document_title: Visa requirements for Indian citizens

question_text: do indian passport holders need visa for seychelles

text: Visa requirements for Indian citizens

text: Recent changes[edit]

text: Requirements for Indian citizens to have visas were recently lifted by Indonesia, Mozambique, Mauritania, Serbia, Qatar, Malaysia and Ukraine (16 April 2017). Starting 8 August 2017, Indian citizens to get visa-free access to Primorye and rest of Khabarovsk, Sakhalin, Chukotka and Kamchatka regions from 2018 in the Russian Far East for Tourism, Business and Humanitarian purposes.[2]. Citizens of India, who have residence permit in the United Arab Emirates, Kingdom of Bahrain, State of Qatar, State of Kuwait and Sultanate of Oman can obtain Armenian entry visa on the border of the Republic of Armenia issued for a maximum stay of 120 days, effective from 22 March, 2017.[3] Indian citizens are eligible for the Australia online visitor visa (e600), effective from 1 July, 2017.[4] Indian travelers are eligible for speedy entry into the United States as India signs Global Entry program.[5] Qatar has introduced visa waiver on arrival for the purpose of tourism for nationals of India effective from 9 August 2017.[6] Starting 1 September 2017, Indian citizens can apply for electronic visa for Kyrgyzstan for tourism and business purposes.[7] Serbia abolished visa requirements for Indian citizens from 2 September 2017[8] Gabon has introduced visa on arrival from 12 October 2017.[9]

text: Visa requirements map[edit]

text: Visa requirements[edit]

text:
Country
Visa requirement
Notes (excluding departure fees)

 Afghanistan
Visa required[10]

 Albania
Visa required[11]
National visa may be substituted with a valid multiple entry visa issued by the US, UK or with a valid multiple entry C visa issued by a Schengen Member State provided it had been used at least once before arrival to Albania.

 Algeria
Visa required[12]

 Andorra
Visa required[13]
Andorra has no visa regime, but is only accessible through France and Spain. Multiple Entry .

 Angola
Visa required[14]

 Antigua and Barbuda
Electronic Entry Visa[15]
Visa on arrival if holding a valid visa or permanent resident card for the US, Canada, UK or if holding a Schengen visa.[16] Cruise ship visitors do not require a visa provided that they arrive in Antigua and Barbuda in the morning and depart the same evening.[dubious – discuss] In transit passengers traveling within the same day, do not need a visa for entry into Antigua and Barbuda, provided that they have proof of their onward journey.

 Argentina
Visa required[17]

 Armenia
Visa required[18]
Invitation issued by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs or Passport and Visa Department of the Police is mandatory for all categories of visitors except tourists.[19] Citizens of India, who have a valid residence permit in the United Arab Emirates, Kingdom of Bahrain, State of Qatar, State of Kuwait and Sultanate of Oman can obtain Armenian entry visa upon arrival at the border of the Republic of Armenia issued for a maximum stay of 120 days, effective from 22 March, 2017.[3]

 Australia
Visa required[20]
May apply online (Online Visitor e600 visa).[21]

 Austria
Visa required[22]

 Azerbaijan
eVisa[23]
30 days[24]

 Bahamas
Visa required[25]
National visa may be substituted with a permanent resident card of the US or Canada.[26]

 Bahrain
eVisa[27]
14 days to 1 year multiple entry visa (max stay 90 days).[28]Visa costs BD 29.[29] Residents of Gulf Cooperation Council countries, who have already stayed for more than six months in their country of residence and their job professions are in approved list, may apply for a 72-hour visa or a seven-day visa on arrival at Bahrain International Airport.

 Bangladesh
Visa required[30]

 Barbados
Visa required[31]

 Belarus
Visa required[32]
National visa may be substituted with a Schengen visa or a national visa of country of EU, and if arriving and departing via Minsk International Airport.[33]

 Belgium
Visa required[34]

 Belize
Visa required[35]
National visa may be substituted with a multiple entry US visa or permanent resident card.[36]

 Benin
Visa required[37]

 Bhutan
Visa not required[38][39]

 Bolivia
Visa on arrival[40]
90 days. Must possess letter of invitation issued by the Bolivian Immigration Authorities (DIGEMIG). May alternatively hold printed hotel reservations, return tickets, or printed itinerary.

 Bosnia and Herzegovina
Visa required[41]
National visa may be substituted with a valid visa issued by a Schengen Area member state

 Botswana
Visa required[42]

 Brazil
Visa required[43]

 Brunei
Visa required[44]

 Bulgaria
Visa required[45]
National visa may be substituted with a C visa issued by Croatia, Cyprus, Romania or a Schengen Area member state

 Burkina Faso
Visa required[46]

 Burundi
Visa required[47]

 Cambodia
eVisa / Visa on arrival[48]
30 days; fee of USD 30 applicable

 Cameroon
Visa required[49]

 Canada
Visa required[50]
National visa may be substituted with a US permanent resident card;[51] Travelers with a US permanent resident card arriving by air require an Electronic Travel Authorization (ETA).[52]

 Cape Verde
Visa on arrival[53]
30 days

 Central African Republic
Visa required[54]

 Chad
Visa required[55]

 Chile
Visa required[56]

 China
Visa required[57]

 Colombia
Visa required[58]
National visa may be substituted with a valid C or D visa issued by a Schengen Area member state or a valid visa issued by the US (except for C1 transit visas).[58][59]

 Comoros
Visa on arrival[60]
30 days

 Republic of the Congo
Visa required[61]

 Democratic Republic of the Congo
Visa required[62]

 Costa Rica
Visa required[63]
National visa may be substituted with a valid visa issued by Canada, Japan, USA or a Schengen Area member state.

 Croatia
Visa required[64]
National visa may be substituted with a valid visa issued by a Schengen Area member state

 Cuba
Visa required[65]
As of 2016 a visa must be obtained in advance. Tourist cards are no longer available to Indian citizens nor to nationals of other countries travelling from India.[66] However, they are eligible to travel to Cuba with a tourist card if they also hold a valid visa[citation needed] or a residence permit issued by Canada, the United States or an EU member state.[67]

 Cyprus
Visa required[68]
National visa may be substituted with a double or multiple entry C visa issued by Bulgaria, Croatia, Romania or a Schengen Area member state.

 Czech Republic
Visa required[69]

 Denmark
Visa required[70]

 Djibouti
Visa required[71]

 Dominica
Visa not required[72]
6 months

 Dominican Republic
Visa required[73]
National visa may be substituted with a valid visa issued by Canada, US or any EU member state.

 East Timor
Visa on arrival[74]
30 days

 Ecuador
Visa not required[75]
90 days

 Egypt
Visa required[76]
If travelling as a part of an organized tourist group that consists of at least 10 persons and holding both onward and return flight tickets, booked accommodation and a signed Letter of Guarantee (LG) from an Egyptian travel agency can obtain, visa on arrival in Egypt.[77]

 El Salvador
Visa not required[78][79]
90 days

 Equatorial Guinea
Visa required[80]

 Eritrea
Visa required[81]

 Estonia
Visa required[82]

 Ethiopia
eVisa / Visa on arrival[83]
30 days

 Fiji
Visa not required[84]
4 months

 Finland
Visa required[85]

 France
Visa required[86]

 Gabon
eVisa / Visa on arrival[87]
Electronic visa holders must arrive via Libreville International Airport.[88]

 Gambia
Visa required[89]

 Georgia
eVisa[90]
30 days within 120 days

 Germany
Visa required[91]

 Ghana
Visa required[92]

 Greece
Visa required[93]

 Grenada
Visa not required[94]
3 months

 Guatemala
Visa required[95]
National visa may be substituted with a valid visa issued by Canada, the US or a Schengen Area member state.

