document_title: Rationing in the United Kingdom

question_text: when did rationing start in britain during world war 2

text: Rationing in the United Kingdom

text: First World War

text: In line with its business as usual policy during the First World War, the government was initially reluctant to try to control the food markets.[4] It fought off efforts to try to introduce minimum prices in cereal production, though relenting in the area of controlling of essential imports (sugar, meat, and grains). When it did introduce changes, they were limited in their effect. In 1916, it became illegal to consume more than two courses while lunching in a public eating place or more than three for dinner; fines were introduced for members of the public found feeding the pigeons or stray animals.[5]

text: In January 1917, Germany started using submarines to sink all ships headed to Britain in an attempt to starve Britain into submission. To meet this threat to the food supply voluntary rationing was introduced in February 1917. Bread was subsidised from September that year; prompted by local authorities taking matters into their own hands, compulsory rationing was introduced in stages between December 1917 and February 1918 as Britain's supply of wheat decreased to just six weeks' worth.[6] To facilitate the process, ration books were introduced in July 1918 for butter, margarine, lard, meat, and sugar.[7] For the most part, rationing benefited the health of the country. During the war, average energy intake decreased only three percent, but protein intake six percent.[8]

text: The general strike

text: The government made preparations to ration food in 1925, in advance of an expected general strike and appointed Food Control Officers for each region. In the event, the Trades Unions of the London docks organized blockades by crowds, but convoys of lorries under military escort took the heart out of the strike, so that the measures did not have to be implemented.[9]

text: Second World War

text: After the Second World War began in September 1939 the first commodity to be controlled was petrol. On 8 January 1940 bacon, butter and sugar were rationed. This was followed by successive ration schemes for meat, tea, jam, biscuits, breakfast cereals, cheese, eggs, lard, milk, and canned and dried fruit. In June 1942 the Combined Food Board was set up to coordinate the world supply of food to the Allies, with special attention to flows from the U.S. and Canada to Britain. Almost all foods apart from vegetables and bread were rationed by August 1942. Strict rationing inevitably created a black market. Almost all controlled items were rationed by weight but meat was rationed by price.

text: Fresh vegetables and fruit were not rationed but supplies were limited. Some types of imported fruit all but disappeared. Lemons and bananas became unobtainable for most of the war; oranges continued to be sold but greengrocers customarily reserved them for children and pregnant women, who could prove their status by producing their distinctive ration books. Other domestically grown fruit such as apples still appeared from time to time, but again the sellers imposed their own restrictions so that customers were often not allowed to buy, for example, more than one apple each. Many people grew their own vegetables, greatly encouraged by the highly successful digging for victory motivational campaign. In 1942 numerous children between five and seven years old had become used to wartime restrictions. When questioned about bananas, many did not believe such items existed.[10] Game meat such as rabbit and pigeon were not rationed but were not always available. A popular music-hall song, written 20 years previously but sung ironically, was "Yes! We Have No Bananas".[citation needed] During the food rationing, British biologists ate laboratory rat.[11][12][13][14][15][16]

text: Most controversial was bread; it was not rationed until after the war ended, but the "national loaf" of wholemeal bread replaced the ordinary white variety, to the distaste of most housewives who found it mushy, grey and easy to blame for digestion problems.[17] In May 1942, an order was passed that meals served in hotels and restaurants must not cost over 5 shillings per customer, must not be of more than three courses, and at most one course could contain meat, fish or poultry. This was partly in response to increasing public concerns that "luxury" off-ration foodstuffs were being unfairly obtained by those who could afford to dine regularly in restaurants.[18]

text: Fish was not rationed but price increased considerably as the war progressed. The government initially allowed this, since it realised that fishermen would need to be able to collect a premium for their catch if they were at risk of enemy attack while at sea, but prices were controlled from 1941.[19] Like other non-rationed items, fish was rarely freely available as supplies dropped to 30 percent of pre-war levels,[19] and long queues built up at fishmongers and fish and chip shops. The quality of wartime chips was often felt to be below standard, because of the low-quality fat available.

text: As the war progressed rationing was extended to other commodities such as clothing. Clothing was rationed on a points system. When it was introduced, on 1 June 1941, no clothing coupons had been issued, and at first the unused margarine coupons in ration books were valid for clothing. Initially the allowance was for approximately one new outfit per year; as the war progressed the points were reduced until buying a coat used almost a year's clothing coupons. On 1 July 1942 the basic civilian petrol ration was abolished; this was announced on 13 March 1942.[20] (Ivor Novello was a British public figure sent to prison for four weeks for misusing petrol coupons.) After that, vehicle fuel was only available to official users, such as the emergency services, bus companies and farmers. The priority users of fuel were always, of course, the armed forces. Fuel supplied to approved users was dyed, and use of this fuel for non-essential purposes was an offence.

text: Certain foodstuffs that the 1940s British consumer would find unusual, for example whale meat and canned snoek fish from South Africa, were not rationed. Despite this they did not prove popular.[2][21]

text: In addition to rationing, the government equalized the food supply through subsidies on items consumed by the poor and the working class. In 1942–43 £145,000,000 was spent on food subsidies, including £35 million on bread, flour and oatmeal, £23  million on meat and the same on potatoes, £11 million on milk, and £13 million on eggs.[22]

text: Public catering

text: Restaurants were initially exempt from rationing but this was resented, as people with more money could supplement their food rations by eating out frequently. The Ministry of Food in May 1942 issued new restrictions on restaurants:[23]

text:
Meals were limited to three courses; only one component dish could contain fish or game or poultry (but not more than one of these)
In general no meals could be served between 11:00 p.m. (midnight in London) and 5:00 a.m. without a special licence
The maximum price of a meal was 5 shillings, with extra charges allowed for cabaret shows and luxury hotels.

text: About 2,000 new wartime establishments called British Restaurants were run by local authorities in schools and church halls. Here a plain three-course meal cost only 9d and no ration coupons were required. They evolved from the London County Council's Londoners' Meals Service, which began as an emergency system for feeding people who had been blitzed out of their homes. They were open to all and mostly served office and industrial workers.[24][25]

text: Health effects

text: In December 1939 Elsie Widdowson and Robert McCance of the University of Cambridge tested whether the United Kingdom could survive with only domestic food production if U-boats ended all imports. Using 1938 food-production data, they fed themselves and other volunteers one egg, one pound of meat and four ounces of fish a week; one quarter pint of milk a day; four ounces of margarine; and unlimited amounts of potatoes, vegetables and wholemeal bread. Two weeks of intensive outdoor exercise simulated the strenuous wartime physical work Britons would likely have to perform. The scientists found that the subjects' health and performance remained very good after three months, with the only negative results being the increased time needed for meals to consume the necessary calories from bread and potatoes and what they described as a "remarkable" increase in flatulence from the high amount of starch in the diet. The scientists also noted that their faeces had increased by 250 percent in volume. [26]

text: The results—kept secret until after the war—gave the government confidence that if necessary, food could be distributed equally to all, including high-value war workers, without causing widespread health problems. Britons' actual wartime diet was never as severe as in the Cambridge study because imports from the United States avoided the U-boats,[26] but rationing improved the health of British people; infant mortality declined and life expectancy rose, discounting deaths caused by hostilities. This was because it ensured that everyone had access to a varied diet with enough vitamins.[25][27]

text: Standard rationing during the Second World War

text: The standard rations during the Second World War were as follows. Quantities are per week unless otherwise stated.[28]

text: Food rations

text:
Item
Maximum level
Minimum level
Rations (April 1945)

Bacon and ham
8 oz (227 g)
4 oz (113 g)
4 oz (113 g)

Sugar
16 oz (454 g)
8 oz (227 g)
8 oz (227 g)

Loose tea
4 oz (113 g)
2 oz (57 g)
2 oz (57 g)

Meat
1 s. 2d.
1s
1s. 2d. (equivalent to £2.31 in 2016)[a 1]

Cheese
8 oz (227 g)
1 oz (28 g)
2 oz (57 g)
Vegetarians were allowed an extra 3 oz (85 g) cheese[29]

Preserves
1 lb (0.45 kg) per month
2 lb (0.91 kg) marmalade
8 oz (227 g) per month
2 lb (0.91 kg) marmalade
or 1 lb (0.45 kg) preserve
or 1 lb (0.45 kg) sugar

Butter
8 oz (227 g)
2 oz (57 g)
2 oz (57 g)

Margarine
12 oz (340 g)
4 oz (113 g)
4 oz (113 g)

Lard
3 oz (85 g)
2 oz (57 g)
2 oz (57 g)

Sweets
16 oz (454 g) per month
8 oz (227 g) per month
12 oz (340 g) per month

text: Army and Merchant Marine rations

text:
Item
Army Rations Home Service Scale (Men)
Army Rations Home Service Scale (Women)
Seamen on weekly articles

Meat
5 lb 4 oz (2.4 kg)
2 lb 10 oz (1.2 kg)
2 lb 3 oz (0.99 kg)

Bacon and ham (uncooked, free of bone)
8 oz (230 g)
9 oz (260 g)
8 oz (230 g)

Butter and margarine
13 1⁄4 oz (380 g) (in any proportions of butter and margarine)
10 1⁄2 oz (300 g) (margarine only)
10 1⁄2 oz (300 g) (not more than 3 1⁄2 oz (99 g) butter)

Cheese
4 oz (110 g)
4 oz (110 g)
4 oz (110 g)

Cooking fats
2 oz (57 g) (may be taken in the form of margarine)
-
-

Sugar
1 lb 14 oz (850 g)
14 oz (400 g)
14 oz (400 g)

Tea
4 oz (110 g)
2 oz (57 g)
2 oz (57 g))

Preserves
8 oz (230 g) jam 2 oz (57 g) syrup (10 1⁄2 oz (300 g) for boys and young soldiers battalions) (jam, marmalade or syrup)
7 oz (200 g)(jam, marmalade or syrup)
10 1⁄2 oz (300 g) (jam, marmalade, syrup)

text: 1s 2d bought about 1 lb 3 oz (540 g) of meat. Offal and sausages were only rationed from 1942 to 1944. When sausages were not rationed, the meat needed to make them was so scarce that they often contained a high proportion of bread. Eggs were rationed and "allocated to ordinary consumers as available"; in 1944 thirty allocations of one egg each were made. Children and some invalids were allowed three a week; expectant mothers two on each allocation.

text:
1 egg per week or 1 packet (makes 12 ersatz eggs) of egg powder per month (vegetarians were allowed two eggs)
plus, 24 points for four weeks for tinned and dried food.

text: Arrangements were made for vegetarians so that other goods were substituted for their rations of meat.[29]

text: Milk was supplied at 3 imp pt (1.7 l) each week with priority for expectant mothers and children under 5; 3.5 imp pt (2.0 l) for those under 18; children unable to attend school 5 imp pt (2.8 l), certain invalids up to 14 imp pt (8.0 l). Each consumer received one tin of milk powder (equivalent to 8 imperial pints or 4.5 litres) every eight weeks.[32]

text: Special civilian rations

text: Persons falling within the following descriptions were allowed 8 oz (230 g) of cheese a week in place of the general ration of 3 oz (85 g):

text:
vegetarians (meat and bacon coupons must be surrendered)
underground mine workers
agricultural workers holding unemployment insurance books or cards bearing stamps marked "Agriculture"
county roadmen
forestry workers (including fellers and hauliers)
land drainage workers (including Catchment Board workers)
members of the Auxiliary Force of the Women's Land Army[31]
railway train crews (including crews of shunting engines but not including dining car staffs)
railway signalmen and permanent way men who have not access to canteen facilities
certain types of agricultural industry workers (workers employed on threshing machines, tractor workers who are not included in the Agricultural Unemployment Insurance Stamp Scheme, hay pressers and trussers).

