document_title: United States Forces Japan

question_text: where are most us troops in japan stationed

text: United States Forces Japan

text: History[edit]

text: After the Japanese surrender in the end of World War II in Asia, the United States Armed Forces assumed administrative authority in Japan. The Japanese Imperial Army and Navy were decommissioned, and the U.S. Armed Forces took control of their military bases until the new government could be formed and positioned to reestablish authority. Allied forces planned to demilitarize Japan, and new government adopted the Constitution of Japan with a no-armed-force clause in 1947.

text: After the Korean War began in 1950, Douglas MacArthur, the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers in Japan and the Japanese government established the paramilitary "National Police Reserve," which was later developed into the Japan Self-Defense Forces.

text: In 1951 the Treaty of San Francisco was signed by the allied countries and Japan, which restored its formal sovereignty. At the same time, the U.S. and Japan signed the Japan-America Security Alliance. By this treaty, USFJ is responsible for the defense of Japan. As part of this agreement, the Japanese government requested that the U.S. military bases remain in Japan, and agreed to provide funds and various interests specified in the Status of Forces Agreement. At the expiration of the treaty, the United States and Japan signed the new Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan. The status of the United States Forces Japan was defined in the U.S.–Japan Status of Forces Agreement. This treaty is still in effect, and it forms the basis of Japan's foreign policy.

text: In the Vietnam War, the US military bases in Japan, especially those in Okinawa Prefecture, were used as important strategic and logistic bases. In 1970, the Koza riot occurred against the US military presence in Okinawa. The USAF strategic bombers were deployed in the bases in Okinawa, which was still administered by the U.S. government. Before the 1972 reversion of the island to Japanese administration, it has been speculated but never confirmed that up to 1,200 nuclear weapons may have been stored at Kadena Air Base, Okinawa in the 1960s.[1]

text: As of 2013[update], there are approximately 50,000 U.S. military personnel stationed in Japan, along with approximately 40,000 dependents of military personnel and another 5,500 American civilians employed there by the United States Department of Defense. The United States Seventh Fleet is based in Yokosuka, Kanagawa Prefecture. The 3rd Marine Expeditionary Force (III MEF) is based in Okinawa. 130 USAF fighters are stationed in the Misawa Air Base and Kadena Air Base.[2]

text: The Japanese government paid ¥217 billion (US$2.0 billion) in 2007[3] as annual host-nation support called Omoiyari Yosan (思いやり予算, sympathy budget or compassion budget).[4] As of the 2011 budget, such payment was no longer to be referred to as Omoiyari Yosan or sympathy budget.[5]

text: The U.S. government employs over 8,000 Master Labor Contract (MLC)/Indirect Hire Agreement (IHA) workers on Okinawa (per the Labor Management Organization) not including Okinawan contract workers.[6]

text: Immediately after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, 9,720 dependents of United States military and government civilian employees in Japan evacuated the country, mainly to the United States.[7]

text: The relocation of the U.S. Marine Corps Air Station Futenma to Henoko had been resolved in December 2013 with the signing of the landfill agreement by the governor of Okinawa. Under the terms of the U.S.-Japan agreement 5.000 U.S. Marines should have been relocated to Guam and 4.000 U.S. Marines to other Pacific locations such as Hawaii or Australia, while some 10.000 Marines were to remain on Okinawa.[8][9][10][11][12][13][14] No timetable for the Marines redeployment had been announced, but The Washington Post reported that U.S. Marines would leave Okinawa as soon as suitable facilities on Guam and elsewhere were ready.[11] The relocation move was expected to cost 8.6 billion US Dollars[8] and includes a $3.1bn cash commitment from Japan for the move to Guam as well as for developing joint training ranges on Guam and on Tinian and Pagan in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands.[9] Certain parcels of land on Okinawa which have been leased for use by the American military were supposed to be turned back to Japanese control via a long-term phased return process according to the agreement.[11] These returns have been ongoing since 1972.[citation needed] However, as of July 2016, the situation has not been settled.

text: In May 2014, in a strategic shift by the United States to Asia and the Pacific, it was revealed the US was deploying two unarmed Global Hawk long-distance surveillance drones to Japan for surveillance missions over China and North Korea.[15]

text: Exercise participation[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The scope and frequency of U.S. Forces Japan participation in major exercises has been rising in recent years. This is largely attributable to the refocus of the U.S. to the Asia-Pacific region, although certain forces, especially the Marine Corps, have never left the region and continue to be heavily involved in theater security and regional stability. United States Pacific Command (USPACOM), the parent command of U.S. Forces Japan, has also taken on larger and broader roles during exercises in Japan, particularly in those exercises on mainland Japan.

text: U.S. Forces Japan has no control or authority over subordinate command exercises beyond manipulation of Force Protection Condition levels, which is the only area of tactical control residing with U.S. Forces Japan.

text: U.S. presence debate[edit]

text: U.S. presence on Okinawa[edit]

text: Okinawa makes up only 0.6 percent of the nation's land area;[2] yet, approximately 62% of U.S. bases in Japan (exclusive use only) are in Okinawa.[16][17]

text: Survey among Japanese and Okinawans[edit]

text: While 73.4% of Japanese citizens appreciate the mutual security treaty with the U.S. and the presence of the USFJ,[18][not in citation given] part of the population demands a reduction in the number of U.S. military bases in Okinawa.[19]

text: In May 2010, a survey of the Okinawan people conducted by the Mainichi Shimbun and the Ryūkyū Shimpō, found that 71% of Okinawans surveyed thought that the presence of Marines on Okinawa was not necessary (15% said it was necessary.). Asked what they thought about 62% of United States Forces Japan bases (exclusive use) being concentrated in Okinawa, 50% said that the number should be reduced, 41% said that the bases should be removed. Asked about the US-Japan security treaty, 55% said it should be changed to a peace treaty, 14% said it should be abolished and 7% said it should be maintained.[20]

text: Many of the bases, such as Yokota Air Base, Naval Air Facility Atsugi and Kadena Air Base, are located in the vicinity of residential districts, and local citizens have complained about excessive aircraft noise.[21][22][23] The 2014 poll by Ryūkyū Shimpō found that 80% of surveyed Okinawans want the Marine Corps Air Station Futenma moved out of the prefecture.[24]

text: Status of forces agreement[edit]

text: There is also debate over the Status of Forces Agreement due to the fact that it covers a variety of administrative technicalities blending the systems which control how certain situations are handled between the U.S.'s and Japan's legal framework. A Status of forces agreement was created to allow both nations the best way to administer legalities, and has worked well over the years[citation needed].

text: U.S. service member behavior[edit]

text: Per Okinawa Prefectural Police data, U.S. service members are convicted of far fewer crimes than local Okinawans.[25] According to the U.S.-Japan Status of Forces Agreement, when U.S. personnel crimes are committed both off-duty and off-base, they should always be prosecuted under the Japanese law.[26]

text: On 12 February 2008, the National Police Agency (of Japan) or NPA, released its annual criminal statistics that included activity within the Okinawan prefecture. These findings held American troops were only convicted of 53 crimes per 10,000 U.S. male servicemen, while Okinawan males were convicted of 366 crimes per 10,000. The crime rate found a U.S. serviceman in Okinawa to be 86% less likely to convicted of a crime by the Japanese government than an Okinawan male.[27]

text: Crime issues[edit]

text: At the beginning of the occupation of Japan, in 1945, many U.S. soldiers participated in the Special Comfort Facility Association.[28] Japanese government recruited 55,000 women to work providing sexual services to US military personnel.[28] The Association was closed by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers.[28]

text: In more recent history, "crimes ranging from rape to assault and hit-and-run accidents by U.S. military personnel, dependents and civilians have long sparked protests in the prefecture," stated The Japan Times.[29] "A series of horrific crimes by present and former U.S. military personnel stationed on Okinawa has triggered dramatic moves to try to reduce the American presence on the island and in Japan as a whole," commented The Daily Beast in 2009.[30]

text: In 1995, the abduction and rape of a 12-year-old Okinawan schoolgirl by two U.S. marines and one U.S. sailor led to demands for the removal of all U.S. military bases in Japan. Other controversial incidents include helicopter crashes, the Girard incident, the Michael Brown Okinawa assault incident, the death of Kinjo family and the death of Yuki Uema. In February 2008, a 38-year-old U.S. Marine based on Okinawa was arrested in connection with the reported rape of a 14-year-old Okinawan girl.[31] This triggered waves of protest against American military presence in Okinawa and led to tight restrictions on off-base activities.[32][33] Although the accuser withdrew her charges the U.S. military court-martialed the suspect and sentenced him to 4 years in prison under the stricter rules of the military justice system.[34]

text: U.S. Forces Japan designated 22 February as a Day of Reflection for all U.S. military facilities in Japan, and established the Sexual Assault Prevention and Response Task Force in an effort to prevent similar incidents.[35] In November 2009, Staff Sgt. Clyde "Drew" Gunn, a U.S. Army soldier stationed at Torii Station was involved in a hit-and-run accident of a pedestrian in Yomitan Village on Okinawa. Later, in April 2010, the soldier was charged with failing to render aid and vehicular manslaughter.[36] Staff Sgt. Gunn, of Ocean Springs, Mississippi, was eventually sentenced to 2 years and 8 months in jail on 15 October 2010.[37]

text: In 2013, two U.S. military personnel, Seaman Christopher Browning, of Athens, Texas, and Petty Officer 3rd Class Skyler Dozierwalker, of Muskogee, Oklahoma, were found guilty by the Naha District Court of raping and robbing a woman in her 20s in a parking lot in October. Both admitted committing the crime. The case outraged many Okinawans, a number of whom have long complained of military-related crime on their island, which hosts thousands of U.S. troops. It also sparked tougher restrictions for all 50,000 U.S. military personnel in Japan, including a curfew and drinking restrictions.[38]

text: On 13 May 2013, in a very controversial statement, Toru Hashimoto, co-leader of the Japan Restoration Association said to a senior American military official at the Marine Corps base in Okinawa "We can’t control the sexual energy of these brave marines." and told United States soldiers should make more use of the local adult entertainment industry to reduce sexual crimes against local women.[39] Hashimoto also told the necessity of former Japanese Army comfort women and of prostitutes for the US military in other countries such as Korea.[39]

text: In June 2016, after a civilian worker at the base was charged with murdering a Japanese woman, tens of thousands of people protested in Okinawa.[40] Organizers estimated turnout at 65,000 people, which would be the largest anti-base protests in Okinawa since 1995.[41]

text: Osprey deployment in Okinawa[edit]

text: In October 2012, twelve MV-22 Ospreys were transferred to the US Marine Corps Air Station Futenma to replace aging Vietnam-era Boeing Vertol CH-46 Sea Knight helicopters in Okinawa, greatly increasing the safety, capability and range of the Marines who are charged with Japan's defense as well as regional security. Then in October 2013, an additional 12 Ospreys arrived, again to replace CH-46 Sea Knights, increasing the number of Ospreys to 24. Japanese Defence Minister Satoshi Morimoto explained the Osprey aircraft is safe adding that two recent accidents were 'caused by human factors'.[42] Japanese Prime Minister Yoshihiko Noda also stated that the Japanese government was convinced of the MV-22's safety.[43]

text: Facilities[edit]

text: List of current facilities[edit]

text: The USFJ headquarters is at Yokota Air Base, about 30 km west of central Tokyo.