 Guinea
Visa required[96]

 Guinea-Bissau
eVisa / Visa on arrival[97]
90 days

 Guyana
Visa on arrival[98]
30 days provided holding a letter of invitation from sponsor or host

 Haiti
Visa not required[99]
3 months

 Honduras
Visa required[100]
National visa may be substituted with a valid visa issued by Canada, the US or a Schengen Area member state.

 Hungary
Visa required[101]

 Iceland
Visa required[102]

 Indonesia
Visa not required[103]
30 days for tourism purposes.

 Iran
Visa required[104]

 Iraq
Visa required[105]

 Ireland
Visa required[106]
National visa may be substituted with a UK C visa holders until October 2021. Entry permitted only if first point of entry to the Common Travel Area is in the UK.[107]

 Israel
Visa required[108]

 Italy
Visa required[109]

 Ivory Coast
eVisa[110]
3 months; eVisa holders must arrive via Port Bouet Airport.

 Jamaica
Visa not required[111]
6 Months

 Japan
Visa required[112]

 Jordan
Visa on arrival[113]
Visa on arrival with a fee and a hotel booking along with proof of at least USD 1000 at the port of entry.Visa Free of Charge if bought a Jordan pass online.

 Kazakhstan
Visa required[114]

 Kenya
eVisa / Visa on arrival[115]
3 months

 Kiribati
Visa required[116]

 Kuwait
Visa required[117]

 Kyrgyzstan
eVisa[118]

 Laos
Visa on arrival[119]
30 days

 Latvia
Visa required[120]

 Lebanon
Visa required[121]
In addition to a visa, an approval should be obtained from the immigration department of the General Directorate of General Security (La Sûreté Générale)

 Lesotho
eVisa[122][123]
30 days

 Liberia
Visa required[124]

 Libya
Visa required[125]

 Liechtenstein
Visa required[126]

 Lithuania
Visa required[127]

 Luxembourg
Visa required[128]

 Macedonia
Visa required[129]
90 days. Visa is not required for holders of diplomatic passports.

 Madagascar
Visa on arrival[130]
30 days. Issued free of charge.

 Malawi
Visa required[131]

 Malaysia
eVisa/eNTRI[132]
30 days. Visa on arrival is also issued if arriving from Thailand, Singapore or Indonesia and holding a valid visa for any of those countries.[133]

 Maldives
Visa not required[134]
90 days

 Mali
Visa required[135]

 Malta
Visa required[136]

 Marshall Islands
Visa on arrival[137]
90 days

 Mauritania
Visa on arrival[138]
30 days

 Mauritius
Visa not required[139][140]
90 days

 Mexico
Visa required[141]
National visa may be substituted with a valid visa or permanent residence documents issued by the US, Canada, Japan, UK or Schengen Area member state to enter Mexico for tourism, transit, or business purposes.

 Micronesia
Visa not required[142]
30 days

 Moldova
Visa required[143]
Indian nationals holding a visa issued by a Schengen Area member state, UK or Ireland may obtain a Moldovan visa online.

 Monaco
Visa required[144]

 Mongolia
Visa required[145]

 Montenegro
Visa required[146]
National visa may be substituted with a valid visa issued by a Schengen Area member state, UK, Ireland or the US visa.

 Morocco
Visa required[147]

 Mozambique
Visa on arrival[148]
30 days[149]

 Myanmar
eVisa[150]
28 days. eVisa holders must arrive via Yangon, Nay Pyi Taw or Mandalay airports.

 Namibia
Visa required[151]

 Nauru
Visa required[152]

   Nepal
Freedom of movement[153]
Indian citizens may live and work freely in Nepal under the terms of the 1950 Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship.

 Netherlands
Visa required[154]

 New Zealand
Visa required[155]
National visa may be substituted with an Australian permanent residence documents.[156]

 Nicaragua
Visa required[157]

 Niger
Visa required[158]

 Nigeria
Visa required[159]

 North Korea
Visa required[160]

 Norway
Visa required[161]

 Oman
Visa required[162]
National visa may be substituted with a GCC visa of certain categories (managers, sales executives etc.) when a visit visa on arrival can be granted if the visitor is coming directly from a GCC country via air or land. All passengers from India, who reside in or hold an entry visa to one of the following countries (USA, Canada, Australia, UK and Schengen states) are allowed to obtain non-sponsored electronic tourist visa to enter Oman.[163]

 Pakistan
Visa required[164]

 Palau
Visa on arrival[165]
30 days

 Panama
Visa required[166]
National visa may be substituted with a valid multiple entry visa issued by US (including Green Card Holders,[167]) UK, Canada, Australia or any EU country, which has been used at least once to enter those countries, and with at least one year validity remaining at the time of entry into Panama.[clarification needed][168]

 Papua New Guinea
Visa required[169]

 Paraguay
Visa required[170]

 Peru
Visa required[171]
National visa may be substituted with a valid US, Canada, Australia, Schengen Area or UK visa or permanent resident permit may be granted visa-free entry for a maximum of 180 days. The visa must be valid for a minimum of 6 months from the arrival date.[172]

 Philippines
Visa required[173]
National visa may be substituted with a valid US, Japanese, Australian, Canadian, Schengen, Singapore or UK visa or permanent resident permit whose holders may be granted visa-free entry for an initial stay not exceeding 14 days.[174]

 Poland
Visa required[175]

 Portugal
Visa required[176]

 Qatar
eVisa / Visa on arrival[177]
30 days, available at Hamad International Airport. eVisa is also available.

 Romania
Visa required[178]
National visa may be substituted with a double or multiple entry C visa issued by a Schengen Area member state valid for the period of intended stay.

 Russia
Visa required[179]
Visa not required if visiting Saint Petersburg for up to 72 hours via ferry from Finland.[180] E-Visa will be issued "on arrival" at Vladivostok allowing stays of up to a maximum of eight days in any of the 5 regions (Primorye, Khabarovsk, Sakhalin, Chukotka and Kamchatka) in the Russian Far East. The visas would be available for the purpose of, Business, Humanitarian or Tourism. The e-visa can be obtained four days prior to travel without any consular fee and is valid for 30 days.[181]

 Rwanda
eVisa[182]
30 days

 Saint Kitts and Nevis
Visa not required[183]
3 months

 Saint Lucia
Visa on arrival[184]
6 weeks

 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Visa not required[185]
1 month

 Samoa
Visa on arrival !Entry Permit on arrival[186]
60 days

 San Marino
Visa required[187]

 São Tomé and Príncipe
eVisa[188]
National visa may be substituted with a US or a Schengen member state visa for stays up to 15 days.

 Saudi Arabia
Visa required[189]

 Senegal
Visa not required[190]
90 days

 Serbia
Visa not required[191]
30 days within one year.[192]

 Seychelles
Visa on arrival !Visitor's Permit on arrival[193]
3 months

 Sierra Leone
Visa required[194]

 Singapore
eVisa[195]
May obtain online eVisa through eligible authorized travel agencies or through local sponsors (Singapore citizen or Permanent Residents).[196]
Indian nationals with valid visa from countries such as UK, USA, Canada, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Germany and Switzerland who are in transit to or from any third country by air may be conditionally eligible for 96-hours Visa Free Transit Facility (VFTF) [197].

 Slovakia
Visa required[198]

 Slovenia
Visa required[199]

 Solomon Islands
Visa required[200]

 Somalia
Visa on arrival[201]
30 days, provided an invitation letter issued by the sponsor has been submitted to the Airport Immigration Department at least 2 days before arrival.

