document_title: Biodiversity

question_text: what is the study of the methods for protecting biodiversity called

question_tokens: what is the study of the methods for protecting biodiversity called

text: Biodiversity

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The term biological diversity was used first by wildlife scientist and conservationist Raymond F. Dasmann in the year 1968 lay book A Different Kind of Country[41] advocating conservation. The term was widely adopted only after more than a decade, when in the 1980s it came into common usage in science and environmental policy. Thomas Lovejoy, in the foreword to the book Conservation Biology,[42] introduced the term to the scientific community. Until then the term "natural diversity" was common, introduced by The Science Division of The Nature Conservancy in an important 1975 study, "The Preservation of Natural Diversity." By the early 1980s TNC's Science program and its head, Robert E. Jenkins,[43] Lovejoy and other leading conservation scientists at the time in America advocated the use of the term "biological diversity".

text: The term's contracted form biodiversity may have been coined by W.G. Rosen in 1985 while planning the 1986 National Forum on Biological Diversity organized by the National Research Council (NRC). It first appeared in a publication in 1988 when sociobiologist E. O. Wilson used it as the title of the proceedings[44] of that forum.[45]

text: Since this period the term has achieved widespread use among biologists, environmentalists, political leaders and concerned citizens.

text: A similar term in the United States is "natural heritage." It pre-dates the others and is more accepted by the wider audience interested in conservation. Broader than biodiversity, it includes geology and landforms.[citation needed][46]

text: Definitions[edit]

text: "Biodiversity" is most commonly used to replace the more clearly defined and long established terms, species diversity and species richness. Biologists most often define biodiversity as the "totality of genes, species and ecosystems of a region".[47][48] An advantage of this definition is that it seems to describe most circumstances and presents a unified view of the traditional types of biological variety previously identified:

text:
taxonomic diversity (usually measured at the species diversity level)
ecological diversity often viewed from the perspective of ecosystem diversity
morphological diversity which stems from genetic diversity and molecular diversity[49]
functional diversity which is a measure of the number of functionally disparate species within a population (e.g. different feeding mechanism, different motility, predator vs prey, etc.)[50]

tag: ul

text: This multilevel construct is consistent with Datman and Lovejoy. An explicit definition consistent with this interpretation was first given in a paper by Bruce A. Wilcox commissioned by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) for the 1982 World National Parks Conference. Wilcox's definition was "Biological diversity is the variety of life forms...at all levels of biological systems (i.e., molecular, organismic, population, species and ecosystem)...".[51] The 1992 United Nations Earth Summit defined "biological diversity" as "the variability among living organisms from all sources, including, 'inter alia', terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems".[52] This definition is used in the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity.[52]

text: One textbook's definition is "variation of life at all levels of biological organization".[53]

text: Biodiversity can be defined genetically as the diversity of alleles, genes and organisms. They study processes such as mutation and gene transfer that drive evolution.[51]

text: Measuring diversity at one level in a group of organisms may not precisely correspond to diversity at other levels. However, tetrapod (terrestrial vertebrates) taxonomic and ecological diversity shows a very close correlation.[54]

text: Distribution[edit]

text: Biodiversity is not evenly distributed, rather it varies greatly across the globe as well as within regions. Among other factors, the diversity of all living things (biota) depends on temperature, precipitation, altitude, soils, geography and the presence of other species. The study of the spatial distribution of organisms, species and ecosystems, is the science of biogeography.

text: Diversity consistently measures higher in the tropics and in other localized regions such as the Cape Floristic Region and lower in polar regions generally. Rain forests that have had wet climates for a long time, such as Yasuní National Park in Ecuador, have particularly high biodiversity.[55][56]

text: Terrestrial biodiversity is thought to be up to 25 times greater than ocean biodiversity.[57] A recently discovered method put the total number of species on Earth at 8.7 million, of which 2.1 million were estimated to live in the ocean.[58] However, this estimate seems to under-represent the diversity of microorganisms.

text: Latitudinal gradients[edit]

text: Generally, there is an increase in biodiversity from the poles to the tropics. Thus localities at lower latitudes have more species than localities at higher latitudes. This is often referred to as the latitudinal gradient in species diversity. Several ecological mechanisms may contribute to the gradient, but the ultimate factor behind many of them is the greater mean temperature at the equator compared to that of the poles.[59][60][61]

text: Even though terrestrial biodiversity declines from the equator to the poles,[62] some studies claim that this characteristic is unverified in aquatic ecosystems, especially in marine ecosystems.[63] The latitudinal distribution of parasites does not appear to follow this rule.[64]

text: Hotspots[edit]

text: A biodiversity hotspot is a region with a high level of endemic species that has experienced great habitat loss.[65] The term hotspot was introduced in 1988 by Norman Myers.[66][67][68][69] While hotspots are spread all over the world, the majority are forest areas and most are located in the tropics.

text: Brazil's Atlantic Forest is considered one such hotspot, containing roughly 20,000 plant species, 1,350 vertebrates and millions of insects, about half of which occur nowhere else.[70][citation needed] The island of Madagascar and India are also particularly notable. Colombia is characterized by high biodiversity, with the highest rate of species by area unit worldwide and it has the largest number of endemics (species that are not found naturally anywhere else) of any country. About 10% of the species of the Earth can be found in Colombia, including over 1,900 species of bird, more than in Europe and North America combined, Colombia has 10% of the world's mammals species, 14% of the amphibian species and 18% of the bird species of the world.[71] Madagascar dry deciduous forests and lowland rainforests possess a high ratio of endemism.[72][citation needed] Since the island separated from mainland Africa 66 million years ago, many species and ecosystems have evolved independently.[citation needed] Indonesia's 17,000 islands cover 735,355 square miles (1,904,560 km2) and contain 10% of the world's flowering plants, 12% of mammals and 17% of reptiles, amphibians and birds—along with nearly 240 million people.[73] Many regions of high biodiversity and/or endemism arise from specialized habitats which require unusual adaptations, for example, alpine environments in high mountains, or Northern European peat bogs.[citation needed]

text: Accurately measuring differences in biodiversity can be difficult. Selection bias amongst researchers may contribute to biased empirical research for modern estimates of biodiversity. In 1768, Rev. Gilbert White succinctly observed of his Selborne, Hampshire "all nature is so full, that that district produces the most variety which is the most examined."[74]

text: Evolution and history[edit]

text: Biodiversity is the result of 3.5 billion years of evolution. The origin of life has not been definitely established by science, however some evidence suggests that life may already have been well-established only a few hundred million years after the formation of the Earth. Until approximately 600 million years ago, all life consisted of microorganisms – archaea, bacteria, and single-celled protozoans and protists.

text: The history of biodiversity during the Phanerozoic (the last 540 million years), starts with rapid growth during the Cambrian explosion—a period during which nearly every phylum of multicellular organisms first appeared. Over the next 400 million years or so, invertebrate diversity showed little overall trend and vertebrate diversity shows an overall exponential trend.[54] This dramatic rise in diversity was marked by periodic, massive losses of diversity classified as mass extinction events.[54] A significant loss occurred when rainforests collapsed in the carboniferous.[35] The worst was the Permian-Triassic extinction event, 251 million years ago. Vertebrates took 30 million years to recover from this event.[36]

text: The fossil record suggests that the last few million years featured the greatest biodiversity in history.[54] However, not all scientists support this view, since there is uncertainty as to how strongly the fossil record is biased by the greater availability and preservation of recent geologic sections. Some scientists believe that corrected for sampling artifacts, modern biodiversity may not be much different from biodiversity 300 million years ago.,[76] whereas others consider the fossil record reasonably reflective of the diversification of life.[54] Estimates of the present global macroscopic species diversity vary from 2 million to 100 million, with a best estimate of somewhere near 9 million,[58] the vast majority arthropods.[77] Diversity appears to increase continually in the absence of natural selection.[78]

text: Evolutionary diversification[edit]

text: The existence of a "global carrying capacity", limiting the amount of life that can live at once, is debated, as is the question of whether such a limit would also cap the number of species. While records of life in the sea shows a logistic pattern of growth, life on land (insects, plants and tetrapods)shows an exponential rise in diversity. As one author states, "Tetrapods have not yet invaded 64 per cent of potentially habitable modes and it could be that without human influence the ecological and taxonomic diversity of tetrapods would continue to increase in an exponential fashion until most or all of the available ecospace is filled."[54]

text: It also appears that the diversity continue to increase over time, especially after mass extinctions.[79]

text: On the other hand, changes through the Phanerozoic correlate much better with the hyperbolic model (widely used in population biology, demography and macrosociology, as well as fossil biodiversity) than with exponential and logistic models. The latter models imply that changes in diversity are guided by a first-order positive feedback (more ancestors, more descendants) and/or a negative feedback arising from resource limitation. Hyperbolic model implies a second-order positive feedback. The hyperbolic pattern of the world population growth arises from a second-order positive feedback between the population size and the rate of technological growth.[80] The hyperbolic character of biodiversity growth can be similarly accounted for by a feedback between diversity and community structure complexity. The similarity between the curves of biodiversity and human population probably comes from the fact that both are derived from the interference of the hyperbolic trend with cyclical and stochastic dynamics.[80][81]

text: Most biologists agree however that the period since human emergence is part of a new mass extinction, named the Holocene extinction event, caused primarily by the impact humans are having on the environment.[82] It has been argued that the present rate of extinction is sufficient to eliminate most species on the planet Earth within 100 years.[83]

text: New species are regularly discovered (on average between 5–10,000 new species each year, most of them insects) and many, though discovered, are not yet classified (estimates are that nearly 90% of all arthropods are not yet classified).[77] Most of the terrestrial diversity is found in tropical forests and in general, land has more species than the ocean; some 8.7 million species may exists on Earth, of which some 2.1 million live in the ocean.[58]

text: Ecosystem services[edit]

text: The balance of evidence[edit]

text: "Ecosystem services are the suite of benefits that ecosystems provide to humanity."[84] The natural species, or biota, are the caretakers of all ecosystems. It is as if the natural world is an enormous bank account of capital assets capable of paying life sustaining dividends indefinitely, but only if the capital is maintained.[85]

text: These services come in three flavors:

