document_title: Bear

question_text: where does the term bear market originate from

text: Bear

text: Etymology

text: The English word "bear" comes from Old English bera and belongs to a family of names for the bear in Germanic languages, such as Swedish björn, also used as a first name, that originate from an adjective meaning "brown".[1]

text: Bear taxon names such as Arctoidea and Helarctos come from the ancient Greek word ἄρκτος (arktos), meaning bear,[2] as do the names "arctic" and "antarctic", from the constellation Ursa Major, the "Great Bear", prominent in the northern sky.[3]

text: Bear taxon names such as Ursidae and Ursus come from Latin Ursus/Ursa, he-bear/she-bear.[3] The female first name "Ursula", originally derived from a Christian saint's name, means "little she-bear" (diminutive of Latin ursa). In Switzerland, the male first name "Urs" is especially popular, while the name of the canton and city of Bern is derived from Bär, German for bear. The Germanic name Bernard (including Bernhardt and similar forms) means "bear-brave", "bear-hardy", or "bold bear".[4][5] The Old English name Beowulf is a kenning, "bee-wolf", for bear, in turn meaning a brave warrior.[6]

text: Taxonomy and phylogeny

text: The family Ursidae is one of nine families in the suborder Caniformia, or "doglike" carnivorans, within the order Carnivora. Bears' closest living relatives are the pinnipeds, canids, and musteloids.[7] Modern bears comprise eight species in three subfamilies: Ailuropodinae (monotypic with the giant panda), Tremarctinae (monotypic with the spectacled bear), and Ursinae (containing six species divided into one to three genera, depending on the authority). Nuclear chromosome analysis show that the karyotype of the six ursine bears is nearly identical, with each having 74 chromosomes, whereas the giant panda has 42 chromosomes and the spectacled bear 52. These smaller numbers can be explained by the fusing of some chromosomes, and the banding patterns on these match those of the ursine species, but differ from those of procyonids, which supports the inclusion of these two species in Ursidae rather than in Procyonidae, where they had been placed by some earlier authorities.[8]

text: Evolution

text: The earliest members of Ursidae belong to the extinct subfamily Amphicynodontinae, including Parictis (late Eocene to early middle Miocene, 38–18 Mya) and the slightly younger Allocyon (early Oligocene, 34–30 Mya), both from North America. These animals looked very different from today's bears, being small and raccoon-like in overall appearance, and diets perhaps more similar to that of a badger. Parictis does not appear in Eurasia and Africa until the Miocene.[9] It is unclear whether late-Eocene ursids were also present in Eurasia, although faunal exchange across the Bering land bridge may have been possible during a major sea level low stand as early as the late Eocene (about 37 Mya) and continuing into the early Oligocene.[10] European genera morphologically are very similar to Allocyon, and to the much younger American Kolponomos (about 18 Mya),[11] are known from the Oligocene, including Amphicticeps and Amphicynodon.[10]

text: The raccoon-sized, dog-like Cephalogale is the oldest-known member of the subfamily Hemicyoninae, which first appeared during the middle Oligocene in Eurasia about 30 Mya.[10] The subfamily includes the younger genera Phoberocyon (20–15 Mya), and Plithocyon (15–7 Mya). A Cephalogale-like species gave rise to the genus Ursavus during the early Oligocene (30–28 Mya); this genus proliferated into many species in Asia and is ancestral to all living bears. Species of Ursavus subsequently entered North America, together with Amphicynodon and Cephalogale, during the early Miocene (21–18 Mya). Members of the living lineages of bears diverged from Ursavus between 15 and 20 Mya,[12][13] likely via the species Ursavus elmensis. Based on genetic and morphological data, the Ailuropodinae (pandas) were the first to diverge from other living bears about 19 Mya, although no fossils of this group have been found before about 5 Mya.[14]

text: The New World short-faced bears (Tremarctinae) differentiated from Ursinae following a dispersal event into North America during the mid-Miocene (about 13 Mya).[14] They invaded South America (≈1 Ma) following formation of the Isthmus of Panama.[15] Their earliest fossil representative is Plionarctos in North America (~ 10–2 Ma). This genus is probably the direct ancestor to the North American short-faced bears (genus Arctodus), the South American short-faced bears (Arctotherium), and the spectacled bears, Tremarctos, represented by both an extinct North American species (T. floridanus), and the lone surviving representative of the Tremarctinae, the South American spectacled bear (T. ornatus).[10]

text: The subfamily Ursinae experienced a dramatic proliferation of taxa about 5.3–4.5 Mya, coincident with major environmental changes; the first members of the genus Ursus appeared around this time.[14] The sloth bear is a modern survivor of one of the earliest lineages to diverge during this radiation event (5.3 Mya); it took on its peculiar morphology, related to its diet of termites and ants, no later than by the early Pleistocene. By 3–4 Mya, the species Ursus minimus appears in the fossil record of Europe; apart from its size, it was nearly identical to today's Asian black bear. It is likely ancestral to all bears within Ursinae, perhaps aside from the sloth bear. Two lineages evolved from U. minimus: the black bears (including the sun bear, the Asian black bear, and the American black bear); and the brown bears (which includes the polar bear). Modern brown bears evolved from U. minimus via Ursus etruscus, which itself is ancestral to the extinct Pleistocene cave bear. Species of Ursinae have migrated repeatedly into North America from Eurasia as early as 4 Mya during the early Pliocene. The polar bear is the most recently evolved species and descended from the brown bear around 400,000 years ago.[16][17][18]

text: Phylogeny

text: The bears form a clade within the Carnivora. The red panda is not a bear but a musteloid. The cladogram is based on molecular phylogeny of six genes in Flynn, 2005.[19]

text:
Carnivora

Feliformia

   Caniformia

Canidae

   Arctoidea

Hemicyonidae†

Ursidae

Pinnipedia

Musteloidea

Ailuridae, inc. red panda

Other musteloids

text: The phylogeny of extant bear species is shown in a cladogram based on complete mitochondrial DNA sequences from Yu et al., 2007.[20] The giant panda, followed by the spectacled bear are clearly the oldest species. The relationships of the other species are not very well resolved, though the polar bear and the brown bear form a close grouping.[8]

text:
Ursidae

Brown bear

Polar bear

Asian black bear

American black bear

Sun bear

Sloth bear

Spectacled bear

Giant panda

text: Classification

text: Extant species are shown in bold, extinct taxa are marked †.[21]

text:
Family Ursidae

Subfamily Ailuropodinae[22]

† Ailurarctos

† Ailurarctos lufengensis
† Ailurarctos yuanmouenensis

Ailuropoda (pandas)

Kretzoiarctos beatrix lower jaws, this European species from the Miocene was a relative of the modern giant panda.

† Ailuropoda baconi
† Ailuropoda fovealis
Ailuropoda melanoleuca – giant panda
† Ailuropoda microta
† Ailuropoda wulingshanensis

† Kretzoiarctos

Subfamily Tremarctinae[23]

† Plionarctos

† Plionarctos edensis
† Plionarctos harroldorum

Tremarctos (spectacled bears)

Tremarctos ornatus – spectacled bear
† Tremarctos floridanus – Florida spectacled bear

† Arctodus

Arctodus simus of Pleistocene and Early Holocene North America was the largest known bear.[24]

† Arctodus simus – giant short-faced bear
† Arctodus pristinus

† Arctotherium

Restoration of Arctotherium, a South American Pleistocene genus from a lineage whose only survivor is the spectacled bear

† Arctotherium angustidens
† Arctotherium bonariense
† Arctotherium brasilense
† Arctotherium latidens
† Arctotherium tarijense
† Arctotherium vetustum
† Arctotherium wingei

Subfamily Ursinae

† Ursavus

† Ursavus brevirhinus
† Ursavus depereti
† Ursavus elmensis
† Ursavus pawniensis
† Ursavus primaevus
† Ursavus tedfordi

† Indarctos

Skull of Indarctos atticus. Indarctos was a Miocene genus found across the northern hemisphere.[25]

† Indarctos anthraciti
† Indarctos arctoides
† Indarctos atticus
† Indarctos nevadensis
† Indarctos oregonensis
† Indarctos salmontanus
† Indarctos vireti
† Indarctos zdanskyi

† Agriotherium

Agriotherium mandible, this Miocene to Pleistocene genus is the only known ursid to have lived in sub-Saharan Africa.[26]

† Agriotherium inexpetans
† Agriotherium schneideri
† Agriotherium sivalensis

Melursus

Melursus ursinus – sloth bear

Helarctos

Helarctos malayanus – sun bear

Ursus

† Ursus rossicus
† Ursus sackdillingensis
† Ursus minimus
Ursus thibetanus – Asian black bear
† Ursus abstrusus
Ursus americanus – American black bear
† Ursus etruscus
Ursus arctos – brown bear
Ursus maritimus – polar bear
† Ursus savini
† Ursus deningeri
† Ursus spelaeus – cave bear
† Ursus inopinatus, MacFarlane's bear (cryptid; possibly a hybrid)

† Kolponomos

† Kolponomos clallamensis
† Kolponomos newportensis

text: Physical characteristics

text: Size

text: Bears include the most massive extant terrestrial members of the order Carnivora.[a] Polar bears weigh up to 1,600 lb (730 kg).[27] The smallest are the sun bears of Asia, which weigh up to 150 lb (68 kg).[28] Body weight varies throughout the year in bears of temperate and arctic climates, as they build up fat reserves in the summer and autumn and lose weight during the winter.[30] Head-and-body length can range from 150 cm (59 in) in sun bears[28] to 244 cm (96 in) in polar bears.[27]

text: Morphology

text: Bears are generally bulky and robust animals with short tails. They are sexually dimorphic with regard to size, with males typically being larger.[31][32] Larger species tend to show increased levels of sexual dimorphism in comparison to smaller species.[32] Relying as they do on strength rather than speed, bears have relatively short limbs with thick bones to support their bulk. The shoulder blades and the pelvis are correspondingly massive. The limbs are much straighter than those of the big cats as there is no need for them to flex in the same way due to the differences in their gait. The strong forelimbs are used to catch prey, to excavate dens, to dig out burrowing animals, to turn over rocks and logs to locate prey, and to club large creatures.[30]

text: Unlike most other land carnivorans, bears are plantigrade. They distribute their weight toward the hind feet, which makes them look lumbering when they walk. They are capable of bursts of speed but soon tire, and as a result mostly rely on ambush rather than the chase. Bears can stand on their hind feet and sit up straight with remarkable balance. Their front paws are flexible enough to grasp fruit and leaves. Bears' non-retractable claws are used for digging, climbing, tearing, and catching prey. The claws on the front feet are larger than those on the back and may be a hindrance when climbing trees; black bears are the most arboreal of the bears, and have the shortest claws. Pandas are unique in having a bony extension on the wrist of the front feet which acts as a thumb, and is used for gripping bamboo shoots as the animals feed.[30]

text: Most mammals have agouti hair, with each individual hair shaft having bands of colour corresponding to two different types of melanin pigment. Bears however have a single type of melanin and the hairs have a single colour throughout their length, apart from the tip which is sometimes a different shade. The coat consists of long guard hairs, which form a protective shaggy covering, and short dense hairs which form an insulating layer trapping air close to the skin. The shaggy coat helps maintain body heat during winter hibernation and is shed in the spring leaving a shorter summer coat. Polar bears have hollow, translucent guard hairs which gain heat from the sun and conduct it to the dark-coloured skin below. They have a thick layer of blubber for extra insulation, and the soles of their feet have a dense pad of fur.[30] Other than the bold black-and-white pelage of the panda, bears tend to be uniform in colour, although some species may have markings on the chest or face.[33]

