North Carolina and Georgia also were unable to sign that day, since their delegations were absent.

text: After the first signing, some delegates signed at the next meeting they attended. For example, John Wentworth of New Hampshire added his name on August 8. John Penn was the first of North Carolina's delegates to arrive (on July 10), and the delegation signed the Articles on July 21, 1778.

text: The other states had to wait until they ratified the Articles and notified their Congressional delegation. Georgia signed on July 24, New Jersey on November 26, and Delaware on February 12, 1779. Maryland refused to ratify the Articles until every state had ceded its western land claims.

text: On February 2, 1781, the much-awaited decision was taken by the Maryland General Assembly in Annapolis.[38] As the last piece of business during the afternoon Session, "among engrossed Bills" was "signed and sealed by Governor Thomas Sim Lee in the Senate Chamber, in the presence of the members of both Houses... an Act to empower the delegates of this state in Congress to subscribe and ratify the articles of confederation" and perpetual union among the states. The Senate then adjourned "to the first Monday in August next." The decision of Maryland to ratify the Articles was reported to the Continental Congress on February 12. The confirmation signing of the Articles by the two Maryland delegates took place in Philadelphia at noon time on March 1, 1781, and was celebrated in the afternoon. With these events, the Articles were entered into force and the United States of America came into being as a sovereign federal state.

text: Congress had debated the Articles for over a year and a half, and the ratification process had taken nearly three and a half years. Many participants in the original debates were no longer delegates, and some of the signers had only recently arrived. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union were signed by a group of men who were never present in the Congress at the same time.

text: Signers

text: The signers and the states they represented were:

text:
Connecticut

Roger Sherman
Samuel Huntington
Oliver Wolcott
Titus Hosmer
Andrew Adams

Delaware

Thomas McKean
John Dickinson
Nicholas Van Dyke

Georgia

John Walton
Edward Telfair
Edward Langworthy

Maryland

John Hanson
Daniel Carroll

Massachusetts Bay

John Hancock
Samuel Adams
Elbridge Gerry
Francis Dana
James Lovell
Samuel Holten

New Hampshire

Josiah Bartlett
John Wentworth Jr.

New Jersey

John Witherspoon
Nathaniel Scudder

New York

James Duane
Francis Lewis
William Duer
Gouverneur Morris

North Carolina

John Penn
Cornelius Harnett
John Williams

Pennsylvania

Robert Morris
Daniel Roberdeau
Jonathan Bayard Smith
William Clingan
Joseph Reed

Rhode Island and Providence Plantations

William Ellery
Henry Marchant
John Collins

South Carolina

Henry Laurens
William Henry Drayton
John Mathews
Richard Hutson
Thomas Heyward Jr.

Virginia

Richard Henry Lee
John Banister
Thomas Adams
John Harvie
Francis Lightfoot Lee

text: Roger Sherman (Connecticut) was the only person to sign all four great state papers of the United States: the Continental Association, the United States Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution.

text: Robert Morris (Pennsylvania) signed three of the great state papers of the United States: the United States Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution.

text: John Dickinson (Delaware), Daniel Carroll (Maryland) and Gouverneur Morris (New York), along with Sherman and Robert Morris, were the only five people to sign both the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution (Gouverneur Morris represented Pennsylvania when signing the Constitution).

text: Presidents of the Congress

text: The following list is of those who led the Congress of the Confederation under the Articles of Confederation as the Presidents of the United States in Congress Assembled. Under the Articles, the president was the presiding officer of Congress, chaired the Committee of the States when Congress was in recess, and performed other administrative functions. He was not, however, an executive in the way the successor President of the United States is a chief executive, since all of the functions he executed were under the direct control of Congress.[39]

text:
President of Congress
Office Start
Office Exit

Samuel Huntington
March 1, 1781
July 9, 1781

Thomas McKean
July 10, 1781
November 4, 1781

John Hanson
November 5, 1781
November 3, 1782

Elias Boudinot
November 4, 1782
November 2, 1783

Thomas Mifflin
November 3, 1783
October 31, 1784

Richard Henry Lee
November 30, 1784
November 6, 1785

John Hancock
November 23, 1785
May 29, 1786

Nathaniel Gorham
June 6, 1786
November 5, 1786

Arthur St. Clair
February 2, 1787
November 4, 1787

Cyrus Griffin
January 22, 1788
November 2, 1788

text: For a full list of Presidents of the Congress Assembled and Presidents under the two Continental Congresses before the Articles, see President of the Continental Congress.

text: Gallery

text: Images of an original draft[clarification needed] of the Articles of Confederation stored at the United States National Archive.

text:
Preamble through Article V, ¶1

Article V, ¶2 through Article VI

Article VII through Article IX, ¶2

Article IX, ¶2 through ¶5

Article IX, ¶5 through Article XIII, ¶2

Article XIII, ¶2 through signatures

text: Revision and replacement

text: On January 21, 1786, the Virginia Legislature, following James Madison's recommendation, invited all the states to send delegates to Annapolis, Maryland to discuss ways to reduce interstate conflict. At what came to be known as the Annapolis Convention, the few state delegates in attendance endorsed a motion that called for all states to meet in Philadelphia in May 1787 to discuss ways to improve the Articles of Confederation in a "Grand Convention." Although the states' representatives to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia were only authorized to amend the Articles, the representatives held secret, closed-door sessions and wrote a new constitution. The new Constitution gave much more power to the central government, but characterization of the result is disputed. The general goal of the authors was to get close to a republic as defined by the philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment, while trying to address the many difficulties of the interstate relationships. Historian Forrest McDonald, using the ideas of James Madison from Federalist 39, describes the change this way:

text: The constitutional reallocation of powers created a new form of government, unprecedented under the sun. Every previous national authority either had been centralized or else had been a confederation of sovereign states. The new American system was neither one nor the other; it was a mixture of both.[40]

text: In May 1786, Charles Pinckney of South Carolina proposed that Congress revise the Articles of Confederation. Recommended changes included granting Congress power over foreign and domestic commerce, and providing means for Congress to collect money from state treasuries. Unanimous approval was necessary to make the alterations, however, and Congress failed to reach a consensus. The weakness of the Articles in establishing an effective unifying government was underscored by the threat of internal conflict both within and between the states, especially after Shays' Rebellion threatened to topple the state government of Massachusetts.

