document_title: Prime Minister of Canada

question_text: how long does the canadian prime minister serve

text: Prime Minister of Canada

text: Origin of the office[edit]

text: The position of prime minister is not outlined in any Canadian constitutional document and is mentioned only in passing in the Constitution Act, 1982,[4][5] and the Letters Patent, 1947 issued by King George VI.[6] The office and its functions are instead governed by constitutional conventions and modelled on the same office in the United Kingdom.

text: Qualifications and selection[edit]

text: The prime minister, along with the other ministers in cabinet, is appointed by the governor general on behalf of the monarch.[7] However, by the conventions of responsible government, designed to maintain administrative stability, the viceroy will call to form a government the individual most likely to receive the support, or confidence, of a majority of the directly elected members of the House of Commons;[8] as a practical matter, this is often the leader of a party whose members form a majority, or a very large plurality, of Members of Parliament (MPs).[9]

text: While there is no legal requirement for the prime minister to be a member of parliament, for practical and political reasons the prime minister is expected to win a seat very promptly.[10] However, in rare circumstances individuals who are not sitting members of the House of Commons have been appointed to the position of prime minister. Two former prime ministers—Sir John Joseph Caldwell Abbott and Sir Mackenzie Bowell—served in the 1890s while members of the Senate.[11] Both, in their roles as Government Leader in the Senate, succeeded prime ministers who had died in office—John A. Macdonald in 1891 and John Sparrow David Thompson in 1894. That convention has since evolved toward the appointment of an interim leader from the commons in such a scenario.

text: Prime ministers who are not Members of Parliament upon their appointment (or who lose their seats while in office) have since been expected to seek election to the commons as soon as possible. For example, William Lyon Mackenzie King, after losing his seat in the 1925 federal election (that his party won), briefly "governed from the hallway" before winning a by-election a few weeks later. Similarly, John Turner replaced Pierre Trudeau as leader of the Liberal Party in 1984 and subsequently was appointed prime minister while not holding a seat in the House of Commons; Turner won a riding in the next election but the Liberal Party was swept from power. Turner was the last serving prime minister to not hold a commons seat.

text: Should a serving prime minister today lose his or her seat in the legislature, or should a new prime minister be appointed without holding a seat, the typical process that follows is that a junior member in the governing political party will resign to allow the prime minister to run in the resulting by-election.[11] A safe seat is usually chosen; while the Liberal and Conservative parties traditionally observed a convention of not running a candidate against another party's new leader in the by-election, the New Democrats and smaller political parties typically do not follow the same convention. However, if the governing party selects a new leader shortly before an election is due, and that new leader is not a member of the legislature, he or she will normally await the upcoming election before running for a seat in parliament.

text: In a poll conducted by Ipsos-Reid following the first prorogation of the 40th parliament on December 4, 2008, it was found that 51% of the sample group thought the prime minister was directly elected by Canadians.[12][13]

text: Term of office[edit]

text: The Canadian prime minister serves at Her Majesty's pleasure, meaning the post does not have a fixed term. Once appointed and sworn in by the governor general, the prime minister remains in office until he or she resigns, is dismissed, or dies.[14] The lifespan of parliament was limited by the constitution to five years and, though the governor general may still, on the advice of the prime minister, dissolve parliament and issue the writs of election prior to the date mandated by the Canada Elections Act; the King–Byng Affair was the only time since Confederation that the viceroy deemed it necessary to refuse his prime minister's request for a general vote. As of 2007, with an amendment to the Elections Act, Section 56.1(2) was changed to limit the term of a majority government to four (4) years, with election day being set as the third Monday in October of the 4th calendar year after the previous polling date. [15]

text: Following parliamentary dissolution, the prime minister must run in the resulting general election if he or she wishes to maintain a seat in the House of Commons. Should the prime minister's party subsequently win a majority of seats in the House of Commons, it is unnecessary to re-appoint the prime minister or again swear him or her into office.[14] If, however, an opposition party wins a majority of seats, the prime minister may resign or be dismissed by the governor general. Should the prime minister's party achieve a minority while an opposition party wins a plurality (i.e., more seats than any other party but less than a majority), the prime minister can attempt to maintain the confidence of the House by forming a coalition with other minority parties. This option was last entertained in 1925.

text: Role and authority[edit]

text: Because the prime minister is, in practice, the most politically powerful member of the Canadian government, he or she is sometimes erroneously referred to as Canada's head of state,[n 2] when, in fact, that post is held by the Canadian monarch, represented by the governor general.[16] The prime minister is, instead, the head of government and is responsible for advising the Crown on how to exercise the Royal Prerogative and its executive powers,[3] which are governed by the constitution and its conventions. However, the function of the prime minister has evolved with increasing power. Today, as per the doctrines of constitutional monarchy, the advice given by the prime minister is ordinarily binding, meaning the prime minister effectively carries out those duties ascribed to the sovereign or governor general, leaving the latter to act in predominantly ceremonial fashions.[17] As such, the prime minister, supported by the Office of the Prime Minister (PMO), controls the appointments of many key figures in Canada's system of governance, including the governor general, the Cabinet, justices of the Supreme Court, senators, heads of crown corporations, ambassadors to foreign countries, the provincial lieutenant governors, and approximately 3,100 other positions. Further, the prime minister plays a prominent role in the legislative process—with the majority of bills put before parliament originating in the Cabinet—and the leadership of the Canadian Armed Forces.

text: Pierre Trudeau is credited with, throughout his tenure as prime minister between 1968 and 1984, consolidating power in the PMO,[18] which is itself filled by political and administrative staff selected at the prime minister's discretion and unaccountable to parliament. At the end of the 20th century and into the 21st, analysts—such as Jeffrey Simpson,[19] Donald Savoie, Andrew Coyne,[20] and John Gomery—argued that both parliament and the Cabinet had become eclipsed by prime ministerial power;[n 3][21] Savoie wrote: "The Canadian prime minister has little in the way of institutional check, at least inside government, to inhibit his ability to have his way."[22] Indeed, the position has been described as undergoing a "presidentialisation",[18][23] to the point that its incumbents publicly outshine the actual head of state (and prime minister's spouses are sometimes called the "First Lady of Canada"[24][25]).[26][27] Former governor general Adrienne Clarkson alluded to what she saw as "an unspoken rivalry" that had developed between the prime minister and the Crown.[28] It has been theorized that such is the case in Canada as its parliament is less influential on the executive than in other countries with Westminster parliamentary systems; particularly, Canada has fewer MPs, a higher turnover rate of MPs after each election, and an Americanised system for selecting political party leaders, leaving them accountable to the party membership rather than caucus, as is the case in the United Kingdom.[29]

text: There do exist checks on the prime minister's power: the commons may revoke its confidence in an incumbent prime minister and Cabinet or caucus revolts can quickly bring down a serving premier and even mere threats of such action can persuade or compel a prime minister to resign his post, as happened with Jean Chrétien. The Reform Act, 2014,[30] codifies the process by which a caucus may trigger a party leadership review and, if necessary, chose an interim leader, thereby making a prime minister more accountable to the MPs in his or her party. Caucuses may choose to follow these rules, though the decision would be made by recorded vote, thereby subjecting the party's choice to public scrutiny.[31]

text: The Senate may delay or impede legislation put forward by the Cabinet, such as when Brian Mulroney's bill creating the Goods and Services Tax (GST) came before the upper chamber and, given Canada's federal nature, the jurisdiction of the federal government is limited to areas prescribed by the constitution. Further, as executive power is constitutionally vested in the monarch, meaning the Royal Prerogative belongs to the Crown and not to any of its ministers,[32][33][34] the sovereign's supremacy over the prime minister in the constitutional order is thus seen as a "rebuff to the pretensions of the elected: As it has been said, when the Prime Minister bows before the Queen, he bows before us [the Canadian people]."[35][36] Either the sovereign or his or her viceroy may therefore oppose the prime minister's will in extreme, crisis situations.[n 4] Near the end of her time as governor general, Adrienne Clarkson stated: "My constitutional role has lain in what are called 'reserve powers': making sure that there is a prime minister and a government in place, and exercising the right 'to encourage, to advise, and to warn'[...] Without really revealing any secrets, I can tell you that I have done all three."[37]

text: Privileges[edit]

text: Two official residences are provided to the prime minister—24 Sussex Drive in Ottawa and Harrington Lake, a country retreat in Gatineau Park—as well an office in the Langevin Block, across from Parliament Hill.[38] For transportation, the prime minister is granted an armoured car and shared use of two official aircraft—a CC-150 Polaris for international flights and a Challenger 601 for domestic trips. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police also furnish constant personal security for the prime minister and his or her family. All of the aforementioned is supplied by the Queen-in-Council through budgets approved by parliament, as is the prime minister's annual salary of CAD$170,400.[1] (A prime minister additionally earns the normal salary of a Member of Parliament: $170,400.[1])

text: Should a serving or former prime minister die, he or she is accorded a state funeral, wherein their casket lies in state in the Centre Block of Parliament Hill.[39] Only Bowell and the Viscount Bennett were given private funerals, Bennett also being the only former Prime Minister of Canada to die and be buried outside the country and Bowell the only whose funeral was not attended by politicians. John Thompson also died outside Canada, at Windsor Castle, where Queen Victoria permitted his lying-in-state before his body was returned to Canada for a state funeral in Halifax.[40]

text: In earlier years, it was traditional for the monarch to bestow a knighthood on newly appointed Canadian prime ministers. Accordingly, several carried the prefix Sir before their name; of the first eight premiers of Canada, only Alexander Mackenzie refused the honour of a knighthood from Queen Victoria. Following the 1919 Nickle Resolution, however, it was against non-binding policy for the sovereign to grant such honorific titles to Canadians; the last prime minister to be knighted was Sir Robert Borden, who was premier at the time the Nickle Resolution was debated in the House of Commons. Still, Bennett was in 1941, six years after he stepped down as prime minister, elevated to the peerage by King George VI as Viscount Bennett, of Mickleham in the County of Surrey and of Calgary and Hopewell in the Dominion of Canada.[41][42]

text: The Canadian Heraldic Authority (CHA) has granted former prime ministers an augmentation of honour on the personal coat of arms of those who pursued them. The heraldic badge, referred to by the CHA as the mark of the Prime Ministership of Canada,[43] consists of four red maple leaves joined at the stem on a white field ("Argent four maple leaves conjoined in cross at the stem Gules"); the augmentation has, so far, been granted either as a canton sinister or centred in the chief.[43][44][45][46][47] To date, former prime ministers Joe Clark,[43] Pierre Trudeau,[44] John Turner,[45] Brian Mulroney,[46] and Kim Campbell were granted arms with the augmentation.[47]

text: Style of address[edit]

text: Canada continues the Westminster tradition of using the title Prime Minister when one is speaking to the federal head of government directly; this is in contrast to the United States protocol of addressing the federal head of government as mister (as in, Mister President); the Department of Canadian Heritage advises that it is incorrect to use the term Mr Prime Minister.[48] The written form of address for the prime minister should use his or her full parliamentary title: The Right Honourable [name], [post-nominal letters], Prime Minister of Canada. However, while in the House of Commons during Question Period, other members of parliament may address the prime minister as The Right Honourable, Member for [prime minister's riding] or simply The Right Honourable Prime Minister.[49] Former prime ministers retain the prefix The Right Honourable for the remainder of their lives; should they remain sitting MPs, they may be referred as The Right Honourable Member for [member's riding] or by their portfolio title (if appointed to one), as in The Right Honourable Minister of National Defence.