text: Bears have small rounded ears so as to minimise heat loss, but neither their hearing or sight are particularly acute. Unlike many other carnivorans they have colour vision, perhaps to help them distinguish ripe nuts and fruits. They are unique among carnivorans in not having touch-sensitive whiskers on the muzzle; however, they have an excellent sense of smell, better than that of the dog, or possibly any other mammal. They use smell for signalling to each other (either to warn off rivals or detect mates) and for finding food. Smell is the principal sense used by bears to locate most of their food, and they have excellent memories which helps them to relocate places where they have found food before.[30]

text: The skulls of bears are massive, providing anchorage for the powerful masseter and temporal jaw muscles. The canine teeth are large but mostly used for display, and the molar teeth flat and crushing. Unlike most other members of the Carnivora, bears have relatively undeveloped carnassial teeth, and their teeth are adapted for a diet that includes a significant amount of vegetable matter.[30] Considerable variation occurs in dental formula even within a given species. This may indicate bears are still in the process of evolving from a mainly meat-eating diet to a predominantly herbivorous one. Polar bears appear to have secondarily re-evolved carnassial-like cheek teeth, as their diets have switched back towards carnivory.[34] Sloth bears lack lower central incisors and use their protusible lips for sucking up the termites on which they feed.[30] The general dental formula for living bears is: 3.1.2–4.23.1.2–4.3.[30] The structure of the larynx of bears appears to be the most basal of the caniforms.[35] They possess air pouches connected to the pharynx which may amplify their vocalisations.[36]

text: Bears have a fairly simple digestive system typical for carnivorans, with a single stomach, short undifferentiated intestines and no cecum.[37][38] Even the herbivorous giant panda still has the digestive system of a carnivore, as well as carnivore-specific genes. Its ability to digest cellulose is ascribed to the microbes in its gut.[39] Bears must spend much of their time feeding in order to gain enough nutrition from foliage. The panda, in particular, spends 12–15 hours a day feeding.[40]

text: Distribution and habitat

text: Extant bears are found in sixty countries primarily in the Northern Hemisphere and are concentrated in Asia, North America, and Europe. An exception is the spectacled bear; native to South America, it inhabits the Andean region.[41] The sun bear's range extends below the equator in Southeast Asia.[42] The Atlas bear, a subspecies of the brown bear was distributed in North Africa from Morocco to Libya, but it became extinct around the 1870s.[43]

text: The most widespread species is the brown bear, which occurs from Western Europe eastwards through Asia to the western areas of North America. The American black bear is restricted to North America, and the polar bear is restricted to the Arctic Sea. All the remaining species of bear are Asian.[41] They occur in a range of habitats which include tropical lowland rainforest, both coniferous and broadleaf forests, prairies, steppes, montane grassland, alpine scree slopes, Arctic tundra and in the case of the polar bear, ice floes.[41][44] Bears may dig their dens in hillsides or use caves, hollow logs and dense vegetation for shelter.[44]

text: Behaviour and life history

text: Brown and American black bears are generally diurnal, meaning that they are active for the most part during the day, though they may forage substantially by night.[45] Other species may be nocturnal, active at night, though female sloth bears with cubs may feed more at daytime to avoid competition from conspecifics and nocturnal predators.[46] Bears are overwhelmingly solitary and are considered to be the most asocial of all the Carnivora. The only times bears are encountered in small groups are mothers with young or occasional seasonal bounties of rich food (such as salmon runs).[47][48] Fights between males can occur and older individuals may have extensive scarring, which suggests that maintaining dominance can be intense.[49] With their acute sense of smell, bears can locate carcasses from several kilometres away. They use olfaction to locate other foods, encounter mates, avoid rivals and recognise their cubs.[30]

text: Feeding

text: Most bears are opportunistic omnivores and consume more plant than animal matter. They eat anything from leaves, roots, and berries to insects, carrion, fresh meat, and fish, and have digestive systems and teeth adapted to such a diet.[41] At the extremes are the almost entirely herbivorous giant panda and the mostly carnivorous polar bear. However, all bears feed on any food source that becomes seasonally available.[40] For example, Asiatic black bears in Taiwan consume large numbers of acorns when these are most common, and switch to ungulates at other times of the year.[50]

text: When foraging for plants, bears choose to eat them at the stage when they are at their most nutritious and digestible, typically avoiding older grasses, sedges and leaves.[38][40] Hence, in more northern temperate areas, browsing and grazing is more common early in spring and later becomes more restricted.[51] Knowing when plants are ripe for eating is a learned behaviour.[40] Berries may be foraged in bushes or at the tops of trees, and bears try to maximize the number of berries consumed versus foliage.[51] In autumn, some bear species forage large amounts of naturally fermented fruits, which affects their behaviour.[52] Smaller bears climb trees to obtain mast (edible reproductive parts, such as acorns).[53] Such masts can be very important to the diets of these species, and mast failures may result in long-range movements by bears looking for alternative food sources.[54] Brown bears, with their powerful digging abilities, commonly eat roots.[51] The panda's diet is over 99% bamboo,[55] of 30 different species. Its strong jaws are adapted for crushing the tough stems of these plants, though they prefer to eat the more nutritious leaves.[56][57] Bromeliads can make up to 50% of the diet of the spectacled bear, which also has strong jaws to bite them open.[58]

text: The sloth bear, though not as specialised as polar bears and the panda, has lost several front teeth usually seen in bears, and developed a long, suctioning tongue to feed on the ants, termites, and other burrowing insects they favour. At certain times of the year, these insects can make up 90% of their diets.[59] Some species may raid the nests of wasps and bees for the honey and immature insects, in spite of stinging from the adults.[60] Sun bears use their long tongues to lick up both insects and honey.[61] Fish are an important source of food for some species, and brown bears in particular gather in large numbers at salmon runs. Typically, a bear plunges into the water and seizes a fish with its jaws or front paws. The preferred parts to eat are the brain and eggs. Small burrowing mammals like rodents may be dug out and eaten.[62][51]

text: The brown bear and both species of black bears sometimes take large ungulates, such as deer and bovids, mostly the young and weak.[50][63][62] These animals may be taken by a short rush and ambush, though hiding young may be stiffed out and pounced on.[51][64] The polar bear mainly preys on seals, stalking them from the ice or breaking into their dens. They primarily eat the highly digestible blubber.[65][62] Large mammalian prey is typically killed by a bite to the head or neck, or (in the case of young) simply pinned down and mauled.[51][66] Predatory behaviour in bears is typically taught to the young by the mother.[62]

text: Bears are prolific scavengers and kleptoparasites, stealing food caches from rodents, and carcasses from other predators.[38][67] For hibernating species, weight gain is important as it provides nourishment during winter dormancy. A brown bear can eat 41 kg (90 lb) of food and gain 2–3 kg (4.4–6.6 lb) of fat a day prior to entering its den.[68]

text: Communication

text: Bears produce a number of vocal and non-vocal sounds. Tongue-clicking, grunting or chuffing many be made in cordial situations, such as between mothers and cubs or courting couples, while moaning, huffing, sorting or blowing air is made when an individual is stressed. Barking is produced during times of alarm, excitement or to give away the animal's position. Warning sounds include jaw-clicking and lip-popping, while teeth-chatters, bellows, growls, roars and pulsing sounds are made in aggressive encounters. Cubs may squeal, bawl, bleat or scream when in distress and make motor-like humming when comfortable or nursing.[69][70][35][71][72][73]

text: Bears sometimes communicate with visual displays such as standing upright, which exaggerates the individual's size. The chest markings of some species may add to this intimidating display. Staring is an aggressive act and the facial markings of spectacled bears and giant pandas may help draw attention to the eyes during agonistic encounters.[33] Individuals may approach each other by stiff-legged walking with the head lowered. Dominance between bears is asserted by making a frontal orientation, showing the canine teeth, muzzle twisting and neck stretching. A subordinate may respond with a lateral orientation, by turning away and dropping the head and by sitting or lying down.[74][48]

text: Bears may mark territory by rubbing against trees and other objects which may serve to spread their scent. This is usually accompanied by clawing and biting the object. Bark may be spread around to draw attention to the marking post.[75] Pandas are known to mark objects with urine and a waxy substance from their anal glands.[76] Polar bears leave behind their scent in their tracks which allow individuals to keep track of one another in the vast Arctic wilderness.[77]

text: Reproduction and life cycle

text: The mating system of bears has variously been described as a form of polygyny, promiscuity and serial monogamy.[78][79][80] During the breeding season, males take notice of females in their vicinity and females become more tolerant of males. A male bear may visit a female continuously over a period of several days or weeks, depending on the species, to test her reproductive state. During this time period, males try to prevent rivals from interacting with their mate. Courtship may be brief, although in some Asian species, courting pairs may engage in wrestling, hugging, mock fighting and vocalising. Ovulation is induced by mating, which can last up to 30 minutes depending on the species.[79]

text: Gestation typically lasts 6–9 months, including delayed implantation, and litter size numbers up to four cubs.[81] Giant pandas may give birth to twins but they can only suckle one young and the other is left to die.[82] In northern living species, birth takes place during winter dormancy. Cubs are born blind and helpless with at most a thin layer of hair, relying on their mother for warmth. The milk of the female bear is rich in fat and antibodies and cubs may suckle for up to a year after they are born. By 2–3 months, cubs can follow their mother outside the den. They usually follow her on foot, but sloth bear cubs may ride on their mother's back.[81][44] Male bears play no role in raising young. Infanticide, where an adult male kills the cubs of another, has been recorded in polar bears, brown bears and American black bears but not in other species.[83] Males kill young to bring the female into oestrus.[84] Cubs may flee and the mother defends them even at the cost of her life.[85][86][87]

text: In some species, offspring may become independent around the next spring, through some may stay until the female successfully mates again. Bears reach sexual maturity shortly after they disperse; at around 3–6 years depending on the species. Male Alaskan brown bears and polar bears may continue to grow until they are 11 years old.[81] Lifespan may also vary between species. The brown bear can live an average of 25 years.[88]

text: Hibernation

text: Bears of northern regions, including the American black bear and the grizzly bear, hibernate in the winter.[89][90] During hibernation, the bear's metabolism slows down, its body temperature decreases slightly, and its heart rate slows from a normal value of 55 to just 9 beats per minute.[91] Bears normally do not wake during their hibernation, and can go the entire period without eating, drinking, urinating, or defecating.[30] A fecal plug is formed in the colon, and is expelled when the bear wakes in the spring.[92] If they have stored enough body fat, their muscles remain in good condition, and their protein maintenance requirements are met from recycling waste urea.[30] Female bears give birth during the hibernation period, and are roused when doing so.[90]

text: Predators, parasites and pathogens

text: As animals at the summit of the food chain, bears do not have many predators. The most important are humans, and as they started cultivating crops, they increasingly came in conflict with the bears that raided them. Since the invention of firearms, people have been able to kill bears with greater ease.[93] The tiger is the only four-legged predator that regularly preys on adult bears, including brown bears, sloth bears, Asiatic black bears, and sun bears.[94][95][96][97][98][99]

text: Bears are parasitized by eighty species of parasites, including single-celled protozoans and gastro-intestinal worms, and nematodes and flukes in their heart, liver, lungs and bloodstream. Externally they have ticks, fleas and lice. A study of American black bears found seventeen species of endoparasite including the protozoan Sarcocystis, the parasitic worm Diphyllobothrium mansonoides, and the nematodes Dirofilaria immitis, Capillaria aerophila, Physaloptera sp., Strongyloides sp. and others. Of these, D. mansonoides and adult C. aerophila were causing pathological symptoms.[100] By contrast, polar bears have few parasites; many parasitic species need a secondary, usually terrestrial, host, and the polar bear's life style is such that few alternative hosts exist in their environment. The protozoan Toxoplasma gondii has been found in polar bears, and the nematode Trichinella nativa can cause a serious infection and decline in older polar bears.[101] Bears in North America are sometimes infected by a Morbillivirus similar to the canine distemper virus.[102] They are susceptible to infectious canine hepatitis (CAV-1), with free-living black bears dying rapidly of encephalitis and hepatitis.[103]