text: Historian Ralph Ketcham comments on the opinions of Patrick Henry, George Mason, and other Anti-Federalists who were not so eager to give up the local autonomy won by the revolution:

text: Antifederalists feared what Patrick Henry termed the "consolidated government" proposed by the new Constitution. They saw in Federalist hopes for commercial growth and international prestige only the lust of ambitious men for a "splendid empire" that, in the time-honored way of empires, would oppress the people with taxes, conscription, and military campaigns. Uncertain that any government over so vast a domain as the United States could be controlled by the people, Antifederalists saw in the enlarged powers of the general government only the familiar threats to the rights and liberties of the people.[41]

text: Historians have given many reasons for the perceived need to replace the articles in 1787. Jillson and Wilson (1994) point to the financial weakness as well as the norms, rules and institutional structures of the Congress, and the propensity to divide along sectional lines.

text: Rakove (1988) identifies several factors that explain the collapse of the Confederation. The lack of compulsory direct taxation power was objectionable to those wanting a strong centralized state or expecting to benefit from such power. It could not collect customs after the war because tariffs were vetoed by Rhode Island. Rakove concludes that their failure to implement national measures "stemmed not from a heady sense of independence but rather from the enormous difficulties that all the states encountered in collecting taxes, mustering men, and gathering supplies from a war-weary populace."[42] The second group of factors Rakove identified derived from the substantive nature of the problems the Continental Congress confronted after 1783, especially the inability to create a strong foreign policy. Finally, the Confederation's lack of coercive power reduced the likelihood for profit to be made by political means, thus potential rulers were uninspired to seek power.

text: When the war ended in 1783, certain special interests had incentives to create a new "merchant state," much like the British state people had rebelled against. In particular, holders of war scrip and land speculators wanted a central government to pay off scrip at face value and to legalize western land holdings with disputed claims. Also, manufacturers wanted a high tariff as a barrier to foreign goods, but competition among states made this impossible without a central government.[43]

text: Legitimacy of closing down

text: Political scientist David C. Hendrickson writes that two prominent political leaders in the Confederation, John Jay of New York and Thomas Burke of North Carolina believed that "the authority of the congress rested on the prior acts of the several states, to which the states gave their voluntary consent, and until those obligations were fulfilled, neither nullification of the authority of congress, exercising its due powers, nor secession from the compact itself was consistent with the terms of their original pledges."[44]

text: According to Article XIII of the Confederation, any alteration had to be approved unanimously:

text: [T]he Articles of this Confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and the Union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every State.

text: On the other hand, Article VII of the proposed Constitution stated that it would become effective after ratification by a mere nine states, without unanimity:

text: The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same.

text: The apparent tension between these two provisions was addressed at the time, and remains a topic of scholarly discussion. In 1788, James Madison remarked (in Federalist No. 40) that the issue had become moot: "As this objection...has been in a manner waived by those who have criticised the powers of the convention, I dismiss it without further observation." Nevertheless, it is an interesting historical and legal question whether opponents of the Constitution could have plausibly attacked the Constitution on that ground. At the time, there were state legislators who argued that the Constitution was not an alteration of the Articles of Confederation, but rather would be a complete replacement so the unanimity rule did not apply.[45] Moreover, the Confederation had proven woefully inadequate and therefore was supposedly no longer binding.[45]

text: Modern scholars such as Francisco Forrest Martin agree that the Articles of Confederation had lost its binding force because many states had violated it, and thus "other states-parties did not have to comply with the Articles' unanimous consent rule".[46] In contrast, law professor Akhil Amar suggests that there may not have really been any conflict between the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution on this point; Article VI of the Confederation specifically allowed side deals among states, and the Constitution could be viewed as a side deal until all states ratified it.[47]

text: Final months

text: On July 3, 1788, the Congress received New Hampshire's all-important ninth ratification of the proposed Constitution, thus, according to its terms, establishing it as the new framework of governance for the ratifying states. The following day delegates considered a bill to admit Kentucky into the Union as a sovereign state. The discussion ended with Congress making the determination that, in light of this development, it would be "unadvisable" to admit Kentucky into the Union, as it could do so "under the Articles of Confederation" only, but not "under the Constitution".[48]

text: By the end of July 1788, 11 of the 13 states had ratified the new Constitution. Congress continued to convene under the Articles with a quorum until October.[49][50] On Saturday, September 13, 1788, the Confederation Congress voted the resolve to implement the new Constitution, and on Monday, September 15 published an announcement that the new Constitution had been ratified by the necessary nine states, set the first Wednesday in February 1789 for the presidential electors to meet and select a new president, and set the first Wednesday of March 1789 as the day the new government would take over and the government under the Articles of Confederation would come to an end.[51][52] On that same September 13, it determined that New York would remain the national capital.[51]


document_title: You Make It Easy

question_text: who is in jason aldean's you make it easy video

question_tokens: who is in jason aldean 's you make it easy video

root

text: You Make It Easy

text: Content[edit]

text: Brian Kelley and Tyler Hubbard, who comprise the duo Florida Georgia Line, wrote the song with Morgan Wallen and Jordan Schmidt. It is the fourth song co-written by the duo that Aldean has recorded, after the singles "Burnin' It Down" and "Lights Come On", and the album cut "Black Tears".[1]

tag: p

text: According to Wallen, Hubbard was inspired by his wife, Hayley, and the relationship that the two have despite Hubbard being constantly on the road as a musician. Wallen also stated that he had most of the song written starting with the hook, when Schmidt added the "groove". The song features a 6/8 time signature which Cillea Houghton of Taste of Country compared to Keith Urban's 2017 hit "Blue Ain't Your Color". In it, Aldean sings of loving his wife, and how she "make[s] it easy" to love her in return.[2]

text: Commercial performance[edit]

text: On the chart dated February 3, 2018, "You Make It Easy" debuted at number 26 on the Country Airplay chart.[3] It has since reached number 14.[4] The next week, it debuted at number 28 on the Hot 100 chart due to strength of digital sales.[5]

text: "You Make It Easy" sold 77,000 copies in its first week of sales. It was the top-selling country song of the week.[6] It has sold 493,000 copies in the United States as of July 2018.[7]

text: Music video[edit]

text: The song features a three-part music video spanning 15 minutes, directed by Shaun Silva.[8] In it, actor Luke Benward plays a man who is injured in a car accident. Silva said that he was inspired by the video for "What Hurts the Most" by Rascal Flatts, which he also directed.[1]

text: Charts[edit]

text:
Chart (2018)

Peakposition

Canada (Canadian Hot 100)[9]

63

Canada Country (Billboard)[10]

1

US Billboard Hot 100[11]