text: Weekly Supplementary allowances of rationed foods for invalids

text:
Disease
Food supplementary allowance
Quantity
Coupons to be surrendered

Diabetes
Butter and margarine
12 oz (340 g) (not more than 4 oz (110 g) butter)
Sugar

Diabetes
Meat
2s. 4d., adult 1s, 2d., child under six
Sugar

Diabetes—vegetarians only
Cheese
8 oz (230 g)
Sugar

Hypoglycaemia
Sugar
16 oz (450 g)
-

Steatorrhoea
Meat
4s. 8d. adult, 2s. 4d. child under six
Butter and margarine

Nephritis with gross albuminuria and gross oedema, also nephrosis
Meat
3s. 6d. adult, 1s. 9d. child under six

text: Non-food rations

text: There were 66 points for clothing per year, in 1942 it was cut to 48 and in 1943 to 36, and in 1945 to 24. In 1945, an overcoat (wool and fully lined) was 18 coupons; a man's suit, 26–29 (according to lining); men's shoes, 9; women's shoes, 7; woollen dresses, 11. Children aged 14–16 got 20 more coupons. Clothing rationing points could be used for wool, cotton and household textiles. People had extra points for work clothes, such as overalls for factory work.[33] No points were required for second-hand clothing or fur coats, but their prices were fixed. Before rationing lace and frills were popular on knickers but these were soon banned so that material could be saved. From March to May 1942 austerity measures were introduced which restricted the number of buttons, pockets and pleats (among other things) on clothes.[34]

text: Clothes rationing ended on 15 March 1949.

text: All types of soap were rationed. Coupons were allotted by weight or (if liquid) by quantity. In 1945, the ration gave four coupons each month; babies and some workers and invalids were allowed more.[34] A coupon would yield:

text:
4 oz (113 g) bar hard soap
3 oz (85 g) bar toilet soap
1⁄2 oz (14 g) No. 1 liquid soap
6 oz (170 g) soft soap
3 oz (85 g) soap flakes
6 oz (170 g) powdered soap

text: The Fuel and Lighting (Coal) Order 1941 came into force in January 1942. Central heating was prohibited "in the summer months".[34] Domestic coal was rationed to 15 long hundredweight (1,700 lb; 760 kg) for those in London and the south of England; 20 long hundredweight (2,200 lb; 1,000 kg) for the rest (the southern part of England having generally a milder climate).[34] Some kinds of coal such as anthracite were not rationed, and in the coal-mining areas were eagerly gathered as they were in the Great Depression (see The Road to Wigan Pier).

text: Newspapers were limited from September 1939, at first to 60% of their pre-war consumption of newsprint. Paper supply came under the No 48 Paper Control Order, 4 September 1942 and was controlled by the Ministry of Production. By 1945 newspapers were limited to 25% of their pre-war consumption. Wrapping paper for most goods was prohibited.[35]

text: The paper shortage often made it more difficult than usual for authors to get work published. In 1944, George Orwell wrote:

text: In Mr Stanley Unwin's recent pamphlet Publishing in Peace and War, some interesting facts are given about the quantities of paper allotted by the Government for various purposes. Here are the present figures:

text:
Newspapers
250,000 tons

H. M. Stationery Office
100,000 tons

Periodicals
(nearly) 50,000 tons

Books
22,000 tons

text: A particularly interesting detail is that out of the 100,000 tons allotted to the Stationery Office, the War Office gets no less than 25,000 tons, or more than the whole of the book trade put together. ... At the same time paper for books is so short that even the most hackneyed "classic" is liable to be out of print, many schools are short of textbooks, new writers get no chance to start and even established writers have to expect a gap of a year or two years between finishing a book and seeing it published.

text: Whether rationed or not, many consumer goods became difficult to obtain because of the shortage of components. Examples included razor blades, baby bottles, alarm clocks, frying pans and pots. Balloons and sugar for cakes for birthday parties were partially or completely unavailable. Many fathers saved bits of wood to build toys for Christmas presents,[38]:112–113 and Christmas trees were almost impossible to obtain due to timber rationing.[39]

text: Post-Second World War

text: On 8 May 1945, the Second World War ended in Europe, but rationing continued. Some aspects of rationing became stricter for some years after the war. At the time this was presented as needed to feed people in European areas under British control, whose economies had been devastated by the fighting.[2] This was partly true, but with many British men still mobilised in the armed forces, an austere economic climate, and a centrally-planned economy under the post-war Labour government, resources were not available to expand food production and food imports. Frequent strikes by some workers (most critically dock workers) made things worse.[2] A common ration book fraud was the ration books of the dead being kept and used by the living.[20]

text: Political reaction

text: In the late 1940s the Conservative Party exploited and incited growing public anger at rationing, scarcity, controls, austerity and government bureaucracy. They used the dissatisfaction with the socialistic and egalitarian policies of the Labour Party to rally middle-class supporters and build a political comeback that won the 1951 general election. Their appeal was especially effective to housewives, who faced more difficult shopping conditions after the war than during it.[40]

text: Timeline

text:
27 May 1945: Bacon ration cut from 4 to 3 ounces/week. Cooking fat ration cut from 2 to 1 ounces/week. Soap ration cut by an eighth, except for babies and young children.[41] The referenced newspaper article predicted that households would be grossly hampered in making food items that included pastry.
1 June 1945: The basic petrol ration for civilians was restored.[20]
19 July 1945: In order to preserve the egalitarian nature of rationing, gift food parcels from overseas weighing more than 5 lb (2.3 kg) would be deducted from the recipient's ration.
Summer 1946: Continual rain ruined Britain's wheat crop. Bread rationing started.
January–March 1947: Winter of 1946–1947 in the United Kingdom: long hard frost and deep snow. Frost destroyed a huge amount of stored potatoes. Potato rationing started.
Mid-1947: A transport and dock strike, which among other effects caused much loss of imported meat left to rot on the docks, until the Army broke the strike. The basic petrol ration was stopped.[20]
1 June 1948: The Motor Spirit (Regulation) Act 1948 was passed,[42] ordering a red dye to be to put into some petrol, and that red petrol was only allowed to be used in commercial vehicles. A private car driver could lose his driving licence for a year if red petrol was found in his car. A petrol station could be shut down if it sold red petrol to a private car driver. See List of Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, 1940–1959: 1948.
June 1948: The basic petrol ration was restored, at a third of its previous size.
1948: Bread came off ration.
May 1949: Clothes rationing ended. According to one author,[20] this was because attempts to enforce it were defeated by continual massive illegality (black market, unofficial trade in loose clothing coupons (many forged), bulk thefts of unissued clothes ration books).
23 February 1950: The 1950 general election is fought largely on the issue of rationing. The Conservative Party campaigned on a manifesto of ending rationing as quickly as possible.[2] The Labour Party argued for the continuation of rationing indefinitely. Labour was returned, but with its majority badly slashed to 5 seats.
26 May 1950: Petrol rationing ended.[43]
25 October 1951: United Kingdom general election, 1951. The Conservatives came back into power.
February 1953: Confectionery rationing ended.
September 1953: Sugar rationing ended.
4 July 1954: Meat and all other food rationing ended in Britain.[44]

text: Although rationing formally ended in 1954, cheese production remained depressed for decades afterwards. During rationing, most milk in Britain was used to make one kind of cheese, nicknamed Government Cheddar (not to be confused with the government cheese issued by the US welfare system).[45] This wiped out nearly all other cheese production in the country, and some indigenous varieties of cheese almost disappeared.[45] Later government controls on milk prices through the Milk Marketing Board continued to discourage production of other varieties of cheese until well into the 1980s,[46] and it was only in the mid-1990s (following the effective abolition of the MMB) that the revival of the British cheese industry began in earnest.

text: Suez Crisis

text: Petrol rationing was briefly reintroduced in late 1956 during the Suez Crisis but ended again on 14 May 1957.[47] Advertising of petrol on the recently introduced ITV was banned for a period.

text: 1970s oil crises

text: Petrol coupons were issued for a short time as preparation for the possibility of petrol rationing during the 1973 oil crisis. The rationing never came about, in large part because increasing North Sea oil production allowed the UK to offset much of the lost imports. By the time of the 1979 energy crisis, the United Kingdom had become a net exporter of oil, so on that occasion the government did not have to even consider petrol rationing.


document_title: Blood proteins

question_text: what plasma protein plays a large role in osmotic pressure regulation

root

text: Blood proteins

text: Blood proteins, also termed plasma proteins or serum proteins, are proteins present in blood plasma. They serve many different functions, including transport of lipids, hormones, vitamins and minerals in the circulatory system and the regulation of acellular activity and functioning of the immune system. Other blood proteins act as enzymes, complement components, protease inhibitors or kinin precursors. Contrary to popular belief, hemoglobin is not a blood protein, as it is carried within red blood cells, rather than in the blood serum.

tag: p

text: Serum albumin accounts for 55% of blood proteins, and is a major contributor to maintaining the osmotic pressure of plasma to assist in the transport of lipids and steroid hormones. Globulins make up 38% of blood proteins and transport ions, hormones, and lipids assisting in immune function. Fibrinogen comprises 7% of blood proteins; conversion of fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin is essential for blood clotting. The remainder of the plasma proteins (1%) are regulatory proteins, such as enzymes, proenzymes, and hormones. All blood proteins are synthesized in liver except for the gamma globulins.

text: Separating serum proteins by electrophoresis is a valuable diagnostic tool as well as a way to monitor clinical progress. Current research regarding blood plasma proteins is centered on performing proteomics analyses of serum/plasma in the search for biomarkers. These efforts started with two-dimensional gel electrophoresis[1] efforts in the 1970s and in more recent times this research has been performed using LC-tandem MS[2][3][4] based proteomics. The normal laboratory value of serum total protein is around 7 g/dL.

text: Families of blood proteins[edit]

text:
Blood protein
Normal level
 %
Function

Albumins
3.5-5.0 g/dl[citation needed]
55%
create and maintain oncotic pressure; transport insoluble molecules

Globulins
2.0-2.5 g/dl[citation needed]
38%
participate in immune system

Fibrinogen
0.2-0.45 g/dl[citation needed]
7%
Blood coagulation

Regulatory proteins

<1%[citation needed]
Regulation of gene expression

Clotting factors

<1%[citation needed]
Conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin

tag: table

text: Examples of specific blood proteins:

text:
Prealbumin (transthyretin)
Alpha 1 antitrypsin (neutralizes trypsin that has leaked from the digestive system)
Alpha 1 acid glycoprotein
Alpha 1 fetoprotein
alpha2-macroglobulin
Gamma globulins
Beta-2 microglobulin
Haptoglobin
Ceruloplasmin
Complement component 3
Complement component 4
C-reactive protein (CRP)
Lipoproteins (chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL, HDL)
Transferrin
Prothrombin
MBL or MBP

tag: ul

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Anderson NL, Anderson NG (1977). "High Resolution Two-Dimensional Electrophoresis of Human Plasma Proteins". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 74 (12): 5421–5425. PMC 431746 . PMID 271964. doi:10.1073/pnas.74.12.5421.
Jump up ^ Adkins JN; et al. (2002). "Toward a human blood serum proteome: analysis by multidimensional separation coupled with mass spectrometry". Molecular & Cellular Proteomics. 1 (12): 947–955. PMID 12543931. doi:10.1074/mcp.M200066-MCP200.
Jump up ^ Malmström, E; Kilsgård, O; Hauri, S; Smeds, E; Herwald, H; Malmström, L; Malmström, J (January 2016). "Large-scale inference of protein tissue origin in gram-positive sepsis plasma using quantitative targeted proteomics". Nat Commun. 7. PMID 26732734. doi:10.1038/ncomms10261.
Jump up ^ Geyer, PE; Kulak, NA; Pichler, G; Holdt, LM; Teupser, D; Mann, M (March 2016). "Plasma Proteome Profiling to Assess Human Health and Disease". Cell Syst. 2 (3): 185–95. PMID 27135364. doi:10.1016/j.cels.2016.02.015.