text: The U.S. military installations in Japan and their managing branches are as follows:

text:
Branch
(MilDep)
USFJ Facilities
Admin Code
Name of Installation
Primary Purpose
(Actual)
Location

Air Force
FAC 1054
Camp Chitose
(Chitose III, Chitose Administration Annex)
Communications
Chitose, Hokkaido

FAC 2001
Misawa Air Base
Air Base
Misawa, Aomori

FAC 3013
Yokota Air Base
Air Base
Fussa, Tokyo

FAC 3016
Fuchu Communications Station
Communications
Fuchu, Tokyo

FAC 3019
Tama Service Annex
(Tama Hills Recreation Center)
Recreation
Inagi, Tokyo

FAC 3048
Camp Asaka
(South Camp Drake AFN Transmitter Site)
Barracks
(Broadcasting)
Wako, Saitama

FAC 3049
Tokorozawa Communications Station
(Tokorozawa Transmitter Site)
Communications
Tokorozawa, Saitama

FAC 3056
Owada Communication Site
Communications
Niiza, Saitama

FAC 3162
Yugi Communication Site
Communications
Hachioji, Tokyo

FAC 4100
Sofu Communication Site
Communications
Iwakuni, Yamaguchi

FAC 5001
Itazuke Auxiliary Airfield
Air Cargo Terminal
Hakata-ku, Fukuoka

FAC 5073
Sefurisan Liaison Annex
(Seburiyama Communications Station)
Communications
Kanzaki, Saga

FAC 5091
Tsushima Communication Site
Communications
Tsushima, Nagasaki

FAC 6004
Okuma Rest Center
Recreation
Kunigami, Okinawa

FAC 6006
Yaedake Communication Site
Communications
Motobu, Okinawa

FAC 6022
Kadena Ammunition Storage Area
Storage
Onna, Okinawa

FAC 6037
Kadena Air Base
Air Base
Kadena, Okinawa

FAC 6077
Tori Shima Range
Training
Kumejima, Okinawa

FAC 6078
Idesuna Jima Range
Training
Tonaki, Okinawa

FAC 6080
Kume Jima Range
Training
Kumejima, Okinawa

Army
FAC 2070
Shariki Communication Site
Communications
Tsugaru, Aomori

FAC 3004
Akasaka Press Center
(Hardy Barracks)
Office
Minato, Tokyo

FAC 3067
Yokohama North Dock
Port Facility
Yokohama, Kanagawa

FAC 3079
Camp Zama
Office
Zama, Kanagawa

FAC 3084
Sagami General Depot
Logistics
Sagamihara, Kanagawa

FAC 3102
Sagamihara Housing Area
Housing
Sagamihara, Kanagawa

FAC 4078
Akizuki Ammunition Depot
Storage
Etajima, Hiroshima

FAC 4083
Kawakami Ammunition Depot
Storage
Higashihiroshima, Hiroshima

FAC 4084
Hiro Ammunition Depot
Storage
Kure, Hiroshima

FAC 4152
Kure Pier No.6
Port Facility
Kure, Hiroshima

FAC 4611
Haigamine Communication Site
Communications
Kure, Hiroshima

FAC 6007
Gesaji Communication Site
Communications
Higashi, Okinawa

FAC 6036
Torii Communications Station
(Torii Station)
Communications
Yomitan, Okinawa

FAC 6064
Naha Port
Port Facility
Naha, Okinawa

FAC 6076
Army POL Depots
Storage
Uruma, Okinawa

Navy
FAC 2006
Hachinohe POL Depot
Storage
Hachinohe, Aomori

FAC 2012
Misawa ATG Range
(R130, Draughon Range)
Training
Misawa, Aomori

FAC 3033
Kisarazu Auxiliary Landing Field
Air Facility
Kisarazu, Chiba

FAC 3066
Negishi Dependent Housing Area
(Naval Housing Annex Negishi)
Housing
Yokohama, Kanagawa

FAC 3083
Naval Air Facility Atsugi
Air Facility
Ayase, Kanagawa

FAC 3087
Ikego Housing Area and Navy Annex
Housing
Zushi, Kanagawa

FAC 3090
Azuma Storage Area
Storage
Yokosuka, Kanagawa

FAC 3096
Kamiseya Communications Station - returned to Japanese Gov 2015
(Naval Support Facility Kamiseya - returned to Japanese Gov 2015)
Communications
(Housing)
Yokohama, Kanagawa

FAC 3097
Fukaya Communication Site
(Naval Transmitter Station Totsuka)
Communications
Yokohama, Kanagawa

FAC 3099
United States Fleet Activities Yokosuka
Port Facility
Yokosuka, Kanagawa

FAC 3117
Urago Ammunition Depot
Storage
Yokosuka, Kanagawa

FAC 3144
Tsurumi POL Depot
Storage
Yokohama, Kanagawa

FAC 3181
Iwo Jima Communication Site
Communications
(Training)
Ogasawara, Tokyo

FAC 3185
New Sanno U.S. Forces Center
Recreation
Minato, Tokyo

FAC 5029
United States Fleet Activities Sasebo
Port Facility
Sasebo, Nagasaki

FAC 5030
Sasebo Dry Dock Area
Port Facility
Sasebo, Nagasaki

FAC 5032
Akasaki POL Depot
Storage
Sasebo, Nagasaki

FAC 5033
Sasebo Ammunition Supply Point
Storage
Sasebo, Nagasaki

FAC 5036
Iorizaki POL Depot
Storage
Sasebo, Nagasaki

FAC 5039
Yokose POL Depot
Storage
Saikai, Nagasaki

FAC 5050
Harioshima Ammunition Storage Area
Storage
Sasebo, Nagasaki

FAC 5086
Tategami Basin Port Area
Port Facility
Sasebo, Nagasaki

FAC 5118
Sakibe Navy Annex
Hangar
Sasebo, Nagasaki

FAC 5119
Hario Dependent Housing Area
(Hario Family Housing Area)
Housing
Sasebo, Nagasaki

FAC 6028
Tengan Pier
Port Facility
Uruma, Okinawa

FAC 6032
Camp Shields
Barracks
Okinawa, Okinawa

FAC 6046
Awase Communications Station
Communications
Okinawa, Okinawa

FAC 6048
White Beach Area
Port Facility
Uruma, Okinawa

FAC 6084
Kobi Sho Range
Training
Ishigaki, Okinawa

FAC 6085
Sekibi Sho Range
Training
Ishigaki, Okinawa

FAC 6088
Oki Daito Jima Range
Training
Kitadaito, Okinawa

Marine
Corps
FAC 3127
Camp Fuji
Barracks
Gotenba, Shizuoka

FAC 3154
Numazu Training Area
Training
Numazu, Shizuoka

FAC 4092
Marine Corps Air Station Iwakuni
Air Station
Iwakuni, Yamaguchi

FAC 6001
Northern Training Area
(Incl. Camp Gonsalves)
Training
Kunigami, Okinawa

FAC 6005
Ie Jima Auxiliary Airfield
Training
Ie, Okinawa

FAC 6009
Camp Schwab
Training
Nago, Okinawa

FAC 6010
Henoko Ordnance Ammunition Depot
Storage
Nago, Okinawa

FAC 6011
Camp Hansen
Training
Kin, Okinawa

FAC 6019
Kin Red Beach Training Area
Training
Kin, Okinawa

FAC 6020
Kin Blue Beach Training Area
Training
Kin, Okinawa

FAC 6029
Camp Courtney
Barracks
Uruma, Okinawa

FAC 6031
Camp McTureous
Barracks
Uruma, Okinawa

FAC 6043
Camp Kuwae (Camp Lester)
Medical Facility
Chatan, Okinawa

FAC 6044
Camp Zukeran (Camp Foster)
Barracks
Chatan, Okinawa

FAC 6051
Marine Corps Air Station Futenma
Air Station
Ginowan, Okinawa

FAC 6056
Makiminato Service Area (Camp Kinser)
Logistics
Urasoe, Okinawa

FAC 6082
Tsuken Jima Training Area
Training
Uruma, Okinawa

text:
Camp Smedley D. Butler, Okinawa Prefecture, Yamaguchi Prefectures. (Although these camps are dispersed throughout Okinawa and the rest of Japan they are all under the heading of Camp Smedley D. Butler):

Camp McTureous, Okinawa Prefecture
Camp Courtney, Okinawa Prefecture
Camp Foster, Okinawa Prefecture
Camp Kinser, Okinawa Prefecture
Camp Hansen, Okinawa Prefecture
Camp Schwab, Okinawa Prefecture
Camp Gonsalves (Jungle Warfare Training Center), Okinawa Prefecture
Kin Blue Beach Training Area, Okinawa Prefecture
Kin Red Beach Training Area, Okinawa Prefecture
Higashionna Ammunition Storage Point II
Henoko Ordnance Ammunition Depot

Marine Corps Air Station Futenma, Okinawa Prefecture (return after the MCAS Futenma relocates to Camp Schwab)
Marine Corps Air Station Iwakuni
Camp Fuji, Shizuoka Prefecture
Numazu Training Area, Shizuoka Prefecture
Ie Jima Auxiliary Airfield, Okinawa Prefecture
Tsuken Jima Training Area, Okinawa Prefecture

text: JSDF-USFJ Joint Use Facilities and Areas

text: Temporary use facilities and areas are as follows:

text:
USFJ Facilities
Admin Code
Name of Installation
Primary
Purpose
Location

FAC 1066
Camp Higashi Chitose (JGSDF)
Training
Chitose, Hokkaido

FAC 1067
Hokkaido Chitose Maneuver Area (JGSDF)
Training
Chitose, Hokkaido

FAC 1068
Chitose Air Base (JASDF)
Air Base
Chitose, Hokkaido

FAC 1069
Betsukai Yausubetsu Large Maneuver Area (JGSDF)
Training
Betsukai, Hokkaido

FAC 1070
Camp Kushiro (JGSDF)
Barracks
Kushiro, Hokkaido

FAC 1071
Camp Shikaoi (JGSDF)
Training
Shikaoi, Hokkaido

FAC 1072
Kamifurano Medium Maneuver Area (JGSDF)
Training
Kamifurano, Hokkaido

FAC 1073
Camp Sapporo (JGSDF)
Training
Sapporo, Hokkaido

FAC 1074
Shikaoi Shikaribetsu Medium Maneuver Area (JGSDF)
Training
Shikaoi, Hokkaido

FAC 1075
Camp Obihiro (JGSDF)
Training
Obihiro, Hokkaido

FAC 1076
Asahikawa Chikabumidai Maneuver Area (JGSDF)
Training
Asahikawa, Hokkaido

