document_title: Ailanthus altissima

question_text: where did the tree of heaven come from

question_tokens: where did the tree of heaven come from

text: Ailanthus altissima

text: Description[edit]

text: A. altissima is a medium-sized tree that reaches heights between 17 and 27 metres (56 and 89 ft) with a diameter at breast height of about 1 metre (39 inches).[4] The bark is smooth and light grey, often becoming somewhat rougher with light tan fissures as the tree ages. The twigs are stout, smooth to lightly pubescent, and reddish or chestnut in colour. They have lenticels as well as heart-shaped leaf scars (i.e. a scar left on the twig after a leaf falls) with many bundle scars (i.e. small marks where the veins of the leaf once connected to the tree) around the edges. The buds are finely pubescent, dome shaped, and partially hidden behind the petiole, though they are completely visible in the dormant season at the sinuses of the leaf scars.[5] The branches are light to dark gray in colour, smooth, lustrous, and containing raised lenticels that become fissures with age. The ends of the branches become pendulous. All parts of the plant have a distinguishing strong odour that is often likened to peanuts, cashews,[6] or rotting cashews.[7]

text: The leaves are large, odd- or even-pinnately compound, and arranged alternately on the stem. They range in size from 30 to 90 cm (0.98 to 2.95 ft) in length and contain 10–41 leaflets organised in pairs, with the largest leaves found on vigorous young sprouts. When they emerge in the spring, the leaves are bronze then quickly turn from medium to dark green as they grow.[8] The rachis is light to reddish-green with a swollen base. The leaflets are ovate-lanceolate with entire margins, somewhat asymmetric and occasionally not directly opposite to each other. Each leaflet is 5 to 18 cm (2.0 to 7.1 in) long and 2.5 to 5 cm (0.98 to 1.97 in) wide. They have a long tapering end while the bases have two to four teeth, each containing one or more glands at the tip.[5] The leaflets' upper sides are dark green in colour with light green veins, while the undersides are a more whitish green. The petioles are 5 to 12 mm (0.20 to 0.47 in) long.[6] The lobed bases and glands distinguish it from similar sumac species.

text: The flowers are small and appear in large panicles up to 50 cm (20 in) in length at the end of new shoots. The individual flowers are yellowish green to reddish in colour, each with five petals and sepals.[4][6] The sepals are cup-shaped, lobed and united while the petals are valvate (i.e. they meet at the edges without overlapping), white and hairy towards the inside.[5][9][10] They appear from mid-April in the south of its range to July in the north. A. altissima is dioecious, with male and female flowers being borne on different individuals. Male trees produce three to four times as many flowers as the females, making the male flowers more conspicuous. Furthermore, the male plants emit a foul-smelling odour while flowering to attract pollinating insects. Female flowers contain ten (or rarely five through abortion) sterile stamens (stamenoides) with heart-shaped anthers. The pistil is made up of five free carpels (i.e. they are not fused), each containing a single ovule. Their styles are united and slender with star-shaped stigmas.[5][9] The male flowers are similar in appearance, but they of course lack a pistil and the stamens do function, each being topped with a globular anther and a glandular green disc.[5] The fruits grow in clusters; a fruit cluster may contain hundreds of seeds.[11] The seeds borne on the female trees are 5 mm in diameter and each is encapsulated in a samara that is 2.5 cm (0.98 in) long and 1 cm (0.39 in) broad, appearing July though August, but can persist on the tree until the next spring. The samara is large and twisted at the tips, making it spin as it falls, assisting wind dispersal,[4][6] and aiding buoyancy for long-distance dispersal through hydrochory.[12] The females can produce huge amounts of seeds, normally around 30,000 per kilogram (14,000/lb) of tree,[4] and fecundity can be estimated non-destructively through measurements of dbh.[12]

text: Odor[edit]

text: This tree is known to produce an unpleasant odor described as rancid peanut, used gym socks, and semen.[13][14]

text: Taxonomy[edit]

text: The first scientific descriptions of the tree of heaven were made shortly after it was introduced to Europe by the French Jesuit Pierre Nicholas d'Incarville. D'Incarville had sent seeds from Peking via Siberia to his botanist friend Bernard de Jussieu in the 1740s. The seeds sent by d'Incarville were thought to be from the economically important and similar looking Chinese varnish tree (Toxicodendron vernicifluum), which he had observed in the lower Yangtze region, rather than the tree of heaven. D'Incarville attached a note indicating this, which caused much taxonomic confusion over the next few decades. In 1751, Jussieu planted a few seeds in France and sent others on to Philip Miller, the superintendent at the Chelsea Physic Garden, and to Philip C. Webb, the owner of an exotic plant garden in Busbridge, England.[5]

text: Confusion in naming began when the tree was described by all three men with three different names. In Paris, Linnaeus gave the plant the name Rhus succedanea, while it was known commonly as grand vernis du Japon. In London the specimens were named by Miller as Toxicodendron altissima and in Busbridge it was dubbed in the old classification system as Rhus Sinese foliis alatis. There are extant records from the 1750s of disputes over the proper name between Philip Miller and John Ellis, curator of Webb's garden in Busbridge. Rather than the issue being resolved, more names soon appeared for the plant: Jakob Friedrich Ehrhart observed a specimen in Utrecht in 1782 and named it Rhus cacodendron.[5]

text: Light was shed on the taxonomic status of ailanthus in 1788 when René Louiche Desfontaines observed the samaras of the Paris specimens, which were still labelled Rhus succedanea, and came to the conclusion that the plant was not a sumac. He published an article with an illustrated description and gave it the name Ailanthus glandulosa, placing it in the same genus as the tropical species then known as A. integrifolia (white siris, now A. triphysa). The name is derived from the Ambonese word ailanto, meaning "heaven-tree" or "tree reaching for the sky".[5][15] The specific glandulosa, referring to the glands on the leaves, persisted until as late as 1957, but it was ultimately made invalid as a later homonym at the species level.[5] The current species name comes from Walter T. Swingle who was employed by the United States Department of Plant Industry. He decided to transfer Miller's older specific name into the genus of Desfontaines, resulting in the accepted name Ailanthus altissima.[16] Altissima is Latin for "tallest",[17] and refers to the sizes the tree can reach. The plant is sometimes incorrectly cited with the specific epithet in the masculine (glandulosus or altissimus), which is incorrect since botanical, like Classical Latin, treats most tree names as feminine.

text: There are three varieties of A. altissima:

text:
A. altissima var. altissima, which is the type variety and is native to mainland China.
A. altissima var. tanakai, which is endemic to northern Taiwan highlands. It differs from the type in having yellowish bark, odd-pinnate leaves that are also shorter on average at 45 to 60 cm (18 to 24 in) long with only 13–25 scythe-like leaflets.[18][19][20] It is listed as endangered in the IUCN Red List of threatened species due to loss of habitat for building and industrial plantations.[21]
A. altissima var. sutchuenensis, which differs in having red branchlets.[18][19]

text: Distribution and habitat[edit]

text: A. altissima is native to northern and central China, Taiwan[22] and northern Korea.[23] In Taiwan it is present as var. takanai.[21] In China it is native to every province except Gansu, Heilongjiang, Hainan, Jilin, Ningxia, Qinghai, Xinjiang, and Tibet.[18]

text: The tree prefers moist and loamy soils, but is adaptable to a very wide range of soil conditions and pH values. It is drought-hardy, but not tolerant of flooding. It also does not tolerate deep shade.[4] In China it is often found in limestone-rich areas.[19] The tree of heaven is found within a wide range of climatic conditions.[4] In its native range it is found at high altitudes in Taiwan[21] as well as lower ones in mainland China.[5] In the U.S. it is found in arid regions bordering the Great Plains, very wet regions in the southern Appalachians, cold areas of the lower Rocky Mountains and throughout much of the California Central Valley. Prolonged cold and snow cover cause dieback, though the trees re-sprout from the roots.[4]

text: As an exotic plant[edit]

text: The earliest introductions of A. altissima to countries outside of its native range were to the southern areas of Korea as well as to Japan. It is possible that the tree is native to these areas, but it is generally agreed that the tree was a very early introduction.[24] Within China itself it has also been naturalised beyond its native range in areas such as Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang.[19]

text: In 1784, not long after Jussieu had sent seeds to England, some were forwarded to the United States by William Hamilton, a gardener in Philadelphia. In both Europe and America it quickly became a favoured ornamental, especially as a street tree, and by 1840 it was available in most nurseries.[5][15] The tree was separately brought to California in the 1890s by Chinese immigrants who came during the California Gold Rush. It has escaped cultivation in all areas where it was introduced, but most extensively in the United States.[22] It has naturalised across much of Europe, including Germany,[25] Austria, Switzerland, the Czech Republic, the Pannonian region (i.e. southeastern Central Europe around the Danube river basin from Austria, Slovakia and Hungary south to the Balkan ranges) and most countries of the Mediterranean Basin.[23] In Montenegro[26] and Albania[27][28] A. altissima is widespread in both rural and urban areas and while in the first it was introduced as an ornamental plant, it very soon invaded native ecosystems with disastrous results and became an invasive species.[26] Ailanthus has also been introduced to Argentina,[22] Australia (where it is a declared weed in New South Wales and Victoria),[29] New Zealand (where it is listed under the National Pest Plant Accord and is classed an "unwanted organism"),[30] the Middle East and in some countries in South Asia such as Pakistan.[31] In South Africa it is listed as an invasive species which must be controlled, or removed and destroyed.[32]