tag: ol


document_title: Indigenous languages of the Americas

question_text: the largest common language group among north american natives belong to the

text: Indigenous languages of the Americas

text: Background[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. (January 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Thousands of languages were spoken by various peoples in North and South America prior to their first contact with Europeans.[dubious – discuss] These encounters occurred between the beginning of the 11th century (with the Nordic settlement of Greenland and failed efforts in Newfoundland and Labrador) and the end of the 15th century (the voyages of Christopher Columbus). Several indigenous cultures of the Americas had also developed their own writing systems, the best known being the Maya script.[4] The indigenous languages of the Americas had widely varying demographics, from the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guarani, and Nahuatl, which had millions of active speakers, to many languages with only several hundred speakers. After pre-Columbian times, several indigenous creole languages developed in the Americas, based on European, indigenous and African languages.

text: The European colonizers and their successor states had widely varying attitudes towards Native American languages. In Brazil, friars learned and promoted the Tupi language.[5] In many Latin American colonies, Spanish missionaries often learned local languages and culture in order to preach to the natives in their own tongue and relate the Christian message to their indigenous religions. In the British American colonies, John Eliot of the Massachusetts Bay Colony translated the Bible into the Massachusett language, also called Wampanoag, or Natick (1661–1663; he published the first Bible printed in North America, the Eliot Indian Bible.

text: The Europeans also suppressed use of indigenous American languages, establishing their own languages for official communications, destroying texts in other languages, and insisting that indigenous people learn European languages in schools. As a result, indigenous American languages suffered from cultural suppression and loss of speakers. By the 18th and 19th centuries, Spanish, English, Portuguese, French, and Dutch, brought to the Americas by European settlers and administrators, had become the official or national languages of modern nation-states of the Americas.

text: Many indigenous languages have become critically endangered, but others are vigorous and part of daily life for millions of people. Several indigenous languages have been given official status in the countries where they occur, such as Guaraní in Paraguay. In other cases official status is limited to certain regions where the languages are most spoken. Although sometimes enshrined in constitutions as official, the languages may be used infrequently in de facto official use. Examples are Quechua in Peru and Aymara in Bolivia, where in practice, Spanish is dominant in all formal contexts.

text: In North America and the Arctic region, Greenland in 2009 adopted Kalaallisut as its sole official language. In the United States, the Navajo language is the most spoken Native American language, with more than 200,000 speakers in the Southwestern United States. The US Marine Corps recruited Navajo men, who were established as code talkers during World War II, to transmit secret US military messages. Neither the Germans nor Japanese ever deciphered the Navajo code, which was a code using the Navajo language. Today, governments, universities, and indigenous peoples are continuing to work for the preservation and revitalization of indigenous American languages.

text: Origins[edit]

text: In American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America (1997), Lyle Campbell lists several hypotheses for the historical origins of Amerindian languages.[6]

text:
A single, one-language migration (not widely accepted)
A few linguistically distinct migrations (favored by Edward Sapir)
Multiple migrations
Multilingual migrations (single migration with multiple languages)
The influx of already diversified but related languages from the Old World
Extinction of Old World linguistic relatives (while the New World ones survived)
Migration along the Pacific coast instead of by the Bering Strait

text: Roger Blench (2008) has advocated the theory of multiple migrations along the Pacific coast of peoples from northeastern Asia, who already spoke diverse languages. These proliferated in the New World.[7]

text: Language families and unclassified languages[edit]

text: Notes:

text:
Extinct languages or families are indicated by: †.
The number of family members is indicated in parentheses (for example, Arauan (9) means the Arauan family consists of nine languages).
For convenience, the following list of language families is divided into three sections based on political boundaries of countries. These sections correspond roughly with the geographic regions (North, Central, and South America) but are not equivalent. This division cannot fully delineate indigenous culture areas.

text: North America[edit]

text: There are approximately 296 spoken (or formerly spoken) indigenous languages north of Mexico, 269 of which are grouped into 29 families (the remaining 27 languages are either isolates or unclassified). The Na-Dené, Algic, and Uto-Aztecan families are the largest in terms of number of languages. Uto-Aztecan has the most speakers (1.95 million) if the languages in Mexico are considered (mostly due to 1.5 million speakers of Nahuatl); Na-Dené comes in second with approximately 200,000 speakers (nearly 180,000 of these are speakers of Navajo), and Algic in third with about 180,000 speakers (mainly Cree and Ojibwe). Na-Dené and Algic have the widest geographic distributions: Algic currently spans from northeastern Canada across much of the continent down to northeastern Mexico (due to later migrations of the Kickapoo) with two outliers in California (Yurok and Wiyot); Na-Dené spans from Alaska and western Canada through Washington, Oregon, and California to the U.S. Southwest and northern Mexico (with one outlier in the Plains). Several families consist of only 2 or 3 languages. Demonstrating genetic relationships has proved difficult due to the great linguistic diversity present in North America. Two large (super-) family proposals, Penutian and Hokan, look particularly promising. However, even after decades of research, a large number of families remain.

text: North America is notable for its linguistic diversity, especially in California. This area has 18 language families comprising 74 languages (compared to three families in Europe: Indo-European, Uralic and Turkic and one isolate: Basque). [8]

text: Another area of considerable diversity appears to have been the Southeastern United States[citation needed]; however, many of these languages became extinct from European contact and as a result they are, for the most part, absent from the historical record.[citation needed] This diversity has influenced the development of linguistic theories and practice in the US.

text: Due to the diversity of languages in North America, it is difficult to make generalizations for the region. Most North American languages have a relatively small number of vowels (i.e. four or five vowels). Languages of the western half of North America often have relatively large consonant inventories. The languages of the Pacific Northwest are notable for their complex phonotactics (for example, some languages have words that lack vowels entirely).[9] The languages of the Plateau area have relatively rare pharyngeals and epiglottals (they are otherwise restricted to Afroasiatic languages and the languages of the Caucasus). Ejective consonants are also common in western North America, although they are rare elsewhere (except, again, for the Caucasus region, parts of Africa, and the Mayan family).

text: Head-marking is found in many languages of North America (as well as in Central and South America), but outside of the Americas it is rare. Many languages throughout North America are polysynthetic (Eskimo–Aleut languages are extreme examples), although this is not characteristic of all North American languages (contrary to what was believed by 19th-century linguists). Several families have unique traits, such as the inverse number marking of the Tanoan languages, the lexical affixes of the Wakashan, Salishan and Chimakuan languages, and the unusual verb structure of Na-Dené.

text: The classification below is a composite of Goddard (1996), Campbell (1997), and Mithun (1999).

text:
Adai †
Algic (30)
Alsea (2) †
Atakapa †
Beothuk †
Caddoan (5)
Cayuse †
Chimakuan (2)
Chimariko †
Chinookan (3)
Chitimacha †
Chumashan (6) †
Coahuilteco †
Comecrudan (United States & Mexico) (3) †
Coosan (2) †
Cotoname †
Eskimo–Aleut (7)
Esselen †
Haida
Iroquoian (11)
Kalapuyan (3) †
Karankawa †
Karuk
Keresan (2)
Kutenai
Maiduan (4)
Muskogean (9)
Na-Dené (United States, Canada & Mexico) (39)
Natchez †
Nuu-chah-nulth
Palaihnihan (2)
Plateau Penutian (4) (also known as Shahapwailutan)
Pomoan (7)
Salinan †
Salishan (23)
Shastan (4) †
Siouan (19)
Siuslaw †
Solano †
Takelma †
Tanoan (7)
Timucua †
Tonkawa †
Tsimshianic (2)
Tunica †
Utian (15) (also known as Miwok–Costanoan)
Uto-Aztecan (33)
Wakashan (7)
Wappo †
Washo
Wintuan (4)
Yana †
Yokutsan (3)
Yuchi
Yuki †
Yuman–Cochimí (11)
Zuni

text: Central America and Mexico[edit]

text: In Central America the Mayan languages are among those used today. Mayan languages are spoken by at least 6 million indigenous Maya, primarily in Guatemala, Mexico, Belize and Honduras. In 1996, Guatemala formally recognized 21 Mayan languages by name, and Mexico recognizes eight more. The Mayan language family is one of the best documented and most studied in the Americas. Modern Mayan languages descend from Proto-Mayan, a language thought to have been spoken at least 5,000 years ago; it has been partially reconstructed using the comparative method.

text:
Alagüilac (Guatemala) †
Algic (United States, Canada & Mexico) (29)
Chibchan (Central America & South America) (22)
Coahuilteco †
Comecrudan (Texas & Mexico) (3) †
Cotoname †
Cuitlatec (Mexico: Guerrero) †
Epi-Olmec (Mexico: language of undeciphered inscriptions) †
Guaicurian (8)
Huave
Jicaquean
Lencan
Maratino (northeastern Mexico) †
Mayan (31)
Miskito
Misumalpan
Mixe–Zoquean (19)
Na-Dené (United States, Canada & Mexico) (40)
Naolan (Mexico: Tamaulipas) †
Oto-Manguean (27)
Purépecha
Quinigua (northeast Mexico) †
Seri
Solano †
Tequistlatecan (3)
Totonacan (2)
Uto-Aztecan (United States & Mexico) (33)
Xincan
Yuman (United States & Mexico) (11)

text: South America and the Caribbean[edit]

text: Although both North and Central America are very diverse areas, South America has a linguistic diversity rivalled by only a few other places in the world with approximately 350 languages still spoken and an estimated 1,500 languages at first European contact. The situation of language documentation and classification into genetic families is not as advanced as in North America (which is relatively well studied in many areas). Kaufman (1994: 46) gives the following appraisal:

text: Since the mid 1950s, the amount of published material on SA [South America] has been gradually growing, but even so, the number of researchers is far smaller than the growing number of linguistic communities whose speech should be documented. Given the current employment opportunities, it is not likely that the number of specialists in SA Indian languages will increase fast enough to document most of the surviving SA languages before they go out of use, as most of them unavoidably will. More work languishes in personal files than is published, but this is a standard problem.

text: It is fair to say that SA and New Guinea are linguistically the poorest documented parts of the world. However, in the early 1960s fairly systematic efforts were launched in Papua New Guinea, and that area – much smaller than SA, to be sure – is in general much better documented than any part of indigenous SA of comparable size.

text: As a result, many relationships between languages and language families have not been determined and some of those relationships that have been proposed are on somewhat shaky ground.

text: The list of language families, isolates, and unclassified languages below is a rather conservative one based on Campbell (1997). Many of the proposed (and often speculative) groupings of families can be seen in Campbell (1997), Gordon (2005), Kaufman (1990, 1994), Key (1979), Loukotka (1968), and in the Language stock proposals section below.