text: In the decades following Confederation, it was common practice to refer to the prime minister as Premier of Canada,[50][51][52] a custom that continued until the First World War, around the time of Robert Borden's premiership.[53][54][55] While contemporary sources will still speak of early prime ministers of Canada as premier,[56][57][58] the modern practice is such that the federal head of government is known almost exclusively as the prime minister, while the provincial heads of government are termed premiers (save for within Quebec and New Brunswick, where the premiers are addressed in French as Premier ministre du [province], literally translated as Prime Minister of [province]).

text: Activities post-commission[edit]

text: After exiting office, former prime ministers of Canada have engaged in various pursuits. Some remained in politics: Bowell continued to serve as a senator, Stephen Harper returned to the House of Commons as a backbench Member of Parliament, and Bennett moved to the United Kingdom after being elevated to the House of Lords.[59] A number led Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition in the Canadian parliament: John A. Macdonald, Arthur Meighen, Mackenzie King,[60] and Pierre Trudeau, all before being re-appointed as prime minister (Mackenzie King twice); Alexander Mackenzie and John Diefenbaker, both prior to sitting as regular Members of Parliament until their deaths;[61] Wilfrid Laurier dying while still in the post;[62] and Charles Tupper,[63] Louis St. Laurent,[64] and John Turner, each before they returned to private business. Meighen was also appointed to the Senate following his second period as prime minister, but resigned his seat to seek re-election and moved to private enterprise after failing to win a riding.[65] Following Meighen into civilian life were: Robert Borden, who served as Chancellor of Queen's and McGill Universities, as well as working in the financial sector; Lester B. Pearson, who acted as Chancellor of Carleton University;[66] Joe Clark and Kim Campbell, who became university professors, Clark also consultant and Campbell working in international diplomacy and as the director of private companies and chairperson of interest groups; while Pierre Trudeau and Jean Chrétien returned to legal practice.[67] Former prime ministers also commonly penned autobiographies—Tupper,[63] for example—or published their memoirs—such as Diefenbaker and Paul Martin.[61]


document_title: List of Resident Evil film characters

question_text: who plays the red queen in resident evil

root

text: List of Resident Evil film characters

text: Alice[edit]

text: Alice (portrayed by Milla Jovovich) is the protagonist of the Resident Evil film series. The plot of each film generally revolves around her struggle with the Umbrella Corporation. Alice also appears in the film's novelizations which go into greater detail of her backstory.

tag: p

text: In the first film, Resident Evil, Alice is depicted as suffering from amnesia, gradually realizing her abilities as a highly trained private security operative. In Resident Evil: Apocalypse and Resident Evil: Extinction, her character is represented as "a supremely efficient killing machine"[1] and bio-weapon. Alice is an "iconic figure and is closely associated with the series," becoming more skilled and rugged throughout the series.[2] Alice's superhuman abilities, as well as the use of various styles of martial arts and gunplay make her something of a superhero character.[3] For example, in Resident Evil: Apocalypse, after her exposure to the T-virus, she displays psychic powers akin to those of Alexia Ashford. In Extinction, her powers are even more developed - she displays even greater control over her telekinesis (although she experiences blackouts and massive headaches if she pushes her powers too far). In Resident Evil: Afterlife, Alice's superhuman abilities have been taken away by Albert Wesker, who injected her with a serum that disabled her T-virus cells; however, at the end of Resident Evil: Retribution, Wesker injects her with the T-Virus and restores her powers, saying that Alice and her powers are the last, best hope for humanity. In Resident Evil: The Final Chapter, after being betrayed by Wesker, Alice undertakes a final mission into the Hive with the help of Claire Redfield and the Red Queen to save what is left of humanity. In this movie, she displays none of her powers despite Wesker restoring them at the end of Retribution though the Red Queen makes a comment about Wesker pretending to restore her powers permanently.

text: Alice is an original character created for the films, although writer Paul W. S. Anderson noted that Alice was based on the strong women in the Resident Evil games. Anderson initially toyed with the idea of the film being an allegory to Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll, but the idea was not followed through completely. Despite this, the film contains various references to the work, which included Alice's name.[4] Although the name Alice was given as the character's name prior to Resident Evil's release and is listed in the credits, her name is not actually spoken until the second film, Resident Evil: Apocalypse.

text: Rain Ocampo[edit]

text: Rain Ocampo (played by Michelle Rodriguez) is introduced in the first Resident Evil film, in which she works for the Umbrella Corporation's commando force. During the outbreak in The Hive, Rain and the other operatives are sent down to shut the Red Queen down and contain the infection. During The Hive incident, Rain and Alice become very close. Rain is bitten by one of the infected and is on the point of death when Alice administers the antivirus to her. However it is too late to reverse the effects so that Rain dies and has to be killed by Alice when she revives as a zombie. Several clones of Rain Ocampo are introduced in Resident Evil: Retribution, including a "Good Rain", created as a test subject for the Umbrella Corporation's live tests on the human response to viral outbreaks, a "Bad Rain", who works for Jill Valentine, and a "Zombie Rain". Good Rain, along with a little girl named Becky who is the daughter of an Alice clone, survives a test scenario of the T-virus in a suburban situation. Good Rain is killed when a Licker throws her into a pillar, breaking her neck. Bad Rain helps fight against Alice and her allies and injects herself with the Las Plagas parasite, making her super-strong and invincible. Bad Rain kills Luther West and nearly kills Alice before Alice shoots out the ice under her feet, dropping her into an ocean full of Las Plagas zombies who devour her. During a deleted scene, Zombie Rain is seen during the New York simulation. She charged Ada and Alice from the left, emerging from an alley and attempted to blindside Alice. Alice reacts quickly enough that she kills the clone with a shot to the head.

text: Matt Addison[edit]

text: Matt Addison (played by Eric Mabius) and Matt/Nemesis (played by Matthew G. Taylor) appears in Resident Evil and Resident Evil: Apocalypse. He is an anti-Umbrella activist posing as a newly transferred Raccoon City police officer, who has sent his sister to work Umbrella Corporation to steal some information to expose Umbrella for illegal activity. When the T-virus is released at the Umbrella "Hive", the red queen seals the Hive, killing everyone inside including Matt's sister. Matt is arrested by a group of umbrella operatives, led by Rain.

text: Along with Alice, he is then taken to the hive where they are met by a horde of zombies. Matt and Alice are separated and Matt comes across his zombified sister. Alice saves Matt's life, but he later becomes infected when they are attacked by a Licker. Rain and Plank are fatally wounded, and Matt begins to mutate. Alice is preparing to give him the anti-virus when the mansion door bursts open and a group of Umbrella scientists take Matt. He is then put into the "Nemesis Program". In Resident Evil: Apocalypse, Matt has been transformed into the mutation "Nemesis T-Type", programmed to eradicate all remaining STARS operatives. He tracks Alice down and they are forced to fight to the death. Alice realizes Nemesis is Matt and refuses to kill him. Nemesis joins forces with Alice and they defend themselves from a helicopter, sent by the Umbrella forces to kill them. However, in the ensuing battle, Nemesis (Matt) is crushed  by wreckage and presumed dead. If he survived, he was killed when a nuclear weapon destroyed the city.

text: K-Mart[edit]

text: K-Mart (played by Spencer Locke) is a young woman in Claire Redfield's convoy. In Resident Evil: Extinction, K-Mart explains that she changed her name after Claire and the others had found her in a Kmart store. She states she did not like her name and decided to change it because all those she knew from before the outbreak were dead. In the film's original script, K-Mart's real name is Elizabeth Jane Case. In the novelisation of the film, Carlos reveals that her original name was Dahlia. K-Mart and Claire are close and Locke has said her character sees Claire as an older sister. K-Mart is close with Mikey, and even more so with Carlos; in the novelisation of the film and in a scene that was deleted from the film, it is stated she has a crush on him. K-Mart also bonds with Alice; she stays with Alice and gives her a bracelet when Alice passes out from using her powers to save the convoy. Locke has said that K-Mart "definitely look[s] up to Alice in this movie a lot."[5] K-Mart survives through most of the film by hiding in the vehicles, although she does kill a few zombies. In a zombie attack, she is nearly killed by L.J. who has turned into a zombie himself, but Carlos saves her. At the end, she is one of the few who have survived long enough to depart in a helicopter headed for Alaska, piloted by Claire. In Resident Evil: Afterlife, K-Mart has been captured by the Umbrella Corporation to be experimented upon. She is rescued by Alice, Claire and Chris Redfield, but is at first too addled to do anything. She later aids Alice in battle, knocking out Bennett and tossing Alice her shotgun, allowing Alice to (temporarily) defeat Wesker with a shot to the head. She is later seen standing on deck with the other survivors when Umbrella commandos attack the ship, her whereabouts are unknown.

