document_title: Chick-fil-A

question_text: where did the first chick fil a originate from

text: Chick-fil-A

text: History

text: The chain's origin can be traced to the Dwarf Grill (now the Dwarf House), a restaurant opened by S. Truett Cathy, the chain's former chairman and CEO, in 1946. The restaurant is located in Hapeville, Georgia, a suburb of Atlanta,[3] and is near the location of the now-demolished Ford Motor Company Atlanta Assembly Plant, for many years a source of many of the restaurant's patrons.

text: In 1961, after 15 years in the fast food business,  Cathy found a pressure-fryer that could cook the chicken sandwich in the same amount of time it took to cook a fast-food hamburger.[8] Following this discovery, he registered the name Chick-fil-A, Inc. The company's trademarked slogan, "We Didn't Invent the Chicken, Just the Chicken Sandwich,"[9] refers to their flagship menu item, the Chick-fil-A chicken sandwich.

text: The first Chick-fil-A opened in 1967, in the food court of the Greenbriar Mall, in a suburb of Atlanta.[3] During the 1970s and early 1980s, the chain expanded by opening new franchises in suburban malls' food courts.[10] The first freestanding franchise was opened April 16, 1986, on North Druid Hills Road in Atlanta, Georgia,[11] and the company began to focus more on this type of franchise than on the food court type. Although it has expanded outward from its original geographic base, most new restaurants are located in Southern suburban areas.[3] In October 2015, the company opened a three-story 5,000-square-foot restaurant in Manhattan that became the largest free-standing Chick-fil-A in the country at that time.[12][13] As of 2016, the chain has approximately 1,950 locations.[3] It also has 31 drive-through-only locations.[3] Chick-fil-A also can be found at universities, hospitals, and airports through licensing agreements.[3]

text: Since 1997, the Atlanta-based company has been the title sponsor of the Peach Bowl, an annual college football bowl game played in Atlanta on New Year's Eve. Chick-fil-A also is a key sponsor of the SEC and the ACC of college athletics.[14]

text: International locations

text: Canada

text: In September 1994, Chick-fil-A opened its first location outside of the United States inside a student center food court at the University of Alberta in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.[15] This location did not perform very well and was closed within 2 or 3 years.

text: After a two decade absence from Canada, the company return to the province of Alberta by opening an outlet at the Calgary International Airport in Calgary in May 2014.[16][17] This restaurant is located near the departure area for flights bound for the United States.[16] As with its American locations, it is closed Sundays and Christmas Day, but it is open on what would be Thanksgiving Day in United States since Canadians celebrate their thanksgiving day in October.

text: In July 2018, Chick-fil-A announced plans to expand within Canada by opening its first location outside of Calgary by building a new restaurant in Toronto, Ontario, in 2019 with plans to open between 15 and 20 locations within the Greater Toronto Area over the next five years.[18]

text: South Africa

text: In August 1996, Chick-fil-A opened its first location outside of North America by building a restaurant in Durban, South Africa.[19] A second location was opened in Johannesburg in November 1997.[20] Since none of the South African locations were profitable, all of these locations were closed by 2001.[21]

text: Business model

text: Chick-fil-A retains ownership of each restaurant. Chick-fil-A selects the restaurant location and builds it.[1] Chick-fil-A franchisees need only a $10,000 initial investment to become an operator.[22] Each operator is handpicked and goes through a rigorous training program; the interviews plus training can take months and is not an easy process. Chick-fil-A states on their site:

text: "This is not the right opportunity for you if you:

text:
Are seeking a passive investment in a business.
Want to sell property to Chick-fil-A, Inc.
Are requesting that Chick-fil-A, Inc. build at a specified location.
Are seeking multi-unit franchise opportunities."[23]

text: Since 2010, Chick-fil-A has led the fast food industry in average sales per restaurant, despite being open only six days a week,[24] grossing an average of $4.8 million per restaurant in 2016 (Whataburger was second with $2.7 million per restaurant).[25]

text: Advertising

text: "Eat Mor Chikin" is the chain's most prominent advertising slogan, created by The Richards Group in 1995.[6] The slogan is often seen in advertisements, featuring Holstein dairy cows[26] that are often seen wearing (or holding) signs that (usually) read: "Eat Mor Chikin" in all capital letters. The ad campaign was temporarily halted during a mad cow disease scare on January 1, 2004, so as not to make the chain seem insensitive or appear to be taking advantage of the scare to increase its sales. Two months later, the cows were put up again. The cows replaced the chain's old mascot, Doodles, an anthropomorphized chicken who still appears as the C on the logo.[27]

text: Chick-fil-A vigorously protects its intellectual property, sending cease and desist letters to those they think have infringed on their trademarks.[28] The corporation has successfully protested at least 30 instances of the use of an "eat more" phrase, saying that the use would cause confusion of the public, dilute the distinctiveness of their intellectual property, and diminish its value.[29]

text: A 2011 letter to Vermont artist Bo Muller-Moore who screen prints T-shirts reading: "Eat More Kale" demanded that he cease printing the shirts and turn over his website.[30] The incident drew criticism from Vermont governor Peter Shumlin, and created backlash against what he termed Chick-fil-A's "corporate bullying."[31] On December 11, 2014, Bo Muller-Moore announced that the U.S. Patent Office granted his application to trademark his "Eat More Kale" phrase. A formal announcement of his victory took place on December 12, 2014, with Shumlin and other supporters on the Statehouse steps. His public fight drew regional and national attention, the support of Shumlin, and a team of pro-bono law students from the University of New Hampshire legal clinic.[32]

text: After 22 years with The Richards Group, Chick-fil-A switched to McCann New York in 2016. Along with the cows, ads included famous people in history in a campaign called "Chicken for Breakfast. It's not as crazy as you think."[33]

text: Sponsored events

text: Related restaurants

text: Hapeville Dwarf House

text: Truett Cathy opened his first restaurant, The Dwarf Grill – later renamed the Dwarf House – in Hapeville, Georgia, in 1946, and developed the pressure-cooked chicken breast sandwich there.[3] At the original Chick-fil-A Dwarf Grill, in addition to the full-size entrances, there is also an extra small-sized front door.[36] The original Dwarf House in Hapeville, Georgia is open 24 hours a day, six days a week, except on Sundays, Thanksgiving, and Christmas. The store closes at 10:00 p.m. on Saturday nights, and the day before Thanksgiving and Christmas and reopens at 6 a.m. on Monday mornings and day after Thanksgiving and Christmas. It has a larger dine-in menu than the other Dwarf House locations as well as an animated seven dwarfs display in the back of the restaurant.[36] It was across the street from the former Ford Motor Company factory called Atlanta Assembly.

text: Dwarf House

text: Truett's original, full-service restaurants offer a substantial menu and provide customers a choice of table service, walk-up counter service or a drive-thru window. As of  2012[update], 13 Chick-fil-A Dwarf House restaurants were operating in the metro Atlanta area.[3]

text: Truett's Grill

text: In 1996, the first Truett's Grill was opened in Morrow, Georgia. The second location opened in 2003 in McDonough, Georgia, and a third location opened in 2006 in Griffin, Georgia.[37] Similar to the Chick-fil-A Dwarf Houses, these independently owned restaurants offer traditional, sit-down dining and expanded menu selections in a diner-themed dinner.[38][39][40] In 2017, Chick-fil-A demolished several Dwarf House locations to replace them with Truett's Grill locations.[41][42]

text: Corporate culture

text: S. Truett Cathy was a devout Southern Baptist; his religious beliefs had a major impact on the company.[43] The company's official statement of corporate purpose says that the business exists "To glorify God by being a faithful steward of all that is entrusted to us. To have a positive influence on all who come in contact with Chick-fil-A."[44]

text: Cathy's beliefs are also responsible for the chain's most well-known and distinctive feature: all Chick-fil-A locations (both corporate owned and franchised) are closed on Sundays,[45] as well as on Thanksgiving and Christmas.[46] Cathy states as the final step in his Five-Step recipe for Business Success "I was not so committed to financial success that I was willing to abandon my principles and priorities. One of the most visible examples of this is our decision to close on Sunday. Our decision to close on Sunday was our way of honoring God and of directing our attention to things that mattered more than our business."[47]