text:
Aguano †
Aikaná (Brazil: Rondônia) (also known as Aikanã, Tubarão)
Andaquí (also known as Andaqui, Andakí) †
Andoque (Colombia, Peru) (also known as Andoke)
Andoquero †
Arauan (9)
Arawakan (South America & Caribbean) (64) (also known as Maipurean)
Arutani
Aymaran (3)
Baenan (Brazil: Bahia) (also known as Baenán, Baenã) †
Barbacoan (8)
Betoi (Colombia) (also known as Betoy, Jirara) †
Bororoan
Botocudoan (3) (also known as Aimoré)
Cahuapanan (2) (also known as Jebero, Kawapánan)
Camsá (Colombia) (also known as Sibundoy, Coche)
Candoshi (also known as Maina, Kandoshi)
Canichana (Bolivia) (also known as Canesi, Kanichana)
Carabayo
Cariban (29) (also known as Caribe, Carib)
Catacaoan (also known as Katakáoan) †
Cayubaba (Bolivia)
Chapacuran (9) (also known as Chapacura-Wanham, Txapakúran)
Charruan (also known as Charrúan) †
Chibchan (Central America & South America) (22)
Chimuan (3) †
Chipaya–Uru (also known as Uru–Chipaya)
Chiquitano
Choco (10) (also known as Chocoan)
Chon (2) (also known as Patagonian)
Chono †
Coeruna (Brazil) †
Cofán (Colombia, Ecuador)
Cueva †
Culle (Peru) (also known as Culli, Linga, Kulyi) †
Cunza (Chile, Bolivia, Argentina) (also known as Atacama, Atakama, Atacameño, Lipe, Kunsa) †
Esmeraldeño (also known as Esmeralda, Takame) †
Fulnió
Gamela (Brazil: Maranhão) †
Gorgotoqui (Bolivia) †
Guaicuruan (7) (also known as Guaykuruan, Waikurúan)
Guajiboan (4) (also known as Wahívoan)
Guamo (Venezuela) (also known as Wamo) †
Guató
Harakmbut (2) (also known as Tuyoneri)
Hibito–Cholon †
Himarimã
Hodï (Venezuela) (also known as Jotí, Hoti, Waruwaru)
Huamoé (Brazil: Pernambuco) †
Huaorani (Ecuador, Peru) (also known as Auca, Huaorani, Wao, Auka, Sabela, Waorani, Waodani)
Huarpe (also known as Warpe) †
Irantxe (Brazil: Mato Grosso)
Itonama (Bolivia) (also known as Saramo, Machoto)
Jabutian
Je (13) (also known as Gê, Jêan, Gêan, Ye)
Jeikó †
Jirajaran (3) (also known as Hiraháran, Jirajarano, Jirajarana) †
Jivaroan (2) (also known as Hívaro)
Kaimbe
Kaliana (also known as Caliana, Cariana, Sapé, Chirichano)
Kamakanan †
Kapixaná (Brazil: Rondônia) (also known as Kanoé, Kapishaná)
Karajá
Karirí (Brazil: Paraíba, Pernambuco, Ceará) †
Katembrí †
Katukinan (3) (also known as Catuquinan)
Kawésqar (Chile) (Kaweskar, Alacaluf, Qawasqar, Halawalip, Aksaná, Hekaine)
Kwaza (Koayá) (Brazil: Rondônia)
Leco (Lapalapa, Leko)
Lule (Argentina) (also known as Tonocoté)
Maku (cf. other Maku)
Malibú (also known as Malibu)
Mapudungu (Chile, Argentina) (also known as Araucanian, Mapuche, Huilliche)
Mascoyan (5) (also known as Maskóian, Mascoian)
Matacoan (4) (also known as Mataguayan)
Matanawí †
Maxakalían (3) (also known as Mashakalían)
Mocana (Colombia: Tubará) †
Mosetenan (also known as Mosetén)
Movima (Bolivia)
Munichi (Peru) (also known as Muniche)
Muran (4)
Mutú (also known as Loco)
Nadahup (5)
Nambiquaran (5)
Natú (Brazil: Pernambuco) †
Nonuya (Peru, Colombia)
Ofayé
Old Catío–Nutabe (Colombia) †
Omurano (Peru) (also known as Mayna, Mumurana, Numurana, Maina, Rimachu, Roamaina, Umurano) †
Otí (Brazil: São Paulo) †
Otomakoan (2) †
Paez (also known as Nasa Yuwe)
Palta †
Pankararú (Brazil: Pernambuco) †
Pano–Tacanan (33)
Panzaleo (Ecuador) (also known as Latacunga, Quito, Pansaleo) †
Patagon † (Peru)
Peba–Yaguan (2) (also known as Yaguan, Yáwan, Peban)
Pijao†
Pre-Arawakan languages of the Greater Antilles (Guanahatabey, Macorix, Ciguayo) † (Cuba, Hispaniola)
Puelche (Chile) (also known as Guenaken, Gennaken, Pampa, Pehuenche, Ranquelche) †
Puinave (also known as Makú)
Puquina (Bolivia) †
Purian (2) †
Quechuan (46)
Rikbaktsá
Saliban (2) (also known as Sálivan)
Sechura (Atalan, Sec) †
Tabancale † (Peru)
Tairona (Colombia) †
Tarairiú (Brazil: Rio Grande do Norte) †
Taruma †
Taushiro (Peru) (also known as Pinchi, Pinche)
Tequiraca (Peru) (also known as Tekiraka, Avishiri) †
Teushen † (Patagonia, Argentina)
Ticuna (Colombia, Peru, Brazil) (also known as Magta, Tikuna, Tucuna, Tukna, Tukuna)
Timotean (2) †
Tiniguan (2) (also known as Tiníwan, Pamiguan) †
Trumai (Brazil: Xingu, Mato Grosso)
Tucanoan (15)
Tupian (70, including Guaraní)
Tuxá (Brazil: Bahia, Pernambuco) †
Urarina (also known as Shimacu, Itukale, Shimaku)
Vilela
Wakona †
Warao (Guyana, Surinam, Venezuela) (also known as Guarao)
Witotoan (6) (also known as Huitotoan, Bora–Witótoan)
Xokó (Brazil: Alagoas, Pernambuco) (also known as Shokó) †
Xukurú (Brazil: Pernambuco, Paraíba) †
Yaghan (Chile) (also known as Yámana)
Yanomaman (4)
Yaruro (also known as Jaruro)
Yuracare (Bolivia)
Yuri (Colombia, Brazil) (also known as Carabayo, Jurí) †
Yurumanguí (Colombia) (also known as Yurimangui, Yurimangi) †
Zamucoan (2)
Zaparoan (5) (also known as Záparo)

text: Language stock proposals[edit]

text: Hypothetical language-family proposals of American languages are often cited as uncontroversial in popular writing. However, many of these proposals have not been fully demonstrated, or even demonstrated at all. Some proposals are viewed by specialists in a favorable light, believing that genetic relationships are very likely to be established in the future (for example, the Penutian stock). Other proposals are more controversial with many linguists believing that some genetic relationships of a proposal may be demonstrated but much of it undemonstrated (for example, Hokan–Siouan, which, incidentally, Edward Sapir called his "wastepaper basket stock").[10] Still other proposals are almost unanimously rejected by specialists (for example, Amerind). Below is a (partial) list of some such proposals:

text:
Algonquian–Wakashan   (also known as Almosan)
Almosan–Keresiouan   (Almosan + Keresiouan)
Amerind   (all languages excepting Eskimo–Aleut & Na-Dené)
Angonkian–Gulf   (Algic + Beothuk + Gulf)
(macro-)Arawakan
Arutani–Sape (Ahuaque–Kalianan)
Aztec–Tanoan   (Uto-Aztecan + Tanoan)
Chibchan–Paezan
Chikitano–Boróroan
Chimu–Chipaya
Coahuiltecan   (Coahuilteco + Cotoname + Comecrudan + Karankawa + Tonkawa)
Cunza–Kapixanan
Dené–Caucasian
Dené–Yeniseian
Esmerelda–Yaruroan
Ge–Pano–Carib
Guamo–Chapacuran
Gulf   (Muskogean + Natchez + Tunica)
Macro-Kulyi–Cholónan
Hokan   (Karok + Chimariko + Shastan + Palaihnihan + Yana + Pomoan + Washo + Esselen + Yuman + Salinan + Chumashan + Seri + Tequistlatecan)
Hokan–Siouan   (Hokan + Keresiouan + Subtiaba–Tlappanec + Coahuiltecan + Yukian + Tunican + Natchez + Muskogean + Timucua)
Je–Tupi–Carib
Jivaroan–Cahuapanan
Kalianan
Kandoshi–Omurano–Taushiro
(Macro-)Katembri–Taruma
Kaweskar language area
Keresiouan   (Macro-Siouan + Keresan + Yuchi)
Lule–Vilelan
Macro-Andean
Macro-Carib
Macro-Chibchan
Macro-Gê   (also known as Macro-Jê)
Macro-Jibaro
Macro-Lekoan
Macro-Mayan
Macro-Otomákoan
Macro-Paesan
Macro-Panoan
Macro-Puinavean
Macro-Siouan   (Siouan + Iroquoian + Caddoan)
Macro-Tucanoan
Macro-Tupí–Karibe
Macro-Waikurúan
Macro-Warpean   (Muran + Matanawi + Huarpe)
Mataco–Guaicuru
Mosan   (Salishan + Wakashan + Chimakuan)
Mosetén–Chonan
Mura–Matanawian
Sapir's Na-Dené including Haida   (Haida + Tlingit + Eyak + Athabaskan)
Nostratic–Amerind
Paezan (Andaqui + Paez + Panzaleo)
Paezan–Barbacoan
Penutian   (many languages of California and sometimes languages in Mexico)

California Penutian   (Wintuan + Maiduan + Yokutsan + Utian)
Oregon Penutian   (Takelma + Coosan + Siuslaw + Alsean)
Mexican Penutian   (Mixe–Zoque + Huave)

Puinave–Maku
Quechumaran
Saparo–Yawan   (also known as Zaparo–Yaguan)
Sechura–Catacao (also known as Sechura–Tallan)
Takelman   (Takelma + Kalapuyan)
Tequiraca–Canichana
Ticuna–Yuri (Yuri–Ticunan)
Totozoque   (Totonacan + Mixe–Zoque)
Tunican   (Tunica + Atakapa + Chitimacha)
Yok–Utian
Yuki–Wappo

text: Good discussions of past proposals can be found in Campbell (1997) and Campbell & Mithun (1979).

text: Amerindian linguist Lyle Campbell also assigned different percentage values of probability and confidence for various proposals of macro-families and language relationships, depending on his views of the proposals' strengths.[11] For example, the Germanic language family would receive probability and confidence percentage values of +100% and 100%, respectively. However, if Turkish and Quechua were compared, the probability value might be −95%, while the confidence value might be 95%.[clarification needed] 0% probability or confidence would mean complete uncertainty.