28

US Country Airplay (Billboard)[12]

1

US Hot Country Songs (Billboard)[13]

2

tag: table

text: Certifications[edit]

text:
Region

Certification
Certified units/Sales

United States (RIAA)[14]

Platinum

493,000[7]

sales+streaming figures based on certification alone


document_title: Kentucky River

question_text: where does the kentucky river meet the ohio river

text: Kentucky River

text: Description[edit]

text: The Kentucky River is formed in eastern Kentucky at Beattyville, in Lee County, by the confluence of the North, Middle and South Forks at about 670 feet (200 m) elevation, and flows generally northwest, in a highly meandering course through the mountains, through the Daniel Boone National Forest, then past Irvine and Boonesborough, then southwest, passing south of Lexington, then north through Frankfort. It joins the Ohio at Carrollton.

text: Approximately 15 miles (24 km) southwest of Boonesborough it is joined by the Red River. Approximately 20 miles (32 km) southwest of Boonesborough it is joined by Silver Creek. At High Bridge, it is joined by the Dix River. At Frankfort, it is joined by Benson Creek. Approximately 10 miles (16 km) north of Frankfort, it is joined by Elkhorn Creek.

text: Between Clays Ferry in Madison County and Frankfort, the river passes through the Kentucky River Palisades, a series of dramatic steep gorges approximately 100 miles (160 km) in length.

text: It continues on until it flows into the Ohio River at Carrollton in Carroll County.

text: Forks[edit]

text: North Fork[edit]

text: The North Fork Kentucky River is approximately 168 miles (270 km) long.[1] It rises on the western side of Pine Mountain, in the Appalachians of extreme southeastern Kentucky, in eastern Letcher County near the Virginia state line in Payne Gap, near the intersection of US 23 and US 119. It flows generally northwest, in a winding course through the mountainous Cumberland Plateau, past Whitesburg, Hazard and Jackson. It receives Rockhouse Creek at Blackey near its source. Approximately 8 miles (13 km) southeast of Hazard, it receives the Carr Fork. It receives Troublesome Creek at Haddix, southeast of Jackson. Three miles upstream from its confluence with the South Fork, it receives the Middle Fork. It joins the South Fork to form the Kentucky at Beattyville.

text: Middle Fork[edit]

text: The Middle Fork Kentucky River is a tributary of the North Fork Kentucky River, approximately 105 miles (169 km) long,[1] in southeastern Kentucky. It rises in the Appalachian Mountains in southernmost Leslie County, approximately 16 miles (26 km) from the Virginia state line, and flows north through the Cumberland Plateau past Hyden. At Buckhorn, it is impounded to form the Buckhorn Lake reservoir. North of the reservoir it flows generally northwest and joins the North Fork in Lee County, approximately 5 miles (8 km) east of the confluence of the North and South forks at Beattyville.

text: South Fork[edit]

text: The South Fork Kentucky River is approximately 45 miles (72 km) long.[1] It is formed in Clay County, at the town of Oneida in the Daniel Boone National Forest, approximately 10 miles (16 km) northeast of Manchester, by the confluence of Goose Creek and the Red Bird River. It flows generally north in a highly meandering course through the mountainous Cumberland Plateau region. It joins the North Fork to form the Kentucky at Beattyville.

text: Recreation[edit]

text: The largest goldeye ever taken in the state of Kentucky (2 pounds .64 ounces (0.925 kg)) was caught in the Kentucky River.[2]


document_title: Cranial nerves

question_text: where does cranial nerve 8 exit the skull

text: Cranial nerves

text: Anatomy[edit]

text: Most typically, humans are considered to have twelve pairs of cranial nerves (I–XII). They are: the olfactory nerve (I), the optic nerve (II), oculomotor nerve (III), trochlear nerve (IV), trigeminal nerve (V), abducens nerve (VI), facial nerve (VII), vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII), glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), vagus nerve (X), accessory nerve (XI), and hypoglossal nerve (XII). (There may be a thirteenth cranial nerve, the terminal nerve (nerve O or N), which is very small and may or may not be functional in humans[1][3])

text: Terminology[edit]

text: Cranial nerves are generally named according to their structure or function. For example, the olfactory nerve (I) supplies smell, and the facial nerve (VII) supplies motor innervation to the face. Because Latin was the lingua franca (common language) of the study of anatomy when the nerves were first documented, recorded, and discussed, many nerves maintain Latin or Greek names, including the trochlear nerve (IV), named according to its structure, as it supplies a muscle that attaches to a pulley (Greek: trochlea). The trigeminal nerve (V) is named in accordance with its three components (Latin: trigeminus meaning triplets),[5] and the vagus nerve (X) is named for its wandering course (Latin: vagus).[6]

text: Cranial nerves are numbered based on their rostral-caudal (front-back) position,[1] when viewing the brain. If the brain is carefully removed from the skull the nerves are typically visible in their numeric order, with the exception of the last, CN XII, which appears to emerge rostrally to (above) CN XI.[7]

text: Cranial nerves have paths within and outside the skull. The paths within the skull are called "intracranial" and the paths outside the skull are called "extracranial". There are many holes in the skull called "foramina" by which the nerves can exit the skull. All cranial nerves are paired, which means that they occur on both the right and left sides of the body. The muscle, skin, or additional function supplied by a nerve on the same side of the body as the side it originates from, is referred to an ipsilateral function. If the function is on the opposite side to the origin of the nerve, this is known as a contralateral function.[8]

text: Intracranial course[edit]

text: Nuclei[edit]

text: The cell bodies of many of the neurons of most of the cranial nerves are contained in one or more nuclei in the brainstem. These nuclei are important relative to cranial nerve dysfunction because damage to these nuclei such as from a stroke or trauma can mimic damage to one or more branches of a cranial nerve. In terms of specific cranial nerve nuclei, the midbrain of the brainstem has the nuclei of the oculomotor nerve (III) and trochlear nerve (IV); the pons has the nuclei of the trigeminal nerve (V), abducens nerve (VI), facial nerve (VII) and vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII); and the medulla has the nuclei of the glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), vagus nerve (X), accessory nerve (XI) and hypoglossal nerve (XII). The fibers of these cranial nerves exit the brainstem from these nuclei.[1]

text: Ganglia[edit]

text: Some of the cranial nerves have sensory or parasympathetic ganglia (collections of cell bodies) of neurons, which are located outside the brain (but can be inside or outside the skull).[1]

text: The sensory ganglia are directly correspondent to dorsal root ganglia of spinal nerves and are known as cranial sensory ganglia.[7] Sensory ganglia exist for nerves with sensory function: V, VII, VIII, IX, X.[3] There are also parasympathetic ganglia, which are part of the autonomic nervous system for cranial nerves III, VII, IX and X.