text: In North America, A. altissima is present from Massachusetts in the east, west to southern Ontario, southwest to Iowa, south to Texas, and east to the north of Florida. On the west coast it is found from New Mexico west to California and north to Washington.[4][22] In the east of its range it grows most extensively in disturbed areas of cities, where it was long ago present as a planted street tree.[5][22] It also grows along roads and railways. For example, a 2003 study in North Carolina found the tree of heaven was present on 1.7% of all highway and railroad edges in the state and had been expanding its range at the rate of 4.76% counties per year.[33] Similarly, another study conducted in southwestern Virginia determined that the tree of heaven is thriving along approximately 30% of the state's interstate highway system length or mileage.[34] It sometimes enters undisturbed areas as well and competes with native plants.[22] In western North America it is most common in mountainous areas around old dwellings and abandoned mining operations.[35][36]

text: Ecology[edit]

text: Ailanthus is an opportunistic plant that thrives in full sun and disturbed areas. It spreads aggressively both by seeds and vegetatively by root sprouts, re-sprouting rapidly after being cut.[4] It is considered a shade-intolerant tree and cannot compete in low-light situations,[37] though it is sometimes found competing with hardwoods, but such competition rather indicates it was present at the time the stand was established.[4] On the other hand, a study in an old-growth hemlock-hardwood forest in New York found that Ailanthus was capable of competing successfully with native trees in canopy gaps where only 2 to 15% of full sun was available. The same study characterised the tree as using a "gap-obligate" strategy in order to reach the forest canopy, meaning it grows rapidly during a very short period rather than growing slowly over a long period.[38] It is a short lived tree in any location and rarely lives more than 50 years.[4] Ailanthus is among the most pollution-tolerant of tree species, including sulfur dioxide, which it absorbs in its leaves. It can withstand cement dust and fumes from coal tar operations, as well as resist ozone exposure relatively well. Furthermore, high concentrations of mercury have been found built up in tissues of the plant.[22]

text: Ailanthus has been used to re-vegetate areas where acid mine drainage has occurred and it has been shown to tolerate pH levels as low as 4.1 (approximately that of tomato juice). It can withstand very low phosphorus levels and high salinity levels. The drought-tolerance of the tree is strong due to its ability to effectively store water in its root system.[22] It is frequently found in areas where few trees can survive. The roots are also aggressive enough to cause damage to subterranean sewers and pipes.[5] Along highways it often forms dense thickets in which few other tree species are present, largely due to the toxins it produces to prevent competition.[22]

text: Ailanthus produces an allelopathic chemical called ailanthone, which inhibits the growth of other plants.[39] The inhibitors are strongest in the bark and roots, but are also present in the leaves, wood and seeds of the plant. One study showed that a crude extract of the root bark inhibited 50% of a sample of garden cress (Lepidium sativum) seeds from germinating. The same study tested the extract as an herbicide on garden cress, redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus), velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti), yellow bristlegrass (Setaria pumila), barnyard grass (Echinochloa crusgalli), pea (Pisum sativum cv. Sugar Snap) and maize (Zea mays cv. Silver Queen). It proved able to kill nearly 100% of seedlings with the exception of velvetleaf, which showed some resistance.[40] Another experiment showed a water extract of the chemical was either lethal or highly damaging to 11 North American hardwoods and 34 conifers, with the white ash (Fraxinus americana) being the only plant not adversely affected.[41] The chemical does not, however, affect the tree of heaven's own seedlings, indicating that A. altissima has a defence mechanism to prevent autotoxicity.[39] Resistance in various plant species has been shown to increase with exposure. Populations without prior exposure to the chemicals are most susceptible to them. Seeds produced from exposed plants have also been shown to be more resistant than their unexposed counterparts.[42]

text: The tree of heaven is a very rapidly growing tree, possibly the fastest growing tree in North America.[43] Growth of one to two metres (3.3 to 6.6 ft) per year for the first four years is considered normal. Shade considerably hampers growth rates. Older trees, while growing much slower, still do so faster than other trees. Studies found that Californian trees grew faster than their East Coast counterparts, and American trees in general grew faster than Chinese ones.[43]

text: In northern Europe the tree of heaven was not considered naturalised in cities until after the Second World War. This has been attributed to the tree's ability to colonise areas of rubble of destroyed buildings where most other plants would not grow.[23] In addition, the warmer microclimate in cities offers a more suitable habitat than the surrounding rural areas (it is thought that the tree requires a mean annual temperature of 8 degrees Celsius to grow well, which limits its spread to more northern and higher altitude areas). For example, one study in Germany found the tree of heaven growing in 92% of densely populated areas of Berlin, 25% of its suburbs and only 3% of areas outside the city altogether.[23] In other areas of Europe this is not the case as climates are mild enough for the tree to flourish. It has colonised natural areas in Hungary, for example, and is considered a threat to biodiversity at that country's Aggtelek National Park.[23]

text: Several species of Lepidoptera utilise the leaves of ailanthus as food, including the Indian moon moth (Actias selene) and the common grass yellow (Eurema hecabe). In North America the tree is the host plant for the ailanthus webworm (Atteva aurea), though this ermine moth is native to Central and South America and originally used other members of the mostly tropical Simaroubaceae as its hosts.[44] In its native range A. altissima is associated with at least 32 species of arthropods and 13 species of fungi.[19]

text: Due to the tree of heaven's weedy habit, landowners and other organisations often resort to various methods of control in order to keep its populations in check. For example, the city of Basel in Switzerland has an eradication program for the tree.[23] It can be very difficult to eradicate, however. Means of eradication can be physical, thermal, managerial, biological or chemical. A combination of several of these can be most effective, though they must of course be compatible. All have some positive and negative aspects, but the most effective regimen is generally a mixture of chemical and physical control. It involves the application of foliar or basal herbicides in order to kill existing trees, while either hand pulling or mowing seedlings in order to prevent new growth.[45][note 1]

text: Uses[edit]

text: In addition to its use as an ornamental plant, the tree of heaven is also used for its wood, medicinal properties, and as a host plant to feed silkworms of the moth Samia cynthia, which produces silk that is stronger and cheaper than mulberry silk, although with inferior gloss and texture. It is also unable to take dye. This type of silk is known under various names: "pongee", "eri silk" and "Shantung silk", the last name being derived from Shandong Province in China where this silk is often produced. Its production is particularly well known in the Yantai region of that province. The moth has also been introduced in the United States.[5]

text: The pale yellow, close-grained and satiny wood of ailanthus has been used in cabinet work.[46] It is flexible and well suited to the manufacture of kitchen steamers, which are important in Chinese cuisine for cooking mantou, pastries and rice. Zhejiang Province in eastern China is most famous for producing these steamers.[5] It is also considered a good source of firewood across much of its range as it moderately hard and heavy, yet readily available.[47] The wood is also used to make charcoal for culinary purposes.[48] There are problems with using the wood as lumber, however. Because the trees exhibit rapid growth for the first few years, the trunk has uneven texture between the inner and outer wood, which can cause the wood to twist or crack during drying. Techniques have been developed for drying the wood so as to prevent this cracking, allowing it to be commercially harvested. Although the live tree tends to have very flexible wood, the wood is quite hard once properly dried.[49]

text: Cultivation[edit]

text: Tree of heaven is a popular ornamental tree in China and valued for its tolerance of difficult growing conditions.[19] It was once very popular in cultivation in both Europe and North America, but this popularity dropped, especially in the United States, due to the disagreeable odor of its blossoms and the weediness of its habit. The problem of odor was previously avoided by only selling pistillate plants since only males produce the smell, but a higher seed production also results.[15] Michael Dirr, a noted American horticulturalist and professor at the University of Georgia, reported meeting, in 1982, a grower who could not find any buyers. He further writes (his emphasis):

text: For most landscaping conditions, it has no value as there are too many trees of superior quality; for impossible conditions this tree has a place; selection could be made for good habit, strong wood and better foliage which would make the tree more satisfactory; I once talked with an architect who tried to buy Ailanthus for use along polluted highways but could not find an adequate supply [...]