text:
Provisioning services which involve the production of renewable resources (e.g.: food, wood, fresh water)[84]
Regulating services which are those that lessen environmental change (e.g.: climate regulation, pest/disease control)[84]
Cultural services represent human value and enjoyment (e.g.: landscape aesthetics, cultural heritage, outdoor recreation and spiritual significance)[86]

text: There have been many claims about biodiversity's effect on these ecosystem services, especially provisioning and regulating services. After an exhaustive survey through peer-reviewed literature to evaluate 36 different claims about biodiversity's effect on ecosystem services, 14 of those claims have been validated, 6 demonstrate mixed support or are unsupported, 3 are incorrect and 13 lack enough evidence to draw definitive conclusions.[84]

text: Services enhanced[edit]

text: Provisioning services[edit]

text:
Greater species diversity of plants increases fodder yield (synthesis of 271 experimental studies).[87]
Greater genetic diversity of plants (i.e.: diversity within a single species) increases overall crop yield (synthesis of 575 experimental studies).[88] Although another review of 100 experimental studies reports mixed evidence.[89]
Greater species diversity of trees increases overall wood production (Synthesis of 53 experimental studies).[90] However, there is not enough data to draw a conclusion about the effect of tree trait diversity on wood production.[84]

text: Regulating services[edit]

text:
Greater species diversity of fish increases the stability of fisheries yield (Synthesis of 8 observational studies)[84]
Greater species diversity of natural pest enemies decreases herbivorous pest populations (Data from two separate reviews; Synthesis of 266 experimental and observational studies;[91] Synthesis of 18 observational studies.[92][93] Although another review of 38 experimental studies found mixed support for this claim, suggesting that in cases where mutual intraguild predation occurs, a single predatory species is often more effective[94]
Greater species diversity of plants decreases disease prevalence on plants (Synthesis of 107 experimental studies)[95]
Greater species diversity of plants increases resistance to plant invasion (Data from two separate reviews; Synthesis of 105 experimental studies;[95] Synthesis of 15 experimental studies[96])
Greater species diversity of plants increases carbon sequestration, but note that this finding only relates to actual uptake of carbon dioxide and not long term storage, see below; Synthesis of 479 experimental studies)[87]
Greater species diversity of plants increases soil nutrient remineralization (Synthesis of 103 experimental studies)[95]
Greater species diversity of plants increases soil organic matter (Synthesis of 85 experimental studies)[95]

text: Services with mixed evidence[edit]

text: Provisioning services[edit]

text: None to date

text: Regulating services[edit]

text:
Greater species diversity of plants may or may not decrease herbivorous pest populations. Data from two separate reviews suggest that greater diversity decreases pest populations (Synthesis of 40 observational studies;[97] Synthesis of 100 experimental studies).[89] One review found mixed evidence (Synthesis of 287 experimental studies[98]), while another found contrary evidence (Synthesis of 100 experimental studies[95])
Greater species diversity of animals may or may not decrease disease prevalence on those animals (Synthesis of 45 experimental and observational studies),[99] although a 2013 study offers more support showing that biodiversity may in fact enhance disease resistance within animal communities, at least in amphibian frog ponds.[100] Many more studies must be published in support of diversity to sway the balance of evidence will be such that we can draw a general rule on this service.
Greater species and trait diversity of plants may or may not increase long term carbon storage (Synthesis of 33 observational studies)[84]
Greater pollinator diversity may or may not increase pollination (Synthesis of 7 observational studies),[84] but a publication from March 2013 suggests that increased native pollinator diversity enhances pollen deposition (although not necessarily fruit set as the authors would have you believe, for details explore their lengthy supplementary material).[101]

text: Services hindered[edit]

text: Provisioning services[edit]

text: Greater species diversity of plants reduces primary production (Synthesis of 7 experimental studies)[87]

text: Regulating services[edit]

text: Greater genetic and species diversity of a number of organisms reduces freshwater purification (Synthesis of 8 experimental studies, although an attempt by the authors to investigate the effect of detritivore diversity on freshwater purification was unsuccessful due to a lack of available evidence (only 1 observational study was found[84]

text: Provisioning services[edit]

text:
Effect of species diversity of plants on biofuel yield (In a survey of the literature, the investigators only found 3 studies)[84]
Effect of species diversity of fish on fishery yield (In a survey of the literature, the investigators only found 4 experimental studies and 1 observational study)[84]

text: Regulating services[edit]

text:
Effect of species diversity on the stability of biofuel yield (In a survey of the literature, the investigators did not find any studies)[84]
Effect of species diversity of plants on the stability of fodder yield (In a survey of the literature, the investigators only found 2 studies)[84]
Effect of species diversity of plants on the stability of crop yield (In a survey of the literature, the investigators only found 1 study)[84]
Effect of genetic diversity of plants on the stability of crop yield (In a survey of the literature, the investigators only found 2 studies)[84]
Effect of diversity on the stability of wood production (In a survey of the literature, the investigators could not find any studies)[84]
Effect of species diversity of multiple taxa on erosion control (In a survey of the literature, the investigators could not find any studies – they did however find studies on the effect of species diversity and root biomass)[84]
Effect of diversity on flood regulation (In a survey of the literature, the investigators could not find any studies)[84]
Effect of species and trait diversity of plants on soil moisture (In a survey of the literature, the investigators only found 2 studies)[84]

text: Other sources have reported somewhat conflicting results and in 1997 Robert Costanza and colleagues reported the estimated global value of ecosystem services (not captured in traditional markets) at an average of $33 trillion annually.[102]

text: Since the stone age, species loss has accelerated above the average basal rate, driven by human activity. Estimates of species losses are at a rate 100-10,000 times as fast as is typical in the fossil record.[103] Biodiversity also affords many non-material benefits including spiritual and aesthetic values, knowledge systems and education.[103]

text: Agriculture[edit]

text: Agricultural diversity can be divided into two categories: intraspecific diversity, which includes the genetic variety within a single species, like the potato (Solanum tuberosum) that is composed of many different forms and types (e.g.: in the U.S. we might compare russet potatoes with new potatoes or purple potatoes, all different, but all part of the same species, S. tuberosum).

text: The other category of agricultural diversity is called interspecific diversity and refers to the number and types of different species. Thinking about this diversity we might note that many small vegetable farmers grow many different crops like potatoes and also carrots, peppers, lettuce etc.

text: Agricultural diversity can also be divided by whether it is ‘planned’ diversity or ‘associated’ diversity. This is a functional classification that we impose and not an intrinsic feature of life or diversity. Planned diversity includes the crops which a farmer has encouraged, planted or raised (e.g.: crops, covers, symbionts and livestock, among others), which can be contrasted with the associated diversity that arrives among the crops, uninvited (e.g.: herbivores, weed species and pathogens, among others).[104]

text: The control of associated biodiversity is one of the great agricultural challenges that farmers face. On monoculture farms, the approach is generally to eradicate associated diversity using a suite of biologically destructive pesticides, mechanized tools and transgenic engineering techniques, then to rotate crops. Although some polyculture farmers use the same techniques, they also employ integrated pest management strategies as well as strategies that are more labor-intensive, but generally less dependent on capital, biotechnology and energy.

text: Interspecific crop diversity is, in part, responsible for offering variety in what we eat. Intraspecific diversity, the variety of alleles within a single species, also offers us choice in our diets. If a crop fails in a monoculture, we rely on agricultural diversity to replant the land with something new. If a wheat crop is destroyed by a pest we may plant a hardier variety of wheat the next year, relying on intraspecific diversity. We may forgo wheat production in that area and plant a different species altogether, relying on interspecific diversity. Even an agricultural society which primarily grows monocultures, relies on biodiversity at some point.

text:
The Irish potato blight of 1846 was a major factor in the deaths of one million people and the emigration of about two million. It was the result of planting only two potato varieties, both vulnerable to the blight, Phytophthora infestans, which arrived in 1845[104]
When rice grassy stunt virus struck rice fields from Indonesia to India in the 1970s, 6,273 varieties were tested for resistance.[105] Only one was resistant, an Indian variety and known to science only since 1966.[105] This variety formed a hybrid with other varieties and is now widely grown.[105]
Coffee rust attacked coffee plantations in Sri Lanka, Brazil and Central America in 1970. A resistant variety was found in Ethiopia.[106] The diseases are themselves a form of biodiversity.

text: Monoculture was a contributing factor to several agricultural disasters, including the European wine industry collapse in the late 19th century and the US southern corn leaf blight epidemic of 1970.[107]

text: Although about 80 percent of humans' food supply comes from just 20 kinds of plants,[citation needed][108] humans use at least 40,000 species.[citation needed][109] Many people depend on these species for food, shelter and clothing.[citation needed] Earth's surviving biodiversity provides resources for increasing the range of food and other products suitable for human use, although the present extinction rate shrinks that potential.[83]

text: Human health[edit]

text: Biodiversity's relevance to human health is becoming an international political issue, as scientific evidence builds on the global health implications of biodiversity loss.[110][111] [112] This issue is closely linked with the issue of climate change,[113] as many of the anticipated health risks of climate change are associated with changes in biodiversity (e.g. changes in populations and distribution of disease vectors, scarcity of fresh water, impacts on agricultural biodiversity and food resources etc.) This is because the species most likely to disappear are those that buffer against infectious disease transmission, while surviving species tend to be the ones that increase disease transmission, such as that of West Nile Virus, Lyme disease and Hantavirus, according to a study done co-authored by Felicia Keesing, an ecologist at Bard College and Drew Harvell, associate director for Environment of the Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future (ACSF) at Cornell University.[114]

text: The growing demand and lack of drinkable water on the planet presents an additional challenge to the future of human health. Partly, the problem lies in the success of water suppliers to increase supplies and failure of groups promoting preservation of water resources.[115] While the distribution of clean water increases, in some parts of the world it remains unequal. According to 2008 World Population Data Sheet, only 62% of least developed countries are able to access clean water.[116]

text: Some of the health issues influenced by biodiversity include dietary health and nutrition security, infectious disease, medical science and medicinal resources, social and psychological health.[117] Biodiversity is also known to have an important role in reducing disaster risk and in post-disaster relief and recovery efforts.[118][119]

text: Biodiversity provides critical support for drug discovery and the availability of medicinal resources.[120][121] A significant proportion of drugs are derived, directly or indirectly, from biological sources: at least 50% of the pharmaceutical compounds on the US market are derived from plants, animals and micro-organisms, while about 80% of the world population depends on medicines from nature (used in either modern or traditional medical practice) for primary healthcare.[111] Only a tiny fraction of wild species has been investigated for medical potential. Biodiversity has been critical to advances throughout the field of bionics. Evidence from market analysis and biodiversity science indicates that the decline in output from the pharmaceutical sector since the mid-1980s can be attributed to a move away from natural product exploration ("bioprospecting") in favor of genomics and synthetic chemistry, indeed claims about the value of undiscovered pharmaceuticals may not provide enough incentive for companies in free markets to search for them because of the high cost of development;[122] meanwhile, natural products have a long history of supporting significant economic and health innovation.[123][124] Marine ecosystems are particularly important,[125] although inappropriate bioprospecting can increase biodiversity loss, as well as violating the laws of the communities and states from which the resources are taken.[126][127][128]

text: Business and industry[edit]

text: Many industrial materials derive directly from biological sources. These include building materials, fibers, dyes, rubber and oil. Biodiversity is also important to the security of resources such as water, timber, paper, fiber and food.[129][130][131] As a result, biodiversity loss is a significant risk factor in business development and a threat to long term economic sustainability.[132][133]

text: Leisure, cultural and aesthetic value[edit]

text: Biodiversity enriches leisure activities such as hiking, birdwatching or natural history study. Biodiversity inspires musicians, painters, sculptors, writers and other artists. Many cultures view themselves as an integral part of the natural world which requires them to respect other living organisms.