text: Relationship with humans

text: Conservation

text: In modern times, bears have come under pressure through encroachment on their habitats[104] and illegal trade in bear parts, including the Asian bile bear market, though hunting is now banned, largely replaced by farming.[105] The IUCN lists six bear species as vulnerable;[106] even the two least concern species, the brown bear and the American black bear,[106] are at risk of extirpation in certain areas. In general these two species inhabit remote areas with little interaction with humans, and the main non-natural causes of mortality are hunting, trapping, road-kill and depredation.[107]

text: Laws have been passed in many areas of the world to protect bears from habitat destruction. Public perception of bears is often positive, as people identify with bears due to their omnivorous diets, their ability to stand on two legs, and their symbolic importance.[108] Support for bear protection is widespread, at least in more affluent societies.[109] Where bears raid crops or attack livestock, they may come into conflict with humans.[110][111] In poorer rural regions, attitudes may be more shaped by the dangers posed by bears and the economic costs they cause to farmers and ranchers.[110]

text: Attacks

text: Several bear species are dangerous to humans, especially in areas where they have become used to people; elsewhere, they generally avoid humans. Injuries caused by bears are rare, but are widely reported.[112] Bears may attack humans in response to being startled, in defense of young or food, or even for predatory reasons.[113]

text: Entertainment, hunting, food and folk medicine

text: Bears in captivity have for centuries been used for entertainment. They have been trained to dance,[114] and were kept for baiting in Europe at least since the 16th century. There were five bear-baiting gardens in Southwark, London at that time; archaeological remains of three of these have survived.[115] Across Europe, nomadic Romani bear handlers called Ursari lived by busking with their bears from the 12th century.[116]

text: Bears have been hunted for sport, food, and folk medicine. Their meat is dark and stringy, like a tough cut of beef. In Cantonese cuisine, bear paws are considered a delicacy. Bear meat should be cooked thoroughly, as it can be infected with the parasite Trichinella spiralis.[117][118]

text: The peoples of eastern Asia use bears' body parts and secretions (notably their gallbladders and bile) as part of traditional Chinese medicine. More than 12,000 bears are thought to be kept on farms in China, Vietnam, and South Korea for the production of bile. Trade in bear products is prohibited under CITES, but bear bile has been detected in shampoos, wine and herbal medicines sold in Canada, the United States and Australia.[119]

text: Literature, art and symbolism

text: There is evidence of prehistoric bear worship, though this is disputed by archaeologists.[120] The prehistoric Finns,[121] Siberian peoples[122] and more recently Koreans considered the bear as the spirit of their forefathers.[123] There is evidence of bear worship in early Chinese and Ainu cultures.[124] In many Native American cultures, the bear is a symbol of rebirth because of its hibernation and re-emergence.[125] The image of the mother bear was prevalent throughout societies in North America and Eurasia, based on the female's devotion and protection of her cubs.[126] Japanese folklore features the Onikuma, a "demon bear" that walks upright.[127] The Ainu of northern Japan, a different people from the Japanese, saw the bear instead as sacred; Hirasawa Byozan painted a scene in documentary style of a bear sacrifice in an Ainu temple, complete with offerings to the dead animal's spirit.[128]

text: In Korean mythology, a tiger and a bear prayed to Hwanung, the son of the Lord of Heaven, that they might become human. Upon hearing their prayers, Hwanung gave them 20 cloves of garlic and a bundle of mugwort, ordering them to eat only this sacred food and remain out of the sunlight for 100 days. The tiger gave up after about twenty days and left the cave. However, the bear persevered and was transformed into a woman. The bear and the tiger are said to represent two tribes that sought the favor of the heavenly prince.[129] The bear-woman (Ungnyeo; 웅녀/熊女) was grateful and made offerings to Hwanung. However, she lacked a husband, and soon became sad and prayed beneath a "divine birch" tree (Hangul: 신단수; Hanja: 神檀樹; RR: shindansu) to be blessed with a child. Hwanung, moved by her prayers, took her for his wife and soon she gave birth to a son named Dangun Wanggeom - who was the legendary founder of Gojoseon, the first ever Korean kingdom.[130]

text: Artio (Dea Artio in the Gallo-Roman religion) was a Celtic bear goddess. Evidence of her worship has notably been found at Bern, itself named for the bear. Her name is derived from the Celtic word for "bear", artos.[131] In ancient Greece, archaic cult of Artemis in bear form survived into Classical times at Brauron, where young Athenian girls passed an initiation right as arktai "she bears".[132] For Artemis and one of her nymphs as a she-bear, see the myth of Callisto.

text: The constellations of Ursa Major and Ursa Minor, the great and little bears, are named for their supposed resemblance to bears, from the time of Ptolemy.[b][3] The nearby star Arcturus means "guardian of the bear", as if it were watching the two constellations.[134] Ursa Major has been associated with a bear for as much as 13,000 years since Paleolithic times, in the widespread Cosmic Hunt myths. These are found on both sides of the Bering land bridge, which was lost to the sea some 11,000 years ago.[135]

text: Pliny the Elder's Natural History (1st century AD) claims that "when first born, [bears] are shapeless masses of white flesh, a little larger than mice; their claws alone being prominent. The mother then licks them gradually into proper shape."[136] This belief was echoed by authors of bestiaries throughout the medieval period.[137]

text: Bears are mentioned in the Bible; the Second Book of Kings relates the story of the prophet Elisha calling on them to eat the youths who taunted him.[138] Legends of saints taming bears are common in the Alpine zone. In the arms of the bishopric of Freising, the bear is the dangerous totem animal tamed by St. Corbinian and made to carry his civilised baggage over the mountains. Bears similarly feature in the legends of St. Romedius, Saint Gall and Saint Columbanus. This recurrent motif was used by the Church as a symbol of the victory of Christianity over paganism.[139] In the Norse settlements of northern England during the 10th century, a type of "hogback" grave cover of a long narrow block of stone, with a shaped apex like the roof beam of a long house, is carved with a muzzled, thus Christianised, bear clasping each gable end, as in the church at Brompton, North Yorkshire and across the British Isles.[140]

text: Lāčplēsis, meaning "Bear-slayer", is a Latvian legendary hero who is said to have killed a bear by ripping its jaws apart with his bare hands. However, as revealed in the end of the long epic describing his life, Lāčplēsis' own mother had been a she-bear, and his superhuman strength resided in his bear ears. The modern Latvian military award Order of Lāčplēsis, called for the hero, is also known as The Order of the Bear-Slayer.

text: Bears are popular in children's stories, including Winnie the Pooh,[141] Paddington Bear,[142] Gentle Ben[143] and "The Brown Bear of Norway".[144] An early version of "Goldilocks and the Three Bears",[145] was published as "The Three Bears" in 1837 by Robert Southey, many times retold, and illustrated in 1918 by Arthur Rackham.[146] The cartoon character Yogi Bear has appeared in numerous comic books, animated television shows and films.[147][148] The Care Bears began as greeting cards in 1982, and were featured as toys, on clothing and in film.[149] Around the world, many children—and some adults—have teddy bears, stuffed toys in the form of bears, named after the American statesman Theodore Roosevelt when in 1902 he had refused to shoot an American black bear tied to a tree.[150]

text: Bears, like other animals, may symbolize nations. In 1911, the British satirical magazine Punch published a cartoon about the Anglo-Russian Entente by Leonard Raven-Hill in which the British lion watches as the Russian bear sits on the tail of the Persian cat.[151] The Russian Bear has been a common national personification for Russia from the 16th century onwards.[152] Smokey Bear has become a part of American culture since his introduction in 1944, with his message "Only you can prevent forest fires".[153] In the UK, the bear and staff feature on the heraldic arms of the county of Warwickshire.[154] Bears appear in the canting arms of two cities, Bern and Berlin.[155]

text: Organizations

text: The International Association for Bear Research & Management, also known as the International Bear Association, and the Bear Specialist Group of the Species Survival Commission, a part of the International Union for Conservation of Nature focus on the natural history, management, and conservation of bears. Bear Trust International works for wild bears and other wildlife through four core program initiatives, namely Conservation Education, Wild Bear Research, Wild Bear Management, and Habitat Conservation.[156]

text: Specialty organizations for each of the eight species of bears worldwide include:

text:
Vital Ground, for the brown bear[157]
Moon Bears, for the Asiatic black bear[158]
Black Bear Conservation Coalition, for the North American black bear[159]
Polar Bears International, for the polar bear[160]
Bornean Sun Bear Conservation Centre, for the sun bear[161]
Wildlife SOS, for the sloth bear[162]
Andean Bear Conservation Project, for the Andean bear[163]
Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, for the giant panda[164]


document_title: Margo Harshman

question_text: who plays tim mcgee's girlfriend on ncis

question_tokens: who plays tim mcgee 's girlfriend on ncis

root

text: Margo Harshman

text: Personal life[edit]

text: Margo Harshman was born in San Diego, California.[1] She has two older sisters, one older brother and one younger brother. Harshman lived in La Costa, San Diego County, California and attended school there until she was 12, after which she moved to Orange County, California. There she finished the rest of her education, first at Hewes Middle School and then at Foothill High School. Harshman now lives in Los Angeles.

tag: p

text: She is related to former professional baseball pitcher Jack Harshman and former Washington State University and University of Washington basketball coach Marv Harshman.

text: On May 14, 2014, her mother, Janelle Louise Harshman, died from breast cancer after a 20-year battle with the disease.[2]

text: Career[edit]

text: At the age of two, Harshman's grandmother entered her in a beauty pageant.[1] At 3, she was involved in dance and gymnastics. At 5, she learned to play piano, and at 8, she began acting and met her first manager.[citation needed]

text: She has appeared in The Big Bang Theory as Alex Jensen, the assistant of Sheldon Cooper, and in NCIS as Delilah Fielding, a wheelchair-bound analyst at the US Depertment of Defense and the wife of Timothy McGee. Harshman starred on the short-lived TV shows Run of the House and Center of the Universe.[1] Her movie appearances include Sorority Row and College Road Trip.[3]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: In 2005, Harshman was nominated for two awards at the Young Artist Awards, one for Best Performance in a TV Movie, Miniseries or Special by a Supporting Young Actress for The Even Stevens Movie (2004) (TV) and the other for Best Performance in a TV Series (Comedy or Drama) by a Supporting Young Actress for Even Stevens (2001). In 2009, Harshman won the ShoWest "Female Stars of Tomorrow" award at the ShoWest Convention along with fellow Sorority Row cast members Briana Evigan, Leah Pipes, Rumer Willis, Jamie Chung and Audrina Patridge.

text: Filmography[edit]

text: Film[edit]

text:
Year
Title
Role
Notes

1997
The Elf Who Didn't Believe
Jolie
Film debut

2001
Murphy's Dozen
Bridget

2003
Recipe for Disaster
Rebecca Korda

2003
The Even Stevens Movie
Tawny Dean

2005
Fellowship
Gina

2006
Simon Says
Kate

2006
Hiding Victoria
Victoria Walker

2007
Rise: Blood Hunter
Tricia Rawlins

2007
Judy's Got A Gun
Maya Spektor

2008
College Road Trip
Katie

2008
Keith
Brooke

2008
From Within
Sadie

2008
Pretty Little Devils
Nina
Also known as Legacy

2008
Extreme Movie
Ted's Girlfriend

2009
Fired Up!
Sylvia

2009
Sorority Row
Charlene "Chugs" Bradley

2015
Toxin
Mandy

2017
Love on the Vines
Diana Armstrong

tag: table

text: Television[edit]

text:
Year
Title
Role
Notes

2000–2003
Even Stevens
Tawny Dean
47 episodes

2003–2004
Run of the House
Brooke Franklin
Main cast

2004
Without a Trace
Harley Palmer
Episode: "Bait"

2004
Center of the Universe
Sara
2 episodes

2005
Everwood
Maura
Episode: "Put on a Happy Face"

2006
Grey's Anatomy
Jennifer Morris
Episode: "Oh, the Guilt"

2007
Journeyman
Abby Armstrong
Episode: "Winterland"

2008
90210
Detention girl
Episode: "Hollywood Forever"