text: In an interview with ABC News's Nightline, Truett's son Dan T. Cathy told reporter Vicki Mabrey that the company is also closed on Sundays because "by the time Sunday came, he was just worn out. And Sunday was not a big trading day, anyway, at the time. So he was closed that first Sunday and we've been closed ever since. He figured if he didn't like working on Sundays, that other people didn't either." The younger Cathy also quoted his father as saying, "I don't want to ask people to do that what I am not willing to do myself."[48]

text: Their website states, "The Chick-fil-A culture and service tradition in our Restaurants is to treat every person with honor, dignity and respect –regardless of their belief, race, creed, sexual orientation or gender."[49]

text: Chick-fil-A's reputation on being closed on Sundays extends to non-traditional locations. On December 17, 2017 Chick-fil-A broke their tradition and opened on a Sunday to prepare meals for passengers left stranded, during the power outage at Atlanta Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport.[50] In addition to countless shopping malls and airports, a Chick-fil-A location at Mercedes-Benz Stadium in Atlanta is closed on Sundays despite the fact that its main tenant, the Atlanta Falcons, plays most of their home games on Sundays. The location is open when the Falcons have a Monday night, Thursday night or Saturday home game, as well as non-Sunday home games of Atlanta United FC and other events at the stadium. On Sundays, the digital signs are flipped and concessionaire Levy Restaurants sell nonbranded food and drinks at the location.[51]

text: This also applies to places that are known for round-the-clock activity.  For example, when Chick-fil-A finally expanded into the Las Vegas area following Cathy's death (as he never wanted to expand into the area due to what he perceived as the city's "sinful" image), all locations were open 24 hours a day (as most service industries are in the Las Vegas Valley), but still closed on Sunday, closing at 11:59PM on Saturday night and reopening at 12:01AM Monday morning.

text: Same-sex marriage controversy

text: This Per WP:SUMMARY this should be a summary of the linked child article.  The length here may lend undue weight to certain ideas, incidents, or controversies. Please help improve it by rewriting it in a balanced fashion that contextualizes different points of view. (October 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: In January 2011, the media reported that Chick-fil-A was co-sponsoring a marriage conference with the Pennsylvania Family Institute (PFI), an organization that has opposed same-sex marriage legislation.[52] Chick-fil-A clarified that "one of our independent Restaurant Operators in Pennsylvania was asked to provide sandwiches to two Art of Marriage video seminars".[53] The WinShape Foundation, a charitable organization founded by Truett and his wife, also stated that it would not allow same-sex couples to participate in its marriage retreats.[54]

text: Chick-fil-A has donated over $5 million, via WinShape, to groups that oppose same-sex marriage. Of this, more than $3 million was donated primarily to Christian organizations whose agendas included positions that oppose same-sex marriage,[55] with the money donated between 2003 and 2009.[56] A total of $1.9 million was donated in 2010 to groups such as the Marriage & Family Foundation, Exodus International, and the Family Research Council (FRC).[57] That year, the FRC, which received $1,000[58]was listed as an anti-gay[59] hate group by the Southern Poverty Law Center.[60] WinShape has also contributed to Christian groups including the Fellowship of Christian Athletes and Exodus International, the latter of which is noted for supporting ex-gay conversion therapy.[57] In response, students at several colleges and universities worked to ban or remove the company's restaurants from their campuses. On January 28, 2013, Shane L. Windmeyer, the leader of Campus Pride, suspended their campaign.[61]

text: In June and July 2012, Chick-fil-A's chief operating officer Dan T. Cathy made several public statements about same-sex marriage, saying that those who "have the audacity to define what marriage is about" were "inviting God's judgment on our nation".[62] Several prominent politicians expressed disapproval.[63] Boston Mayor Thomas Menino and Chicago Alderman Proco "Joe" Moreno said they hoped to block franchise expansion into their areas.[64] The proposed bans drew criticism from liberal pundits, legal experts, and the American Civil Liberties Union.[65] The Jim Henson Company, which had a Pajanimals kids' meal toy licensing arrangement with Chick-fil-A, said it would cease its business relationship, and donate the payment to the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation.[66] Chick-fil-A stopped distributing the toys, claiming that unrelated safety concerns had arisen prior to the controversy.[67] Chick-fil-A released a statement on July 31, 2012, saying, "We are a restaurant company focused on food, service, and hospitality; our intent is to leave the policy debate over same-sex marriage to the government and political arena."[68]

text: Response

text:
In response to the controversy, former Arkansas Governor Mike Huckabee initiated a Chick-fil-A Appreciation Day movement to counter a boycott of Chick-fil-A launched by same-sex marriage activists.[69][70][71] More than 600,000 people RSVPed on Facebook for Huckabee's appreciation event.[70]
On August 1, Chick-fil-A restaurants experienced a large show of public support across the nation with the company reporting record-breaking sales.[69][70][71] A consulting firm estimated that the average Chick-fil-A restaurant had 29.9 percent more sales and 367 more customers than it did on a typical Wednesday.[22]

text: Report of policy change

text: In September 2012, The Civil Rights Agenda (TCRA) announced that Chick-fil-A had "ceased donating to organizations that promote discrimination, specifically against LGBT civil rights." This change in policy has not been confirmed by Chick-fil-A officials. Chick-fil-A officials did state in an internal document that they "will treat every person equally, regardless of sexual orientation."[72] In a letter from Chick-fil-A's Senior Director of Real Estate, the company states, "The WinShape Foundation is now taking a much closer look at the organizations it considers helping, and in that process will remain true to its stated philosophy of not supporting organizations with political agendas."[73][74]

text: According to Chicago Alderman Proco "Joe" Moreno, Chick-fil-A has a statement of respect for all people regardless of sexual orientation in an internal document called Chick-fil-A: Who We Are. A document released by Chick-fil-A on September 20, 2012, does not mention any organizations opposed to same-sex marriage as being part of Chick-fil-A's donation base. WinShape Marriage will continue to be supported financially, with a stated focus on couple retreats to strengthen marriages.[75]

text: According to Focus on the Family's website, CitizenLink.com, "Chick-fil-A and its charitable-giving arm, the WinShape Foundation, did not agree to stop making donations to groups that support the Biblical definition of marriage in exchange for being allowed to open a franchise in Chicago."[76] Mike Huckabee stated that he "talked earlier today personally with Dan Cathy, CEO of Chick Fil-A about the new reports that Chick Fil-A had capitulated to demands of the supporters of same sex marriage. This is not true. The company continues to focus on the fair treatment of all of its customers and employees, but to end confusion gave me this statement." The statement provided by Chick-fil-A was posted on Huckabee's website.[77][78]

text: As of  April 2018[update], Chick Fil-A reportedly continues to quietly donate to anti-LGBT groups such as the Fellowship of Christian Athletes, which opposes gay marriage and restricts participation by LGBT youth.[6][79][80]

text: Recipe changes

text: Though Chick-fil-A has always used trans fat free processes in its chicken sandwiches, anticipating the dietary concerns of consumers, in 2008, it became the first fast-food restaurant to become completely trans-fat free.[81]

text: In 2011, food blogger and activist Vani Hari wrote a post titled "Chick-fil-A or Chemical Fil-A?" on her website, FoodBabe.com. She noted that Chick-fil-A sandwiches contained nearly 100 ingredients, including peanut oil with TBHQ.[82] In October 2012, Chick-fil-A invited Hari to meet with company executives at its Atlanta, GA headquarters.[83] In December 2013, Chick-fil-A notified Hari that it had eliminated the dye Yellow No. 5 and had reduced the sodium content in its chicken soup. The company also said that it is testing a peanut oil that does not contain TBHQ and that it would start testing sauces and dressings made without high-fructose corn syrup in 2014.[83]

text: Plan to raise its chickens without antibiotics

text: According to the Food and Drug Administration, antibiotics used in livestock, many of which are also used to treat humans, have contributed to the rise of dangerous bacteria. In December 2012, the FDA announced plans to phase out certain antibiotics in the food production industry.[84]