 South Africa
Visa required[202]

 South Korea
Visa required[203]

 South Sudan
Visa required[204]

 Spain
Visa required[205]

 Sri Lanka
eVisa / Visa on arrival[206]
30 days

 Sudan
Visa required[207]

 Suriname
Visa on arrival !Tourist Card on arrival[208]
90 days. Available at Johan Adolf Pengel International Airport

 Swaziland
Visa required[209]

 Sweden
Visa required[210]

  Switzerland
Visa required[211]

 Syria
Visa required[212]

 Tajikistan
eVisa[213]
eVisa holders can enter through all border points.[214]

 Tanzania
Visa on arrival[215]
30 days

 Thailand
Visa on arrival[216]
15 days. Visa fee of 1000 THB is payable upon entry. Visa must be obtained at first point of entry.[217]

 Togo
Visa on arrival[218]
7 days

 Tonga
Visa required[219]

 Trinidad and Tobago
Visa not required[220]
90 days

 Tunisia
Visa required[221]
Nationals of India are exempt from holding a tourist visa if traveling as part of a tourist group and holding a hotel reservation confirmation for a maximum stay of 2 weeks. Indians residing in any of the GCC countries should carry a valid residence permit for exempt from visa.

 Turkey
Visa required[222]
Conditional eVisa issued for the period of 30 days to holders of a valid visa or residence permit issues by one of the Schengen member countries, US, UK, or Ireland.[223]

 Turkmenistan
Visa required[224]

 Tuvalu
Visa on arrival[225]
1 month

 Uganda
eVisa / Visa on arrival[226]
30 days.[227]

 Ukraine
Visa on arrival[228]
15 days for business or tourism purposes, available at Kyiv Boryspil Airport, Kyiv International Airport (Zhuliany) and Odessa International Airport.[229] Letter of invitation from a legal entity registered in Ukraine on official letterhead,
or a tourist voucher by a touristic company in Ukraine, or a booked hotel confirmation and return flight tickes are required. [230]

 United Arab Emirates
Visa required[231]
National visa may be substituted with a valid residence visa from United Kingdom and European Union, valid US visa or Green Card whose holders may obtain a visa on arrival valid for 14 days.[232]

 United Kingdom
Visa required[233]
Visa not required if holding a biometric Irish visa endorsed with "BC BIVS" and with a valid Irish entry stamp.

 United States
Visa required[234]

 Uruguay
Visa required[235]

 Uzbekistan
Visa required[236]

 Vanuatu
Visa not required[237]
30 days

  Vatican City
Visa required[238]

 Venezuela
Visa required[239]

 Vietnam
Visa required[240]
Visa may be collected on arrival if prior online approval has been obtained through a travel agency.

 Yemen
Visa required[241]

 Zambia
eVisa[242]
30 days

 Zimbabwe
eVisa[243]
30 days

text: Dependent, Disputed, or Restricted territories[edit]

text: Visa requirements for Indian citizens for visits to various territories, disputed areas, partially recognised countries and restricted zones:

text:
Europe

Visitor to
Visa requirement
Notes (excluding departure fees)

 Abkhazia
Visa required[244]

 Mount Athos
Special permit required
Special permit required (4 days: 25 euro for Orthodox visitors, 35 euro for non-Orthodox visitors, 18 euro for students).
There is a visitors' quota: maximum 100 Orthodox and 10 non-Orthodox per day and women are not allowed.[245][246]

 Belovezhskaya Pushcha National Park
Visa not required
3 days;[247] must first obtain an electronic pass[248]

 Crimea
Visa required
Visa issued by Russia is required.[249]

 Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus
Visa not required
3 months[250][251]

 UN Buffer Zone in Cyprus
Access Permit required[252]
Access Permit is required for travelling inside the zone, except Civil Use Areas.

 Faroe Islands
Visa required[253]

 Gibraltar
Visa required[254]
UK Visa/ Schengen Residence Permit covers entry

 Guernsey
Visa required[255]
UK Visa covers entry

 Isle of Man
Visa required[256]
UK Visa covers entry

 Jan Mayen
Permit required[254]
Permit issued by the local police required for staying for less than 24 hours[257] and permit issued by the Norwegian police for staying for more than 24 hours.[258]

 Jersey
Visa required[259]
UK Visa covers entry

 Kosovo
Visa required[260]
Schengen zone visa or residence permit valid for 15 days. Serbia will not recognize the entry if coming from Kosovo without entering it first via Serbia. No VISA needed, if a holder of a valid travel documents issued by EU Member and Schengen States, United States of America, Canada, Australia and Japan.[261]

 Nagorno-Karabakh Republic
Visa required[262][263]
Travellers with Nagorno-Karabakh visa (expired or valid) or evidence of travel to Nagorno-Karabakh (stamps) will be permanently denied entry to Azerbaijan.[264]

 Novorossiya
Restricted area
Crossing from Ukraine requires visit purpose to be explained to Ukrainian passport control on exit and those who entered from Russia are not allowed to proceed further into Ukraine.[265][266]

 Russia
Special authorization required
Several closed cities and regions in Russia require special authorisation.[267]

 South Ossetia
Visa not required
Multiple entry visa to Russia and three-day prior notification are required to enter South Ossetia.[268][269]

 Svalbard
Visa not required
No one requires a visa to enter Svalbard but it's practically impossible to board a flight/ferry to Svalbard without entering Norway. Hence double entry Schengen visa would be required to go and come back from Svalbard to mainland Norway[270]

 Transnistria
Visa not required
Registration mandatory after 24 hours.[271][272]

Africa

Visitor to
Visa requirement
Notes (excluding departure fees)

 British Indian Ocean Territory
Special permit required
Special permit required.[273]

 Eritrea outside Asmara
Travel permit required
To travel in the rest of the country, a Travel Permit for Foreigners is required (20 Eritrean nakfa).[274]

 Ascension Island
Entry Permit required
Entry Permit must be obtained minimum 28 days in advance (3 months for 20/30 pounds sterling, single/double entry).[275]

 Saint Helena
Visitor's Pass on arrival
Visitor's Pass granted on arrival valid for 4/10/21/60/90 days for 12/14/16/20/25 pound sterling.[276]

 Tristan da Cunha
Permission required
Permission to land required for 15/30 pounds sterling (yacht/ship passenger) for Tristan da Cunha Island or 20 pounds sterling for Gough Island, Inaccessible Island or Nightingale Islands.[277]

Western Sahara
Undefined visa regime
Undefined visa regime in the Sahrawi administered areas. Moroccan visa required in Moroccan administered areas

 Réunion
Visa not required
15 days but only if trip arranged through approved travel agencies[278]

 Somaliland
Visa on arrival
30 days for 30 US dollars, payable on arrival.[279][280]

 Sudan
Travel permit required
All foreigners traveling more than 25 kilometres outside of Khartoum must obtain a travel permit.

 Darfur
Travel permit required
Separate travel permit is required.[281]

Asia

Visitor to
Visa requirement
Notes (excluding departure fees)

 Hong Kong
Electronic Travel Authorization
14 days entry on each visit. ETA is Valid for 6 Months or Till the expiry of passport.[282][283]

 Kazakhstan
Special permission required
Special permission required for the town of Baikonur and surrounding areas in Kyzylorda Oblast, and the town of Gvardeyskiy near Almaty.[284]

 Kish Island
Visa not required
Visitors to Kish Island do not require a visa.[285]

 Macau
Visa not required
30 days[286]

 Sabah and Sarawak
Evisa
The same Evisa for Malaysia is used to enter these states for tourism purposes.

 Maldives
Permission required
With the exception of the capital Malé, tourists are generally prohibited from visiting non-resort islands without the express permission of the Government of Maldives.[287]

 North Korea outside Pyongyang
Special permit required
People are not allowed to leave the capital city, tourists can only leave the capital with a governmental tourist guide (no independent moving)

 Palestine
Visa not required[288]
Arrival by sea to Gaza Strip not allowed.[289]

Jeju Island
Visa not required
30 days Visa free entry for Indian citizens provided arriving directly at Jeju Island.

 Taiwan
Visa required[290]
30 day online travel authority is available to the citizens of India with permanent residency or valid visa of Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand, Schengen Convention countries, United Kingdom or United States.

 Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province
OIVR permit required
OIVR permit required (15+5 Tajikistani Somoni) and another special permit (free of charge) is required for Lake Sarez.[291][292][293]

 Tibet Autonomous Region
TTP required
Tibet Travel Permit required (10 US Dollars).[294][295][296]

 Korean Demilitarised Zone
Restricted zone.

 UNDOF Zone and Ghajar
Restricted zone.

 Yemen
Special permission required
Special permission needed for travel outside Sana’a or Aden. Also, a small fee is charged on a case by case basis.[297]

Caribbean and North Atlantic

Visitor to
Visa requirement
Notes (excluding departure fees)

 Anguilla
Visa required[298]
Visa required, except for Holders of a visa issued by the United Kingdom.

 Aruba
Visa required[299]
Visa not required if holding a valid multiple-entry visa issued by Canada or USA.

 Bermuda
Visa required[300]
Visa required, except for A max stay of 3 months for holders of a multiple-entry visa issued by Canada, USA or the United Kingdom, valid for at least 45 days beyond the period of intended stay in Bermuda.

 Bonaire, St. Eustatius and Saba
Visa required[301]
Visa not required if holding a valid multiple-entry visa issued by Canada or USA.

 British Virgin Islands
Visa not required[302]
30 days

 Cayman Islands
Visa required[303]
Visa not required if permanent resident of US, Canada, or UK, and are arriving from and departing to that country.

 Curacao
Visa required[304]
Visa not required if holding a valid multiple-entry visa issued by Canada or USA.

 French Guiana
Visa required[305]

 French West Indies
Visa required[306]
French West Indies refers to Martinique, Guadeloupe, Saint Martin and Saint Barthélemy.

 Greenland
Visa required[253]

 Montserrat
Visa not required
6 months[307][308]

 Puerto Rico
Visa required[309]
Visa not required if holding a valid multiple-entry visa issued by USA.

 Saint Pierre and Miquelon
Visa required

 Sint Maarten
Visa required[310]
Visa not required if holding a valid multiple-entry visa issued by Canada or USA.

 Turks and Caicos Islands
Visa not required[311]

 U.S. Virgin Islands
Visa required[312]

Oceania

Visitor to
Visa requirement
Notes (excluding departure fees)

 Ashmore and Cartier Islands
Special authorisation required
Special authorisation required.[313]

 Clipperton Island
Special permit required
Special permit required.[314]

 Cook Islands
Visa not required
31 days[315]

 Lau Province
Special permission required
Special permission required.[316]

 French Polynesia
Visa required[317]

 Guam
Visa required[318]

 Niue
Visa on arrival
30 days[319]

 Pitcairn Islands
Visa not required
14 days visa free and landing fee 35 USD or tax of 5 USD if not going ashore.[320][321][322]

 United States Minor Outlying Islands
Special permits required
Special permits required for Baker Island, Howland Island, Jarvis Island, Johnston Atoll, Kingman Reef, Midway Atoll, Palmyra Atoll and Wake Island.[323][324][325][326][327][328][329]

South America

Visitor to
Visa requirement
Notes (excluding departure fees)

 Galápagos
Pre-registration required
Online pre-registration is required. Transit Control Card must also be obtained at the airport prior to departure.[330]

South Atlantic and Antarctica

Visitor to
Visa requirement
Notes (excluding departure fees)

 Falkland Islands
Visa required[331]

 South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
Permit required
Pre-arrival permit from the Commissioner required (72 hours/1 month for 110/160 pounds sterling).[332][333]

Antarctica

Special permits required for  British Antarctic Territory,  French Southern and Antarctic Lands,  Argentine Antarctica,  Australian Antarctic Territory,
 Chilean Antarctic Territory,  Heard Island and McDonald Islands,  Peter I Island,  Queen Maud Land,  Ross Dependency.[334][335][336][337][338][339][340][341][342][343][344][345]

text: Reciprocity[edit]

text: Indian Government has not drafted any laws to mandate reciprocity in visa agreements with other countries. While a very small number bilateral agreements have ended in reciprocity in visa arrangements, a large number of visa relationships continue to be highly skewed on one side or the other.

text: In 2015, Iran revoked visa-on-arrival for Indian citizens after it was included as one of the eight countries in India's Prior Reference Category, which would be excluded from India's visa liberalisation plans for foreign tourists.[346] The other countries on the list at the time were Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iraq, Somalia, Nigeria and Sudan.[346]

text: Full reciprocity[edit]

text: India has by default achieved full reciprocity in Visa free/e-Visa Privileges with following countries:

text:
Australia (Electronic Visitor Visa)
 Bhutan (Visa not required)
   Nepal (Visa not required)
 Maldives (Visa not required, for 90 days)
 Antigua and Barbuda (e-Visa required)
 Ivory Coast (e-Visa required)
 Gabon (e-Visa required)
 Georgia (e-Visa required)
 Kenya (e-Visa required)
 Lesotho (e-Visa required)
 Malaysia (e-Visa required)
 Myanmar (e-Visa required)
 Sri Lanka (e-Visa required)
 Zambia (e-Visa required)
 Zimbabwe (e-Visa required)
 Hong Kong (Electronic Authorization required)

text: Partial reciprocity[edit]

text: India has achieved partial reciprocity with following countries, where Indian Immigration rules affords the citizens of the following countries a bit lesser visa privileges than what the following countries provide for Indian Citizens:

text:
Country
Visa Requirement for Indian Nationals to visit the country
Visa Requirement to visit India

 Myanmar
Conditional Visa on Arrival for Business Visa, workshops and events etc. It's unclear if exemption is valid for tourist visas.[347] Though, full reciprocity exits only in providing E-visa for tourism purpose.
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Indonesia
Visa not required for tourism purpose. Visa on arrival for business and family visit.
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Vietnam
Before travelling, an online approval letter needs to be received from a designated visa agency, and printed out. Takes 2 working days. Then, Visa on Arrival at Hanoi, Da Nang and HCM City.
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Laos
Visa on arrival for 30 days
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Cambodia
Visa on arrival for 30 days
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Bolivia
Visa on arrival for 90 days, charged at La Paz airport. Prior visa is free of cost at Bolivian embassy.
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Djibouti
Visa on arrival
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Dominica
Visa not required
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Ecuador
Visa not required
e-Visa for 60 Days

 El Salvador
Visa not required
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Fiji
Visa not required
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Grenada
Visa not required
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Guyana
Visa on arrival
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Haiti
Visa not required
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Jamaica
Visa not required
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Jordan
Visa on arrival
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Madagascar
Visa on arrival
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Malawi
Visa on arrival
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Mauritius
Visa not required
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Micronesia
Visa not required
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Nauru
Visa on arrival
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Palau
Visa on arrival
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Saint Kitts and Nevis
Visa not required
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Visa not required
e-visa for 60 days

 Saint Lucia
Visa on arrival
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Serbia
Visa not required
e-visa for 60 days

 Seychelles
Visa on arrival
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Tanzania
Visa on arrival
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Thailand
Visa on arrival
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Timor-Leste
Visa on arrival
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Trinidad and Tobago
Visa not required
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Tuvalu
Visa on arrival
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Ukraine
Visa on arrival
e-Visa for 60 Days

 Vanuatu
Visa not required
e-Visa for 60 Days

text: Complete disparity (at the expense of foreign citizens)[edit]

text: Visa privileges provided by Indian immigration for citizens of these countries are considerably far less than Visa Privileges provided by these countries to the Indian Citizens:

text:
Country
Visa Requirement to visit India
Visa Requirement for Indian Nationals to visit the country

 Burundi
Visa application and approval mandatory prior to Travel
30 day Visa on Arrival

 Bahrain
Visa application and approval mandatory prior to Travel
e-Visa available for tourism

 Cape Verde
Visa application and approval mandatory prior to Travel
Visa on Arrival

 Comoros
Visa application and approval mandatory prior to Travel
Visa on Arrival

 Ethiopia
Visa application and approval mandatory prior to Travel
Visa on Arrival

 Guinea-Bissau
Visa application and approval mandatory prior to Travel
Visa on Arrival

 Qatar
Visa application and approval mandatory prior to Travel
Visa on Arrival

 Rwanda
Visa application and approval mandatory prior to Travel
e-Visa available for tourism

 Somalia
Visa application and approval mandatory prior to Travel
Visa on Arrival

 Togo
Visa application and approval mandatory prior to Travel
Visa on Arrival

 Uganda
Visa application and approval mandatory prior to Travel
Visa on Arrival

text: Vaccination[edit]

text: Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, Zambia require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination. Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from a vulnerable area.[348]

text: Passport validity[edit]

text: Many countries require passport validity of no less than 6 months and one or two blank pages.[349]

text: Limitations on passport use[edit]

text: Visitors holding Israeli passport or any passports showing evidence of travel to Israel are denied entry to the Arab League countries due to Arab League boycott of Israel.

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2017)

text: Fingerprinting[edit]

text: Several countries including Argentina, Cambodia, Japan, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, South Korea and the United States demand all passengers to be fingerprinted on arrival.[350][351][352][353][354][355][356]

text: Foreign travel statistics[edit]

text: According to the statistics these are the numbers of Indian visitors to various countries per annum in 2015 (unless otherwise noted):

text:
Foreign travel statistics

Destination
Number of visitors

 American Samoa[357]
50

 Angola[358]
9,170

 Antarctica[note 1][359]
207

 Antigua and Barbuda[note 1][360]
368

 Australia[note 1][361]
259,900

 Austria[note 2][note 1][362]
147,300

 Azerbaijan[note 1][363]
6,012

 Belgium[note 1][364]
44,898

 Bhutan[note 1][365]
114,301

 Bolivia[note 1][366]
1,338

 Bosnia and Herzegovina[note 1][367]
2,000

 Botswana[368]
17,413

 Brazil[note 1][369]
23,246

 Cambodia[note 1][370]
46,131

 Canada[note 1][371]
225,121

 Cayman Islands[note 1][note 3][372]
256

 Chile[note 1][373]
3,774

 China[374]
730,500

 Colombia[375]
5,402

 Congo[note 4][376]
2,373

 Costa Rica[note 1][377]
7,085

 Croatia[note 1][378]
35,057

 Dominica[379]
97

 Dominican Republic[note 1][380]
2,139

 France[381]
524,055

 French Polynesia[note 1][382]
637

 Georgia[note 1][383]
36,204

 Germany[note 1][384]
231,244

 Hong Kong[note 1][385]
480,906

 Hungary[note 2][note 1][386]
33,134

 Indonesia[note 1][387]
422,045

 Israel[note 1][388]
44,800

 Italy[note 1][389]
225,000

 Jamaica[note 1][390]
1,721

 Japan[391]
103,084

 Jordan[note 1][392]
57,720

 Kazakhstan[note 1][393]
13,975

 Kyrgyzstan[note 1][394]
11,400

 Laos[note 1][395]
8,249

 Latvia[note 2][note 1][396]
3,585

 Lebanon[note 1][397]
15,610

 Macao[note 1][398]
165,278

 Madagascar[399]
2,234

 Malaysia[note 1][400]
638,758

 Maldives[note 1][401]
66,955

 Mali[note 5][402]
1,500

 Mauritius[note 1][403]
82,670

 Mexico[note 1][404]
59,020

 Mongolia[note 1][405]
1,713

 Montenegro[note 5][note 2][406]
1,131

 Myanmar[407]
34,628

   Nepal[note 6][408]
75,124

 Netherlands[note 1][409]
127,000

 New Zealand[note 1][410]
52,016

 Oman[note 7][411]
244,786

 Panama[412]
6,748

 Papua New Guinea[note 1][413]
4,293

 Peru[414]
5,684

 Philippines[415]
74,824

 Qatar[note 1][416]
340,104

 Romania[note 1][417]
16,753

 Russia[note 1][418]
108,498

 Seychelles[note 1][419]
10,916

 Singapore[note 1][420]
1,097,186

 Slovakia[note 1][note 2][421]
6,805

 South Africa[422]
85,639

 South Korea[note 1][423]
195,911

 Spain[note 1][424]
97,033

 Sri Lanka[note 1][425]
356,729

 Suriname[426]
552

 Swaziland[note 1][427]
6,867

 Taiwan[note 5][428]
33,550

 Tanzania[note 1][429]
27,327

 Thailand[note 1][430]
1,193,822

 Timor-Leste[note 5][note 6][431]
799

 Turkey[note 1][432]
79,316

 Ukraine[note 1][433]
14,047

 United Arab Emirates[note 1][434][435][436]
2,123,388

 United Kingdom[note 1][437]
387,000

 United States[note 8][438]
1,898,327

 Zambia[439]
25,517

 Zimbabwe[440]
5,421

text:
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be Data for 2016
^ a b c d e Counting only guests in tourist accommodation establishments.
^ Data for arrivals by air only.
^ Data for 2012
^ a b c d Data for 2014
^ a b Data for arrivals by air only.
^ Data for 2013
^ Total number includes tourists, business travelers, students, exchange visitors, temporary workers and families, diplomats and other representatives and all other classes of nonimmigrant admissions (I-94).


document_title: Production car speed record

question_text: who makes the fastest car in the world

question_tokens: who makes the fastest car in the world

root

text: Production car speed record

text: Difficulties with claims[edit]

text: Comparing claimed speeds of the fastest production cars in the world, especially in historical cases, is difficult as there is no standardized method for determining the top speed and no central authority to verify any such claims. Examples of the difficulties faced were shown up in the dispute between Bugatti and Hennessey over which car was the world's fastest.[1]

tag: p

text: Dauer 962 Le Mans[edit]

text: The Dauer 962 Le Mans, introduced in 1993, reached independently measured 404.6 km/h (251.4 mph) in 1998 and was considered as the fastest production car by several publications. But since only 13 cars were built while the rules on this site require a minimum of 25 it doesn't qualify for this list.[2]

text: Koenigsegg CCR[edit]

text: The Koenigsegg CCR recorded a top speed of 387.866 km/h (241.009 mph) at the Nardò Ring testing facility on 28 February 2005.[3] The record was supervised and accredited by Guinness World Records at the time and a certificate recognising this achievement was awarded, citing the CCR as "The fastest production car... which achieved a speed of 387.866 km/h over a measured kilometre at the Nardo Prototipo proving ground, Italy". 14 examples of the CCR were produced in total, a total production run under 25 units does not qualify the CCR for inclusion on the table below.

text: Bugatti Veyron limiter removal[edit]

text: On 4 July 2010 the Bugatti Veyron Super Sport reached 431.072 km/h (267.856 mph) two-way average. Bugatti built 30 Super Sports (5 of them named World Record Edition). At the time the record was set it was known that the customer cars were electronically limited to 415 km/h (257.87 mph). Guinness Book of Records (which had listed speeds by British cars with modified rev limiter as production car records in the 1990s) listed the unlimited 431.072 km/h (267.856 mph) as production car speed record. Yet, 3 years later, after a query by the Sunday Times Guinness' PR director Jaime Strang was quoted: "As the car’s speed limiter was deactivated, this modification was against the official guidelines. Consequently, the vehicle’s record set at 431.072 km/h is no longer valid." 5 days later it was written on its website: "Guinness World Records would like to confirm that Bugatti's record has not been disqualified; the record category is currently under review." 5 days later Bugatti’s speed record was confirmed: "Following a thorough review conducted with a number of external experts, Guinness World Records is pleased to announce the confirmation of Bugatti’s record of Fastest production car achieved by the Veyron 16.4 Super Sport. The focus of the review was with respect to what may constitute a modification to a car’s standard specification. Having evaluated all the necessary information, Guinness World Records is now satisfied that a change to the speed limiter does not alter the fundamental design of the car or its engine."[1][4][5]

text: Hennessey Venom GT one direction run[edit]

text: In 2014, a Hennessey Venom GT was recorded at 435.31 km/h (270.49 mph), but as the run was in one direction only and only 12 cars (+1 prototype) were ever made, it does not qualify under the Guinness Book of Records or this list's criteria as the world's fastest production car.[6] Guinness accepted it as a production car, however.[7][8]

text: List rules[edit]

text: Because of the inconsistencies with the various definitions of production cars, dubious claims by manufacturers and self-interest groups, and inconsistent or changing application of the definitions this list has a defined set of requirements. For further explanation of how these were arrived at see the above link.