text: Becky[edit]

text: Becky (played by Aryana Engineer) is a clone of a young deaf girl, residing in the "Suburban Raccoon City" environment of the Umbrella Prime facility. In Resident Evil: Retribution, she is first introduced as the deaf "daughter" of a clone of Alice and her "husband" Todd, a clone of Carlos Olivera. During a "bio hazard" test, Becky lost her father, while her mother hid her; unknown to Becky, the Alice clone was killed by the zombified Todd. When the real Alice arrives with Ada Wong, Becky mistakes Alice for her mother; Alice decides to take Becky along despite Ada's objections. Mostly unknowing of the truth about her existence, Becky followed Alice and her comrades. When an Uber-Licker kidnapped her, Becky was rescued by Alice; however, they unfortunately had to escape through the clone storage room. Partly realising the truth, Becky asked Alice if she was her mother; Alice responded that she was now. They were rescued and taken with Ada, Leon, and Jill to Washington DC, where the last of humanity had established their base in the White House. She is presumably killed along with everyone but Alice when Wesker betrays the survivors and destroys the White House.

text: Red Queen[edit]

text: The Red Queen (played by Michaela Dicker, Megan Charpentier, Ave Merson-O'Brian and Ever Gabo Anderson) is a  character of the Resident Evil film series. The Red Queen was created by the director Paul W. S. Anderson as a homage to 2001: A Space Odyssey's HAL 9000. She appears as the main antagonist in the first film, an antagonist in the fifth film, and returns in the sixth film.

text: In Resident Evil, the Red Queen's holographic avatar was modeled on the daughter of Umbrella's head programmer. She monitors the Hive and the Spencer Mansion above. When the T-Virus was released, she sealed the exits and killed the Umbrella employees; she also released a gas that left Alice out cold with amnesia. When an Umbrella U.B.C.S. commando team is sent to investigate, she kills most of them with her defense systems. She warns against entering the Hive, but they shut her down. She is later forced to help the survivors find a way out, since her main circuit breakers were disabled to prevent rebooting. As the Anti-Virus has slimmer chance of working the longer one is infected, she demands Rain be killed; however, she is then shut down by Kaplan.

text: In an early draft of Resident Evil: Apocalypse, Angie, the daughter of T-Virus' creator Dr. Charles Ashford, was to be revealed as the girl on whose appearance the Red Queen was based on, and her father as the person that build the supercomputer that houses her. When the filmmakers realized they would need a large amount of flashback footage from the previous film to explain the connection to those in the audience that had not seen it, they decided to drop the idea, removing it from the canon.[6] Nevertheless, some people have made the connection due to Angie's appearance and accent strongly evoking the Red Queen.[7] The novelization of Resident Evil: Extinction also explicitly states the connection.

text: In Resident Evil: Extinction, Alice encounters the White Queen, a sister artificial intelligence to the Red Queen, who similarly looks like a young girl, but dressed in white. The White Queen justifies her sister's actions, as the most logical path to contain the viral outbreak inside The Hive, from spreading.

text: The Red Queen makes a reappearance in Resident Evil: Retribution, portrayed by child actress Megan Charpentier with another actress, Ave Merson-O'Brian, providing her voice. After the Raccoon City incident, she was reactivated and placed in control over Umbrella Prime, an underground laboratory in Kamchatka. By the time Retribution begins, she has assumed control over Umbrella itself and is waging war against the human race, including Wesker, using various bioweapons.

text: The Red Queen reappears in Resident Evil: The Final Chapter, this time portrayed by Ever Gabo Anderson, the real daughter of Milla Jovovich (Alice) and Paul W. S. Anderson, the film's writer/director.[8] In The Final Chapter, the Red Queen contacts Alice to warn her that the last human settlement will be destroyed in 48 hours. The Red Queen directs Alice back into the Hive to find a potent antivirus that will kill everything infected with the T-virus upon contact. The Red Queen is revealed to have been created based upon Alicia Marcus, the daughter of Umbrella co-founder James Marcus (with Ever Gabo portraying young Alicia in flashback footage). The Red Queen is willing to aid Alice as she has been programmed to protect human life, but is also unable to directly harm Umbrella forces due to another directive in her programing. During the final battle in the Hive, the Red Queen is able to aid Alice by dropping a blast door on Wesker after the adult Alicia Marcus (played by Jovovich, as all Alices are clones of Alicia) fires him. The Red Queen is later shut down by Doctor Isaacs, but first she taunts "Doctor Alexander Isaacs and the Umbrella High Command. You are all going to die down here", echoing her words to Alice and the soldiers in the first movie. When Isaacs is killed, the Red Queen reactivates herself and recalls the Umbrella forces sent to destroy the last human settlement, saving humanity. After the Hive is destroyed and the antivirus released, the Red Queen is revealed to have survived the Hive's destruction when she contacts Alice and explains how Alice survived the antivirus. The Red Queen then displays Alicia Marcus' childhood memories for Alice, memories that Alicia had uploaded into the AI so that Alice would have them as well.

text: Although the character originated in the films, the Red Queen also appears in the 2007 game Resident Evil: The Umbrella Chronicles, voiced by Tara Platt.[9] Her character appears as a database computer which provides information relating to the Arklay Incident and T-virus development. In the game's chapter "The Umbrella's End", the T-A.L.O.S. (Tyrant Armored Lethal Organic System) is monitored and controlled by the Red Queen. In the game, the Red Queen AI is self-aware and can take these measures based on its own judgment. At the end of the game, Wesker manages to procure all the data the Red Queen possessed for himself, and has it permanently erase itself and deactivate.[10]


document_title: 50 home run club

question_text: who hit the most home runs in one season

text: 50 home run club

text: Members[edit]

text:
Key

Year

The year the player's 50 home run season occurred

Player (X)

Name of the player and number of 50 home run seasons they had accomplished at that point

Team

The player's team for his 50 home run season

HR

Number of home runs in that season

Career HR

The number of home runs the player hit in his MLB career

^

Denotes single-season home run record progression

Elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame

Player is active

tag: table

text:
Members of the 50 home run club

Year

Player

Team

HR

Career HR

Ref

1920

Babe Ruth

New York Yankees
54^
714
[5]

1921

Babe Ruth (2)

New York Yankees
59^
714
[5]

1927

Babe Ruth (3)

New York Yankees
60^
714
[5]

1928

Babe Ruth (4)

New York Yankees
54
714
[5]

1930

Hack Wilson

Chicago Cubs
56
244
[29]

1932

Jimmie Foxx

Philadelphia Athletics
58
534
[30]

1938

Jimmie Foxx (2)

Boston Red Sox
50
534
[30]

1938

Hank Greenberg

Detroit Tigers
58
331
[31]

1947

Johnny Mize

New York Giants
51
359
[32]

1947

Ralph Kiner

Pittsburgh Pirates
51
369
[33]

1949

Ralph Kiner (2)

Pittsburgh Pirates
54
369
[33]

1955

Willie Mays

New York Giants
51
660
[34]

1956

Mickey Mantle

New York Yankees
52
536
[35]

1961

Mickey Mantle (2)

New York Yankees
54
536
[35]

1961

Roger Maris

New York Yankees
61^
275
[36]

1965

Willie Mays (2)

San Francisco Giants
52
660
[34]

1977

George Foster

Cincinnati Reds
52
348
[37]

1990

Cecil Fielder

Detroit Tigers
51
319
[38]

1995

Albert Belle

Cleveland Indians
50
381
[39]

1996

Brady Anderson

Baltimore Orioles
50
210
[40]

1996

Mark McGwire

Oakland Athletics
52
583
[41]

1997

Ken Griffey Jr.

Seattle Mariners
56
630
[42]

1997

Mark McGwire (2)

Oakland AthleticsSt. Louis Cardinals
58
583
[41]

1998

Greg Vaughn

San Diego Padres
50
355
[43]

1998

Ken Griffey Jr. (2)

Seattle Mariners
56
630
[42]

1998

Sammy Sosa

Chicago Cubs
66
609
[44]

1998

Mark McGwire (3)

St. Louis Cardinals
70^
583
[41]

1999

Sammy Sosa (2)

Chicago Cubs
63
609
[44]

1999

Mark McGwire (4)

St. Louis Cardinals
65
583
[41]

2000

Sammy Sosa (3)

Chicago Cubs
50
609
[44]

2001

Alex Rodriguez

Texas Rangers
52
696
[45]

2001

Luis Gonzalez

Arizona Diamondbacks
57
354
[46]

2001

Sammy Sosa (4)

Chicago Cubs
64
609
[44]

2001

Barry Bonds

San Francisco Giants
73^
762
[47]

2002

Jim Thome

Cleveland Indians
52
612
[48]

2002

Alex Rodriguez (2)

Texas Rangers
57
696
[45]

2005

Andruw Jones

Atlanta Braves
51
434
[49]

2006

Ryan Howard

Philadelphia Phillies
58
382
[8]

2006

David Ortiz

Boston Red Sox
54
541
[50]

2007

Alex Rodriguez (3)

New York Yankees
54
696
[45]

2007

Prince Fielder

Milwaukee Brewers
50
319
[51]

2010

José Bautista

Toronto Blue Jays
54
343
[52]

2013

Chris Davis

Baltimore Orioles
53
283
[53]

2017

Giancarlo Stanton

Miami Marlins
59
302
[54]