text: Popular activities such as gardening, fishkeeping and specimen collecting strongly depend on biodiversity. The number of species involved in such pursuits is in the tens of thousands, though the majority do not enter commerce.

text: The relationships between the original natural areas of these often exotic animals and plants and commercial collectors, suppliers, breeders, propagators and those who promote their understanding and enjoyment are complex and poorly understood. The general public responds well to exposure to rare and unusual organisms, reflecting their inherent value.

text: Philosophically it could be argued that biodiversity has intrinsic aesthetic and spiritual value to mankind in and of itself. This idea can be used as a counterweight to the notion that tropical forests and other ecological realms are only worthy of conservation because of the services they provide.[134]

text: Ecological services[edit]

text: Biodiversity supports many ecosystem services:

text: "There is now unequivocal evidence that biodiversity loss reduces the efficiency by which ecological communities capture biologically essential resources, produce biomass, decompose and recycle biologically essential nutrients... There is mounting evidence that biodiversity increases the stability of ecosystem functions through time... Diverse communities are more productive because they contain key species that have a large influence on productivity and differences in functional traits among organisms increase total resource capture... The impacts of diversity loss on ecological processes might be sufficiently large to rival the impacts of many other global drivers of environmental change... Maintaining multiple ecosystem processes at multiple places and times requires higher levels of biodiversity than does a single process at a single place and time."[84]

text: It plays a part in regulating the chemistry of our atmosphere and water supply. Biodiversity is directly involved in water purification, recycling nutrients and providing fertile soils. Experiments with controlled environments have shown that humans cannot easily build ecosystems to support human needs;[135] for example insect pollination cannot be mimicked,[citation needed] and that activity alone represented between $2.1-14.6 billions in 2003.[136]

text: Number of species[edit]

text: According to Mora and colleagues, the total number of terrestrial species is estimated to be around 8.7 million while the number of oceanic species is much lower, estimated at 2.2 million. The authors note that these estimates are strongest for eukaryotic organisms and likely represent the lower bound of prokaryote diversity.[137] Other estimates include:

text:
220,000 vascular plants, estimated using the species-area relation method[138]
0.7-1 million marine species[139]
10–30 million insects;[140] (of some 0.9 million we know today)[141]
5–10 million bacteria;[142]
1.5-3 million fungi, estimates based on data from the tropics, long-term non-tropical sites and molecular studies that have revealed cryptic speciation.[143] Some 0.075 million species of fungi had been documented by 2001)[144]
1 million mites[145]
The number of microbial species is not reliably known, but the Global Ocean Sampling Expedition dramatically increased the estimates of genetic diversity by identifying an enormous number of new genes from near-surface plankton samples at various marine locations, initially over the 2004-2006 period.[146] The findings may eventually cause a significant change in the way science defines species and other taxonomic categories.[147][148]

text: Since the rate of extinction has increased, many extant species may become extinct before they are described.[149] Not surprisingly, in the animalia the most studied groups are birds and mammals, whereas fishes and arthropods are the least studied animals groups.[150]

text: Measuring biodiversity[edit]

text: Species loss rates[edit]

text: No longer do we have to justify the existence of humid tropical forests on the feeble grounds that they might carry plants with drugs that cure human disease. Gaia theory forces us to see that they offer much more than this. Through their capacity to evapotranspirate vast volumes of water vapor, they serve to keep the planet cool by wearing a sunshade of white reflecting cloud. Their replacement by cropland could precipitate a disaster that is global in scale.

text: During the last century, decreases in biodiversity have been increasingly observed. In 2007, German Federal Environment Minister Sigmar Gabriel cited estimates that up to 30% of all species will be extinct by 2050.[151] Of these, about one eighth of known plant species are threatened with extinction.[152] Estimates reach as high as 140,000 species per year (based on Species-area theory).[153] This figure indicates unsustainable ecological practices, because few species emerge each year.[citation needed] Almost all scientists acknowledge that the rate of species loss is greater now than at any time in human history, with extinctions occurring at rates hundreds of times higher than background extinction rates.[152] As of 2012, some studies suggest that 25% of all mammal species could be extinct in 20 years.[154]

text: In absolute terms, the planet has lost 52% of its biodiversity since 1970 according to a 2014 study by the World Wildlife Fund. The Living Planet Report 2014 claims that "the number of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish across the globe is, on average, about half the size it was 40 years ago". Of that number, 39% accounts for the terrestrial wildlife gone, 39% for the marine wildlife gone and 76% for the freshwater wildlife gone. Biodiversity took the biggest hit in Latin America, plummeting 83 percent. High-income countries showed a 10% increase in biodiversity, which was canceled out by a loss in low-income countries. This is despite the fact that high-income countries use five times the ecological resources of low-income countries, which was explained as a result of process whereby wealthy nations are outsourcing resource depletion to poorer nations, which are suffering the greatest ecosystem losses.[155]

text: A 2017 study published in PLOS One found that the biomass of insect life in Germany had declined by three-quarters in the last 25 years. Dave Goulson of Sussex University stated that their study suggested that humans "appear to be making vast tracts of land inhospitable to most forms of life, and are currently on course for ecological Armageddon. If we lose the insects then everything is going to collapse."[156]

text: Threats[edit]

text: In 2006 many species were formally classified as rare or endangered or threatened; moreover, scientists have estimated that millions more species are at risk which have not been formally recognized. About 40 percent of the 40,177 species assessed using the IUCN Red List criteria are now listed as threatened with extinction—a total of 16,119.[157]

text: Jared Diamond describes an "Evil Quartet" of habitat destruction, overkill, introduced species and secondary extinctions.[158] Edward O. Wilson prefers the acronym HIPPO, standing for Habitat destruction, Invasive species, Pollution, human over-Population and Over-harvesting.[159][160] The most authoritative classification in use today is IUCN's Classification of Direct Threats[161] which has been adopted by major international conservation organizations such as the US Nature Conservancy, the World Wildlife Fund, Conservation International and BirdLife International.

text: Habitat destruction[edit]

text: Habitat destruction has played a key role in extinctions, especially related to tropical forest destruction.[162] Factors contributing to habitat loss are: overconsumption, overpopulation, land use change, deforestation,[163] pollution (air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination) and global warming or climate change.[citation needed]

text: Habitat size and numbers of species are systematically related. Physically larger species and those living at lower latitudes or in forests or oceans are more sensitive to reduction in habitat area.[164] Conversion to "trivial" standardized ecosystems (e.g., monoculture following deforestation) effectively destroys habitat for the more diverse species that preceded the conversion. In some countries lack of property rights or lax law/regulatory enforcement necessarily leads to biodiversity loss (degradation costs having to be supported by the community).[citation needed]

text: A 2007 study conducted by the National Science Foundation found that biodiversity and genetic diversity are codependent—that diversity among species requires diversity within a species and vice versa. "If any one type is removed from the system, the cycle can break down and the community becomes dominated by a single species."[165] At present, the most threatened ecosystems are found in fresh water, according to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005, which was confirmed by the "Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment", organised by the biodiversity platform and the French Institut de recherche pour le développement (MNHNP).[166]

text: Co-extinctions are a form of habitat destruction. Co-extinction occurs when the extinction or decline in one accompanies the other, such as in plants and beetles.[167]

text: Introduced and invasive species[edit]

text: Barriers such as large rivers, seas, oceans, mountains and deserts encourage diversity by enabling independent evolution on either side of the barrier, via the process of allopatric speciation. The term invasive species is applied to species that breach the natural barriers that would normally keep them constrained. Without barriers, such species occupy new territory, often supplanting native species by occupying their niches, or by using resources that would normally sustain native species.

text: The number of species invasions has been on the rise at least since the beginning of the 1900s. Species are increasingly being moved by humans (on purpose and accidentally). In some cases the invaders are causing drastic changes and damage to their new habitats (e.g.: zebra mussels and the emerald ash borer in the Great Lakes region and the lion fish along the North American Atlantic coast). Some evidence suggests that invasive species are competitive in their new habitats because they are subject to less pathogen disturbance.[168] Others report confounding evidence that occasionally suggest that species-rich communities harbor many native and exotic species simultaneously[169] while some say that diverse ecosystems are more resilient and resist invasive plants and animals.[170] An important question is, "do invasive species cause extinctions?" Many studies cite effects of invasive species on natives,[171] but not extinctions. Invasive species seem to increase local (i.e.: alpha diversity) diversity, which decreases turnover of diversity (i.e.: beta diversity). Overall gamma diversity may be lowered because species are going extinct because of other causes,[172] but even some of the most insidious invaders (e.g.: Dutch elm disease, emerald ash borer, chestnut blight in North America) have not caused their host species to become extinct. Extirpation, population decline and homogenization of regional biodiversity are much more common. Human activities have frequently been the cause of invasive species circumventing their barriers,[173] by introducing them for food and other purposes. Human activities therefore allow species to migrate to new areas (and thus become invasive) occurred on time scales much shorter than historically have been required for a species to extend its range.