text:
The trigeminal ganglia of the trigeminal nerve (V) occupies a space in the dura mater called Trigeminal cave. This ganglion contains the cell bodies of the sensory fibers of the three branches of the trigeminal nerve.
The geniculate ganglion of the facial nerve (VII) is found just after the nerve enters the facial canal; it contains the cell bodies of the sensory fibers of the facial nerve.
Superior and inferior ganglia of the glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), are located just after the nerve passes through the jugular foramen and contain the cell bodies of the sensory fibers of this nerve.
inferior ganglion of vagus nerve (nodose ganglion) is located below the jugular foramen and contains the cell bodies of the sensory fibers of the vagus nerve (X).

tag: ul

text: Exiting the skull and extracranial course[edit]

text:
Exits of cranial nerves from the skull.[1][9]

Location
Nerve

cribriform plate
Olfactory nerve (I)

optic foramen
Optic nerve (II)

superior orbital fissure
Oculomotor (III)
Trochlear (IV)
Abducens (VI)
Trigeminal V1
(ophthalmic)

Foramen rotundum
Trigeminal V2
(maxillary)

Foramen ovale
Trigeminal V3
(mandibular)

internal auditory canal
Facial (VII)
Vestibulocochlear (VIII)

jugular foramen
Glossopharyngeal (IX)
Vagus (X)
Accessory (XI)

hypoglossal canal
Hypoglossal (XII)

text: After emerging from the brain, the cranial nerves travel within the skull, and some must leave this bony compartment in order to reach their destinations. Often the nerves pass through holes in the skull, called foramina, as they travel to their destinations. Other nerves pass through bony canals, longer pathways enclosed by bone. These foramina and canals may contain more than one cranial nerve, and may also contain blood vessels.[9]

text:
The olfactory nerve (I), actually composed of many small separate nerve fibers, passes through perforations in the cribiform plate part of the ethmoid bone. These fibers terminate in the upper part of the nasal cavity and function to convey impulses containing information about odors to the brain.
The optic nerve (II) passes through the optic foramen in the sphenoid bone as it travels to the eye. It conveys visual information to the brain.
The oculomotor nerve (III), trochlear nerve (IV), abducens nerve (VI) and the ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve (V1) travel through the cavernous sinus into the superior orbital fissure, passing out of the skull into the orbit. These nerves control the small muscles that move the eye and also provide sensory innervation to the eye and orbit.
The maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve (V2) passes through foramen rotundum in the sphenoid bone to supply the skin of the middle of the face.
The mandibular division of the trigeminal nerve (V3) passes through foramen ovale of the sphenoid bone to supply the lower face with sensory innervation. This nerve also sends branches to almost all of the muscles that control chewing.
The facial nerve (VII) and vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) both enter the internal auditory canal in the temporal bone. The facial nerve then reaches the side of the face by using the stylomastoid foramen, also in the temporal bone. Its fibers then spread out to reach and control all of the muscles of facial expression. The vestibulocochlear nerve reaches the organs that control balance and hearing in the temporal bone, and therefore does not reach the external surface of the skull.
The glossopharyngeal (IX), vagus (X) and accessory nerve (XI) all leave the skull via the jugular foramen to enter the neck. The glossopharyngeal nerve provides innervation to the upper throat and the back of the tongue, the vagus provides innervation to the muscles in the voicebox, and continues downward to supply parasympathetic innervation to the chest and abdomen. The accessory nerve controls the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles in the neck and shoulder.
The hypoglossal nerve (XII) exits the skull using the hypoglossal canal in the occipital bone and reaches the tongue to control almost all of the muscles involved in movements of this organ.[1]

text: Function[edit]

text: The cranial nerves provide motor and sensory innervation mainly to the structures within the head and neck. The sensory innervation includes both "general" sensation such as temperature and touch, and "special" innervation such as taste, vision, smell, balance and hearing[1][10]

text: The vagus nerve (X) provides sensory and autonomic (parasympathetic) motor innervation to structures in the neck and also to most of the organs in the chest and abdomen.[1][3]

text: Smell (I)[edit]

text: The olfactory nerve (I) conveys the sense of smell.

text: Damage to the olfactory nerve (I) can cause an inability to smell (anosmia), a distortion in the sense of smell (parosmia), or a distortion or lack of taste. If there is suspicion of a change in the sense of smell, each nostril is tested with substances of known odors such as coffee or soap. Intensely smelling substances, for example ammonia, may lead to the activation of pain receptors (nociceptors) of the trigeminal nerve that are located in the nasal cavity and this can confound olfactory testing.[1][11]

text: Vision (II)[edit]

text: The optic nerve (II) transmits visual information.[3][10]

text: Damage to the optic nerve (II) affects specific aspects of vision that depend on the location of the lesion. A person may not be able to see objects on their left or right sides (homonymous hemianopsia), or may have difficulty seeing objects on their outer visual fields (bitemporal hemianopsia) if the optic chiasm is involved.[12] Vision may be tested by examining the visual field, or by examining the retina with an ophthalmoscope, using a process known as funduscopy. Visual field testing may be used to pin-point structural lesions in the optic nerve, or further along the visual pathways.[11]

text: Eye movement (III, IV, VI)[edit]

text: The oculomotor nerve (III), trochlear nerve (IV) and abducens nerve (VI) coordinate eye movement.