text: In February 2014, Chick-fil-A announced plans to serve chicken raised without antibiotics in its restaurants nationwide within five years. Chick-fil-A is the first quick service restaurant to set forth a plan and commit to serving only poultry raised without antibiotics.[85]


document_title: Individualism

question_text: where did the idea of individualism come from

root

text: Individualism

text: Etymology[edit]

text: In the English language, the word "individualism" was first introduced, as a pejorative, by the Owenites in the late 1830s, although it is unclear if they were influenced by Saint-Simonianism or came up with it independently.[11] A more positive use of the term in Britain came to be used with the writings of James Elishama Smith, who was a millenarian and a Christian Israelite. Although an early Owenite socialist, he eventually rejected its collective idea of property, and found in individualism a "universalism" that allowed for the development of the "original genius." Without individualism, Smith argued, individuals cannot amass property to increase one's happiness.[11] William Maccall, another Unitarian preacher, and probably an acquaintance of Smith, came somewhat later, although influenced by John Stuart Mill, Thomas Carlyle, and German Romanticism, to the same positive conclusions, in his 1847 work "Elements of Individualism".[12]

tag: p

text: The individual[edit]

text: An individual is a person or any specific object in a collection. In the 15th century and earlier, and also today within the fields of statistics and metaphysics, individual means "indivisible", typically describing any numerically singular thing, but sometimes meaning "a person." (q.v. "The problem of proper names"). From the 17th century on, individual indicates separateness, as in individualism.[13] Individuality is the state or quality of being an individual; a person separate from other persons and possessing his or her own needs, goals, and desires.

text: Individualism and society[edit]

text: Individualism holds that a person taking part in society attempts to learn and discover what his or her own interests are on a personal basis, without a presumed following of the interests of a societal structure (an individualist need not be an egoist). The individualist does not follow one particular philosophy, rather creates an amalgamation of elements of many, based on personal interests in particular aspects that he/she finds of use. On a societal level, the individualist participates on a personally structured political and moral ground. Independent thinking and opinion is a common trait of an individualist. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, claims that his concept of "general will" in the "social contract" is not the simple collection of individual wills and that it furthers the interests of the individual (the constraint of law itself would be beneficial for the individual, as the lack of respect for the law necessarily entails, in Rousseau's eyes, a form of ignorance and submission to one's passions instead of the preferred autonomy of reason).

text: Societies and groups can differ in the extent to which they are based upon predominantly "self-regarding" (individualistic, and/or self-interested) behaviors, rather than "other-regarding" (group-oriented, and group, or society-minded) behaviors. Ruth Benedict made a distinction, relevant in this context, between "guilt" societies (e.g., medieval Europe) with an "internal reference standard", and "shame" societies (e.g., Japan, "bringing shame upon one's ancestors") with an "external reference standard", where people look to their peers for feedback on whether an action is "acceptable" or not (also known as "group-think").[14]

text: Individualism is often contrasted[5] either with totalitarianism or with collectivism, but in fact, there is a spectrum of behaviors at the societal level ranging from highly individualistic societies through mixed societies to collectivist.

text: Individuation principle[edit]

text:
The principle of individuation
, or principium individuationis,[15] describes the manner in which a thing is identified as distinguished from other things.[16] For Carl Jung, individuation is a process of transformation, whereby the personal and collective unconscious is brought into consciousness (by means of dreams, active imagination or free association to take some examples) to be assimilated into the whole personality. It is a completely natural process necessary for the integration of the psyche to take place.[17] Jung considered individuation to be the central process of human development.[18] In L'individuation psychique et collective, Gilbert Simondon developed a theory of individual and collective individuation in which the individual subject is considered as an effect of individuation rather than a cause. Thus, the individual atom is replaced by a never-ending ontological process of individuation. Individuation is an always incomplete process, always leaving a "pre-individual" left-over, itself making possible future individuations.[19] The philosophy of Bernard Stiegler draws upon and modifies the work of Gilbert Simondon on individuation and also upon similar ideas in Friedrich Nietzsche and Sigmund Freud. For Stiegler "the I, as a psychic individual, can only be thought in relationship to we, which is a collective individual. The I is constituted in adopting a collective tradition, which it inherits and in which a plurality of I 's acknowledge each other's existence."[20]

text: Methodological individualism[edit]

text: Methodological individualism is the view that phenomena can only be understood by examining how they result from the motivations and actions of individual agents.[21] In economics, people's behavior is explained in terms of rational choices, as constrained by prices and incomes. The economist accepts individuals' preferences as givens. Becker and Stigler provide a forceful statement of this view:[22]

text: Political individualism[edit]

text:
With the abolition of private property, then, we shall have true, beautiful, healthy Individualism. Nobody will waste his life in accumulating things, and the symbols for things. One will live. To live is the rarest thing in the world. Most people exist, that is all.

Oscar Wilde, The Soul of Man under Socialism, 1891

tag: div

text: Individualists are chiefly concerned with protecting individual autonomy against obligations imposed by social institutions (such as the state or religious morality). For L. Susan Brown "Liberalism and anarchism are two political philosophies that are fundamentally concerned with individual freedom yet differ from one another in very distinct ways. Anarchism shares with liberalism a radical commitment to individual freedom while rejecting liberalism's competitive property relations."[6]

text: Civil libertarianism is a strain of political thought that supports civil liberties, or which emphasizes the supremacy of individual rights and personal freedoms over and against any kind of authority (such as a state, a corporation, social norms imposed through peer pressure, etc.).[23] Civil libertarianism is not a complete ideology; rather, it is a collection of views on the specific issues of civil liberties and civil rights. Because of this, a civil libertarian outlook is compatible with many other political philosophies, and civil libertarianism is found on both the right and left in modern politics.[24] For scholar Ellen Meiksins Wood "there are doctrines of individualism that are opposed to Lockean individualism ... and non-lockean individualism may encompass socialism".[25]

text: British Historians Emily Robinson, Camilla Schofield, Florence Sutcliffe-Braithwaite, and Natalie Thomlinson have argued that by the 1970s Britons were keen about defining and claiming their individual rights, identities and perspectives.  They demanded greater personal autonomy and self-determination and less outside control. They angrily complained that the 'establishment' was withholding it.  They argue this shift in concerns helped cause Thatcherism, and was incorporated into Thatcherism's appeal.[26]

text: Liberalism[edit]

text:
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tag: table

text: Liberalism (from the Latin liberalis, "of freedom; worthy of a free man, gentlemanlike, courteous, generous")[27] is the belief in the importance of individual freedom. This belief is widely accepted in the United States, Europe, Australia and other Western nations, and was recognized as an important value by many Western philosophers throughout history, in particular since the Enlightenment. It is often rejected by collectivist, Islamic, or confucian societies in Asia or the Middle East (though Taoists were and are known to be individualists).[28] The Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius wrote praising "the idea of a polity administered with regard to equal rights and equal freedom of speech, and the idea of a kingly government which respects most of all the freedom of the governed".[29]

text: Liberalism should not be confused with modern liberalism in the United States[30], and should be referred to as classical liberalism to avoid ambiguity.