2008
Boston Legal
Margie Coggins
Episode: "Juiced"

2009
Modern Family
Jungle Tanya
Episode: "Fizbo"

2010
$h*! My Dad Says
Kim
Episode: "Family Dinner for Schmucks"

2012
House
Melissa
Episode: "Love Is Blind"

2012
Bent
Screwsie
6 episodes

2012–2013
The Big Bang Theory
Alex Jensen
4 episodes

2013
Betas
Lisa
4 episodes

2013
Bones
Alison Kidman
Episode: "The Fury in the Jury"

2014
CSI: Crime Scene Investigation
April Brock
Episode: "Rubbery Homicide"

2013–present
NCIS
Delilah Fielding
10 episodes


document_title: Couples Retreat

question_text: where is couples retreat filmed at what resort

text: Couples Retreat

text: Plot[edit]

text: This section's plot summary may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve it by removing unnecessary details and making it more concise. (March 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Dave, a dealer for Guitar Hero, and Ronnie, a stay-at-home mom, are a typical couple raising two young children in the suburbs of Chicago. They experience various stresses including redecorating their house and raising their kids. Joey and Lucy are high school sweethearts with a smart but naive teenage daughter named Lacey. Their relationship is on the rocks and they are even considering a divorce once Lacey goes off to college. Jason and Cynthia are a neurotic couple who've experienced multiple failed attempts to conceive, and Shane, recently divorced from his wife, has a much younger twenty-year-old girlfriend, Trudy.

text: At Dave's son's birthday party, Jason and Cynthia, using a PowerPoint presentation, announce their troubled marriage and they are considering divorce because they cannot have a baby. As a last-ditch effort, they have found a couples therapy resort named Eden. A deal called the Pelican Package is half the normal cost if they can get three other couples to join them. In their presentation, they show beautiful pictures of sunlit beaches and beautiful locations. They also assure the others that the couples therapy is purely optional.

text: Dave and Ronnie discuss their inability to go because of childcare responsibilities and decline the trip. In the middle of the night, their home security alarm is activated when Jason shows up unexpectedly to further sell the idea of the retreat. The commotion wakes the kids, who have overheard their parents' conversations of not being able to go because of them. Fearing that their parents are contemplating divorce, the kids have already arranged for Dave's father, Grandpa Jim-Jim to babysit so their parents can go to Eden.

text: The retreat proves to be divided into Eden West and Eden East. West is for couples and uses the tagline "Stay Together". East is for singles and uses the tagline "Come Together". East and West attendees are not allowed to intermingle.

text: Upon arrival at Eden West, the four couples are shown their villas. At dinner, resort host Ctanley informs them that couples therapy, which starts at 6 a.m., is actually mandatory. If any couple fails to attend, it will be taken as an indication that they want to leave, and a refund for Eden will be given, although not for their airfare. The group debates what to do. After an indulgent dinner with many delicacies, they decide to put up with "a couple of hours" of therapy in order to enjoy the other amenities of the resort.

text: In the morning, each couple meets with an assigned therapist. All four couples learn that they have problems, even Ronnie and Dave, who thought they were fine. They endure resort owner Marcel's unusual methods, including swimming with and feeding lemon sharks and yoga sessions with amorous instructor Salvadore.

text: On the fourth night, Trudy escapes to Eden East. The other seven, encouraged by Joey who is unsatisfied with his marriage, leave to find her. Following an argument between Cynthia and Jason, the men and women split up. As they try to find their way to the resort, the men end up arguing and pointing out each other's marriage mistakes.

text: The women run into Salvadore who takes them to Eden East. The men come across the staff lounge where they find Sctanley playing Guitar Hero. He threatens to report them to Marcel, but Dave challenges him to the game (without telling Sctanley that he is involved in the game's production). Sctanley, after having lost the wager, directs them to Eden East, even though he knows he was tricked by Dave.

text: When they arrive, Dave realizes what a good thing he has with Ronnie. He goes with her to be alone at a waterfall. Joey finds Lucy with Salvadore and knocks him out, reuniting with his wife. Cynthia and Jason share drinks and end up becoming intimate. Shane runs into his ex-wife, who admits she still loves him. Shane tells Trudy to remain in Eden East and enjoy being single, then leaves with his ex-wife. All four couples return to Eden West.

text: Marcel, seeing that the couples have worked out their problems, frees them from the therapy and allows them to go jet skiing, and with that, really enjoy the rest of their vacation.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Vince Vaughn and Malin Åkerman as Dave and Ronnie (last name not revealed), a typical suburban couple with two children. Their marriage seems fine, but each of them realize that Dave tends to undermine Ronnie by crossing emotional boundaries and blocking her needs due to his exhausting work. At the conclusion of their therapy, Marcel grants them the ass as their animal spirit because they are both stubborn, and they bear the burden of not only their troubles but also those of others.
Jon Favreau and Kristin Davis as Joey and Lucy Tanzini, high school sweethearts that have fallen apart due to their belief that they "missed out" on living after high school, having been married and becoming parents immediately after and are contemplating getting a divorce as soon as their daughter goes off to college. They have a daughter named Lacey who is a smart but somewhat rebellious teen. After reuniting in therapy, Marcel gives them a wolf spirit token as they are pack animals but their hearts always lie with their destined mate.
Jason Bateman and Kristen Bell as Jason and Cynthia Smith, a troubled couple whose idea it was to go to Eden with their friends. Their issues stem from a lack of communication complicated with Jason's more controlling methods and their trouble with conceiving a baby. They are a very organized couple and are the most interested in repairing their relationship. Marcel grants them a rabbit token after they reunite, due to their innate ability to overcome any obstacles that stand in their way.
Faizon Love and Kali Hawk as Shane and Trudy, a completely polar opposite couple. Trudy and Shane soon tire of each other due to their differences in age and interests. Trudy goes off to the local single scene, and while attempting to find her and bring her back, Shane and his wife Jennifer reconcile instead. They are given the token of the honeybee to symbolize that while they may visit other flowers from time to time, nothing is as sweet as returning to their hive.
Jean Reno plays Marcel, the lead therapist, founder and operator of the resort
Peter Serafinowicz plays Sctanley (pronounced Stanley, from a silent "c"), the English manager of the resort who oversees the couples' stay and was the original scoring champion of Guitar Hero on the island. (Vaughan's DVD commentary explains the silent "c" as simple fun)
Tasha Smith as Jennifer, ex-wife of Shane
Jonna Walsh as Lacey Tanzini
Ken Jeong as a therapist
Amy Hill as a therapist
John Michael Higgins as a therapist
Carlos Ponce as Salvadore, the yoga instructor
Temuera Morrison as Briggs, the native assistant to Marcel - his name is misspelt as Temeura in the opening credits
Karen David as Spa Attendant

tag: ul

text: Vince Vaughn's real-life father, Vernon Vaughn, plays his on-screen father.

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: Production[edit]

text: Filming locations[edit]

text: The primary location for filming was at the St. Regis Bora Bora Resort, Bora Bora in French Polynesia.[4][citation needed] Other filming locations include Los Angeles, Universal Studios and O'Hare International Airport.

text: Marketing[edit]

text: Universal Pictures was criticized for removing actors Faizon Love and Kali Hawk from the international posters for the film, showing only six rather than the eight cast members used for the U.S. promotional materials. The studio said it regretted causing offense and has abandoned plans to use the revised poster in other countries.[5][6]

text: Universal Pictures partnered with various groups for financial support to help market the film. Sponsors include the Tourism Board of Tahiti where the film was made, the manufacturers of Bud Light and Captain Morgan's Rum, Bloomingdale's department store, and Crunch Gyms. The video game Guitar Hero is also prominently featured in the film as it is considered one of the best games ever made.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical reviews[edit]

text: Couples Retreat received generally negative reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 11% based on 159 reviews with an average rating of 3.6/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Despite a talented cast and some reliably pleasant interplay between Jon Favreau and Vince Vaughn, Couples Retreat leaves viewers stranded in an arid, mirthless comedy."[7] On Metacritic, the film has a score of 23 out of 100 based on 27 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".[8] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.[9]

text: Litigation[edit]

text: A former model and current salon stylist, Irina Krupnik, filed a $10 million misappropriation-of-likeness invasion-of-privacy lawsuit, naming several defendants including the producers of Couples Retreat arising from a purported masturbation scene in which actor Jon Favreau uses a photo of her.[10] Manhattan Supreme Court Judge O. Peter Sherwood ruled against Krupnik, and she received nothing.[11]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Despite the negative critical reception, it was a box office success, ranking first for its opening weekend grossing $34,286,740 and becoming Vince Vaughn's highest box office success since 2006's The Break-Up. The film has grossed $109.2 million domestically and $58.8 million in foreign markets for a worldwide total of $171 million.[3]


document_title: Constituent Assembly of India

question_text: the constituent assembly of india completed its work in

text: Constituent Assembly of India

text: Description [edit]

text: The Constituent Assembly, consisting of indirectly elected representatives, was established to draft a constitution for India (including the now-separate countries of Pakistan and Bangladesh). It existed for approximately three years, the first parliament of India after independence in 1947. The Assembly was not elected on the basis of universal adult suffrage, and Muslims and Sikhs received special representation as minorities. The Muslim League boycotted the Assembly after failing to prevent its creation. Although a large part of the Constituent Assembly was drawn from the Congress Party in a one-party environment, the Congress Party included a wide diversity of opinions—from conservative industrialists to radical Marxists, to Hindu revivalists.

text: The Assembly met for the first time in New Delhi on 9 December 1946, and its last session was held on 24 January 1950.[1] The hope of the Assembly was expressed by Jawaharlal Nehru:

text: The first task of this Assembly is to free India through a new constitution, to feed the starving people, and to clothe the naked masses, and to give every Indian the fullest opportunity to develop himself according to his capacity. This is certainly a great task. Look at India today. We, are sitting here and there in despair in many places, and unrest in many cities. The atmosphere is surcharged with these quarrels and feuds which are called communal disturbances, and unfortunately we sometimes cannot avoid them. But at present the greatest and most important question in India is how to solve the problem of the poor and the starving. Wherever we turn, we are confronted with this problem. If we cannot solve this problem soon, all our paper constitutions will become useless and purposeless. Keeping this aspect in view, who could suggest to us to postpone and wait?

text: Background and election[edit]

text: India was still under British rule when the Constituent Assembly was established following negotiations between Indian leaders and members of the 1946 Cabinet Mission to India from the United Kingdom. Provincial assembly elections were held early in 1946. Constituent Assembly members were elected indirectly by members of the newly elected provincial assemblies, and initially included representatives for those provinces that formed part of Pakistan (some of which are now in Bangladesh). The Constituent Assembly had 299 representatives, including nine women.

text: The Interim Government of India was formed on 2 September 1946 from the newly elected Constituent Assembly. The Congress Party held a large majority in the Assembly (69 percent of the seats), and the Muslim League held nearly all the seats reserved in the Assembly for Muslims. There were also members of smaller parties, such as the Scheduled Caste Federation, the Communist Party of India and the Unionist Party.

text: In June 1947 delegations from Sindh, East Bengal, Baluchistan, West Punjab and the North West Frontier Province withdrew to form the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan, meeting in Karachi. On 15 August 1947 the Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan became independent nations, and members of the Constituent Assembly who had not withdrawn to Karachi became India's Parliament. Twenty-eight members of the Muslim League joined the Indian Assembly, and 93 members were later nominated from the princely states; the Congress Party secured a majority of 82 percent.