text: Not all introduced species are invasive, nor all invasive species deliberately introduced. In cases such as the zebra mussel, invasion of US waterways was unintentional. In other cases, such as mongooses in Hawaii, the introduction is deliberate but ineffective (nocturnal rats were not vulnerable to the diurnal mongoose). In other cases, such as oil palms in Indonesia and Malaysia, the introduction produces substantial economic benefits, but the benefits are accompanied by costly unintended consequences.

text: Finally, an introduced species may unintentionally injure a species that depends on the species it replaces. In Belgium, Prunus spinosa from Eastern Europe leafs much sooner than its West European counterparts, disrupting the feeding habits of the Thecla betulae butterfly (which feeds on the leaves). Introducing new species often leaves endemic and other local species unable to compete with the exotic species and unable to survive. The exotic organisms may be predators, parasites, or may simply outcompete indigenous species for nutrients, water and light.

text: At present, several countries have already imported so many exotic species, particularly agricultural and ornamental plants, that their own indigenous fauna/flora may be outnumbered. For example, the introduction of kudzu from Southeast Asia to Canada and the United States has threatened biodiversity in certain areas.[174]

text: Genetic pollution[edit]

text: Endemic species can be threatened with extinction[175] through the process of genetic pollution, i.e. uncontrolled hybridization, introgression and genetic swamping. Genetic pollution leads to homogenization or replacement of local genomes as a result of either a numerical and/or fitness advantage of an introduced species.[176] Hybridization and introgression are side-effects of introduction and invasion. These phenomena can be especially detrimental to rare species that come into contact with more abundant ones. The abundant species can interbreed with the rare species, swamping its gene pool. This problem is not always apparent from morphological (outward appearance) observations alone. Some degree of gene flow is normal adaptation and not all gene and genotype constellations can be preserved. However, hybridization with or without introgression may, nevertheless, threaten a rare species' existence.[177][178]

text: Overexploitation[edit]

text: Overexploitation occurs when a resource is consumed at an unsustainable rate. This occurs on land in the form of overhunting, excessive logging, poor soil conservation in agriculture and the illegal wildlife trade.

text: About 25% of world fisheries are now overfished to the point where their current biomass is less than the level that maximizes their sustainable yield.[179]

text: The overkill hypothesis, a pattern of large animal extinctions connected with human migration patterns, can be used explain why megafaunal extinctions can occur within a relatively short time period.[180]

text: Hybridization, genetic pollution/erosion and food security[edit]

text: In agriculture and animal husbandry, the Green Revolution popularized the use of conventional hybridization to increase yield. Often hybridized breeds originated in developed countries and were further hybridized with local varieties in the developing world to create high yield strains resistant to local climate and diseases. Local governments and industry have been pushing hybridization. Formerly huge gene pools of various wild and indigenous breeds have collapsed causing widespread genetic erosion and genetic pollution. This has resulted in loss of genetic diversity and biodiversity as a whole.[181]

text: Genetically modified organisms contain genetic material that is altered through genetic engineering. Genetically modified crops have become a common source for genetic pollution in not only wild varieties, but also in domesticated varieties derived from classical hybridization.[182][183][184][185][186]

text: Genetic erosion and genetic pollution have the potential to destroy unique genotypes, threatening future access to food security. A decrease in genetic diversity weakens the ability of crops and livestock to be hybridized to resist disease and survive changes in climate.[181]

text: Climate change[edit]

text: Global warming is also considered to be a major potential threat to global biodiversity in the future.[187][188] For example, coral reefs - which are biodiversity hotspots - will be lost within the century if global warming continues at the current trend.[189][190]

text: Climate change has seen many claims about potential to affect biodiversity but evidence supporting the statement is tenuous. Increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide certainly affects plant morphology[191] and is acidifying oceans,[192] and temperature affects species ranges,[193][194][195] phenology,[196] and weather,[197] but the major impacts that have been predicted are still just potential impacts. We have not documented major extinctions yet, even as climate change drastically alters the biology of many species.

text: In 2004, an international collaborative study on four continents estimated that 10 percent of species would become extinct by 2050 because of global warming. "We need to limit climate change or we wind up with a lot of species in trouble, possibly extinct," said Dr. Lee Hannah, a co-author of the paper and chief climate change biologist at the Center for Applied Biodiversity Science at Conservation International.[198]

text: A recent study predicts that up to 35% of the world terrestrial carnivores and ungulates will be at higher risk of extinction by 2050 because of the joint effects of predicted climate and land-use change under business-as-usual human development scenarios.[199]

text: Human overpopulation[edit]

text: From 1950 to 2011, world population increased from 2.5 billion to 7 billion and is forecast to reach a plateau of more than 9 billion during the 21st century.[200] Some recent forecasts place the possible number of people on the planet at 11 billion or 15 billion by 2100.[201][202][203][204] Sir David King, former chief scientific adviser to the UK government, told a parliamentary inquiry: "It is self-evident that the massive growth in the human population through the 20th century has had more impact on biodiversity than any other single factor."[205][206] At least until the middle of the 21st century, worldwide losses of pristine biodiverse land will probably depend much on the worldwide human birth rate.[207] Biologists such as Paul R. Ehrlich and Stuart Pimm have noted that human population growth and overconsumption are the main drivers of species extinction.[208][209][210]

text: According to a 2014 study by the World Wildlife Fund, the global human population already exceeds planet's biocapacity - it would take the equivalent of 1.5 Earths of biocapacity to meet our current demands.[211] The report further points that if everyone on the planet had the Footprint of the average resident of Qatar, we would need 4.8 Earths and if we lived the lifestyle of a typical resident of the USA, we would need 3.9 Earths.[155]

text: The Holocene extinction[edit]

text: Rates of decline in biodiversity in this sixth mass extinction match or exceed rates of loss in the five previous mass extinction events in the fossil record.[212][213][214][215][216][217][218] Loss of biodiversity results in the loss of natural capital that supplies ecosystem goods and services. From the perspective of the method known as Natural Economy the economic value of 17 ecosystem services for Earth's biosphere (calculated in 1997) has an estimated value of US$33 trillion (3.3x1013) per year.[219]

text: Conservation[edit]

text: Conservation biology matured in the mid-20th century as ecologists, naturalists and other scientists began to research and address issues pertaining to global biodiversity declines.[221][222][223]

text: The conservation ethic advocates management of natural resources for the purpose of sustaining biodiversity in species, ecosystems, the evolutionary process and human culture and society.[213][221][223][224][225]

text: Conservation biology is reforming around strategic plans to protect biodiversity.[221][226][227] Preserving global biodiversity is a priority in strategic conservation plans that are designed to engage public policy and concerns affecting local, regional and global scales of communities, ecosystems and cultures.[228] Action plans identify ways of sustaining human well-being, employing natural capital, market capital and ecosystem services.[229][230]

text: In the EU Directive 1999/22/EC zoos are described as having a role in the preservation of the biodiversity of wildlife animals by conducting research or participation in breeding programs.[231]

text: Protection and restoration techniques[edit]

text: Removal of exotic species will allow the species that they have negatively impacted to recover their ecological niches. Exotic species that have become pests can be identified taxonomically (e.g., with Digital Automated Identification SYstem (DAISY), using the barcode of life).[232][233] Removal is practical only given large groups of individuals due to the economic cost.

text: As sustainable populations of the remaining native species in an area become assured, "missing" species that are candidates for reintroduction can be identified using databases such as the Encyclopedia of Life and the Global Biodiversity Information Facility.

text:
Biodiversity banking places a monetary value on biodiversity. One example is the Australian Native Vegetation Management Framework.
Gene banks are collections of specimens and genetic material. Some banks intend to reintroduce banked species to the ecosystem (e.g., via tree nurseries).[234]
Reduction of and better targeting of pesticides allows more species to survive in agricultural and urbanized areas.
Location-specific approaches may be less useful for protecting migratory species. One approach is to create wildlife corridors that correspond to the animals' movements. National and other boundaries can complicate corridor creation.[citation needed]

text: Protected areas[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Protected areas is meant for affording protection to wild animals and their habitat which also includes forest reserves and biosphere reserves. [235]Protected areas have been set up all over the world with the specific aim of protecting and conserving plants and animals.

text: National parks[edit]

text: National park and nature reserve is the area selected by governments or private organizations for special protection against damage or degradation with the objective of biodiversity and landscape conservation. National parks are usually owned and managed by national or state governments. A limit is placed on the number of visitors permitted to enter certain fragile areas. Designated trails or roads are created. The visitors are allowed to enter only for study, cultural and recreation purposes. Forestry operations, grazing of animals and hunting of animals are regulated. Exploitation of habitat or wildlife is banned.

text: Wildlife sanctuary[edit]

text: Wildlife sanctuary aims only at conservation of species and have the following features:

text:
The boundaries of the sanctuaries are not limited by state legislation.
The killing, hunting or capturing of any species is prohibited except by or under the control of the highest authority in the department which is responsible for the management of the sanctuary.
Private ownership may be allowed.
Forestry and other usages can also be permitted.

text: Forest reserves[edit]

text: The forests play a vital role in harbouring more than 45,000 floral and 81,000 faunal species of which 5150 floral and 1837 faunal species are endemic. Plant and animal species confined to a specific geographical area are called endemic species. In reserved forests, rights to activities like hunting and grazing are sometimes given to communities living on the fringes of the forest, who sustain their livelihood partially or wholly from forest resources or products. The unclassed forests covers 6.4 percent of the total forest area and they are marked by the following characteristics:

text:
They are large inaccessible forests.
Many of these are unoccupied.
They are ecologically and economically less important.

text: Steps to conserve the forest cover[edit]

text:
An extensive reforestation/afforestation program should be followed.
Alternative environment-friendly sources of fuel energy such as biogas other than wood should be used.
Loss of biodiversity due to forest fire is a major problem, immediate steps to prevent forest fire need to be taken.
Overgrazing by cattle can damage a forest seriously. Therefore, certain steps should be taken to prevent overgrazing by cattle.
Hunting and poaching should be banned.

text: Zoological parks[edit]

text: In zoological parks or zoos, live animals are kept for public recreation, education and conservation purposes. Modern zoos offer veterinary facilities, provide opportunities for threatened species to breed in captivity and usually build environments that simulate the native habitats of the animals in their care. Zoos play a major role in creating awareness among common people about the need to conserve nature.