text: Liberalism has its roots in the Age of Enlightenment and rejects many foundational assumptions that dominated most earlier theories of government, such as the Divine Right of Kings, hereditary status, and established religion. John Locke is often credited with the philosophical foundations of classical liberalism. He wrote "no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions."[31]

text: In the 17th century, liberal ideas began to influence governments in Europe, in nations such as The Netherlands, Switzerland, England and Poland, but they were strongly opposed, often by armed might, by those who favored absolute monarchy and established religion. In the 18th century, in America, the first modern liberal state was founded, without a monarch or a hereditary aristocracy.[32] The American Declaration of Independence includes the words (which echo Locke) "all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that to insure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed."[33]

text: Liberalism comes in many forms. According to John N. Gray, the essence of liberalism is toleration of different beliefs and of different ideas as to what constitutes a good life.[34]

text: Anarchism[edit]

text:
Part of the Politics series onAnarchism
Schools of thought[show]
Black
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text: Anarchism is a set of political philosophies that hold the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, or harmful,[35][36] and often advocate stateless societies.[37][38][39][40] While anti-statism is central, some argue[41] that anarchism entails opposing authority or hierarchical organisation in the conduct of human relations, including, but not limited to, the state system.[42][43][44][45][46][47][48]

text: For influential Italian anarchist Errico Malatesta "All anarchists, whatever tendency they belong to, are individualists in some way or other. But the opposite is not true; not by any means. The individualists are thus divided into two distinct categories: one which claims the right to full development for all human individuality, their own and that of others; the other which only thinks about its own individuality and has absolutely no hesitation in sacrificing the individuality of others. The Tsar of all the Russias belongs to the latter category of individualists. We belong to the former."[49]

text: Individualist anarchism[edit]

text: Individualist anarchism refers to several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasize the individual and their will over any kinds of external determinants such as groups, society, traditions, and ideological systems.[50][51] Individualist anarchism is not a single philosophy but refers to a group of individualistic philosophies that sometimes are in conflict.

text:
In 1793, William Godwin, who has often[52] been cited as the first anarchist, wrote Political Justice, which some consider to be the first expression of anarchism.[53][54]
Godwin, a philosophical anarchist, from a rationalist and utilitarian basis opposed revolutionary action and saw a minimal state as a present "necessary evil" that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge.[53][55]
Godwin advocated individualism, proposing that all cooperation in labour be eliminated on the premise that this would be most conducive with the general good.[56][57]

text: An influential form of individualist anarchism, called "egoism,"[58] or egoist anarchism, was expounded by one of the earliest and best-known proponents of individualist anarchism, the German Max Stirner.[59] Stirner's The Ego and Its Own, published in 1844, is a founding text of the philosophy.[59] According to Stirner, the only limitation on the rights of the individual is their power to obtain what they desire,[60] without regard for God, state, or morality.[61] To Stirner, rights were spooks in the mind, and he held that society does not exist but "the individuals are its reality".[62] Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw unions of egoists, non-systematic associations continually renewed by all parties' support through an act of will,[63] which Stirner proposed as a form of organization in place of the state.[64] Egoist anarchists claim that egoism will foster genuine and spontaneous union between individuals.[65] "Egoism" has inspired many interpretations of Stirner's philosophy. It was re-discovered and promoted by German philosophical anarchist and LGBT activist John Henry Mackay.

text: Josiah Warren is widely regarded as the first American anarchist,[66] and the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833, The Peaceful Revolutionist, was the first anarchist periodical published.[67] For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster "It is apparent...that Proudhonian Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of Josiah Warren and Stephen Pearl Andrews...William B. Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form.".[68] Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862) was an important early influence in individualist anarchist thought in the United States and Europe.[69] Thoreau was an American author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, philosopher, and leading transcendentalist. He is best known for his books Walden, a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, and his essay, Civil Disobedience, an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state. Later Benjamin Tucker fused Stirner's egoism with the economics of Warren and Proudhon in his eclectic influential publication Liberty.

text: From these early influences individualist anarchism in different countries attracted a small but diverse following of bohemian artists and intellectuals,[70] free love and birth control advocates (see Anarchism and issues related to love and sex),[71][72] individualist naturists nudists (see anarcho-naturism),[73][74][75] freethought and anti-clerical activists[76] as well as young anarchist outlaws in what came to be known as illegalism and individual reclamation[77][78] (see European individualist anarchism and individualist anarchism in France). These authors and activists included Oscar Wilde, Emile Armand, Han Ryner, Henri Zisly, Renzo Novatore, Miguel Gimenez Igualada, Adolf Brand and Lev Chernyi among others. In his important essay The Soul of Man under Socialism from 1891 Oscar Wilde defended socialism as the way to guarantee individualism and so he saw that "With the abolition of private property, then, we shall have true, beautiful, healthy Individualism.  Nobody will waste his life in accumulating things, and the symbols for things.  One will live.  To live is the rarest thing in the world.  Most people exist, that is all."[79] For anarchist historian George Woodcock "Wilde's aim in The Soul of Man under Socialism is to seek the society most favorable to the artist ... for Wilde art is the supreme end, containing within itself enlightenment and regeneration, to which all else in society must be subordinated ... Wilde represents the anarchist as aesthete."[80] Woodcock finds that "The most ambitious contribution to literary anarchism during the 1890s was undoubtedly Oscar Wilde The Soul of Man under Socialism" and finds that it is influenced mainly by the thought of William Godwin.[80]

text: Philosophical individualism[edit]

text: Ethical egoism[edit]

text: Ethical egoism (also called simply egoism)[81] is the normative ethical position that moral agents ought to do what is in their own self-interest. It differs from psychological egoism, which claims that people do only act in their self-interest. Ethical egoism also differs from rational egoism, which holds merely that it is rational to act in one's self-interest. However, these doctrines may occasionally be combined with ethical egoism.

text: Ethical egoism contrasts with ethical altruism, which holds that moral agents have an obligation to help and serve others. Egoism and altruism both contrast with ethical utilitarianism, which holds that a moral agent should treat one's self (also known as the subject) with no higher regard than one has for others (as egoism does, by elevating self-interests and "the self" to a status not granted to others), but that one also should not (as altruism does) sacrifice one's own interests to help others' interests, so long as one's own interests (i.e. one's own desires or well-being) are substantially-equivalent to the others' interests and well-being. Egoism, utilitarianism, and altruism are all forms of consequentialism, but egoism and altruism contrast with utilitarianism, in that egoism and altruism are both agent-focused forms of consequentialism (i.e. subject-focused or subjective), but utilitarianism is called agent-neutral (i.e. objective and impartial) as it does not treat the subject's (i.e. the self's, i.e. the moral "agent's") own interests as being more or less important than if the same interests, desires, or well-being were anyone else's.

text: Ethical egoism does not, however, require moral agents to harm the interests and well-being of others when making moral deliberation; e.g. what is in an agent's self-interest may be incidentally detrimental, beneficial, or neutral in its effect on others. Individualism allows for others' interest and well-being to be disregarded or not, as long as what is chosen is efficacious in satisfying the self-interest of the agent. Nor does ethical egoism necessarily entail that, in pursuing self-interest, one ought always to do what one wants to do; e.g. in the long term, the fulfilment of short-term desires may prove detrimental to the self. Fleeting pleasance, then, takes a back seat to protracted eudaemonia. In the words of James Rachels, "Ethical egoism [...] endorses selfishness, but it doesn't endorse foolishness."[82]

text: Ethical egoism is sometimes the philosophical basis for support of libertarianism or individualist anarchism as in Max Stirner, although these can also be based on altruistic motivations.[83] These are political positions based partly on a belief that individuals should not coercively prevent others from exercising freedom of action.

text: Egoist anarchism[edit]

text: Egoist anarchism is a school of anarchist thought that originated in the philosophy of Max Stirner, a nineteenth-century Hegelian philosopher whose "name appears with familiar regularity in historically orientated surveys of anarchist thought as one of the earliest and best-known exponents of individualist anarchism."[59] According to Stirner, the only limitation on the rights of the individual is their power to obtain what they desire,[60] without regard for God, state, or morality.[61] Stirner advocated self-assertion and foresaw unions of egoists, non-systematic associations continually renewed by all parties' support through an act of will,[63] which Stirner proposed as a form of organisation in place of the state.[64] Egoist anarchists argue that egoism will foster genuine and spontaneous union between individuals.[65] "Egoism" has inspired many interpretations of Stirner's philosophy but within anarchism it has also gone beyond Stirner. It was re-discovered and promoted by German philosophical anarchist and LGBT activist John Henry Mackay. John Beverley Robinson wrote an essay called "Egoism" in which he states that "Modern egoism, as propounded by Stirner and Nietzsche, and expounded by Ibsen, Shaw and others, is all these; but it is more. It is the realization by the individual that they are an individual; that, as far as they are concerned, they are the only individual."[84] Nietzsche (see Anarchism and Friedrich Nietzsche) and Stirner were frequently compared by French "literary anarchists" and anarchist interpretations of Nietzschean ideas appear to have also been influential in the United States.[85] Anarchists who adhered to egoism include Benjamin Tucker, Émile Armand, John Beverley Robinson, Adolf Brand, Steven T. Byington, Renzo Novatore, James L. Walker, Enrico Arrigoni, Biofilo Panclasta, Jun Tsuji, André Arru and contemporary ones such as Hakim Bey, Bob Black and Wolfi Landstreicher.