FAC 1077
Camp Okadama (JGSDF)
Recreation
Sapporo, Hokkaido

FAC 1078
Nayoro Maneuver Area (JGSDF)
Training
Nayoro, Hokkaido

FAC 1079
Takikawa Maneuver Area (JGSDF)
Training
Takikawa, Hokkaido

FAC 1080
Bihoro Training Area (JGSDF)
Training
Bihoro, Hokkaido

FAC 1081
Kutchan Takamine Maneuver Area (JGSDF)
Training
Kutchan, Hokkaido

FAC 1082
Engaru Maneuver Area (JGSDF)
Training
Engaru, Hokkaido

FAC 2062
Camp Sendai (JGSDF)
Training
Sendai, Miyagi

FAC 2063
Camp Hachinohe (JGSDF)
Barracks
Hachinohe, Aomori

FAC 2064
Iwate Iwatesan Medium Maneuver Area (JGSDF)
Training
Takizawa, Iwate

FAC 2065
Taiwa Ojojihara Large Maneuver Area (JGSDF)
Training
Taiwa, Miyagi

FAC 2066
Kasuminome Airfield (JGSDF)
Airfield
Sendai, Miyagi

FAC 2067
Aomori Kotani Maneuver Area (JGSDF)
Training
Aomori, Aomori

FAC 2068
Hirosaki Maneuver Area (JGSDF)
Training
Hirosaki, Aomori

FAC 2069
Jinmachi Otakane Maneuver Area (JGSDF)
Training
Murayama, Yamagata

FAC 3104
Nagasaka Rifle Range (JGSDF)
Training
Yokosuka, Kanagawa

FAC 3183
Fuji Maneuver Area (JGSDF)
Training
Fujiyoshida, Yamanashi
Gotenba, Shizuoka

FAC 3184
Camp Takigahara (JGSDF)
Training
Gotenba, Shizuoka

FAC 3186
Takada Sekiyama Maneuver Area (JGSDF)
Training
Joetsu, Niigata

FAC 3187
Hyakuri Air Base (JASDF)
Air Base
Omitama, Ibaraki

FAC 3188
Soumagahara Maneuver Area (JGSDF)
Training
Shinto, Gunma

FAC 3189
Camp Asaka (JGSDF)
Training
Asaka, Saitama

FAC 4161
Komatsu Air Base (JASDF)
Air Base
Komatsu, Ishikawa

FAC 4162
1st Service School (JMSDF)
Training
Etajima, Hiroshima

FAC 4163
Haramura Maneuver Area (JGSDF)
Training
Higashihiroshima, Hiroshima

FAC 4164
Imazu Aibano Medium Maneuver Area (JGSDF)
Training
Takashima, Shiga

FAC 4165
Gifu Air Base (JASDF)
Recreation
Kakamigahara, Gifu

FAC 4166
Camp Itami (JGSDF)
Training
Itami, Hyogo

FAC 4167
Nihonbara Medium Maneuver Area (JGSDF)
Training
Nagi, Okayama

FAC 4168
Miho Air Base (JASDF)
Air Base
Sakaiminato, Tottori

FAC 5115
Nyutabaru Air Base (JASDF)
Air Base
Shintomi, Miyazaki

FAC 5117
Sakibe Rifle Range (JMSDF)
Training
Sasebo, Nagasaki

FAC 5120
Hijudai-Jumonjibaru Maneuver Area (JGSDF)
Training
Yufu, Oita
Beppu, Oita

FAC 5121
Tsuiki Air Base (JASDF)
Air Base
Chikujo, Fukuoka

FAC 5122
Omura Air Base (JMSDF)
Recreation
Omura, Nagasaki

FAC 5123
Oyanohara-Kirishima Maneuver Area (JGSDF)
Training
Yamato, Kumamoto
Ebino, Miyazaki

FAC 5124
Camp Kita Kumamoto (JGSDF)
Training
Kumamoto, Kumamoto

FAC 5125
Camp Kengun (JGSDF)
Training
Kumamoto, Kumamoto

FAC 6181
Ukibaru Jima Training Area
Training
Uruma, Okinawa

text: In Okinawa, U.S. military installations occupy about 10.4 percent of the total land usage. Approximately 74.7 percent of all the U.S. military facilities in Japan are located on the island of Okinawa.

text: List of former facilities[edit]

text: The United States has returned some facilities to Japanese control. Some are used as military bases of the JSDF; others have become civilian airports or government offices; many are factories, office buildings or residential developments in the private sector. Due to the Special Actions Committee on Okinawa, more land in Okinawa is in the process of being returned. These areas include—Camp Kuwae [also known as Camp Lester], MCAS Futenma, areas within Camp Zukeran [also known as Camp Foster], about 9,900 acres (40 km2) of the Northern Training Area, Aha Training Area, Gimbaru Training Area (also known as Camp Gonsalves), small portion of the Makiminato Service Area (also known as Camp Kinser), and Naha Port.

text: Army:

text:
Army Composite Service Group Area (later, Chinen Service Area), Nanjō, Okinawa
Army STRATCOM Warehouse (later, Urasoe Warehouse), Urasoe, Okinawa
Bluff Area (later, Yamate Dependent Housing Area), Yokohama, Kanagawa
Bolo Point Auxiliary Airfield (later, Trainfire Range), Yomitan, Okinawa
Bolo Point Army Annex, Yomitan, Okinawa
Camp Bender, Ōta, Gunma
Camp Boone, Ginowan, Okinawa
Camp Burness, Chūō, Tokyo
Camp Chickamauga, 19th Infantry, Beppu, Oita[44]
Camp Chigasaki, Chigasaki, Kanagawa
Camp Chitose Annex (Chitose I, II), Chitose, Hokkaido
Camp Coe, Yokohama, Kanagawa
Camp Crawford, Sapporo, Hokkaido
Camp Drake, Asaka, Saitama
Camp Drew, Ōizumi, Gunma
Camp Eta Jima, Etajima, Hiroshima
Camp Fowler, Sendai, Miyagi
Camp Fuchinobe (Office Japan, NSAPACREP), Sagamihara, Kanagawa
Camp Hakata, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka[44]
Camp Hardy, Ginoza, Okinawa
Camp Haugen, Hachinohe, Aomori
Camp Katakai, Kujūkuri, Chiba
Camp King (later, Omiya Ordnance Sub Depot), Omiya, Saitama
Camp Kokura, Kitakyushu, Fukuoka
Camp Kubasaki (later, Kubasaki School Area), [Nakagusuku, Okinawa]
Camp Loper, Tagajō, Miyagi
Camp McGill, Yokosuka, Kanagawa
Camp McNair, Fujiyoshida, Yamanashi
Camp Mercy, Ginowan, Okinawa
Camp Moore, Kawasaki, Kanagawa
Camp Mower 34th Infantry, Sasebo, Nagasaki[44]
Camp Nara, Nara, Nara
Camp Ojima, Ōta, Gunma
Camp Otsu, Ōtsu, Shiga
Camp Palmer, Funabashi, Chiba
Camp Schimmelpfennig, Sendai, Miyagi
Camp Stilwell, Maebashi, Gunma
Camp Weir, Shinto, Gunma
Camp Whittington, Kumagaya, Saitama
Camp Wood, 21st Infantry, Kumamoto[44]
Camp Younghans, Higashine, Yamagata
Chibana Army Annex (later, Chibana Site), Okinawa, Okinawa
Chinen Army Annex (later, Chinen Site), Chinen, Okinawa
Chuo Kogyo (later, Niikura Warehouse Area), Wako, Saitama
Deputy Division Engineer Office, Urasoe, Okinawa
Division School Center, Kokura[44]
Etchujima Warehouse, Koto, Tokyo
Funaoka Ammunition Depot, Shibata, Miyagi
Hachinohe LST Barge Landing Area, Hachinohe, Aomori
Hakata Transportation Office, Hakata-ku, Fukuoka
Hamby Auxiliary Airfield, Chatan, Okinawa
Hosono Ammunition Depot, Seika, Kyoto
Iribaru (Nishihara) Army Annex, Uruma, Okinawa
Ishikawa Army Annex, Uruma, Okinawa
Japan Logistical Command (Yokohama Customs House), Yokohama, Kanagawa
Jefferson Heights, Chiyoda, Tokyo
Kanagawa Milk Plant, Yokohama, Kanagawa
Kashiji Army Annex, Chatan, Okinawa
Kishine Barracks, Yokohama, Kanagawa
Kobe Pier No. 6, Kobe, Hyogo
Kobe Port Building, Kobe, Hyogo
Koza Radio Relay Annex (later, Koza Communication Site), Okinawa, Okinawa
Kure Barge Landing Area, Kure, Hiroshima
Lincoln Center, Chiyoda, Tokyo
Moji Port, Kitakyushu, Fukuoka
Nagoya Procurement (Purchasing and Contracting) Office, Nagoya, Aichi
Naha Army Annex (later, Naha Site), Naha, Okinawa
Naha Service Center, Naha, Okinawa
Namihira Army Annex, Yomitan, Okinawa
Negishi Racetrack Area, Yokohama, Kanagawa
Okinawa Regional Exchange Cold Storage (later, Naha Cold Storage), Naha, Okinawa
Okinawa Regional Exchange Dry Storage Warehouse (later, Makiminato Warehouse), Urasoe, Okinawa
Onna Point Army Annex (later, Onna Site), Onna, Okinawa
Oppama Ordnance Depot, Yokosuka, Kanagawa
Ota Koizumi Airfield (Patton Field Air Drop Range), Oizumi, Gunma
Palace Heights, Chiyoda, Tokyo
Pershing Heights (Headquarters, U.S. Far East Command/United Nations Command), Shinjuku, Tokyo
Sakuradani Rifle Range, Chikushino, Fukuoka
Sanno Hotel Officer's Quarter, Chiyoda, Tokyo
Shikotsuko Training Area, Chitose, Hokkaido
Shinzato Communication Site, Nanjo, Okinawa
South Ammunition Storage Annex (later, South Ammunition Storage Area), Yaese, Okinawa
Sunabe Army Annex, Chatan, Okinawa
Tana Ammunition Depot, Yokohama, Kanagawa
Tairagawa (Deragawa) Communication Site, Uruma, Okinawa
Tengan Communication Site, Uruma, Okinawa
Tokyo Army Hospital, Chuo, Tokyo
Tokyo Quartermaster Depot, Minato, Tokyo
Tokyo Ordnance Depot (later, Camp Oji), Kita, Tokyo
U.S. Army Medical Center, Sagamihara, Kanagawa
U.S. Army Printing and Publication Center, Far East, Kawasaki, Kanagawa
U.S. Army Procurement Agency, Japan, Yokohama, Kanagawa
Yokohama Center Pier (MSTS-FE), Yokohama, Kanagawa
Yokohama Engineering Depot, Yokohama, Kanagawa
Yokohama Motor Command, Yokohama, Kanagawa
Yokohama Ordnance Depot, Yokohama, Kanagawa
Yokohama POL Depot, Yokohama, Kanagawa
Yokohama Servicemen Club, Yokohama, Kanagawa
Yokohama Signal Supply Depot, Kawasaki, Kanagawa
Yokohama Signal Maintenance Depot (JLC Air Strip), Yokohama, Kanagawa
Yokohama South Pier, Yokohama, Kanagawa
Yomitan Army Annex, Yomitan, Okinawa
Zama Rifle Range, Sagamihara, Kanagawa
Zukeran Propagation Annex (later, Communication Site), Chatan, Okinawa

text: Navy:

text:
Haiki (Sasebo) Rifle Range, Sasebo, Nagasaki
Inanba Shima Gunnery Firing Range, Mikurajima, Tokyo
Kinugasa Ammunition Depot, Yokosuka, Kanagawa
Koshiba POL Depot, Yokohama, Kanagawa
Ominato Communication Site, Ominato, Aomori
Omura Rifle Range, Omura, Nagasaki
Makiminato Service Area Annex, Urasoe, Okinawa
Minamitorishima Communication Site, Ogasawara, Tokyo
Nagahama Rifle Range, Kure, Hiroshima
Nagai Dependent Housing Area (Admiralty Heights), Yokosuka, Kanagawa
Nagiridani Dependent Housing Area, Sasebo, Nagasaki
Naval Air Facility Naha, Naha, Okinawa
Naval Air Facility Oppama, Yokosuka, Kanagawa
Navy EM Club, Yokosuka, Yokosuka, Kanagawa
Niigata Sekiya Communication Site, Chuo-ku, Niigata
Shinyamashita Dependent Housing Area (Bayside Court), Yokohama, Kanagawa
Sobe Communication Site (NSGA Hanza), Yomitan, Okinawa
Tokachibuto Communication Site, Urahoro, Hokkaido
Tomioka Storage Area, Yokohama, Kanagawa
Tsujido Maneuver Area, Chigasaki, Kanagawa
Yokohama Bakery, Yokohama, Kanagawa
Yokohama Beach (Honmoku) Dependent Housing Area, Yokohama, Kanagawa
Yokohama Chapel Center, Yokohama, Kanagawa
Yokohama Cold Storage, Yokohama, Kanagawa
Yokosuka Naval Pier, Yokosuka, Kanagawa
Yosami Communication Site, Kariya, Aichi

text: Air Force:

text:
Ashiya Air Base (later, ATG Range), Ashiya, Fukuoka
Asoiwayama Liaison Annex, Tobetsu, Hokkaido
Brady Air Base (later, Gannosu Air Station), Higashi-ku, Fukuoka
Chiran Communication Site, Chiran, Kagoshima
Chitose Air Base, Chitose, Hokkaido
Daikanyama Communication Site, Yugawara, Kanagawa
Fuchu Air Station (Headquarters, USFJ/Fifth Air Force, 1957–1974), Fuchu, Tokyo
Funabashi Communication Site, Funabashi, Chiba
Grant Heights Dependent Housing Area, Nerima, Tokyo
Green Park Housing Annex, Musashino, Tokyo
Hachinohe Small Arms Range, Hachinohe, Aomori
Hamura School Annex, Hamura, Tokyo
Haneda Air Base (later, Postal Service Annex), Ota, Tokyo
Hanshin Auxiliary Airfield, Yao, Osaka
Hirao Communication Site, Chuo-ku, Fukuoka
Itami Air Base, Itami, Hyogo
Itazuke Administration Annex (Kasugabaru DHA), Kasuga, Fukuoka
Itazuke Air Base, Hakata-ku, Fukuoka
Johnson Air Base (later, Air Station, Family Housing Annex), Iruma, Saitama
Kadena Dependent Housing Area, Yomitan, Okinawa
Kanto Mura Dependent Housing Area and Auxiliary Airfield, Chofu, Tokyo
Kasatoriyama Radar Site, Tsu, Mie
Kashiwa Communication Site (Camp Tomlinson), Kashiwa, Chiba
Komaki (Nagoya) Air Base, Komaki, Aichi
Kozoji Ammunition Depot, Kasugai, Aichi
Kume Jima Air Station, Kumejima, Okinawa
Kushimoto Radar Site, Kushimoto, Wakayama
Miho Air Base, Sakaiminato, Tottori
Mineoka Liaison Annex, Minamiboso, Chiba
Mito ATG Range, Hitachinaka, Ibaraki
Miyako Jima Air Station, Miyakojima, Okinawa
Miyako Jima VORTAC Site, Miyakojima, Okinawa
Moriyama Air Station, Nagoya, Aichi
Naha Air Base, Naha, Okinawa
Naha Air Force/Navy Annex, Naha, Okinawa
Najima Warehouse Area, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka
Niigata Air Base, Niigata, Niigata
Ofuna Warehouse, Yokohama, Kanagawa
Oshima Communication Center, Oshima, Tokyo
Rokko Communication Site, Kobe, Hyogo
Senaha Communications Station, Yomitan, Okinawa (returned to the Japanese government in September 2006)
Sendai Kunimi Communication Site, Sendai, Miyagi
Showa (later, Akishima) Dependent Housing Area, Akishima, Tokyo
Shiroi Air Base, Kashiwa, Chiba
Sunabe Warehouse, Chatan, Okinawa
Tachikawa Air Base, Tachikawa, Tokyo
Tokyo Communication Site (NTTPC Central Telephone Exchange), Chuo, Tokyo
Wajima Liaison Annex, Wajima, Ishikawa
Wajiro Water Supply Site, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka
Wakkanai Air Station, Wakkanai, Hokkaido
Washington Heights Dependent Housing Area, Shibuya, Tokyo
Yamada Ammunition Depot, Kitakyushu, Fukuoka
Yokawame Communication Site, Misawa, Aomori
Yozadake Air Station, Itoman, Okinawa

text: Marines:

text:
Aha Training Area, Kunigami, Okinawa
Camp Gifu, Kakamigahara, Gifu
Camp Hauge, Uruma, Okinawa
Camp Okubo, Uji, Kyoto
Camp Shinodayama, Izumi, Osaka
Gimbaru Training Area, Kin, Okinawa
Ihajo Kanko Hotel, Uruma, Okinawa
Makiminato Housing Area, Naha, Okinawa
Onna Communication Site, Onna, Okinawa
Awase Golf Course, Okinawa Prefecture (returned to the Japanese government in April 2010)
Yaka Rest Center, Kin, Okinawa
Yomitan Auxiliary Airfield, Yomitan, Okinawa (returned to the Japanese government in 2006, parachute drop training ended in March 2001)


document_title: Plasmolysis

question_text: when does water stop flowing from hypotonic to hypertonic solution

root

text: Plasmolysis

text: Turgidity[edit]

text: A plant cell in hypotonic solution will absorb water by endosmosis, so that the increased volume of water in the cell will increase pressure, making the protoplasm push against the cell wall, a condition known as turgor. Turgor makes plant cells push against each other in the same way and is the main line method of support in non-woody plant tissue. Plant cell walls resist further water entry after a certain point, known as full turgor, which stops plant cells from bursting as animal cells do in the same conditions. This is also the reason that plants stand upright. Without the stiffness of the plant cells the plant would fall under its own weight. Turgor pressure allows plants to stay firm and erect, and plants without turgor pressure (known as flaccid) wilt. A cell begins to decline in turgor pressure only when there is no air spaces surrounding it and eventually leads to a greater osmotic pressure than that of the cell.[1] Vacuoles play a role in turgor pressure when water leaves the cell due to hyperosmotic solutions containing solutes such as mannitol, sorbitol, and sucrose.[2]

tag: p

text: Plasmolysis[edit]

text: If a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, the plant cell loses water and hence turgor pressure by plasmolysis: pressure decreases to the point where the protoplasm of the cell peels away from the cell wall, leaving gaps between the cell wall and the membrane and making the plant cell shrink and crumple. A continued decrease in pressure eventually leads to cytorrhysis – the complete collapse of the cell wall. Plants with cells in this condition wilt. After plasmolysis the gap between the cell wall and the cell membrane in a plant cell is filled with hypertonic solution. This is because as the solution surrounding the cell is hypertonic, exosmosis takes place and the space between the cell wall and cytoplasm is filled with solutes, as most of the water drains away and hence the concentration inside the cell becomes more hypertonic. There are some mechanisms in plants to prevent excess water loss in the same way as excess water gain. Plasmolysis can be reversed if the cell is placed in a hypotonic solution. Stomata help keep water in the plant so it does not dry out. Wax also keeps water in the plant. The equivalent process in animal cells is called crenation.

text: The liquid content of the cell leaks out due to exosmosis. The cell collapses, and the cell membrane pulls away from the cell wall (in plants). Most animal cells consist of only a phospholipid bilayer (plasma membrane) and not a cell wall, therefore shrinking up under such conditions.

text: Plasmolysis only occurs in extreme conditions and rarely happens in nature. It is induced in the laboratory by immersing cells in strong saline or sugar (sucrose) solutions to cause exosmosis, often using Elodea plants or onion epidermal cells, which have colored cell sap so that the process is clearly visible. Methylene blue can be used to stain plant cells.

text: Plasmolysis is mainly known as shrinking of cell membrane in hypertonic solution and great pressure.

text: Plasmolysis can be of two types, either concave plasmolysis or convex plasmolysis. Convex plasmolysis is always irreversible while concave plasmolysis is usually reversible.[3] During concave plasmolysis, the plasma membrane and the enclosed protoplast partially shrinks from the cell wall due to half-spherical, inwarding curving pockets forming between the plasma membrane and the cell wall. During convex plasmolysis, the plasma membrane and the enclosed protoplast shrinks completely from the cell wall, with the plasma membrane's ends in a symmetrically, spherically curved pattern.[4]


document_title: Seven Wonders of the Ancient World

question_text: who wrote the seven wonders of the ancient world

text: Seven Wonders of the Ancient World

text: Background[edit]

text: The Greek conquest of much of the known western world in the 4th century BC gave Hellenistic travellers access to the civilizations of the Egyptians, Persians, and Babylonians.[1] Impressed and captivated by the landmarks and marvels of the various lands, these travellers began to list what they saw to remember them.[2][3]

text: Instead of "wonders", the ancient Greeks spoke of "theamata" (θεάματα), which means "sights", in other words "things to be seen" (Τὰ ἑπτὰ θεάματα τῆς οἰκουμένης [γῆς] Tà heptà theámata tēs oikoumenēs [gēs]). Later, the word for "wonder" ("thaumata" θαύματα, "wonders") was used.[4] Hence, the list was meant to be the Ancient World's counterpart of a travel guidebook.[1]

text: The first reference to a list of seven such monuments was given by Diodorus Siculus.[5][6] The epigrammist Antipater of Sidon[7] who lived around or before 100 BC,[8] gave a list of seven such monuments, including six of the present list (substituting the walls of Babylon for the lighthouse):[9]

text: I have gazed on the walls of impregnable Babylon along which chariots may race, and on the Zeus by the banks of the Alpheus, I have seen the hanging gardens, and the Colossus of the Helios, the great man-made mountains of the lofty pyramids, and the gigantic tomb of Mausolus; but when I saw the sacred house of Artemis that towers to the clouds, the others were placed in the shade, for the sun himself has never looked upon its equal outside Olympus. – Greek Anthology IX.58

text: Another 2nd century BC observer, who claimed to be the mathematician Philo of Byzantium,[10] wrote a short account entitled The Seven Sights of the World. However, the incomplete surviving manuscript only covered six of the supposedly seven places, which agreed with Antipater's list.[3]

text: Earlier and later lists by the historian Herodotus (484 BC–ca. 425 BC) and the architect Callimachus of Cyrene (ca. 305–240 BC), housed at the Museum of Alexandria, survived only as references.

text: The Colossus of Rhodes was the last of the seven to be completed, after 280 BC, and the first to be destroyed, by an earthquake in 226/225 BC. Hence, all seven existed at the same time for a period of less than 60 years.

text: Scope[edit]

text: The list covered only the sculptural and architectural monuments of the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern regions,[10] which then comprised the known world for the Greeks. Hence, extant sites beyond this realm were not considered as part of contemporary accounts.[1]

text: The primary accounts, coming from Hellenistic writers, also heavily influenced the places included in the wonders list. Five of the seven entries are a celebration of Greek accomplishments in the arts and architecture (the exceptions being the Pyramids of Giza and the Hanging Gardens of Babylon).

text: Wonders[edit]

text:
[show]Map all coordinates using OSM
Map all coordinates using Google

Export all coordinates as KML

Export all coordinates as GPX

Map all microformatted coordinates

Place data as RDF

tag: table

text:
Name
Date of construction
Builders
Date of destruction
Cause of destruction
Modern location

Great Pyramid of Giza
2584–2561 BC
Egyptians
Still in existence, majority of façade gone
Giza Necropolis, Egypt
29°58′45.03″N 31°08′03.69″E / 29.9791750°N 31.1343583°E / 29.9791750; 31.1343583 (Great Pyramid of Giza)

Hanging Gardens of Babylon
(existence unresolved)[11]
c. 600 BC (evident)
Babylonians or Assyrians
After 1st century AD
Unknown
Hillah or Nineveh, Iraq
32°32′08″N 44°25′39″E / 32.5355°N 44.4275°E / 32.5355; 44.4275 (Hanging Gardens of Babylon)

Temple of Artemis at Ephesus
c. 550 BC; and again at 323 BC
Greeks, Lydians
356 BC (by Herostratus)
AD 262 (by the Goths)
Arson by Herostratus, plundering
Near Selçuk, Turkey
37°56′59″N 27°21′50″E / 37.94972°N 27.36389°E / 37.94972; 27.36389 (Temple of Artemis at Ephesus)

Statue of Zeus at Olympia
466–456 BC (temple)
435 BC (statue)
Greeks
5th–6th centuries AD
Disassembled and reassembled at Constantinople; later destroyed by fire
Olympia, Greece
37°38′16.3″N 21°37′48″E / 37.637861°N 21.63000°E / 37.637861; 21.63000 (Statue of Zeus at Olympia)

Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
351 BC
Greeks,[12][13] Persians, Carians
12th–15th century AD
Earthquakes
Bodrum, Turkey
37°02′16″N 27°25′27″E / 37.0379°N 27.4241°E / 37.0379; 27.4241 (Mausoleum at Halicarnassus)

Colossus of Rhodes
292–280 BC
Greeks
226 BC
226 BC Rhodes earthquake
Rhodes, Greece
36°27′04″N 28°13′40″E / 36.45111°N 28.22778°E / 36.45111; 28.22778 (Colossus of Rhodes)

Lighthouse of Alexandria
c. 280 BC
Greeks, Ptolemaic Egyptians
AD 1303–1480
1303 Crete earthquake
Alexandria, Egypt
31°12′50″N 29°53′08″E / 31.21389°N 29.88556°E / 31.21389; 29.88556 (Lighthouse of Alexandria)

text: Influence[edit]

text: Arts and architecture[edit]

text: The seven wonders on Antipater's list won praises for their notable features, ranging from superlatives of the highest or largest of their types, to the artistry with which they were executed. Their architectural and artistic features were imitated throughout the Hellenistic world and beyond.

text: The Greek influence in Roman culture, and the revival of Greco-Roman artistic styles during the Renaissance caught the imagination of European artists and travellers.[15] Paintings and sculptures alluding to Antipater's list were made, while adventurers flocked to the actual sites to personally witness the wonders. Legends circulated to further complement the superlatives of the wonders.

text: Modern lists[edit]

text: Of Antipater's wonders, the only one that has survived to the present day is the Great Pyramid of Giza. Its brilliant white stone facing had survived intact until around 1300 AD, when local communities removed most of the stonework for building materials. The existence of the Hanging Gardens has not been proven, although theories abound.[16] Records and archaeology confirm the existence of the other five wonders. The Temple of Artemis and the Statue of Zeus were destroyed by fire, while the Lighthouse of Alexandria, Colossus, and tomb of Mausolus were destroyed by earthquakes. Among the artifacts to have survived are sculptures from the tomb of Mausolus and the Temple of Artemis in the British Museum in London.

text: Still, the listing of seven of the most marvellous architectural and artistic human achievements continued beyond the Ancient Greek times to the Roman Empire, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and to the modern age. The Roman poet Martial and the Christian bishop Gregory of Tours had their versions.[1] Reflecting the rise of Christianity and the factor of time, nature and the hand of man overcoming Antipater's seven wonders, Roman and Christian sites began to figure on the list, including the Colosseum, Noah's Ark and Solomon's Temple.[1][3] In the 6th century, a list of seven wonders was compiled by St. Gregory of Tours: the list[17] included the Temple of Solomon, the Pharos of Alexandria and Noah's Ark.

text: Modern historians, working on the premise that the original Seven Ancient Wonders List was limited in its geographic scope, also had their versions to encompass sites beyond the Hellenistic realm—from the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World to the Seven Wonders of the World. Indeed, the "seven wonders" label has spawned innumerable versions among international organizations, publications and individuals based on different themes—works of nature, engineering masterpieces, constructions of the Middle Ages, etc. Its purpose has also changed from just a simple travel guidebook or a compendium of curious places, to lists of sites to defend or to preserve.


document_title: Ramayana

question_text: where did the battle between rama and ravana take place

question_tokens: where did the battle between rama and ravana take place

text: Ramayana

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The name Ramayana is a tatpuruṣa compound of the name Rāma.

text: Textual history and structure[edit]

text: According to Hindu tradition – and according to the Ramayana itself – the epic belongs to the genre of itihasa like Mahabharata. The definition of itihāsa is a narrative of past events (purāvṛtta) which includes teachings on the goals of human life. According to Hindu tradition, Ramayana takes place during a period of time known as Treta Yuga.[3]

text: In its extant form, Valmiki's Ramayana is an epic poem of some 24,000 verses. The text survives in several thousand partial and complete manuscripts, the oldest of which is a palm-leaf manuscript found in Nepal and dated to the 11th century CE. A Times of India report dated 18 December 2015 informs about the discovery of a 6th-century manuscript of the Ramayana at the Asiatic Society library, Kolkata.[4] The Ramayana text has several regional renderings,recensions and sub recensions. Textual scholar Robert P. Goldman differentiates two major regional revisions: the northern (n) and the southern (s). Scholar Romesh Chunder Dutt writes that "the Ramayana, like the Mahabharata, is a growth of centuries, but the main story is more distinctly the creation of one mind."

text: There has been discussion as to whether the first and the last volumes (bala kandam and uttara kandam) of Valmiki's Ramayana were composed by the original author. Most Hindus still believe they are integral parts of the book, in spite of some style differences and narrative contradictions between these two volumes and the rest of the book.[5]

text: Retellings include Gona Budda Reddy's Ramayanam in Telugu, Kamban's Ramavataram in Tamil (c. 11th–12th century), Madhava Kandali's Saptakanda Ramayana in Assamese (c. 14th century), Krittibas Ojha's Krittivasi Ramayan (also known as Shri Rama Panchali) in Bengali (c. 15th century), Sarala Das' Vilanka Ramayana (c. 15th century)[6][7][8][9] and Balaram Das' Dandi Ramayana (also known as the Jagamohan Ramayana) (c. 16th century) both in Odia, sant Eknath's Bhavarth Ramayan (c. 16th century) in Marathi, Tulsidas' Ramcharitamanas (c. 16th century) in Awadhi (which is an eastern form of Hindi) and Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan's Adhyathmaramayanam in Malayalam.

text: Period[edit]

text: Some cultural evidence, such as the presence of sati in Mahabharata but not in the main body of Ramayana, suggests that Ramayana predates Mahabharata. However, the general cultural background of Ramayana is one of the post-urbanization periods of the eastern part of north India and Nepal, while Mahabharata reflects the Kuru areas west of this, from the Rigvedic to the late Vedic period.

text: By tradition, the text belongs to the Treta Yuga, second of the four eons (yuga) of Hindu chronology. Rama is said to have been born in the Treta yuga to king Dasharatha in the Ikshvaku dynasty.

text: The names of the characters (Rama, Sita, Dasharatha, Janaka, Vashista, Vishwamitra) are all known in late Vedic literature. However, nowhere in the surviving Vedic poetry is there a story similar to the Ramayana of Valmiki. According to the modern academic view, Vishnu, who, according to bala kanda, was incarnated as Rama, first came into prominence with the epics themselves and further, during the puranic period of the later 1st millennium CE. Also, in the epic Mahabharata, there is a version of Ramayana known as Ramopakhyana. This version is depicted as a narration to Yudhishthira.

text: There is general consensus that books two to six form the oldest portion of the epic, while the first and last books (Bala Kanda and Uttara Kanda, respectively) are later additions.[citation needed] The author or authors of Bala Kanda and Ayodhya Kanda appear to be familiar with the eastern Gangetic basin region of northern India and with the Kosala, Mithila and Magadha regions during the period of the sixteen Mahajanapadas, based on the fact that the geographical and geopolitical data accords with what is known about the region.

text: Characters[edit]

text: Ikshvaku dynasty[edit]

text:
Dasharatha is king of Ayodhya and father of Rama. He has three queens, Kausalya, Kaikeyi and Sumitra and three other sons: Bharata, and twins Lakshmana and Shatrughna. Kaikeyi, Dasharatha's favourite queen, forces him to make their son Bharata crown prince and send Rama into exile. Dasharatha dies heartbroken after Rama goes into exile.
Rama is the main protagonist of the tale. Portrayed as the seventh avatar of god Vishnu, he is the eldest and favourite son of Dasharatha, the king of Ayodhya and his Chief Queen, Kausalya. He is portrayed as the epitome of virtue. Dasharatha is forced by Kaikeyi to command Rama to relinquish his right to the throne for fourteen years and go into exile. Rama kills the evil demon Ravana, who abducted his wife Sita, and later returns to Ayodhya to form an ideal state.

tag: ul

text:
Sita is another of the tale's protagonists. She is a daughter of Mother Earth, adopted by King Janaka, and Rama's beloved wife. Rama went to Mithila and got a chance to marry her by breaking the Shiv Dhanush (bow) while trying to tie a knot to it in a competition organized by King Janaka of Mithila in Dhanusa. The competition was to find the most suitable husband for Sita and many princes from different states competed to win her. Sita is the avatara of goddess Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu. Sita is portrayed as the epitome of female purity and virtue. She follows her husband into exile and is abducted by the demon king Ravana. She is imprisoned on the island of Lanka, until Rama rescues her by defeating Ravana. Later, she gives birth to twin boys Luv and Kusha.
Bharata is the son of Dasharatha and Queen Kaikeyi. When he learns that his mother Kaikeyi has forced Rama into exile and caused Dasharatha to die brokenhearted, he storms out of the palace and goes in search of Rama in the forest. When Rama refuses to return from his exile to assume the throne, Bharata obtains Rama's sandals and places them on the throne as a gesture that Rama is the true king. Bharata then rules Ayodhya as the regent of Rama for the next fourteen years, staying outside the city of Ayodhya. He was married to Mandavi.
Lakshmana is a younger brother of Rama, who chose to go into exile with him. He is the son of King Dasharatha and Queen Sumitra and twin of Shatrughna. Lakshmana is portrayed as an avatar of Shesha, the nāga associated with the god Vishnu. He spends his time protecting Sita and Rama, during which time he fights the demoness Surpanakha. He is forced to leave Sita, who was deceived by the demon Maricha into believing that Rama was in trouble. Sita is abducted by Ravana upon his leaving her. He was married to Sita's younger sister Urmila.
Shatrughna is a son of Dasharatha and his second wife Queen Sumitra. He is the youngest brother of Rama and also the twin brother of Lakshmana. He was married to Shrutakirti.

text: Allies of Rama[edit]

text:
Hanuman is a vanara belonging to the kingdom of Kishkindha. He is an ideal bhakta of Rama. He is born as son of Kesari, a Vanara king in Sumeru region and the goddess Añjanā. He plays an important part in locating Sita and in the ensuing battle. He is believed to live until our modern world.
Sugriva, a vanara king who helped Rama regain Sita from Ravana. He had an agreement with Rama through which Vali – Sugriva's brother and king of Kishkindha – would be killed by Rama in exchange for Sugriva's help in finding Sita. Sugriva ultimately ascends the throne of Kishkindha after the slaying of Vali and fulfills his promise by putting the Vanara forces at Rama's disposal.
Angada is a vanara who helped Rama find his wife Sita and fight her abductor, Ravana, in Ramayana. He was son of Vali and Tara and nephew of Sugriva. Angada and Tara are instrumental in reconciling Rama and his brother, Lakshmana, with Sugriva after Sugriva fails to fulfill his promise to help Rama find and rescue his wife. Together they are able to convince Sugriva to honour his pledge to Rama instead of spending his time carousing and drinking.

text: Jambavan/Jamvanta is known as Riksharaj (King of the Rikshas). Rikshas are bears. In the epic Ramayana, Jambavantha helped Rama find his wife Sita and fight her abductor, Ravana. It is he who makes Hanuman realize his immense capabilities and encourages him to fly across the ocean to search for Sita in Lanka.

text:
Jatayu, son of Aruṇa and nephew of Garuda. A demi-god who has the form of a vulture that tries to rescue Sita from Ravana. Jatayu fought valiantly with Ravana, but as Jatayu was very old, Ravana soon got the better of him. As Rama and Lakshmana chanced upon the stricken and dying Jatayu in their search for Sita, he informs them of the direction in which Ravana had gone.
Sampati, son of Aruna, brother of Jatayu. Sampati's role proved to be instrumental in the search for Sita.

text: Vibhishana, youngest brother of Ravana. He was against the abduction of Sita and joined the forces of Rama when Ravana refused to return her. His intricate knowledge of Lanka was vital in the war and he was crowned king after the fall of Ravana.

text: Foes of Rama[edit]

text:
Ravana, a rakshasa, is the king of Lanka. He was son of a sage named Vishrava and daitya princess Kaikesi. After performing severe penance for ten thousand years he received a boon from the creator-god Brahma: he could henceforth not be killed by gods, demons, or spirits. He is portrayed as a powerful demon king who disturbs the penances of rishis. Vishnu incarnates as the human Rama to defeat him, thus circumventing the boon given by Brahma.
Indrajit or Meghnadha, the eldest son of Ravana who twice defeated Rama and Lakshmana in battle, before succumbing to Lakshmana. An adept of the magical arts, he coupled his supreme fighting skills with various stratagems to inflict heavy losses on Vanara army before his death.
Kumbhakarna, brother of Ravana, famous for his eating and sleeping. He would sleep for months at a time and would be extremely ravenous upon waking up, consuming anything set before him. His monstrous size and loyalty made him an important part of Ravana's army. During the war he decimated the Vanara army before Rama cut off his limbs and head.
Surpanakha, Ravana's demoness sister who fell in love with Rama and had the magical power to take any form she wanted.

text: Vali, was king of Kishkindha, husband of Tara, a son of Indra, elder brother of Sugriva and father of Angada. Vali was famous for the boon that he had received, according to which anyone who fought him in single-combat lost half his strength to Vali, thereby making Vali invulnerable to any enemy. He was killed by Lord Rama, an Avatar of Vishnu.

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: Bala Kanda[edit]

text: Dasharatha was the king of Ayodhya. He had three wives: Kaushalya, Kaikeyi and Sumitra. He was childless for a long time and anxious to produce an heir, so he performs a fire sacrifice known as putra-kameshti yagya. As a consequence, Rama is first born to Kaushalya, Bharata is born to Kaikeyi, Lakshmana and Shatrughna are born to Sumitra. These sons are endowed, to various degrees, with the essence of the Supreme Trinity Entity Vishnu; Vishnu had opted to be born into mortality to combat the demon Ravana, who was oppressing the gods, and who could only be destroyed by a mortal. The boys are reared as the princes of the realm, receiving instructions from the scriptures and in warfare from Vashistha. When Rama is 16 years old, sage Vishwamitra comes to the court of Dasharatha in search of help against demons who were disturbing sacrificial rites. He chooses Rama, who is followed by Lakshmana, his constant companion throughout the story. Rama and Lakshmana receive instructions and supernatural weapons from Vishwamitra and proceed to destroy the demons.

text: Janaka was the king of Mithila. One day, a female child was found in the field by the king in the deep furrow dug by his plough. Overwhelmed with joy, the king regarded the child as a "miraculous gift of god". The child was named Sita, the Sanskrit word for furrow. Sita grew up to be a girl of unparalleled beauty and charm. The king had decided that who ever could lift and wield the heavy bow, presented to his ancestors by Shiva, could marry Sita. Sage Vishwamitra takes Rama and Lakshmana to Mithila to show the bow. Then Rama desires to lift it and goes on to wield the bow and when he draws the string, it breaks.[10] Marriages are arranged between the sons of Dasharatha and daughters of Janaka. Rama gets married to Sita, Lakshmana to Urmila, Bharata to Mandavi and Shatrughna to Shrutakirti. The weddings are celebrated with great festivity in Mithila and the marriage party returns to Ayodhya.

text: Ayodhya Kanda[edit]

text: After Rama and Sita have been married for twelve years, an elderly Dasharatha expresses his desire to crown Rama, to which the Kosala assembly and his subjects express their support. On the eve of the great event, Kaikeyi – her jealousy aroused by Manthara, a wicked maidservant – claims two boons that Dasharatha had long ago granted her. Kaikeyi demands Rama to be exiled into the wilderness for fourteen years, while the succession passes to her son Bharata. The heartbroken king, constrained by his rigid devotion to his given word, accedes to Kaikeyi's demands. Rama accepts his father's reluctant decree with absolute submission and calm self-control which characterises him throughout the story. He is joined by Sita and Lakshmana. When he asks Sita not to follow him, she says, "the forest where you dwell is Ayodhya for me and Ayodhya without you is a veritable hell for me." After Rama's departure, King Dasharatha, unable to bear the grief, passes away. Meanwhile, Bharata who was on a visit to his maternal uncle, learns about the events in Ayodhya. Bharata refuses to profit from his mother's wicked scheming and visits Rama in the forest. He requests Rama to return and rule. But Rama, determined to carry out his father's orders to the letter, refuses to return before the period of exile. However, Bharata carries Rama's sandals and keeps them on the throne, while he rules as Rama's regent.[citation needed]

text: Aranya Kanda[edit]

text: Thirteen years pass and in the last year of exile Rama, Sita and Lakshmana journey southward along the banks of river Godavari, where they build cottages and live off the land. At the Panchavati forest they are visited by a rakshasa (demon) woman, Surpanakha, sister of Ravana. She attempts to seduce the brothers and failing in this, attempts to kill Sita. Lakshmana stops her by cutting off her nose and ears. Hearing of this, her demon brother, Khara, organises an attack against the princes. Rama annihilates Khara and his demons.

text: When news of these events reaches Ravana, he resolves to destroy Rama by capturing Sita with the aid of the rakshasa Maricha. Maricha, assuming the form of a golden deer, captivates Sita's attention. Entranced by the beauty of the deer, Sita pleads with Rama to capture it. Lord Rama, aware that this is the ploy of the demons, cannot dissuade Sita from her desire and chases the deer into the forest, leaving Sita under Lakshmana's guard. After some time, Sita hears Rama calling out to her; afraid for his life, she insists that Lakshmana rush to his aid. Lakshmana tries to assure her that Rama is invincible and that it is best if he continues to follow Rama's orders to protect her. On the verge of hysterics, Sita insists that it is not she but Rama who needs Lakshmana's help. He obeys her wish but stipulates that she is not to leave the cottage or entertain any strangers. He draws a chalk outline, the Lakshmana rekha, around the cottage and casts a spell on it that prevents anyone from entering the boundary but allows people to exit. With the coast finally clear, Ravana appears in the guise of an ascetic requesting Sita's hospitality. Unaware of the devious plan of her guest, Sita is tricked into leaving the rekha and is then forcibly carried away by the evil Ravana.[11]

text: Jatayu, a vulture, tries to rescue Sita, but is mortally wounded. At Lanka, Sita is kept under the heavy guard of rakshasis. Ravana demands Sita marry him, but Sita, eternally devoted to Rama, refuses. Rama and Lakshmana learn about Sita's abduction from Jatayu and immediately set out to save her. During their search, they meet the demon Kabandha and the ascetic Shabari, who direct them towards Sugriva and Hanuman.

text: Kishkindha Kanda[edit]

text: Kishkindha Kanda is set in the ape (Vanara) citadel Kishkindha. Rama and Lakshmana meet Hanuman, the biggest devotee of Rama, greatest of ape heroes and an adherent of Sugriva, the banished pretender to the throne of Kishkindha. Rama befriends Sugriva and helps him by killing his elder brother Vali thus regaining the kingdom of Kishkindha, in exchange for helping Rama to recover Sita. However Sugriva soon forgets his promise and spends his time in enjoying his powers. The clever former ape queen Tara (wife of Vali) calmly intervenes to prevent an enraged Lakshmana from destroying the ape citadel. She then eloquently convinces Sugriva to honour his pledge. Sugriva then sends search parties to the four corners of the earth, only to return without success from north, east and west. The southern search party under the leadership of Angada and Hanuman learns from a vulture named Sampati (elder brother of Jatayu), that Sita was taken to Lanka.

text: Sundara Kanda[edit]

text: Sundara Kanda forms the heart of Valmiki's Ramayana and consists of a detailed, vivid account of Hanuman's adventures. After learning about Sita, Hanuman assumes a gargantuan form and makes a colossal leap across the sea to Lanka. On the way he meets with many challenges like facing a Gandharva kanya who comes in the form of a demon to test his abilities. He encounters a mountain named Mainakudu who offers Lord Hanuman assistance and offers him rest. Lord Hanuman refuses because there is little time remaining to complete the search for Sita.

text: After entering into Lanka, he finds a demon, Lankini, who protects all of Lanka. Hanuman fights with her and subjugates her in order to get into Lanka. In the process Lankini, who had an earlier vision/warning from the gods that the end of Lanka nears if someone defeats Lankini. Here, Hanuman explores the demons' kingdom and spies on Ravana. He locates Sita in Ashoka grove, where she is being wooed and threatened by Ravana and his rakshasis to marry Ravana. Hanuman reassures Sita, giving Rama's signet ring as a sign of good faith. He offers to carry Sita back to Rama; however, she refuses and says that it is not the dharma, stating that Ramayana will not have significance if Hanuman carries her to Rama - "When Rama is not there Ravana carried Sita forcibly and when Ravana was not there, Hanuman carried Sita back to Rama". She says that Rama himself must come and avenge the insult of her abduction.

text: Hanuman then wreaks havoc in Lanka by destroying trees and buildings and killing Ravana's warriors. He allows himself to be captured and delivered to Ravana. He gives a bold lecture to Ravana to release Sita. He is condemned and his tail is set on fire, but he escapes his bonds and leaping from roof to roof, sets fire to Ravana's citadel and makes the giant leap back from the island. The joyous search party returns to Kishkindha with the news.

text: Yuddha Kanda[edit]

text: Also known as Lanka Kanda, this book describes the Ramayana War between the army of Rama and the army of Ravana. Having received Hanuman's report on Sita, Rama and Lakshmana proceed with their allies towards the shore of the southern sea. There they are joined by Ravana's renegade brother Vibhishana. The apes named Nala and Nila construct a floating bridge (known as Rama Setu)[12] across the sea, using stones that floated on water because they had Rama's name written on them. The princes and their army cross over to Lanka. A lengthy war ensues. During a battle, Ravana's son Indrajit hurls a powerful weapon at Lakshmana, who is badly wounded and is nearly killed.[citation needed] So Hanuman assumes a gigantic form and flies from Lanka to the Himalayas. Upon reaching Mount Sumeru, Hanuman was unable to identify the herb that could cure Lakshmana and so decided to bring the entire mountain back to Lanka. Eventually, the war ends when Rama kills Ravana. Rama then installs Vibhishana on the throne of Lanka.

text: On meeting Sita, Rama asks her to undergo an Agni Pariksha (test of fire) to prove her chastity, as he wants to get rid of the rumors surrounding her purity. When Sita plunges into the sacrificial fire, Agni, lord of fire raises Sita, unharmed, to the throne, attesting to her innocence. The episode of Agni Pariksha varies in the versions of Ramayana by Valmiki and Tulsidas. In earlier versions, this event does not occur and many scholars consider it to have been added later as society became more patriarchal[citation needed]. In Tulsidas's Ramacharitamanas, Sita was under the protection of Agni (see Maya Sita) so it was necessary to bring her out before reuniting with Rama. At the expiration of his term of exile, Rama returns to Ayodhya with Sita and Lakshmana, where the coronation is performed. This is the beginning of Ram Rajya, which implies an ideal state with good morals. Ramayan is not only the story about how truth defeats the evil, it also teaches us to forget all the evil and arrogance that resides inside ourselves. [13]

text: Uttara Kanda[edit]

text: Uttara Kanda is regarded to be a later addition to the original story by Valmiki and concerns the final years of Rama, Sita and Rama's brothers. After being crowned king, Rama passes time pleasantly with Sita. After some time, Sita gets pregnant with twin children. However, despite Agni Pariksha ("fire ordeal") of Sita, rumours about her "purity" are spreading among the populace of Ayodhya. Rama yields to public opinion and reluctantly banishes Sita to the forest, where the sage Valmiki provides shelter in his ashrama ("hermitage"). Here, she gives birth to twin boys, Lava and Kusha, who become pupils of Valmiki and are brought up in ignorance of their identity.

text: Valmiki composes the Ramayana and teaches Lava and Kusha to sing it. Later, Rama holds a ceremony during the Ashwamedha yagna, which sage Valmiki, with Lava and Kusha, attends. Lava and Kusha sing the Ramayana in the presence of Rama and his vast audience. When Lava and Kusha recite about Sita's exile, Rama becomes grief-stricken and Valmiki produces Sita. Sita calls upon the Earth, her mother, to receive her and as the ground opens, she vanishes into it. Rama then learns that Lava and Kusha are his children. Many years later, a messenger from the Gods appears and informs Rama that the mission of his incarnation is over. Rama returns to his celestial abode along with his brothers. It was dramatised as Uttararamacarita by the Sanskrit poet Bhavabhuti.

text: Versions[edit]

text: As in many oral epics, multiple versions of the Ramayana survive. In particular, the Ramayana related in north India differs in important respects from that preserved in south India and the rest of southeast Asia. There is an extensive tradition of oral storytelling based on Ramayana in Indonesia, Cambodia, Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, Laos, Vietnam and Maldives. Father Kamil Bulke, author of Ramakatha, has identified over 300 variants of the Ramayana.

text: India[edit]

text: The 7th century CE poem Bhaṭṭikāvya of Bhaṭṭi is a Sanskrit retelling of the epic that simultaneously illustrates the grammatical examples for Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī as well as the major figures of speech and the Prakrit language.

text: There are diverse regional versions of the Ramayana written by various authors in India. Some of them differ significantly from each other. During the 12th century, Kamban wrote Ramavataram, known popularly as Kambaramayanam in Tamil. A Telugu version, Ranganatha Ramayanam, was written by Gona Budda Reddy in the 14th century. The earliest translation to a regional Indo-Aryan language is the early 14th century Saptakanda Ramayana in Assamese by Madhava Kandali. Valmiki's Ramayana inspired Sri Ramacharit Manas by Tulsidas in 1576, an epic Awadhi (a dialect of Hindi) version with a slant more grounded in a different realm of Hindu literature, that of bhakti; it is an acknowledged masterpiece of India, popularly known as Tulsi-krita Ramayana. Gujarati poet Premanand wrote a version of the Ramayana in the 17th century. Other versions include Krittivasi Ramayan, a Bengali version by Krittibas Ojha in the 15th century; Vilanka Ramayana by 15th century poet Sarala Dasa[14] and Dandi Ramayana (also known as Jagamohana Ramayana) by 16th century poet Balarama Dasa, both in Odia; a Torave Ramayana in Kannada by 16th-century poet Narahari; Adhyathmaramayanam, a Malayalam version by Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan in the 16th century; in Marathi by Sridhara in the 18th century; in Maithili by Chanda Jha in the 19th century; and in the 20th century, Rashtrakavi Kuvempu's Sri Ramayana Darshanam in Kannada.

text: There is a sub-plot to the Ramayana, prevalent in some parts of India, relating the adventures of Ahiravan and Mahi Ravana, evil brother of Ravana, which enhances the role of Hanuman in the story. Hanuman rescues Rama and Lakshmana after they are kidnapped by the Ahi-Mahi Ravana at the behest of Ravana and held prisoner in a subterranean cave, to be sacrificed to the goddess Kali. Adbhuta Ramayana is a version that is obscure but also attributed to Valmiki – intended as a supplementary to the original Valmiki Ramayana. In this variant of the narrative, Sita is accorded far more prominence, such as elaboration of the events surrounding her birth – in this case to Ravana's wife, Mandodari as well as her conquest of Ravana's older brother in her Mahakali form.

text: Mappillapattu – a genre of song popular among the Muslims belonging to Kerala and Lakshadweep – has incorporated some episodes from the Ramayana into its songs. These songs, known as mappila ramayana, have been handed down from one generation to the next orally. In mappila ramayana, the story of Ramayana has been changed into that of a sultan and there are no major changes in the names of characters except for that of Rama which is Laman in many places. The language and the imagery projected in the Mappilapattu are in accordance with the social fabric of the earlier Muslim community.

text: Buddhist Version[edit]

text: In the Buddhist variant of the Ramayana (Dasarathajātaka, #467), Dasharatha was king of Benares and not Ayodhya. Rama (called Rāmapaṇḍita in this version) was the son of Kaushalya, first wife of Dasharatha. Lakṣmaṇa (Lakkhaṇa) was a sibling of Rama and son of Sumitra, the second wife of Dasharatha. Sita was the wife of Rama. To protect his children from his wife Kaikeyi, who wished to promote her son Bharata, Dasharatha sent the three to a hermitage in the Himalayas for a twelve-year exile. After nine years, Dasharatha died and Lakkhaṇa and Sita returned; Rāmapaṇḍita, in deference to his father's wishes, remained in exile for a further two years. This version does not include the abduction of Sītā.There is no Ravan in this version i.e. no Ram-ravan war.

text: In the explanatory commentary on Jātaka, Rāmapaṇḍita is said to have been a previous incarnation of Buddha, and Sita an incarnation of Yasodharā.

text: But, Ravana appears in other Buddhist literature, Lankavatar Sutta.

text: Jain Version[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Jain versions of the Ramayana can be found in the various Jain agamas like Ravisena's Padmapurana (story of Padmaja and Rama, Padmaja being the name of Sita), Hemacandra's Trisastisalakapurusa charitra (hagiography of 63 illustrious persons), Sanghadasa's Vasudevahindi and Uttarapurana by Gunabhadara. According to Jain cosmology, every half time cycle has nine sets of Balarama, Vasudeva and prativasudeva. Rama, Lakshmana and Ravana are the eighth baladeva, vasudeva and prativasudeva respectively. Padmanabh Jaini notes that, unlike in the Hindu puranas, the names Baladeva and Vasudeva are not restricted to Balarama and Krishna in Jain Puranas. Instead they serve as names of two distinct classes of mighty brothers, who appear nine times in each half time cycle and jointly rule half the earth as half-chakravartins. Jaini traces the origin of this list of brothers to the jinacharitra (lives of jinas) by Acharya Bhadrabahu (3d–4th century BCE).

text: In the Jain epic of Ramayana, it is Lakshmana who ultimately kills Ravana and not Rama as told in the Hindu version. In the end, Rama, who led an upright life, renounces his kingdom, becomes a Jain monk and attains moksha. On the other hand, Lakshmana and Ravana go to Hell. However, it is predicted that ultimately they both will be reborn as upright persons and attain liberation in their future births. According to Jain texts, Ravana will be the future Tirthankara (omniscient teacher) of Jainism.

text: The Jain versions have some variations from Valmiki's Ramayana. Dasharatha, the king of Saketa had four queens: Aparajita, Sumitra, Suprabha and Kaikeyi. These four queens had four sons. Aparajita's son was Padma and he became known by the name of Rama. Sumitra's son was Narayana: he came to be known by another name, Lakshmana. Kaikeyi's son was Bharata and Suprabha's son was Shatrughna. Furthermore, not much was thought of Rama's fidelity to Sita. According to the Jain version, Rama had four chief queens: Maithili, Prabhavati, Ratinibha, and Sridama. Furthermore, Sita takes renunciation as a Jain ascetic after Rama abandons her and is reborn in heaven. Rama, after Lakshmana's death, also renounces his kingdom and becomes a Jain monk. Ultimately, he attains Kevala Jnana omniscience and finally liberation. Rama predicts that Ravana and Lakshmana, who were in the fourth hell, will attain liberation in their future births. Accordingly, Ravana is the future tirthankara of the next half ascending time cycle and Sita will be his Ganadhara.

text: Sikh Version[edit]

text: In Guru Granth Sahib, there is a description of two types of Ramayana. One is a spiritual Ramayana which is the actual subject of Guru Granth Sahib, in which Ravana is ego, Sita is budhi (intellect), Rama is inner soul and Laxman is mann (attention, mind). Guru Granth Sahib also believes in the existence of Dashavatara who were kings of their times which tried their best to restore order to the world. King Rama (Ramchandra) was one of those who is not covered in Guru Granth Sahib. Guru Granth Sahib states:

text: This version of the Ramayana was written by Guru Gobind Singh, which is part of Dasam Granth.

text: He also said that the almighty, invisible, all prevailing God created great numbers of Indras, Moons and Suns, Deities, Demons and sages, and also numerous saints and Brahmanas (enlightened people). But they too were caught in the noose of death (Kaal) (transmigration of the soul). This is similar to the explanation in Bhagavad Gita which is part of the Mahabharata.[citation needed]

text: Nepal[edit]

text: Besides being the site of discovery of the oldest surviving manuscript of the Ramayana, Nepal gave rise to two regional variants in mid 19th – early 20th century. One, written by Bhanubhakta Acharya, is considered the first epic of Nepali language, while the other, written by Siddhidas Mahaju in Nepal Bhasa was a foundational influence in the Nepal Bhasa renaissance.

text: Ramayana written by Bhanubhakta Acharya is one of the most popular verses in Nepal. The popularization of the Ramayana and its tale, originally written in Sanskrit Language was greatly enhanced by the work of Bhanubhakta. Mainly because of his writing of Nepali Ramayana, Bhanubhakta is also called Aadi Kavi or The Pioneering Poet.