text: Botanical gardens[edit]

text: Botanical garden is a garden in which plants are grown and displayed primarily for scientific and educational purposes. It consists of a collection of living plants, grown outdoors or under glass in greenhouses and conservatories. In addition, it includes a collection of dried plants or herbarium and such facilities as lecture rooms, laboratories, libraries, museums and experimental or research plantings.

text: Resource allocation[edit]

text: Focusing on limited areas of higher potential biodiversity promises greater immediate return on investment than spreading resources evenly or focusing on areas of little diversity but greater interest in biodiversity.[236]

text: A second strategy focuses on areas that retain most of their original diversity, which typically require little or no restoration. These are typically non-urbanized, non-agricultural areas. Tropical areas often fit both criteria, given their natively high diversity and relative lack of development.[237]

text: Legal status[edit]

text: International[edit]

text:
United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) and Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety;
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES);
Ramsar Convention (Wetlands);
Bonn Convention on Migratory Species;
World Heritage Convention (indirectly by protecting biodiversity habitats)
Regional Conventions such as the Apia Convention
Bilateral agreements such as the Japan-Australia Migratory Bird Agreement.

text: Global agreements such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, give "sovereign national rights over biological resources" (not property). The agreements commit countries to "conserve biodiversity", "develop resources for sustainability" and "share the benefits" resulting from their use. Biodiverse countries that allow bioprospecting or collection of natural products, expect a share of the benefits rather than allowing the individual or institution that discovers/exploits the resource to capture them privately. Bioprospecting can become a type of biopiracy when such principles are not respected.[citation needed]

text: Sovereignty principles can rely upon what is better known as Access and Benefit Sharing Agreements (ABAs). The Convention on Biodiversity implies informed consent between the source country and the collector, to establish which resource will be used and for what and to settle on a fair agreement on benefit sharing.

text: National level laws[edit]

text: Biodiversity is taken into account in some political and judicial decisions:

text:
The relationship between law and ecosystems is very ancient and has consequences for biodiversity. It is related to private and public property rights. It can define protection for threatened ecosystems, but also some rights and duties (for example, fishing and hunting rights).[citation needed]
Law regarding species is more recent. It defines species that must be protected because they may be threatened by extinction. The U.S. Endangered Species Act is an example of an attempt to address the "law and species" issue.
Laws regarding gene pools are only about a century old.[citation needed] Domestication and plant breeding methods are not new, but advances in genetic engineering have led to tighter laws covering distribution of genetically modified organisms, gene patents and process patents.[238] Governments struggle to decide whether to focus on for example, genes, genomes, or organisms and species.[citation needed]

text: Uniform approval for use of biodiversity as a legal standard has not been achieved, however. Bosselman argues that biodiversity should not be used as a legal standard, claiming that the remaining areas of scientific uncertainty cause unacceptable administrative waste and increase litigation without promoting preservation goals.[239]

text: India passed the Biological Diversity Act in 2002 for the conservation of biological diversity in India. The Act also provides mechanisms for equitable sharing of benefits from the use of traditional biological resources and knowledge.

text: Analytical limits[edit]

text: Taxonomic and size relationships[edit]

text: Less than 1% of all species that have been described have been studied beyond simply noting their existence.[240] The vast majority of Earth's species are microbial. Contemporary biodiversity physics is "firmly fixated on the visible [macroscopic] world".[241] For example, microbial life is metabolically and environmentally more diverse than multicellular life (see e.g., extremophile). "On the tree of life, based on analyses of small-subunit ribosomal RNA, visible life consists of barely noticeable twigs. The inverse relationship of size and population recurs higher on the evolutionary ladder—"to a first approximation, all multicellular species on Earth are insects".[242] Insect extinction rates are high—supporting the Holocene extinction hypothesis. [243][244]

text: Diversity study (botany)[edit]

text: The number of morphological attributes that can be scored for diversity study is generally limited and prone to environmental influences; thereby reducing the fine resolution required to ascertain the phylogenetic relationships. DNA based markers- microsatellites otherwise known as simple sequence repeats (SSR) were therefore used for the diversity studies of certain species and their wild relatives.

text: In the case of cowpea, a study conducted to assess the level of genetic diversity in cowpea germplasm and related wide species, where the relatedness among various taxa were compared, primers useful for classification of taxa identified, and the origin and phylogeny of cultivated cowpea classified show that SSR markers are useful in validating with species classification and revealing the center of diversity.[245]


document_title: Once More (Porter Wagoner and Dolly Parton album)

question_text: who wrote daddy was an old time preacher man

root

text:
Once More

Studio album by Porter Wagoner and Dolly Parton

Released
August 1970

Recorded
RCA Studio B, Nashville, 1970

Genre
Country

Label
RCA

Producer
Bob Ferguson

Porter Wagoner and Dolly Parton chronology

Porter Wayne and Dolly Rebecca
(1970)Porter Wayne and Dolly Rebecca1970
Once More
(1970)
Two of a Kind
(1971)Two of a Kind1971

Singles from Just the Two of Us

"Daddy Was an Old Time Preacher Man" / "A Good Understanding"
Released: July 1970

tag: table

text: Once More is the fifth duet album by Porter Wagoner and Dolly Parton, released in August 1970. It contained the #4 country single "Daddy Was an Old Time Preacher Man," written by Parton and Dorothy Jo Hope (Parton's aunt) about Rev. Jake Owens, Parton's maternal grandfather, a Pentecostal minister, as well as the comical "Fight and Scratch."

tag: p

text: Track listing[edit]

text: Track listing, writing credits and track length adapted from LP sleeve.[1]

text:
No.
Title
Writer(s)
Length

1.
"Daddy Was an Old Time Preacher Man"
Dolly Parton, Dorothy Jo Jope
2:57

2.
"I Know You're Married But I Love You Still"
Don Reno, Mack Magaha
2:22

3.
"Thoughtfulness"
Bill Owens
2:50

4.
"Fight and Scratch"
Dolly Parton
2:31

5.
"Before Our Weakness Gets Too Strong"
Louis Owens
2:37

6.
"Once More"
Dusty Owens
2:30

7.
"One Day at a Time"
Joe Babcock
2:28

8.
"Ragged Angel"
Dolly Parton
2:06

9.
"A Good Understanding"
Dolly Parton
2:42

10.
"Let's Live for Tonight"
Don Reno
2:08


document_title: Brainstem

question_text: which structure of the brain stem is primarily related to alertness

text: Brainstem

text: Structure[edit]

text: Midbrain[edit]

text: The midbrain is divided into three parts: tectum, tegmentum, and the ventral tegmentum.  The tectum (Latin:roof), which forms the ceiling. The tectum comprises the paired structure of the superior and inferior colliculi and is the dorsal covering of the cerebral aqueduct.  The inferior colliculus, is the principal midbrain nucleus of the auditory pathway and receives input from several peripheral brainstem nuclei, as well as inputs from the auditory cortex. Its inferior brachium (arm-like process) reaches to the medial geniculate nucleus of the diencephalon. Superior to the inferior colliculus, the superior colliculus marks the rostral midbrain.  It is involved in the special sense of vision and sends its superior brachium to the lateral geniculate body of the diencephalon.

text: The tegmentum which forms the floor of the midbrain, is ventral to the cerebral aqueduct.  Several nuclei, tracts, and the reticular formation are contained here.

text: The  ventral tegmental area (VTA) is composed of paired cerebral peduncles.  These transmit axons of upper motor neurons.

text: The midbrain consists of:

text:
Periaqueductal gray:  The area of gray matter around the cerebral aqueduct, which contains various neurons involved in the pain desensitization pathway.  Neurons synapse here and, when stimulated, cause activation of neurons in the nucleus raphe magnus, which then project down into the posterior grey column of the spinal cord and prevent pain sensation transmission.
Oculomotor nerve nucleus:  This is the third cranial nerve nucleus.
Trochlear nerve nucleus:  This is the fourth  cranial nerve.
Red nucleus:  This is a motor nucleus that sends a descending tract to the lower motor neurons.
Substantia nigra pars compacta:  This is a concentration of neurons in the ventral portion of the midbrain that uses dopamine as its neurotransmitter and is involved in both motor function and emotion.  Its dysfunction is implicated in Parkinson's disease.
Reticular formation:  This is a large area in the midbrain that is involved in various important functions of the midbrain.  In particular, it contains lower motor neurons, is involved in the pain desensitization pathway, is involved in the arousal and consciousness systems, and contains the locus coeruleus, which is involved in intensive alertness modulation and in autonomic reflexes.
Central tegmental tract: Directly anterior to the floor of the fourth ventricle, this is a pathway by which many tracts project up to the cortex and down to the spinal cord.
Ventral tegmental area: A dopaminergic nucleus located close to the midline on the floor of the midbrain.
Rostromedial tegmental nucleus: A GABAergic nucleus located adjacent to the ventral tegmental area.

text: Hindbrain[edit]

text: The pons and medulla oblongata are parts of the hindbrain that form much of the brainstem.

text: Pons[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2014)

text: The pons lies between the medulla oblongata and the midbrain. It contains tracts that carry signals from the cerebrum to the medulla and to the cerebellum and also tracts that carry sensory signals to the thalamus. The pons is connected to the cerebellum by the cerebellar peduncles. The pons houses the respiratory pneumotaxic center and apneustic center that make up the pontine respiratory group in the respiratory center. The pons co-ordinates activities of the cerebellar hemispheres.[citation needed]

text: Medulla oblongata[edit]

text: The medulla oblongata often just referred to as the medulla, is the lower half of the brainstem continuous with the spinal cord. Its upper part is continuous with the pons.[2] The medulla contains the cardiac, dorsal and ventral respiratory groups, and vasomotor centres, dealing with heart rate, breathing and blood pressure. Another important medullary structure is the area postrema whose functions include the control of vomiting.

text: Ventral view of medulla and pons[edit]

text: In the medial part of the medulla is the anterior median fissure.  Moving laterally on each side are the medullary pyramids.  The pyramids contain the fibers of the corticospinal tract (also called the pyramidal tract), or the upper motor neuronal axons as they head inferiorly to synapse on lower motor neuronal cell bodies within the anterior grey column of the spinal cord.