text: In Europe, however, the tree is still used in the garden to some degree as its habit is generally not as invasive as it is in America. In the United Kingdom it is especially common in London squares, streets, and parks, though it is also frequently found in gardens of southern England and East Anglia. It becomes rare in the north, occurring only infrequently in southern Scotland. It is also rare in Ireland.[51] In Germany the tree is commonly planted in gardens.[25] The tree has furthermore become unpopular in cultivation in the west because it is short-lived and that the trunk soon becomes hollow, making trees more than two feet in diameter unstable in high winds.[46]

text: A few cultivars exist, but they are not often sold outside of China and probably not at all in North America:

text:
‘Hongye’ – The name is Chinese and means "red leaves". As the name implies it has attractive vivid red foliage[52]
‘Thousand Leaders’[52]
‘Metro’ – A male cultivar with a tighter crown than usual and a less weedy habit[53]
‘Erythrocarpa’ – The fruits are a striking red[53]
‘Pendulifolia’ – Leaves are much longer and hang elegantly[53]

text: Medicinal[edit]

text: Nearly every part of A. altissima has some application in Chinese traditional medicine. One of the oldest recipes, recorded in a work from AD 732, is used for treating mental illness. It involved chopped root material, young boys' urine and douchi. After sitting for a day the liquid was strained out and given to the patient over the course of several days.[5]

text: Another source from 684 AD, during the Tang dynasty and recorded in Li Shizhen's Compendium of Materia Medica, states that when the leaves are taken internally, they make one incoherent and sleepy, while when used externally they can be effectively used to treat boils, abscesses and itches. Yet another recipe recorded by Li uses the leaves to treat baldness. This formula calls for young leaves of ailanthus, catalpa and peach tree to be crushed together and the resulting liquid applied to the scalp to stimulate hair growth.[5]

text: The dried bark, however, is still an officinal drug and is listed in the modern Chinese materia medica as chun bai pi (Chinese: 椿白皮; pinyin: chūnbáipí), meaning "white bark of spring". Modern works treat it in detail, discussing chemical constituents, how to identify the product and its pharmaceutical uses. It is prepared by felling the tree in fall or spring, stripping the bark and then scraping off the hardest, outermost portion, which is then sun-dried, soaked in water, partially re-dried in a basket and finally cut into strips. The bark is said to have cooling and astringent properties and is primarily used to treat dysentery, intestinal hemorrhage, menorrhagia and spermatorrhea. It is only prescribed in amounts between 4 and 10 grams, so as not to poison the patients. Li's Compendium has 18 recipes that call for the bark. Asian and European chemists have found some justification for its medical use as it contains a long list of active chemicals that include quassin and saponin, while ailanthone, the allelopathic chemical in the tree of heaven, is a known antimalarial agent.[54] It is available in most shops dealing in Chinese traditional medicine.[5] A tincture of the root-bark has been used successfully in treating cardiac palpitation, asthma and epilepsy.[9]

text: The samaras are also used in modern Chinese medicine under the name feng yan cao (simplified Chinese: 凤眼草; traditional Chinese: 鳳眼草; pinyin: fèngyǎncǎo), meaning "herbal phoenix eye". They are used as a hemostatic agent, spermatorrhea and for treating patients with blood in their feces or urine. It was clinically shown to be able to treat trichomoniasis, a vaginal infection caused by the protozoan Trichomonas vaginalis.[5] In the West, an extract of the bark sold under the synonym A. glandulosa is sometimes used as an herbal remedy for various ailments including cancer.[55]

text: Anecdotal evidence suggests that the plant may be mildly toxic. The noxious odours have been associated with nausea and headaches, as well as with contact dermatitis reported in both humans and sheep, who also developed weakness and paralysis. It contains a quinone irritant, 2,6-dimethoxybenzoquinone, as well as active quassinoids (ailanthone itself being one) which may account for these effects, but they have, however, proved difficult or impossible to reproduce in humans and goats. In one trial a tincture from the blossom and foliage caused nausea, vomiting and muscular relaxation.[54]

text: Ailanthus altissima has potent anti-anaphylactic and anti-inflammatory properties.[56]

text: Culture[edit]

text: China[edit]

text: In addition to the tree of heaven's various uses, it has also been a part of Chinese culture for many centuries and has more recently attained a similar status in the west. Within the oldest extant Chinese dictionary, the Erya, written in the 3rd century BC, the tree of heaven is mentioned second among a list of trees. It was mentioned again in a materia medica compiled during the Tang dynasty in 656 AD. Each work favoured a different character, however, and there is still some debate in the Chinese botanical community as to which character should be used. The current name, chouchun (Chinese: 臭椿; pinyin: chòuchūn), means "stinking spring", and is a relatively new appellation. People living near the lower Yellow River know it by the name chunshu (simplified Chinese: 椿树; traditional Chinese: 椿樹; pinyin: chūnshù), meaning "spring tree". The name stems from the fact that A. altissima is one of the last trees to come out of dormancy, and as such its leaves coming out would indicate that winter was truly over.[5]

text: In Chinese literature, ailanthus is often used for two rather extreme metaphors, with a mature tree representing a father and a stump being a spoiled child. This manifests itself occasionally when expressing best wishes to a friend's father and mother in a letter, where one can write "wishing your ailanthus and daylily are strong and happy", with ailanthus metaphorically referring to the father and daylily to the mother. Furthermore, one can scold a child by calling him a "good-for-nothing ailanthus stump sprout", meaning the child is irresponsible. This derives from the literature of Zhuangzi, a Taoist philosopher, who referred to a tree that had developed from a sprout at the stump and was thus unsuitable for carpentry due to its irregular shape. Later scholars associated this tree with ailanthus and applied the metaphor to children who, like stump sprouts of the tree, will not develop into a worthwhile human being if they don't follow rules or traditions.[57]

text: United States[edit]

text: The 1943 book A Tree Grows in Brooklyn by Betty Smith uses the tree of heaven as its central metaphor, using it as an analogy for the ability to thrive in a difficult environment. At that time as well as now, ailanthus was common in neglected urban areas.[15][58] She writes:

text: There's a tree that grows in Brooklyn. Some people call it the Tree of Heaven. No matter where its seed falls, it makes a tree which struggles to reach the sky. It grows in boarded up lots and out of neglected rubbish heaps. It grows up out of cellar gratings. It is the only tree that grows out of cement. It grows lushly...survives without sun, water, and seemingly earth. It would be considered beautiful except that there are too many of it.

text: In William Faulkner's novel, Sanctuary, a "heaven-tree" stands outside the Jefferson jail, where Lee Goodwin and a "negro murderer" are incarcerated. The tree is associated with the black prisoner's despair in the face of his impending execution and the spirituals that he sings in chorus with other black people who keep a sort of vigil in the street below:

text: ...they sang spirituals while white people slowed and stopped in the leafed darkness that was almost summer, to listen to those who were sure to die and him who was already dead singing about heaven and being tired; or perhaps in the interval between songs a rich, sourceless voice coming out of the high darkness where the ragged shadow of the heaven-tree which snooded the street lamp at the corner fretted and mourned: "Fo days mo! Den dey ghy stroy de bes ba'yton singer in nawth Mississippi!"[59]

text: Upon the barred and slitted wall the splotched shadow of the heaven-tree shuddered and pulsed monstrously in scarce any wind; rich and sad, the singing fell behind.[60]

text: Ailanthus is also sometimes counter-nicknamed "tree from hell" due to its prolific invasiveness and the difficulty in eradicating it.[58][61] In certain parts of the United States, the species has been nicknamed the "ghetto palm" because of its propensity for growing in the inhospitable conditions of urban areas, or on abandoned and poorly maintained properties, such as in war-torn Afghanistan.[62][63]

text: Until March 26, 2008, a 60-foot (18 m)-tall member of the species was a prominent "centerpiece" of the sculpture garden at the Noguchi Museum in the Astoria section in the borough of Queens in New York City. The tree had been spared by the sculptor Isamu Noguchi when in 1975 he bought the building which would become the museum and cleaned up its back lot. The tree was the only one he left in the yard, and the staff would eat lunch with Noguchi under it. "[I]n a sense, the sculpture garden was designed around the tree", said a former aide to Noguchi, Bonnie Rychlak, who later became the museum curator. By 2008, the old tree was found to be dying and in danger of crashing into the building, which was about to undergo a major renovation. The museum hired the Detroit Tree of Heaven Woodshop, an artists' collective, to use the wood to create benches, sculptures and other amenities in and around the building. The tree's rings were counted, revealing its age to be 75, and museum officials hoped it would regenerate from a sucker.[64]

text: Europe[edit]

text: Ingo Vetter, a German artist and professor of fine arts at Umeå University in Sweden, was influenced by the idea of the "ghetto palm" and installed a living ailanthus tree taken from Detroit for an international art show called Shrinking Cities at the Kunst-Werke Institute for Contemporary Art in Berlin in 2004.[62][63]

text: Notes[edit]

text: Jump up ^ For a more thorough discussion, see the entry for Ailanthus ailtissima in the Wikimanual of Gardening at Wikibooks.


document_title: Land reform in India

question_text: when was land reform programme introduced in india

root

text: Land reform in India

text: Goals[edit]

text: Land title formalisation has been part of India’s state policy from the very beginning.[1] Independent India’s most revolutionary land policy was perhaps the abolition of the Zamindari system (feudal land holding practices). Land-reform policy in India had two specific objectives: "The first is to remove such impediments to increase in agricultural production as arise from the agrarian structure inherited from the past…The second object, which is closely related to the first, is to eliminate all elements of exploitation and social injustice within the agrarian system, to provide security for the tiller of soil and assure equality of status and opportunity to all sections of the rural population.” (Government of India 1961 as quoted by Appu 1996[2])

tag: p

text: Categories[edit]

text: There are four main categories of reforms:

text:
Abolition of intermediaries (rent collectors under the pre-Independence land revenue system);
Tenancy regulation (to improve the contractual terms including security of tenure);
A ceiling on landholdings (to redistributing surplus land to the landless);
Attempts to consolidate disparate landholdings.[3]

tag: ul

text: History[edit]

text: Since its independence in 1947, there has been voluntary and state initiated/mediated land reforms in several states[4][5] with dual objective of efficient use of land [3] and ensuring social justice.[6][7] The most notable and successful example of land reforms are in the states of West Bengal and Kerala. Other than these state sponsored attempts of reforming land ownership and control, there was another attempt to bring changes in the regime which achieved limited success; famously known as Bhoodan movement (Government of India, Ministry of Rural Development 2003, Annex XXXIX). Some other research has shown that during the movement, in Vidarbha region, 14 percent of the land records are incomplete, thus prohibiting transfer to the poor. 24 percent of the land promised had never actually become part of the movement. The Gramdan which arguably took place in 160,000 pockets did not legalise the process under the state laws (Committee on Land Reform 2009, 77, Ministry of Rural Development).

text: After promising land reforms and elected to power in West Bengal in 1977, the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)) kept their word and initiated gradual land reforms, such as Operation Barga. The result was a more equitable distribution of land among the landless farmers, and enumeration of landless farmers. This has ensured an almost lifelong loyalty from the farmers and the communists were in power till 2011 assembly election.[8]

text: In land reform in Kerala, the only other large state where the CPI(M) came to power, state administrations have actually carried out the most extensive land, tenancy and agrarian labour wage reforms in the non-socialist late-industrialising world.[9] Another successful land reform program was launched in Jammu and Kashmir after 1947.

text: All in all, land reforms have been successful only in pockets of the country, as people have often found loopholes in the laws that set limits on the maximum area of land that is allowed to be held by any one person.[6][10][11][12]

text: Land ceilings[edit]

text: The following table shows land ceilings for each state in India.

text:
No.
State
Ceiling (family)
Ceiling (individual)
Companies
Exempted from ceiling

1
Kerala[13]
10 standard acres (up to 5 members); 15 standard acres (more than 10 members)
5 standard acres

Plantations

2
Tamil Nadu[14]
30 standard acres (up to 5 members); 35 standard acres (6 members); 40 standard acres (more than 6 members)
30 standard acres
15 standard acres
Plantations

3
West Bengal[15]

24.7 acres

mills, factories, workshop, tea gardens, livestock breeding farm, poultry farm, dairy, industrial park or industrial hub or industrial estate, fishery, transportation or terminal, logistic hub, township, financial hub, logistic hub, educational and medical institutions, oil and gas products piped transportation, and mining and allied activities

tag: table


document_title: Bible translations into English

question_text: when was the bible first translated in english

text: Bible translations into English

text: Old English[edit]

text: Although John Wycliffe is often credited with the first translation of the Bible into English, there were, in fact, many translations of large parts of the Bible centuries before Wycliffe's work. The English Bible was first translated from the Latin Vulgate into Old English by a few select monks and scholars. Such translations were generally in the form of prose or as interlinear glosses (literal translations above the Latin words). Very few complete translations existed during that time. Rather, most of the books of the Bible existed separately and were read as individual texts. Thus, the sense of the Bible as history that often exists today did not exist at that time. Instead, an allegorical rendering of the Bible was more common and translations of the Bible often included the writer’s own commentary on passages in addition to the literal translation.

text: Toward the end of the 7th century, the Venerable Bede began a translation of scripture into Old English (often incorrectly called Anglo-Saxon). Aldhelm (c. 639–709) translated the complete Book of Psalms and large portions of other scriptures into Old English.

text: In the 10th century an Old English translation of the Gospels was made in the Lindisfarne Gospels: a word-for-word gloss inserted between the lines of the Latin text by Aldred, Provost of Chester-le-Street.[3] This is the oldest extant translation of the Gospels into the English language.[3]

text: The Wessex Gospels (also known as the West-Saxon Gospels) are a full translation of the four gospels into a West Saxon dialect of Old English. Produced in approximately 990, they are the first translation of all four gospels into English without the Latin text.

text: In the 11th century, Abbot Ælfric translated much of the Old Testament into Old English. The Old English Hexateuch is an illuminated manuscript of the first six books of the Old Testament without lavish illustrations and including a translation of the Book of Judges in addition to the 5 books of the Pentateuch.

text: Middle English[edit]

text: The Ormulum is in Middle English of the 12th century. Like its Old English precursor from Ælfric, an Abbot of Eynsham, it includes very little Biblical text, and focuses more on personal commentary. This style was adopted by many of the original English translators. For example, the story of the Wedding at Cana is almost 800 lines long, but fewer than 40 lines are the actual translation of the text. An unusual characteristic is that the translation mimics Latin verse, and so is similar to the better known and appreciated 14th-century English poem, Cursor Mundi.

text: Richard Rolle (1290–1349) wrote an English Psalter. Many religious works are attributed to Rolle, but it has been questioned how many are genuinely from his hand. Many of his works were concerned with personal devotion, and some were used by the Lollards.[4]

text: The 14th century theologian John Wycliffe is credited with translating what is now known as Wycliffe's Bible, though it is not clear how much of the translation he himself did.[5] This translation came out in two different versions. The earlier text is characterised by a strong adherence to the word order of Latin, and might have been difficult for the layperson to comprehend. The later text made more concessions to the native grammar of English.

text: Modern English[edit]

text: Early Modern English Bible translations are of between about 1500 and 1800, the period of Early Modern English. This, the first major period of Bible translation into the English language, began with the introduction of the Tyndale Bible. The first complete edition of his New Testament was in 1526. Tyndale used the Greek and Hebrew texts of the New Testament (NT) and Old Testament (OT) in addition to Jerome's Latin translation. He was the first translator to use the printing press – this enabled the distribution of several thousand copies of his New Testament translation throughout England. Tyndale did not complete his Old Testament translation. The first printed English translation of the whole bible was produced by Miles Coverdale in 1535, using Tyndale's work together with his own translations from the Latin Vulgate or German text. After much scholarly debate it is concluded that this was printed in Antwerp and the colophon gives the date as 4th October 1535. This first edition was adapted by Coverdale for his first "authorised version", known as the Great Bible, of 1539. Other early printed versions were the Geneva Bible (1560), notable for being the first Bible divided into verses; the Bishop's Bible (1568), which was an attempt by Elizabeth I to create a new authorised version; and the Authorized King James Version of 1611.

text: The first complete Roman Catholic Bible in English was the Douay–Rheims Bible, of which the New Testament portion was published in Rheims in 1582 and the Old Testament somewhat later in Douay in Gallicant Flanders. The Old Testament was completed by the time the New Testament was published, but due to extenuating circumstances and financial issues was not published until nearly three decades later, in two editions, the first released in 1609, and the rest of the OT in 1610. In this version, the seven deuterocanonical books are mingled with the other books, rather than kept separate in an appendix.

text: While early English Bibles were generally based on a small number of Greek texts, or on Latin translations, modern English translations of the Bible are based on a wider variety of manuscripts in the original languages (Greek and Hebrew). The translators put much scholarly effort into cross-checking the various sources such as the Septuagint, Textus Receptus, and Masoretic Text. Relatively recent discoveries such as the Dead Sea scrolls provide additional reference information. There is some controversy over which texts should be used as a basis for translation, as some of the alternate sources do not include phrases (or sometimes entire verses) which are found only in the Textus Receptus. Some[who?] say the alternate sources were poorly representative of the texts used in their time, whereas others[who?] claim the Textus Receptus includes passages that were added to the alternate texts improperly. These controversial passages are not the basis for disputed issues of doctrine, but tend to be additional stories or snippets of phrases. Many modern English translations, such as the New International Version, contain limited text notes indicating where differences occur in original sources.[6] A somewhat greater number of textual differences are noted in the New King James Bible, indicating hundreds of New Testament differences between the Nestle-Aland, the Textus Receptus, and the Hodges edition of the Majority Text. The differences in the Old Testament are less well documented, but do contain some references to differences between consonantal interpretations in the Masoretic Text, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the Septuagint. Even with these hundreds of differences, however, a more complete listing is beyond the scope of most single volume Bibles (see Critical Translations below).

text: Modern translations take different approaches to the rendering of the original languages of approaches. The approaches can usually be considered to be somewhere on a scale between the two extremes:

text:
Formal equivalence translation (sometimes literal translation or formal correspondence) in which the greatest effort is made to preserve the meaning of individual words and phrases in the original, with relatively less regard for its understandability by modern readers.
Dynamic equivalence, sometimes called Paraphrastic translation, in which the translator attempts to render the sense and intent of the original. Examples of these versions include Tree of Life Bible, The Living Bible and The Message.

text: Some translations have been motivated by a strong theological distinctive, such as the conviction that God's name be preserved in a Semitic form, seen in Sacred Name Bibles. The Purified Translation of the Bible promotes the idea that Jesus and early Christians did not drink wine, but grape juice.[citation needed] The Jehovah's Witnesses' New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures renders the tetragrammaton as Jehovah throughout the Old Testament; it also uses the form Jehovah in the New Testament, including but not limited to passages quoting the Old Testament, even though it does not appear in the Greek text.

text: Individual translations[edit]

text:
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text: While most translations are made by committees of scholars in order to avoid bias or idiosyncrasy, translations are sometimes made by individuals. The translation of J.B. Phillips (1958), The Bible in Living English (1972) by Stephen T. Byington, J.N. Darby's Darby Bible (1890), Heinz Cassirer's translation (1989), R.A. Knox (1950), Gerrit Verkuyl's Berkeley Version (1959), The Complete Jewish Bible (1998) by Dr. David H. Stern, Robert Young's Literal Translation (1862), Jay P.Green's Literal Translation (1985), The Emphatic Diaglott by Benjamin Wilson (1864), Noah Webster's Bible Translation (1833), The Original Aramaic Bible in Plain English (2010) by David Bauscher, American King James Version (1999) by Michael Engelbrite, The Living Bible (1971) by Kenneth N. Taylor, The Modern Reader's Bible (1914) by Richard Moulton, The Five Pauline Epistles, A New Translation (1900) by William Gunion Rutherford, Joseph Bryant Rotherham's Emphasized Bible (1902), Professor S. H. Hooke's The Bible in Basic English (1949), The Holy Name Bible containing the Holy Name Version of the Old and New Testaments (1963) by Angelo Traina, and Eugene H. Peterson's The Message (2002) are largely the work of individual translators. Others, such as Robert Alter, N. T. Wright and Dele Ikeorha have translated portions of the Bible.

text: Alternative approaches[edit]

text: Most translations make the translators' best attempt at a single rendering of the original, relying on footnotes where there might be alternative translations or textual variants. An alternative is taken by the Amplified Bible. In cases where a word or phrase admits of more than one meaning the Amplified Bible presents all the possible interpretations, allowing the reader to choose one. For example, the first two verses of the Amplified Bible read:

text: In the beginning God (Elohim) created [by forming from nothing] the heavens and the earth. The earth was formless and void or a waste and emptiness, and darkness was upon the face of the deep [primeval ocean that covered the unformed earth]. The Spirit of God was moving (hovering, brooding) over the face of the waters.[7]

text: Single source translations[edit]

text: While most translations attempt to synthesize the various texts in the original languages, some translations also translate one specific textual source, generally for scholarly reasons. A single volume example for the Old Testament is The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible (ISBN 0-06-060064-0) by Martin Abegg, Peter Flint and Eugene Ulrich.

text: The Comprehensive New Testament (ISBN 978-0-9778737-1-5) by T. E. Clontz and J. Clontz presents a scholarly view of the New Testament text by conforming to the Nestle-Aland 27th edition and extensively annotating the translation to fully explain different textual sources and possible alternative translations.[8][9]

text: A Comparative Psalter (ISBN 0-19-529760-1) edited by John Kohlenberger presents a comparative diglot translation of the Psalms of the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint, using the Revised Standard Version and the New English Translation of the Septuagint.

text: R. A. Knox's Translation of the Vulgate into English is another example of a single source translation.

text: Jewish translations[edit]

text: Jewish English Bible translations are modern English Bible translations that include the books of the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) according to the masoretic text, and according to the traditional division and order of Torah, Nevi'im, and Ketuvim.

text: Jewish translations often also reflect traditional Jewish interpretations of the Bible, as opposed to the Christian understanding that is often reflected in non-Jewish translations. For example, Jewish translations translate עלמה ‘almâh in Isaiah 7:14 as young woman, while many Christian translations render the word as virgin.

text: While modern biblical scholarship is similar for both Christians and Jews, there are distinctive features of Jewish translations, even those created by academic scholars. These include the avoidance of Christological interpretations, adherence to the Masoretic Text (at least in the main body of the text, as in the new Jewish Publication Society (JPS) translation) and greater use of classical Jewish exegesis. Some translations prefer names transliterated from the Hebrew, though the majority of Jewish translations use the Anglicized forms of biblical names.

text: The first English Jewish translation of the Bible into English was by Isaac Leeser in the 19th century.

text: The JPS produced two of the most popular Jewish translations, namely the JPS The Holy Scriptures of 1917 and the NJPS Tanakh (first printed in a single volume in 1985, second edition in 1999).

text: Since the 1980s there have been multiple efforts among Orthodox publishers to produce translations that are not only Jewish, but also adhere to Orthodox norms. Among these are The Living Torah and Nach by Aryeh Kaplan and others, the Torah and other portions in an ongoing project by Everett Fox, and the ArtScroll Tanakh.

text: Popularity[edit]

text: The evangelical Christian Booksellers Association lists the most popular versions of the Bible sold by their members in the United States. Through 29 December 2012, the top 5 best selling translations (based on both dollar and unit sales) are as follows:[10]

text:
New International Version
King James Version
New Living Translation
New King James Version
English Standard Version

tag: ol

text: Sales are affected by denomination and religious affiliation. For example, the most popular Jewish version would not compete with rankings of a larger audience. Sales data can be affected by the method of marketing. Some translations are directly marketed to particular denominations or local churches, and many Christian booksellers only offer Protestant Bibles, so Catholic and Orthodox Bibles may not appear as high on the CBA rank.

text: A study published in 2014 by The Center for the Study of Religion and American Culture at Indiana University and Purdue University found that Americans read versions of the Bible as follows:[11][12]:12–15

text:
King James Version (55%)
New International Version (19%)
New Revised Standard Version (7%)
New American Bible (6%)
The Living Bible (5%)
Other Translations (8%)


document_title: Will Smith (baseball)

question_text: who did the brewers get for will smith

question_tokens: who did the brewers get for will smith

text: Will Smith (baseball)

text: Amateur career[edit]

text: Smith attended Northgate High School in Newnan, Georgia, where he played for the school's baseball team as a pitcher.[1] He enrolled at Gulf Coast Community College in Panama City, Florida, where he continued his baseball career. After his freshman year at Gulf Coast, the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim selected Smith in the seventh round, with the 229th overall selection, of the 2008 Major League Baseball Draft.[2]

text: Professional career[edit]

text: Minor leagues[edit]

text: Making his professional debut with the Orem Owlz of the Rookie-level Pioneer League, Smith recorded 76 strikeouts while walking only six batters. He pitched for the Cedar Rapids Kernels of the Class A Midwest League in 2009, and the Rancho Cucamonga Quakes of the Class A-Advanced California League in 2010.[3] On July 23, 2010, the Angels traded Smith along with Sean O'Sullivan to the Kansas City Royals for Alberto Callaspo.[4]

text: Pitching for the Northwest Arkansas Naturals of the Class AA Texas League in 2011, Smith and Kelvin Herrera combined to pitch a no-hitter on July 19, with Smith pitching the first seven innings.[5] Smith began the 2012 season with the Omaha Storm Chasers of the Class AAA Pacific Coast League.[6]

text: Kansas City Royals[edit]

text: The Royals promoted Smith to the majors for the first time on May 22, 2012.[6] By the end of the 2012 season, Smith had made 16 starts, his record was 6–9 with a 5.32 ERA. During the 2013 season, the Royals transitioned Smith into a relief pitcher. He spent the majority of the season at Omaha. He was called up multiple times to the Royals bullpen while also making a spot start.

text: Milwaukee Brewers[edit]

text: Smith was traded to the Milwaukee Brewers in exchange for Norichika Aoki on December 5, 2013.[7] Smith had a 1–3 win-loss record and a 3.70 earned run average (ERA) in 2014.[8] On May 21, 2015, he was ejected from a game vs the Atlanta Braves for having a foreign substance on his right arm.[9] He was  suspended for eight games, pending his appeal and his suspension was subsequently reduced from eight games to six games.[10] Smith had a 7–2 win-loss record and a 2.70 ERA in 2015.[11]

text: During spring training in 2016, Smith tore the lateral collateral ligament in his knee.[12] He returned to the Brewers on June 2.[13] By the end of the month of July, Smith had appeared in 27 games for Milwaukee, serving as the set-up man.

text: San Francisco Giants[edit]

text: On August 1, 2016, the Brewers traded Smith to the San Francisco Giants for Phil Bickford and Andrew Susac.[14][15]

text: On March 20, 2017, Smith was diagnosed with possible UCL damage in his left elbow, but no structural damage. He returned to California to seek second opinions with doctors, who petitioned that Smith would require surgery.[16]

text: On March 24, 2017, it was reported that Smith elected to have Tommy John surgery on his elbow, effectively ending his 2017 season with the San Francisco Giants.[17]

text: In 2018, he returned to action in mid-season, as both a reliever and closer.


document_title: India at the Olympics

question_text: 1st indian to win individual olympic gold medal

text: India at the Olympics

text: History[edit]

text: Early history[edit]

text: India sent its first athlete to the Olympics for the 1900 games, but an Indian national team did not compete at the Olympics until 1920. Ahead of the 1920 Olympics, Sir Dorab Tata and Governor of Bombay George Lloyd helped India secure representation at the International Olympic Council, enabling it to participate in the Olympic Games (see India at the 1920 Olympic Games). India then sent a team to the 1920 Olympics, comprising four athletes, two wrestlers, and managers Sohrab Bhoot and A H A Fyzee. The Indian Olympic movement was then established during the 1920s: some founders of this movement were Dorab Tata, A.G. Noehren (Madras College of Physical Education), H.C. Buck (Madras College of Physical Education), Moinul Haq (Bihar sports associations), S. Bhoot (Bombay Olympic Association), A.S. Bhagwat (Deccan Gymkhana), and G.D. Sondhi (Punjab Olympic Association); Lt.Col H.L.O. Garrett (from the Government College Lahore and Punjab Olympic Association) and Sagnik Poddar (of St.Stephen's School) helped organise some early national games; and prominent patrons included Maharajas and royal princes Bhupinder Singh of Patiala, Ranji of Nawanagar, the Maharaja of Kapurthala, and the Maharaja of Burdwan.

text: In 1923, a provisional All India Olympic Committee was formed, and in Feb 1924 the All India Olympic Games (that later became the National Games of India) were held to select a team for the Paris Olympics. The Indian delegation at the Paris Olympics comprised seven athletes, seven tennis players and team manager Harry Buck.

text: In 1927, the provisional Indian Olympic Committee formally became the Indian Olympic Association (IOA)-its main tasks were to promote the development of sports in India, choose host cities for the national games, and send teams-selected from the national games-to the Olympics. Thus, at the 1928 national games, it selected seven athletes to represent India at the next Olympics, with G. D. Sondhi as manager for the Olympic team. By this time, the Indian Hockey Federation (IHF) had also been established and it sent a hockey team to the Olympics. The national hockey team and additional sportspersons were similarly sent to the Olympic Games in 1932 (four athletes and one swimmer) and 1936 (four athletes, three wrestlers, one Burmese weight-lifter), along with three officials headed by team manager Sondhi.

text: From 1948 onward, because of the Indian Olympic Association's wider outreach, India began sending delegations of over 50 sportspersons representing several sports – each selected by its sports federation – to the Olympics. The delegation was headed by a chef-de-mission.

text: Thus, India’s Olympic delegation in the early Olympic Games was as follows:

text:
1900: One athlete
1920: 6 competitors (four athletes, two wrestlers) and managers Bhoot and Fyzee
1924: 14 competitors (seven athletes, seven tennis players) and manager Harry Crowe Buck
1928: 21 competitors (seven athletes and a hockey team of 14) and manager G D Sondhi
1932: 20 competitors (four athletes, one swimmer, and a hockey team of 15) and three officials headed by manager G D Sondhi
1936: 27 competitors (four athletes, three wrestlers, one Burmese weight-lifter, and a hockey team of 19) and three officials including manager G D Sondhi
1948: 79 competitors and a few officials headed by chef-de-mission Moin ul Haq
1952: 64 competitors and some officials headed by chef-de-mission Moin ul Haq

text: Recent history[edit]

text: At the 2008 Beijing Olympics, Abhinav Bindra won gold in the Men's 10 metre air rifle event becoming the first Indian to win an individual gold medal at the Olympic Games. Vijender Singh got the country's first medal in boxing with his bronze medal in Middleweight category.

text: The 2012 Summer Olympics saw an 83-member Indian contingent participating in the games and setting a new best for the country with a total of six medals. Wrestler Sushil Kumar became the first Indian with multiple individual Olympic medals (bronze at the 2008 Beijing Olympics and silver at the 2012 Summer Olympics) since Norman Pritchard in 1900. Saina Nehwal won bronze medal in badminton in Women's singles getting the country's first Olympic medal in badminton. Pugilist Mary Kom became the first Indian woman to win a medal in boxing with her bronze medal finish in Women's flyweight category.

text: At the 2016 Summer Olympics, a record number of 118 athletes competed. Sakshi Malik became the first Indian woman wrestler to win an Olympic medal with her bronze medal finish in Women's freestyle 58 kg category. Shuttler P. V. Sindhu became the first Indian woman to win a silver medal in Olympics and also the youngest Indian Olympic medallist.

text: List of competitors[edit]

text: This list provides a comparative compendium of all the participants/competitors of India in the summer Olympic games.

text:
Games
Sports
Men
Women
Total
Change
01 ! Gold
02 ! Silver
03 ! Bronze
Total
Change

1900
1
1
0
1
NA
0
2
0
2
NA

1920
2
6
0
6
+5
0
0
0
0
−2

1924
2
13
2
15
+8
0
0
0
0
0

1928
2
21
0
21
+7
1
0
0
1
+1

1932
3
30
0
30
+9
1
0
0
1
0

1936
3–4
27
0
27
−3
1
0
0
1
0

1948
10
79
0
79
+52
1
0
0
1
0

1952
11
60
4
64
−15
1
0
1
2
+1

1956
8
58
1
59
−5
1
0
0
1
−1

1960
6
45
0
45
−14
0
1
0
1
0

1964
8
52
1
53
+8
1
0
0
1
0

1968
5
25
0
25
−28
0
0
1
1
0

1972
7
40
1
41
+16
0
0
1
1
0

1976
2
20
0
20
−21
0
0
0
0
−1

1980
1
58
18
76
+56
1
0
0
1
+1

1984

48
−28
0
0
0
0
−1

1988
7

46
−2
0
0
0
0
0

1992
5

53
+7
0
0
0
0
0

1996
13
44
4
49
−4
0
0
1
1
+1

2000
7

65
+16
0
0
1
1
0

2004
14
48
25
73
+8
0
1
0
1
0

2008
12
31
25
56
−17
1
0
2
3
+2

2012
13
60
23
83
+27
0
2
4
6
+3

2016
15
66
54
118
+35
0
1
1
2
−4

text: This list provides a comparative compendium of all the participants/competitors of India in the winter Olympic games.

text:
Games
Sports
Men
Women
Total
Change
01 ! Gold
02 ! Silver
03 ! Bronze
Total
Change

1964
1
1
0
1
NA
0
0
0
0
NA

1968
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0

1988
1
2
1
3
+2
0
0
0
0
0

1992
1
2
0
2
−1
0
0
0
0
0

1998
1
1
0
1
−1
0
0
0
0
0

2002
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0

2006
3
3
1
4
+3
0
0
0
0
0

2010
3
3
0
3
−1
0
0
0
0
0

2014
3
3
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0

text: Medal tables[edit]

text: Medals by Summer Games[edit]

text:
Games
01 ! Gold
02 ! Silver
03 ! Bronze
Total
Rank

 1896 Athens
did not participate

 1900 Paris
0
2
0
2[1]
17

 1904 St. Louis
did not participate

 1908 London
did not participate

 1912 Stockholm
did not participate

 1920 Antwerp
0
0
0
0
-

 1924 Paris
0
0
0
0
-

 1928 Amsterdam
1
0
0
1[2]
23

 1932 Los Angeles
1
0
0
1[3]
19

 1936 Berlin
1
0
0
1[4]
20

 1948 London
1
0
0
1[5]
22

 1952 Helsinki
1
0
1
2[5]
26

 1956 Melbourne
1
0
0
1[5]
24

 1960 Rome
0
1
0
1[6]
32

 1964 Tokyo
1
0
0
1[7]
24

 1968 Mexico City
0
0
1
1[8]
42

 1972 Munich
0
0
1
1[9]
43

 1976 Montreal
0
0
0
0
-

 1980 Moscow
1
0
0
1[10]
23

 1984 Los Angeles
0
0
0
0
-

 1988 Seoul
0
0
0
0
-

 1992 Barcelona
0
0
0
0
-

 1996 Atlanta
0
0
1
1[11]
71

 2000 Sydney
0
0
1
1[12]
71

 2004 Athens
0
1
0
1[13]
65

 2008 Beijing
1
0
2
3[13]
50

 2012 London
0
2
4
6[13]
55

 2016 Rio de Janeiro
0
1[14]
1[15]
2[16]
67

Total
9
7
12
28

text: Medals by sport[edit]

text:
Sport
01 ! Gold
02 ! Silver
03 ! Bronze
Total
Rank

 Field hockey
8
1
2
11
1

 Shooting
1
2
1
4
34

 Athletics
0
2
0
2
71

 Wrestling
0
1
4
5
43

 Badminton
0
1
1
2
9

 Boxing
0
0
2
2
64

 Tennis
0
0
1
1
30

 Weightlifting
0
0
1
1

56

Total
9
7
12
28

text: List of medalists[edit]

text:
Medal
Name/Team
Games
Sport
Event

02 ! Silver
Pritchard, NormanNorman Pritchard[1][17]
 1900 Paris
Athletics
Men's 200 metres

02 ! Silver
Pritchard, NormanNorman Pritchard[1][17]
 1900 Paris
Athletics
Men's 200 metre hurdles

01 ! Gold
National team[2]
 1928 Amsterdam
Field hockey
Men's competition

01 ! Gold
National team[3]
 1932 Los Angeles
Field hockey
Men's competition

01 ! Gold
National team[4]
 1936 Berlin
Field hockey
Men's competition

01 ! Gold
National team[5]
 1948 London
Field hockey
Men's competition

01 ! Gold
National team[5]
 1952 Helsinki
Field hockey
Men's competition

03 ! Bronze
Jadhav, Khashaba DadasahebKhashaba Dadasaheb Jadhav[5]
 1952 Helsinki
Wrestling
Men's freestyle bantamweight

01 ! Gold
National team[5]
 1956 Melbourne
Field hockey
Men's competition

02 ! Silver
National team[6]
 1960 Rome
Field hockey
Men's competition

01 ! Gold
National team[7]
 1964 Tokyo
Field hockey
Men's competition

03 ! Bronze
National team[8]
 1968 Mexico City
Field hockey
Men's competition

03 ! Bronze
National team[9]
 1972 Munich
Field hockey
Men's competition

01 ! Gold
National team[10]
 1980 Moscow
Field hockey
Men's competition

03 ! Bronze
Paes, LeanderLeander Paes[11]
 1996 Atlanta
Tennis
Men's singles

03 ! Bronze
Malleswari, KarnamKarnam Malleswari[12]
 2000 Sydney
Weightlifting
Women's 69 kg

02 ! Silver
Rathore, Rajyavardhan SinghRajyavardhan Singh Rathore[13]
 2004 Athens
Shooting
Men's double trap

01 ! Gold
Bindra, AbhinavAbhinav Bindra[13]
 2008 Beijing
Shooting
Men's 10 m Air Rifle

03 ! Bronze
Singh, VijenderVijender Singh[13]
 2008 Beijing
Boxing
Middleweight

03 ! Bronze
Kumar, SushilSushil Kumar[13]
 2008 Beijing
Wrestling
Men's freestyle 66 kg

02 ! Silver
Vijay Kumar[13]
 2012 London
Shooting
Men's 25 Rapid Fire Pistol

02 ! Silver
Kumar, SushilSushil Kumar[13]
 2012 London
Wrestling
Men's freestyle 66 kg

03 ! Bronze
Saina Nehwal[13]
 2012 London
Badminton
Women's singles

03 ! Bronze
Mary Kom[13]
 2012 London
 Boxing
Women's flyweight

03 ! Bronze
Narang, GaganGagan Narang[13]
 2012 London
Shooting
Men's 10m Air Rifle

03 ! Bronze
Yogeshwar Dutt[13]
 2012 London
Wrestling
Men's freestyle 60 kg

02 ! Silver
P. V. Sindhu[14]
 2016 Rio de Janeiro
Badminton
Women's singles

03 ! Bronze
Sakshi Malik[15]
 2016 Rio de Janeiro
Wrestling
Women's freestyle 58 kg


document_title: Ball and socket joint

question_text: ball and socket joint is an example of

question_tokens: ball and socket joint is an example of

text: Ball and socket joint

text:
Ball and socket joint
1: Ball and socket joint; 2: Condyloid joint (Ellipsoid); 3: Saddle joint; 4 Hinge joint; 5: Pivot joint;
Capsule of shoulder-joint (distended). Anterior aspect.IdentifiersTA
A03.0.00.050FMA
75301
Anatomical terminology[edit on Wikidata]

text: The ball and socket joint (or spheroid joint) is a type of synovial joint in which the ball-shaped surface of one rounded bone fits into the cup-like depression of another bone. The distal bone is capable of motion around an indefinite number of axes, which have one common center. It enables the bone to move in many places (nearly all directions).

text: An enarthrosis is a special kind of spheroidal joint in which the socket covers the sphere beyond its equator.[1]

text: Examples[edit]

text: Examples of this form of articulation are found in the hip, where the round head of the femur (ball) rests in the cup-like acetabulum (socket) of the pelvis, and in the glenohumeral joint of the shoulder, where the rounded head of the humerus (ball) rests in the cup-like glenoid fossa (socket) of the shoulder blade.[2] The shoulder includes a sternoclavicular articulation joint.

text:
Hip

Shoulder

Details of hip joint. FemurFemoral NeckFemoral HeadAcetabulumAcetabular LabrumPelvis


document_title: Sacristy

question_text: where does the priest get ready for mass

text: Sacristy

text: Description[edit]

text: The sacristy is also where the priest and attendants vest and prepare before the service. They will return there at the end of the service to remove their vestments and put away any of the vessels used during the service. The hangings and altar linens are stored there as well. The Parish registers may be kept in the sacristy and are administered by the parish clerk.

text: Sacristies usually contain a special wash basin, called a piscina, the drain of which is properly called a "sacrarium" in which the drain flows directly into the ground to prevent sacred items such as used baptismal water from being washed into the sewers or septic tanks. The piscina is used to wash linens used during the celebration of the Mass and purificators used during Holy Communion. The cruets, chalice, ciborium, paten, altar linens and sometimes the Holy Oils are kept inside the sacristy. Sacristies are usually off limits to the general public. The word "sacristy" derives from the Latin sacristia, sometimes spelled sacrastia, which is in turn derived from sacrista ("sexton, sacristan"), from sacra ("holy").

text: A person in charge of the sacristy and its contents is called a sacrist or a sacristan. The latter name was formerly given to the sexton of a parish church, where he would have cared for these things, the fabric of the building and the grounds.[2]

text: In Eastern Christianity, the functions of the sacristy are fulfilled by the Diaconicon and the Prothesis, two rooms or areas adjacent to the Holy Table (Altar).

text: Work on finding the so-called "lost medieval sacristy of Henry III" at Westminster Abbey during an episode of the archaeological television programme Time Team revealed that the abbey originally had two separate sacristies. As well as a conventional sacristy for storage of ceremonial vessels such as the chalice and paten, the second, described in a 15th-century document as the "galilee of the sacristy" was determined to have been used for the robing and formation of the procession[3]


document_title: List of Alabama Crimson Tide starting quarterbacks

question_text: who is alabama's starting quarterback this year

question_tokens: who is alabama 's starting quarterback this year

text: Main starting quarterbacks[edit]

text: 1933 to present[edit]

text: The following quarterbacks were starting quarterbacks for the Crimson Tide each season since joining the Southeastern Conference in 1933.

text:
Name
Years Started
Notability
References

Hurts, JalenJalen Hurts
2016
Hurts led Alabama to the 2017 national championship, where they lost to Clemson, 35-31. An early enrollee who is the first freshman to start at quarterback in head coach Nick Saban’s career ... finished 13-1 as the Tide’s starting quarterback ... selected as a Freshman All-American by USA Today and ESPN ... earned SEC Offensive Player of the Year accolades from the conference coaches and the Associated Press ... garnered first team SEC honors from both the coaches and the AP ... selected as the SEC Freshman of the Year by the coaches and the SEC Newcomer of the Year by the AP ...  finalist for the Manning Award and the Earl Campbell Tyler Rose Award ... semifinalist for the Walter Camp Player of the Year ... named a semifinalist for the Davey O’Brien Award, presented annually to the nation’s top quarterback ... added to the Manning Award Watch List on Oct. 12 thanks to his performance through the first half of the season ... threw for 2,780 yards with 23 touchdowns compared to nine interceptions ...was responsible for 36 touchdowns (23 passing, 13 rushing) to break the previous Alabama record of 35 set by Blake Sims in 2014

Blake Barnett
2016
Barnett started the first game of the 2016 season against USC. He was replaced by Jalen Hurts, who became the starting quarterback. After limited playing time in the next few games, Barnett chose to leave the program and transfer to a junior college, and then to Arizona State where he is now the backup QB behind Manny Wilkins.

Coker, JakeJake Coker
2015
Coker led Alabama to the 2016 national championship, where they defeated Clemson, 45-40.