text:
Language Family
Probability
Confidence

Algonkian–Gulf
−50%
50%

Almosan (and beyond)
−75%
50%

Atakapa–Chitimacha
−50%
60%

Aztec–Tanoan
0%
50%

Coahuiltecan
−85%
80%

Eskimo–Aleut,
Chukotan[12]
−25%
20%

Guaicurian–Hokan
0%
10%

Gulf
−25%
40%

Hokan–Subtiaba
−90%
75%

Jicaque–Hokan
−30%
25%

Jicaque–Subtiaba
−60%
80%

Jicaque–Tequistlatecan
+65%
50%

Keresan and Uto-Aztecan
0%
60%

Keresan and Zuni
−40%
40%

Macro-Mayan[13]
+30%
25%

Macro-Siouan[14]
−20%
75%

Maya–Chipaya
−80%
95%

Maya–Chipaya–Yunga
−90%
95%

Mexican Penutian
−40%
60%

Misumalpan–Chibchan
+20%
50%

Mosan
−60%
65%

Na-Dene
0%
25%

Natchez–Muskogean
+40%
20%

Nostratic–Amerind
−90%
75%

Otomanguean–Huave
+25%
25%

Purépecha–Quechua
−90%
80%

Quechua as Hokan
−85%
80%

Quechumaran
+50%
50%

Sahaptian–Klamath–(Molala)
+75%
50%

Sahaptian–Klamath–Tsimshian
+10%
10%

Takelman[15]
+80%
60%

Tlapanec–Subtiaba as Otomanguean
+95%
90%

Tlingit–Eyak–Athabaskan
+75%
40%

Tunican
0%
20%

Wakashan and Chimakuan
0%
25%

Yukian–Gulf
−85%
70%

Yukian–Siouan
−60%
75%

Zuni–Penutian
−80%
50%

text: Linguistic areas[edit]

text: Unattested languages[edit]

text: Several languages are only known by mention in historical documents or from only a few names or words. It cannot be determined that these languages actually existed or that the few recorded words are actually of known or unknown languages. Some may simply be from a historian's errors. Others are of known people with no linguistic record (sometimes due to lost records). A short list is below.

text:
Ais
Akokisa
Aranama
Ausaima
Avoyel
Bayogoula
Bidai
Cacán (Diaguita–Calchaquí)
Calusa - Mayaimi - Tequesta
Cusabo
Eyeish
Grigra
Guale
Houma
Koroa
Manek'enk (Haush) [perhaps Chon]
Mayaca (possibly related to Ais)
Mobila
Okelousa
Opelousa
Pascagoula
Pensacola - Chatot (Muscogean languages, possibly related to Choctaw)
Quinipissa
Taensa
Tiou
Yamacraw
Yamasee
Yazoo

text: Loukotka (1968) reports the names of hundreds of South American languages which do not have any linguistic documentation.

text: Pidgins and mixed languages[edit]

text: Various miscellaneous languages such as pidgins, mixed languages, trade languages, and sign languages are given below in alphabetical order.

text:
American Indian Pidgin English
Algonquian-Basque pidgin (also known as Micmac-Basque Pidgin, Souriquois; spoken by the Basques, Micmacs, and Montagnais in eastern Canada)
Broken Oghibbeway (also known as Broken Ojibwa)
Broken Slavey
Bungee (also known as Bungi, Bungie, Bungay, or the Red River Dialect)
Callahuaya (also known as Machaj-Juyai, Kallawaya, Collahuaya, Pohena, Kolyawaya Jargon)
Carib Pidgin (also known as Ndjuka-Amerindian Pidgin, Ndjuka-Trio)
Carib Pidgin–Arawak Mixed Language
Catalangu
Chinook Jargon
Delaware Jargon (also known as Pidgin Delaware)
Eskimo Trade Jargon (also known as Herschel Island Eskimo Pidgin, Ship's Jargon)
Greenlandic Pidgin (West Greenlandic Pidgin)
Guajiro-Spanish
Güegüence-Nicarao
Haida Jargon
Inuktitut-English Pidgin (Quebec)
Jargonized Powhatan
Labrador Eskimo Pidgin (also known as Labrador Inuit Pidgin)
Lingua Franca Apalachee
Lingua Franca Creek
Lingua Geral Amazônica (also known as Nheengatú, Lingua Boa, Lingua Brasílica, Lingua Geral do Norte)
Lingua Geral do Sul (also known as Lingua Geral Paulista, Tupí Austral)
Loucheux Jargon (also known as Jargon Loucheux)
Media Lengua
Mednyj Aleut (also known as Copper Island Aleut, Medniy Aleut, CIA)
Michif (also known as French Cree, Métis, Metchif, Mitchif, Métchif)
Mobilian Jargon (also known as Mobilian Trade Jargon, Chickasaw-Chocaw Trade Language, Yamá)
Montagnais Pidgin Basque (also known as Pidgin Basque-Montagnais)
Nootka Jargon (spoken during the 18th-19th centuries; later replaced by Chinook Jargon)
Ocaneechi (also known as Occaneechee; spoken in Virginia and the Carolinas in early colonial times)
Pidgin Massachusett
Plains Indian Sign Language


document_title: Mamma Mia!

question_text: when did mamma mia first come out on broadway

question_tokens: when did mamma mia first come out on broadway

text: Mamma Mia!

text: Background[edit]

text: Mamma Mia! is based on the songs of ABBA, a Swedish pop/dance group active from 1972 to 1982 and one of the most popular international pop groups of all time, topping the charts again and again in Europe, North and South America and Australia.  Following the premiere of the musical in London in 1999, ABBA Gold topped the charts in the United Kingdom again.  This musical was the brainchild of producer Judy Craymer.  She met songwriters Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson in 1983 when they were working with Tim Rice on Chess.[1]  It was the song "The Winner Takes It All" that suggested to her the theatrical potential of their pop songs.[1]  The songwriters were not enthusiastic, but they were not completely opposed to the idea.[1]

text: In 1997, Craymer commissioned Catherine Johnson to write the book for the musical. In 1998, Phyllida Lloyd became the director for the show.[1]

text: Productions[edit]

text: Original West End production[edit]

text: The musical opened in the West End at the Prince Edward Theatre on April 6, 1999, and transferred to the Prince of Wales Theatre on June 9, 2004, where it played until September 2012, when it moved to the Novello Theatre.[2] Directed by Phyllida Lloyd with choreography by Anthony Van Laast, the original cast featured Siobhan McCarthy, Lisa Stokke, and Hilton McRae.[3][4]

text: Original Broadway and U.S. productions[edit]

text: Prior to the musical's Broadway engagement, it opened in Toronto at the Royal Alexandra Theatre in May 2000, where it played for five years. Its US debut was in San Francisco, California, at the Orpheum Theatre from November 17, 2000 to February 17, 2001,[5][6] moving next to Los Angeles, California, at the Shubert Theatre from February 26, 2001 to May 12, 2001,[7] and finally to Chicago, Illinois, at the Cadillac Palace Theatre from May 13, 2001 to August 12, 2001.[8]

text: New York City run[edit]

text: The musical opened on Broadway at the Winter Garden Theatre on October 18, 2001, after beginning previews on October 5. The director is Phyllida Lloyd with choreography by Anthony Van Laast. As of October 2017, it is the ninth longest-running Broadway show and the longest-running jukebox musical in Broadway history. On April 18, 2013, it was announced that Mamma Mia! would transfer from its home at the Winter Garden Theatre to the Broadhurst Theatre later that year to make way for the musical adaptation of Rocky.[9] The show played its final performance at the Winter Garden Theatre on October 19, 2013 and began performances at the Broadhurst Theatre on November 2, 2013.[10]

text: It was announced on April 9, 2015 that the show would close on September 5, 2015.[11] On April 21, 2015, it was then announced that show would play an additional week and would instead close on September 12, 2015.  Mamma Mia! played 5,773 performances on Broadway before closing.[12]

text: International and touring productions[edit]

text: Mamma Mia! has been played in more than 50 countries in all 6 continents, including Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Estonia, Finland, France, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Indonesia, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Latvia, Lituania, Malaysia, Mexico, Monaco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Panama, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, and United States, and has been translated into 26 languages: German, Japanese, Dutch, Korean, Spanish, Swedish, Russian, Norwegian, Italian, Danish, French, Portuguese, Mandarin, Hungarian, Czech, Polish, Serbian, Croatian, Slovene, Icelandic, Estonian, Greek, Slovak, Finnish, Romanian, and Bulgarian. Over 60 million people have seen the show worldwide and it has set the record for premiering in more cities faster than any other musical in history.

text: The first city to produce the show after London was Toronto, where it ran from May 22, 2000 to May 22, 2005, being the North America premiere of Mamma Mia!.[13]  The original cast included Louise Pitre as Donna and Tina Maddigan as Sophie, who both of them later reprised their roles in first US Tour and Broadway premiere.

text: Mamma Mia! played in Las Vegas, opening at the Mandalay Bay in February 2003 and closing on January 4, 2009.[14][15] In June 2005, Mamma Mia! played its 1000th performance in Las Vegas, becoming the longest-running West End/Broadway musical in Las Vegas. The clothes and scenarios from this production are now used in Brazil.[16] The show returned to Las Vegas on May 16, 2014 at the Tropicana Hotel & Casino, but announced its closing soon after on July 22.[17]

text: The North American tour started in Providence, Rhode Island in February 28, 2002 and closed in St. Louis, Missouri in July 30, 2017, after more than 4.000 performances.[18]

text: The first non-English version of the show debuted in Hamburg at the Operettenhaus, where it ran from November 3, 2002 to September 8, 2007. With the productions of Stuttgart (2004) and Essen (2007), Mamma Mia! became the first major musical to play concurrently in three German cities.

text: The show has had (and in some cases, still has) permanent productions in London, Toronto, Melbourne, New York, Hamburg, Tokyo (later transferred to Osaka, Fukuoka and Nagoya), Las Vegas, Utrecht, Seoul (later transferred to Seongnam and Daegu), Stuttgart, Madrid (later transferred to Barcelona), Stockholm (later transferred to Gothenburg), Antwerp, Moscow, Essen, Berlin, Oslo, Mexico City, Milan (later transferred to Rome), Copenhagen (later transferred to Aarhus), Paris, São Paulo, Shanghai, Buenos Aires, Vienna and Helsinki.

text: Since its premiere in Dublin on September 9, 2004 (with Helen Hobson as Donna) the international tour has visited more than 85 cities in 38 countries and has been seen by 5 million people.  In addition there have been several touring productions worldwide, including Australia/Asia (2002–2005), Australia (2009–2010), China, France (2012–2013), Germany, Japan, Netherlands (2009–2010), North America (2002–2017), Spain (2009–2011 and 2016–2017), South Africa (2010–2011), South Korea, United Kingdom (2016–2018), and United States (2000–2001).

text: The Dutch actress Lone van Roosendaal has played Donna in three different countries: Netherlands, Belgium and Germany.

text: In the Original Danish Tivoli Copenhagen Cast it was actually Kristine Yde Eriksen as Sophie and Nadia Barbara Abrahamsen as Ali. But when the production moved to Aarhus took Stine Louise Henriksen over for Kristine Yde Eriksen as Sophie and Nadin Reiness took over for Nadia Barbara Abrahamsen as Ali. Stine Louise Henriksen was actually Kristine's understudy in Tivoli, Copenhagen and so was Nadin Reiness for Nadia.

text: The South African tour, conducted at the Artscape Theatre in Cape Town on August 11, 2010 and 3 months later at The Teatro, Montecasino in Johannesburg, featured an all local cast.

text: The Chinese production opened on July 11, 2011 at the Shanghai Grand Theatre and closed on January 18, 2012 at Shanghai Cultural Square after a small tour, marking the first time that a blockbuster contemporary Western musical were presented in Chinese in Shanghai (there was a previous Chinese production of Beauty and the Beast in Beijing in 1999). It was seen by 250,000 people across six venues, with a total of 190 performances. Shadow Zen played the role of Donna.

text: On January 24, 2012, Mamma Mia! opened in Manila at the Main Theater of the Cultural Center of the Philippines as part of the international Tour. The show was originally set to stay only for a week but with the positive response, the organisers decided that it would play until February 19, 2012.[19] The show features Sara Poyzer as Donna Sheridan and Charlotte Wakefield as Sophie. The cast also included Kate Graham (Tanya), Jenny Dale (Rosie) and David Roberts (Sky).[20]

text: A New Zealand tour production of Mamma Mia! opened at the Auckland Civic Theatre on March 4, 2014, featuring an all new set design by John Harding. International theatre star Deliah Hannah played Donna, and popular New Zealand entertainment icon Jackie Clark plays Rosie. The NZ tour visited 11 cities in 2014–2016.