text: The anterolateral sulcus is lateral to the pyramids.  Emerging from the anterolateral sulci are the CN XII (hypoglossal nerve) rootlets.  Lateral to these rootlets and the anterolateral sulci are the olives.  The olives are swellings in the medulla containing underlying inferior nucleary nuclei (containing various nuclei and afferent fibers).  Lateral (and dorsal) to the olives are the rootlets for CN IX (glossopharyngeal), CN X (vagus) and CN XI (accessory nerve).  The pyramids end at the pontine medulla junction, noted most obviously by the large basal pons.  From this junction, CN VI (abducens nerve), CN VII (facial nerve) and CN VIII (vestibulocochlear nerve) emerge.  At the level of the midpons, CN V (the trigeminal nerve) emerges.  Cranial nerve III (the oculomotor nerve) emerges ventrally from the midbrain, while the CN IV (the trochlear nerve) emerges out from the dorsal aspect of midbrain.

text: Between the two pyramids can be seen a decussation of fibres which marks the transition from the medulla to the spinal cord. The medulla is above the decussation and the spinal cord below.

text: Dorsal view of medulla and pons[edit]

text: The most medial part of the medulla is the posterior median sulcus.  Moving laterally on each side is the fasciculus gracilis, and lateral to that is the fasciculus cuneatus.  Superior to each of these, and directly inferior to the obex, are the gracile and cuneate tubercles, respectively.  Underlying these are their respective nuclei.  The obex marks the end of the fourth ventricle and the beginning of the central canal.  The posterior intermediate sulcus separates the fasciculus gracilis from the fasciculus cuneatus.  Lateral to the fasciculus cuneatus is the lateral funiculus.

text: Superior to the obex is the floor of the fourth ventricle.  In the floor of the fourth ventricle, various nuclei can be visualized by the small bumps that they make in the overlying tissue.  In the midline and directly superior to the obex is the vagal trigone and superior to that it the hypoglossal trigone.  Underlying each of these are motor nuclei for the respective cranial nerves.  Superior to these trigones are fibers running laterally in both directions.  These fibers are known collectively as the striae medullares.  Continuing in a rostral direction, the large bumps are called the facial colliculi.  Each facial colliculus, contrary to their names, do not contain the facial nerve nuclei.  Instead, they have facial nerve axons traversing superficial to underlying abducens (CN VI) nuclei.  Lateral to all these bumps previously discussed is an indented line, or sulcus that runs rostrally, and is known as the sulcus limitans.  This separates the medial motor neurons from the lateral sensory neurons.  Lateral to the sulcus limitans is the area of the vestibular system, which is involved in special sensation.  Moving rostrally, the inferior, middle, and superior cerebellar peduncles are found connecting the midbrain to the cerebellum.  Directly rostral to the superior cerebellar peduncle, there is the superior medullary velum and then the two trochlear nerves.  This marks the end of the pons as the inferior colliculus is directly rostral and marks the caudal midbrain. Middle cerebellar peduncle is located inferior and lateral to the superior cerebellar peduncle, connecting pons to the cerebellum. Likewise, inferior cerebellar peduncle is found connecting the medulla oblongata to the cerebellum.

text: Development[edit]

text: The adult human brainstem emerges from two of the three primary vesicles formed of the neural tube.  The mesencephalon is the second of the three primary vesicles, and does not further differentiate into a secondary vesicle.  This will become the midbrain.  The third primary vesicle, the rhombencephalon (hindbrain) will further differentiate into two secondary vesicles, the metencephalon and the myelencephalon.  The metencephalon will become the cerebellum and the pons.  The more caudal myelencephalon will become the medulla.

text: Blood supply[edit]

text: The main supply of blood to the brainstem is provided by the basilar arteries and the vertebral arteries.[3]

text: Cranial nerves[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2016)

text: Ten of the twelve pairs of cranial nerves either target or are sourced from the brainstem.[4] The nuclei of the oculomotor nerve (III) and trochlear nerve (IV) are located in the midbrain. The nuclei of the trigeminal nerve (V), abducens nerve (VI), facial nerve (VII) and vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) are located in the pons. The nuclei of the glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), vagus nerve (X), accessory nerve (XI) and hypoglossal nerve (XII) are located in the medulla. The fibers of these cranial nerves exit the brainstem from these nuclei.[5]

text: Function[edit]

text: There are three main functions of the brainstem:

text:
The brainstem plays a role in conduction. That is, all information relayed from the body to the cerebrum and cerebellum and vice versa must traverse the brainstem. The ascending pathways coming from the body to the brain are the sensory pathways and include the spinothalamic tract for pain and temperature sensation and the dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway (DCML) including the gracile fasciculus and the cuneate fasciculus for touch, proprioception, and pressure sensation. The facial sensations have similar pathways, and will travel in the spinothalamic tract and the DCML.  Descending tracts are the axons of upper motor neurons destined to synapse on lower motor neurons in the ventral horn and posterior horn.  In addition, there are upper motor neurons that originate in the brainstem's vestibular, red, tectal, and reticular nuclei, which also descend and synapse in the spinal cord.
The cranial nerves III-XII emerge from the brainstem.[6] These cranial nerves supply the face, head, and viscera. (The first two pairs of cranial nerves arise from the cerebrum).
The brainstem has integrative functions being involved in cardiovascular system control, respiratory control, pain sensitivity control, alertness, awareness, and consciousness.  Thus, brainstem damage is a very serious and often life-threatening problem.

tag: ol

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: Diseases of the brainstem can result in abnormalities in the function of cranial nerves that may lead to visual disturbances, pupil abnormalities, changes in sensation, muscle weakness, hearing problems, vertigo, swallowing and speech difficulty, voice change, and co-ordination problems. Localizing neurological lesions in the brainstem may be very precise, although it relies on a clear understanding on the functions of brainstem anatomical structures and how to test them.

text: Brainstem stroke syndrome can cause a range of impairments including locked-in syndrome.

text: Duret haemorrhages are areas of bleeding in the midbrain and upper pons due to a downward traumatic displacement of the brainstem.[7]

text: Cysts known as syrinxes can affect the brainstem, in a condition called syringobulbia. These fluid-filed cavities can be congenital, acquired or the result of a tumor.

text: Criteria for claiming brainstem death in the UK have developed in order to make the decision of when to stop ventilation of somebody who could not otherwise sustain life. These determining factors are that the patient is irreversibly unconscious and incapable of breathing unaided. All other possible causes must be ruled out that might otherwise indicate a temporary condition. The state of irreversible brain damage has to be unequivocal. There are brainstem reflexes that are checked for by two senior doctors so that imaging technology is unnecessary. The absence of the cough and gag reflexes, of the corneal reflex and the vestibulo-ocular reflex need to be established; the pupils of the eyes must be fixed and dilated; there must be an absence of motor response to stimulation and an absence of breathing marked by concentrations of carbon dioxide in the arterial blood. All of these tests must be repeated after a certain time before death can be declared.[8]

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
The midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata are labelled on this coronal section of the human brain.

Brainstem. Anterior face.Deep dissection

Brainstem. Posterior face.Deep dissection

Sagittal section of brainstem marking nuclei


document_title: List of Chicago Bulls seasons

question_text: when was the last time the bulls made it to the playoffs

text: List of Chicago Bulls seasons

text: History of the Bulls[edit]

text: Early years[edit]

text: During their inaugural season (1966–67), the Bulls compiled a 33–48 record under coach Johnny "Red" Kerr and reached the playoffs. This was the best record achieved by an NBA expansion team in its first year of play, a feat which earned Kerr the NBA Coach of the Year Award. Dick Motta replaced Kerr in 1969, and under his leadership, the Bulls appeared in the playoffs every year from 1970 to 1975. The team reached the Western Conference Finals in 1974 and 1975, but lost to the Milwaukee Bucks and Golden State Warriors, respectively. Key players during the Motta era included Jerry Sloan, Bob Love, Chet Walker, Norm Van Lier, and Tom Boerwinkle.[7] Revered basketball writer Bob Ryan wrote that Sloan and Van Lier comprised the "physically and mentally toughest NBA backcourt" he ever saw.

text: The Bulls qualified for the playoffs just twice between 1976 and 1984, a period in which the team used eight different head coaches, including former player Jerry Sloan.[8] They had a chance to win the first pick of the 1979 NBA Draft, which would have allowed them to select future Hall of Famer Magic Johnson. However, they lost a coin flip to the Los Angeles Lakers, and went on to choose David Greenwood with the second pick. Although Greenwood averaged 12.6 points over six seasons with the Bulls, he never became an NBA All-Star.[9]

text: Jordan era[edit]

text: The Bulls' luck turned for the better after selecting Michael Jordan with the third overall pick in the 1984 NBA Draft.[7] Considered the greatest basketball player of all time by NBA.com [10], Jordan averaged 28.2 points per game during his first season and received the 1985 NBA Rookie of the Year Award. From 1985 onwards, the Bulls reached the playoffs every season he was on the team's roster. Jordan could not lead the Bulls past the first round of the playoffs by himself losing to the champion Celtics and in 1987 general manager Jerry Krause acquired Scottie Pippen and Horace Grant at that summer's draft. In 1989, the Bulls played in their first conference finals series since 1975, losing to the Detroit Pistons. Coach Phil Jackson, an assistant since 1987, succeeded Doug Collins as head coach after that season and in 1991, the team won their first of three consecutive NBA championships by defeating Magic Johnson and the Lakers.[7]. Then they won two more consecutive titles in 1992 and 1993 after which Michael Jordan retired.