text: Post 1945 and over 124 mph (200 km/h) only[edit]

text: This list is also limited to post World War II production road cars which reached more than 124 mph (200 km/h), older cars are excluded even if they were faster. The Benz Velo as the first petrol driven car is the only exception.

text: Production car definition[edit]

text: For the purposes of this list a production car is defined as:

text:
being constructed principally for retail sale to consumers, for their personal use, and to transport people on public roads (no commercial or industrial vehicles are eligible);
having had 25 or more instances made by the original vehicle manufacturer, and offered for commercial sale to the public in new condition (cars modified by either professional tuners or individuals are not eligible);[9][10]
being street-legal in their intended markets, and capable of passing any official tests or inspections required to be granted this status.

tag: ol

text: Measurement of top speed[edit]

text: To establish the top speed for cars at least since the 1990s the requirement is, in addition to the above, an independent road test with a two-way run. The mean of the top speed for both runs is taken as the car's top speed.[11][12] In instances where the top speed has been determined by removing the limiter, the test met these requirements, and the car is sold with the limiter on then the limited speed is accepted as meeting this requirement. For the McLaren F1 the estimation by Car and Driver about the speed at the rev-limiter is used.

text: Record-breaking production vehicles[edit]

text:
Year
Make and model
Top speed of production car
Engine
Number built
Comment

1894
Benz Velo
12 mph
(20 km/h)[13]
1045 cm³ 1.5 bhp
1,200
First production car

1949
Jaguar XK120
124.6 mph
(200.5 km/h)[14]
3442 cm³ 160 bhp
12,000
Some publications cite the XK120's timed top speed as almost 133 mph / 214 km/h in 1949.[15] The XK120 that achieved this speed was a tuned prototype, not a production car. The production car reached 124.6 mph (200.5 km/h).

1955
Mercedes-Benz 300SL
150.7 mph
(242.5 km/h)[16]
2996 cm³ 212 bhp
1,400
Two-way average speed tested by Automobil Revue in 1958. 245 km/h (152.2 mph) reached in one direction.

1959
Aston Martin DB4 GT
152 mph
(245 km/h)[17]
3670 cm³ 302 bhp
75
Tested by Autosport in December 1961.

1963
Iso Grifo GL 365
161 mph
(259 km/h)[18]
5354 cm³ 360 bhp
over 400
Tested by Autocar in 1966. A total of 412 Iso Grifos were built 1963–1974.[19]

1965
AC Cobra Mk III 427
165 mph
(266 km/h)[20]
6998 cm³ 485 bhp
>25
Tested by Car & Driver. Top speed described as observed

1967
Lamborghini Miura P400
171 mph
(275 km/h)[21]
3929 cm³ 350 bhp
275
Tested by Motor in June 1967. Over 750 units build in 1966–1973 period, which includes P400, P400 S and P400 SV models.

1968
Ferrari 365 GTB/4 Daytona
174 mph
(280 km/h)[22]
4390 cm³ 352 bhp
about 1,400
Tested by Autocar in 1971.

1969
Lamborghini Miura P400S
179.3 mph
(288.6 km/h)[23]
3929 cm³ 370 bhp
338
Tested by Sport Auto in 1970.

1982
Lamborghini Countach LP500 S
182 mph
(293 km/h)[24]
4754 cm³ 375 bhp
323
Tested by Auto, Motor und Sport

1984
Ferrari 288 GTO
188 mph
(303 km/h)[25]
2855 cm³ 400 bhp
272
Tested by Auto, Motor und Sport in 1985. Doubted, since Automobil Revue measured only 279 km/h (173 mph) for the identical car and even several remeasurements at two additional test dates didn't yield more than 288 km/h (179 mph). Road & Track measured 179 and 180 mph (289.7 km/h) at two tests.[26][27]

1986
Porsche 959
198 mph
(319 km/h)[27]
2849 cm³ 444 bhp
337
Tested by Road and Track in 1987. The 959 Deluxe version reached 197 mph (317 km/h), the Sport version 198 mph (319 km/h). 29 were built in a performance-enhanced 515 hp sports version which reached 339 km/h (211 mph) tested by Auto, Motor und Sport at Nardo in 1988.[28][29]

1987
Ruf CTR
213 mph
(342 km/h)[28]
3367 cm³ 469 bhp
29[30]
Tested by Auto, Motor und Sport at Nardò Ring in 1988

1993
McLaren F1
221 mph
(355 km/h)
6064 cm³ 618 bhp
64[31]
Speed at the rev limiter estimated by Car and Driver.[32] Without the rev-limiter, it was able to reach a top-speed of 240.1 mph (386.4 km/h).[33] No tested top speed faster than 335 km/h (208 mph) found for an unmodified car.

2005
Bugatti Veyron EB 16.4
253.81 mph
(408.47 km/h)
7993 cm³ 987 bhp
300
Recorded and verified by German inspection officials.[34]

2010
Bugatti Veyron 16.4 Super Sport
258 mph
(415 km/h)
7993 cm³ 1183 bhp
30
Out of the initial production run of 30, 5 cars were named the Super Sport World Record Edition. With the electronic limiter turned off the Super Sport World Record Edition was capable of 431.072 km/h (267.856 mph) two-way average. When sold they were electronically limited to 415 km/h (258 mph). Pierre-Henri Raphanel drove the unlimited car and its top speed was verified by Guinness World Records.[35][36][37]

tag: table


document_title: Equations for a falling body

question_text: what is the speed of a falling object after 3 seconds

text: Equations for a falling body

text: History[edit]

text: Galileo was the first to demonstrate and then formulate these equations. He used a ramp to study rolling balls, the ramp slowing the acceleration enough to measure the time taken for the ball to roll a known distance.[1][2] He measured elapsed time with a water clock, using an "extremely accurate balance" to measure the amount of water.[note 1]

text: The equations ignore air resistance, which has a dramatic effect on objects falling an appreciable distance in air, causing them to quickly approach a terminal velocity. The effect of air resistance varies enormously depending on the size and geometry of the falling object — for example, the equations are hopelessly wrong for a feather, which has a low mass but offers a large resistance to the air. (In the absence of an atmosphere all objects fall at the same rate, as astronaut David Scott demonstrated by dropping a hammer and a feather on the surface of the Moon.)

text: The equations also ignore the rotation of the Earth, failing to describe the Coriolis effect for example. Nevertheless, they are usually accurate enough for dense and compact objects falling over heights not exceeding the tallest man-made structures.

text: Overview[edit]

text: Near the surface of the Earth, the acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81 m/s2 (meters per second squared; which might be thought of as "meters per second, per second", or 32.2 ft/s2 as "feet per second per second") approximately. For other planets, multiply g by the appropriate scaling factor. A coherent set of units for g, d, t and v is essential. Assuming SI units, g is measured in meters per second squared, so d must be measured in meters, t in seconds and v in meters per second.

text: In all cases, the body is assumed to start from rest, and air resistance is neglected. Generally, in Earth's atmosphere, all results below will therefore be quite inaccurate after only 5 seconds of fall (at which time an object's velocity will be a little less than the vacuum value of 49 m/s (9.8 m/s2 × 5 s) due to air resistance).  Air resistance induces a drag force on any body that falls through any atmosphere other than a perfect vacuum, and this drag force increases with velocity until it equals the gravitational force, leaving the object to fall at a constant terminal velocity.

text: Atmospheric drag, the coefficient of drag for the object, the (instantaneous) velocity of the object, and the area presented to the airflow determine terminal velocity.

text: Apart from the last formula, these formulas also assume that g negligibly varies with height during the fall (that is, they assume constant acceleration). The last equation is more accurate where significant changes in fractional distance from the center of the planet during the fall cause significant changes in g. This equation occurs in many applications of basic physics.

text: Equations[edit]

text:
Distance

d

{\displaystyle \ d\ }

 travelled by an object falling for time

t

{\displaystyle \ t\ }

:

d
=

1
2

g

t

2

{\displaystyle \ d={\frac {1}{2}}gt^{2}}

Time

t

{\displaystyle \ t\ }

 taken for an object to fall distance

d

{\displaystyle \ d\ }

:

t
=

2
d

g

{\displaystyle \ t=\ {\sqrt {\frac {2d}{g}}}}

Instantaneous velocity

v

i

{\displaystyle \ v_{i}\ }

 of a falling object after elapsed time

t

{\displaystyle \ t\ }

:

v

i

=
g
t

{\displaystyle \ v_{i}=gt}

Instantaneous velocity

v

i

{\displaystyle \ v_{i}\ }

 of a falling object that has travelled distance

d

{\displaystyle \ d\ }

:

v

i

=

2
g
d

{\displaystyle \ v_{i}={\sqrt {2gd}}\ }

Average velocity

v

a

{\displaystyle \ v_{a}\ }

 of an object that has been falling for time

t

{\displaystyle \ t\ }

  (averaged over time):

v

a

=

1
2

g
t

{\displaystyle \ v_{a}={\frac {1}{2}}gt}

Average velocity

v

a

{\displaystyle \ v_{a}\ }

 of a falling object that has travelled distance

d

{\displaystyle \ d\ }

 (averaged over time):

v

a

=

2
g
d

2

{\displaystyle \ v_{a}={\frac {\sqrt {2gd}}{2}}\ }

Instantaneous velocity

v

i

{\displaystyle \ v_{i}\ }

 of a falling object that has travelled distance

d

{\displaystyle \ d\ }

 on a planet with mass

M

{\displaystyle \ M\ }

, with the combined radius of the planet and altitude of the falling object being

r

{\displaystyle \ r\ }

, this equation is used for larger radii where

g

{\displaystyle \ g\ }

 is smaller than standard

g

{\displaystyle \ g\ }

 at the surface of Earth, but assumes a small distance of fall, so the change in

g

{\displaystyle \ g\ }

 is small and relatively constant:

v

i

=

2
G
M
d

r

2

{\displaystyle \ v_{i}={\sqrt {\frac {2GMd}{r^{2}}}}\ }

Instantaneous velocity

v

i

{\displaystyle \ v_{i}\ }

 of a falling object that has travelled distance

d

{\displaystyle \ d\ }

 on a planet with mass

M

{\displaystyle \ M\ }

 and radius

r

{\displaystyle \ r\ }

 (used for large fall distances where

g

{\displaystyle \ g\ }

 can change significantly):

v

i

=

2
G
M

(

1
r

−

1

r
+
d

)

{\displaystyle \ v_{i}={\sqrt {2GM{\Big (}{\frac {1}{r}}-{\frac {1}{r+d}}{\Big )}}}\ }

text: Examples[edit]

text: The first equation shows that, after one second, an object will have fallen a distance of 1/2 × 9.8 × 12 = 4.9 meters. After two seconds it will have fallen 1/2 × 9.8 × 22 = 19.6 meters; and so on. The second to last equation becomes grossly inaccurate at great distances. If an object fell 10,000 meters to Earth, then the results of both equations differ by only 0.08%; however, if it fell from geosynchronous orbit, which is 42,164 km, then the difference changes to almost 64%.

text: Based on wind resistance, for example, the terminal velocity of a skydiver in a belly-to-earth (i.e., face down) free-fall position is about 195 km/h (122 mph or 54 m/s). This velocity is the asymptotic limiting value of the acceleration process, because the effective forces on the body balance each other more and more closely as the terminal velocity is approached. In this example, a speed of 50% of terminal velocity is reached after only about 3 seconds, while it takes 8 seconds to reach 90%, 15 seconds to reach 99% and so on.

text: Higher speeds can be attained if the skydiver pulls in his or her limbs (see also freeflying). In this case, the terminal velocity increases to about 320 km/h (200 mph or 90 m/s), which is almost the terminal velocity of the peregrine falcon diving down on its prey. The same terminal velocity is reached for a typical .30-06 bullet dropping downwards—when it is returning to earth having been fired upwards, or dropped from a tower—according to a 1920 U.S. Army Ordnance study.

text: Competition speed skydivers fly in the head down position and reach even higher speeds. The current world record is 1,357.6 km/h (843.6 mph/Mach 1.25) by Felix Baumgartner who skydived from 38,969.4 m (127,852.4 ft) above earth on 14 October 2012. The record was set due to the high altitude where the lesser density of the atmosphere decreased drag.

text: For astronomical bodies other than Earth, and for short distances of fall at other than "ground" level, g in the above equations may be replaced by G(M+m)/r2 where G is the gravitational constant, M is the mass of the astronomical body, m is the mass of the falling body, and r is the radius from the falling object to the center of the body.

text: Removing the simplifying assumption of uniform gravitational acceleration provides more accurate results. We find from the formula for radial elliptic trajectories:

text: The time t taken for an object to fall from a height r to a height x, measured from the centers of the two bodies, is given by:

text:
where

μ
=
G
(

m

1

+

m

2

)

{\displaystyle \mu =G(m_{1}+m_{2})}

 is the sum of the standard gravitational parameters of the two bodies. This equation should be used whenever there is a significant difference in the gravitational acceleration during the fall.

text: Acceleration relative to the rotating Earth[edit]

text: Centripetal force causes the acceleration measured on the rotating surface of the Earth to differ from the acceleration that is measured for a free-falling body: the apparent acceleration in the rotating frame of reference is the total gravity vector minus a small vector toward the north-south axis of the Earth, corresponding to staying stationary in that frame of reference.


document_title: Ivory-billed woodpecker

question_text: the probable extinction of the ivory-billed woodpecker was mainly driven by

question_tokens: the probable extinction of the ivory-billed woodpecker was mainly driven by

text: Ivory-billed woodpecker

text: Taxonomy[edit]

text: Ivory-billed woodpecker is the common name of several species of woodpecker distinguished by having a bill that resembles ivory:

text:
Campephilus is a genus of woodpecker sometimes called the ivory-billed woodpecker, although the term is more commonly used to describe the American and Cuban ivory-billed woodpeckers.
Cuban ivory-billed woodpecker (Campephilus principalis bairdii or Campephilus bairdii), is now believed to be extinct.
American ivory-billed woodpecker (Campephilus principalis principalis or Campephilus principalis), is described here.

tag: ul

text: The ivory-billed woodpecker is the type species for the genus Campephilus, a group of large American woodpeckers. Although they look very similar to the pileated woodpeckers, they are not close relatives as the pileated is a member of the genus Dryocopus.