text: The musical is performed on sailings of Royal Caribbean's Quantum of the Seas and Allure of the Seas. Unlike other cruise ship performances of musicals, the show is performed in its entirety.

text: In Prague, the capital of the Czech Republic, the musical had its premiere on December 12, 2014.  Czech is the seventeenth language in which the musical was performed. At the date of the premiere a record 70,000 tickets were sold.[21]

text: On February 21, 2015, the musical premiered in Warsaw, Poland at Roma Musical Theatre.[22]

text: The Belgrade, Serbia – Terazije Theatre (Pozorište na Terazijama) premiere was on March 27, 2015.[23][24]

text: On June 15, 2015 in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia, premiere of Slovene production took place in Križanke Outdoor Theatre as a part of Ljubljana Summer Festival (Poletni festival Ljubljana).[25]

text:
On March 18, 2016, Mamma Mia! opened for the first time in Panama City, Panama, at the Anayansi Theatre in the Atlapa Convention Centre, directed by  Aaron Zebede.
[26]

text: On May 27, 2016 the first regional production opened at the Barter Theatre in Abingdon, Virginia.

text: On 31 August 2016, it was announced that the musical would once again tour Australia as a new, non-replica production to be directed by Gary Young. The premier was held in Canberra in November 2017 before continuing on a 1-year national tour to Brisbane, Sydney, Perth, Melbourne and finally Adelaide.[27] The cast of 30 included: Sarah Morrison as Sophie, Natalie O'Donnell as Donna, Jayde Westaby as Tanya, Alicia Gardiner as Rose, Ian Stenlake as Sam, Phillip Lowe as Harry, Josef Ber as Bill and Stephen Mahy as Sky.[28] The production was nominated for the following Helpmann Awards: Best Musical, Best Choreography (Tom Hodgson), Best Actress (Natalie O'Donnell) and Best Actor (Ian Stenlake).[29]

text: From July 28, 2017 to July 30, 2017, Mamma Mia! was performed at the Hollywood Bowl. Directed and choreographed by Kathleen Marshall, the show starred Jennifer Nettles as Donna, Dove Cameron as Sophie, Corbin Bleu as Sky, Jaime Camil as Sam, Tisha Campbell-Martin as Tanya, and Lea Delaria as Rosie.[30]

text: Nová scéna Theatre in Bratislava, Slovakia opened on November 11, 2017 for the first time in Slovak. In Slovakia were formerly performed Czech and original version.[31]

text: A Finnish-language production premiered at the Messukeskus Helsinki in Helsinki, Finland on May 4, 2018.[32]

text: A Bulgarian production opened on July 18, 2018 at the National opera and ballet in Sofia. There will be other shows on July 19, 20, 21, and 22, 2018.

text: A revival of the Dutch production will be premiering at the Beatrix Theater Utrecht in Utrecht, Netherlands on 6 September 2018.[33]

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: Act I[edit]

text: Before the curtain rises, the orchestra starts playing the overture, which is a montage of instrumental versions of some of ABBA's hit songs.

text: On the fictional Greek island of Kalokairi (Skopelos), 20-year-old Sophie is preparing to marry her fiancé, Sky. She wants her father to walk her down the aisle ("Prologue") but doesn't know who he is. Sophie discovers her mother's old diary and finds entries which describe intimate dates with three men (Sam Carmichael, Bill Austin [Anderson in the film version], and Harry Bright) ("Honey, Honey").  Sophie believes one of these men is her father and, three months before her nuptials, sends each an invitation to her wedding, writing in her mother's name, Donna, without letting her unsuspecting mother know.

text: The day before the wedding, Donna begins receiving guests at her taverna. The first to arrive are her long-term best friends, Tanya, a rich woman who has been married and divorced three times, and Rosie, an unmarried, carefree writer. The trio used to comprise a girl group called "Donna and the Dynamos". The three women catch up and talk about their lives ("Money, Money, Money").

text: Later that day, Sophie's three possible fathers arrive: Sam (an American architect), Harry (a British banker), and Bill (originally an Australian writer and adventurer, Swedish in the film, and currently American in New York and on tour). Sophie convinces them not to tell Donna that she invited them ("Thank You for the Music"). Donna is surprised to see her ex-lovers ("Mamma Mia") and leaves in tears. Donna, crying, explains to Tanya and Rosie the situation, and they cheer her up ("Chiquitita"). Tanya and Rosie try to convince Donna that she can still be the girl she once was ("Dancing Queen").

text: Sophie had hoped she would know her father the moment she saw him but is now only confused. She tries to tell her fiancé, Sky, how she feels without confessing what she has done. Sky tells her he will be the only man she ever needs ("Lay All Your Love on Me").

text: At Sophie's hen party, Donna and the Dynamos don their old costumes and perform a song, ("Super Trouper"). Sam, Bill, and Harry accidentally walk in on the party, and the guests persuade them to stay ("Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)").

text: Sophie first pulls Sam out of the room to talk to him. After he asks why he is there, she is overcome with guilt and goes to talk to Harry, instead. But Harry asks if Sophie's father is at the party, and she tells him the whole truth.

text: Lastly, she draws Bill aside to talk with him. She learns that Bill has an aunt Sophia who left all her money to Donna's family. Bill learns that Donna built the taverna with money she inherited from a friend she lived with when Sophie was a baby; that friend was Bill's aunt. They both think this means he is her father.

text: Sophie asks Bill to walk her down the aisle, but Bill wants to discuss it first with Donna. This has been her secret, after all. But no one knows yet that even Donna does not know who the father is, because she slept with the three men in such swift succession. Sophie insists they must not tell Donna anything ("The Name of the Game") and finally, Bill agrees.

text: Afterward, everybody crashes the hen party (including the guys from the stag party). During the party, Sam pulls Sophie aside and tells her he has figured out why she invited him. He knows he is her father and promises to walk her down the aisle the next day. Then, Harry approaches Sophie, apologizing for being so slow on the uptake; he is also convinced that she is his daughter and promises to walk her down the aisle. Sophie leaves the party, hopelessly confused; she doesn't want to turn any of them down ("Voulez-Vous").

text: Act II[edit]

text: (Entr'acte) Sophie's having a nightmare, involving her three possible fathers all fighting for the right to walk her down the aisle and wakes up despairing ("Under Attack").

text: Sophie's upset, and Donna assumes that Sophie wants to cancel the wedding and offers to handle all the details. Sophie's offended and vows that her children won't grow up not knowing who their father is. As Sophie storms out of the room, Sam enters and tries to tell Donna that Sophie may not be all she seems, but Donna won't listen ("One of Us"). She hates Sam; at the end of their affair, she said she never wanted to see him again.  But it seems that Sam was the man Donna cared about the most, and both of them wish they could go back to the start ("SOS"').

text: At the beach, Harry asks Tanya what the father of the bride ought to be doing for Sophie's wedding. Tanya explains that for her part, her father gave her his advice and then paid. Pepper, one of the guys who works at Donna's taverna, makes advances to Tanya, but she rebuffs him ("Does Your Mother Know").

text: Sky finds out what Sophie has done in inviting Sam, Harry and Bill to the wedding. He accuses her of wanting a big white wedding only so that she can find out who her father is. He's very hurt that she kept this plan a secret from him. He storms off just as Sam walks in. Sam tries to give Sophie some fatherly advice by describing his failed marriage ("Knowing Me, Knowing You"), but Sophie isn't consoled.

text: Harry offers to Donna to pay for the wedding, and they reminisce about their fling ("Our Last Summer"). Sophie arrives and Donna helps her get dressed. She cannot believe her daughter is going to be a bride ("Slipping Through My Fingers"). Donna admits that her own mother disowned her when she learned that she was pregnant. They reconcile and Sophie asks her mother if she will walk her down the aisle. Sam arrives and tries to speak to Donna again, but she doesn't want to see him, and asks him to leave. He refuses, and a bitter confrontation ensues. Donna tells Sam that he broke her heart, presumably when she found out he was engaged ("The Winner Takes It All"). It emerges that the two still love each other dearly, albeit against Donna's better judgment.

text: Rosie is making final preparations in the taverna when Bill arrives. He's upset because he has received a note that Donna will be walking Sophie down the aisle. Bill reaffirms his commitment to the single life, but Rosie has become attracted to him, and urges him to reconsider ("Take a Chance on Me"). They are about to have sex in the taverna, but the guests arrive, leaving Rosie quite stunned.

text: The wedding begins, with Donna walking Sophie down the aisle. Before the priest has a chance to begin the ceremonies, Donna acknowledges to everyone that Sophie's father is present. Sophie tells her mother that she knows about her father. Donna realizes that Sophie invited them to the wedding for that very reason. The issue of Sophie's parentage is left unsettled, as none of them have any idea whether they are actually her father. Everyone involved agrees that it does not matter which one of them her biological parent is, as Sophie loves all three and they are all happy to be "one-third of a father" and a part of her life at last. Finally, Harry, who has made frequent references to his "other half" throughout the show, is revealed to be in a committed gay relationship.

text: Suddenly, Sophie calls a halt to the proceedings. She isn't ready to get married and Sky agrees with Sophie about not getting married. Sam seizes his chance and proposes to Donna in order to prevent the wedding preparations from going to waste. He explains that he loved her, even when he left to get married. It is revealed that he called off the wedding with his fiancée and came back to the island, only to be told that Donna was going out with another man (Bill). He went back, married his fiancée and had children but he got divorced. Surprisingly, Donna accepts ("I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do"). In the end, Sam and Donna are married, and at the end of the night, Sophie and Sky depart on a round-the-world tour ("I Have a Dream").

text: Finale and encore[edit]

text: After their final bows to the audience, the ensemble performs a reprise of "Mamma Mia". A reprise of "Dancing Queen" follows, during which Donna, Tanya, Rosie are revealed wearing brightly colored ABBA inspired costumes. The cast ends the finale with "Waterloo", during which Sam, Bill, and Harry join the rest of the cast onstage in brightly colored costumes that match the leading ladies. The Dynamos and the Dads often invite the audience to clap, dance, and sing along during the finale.

text: Musical numbers[edit]

text:
Act I
"Overture/Prologue" - Sophie
"Honey, Honey" - Sophie, Ali & Lisa
"Money, Money, Money" - Donna, Tanya, Rosie, Pepper & Company
"Thank You for the Music" - Sophie, Sam, Harry & Bill
"Mamma Mia" - Donna & Company
"Chiquitita" - Donna, Tanya & Rosie
"Dancing Queen" - Donna, Tanya & Rosie
"Lay All Your Love on Me" - Sky, Sophie & Male Ensemble
"Super Trouper" - Donna, Tanya, Rosie & Female Ensemble
"Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)" - Female Ensemble
"The Name of the Game" - Sophie & Bill
"Voulez-Vous" - Company