2017

Aaron Judge

New York Yankees
52
82
[55]


document_title: Cone cell

question_text: three types of cones that enable color vision

text: Cone cell

text: Structure[edit]

text: Types[edit]

text: Humans normally have three types of cones. The first responds the most to light of long wavelengths, peaking at about 560 nm ; this type is sometimes designated L for long. The second type responds the most to light of medium-wavelength, peaking at 530 nm, and is abbreviated M for medium. The third type responds the most to short-wavelength light, peaking at 420 nm, and is designated S for short. The three types have peak wavelengths near 564–580 nm, 534–545 nm, and 420–440 nm, respectively, depending on the individual.[10][11]

text: While it has been discovered that there exists a mixed type of bipolar cells that bind to both rod and cone cells, bipolar cells still predominantly receive their input from cone cells.[12]

text: Shape and arrangement[edit]

text: Cone cells are somewhat shorter than rods, but wider and tapered, and are much less numerous than rods in most parts of the retina, but greatly outnumber rods in the fovea. Structurally, cone cells have a cone-like shape at one end where a pigment filters incoming light, giving them their different response curves. They are typically 40–50 µm long, and their diameter varies from 0.5 to 4.0 µm, being smallest and most tightly packed at the center of the eye at the fovea. The S cone spacing is slightly larger than the others.[13]

text: Photobleaching can be used to determine cone arrangement. This is done by exposing dark-adapted retina to a certain wavelength of light that paralyzes the particular type of cone sensitive to that wavelength for up to thirty minutes from being able to dark-adapt making it appear white in contrast to the grey dark-adapted cones when a picture of the retina is taken. The results illustrate that S cones are randomly placed and appear much less frequently than the M and L cones. The ratio of M and L cones varies greatly among different people with regular vision (e.g. values of 75.8% L with 20.0% M versus 50.6% L with 44.2% M in two male subjects).[14]

text: Like rods, each cone cell has a synaptic terminal, an inner segment, and an outer segment as well as an interior nucleus and various mitochondria. The synaptic terminal forms a synapse with a neuron such as a bipolar cell. The inner and outer segments are connected by a cilium.[5] The inner segment contains organelles and the cell's nucleus, while the outer segment, which is pointed toward the back of the eye, contains the light-absorbing materials.[5]

text: Like rods, the outer segments of cones have invaginations of their cell membranes that create stacks of membranous disks. Photopigments exist as transmembrane proteins within these disks, which provide more surface area for light to affect the pigments. In cones, these disks are attached to the outer membrane, whereas they are pinched off and exist separately in rods. Neither rods nor cones divide, but their membranous disks wear out and are worn off at the end of the outer segment, to be consumed and recycled by phagocytic cells.

text: Function[edit]

text: The difference in the signals received from the three cone types allows the brain to perceive a continuous range of colors, through the opponent process of color vision. (Rod cells have a peak sensitivity at 498 nm, roughly halfway between the peak sensitivities of the S and M cones.)

text: All of the receptors contain the protein photopsin, with variations in its conformation causing differences in the optimum wavelengths absorbed.

text: The color yellow, for example, is perceived when the L cones are stimulated slightly more than the M cones, and the color red is perceived when the L cones are stimulated significantly more than the M cones. Similarly, blue and violet hues are perceived when the S receptor is stimulated more. Cones are most sensitive to light at wavelengths around 420 nm. However, the lens and cornea of the human eye are increasingly absorptive to shorter wavelengths, and this sets the short wavelength limit of human-visible light to approximately 380 nm, which is therefore called 'ultraviolet' light. People with aphakia, a condition where the eye lacks a lens, sometimes report the ability to see into the ultraviolet range.[15] At moderate to bright light levels where the cones function, the eye is more sensitive to yellowish-green light than other colors because this stimulates the two most common (M and L) of the three kinds of cones almost equally. At lower light levels, where only the rod cells function, the sensitivity is greatest at a blueish-green wavelength.

text: Cones also tend to possess a significantly elevated visual acuity because each cone cell has a lone connection to the optic nerve, therefore, the cones have an easier time telling that two stimuli are isolated. Separate connectivity is established in the inner plexiform layer so that each connection is parallel.[12]

text: The response of cone cells to light is also directionally nonuniform, peaking at a direction that receives light from the center of the pupil; this effect is known as the Stiles–Crawford effect.

text: Color afterimage[edit]

text: Sensitivity to a prolonged stimulation tends to decline over time, leading to neural adaptation. An interesting effect occurs when staring at a particular color for a minute or so. Such action leads to an exhaustion of the cone cells that respond to that color – resulting in the afterimage. This vivid color aftereffect can last for a minute or more.[16]

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: One of the diseases related to cone cells present in retina is retinoblastoma. Retinoblastoma is a rare cancer of the retina, caused by the mutation of both copies of retinoblastoma genes (RB1). Most cases of retinoblastoma occur during early childhood.[17] One or both eyes may be affected. The protein encoded by RB1 regulates a signal transduction pathway while controlling the cell cycle progression as normally. Retinoblastoma seems to originate in cone precursor cells present in the retina that consist of natural signalling networks which restrict cell death and promote cell survival after losing the RB1, or having both the RB1 copies mutated. It has been found that TRβ2 which is a transcription factor specifically affiliated with cones is essential for rapid reproduction and existence of the retinoblastoma cell.[17] A drug that can be useful in the treatment of this disease is MDM2 (murine double minute 2) gene. Knockdown studies have shown that the MDM2 gene silences ARF-induced apoptosis in retinoblastoma cells and that MDM2 is necessary for the survival of cone cells.[17] It is unclear at this point why the retinoblastoma in humans is sensitive to RB1 inactivation.

text: The pupil may appear white or have white spots. A white glow in the eye is often seen in photographs taken with a flash, instead of the typical "red eye" from the flash, and the pupil may appear white or distorted. Other symptoms can include crossed eyes, double vision, eyes that do not align, eye pain and redness, poor vision or differing iris colors in each eye. If the cancer has spread, bone pain and other symptoms may occur.[17][18]


document_title: Let's Call the Whole Thing Off

question_text: who wrote lets call the whole thing off

question_tokens: who wrote lets call the whole thing off

text: Let's Call the Whole Thing Off

text: "Let's Call the Whole Thing Off" is a song written by George Gershwin and Ira Gershwin for the 1937 film Shall We Dance, where it was introduced by Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers as part of a celebrated dance duet on roller skates.[1] The song is most famous for its “You like to-may-toes /təˈmeɪtoʊz/ and I like to-mah-toes /təˈmɑːtoʊz/” and other verses comparing their different regional dialects.[2]

text: The differences in pronunciation are not simply regional, however, but serve more specifically to identify class differences. At the time, typical American pronunciations were considered less "refined" by the upper-class, and there was a specific emphasis on the "broader" a sound.[3] This class distinction with respect to pronunciation has been retained in caricatures, especially in the theater, where the longer a pronunciation is most strongly associated with the word "darling."[4]

text: The song was ranked No. 34 on AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs.[5]

text: Notable recordings[edit]

text:
Billie Holiday – Lady Day: The Complete Billie Holiday on Columbia 1933–1944 (1937)
Sam Cooke – Tribute to the Lady (1959)
Ella Fitzgerald – on Ella Fitzgerald Sings the George and Ira Gershwin Songbook (1959),[6] on the 1983 Pablo release Nice Work If You Can Get It, and in a 1957 duet with Louis Armstrong on Ella and Louis Again.
Fred Astaire with Johnny Green & His Orchestra (1937)[7]
Brian Wilson – Brian Wilson Reimagines Gershwin (2010)
Uri Caine – Rhapsody in Blue (2013)

tag: ul

text: The song has been re-used in filmmaking and television production, most notably in When Harry Met Sally... – where it is performed by Harry Connick, Jr. – and The Simpsons. It was featured in the 2012 Broadway Musical Nice Work If You Can Get It.


document_title: Petroleum industry in Canada

question_text: where does british columbia get its oil from

question_tokens: where does british columbia get its oil from

text: Petroleum industry in Canada

text: History[edit]

text: The Canadian petroleum industry developed in parallel with that of the United States. The first oil well in Canada was dug by hand (rather than drilled) in 1858 by James Miller Williams near his asphalt plant at Oil Springs, Ontario. At a depth of 20 metres (66 ft) he struck oil, one year before "Colonel" Edwin Drake drilled the first oil well in the United States.[7] Williams later went on to found "The Canadian Oil Company" which qualified as the world’s first integrated oil company.

text: Petroleum production in Ontario expanded rapidly, and practically every significant producer became his own refiner. By 1864, 20 refineries were operating in Oil Springs and seven in Petrolia, Ontario. However, Ontario's status as an important oil producer did not last long. By 1880 Canada was a net importer of oil from the United States.

text: Canada's unique geography, geology, resources and patterns of settlement have been key factors in the history of Canada. The development of the petroleum sector helps illustrate how they have helped make the nation quite distinct from the United States. Unlike the United States, which has a number of different major oil producing regions, the vast majority of Canada's petroleum resources are concentrated in the enormous Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin (WCSB), one of the largest petroleum-containing formations in the world. It underlies 1,400,000 square kilometres (540,000 sq mi) of Western Canada including most or part of four western provinces and one northern territory. Consisting of a massive wedge of sedimentary rock up to 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) thick extending from the Rocky Mountains in the west to the Canadian Shield in the east, it is far distant from Canada's east and west coast ports as well as its historical industrial centres. It is also far from American industrial centres. Because of its geographic isolation, the area was settled relatively late in the history of Canada, and its true resource potential was not discovered until after World War II. As a result, Canada built its major manufacturing centres near its historic hydroelectric power sources in Ontario and Quebec, rather than its petroleum resources in Alberta and Saskatchewan. Not knowing about its own potential, Canada began to import the vast majority of its petroleum from other countries as it developed into a modern industrial economy.

text: The province of Alberta lies at the centre of the WCSB and the formation underlies most of the province. The potential of Alberta as an oil-producing province long went unrecognized because it was geologically quite different from American oil producing regions. The first oil well in western Canada was drilled in southern Alberta in 1902, but did not produce for long and served to mislead geologists about the true nature of Alberta's subsurface geology. The Turner Valley oil field was discovered in 1914, and for a time was the biggest oil field in the British Empire, but again it misled geologists about the nature of Alberta's geology. In Turner Valley, the mistakes oil companies made led to billions of dollars in damage to the oil field by gas flaring which not only burned billions of dollars worth of gas with no immediate market, but destroyed the field's gas drive that enabled the oil to be produced. The gas flares in Turner Valley were visible in the sky from Calgary, 75 km (50 mi) away. As a result of the highly visible wastage, the Alberta government launched vigorous political and legal attacks on the Canadian Government and the oil companies that continued until 1938 when the province set up the Alberta Petroleum and Natural Gas Conservation Board and imposed strict conservation legislation.

text: The status of Canada as an oil importer from the US suddenly changed in 1947 when the Leduc No. 1 well was drilled a short distance south of Edmonton. Geologists realized that they had completely misunderstood the geology of Alberta, and the highly prolific Leduc oil field, which has since produced over 50,000,000 m3 (310,000,000 bbl) of oil was not a unique formation. There were hundreds more Devonian reef formations like it underneath Alberta, many of them full of oil. There was no surface indication of their presence, so they had to be found using reflection seismology. The main problem for oil companies became how to sell all the oil they had found rather than buying oil for their refineries. Pipelines were built from Alberta through the Midwestern United States to Ontario and to the west coast of British Columbia. Exports to the U.S. increased dramatically.

