document_title: Reinforcement

question_text: who introduced the concept of reinforcement into behaviorism

question_tokens: who introduced the concept of reinforcement into behaviorism

text: Reinforcement

text: Terminology[edit]

text:
Addiction and dependence glossary[6][7][8][9]

• addiction – a brain disorder characterized by compulsive engagement in rewarding stimuli despite adverse consequences

• addictive behavior – a behavior that is both rewarding and reinforcing

• addictive drug – a drug that is both rewarding and reinforcing

• dependence – an adaptive state associated with a withdrawal syndrome upon cessation of repeated exposure to a stimulus (e.g., drug intake)

• drug sensitization or reverse tolerance – the escalating effect of a drug resulting from repeated administration at a given dose

• drug withdrawal – symptoms that occur upon cessation of repeated drug use

• physical dependence – dependence that involves persistent physical–somatic withdrawal symptoms (e.g., fatigue and delirium tremens)

• psychological dependence – dependence that involves emotional–motivational withdrawal symptoms (e.g., dysphoria and anhedonia)

• reinforcing stimuli – stimuli that increase the probability of repeating behaviors paired with them

• rewarding stimuli – stimuli that the brain interprets as intrinsically positive and desirable or as something to be approached

• sensitization – an amplified response to a stimulus resulting from repeated exposure to it

• substance use disorder - a condition in which the use of substances leads to clinically and functionally significant impairment or distress

• tolerance – the diminishing effect of a drug resulting from repeated administration at a given dose

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text: In the behavioral sciences, the terms "positive" and "negative" refer when used in their strict technical sense to the nature of the action performed by the conditioner rather than to the responding operant's evaluation of that action and its consequence(s). "Positive" actions are those that add a factor, be it pleasant or unpleasant, to the environment, whereas "negative" actions are those that remove or withhold from the environment a factor of either type. In turn, the strict sense of "reinforcement" refers only to reward-based conditioning; the introduction of unpleasant factors and the removal or withholding of pleasant factors are instead referred to as "punishment," which when used in its strict sense thus stands in contradistinction to "reinforcement." Thus, "positive reinforcement" refers to the addition of a pleasant factor, "positive punishment" refers to the addition of an unpleasant factor, "negative reinforcement" refers to the removal or withholding of an unpleasant factor, and "negative punishment" refers to the removal or withholding of a pleasant factor.

text: This usage is at odds with some non-technical usages of the four term combinations, especially in the case of the term "negative reinforcement," which is often used to denote what technical parlance would describe as "positive punishment" in that the non-technical usage interprets "reinforcement" as subsuming both reward and punishment and "negative" as referring to the responding operant's evaluation of the factor being introduced. By contrast, technical parlance would use the term "negative reinforcement" to describe encouragement of a given behavior by creating a scenario in which an unpleasant factor is or will be present but engaging in the behavior results in either escaping from that factor or preventing its occurrence, as in Martin Seligman's experiments involving dogs' learning processes regarding the avoidance of electric shock.

text: Introduction[edit]

text: B.F. Skinner was a well-known and influential researcher who articulated many of the theoretical constructs of reinforcement and behaviorism. Skinner defined reinforcers according to the change in response strength (response rate) rather than to more subjective criteria, such as what is pleasurable or valuable to someone. Accordingly, activities, foods or items considered pleasant or enjoyable may not necessarily be reinforcing (because they produce no increase in the response preceding them). Stimuli, settings, and activities only fit the definition of reinforcers if the behavior that immediately precedes the potential reinforcer increases in similar situations in the future; for example, a child who receives a cookie when he or she asks for one. If the frequency of "cookie-requesting behavior" increases, the cookie can be seen as reinforcing "cookie-requesting behavior". If however, "cookie-requesting behavior" does not increase the cookie cannot be considered reinforcing.

text: The sole criterion that determines if a stimulus is reinforcing is the change in probability of a behavior after administration of that potential reinforcer. Other theories may focus on additional factors such as whether the person expected a behavior to produce a given outcome, but in the behavioral theory, reinforcement is defined by an increased probability of a response.

text: The study of reinforcement has produced an enormous body of reproducible experimental results. Reinforcement is the central concept and procedure in special education, applied behavior analysis, and the experimental analysis of behavior and is a core concept in some medical and psychopharmacology models, particularly addiction, dependence, and compulsion.

text: Brief history[edit]

text: Laboratory research on reinforcement is usually dated from the work of Edward Thorndike, known for his experiments with cats escaping from puzzle boxes.[10] A number of others continued this research, notably B.F. Skinner, who published his seminal work on the topic in The Behavior of Organisms, in 1938, and elaborated this research in many subsequent publications.[11] Notably Skinner argued that positive reinforcement is superior to punishment in shaping behavior.[12] Though punishment may seem just the opposite of reinforcement, Skinner claimed that they differ immensely, saying that positive reinforcement results in lasting behavioral modification (long-term) whereas punishment changes behavior only temporarily (short-term) and has many detrimental side-effects. A great many researchers subsequently expanded our understanding of reinforcement and challenged some of Skinner's conclusions. For example, Azrin and Holz defined punishment as a “consequence of behavior that reduces the future probability of that behavior,”[13] and some studies have shown that positive reinforcement and punishment are equally effective in modifying behavior. Research on the effects of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment continue today as those concepts are fundamental to learning theory and apply to many practical applications of that theory.

text: Operant conditioning[edit]

text: The term operant conditioning was introduced by B. F. Skinner to indicate that in his experimental paradigm the organism is free to operate on the environment. In this paradigm the experimenter cannot trigger the desirable response; the experimenter waits for the response to occur (to be emitted by the organism) and then a potential reinforcer is delivered. In the classical conditioning paradigm the experimenter triggers (elicits) the desirable response by presenting a reflex eliciting stimulus, the Unconditional Stimulus (UCS), which he pairs (precedes) with a neutral stimulus, the Conditional Stimulus (CS).

text: Reinforcement is a basic term in operant conditioning. For the punishment aspect of operant conditioning – see punishment (psychology).

text: Positive reinforcement[edit]

text: Positive reinforcement occurs when a desirable event or stimulus is presented as a consequence of a behavior and the behavior increases.[14]:253

text:
Example: Whenever a rat presses a button, it gets a treat. If the rat starts pressing the button more often, the treat serves to positively reinforce this behavior.
Example: A father gives candy to his daughter when she picks up her toys. If the frequency of picking up the toys increases, the candy is a positive reinforcer (to reinforce the behavior of cleaning up).
Example: A company enacts a rewards program in which employees earn prizes dependent on the number of items sold. The prizes the employees receive are the positive reinforcement if they increase sales.

tag: ul

text: Negative reinforcement[edit]

text: Negative reinforcement occurs when the rate of a behavior increases because an aversive event or stimulus is removed or prevented from happening.[14]:253

text:
Example: A child cleans his or her room, and this behavior is followed by the parent stopping "nagging" or asking the child repeatedly to do so. Here, the nagging serves to negatively reinforce the behavior of cleaning because the child wants to remove that aversive stimulus of nagging.
Example: A person puts ointment on a bug bite to soothe an itch. If the ointment works, the person will likely increase the usage of the ointment because it resulted in removing the itch, which is the negative reinforcer.
Example: A company has a policy that if an employee completes their assigned work by Friday, they can have Saturday off. Working Saturday is the negative reinforcer, the employee’s productivity will be increased as they avoid experiencing the negative reinforcer.

text: Reinforcement versus punishment[edit]

text: Reinforcers serve to increase behaviors whereas punishers serve to decrease behaviors; thus, positive reinforcers are stimuli that the subject will work to attain, and negative reinforcers are stimuli that the subject will work to be rid of or to end.[15] The table below illustrates the adding and subtracting of stimuli (pleasant or aversive) in relation to reinforcement vs. punishment.

text:
Rewarding (pleasant) stimulus
Aversive (unpleasant) stimulus

Adding/Presenting
Positive Reinforcement
Positive Punishment

Removing/Taking Away
Negative Punishment
Negative Reinforcement

text: Further ideas and concepts[edit]

text:
Distinguishing between positive and negative can be difficult and may not always be necessary; focusing on what is being removed or added and how it is being removed or added will determine the nature of the reinforcement.
Negative reinforcement is not punishment; punishment is a tool of negative reinforcement. The two, as explained above, differ in the increase (negative reinforcement) or decrease (punishment) of the future probability of a response. However, in negative reinforcement, the stimulus is an aversive stimulus, which if presented contingent on a response, may also function as a positive punisher.
The increase in behavior is independent of (i.e. not related to) whether or not the organism finds the reinforcer to be pleasant or aversive. Example: A child is given detention for acting up in school, but the frequency of the bad behavior increases. Thus, the detention is a reinforcer (could be positive or negative) even if the detention is not a pleasant stimuli, perhaps because the child now feels like a "rebel" or sees it as an opportunity to get out of class.
Some reinforcement can be simultaneously positive and negative, such as a drug addict taking drugs for the added euphoria (a positive feeling) and eliminating withdrawal symptoms (which would be a negative feeling). Or, in a warm room, a current of external air serves as positive reinforcement because it is pleasantly cool and as negative reinforcement because it removes uncomfortable hot air.
Reinforcement in the business world is essential in driving productivity. Employees are constantly motivated by the ability to receive a positive stimulus, such as a promotion or a bonus. Employees are also driven by negative reinforcement. This can be seen when employees are offered Saturdays off if they complete the weekly workload by Friday.
Though negative reinforcement has a positive effect in the short term for a workplace (i.e. encourages a financially beneficial action), over-reliance on a negative reinforcement hinders the ability of workers to act in a creative, engaged way creating growth in the long term.[16]
Both positive and negative reinforcement increase behavior. Most people, especially children, will learn to follow instruction by a mix of positive and negative reinforcement.[14]

text: Primary reinforcers[edit]

text: A primary reinforcer, sometimes called an unconditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus that does not require pairing with a different stimulus in order to function as a reinforcer and most likely has obtained this function through the evolution and its role in species' survival.[17] Examples of primary reinforcers include food, water, and sex. Some primary reinforcers, such as certain drugs, may mimic the effects of other primary reinforcers. While these primary reinforcers are fairly stable through life and across individuals, the reinforcing value of different primary reinforcers varies due to multiple factors (e.g., genetics, experience). Thus, one person may prefer one type of food while another avoids it. Or one person may eat lots of food while another eats very little. So even though food is a primary reinforcer for both individuals, the value of food as a reinforcer differs between them.