text: Damage to nerves III, IV, or VI may affect the movement of the eyeball (globe). Both or one eye may be affected; in either case double vision (diplopia) will likely occur because the movements of the eyes are no longer synchronized. Nerves III, IV and VI are tested by observing how the eye follows an object in different directions. This object may be a finger or a pin, and may be moved at different directions to test for pursuit velocity.[11] If the eyes do not work together, the most likely cause is damage to a specific cranial nerve or its nuclei.[11]

text: Damage to the oculomotor nerve (III) can cause double vision (diplopia) and inability to coordinate the movements of both eyes (strabismus), also eyelid drooping (ptosis) and pupil dilation (mydriasis).[12][12] Lesions may also lead to inability to open the eye due to paralysis of the levator palpebrae muscle. Individuals suffering from a lesion to the oculomotor nerve may compensate by tilting their heads to alleviate symptoms due to paralysis of one or more of the eye muscles it controls.[11]

text: Damage to the trochlear nerve (IV) can also cause diplopia with the eye adducted and elevated.[12] The result will be an eye which can not move downwards properly (especially downwards when in an inward position). This is due to impairment in the superior oblique muscle, which is innervated by the trochlear nerve.[11]

text: Damage to the abducens nerve (VI) can also result in diplopia.[12] This is due to impairment in the lateral rectus muscle, which is innervated by the abducens nerve.[11]

text: Trigeminal nerve (V)[edit]

text: The trigeminal nerve (V) comprises three distinct parts: The Ophthalmic (V1), the Maxillary (V2), and the Mandibular (V3) nerves. Combined, these nerves provide sensation to the skin of the face and also controls the muscles of mastication (chewing).[1] Conditions affecting the trigeminal nerve (V) include trigeminal neuralgia,[1] cluster headache,[13] and trigeminal zoster.[1] Trigeminal neuralgia occurs later in life, from middle age onwards, most often after age 60, and is a condition typically associated with very strong pain distributed over the area innervated by the maxillary or mandibular nerve divisions of the trigeminal nerve (V2 and V3).[14]

text: Facial expression (VII)[edit]

text: Lesions of the facial nerve (VII) may manifest as facial palsy. This is where a person is unable to move the muscles on one or both sides of their face. A very common and generally temporary facial palsy is known as Bell's palsy. Bell's Palsy is the result of an idiopathic (unknown cause), unilateral lower motor neuron lesion of the facial nerve and is characterized by an inability to move the ipsilateral muscles of facial expression, including elevation of the eyebrow and furrowing of the forehead. Patients with Bell's palsy often have a drooping mouth on the affected side and often have trouble chewing because the buccinator muscle is affected.[1] Bell's palsy occurs very rarely, affecting around 40,000 Americans annually. There are studies in mice and humans suggesting members of the family Herpesviridae are capable of producing Bell's palsy. Facial paralysis may be caused by other conditions including stroke, and similar conditions to Bell's Palsy are occasionally misdiagnosed as Bell's Palsy.[15] Bell's Palsy is a temporary condition usually lasting 2-6 months, but can have life-changing effects and can reoccur. Strokes typically also affect the seventh cranial nerve by cutting off blood supply to nerves in the brain that signal this nerve and so can present with similar symptoms.

text: Hearing and balance (VIII)[edit]

text: The vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) splits into the vestibular and cochlear nerve. The vestibular part is responsible for innervating the vestibules and semicircular canal of the inner ear; this structure transmits information about balance, and is an important component of the vestibuloocular reflex, which keeps the head stable and allows the eyes to track moving objects. The cochlear nerve transmits information from the cochlea, allowing sound to be heard.[3]

text: When damaged, the vestibular nerve may give rise to the sensation of spinning and dizziness. Function of the vestibular nerve may be tested by putting cold and warm water in the ears and watching eye movements caloric stimulation.[1][11] Damage to the vestibulocochlear nerve can also present as repetitive and involuntary eye movements (nystagmus), particularly when looking in a horizontal plane.[11] Damage to the cochlear nerve will cause partial or complete deafness in the affected ear.[11]

text: Oral sensation, taste, and salivation (IX)[edit]

text: The glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) innervates the stylopharyngeus muscle and provides sensory innervation to the oropharynx and back of the tongue.[1][16] The glossopharyngeal nerve also provides parasympathetic innervation to the parotid gland.[1] Unilateral absence of a gag reflex suggests a lesion of the glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), and perhaps the vagus nerve (X).[17]

text: Vagus nerve (X)[edit]

text: Loss of function of the vagus nerve (X) will lead to a loss of parasympathetic innervation to a very large number of structures. Major effects of damage to the vagus nerve may include a rise in blood pressure and heart rate. Isolated dysfunction of only the vagus nerve is rare, but can be diagnosed by a hoarse voice, due to dysfunction of one of its branches, the recurrent laryngeal nerve.[1]

text: Damage to this nerve may result in difficulties swallowing.[11]

text: Shoulder elevation and head-turning (XI)[edit]

text: Damage to the accessory nerve (XI) will lead to ipsilateral weakness in the trapezius muscle. This can be tested by asking the subject to raise their shoulders or shrug, upon which the shoulder blade (scapula) will protrude into a winged position.[1] Additionally, if the nerve is damaged, weakness or an inability to elevate the scapula may be present because the levator scapulae muscle is now solely able to provide this function.[14] Depending on the location of the lesion there may also be weakness present in the sternocleidomastoid muscle, which acts to turn the head so that the face points to the opposite side.[1]

text: Tongue movement (XII)[edit]

text: The hypoglossal nerve (XII) is unique in that it is innervated from the motor cortices of both hemispheres of the brain. Damage to the nerve at lower motor neuron level may lead to fasciculations or atrophy of the muscles of the tongue. The fasciculations of the tongue are sometimes said to look like a "bag of worms". Upper motor neuron damage will not lead to atrophy or fasciculations, but only weakness of the innervated muscles.[11]

text: When the nerve is damaged, it will lead to weakness of tongue movement on one side. When damaged and extended, the tongue will move towards the weaker or damaged side, as shown in the image.[11]

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Examination[edit]

text: Physicians, neurologists, and other medical professionals may conduct a cranial nerve examination as part of a neurological examination to examine the functionality of the cranial nerves. This is a highly formalized series of tests that assess the status of each nerve.[19] A cranial nerve exam begins with observation of the patient because some cranial nerve lesions may affect the symmetry of the eyes or face. The visual fields are tested for nerve lesions or nystagmus via an analysis of specific eye movements. The sensation of the face is tested, and patients are asked to perform different facial movements, such as puffing out of the cheeks. Hearing is checked by voice and tuning forks. The position of the patient's uvula is examined because asymmetry in the position could indicate a lesion of the glossopharyngeal nerve. After the ability of the patient to use their shoulder to assess the accessory nerve (XI), and the patient's tongue function is assessed by observing various tongue movements.[1][19]

text: Damage[edit]

text: Compression[edit]

text: Nerves may be compressed because of increased intracranial pressure, a mass effect of an intracerebral haemorrhage, or tumour that presses against the nerves and interferes with the transmission of impulses along the nerve.[20] A loss of functionality of a single cranial nerve may sometimes be the first symptom of an intracranial or skull base cancer.[21]