text: Although the Bulls signed European standout Toni Kukoč to help alleviate the loss, they could not extend their championship streak, falling to the New York Knicks in the 1994 Eastern Conference Semifinals. The Bulls lost Horace Grant, who signed with the Orlando Magic as a free agent during the summer of 1994.[7] However, Jordan returned to the Bulls in March 1995, and with the added help of rebounding specialist Dennis Rodman, the team won three more championships from 1996 to 1998.[10] The 1995–96 Bulls won a then-record 72 regular season games (out of 82)[11] and are widely regarded as one of the greatest teams in NBA history.[12]

text: Post-Jordan era[edit]

text: After the Bulls won their sixth championship, Phil Jackson decided to leave the team and spend some time away from basketball. Michael Jordan then announced his second retirement, which prompted general manager Jerry Krause to begin rebuilding the roster with younger athletes. Six players from the 1997–98 Bulls (Scottie Pippen, Dennis Rodman, Steve Kerr, Luc Longley, Jud Buechler,[7] and Scott Burrell[13]) joined other teams through free agency or sign-and-trade deals, and with few established players left on the roster, the Bulls missed the 1999 playoffs. This began a six-year playoff drought, the longest such drought in team history.[7]

text: The Bulls showed signs of improvement after hiring coach Scott Skiles in 2003, reaching the playoffs in 2005, 2006, and 2007. Some of the primary contributors on those teams were Ben Gordon, Luol Deng, and Kirk Hinrich.[7] The Bulls' new playoff streak ended in 2008, when the team finished fourth in their division with a 33–49 record. After the season, the team hired a new coach, Vinny Del Negro.[14] The Bulls' poor record did help them win the 2008 NBA Draft Lottery, which allowed them to select Derrick Rose with the first pick in the NBA Draft.[15][16] They made the 2009 NBA Playoffs, only to lose in a seven-game series against the Boston Celtics which included a record seven overtime periods.[17] In 2010, Del Negro was replaced by Tom Thibodeau, and the Bulls reached the 2011 Eastern Conference Finals, losing to the Miami Heat in five games.[18]

text: Table key[edit]

text:
AMVP
All-Star Game Most Valuable Player

COY
Coach of the Year

DPOY
Defensive Player of the Year

Finish
Final position in league or division standings

GB
Games behind first-place team in division[b]

Italics
Season in progress

Losses
Number of regular season losses

EOY
Executive of the Year

FMVP
Finals Most Valuable Player

MVP
Most Valuable Player

ROY
Rookie of the Year

SIX
Sixth Man of the Year

SPOR
Sportsmanship Award

Wins
Number of regular season wins

text: Seasons[edit]

text: Note: Statistics are correct as of April 13, 2018.

text:
NBA champions

Conference champions

Division champions

Playoff berth

text:
Season

Conference

Finish

Division

Finish

Wins

Losses

Win%

GB

Playoffs

Awards

Head coach

1966–67

—

—

Western

4th

33

48

.407

11

Lost Division Semifinals (Hawks) 3–0[19]

Johnny Kerr(COY)[7]

Johnny Kerr

1967–68

—

—

Western

4th

29

53

.354

27

Lost Division Semifinals (Lakers) 4–1[20]

—

Johnny Kerr

1968–69

—

—

Western

5th

33

49

.402

22

—

Dick Motta

1969–70

—

—

Western

3rd[c]

39

43

.476

9

Lost Division Semifinals (Hawks) 4–1[22]

—

Dick Motta

1970–71

Western

3rd

Midwest[d]

2nd

51

31

.622

2

Lost Conference Semifinals (Lakers) 4–3[23]

Dick Motta(COY)[7]

Dick Motta

1971–72

Western

3rd

Midwest

2nd

57

25

.695

6

Lost Conference Semifinals (Lakers) 4–0[24]

—

Dick Motta

1972–73

Western

3rd

Midwest

2nd

51

31

.622

9

Lost Conference Semifinals (Lakers) 4–3[25]

—

Dick Motta

1973–74

Western

3rd

Midwest

2nd

54

28

.659

9

Won Conference Semifinals (Pistons) 4–3 Lost Conference Finals (Bucks) 4–0[26]

—

Dick Motta

1974–75

Western

2nd

Midwest

1st

47

35

.573

—

Won Conference Semifinals (Kings) 4–2 Lost Conference Finals (Warriors) 4–3[27]

—

Dick Motta

1975–76

Western

9th

Midwest

4th

24

58

.293

14

—

Dick Motta

1976–77

Western

6th

Midwest

3rd[e]

44

38

.537

6

Lost First Round (Trail Blazers) 2–1[29]

—

Ed Badger

1977–78

Western

8th

Midwest

3rd

40

42

.488

8

—

Ed Badger

1978–79

Western

11th

Midwest

5th

31

51

.378

17

—

Larry Costello  Scotty Robertson

1979–80

Western

9th

Midwest

4th[f]

30

52

.366

19

—

Jerry Sloan

1980–81

Eastern

5th

Central[g]

2nd

45

37

.549

15

Won First Round (Knicks) 2–0  Lost Conference Semifinals (Celtics) 4–0[31]

—

Jerry Sloan

1981–82

Eastern

9th

Central

5th

34

48

.415

21

—

Jerry Sloan  Phil Johnson  Rod Thorn

1982–83

Eastern

9th

Central

4th

28

54

.341

23

—

Paul Westhead

1983–84

Eastern

10th

Central

5th

27

55

.329

23

—

Kevin Loughery

1984–85

Eastern

7th

Central

3rd

38

44

.463

21

Lost First Round (Bucks) 3–1[32]

Michael Jordan(ROY)[7]

Kevin Loughery

1985–86

Eastern

8th

Central

4th

30

52

.366

27

Lost First Round (Celtics) 3–0[33]

—

Stan Albeck

1986–87

Eastern

8th

Central

5th

40

42

.488

17

Lost First Round (Celtics) 3–0[34]

—

Doug Collins

1987–88

Eastern

3rd

Central

2nd[h]

50

32

.610

4

Won First Round (Cavaliers) 3–2 Lost Conference Semifinals (Pistons) 4–1[36]

Michael Jordan(MVP, DPOY, AMVP)[7]Jerry Krause (EOY)

Doug Collins

1988–89

Eastern

6th

Central

5th

47

35

.573

16

Won First Round (Cavaliers) 3–2 Won Conference Semifinals (Knicks) 4–2 Lost Conference Finals (Pistons) 4–2[37]

—

Doug Collins

1989–90

Eastern

3rd

Central

2nd

55

27

.671

4

Won First Round (Bucks) 3–1 Won Conference Semifinals (76ers) 4–1 Lost Conference Finals (Pistons) 4–3[38]

—

Phil Jackson

1990–91

Eastern

1st

Central

1st

61

21

.744

—

Won First Round (Knicks) 3–0 Won Conference Semifinals (76ers) 4–1 Won Conference Finals (Pistons) 4–0Won NBA Finals (Lakers) 4–1[39]

Michael Jordan(MVP, FMVP)[7]

Phil Jackson

1991–92

Eastern

1st

Central

1st

67

15

.817

—

Won First Round (Heat) 3–0 Won Conference Semifinals (Knicks) 4–3 Won Conference Finals (Cavaliers) 4–2Won NBA Finals (Trail Blazers) 4–2[40]

Michael Jordan(MVP, FMVP)[7]

Phil Jackson

1992–93

Eastern

2nd

Central

1st

57

25

.695

—

Won First Round (Hawks) 3–0 Won Conference Semifinals (Cavaliers) 4–0 Won Conference Finals (Knicks) 4–2Won NBA Finals (Suns) 4–2[41]

Michael Jordan(FMVP)[7]

Phil Jackson

1993–94

Eastern

3rd

Central

2nd

55

27

.671

2

Won First Round (Cavaliers) 3–0 Lost Conference Semifinals (Knicks) 4–3[42]

Scottie Pippen(AMVP)[7]

Phil Jackson

1994–95

Eastern

5th

Central

3rd

47

35

.573

5

Won First Round (Hornets) 3–1 Lost Conference Semifinals (Magic) 4–2[43]

—

Phil Jackson

1995–96

Eastern

1st

Central

1st

72

10

.878

—

Won First Round (Heat) 3–0 Won Conference Semifinals (Knicks) 4–1 Won Conference Finals (Magic) 4–0Won NBA Finals (SuperSonics) 4–2[44]

Michael Jordan(MVP, FMVP, AMVP)Phil Jackson (COY)Jerry Krause (EOY)Toni Kukoč (SIX)[7][45]

Phil Jackson

1996–97

Eastern

1st

Central

1st

69

13

.841

—

Won First Round (Bullets) 3–0 Won Conference Semifinals (Hawks) 4–1 Won Conference Finals (Heat) 4–1Won NBA Finals (Jazz) 4–2[46]

Michael Jordan(FMVP)[7]

Phil Jackson

1997–98

Eastern

1st

Central

1st

62

20

.756

—

Won First Round (Nets) 3–0 Won Conference Semifinals (Hornets) 4–1 Won Conference Finals (Pacers) 4–3Won NBA Finals (Jazz) 4–2[47]

Michael Jordan(MVP, FMVP, AMVP)[7]

Phil Jackson

1998–99[i]

Eastern

15th

Central

8th

13

37

.260

20

—

Tim Floyd

1999–00

Eastern

15th

Central

8th

17

65

.207

39

Elton Brand[j] (ROY)[7]

Tim Floyd

2000–01

Eastern

15th

Central

8th

15

67

.183

37

—

Tim Floyd

2001–02

Eastern

15th

Central

8th

21

61

.256

29

—

Tim Floyd  Bill Berry  Bill Cartwright

2002–03

Eastern

12th

Central

6th

30

52

.366

20

—

Bill Cartwright

2003–04

Eastern

14th

Central

8th

23

59

.280

38

—

Bill Cartwright  Pete Myers  Scott Skiles

2004–05

Eastern

4th

Central

2nd

47

35

.573

7

Lost First Round (Wizards) 4–2[49]

Ben Gordon (SIX)[7]

Scott Skiles

2005–06

Eastern

7th

Central

4th[k]

41

41

.500

23

Lost First Round (Heat) 4–2[51]

—

Scott Skiles

2006–07

Eastern

5th

Central

3rd

49

33

.598

4

Won First Round (Heat) 4–0 Lost Conference Semifinals (Pistons) 4–2[52]

Luol Deng (SPOR)[7]

Scott Skiles

2007–08

Eastern

11th

Central

4th

33

49

.402

26

—

Scott Skiles  Pete Myers  Jim Boylan

2008–09

Eastern

7th

Central

2nd

41

41

.500

25

Lost First Round (Celtics) 4–3

Derrick Rose (ROY)[53]

Vinny Del Negro

2009–10

Eastern

8th

Central

3rd

41

41

.500

20

Lost First Round (Cavaliers) 4–1

—

Vinny Del Negro

2010–11

Eastern

1st

Central

1st

62

20

.756

—

Won First Round (Pacers) 4–1Won Conference Semifinals (Hawks) 4–2Lost Conference Finals (Heat) 4–1

Derrick Rose (MVP)[54]Tom Thibodeau (COY)[55]Gar Forman (EOY)

Tom Thibodeau

2011–12[l]

Eastern

1st

Central

1st

50

16

.758

—

Lost First Round (76ers) 4–2

—

Tom Thibodeau

2012–13

Eastern

5th

Central

2nd

45

37

.549

4

Won First Round (Nets) 4–3Lost Conference Semifinals (Heat) 4–1

—

Tom Thibodeau

2013–14

Eastern

4th

Central

2nd

48

34

.585

8

Lost First Round (Wizards) 4–1

Joakim Noah (DPOY)

Tom Thibodeau

2014–15

Eastern

3rd

Central

2nd

50

32

.610

3

Won First Round (Bucks) 4–2 Lost Conference Semifinals (Cavaliers) 4–2

Jimmy Butler (MIP)  Joakim Noah (JWKC)

Tom Thibodeau

2015–16

Eastern

9th

Central

4th

42

40

.512

15

Fred Hoiberg

2016–17

Eastern

8th

Central

4th

41

41

.500

10

Lost First Round (Celtics) 4–2

Fred Hoiberg

2017–18

Eastern

13th

Central

5th

27

55

.329

23

Fred Hoiberg

text: All-time records[edit]

text: Note: Statistics are correct through April 13, 2018

text:
Statistic

Wins

Losses

Win%

Chicago Bulls regular season record (1966–2018)

2183

2032

.518

Chicago Bulls postseason record (1966–2018)

186

157

.542

All-time regular and postseason record

2369

2189

.520

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ The Bulls' predecessors included the Chicago Bruins, the Chicago Studebaker Flyers, the Chicago American Gears, the Chicago Stags, the Chicago Majors, and the Chicago Packers (later renamed the Zephyrs). The Zephyrs moved to Baltimore and then Washington, D.C., and are now known as the Washington Wizards.[2][3]

Jump up ^ The formula is as followed:

G
a
m
e
s

b
e
h
i
n
d

=

(

T
e
a
m

A
′

s

w
i
n
s

−

T
e
a
m

B
′

s

w
i
n
s

)
+
(

T
e
a
m

B
′

s

l
o
s
s
e
s

−

T
e
a
m

A
′

s

l
o
s
s
e
s

)

2

{\displaystyle \mathrm {Games} \ \mathrm {behind} ={\frac {(\mathrm {TeamA's} \ \mathrm {wins} -\mathrm {TeamB's} \ \mathrm {wins} )+(\mathrm {TeamB's} \ \mathrm {losses} -\mathrm {TeamA's} \ \mathrm {losses} )}{\mathrm {2} }}}

Jump up ^ Though the Bulls had the same record as the Phoenix Suns in the Western Division, the Bulls lost the tiebreaker and finished third.[21]

Jump up ^ The Western Division was renamed the Western Conference and split into the Midwest and Pacific divisions.

Jump up ^ Though the Bulls had the same record as the Detroit Pistons in the Midwest Division, the Bulls lost the tiebreaker and finished third.[28]

Jump up ^ Though the Bulls had the same record as the Denver Nuggets in the Midwest Division, the Bulls lost the tiebreaker and finished fourth.[30]

Jump up ^ In 1980, the Dallas Mavericks entered the NBA as an expansion team and joined the Midwest Division of the Western Conference. The Bulls then moved to the Central Division of the Eastern Conference.[7]

Jump up ^ Though the Bulls had the same record as the Atlanta Hawks in the Central Division, the Bulls won the tiebreaker and finished second.[35]

Jump up ^ Due to a lockout, the season did not start until February 5, 1999, and all 29 teams played a shortened 50 game regular season schedule.[48]

Jump up ^ Brand shared Rookie of the Year honors with Steve Francis of the Houston Rockets.[7]

Jump up ^ Though the Bulls had the same record as the Indiana Pacers in the Central Division, the Bulls lost the tiebreaker and finished fourth.[50]

Jump up ^ Due to a lockout, the season did not start until December 25, 2011 and all 30 teams played a shortened 66 game regular season schedule.[56]

text: Sources[edit]

text:
Sachare, Alex (1999). The Chicago Bulls Encyclopedia. Contemporary Books. ISBN 0-8092-2515-8.
"Chicago Bulls". basketball-reference.com. Sports Reference LLC. Retrieved September 4, 2008.
"Playoff Index". basketball-reference.com. Sports Reference LLC. Retrieved September 4, 2008.


document_title: Boom Boom (John Lee Hooker song)

question_text: who sings the theme for ncis new orleans

text: Boom Boom (John Lee Hooker song)

text: Recording and composition[edit]

text: Prior to recording for Vee-Jay Records, John Lee Hooker was primarily a solo performer or accompanied by a second guitarist, such as early collaborators Eddie Burns or Eddie Kirkland.[4] However, with Vee-Jay, he usually recorded with a small backing band, as heard on the singles "Dimples", "I Love You Honey", and "No Shoes". Detroit pianist Joe Hunter, who had previously worked with Hooker, was again enlisted for the recording session.[1] Hunter brought with him "the cream of the Motown label's session men, later known as the Funk Brothers":[4] bassist James Jamerson, drummer Benny Benjamin, plus guitarist Larry Veeder, tenor saxophonist Hank Cosby, and baritone saxophonist Andrew "Mike" Terry.[1] They have been described as "just the right band" for "Boom Boom".[1] Hooker had a unique sense of timing, which demanded "big-eared sidemen".[5] The original "Boom Boom" is an uptempo (168 beats per minute) blues song, which has been notated in time in the key of F.[6] It has been described as "about the tightest musical structure of any Hooker composition: its verses sedulously adhere to the twelve-bar format over which Hooker generally rides so roughshod".[1] The song uses "a stop-time hook that opens up for one of the genre's most memorable guitar riffs"[7] and incorporates a middle instrumental section Hooker-style boogie.[1]

text: According to Hooker, he wrote the song during an extended engagement at the Apex Bar in Detroit.

text: I would never be on time [for the gig]; I always would be late comin' in. And she [the bartender Willa] kept saying, 'Boom boom – you late again'. Every night: 'Boom, boom – you late again'. I said 'Hmm, that's a song!' ... I got it together, the lyrics, rehearsed it, and I played it at the place, and the people went wild".[8]

text: Hooker's lyrics include

text:
Boom, boom, boom, boom
I'm gonna shoot you right down
Right off your feet
Take you home with me
Put you in my house
Boom, boom, boom, boom

text: Also included are several wordless phrases, "how-how-how-how" and "hmm-hmm-hmm-hmm". "Boom Boom" became the Hooker song that is "the most memorable, the most instantly appealing, and the one which has proved the most adaptable to the needs of other performers".[1]

text: Releases and charts[edit]

text: When "Boom Boom" was released as a single in May 1962,[9] the song became a hit. It entered the Billboard R&B chart on June 16, 1962, where it spent eight weeks and reached number 16.[10] The song also entered the Billboard Hot 100, where it reached number 60, making it one of only two Hooker singles to enter the pop chart.[10] It was included on the 1962 Vee-Jay album Burnin' (SR 1043) as well as many Hooker compilations, including John Lee Hooker: The Ultimate Collection.

text: Thirty years later in the UK, after being featured in a Lee Jeans commercial in 1992, the song reached number 16 in the UK Singles Chart.[11] Hooker recorded several later versions. Following the success of the Animals' version, Hooker re-recorded the song in 1968 for Stateside Records as the B-side of "Cry Before I Go" under the longer title "Boom Boom Boom". He reworked the song as "Bang Bang Bang Bang" for his Live at Soledad Prison album, as a South Side Chicago street musician in the film The Blues Brothers (but the song itself is not included in the film soundtrack), and as the title track for his 1992 album Boom Boom with Jimmie Vaughan.[12]

text: The Animals version[edit]

text:
"Boom Boom"

Single by The Animals

from the album The Animals

B-side
"Blue Feeling"

Released
November 1964 (1964-11)

Format
7-inch 45 rpm record

Recorded
January 1964

Genre
Blues rock

Length
2:57

Label
MGM

Songwriter(s)
John Lee Hooker

Producer(s)
Mickie Most

The Animals singles chronology

"I'm Crying"
(1964)
"Boom Boom"
(1964)
"Don't Let Me Be Misunderstood"
(1965)

text: English rock band the Animals recorded "Boom Boom" for their 1964 UK debut album The Animals. Their blues-rock[13] rendition generally follows John Lee Hooker's original, although they add "shake it baby" as a response to the "come on and shake" refrain in the middle section,[14]taken from Hooker's "Shake It Baby" (recorded during the 1962 American Folk Blues Festival tour in Europe, where it became a hit in 1963).[15]

text: The Animals' version was released as a single in North America in November 1964.[16] It reached number 43 on the Billboard Hot 100[17] and number 14 on the RPM Top 40&5 singles chart.[18] The song was also released in Australia and India and is included on the Animals' second American album The Animals on Tour as well as various compilation albums (sometimes with the twelve-bar guitar solo edited out).

text: Over the years, several versions of "Boom Boom" have been recorded by various Animals reunion lineups as well as by former members Eric Burdon and Alan Price. In 2012, the original 1964 version was used in the film Skyfall.

text: Recognition and legacy[edit]

text: In 1995, John Lee Hooker's "Boom Boom" was included in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's list of "The Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll".[19] It was inducted into the Blues Foundation Hall of Fame in 2009 in the "Classics of Blues Recording" category.[4] A Detroit Free Press poll in 2016 ranked the song at number 37 in "Detroit's 100 Greatest Songs".[20]

text: A variety of artists have recorded the song, including: Rufus Thomas, Mae West, Shadows of Knight, CCS, Dr. Feelgood, Tony Joe White, Disco Tex and the Sex-O-Lettes,[21] Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band, Big Head Todd and the Monsters (whose version was chosen in 2014 as the theme song for NCIS: New Orleans, and is played at Carolina Panthers home games when a touchdown is scored) and the Oak Ridge Boys. "Boom Boom" was the first studio recording by Eric Clapton, who recorded it as a demo with the Yardbirds in 1963, and which was released as a single in the Netherlands and Germany in 1966. ZZ Top later used similar lines ("how-how-how-how") to those found in "Boom Boom", on "La Grange".[7]