text: Most of the oil companies exploring for oil in Alberta were of U.S. origin, and at its peak in 1973, over 78 per cent of Canadian oil and gas production was under foreign ownership and over 90 per cent of oil and gas production companies were under foreign control, mostly American. This foreign ownership spurred the National Energy Program under the Trudeau government.[8]

text: Major players[edit]

text: Although around a dozen companies operate oil refineries in Canada, only three companies - Imperial Oil, Shell Canada and Suncor Energy - operate more than one refinery and market products nationally. Other refiners generally operate a single refinery and market products in a particular region. Regional refiners include North Atlantic Refining in Newfoundland, Irving Oil in New Brunswick, Valero Energy in Quebec, Federated Co-operatives in Saskatchewan, Chevron in British Columbia, and Husky Energy in Alberta, BC, and Saskatchewan.[9] While Petro Canada was once owned by the Canadian government, it is now owned by Suncor Energy, which continues to use the Petro Canada label for marketing purposes. In 2007 Canada's three biggest oil companies brought in record profits of $11.75 billion, up 10 percent from $10.72 billion in 2006. Revenues for the Big Three climbed to $80 billion from about $72 billion in 2006. The numbers exclude Shell Canada and ConocoPhillips Canada, two private subsidiaries that produced almost 500,000 barrels per day in 2006.[10]

text:
Encana Corporation
Canadian Natural Resources Limited
Husky Energy Inc.
ConocoPhillips
Talisman Energy Inc.
Devon Canada Corporation
Suncor Energy
Cenovus Energy

text: Divisions[edit]

text: The vast majority (97%) of Canadian oil production occurs in three provinces: Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Newfoundland and Labrador. In 2015 Alberta produced 79.2% of Canada's oil, Saskatchewan 13.5%, and the province of Newfoundland and Labrador 4.4%. British Columbia and Manitoba produced about 1% apiece.[11] The four Western Canada provinces of Alberta, British Columbia, Saskatchewan and Manitoba all produce their oil from the vast and oil rich Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin, which is centered on Alberta but extends into the other three Western provinces and into the Northwest Territories. The province of Newfoundland and Labrador produces its oil from offshore drilling on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland in the western Atlantic Ocean.[12]

text: Alberta[edit]

text: Alberta is Canada's largest oil producing province, providing 79.2% of Canadian oil production in 2015. This included light crude oil, heavy crude oil, crude bitumen, synthetic crude oil, and natural-gas condensate. In 2015 Alberta produced an average of 492,265 cubic metres per day (3.1 Mbbl/d) of Canada's 621,560 cubic metres per day (3.9 Mbbl/d) of oil and equivalent production.[11] Most of its oil production came from its enormous oil sands deposits, whose production has been steadily rising in recent years. These deposits give Canada the world's third largest oil reserves, which are rivaled only by similar but even larger oil reserves in Venezuela, and conventional oil reserves in Saudi Arabia. Although Alberta has already produced over 90% of its conventional crude oil reserves, it has produced only 5% of its oil sands, and its remaining oil sands reserves represent 98% of Canada's established oil reserves.[13]

text: In addition to being the world's largest producer of oil sands bitumen in the world, Alberta is the largest producer of conventional crude oil, synthetic crude, natural gas and natural gas liquids products in Canada.

text: Oil sands[edit]

text: Alberta's oil sands underlie 142,200 square kilometres (54,900 sq mi) of land in the Athabasca, Cold Lake and Peace River areas in northern Alberta - a vast area of boreal forest which is larger than England. The Athabasca oil sands is the only large oil field in the world suitable for surface mining, while the Cold Lake oil sands and the Peace River oil sands must be produced by drilling.[14] With the advancement of extraction methods, bitumen and economical synthetic crude are produced at costs nearing that of conventional crude. This technology grew and developed in Alberta. Many companies employ both conventional strip mining and non-conventional methods to extract the bitumen from the Athabasca deposit. About 24 billion cubic metres (150 Gbbl) of the remaining oil sands are considered recoverable at current prices with current technology.[13] The city of Fort McMurray developed nearby to service the oil sands operations, but its remote location in the otherwise uncleared boreal forest became a problem when the entire population of 80,000 had to be evacuated on short notice because of the 2016 Fort McMurray Wildfire which enveloped the city and destroyed over 2,400 homes.[15]

text: Oil fields[edit]

text: Major oil fields are found in southeast Alberta (Brooks, Medicine Hat, Lethbridge), northwest (Grande Prairie, High Level, Rainbow Lake, Zama), central (Caroline, Red Deer), and northeast (heavy crude oil found adjacent to the oil sands.)

text: Structural regions include: Foothills, Greater Arch, Deep Basin.

text: Oil upgraders[edit]

text: There are five oil sands upgraders in Alberta which convert crude bitumen to synthetic crude oil, some of which also produce refined products such as diesel fuel. These have a combined capacity of 1.3 million barrels per day (210,000 m3/d) of crude bitumen.[16]

text:
The Shell Canada Scotford Upgrader at Fort Saskatchewan, Alberta has a capacity of 255,000 barrels per day (40,500 m3/d) of crude bitumen.
The Suncor Energy upgrader near Fort McMurray, Alberta has a capacity of 440,000 barrels per day (70,000 m3/d) of crude bitumen.
The Syncrude Mildred Lake upgrader near Fort McMurray has a capacity of 407,000 barrels per day (64,700 m3/d)
The China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC) Long Lake upgrader near Fort McMurray has a capacity of 72,000 barrels per day (11,400 m3/d)
The Canadian Natural Resources Ltd (CNRL) Horizon upgrader near Fort McMurray has a capacity of 156,000 barrels per day (24,800 m3/d)

text: Oil pipelines[edit]

text: Since it is Canada's largest oil producing province, Alberta is the hub of Canadian crude oil pipeline systems. About 415,000 kilometres (258,000 mi) of Canada’s oil and gas pipelines operate solely within Alberta’s boundaries and fall under the jurisdiction of the Alberta Energy Regulator. Pipelines that cross provincial or federal borders are regulated by the National Energy Board.[17] Major pipelines carrying oil from Alberta to markets in other provinces and US states include:[18]

text:
The Interprovincial Pipeline System (now called the Enbridge Pipeline System) was built in 1950 to transport crude oil from Edmonton, Alberta to Superior, Wisconsin where it supplies the Midwestern United States. In 1953 it was extended to Sarnia, Ontario to supply the Ontario market, and in 1976 to Montreal, Quebec.
The Trans Mountain Pipeline System (now operated by Kinder Morgan) was built in 1953 to transport crude oil and refined products from Edmonton to Vancouver, BC. It also supplies feedstock to large US oil refineries in the state of Washington. Only crude oil and condensate are shipped to the United States.[19]
The Norman Wells Pipeline (now owned by Enbridge) was built in 1985 to carry crude oil from Norman Wells, NWT to Zama City, Alberta, where it connects with the Alberta pipeline network.
The Express Pipeline was built in 1997 to carry oil from the Alberta pipeline hub at Hardisty, Alberta to the US states of Montana, Utah, Wyoming and Colorado.
The Keystone Pipeline was built in 2011 to carry oil from Hardisty, Alberta to the major US pipeline hub at Cushing, Oklahoma, where it connects to pipelines to Texas, Louisiana, and many of the Eastern United States.

text: Oil refineries[edit]

text: There are four oil refineries in Alberta with a combined capacity of over 458,200 barrels per day (72,850 m3/d) of crude oil. Most of these are located on what is known as Refinery Row in Strathcona County near Edmonton, Alberta, which supplies products to most of Western Canada. In addition to refined products such as gasoline and diesel fuel, the refineries and upgraders also produce off-gases, which are used as feedstock by nearby petrochemical plants.[16]

text:
The Suncor Energy (Petro Canada) refinery near Edmonton has a capacity of 142,000 barrels per day (22,600 m3/d) of crude oil.
The Imperial Oil Strathcona Refinery near Edmonton has a capacity of 187,200 barrels per day (29,760 m3/d).
The Shell Canada Scotford Refinery near Edmonton has a capacity of 100,000 barrels per day (16,000 m3/d). It is located adjacent to the Shell Scotford Upgrader, which provides it with feedstock.
The Husky Lloydminster Refinery at Lloydminster, in eastern Alberta has a capacity of 29,000 barrels per day (4,600 m3/d). It is located across the provincial border from the Husky Lloydminster Heavy Oil Upgrader at LLoydminster, Saskatchewan, which provides it with feedstock. (Lloydminster is not a twin city but is chartered by both provinces as a single city that crosses the border.)

text: Other oil-related activities[edit]

text: Two of the largest producers of petrochemicals in North America are located in central and north central Alberta. In both Red Deer and Edmonton, world class polyethylene and vinyl manufacturers produce products shipped all over the world, and Edmonton's oil refineries provide the raw materials for a large petrochemical industry to the east of Edmonton. There are hundreds of small companies in Alberta dedicated to providing various services to this industry—from drilling to well maintenance, pipeline maintenance to seismic exploration.

text: While Edmonton (population 1.36 million in 2015[20]) is the provincial capital and is considered the pipeline, manufacturing, chemical processing, research and refining centre of the Canadian oil industry, its rival city Calgary (population 1.44 million[20]) is the main oil company head office and financial centre, with more than 960 senior and junior oil company offices. Calgary also has regional offices of all six major Canadian banks, some 4,300 petroleum, energy and related service companies, and 1,300 financial service companies, helping make it the second largest head office city in Canada after Toronto.[21]

text: Oil and gas activity is regulated by the Alberta Energy Regulator (AER) (Formerly the Alberta Energy Resources Conservation Board (ERCB)and the Energy and Utility Board (EUB)).[22]

text: Saskatchewan[edit]

text: Saskatchewan is Canada's second largest oil-producing province after Alberta, producing about 13.5% of Canada's petroleum in 2015. This included light crude oil, heavy crude oil, and natural-gas condensate. Most of its production is heavy oil but, unlike Alberta, none of Saskatchewan's heavy oil deposits are officially classified as bituminous sands. In 2015 Saskatchewan produced an average of 83,814 cubic metres per day (527,000 bbl/d) oil and equivalent production.[11]

text: Oil fields[edit]

text: All of Saskatchewan's oil is produced from the vast Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin, about 25% of which underlies the province. Lying toward the shallower eastern end of the sedimentary basin, Saskatchewan tends to produce more oil and less natural gas than other parts. It has four major oil producing regions:[23]

text:
The Lloydminster area in west-central Saskatchewan has very large reserves of very heavy crude oil. (The oil field crosses the Alberta/Saskatchewan border, as do the production facilities.)[24]
The Kindersley area in south-central Saskatchewan produces light crude oil using hydraulic fracturing from Saskatchewan's portion of the Bakken Formation, which also produces most of North Dakota's oil.
The Swift Current area in southwest Saskatchewan produces mostly conventional oil.
The Weyburn area in southeast Saskatchewan produces oil using carbon dioxide flooding in the Weyburn-Midale Carbon Dioxide Project, the world's largest carbon capture and storage project.