text: An increase in intracranial pressure may lead to impairment of the optic nerves (II) due to compression of the surrounding veins and capillaries, causing swelling of the eyeball (papilloedema).[22] A cancer, such as an optic glioma, may also impact the optic nerve (II). A pituitary tumour may compress the optic tracts or the optic chiasm of the optic nerve (II), leading to visual field loss. A pituitary tumour may also extend into the cavernous sinus, compressing the oculuomotor nerve (III), trochlear nerve (IV) and abducens nerve (VI), leading to double-vision and strabismus. These nerves may also be affected by herniation of the temporal lobes of the brain through the falx cerebri.[20]

text: The cause of trigeminal neuralgia, in which one side of the face is exquisitely painful, is thought to be compression of the nerve by an artery as the nerve emerges from the brain stem.[20] An acoustic neuroma, particularly at the junction between the pons and medulla, may compress the facial nerve (VII) and vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII), leading to hearing and sensory loss on the affected side.[20][23]

text: Stroke[edit]

text: Occlusion of blood vessels that supply the nerves or their nuclei, an ischemic stroke, may cause specific signs and symptoms that can localise where the occlusion occurred. A clot in a blood vessel draining the cavernous sinus (cavernous sinus thrombosis) affects the oculomotor (III), trochlear (IV), opthalamic branch of the trigeminal nerve (V1) and the abducens nerve (VI).[23]

text: Inflammation[edit]

text: Inflammation resulting from infection may impair the function of any of the cranial nerves. Inflammation of the facial nerve (VII) may result in Bell's palsy.[24]

text: Multiple sclerosis, an inflammatory process that may produce a loss of the myelin sheathes which surround the cranial nerves, may cause a variety of shifting symptoms affecting multiple cranial nerves.[24]

text: Other[edit]

text: Trauma to the skull, disease of bone such as Paget's disease, and injury to nerves during neurosurgery (such as tumor removal) are other possible causes of cranial nerve damage.[23]

text: History[edit]

text: The Graeco-Roman anatomist Galen (AD 129–210) named seven pairs of cranial nerves.[25] Much later, in 1664, English anatomist Sir Thomas Willis suggested that there were actually 9 pairs of nerves. Finally, in 1778, German anatomist Samuel Soemmering named the 12 pairs of nerves that are generally accepted today.[25] However, because many of the nerves emerge from the brain stem as rootlets, there is continual debate as to how many nerves there actually are, and how they should be grouped.[25] There is reason to consider both the olfactory (I) and Optic (II) nerves to be brain tracts, rather than cranial nerves.[25] Further, the very small terminal nerve (nerve N or O) exists in humans but may not be functional. In other animals, it appears to be important to sexual receptivity based on perceptions of phermones[1][26]

text: Other animals[edit]

text: Cranial nerves are also present in other vertebrates. Other amniotes (non-amphibian tetrapods) have cranial nerves similar to those of humans. In anamniotes (fishes and amphibians), the accessory nerve (XI) and hypoglossal nerve (XII) do not exist, with the accessory nerve (XI) being an integral part of the vagus nerve (X); the hypoglossal nerve (XII) is represented by a variable number of spinal nerves emerging from vertebral segments fused into the occiput. These two nerves only became discrete nerves in the ancestors of amniotes (non-amphibian tetrapods).[27]

text:
Diagrammatic view of the cranial nerves of the horse.

Ventral view of the sheep's brain. The exits of the various cranial nerves are marked with red.


document_title: List of first overall NBA draft picks

question_text: who went number one in the nba draft

question_tokens: who went number one in the nba draft

text: List of first overall NBA draft picks

text: Key[edit]

text:
^
Denotes players who have been selected to the All-Star Game or All-NBA Team

^*
Denotes Hall of Famers

PPG
Points per game[a]

APG
Assists per game[a]

RPG
Rebounds per game[a]

Player
(in italic text)
Rookie of the Year

text: List of first overall picks[edit]

text:
Draft
Selected by
Player
Nationality
Position
College/high school/former club
NBA rookie statistics
Ref.

PPG
RPG
APG

1947
Pittsburgh Ironmen
McNeely, CliftonClifton McNeely[b]
 USA
5000000000000000000♠—
Texas Wesleyan
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
[b]

1948
Providence Steamrollers
Tonkovich, AndyAndy Tonkovich
 USA
guaa !Guard/Forward
Marshall
7000260000000000000♠2.6
5000000000000000000♠—
6999600000000000000♠0.6
[9]

1949
Providence Steamrollers
Shannon, HowieHowie Shannon[c]
 USA
Center
Kansas State
7001134000000000000♠13.4
5000000000000000000♠—
7000230000000099999♠2.3
[11]

1950
Boston Celtics
Share, CharlieCharlie Share[d]
 USA
Center
Bowling Green
7000390000000000000♠3.9
7000530000000000000♠5.3
7000100000000000000♠1.0
[12]

1951
Baltimore Bullets
Melchiorre, GeneGene Melchiorre[e]
 USA
Guard
Bradley
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
[e]

1952
Milwaukee Hawks
Workman, MarkMark Workman[f]
 USA
Center
West Virginia
7000510000000099999♠5.1
7000300000000000000♠3.0
6999600000000000000♠0.6
[17]

1953
Baltimore Bullets
Felix, RayRay Felix^[g]
 USA
guaa !Guard/Forward
Long Island
7001176000000000000♠17.6
7001133000000000000♠13.3
7000110000000000000♠1.1
[19]

1954
Baltimore Bullets
Selvy, FrankFrank Selvy^
 USA
foa !Forward/Center
Furman
7001190000000000000♠19.0
7000550000000000000♠5.5
7000350000000000000♠3.5
[20]

1955
Milwaukee Hawks
Ricketts, DickDick Ricketts[h]
 USA
guaa !Guard/Forward
Duquesne
7000890000000000000♠8.9
7000720000000000000♠7.2
7000300000000000000♠3.0
[22]

1956
Rochester Royals
Green, SihugoSihugo Green[i]
 USA
guaa !Guard/Forward
Duquesne
7001115000000000000♠11.5
7000520000000000000♠5.2
7000360000000000000♠3.6
[24]

1957
Cincinnati Royals
Hundley, RodRod Hundley^
 USA
Guard
West Virginia
7000700000000000000♠7.0
7000290000000000000♠2.9
7000190000000000000♠1.9
[25]

1958
Minneapolis Lakers
Baylor, ElginElgin Baylor^*[j]
 USA
Forward
Seattle
7001249000000000000♠24.9
7001150000000000000♠15.0
7000410009999999999♠4.1
[27]