Act II
"Entr'acte" - Orchestra
"Under Attack" - Sophie & Company
"One of Us" - Donna
"SOS"  - Donna & Sam
"Does Your Mother Know" - Tanya, Pepper & Company
"Knowing Me, Knowing You" - Sam
"Our Last Summer" - Harry & Donna
"Slipping Through My Fingers" - Donna & Sophie
"The Winner Takes It All" - Donna
"Take a Chance on Me" - Rosie & Bill
"I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do" - Sam, Donna & Company
"I Have a Dream" - Sophie

text: Encore

text:
"Mamma Mia"  - Company
"Dancing Queen"  - Donna, Tanya, Rosie & Company
"Waterloo" - Company

text: Notes on the music[edit]

text: During the preview period in London, the musical had the song "Summer Night City" just after the prologue. The "Summer Night City" scene was a wedding rehearsal and during the song, Ali, Lisa, Tanya, and Rosie arrived on the island. Now, part of the song is used as underscoring to connect the end of "The Winner Takes It All" and "Take a Chance on Me". You can also hear a couple of lines of "Summer Night City" in the 'Entr'acte' (the most noticeable line is: 'Time to breathe and time to live').

text: Donna hums a few lines of "Fernando", when she repairs the doors of the taverna just before she sees her three former lovers. In the Mexican production Donna sings a few lines of ABBA's original Spanish version of the song.

text: In the German production, Sky (Bernhard Forcher) sang a few lines of "King Kong Song" before starting "Lay All Your Love on Me". Niklas Riesbeck uses the same song in the Swedish production. Andrey Kozhan sang a few lines of Summer Night City in the Russian production. In the international tour version, Sky (David Roberts) sings a few lines of "She's My Kind of Girl", a Björn & Benny song. In the 2015 International tour version, Sky (Justin Thomas) sings a few lines of "Dum Dum Diddle".

text: The wedding march that is played as Sophie walks down the aisle is a slower arrangement of "Dancing Queen".

text: The creators also intended to include "Just Like That", an unreleased ABBA song recorded in 1982. The song was apparently dropped just before the first public previews in March 1999, though it was listed in the program available during the preview period.

text: Originally the outro after the encore was a 5-minute instrumental medley (in the style of the Ouverture and Entr'Acte) featuring Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight), SOS, Voulez-Vous, Does Your Mother Know, Money, Money, Money and Dancing Queen. It was later replaced with the short Dancing Queen instrumental, still being used today.

text: The last three songs, performed as an encore/finale by the whole cast are: "Mamma Mia", "Dancing Queen" and "Waterloo". The version of "Mamma Mia" used in the encore/finale is sung by the Company. The finale song Mamma Mia has been extended in theatres where Donna and the Dynamos had to go downstairs for taking the stage lift in Dancing Queen. Then, during the intro of "Dancing Queen", Donna, Tanya and Rosie join the Company (as the girl-power band "Donna and the Dynamos", wearing ABBA's 1970s-style colorful and flashy costumes). Sam, Bill and Harry join them during Waterloo, wearing male versions of the girls' ABBA's costumes. The Encore is included on the 5th Anniversary Cast Recording (commemorating said anniversary for the Broadway production).

text: In the Brazilian production, all three songs from the encore/finale were kept in English. Though "Waterloo" was adapted into Brazilian Portuguese, this version was never used.

text: In the Russian production the song "Happy New Year" is sung at the encore on New Year holidays shows.

text: Principal roles and casts[edit]

text:
Character

Original West End Cast  1999

Original Broadway Cast  2001

Original Hamburg Cast  2002

Original Moscow Cast  2006

Film  2008

Original Copenhagen Cast  2010

Hollywood Bowl  2017

Film  2018

Donna Sheridan

Siobhán McCarthy

Louise Pitre

Carolin Fortenbacher

Yelena Charkviani

Meryl Streep

Nicoline Siff Møller

Jennifer Nettles

Meryl StreepLily James

Rosie

Jenny Galloway

Judy Kaye

Jasna Ivir

Yelena Kazarinova

Julie Walters

Pernille Schrøder

Lea DeLaria

Julie WaltersAlexa Davies

Tanya

Louise Plowright

Karen Mason

Kerstin Marie Mäkelburg

Natalia Koretskaya

Christine Baranski

Nastja Arcel

Tisha Campbell-Martin

Christine BaranskiJessica Keenan Wynn

Sam Carmichael

Hilton McRae

David W. Keeley

Frank Logemann

Andrey Klyuev

Pierce Brosnan

Morten Lützhøft

Jaime Camil

Pierce BrosnanJeremy Irvine

Bill Austin (Anderson in the film)

Nicolas Colicos

Ken Marks

Ulrich Wiggers

Vladimir Khalturin

Stellan Skarsgård

Peter Oliver Hansen

Steven Weber

Stellan SkarsgårdJosh Dylan

Harry Bright

Paul Clarkson

Dean Nolen

Cusch Jung

Oleg Taysaev

Colin Firth

Lars Oluf Larsen

Hamish Linklater

Colin FirthHugh Skinner

Sophie Sheridan

Lisa Stokke

Tina Maddigan

Katja Berg

Natalia Bystrova

Amanda Seyfried

Kristine Yde Eriksen

Dove Cameron

Amanda Seyfried

Sky

Andrew Langtree

Joe Machota

Jörg Neubauer

Andrey Kozhan

Dominic Cooper

Christian Lund

Corbin Bleu

Dominic Cooper

Pepper

Neal Wright

Mark Price

Guido Zarncke

Dmitry Bunin (Golovin)

Philip Michael

Kim Nielsen

Payson Lewis

Eddie

Nigel Harman

Michael Benjamin Washington

Wolf Wrobel

Alexander Davydov

Chris Jarvis

Silas Holst

Rodd Farhadi

Ali

Eliza Lumley

Sara Inbar

Bettina Oswald

Anna Guchenkova

Ashley Lilley

Nadia Barbara Abrahamsen

Charlotte Mary Wen

Lisa

Melissa Gibson

Tonya Doran

Florence Kasumba

Victoria Kanatkina

Rachel McDowall

Astrid Højgaard

Tiana Okoye

text: Film adaptations[edit]

text: Mamma Mia! was adapted as a film, produced by Judy Craymer and Gary Goetzman, written by Catherine Johnson directed by Phyllida Lloyd and with Tom Hanks, Rita Wilson, Björn Ulvaeus, and Benny Andersson as executive producers. Meryl Streep stars as Donna Sheridan and Amanda Seyfried as Sophie and Pierce Brosnan as Sam Carmichael. The movie also features Christine Baranski, Dominic Cooper, Colin Firth, Stellan Skarsgård and Julie Walters. It premiered July 18, 2008, in the US.  Most of the songs remained intact with the exceptions of "Under Attack", "One of Us", "Knowing Me, Knowing You", and "Thank You for the Music". "Knowing Me, Knowing You" was used as the wedding music and "Thank You for the Music" is sung during the second half of the end credits. The first half is occupied with a "Dancing Queen" reprise and "Waterloo", with a "Mamma Mia" reprise and "I Have a Dream" sung before the credits (though the latter is sung as Sophie mails the invitations at the start of the film). "When All Is Said and Done", a song not used in the musical, was added for the film sung by Sam, Donna, and the company. "Our Last Summer" was used earlier in the movie, with Sophie, Bill, Sam, and Harry singing it. "The Name of the Game", while filmed, was subsequently edited out of the film for the final cut.  The song is included in full on the motion picture soundtrack  – an abbreviated version of the song and scene appear on the DVD/Blu-ray as a supplement. In addition, "Thank You for the Music" is used as a hidden track, and is performed by Amanda Seyfried.

text: A sequel to the film titled Mamma Mia! Here We Go Again was released in 2018. It tells the story of how Donna met each of the 3 men who are potentially Sophie's father. "One of Us" and "Knowing Me, Knowing You" are both included in this film.

text: Mamma Mia! The Party[edit]

text: Following its premier in Stockholm in 2016[34], Björn Ulvaeus announced that this immersive theatrical and dining experience, inspired by  Mamma Mia!, will open at the O2 Arena in London in Spring 2019. The specially adapted venue will be set in a Greek taverna on the island of Skopelos and will feature live musicians and real Mediterranean food.[35]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: Original West End production[edit]

text:
Year

Award Ceremony

Category

Nominee

Result

1999

Evening Standard Award

Ned Sherrin Award for Best Musical

Nominated

2000

Laurence Olivier Award

Best New Musical

Nominated

Best Actress in a Musical

Siobhan McCarthy

Nominated

Best Performance in a Supporting Role in a Musical

Jenny Galloway

Won

Louise Plowright

Nominated

2002

Grammy Award

Best Musical Theater Album

Nominated

text: Original Broadway production[edit]

text:
Year

Award Ceremony

Category

Nominee

Result

2002

Tony Award

Best Musical

Nominated

Best Book of a Musical

Catherine Johnson

Nominated

Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Musical

Louise Pitre

Nominated

Best Performance by a Featured Actress in a Musical

Judy Kaye

Nominated

Best Orchestrations

Benny Andersson, Björn Ulvaeus and Martin Koch

Nominated

Drama Desk Award

Outstanding Actress in a Musical

Louise Pitre

Nominated

Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical

Judy Kaye

Nominated

Karen Mason

Nominated

Drama League Award

Distinguished Production of a Musical

Nominated

Outer Critics Circle Award

Outstanding Broadway Musical

Nominated

Outstanding Actress in a Musical

Louise Pitre

Nominated

Theatre World Award

Outstanding Debut Stage Performance

Louise Pitre

Won

text: Original North American tour[edit]

text:
Year

Award Ceremony

Category

Nominee

Result

2003

Helen Hayes Award

Outstanding Non-Resident Production

Nominated

Touring Broadway Award

Best Musical Score

Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus

Won

text: Response[edit]

text: Box office and business[edit]

text: On any given day, there are at least seven performances of Mamma Mia! being performed around the globe.[citation needed]

text: On May 15, 2005, Mamma Mia! surpassed the original Broadway runs of The Sound of Music, The King and I, and Damn Yankees with 1,500 performances.[16]  On March 6, 2014, it surpassed Rent to become the 8th longest-running Broadway musical and 9th longest-running show of all time with 5,124 performances,[36][37] then surpassed Beauty and the Beast's 5,462 performances that same year, on December 14, to become Broadway's 7th longest-running musical and 8th longest-running show.[38] The Broadway run ended on September 12, 2015, with its 5,758th performance, and was passed two years later (August 16, 2017) by Wicked to move one spot down in the list of longest-running Broadway shows.[39]

text: When Mamma Mia! opened in Russia, it received a very positive response.[40] As of January 2008, Mamma Mia! became the longest daily running show in the history of Russian theatre.