text: Oil upgraders[edit]

text: There are two heavy oil upgraders in Saskatchewan.[25]

text:
The NewGrade Energy Upgrader, part of the CCRL Refinery Complex in Regina, processes 8,740 cubic metres per day (55,000 bbl/d) of heavy oil from the Lloydminster area into synthetic crude oil.
The Husky Energy Bi-Provincial Upgrader on the Saskatchewan side of Lloydminster processes 10,800 cubic metres per day (68,000 bbl/d) of heavy oil from Alberta and Saskatchewan to lighter crude oil. In addition to selling synthetic crude oil to other refineries, it supplies feedstock to the Husky Lloydminster Refinery on the Alberta side of the border. (Lloydminster is not twin cities but is a single bi-provincial city that straddles the Alberta/Saskatchewan border.)[24]

text: Oil refineries[edit]

text: The majority of the province's refining capacity is in a single complex in the provincial capital of Regina:[25]

text:
The CCRL Refinery Complex operated by Federated Co-operatives in Regina processes 8,000 cubic metres per day (50,000 bbl/d) into conventional refinery products. It receives much of its feedstock from the NewGrade upgrader.
Moose Jaw Asphalt Inc. operates a 500 cubic metres per day (3,100 bbl/d) asphalt plant in Moose Jaw.

text: Oil and gas activity is regulated by the Saskatchewan Industry and Resources (SIR).[26]

text: Newfoundland and Labrador[edit]

text: Newfoundland and Labrador is Canada's third largest oil producing province, producing about 4.4% of Canada's petroleum in 2015. This consisted almost exclusively of light crude oil produced by offshore oil facilities on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. In 2015 these offshore fields produced an average of 27,373 cubic metres per day (172,000 bbl/d) of light crude oil.[11]

text: Oil fields[edit]

text:
The Hibernia oil field is located approximately 315 kilometres (196 mi) east-southeast of St. John's, Newfoundland. The field was discovered in 1979 and has been producing since 1997. The Hibernia Gravity Base Structure is the world's largest oil platform by weight since it has to withstand collisions by icebergs.
The Terra Nova oil field is located 350 kilometres (220 mi) off the east coast of Newfoundland. The field was discovered in 1984 and has been producing since 2002. It uses a Floating Production Storage and Offloading (FPSO) vessel rather than a fixed platform to produce oil.
The White Rose oil field is located 350 kilometres (220 mi) off the east coast of Newfoundland. The field was discovered in 1984 and has been producing since 2005. It uses a FPSO vessel to produce oil.

text: Oil refinery[edit]

text: Newfoundland has one oil refinery, the Come By Chance Refinery, which has a capacity of 115,000 barrels per day (18,300 m3/d). The refinery was built before the discovery of oil offshore Newfoundland to process cheap imported oil and sell the products mainly in the United States. Unfortunately the startup of the refinery in 1973 coincided with the 1973 oil crisis which quadrupled the price of the refinery's crude oil supply. This and technical problems caused the refinery to go bankrupt in 1976. It was restarted under new owners in 1986 and has gone through a series of owners until the present date when it is operated by North Atlantic Refining Limited.[27] However despite the fact that major oil fields were subsequently discovered offshore of Newfoundland, the refinery was not designed to process the type of oil they produced, and it did not process any Newfoundland oil at all until 2014. Until then all of Newfoundland's production went to refineries in the United States and elsewhere in Canada, while the refinery imported all its oil from other countries.[28]

text: British Columbia[edit]

text: British Columbia produced an average of 8,643 cubic metres per day (54,000 bbl/d) oil and equivalent in 2015, or about 1.4% of Canada's petroleum. About 38% of this liquids production was light crude oil, but most of it (62%) was natural-gas condensate.[11]

text: British Columbia's oil fields lie at the gas-prone northwest end of the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin, and its oil industry is secondary to the larger natural gas industry. Drilling for gas and oil takes place in Peace Country of north-eastern British Columbia, around Fort Nelson (Greater Sierra oil field), Fort St. John (Pink Mountain, Ring Border) and Dawson Creek

text: Oil and gas activity in BC is regulated by the Oil and Gas Commission (OGC).[29]

text: Oil refineries[edit]

text: BC has only two remaining oil refineries.[9]

text:
The Husky Energy Prince George Refinery in Prince George, BC processes 12,000 barrels per day (1,900 m3/d) of light oil produced locally in northeastern BC.
The Chevron Canada Burnaby Refinery in the Vancouver suburb of Burnaby processes 55,000 barrels per day (8,700 m3/d) of light oil received from Alberta via the Kinder Morgan Trans Mountain Pipeline System.

text: There once were four oil refineries in the Vancouver area, but Imperial Oil, Shell Canada, and Petro Canada converted their refineries to product terminals in the 1990s and now supply the BC market from their large refineries near Edmonton, Alberta, which are closer to Canada's oil sands and largest oil fields.[30] Chevron's refinery is at risk of closure due to difficulties in getting oil supply from Alberta via the capacity-limited Trans Mountain Pipeline, its only pipeline link to the rest of Canada.[31]

text: In June 2016 Chevron put its oil refinery in Burnaby, BC up for sale, along with its fuel distribution network in British Columbia and Alberta. “The company acknowledges these are challenging times and we need to be open to changing market conditions and opportunities as they arise,” a company representative said. The refinery, which started production in 1935, has 430 employees. Chevron's offer to sell follows Imperial Oil's sale of 497 Esso gas stations in B.C. and Alberta. It is unclear what will happen if Chevron fails to sell its BC assets.[32]

text: Manitoba[edit]

text: Manitoba produced an average of 7,283 cubic metres per day (46,000 bbl/d) of light crude oil in 2015, or about 1.2% of Canada's petroleum production.[11]

text: Manitoba's oil production is in southwest Manitoba along the northeast flank of the Williston Basin, a large geological structural basin which also underlies parts of southern Saskatchewan, North Dakota, South Dakota and Montana. Unlike in Saskatchewan, very little of Manitoba's oil is heavy crude oil.[33]

text: A few rigs drilling for oil in South western Manitoba

text: There are no oil refineries in Manitoba.

text: Northern Canada (onshore)[edit]

text: The Northwest Territories produced an average of 1,587 cubic metres per day (10,000 bbl/d) of light crude oil in 2015, or about 0.2% of Canada's petroleum production.[11] There is an historic large oil field at Norman Wells, which has produced most of its oil since it started producing 1937, and is continuing to produce at low rates. There used to be an oil refinery at Norman Wells, but it was closed in 1996 and all of the oil is now pipelined out to refineries in Alberta.[34]

text: Drilling for tight oil in the Canol shale play near Norman Wells by Husky Energy and others.[35]

text: Northern Canada (offshore)[edit]

text: Extensive drilling was done in the Canadian Arctic during the 1970s and 1980s by such companies as Panarctic Oils Ltd., Petro Canada and Dome Petroleum. After 176 wells were drilled at a cost of billions of dollars, a modest 1.9 billion barrels (300×10^6 m3) of oil were found. None of the finds were big enough to pay for the multibillion-dollar production and transportation schemes required to bring the oil out, so all the wells which had been drilled were plugged and abandoned.[36] In addition, after the Deepwater Horizon explosion in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010, new rules were introduced which discouraged companies from drilling in the Canadian Arctic offshore.[37]

text:
There is currently no offshore oil production in northern Canada
There is currently no offshore drilling in northern Canada

text: Eastern Canada (onshore)[edit]

text: Ontario produced an average of 157 cubic metres per day (1,000 bbl/d) of light crude oil in 2015, or less than 0.03% of Canada's petroleum production. Onshore production in other provinces east of Ontario was even more insignificant.[11]

text: Oil fields[edit]

text: Ontario was the centre of the Canadian oil industry in the 19th century. It had the oldest commercial oil well in North America (dug by hand in 1858 at Oil Springs, Ontario, a year before the Drake Well was drilled in Pennsylvania), and having the oldest producing oil field in North America (producing crude oil continuously since 1861). However, it reached its production peak and started to decline more than 100 years ago.[38]

text:
Sporadic drilling in southern Ontario
Sporadic drilling in western Newfoundland
Sporadic drilling in northern Nova Scotia and western Cape Breton Island
Sporadic drilling in northern and eastern Prince Edward Island

text: Oil pipelines[edit]

text: Canada had one of the world’s first oil pipelines in 1862 when a pipeline was built to deliver oil from Petrolia, Ontario to refineries at Sarnia, Ontario. However, Ontario's oil fields began to decline toward the end of the 19th century, and by World War II Canada was importing 90% of its oil. By 1947, only three Canadian crude oil pipelines existed. One was built to handle only Alberta production. A second moved imported crude from coastal Maine to Montreal, while the third brought American oil into Ontario.[39] However, in 1947 the first big oil discovery was made in Alberta when Leduc No. 1 struck oil in a suburb of Edmonton, Alberta. It was followed by many even larger discoveries in Alberta, so pipelines were built to take the newly discovered oil to refineries in the American Midwest and from there to refineries in Ontario.[40]

text:
The Interprovincial Pipeline (now known as Enbridge) was built in 1950 to take Alberta oil to US refineries. In 1953 it was extended through the US to Sarnia, Ontario and in 1956 to Toronto. This made it the longest crude oil pipeline in the world.
The Interprovincial Pipeline was extended to Montreal in 1976 after the 1973 oil crisis interrupted foreign oil supplies to Eastern Canada.
The Portland–Montreal Pipe Line was built during World War II to bring imported oil from the marine terminal at South Portland, Maine through the United States to Montreal. As of 2016, the pipeline is no longer operational since the only remaining Montreal Refinery, is now owned by Suncor Energy, which produces enough oil to meet its needs from the Canadian oil sands.[41]

text: Oil refineries[edit]

text: Despite having very little oil production, Eastern Canada has a large number of oil refineries. The ones in Ontario were built close to the historic oil fields of southern Ontario; the ones in provinces to the east were built to process oil imported from other countries. After Leduc No. 1 was discovered in 1947, the much larger oil fields in Alberta began to supply Ontario refineries. After the 1973 oil crisis drastically increased the price of imported oil, the economics of refineries became unfavorable, and many of them closed. In particular, Montreal, which had six oil refineries in 1973, now has only one.[42]

text: Ontario

text:
Nanticoke Refinery - (Imperial Oil), 112,000 bbl/d (17,800 m3/d)
Sarnia - (Imperial Oil), 115,000 bbl/d (18,300 m3/d)
Sarnia - (Suncor Energy), 85,000 bbl/d (13,500 m3/d)
Corunna - (Shell Canada), 72,000 bbl/d (11,400 m3/d)
Mississauga - (Suncor Energy), 15,600 bbl/d (2,480 m3/d)

text: Quebec

text:
Montreal Refinery - (Suncor Energy), 140,000 bbl/d (22,000 m3/d).
Lévis - (Valero Energy Corporation)), 265,000 bbl/d (42,100 m3/d)

text: New Brunswick

text: Irving Oil Refinery, Saint John (Irving Oil), 300,000 bbl/d (48,000 m3/d)

text: Newfoundland and Labrador

text: North Atlantic Refinery, Come By Chance - (North Atlantic Refining), 115,000 bbl/d (18,300 m3/d)

text: Eastern Canada (offshore)[edit]

text: The province of Newfoundland and Labrador is Canada's third largest oil producer with 27,373 cubic metres per day (172,000 bbl/d) of light crude oil from its Grand Banks offshore oil fields in 2015, about 4.4% of Canada's petroleum. See the Newfoundland and Labrador section above for details. Most of the other offshore production was in the province of Nova Scotia, which produced 438 cubic metres per day (2,750 bbl/d) of natural gas condensate from its Sable Island offshore natural gas fields in 2015, or about 0.07% of Canada's petroleum.[11]

text:
Offshore oil drilling and production at Hibernia, Terra Nova, and White Rose fields off the coast of Newfoundland
Offshore gas drilling and production on Sable Island fields off the coast of Nova Scotia
Sporadic drilling along continental shelf off Nova Scotia (e.g. Shelburne Basin)
Sporadic drilling in Laurentian fan at southern end of Cabot Strait
Sporadic drilling in eastern Northumberland Strait

text: Long-term outlook[edit]

text:
Oil Production In North America

Canadian conventional oil production peaked in 1973, but oil sands production is forecast to increase to at least 2020

US oil production (crude oil only) and Hubbert high estimate.

Mexican production peaked in 2004 and is now in decline

text: Broadly speaking Canadian conventional oil production (via standard deep drilling) peaked in the mid-1970s, but East Coast offshore basins being exploited in Atlantic Canada did not peak until 2007 and are still producing at relatively high rates.[43]

text: Production from the Alberta oil sands is still in its early stages and the province's established bitumen resources will last for generations into the future. The Alberta Energy Regulator estimates that the province has 50 billion cubic metres (310,000 MMbbl) of ultimately recoverable bitumen resources. At the 2014 production rate of 366,300 cubic metres per day (2.3 Mbbl/d), they would last for about 375 years. The AER projects that bitumen production will increase to 641,800 cubic metres per day (4.0 Mbbl/d) by 2024, but at that rate they would still last for about 213 years.[44]:3-10 – 3-26 Because of the enormous size of the known oil sands deposits, economic, labor, environmental, and government policy considerations are the constraints on production rather than finding new deposits.

text: In addition, the Alberta Energy Regulator has recently identified over 67 billion cubic metres (420 Gbbl) of unconventional shale oil resources in the province.[44]:4-3 This volume is larger than the province's oil sands resources, and if developed would give Canada the largest crude oil reserves in the world. However, due to the recent nature of the discoveries there are not yet any plans to develop them.

text: Oil fields of Canada[edit]

text: These oil fields are or were economically important to the Canadian economy:

text:
Oil Springs, Ontario
Turner Valley oil field, Alberta
Leduc oil field, Alberta
Pembina oil field, Alberta
Athabasca oil sands, Alberta
Peace River oil sands, Alberta
Cold Lake oil sands, Alberta
Duvernay Formation, Alberta (shale oil and gas)
Montney Formation, Alberta, BC (shale oil and gas)
Hibernia oil field, offshore Newfoundland
Terra Nova oil field, offshore Newfoundland
White Rose oil field, offshore Newfoundland

text: Upstream, midstream and downstream components of Canadian petroleum industry[edit]

text: There are three components of the Canadian petroleum industry: upstream, midstream and downstream.

text: Upstream[edit]

text: The upstream oil sector is also commonly known as the exploration and production (E&P) sector.[45][46][47]

text: The upstream sector includes the searching for potential underground or underwater crude oil and natural gas fields, drilling of exploratory wells, and subsequently drilling and operating the wells that recover and bring the crude oil and/or raw natural gas to the surface. With the development of methods for extracting methane from coal seams,[48] there has been a significant shift toward including unconventional gas as a part of the upstream sector, and corresponding developments in liquified natural gas (LNG) processing and transport. The upstream sector of the petroleum industry includes Extraction of petroleum, Oil production plant, Oil refinery and Oil well.

text: Midstream[edit]

text: The midstream sector involves the transportation (by pipeline, rail, barge, or truck), storage, and wholesale marketing of crude or refined petroleum products. Pipelines and other transport systems can be used to move crude oil from production sites to refineries and deliver the various refined products to downstream distributors.[45][46][47] Natural gas pipeline networks aggregate gas from natural gas purification plants and deliver it to downstream customers, such as local utilities. The midstream operations are often taken to include some elements of the upstream and downstream sectors. For example, the midstream sector may include natural gas processing plants which purify the raw natural gas as well as removing and producing elemental sulfur and natural gas liquids (NGL) as finished end-products. Midstream service providers in Canada refer to Barge companies, Railroad companies, Trucking and hauling companies, Pipeline transport companies, Logistics and technology companies, Transloading companies and Terminal developers and operators. Development of the massive oil sand reserves in Alberta would be facilitated by development of a North American pipeline network which would transport dilbit to refineries or export facilities.[49]

text: Getting to tidewater[edit]

text: Canada's oil sands for example are landlocked and it is crucial to the petroleum industry that transportation of petroleum products keep pace with production. Currently landlocked Canadian oil sands petroleum products suffer huge losses on price differentials. Until Canadian crude oil, Western Canadian Select, accesses international prices like LLS or Maya crude oil by getting to tidewater (south to the US Gulf ports via Keystone XL for example, west to the BC Pacific coast via the proposed Northern Gateway line to ports at Kitimat, BC or north via the northern hamlet of Tuktoyaktuk, near the Beaufort Sea.,[50] the Alberta government (and to some extent, the Canadian government) loses from $4 billion to $30 billion [51] in tax and royalty revenues, because the primary product of the oil sands, Western Canadian Select (WCS), the bitumen crude oil basket, is discounted so heavily against West Texas Intermediate (WTI) while Maya crude oil, a similar product close to tidewater, is reaching peak prices.[51] Calgary-based Canada West Foundation warned in April 2013, that Alberta is "running up against a [pipeline capacity] wall around 2016, when we will have barrels of oil we can’t move."[50]

text: Frustrated by delays in getting approval for Keystone XL (via the US Gulf of Mexico), the Enbridge Northern Gateway Pipelines (via Kitimat, BC) and the expansion of the existing TransMountain line to Vancouver, British Columbia, Alberta has intensified exploration of two northern projects "to help the province get its oil to tidewater, making it available for export to overseas markets." [50] Under Prime Minister Stephen Harper, the Canadian government spent $9 million by May, 2012, and $16.5 million by May, 2013, to promote Keystone XL.[52]

text: In the United States, Democrats are concerned that Keystone XL would simply facilitate getting Alberta oil sands products to tidewater for export to China and other countries via the American Gulf Coast of Mexico.[52]

text: Port Metro Vancouver has a number of petroleum terminals, including: Suncor's Burrard Products Terminal, Imperial Oil Limited'a Ioco in Burrard Inlet East, Kinder Morgan Westridge Kinder Morgan Westridge in Burnaby, Shell Canada's Shellburn, Chevron Canada Ltd.'s Stanovan in Burnaby.[53]

text: Downstream[edit]

text: The downstream sector commonly refers to the refining of petroleum crude oil and the processing and purifying of raw natural gas,[45][46][47] as well as the marketing and distribution of products derived from crude oil and natural gas. The downstream sector touches consumers through products such as gasoline or petrol, kerosene, jet fuel, diesel oil, heating oil, fuel oils, lubricants, waxes, asphalt, natural gas, and liquified petroleum gas (LPG) as well as hundreds of petrochemicals. Midstream operations are often included in the downstream category and considered to be a part of the downstream sector.

text: Crude oil[edit]

text: Crude oil, for example, Western Canadian Select (WCS) is a mixture of many varieties of hydrocarbons and most usually has many sulfur-containing compounds. The refining process converts most of that sulfur into gaseous hydrogen sulfide. Raw natural gas also may contain gaseous hydrogen sulfide and sulfur-containing mercaptans, which are removed in natural gas processing plants before the gas is distributed to consumers. The hydrogen sulfide removed in the refining and processing of crude oil and natural gas is subsequently converted into byproduct elemental sulfur. In fact, the vast majority of the 64,000,000 metric tons of sulfur produced worldwide in 2005 was byproduct sulfur from refineries and natural gas processing plants.[54][55]

text: Regulatory agencies in Canada[edit]

text: See also Energy policy of Canada

text: The jurisdiction over the petroleum industry in Canada, which includes energy policies regulating the petroleum industry, is shared between the federal and provincial and territorial governments. Provincial governments have jurisdiction over the exploration, development, conservation, and management of non-renewable resources such as petroleum products. Federal jurisdiction in energy is primarily concerned with regulation of inter-provincial and international trade (which included pipelines) and commerce, and the management of non-renewable resources such as petroleum products on federal lands.[56]

text: Natural Resources Canada (NRCan)[edit]

text: Oil and Gas Policy and Regulatory Affairs Division (Oil and Gas Division) of Natural Resources Canada (NRCan) provides an annual review of and summaries of trending of crude oil, natural gas and petroleum product industry in Canada and the United States (US)[57]

text: National Energy Board[edit]

text: The petroleum industry is also regulated by the National Energy Board (NEB), an independent federal regulatory agency. The NEB regulates inter-provincial and international oil and gas pipelines and power lines; the export and import of natural gas under long-term licenses and short-term orders, oil exports under long-term licenses and short-term orders (no applications for long-term exports have been filed in recent years), and frontier lands and offshore areas not covered by provincial/federal management agreements.

text: In 1985, the federal government and the provincial governments in Alberta, British Columbia and Saskatchewan agreed to deregulate the prices of crude oil and natural gas. Offshore oil Atlantic Canada is administered under joint federal and provincial responsibility in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and Labrador.[56]

text: Provincial regulatory agencies[edit]

text: There were few regulations in the early years of the petroleum industry. In Turner Valley, Alberta for example, where the first significant field of petroleum was found in 1914, it was common to extract a small amount of petroleum liquids by flaring off about 90% of the natural gas. According to a 2001 report that amount of gas that would have been worth billions. In 1938 the Alberta provincial government responded to the conspicuous and wasteful burning of natural gas. By the time crude oil was discovered in the Turner Valley field, in 1930, most of the free gas cap had been flared off.[58] The Alberta Petroleum and Natural Gas Conservation Board (today known as the Energy Resources Conservation Board) was established in 1931 to initiate conservation measures but by that time the Depression caused a waning of interest in petroleum production in Turner Valley which was revived from 1939-1945.[59]


document_title: National sport

question_text: what is the national sport of the usa

question_tokens: what is the national sport of the usa

text: National sport

text: De jure national sports[edit]

text: Sport declared as national sport by a law

text:
Country

Sport

Year defined as national sport

 Argentina

Pato

1953[1]

 Bahamas

Cricket

1973[2]

 Bangladesh

Kabaddi

1972[3]

 Brazil

Capoeira

1972[4]

 Canada

Lacrosse (summer), Ice hockey (winter)

1994[5]

 Chile

Chilean Rodeo

1962[6]

 Colombia

Tejo

2000[7]

 Iran

Varzesh-e Bastani, Wrestling, Polo

1976[8]

 Mexico

Charrería

1933[9]

 Namibia

Football, Netball, Rugby

2018[10]

   Nepal

Volleyball

2017[11]

 Philippines

Arnis

2009[12]

 Puerto Rico

Paso Fino ("autochthonous sport")

1966[13]

 South Korea

Taekwondo

2018[14]

 Sri Lanka

Volleyball

1991[15]

 Uruguay

Destrezas Criollas(Creole [i.e. gaucho] Skills[16])

2006[17]

text: De facto national sports[edit]

text:
Country

Sport

 Afghanistan

Buzkashi[18]

 Anguilla

Yacht racing[19]

 Antigua and Barbuda

Cricket[20]

 Bermuda

Cricket[21]

 Basque Country

Basque pelota[22]

 Barbados

Cricket[23]

 Bhutan

Archery[24][25]

 Cuba

Baseball[26][27][28]

 Denmark

Association football,[29] Handball[30]

 Dominican Republic

Baseball[31]

 Estonia

Basketball[32]

 Finland

Pesäpallo[33]

 Georgia

Rugby union[34]

 Grenada

Cricket[35]

 Guyana

Cricket[36][37] or Water polo[38]

 Haiti

Association football[39]

 Iceland

Handball[40]

 India

Field hockey[41][42]

 Indonesia

Pencak Silat[43]

 Israel

Association football[44]

 Ireland

Gaelic games[45][46][47]

 Jamaica

Cricket[48]

 Japan

Sumo[49]

 Lithuania

Basketball[50][51]

 Madagascar

Rugby union[52][53]

 Malaysia

Sepak takraw[54][55]

 Mauritius

Association football[56]

 Mongolia

Archery, Mongolian wrestling, Horse racing[57][58]

 New Zealand

Rugby union[59]

 Norway

Cross-country skiing (winter)[60][61]

 Pakistan

Field Hockey[41][42]

 Papua New Guinea

Rugby league[62][63]

 Peru

Paleta Frontón[64]

 Philippines

Sipa[65]

 Romania

Oină[66]

 Russia

Bandy[67]

 Scotland

Golf[68]

 Slovenia

Alpine skiing,[69][69]

 Spain

Bullfighting,[70]

 Tajikistan

Gushtigiri[71]

 Turkey

Oil wrestling[72] & Cirit[73]

 Turks and Caicos Islands

Cricket[74]

 United States

Baseball[75][76][77]

 Venezuela

Baseball[78][79]

 Wales

Rugby union[80]


document_title: Lists of countries by mineral production

question_text: in production of which mineral india is a leading country

text: Fuels[edit]

text: Fossil fuels[edit]

text:
Fossil fuel
Largest Producer
second largest producer
Complete list

Coal[1]
 China
 United States
List of countries by coal production

Natural gas[2]
 United States
 Russia
List of countries by natural gas production

Petroleum[3]
 Russia
 Saudi Arabia
List of countries by oil production

text: Atomic fuel[edit]

text:
Atomic fuel
Largest Producer
Second Largest Producer
Complete list

Uranium[4]
 Kazakhstan
 Canada
List of countries by uranium production

Thorium[5]
 India
 Australia
Occurrence of thorium

text: Gemstones[edit]

text:
Gem
Largest Producer
Second Largest Producer
Complete list

Fluorite[6]
 China
 Mexico
List of countries by fluorite production

Diamond[7]
 Russia
 Botswana

text: Metals[edit]

text:
Metal
Leading Producer
Second Leading Producer
Complete list

Aluminium[8]
 China
 Russia
List of countries by aluminium production

Bauxite[9]
 Australia
 China
List of countries by bauxite production

Bismuth[10]
 China
 Mexico
List of countries by bismuth production

Copper[11]
 Chile
 China
List of countries by copper production

Gold[12]
 China
 Australia
List of countries by gold production

Iron ore[13]
 Australia
 Brazil
List of countries by iron ore production

Lithium[14]
 Australia
 Chile
List of countries by lithium production

Manganese[15]
 South Africa
 Australia
List of countries by manganese production

Mica[16]
 India
 Russia
Mica

Nickel[17]
 Philippines
 Russia

Niobium[18]
 Brazil
 Canada

Palladium[19]
 Russia
 South Africa
List of countries by palladium production

Platinum[20]
 South Africa
 Russia
List of countries by platinum production

Silver[21]
 Mexico
 China
List of countries by silver production

Tin[22]
 China
 Indonesia
List of countries by tin production

Titanium[23]
 Australia
 South Africa (tied)
List of countries by titanium production

Zinc[24]
 China
 Australia
List of countries by zinc production


document_title: Granary

question_text: where was surplus grain stored in indus valley cities

text: Granary

text: Early origins[edit]

text: From ancient times grain has been stored in bulk.[1] The oldest granaries yet found date back to 9500 BC[2] and are located in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A settlements in the Jordan Valley. The first were located in places between other buildings. However beginning around 8500 BC, they were moved inside houses, and by 7500 BC storage occurred in special rooms.[2] The first granaries measured 3 x 3 m on the outside and had suspended floors that protected the grain from rodents and insects and provided air circulation.[2]

text: These granaries are followed by those in Mehrgarh in the Indus Valley from 6000 BC. The ancient Egyptians made a practice of preserving grain in years of plenty against years of scarcity. The climate of Egypt being very dry, grain could be stored in pits for a long time without discernible loss of quality.

text: Historically, a silo was a pit for storing grain. It is distinct from a granary, which is an above-ground structure.

text: East Asia[edit]

text: Simple storage granaries raised up on four or more posts appeared in the Yangshao culture in China and after the onset of intensive agriculture in the Korean peninsula during the Mumun pottery period (c. 1000 B.C.) as well as in the Japanese archipelago during the Final Jōmon/Early Yayoi periods (c. 800 B.C.). In the archaeological vernacular of Northeast Asia, these features are lumped with those that may have also functioned as residences and together are called 'raised floor buildings'.

text: Southeast Asia[edit]

text: In vernacular architecture of Indonesian archipelago granaries are made of wood and bamboo materials and most of them are built raised up on four or more posts to avoid rodents and insects. Examples of Indonesian granary is Sundanese leuit and Minang rangkiang.

text: Great Britain[edit]

text: In Great Britain small granaries were built on mushroom shaped stumps called staddle stones. They were built of timber frame construction and often had slate roofs. Larger ones were similar to linhays, but with the upper floor enclosed. Access to the first floor was usually via stone staircase on the outside wall.[3]

text: Towards the close of the 19th century, warehouses specially intended for holding grain began to multiply in Great Britain. There are climatic difficulties in the way of storing grain in Great Britain on a large scale, but these difficulties have been largely overcome.[1]

text: Modern[edit]

text: Modern grain farming operations often use manufactured steel granaries to store grain on-site until it can be trucked to major storage facilities in anticipation of shipping. The large mechanized facilities, particularly seen in Russia and North America are known as grain elevators.

text: Moisture control[edit]

text: Grain must be kept away from moisture for as long as possible to preserve it in good condition and prevent mold growth. Newly harvested grain brought into a granary tends to contain excess moisture, which encourages mold growth leading to fermentation and heating, both of which are undesirable and affect quality. Fermentation generally spoils grain and may cause chemical changes that create poisonous mycotoxins.

text: One traditional remedy is to spread the grain in thin layers on a floor, where it is turned to aerate it thoroughly. Once the grain is sufficiently dry it can be transferred to a granary for storage. A modern variation on this, is to use a grain auger to move grain stored in one grainery to another.

text: In modern silos, grain is typically force-aerated in situ or circulated through external grain drying equipment.