1959
Cincinnati Royals
Boozer, BobBob Boozer^[k]
 USA
Forward
Kansas State
7000840000000000000♠8.4
7000620000000000000♠6.2
7000140000000099999♠1.4
[29]

1960
Cincinnati Royals
Robertson, OscarOscar Robertson^*[l]
 USA
guaa !Guard/Forward
Cincinnati
7001305000000000000♠30.5
7001101000000000000♠10.1
7000970000000099999♠9.7
[32]

1961
Chicago Packers
Bellamy, WaltWalt Bellamy^*
 USA
Center
Indiana
7001316000000000000♠31.6
7001190000000000000♠19.0
7000270000000000000♠2.7
[33]

1962
Chicago Zephyrs
McGill, BillBill McGill[m]
 USA
foa !Forward/Center
Utah
7000740000000000000♠7.4
7000270000000000000♠2.7
6999600000000000000♠0.6
[35]

1963
New York Knicks
Heyman, ArtArt Heyman[n]
 USA
Forward/Guard
Duke
7001154000000000000♠15.4
7000400000000000000♠4.0
7000340000000000000♠3.4
[37]

1964
New York Knicks
Barnes, JimJim Barnes[o]
 USA
Center/Forward
Texas Western
7001155000000000000♠15.5
7000970000000099999♠9.7
7000120000000000000♠1.2
[39]

1965
San Francisco Warriors
Hetzel, FredFred Hetzel[p]
 USA
foa !Forward/Center
Davidson
7000680000000000000♠6.8
7000520000000000000♠5.2
6999500000000000000♠0.5
[41]

1966
New York Knicks
Russell, CazzieCazzie Russell^
 USA
Forward/Guard
Michigan
7001113000000000000♠11.3
7000330000000000000♠3.3
7000240000000000000♠2.4
[42]

1967
Detroit Pistons
Walker, JimmyJimmy Walker^
 USA
Guard
Providence
7000880000000000000♠8.8
7000170000000000000♠1.7
7000280000000099999♠2.8
[43]

1968
San Diego Rockets
Hayes, ElvinElvin Hayes^*
 USA
Center/Forward
Houston
7001284000000000000♠28.4
7001171000000000000♠17.1
7000140000000099999♠1.4
[44]

1969
Milwaukee Bucks
Alcindor, LewLew Alcindor^*[q]
 USA
Center
UCLA
7001288000000000000♠28.8
7001145000000000000♠14.5
7000410009999999999♠4.1
[46]

1970
Detroit Pistons
Lanier, BobBob Lanier^*
 USA
Center
St. Bonaventure
7001156000000000000♠15.6
7000810000000000000♠8.1
7000180000000000000♠1.8
[47]

1971
Cleveland Cavaliers
Carr, AustinAustin Carr^
 USA
Guard
Notre Dame
7001212000000000000♠21.2
7000350000000000000♠3.5
7000340000000000000♠3.4
[48]

1972
Portland Trail Blazers
Martin, LaRueLaRue Martin
 USA
Center
Loyola (Illinois)
7000440000000000000♠4.4
7000460000000099999♠4.6
6999500000000000000♠0.5
[49]

1973
Philadelphia 76ers
Collins, DougDoug Collins^
 USA
guaa !Guard/Forward
Illinois State
7000800000000000000♠8.0
7000180000000000000♠1.8
7000160000000000000♠1.6
[50]

1974
Portland Trail Blazers
Walton, BillBill Walton^*
 USA
Center
UCLA
7001128000000000000♠12.8
7001126000000000000♠12.6
7000480000000000000♠4.8
[51]

1975
Atlanta Hawks
Thompson, DavidDavid Thompson^*[r]
 USA
Forward/Guard
NC State
7001260000000000000♠26.0
7000630000000000000♠6.3
7000370000000000000♠3.7
[52]

1976
Houston Rockets
Lucas, JohnJohn Lucas
 USA
Guard
Maryland
7001111000000000000♠11.1
7000270000000000000♠2.7
7000560000000099999♠5.6
[53]

1977
Milwaukee Bucks
Benson, KentKent Benson
 USA
Center
Indiana
7000770000000000000♠7.7
7000430000000000000♠4.3
7000140000000099999♠1.4
[54]

1978
Portland Trail Blazers
Thompson, MychalMychal Thompson
 BHS
foa !Forward/Center
Minnesota
7001147000000000000♠14.7
7000830000000000000♠8.3
7000240000000000000♠2.4
[55]

1979
Los Angeles Lakers
Johnson, MagicMagic Johnson^*
 USA
guaa !Guard/Forward
Michigan State
7001180000000000000♠18.0
7000770000000000000♠7.7
7000730000000000000♠7.3
[56]

1980
Golden State Warriors
Carroll, Joe BarryJoe Barry Carroll^
 USA
Center
Purdue
7001189009999900000♠18.9
7000930000000000000♠9.3
7000140000000099999♠1.4
[57]

1981
Dallas Mavericks
Aguirre, MarkMark Aguirre^
 USA
Forward
DePaul
7001187000000000000♠18.7
7000490000000000000♠4.9
7000320000000000000♠3.2
[58]

1982
Los Angeles Lakers
Worthy, JamesJames Worthy^*
 USA
Forward
North Carolina
7001134000000000000♠13.4
7000520000000000000♠5.2
7000170000000000000♠1.7
[59]

1983
Houston Rockets
Sampson, RalphRalph Sampson^*
 USA
Center
Virginia
7001210000000000000♠21.0
7001111000000000000♠11.1
7000200000000000000♠2.0
[60]

1984
Houston Rockets
Olajuwon, HakeemHakeem Olajuwon^*[s]
 NGA[s]
Center
Houston
7001206000000000000♠20.6
7001119000000000000♠11.9
7000140000000099999♠1.4
[63]

1985
New York Knicks
Ewing, PatrickPatrick Ewing^*
 USA[t]
Center
Georgetown
7001200000000000000♠20.0
7000900000000000000♠9.0
7000200000000000000♠2.0
[66]

1986
Cleveland Cavaliers
Daugherty, BradBrad Daugherty^
 USA
Center
North Carolina
7001157000000000000♠15.7
7000810000000000000♠8.1
7000380000000000000♠3.8
[67]

1987
San Antonio Spurs
Robinson, DavidDavid Robinson^*[u]
 USA
Center
Navy
7001243000000000000♠24.3
7001120000000000000♠12.0
7000200000000000000♠2.0
[69]

1988
Los Angeles Clippers
Manning, DannyDanny Manning^
 USA
Forward
Kansas
7001167000000000000♠16.7
7000660000000000000♠6.6
7000310000000000000♠3.1
[70]