text: Existentialism[edit]

text: Existentialism is a term applied to the work of a number of 19th- and 20th-century philosophers who, despite profound doctrinal differences,[86][87] generally held that the focus of philosophical thought should be to deal with the conditions of existence of the individual person and his or her emotions, actions, responsibilities, and thoughts.[88][89] The early 19th century philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, posthumously regarded as the father of existentialism,[90][91] maintained that the individual solely has the responsibilities of giving one's own life meaning and living that life passionately and sincerely,[92][93] in spite of many existential obstacles and distractions including despair, angst, absurdity, alienation, and boredom.[94]

text: Subsequent existential philosophers retain the emphasis on the individual, but differ, in varying degrees, on how one achieves and what constitutes a fulfilling life, what obstacles must be overcome, and what external and internal factors are involved, including the potential consequences of the existence[95][96] or non-existence of God.[97][98] Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophy, in both style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience.[99][100] Existentialism became fashionable in the post-World War years as a way to reassert the importance of human individuality and freedom.[101]

text: Freethought[edit]

text: Freethought holds that individuals should not accept ideas proposed as truth without recourse to knowledge and reason. Thus, freethinkers strive to build their opinions on the basis of facts, scientific inquiry, and logical principles, independent of any logical fallacies or intellectually limiting effects of authority, confirmation bias, cognitive bias, conventional wisdom, popular culture, prejudice, sectarianism, tradition, urban legend, and all other dogmas. Regarding religion, freethinkers hold that there is insufficient evidence to scientifically validate the existence of supernatural phenomena.[102]

text: Humanism[edit]

text: Humanism is a perspective common to a wide range of ethical stances that attaches importance to human dignity, concerns, and capabilities, particularly rationality. Although the word has many senses, its meaning comes into focus when contrasted to the supernatural or to appeals to authority.[103][104] Since the 19th century, humanism has been associated with an anti-clericalism inherited from the 18th-century Enlightenment philosophes. 21st century Humanism tends to strongly endorse human rights, including reproductive rights, gender equality, social justice, and the separation of church and state. The term covers organized non-theistic religions, secular humanism, and a humanistic life stance.[105]

text: Hedonism[edit]

text: Philosophical hedonism is a meta-ethical theory of value which argues that pleasure is the only intrinsic good and pain is the only intrinsic bad.[106] The basic idea behind hedonistic thought is that pleasure (an umbrella term for all inherently likable emotions) is the only thing that is good in and of itself or by its very nature. The normative implications of this are evaluating character or behavior as morally good to the extent that one is concerned with pleasure/pain qua pleasure/pain or an action leads to a greater balance of pleasure over pain than any other would.

text: Libertinism[edit]

text: A libertine is one devoid of most moral restraints, which are seen as unnecessary or undesirable, especially one who ignores or even spurns accepted morals and forms of behaviour sanctified by the larger society.[107][108] Libertines place value on physical pleasures, meaning those experienced through the senses. As a philosophy, libertinism gained new-found adherents in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, particularly in France and Great Britain. Notable among these were John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester, and the Marquis de Sade. During the Baroque era in France, there existed a freethinking circle of philosophers and intellectuals who were collectively known as libertinage érudit and which included Gabriel Naudé, Élie Diodati and François de La Mothe Le Vayer.[109][110] The critic Vivian de Sola Pinto linked John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester's libertinism to Hobbesian materialism.[111]

text: Objectivism[edit]

text:
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text: Objectivism is a system of philosophy created by philosopher and novelist Ayn Rand (1905–1982) that holds: reality exists independent of consciousness; human beings gain knowledge rationally from perception through the process of concept formation and inductive and deductive logic; the moral purpose of one's life is the pursuit of one's own happiness or rational self-interest. Rand thinks the only social system consistent with this morality is full respect for individual rights, embodied in pure laissez faire capitalism; and the role of art in human life is to transform man's widest metaphysical ideas, by selective reproduction of reality, into a physical form—a work of art—that he can comprehend and to which he can respond emotionally. Objectivism celebrates man as his own hero, "with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute."[112]

text: Philosophical anarchism[edit]

text: Philosophical anarchism is an anarchist school of thought[114] which contends that the State lacks moral legitimacy and – in contrast to revolutionary anarchism – does not advocate violent revolution to eliminate it but advocate peaceful evolution to superate it.[115] Though philosophical anarchism does not necessarily imply any action or desire for the elimination of the State, philosophical anarchists do not believe that they have an obligation or duty to obey the State, or conversely, that the State has a right to command.

text: Philosophical anarchism is a component especially of individualist anarchism.[116] Philosophical anarchists of historical note include Mohandas Gandhi, William Godwin, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Max Stirner,[117] Benjamin Tucker,[118] and Henry David Thoreau.[119] Contemporary philosophical anarchists include A. John Simmons and Robert Paul Wolff.

text: Subjectivism[edit]

text: Subjectivism is a philosophical tenet that accords primacy to subjective experience as fundamental of all measure and law. In extreme forms like Solipsism, it may hold that the nature and existence of every object depends solely on someone's subjective awareness of it. For example, Wittgenstein wrote in Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus: "The subject doesn't belong to the world, but it is a limit of the world" (proposition 5.632). Metaphysical subjectivism is the theory that reality is what we perceive to be real, and that there is no underlying true reality that exists independently of perception. One can also hold that it is consciousness rather than perception that is reality (subjective idealism). In probability, a subjectivism stands for the belief that probabilities are simply degrees-of-belief by rational agents in a certain proposition, and which have no objective reality in and of themselves.

text: Ethical subjectivism stands in opposition to moral realism, which claims that moral propositions refer to objective facts, independent of human opinion; to error theory, which denies that any moral propositions are true in any sense; and to non-cognitivism, which denies that moral sentences express propositions at all. The most common forms of ethical subjectivism are also forms of moral relativism, with moral standards held to be relative to each culture or society (c.f. cultural relativism), or even to every individual. The latter view, as put forward by Protagoras, holds that there are as many distinct scales of good and evil as there are subjects in the world. Moral subjectivism is that species of moral relativism that relativizes moral value to the individual subject.

text: Horst Matthai Quelle  was a Spanish language German anarchist philosopher influenced by Max Stirner.[120] He argued that since the individual gives form to the world, he is those objects, the others and the whole universe.[120] One of his main views was a "theory of infinite worlds" which for him was developed by pre-socratic philosophers.[120]

text: Solipsism[edit]

text: Solipsism is the philosophical idea that only one's own mind is sure to exist. The term comes from Latin solus (alone) and ipse (self). Solipsism as an epistemological position holds that knowledge of anything outside one's own mind is unsure. The external world and other minds cannot be known, and might not exist outside the mind. As a metaphysical position, solipsism goes further to the conclusion that the world and other minds do not exist. As such it is the only epistemological position that, by its own postulate, is both irrefutable and yet indefensible in the same manner. Although the number of individuals sincerely espousing solipsism has been small, it is not uncommon for one philosopher to accuse another's arguments of entailing solipsism as an unwanted consequence, in a kind of reductio ad absurdum. In the history of philosophy, solipsism has served as a skeptical hypothesis.

text: Economic individualism[edit]

text: The doctrine of economic individualism holds that each individual should be allowed autonomy in making his or her own economic decisions as opposed to those decisions being made by the state, the community, the corporation etc. for him or her.

text: Liberalism[edit]

text: Classical liberalism is a political ideology that developed in the 19th century in England, Western Europe, and the Americas. It followed earlier forms of liberalism in its commitment to personal freedom and popular government, but differed from earlier forms of liberalism in its commitment to free markets and classical economics.[121] Notable classical liberals in the 19th century include Jean-Baptiste Say, Thomas Malthus, and David Ricardo. Classical liberalism was revived in the 20th century by Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek, and further developed by Milton Friedman, Robert Nozick, Loren Lomasky, and Jan Narveson.[122] The phrase classical liberalism is also sometimes used to refer to all forms of liberalism before the 20th century.

text: Individualist anarchism and economics[edit]

text: In regards to economic questions within individualist anarchism there are adherents to mutualism (Pierre Joseph Proudhon, Emile Armand, early Benjamin Tucker); natural rights positions (early Benjamin Tucker, Lysander Spooner, Josiah Warren); and egoistic disrespect for "ghosts" such as private property and markets (Max Stirner, John Henry Mackay, Lev Chernyi, later Benjamin Tucker, Renzo Novatore, illegalism). Contemporary individualist anarchist Kevin Carson characterizes American individualist anarchism saying that "Unlike the rest of the socialist movement, the individualist anarchists believed that the natural wage of labor in a free market was its product, and that economic exploitation could only take place when capitalists and landlords harnessed the power of the state in their interests. Thus, individualist anarchism was an alternative both to the increasing statism of the mainstream socialist movement, and to a classical liberal movement that was moving toward a mere apologetic for the power of big business." [123]

text: Mutualism[edit]

text: Mutualism is an anarchist school of thought which can be traced to the writings of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, who envisioned a society where each person might possess a means of production, either individually or collectively, with trade representing equivalent amounts of labor in the free market.[124] Integral to the scheme was the establishment of a mutual-credit bank which would lend to producers at a minimal interest rate only high enough to cover the costs of administration.[125] Mutualism is based on a labor theory of value which holds that when labor or its product is sold, in exchange, it ought to receive goods or services embodying "the amount of labor necessary to produce an article of exactly similar and equal utility".[126] Receiving anything less would be considered exploitation, theft of labor, or usury.

text: Libertarian socialism[edit]

text:
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text: Libertarian socialism (sometimes dubbed socialist libertarianism,[127] or left-libertarianism[128][129]) is a group of anti-authoritarian[130] political philosophies inside the socialist movement that rejects socialism as centralized state ownership and control of the economy,[131] as well as the state itself.[132] It criticizes wage labour relationships within the workplace.[133]  Instead, it emphasizes workers' self-management of the workplace[132] and decentralized structures of political organization.[134][135][136] It asserts that a society based on freedom and justice can be achieved through abolishing authoritarian institutions that control certain means of production and subordinate the majority to an owning class or political and economic elite.[137] Libertarian socialists advocate for decentralized structures based on direct democracy and federal or confederal associations such as libertarian municipalism, citizens' assemblies, trade unions, and workers' councils.[138][139] All of this is generally done within a general call for libertarian[140][141] and voluntary human relationships[142] through the identification, criticism, and practical dismantling of illegitimate authority in all aspects of human life.[42][46][143][144][44][145][146][48] As such libertarian socialism, within the larger socialist movement, seeks to distinguish itself both from Leninism/Bolshevism and from social democracy.[147][148]

text: Past and present political philosophies and movements commonly described as libertarian socialist include anarchism (especially anarchist communism, anarchist collectivism, anarcho-syndicalism,[149] and mutualism[150]) as well as autonomism, communalism, participism, guild socialism,[151] revolutionary syndicalism, and libertarian Marxist[152] philosophies such as council communism[153] and Luxemburgism;[154] as well as some versions of "utopian socialism"[155] and individualist anarchism.[156][157][158][159]

text: Left-libertarianism[edit]

text: Left-libertarianism (or left-wing libertarianism)[note 1] names several related but distinct approaches to politics, society, culture, and political and social theory, which stress both individual freedom and social justice.  Unlike right-libertarians, they believe that neither claiming nor mixing one's labor with natural resources is enough to generate full private property rights,[160][161] and maintain that natural resources (land, oil, gold, trees) ought to be held in some egalitarian manner, either unowned or owned collectively.[161]  Those left-libertarians who support private property do so under the condition that recompense is offered to the local community.

text: Left-libertarianism can refer generally to three related and overlapping schools of thought:

text:
Anti-authoritarian varieties of left-wing politics and, in particular, the socialist movement, usually known as libertarian socialism.[162]
Geolibertarianism: a synthesis of libertarianism and geoism (or Georgism)[163][164]
The Steiner–Vallentyne school, whose proponents draw conclusions from classical liberal or market liberal premises.[165]
Left-wing market anarchism, which stresses the socially transformative potential of non-aggression and anticapitalist, freed markets.[166]

tag: ul

text: Right-libertarianism[edit]

text:
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Literature[show]Capitalism: The Unknown IdealFor the New IntellectualIntroduction to Objectivist EpistemologyThe New LeftObjectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn RandPhilosophy: Who Needs ItThe Romantic ManifestoThe Virtue of SelfishnessObjectivist periodicalsThe Journal of Ayn Rand Studies

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text: Right-libertarianism or right libertarianism is a phrase used by some to describe either non-collectivist forms of libertarianism[167] or a variety of different libertarian views some label "right" of mainstream libertarianism including "libertarian conservatism".

text: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy calls it "right libertarianism" but states: "Libertarianism is often thought of as 'right-wing' doctrine. This, however, is mistaken for at least two reasons. First, on social—rather than economic—issues, libertarianism tends to be 'left-wing'. It opposes laws that restrict consensual and private sexual relationships between adults (e.g., gay sex, non-marital sex, and deviant sex), laws that restrict drug use, laws that impose religious views or practices on individuals, and compulsory military service. Second, in addition to the better-known version of libertarianism—right-libertarianism—there is also a version known as 'left-libertarianism'. Both endorse full self-ownership, but they differ with respect to the powers agents have to appropriate unappropriated natural resources (land, air, water, etc.)."[168]

text: As creative independent lifestyle[edit]

text: The anarchist[169] writer and bohemian Oscar Wilde wrote in his famous essay The Soul of Man under Socialism that "Art is individualism, and individualism is a disturbing and disintegrating force. There lies its immense value. For what it seeks is to disturb monotony of type, slavery of custom, tyranny of habit, and the reduction of man to the level of a machine."[79] For anarchist historian George Woodcock "Wilde's aim in The Soul of Man under Socialism is to seek the society most favorable to the artist...for Wilde art is the supreme end, containing within itself enlightenment and regeneration, to which all else in society must be subordinated...Wilde represents the anarchist as aesthete."[80] The word individualism in this way has been used to denote a personality with a strong tendency towards self-creation and experimentation as opposed to tradition or popular mass opinions and behaviors[3][8]

text: Anarchist writer Murray Bookchin describes a lot of individualist anarchism as people who "expressed their opposition in uniquely personal forms, especially in fiery tracts, outrageous behavior, and aberrant lifestyles in the cultural ghettos of fin de sicle New York, Paris, and London. As a credo, individualist anarchism remained largely a bohemian lifestyle, most conspicuous in its demands for sexual freedom ('free love') and enamored of innovations in art, behavior, and clothing."[70]

text: In relation to this view of individuality, French Individualist anarchist Emile Armand advocates egoistical denial of social conventions and dogmas to live in accord to one's own ways and desires in daily life since he emphasized anarchism as a way of life and practice. In this way he manifests "So the anarchist individualist tends to reproduce himself, to perpetuate his spirit in other individuals who will share his views and who will make it possible for a state of affairs to be established from which authoritarianism has been banished. It is this desire, this will, not only to live, but also to reproduce oneself, which we shall call "activity".[170]

text: In the book Imperfect garden : the legacy of humanism, humanist philosopher Tzvetan Todorov identifies individualism as an important current of socio-political thought within modernity and as examples of it he mentions Michel de Montaigne, François de La Rochefoucauld, Marquis de Sade, and Charles Baudelaire[171] In La Rochefoucauld, he identifies a tendency similar to stoicism in which "the honest person works his being in the manner of a sculptor who searches the liberation of the forms which are inside a block of marble, to extract the truth of that matter."[171] In Baudelaire he finds the dandy trait in which one searches to cultivate "the idea of beauty within oneself, of satisfying one's passions of feeling and thinking."[171]