text: Secondary reinforcers[edit]

text: A secondary reinforcer, sometimes called a conditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus or situation that has acquired its function as a reinforcer after pairing with a stimulus that functions as a reinforcer. This stimulus may be a primary reinforcer or another conditioned reinforcer (such as money). An example of a secondary reinforcer would be the sound from a clicker, as used in clicker training. The sound of the clicker has been associated with praise or treats, and subsequently, the sound of the clicker may function as a reinforcer. Another common example is the sound of people clapping – there is nothing inherently positive about hearing that sound, but we have learned that it is associated with praise and rewards.

text: When trying to distinguish primary and secondary reinforcers in human examples, use the "caveman test." If the stimulus is something that a caveman would naturally find desirable (e.g., candy) then it is a primary reinforcer. If, on the other hand, the caveman would not react to it (e.g., a dollar bill), it is a secondary reinforcer. As with primary reinforcers, an organism can experience satiation and deprivation with secondary reinforcers.

text: Other reinforcement terms[edit]

text:
A generalized reinforcer is a conditioned reinforcer that has obtained the reinforcing function by pairing with many other reinforcers and functions as a reinforcer under a wide-variety of motivating operations. (One example of this is money because it is paired with many other reinforcers).[18]:83
In reinforcer sampling, a potentially reinforcing but unfamiliar stimulus is presented to an organism without regard to any prior behavior.
Socially-mediated reinforcement (direct reinforcement) involves the delivery of reinforcement that requires the behavior of another organism.
The Premack principle is a special case of reinforcement elaborated by David Premack, which states that a highly preferred activity can be used effectively as a reinforcer for a less-preferred activity.[18]:123
Reinforcement hierarchy is a list of actions, rank-ordering the most desirable to least desirable consequences that may serve as a reinforcer. A reinforcement hierarchy can be used to determine the relative frequency and desirability of different activities, and is often employed when applying the Premack principle.[citation needed]
Contingent outcomes are more likely to reinforce behavior than non-contingent responses. Contingent outcomes are those directly linked to a causal behavior, such a light turning on being contingent on flipping a switch. Note that contingent outcomes are not necessary to demonstrate reinforcement, but perceived contingency may increase learning.
Contiguous stimuli are stimuli closely associated by time and space with specific behaviors. They reduce the amount of time needed to learn a behavior while increasing its resistance to extinction. Giving a dog a piece of food immediately after sitting is more contiguous with (and therefore more likely to reinforce) the behavior than a several minute delay in food delivery following the behavior.
Noncontingent reinforcement refers to response-independent delivery of stimuli identified as reinforcers for some behaviors of that organism. However, this typically entails time-based delivery of stimuli identified as maintaining aberrant behavior, which decreases the rate of the target behavior.[19] As no measured behavior is identified as being strengthened, there is controversy surrounding the use of the term noncontingent "reinforcement".[20]

text: Natural and artificial[edit]

text: In his 1967 paper, Arbitrary and Natural Reinforcement, Charles Ferster proposed classifying reinforcement into events that increase frequency of an operant as a natural consequence of the behavior itself, and events that are presumed to affect frequency by their requirement of human mediation, such as in a token economy where subjects are "rewarded" for certain behavior with an arbitrary token of a negotiable value. In 1970, Baer and Wolf created a name for the use of natural reinforcers called "behavior traps".[21] A behavior trap requires only a simple response to enter the trap, yet once entered, the trap cannot be resisted in creating general behavior change. It is the use of a behavioral trap that increases a person's repertoire, by exposing them to the naturally occurring reinforcement of that behavior. Behavior traps have four characteristics:

text:
They are "baited" with virtually irresistible reinforcers that "lure" the student to the trap
Only a low-effort response already in the repertoire is necessary to enter the trap
Interrelated contingencies of reinforcement inside the trap motivate the person to acquire, extend, and maintain targeted academic/social skills[22]
They can remain effective for long periods of time because the person shows few, if any, satiation effects

text: As can be seen from the above, artificial reinforcement is in fact created to build or develop skills, and to generalize, it is important that either a behavior trap is introduced to "capture" the skill and utilize naturally occurring reinforcement to maintain or increase it. This behavior trap may simply be a social situation that will generally result from a specific behavior once it has met a certain criterion (e.g., if you use edible reinforcers to train a person to say hello and smile at people when they meet them, after that skill has been built up, the natural reinforcer of other people smiling, and having more friendly interactions will naturally reinforce the skill and the edibles can be faded).[citation needed]

text: Intermittent reinforcement; schedules[edit]

text: Much behavior is not reinforced every time it is emitted, and the pattern of intermittent reinforcement strongly affects how fast an operant response is learned, what its rate is at any given time, and how long it continues when reinforcement ceases. The simplest rules controlling reinforcement are continuous reinforcement, where every response is reinforced, and extinction, where no response is reinforced. Between these extremes, more complex "schedules of reinforcement" specify the rules that determine how and when a response will be followed by a reinforcer.

text: Specific schedules of reinforcement reliably induce specific patterns of response, irrespective of the species being investigated (including humans in some conditions). However, the quantitative properties of behavior under a given schedule depend on the parameters of the schedule, and sometimes on other, non-schedule factors. The orderliness and predictability of behavior under schedules of reinforcement was evidence for B.F. Skinner's claim that by using operant conditioning he could obtain "control over behavior", in a way that rendered the theoretical disputes of contemporary comparative psychology obsolete. The reliability of schedule control supported the idea that a radical behaviorist experimental analysis of behavior could be the foundation for a psychology that did not refer to mental or cognitive processes. The reliability of schedules also led to the development of applied behavior analysis as a means of controlling or altering behavior.

text: Many of the simpler possibilities, and some of the more complex ones, were investigated at great length by Skinner using pigeons, but new schedules continue to be defined and investigated.

text: Simple schedules[edit]

text:
Ratio schedule – the reinforcement depends only on the number of responses the organism has performed.
Continuous reinforcement (CRF) – a schedule of reinforcement in which every occurrence of the instrumental response (desired response) is followed by the reinforcer.[18]:86

Lab example: each time a rat presses a bar it gets a pellet of food.
Real-world example: each time a dog defecates outside its owner gives it a treat; each time a person puts $1 in a candy machine and presses the buttons he receives a candy bar.

text: Simple schedules have a single rule to determine when a single type of reinforcer is delivered for specific response.

text:
Fixed ratio (FR) – schedules deliver reinforcement after every nth response.[18]:88 An FR 1 schedule is synonymous with a CRF schedule.

Example: FR 2 = every second desired response the subject makes is reinforced.
Lab example: FR 5 = rat's bar-pressing behavior is reinforced with food after every 5 bar-presses in a Skinner box.
Real-world example: FR 10 = Used car dealer gets a $1000 bonus for each 10 cars sold on the lot.

Variable ratio schedule (VR) – reinforced on average every nth response, but not always on the nth response.[18]:88

Lab example: VR 4 = first pellet delivered on 2 bar presses, second pellet delivered on 6 bar presses, third pellet 4 bar presses (2 + 6 + 4 = 12; 12/3= 4 bar presses to receive pellet).
Real-world example: slot machines (because, though the probability of hitting the jackpot is constant, the number of lever presses needed to hit the jackpot is variable).

Fixed interval (FI) – reinforced after n amount of time.

Example: FI 1-s = reinforcement provided for the first response after 1 second.
Lab example: FI 15-s = rat's bar-pressing behavior is reinforced for the first bar press after 15 seconds passes since the last reinforcement.
Real-world example: FI 30-min = a 30-minute washing machine cycle.

Variable interval (VI) – reinforced on an average of n amount of time, but not always exactly n amount of time.[18]:89

Example: VI 4-min = first pellet delivered after 2 minutes, second delivered after 6 minutes, third is delivered after 4 minutes (2 + 6 + 4 = 12; 12/ 3 = 4). Reinforcement is delivered on the average after 4 minutes.
Lab example: VI 10-s = a rat's bar-pressing behavior is reinforced for the first bar press after an average of 10 seconds passes since the last reinforcement.
Real-world example: VI 30-min = Going fishing—you might catch a fish after 10 minutes, then have to wait an hour, then have to wait 20 minutes.

Fixed time (FT) – Provides a reinforcing stimulus at a fixed time since the last reinforcement delivery, regardless of whether the subject has responded or not. In other words, it is a non-contingent schedule.

Lab example: FT 5-s = rat gets food every 5 seconds regardless of the behavior.
Real-world example: FT 30-d = a person gets an annuity check every month regardless of behavior between checks

Variable time (VT) – Provides reinforcement at an average variable time since last reinforcement, regardless of whether the subject has responded or not.

text: Simple schedules are utilized in many differential reinforcement[23] procedures:

text:
Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) - A conditioning procedure in which an undesired response is decreased by placing it on extinction or, less commonly, providing contingent punishment, while simultaneously providing reinforcement contingent on a desirable response. An example would be a teacher attending to a student only when they raise their hand, while ignoring the student when he or she calls out.
Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) – Also known as omission training procedures, an instrumental conditioning procedure in which a positive reinforcer is periodically delivered only if the participant does something other than the target response. An example would be reinforcing any hand action other than nose picking.[18]:338
Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI) – Used to reduce a frequent behavior without punishing it by reinforcing an incompatible response. An example would be reinforcing clapping to reduce nose picking
Differential reinforcement of low response rate (DRL) – Used to encourage low rates of responding. It is like an interval schedule, except that premature responses reset the time required between behavior.

Lab example: DRL 10-s = a rat is reinforced for the first response after 10 seconds, but if the rat responds earlier than 10 seconds there is no reinforcement and the rat has to wait 10 seconds from that premature response without another response before bar pressing will lead to reinforcement.
Real-world example: "If you ask me for a potato chip no more than once every 10 minutes, I will give it to you. If you ask more often, I will give you none."

Differential reinforcement of high rate (DRH) – Used to increase high rates of responding. It is like an interval schedule, except that a minimum number of responses are required in the interval in order to receive reinforcement.

Lab example: DRH 10-s/FR 15 = a rat must press a bar 15 times within a 10-second increment to get reinforced.
Real-world example: "If Lance Armstrong is going to win the Tour de France he has to pedal x number of times during the y-hour race."

text: Effects of different types of simple schedules[edit]

text:
Fixed ratio: activity slows after reinforcer is delivered, then response rates increase until the next reinforcer delivery (post-reinforcement pause).
Variable ratio: rapid, steady rate of responding; most resistant to extinction.
Fixed interval: responding increases towards the end of the interval; poor resistance to extinction.
Variable interval: steady activity results, good resistance to extinction.
Ratio schedules produce higher rates of responding than interval schedules, when the rates of reinforcement are otherwise similar.
Variable schedules produce higher rates and greater resistance to extinction than most fixed schedules. This is also known as the Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect (PREE).
The variable ratio schedule produces both the highest rate of responding and the greatest resistance to extinction (for example, the behavior of gamblers at slot machines).
Fixed schedules produce "post-reinforcement pauses" (PRP), where responses will briefly cease immediately following reinforcement, though the pause is a function of the upcoming response requirement rather than the prior reinforcement.[24]

The PRP of a fixed interval schedule is frequently followed by a "scallop-shaped" accelerating rate of response, while fixed ratio schedules produce a more "angular" response.

fixed interval scallop: the pattern of responding that develops with fixed interval reinforcement schedule, performance on a fixed interval reflects subject's accuracy in telling time.

Organisms whose schedules of reinforcement are "thinned" (that is, requiring more responses or a greater wait before reinforcement) may experience "ratio strain" if thinned too quickly. This produces behavior similar to that seen during extinction.

Ratio strain: the disruption of responding that occurs when a fixed ratio response requirement is increased too rapidly.
Ratio run: high and steady rate of responding that completes each ratio requirement. Usually higher ratio requirement causes longer post-reinforcement pauses to occur.

Partial reinforcement schedules are more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement schedules.

Ratio schedules are more resistant than interval schedules and variable schedules more resistant than fixed ones.
Momentary changes in reinforcement value lead to dynamic changes in behavior.[25]

text: Compound schedules[edit]

text: Compound schedules combine two or more different simple schedules in some way using the same reinforcer for the same behavior. There are many possibilities; among those most often used are:

text:
Alternative schedules – A type of compound schedule where two or more simple schedules are in effect and whichever schedule is completed first results in reinforcement.[26]
Conjunctive schedules – A complex schedule of reinforcement where two or more simple schedules are in effect independently of each other, and requirements on all of the simple schedules must be met for reinforcement.
Multiple schedules – Two or more schedules alternate over time, with a stimulus indicating which is in force. Reinforcement is delivered if the response requirement is met while a schedule is in effect.

Example: FR4 when given a whistle and FI6 when given a bell ring.

Mixed schedules – Either of two, or more, schedules may occur with no stimulus indicating which is in force. Reinforcement is delivered if the response requirement is met while a schedule is in effect.

Example: FI6 and then VR3 without any stimulus warning of the change in schedule.

Concurrent schedules – A complex reinforcement procedure in which the participant can choose any one of two or more simple reinforcement schedules that are available simultaneously. Organisms are free to change back and forth between the response alternatives at any time.

Real-world example: changing channels on a television.

Concurrent-chain schedule of reinforcement – A complex reinforcement procedure in which the participant is permitted to choose during the first link which of several simple reinforcement schedules will be in effect in the second link. Once a choice has been made, the rejected alternatives become unavailable until the start of the next trial.
Interlocking schedules – A single schedule with two components where progress in one component affects progress in the other component. In an interlocking FR 60 FI 120-s schedule, for example, each response subtracts time from the interval component such that each response is "equal" to removing two seconds from the FI schedule.
Chained schedules – Reinforcement occurs after two or more successive schedules have been completed, with a stimulus indicating when one schedule has been completed and the next has started

Example: On an FR 10 schedule in the presence a red light, a pigeon pecks a green disc 10 times; then, a yellow light indicates an FR 3 schedule is active; after the pigeon pecks a yellow disc 3 times, a green light to indicates a VI 6-s schedule is in effect; if this were the final schedule in the chain, the pigeon would be reinforced for pecking a green disc on a VI 6-s schedule; however, all schedule requirements in the chain must be met before a reinforcer is provided.

Tandem schedules – Reinforcement occurs when two or more successive schedule requirements have been completed, with no stimulus indicating when a schedule has been completed and the next has started.

Example: VR 10, after it is completed the schedule is changed without warning to FR 10, after that it is changed without warning to FR 16, etc. At the end of the series of schedules, a reinforcer is finally given.

Higher-order schedules – completion of one schedule is reinforced according to a second schedule; e.g. in FR2 (FI10 secs), two successive fixed interval schedules require completion before a response is reinforced.

text: Superimposed schedules[edit]

text: The psychology term superimposed schedules of reinforcement refers to a structure of rewards where two or more simple schedules of reinforcement operate simultaneously. Reinforcers can be positive, negative, or both. An example is a person who comes home after a long day at work. The behavior of opening the front door is rewarded by a big kiss on the lips by the person's spouse and a rip in the pants from the family dog jumping enthusiastically. Another example of superimposed schedules of reinforcement is a pigeon in an experimental cage pecking at a button. The pecks deliver a hopper of grain every 20th peck, and access to water after every 200 pecks.

text: Superimposed schedules of reinforcement are a type of compound schedule that evolved from the initial work on simple schedules of reinforcement by B.F. Skinner and his colleagues (Skinner and Ferster, 1957). They demonstrated that reinforcers could be delivered on schedules, and further that organisms behaved differently under different schedules. Rather than a reinforcer, such as food or water, being delivered every time as a consequence of some behavior, a reinforcer could be delivered after more than one instance of the behavior. For example, a pigeon may be required to peck a button switch ten times before food appears. This is a "ratio schedule". Also, a reinforcer could be delivered after an interval of time passed following a target behavior. An example is a rat that is given a food pellet immediately following the first response that occurs after two minutes has elapsed since the last lever press. This is called an "interval schedule".

text: In addition, ratio schedules can deliver reinforcement following fixed or variable number of behaviors by the individual organism. Likewise, interval schedules can deliver reinforcement following fixed or variable intervals of time following a single response by the organism. Individual behaviors tend to generate response rates that differ based upon how the reinforcement schedule is created. Much subsequent research in many labs examined the effects on behaviors of scheduling reinforcers.

text: If an organism is offered the opportunity to choose between or among two or more simple schedules of reinforcement at the same time, the reinforcement structure is called a "concurrent schedule of reinforcement". Brechner (1974, 1977) introduced the concept of superimposed schedules of reinforcement in an attempt to create a laboratory analogy of social traps, such as when humans overharvest their fisheries or tear down their rainforests. Brechner created a situation where simple reinforcement schedules were superimposed upon each other. In other words, a single response or group of responses by an organism led to multiple consequences. Concurrent schedules of reinforcement can be thought of as "or" schedules, and superimposed schedules of reinforcement can be thought of as "and" schedules. Brechner and Linder (1981) and Brechner (1987) expanded the concept to describe how superimposed schedules and the social trap analogy could be used to analyze the way energy flows through systems.

text: Superimposed schedules of reinforcement have many real-world applications in addition to generating social traps. Many different human individual and social situations can be created by superimposing simple reinforcement schedules. For example, a human being could have simultaneous tobacco and alcohol addictions. Even more complex situations can be created or simulated by superimposing two or more concurrent schedules. For example, a high school senior could have a choice between going to Stanford University or UCLA, and at the same time have the choice of going into the Army or the Air Force, and simultaneously the choice of taking a job with an internet company or a job with a software company. That is a reinforcement structure of three superimposed concurrent schedules of reinforcement.

text: Superimposed schedules of reinforcement can create the three classic conflict situations (approach–approach conflict, approach–avoidance conflict, and avoidance–avoidance conflict) described by Kurt Lewin (1935) and can operationalize other Lewinian situations analyzed by his force field analysis. Other examples of the use of superimposed schedules of reinforcement as an analytical tool are its application to the contingencies of rent control (Brechner, 2003) and problem of toxic waste dumping in the Los Angeles County storm drain system (Brechner, 2010).

text: Concurrent schedules[edit]

text: In operant conditioning, concurrent schedules of reinforcement are schedules of reinforcement that are simultaneously available to an animal subject or human participant, so that the subject or participant can respond on either schedule. For example, in a two-alternative forced choice task, a pigeon in a Skinner box is faced with two pecking keys; pecking responses can be made on either, and food reinforcement might follow a peck on either. The schedules of reinforcement arranged for pecks on the two keys can be different. They may be independent, or they may be linked so that behavior on one key affects the likelihood of reinforcement on the other.

text: It is not necessary for responses on the two schedules to be physically distinct. In an alternate way of arranging concurrent schedules, introduced by Findley in 1958, both schedules are arranged on a single key or other response device, and the subject can respond on a second key to change between the schedules. In such a "Findley concurrent" procedure, a stimulus (e.g., the color of the main key) signals which schedule is in effect.

text: Concurrent schedules often induce rapid alternation between the keys. To prevent this, a "changeover delay" is commonly introduced: each schedule is inactivated for a brief period after the subject switches to it.

text: When both the concurrent schedules are variable intervals, a quantitative relationship known as the matching law is found between relative response rates in the two schedules and the relative reinforcement rates they deliver; this was first observed by R.J. Herrnstein in 1961. Matching law is a rule for instrumental behavior which states that the relative rate of responding on a particular response alternative equals the relative rate of reinforcement for that response (rate of behavior = rate of reinforcement). Animals and humans have a tendency to prefer choice in schedules.[27]

text: Shaping[edit]

text: Shaping is reinforcement of successive approximations to a desired instrumental response. In training a rat to press a lever, for example, simply turning toward the lever is reinforced at first. Then, only turning and stepping toward it is reinforced. The outcomes of one set of behaviours starts the shaping process for the next set of behaviours, and the outcomes of that set prepares the shaping process for the next set, and so on. As training progresses, the response reinforced becomes progressively more like the desired behavior; each subsequent behaviour becomes a closer approximation of the final behaviour.[28]

text: Chaining[edit]

text: Chaining involves linking discrete behaviors together in a series, such that each result of each behavior is both the reinforcement (or consequence) for the previous behavior, and the stimuli (or antecedent) for the next behavior. There are many ways to teach chaining, such as forward chaining (starting from the first behavior in the chain), backwards chaining (starting from the last behavior) and total task chaining (in which the entire behavior is taught from beginning to end, rather than as a series of steps). An example is opening a locked door. First the key is inserted, then turned, then the door opened.

text: Forward chaining would teach the subject first to insert the key. Once that task is mastered, they are told to insert the key, and taught to turn it. Once that task is mastered, they are told to perform the first two, then taught to open the door. Backwards chaining would involve the teacher first inserting and turning the key, and the subject then being taught to open the door. Once that is learned, the teacher inserts the key, and the subject is taught to turn it, then opens the door as the next step. Finally, the subject is taught to insert the key, and they turn and open the door. Once the first step is mastered, the entire task has been taught. Total task chaining would involve teaching the entire task as a single series, prompting through all steps. Prompts are faded (reduced) at each step as they are mastered.

text: Persuasive communication and the reinforcement theory[edit]

text: Persuasion is a form of human interaction. It takes place when one individual expects some particular response from one or more other individuals and deliberately sets out to secure the response through the use of communication. The communicator must realize that different groups have different values.[29]:24–25

text: In instrumental learning situations, which involve operant behavior, the persuasive communicator will present his message and then wait for the receiver to make a correct response. As soon as the receiver makes the response, the communicator will attempt to fix the response by some appropriate reward or reinforcement.[30]

text: In conditional learning situations, where there is respondent behavior, the communicator presents his message so as to elicit the response he wants from the receiver, and the stimulus that originally served to elicit the response then becomes the reinforcing or rewarding element in conditioning.[29]

text: Mathematical models[edit]

text: A lot of work has been done in building a mathematical model of reinforcement. This model is known as MPR, short for mathematical principles of reinforcement. Peter Killeen has made key discoveries in the field with his research on pigeons.[31]

text: Criticisms[edit]

text: The standard definition of behavioral reinforcement has been criticized as circular, since it appears to argue that response strength is increased by reinforcement, and defines reinforcement as something that increases response strength (i.e., response strength is increased by things that increase response strength). However, the correct usage[32] of reinforcement is that something is a reinforcer because of its effect on behavior, and not the other way around. It becomes circular if one says that a particular stimulus strengthens behavior because it is a reinforcer, and does not explain why a stimulus is producing that effect on the behavior. Other definitions have been proposed, such as F.D. Sheffield's "consummatory behavior contingent on a response", but these are not broadly used in psychology.[33]

text: History of the terms[edit]

text: In the 1920s Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov may have been the first to use the word reinforcement with respect to behavior, but (according to Dinsmoor) he used its approximate Russian cognate sparingly, and even then it referred to strengthening an already-learned but weakening response. He did not use it, as it is today, for selecting and strengthening new behaviors. Pavlov's introduction of the word extinction (in Russian) approximates today's psychological use.

text: In popular use, positive reinforcement is often used as a synonym for reward, with people (not behavior) thus being "reinforced", but this is contrary to the term's consistent technical usage, as it is a dimension of behavior, and not the person, which is strengthened. Negative reinforcement is often used by laypeople and even social scientists outside psychology as a synonym for punishment. This is contrary to modern technical use, but it was B.F. Skinner who first used it this way in his 1938 book. By 1953, however, he followed others in thus employing the word punishment, and he re-cast negative reinforcement for the removal of aversive stimuli.

text: There are some within the field of behavior analysis[34] who have suggested that the terms "positive" and "negative" constitute an unnecessary distinction in discussing reinforcement as it is often unclear whether stimuli are being removed or presented. For example, Iwata poses the question: "...is a change in temperature more accurately characterized by the presentation of cold (heat) or the removal of heat (cold)?"[35]:363 Thus, reinforcement could be conceptualized as a pre-change condition replaced by a post-change condition that reinforces the behavior that followed the change in stimulus conditions.

text: Applications[edit]

text: Reinforcement and punishment are ubiquitous in human social interactions, and a great many applications of operant principles have been suggested and implemented. Following are a few examples.

text: Addiction and dependence[edit]

text: Positive and negative reinforcement play central roles in the development and maintenance of addiction and drug dependence. An addictive drug is intrinsically rewarding; that is, it functions as a primary positive reinforcer of drug use. The brain's reward system assigns it incentive salience (i.e., it is "wanted" or "desired"),[36][37][38] so as an addiction develops, deprivation of the drug leads to craving. In addition, stimuli associated with drug use – e.g., the sight of a syringe, and the location of use – become associated with the intense reinforcement induced by the drug.[36][37][38] These previously neutral stimuli acquire several properties: their appearance can induce craving, and they can become conditioned positive reinforcers of continued use.[36][37][38] Thus, if an addicted individual encounters one of these drug cues, a craving for the associated drug may reappear. For example, anti-drug agencies previously used posters with images of drug paraphernalia as an attempt to show the dangers of drug use. However, such posters are no longer used because of the effects of incentive salience in causing relapse upon sight of the stimuli illustrated in the posters.

text: In drug dependent individuals, negative reinforcement occurs when a drug is self-administered in order to alleviate or "escape" the symptoms of physical dependence (e.g., tremors and sweating) and/or psychological dependence (e.g., anhedonia, restlessness, irritability, and anxiety) that arise during the state of drug withdrawal.[36]

text: Animal training[edit]

text: Animal trainers and pet owners were applying the principles and practices of operant conditioning long before these ideas were named and studied, and animal training still provides one of the clearest and most convincing examples of operant control. Of the concepts and procedures described in this article, a few of the most salient are: availability of immediate reinforcement (e.g. the ever-present bag of dog yummies); contingency, assuring that reinforcement follows the desired behavior and not something else; the use of secondary reinforcement, as in sounding a clicker immediately after a desired response; shaping, as in gradually getting a dog to jump higher and higher; intermittent reinforcement, reducing the frequency of those yummies to induce persistent behavior without satiation; chaining, where a complex behavior is gradually put together.[39]

text: Child behaviour – parent management training[edit]

text: Providing positive reinforcement for appropriate child behaviors is a major focus of parent management training. Typically, parents learn to reward appropriate behavior through social rewards (such as praise, smiles, and hugs) as well as concrete rewards (such as stickers or points towards a larger reward as part of an incentive system created collaboratively with the child).[40] In addition, parents learn to select simple behaviors as an initial focus and reward each of the small steps that their child achieves towards reaching a larger goal (this concept is called "successive approximations").[40][41] They may also use indirect rewards such through progress charts.

text: Economics[edit]

text: Both psychologists and economists have become interested in applying operant concepts and findings to the behavior of humans in the marketplace. An example is the analysis of consumer demand, as indexed by the amount of a commodity that is purchased. In economics, the degree to which price influences consumption is called "the price elasticity of demand." Certain commodities are more elastic than others; for example, a change in price of certain foods may have a large effect on the amount bought, while gasoline and other essentials may be less affected by price changes. In terms of operant analysis, such effects may be interpreted in terms of motivations of consumers and the relative value of the commodities as reinforcers.[42]

text: Gambling – variable ratio scheduling[edit]

text: As stated earlier in this article, a variable ratio schedule yields reinforcement after the emission of an unpredictable number of responses. This schedule typically generates rapid, persistent responding. Slot machines pay off on a variable ratio schedule, and they produce just this sort of persistent lever-pulling behavior in gamblers. Because the machines are programmed to pay out less money than they take in, the persistent slot-machine user invariably loses in the long run. Slots machines, and thus variable ratio reinforcement, have often been blamed as a factor underlying gambling addiction.[43]

text: Nudge theory[edit]

text: Nudge theory (or nudge) is a concept in behavioural science, political theory and economics which argues that positive reinforcement and indirect suggestions to try to achieve non-forced compliance can influence the motives, incentives and decision making of groups and individuals, at least as effectively – if not more effectively – than direct instruction, legislation, or enforcement.

text: Praise[edit]

text: The concept of praise as a means of behavioral reinforcement in humans is rooted in B.F. Skinner's model of operant conditioning. Through this lens, praise has been viewed as a means of positive reinforcement, wherein an observed behavior is made more likely to occur by contingently praising said behavior.[44] Hundreds of studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of praise in promoting positive behaviors, notably in the study of teacher and parent use of praise on child in promoting improved behavior and academic performance,[45][46] but also in the study of work performance.[47] Praise has also been demonstrated to reinforce positive behaviors in non-praised adjacent individuals (such as a classmate of the praise recipient) through vicarious reinforcement.[48] Praise may be more or less effective in changing behavior depending on its form, content and delivery. In order for praise to effect positive behavior change, it must be contingent on the positive behavior (i.e., only administered after the targeted behavior is enacted), must specify the particulars of the behavior that is to be reinforced, and must be delivered sincerely and credibly.[49]

text: Acknowledging the effect of praise as a positive reinforcement strategy, numerous behavioral and cognitive behavioral interventions have incorporated the use of praise in their protocols.[50][51] The strategic use of praise is recognized as an evidence-based practice in both classroom management[50] and parenting training interventions,[46] though praise is often subsumed in intervention research into a larger category of positive reinforcement, which includes strategies such as strategic attention and behavioral rewards.

text: Psychological manipulation[edit]

text: Braiker identified the following ways that manipulators control their victims:[52]

text:
Positive reinforcement: includes praise, superficial charm, superficial sympathy (crocodile tears), excessive apologizing, money, approval, gifts, attention, facial expressions such as a forced laugh or smile, and public recognition.
Negative reinforcement: may involve removing one from a negative situation
Intermittent or partial reinforcement: Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt. Partial or intermittent positive reinforcement can encourage the victim to persist – for example in most forms of gambling, the gambler is likely to win now and again but still lose money overall.
Punishment: includes nagging, yelling, the silent treatment, intimidation, threats, swearing, emotional blackmail, the guilt trip, sulking, crying, and playing the victim.
Traumatic one-trial learning: using verbal abuse, explosive anger, or other intimidating behavior to establish dominance or superiority; even one incident of such behavior can condition or train victims to avoid upsetting, confronting or contradicting the manipulator.

text: Traumatic bonding[edit]

text: Traumatic bonding occurs as the result of ongoing cycles of abuse in which the intermittent reinforcement of reward and punishment creates powerful emotional bonds that are resistant to change.[53][54]

text: Video games[edit]

text: Most video games are designed around some type of compulsion loop, adding a type of positive reinforcement through a variable rate schedule to keep the player playing the game, though this can also lead to video game addiction.[55]

text: As part of a trend in the monetization of video games in the 2010's, some games offered "loot boxes" as rewards or purchasable by real-world funds that offered a random selection of in-game items, distributed by rarity. The practice has been tied to the same methods that slot machines and other gambling devices dole out rewards, as it follows a variable rate schedule. While the general perception that loot boxes are a form of gambling, the practice is only classified as such in a few countries as gambling and otherwise legal. However, methods to use those items as virtual currency for online gambling or trading for real-world money has created a skin gambling market that is under legal evaluation.[56]

text: Workplace culture of fear[edit]

text: Ashforth discussed potentially destructive sides of leadership and identified what he referred to as petty tyrants: leaders who exercise a tyrannical style of management, resulting in a climate of fear in the workplace.[57] Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement can create an effective climate of fear and doubt.[52] When employees get the sense that bullies are tolerated, a climate of fear may be the result.[58]

text: Individual differences in sensitivity to reward, punishment, and motivation have been studied under the premises of reinforcement sensitivity theory and have also been applied to workplace performance.


document_title: Risk (game)

question_text: in risk is afghanistan in europe or asia

root

text: Risk (game)

text: History[edit]

text: Risk was invented by French film director Albert Lamorisse and originally released in 1957 as La Conquête du Monde (The Conquest of the World) in France. It was later bought by Parker Brothers and released in 1959 with some modifications to the rules as Risk: The Continental Game, then as Risk: The Game of Global Domination.[3]

tag: p

text: Following introduction, the first new version of Risk in nearly 20 years was released in 1986. Called Castle Risk, it featured a map depicting 18th century European castles instead of a map of the world. It was a marketing flop. It would be 15 more years before the company tried again. In 1993, the rules for Secret Mission Risk, which had been the standard in Europe, were added to the United States edition. After a limited special edition release in 1999 in France called Risk: Édition Napoléon in commemoration of 200th anniversary of the Napoleonic era (1799-1815), a new edition called Risk: 2210 A.D. was published in 2001 by Hasbro's Avalon Hill division. The game was futuristic themed featuring moon territories, ocean territories and commander units and offered a number of official and unofficial expansions. Starting in 2002, Risk versions with popular media themes like Lord of the Rings, Star Wars, Transformers and various others were released in most years, sometimes as many as six editions per year (2013). A collector's edition of classic Risk in a bookshelf format wooden box was issued in 2005 as part of the Parker Brothers Vintage Game series, distributed exclusively through Target Stores. In 2008, Winning Moves, a Hasbro licensee, introduced 1959 Risk, a reproduction of the original Parker Brothers version with original artwork, wooden playing pieces and rules. Many themed versions are still being published, along with new themed versions every year or two.

text: In the first editions, the playing pieces were wooden cubes (one set each of black, blue, green, pink, red and yellow) representing one troop each and a few rounded triangular prisms representing ten troops each, but in later versions of the game these pieces were molded of plastic to reduce costs. In the 1980s, these were changed to pieces shaped into the Roman numerals I, III, V, and X. The 1993 edition introduced plastic infantry tokens (representing a single unit), cavalry (representing five units), and artillery (representing ten units). The 40th Anniversary Collector's Edition contained the same troop pieces but made of metal rather than plastic. In the 2005 "bookcase" edition, playing pieces are once again wooden cubes.

text: Equipment and design[edit]

text: Equipment includes a large table top board depicting a political map of the earth, divided into forty-two territories, which are grouped into six continents by color. In addition to shared boundaries between territories which define routes of attack/defense, numerous special trans-oceanic or trans-sea routes are also marked; for example, the route between North Africa and Brazil. The oceans and seas are not part of the playing field.

text: Each Risk game comes with a number of sets (either 5 or 6) of different colored tokens denoting troops. A few different or larger tokens represent multiple (usually 5 or 10) troops. These token types are purely a convention for ease of representing a specific army size. If a player runs out of army pieces during the game, pieces of another color or other symbolic tokens (coins, pieces from other games, etc) may be substituted to help keep track of armies.

text: Also included is a deck of Risk cards, comprising forty-two territory cards, two wild cards, and twelve or twenty-eight mission cards. The territory cards correspond to the 42 territories on the playing board. Each of the territory cards also depicts a symbol of an infantry, cavalry, or artillery piece. One of these cards is awarded to a player at the end of each turn if the player has successfully conquered at least one territory during that turn. No more than one card may be awarded per turn. If a player collects either three cards with the same symbol, or one of each, or two different and a wild card, they may be traded in for reinforcements at the beginning of a player's turn. These cards can also be used for game set-up (see below for details). The two wild cards depict infantry, cavalry and artillery pieces. Because these cards have all three symbols, they can match with any two other cards to form a set. The mission cards each specifying some secret mission (something less than 'conquer the world') are used in the Secret Mission Risk rule variant.

text: Standard equipment also includes five or six dice in two colors: three red dice for the attacker, and two or three white or blue dice for the defender. There is also a Golden Cavalry piece used to mark the progressive turn-in value of matched sets of territory cards.

text: Territories[edit]

text: The following is a typical layout of the Risk game board, with a table of the corresponding continent and territory names.[4] Each territory on the typical Risk game board represents a real-life geographical or political region on Earth. As such, the territory borders are drawn to resemble the geography of those regions. This provides an interior space on which to place the army units, adds an element of realism to the game, and also adds complexity. Most of the territories represent a combination of countries or states; some that have names of single countries or states, like Argentina, don't represent the boundaries of the real-life entity. Two significant landmasses, Antarctica and New Zealand, are not represented.

text: The numbers in parentheses represent the number of additional armies granted during the reinforcement stage of a player's turn who controls all of the territories in that continent.

text:
North America (5)

Alaska
Alberta[note 1]
Central America
Eastern United States
Greenland
Northwest Territory
Ontario[note 1]
Quebec[note 1]
Western United States

South America (2)

Argentina
Brazil
Peru
Venezuela

Europe (5)

Great Britain[note 1]
Iceland
Northern Europe
Scandinavia
Southern Europe
Ukraine[note 1]
Western Europe

Africa (3)

Congo[note 1]
East Africa[note 2]
Egypt
Madagascar
North Africa
South Africa

Asia (7)

Afghanistan[note 3]
China
India[note 1]
Irkutsk
Japan
Kamchatka
Middle East[note 2]
Mongolia
Siam[note 1]
Siberia
Ural
Yakutsk

Australia (2)

Eastern Australia
Indonesia
New Guinea
Western Australia

tag: table

text: Notes

text:
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h On some versions of the board, Alberta, Ontario, Quebec, Great Britain, Ukraine, Congo, India, and Siam are known as Western Canada, Central Canada, Eastern Canada, Great Britain & Ireland, Eastern Europe/Russia, Central Africa, Hindustan, and Southeast Asia, respectively. Not all variations occur concurrently.
^ Jump up to: a b In the 40th Anniversary Collector's Edition the movement route between the territories of East Africa and Middle East was removed; this was later confirmed to be a manufacturing error, an error repeated in Risk II. Subsequent editions restored the missing route.
Jump up ^ The territory of Afghanistan does not include the present-day country of Afghanistan.

tag: ol

text: Gameplay[edit]

text: Setup consists of determining order of play, issuing armies to players, and allocating the territories on the board among players, who place one or more armies on each one they own.

text: At the beginning of his turn, a player receives reinforcement armies proportional to the number of territories held, bonus armies for holding whole continents, and additional armies for turning in matched sets of territory cards (cards are marked with a match symbol analogous to the suit of a playing card) obtained by conquering new territories. In a player's turn, he may attack, move his armies, or pass. A player may attack across a boundary of any of his territories where he faces an opposing army; some "boundaries" are marked by sea-lanes on the board. Attacks are decided by dice rolls, with the attacker or defender losing a specified number of armies per roll. Battles may go to completion, i.e. one player or the other loses all of his armies at that site, or stop at any point. If the defenders loses all his armies at that site, the attacker takes over his old territory by moving armies onto it, and draws a territory card for that turn. If the defender has no armies left on the board, he is eliminated from the game, and the attacker acquires any territory cards he owns. The player may launch additional attacks or stop at any time. At the end of his turn, a player may move armies from one of his territories to another adjacent territory.

text: The game ends when one player owns all the territories, i.e. he is the only player left.

text: There are special rules for two handed games: the territories are divided between the players and a neutral army during setup. In play, the neutral army only plays defense when attacked, never attacks or moves armies, and doesn't have a turn like an active player. If the neutral army is eliminated, the game continues under normal rules.

text: Some editions have rules variants regarding how armies or territories are allocated during setup or how armies may be moved at the end of a turn. There are also variations in the tokens representing armies that don't affect play. European editions assign each player a secret mission, and the game goes until one player completes his mission rather than conquers the world. Different editions have differing numbers of such missions. The Italian edition uses a different number of dice in battle. Themed variants have different map configurations and substantially different rules.

text: The rules of some editions describe a variant called Capital Risk, where each player has a capital in one of the initially occupied territories. The player to capture all capitals wins. Any armies and territories that belong to the losing nation are turned over to the victor. Capital Risk often leads to much shorter games. Other rules variants for "Risk experts" are also listed.

text: Gaming clubs may also have "house rules" or competition-adjusted rules.

text: Strategy[edit]

text: Basic strategy[edit]

text: The official rulebook[citation needed] gives three basic strategy tips for the classic rules:

text:
Players should control entire continents to get the bonus reinforcement armies.
Players should watch their borders for buildups of armies that could imply an upcoming attack.
Players should build up armies on their own borders for better defense.

text: Holding continents is the most common way to increase reinforcements. Players often attempt to gain control of Australia early in the game, since Australia is the only continent that can be successfully defended by heavily fortifying one country (either Siam or Indonesia).[6] Generally, continents with fewer borders are easier to defend as they possess fewer points that can be attacked by other players. South America has 2 access points, North America and Africa each have 3, Europe has 4, and Asia has 5.

text: Generally, it is thought advisable to hold Risk cards until they can be turned in for maximum reinforcements.[6] This is especially true earlier on in gameplay, because extra armies make a greater difference in the beginning of the game.[6] Eliminating a weak player who holds a large number of Risk cards is also a good strategy,[6] since players who eliminate their opponents get possession of their opponents' Risk cards. In this case, trading in Risk cards earlier may help acquire the necessary troops. If the conquering player has six[7]:10 or more Risk cards after taking the cards of another player, the cards must be immediately turned in for reinforcements until the player has fewer than five cards and then may continue attacking.

text: "Turtling" is a defensive strategy where a player who feels vulnerable tries to become too expensive to be removed while remaining a threat to harass other players. The objective of this strategy is to avoid defeat. A player using this strategy might remain in the game all the way to later stages and then mount an attack on the weakest player and start a chain elimination to remove one player after another to win the game. The player who uses this strategy is called a turtle. The term was popularised in real-time strategy games where a player creates a defensive perimeter or a turtle shell around the base of operations. Solutions to counteract this strategy using cooperation have been proposed.[8]

text: Alliances[edit]

text: The rules of Risk neither endorse nor prohibit alliances or truces. Thus players often form unofficial treaties for various reasons, such as safeguarding themselves from attacks on one border while they concentrate their forces elsewhere, or eliminating a player who has grown too strong. Because these agreements are not enforceable by the rules, these agreements are often broken. Alliance making/breaking can be one of the most important elements of the game, and it adds human interaction to a decidedly probabilistic game. Some players allow trading of Risk cards, but only during their turn. This optional rule makes alliances more powerful.[according to whom?]

text: Attack and defence[edit]

text: Capturing a territory depends on the number of attacking and defending armies and the associated probabilities. In a battle to completion, a player who has more armies (even just one more) has a significant advantage, whether on attack or defence (the number of attacking armies does not include the minimum one army that must be left behind in the territory).

text: Defenders always win ties when dice are rolled. This gives the defending player the advantage in "one-on-one" fights, but the attacker's ability to use more dice offsets this advantage. It is always advantageous to roll the maximum number of dice, unless an attacker wishes to avoid moving men into a 'dead-end' territory, in which case they may choose to roll fewer than three. Thus when rolling three dice against two, three against one, or two against one, the attacker has a slight advantage, otherwise the defender has an advantage.

text: There are online tools available to compute the outcome of whole campaigns (i.e. the attacking of several territories in a row).[9]

text: Risiko! is a variant of the game released in Italy, in which the defender is allowed to roll up to three dice to defend. This variation dramatically shifts the balance of power towards defence.

text: Awards and commendations[edit]

text:
Risk was inducted into Games magazine's Hall of Fame in 1984.
Risk was inducted into Academy of Adventure Gaming Arts and Design Hall of Fame in 1995.

text: Official licensed Risk games[edit]

text: In addition to the original version of 1959, and a 40th Anniversary Edition with metal pieces, a number of official variants of Risk have been released over the years. In recent years, Hasbro has predominantly based its Risk variants on popular films. In chronological order, the variations of Risk that have been released are:

text:
Castle Risk (1986) – A version focusing only on Europe in which each player has a castle, and the player's goal is to protect the castle from attack. Castle Risk was the first version of Risk released after 27 years of production to depart from standard play.[5] Although it was unsuccessful, it introduced many concepts integrated into later versions of Risk.[5]
Risk: Édition Napoléon (1999) – Adds generals, fortresses, and naval units.

Risk: Édition Napoléon: Extension Empire Ottoman (2000) – Adds a sixth player to Risk: Édition Napoléon.

Risk: 2210 A.D. (2001) – An award winning[citation needed] futuristic version, produced by Avalon Hill, another division of Hasbro. The game features moon territories, ocean territories and commander units and offers a number of official and unofficial expansions.
Risk: the Lord of the Rings (2002) – 2–4 player version based on northern Middle-earth.

Risk: the Lord of the Rings: Gondor & Mordor Expansion Set (2003) – Extension to Risk: the Lord of the Rings, also includes a 2-player Siege of Minas Tirith mini-game.

Risk: the Lord of the Rings: Trilogy Edition (2003) – Combines the first two Lord of the Rings versions, but does not include the Siege of Minas Tirith mini-game.
Risk Godstorm (2004) – A version based on the mythological pantheons of various ancient civilizations; produced by Avalon Hill.
Risk: Star Wars: Clone Wars Edition (2005) – Set in the Star Wars universe during the Clone Wars. The player can fight on the side of the Separatists or the Republic, using either the classic Risk rules or the Clone Wars variations where altruism pays off.
Risk Express (2006) – Designed by Reiner Knizia as part of Hasbro's Express line of games (although not as part of the US-released series). Roll different combinations of infantry, cavalry, artillery & generals to capture the territory cards.[10]
Risk: Star Wars Original Trilogy Edition (2006) – Set during the Galactic Civil War, players play as the Galactic Empire, the Rebel Alliance, or the Hutts. This version is unique in that each of the factions has a different set of goals and victory conditions.
Risk Junior: Narnia (2006) – Based on The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, players can play as either the forces of Aslan or as the forces of the White Witch.
Risk: The Transformers Edition (2007) – Based on the Transformers film, players can either play on the side of the Autobots or the Decepticons on a Cybertron stylised map.
Risk: Black OPS (2008) – Limited edition released in early 2008. Print run was limited to a 1000 copies. Most of the copies were given to people in the board game industry to test out new rules for up coming editions.[11]
Risk: Balance of Power (2008) – Based on a European map.[12]
Risk 1959 (2008) – Winning Moves Games USA released a reproduction of the original game of Risk from 1959. It includes all the original graphics, wood pieces, and individual plastic storage boxes.[13][14]
Risk: Reinvention (2009) – Also called Risk Factor or Risk Revised Edition. This is the commercial released version of Black Ops. It features capitals, cities, missions, and very thin pieces shaped like arrows. It is also available with different components (wooden map, wooden cube pieces, etc.) as Risk Onyx Edition.[15]
Risk: Halo Wars Collector's Edition (2009) – Includes UNSC, Covenant, and The Flood. It has 42 territories and 6 sectors.
Risk: Factions (2010) – a licensed video game version of the game developed by Electronic Arts, and distributed on Xbox Live Arcade and PlayStation Network. Includes a "classic" mode which allows games played using standard original rules, and a "Factions" variation on the rules.
Risk: Metal Gear Solid (2011)
Risk: Legacy (2011/12) – A game that has permanent changes to the game board and cards each time you play.[16]
Risk: Halo Legendary (2012)
Risk: Starcraft (2012) – Four play modes with three different races. Each race has two unique hero units.
Risk: Star Wars Saga Edition (2013) UK Exclusive
Risk: Mass Effect Galaxy at War Edition (2013)
Risk: The Walking Dead Survival Edition (2013)
Risk: Battlefield Rogue (2013)
Risk: Plants Vs Zombies (2013)
Risk: Doctor Who (2013)
Risk: Game of Thrones (2015)
Risk: Star Wars Edition Game Standard (2015) – Recreates the Battle of Endor from Star Wars Episode VI: Return of the Jedi. Battles take place across three environments: inside the Emperor's Throne Room ; the space outside the Death Star ; and the forest moon of Endor, [17]
Risk: Star Wars Edition Game Black Series (2015) – Same as Risk: Star Wars Edition Game Standard but includes different packaging, embossed playing cards, translucent dice, and miniatures for the Death Star, Super Star Destroyer, Millennium Falcon, and Imperial stormtroopers.[18]
Risk: Marvel Cinematic Universe (2015)
Risk: Transformers Decepticon Invasion of Earth (2015) UK Exclusive
Risk: Captain America Civil War (2016)
Risk: Star Trek 50th Anniversary Edition (2016)
Risk (2016)
Risk Europe (2016)

text: Risk clones[edit]

text: Many variants exist that are based on the original concept of the game of Risk and that contain much of the functionality of the original, but are not licensed by Hasbro, such as, for example, the video games Global Domination and Lux. Known as Risk clones, such variants have names not containing the term "Risk" to avoid legal issues.[19] Some of these clones are available commercially, of which many have been released through the iTunes App Store, especially for the iPad.[20] Several other Risk clones are distributed freely over the Internet, such as Dice Wars.[21] Games such as Nintendo Wars can be seen as a complex evolution which still holds some elements from Risk. NarcoGuerra is a newsgame based on the basic Risk rules, played out over a map of Mexico with the intent of educating people on the Mexican Drug War. An example of a board game inspired by Risk is the Argentine TEG.

text: In addition to Risk clones, third-party products have been created which slightly modify traditional gameplay. Among the most popular third-party editions are virtual dice-rolling simulators. These can act as virtual replacements to traditional dice or be used to automatically simulate the results of large battles between territories—significantly speeding up gameplay during battles between territories with many units.[citation needed]

text: Computer and video games[edit]

text: Several computer and video game versions of Risk have been released as Risk, starting with the Commodore 64 edition in 1988[22] and the Macintosh edition in 1989. Since then, various other editions have been released for PC, Amiga, Sega Genesis, PlayStation, PlayStation 2, and Game Boy Advance. In 1996 Hasbro Interactive released a PC version of Risk that included a new variation on the game called Ultimate Risk, which did not use dice but rather implemented the use of forts, generals, and complex battle strategies. Risk II for PC and Mac was released as a 2000 video game which includes classic Risk as well as board and gameplay variations. In 2010, Pogo.com added a licensed version of Risk to its library of online games. An Xbox Live Arcade version of Risk called Risk: Factions was released on June 23, 2010. It includes classic Risk as well as a factions mode where players can play as Zombies, Robots, Cats, Soldiers, or Yetis.

text: As of August 6, 2014, Hasbro and Ubisoft have announced a new Risk game to be released in Fall 2014, on PS4 and Xbox One, as well as Xbox 360 and PS3. "Risk will feature an online league play, modern armies, and 3D battlefields. The 2010 rules are the standard set, but players can choose rule modifiers and configurable win variants." [23]

text: An official licensed iOS app, "RISK: The Official Game", developed for the iPhone, iPod Touch, and iPad by Electronic Arts, was released on July 16, 2010.[24] Although the iPad version (Risk HD) has to be bought separately from the iPhone version (Risk), local link up allows games to take place across versions. A maximum of 6 players can participate. If only one iOS device is available, the 'pass and play' mode allows several players to take part in a multi-player game.


document_title: Crust (geology)

question_text: what is found in the earth's crust

question_tokens: what is found in the earth 's crust

text: Crust (geology)

text: Earth's crust

text: The crust of the Earth is composed of a great variety of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. The crust is underlain by the mantle. The upper part of the mantle is composed mostly of peridotite, a rock denser than rocks common in the overlying crust. The boundary between the crust and mantle is conventionally placed at the Mohorovičić discontinuity, a boundary defined by a contrast in seismic velocity. The crust occupies less than 1% of Earth's volume.[1]

text: The crust of the Earth is of two distinctive types: oceanic and continental. The oceanic crust is 5 km (3 mi) to 10 km (6 mi) thick[2] and is composed primarily of basalt, diabase, and gabbro. The continental crust is typically from 30 km (20 mi) to 50 km (30 mi) thick and is mostly composed of slightly less dense rocks than those of the oceanic crust. Some of these less dense rocks, such as granite, are common in the continental crust but rare to absent in the oceanic crust.

text: Both the continental and oceanic crust "float" on the mantle. Because the continental crust is thicker, it extends both to greater elevations and greater depth than the oceanic crust. The slightly lower density of felsic continental rock compared to basaltic oceanic rock contributes to the higher relative elevation of the top of the continental crust. As the top of the continental crust reaches elevations higher than that of the oceanic, water runs off the continents and collects above the oceanic crust. Because of the change in velocity of seismic waves it is believed that beneath continents at a certain depth continental crust (sial) becomes close in its physical properties to oceanic crust (sima), and the transition zone is referred to as the Conrad discontinuity.

text: The temperature of the crust increases with depth,[3] reaching values typically in the range from about 200 °C (392 °F) to 400 °C (752 °F) at the boundary with the underlying mantle. The crust and underlying relatively rigid uppermost mantle make up the lithosphere. Because of convection in the underlying plastic (although non-molten) upper mantle and asthenosphere, the lithosphere is broken into tectonic plates that move. The temperature increases by as much as 30 °C (54 °F) for every kilometer locally in the upper part of the crust, but the geothermal gradient is smaller in deeper crust.[4]

text: Partly by analogy to what is known about the Moon, Earth is considered to have differentiated from an aggregate of planetesimals into its core, mantle and crust within about 100 million years of the formation of the planet, 4.6 billion years ago. During the Hadean, the primordial crust was very thin and was probably destroyed by much more vigorous plate tectonics, volcanic activity and significant asteroid impacts,[5] which were much more common in the early stages of the solar system.

text: Earth has probably always had some form of basaltic crust, but the age of the oldest oceanic crust today is only about 200  million years. In contrast, the bulk of the continental crust is much older. The oldest continental crustal rocks on Earth have ages in the range from about 3.7 to 4.28  billion years [6][7] and have been found in the Narryer Gneiss Terrane in Western Australia, in the Acasta Gneiss in the Northwest Territories on the Canadian Shield, and on other cratonic regions such as those on the Fennoscandian Shield. Some zircon with age as great as 4.3 billion years has been found in the Narryer Gneiss Terrane.

text: The average age of the current Earth's continental crust has been estimated to be about 2.0 billion years.[8] Most crustal rocks formed before 2.5 billion years ago are located in cratons. Such old continental crust and the underlying mantle asthenosphere are less dense than elsewhere in Earth and so are not readily destroyed by subduction. Formation of new continental crust is linked to periods of intense orogeny; these periods coincide with the formation of the supercontinents such as Rodinia, Pangaea and Gondwana. The crust forms in part by aggregation of island arcs including granite and metamorphic fold belts, and it is preserved in part by depletion of the underlying mantle to form buoyant lithospheric mantle.

text: Composition

text: The continental crust has an average composition similar to that of andesite.[9] The most abundant minerals in Earth's continental crust are feldspars, which make up about 41% of the crust by weight, followed by quartz at 12%, and pyroxenes at 11%.[10] Continental crust is enriched in incompatible elements compared to the basaltic ocean crust and much enriched compared to the underlying mantle. Although the continental crust comprises only about 0.6 weight percent of the silicate on Earth, it contains 20% to 70% of the incompatible elements.

text:
Most Abundant Elements of Earth's Crust
Approximate % by weight

O
46.6

Si
27.7

Al
8.1

Fe
5.0

Ca
3.6

Na
2.8

K
2.6

Mg
1.5

text:
Oxide
Percent

SiO2
60.6

Al2O3
15.9

CaO
6.4

MgO
4.7

Na2O
3.1

Fe as FeO
6.7

K2O
1.8

TiO2
0.7

P2O5
0.1

text: All the other constituents except water occur only in very small quantities and total less than 1%. Estimates of average density for the upper crust range between 2.69 and 2.74 g/cm3 and for lower crust between 3.0 and 3.25 g/cm3.[11]

text: Moon's crust

text: A theoretical protoplanet named "Theia" is thought to have collided with the forming Earth, and part of the material ejected into space by the collision accreted to form the Moon. As the Moon formed, the outer part of it is thought to have been molten, a “lunar magma ocean.” Plagioclase feldspar crystallized in large amounts from this magma ocean and floated toward the surface. The cumulate rocks form much of the crust. The upper part of the crust probably averages about 88% plagioclase (near the lower limit of 90% defined for anorthosite): the lower part of the crust may contain a higher percentage of ferromagnesian minerals such as the pyroxenes and olivine, but even that lower part probably averages about 78% plagioclase.[12] The underlying mantle is denser and olivine-rich.

text: The thickness of the crust ranges between about 20 and 120 km. Crust on the far side of the Moon averages about 12 km thicker than that on the near side. Estimates of average thickness fall in the range from about 50 to 60 km. Most of this plagioclase-rich crust formed shortly after formation of the moon, between about 4.5 and 4.3 billion years ago. Perhaps 10% or less of the crust consists of igneous rock added after the formation of the initial plagioclase-rich material. The best-characterized and most voluminous of these later additions are the mare basalts formed between about 3.9 and 3.2 billion years ago. Minor volcanism continued after 3.2 billion years, perhaps as recently as 1 billion years ago. There is no evidence of plate tectonics.

text: Study of the Moon has established that a crust can form on a rocky planetary body significantly smaller than Earth. Although the radius of the Moon is only about a quarter that of Earth, the lunar crust has a significantly greater average thickness. This thick crust formed almost immediately after formation of the Moon. Magmatism continued after the period of intense meteorite impacts ended about 3.9 billion years ago, but igneous rocks younger than 3.9 billion years make up only a minor part of the crust.[13]


document_title: Naruto Shippuden: Ultimate Ninja Storm 4

question_text: where does naruto ultimate ninja storm 4 start

text: Gameplay[edit]

text: Ultimate Ninja Storm 4 features gameplay akin to that of previous games in the series, in which players battle each other in 3D arenas. A returning feature which was omitted since the original Ultimate Ninja Storm is the ability to Wall Run. Players will be able to dynamically take to battle to the sides of the arenas, and battle on the walls of each stage. A major change to the feature is the ability to have one character be on the wall, while the other stays on the field. Originally the second player was automatically moved to the wall, to keep the battle flowing and the system in check. The option to select one of three different fighting types has been removed, which was introduced in Naruto Shippuden: Ultimate Ninja Storm Revolution, restoring the previous system of Ultimate Jutsu and Awakenings seen in the rest of the series. Another new feature is the ability to swap characters during battle, similar to games like Marvel vs. Capcom 3. Awakenings and ultimate jutsus from previous games also return, and can now be shared between the switchable characters, meaning players can build up their meter with one character, switch to the other and use said abilities with the other character. However, the characters will now all share the same life bar. Also new to the franchise is the ability to break weapons and armor, both in free battle and boss battles. To support this, they have added the ability to create elemental damage; For example, fire can burn away clothing. Players can, however, get rid of the fire by moving around quickly throughout the area or by getting hit with water attacks.

text: Plot[edit]

text: The plot of Ultimate Ninja Storm 4 is played via a series of linear segments that branch off into separate stories, allowing the player to go back and replay certain events in later stages.

text: The story begins where Ultimate Ninja Storm 3 Full Burst and Ultimate Ninja Storm Revolution left off, in the middle of the Fourth Shinobi World War fought by the Allied Shinobi Forces from the ninja villages against the mysterious Tobi and the legendary shinobi Madara Uchiha. Naruto destroys Tobi’s mask, and he is revealed to be Obito Uchiha, Kakashi Hatake's former teammate who was thought to have been killed in the last war. Obito reveals his actions stem from rage at Kakashi for letting Rin die. Madara joins the fight with Obito as Naruto (in his Kurama mode) and Killer Bee (in his Eight-Tails form) attempt to destroy the Gedo Statue, with Tailed Beast Balls. Their attacks are proven futile, as the statue resurrects itself into the gargantuan demon Ten Tails.

text: The Allied Forces arrive to aid but endure a lengthy and destructive battle with the Ten Tails, wherein Neji Hyuga is killed while protecting Naruto and Hinata, and the Ten-Tails destroys HQ along with everyone there. In Konohagakure, Sasuke, along with Orochimaru and Team Taka, use the Reanimation Jutsu to resurrect the previous Hokage so he can learn what a ninja is. Hashirama (the First Hokage)'s reply prompts Sasuke decide to protect the village or else destroying it will make Itachi's sacrifice meaningless and he heads to the battlefield. When he arrives, he joins forces with Naruto and Sakura, and they each use the Summoning Jutsu to attack the Ten-Tails. Despite help from the previous Hokage, Obito seals the Ten Tails into himself, becoming its jinchuriki. This greatly increases his strength and powers, allowing him to summon the Shinju, the Divine Tree from which all chakra was created, and to annihilate much of the Shinobi Forces.

text: Obito believes himself to be the new Sage of the Six Paths who will wipe out the world, but Naruto and Sasuke combine their powers with all of the shinobi to combat him. Throughout their battle, Obito is mentally lectured by Naruto and he begins having second thoughts about his ultimate purpose. With help from the other shinobi, Naruto and Sasuke extract the Tailed Beasts out of Obito, causing Obito to ponder his loss and admit defeat. To repent for his crimes, Obito prepares to use the Gedo Art of Rinne Rebirth to resurrect everyone he had killed, but is suddenly possessed by Black Zetsu who uses the technique to fully resurrect Madara instead. Acquiring another Rinnegan, Madara summons the Gedo Statue and absorbs the Tailed Beasts. Kurama is pulled out of Naruto and sealed into the statue, which mortally puts Naruto in near death. Sasuke steps in, but is also fatally wounded. Madara resurrects the Ten Tails, subsequently absorbing it and becoming the Ten Tails’ jinchuriki.

text: Naruto and Sasuke are revived through the combined efforts of Obito (who manages to steal Kurama from Madara and reseal it back into Naruto) and Kabuto Yakushi (who escaped Itachi's Izanami), and meet an incorporeal Hagoromo Ōtsutsuki (the Sage of the Six Paths) who was the original Ten Tails’ jinchuriki. Hagoromo explains to Naruto and Sasuke that they are the reincarnations of his sons Indra and Asura, and only by uniting their powers can they seal away the Ten Tails. After asking them what their plans were after the war and hearing their answers, Hagoromo gives Naruto and Sasuke his powers to defeat Madara: Naruto gaining Sage of Six Paths Senjutsu and Sasuke's left eye evolving into a unique Six-Tomoe Rinnegan.

text: After battling Naruto and Sasuke, and becoming almost overwhelmed by their new powers, Madara steals Kakashi's Sharingan and then Obito’s Rinnegan before absorbing the Shinju. This allows him to cast the Infinite Tsukuyomi onto the moon, placing nearly all of the Shinobi Forces under genjutsu and completing his Eye of the Moon Plan. Team 7 and Obito manage to escape the genjutsu and Madara declares he has saved the world before being betrayed and fatally wounded by Black Zetsu. Black Zetsu explains that it truly serves Kaguya Ōtsutsuki, the mother of Hagoromo and the progenitor of all chakra, and uses the Shinju in Madara to transform him into Kaguya. After explaining it was responsible for creating shinobi history as part of his goal of resurrecting Kaguya, Naruto, Sasuke, Sakura, Kakashi and Obito fight Kaguya across several dimensions. Obito sacrifices himself to save Naruto, Sasuke, and Kakashi from being killed by Kaguya, and reconciles with Kakashi before dying. Team 7 comes up with a strategy for sealing Kaguya, and with help from Sakura and Kakashi keeping Kaguya in place, Naruto and Sasuke seal Kaguya and Black Zetsu away in a massive Chibaku Tensei, a prison of stone which becomes a second moon.

text: Freeing the Tailed Beasts from Kaguya, Naruto and the shinobi are victorious in the war. Hagoromo reappears and brings Team 7 and the tailed beasts back with the help of the previous Kage. Hashirama and Madara reconcile as they die and Naruto bids farewell to his father. Hagoromo instructs Naruto and Sasuke how to free the rest of the shinobi. But Sasuke didn't want to free them until he can kill the five Kage and explains his goal to create a world with no darkness by starting a revolution. Naruto stands against Sasuke and Sakura told Sasuke before he uses genjutsu on her. Naruto and Sasuke journey to the Valley of the End where they originally separated, in order to have one final confrontation. After draining each other’s power and burns their arms, Sasuke questions why Naruto refuses to sever ties to him and Naruto's reply about hurting without him makes Sasuke realize he has always been jealous of Naruto and they have an unbreakable bond. After his many years of walking down the dark path, Sasuke finally re-accepts Naruto's friendship and Team 7 reunites for good. Naruto and Sasuke free the shinobi from the Infinite Tsukuyomi and Sasuke credits Naruto for teaching him the meaning of a shinobi.

text: In an epilogue, Sasuke is pardoned for his crimes by Kakashi, who had become the Sixth Hokage, and leaves Konohagakure on good terms with everyone (confirming he returns Sakura's feelings and accepts his former headband from Naruto). Years later, Naruto succeeds Kakashi as the Seventh Hokage and Sasuke continues with his traveling. As they continue shinobi history through the new generation, Naruto's son, Boruto, and Sasuke's daughter, Sarada, are growing up in the village.

text: Players have access to several side stories throughout the game. One side story examines the youth of Kakashi and Obito, exploring Obito’s descent into evil. Another side story follows Sasuke and his group as they resurrect the former Hokage and Sasuke questions them as to the meaning of the village and shinobi.

text: Development[edit]

text: Hiroshi Matsuyama stated that he wanted the game's life to be as long as possible. In order to achieve this, he and his team made significant changes to the game's combat mechanics, which will include a new system of strategy developed exclusively for the game, as well as changes to the game's internal combat and damage system. The team has also taken on board the feedback given from the Naruto gaming community and has focused on the addition of more story based elements, rather than the traditional jump from fight to fight. The game is set to feature the largest number of fighters in the series history. The roster will include 106 fighters from the entire Naruto universe, including characters from The Last: Naruto the Movie and Boruto: Naruto the Movie, also making Storm 4 the second game in the series after Naruto: Ultimate Ninja 2 to feature characters from a Naruto movie, as well as the first such game to be released internationally, since the guest character Doto Kazahana is only featured in the Japanese release of Ultimate Ninja 2. The game was playable to the public for the first time at Gamescom 2015. In August 2015, it was announced that the game would be delayed until February 2016.[2][1] The reason cited for the delay was to make the game more authentic and up-to-date.Kana-Boon sang the opening theme song with the title "spiral" (スパイラル, spiral).[1]

text: An expansion, titled Road to Boruto, which features elements from Boruto: Naruto the Movie, was released on February 3, 2017. The release of this expansion will mark the end of the franchise, as publisher Bandai Namco Entertainment decided to retire the series.[4]

text: Reception[edit]

text:
Reception

Aggregate score

Aggregator
Score

Metacritic
79/100[5]

Review scores

Publication
Score

Destructoid
8/10[6]

GameSpot
7/10[7]

The Escapist
9/10[9]

Hardcore Gamer
3/5[10]

text: On June 2016, TV Tokyo announced the title sold over 1.5 million copies worldwide.[11] On September 12, 2016, Bandai Namco Entertainment announced that Storm 4 had shipped 2 million units by that point.[12] In November 2017, it was announced that combined shipments of both the original game, Road to Boruto and digital sales reached a total of 3 million units.[13]

text: It has a score of 79% on Metacritic.[5] GameSpot awarded it 7 out of 10, saying "Everything, from the visual touches to the character interactions in and out of battle to the voiceovers, is meant to make Naruto fans happy--though the fact that there’s a fun little fighting game underneath certainly helps."[7] Destructoid awarded it a score of 8 out of 10, saying "It's an extravagant, over-the-top spectacle where you get to watch teenage ninjas blow up chunks of the planet using magic attacks, and that's pretty cool."[6] IGN awarded it a score of 5.5 out of 10, saying "Naruto Shippuden: Ultimate Ninja Storm's strong combat is countered hard by poor AI and connection problems."[8] Hardcore Gamer awarded it 3 out of 5 and said "Ultimate Ninja Storm 4 has solid controls and an outstanding roster of characters, but suffers from too many flaws to allow the average gamer to drop $60 right now."[10] The Escapist awarded it 9 out of 10, saying "Naruto Shippuden Ultimate Ninja Storm 4 is solid, both in gameplay and narrative. It has been a long time since a fighting game has been this fun for me."[9]


document_title: Ontario Trillium Foundation

question_text: where does the ontario trillium foundation get its money

text: Ontario Trillium Foundation

text: This article contains content that is written like an advertisement. Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view. (February 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The Ontario Trillium Foundation (OTF) is an agency of the Government of Ontario, and Canada’s largest granting foundation. Over $110 million is awarded annually to some 1000 nonprofit and charitable organizations across the province.

text: Each year, more than 3,000 applications are reviewed by hundreds of volunteers. In 2013, OTF celebrated its 30th anniversary as a grantmaker and thought leader.

text: OTF grants are made across 16 catchments, which cover the province of Ontario. The Foundation awards grants in six distinct Action Areas: Active People, Inspired People, Green People, Promising Young People, Prosperous People, Connected People. The Foundation makes four different types of grants, which are described as Investment Streams: seed (for projects at the conceptual stage), grow (building on the success of a proven initiative), capital (for community infrastructure) and collective impact (working collaboratively to tackle complex problems).

text: OTF's investment strategy is based on a theory of change that identifies the changes that need to happen in Ontario over the next decade, so the Foundation can fulfill its mandate of building healthy and vibrant communities. This theory of change is rooted in the Canadian Index of Wellbeing.