1989
Sacramento Kings
Ellison, PervisPervis Ellison
 USA
Center
Louisville
7000800000000000000♠8.0
7000580000000000000♠5.8
7000190000000000000♠1.9
[71]

1990
New Jersey Nets
Coleman, DerrickDerrick Coleman^
 USA
foa !Forward/Center
Syracuse
7001184009999900000♠18.4
7001103000000000000♠10.3
7000220000000000000♠2.2
[72]

1991
Charlotte Hornets
Johnson, LarryLarry Johnson^
 USA
Forward
UNLV
7001192000000000000♠19.2
7001110000000000000♠11.0
7000360000000000000♠3.6
[73]

1992
Orlando Magic
Oneal, ShaquilleShaquille O'Neal^*
 USA
Center
LSU
7001234000000000000♠23.4
7001139000000000000♠13.9
7000190000000000000♠1.9
[74]

1993
Orlando Magic
Webber, ChrisChris Webber^
 USA
Forward
Michigan
7001175000000000000♠17.5
7000910000000000000♠9.1
7000360000000000000♠3.6
[75]

1994
Milwaukee Bucks
Robinson, GlennGlenn Robinson^
 USA
Forward
Purdue
7001219000000000000♠21.9
7000640000000000000♠6.4
7000250000000000000♠2.5
[76]

1995
Golden State Warriors
Smith, JoeJoe Smith
 USA
Forward
Maryland
7001153000000000000♠15.3
7000870000000099999♠8.7
7000100000000000000♠1.0
[77]

1996
Philadelphia 76ers
Iverson, AllenAllen Iverson^*
 USA
Guard
Georgetown
7001235000000000000♠23.5
7000410009999999999♠4.1
7000750000000000000♠7.5
[78]

1997
San Antonio Spurs
Duncan, TimTim Duncan^
 USA[v]
foa !Forward/Center
Wake Forest
7001211000000000000♠21.1
7001119000000000000♠11.9
7000270000000000000♠2.7
[80]

1998
Los Angeles Clippers
Olowokandi, MichaelMichael Olowokandi
 NGA
Center
Pacific
7000890000000000000♠8.9
7000790000000000000♠7.9
6999600000000000000♠0.6
[81]

1999
Chicago Bulls
Brand, EltonElton Brand^[w]
 USA
Forward
Duke
7001201000000000000♠20.1
7001100000000000000♠10.0
7000190000000000000♠1.9
[83]

2000
New Jersey Nets
Martin, KenyonKenyon Martin^
 USA
Forward
Cincinnati
7001120000000000000♠12.0
7000740000000000000♠7.4
7000190000000000000♠1.9
[84]

2001
Washington Wizards
Brown, KwameKwame Brown
 USA
Center
Glynn Academy HS (Brunswick, Georgia)
7000450000000000000♠4.5
7000350000000000000♠3.5
6999800000000000000♠0.8
[85]

2002
Houston Rockets
Yao Ming, Yao Ming^*
 CHN
Center
Shanghai Sharks (China)
7001135000000000000♠13.5
7000820009999999999♠8.2
7000170000000000000♠1.7
[86]

2003
Cleveland Cavaliers
LeBron James, LeBron James^
 USA
Forward
St. Vincent-St. Mary HS (Akron, Ohio)
7001209009999900000♠20.9
7000550000000000000♠5.5
7000590000000000000♠5.9
[87]

2004
Orlando Magic
Howard, DwightDwight Howard^
 USA
Center
SACA (Atlanta)
7001120000000000000♠12.0
7001100000000000000♠10.0
6999900000000000000♠0.9
[88]

2005
Milwaukee Bucks
Bogut, AndrewAndrew Bogut^
 AUS
Center
Utah
7000940000000000000♠9.4
7000700000000000000♠7.0
7000230000000099999♠2.3
[89]

2006
Toronto Raptors
Bargnani, AndreaAndrea Bargnani
 ITA
foa !Forward/Center
Benetton Treviso (Italy)
7001116000000000000♠11.6
7000390000000000000♠3.9
6999800000000000000♠0.8
[90]

2007
Portland Trail Blazers
Oden, GregGreg Oden[x]
 USA
Center
Ohio State
7000890000000000000♠8.9
7000700000000000000♠7.0
6999500000000000000♠0.5
[92]

2008
Chicago Bulls
Rose, DerrickDerrick Rose^
 USA
Guard
Memphis
7001168000000000000♠16.8
7000390000000000000♠3.9
7000630000000000000♠6.3
[93]

2009
Los Angeles Clippers
Griffin, BlakeBlake Griffin^[y]
 USA
Forward
Oklahoma
7001225000000000000♠22.5
7001121000000000000♠12.1
7000380000000000000♠3.8
[95]

2010
Washington Wizards
Wall, JohnJohn Wall^
 USA
Guard
Kentucky
7001164009999900000♠16.4
7000460000000099999♠4.6
7000830000000000000♠8.3
[96]

2011
Cleveland Cavaliers
Irving, KyrieKyrie Irving^
 USA[z]
Guard
Duke
7001185000000000000♠18.5
7000370000000000000♠3.7
7000540000000000000♠5.4
[99]

2012
New Orleans Hornets
Davis, AnthonyAnthony Davis^
 USA
foa !Forward/Center
Kentucky
7001135000000000000♠13.5
7000820009999999999♠8.2
7000100000000000000♠1.0
[100]

2013
Cleveland Cavaliers
Bennett, AnthonyAnthony Bennett
 CAN
Forward
UNLV
7000420000000000000♠4.2
7000300000000000000♠3.0
6999300000000000000♠0.3
[101]

2014
Cleveland Cavaliers
Wiggins, AndrewAndrew Wiggins
 CAN
Forward/Guard
Kansas
7001169009999900000♠16.9
7000460000000099999♠4.6
7000210000000000000♠2.1
[102]

2015
Minnesota Timberwolves
Towns, Karl-AnthonyKarl-Anthony Towns
 DOM[aa]
foa !Center
Kentucky
7001183000000000000♠18.3
7001104000000000000♠10.4
7000200000000000000♠2.0
[103]

2016
Philadelphia 76ers
Simmons, BenBen Simmons
 AUS[ab]
foa !Forward
LSU
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
[104]

2017
Philadelphia 76ers
Fultz, MarkelleMarkelle Fultz
 USA
foa !Guard
Washington
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
5000000000000000000♠—
[105]