text: The Russian-American poet Joseph Brodsky once manifested that "The surest defense against Evil is extreme individualism, originality of thinking, whimsicality, even—if you will—eccentricity. That is, something that can't be feigned, faked, imitated; something even a seasoned imposter couldn't be happy with."[172] Ralph Waldo Emerson famously declared", "Whoso would be a man must be a nonconformist"—a point of view developed at length in both the life and work of (Henry David) Thoreau. Equally memorable and influential on Walt Whitman is Emerson's idea that "a foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of small minds, adored by little statesmen and philosophers and divines."...Emerson opposes on principle the reliance on social structures (civil, religious) precisely because through them the individual approaches the divine second hand, mediated by the once original experience of a genius from another age: "An institution," as he explains, "is the lengthened shadow of one man." To achieve this original relation one must "Insist on one's self; never imitate" for if the relationship is secondary the connection is lost."[173]


document_title: File manager

question_text: what windows term describes moving from one location to another

text: File manager

text: Directory editors[edit]

text: A term that predates the usage of file manager is directory editor.  An early directory editor, DIRED, was developed circa 1974 at the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Lab by Stan Kugell.[1][2]

text:
A directory editor was written for EXEC 8 at the University of Maryland, and was available to other users at that time. The term was used by other developers, including Jay Lepreau, who wrote the dired program in 1980,[3] which ran on BSD. This was in turn inspired by an older program with the same name running on TOPS-20. Dired inspired other programs, including dired, the editor script (for emacs and similar editors), and ded.
[4]

text: File-list file manager[edit]

text: File-list file managers are lesser known and older than orthodox file managers.

text:
One such file manager is flist, which was introduced sometime before 1980 on the Conversational Monitor System.[5][6][7]
This is a variant of fulist, which originated before late 1978, according to comments by its author, Theo Alkema.[8]

text: The flist program provided a list of files in the user's minidisk,[9] and allowed sorting by any file attribute. The file attributes could be passed to scripts or function-key definitions, making it simple to use flist as part of CMS EXEC, EXEC 2 or XEDIT scripts.

text: This program ran only on IBM VM/SP CMS, but was the inspiration for other programs, including filelist[10][11][12] (a script run via the Xedit editor), and programs running on other operating systems, including a program also called flist, which ran on OpenVMS,[13] and fulist (from the name of the corresponding internal IBM program),[14] which runs on Unix.[15]

text: Orthodox file managers[edit]

text: Orthodox file managers (sometimes abbreviated to "OFM") or command-based file managers are text-menu based file managers, that commonly have three windows (two panels and one command line window). Orthodox file managers are one of the longest running families of file managers, preceding graphical user interface-based types. Developers create applications that duplicate and extend the manager that was introduced by PathMinder and John Socha's famous Norton Commander for DOS.[citation needed] The concept dates to the mid-1980s—PathMinder was released in 1984, and Norton Commander version 1.0 was released in 1986. Despite the age of this concept, file managers based on Norton Commander are actively developed, and dozens of implementations exist for DOS, Unix, and Microsoft Windows. Nikolai Bezroukov publishes his own set of criteria for an OFM standard (version 1.2 dated June 1997).[16]

text: Features[edit]

text: An orthodox file manager typically has three windows. Two of the windows are called panels and are positioned symmetrically at the top of the screen. The third is the command line, which is essentially a minimized command (shell) window that can be expanded to full screen. Only one of the panels is active at a given time. The active panel contains the "file cursor". Panels are resizable and can be hidden. Files in the active panel serve as the source of file operations performed by the manager. For example, files can be copied or moved from the active panel to the location represented in the passive panel. This scheme is most effective for systems in which the keyboard is the primary or sole input device. The active panel shows information about the current working directory and the files that it contains. The passive (inactive) panel shows the content of the same or another directory (the default target for file operations). Users may customize the display of columns that show relevant file information. The active panel and passive panel can be switched (often by pressing the tab key).

text: The following features describe the class of orthodox file managers.

text:
They present the user with a two-panel directory view with a command line below. Either panel may be selected to be active; the other becomes passive. The active panel becomes the working area for delete and rename operations, while the passive panel serves as a target for copy and move operations. Panels may be shrunk, exposing the terminal window hidden behind them. Normally, only the last line of the terminal window (the command line) is visible.
They provide close integration with an underlying OS shell via command line, using the associated terminal window that permits viewing the results of executing shell commands entered on the command line (e.g., via Ctrl-O shortcut in Norton Commander).
They provide the user with extensive keyboard shortcuts.
The file manager frees the user from having to use the mouse.
Users can create their own file associations and scripts that are invoked for certain file types and organize these scripts into a hierarchical tree (e.g., as a user script library or user menu).[citation needed]
Users can extend the functionality of the manager via a so-called User menu or Start menu and extensions menu.

text: Other common features include:

text:
Information on the "active" and "passive" panels may be used for constructing commands on the command line.  Examples include current file, path to left panel, path to right panel, etc.
They provide a built-in viewer for (at least) the most basic file types.
They have a built-in editor.  In many cases, the editor can extract certain elements of the panels into the text being edited.
Many support virtual file systems (VFS) such as viewing compressed archives, or working with files via an FTP connection.
They often have the word commander in the name, after Norton Commander.
Path: shows the source/destination location of the directory in use
Information about directory size, disk usage and disk name (usually at the bottom of the panels)
Panel with information about file name, extension, date and time of creation, last modification, and permissions (attributes).
Info panel with the number of files in directory, and the sum of the sizes of selected files.
Tabbed interface (usually in GUI file managers)
Function keys: F1–F10 have all the same functions under all orthodox file managers. Examples: F5 always copies file(s) from the active to the inactive panel, while F6 moves the file.

text: Tabbed panels[edit]

text: The introduction of tabbed panels in some file managers (for example Total Commander) made it possible to manipulate more than one active and passive directory at a time.

text: Portability[edit]

text: Orthodox file managers[17] are among the most portable file managers.  Examples are available on almost any platform, with both command-line and graphical interfaces. This is unusual among command line managers in that something purporting to be a standard for the interface is published. They are also actively supported by developers. This makes it possible to do the same work on different platforms without much relearning of the interface.

text: Dual-pane managers[edit]

text: Sometimes they are called dual-pane managers, a term that is typically used for programs such as the Windows File Explorer (see below). But they have three panes including a command line pane below (or hidden behind) two symmetric panes. Furthermore, most of these programs allow using just one of the two larger panes with the second hidden. Some also add an item to the Context Menu in Windows to "Open two Explorers, side by side".

text: Notable ones include:

text:
Altap Salamander
Commander One
Demos Commander
Directory Opus
DOS Navigator (DN) and derivatives
Double Commander
emelFM2
Far Manager
File Commander
Fman
ForkLift
GNOME Commander
Krusader
Midnight Commander (MC)
muCommander
Norton Commander (NC)
PowerDesk
PathMinder
SE-Explorer
Total Commander
Volkov Commander (VC)
WinSCP
XTree
ZTreeWin

text: Navigational file manager[edit]

text: A navigational file manager is a newer type of file manager. Since the advent of GUIs, it has become the dominant type of file manager for desktop computers.[citation needed]

text: Typically, it has two panes, with the filesystem tree in the left pane and the contents of the current directory in the right pane. For macOS, the Miller columns view in Finder (originating in NeXTStep) is a variation on the navigational file manager theme.[dubious  – discuss]

text: Concepts[edit]

text:
The window displays the location currently being viewed.
The location being viewed (the current directory) can be changed by the user by opening directories, pressing a back button, typing a location, or using the additional pane with the navigation tree representing all or part of the filesystem.
Icons represent files, programs, and directories.

text: The interface in a navigational file manager often resembles a web browser, complete with back and forward buttons, and often reload buttons. Most also contain an address bar into which the file or directory path (or URI) can be typed.

text: Most navigational file managers have two panes, the left pane being a tree view of the filesystem. This means that unlike orthodox file managers, the two panes are asymmetrical in their content and use.

text: Selecting a directory in the Navigation pane on the left designates it as the current directory, displaying its contents in the Contents pane on the right. However, expanding (+) or collapsing (-) a portion of the tree without selecting a directory will not alter the contents of the right pane. The exception to this behavior applies when collapsing a parent of the current directory, in which case the selection is refocused on the collapsed parent directory, thus altering the list in the Contents pane.

text: The process of moving from one location to another need not open a new window. Several instances of the file manager can be opened simultaneously and communicate with each other via drag-and-drop and clipboard operations, so it is possible to view several directories simultaneously and perform cut-and paste operations between instances.

text: File operations are based on drag-and-drop and editor metaphors: users can select and copy files or directories onto the clipboard and then paste them in a different place in the filesystem or even in a different instance of the file manager.

text: Notable examples of navigational file managers include:

text:
Directory Opus
Dolphin in KDE
DOS Shell in MS-DOS/PC DOS
File Manager in Windows
macOS Finder
Nautilus in GNOME (default since v2.30)
File Explorer (Windows Explorer)
PC Shell in PC Tools
ViewMAX in DR DOS
XTree / ZTreeWin

text: Spatial file manager[edit]

text: Spatial file managers use a spatial metaphor to represent files and directories as if they were actual physical objects. A spatial file manager imitates the way people interact with physical objects.

text: Some ideas behind the concept of a spatial file manager are:

text:
A single window represents each opened directory
Each window is unambiguously and irrevocably tied to a particular directory.
Stability: files, directories, and windows go where the user moves them, stay where the user puts them ("preserve their spatial state"), and retain all their other "physical" characteristics (such as size, shape, color and location).
The same item can only be viewed in one window at a time.

tag: ol

text: As in navigational file managers, when a directory is opened, the icon representing the directory changes—perhaps from an image showing a closed drawer to an opened one, perhaps the directory's icon turns into a silhouette filled with a pattern—and a new window is opened to represent that directory.

text: Examples of file managers that use a spatial metaphor to some extent include:

text:
Apple's Finder 5 to 9 (In the macOS Finder the spatial metaphor can still be used in general by enabling Finder's preference "Always open folders in a new window" [18] or on demand by holding the command key (⌘) while double-clicking a folder [19])
Konqueror has the option to turn into spatial mode
RISC OS Filer
Amiga's Workbench
GNOME's Nautilus from version 2.6 (default until 2.29, completely removed in 3.0)
MATE's Caja (though the default mode is navigational)
BeOS's Tracker
Haiku's Tracker
OS/2's Workplace Shell
Digital Research's GEM (implemented in Atari TOS and as a somewhat reduced version for PCs)
ROX-Filer file manager (ROX Desktop)
E17 file manager

text: Dysfunctional spatial file managers:

text:
Windows Explorer in Windows 95 was set as a spatial file manager model by default; because it also worked as a navigational file manager, directories could be opened in multiple windows, which made it fail all the above criteria. Later versions gradually abandoned the spatial model.
Apple's Finder in macOS was designed with a similar integration of spatial and navigational modes, meaning that the spatial mode did not actually work.[20]

text: 3D file managers[edit]

text: This section may contain indiscriminate, excessive, or irrelevant examples. Please improve the article by adding more descriptive text and removing less pertinent examples. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for further suggestions. (September 2013)

text: Some projects have attempted to implement a three-dimensional method of displaying files and directory structures. Three-dimensional file browsing has not become popular; the exact implementation tends to differ between projects, and there are no common standards to follow.

text: Examples of three-dimensional file managers include:

text:
fsn, for Silicon Graphics' IRIX systems, notably featured prominently in one scene from the film Jurassic Park, as a representation of Unix systems.
File System Visualizer, or fsv, an open-source clone of fsn for modern Unix-like systems.
tdfsb,[21] an open-source 3D file browser, where one enters directories by flying into them (using WASD). Runs on Linux, FreeBSD and BeOS.
BumpTop, a file manager using a three-dimensional representation of a desktop with realistic physics, intended for use with a stylus and touchscreen.
Real Desktop,[22] a desktop replacement with similarities to BumpTop.
Cubix 3D Filer [23] is a Windows file manager which organizes files according to different attributes.
GopherVR, a 3D visualisation of networked Gopher resources.

text: Web-based file managers[edit]

text: Web-based file managers are typically scripts written in either PHP, Ajax, Perl, ASP or another server-side language. When installed on a local server or on a remote server, they allow files and directories located there to be managed and edited, using a web browser, without the need for FTP Access.

text: More advanced, and usually commercially distributed, web-based file management scripts allow the administrator of the file manager to configure secure, individual user accounts, each with individual account permissions. Authorized users have access to documents stored on the server or in their individual user directories anytime, from anywhere, via a web browser.

text: A web-based file manager can serve as an organization's digital repository. For example, documents, digital media, publishing layouts, and presentations can be stored, managed, and shared between customers, suppliers, and remote workers, or just internally.

text: Web-based file managers are becoming increasingly popular due to the rise in popularity of dynamic web content management systems (CMS) and the need for non-technical website moderators to manage media on their websites powered by these platforms.

text: An example is net2ftp, a PHP- and JavaScript-based FTP client.


document_title: Gamete

question_text: where are the male gametes produced in plants

text: Gamete

text: Dissimilarity[edit]

text: In contrast to a gamete, the diploid somatic cells of an individual contain one copy of the chromosome set from the sperm and one copy of the chromosome set from the egg cell; that is, the cells of the offspring have genes expressing characteristics of both the father and the mother. A gamete's chromosomes are not exact duplicates of either of the sets of chromosomes carried in the diploid chromosomes, and often undergo random mutations resulting in modified DNA (and subsequently, new proteins and phenotypes).

text: Sex determination in humans and birds[edit]

text: In humans, a normal ovum can carry only an X chromosome (of the X and Y chromosomes), whereas a sperm may carry either an X or a Y (a non-normal ovum can end up carrying two or no X chromosomes, as a result of a irregularity at either of the two stages of meiosis, while a non-normal sperm cell can end up carrying either no sex-defining chromosomes, an XY pair, or XX pair as a result of the forementioned reason); ergo the male sperm can play a role in determining the sex of any resulting zygote, if the zygote has two X chromosomes it may develop into a female, if it has an X and a Y chromosome, it may develop into a male.[4] For birds, the female ovum determines the sex of the offspring, through the ZW sex-determination system.[4]

text: Artificial gametes[edit]

text: Artificial gametes, also known as In vitro derived gametes (IVD), stem cell-derived gametes (SCDGs), and In vitro generated gametes (IVG), are gametes derived from stem cells. Research shows that artificial gametes may be a reproductive technique for same-sex male couples, although a surrogate mother would still be required for the gestation period.[5] Women who have passed menopause may be able to produce eggs and bear genetically related children with artificial gametes.[5] Robert Sparrow wrote, in the Journal of Medical Ethics, that embryos derived from artificial gametes could be used to derive new gametes and this process could be repeated to create multiple human generations in the laboratory.[6] This technique could be used to create cell lines for medical applications and for studying the heredity of genetic disorders.[6] Additionally, this technique could be used for human enhancement by selectively breeding for a desired genome or by using recombinant DNA technology to create enhancements that have not arisen in nature.[6]

text: Plants[edit]

text: Plants which reproduce sexually also have gametes. However, since plants have an alternation of diploid and haploid generations some differences exist. In flowering plants the flowers use meiosis to produce a haploid generation which produce gametes through mitosis. The female haploid is called the ovule and is produced by the ovary of the flower. When mature the haploid ovule produces the female gamete which are ready for fertilization. The male haploid is pollen and is produced by the anther, when pollen lands on a mature stigma of a flower it grows a pollen tube down into the flower. The haploid pollen then produces sperm by mitosis and releases them for fertilization.