Sims, BlakeBlake Sims
2014
Sims was named starting quarterback just prior to their season opener against West Virginia after he won a prolonged competition against Jake Coker. Against Florida, Sims set a school record for total offense in a single game with his 484 yards that included 39 total yards rushing. Sims threw for 3,487 yards(which is a single season record) with 28 touchdowns. He also added 7 rushing touchdowns and 350 yards on the ground. He led the Tide to win the 2014 SEC Championship, in which he was the game's MVP.
[1][2]

McCarron, AJAJ McCarron
2011–2013
McCarron led the Crimson Tide to the 2011 and 2012 national championships and graduated as Alabama's career leader in passing yardage (9,019), completions (686) and touchdowns (77). He also holds the records for passing yards in a single season (3,063) and touchdowns (30). He finished runner-up for the Heisman Trophy in the 2013 season. He was drafted by the Cincinnati Bengals in the 2014 NFL Draft.
[3][4][5]

McElroy, GregGreg McElroy
2009–2010
McElroy led the Crimson Tide to the 2009 national championship and was named ESPN Academic All-American of the Year for the 2010 season. He was drafted by the New York Jets in the 2011 NFL Draft.
[6]

Wilson, John ParkerJohn Parker Wilson
2006–2008
Wilson graduated as the all-time leader in several categories that have since been eclipsed. He still holds the record for completions in a single-season (255). He went undrafted but played in the NFL for the Atlanta Falcons, Jacksonville Jaguars and Pittsburgh Steelers.
[7]

Croyle, BrodieBrodie Croyle
2002–2005
Croyle graduated as the all-time leader in several categories that have since been eclipsed. He was drafted by the Kansas City Chiefs in the 2006 NFL Draft.
[8]

Guillon, MarkMark Guillon
2004
Guillon started a pair of games during the 2004 season after Brodie Croyle had a season-ending injury. He subsequently left the program in October 2006.
[9]

Pennington, SpencerSpencer Pennington
2004
Pennington started the final seven games of the 2004 season after injuries to both Brodie Croyle and Mark Guillon. He left the program in January 2004 to focus only on his baseball career with the Crimson Tide.
[10]

Avalos, BrandonBrandon Avalos
2003
Avalos started against Southern Miss during the 2003 season due to injuries to both Brodie Croyle and Spencer Pennington. He left the program in January 2004.
[11]

Watts, TylerTyler Watts
2000–2002

Zow, AndrewAndrew Zow
1998–2000
Led Alabama to a SEC Championship in 1999 and finished his career as the all time passing yards leader (now 4th).

Phillips, John DavidJohn David Phillips
1998
As a fifth year senior, Phillips started the first four games of the season before being replaced by Andrew Zow for the year.
[12]

Kitchens, FreddieFreddie Kitchens
1995–1997

Burgdorf, BrianBrian Burgdorf
1995

Barker, JayJay Barker
1992–1994
All-SEC. Baker led Alabama the 1992 national championship. He was drafted by the Green Bay Packers in the fifth round of the 1995 NFL draft.

Woodson, DannyDanny Woodson
1991

Hollingsworth, GaryGary Hollingsworth
1989–1990

Smith, DavidDavid Smith
1987–1988

Dunn, JeffJeff Dunn
1987–1989

Sutton, VinceVince Sutton
1987–1988, 1984

Shula, MikeMike Shula
1984–1986

Lewis, WalterWalter Lewis
1981–1983
Lewis was the first black quarterback to start for the Crimson Tide and led Alabama during the final three seasons of the Bryant era.
[13]

Jacobs, DonDon Jacobs
1980

[14]

Shealy, Steadman S.Steadman S. Shealy
1979
All-SEC. Shealy led the Crimson Tide to an undefeated season and the 1979 national championship.
[15]

Rutledge, JeffJeff Rutledge
1976–1978

Todd, RichardRichard Todd
1974–1975
Todd was drafted by the New York Jets in the first round of the 1976 NFL draft.

Rutledge, GaryGary Rutledge
1973
Rutledge was the first of two brothers to lead a national championship team. He led Alabama to the 1973 national championship and his brother Jeff Rutledge led Alabama to the 1978 national championship.
[16][17]

Davis, TerryTerry Davis
1970–1972

Hunter, ScottScott Hunter
1968–1970

Stabler, KenKen Stabler
1966–1967
All-SEC. Super Bowl XI Champion. Pro Football Hall of Fame.

Sloan, SteveSteve Sloan
1962–1965

Namath, JoeJoe Namath
1962–1964
All-SEC. Pro Football Hall of Fame. Super Bowl III Champion.

Trammell, PatPat Trammell
1959–1961

Jackson, BobbyBobby Jackson
1958

Smith, BobbyBobby Smith
1956–1957

Walls, ClayClay Walls
1956

Starr, BartBart Starr
1953–1955
Pro Football Hall of Fame. NFL 1960s All-Decade Team. Two-time Super Bowl Champion and MVP (Most Valuable Player). At Alabama, he also played punter.
[18]

Hobson, ClellClell Hobson
1951–1952

Salem, EdEd Salem
1949–1950

Avinger, ButchButch Avinger
1949–1950

Brown, JackJack Brown
1948

Morrow, HughHugh Morrow
1947

Self, HalHal Self
1945–1946

Gilmer, HarryHarry Gilmer
1945
All-SEC

McWhorter, JimJim McWhorter
1944, 1941–1942

DeShane, ChuckChuck DeShane
1939–1940

Hughes, HalHal Hughes
1937–1938

Bradford, VicVic Bradford
1936–1938

Riley, JoeJoe Riley
1936
All-SEC

Smith, RileyRiley Smith
1934–1935
All-SEC

text: 1922 to 1932[edit]

text: The following quarterbacks were the predominant quarters for the Crimson Tide each season after the establishment of the Southern Conference until the establishment of the Southeastern Conference.

text:
Name
Years Started
Notability
References

Campbell, TildenTilden Campbell
1932–1934

[19]

Campbell, JohnJohn Campbell
1930–1931
Member of Wallace Wade's last national championship team in 1930

Tucker, JohnJohn Tucker
1930–1931
Member of Wallace Wade's last national championship team in 1930

Vines, MelvinMelvin Vines
1929

McClintock, GrahamGraham McClintock
1927–1928

Brasfield, DavisDavis Brasfield
1927

Barnes, RedRed Barnes
1925–1926
Member of first southern team to win the Rose Bowl. Major League Baseball player for the Washington Senators.
[20]

Hubert, AllisonAllison Hubert
1924–1925
All-Southern, member of first southern team to win the Rose Bowl, inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1964. Coach Wallace Wade called him "undoubtedly one of the greatest football players of all time."
[21]

Gillis, GrantGrant Gillis
1923–1924
All-Southern. Quarterback in the first year under Wallace Wade. Major League Baseball player.
[22]

Rosenfeld, MaxMax Rosenfeld
1921
Major League Baseball player for the Brooklyn Dodgers.

Bartlett, CharlesCharles Bartlett
1920–1922
Led team over Penn in 1922. All-Southern. Camp Honorable Mention
[23]

text: 1895 to 1921[edit]

text: The following quarterbacks were the predominant quarters for the Crimson Tide each season after the establishment of the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association until the establishment of the Southern Conference.

text:
Name
Years Started
Notability
References

William C. Baty
1921

Riggs Stephenson
1920
Ended career at quarterback due to injuries.
[24]

Sewell, LukeLuke Sewell
1919

Lenoir, MullieMullie Lenoir
1917

Hagan, DinkDink Hagan
1913; 1917

Creen, CecilCecil Creen
1916
Creen ran in the touchdown to defeat Mississippi College 7 to 6. All-Southern. Camp gave him honorable mention.
[25]

Harsh, GriffinGriffin Harsh
1914–1915

Joplin, CharlieCharlie Joplin
1912;1914
Killed in the First World War.

Moody, FarleyFarley Moody
1909–1912
He made the field goal to beat Tulane 5 to 3 in 1910. Moody scored two touchdowns, including a 40-yard punt return, and added four extra points in the 24 to 0 win over Howard in 1911. He coached the 1915 team with athletic director B. L. Noojin after coach Kelley was hospitalized with typhoid fever. Moody was killed in the First World War.
[25][26]

Peebles, EmoryEmory Peebles
1908–1910

Hannon, EmileEmile Hannon
1906–1907
Nicknamed "Chick." Weighed just 120 pounds. Assistant coach for Bama c. 1913
[27]

Smith, TrumanTruman Smith
1905

Ward, W. L.W. L. Ward
1904

Wyatt, W. S.W. S. Wyatt
1902–1903

Drennen, EarlEarl Drennen
1900–1901

Johnston, ForneyForney Johnston
1899

Tutwiler, EdEd Tutwiler
1897
Transferred to the University of Virginia.
[28]

Burr, BordenBorden Burr
1895–1896
Later a corporate lawyer.
[29]

text: 1892 to 1894[edit]

text: The following players were the predominant quarters for the Crimson Tide each season the team was a non-conference independent team, following the birth of Alabama football.

text:
Name
Years Started
Notability
References

Walker, WilliamWilliam Walker
1892–1894
Later a distinguished judge in Birmingham
[29]