text: Thematic analysis[edit]

text: Mamma Mia! does not only heighten a nostalgic and emotional reactions to the ABBA fans,[41] it has also been celebrated for its feminist overtones. The musical features strong female protagonists living in a strong female-power community.[42] The theme of single motherhood breaks the family stereotype of a child being raised by both parents by showing a different perspective of a family raised single-handedly by a mother, to show that there can still be happiness and love. Having Donna, her two good friends and her daughter, Sophie as the main strong female characters of the musical, it can be seen as an empowerment for women as it celebrates and caters to the rise in liberation of female in the society,[43] female sexuality,[44] refuses to shame Donna for her promiscuity,[45] and because it asserts that women should prioritise following their goals and enjoying their youths over marriage.[46] It also celebrates female friendship,[47] and undermines the importance of fathers in women’s lives, prioritising self-actualisation and the role of the mother instead.[48] Librettist Catherine Johnson manages to express these themes through her transformation of ABBA’s music, as she turns these somewhat stereotypical songs into empowering ones by having characters of different genders sing them.[49]


document_title: Crown Royal

question_text: when did crown royal texas mesquite come out

text: Crown Royal

text: Origins[edit]

text: Crown Royal was introduced in 1939 by Samuel Bronfman, president of Seagram, as a tribute to the royal visit of King George VI and his wife, Queen Elizabeth, the first of a reigning monarch of the United Kingdom to Canada.[3][4] It was available only in Canada until 1964,[5] being introduced to the United States in the 1960s.[3]

text: Production[edit]

text: Crown Royal is produced solely at the company's distillery at Gimli, on the shores of Lake Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.  Daily production of Crown Royal uses 10,000 bushels of rye, corn and barley sourced from Manitoba and surrounding provinces,[6]and requires 750,000 imperial gallons (3,400,000 L; 900,000 US gal) of water naturally filtered through the limestone beneath the lake.[6]  The whisky produced at the Manitoba distillery is stored in 1.5 million barrels,[7] located in 50 warehouses over 5 acres (2 ha) of land. The whisky is then blended and bottled in Amherstburg, Ontario.[8][9]

text: Crown Royal was also produced in Waterloo, Ontario, until the plant there closed in 1992.[10]

text: Versions[edit]

text:
Crown Royal was introduced in 1939 and is the original version of the brand. It was available only in Canada until 1964. Crown Royal comes in a purple felt-like bag with a gold tasselled drawstring.
Crown Royal Black was introduced in 2010, and is a darker, higher alcohol (90 proof) whisky. Comes in a black felt-like bag.[11]
Crown Royal Reserve was introduced in 1992. The whiskies are aged for a longer period than the original.[12] Crown Royal Reserve comes in a tan, velvet-like bag with coarse gold drawstrings.
Crown Royal XR (Extra Rare) was introduced in 2006. This limited-release version is sold in numbered bottles and was originally made from the last batches of whiskey distilled at the now-closed Waterloo, Ontario, distillery; it now features whisky from the also now-closed Lasalle, Quebec, distillery.[13] It received a 7¼ and 7¾ from Whisky Magazine critics.[14][15] The LaSalle-based Crown Royal XR features a blue colour scheme to distinguish it from the red scheme of the original Waterloo-based version.[15]
Crown Royal XO was introduced in January 2014. It is a blend of 50 whiskies that is then finished in Cognac casks from the French Limousin forest. It is packaged in a bag with gray and gold embroidery accents.[16]
Crown Royal Northern Harvest Rye was introduced in May 2015, and is packaged in an off-white felt-like bag.
Crown Royal Hand Selected Barrel was introduced in May 2015, and is a single barrel rye that is produced from the brand’s Coffey rye still, the only one of its kind in North America. Selected retailers will be able to purchase an entire cask to dispense to their customers.
Crown Royal Monarch 75th Anniversary Blend was created in 2014 to commemorate the 1939 royal visit that inspired the brand and was prepared as a gift for the royal family.[17]
Crown Royal Maple Finished was introduced in 2012. It is a blend of Crown Royal with maple flavour and comes in a brown felt-like bag.[18]
Crown Royal Regal Apple was introduced in November 2014. It is a blend of Crown Royal with apple flavour. Comes in a green felt-like bag.
Crown Royal Honey Comes in a yellow felt-like bag.
Crown Royal Vanilla Comes in a tan felt-like bag.
Crown Royal Salted Caramel Comes in a burnt-orange felt-like bag.
Crown Royal Texas Mesquite was introduced in 2018 and comes in a blue felt-like bag.

text: Former[edit]

text: Crown Royal Cask No. 16 was introduced late 2007. It was made from over fifty blended and individually aged whiskies in 12-year-old cognac barrels. These barrels were made of oak from the Limousin forest in France. The whiskies were designed to have a cognac type of finish with notes of rye, grain, and fruit. Cask No. 16 comes in a black felt-like bag embroidered with the logo and name "CASK No 16".[19] This blend was discontinued in late 2012.

text: Ratings[edit]

text:
Crown Royal offerings have generally performed well at international spirit ratings competitions. For example, the basic Canadian whisky was awarded a string of five gold medals at the San Francisco World Spirits Competitions between 2005 and 2012.
[20]
The Special Reserve received an editors choice gold award from Whisky Magazine and received ratings from 7¾ to 8¾ from three of the critics.[21][22]

text: Jim Murray's "Whisky Bible" named Crown Royal’s Northern Harvest Rye as the World Whisky of the Year for 2016.[23]

text: Advertising[edit]

text: Crown Royal advertises in motor sports, horse shows, and horse racing. It sponsored the No. 17 Ford Fusion of Matt Kenseth from 2010-2011,[24] the No. 26 Ford Fusion of Jamie McMurray from 2006-2009, and has sponsored NASCAR Sprint Cup Series races since 2006. From 2004 until 2006, Crown Royal was the title sponsor of the International Race of Champions.

text: Crown Royal is a sponsor of the Grand American Road Racing Association's Rolex Sports Car Series. In 2010, it also began sponsoring the #60 Daytona Prototype car of Michael Shank Racing in the Rolex Sports Car Series.

text: The brand was a primary sponsor of the Washington International Horse Show for several years in the 1990s and since 1995 has sponsored the Crown Royal American Turf Stakes, a Thoroughbred horse race run annually at Churchill Downs.


document_title: Menace II Society

question_text: who played a wax in menace to society

question_tokens: who played a wax in menace to society

text: Menace II Society

text: Plot[edit]

text: Caine Lawson and his best friend Kevin "O-Dog" Anderson enter a local store to buy malt liquor, where the Korean cashier and his wife rush them to buy their beer and leave. After their purchase, the cashier insults O-Dog by saying he feels sorry for O-Dog's mother. Offended, O-Dog briefly argues with the cashier, then kills him and his wife, takes the surveillance tape, robs the clerk's wallet and the cash register, and flees the store with Caine.

text: In a flashback, it is revealed that Caine’s father was a drug dealer who was killed when Caine was 10, and that his mother was a heroin addict who died of a drug overdose, which led to Caine being raised by his grandparents in the Jordan Downs housing projects.

text: O-Dog proudly shows off the surveillance tape to his admiring friends. Caine, disgusted at O-Dog's carelessness, tells him to stop showing off the incriminating tape, fearing they will get caught. Later, while Caine and his cousin Harold have left a party to go to a fast food restaurant, Harold is killed, Caine gets wounded, and their car is stolen in a carjacking. O-Dog and Caine avenge Harold's murder by tracking down and killing the carjackers. Caine and O-Dog are arrested for car theft, but Caine is soon released. Caine's grandfather and his teacher, Mr. Butler, warn Caine that he'll either end up dead or in prison if he doesn't change his ways. His friends Stacy and Sharif try to convince him to leave with them to Kansas. Caine ignores all advice.

text: After buying a new car from a chop shop, Caine carjacks another young black man for his gold wire wheels and his jewelry, then purchases a large quantity of cocaine that he plans to sell as crack. He also meets a local girl named Ilena and eventually has sex with her. While driving one night, Caine and Sharif are pulled over and beaten by cops. The two are dumped in a Hispanic neighborhood, but Hispanic gang members take them to a hospital instead of killing them as the cops anticipated. While Caine is hospitalized, his friend Ronnie tells him that she has found a job in Atlanta and invites him to come with her. Caine is hesitant at first, but agrees to go.

text: At a party, Chauncey, a confederate of Caine in an insurance scam, drunkenly makes sexual moves towards Ronnie. Caine comes to her rescue and starts pistol-whipping Chauncey, causing Stacy and Sharif to restrain him. Ilena calls to inform Caine that she is pregnant, but he refuses to believe that the child is his and drops her. Chauncey retaliates for Caine's assault by sending a copy of the surveillance tape to the police. Meanwhile, Caine beats Ilena's cousin when he confronts him outside Caine's grandparents' house about the pregnancy. Caine's grandfather comes outside to stop Caine, and kicks him out shortly after. Ilena's cousin gathers his friends to get revenge on Caine.

text: As Caine and Ronnie are preparing to leave for Atlanta, Ilena's cousin and his friends drive by the house, guns blazing, and kill Sharif and Caine. As Caine slowly dies in Stacy's arms, he sees flashbacks of the events that led to this final moment, and recalls his grandfather asking him if he cares whether he lives or dies; he realizes he does, but it is too late.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Tyrin Turner – Kaydee "Caine" Lawson
Brandon Hammond – Five Year Old Caine
Jada Pinkett – Ronnie
Larenz Tate – Kevin "O-Dog" Anderson
Samuel L. Jackson – Tat Lawson
MC Eiht – A-Wax
Glenn Plummer – James "Pernell" Richards
Clifton Powell – Chauncey
Marilyn Coleman – Mrs. Lawson
Arnold Johnson – Thomas Lawson
Pooh-Man – Doc
Julian Roy Doster – Anthony
Too Short – Lew-Loc
Khandi Alexander – Karen Lawson
Vonte Sweet – Sharif Butler
Ryan Williams – Stacy
Bill Duke – Detective
Dwayne L. Barnes – Basehead
Charles S. Dutton – Mr. Butler
Martin Davis – Carjacking Victim
Garen Holoman – Junior
Saafir – Harold Lawson
Cynthia Calhoun – Jackee
Erin Leshawn Wiley – Ilena
Samuel Monroe Jr. – Ilena's cousin
Corey Roska. – Vato #1
Clifton Collins, Jr. – Vato #2
Michael Edward McGuinn – Vato #3
Based Dub. – Vato #4

text: Production[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Originally, MC Ren was set to play A-Wax, but later turned down the role when he joined the Nation of Islam in late 1992. Rapper Spice 1 was set to play Caine, and Tupac Shakur to play Sharif, but they were later fired with director Allen Hughes stating that Shakur was causing trouble on the set. Shakur was angry for not being told why Sharif would turn Muslim. Six months after the firing, Shakur assaulted the director, resulting in Shakur being found guilty of assault and battery.[3] Shakur did not want to play the role of Sharif, as he did not agree (in regards to the authenticity of such a role) that a Muslim could also be a gangbanger. He is quoted as saying the following in a video interview,[4]

text: "I said okay, cool... fire me from this $100,000 movie, because I ain't goin' play no gangbanger who's a Muslim. There ain't no such thing, I refuse to play parts that don't exist. I will be a young nigga, but will be a real young nigga."

text: Shakur wanted to play O-Dog. Shakur and Spice 1 were later replaced with Larenz Tate and Tyrin Turner, respectively.[5]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Menace II Society received generally  positive reviews from critics.[6] The film scored an 83% 'fresh' rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 35 reviews. Chicago Reader critic Jonathan Rosenbaum stated, "This is a powerful, convincing, and terrifying look at teenage crime in contemporary Watts."[7] Owen Gleiberman from Entertainment Weekly gave it a positive review, stating, "Menace II Society is bleak, brilliant, and unsparing."[8] EmanuelLevy.com gave the film an A, saying it is "The most stunning feature debut in the new African American cinema, even more so than Boyz n the Hood to which the coming of age feature bears thematic resemblance."[9] The film was placed on both Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert's 10 best films of 1993 lists, with Ebert praising "the way the filmmakers tell Caine's story without making him seem either the hero or victim".[10][11]

text: However, the film has also received some negative reviews. Geoff Andrew of Time Out stated, "Regrettably, the Hughes Brothers' first feature is a compendium of cliches."[12] Stephen Holden of The New York Times stated, "If Menace II Society is terrific on ambiance, it is considerably less successful in revealing character."[13] At the 1994 MTV Movie Awards, the film was awarded Best Movie, beating out the likes of Philadelphia, Jurassic Park and Schindler's List.[14] The film also won an Independent Spirit Award for Best Cinematography.[15]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: A soundtrack containing hip hop music was released on May 26, 1993, by Jive Records. It peaked at #11 on the Billboard 200 and #1 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums.