document_title: Left- and right-hand traffic

question_text: when did france start driving on the right

text: Left- and right-hand traffic

text: History[edit]

text: Ancient Greek, Egyptian, and Roman troops kept to the left when marching.[10] In 1998, archaeologists found a well-preserved double track leading to a Roman quarry near Swindon, in southern England. The grooves in the road on the left side (viewed facing down the track away from the quarry) were much deeper than those on the right side, suggesting LHT, at least at this location, since carts would exit the quarry heavily loaded, and enter it empty.[11]

text: The first reference in English law to an order for LHT was in 1756, with regard to London Bridge.[12]

text: Some historians, such as C. Northcote Parkinson, believed that ancient travellers on horseback or on foot generally kept to the left, since most people were right handed. If two men riding on horseback were to start a fight, each would edge toward the left.[10] In the year 1300, Pope Boniface VIII directed pilgrims to keep left.[10]

text: In the late 1700s, traffic in the United States was RHT based on teamsters' use of large freight wagons pulled by several pairs of horses. The wagons had no driver's seat, so the (typically right-handed) postilion held his whip in his right hand and thus sat on the left rear horse. Seated on the left, the driver preferred that other wagons pass him on the left so that he could be sure to keep clear of the wheels of oncoming wagons.[13]

text: In France, traditionally foot traffic had kept right, while carriage traffic kept left. Following the French Revolution, all traffic kept right.[12] Following the Napoleonic Wars, the French imposed RHT on parts of Europe. During the colonial period, RHT was introduced by the French in New France, French West Africa, the Maghreb, French Indochina, the West Indies, French Guiana and the Réunion, among others.

text: Meanwhile, LHT was introduced by the British in Atlantic Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the East Africa Protectorate, British India, Southern Rhodesia and the Cape Colony (now Zimbabwe and South Africa), British Malaya (now Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore), British Guiana, and British Hong Kong. LHT was also introduced by the Portuguese Empire in Portuguese Macau, Colonial Brazil, East Timor, Portuguese Mozambique, and Angola.

text: The first keep-right law for driving in the United States was passed in 1792 and applied to the Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike.[7] New York formalized RHT in 1804, New Jersey in 1813 and Massachusetts in 1821.[14]

text: Changing sides[edit]

text: Europe[edit]

text: Influential in Europe was the 1920 Paris Convention, which advised driving on the right-hand side of the road, in order to harmonise traffic across a continent with many borders. This was despite the fact that left-hand traffic was still widespread: in 1915 for example, LHT was introduced everywhere in the Austro-Hungarian Empire.[15] However, three years later the Empire was split up into several countries, and they all changed eventually to RHT, notably including when Nazi Germany introduced RHT with almost immediate effect in Czechoslovakia in 1938-39.[16]

text: Sweden was LHT from about 1734 to 1967,[17] despite having land borders with RHT countries, and approximately 90 percent of cars being left-hand drive (LHD) vehicles.[18] A referendum was held in 1955, with an overwhelming majority voting against a change to RHT. Nevertheless, some years later the government ordered a conversion, which took place at 5 am on Sunday, 3 September 1967. The accident rate dropped sharply after the change,[19] but soon rose back to near its original level.[20] The day was known as Dagen H ("H-Day"), the 'H' being for Högertrafik ("right traffic"). When Iceland switched the following year, it was known as H-dagurinn, again meaning "H-Day".[21]

text: In the late 1960s, the UK Department for Transport considered switching to RHT, but declared it unsafe and too costly for such a built-up nation.[22] Road building standards, for motorways in particular, allow asymmetrically designed road junctions, where merge and diverge lanes differ in length.[23]

text: Asia and the Pacific[edit]

text: China adopted RHT in 1946. Taiwan changed to driving on the right at the same time. Hong Kong and Macau continue to be LHT.

text: Both North Korea and South Korea switched to RHT in September 1945 after liberation from Japan which was defeated and surrendered by the Allies.

text: Myanmar switched to RHT in 1970.[24]

text: Samoa, a former German colony, had been RHT for more than a century. It switched to LHT in 2009,[25] being the first territory in almost 30 years to switch.[26] The move was legislated in 2008 to allow Samoans to use cheaper right hand drive (RHD) vehicles imported from Australia, New Zealand or Japan, and to harmonise with other South Pacific nations. A political party, The People's Party, was formed to try to protest against the change, a protest group which launched a legal challenge,[27] and an estimated 18,000 people attending demonstrations against it.[28] The motor industry was also opposed, as 14,000 of Samoa's 18,000 vehicles are designed for RHT and the government has refused to meet the cost of conversion.[26] After months of preparation, the switch from right to left happened in an atmosphere of national celebration. There were no reported incidents.[3] At 05:50 local time, Monday 7 September, a radio announcement halted traffic, and an announcement at 6:00 ordered traffic to switch to LHT.[25] The change coincided with more restrictive enforcement of speeding and seat-belt laws.[29] That day and the following day were declared public holidays, to reduce traffic.[30] The change included a three-day ban on alcohol sales, while police mounted dozens of checkpoints, warning drivers to drive slowly.[3]

text: The Philippines was mostly LHT during its Spanish[31] and American colonial periods,[32][33] as well as during the Commonwealth era.[34] During the Japanese occupation the Philippines remained LHT,[35] also because LHT had been required by the Japanese;[36] but during the Battle of Manila the liberating American forces drove their tanks to the right for easier facilitation of movement. RHT was formally finalised by Executive Order No. 34 signed by President Sergio Osmeña on 10 March 1945.[37]

text: Africa[edit]

text: A number of non-contiguous former British colonies in West Africa originally drove LHT and switched to RHT in the early 1970s to match the surrounding countries. Sierra Leone switched to RHT in 1971, Nigeria in 1972 and Ghana in 1974. Before this period The Gambia, a country entirely contained within RHT Senegal, had officially switched to RHT in 1965.

text: Rwanda, a former Belgian colony in central Africa, is RHT but is considering switching to LHT, to bring the country in line with other members of the East African Community (EAC).[38] A survey, carried out in 2009, indicated that 54% of Rwandans were in favour of the switch. Reasons cited were the perceived lower costs of RHD vehicles as opposed to LHD versions of the same model, easier maintenance and the political benefit of harmonisation of traffic regulations with other EAC countries. The same survey also indicated that RHD cars are 16 to 49 per cent cheaper than their LHD equivalents.[39] In 2014 an internal report from consultants to the Ministry of Infrastructure recommended a switch to LHT.[40] In 2015, the ban on RHD vehicles was lifted; RHD trucks from neighbouring countries cost $1000 less than LHD models imported from Europe.[41][42]

text: Changing sides at borders[edit]

text: While most LHT jurisdictions are on islands, there are cases where vehicles may be driven from LHT across a border into a RHT area.

text: LHT Thailand has three RHT neighbours: Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar. Most of its borders use a simple traffic light to do the switch, but there are also interchanges which enable the switch while keeping up a continuous flow of traffic.[43]

text: There are four road border crossing points between Hong Kong and Mainland China. In 2006, the daily average number of vehicle trips recorded at Lok Ma Chau was 31,100.[44] The next largest is Man Kam To, where there is no changeover system and the border roads on the mainland side Wenjindu intersect as one-way streets with a main road.

text: The Takutu River Bridge (which links LHT Guyana and RHT Brazil[45]) is the only border in the Americas where traffic changes sides.

text: Although the United Kingdom is separated from Continental Europe by the English Channel, the level of cross-Channel traffic is very high; the Channel Tunnel alone carries 3.5 million vehicles per year, by rail, between the UK and France.

text: Road vehicle configurations[edit]

text: Driver seating position[edit]

text: In RHT jurisdictions, vehicles are configured with LHD, with the driver sitting on the left side. In LHT jurisdictions, the reverse is true. The driver's side, the side closest to the centre of the road, is sometimes called the offside, while the passenger side, the side closest to the side of the road, is sometimes called the nearside.[46]

text: Historically there was less consistency in the relationship of the position of the driver to the handedness of traffic. Most American cars produced before 1910 were RHD.[7] In 1908 Henry Ford standardised the Model T as LHD in RHT America,[7] arguing that with RHD and RHT, the passenger was obliged to "get out on the street side and walk around the car" and that with steering from the left, the driver "is able to see even the wheels of the other car and easily avoids danger."[47] By 1915 other manufacturers followed Ford's lead, due to the popularity of the Model T.[7]

text: In specialised cases, the driver will sit on the nearside, or kerbside. Examples include:

text:
Where the driver needs a good view of the nearside, e.g. street sweepers, or vehicles driven along unstable road edges.[48]
Where it is more convenient for the driver to be on the nearside, e.g. delivery vehicles. The Grumman LLV postal delivery truck is widely used with RHD configurations in RHT North America. Some Unimogs are designed to be switch between LHD and RHD to permit operators to work on the more convenient side of the truck.

text: Generally, the convention is to mount a motorcycle on the left,[49] and kickstands are usually on the left[50] which makes it more convenient to mount on the safer kerbside[50] as is the case in LHT. Some jurisdictions prohibit fitting a sidecar to a motorcycle's offside.[51][52]

text: Headlamps and other lighting equipment[edit]

text: Most low-beam headlamps produce an asymmetrical beam distribution suitable for use on only one side of the road. Low beam headlamps for use in LH-traffic countries throw most of their light forward-leftward; those for RH-traffic countries throw most of their light forward-rightward, thus illuminating obstacles and road signs an adequate distance ahead on the driver's own side of the road while limiting glare to oncoming traffic on the other side of the road.

text: Within Europe, headlamps designed and approved for use on one side of the road must be adaptable to produce adequate illumination with controlled glare for temporarily driving on the other side of the road,[53]:p.13 ¶5.8 as for example on holiday or in transit. This adaptation may be achieved by affixing masking strips or prismatic lenses to a designated part of the lens or by moving all or part of the headlamp optic so all or part of the beam is shifted or the asymmetrical portion is occluded.[53]:p.13 ¶5.8.1 Some varieties of the projector-type headlamp can be fully adjusted to produce a proper LH- or RH-traffic beam by shifting a lever or other movable element in or on the lamp assembly.[53]:p.12 ¶5.4 Some vehicles adjust the headlamps automatically when the car's GPS detects that the vehicle has moved from LH to RH traffic or vice versa.

text: Because blackout strips and adhesive prismatic lenses reduce the safety performance of the headlamps, most countries require all vehicles registered or used on a permanent or semi-permanent basis within the country to be equipped with headlamps designed for the correct traffic-handedness.[citation needed]

text: Without sidecars attached, motorcycles, motor scooters, mopeds, and bicycles are almost symmetric with their handlebars in the centre. However, motorcycles are often equipped with automotive-type asymmetrical-beam headlamps that likewise require adjustments or replacement when brought into a country with opposite traffic-handedness.

text: Rear fog lamps[edit]

text: Within the European Union, vehicles must be equipped with one or two rear-facing red rear fog lamps. A single rear fog lamp must be located between the vehicle's longitudinal centreline and the outer extent of the driver's side of the vehicle.[54] When importing a vehicle to a country which drives on the opposite side of the road, this sometimes requires the purchase and installation of local-market lighting components.

text: Crash Testing differences[edit]

text: Some crash test results indicate that the RHD variant of a vehicle primarily developed for a LHD country may not protect the driver as well as the LHD variant, although differences in testing methodology could also cause the results to vary. [55]

text: One of the possible causes of this difference in crash test results is the RHD variant will not be an exact mirror image of the LHD variant. The number of differences in chassis, bodywork and parts needed to produce the RHD variant will be minimised to reduce the cost. The RHD vehicle is usually a variant of the LHD markets, due to potentially lower sales volumes of the RHD variant. When minimising the changes needed for the RHD variant, there is a possibility that key strengthening structures that would protect the driver in a crash may not be transferred to the driver side in the RHD variant. (There are no easily reference-able sources for LHD variant performing less well in crash testing than the RHD variant where the vehicle is primarily manufactured for/in RHD markets).

text: It is commonplace in Europe for only the LHD variant of a vehicle to be tested under the Euro NCAP crash testing scheme, although the result will be used in the promotion of the RHD variant in European countries which operate LHT.

text: Worldwide distribution by country[edit]

text: Of the 193 countries currently recognised by the United Nations (and the unrecognised Palestine), 140 use RHT and 54 use LHT. A country and its territories and dependencies is counted once.

text:
Country
Road traffic
Road switched sides
Multi-track rail traffic generally
Notes

 Afghanistan
RHT

RHT/LHT
Was LHT until the 1950s, in line with neighbouring British Raj and later Pakistan.[56]

 Albania
RHT[57]

RHT

 Algeria
RHT[57]

RHT

 Andorra
RHT[57]

 Angola
RHT[57]
1928

 Antigua and Barbuda
LHT[57]

 Argentina
RHT
10 June 1945
LHT
The anniversary on 10 June is still observed each year as Día de la Seguridad Vial (road safety day).[58]
The Premetro and Metrotranvía Mendoza use RHT.

 Armenia
RHT[57]

RHT

 Australia
LHT[59]

LHT
Commonwealth. Includes  Christmas Island,  Cocos Islands,  Norfolk Island

 Austria
RHT
1921 in Vorarlberg, 1930 in North Tyrol, 1935 in Carinthia and East Tyrol, 1938 in the rest of the country.
RHT[60]
Originally LHT, like most of former Austria-Hungary.

 Azerbaijan
RHT[57]

RHT

 Bahamas
LHT[57]

In Bahamas LHD vehicles are common due to the import of used cars from nearby USA[61].

 Bahrain
RHT
1967

Former British protectorate. Switched to same side as neighbours.[62]

 Bangladesh
LHT[57]

LHT

 Barbados
LHT

 Belgium
RHT[57]
1899
LHT
The Brussels Metro uses RHT.

 Belarus
RHT[57]

RHT

 Belize
RHT
1961[2]

Former British colony. Switched to same side as neighbours.

 Benin
RHT[57]

 Bhutan
LHT[57]

Under British protection before 1949.

 Bolivia
RHT[57]

 Botswana
LHT[57]

 Brazil
RHT
1928[57]
RHT
A Portuguese colony until the early 19th century, switched some states still using LHT[63] to RHT in 1928.[64]
Most metro systems use RHT.

 Brunei
LHT[57]

 Bosnia and Herzegovina
RHT[57]

RHT[65]
Switched sides after the collapse of Austria-Hungary.

 Bulgaria
RHT[57]

RHT

 Burkina Faso
RHT[57]

 Burundi
RHT

Considering switching to LHT[66] in line with neighbours Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda.

 Cambodia
RHT

RHT implemented while part of French Indochina. RHD cars, many of which were smuggled from Thailand, were banned from 2001, even though they accounted for 80% of vehicles in the country.[67]

 Cameroon
RHT[57]
1961

 Canada
RHT
1920s
RHT
Territories now in Canada have always been RHT, except British Columbia, which changed to RHT in stages from 1920 to 1923,[68][69] and New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island which changed in 1922, 1923, and 1924 respectively.[70] Newfoundland and Labrador changed to RHT in 1947 while still a dominion of the British Empire, two years before joining Canada.[71]

 Cape Verde
RHT[57]
1928

 Central African Republic
RHT[57]

 Chad
RHT[57]

 Chile
RHT[57]
1916
LHT
The Santiago Metro uses RHT.

 China
RHT
1946
RHT/LHT
At one time, northern provinces were RHT due to American influence, while southern provinces were LHT due to British influence. LHT was uniform in the 1930s.  Hong Kong and  Macau are all on LHT.

 Colombia
RHT[57]

RHT

 Comoros
RHT[57]

 Congo
RHT[57]

 Democratic Republic of Congo
RHT[57]

 Costa Rica
RHT[57]

 Côte d'Ivoire
RHT[57]

 Croatia
RHT[57]

RHT
Istria and Dalmatia were RHT, while Croatia-Slavonia was LHT when Croatia was part of Austria-Hungary [72]. The LHT regions switched to RHT on joining the Kingdom of Yugoslavia.

 Cuba
RHT[57]

 Cyprus
LHT[57]

Former British colony.

 Czech Republic
RHT[57]
1939
RHT
Was LHT, like most of former Austria-Hungary, switched during the German occupation of Czechoslovakia.

 Denmark
RHT

RHT[73]
Includes  Faroe Islands and  Greenland

 Djibouti
RHT[57]

 Dominica
LHT[57]

Former British colony.

 Dominican Republic
RHT[57]

 East Timor
LHT
1976

Originally LHT, like its colonial power Portugal. Switched to RHT with Portugal in 1928.[2] Under the Indonesian occupation of East Timor, changed back to LHT in 1976.

 Ecuador
RHT[57]

LHT
The Quito Metro and Cuenca tram system will use RHT

 Egypt
RHT[57]

LHT
Road vehicles are RHT due to French influence, but railway system was built by British companies.

 El Salvador
RHT[57]

 Equatorial Guinea
RHT[57]

 Eritrea
RHT[57]
1964

 Estonia
RHT[57]

RHT

 Ethiopia
RHT[57]
1964
LHT
The Addis Ababa Light Rail runs on the right.

 Fiji
LHT

 Finland
RHT
1858
RHT/LHT
Formerly ruled by LHT Sweden, switched to RHT as the Grand Duchy of Finland by Russian decree.[74] Majority of Helsinki commuter rail uses LHT.

 France
RHT
1792
LHT[75]/RHT
Includes  French Polynesia,  New Caledonia,  Saint Pierre and Miquelon,  Wallis and Futuna,  French Guiana,  Réunion,  Saint Barthélemy,  Collectivity of Saint Martin,  Guadeloupe,  Mayotte.
Railways in Alsace and Lorraine use RHT as a former part of German Empire. CDGVAL uses RHT. Most metro systems use RHT, except for the Lyon Metro.

 Gabon
RHT[57]

 Gambia
RHT [57]
1965

 Georgia
RHT[57]

RHT
About 40% vehicles in Georgia are RHD due to low cost of used cars from Japan[76].

 Germany
RHT[77]

RHT

 Ghana
RHT
1974

Former British colony. When changing to RHT a Twi language slogan was "Nifa, Nifa Enan" or "Right, Right, Fourth".[78]

 Greece
RHT[57]

RHT

 Grenada
LHT[57]

 Guatemala
RHT[57]

 Guinea
RHT[57]

 Guinea-Bissau
RHT[57]
1928

 Guyana
LHT[57]

 Haiti
RHT[57]

 Honduras
RHT[57]

 Hungary
RHT[57]
1941
RHT
Originally LHT, like most of Austria-Hungary.

 Iceland
RHT
1968

The day of the switch was known as H-dagurinn. Most passenger cars were already LHD.

 Iran
RHT[57]

RHT

 Iraq
RHT[57]

LHT

 India
LHT[57]

LHT
Former British colony.

 Indonesia
LHT[59]

RHT[79]
The Jakarta MRT will use LHT.

 Ireland
LHT[57]

LHT
Former British Dominion.

 Israel
RHT[57]

LHT
The Jerusalem Light Rail uses RHT.

 Italy
RHT
1920s
LHT
Until 1927 the countryside was RHT while cities were LHT.[80] Rome changed to RHT in 1924 and Milan in 1926. Alfa Romeo and Lancia did not produce LHD cars until as late as 1950 and 1953 respectively, as many drivers favoured the RHD layout even in RHT as this offered the driver a clearer view of the edge of the road in mountainous regions at a time when many such roads lacked barriers or walls.[81]
The metro systems in Brescia, Genoa, Milan, and Turin use RHT, as well as all tram systems.

 Jamaica
LHT[57]

 Japan
LHT[82]

LHT
Post-World War II Okinawa was ruled by the United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands and was RHT. It was returned to Japan in 1972 went LHT in 1978.[83] The conversion operation was known as 730 (Nana-San-Maru, which means Nana(7)-San(3)-Maru(0)). Okinawa is one of few places to have changed from RHT to LHT in the late 20th century.

 Jordan
RHT[57]

RHT, despite the Mandate for Palestine and the Transjordan memorandum being under British rule till 1946.

 Kazakhstan
RHT[57]

RHT

 Kenya
LHT[84]

British colony until 1963.

 Kiribati
LHT[57]

 North Korea and  South Korea
RHT
1946
LHT
Korea had been LHT because of the influence of Japan in the 1900s. Switched to RHT under Soviet and American occupation after 1945.
Most metro systems in South Korea use RHT (exceptions include Seoul Subway Line 1 and the Bundang Line); metro system in Pyongyang uses a mixture of RHT and LHT.

 Kuwait
RHT[57]

 Kyrgyzstan
RHT

RHT
Former part of RHT Soviet Union. In 2012, over 20,000 cheaper used RHD cars were imported from Japan.[85]

 Laos
RHT[57]

LHT
RHT implemented while part of French Indochina.

 Latvia
RHT[57]

RHT

 Lebanon
RHT[57]

Former French mandate.

 Lesotho
LHT[57]

 Liberia
RHT[57]

 Libya
RHT[57]

 Liechtenstein
RHT[57]

RHT

 Lithuania
RHT[57]

RHT

 Luxembourg
RHT[57]

RHT

 Macedonia
RHT[57]

RHT

 Madagascar
RHT[57]

 Malawi
LHT[57]

 Malaysia
LHT[57]

LHT
Former British colony.

 Maldives
LHT[57]

 Mali
RHT[57]

 Malta
LHT[57]

British colony until 1964.

 Marshall Islands
RHT[57]

 Mauritania
RHT

Mining roads between Fdérik and Zouérat are LHT.[86]

 Mauritius
LHT[57]

Former British colony. Island nation.

 Mexico
RHT[57]

RHT

 Micronesia
RHT [57]

 Moldova
RHT[57]

RHT

 Monaco
RHT[57]

LHT

 Mongolia
RHT[57]

RHT

 Montenegro
RHT[57]

RHT

 Morocco
RHT[57]

RHT

 Mozambique
LHT[87]

LHT

 Myanmar
RHT
1970
LHT
Much of infrastructure still geared to LHT, most cars are pre-owned RHD vehicles, imported from Japan.[88]

 Netherlands
RHT
1906[89]
RHT
Rotterdam was LHT until 1917.[90] Includes  Curaçao,  Sint Maarten, and  Aruba

 Namibia
LHT
1918

RHT as a German colony. After South Africa occupied German South-West Africa during World War I, switched to LHT.[2] South-West Africa was made a South African mandate by the League of Nations, and the new rule of the road was established in law.[91]

 Nauru
LHT[57]
1918

   Nepal
LHT[92]

 New Zealand
LHT[59]

LHT
Includes territories  Niue and  Cook Islands

 Nicaragua
RHT[57]

 Niger
RHT[57]

 Nigeria
RHT
1972[93]
LHT
Former British colony. Switched to RHT as it is surrounded by former French RHT colonies.

 Norway
RHT[57]

RHT

 Oman
RHT

Not a party to the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic and bans all foreign-registered RHD vehicles.[94]

 Palau
RHT[57]

RHT

 Palestine
RHT[57]

 Pakistan
LHT[57]

LHT

 Panama
RHT
1943[95]

 Papua New Guinea
LHT[57]

 Paraguay
RHT
1945[96]

 Peru
RHT[57]

LHT

 Philippines
RHT
1946[37]
RHT
LHT up until the Battle of Manila in 1945

 Poland
RHT

RHT
Partitions of Poland belonging to the German Empire and the Russian Empire were RHT. Partitions that were part of Austria-Hungary were LHT and changed to RHT in the 1920s.[97]

 Portugal
RHT[59]
1928
LHT
Colonies Goa, Macau and Mozambique, which had land borders with LHT countries, did not switch and continue to drive on the left.[87] The Porto Metro uses RHT.

 Qatar
RHT[57]

 Romania
RHT[57]

RHT

 Russia
RHT[57]

RHT
In the Russian Far East RHD vehicles are common due to the import of used cars from nearby Japan.[98] Railway between Moscow and Ryazan is LHT. Sormovskaya line in Nizhny Novgorod Metro also uses LHT.

 Rwanda
RHT[66]

Former Belgian mandate. Considering switching to LHT[66][99] like its neighbours Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda.

 Saint Kitts and Nevis
LHT

 Saint Lucia
LHT

 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
LHT

 Samoa
LHT
2009

Switched to LHT to allow the import of cars more cheaply from Australia, New Zealand and Japan.[59]

 San Marino
RHT[57]

 São Tomé and Príncipe
RHT[57]
1928

 Saudi Arabia
RHT[57]

LHT
The Makkah Metro uses RHT.

 Senegal
RHT[57]

 Serbia
RHT[57]

RHT
Vojvodina was LHT while part of Austria-Hungary.

 Seychelles
LHT[57]

 Sierra Leone
RHT
1971[100]

Importation of RHD vehicles was banned in 2013.[101]

 Singapore
LHT[57]

LHT
Former British colony.

 Slovakia
RHT[57]
1939–41
RHT

 Slovenia
RHT[57]

LHT

 Solomon Islands
LHT[57]

 Somalia
RHT
1968[102]

 South Africa
LHT[103][104]

LHT
Former British colony.

 South Sudan
RHT
1973

Was LHT during the period of British colonial rule. Split from Sudan in 2011 after the majority of the population voted for independence.

 Spain
RHT
1924
RHT
Up to the 1920s Barcelona was RHT, and Madrid was LHT until 1924. The Madrid and Bilbao metro systems use LHT.[105]

 Sri Lanka
LHT[57]

LHT
Former British Colony.

 Sudan
RHT[57]
1973

Former British Colony.

 Suriname
LHT[57]

 Swaziland
LHT[57]

 Sweden
RHT[57]
3 September 1967
LHT
The day of the switch was known as Dagen H. Most passenger cars were already LHD. The tram systems in Gothenburg and Norrköping use RHT; the tram system in Stockholm is RHT except Lidingö Line.[106] The railways in Malmö uses RHT due to the connection to Denmark.

  Switzerland
RHT[57]

LHT
The tram system in Zurich and the Lausanne Metro use RHT.

 Syria
RHT[57]

 Taiwan
RHT
1946
LHT
Was LHT during the period of Japanese rule. The government of the Republic of China changed Taiwan to RHT in 1946 along with the rest of China.[107] Most metro systems use RHT.

 Tajikistan
RHT[57]

RHT

 Tanzania
LHT[57]

 Thailand
LHT[59]

LHT
One of the few LHT countries not a former British colony. Shares long land border with RHT Laos and Cambodia.

 Togo
RHT[57]

 Tonga
LHT[57]

 Trinidad and Tobago
LHT[108]

Former British colony.

 Tunisia
RHT[57]

LHT
French RHT was enforced in the French protectorate of Tunisia from 1881.

 Turkey
RHT[57]

RHT

 Turkmenistan
RHT[57]

RHT

 Tuvalu
LHT[57]

 Uganda
LHT[57]

 Ukraine
RHT
1922[97]
RHT
West Ukraine was LHT, like most of former Austria-Hungary. Carpathian Ruthenia remained LHT as part of Czechoslovakia before switching in 1941 as part of Hungary. The rest of Ukraine, having been part of the Russian Empire, already drove on the right.
Some sections of Kryvyi Rih Metrotram use LHT due to tramcars have doors only on right side, which makes it impossible to use RHT at stations with island platforms[109].

 United Arab Emirates
RHT[57]

RHT

 United Kingdom
LHT
(Mainland UK)
RHT
(Gibraltar)

LHT
Includes Crown Dependencies and Overseas Territories  Isle of Man,  Guernsey,  Jersey,  Anguilla,  Bermuda,  British Virgin Islands,  Cayman Islands,  Falkland Islands,  Montserrat,  Pitcairn Islands,  Turks and Caicos Islands,  Saint Helena, Ascension, Tristan da Cunha are all left hand drive.  Gibraltar has been RHT since 1929 because of its land border with Spain.[110] The Channel Islands (Jersey and Guernsey) drove on the right under German occupation until their liberation in 1945.[111] The Falkland Islands similarly drove on the right during their occupation by Argentina in 1982.[112]

 United States
RHT
LHT
(U.S. Virgin Islands)

RHT/LHT[113]
Includes  American Samoa,  Guam,  Northern Mariana Islands,  Puerto Rico.  U.S. Virgin Islands is LHT, like much of the Caribbean.

 Uruguay
RHT[96]
1945
LHT
Became LHT in 1918, but as in some other countries in South America, changed to RHT on 2 September 1945. A speed limit of 30 km/h (19 mph) was observed until 30 September for safety.

 Uzbekistan
RHT[57]

RHT

 Vanuatu
RHT[114]

 Venezuela
RHT[57]

LHT
The Caracas Metro uses RHT.

 Vietnam
RHT[57]

LHT
Became RHT as French Indochina.

 Yemen
RHT
1977[2]

South Yemen, formerly the British colony of Aden, changed to RHT 1977. A series of postage stamps commemorating the event was issued.[115] North Yemen was already RHT.

 Zambia
LHT[57]

 Zimbabwe
LHT

LHT
Former British colony. In 2010 the government attempted to ban LHD vehicles.[116]

text: Traffic behaviour[edit]

text:
Manoeuvre
LHT
RHT

Unless overtaking stay on the
left
right

In roundabouts traffic rotates
clockwise
anticlockwise

Oncoming traffic is seen coming from the
right
left

Traffic must cross oncoming traffic when turning
right
left

Most traffic signs are on the
left
right

Pedestrians crossing a two-way road look first for traffic from their
right
left

Dual carriageway ramps are on the
left
right

After stopping at a red light it may be legal to turn
left
right

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Gibraltar is RHT (since 1929)

A sign reminding motorists to keep left in Australia

Vehicles entering and leaving Macau cross over each other at the Lotus Bridge.

Sign reminding motorists to drive on the left in Ireland


document_title: Love & Hip Hop: New York

question_text: when did cardi b get on love and hiphop

question_tokens: when did cardi b get on love and hiphop

root

text: Love & Hip Hop: New York

text: Development[edit]

text: In 2006, rapper Jim Jones approached VH1 executives to make a reality show about him.[2] Jim Ackerman, senior vice president of development and production at the time, was intrigued by the idea[3] and paired him with producers Stefan Springman and Toby Barraud of Eastern TV. Jones was unwilling to fully commit to the gruelling filming schedule and was dealing with the murder of a friend at the time, leading him to lash out violently at the producers and filming crew. The production issues were worked into the show's concept, which now focused on the culture clash between the gangsta rapper and the "honky" television producers.[2] The 11-minute presentation tape, Keeping Up with the Joneses,[4] also featured Jones' longtime girlfriend Chrissy Lampkin and his mother Nancy. According to Springman, VH1 loved the footage but were unsure if audiences would be invested in the concept full time.[5]

tag: p

text: Jones' manager, Yandy Smith, approached Mona Scott-Young, her former employer at Violator, to retool the show.[6] The concept was tweaked to include Jim's girlfriend Chrissy Lampkin and her circle of friends, influenced by the female ensemble-driven reality shows of the time.[7] The original cast consisted of Lampkin, Olivia Longott, Swizz Beatz's ex-wife Mashonda Tifrere and Misa Hylton-Brim, the mother of Puffy Daddy's eldest son, pitched as a "black version of Sex and the City".[8][9] Hylton was eventually replaced with stylist Emily Bustamante, the mother of Fabolous's son. Mashonda was downgraded to a supporting role per her request.[10] Aspiring rapper Somaya Reece was brought on late into production to replace her.[11] Reece's ex Joe Budden was approached to appear in the first season, but declined.[12]

text: The series was first announced in VH1's programming development report in April 2010, under the title Diary of a Hip Hop Girlfriend.[13] On January 4, 2011, VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop would debut on March 6, 2011.[14][15]

text: Series synopsis[edit]

text: Overview and casting[edit]

text: Love & Hip Hop: New York revolves around the everyday lives of women working in the male-dominated world of hip hop. The first two seasons focus on the personal and professional struggles of four women, two of which are girlfriends of famous rappers, and two are aspiring recording artists. Subsequent seasons expanded to include talent managers and producers, DJs and radio personalities, stylists, video vixens, glamour models and groupies. The show has a sprawling supporting cast, consisting mostly of men in the industry, who (in most cases) share the same amount of screen time and storyline focus as the show's leads.

text: The first season starred Jim Jones' girlfriend Chrissy Lampkin, Fabolous's girlfriend Emily Bustamante, Olivia Longott and aspiring rapper Somaya Reece, with Jim Jones, his mother Nancy Jones, Somaya's manager Maurice Aguilar and Olivia's manager Rich Dollaz in supporting roles. Swiss Beatz's ex-wife Mashonda would appear in a minor supporting role.

text: All main cast members from the previous season returned for a second season, along with new cast members Kimbella Vanderhee, the girlfriend of Juelz Santana, and Yandy Smith, Jim Jones' manager.[16] Teairra Marí and Erica Mena appeared as supporting cast members.

text: The show underwent major cast changes in season three after last season's reunion special, in which all four original cast members accused their producers of manipulating storylines for drama. On September 7, 2012, VH1 announced that Chrissy Lampkin and Jim Jones would leave the show to star in their own spin-off show Chrissy & Mr. Jones, along with Emily Bustamante and Jim's mother Nancy Jones.[17] Somaya Reece quit the show all together, while Olivia Longott's role would be diminished significantly, appearing only as a supporting cast member. Rich Dollaz and Yandy Smith were the only major cast members from the first two seasons to remain on the show, with Yandy taking over for Chrissy as the lead. Erica Mena was promoted to the main cast, along with author and former hip hop groupie Winter Ramos, who had a brief guest appearance last season. They were joined by video vixen Tahiry Jose, radio personalities Raqi Thunda and Jen the Pen and celebrity stiletto expert Rashidah Ali. Joe Budden, Yandy's boyfriend Mendeecees Harris, Consequence and aspiring rapper Lore'l appeared as supporting cast members, with Joe's girlfriend Kaylin Garcia appearing in a minor supporting role. Former main cast member Kimbella Vanderhee returned as a guest star for two episodes.

text: The cast was once again retooled in season four, with only Yandy Smith, Erica Mena and Tahiry Jose returning from last season's main cast. They were joined by Peter Gunz' girlfriend Tara Wallace, Amina Buddafly, Saigon's baby mama Erica Jean and former Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta cast member K. Michelle. Peter Gunz joined the supporting cast, along with stripper Nya Lee, Saigon and Erica's girlfriend Cyn Santana. Former main cast member Rashidah Ali appeared as a guest star in several episodes.

text: With the exception of Tahiry Jose, Erica Jean and K. Michelle, all of who left or were fired from the show, the rest of the main cast members returned in season five, along with Cyn Santana, who was promoted to the main cast, and Chink Santana's girlfriend Chrissy Monroe.[18][19] Producer Cisco Rosado joined the supporting cast, along with Darryl Strawberry's daughter Diamond Strawberry, Chink Santana and aspiring performers Precious Paris and Jhonni Blaze.[20]

text: The cast underwent a major cast change for the third time in the show's history for season six, with only Yandy Smith, Tara Wallace and Amina Buddafly returning from last season's main cast. They were joined by Remy Ma, social media personality Cardi B and aspiring rappers Miss Moe Money, Sexy Lexxy and Mariahlynn.[21] Radio personality DJ Self joined the supporting cast, along with Papoose, Bianca Bonnie, and Self's girlfriend Yorma Hernandez. Rose, a stylist, appeared in a minor supporting role.

text: In season seven, Kimbella Vanderhee returned as a series regular after being absent from the show since the second season. Bianca Bonnie was promoted to the main cast, along with The Wire star Felicia "Snoop" Pearson. Juelz Santana joined the supporting cast, along with Cam'ron's girlfriend Juju C., Snoop's girlfriend J. Adrienne, radio personality DJ Drewski, his girlfriend Sky Landish, Mendeecees' baby mamas Samantha Wallace and Erika DeShazo, Mendeecees' mother Judy Harris, Samantha's mother Kim Wallace, Cardi's sister Hennessy Carolina and producer Swift Star. Aspiring singers Sofi Green and Major Galore, Rich's daughter Ashley Trowers, Rich's girlfriend Jade Wifey and Swift's girlfriend Asia Cole appeared in minor supporting roles. Love & Hip Hop: Hollywood star Moniece Slaughter made a special crossover appearance in two episodes.

text: With the exception of Kimbella Vanderhee and Cardi B who left the show, all main cast members from the previous season have returned for season eight. Cam'ron's fianceé Juju C. was promoted to the main cast, alongside newcomers Anaís and Lil' Mo. Karl Dargan, Safaree Samuels, Navarro Gray, his girlfriend Ashley Diaz, her sister Ayisha Diaz, rapper Jaquáe, his girlfriend Sophia Body, Bad Girls Club star DreamDoll, rapper Brittney Taylor, singer James R., K. Michelle: My Life cast member Jonathan Fernandez and his boyfriend Trent Crews would join the supporting cast.[22] Grafh and Kiyanne would also appear in supporting roles.

text: Timeline of main cast members[edit]

text:
Name
Seasons

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Chrissy Lampkin
Main

Emily Bustamante
Main

Olivia Longott
Main
Supporting

Somaya Reece
Main

Guest1

Kimbella Vanderhee

Main
Guest

Guest

Main
Guest1

Yandy Smith-Harris
Guest3
Main

Erica Mena

Supporting
Main

Guest1

Jen the Pen

Main

Raqi Thunda

Main

Winter Ramos

Guest
Main

Rashidah Ali

Main
Guest
Supporting

Tahiry Jose

Main

Guest1

Tara Wallace

Main
Supporting
Guest

Erica Jean

Main

Amina Buddafly

Main
Supporting

K. Michelle

Main
Guest2

Cyn Santana

Supporting
Main

Chrissy Monroe

Main

Cardi B

Main

Moe Money & Sexxy Lexxy

Main

Mariahlynn

Main

Remy Ma

Main

Bianca Bonnie

Supporting
Main

Felicia "Snoop" Pearson

Main

Juju C.

Guest3
Supporting
Main

Anaís

Main

Lil' Mo

Main

tag: table

text: Note:

text:
^ Appears in the Dirty Little Secrets special only.
^ Appears in the Love & Hip Hop Live: The Wedding special only.
^ Appears in an uncredited cameo only.

tag: ol

text: Storylines[edit]

text: Love & Hip Hop: New York explores the role of women in the male-dominated industry of hip hop, their relationship struggles, as well as the intense and violent rivalries between the women in New York's hip hop scene. Over the seasons, the show has explored addiction, substance abuse, race relations, colorism, religion and the impact of incarceration on black families.

text: Several female cast members identify as bisexual, lesbian or sexually fluid, and the show is one of the few television shows to explore LGBT issues from a black and latino perspective. In season eight, openly gay stylist Jonathan Fernandez joins the cast and in one episode reveals the horrors he suffered as a child in conversion therapy in the Dominican Republic.[23]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: The show's first season, which focused on the female cast's struggles within the male-dominated industry of hip hop, initially received a positive critical response. Jon Caramanica of The New York Times praised the show's deconstruction of the public image of rappers, as well as the quality of the production values with "slick, beautiful shots of the women driving spectacular cars with no men in sight". However, he was critical of the "needless filler drama" between Lampkin and Reese,[24] a criticism that was shared by other critics who felt the "endless catty arguments and trashy behavior" detracted from the show's message[25] and was too derivative of The Real Housewives franchise.[26]

text: Subsequent seasons, particularly the spin-off Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta, have largely been overshadowed by criticism and controversy, with the franchise referred to as "ratchet TV" for its seemingly negative and stereotypical portrayal of black women and its focus on dysfunctional relationships, materialism, hyper-sexuality and violence.[27] Series creator Mona Scott-Young has been singled out in particular for allegedly "exploiting (black women) in her quest for the almighty dollar".[28][29] Scott-Young has continuously defended the show against these accusations, saying it was not created to represent all African-Americans: "It's set in a specific world and I don’t think that there’s anybody who’s navigated that world who would deny that these things happen.”[30] Despite the criticism, the franchise has dominated the ratings since its inception, and has been described as "riveting",[31] "addictive"[32] "bawdy and hilarious"[33] and a "guilty pleasure".[34] In 2014, Complex named Joe Budden, Chrissy Lampkin and Mama Jones as some of the greatest VH1 reality stars of all time.[35]

text: Scripting allegations[edit]

text: Love & Hip Hop is often criticized for appearing to fabricate much of its storyline. Scott-Young has denied those claims: “I can’t stress enough that the stuff they deal with on (Love & Hip Hop) is real. We may frame it within a production construct that allows us to shoot on a schedule, but we’re not making up the stuff that they’re going through.”[36] In October 2013, Peter Gunz admitted in an interview with Sway in the Morning to exploiting his romantic situation for a check,[37] stating "I was gonna get busted (for cheating) anyway. Let me get paid to get busted. Fuck it." In December 2016, the show received criticism from fans after it was revealed that Yandy Smith and Mendeecees Harris were never legally married, despite taking part in a marriage ceremony live on VH1 as part of the special Love & Hip Hip Live: The Wedding.[38] In an interview with The Breakfast Club in November 2017, Cam'ron outed Kimberly Osorio as a storyline writer for the show.[39]

text: Ratings[edit]

text: Love & Hip Hop is one of the highest rated unscripted franchises in cable television history.[40] In an overview of the television cultural divide, The New York Times reported that Love & Hip Hop was most popular show in the black belt.[41]

text: After a modest start, the show's audience grew substantially in its second season, averaging 2.8 million total viewers per episode, making it VH1's highest rated series in over three and a half years.[42] Overall, the series was the #8 highest rating series on cable in 2011.[43] However, following a cast retooling after nearly all of the original cast left the show, the show was met with mixed reception from audiences, with the third season garnering some of the lowest ratings in the franchise's history.[44] Following another cast retooling and a much publicised love triangle storyline involving Peter Gunz, Tara and Amina (reminiscent of the more popular Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta), the show's ratings improved significantly, up 54% over the previous season's average and attracting an average of 3 million total viewers per episode.[45] The show maintained a steady viewership of about two million viewers per episode for the next few seasons, until the poorly received eighth season, where ratings dipped below 2 million viewers for the first time in four years.

text: Cultural impact[edit]

text: During a speech at a campaign rally in North Carolina on November 4, 2016, President Barack Obama referenced the show, comparing the 2016 presidential race to reality television, saying "I mean, its like some Love & Hip Hop stuff." [46]

text: On a 2013 episode of the BET television series The Game, Wendy Raquel Robinson's character Tasha makes reference to the franchise, saying "Back in the day we weren't carrying ourselves like them damn crazies you see on Love & Hip Hop, we conducted ourselves as upstanding women who were looked up to in the community". In the 2016 film Barbershop: The Next Cut, when Eve and Common's characters get into an argument over their relationship, Cedric the Entertainer's character makes a reference to the franchise, saying "This ain't no Love & Hip Hop reunion." In the 2017 pilot of the Netflix television adaptation Dear White People, a character attempts to break up an argument between two female characters by saying "Yo, fam, can we cut the Love & Hip Hop auditions and get to it?"

text: Nicki Minaj references the show on her remix of Ciara's "I'm Out". Remy Ma ends her diss track "Shether" with the line: "you just got bodied by a Love & Hip Hop bitch". Cardi B references her time on the show in her hit single "Bodak Yellow": "I just run and check the mail, another check from Mona Scott".

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired
Extra episodes

First aired
Last aired
Reunion
Specials

1
9
March 6, 2011 (2011-03-06)
May 2, 2011 (2011-05-02)
May 16, 2011
N/A

2
11
November 14, 2011 (2011-11-14)
January 23, 2012 (2012-01-23)
February 6, 2012
N/A

3
14
January 7, 2013 (2013-01-07)
April 1, 2013 (2013-04-01)
April 8, 2013
April 15, 2013
N/A

4
14
October 28, 2013 (2013-10-28)
January 27, 2014 (2014-01-27)
February 3, 2014
February 10, 2014
October 24, 2013

5
17
December 15, 2014 (2014-12-15)
March 30, 2015 (2015-03-30)
April 6, 2015
April 13, 2015
May 25, 2015

6
14
December 14, 2015 (2015-12-14)
March 7, 2016 (2016-03-07)
March 21, 2016
March 28, 2016
N/A

7
16
November 21, 2016 (2016-11-21)
February 13, 2017 (2017-02-13)
February 20, 2017
February 27, 2017
N/A

8
18
October 30, 2017 (2017-10-30)
February 26, 2018 (2018-02-26)
March 5, 2018 (2018-03-05)
March 12, 2018 (2018-03-12)
October 18, 2017
December 18, 2017

text: Broadcast history[edit]

text: Love & Hip Hop's first season commenced airing on March 6, 2011. Initially intended to be an eight-episode series, the first season was expanded to nine episodes in order to include the first season reunion, which aired on May 16, 2011.[47] On May 25, 2011, the series was renewed for a second season, which premiered on November 14, 2011.[48] It concluded with the special

text: The third season of Love & Hip Hop, now titled Love & Hip Hop: New York in promotional material, premiered on January 7, 2013, with nearly a whole new cast.[49]

text: On October 10, 2013, VH1 announced Love & Hip Hop: New York would be returning for a fourth season on October 28, 2013. The season premiered back-to-back with the second season of Chrissy & Mr. Jones.[50]

text: On December 2, 2014, VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop: New York would be returning for a fifth season on December 15, 2014.[51]

text: On November 2, 2015, VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop: New York would be returning for a sixth season on December 14, 2015.[52]

text: On November 14, 2016, VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop: New York would be returning for a seventh season on November 21, 2016.[53]

text: On October 2, 2017, VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop: New York would return for an eighth season on October 30, 2017.

text: Spin-offs[edit]

text: On May 15, 2012, VH1 announced Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta, the Atlanta-based spin-off of Love & Hip Hop, would make its series premiere on June 18, 2012.[54]

text: On September 7, 2012, VH1 announced that Chrissy Lampkin and Jim Jones would leave Love & Hip Hop, to star in their own spin-off show Chrissy & Mr. Jones.[55] Jim's mother Nancy received her own web series, Mama Jones' World.[56]

text: On August 18, 2014, VH1 announced Love & Hip Hop: Hollywood, the Los Angeles-based spin-off of Love & Hip Hop, would make its series premiere on September 15, 2014.[57]

text: K. Michelle join the cast in season four, with her purpose on the show mainly served to set up her own spin-off series, as such, she appeared in infrequently and barely interacted with the rest of the cast. Her future co-stars on the show, Paris Phillips and Tracie Renee, appeared as guest stars. On October 15, 2014, VH1 announced the spin-off K. Michelle: My Life, starring cast member K. Michelle, would make its series premiere on November 3, 2014.[58]

text: On December 2, 2015, VH1 announced the spin-off Stevie J & Joseline: Go Hollywood, starring Stevie J and Joseline Hernandez, would make its series premiere on January 25, 2016, back-to-back with the second season of K. Michelle: My Life.[59]

text: On December 1, 2016, VH1 announced the spin-off Leave It To Stevie, starring Stevie J, would make its series premiere on December 19, 2016, back-to-back with the third season of K. Michelle: My Life.[60]

text: Specials[edit]

text: The fourth season was preceded by 40 Greatest Love & Hip Hop Moments, a 2 hour clip show hosted by Mona Scott-Young. The special aired on October 24, 2013, and showcased the franchise's most "shocking, scandalous and dramatic Love & Hip Hop moments", featuring clips from the show's first three seasons, as well as the first two seasons of its spin-off Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta.[61]

text: On April 14, 2015, VH1 announced that Love & Hip Hop: The Wedding, a two-hour special featuring the marriage between cast members Yandy Smith and Mendeecees Harris, would air live on May 25, 2015. The special was preceded by six exclusive webisodes that were made available on VH1's website from May 12, 2015.[62] The special aired to over 2 million viewers and featured appearances from other VH1 reality stars, including cast mates from Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta, Love & Hip Hop: Hollywood, Black Ink Crew, Mob Wives, as well as from Bravo's The Real Housewives of Atlanta.

text: On October 18, 2017, nearly two weeks before the season eight premiere, VH1 aired Dirty Little Secrets, a special featuring unseen footage and deleted scenes from the show's first seven seasons, along with interviews with the show's cast and producers.[63]

text: On November 16, 2017, VH1 announced that Remy & Papoose: A Merry Mackie Holiday, a holiday special starring Remy Ma and Papoose, would air on December 18, 2017.[64]

text: Game[edit]

text: On August 8, 2016, VH1 and 345 Games announced the release of Love & Hip Hop: The Game, a mobile game for iOS and Android. It was released worldwide on September 22, 2016.[65]

text: Distribution[edit]

text: Love & Hip Hop episodes air regularly on VH1 in the United States.[66][67] Episodes in the first season run from around 21–24 minutes, episodes in subsequent seasons run from around 41–44 minutes. The first two seasons were broadcast in standard definition, while subsequent seasons are broadcast in high definition. The series' episodes are also available on demand through the official VH1 website, as well as for digital download at the iTunes Store and Amazon.

text: VH1 have released the first four seasons, as well as the sixth season, on DVD. The fifth, seventh and eighth seasons are currently only available on digital platforms.