text: Southeast Asian[edit]

text: Cambodia[edit]

text: The Cambodian version of the Ramayana, Reamker, is the most famous story of Khmer literature since the Kingdom of Funan era. It adapts the Hindu concepts to Buddhist themes and shows the balance of good and evil in the world. The Reamker has several differences from the original Ramayana, including scenes not included in the original and emphasis on Hanuman and Sovanna Maccha, a retelling which influences the Thai and Lao versions. Reamker in Cambodia is not confined to the realm of literature but extends to all Cambodian art forms, such as sculpture, Khmer classical dance, theatre known as lakhorn luang (the foundation of the royal ballet), poetry and the mural and bas-reliefs seen at the Silver Pagoda and Angkor Wat.

text: Indonesia[edit]

text: Indonesia has some adaptations of Ramayana, include Kakawin Ramayana of Java,[15] Ramakavaca of Bali (Indonesia). Javanese version of Ramayana has some differences if compared with the original Hindu version. The first half of Kakawin Ramayana is similar to the original Sanskrit version, while the latter half is very different from the original Ramayana. One of the recognizable modification in Javanese version of Ramayana is the inclusion of the indigenous Javanese guardian god, Semar, and his misshapen sons, Gareng, Petruk, and Bagong who make up the numerically significant four Punokawan or "clown servants". Kakawin Ramayana is believed to have been written in Central Java circa 870 AD during the reign of Mpu Sindok in Medang Kingdom.[16]:128

text: Kakawin Ramayana has also become the reference of Ramayana in the neighboring island of Bali. The bas reliefs of Ramayana and Krishnayana scenes are carved on balustrades wall of 9th century Prambanan temples in Yogyakarta. In Indonesia, Ramayana has been integrated into local culture especially those of Javanese, Balinese and Sundanese people, and has become the source of moral and spiritual guidance as well as aesthetic expression and also for entertainment, like in wayang and traditional dances.[17]

text: Laos[edit]

text: Phra Lak Phra Lam is a Lao language version, whose title comes from Lakshmana and Rama. The story of Lakshmana and Rama is told as the previous life of Gautama buddha.

text: Malaysia[edit]

text: The Hikayat Seri Rama of Malaysia incorporated element of both Hindu and Islamic mythology.[18] [19][20] For example, Dasharatha is the great-grandson of the Prophet Adam. Ravana receives boons from Allah instead of Brahma. In many Malay language versions, Lakshmana is given greater importance than Rama, whose character is considered somewhat weak.

text: Myanmar[edit]

text: Yama Zatdaw is Burmese version of Ramayana. It also considered as Myanmar unofficial national epic. There are nine known pieces of the Yama Zatdaw in Myanmar. The Burmese name for the story itself is Yamayana, while zatdaw refers to the acted play or being part of jataka tales of Theravada Buddhism. This Burmese version also heavily influenced by Ramakien (Thai version of Ramayana) which resulted from various invasion by Konbaung Dynasty king toward Ayutthaya Kingdom.

text: Philippines[edit]

text: The In Philippines, the Maharadia Lawana (Maharaja Rāvaṇa), believed as the Maranaw interpretation of the Ramayana.[21] The Rama story has undergone indigenization and have reached the Philippines between the 17th to 19th centuries.[22]

text: Thailand[edit]

text: Thailand's popular national epic Ramakien (Thai:รามเกียรติ์., from Sanskrit rāmakīrti, glory of Rama) is derived from the Hindu epic. In Ramakien, Sita is the daughter of Ravana and Mandodari (thotsakan and montho). Vibhishana (phiphek), the astrologer brother of Ravana, predicts calamity from the horoscope of Sita. Ravana has thrown her into the water, but she is later rescued by Janaka (chanok). While the main story is identical to that of Ramayana, many other aspects were transposed into a Thai context, such as the clothes, weapons, topography and elements of nature, which are described as being Thai in style. It has an expanded role for Hanuman and he is portrayed as a lascivious character. Ramakien can be seen in an elaborate illustration at Wat Phra Kaew in Bangkok.

text: Critical edition[edit]

text: A critical edition of the text was compiled in India in the 1960s and 1970s, by the Oriental Institute at Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, India, utilizing dozens of manuscripts collected from across India and the surrounding region.[23] An English language translation of the critical edition was completed in November 2016 by Sanskrit scholar Robert P. Goldman of the University of California, Berkeley.[24]

text: Influence on culture and art[edit]

text: One of the most important literary works of ancient India, the Ramayana has had a profound impact on art and culture in the Indian subcontinent and southeast Asia with the lone exception of Vietnam. The story ushered in the tradition of the next thousand years of massive-scale works in the rich diction of regal courts and Hindu temples. It has also inspired much secondary literature in various languages, notably Kambaramayanam by Tamil poet Kambar of the 12th century, Telugu language Molla Ramayanam by poet Molla and Ranganatha Ramayanam by poet Gona Budda Reddy, 14th century Kannada poet Narahari's Torave Ramayana and 15th century Bengali poet Krittibas Ojha's Krittivasi Ramayan, as well as the 16th century Awadhi version, Ramacharitamanas, written by Tulsidas.

text: The Ramayana became popular in Southeast Asia during 8th century and was represented in literature, temple architecture, dance and theatre. Today, dramatic enactments of the story of the Ramayana, known as Ramlila, take place all across India and in many places across the globe within the Indian diaspora.

text: In Indonesia, especially Java and Bali, Ramayana has become a popular source of artistic expression for dance drama and shadow puppet performance in the region. Sendratari Ramayana is Javanese traditional ballet of wayang orang genre, routinely performed in Prambanan Trimurti temple and in cultural center of Yogyakarta.[25] Balinese dance drama of Ramaya also performed routinely in Balinese temples, especially in temples in Ubud and Uluwatu, where scenes from Ramayana is integrap part of kecak dance performance. Javanese wayang kulit purwa also draws its episodes from Ramayana or Mahabharata.

text: Ramayana has also been depicted in many paintings, most notably by the Malaysian artist Syed Thajudeen in 1972. The epic tale was picturized on canvas in epic proportions measuring 152 x 823 cm in 9 panels. The painting depicts three prolific parts of the epic, namely The Abduction of Sita, Hanuman visits Sita and Hanuman Burns Lanka. The painting is currently in the permanent collection of the Malaysian National Visual Arts Gallery.

text: Religious significance[edit]

text: Rama, the hero of the Ramayana, is one of the most popular deities worshipped in the Hindu religion. Each year, many devout pilgrims trace their journey through India and Nepal, halting at each of the holy sites along the way. The poem is not seen as just a literary monument, but serves as an integral part of Hinduism and is held in such reverence that the mere reading or hearing of it or certain passages of it, is believed by Hindus to free them from sin and bless the reader or listener.

text: According to Hindu tradition, Rama is an incarnation (Avatar) of god Vishnu. The main purpose of this incarnation is to demonstrate the righteous path (dharma) for all living creatures on earth.

text: Ramayana in popular culture[edit]

text: Multiple modern, English-language adaptations of the epic exist, namely Ram Chandra Series by Amish Tripathi, Ramayana Series by Ashok Banker and a mythopoetic novel, Asura: Tale of the Vanquished by Anand Neelakantan. Another Indian author, Devdutt Pattanaik, has published three different retellings and commentaries of Ramayana titled Sita, The Book Of Ram and Hanuman's Ramayan.

text: A number of plays, movies and television serials have also been produced based upon the Ramayana.

text: Stage[edit]

text: Starting in 1978 and under the supervision of Baba Hari Dass, Ramayana has been performed every year by Mount Madonna School in Watsonville, California. Currently, it is the largest yearly, Western version of the epic being performed. It takes the form of a colorful musical with custom costumes, sung and spoken dialog, jazz-rock orchestration and dance. This performance takes place in a large audience theater setting usually in June, in San Jose, CA. Baba Hari Dass has taught acting arts, costume-attire design, mask making and choreography to bring alive characters of Sri Ram, Sita, Hanuman, Lakshmana, Shiva, Parvati, Vibhishan, Jatayu, Sugriva, Surpanakha, Ravana and his rakshasa court, Meghnadha, Kumbhakarna and the army of monkeys and demons.

text: Movies[edit]

text:
Sampoorna Ramayanam (1958 film) – A Telugu movie starring N. T. Rama Rao (1958).
Sampoorna Ramayana– A Hindi film directed by Babubhai Mistry (1961).
Lava Kusha – A Uttara Kanda-based bilingual Telugu movie and Tamil movie starring N. T. Rama Rao (1963).
Sampoorna Ramayanamu – A Telugu film directed by Bapu, starring Sobhan Babu, Chandrakala, S V Ranga Rao (1971).
Kanchana Sita – A Malayalam film by G. Aravindan (1977).
Ramayana: The Legend of Prince Rama – A Japanese animated film released in the Hindi, Japanese and English languages (1992).
A Little Princess (1995) An American film chronicling the time of an orphaned child during WWI in an all-girl's boarding school. The story of Rama and Sita is told by the main character to the other girls and is constantly referenced throughout the plot.
Opera Jawa – An Indonesian-Austrian film in the Indonesian language; inspired by the story of the abduction of Sita (2008).
Sita Sings the Blues – An independent animated film (2008).
Lava Kusa: The Warrior Twins – Animated film based on Uttara Kanda (2010).
Ramayana: The Epic – A Warner Bros. Indian animated film (2010).
Sri Rama Rajyam – Movie based on Uttara Kanda, Telugu a film starring Nandamuri Balakrishna (2011).
Yak: The Giant King – A re-interpretation of Ramayana, the Thai animation film tells the story of a giant robot, Na Kiew, who is left wandering in a barren wasteland after a great war. Na Kiew meets Jao Phuek, a puny tin robot who has lost his memory and is now stuck with his new big friend. Together they set out across the desert populated by metal scavengers, to look for Ram, the creator of all robots. (2012).
Mumbai Musical – DreamWorks Animation (2016).
Mahayoddha Rama – An animated version of Ramayana from the perspective of Ravana, the demon king of Lanka.

text: Plays[edit]

text:
Kanchana Sita (play), Saketham and Lankalakshmi – award-winning trilogy by Malayalam playwright C. N. Sreekantan Nair.
Lankeswaran – play by award-winning Tamil cinema actor R. S. Manohar.
King's Dharma – A multi-media production produced by Ben Kahan and Andreas Canning (2016).[26]

text: TV series[edit]

text:
Ramayan (TV series) – Originally broadcast on Doordarshan, produced by Ramanand Sagar in 1987.
Jai Hanuman – Originally broadcast on Doordarshan, produced and directed by Sanjay Khan.
Ramayan (2002) – Originally broadcast on Zee TV, produced by BR Films.
Ramayan (2008 TV series) – Originally broadcast on Imagine TV, produced by Ramanand Sagar.
Ramayan (2012 TV Series) – A remake of the 1987 series ans aured on Zee TV.
Antariksh (2004) – A sci-fi version of Ramayan. Originally broadcast on Star Plus.
Raavan (TV series) – series on life of Ravana based on Ramayana. Originally broadcast on Zee TV.
Sankatmochan Mahabali Hanuman – 2015 series based on life of Hanuman presently broadcasting on Sony TV.
Siya Ke Ram – a series on Star Plus, originally broadcast from November 16, 2015 to November 4, 2016.