text: Constitution and elections[edit]

text: At 11 am on 9 December 1946 the Assembly began its first session, with 208 members attending.  By early 1947, representatives of the Muslim League and princely states joined, and the Assembly approved the draft constitution on 26 November 1949. On 26 January 1950 the constitution took effect (commemorated as Republic Day), and the Constituent Assembly became the Provisional Parliament of India (continuing until after the first elections under the new constitution in 1952).

text: Organization[edit]

text: Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha was the first chairman (temporary) of Constituent Assembly. Later Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as the president and Its vice-president was Harendra Coomar Mookerjee, a Christian from Bengal and former vice-chancellor of Calcutta University. Also chairing the assembly's Minorities Committee, Mookerjee was appointed governor of West Bengal after India became a republic. Jurist B. N. Rau was appointed constitutional adviser to the assembly; Rau prepared the original draft of the constitution, and was later appointed a judge in the Permanent Court of International Justice in The Hague.

text: The assembly's work had five stages:

text:
Committees presented reports on issues.
B.N. Rau prepared an initial draft based on the reports and his research into the constitutions of other nations.
The drafting committee, chaired by B. R. Ambedkar, presented a detailed draft constitution which was published for public discussion.
The draft constitution was discussed, and amendments proposed and enacted.
The constitution was adopted, with a committee of experts led by the Congress Party (known as the Congress Assembly Party) played a pivotal role.[2]

text: Timeline[edit]

text:
9 December 1946: The first meeting of the Constituent Assembly was held in the constitution hall (now the Central Hall of Parliament House). Demanding a separate state, the Muslim League boycotted the meeting. Sachchidananda Sinha was elected temporary president of the assembly, in accordance with French practice.
11 December 1946: Rajendra Prasad was elected as president and H. C. Mukherjee was elected as vice-president of the constituent assembly. B. N. Rau was appointed as its constitutional adviser.
13 December 1946: An 'Objective Resolution' was moved by Jawaharlal Nehru in the assembly, laying down the underlying principles of the constitution. It finally became the Preamble of the constitution.
22 January 1947: Objective resolution unanimously adopted.
22 July 1947: National flag adopted.
15 August 1947: Indian independence achieved as the Dominion of India.
29 August 1947: Drafting Committee appointed with Dr. B. R. Ambedkar as the Chairman.
16 July 1948: Along with Harendra Coomar Mookerjee V. T. Krishnamachari was also elected as second vice-president of Constituent Assembly.
26 November 1949: Constitution passed and accepted by the assembly.
24 January 1950: "Jana Gana Mana" adopted as the national anthem, with the first two verses of "Vande Mataram" the national song. Rajendra Prasad elected the first president of India.

text: The assembly was chaired by Dr. Rajendra Prasad when it met as a constituent body, and by G. V. Mavlankar when it met as a legislative body. It completed the task of drafting a constitution in two years, eleven months and eighteen days, at a total expenditure of ₹6.4 million.

text: Committees of the Constituent Assembly[edit]

text: The Constituent Assembly appointed a total of 22 committees to deal with different tasks of constitution-making. Out of these, eight were major committees and the others were minor committees.

text: Major Committees

text:
Drafting Committee – Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
Union Powers Committee – Jawaharlal Nehru
Union Constitution Committee – Jawaharlal Nehru
Provincial Constitution Committee – Sardar Patel
Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights, Minorities and Tribal and Excluded Areas – Sardar Patel.	This committee had the following subcommittees:
Fundamental Rights Sub-Committee – J.B. Kripalani
Minorities Sub-Committee – Harendra Coomar Mookerjee,
North-East Frontier Tribal Areas and Assam Excluded & Partially Excluded Areas Sub-Committee – Gopinath Bardoloi
Excluded and Partially Excluded Areas (Other than those in Assam) Sub-Committee – A V Thakkar
Rules of Procedure Committee – Dr. Rajendra Prasad
States Committee (Committee for Negotiating with States) – Jawaharlal Nehru
Steering Committee – Dr. Rajendra Prasad

tag: ol

text: Prominent members[edit]

text:
B. R. Ambedkar, Minister for Law; Chairman of Drafting Committee.
B. N. Rau, Constitutional Advisor
Jawaharlal Nehru, first Prime Minister of India
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, first Deputy Prime Minister and Home Minister
J.B. Kriplani, President of Indian National congress at the time of independence
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Minister for Education
Rajendra Prasad, President of Constituent Assembly
C. Rajagopalachari, Governor-General of India
Sarat Chandra Bose, Barrister and Indian independence activist
Krishna Sinha, first Chief Minister, Bihar
Binodanand Jha,  Minister, Bihar
Shyam Nandan Prasad Mishra
Anugrah Narayan Sinha, Deputy Chief Minister and Finance Minister, Bihar
Rafi Ahmed Kidwai
Asaf Ali
Syama Prasad Mookerjee, Industries Minister, President, Hindu Mahasabha
Moturi Satyanarayana, Freedom Fighter
Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Health Minister
Hansa Mehta, President, All India Women's Conference
N. G. Ranga
Deep Narayan Singh, Minister, Bihar
Gopinath Bordoloi, Prime Minister of Assam[3]
Sir Syed Muhammad Saadulla, Assam
P. Subbarayan
Kailashnath Katju
N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar
T. T. Krishnamachari
Rameshwar Prasad Sinha
Durgabai Deshmukh
K. M. Munshi
Krishana Ballabh Sahay
Frank Anthony, Anglo-Indian representative
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
John Mathai,first railway minister of India
Pratap Singh Kairon
L. Krishnaswamy Bharati - Madras Province
Chidambaram Subramaniam
Jaipal Singh Munda, Former Indian Hockey captain, and Tribal leader
Hargovind Pant

text: Members (by province/state)[edit]

text:
Madras:
Annie Mascarene, O. V. Alagesan,
Mrs. Ammu Swaminathan,
M. Ananthasayanam Ayyangar,
Moturi Satyanarayana,
Mrs. Dakshayani Velayudhan,
Mrs. G. Durgabai,
Kala Venkatarao,
N. Gopalaswamy Ayyangar,
D. Govinda Das,
Revd. Jerome D'Souza,
P. Kakkan,
T.M. Kaliyannan Gounder,
K. Kamaraj,
V. C. Kesava Rao,
T. T. Krishnamachari,
Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer
L. Krishnaswami Bharathi,
P. Kunhiraman,
Mosalikanti Thirumala Rao,
V. I. Munuswamy Pillai,
M. A. Muthiah Chettiar,
V. Nadimuthu Pillai,
S. Nagappa,
P. L. Narasimha Raju,
B. Pattabhi Sitaramayya,
C. Perumalswamy Reddy,
T. Prakasam,
S. H. Prater,
Raja Swetachalapati Ramakrishna Renga Roa of Bobbili,
R. K. Shanmukham Chetty,
T. A. Ramalingam Chettiar,
Ramnath Goenka,
O. P. Ramaswamy Reddiar,
N. G. Ranga,
Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy,
Sheik Galib Sahib,
K. Santhanam,
B. Shiva Rao,
Kallur Subba Rao,
U. Srinivasa Mallya,
P. Subbarayan,
C. Subramaniam,
V Subramaniam,
M. C. Veerabahu Pillai,
P. M. Velayudapani,
A. K. Menon,
T. J. M. Wilson,
Mohamed Ismail Sahib,
K. T. M. Ahmed Ibrahim,
Mahboob Ali Baig Sahib Bahadur,
B. Pocker Sahib Bahadur, pattam Tanupillai

text:
Bombay:
Balchandra Maheshwar Gupte,
Hansa Mehta,
Hari Vinayak Pataskar,
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar,
Joseph Alban D'Souza,
Kanayalal Nanabhai Desai,
Keshavrao Marutirao Jedhe,
Khandubhai Kasanji Desai,
Bal Gangadhar Kher,
M.R. Masani,
K.M. Munshi,
Narahar Vishnu Gadgil,
S. Nijalingappa,
S. K. Patil,
Ramchandra Manohar Nalavade,
R. R. Diwakar,
Shankarrao Deo,
G. V. Mavalankar,
Vallabhbhai Patel,
Abdul Kadar Mohammad Shaikh,
A. A. Khan

text:
West Bengal:
Monomohan Das,
Arun Chandra Guha,
Lakshmi Kanta Maitra,
Mihir Lal Chattopadhyay,
Satis Chandra Samanta,
Suresh Chandra Majumdar,
Upendranath Barman,
Prabhudayal Himatsingka,
Basanta Kumar Das,
Renuka Ray,
H. C. Mukherjee,
Surendra Mohan Ghose,
Syama Prasad Mookerjee,
Ari Bahadur Gurung,
R. E. Platel,
K. C. Neogy,
Raghib Ahsan,
Somnath Lahiri,
Jasimuddin Ahmad,
Naziruddin Ahmad,
Abdul Hamid,
Abdul Halim Ghuznavi

text:
United Provinces:
Ajit Prasad Jain,
Algu Rai Shastri,
Balkrishna Sharma,
Banshi Dhar Misra,
Bhagwan Din,
Damodar Swarup Seth,
Dayal Das Bhagat,
Dharam Prakash,
A. Dharam Dass,
R. V. Dhulekar,
Feroz Gandhi,
Gopal Narain,
Krishna Chandra Sharma,
Govind Ballabh Pant,
Govind Malviya,
Har Govind Pant,
Harihar Nath Shastri,
Hriday Nath Kunzru,
Jaspat Roy Kapoor,
Jagannath Baksh Singh,
Jawaharlal Nehru,
Jogendra Singh,
Jugal Kishore,
Jwala Prasad Srivastava,
B. V. Keskar,
Kamala Chaudhry,
Kamalapati Tripathi,
J. B. Kripalani,
Mahavir Tyagi,
Khurshed Lal,
Masurya Din,
Mohan Lal Saksena,
Padampat Singhania,
Phool Singh,
Paragi Lal,
Purnima Banerjee,
Purushottam Das Tandon,
Hira Vallabha Tripathi,
Ram Chandra Gupta,
Shibban Lal Saxena,
Satish Chandra,
John Matthai,
Sucheta Kripalani,
Sunder Lall,
Venkatesh Narayan Tiwari,
Mohanlal Gautam,
Vishwambhar Dayal Tripathi,
Vishnu Sharan Dublish,
Begum Aizaz Rasul,
Hyder Hussain,
Hasrat Mohani,
Abul Kalam Azad,
Muhammad Ismail Khan,
Rafi Ahmad Kidwai,
Mohd. Hifzur Rahman,
Z H Lari

text:
East Punjab:
Bakshi Tek Chand,
Jairamdas Daulatram,
Thakurdas Bhargava,
Bikramlal Sondhi,
Yashwant Rai,
Ranbir Singh Hooda,
Lala Achint Ram,
Nand Lal,
Baldev Singh,
Giani Gurmukh Singh Musafir,
Sardar Hukam Singh,
Sardar Bhopinder Singh Mann,
Sardar Rattan Singh Lohgarh
Chaudhry Suraj Mal

text:
Bihar:
Nasif Arafat,
Amiyo Kumar Ghosh,
Anugrah Narayan Sinha,
Banarsi Prasad Jhunjhunwala,
Bhagwat Prasad,
Boniface Lakra,
Brajeshwar Prasad,
Chandika Ram,
K. T. Shah,
Devendra Nath Samanta,
Dip Narain Sinha,
Guptanath Singh,
Jadubans Sahay,
Jagat Narain Lal,
Jagjivan Ram,
Jaipal Singh Munda,
Kameshwar Singh of Darbhanga,
Kamaleshwari Prasad Yadav,
Mahesh Prasad Sinha,
Krishna Ballabh Sahay,
Raghunandan Prasad,
Rajendra Prasad,
Rameshwar Prasad Sinha,
Ramnarayan Singh,
Sachchidananda Sinha,
Sarangdhar Sinha,
Satyanarayan Sinha,
Binodanand Jha,
P. K. Sen,
Sri Krishna Sinha,
Sri Narayan Mahtha,
Syamanandan Mishra,
Hussain Imam,
Syed Jafar Imam,
Latifur Rahman,
Mohammad Tahir,
Tajamul Hussain,
Choudhry Abid Hussain.
Hargovind Mishra

text:
Central Provinces and Berar:
Ambica Charan Shukla,
Raghu Vira,
Rajkumari Amrit Kaur,
B.A. Mandloi,
Brijlal Nandlal Biyani,
Thakur Cheedilal,
Seth Govind Das,
Hari Singh Gour,
Hari Vishnu Kamath,
Hemchandra Jagobaji Khandekar,
Ghanshyam Singh Gupta,
Lakshman Shrawan Bhatkar,
Panjabrao Shamrao Deshmukh,
Ravi Shankar Shukla,
R. K. Sidhva,
Shankar Trimbak Dharmadhikari,
Frank Anthony,
Kazi Syed Karimuddin,
Ganpatrao Dani

text:
Assam:
Nibaran Chandra Laskar,
Dharanidhar Basu-Matari,
Gopinath Bardoloi,
J. J. M. Nichols-Roy,
Kuladhar Chaliha,
Rohini Kumar Chaudhury,
Muhammad Saadulla,
Abdur Rouf

text:
Orissa:
Biswanath Das,
Krishna Chandra Gajapati Narayana Dev,
Harekrushna Mahatab,
Laxminarayan Sahu
Lokanath Mishra,
Nandkishore Das,
Rajkrishna Bose,
Santanu Kumar Das,
Yudhishir Mishra

text:
Delhi:
Deshbhandhu Gupta

text:
Ajmer-Merwara:
Mukut Bihari Lal Bhargava

text:
Coorg:
C. M. Poonacha

text:
Mysore:
K.C. Reddy,
T. Siddalingaiya,
H. R. Guruv Reddy,
S. V. Krishnamurthy Rao,
K. Hanumanthaiya,
H. Siddaveerappa,
T. Channiah

text:
Jammu and Kashmir:
Sheikh Muhammad Abdullah,
Motiram Baigra,
Mirza Mohammad Afzal Beg,
Maulana Mohammad Sayeed Masoodi

text:
Travancore-Cochin:
Pattom A. Thanu Pillai,
R. Sankar,
P. T. Chacko,
Panampilly Govinda Menon,
Annie Mascarene,
P.S.Nataraja Pillai,
K.A. Mohamed

text:
Madhya Bharat:
Vinayak Sitaram Sarwate,
Brijraj Narain,
Gopikrishna Vijayavargiya,
Ram Sahai,
Kusum Kant Jain,
Radhavallabh Vijayavargiya,
Sitaram S. Jajoo

text:
Saurashtra:
Balwant Rai Gopalji Mehta,
Jaisukhlal Hathi,
Amritlal Vithaldas Thakkar,
Chimanlal Chakubhai Shah,
Samaldas Laxmidas Gandhi

text:
Rajasthan:
V. T. Krishnamachari,
Hiralal Shastri,
Sardar Singhjhi of Khetri,
Jaswant Singhji,
Raj Bhadur,
Manikya Lal Varma,
Gokul Lal Asava,
Ramchandra Upadhyaya,
Balwant Sinha Mehta,
Dalel Singh,
Jainarain Vyas

text:
Patiala and East Punjab States Union:
Ranjit Singh,
Sochet Singh,
Bhagwant Roy

text:
Bombay States:
Vinayakrao Balshankar Vaidya,
B. N. Munavalli,
Gokulbhai Daulatram Bhatt,
Jivraj Narayan Mehta,
Gopaldas A. Desai,
Paranlal Thakurlal Munshi,
B. H. Khardekar,
Ratnappa Bharamappa Kumbhar B.N Datar

text:
Orissa States:
Lal Mohan Pati,
N. Madhava Rau,
Raj Kunwar,
Sarangadhar Das,
Yudhishthir Mishra

text:
Central Provinces States:
R. L. Malaviya,
Kishorimohan Tripathi,
Ramprasad Potai

text:
United Provinces States:
B. H. Zaidi,
Krishna Singh

text:
Madras States:
V. Ramaiah,
Ramakrishna Ranga Rao

text:
Vindhya Pradesh:
Avdesh Pratap Singh,
Shambu Nath Shukla,
Ram Sahai Tiwari,
Mannulalji Dwidedi

text:
Cooch Behar:
Himmat Singh K. Maheshwari

text:
Tripura and Manipur:
Girja Shankar Guha

text:
Bhopal:
Lal Singh

text:
Kutch:
Bhawani Arjun Khimji

text:
Himachal Pradesh:
Yashwant Singh Parmar

text: Members who later withdrew after partition[edit]

text:
East Bengal:
Abdullah al Mahmood,
Maulana Mohd Abdullah el Baqui,
Abdul Hamid,
Abdul Kasem Khan,
Mohammad Akram Khan,
A. Hamid,
Azizuddin Ahmad,
Muhammad Habibullah Bahar,
Prem Hari Barma,
Raj Kumar Chakraverty,
Sris Chandra Chattopadhyaya,
Abdul Matin Chaudhary,
Murtaza Raza Choudhry,
Hamidul Haq Chowdhury,
Akhay Kumar Das,
Dhirendra Nath Datta,
Bhupendra Kumar Datta,
Ebrahim Khan,
Fazlul Huq,
Fazlur Rahman,
Ghayasuddin Pathan,
Begum Shaista Suhrawardy Ikramullah,
Liaquat Ali Khan,
Mafizuddin Ahmad,
Mahmud Hussain,
Jnanendra Chandra Majumdar,
A. M. Malik,
Birat Chandra Mandal,
Jogendra Nath Mandal,
Mohammed Ali,
Khwaja Nazimuddin,
M.A.B.L. Nur Ahmed,
Nurul Amin,
Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi,
Sri Dhananjoy M.A. B.L. Roy,
Maudi Bhakesh Chanda,
B.L. Serajul Islam,
Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Osmani,
Shahabudin Khwaja,
H.S. Suhrawardy,
Harendra Kumar Sur,
Tamizuddin Khan,
Kawivi Kerwar Datta,
Ghulam Mohammed

text:
West Punjab:
Mian Mumtaz Mohammad Khan Daultana,
Ganga Saran,
Zafarullah Khan,
Iftikhar Hussain Khan,
Mian Muhammad Iftikharuddin,
Muhammad Ali Jinnah,
Sheikh Karamat Ali,
Nazir Ahmad Khan,
Sardar Abdur Rab Nistar,
Feroz Khan Noon,
Omar Hayat Malik,
Shah Nawaz Begum Jahan Ara,
Sardar Shaukat Hyat Khan,

text:
Northwest Frontier Province:
Khan Abdul Ghafar Khan,
Khan Sardar Bahadur Khan,
Sardar Asad Ullah Jan Khan

text:
Sindh:
Abdus Sattar Abdur Rahman,
Alhajj Muhammad Hashim Gazder,
M.A. Khuhro

text:
Balochistan:
S. B. Nawab Mohammad Khan Jogezai

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Jawaharlal Nehru and other members taking pledge during the midnight session of the Constituent Assembly of India held on 14 and 15 August 1947.

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Chairman, Drafting Committee of the Indian Constitution with other members on Aug. 29, 1947.

Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar, chairman of the Drafting Committee, presenting the final draft of the Indian Constitution to Dr. Rajendra Prasad on 25 November, 1949.

B. R. Ambedkar in Constituent Assembly of India.

Jawaharlal Nehru addressing the constituent assembly in 1946.


document_title: The Last Boy Scout

question_text: who played darien in the last boy scout

question_tokens: who played darien in the last boy scout

text: The Last Boy Scout

text: Plot[edit]

text: During halftime at a televised football game, L.A. Stallions running back Billy Cole (Billy Blanks) receives a phone call from a mysterious man named Milo (Taylor Negron), who warns him to win the game or he will be assassinated. Cole ingests PCP and, in a drug-induced rage, brings a gun onto the field, shooting three opposing players to reach the end zone. Cole then shoots himself in the head. Meanwhile, private investigator Joe Hallenbeck (Bruce Willis), a disgraced former Secret Service agent, who at one time was a national hero for saving the president from an assassination attempt, discovers that his wife Sarah (Chelsea Field) is having an affair with his best friend and business partner, Mike Matthews (Bruce McGill). Mike gives Joe an assignment to act as bodyguard for a stripper named Cory (Halle Berry). Mike is then killed by a car bomb outside Joe's house.

text: Joe is approached by Cory's boyfriend, former Stallions quarterback Jimmy Dix (Damon Wayans), who was banned from the league on gambling charges and alleged drug abuse. After an argument between Joe and Jimmy, an annoyed Jimmy takes Cory from the stage while she is performing. Joe plans to wait outside, where he is knocked out by a team of hitmen. Jimmy and Cory leave the bar in separate cars while Joe is left to dispatch one of the hitmen. When Cory is struck from behind and stops to confront the other driver, she is killed by the hitmen. Jimmy is fired upon and pinned down, but is saved by Joe.

text: At Cory's house, Jimmy and Joe find a taped phone conversation between Senator Calvin Baynard (Chelcie Ross), who is leading a congressional investigation into gambling in sports, and Stallions owner Sheldon Marcone (Noble Willingham). When the tape is ruined in Joe's faulty car stereo, Jimmy realizes that Cory tried using the tape against Marcone to put Jimmy back on the team, prompting Marcone to send the hitmen. Joe saves Jimmy from a second car bomb, and manages to trick two hitmen into blowing themselves up. But the explosion destroys the remaining evidence.

text: Joe reveals to Jimmy that when he was in the Secret Service, he witnessed Baynard torturing a woman in a hotel room and assaulted the senator to thwart the attack. Baynard retaliated by having Joe fired from the Secret Service for refusing to cover up the incident. At Joe's house, Jimmy meets Joe's abrasive daughter Darian (Danielle Harris). When Joe catches Jimmy attempting to use illegal painkillers in the bathroom, Joe kicks him out. As Jimmy leaves, he is asked by Darian to sign a football trading card, stating that Joe was a fan of Jimmy's and never watched another game after he was banned from the league. He leaves her with the signed card, "To the daughter of the last Boy Scout."

text: Learning of Mike's affair with Sarah, the police assumed that he was killed by Joe and move to make an arrest. But Milo, Marcone's top henchman, captures Joe first and shoots a detective using Joe's gun. Marcone explains to Joe that he has been buying Senate votes to legalize sports gambling, but that Baynard tried to blackmail Marcone for $6 million. Being aware of Joe's history with Baynard, Marcone says that it would be cheaper to kill the senator and frame Joe for the murder. Joe is forced to hand a briefcase filled with money to Baynard's bodyguards, who switched it with a wired briefcase. Joe is rescued by Jimmy and Darian, and acquires both briefcases after running the bodyguards and Milo off the road. However, Milo survives and while Darian is left to wait for the police, he abducts her.

text: Heading to the stadium to rescue Darian, Joe and Jimmy are captured and escorted to Marcone's office. Jimmy creates a diversion, allowing them to fight their way free. Realizing Milo will attempt to shoot Baynard, Joe goes after him while sending Jimmy to warn the senator. Grabbing the game ball, Jimmy throws it at Baynard, knocking him down just as Milo starts shooting. Joe knocks Milo to the edge of the stadium light platform, where SWAT officers shoot him several times. Milo then falls into the moving rotor blades of a police helicopter. The breifcase of money is recovered and Marcone, having escaped with the rigged briefcase, is killed when he opens it at his estate. The next day, Joe and Sarah reconcile, and Joe and Jimmy decide to become partners.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Bruce Willis as Joseph "Joe" Cornelius Hallenbeck
Damon Wayans as James "Jimmy" Alexander Dix
Chelsea Field as Sarah Hallenbeck
Noble Willingham as Sheldon Marcone
Taylor Negron as Milo
Danielle Harris as Darian Hallenbeck
Halle Berry as Cory
Bruce McGill as Mike Matthews
Kim Coates as Chet
Chelcie Ross as Senator Calvin Baynard
Joe Santos as Benjamin Bessalo
Clarence Felder as McCoskey
Tony Longo as Big Ray Walston
Frank Collison as Pablo
Eddie Griffin as Club DJ
Billy Blanks as Billy Cole

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: The film was based on an original script by Shane Black. He wrote the script after having taken a two-year break from writing, triggered in part by the end of a relationship. Black later recalled:

text: I was busy mourning my life and, in many ways, the loss of my first real love. I didn’t feel much like doing anything except smoking cigarettes and reading paperbacks. All things come around. Time passed and eventually I sat down and transformed some of that bitterness into a character, the central focus of a private eye story which became The Last Boy Scout. Writing that script was a very cathartic experience, one of the best experiences I’ve ever had. I spent so much time alone working on that. Days which I wouldn’t speak. Three, four days where I maybe said a couple words. It was a wonderfully intense time where my focus was better than it’s ever been. And I was rewarded so handsomely ($1.75 million) for that script, if felt like a vindication and like I was back on track.[3]

text: Roger Ebert, commenting on the script, said "The original screenplay for The Last Boy Scout set a record for its purchase price; that was probably because of the humor of the locker-room dialogue, since the plot itself could have been rewritten out of the Lethal Weapon movies by any film school grad."[4]

text: Shooting[edit]

text: The Last Boy Scout was filmed in 90 days between March 11 and June 9, 1991.[5] The movie had a very troubled production. Conflict and arguments flared between Joel Silver, Bruce Willis and Tony Scott. Although they play buddies in the film, Willis and Damon Wayans hated working with each other.[6] Silver was described as "insane, with long, horrible fits of sanity,” and was compared to a fighter pilot riding as a passenger. “As soon as you hit a little bit of turbulence, he’s right away going to throw the guy out of the window and take over the steering.” Taylor Negron, who played Milo, described Silver as extremely hands-on in every aspect of the production.[7]

text: Assistant director James Skotchdopole attributed the tension on-set to an “overabundance of alpha males on that project. Bruce was at the height of his stardom, so was Joel, so was Tony and so was Shane. There were a lot of people who had a lot of opinions about what to do. There were some heated, early-Nineties, testosterone charged personalities on the line. It was a ‘charged environment,’ shall we say.” Writer Shane Black had to wrestle with the script. “I was forced to do more rewriting on that movie than on anything else I’ve done. There was tremendous pressure from the studio to get Bruce Willis and have this be a follow-up to Die Hard. He was reluctant, and rightly so: ‘This whole movie is about me saving my wife. I just did that in Die Hard.’ So they said, ‘OK, let’s minimize the wife and, and while we’re at it, add a big finale.' There was a general pressure to somehow make it bigger.”[8]

text: More problems emerged during post-production, when the original cut of the film turned out be a "borderline unwatchable workprint." Different editors were hired in an attempt to address Scott's tendency for filming excessive coverage with multiple cameras. Editor Mark Helfrich described sorting through "mountains of raw material" to edit the first cut: “There was more footage shot for The Last Boy Scout than on any film I had ever worked on.” He recalled with incredulity that the work of previous editors appeared to have been rejected, taken apart and put back into the daily reels: “There were still splices all over the place.” Expert action movie editor Mark Goldblatt, who also worked on the film, recalls it as one the most painful and frustrating experiences of his entire career, and refuses to discuss it in interviews, although he did mention in a podcast interview that several other editors were hired and then fired before him, and that Warner Bros. began testing the movie before it was completely finished. Studio executives fretted about the expanding budget, while less-than-enthusiastic reactions from a test screening audience, as well as the unlikeable character played by Willis, did little to allay these concerns.

text: When editor Stuart Baird was hired, the film finally took a positive turn. Baird had been brought in to help re-edit other troubled productions, including Tango & Cash (1989) and Demolition Man (1993). Some later cuts were done with the film's graphic scenes after it was originally rated NC-17, which explains quick-cut edits in some of the death scenes in the film.[9][10][11]

text: Original script[edit]

text: Joel Silver said in a Q&A for The Nice Guys (2016) that Shane Black's original title was Die Hard. Silver asked if he could take the title for a project he was working on at the time called Nothing Lasts Forever, which eventually became Die Hard (1988).

text: Shane Black and Tony Scott both said in later years how the original script was far better than the final film.[12][13]

text: Awards[edit]

text: The film was nominated for two MTV Movie Awards.[14]

text:
Best Action Sequence – For the helicopter blade sequence
Best On-Screen Duo – Bruce Willis & Damon Wayans

text: Reception[edit]

text: The film under-performed expectations given the star power and hype surrounding the then record price paid for the screenplay by Shane Black ($1.75 million).[15]

text: Roger Ebert gave the film three stars, saying it was "a superb example of what it is: a glossy, skillful, cynical, smart, utterly corrupt and vilely misogynistic action thriller".[16] It has a 44% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 34 reviews. Reviews were mixed, and some critics cited the Christmas time release for such a violent film as a reason for its somewhat underwhelming box office.[17][18][19][20] It grossed $7,923,669 in its opening weekend, and the total gross was $59,509,925.[21][22] Although the film was not a blockbuster, it helped Bruce Willis recover his star status after the disastrous Hudson Hawk and became hugely popular in the video rental market.[23][24]

text: Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.[25]

text: Music[edit]

text: The film's score was composed and conducted by Michael Kamen (who also scored Hudson Hawk that year), his only work for Tony Scott. Bill Medley performed the song "Friday Night's A Great Night For Football," written by Steve Dorff and John Bettis, on screen during the opening credits (the song is also reprised over the end titles); the song was released as a CD single by Curb Records.[26]

text: On August 25, 2015, La-La Land Records released a limited edition soundtrack album featuring most of Kamen's score, plus Medley's song.[27]


document_title: List of governors of Puerto Rico

question_text: is the governor of puerto rico democratic or republican

text: List of governors of Puerto Rico

text: History[edit]

text: When the Spanish Empire colonized Puerto Rico during the 16th century, the Spanish conquistador Juan Ponce de León established himself as the island's first governor replacing Vicente Yáñez Pinzón, who was appointed to take the position of Captain General of the City of Puerto Rico prior to the island's colonization but never performed this function.[1] During this time period, the Spanish monarchy was in charge of appointing the governor of Puerto Rico, the person selected was in charge of the island's development and wealth and was responsible for reporting the colony's status to the Spanish Empire. After 1580 the Captaincy General of Puerto Rico was established, and the office of captain general was added to the governor.

text: On July 25, 1898, at the outbreak of the Spanish–American War, Puerto Rico was invaded by the United States when, following a brief armed conflict, the United States Army landed at Guánica. Following the conclusion of the war, Spain was forced to cede Puerto Rico, along with Cuba, the Philippines and Guam, to the United States under the 1898 Treaty of Paris.[2] Puerto Rico began the twentieth century under the military rule of the United States with officials, including the governor, who were appointed by the President of the United States. In 1900, William McKinley signed the Foraker Act as a United States federal law, this established civilian (limited popular) government on Puerto Rico.[3] The new government had a governor and an executive council appointed by the President, a House of Representatives with 35 elected members, a judicial system with a Supreme Court, and a non-voting Resident Commissioner in Congress.[3] The first civilian governor of the island under the Foraker Act was Charles Herbert Allen. This system was still used after the approval of the Jones–Shafroth Act, which altered the structure of government in Puerto Rico, and was in use until 1948.

text: Following the approval of the federal Elective Governor Act by President Harry S Truman in 1947, the governor has been elected through a democratic process every four years since 1948.[4] Under this system, the governor is in charge of the island's executive branch.[4] In these elections, every person must vote for one of several candidates, each one of which represents a political party (currently consisting of the New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico, Puerto Rican Independence Party, Popular Democratic Party of Puerto Rico and Puerto Ricans for Puerto Rico Party) following the elective process the votes are counted and the candidate who gathers the plurality (not majority) of votes is certified as governor-elect and takes office on January 2 of the following year in a public inaugural ceremony which may be preceded by a private oath-taking ceremony.

text: In the governor's absence, or if the governor dies or is unable to perform the executive duties, the Secretary of State of Puerto Rico takes control of the executive position, as Acting Governor during a temporary absence or inability, and as Governor in case of death, resignation or impeachment and conviction.[4] The elected governor must designate a number of secretaries and other agency heads that will control the individual administrative agencies during his time in office, the selected secretaries are in charge of the island's health, natural resources, economy, correctional and judicial agencies and the department of consumer concerns, among others. The Governor's four-year term begins on January 2, the day after the New Year's Day holiday.

text: List of Governors of Puerto Rico[edit]

text:
Century
16th – 17th – 18th – 19th – 20th – 21st

text: Governors under Spanish Crown[edit]

text:
№
Portrait
Governor
(Birth–Death)
Took office
Left office
Ref(s)

1

Captain General Don Juan Ponce de León (1st time)
1474 – July 1521
(aged c. 47)
1508
1509
[5]

2

Juan Cerón
1509
1510
[6]

3

Captain General Don Juan Ponce de León (2nd time)
1510
1511
[5]

4

Juan Cerón
1511
1512
[6]

5

Rodrigo Moscoso
1512
1513
[7]

6

Captain General Cristóbal de Mendoza
1513
1515
[8]

7

Captain General Don Juan Ponce de León (3rd time)
1515
1519
[7]

8

Sánchez Velázquez
1519
1519
[8]

9

Antonio de la Gama
1519
1521
[8]

10

Pedro Moreno
1521
1523
[8]

11

Bishop Alonso Manso
1523
1524
[8]

12

Pedro Moreno
1524
1529
[8]

13

Antonio de la Gama
1529
1530
[8]

14

Lieutenant General Francisco Manuel de Landó
1530
1536
[8]

15

Vasco de Tiedra
1536
1537
[8]

16

Vasco de Tiedra
1537
1544
[8]

17

Jerónimo Lebrón de Quiñones
1544
1544
[8]

18

Lcdo. Iñigo López Cervantes y Loayza
1544
1546
[8]

19

Lcdo. Diego de Caraza
1546
1548
[8]

20

Diego de Caraza
1548
1550
[8]

21

Luis de Vallejo
1550
1555
[8]

22

Lcdo. Alonso Esteves
1555
1555
[8]

23

Lcdo. Diego de Caraza
1555
1561
[8]

24

Antonio de la Llama Vallejo
1561
1564
[8]

25

Francisco Bahamonde De Lugo

1564
1568
[8]

26

Francisco de Solís Osorio
1568
1574
[8]

27

Francisco de Obando y Mexia
1575
1579
[8]

28

Juan Ponce de León II
1579
1579
[9]

29

Jerónimo de Agüero Campuzano
1580
1580
[8]

30

Captain General Juan de Céspedes
1580
1581
[8]

31

Captain General Juan López Melgarejo
1581
1582
[8]

32

Captain General Diego Menéndez de Valdés
1582
1593
[8]

33

Colonel Pedro Suárez de Coronel (1st time)
1593
1597
[8]

34

Captain General Antonio de Mosquero
1597
1598
[8]

35

Colonel Pedro Suárez de Coronel (2nd time)
1597-8
1599
[8]

36

Captain General Alonso de Mercado
1599
1602
[8]

37

Captain General Sancho Ochoa de Castro
1602
1608
[8]

38

Gabriel de Rojas Párano
1608
1614
[8]

39

Captain General Felipe de Beaumont y Navarra
1614
1620
[8]

40

Juan de Vargas
1620
1625
[8]

41

Captain General Juan de Haro y Sanvítores
1625
1630
[8]

42

Captain General Enrique Enriquez de Sotomayor
1631
1635
[8]

43

Captain General Iñigo de la Mota Sarmiento
1635
1641
[8]

44

Captain General Agustín de Silva y Figueroa
1641
1641
[8]

45

Captain General Juan de Bolaños
1642
1643
[8]

46

Fernando de la Riva Agüero y Setien
1643
1648
[8]

47

Diego de Aguilera y Gamboa
1649
1655
[8]

48

José Novoa y Moscoso Pérez y Buitron
1655
1660
[8]

49

Captain General Juan Pérez de Guzmán y Chagoyen
1660
1664
[8]

50

Jerónimo de Velasco
1664
1670
[8]

51

Gaspar de Arteaga y Aunoavidao
1670
1674
[10]

52

Diego Roblandillo
1674
1674
[10]

53

Captain General Baltazar Figueroa y Castilla
1674
1674
[10]

54

Alonso de Campos y Espinosa
1675
1678
[10]

55

Juan de Robles Lorenzana
1678
1683
[10]

56

Captain General Gaspar Martínez de Andino
1683
1685
[10]

57

Juan Francisco Medina
1685
1690
[10]

58

Gaspar de Arredondo y Valle
1690
1695
[10]

59

Juan Francisco Medina
1695
1697
[10]

60

Tomás Franco
1697
1698
[10]

61

Antonio de Robles Silva
1698
1699
[10]

62

Gabriel Suárez de Ribera
1700
1703
[10]

63

Diego Jiménez de Villarán
1703
1703
[10]

64

Francisco Sánchez Calderón
1703
1703
[10]

65

Pedro Arroyo y Guerrero
1704
1705
[10]

66

Juan Francisco López de Morla
1706
1706
[10]

67

Francisco Danío Granados
1706
1708
[10]

68

Colonel Juan de Ribera
1709
1715
[10]

69

José Francisco Carreño
1716
1716
[10]

70

Alfonso Bortodano
1716
1720
[10]

71

Francisco Danio Granados
1720
1724
[10]

72

Captain General José Antonio de Mendizabal y Azcue
1724
1730
[10]

73

Lieutenant Colonel Matías de Abadía
1731
1743
[10]

74

Domingo Pérez de Mandares
1743
1744
[10]

75

Colonel Juan José Colomo
1744
1750
[10]

76

Colonel Agustín de Parejas
1750
1751
[10]

77

Lieutenant Colonel Esteban Bravo de Rivero
1751
1753
[10]

78

Captain General Felipe Ramírez de Estenos
1753
1757
[10]

79

Esteban Bravo de Rivero
1757
1759
[10]

80

Mateo de Guaso Calderón
1759
1760
[10]

81

Esteban Bravo de Rivero
1760
1761
[10]

82

Lieutenant Colonel Ambrosio de Benavides
1761
1766
[10]

83

Colonel Marcos de Vergara
1766
1766
[10]

84

Lieutenant Colonel José Trentor
1766
1770
[10]

85

Colonel Miguel de Muesas
1769
1776
[10][11]

86

Colonel José Dufresne
1776
1783
[10]

87

Field Marshal Don Juan Andrés Daban y Busterino
1783
1789
[10]

88

Coronel Francisco Torralbo y Robles
1789
1789
[10]

89

Brigadier General Miguel Antonio de Ustariz
1789
1792
[7]

90

Coronel Francisco Torralbo y Robles
1792
1794
[10]

91

Brigadier General Enrique Grimarest
1794
1795
[7]

92

Field Marshal Don Ramón de Castro y Gutiérrez
1795
1804
[10]

93

Toribio Montes
1804
1809
[10]

94

Salvador Meléndez Bruna
1809
1820
[10]

95

Brigadier General Juan Vasco y Pascual
March 24, 1820
August 7, 1820
[10]

96

Brigadier General Gonzalo Arostegui y Herrera
August 7, 1820
February 12, 1822
[10]

97

Coronel José de Navarro
February 12, 1822
May 30, 1822
[10]

98

Francisco González de Linares
May 30, 1822
December 4, 1823
[10]

99

Lieutenant General Miguel Luciano de La Torre y Pando
December 4, 1823
1837
[10]

100

Francisco Javier de Moreda y Prieto
1837
1838
[10]

101

Field Marshal Miguel López de Baños
1838
1841
[10]

102

Lieutenant General Santiago Méndez de Vigo
1841
1844
[10]

103

Lieutenant General Rafael de Aristegui y Vélez
1844
1847
[10]

104

Field Marshal Don Juan Prim de Prats y Gonzalez
1847
1848
[12]

105

Lieutenant General Juan de la Pezuela y Cevallos
1848
1851
[7]

106

Enrique de España y Taberner
1851
1852
[7]

107

Lieutenant General Fernándo Norzagaray y Escudero
1852
1855
[7]

108

Lieutenant General Andrés García Camba
1855
1855
[7]

109

Lieutenant General José Lemery Ibrarrola Ney y Gonzalez
1855
1857
[7]

110

Lieutenant General Fernando Cotoner y Chacon
1857
1860
[7]

111

Sabino Gamir Maladen
1860
1860
[7]

112

Lieutenant General Rafael Echague y Bermingham
1860
1862
[7]

113

Brigadier General Rafael Izquierdo y Gutierrez
1862
1863
[7]

114

Lieutenant General Félix María de Messina Iglesias
April 1862
November 1865
[7]

115

Lieutenant General José María Marchessi y Oleaga
1865
1867
[7]

116

General Julián Juan Pavia Lacy
1867
1868
[7]

117

General José Laureano Sanz y Posse
1868
1870
[7]

118

Lieutenant General Gabriel Baldrich
1870
1871
[7]

119

General Ramón Gómez Pulido
1871
1872
[7]

120

General Simón de la Torre Ormaza
1872
1872
[7]

121

Brigadier General Joaquín Eurile Hernan
1872
1873
[7]

122

Lieutenant General Juan Martínez Plowes
1873
1873
[7]

123

General Rafael Primo de Rivera y Sobremonte
1873
1874
[7]

124

General José Laureano Sanz y Posse
1875
1875
[7]

125

General Segundo de la Portilla Gutierrez
1875
1877
[7]

126

General Manuel de la Serna Hernandez y Pinzón
1877
1878
[7]

127

General José Gamir Maladen
1878
1878
[7]

128

General Eulogio Despujols y Dussay
1878
1881
[7]

129

General Segundo de la Portilla Gutierrez
1881
1883
[7]

130

General Miguel de la Vega Inclán y Palma
1883
1884
[7]

131

General Don Carlos Suances Campos
1884
1884
[7]

132

General Ramón Fajardo Izquierdo
1884
1884
[7]

133

General Luis Daban y Ramírez de Arellanó
1884
1887
[7]

134

General Romualdo Palacios Gonzalez
1887
1887
[7]

135

General Juan Contreras Martinez
1887
1888
[7]

136

General Pedro Ruiz Dana
1888
1890
[7]

137

Brigadier General José Pascual Bonanza
1890
1890
[7]

138

General José Lasso y Pérez
1890
1893
[7]

139

General Antonio Daban y Ramírez de Arrellanó
1893
1895
[7]

140

General José Gamir
1895
1896
[7]

141

General Emilio March
1896
1896
[7]

142

General Sabas Marín González
1896
1898
[13]

143

General Ricardo de Ortega y Diez
1898
1898
[14]

144

General Andrés González Muñoz
1898
1898
[15]

145

General Ricardo de Ortega y Diez
1898
1898
[14]

146

General Manuel Macías Casado
1898
1898
[16]

147

General Ricardo de Ortega y Diez
1898
1898
[14]

text: Governors under U.S. colonial administration[edit]

text: Military government[edit]

text:
Image
Name
Took office
Left office
Reference

Commanding General Nelson A. Miles
1898
1898
[17]

Major General John R. Brooke
1898
1898
[18]

Major General Guy Vernon Henry
1898
1899
[19]

Major General George Whitefield Davis
1899
1900
[7]

text: Post-Foraker Act of 1900[edit]

text:
Image
Name
Took office
Left office
Notes
Reference

Charles Herbert Allen
May 1, 1900
September 15, 1901
First U.S. civil governor appointed by President William McKinley
[20]

William Henry Hunt
September 15, 1901
July 4, 1904

[21]

Beekman Winthrop
July 4, 1904
April 17, 1907

[8]

Regis Henri Post
1907
1909

[8]

George Radcliffe Colton
1909
1913

[8]

Arthur Yager
1913
1921

[22]

José E. Benedicto
1921
1921
Interim governor
[8]

Emmet Montgomery Reily
July 30, 1921
March 1923

[23]

Juan Bernardo Huyke
March 1923
April 1, 1923
Interim governor
[8]

Horace Mann Towner
April 1, 1923
September 29, 1929

[24]

James R. Beverley
1929
September 9, 1929

[8]

Theodore Roosevelt Jr.
September 9, 1929
January 1932

[25]

James R. Beverley 2nd Term
January 1932
July 1933

[8]

Robert Hayes Gore
July 1933
January 11, 1934

[26]

Benjamin Jason Horton
January 11, 1934
February 5, 1934

[8]

Blanton C. Winship
February 5, 1934
June 25, 1939
Summarily removed by President Roosevelt on May 12, 1939.[27][28]
[29]

José E. Colón
June 25, 1939
September 11, 1939
Interim governor
[7]

William D. Leahy
September 11, 1939
November 28, 1940

[30]

José Miguel Gallardo
November 28, 1940
February 1941
Interim governor
[7]

Guy J. Swope
February 1941
July 24, 1941

[31]

José Miguel Gallardo
July 24, 1941
September 19, 1941
Interim governor
[7]

Rexford Tugwell
September 19, 1941
September 2, 1946

[32]

Jesús T. Piñero
September 2, 1946
January 2, 1949
Only native Puerto Rican governor appointed under U.S colonial administration
[33]

text: Governors under the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico[edit]

text:
Popular Democratic Party (7)
  New Progressive Party (5)

text: US Party Affiliation

text:
Democratic Party (9)
  Republican Party (2)
  Independent (1)

text:
№
Portrait
Name
(Birth–Death)
Took office
Left office
Party
Affiliation
within U.S. politics

1

Luis Muñoz Marín
(1898–1980)[34]
2 January 1949
2 January 1965
Popular Democratic Party

Independent[a]

2

Roberto Sánchez Vilella
(1913–1997)[36]
2 January 1965
2 January 1969
Popular Democratic Party

Democrat[b]

3

Luis A. Ferré
(1904–2003)[38]
2 January 1969
2 January 1973
New Progressive Party

Republican[c]

4

Rafael Hernández Colón
(1936–)[40]
2 January 1973
2 January 1977
Popular Democratic Party

Democrat[d]

5

Carlos Romero Barceló
(1932–)[42]
2 January 1977
2 January 1985
New Progressive Party

Democrat[d]

6

Rafael Hernández Colón
(1936–)[40]
2 January 1985
2 January 1993
Popular Democratic Party

Democrat[d]

7

Pedro Rosselló
(1944–)[43]
2 January 1993
2 January 2001
New Progressive Party

Democrat[44]

8

Sila María Calderón
(1942–)[45]
2 January 2001
2 January 2005
Popular Democratic Party

Democrat[e]

9

Aníbal Acevedo Vilá
(1962–)[47]
2 January 2005
2 January 2009
Popular Democratic Party

Democrat[f]

10

Luis Fortuño Burset
(1960–)
2 January 2009
2 January 2013
New Progressive Party

Republican[49]

11

Alejandro García Padilla
(1971–)
2 January 2013
2 January 2017
Popular Democratic Party

Democrat[g]

12

Dr. Ricardo Rosselló
(1979–)
2 January 2017
present
New Progressive Party

Democrat