text: Ornithologists have traditionally recognized two subspecies of this bird: the American ivory-billed, the more famous of the two, and the Cuban ivory-billed woodpecker. The two look similar despite differences in size and plumage. Some controversy exists over whether the Cuban ivory-billed woodpecker is more appropriately recognized as a separate species. A recent study compared DNA samples taken from specimens of both ivory-billed birds along with the imperial woodpecker, a larger but otherwise very similar bird. It concluded not only that the Cuban and American ivory-billed woodpeckers are genetically distinct, but also that they and the imperial form a North American clade within Campephilus that appeared in the mid-Pleistocene.[7] The study does not attempt to define a lineage linking the three birds, though it does imply that the Cuban bird is more closely related to the imperial.[7]

text: The American Ornithologists' Union Committee on Classification and Nomenclature has said it is not yet ready to list the American and Cuban as separate species. Lovette, a member of the committee, said that more testing is needed to support that change, but concluded, "These results will likely initiate an interesting debate on how we should classify these birds."[8] Before this study, the Cuban ivory-billed was thought to be descended from mainland woodpeckers, either introduced to Cuba by Native Americans or accidentals that flew to the island themselves.[9]

text: While recent evidence suggesting that American ivory-billed woodpeckers still exist in the wild has caused excitement in the ornithology community, no similar evidence exists for the Cuban ivory-billed bird, believed to be extinct since the last sighting in the late 1980s.

text: Description[edit]

text: The ivory-billed woodpecker ranks among the largest woodpeckers in the world and is the largest in the United States. The closely related and likewise possibly extinct imperial woodpecker (C. imperialis) of western Mexico is, or was, the largest woodpecker. The ivory-billed has a total length of 48 to 53 cm (19 to 21 in), and based on very scant information, weighs about 450 to 570 g (0.99 to 1.26 lb). It has a typical 76 cm (30 in) wingspan. Standard measurements attained included a wing chord length of 23.5–26.5 cm (9.3–10.4 in), a tail length of 14–17 cm (5.5–6.7 in), a bill length of 5.8–7.3 cm (2.3–2.9 in), and a tarsus length of 4–4.6 cm (1.6–1.8 in).[10]

text: The bird is shiny blue-black with white markings on its neck and back and extensive white on the trailing edge of both the upper- and underwing. The underwing is also white along its forward edge, resulting in a black line running along the middle of the underwing, expanding to more extensive black at the wingtip. In adults, the bill is ivory in color, and chalky white in juveniles. Ivory-bills have a prominent crest, although in juveniles it is ragged. The crest is black in juveniles and females. In males, the crest is black along its forward edge, changing abruptly to red on the side and rear. The chin of an ivory-billed woodpecker is black. When perched with the wings folded, birds of both sexes present a large patch of white on the lower back, roughly triangular in shape. These characteristics distinguish them from the smaller and darker-billed pileated woodpecker. The pileated woodpecker normally is brownish-black, smoky, or slaty black in color. It also has a white neck stripe, but the back is normally black. Pileated woodpecker juveniles and adults have a red crest and a white chin. Pileated woodpeckers normally have no white on the trailing edges of their wings and when perched, normally show only a small patch of white on each side of the body near the edge of the wing. However, pileated woodpeckers, apparently aberrant individuals, have been reported with white trailing edges on the wings, forming a white triangular patch on the lower back when perched. Like all woodpeckers, the ivory-billed woodpecker has a strong and straight bill and a long, mobile, hard-tipped, barbed tongue. Among North American woodpeckers, the ivory-billed woodpecker is unique in having a bill whose tip is quite flattened laterally, shaped much like a beveled wood chisel.

text: The bird's drum is a single or double rap. Four fairly distinct calls are reported in the literature and two were recorded in the 1930s. The most common, a kent or hant, sounds like a toy trumpet often repeated in series. When the bird is disturbed, the pitch of the kent note rises, it is repeated more frequently, and is often doubled. A conversational call, also recorded, is given between individuals at the nest, and has been described as kent-kent-kent. A recording of the bird, made by Arthur A. Allen, can be found here.

text: The ivory-billed woodpecker is sometimes referred to as the grail bird, Lord God bird, or Good God bird, all based on the exclamations of awed onlookers.[11] Other nicknames for the bird are King of the Woodpeckers and Elvis in Feathers.[12]

text: Habitat and diet[edit]

text: Ivory-billed woodpeckers are known to prefer thick hardwood swamps and pine forests, with large amounts of dead and decaying trees. Prior to the American Civil War, much of the Southern United States was covered in vast tracts of primeval hardwood forests that were suitable as habitat for the bird. At that time, the ivory-billed woodpecker ranged from east Texas to North Carolina, and from southern Illinois to Florida and Cuba.[13] After the Civil War, the timber industry deforested millions of acres in the South, leaving only sparse isolated tracts of suitable habitat.

text: The ivory-billed woodpecker feeds mainly on the larvae of wood-boring beetles, but also eats seeds, fruit, and other insects. The bird uses its enormous white bill to hammer, wedge, and peel the bark off dead trees to find the insects. These birds need about 25 km2 (9.7 sq mi) per pair to find enough food to feed their young and themselves. Hence, they occur at low densities even in healthy populations. The more common pileated woodpecker may compete for food with this species.

text: Breeding biology[edit]

text: The ivory-billed woodpecker is thought to pair for life. Pairs are also known to travel together. These paired birds mate every year between January and May. Both parents work together to excavate a nest in a dead or partially dead tree about 8–15 metres (26–49 ft) from the ground before they have their young. Nest openings are typically oval to rectangular in shape, and measure about 12–14 cm tall by 10 cm wide (4.7 in–5.5 in × 3.9 in)

text: Usually two to five eggs are laid and incubated for 3 to 5 weeks. Parents incubate the eggs co-operatively, with the male incubating from about 4:30 pm to 6:30 am, while the female foraged, and vice versa from 6:30 am to 4:30 pm. They feed the chicks for months. Young learn to fly about 7 to 8 weeks after hatching. The parents continue feeding them for another two months. The family eventually splits up in late fall or early winter.[14]

text: Ornithologists speculate that they may live as long as 30 years.[15]

text: Status[edit]

text: Heavy logging activity exacerbated by hunting by collectors devastated the population of ivory-billed woodpeckers in the late 19th century. It was generally considered extinct in the 1920s when a pair turned up in Florida, only to be shot for specimens.[16]

text: In 1932, a Louisiana state representative, Mason Spencer of Tallulah, disproved premature reports of the demise of the species when, armed with a gun and a hunting permit, he killed an ivory-billed woodpecker along the Tensas River and took the specimen to his state wildlife office in Baton Rouge.[17]

text: By 1938, an estimated 20 woodpeckers remained in the wild, some six to eight of which were in the old-growth forest called the Singer Tract, owned by the Singer Sewing Company in Madison Parish in northeastern Louisiana, where logging rights were held by the Chicago Mill and Lumber Company. The company brushed aside pleas from four Southern governors and the National Audubon Society that the tract be publicly purchased and set aside as a reserve. By 1944, the last known ivory-billed woodpecker, a female, was gone from the cut-over tract.[18]

text: Reported sightings: 1940s to 1990s[edit]

text: The first audio and only motion picture recording made of the ivory-billed woodpecker was created as part of a 1935 study by a group of Cornell scientists in the Singer Tract in Madison Parish, Louisiana.[19] The ivory-billed woodpecker was listed as an endangered species on 11 March 1967, though the only evidence of its existence at the time was a possible recording of its call made in East Texas. The last reported sighting of the Cuban subspecies (C. p. bairdii), after a long interval, was in 1987; it has not been seen since. The Cuban exile journalist and author John O'Donnell-Rosales, who was born in the area of Cuba with the last confirmed sightings, reported sightings near the Alabama coastal delta in 1994, but these were never properly[clarification needed] investigated by state wildlife officials.

text: Two photos were given to Louisiana State University museum director George Lowery in 1971 by a source who wished to remain anonymous, but came forward in 2005 as outdoorsman Fielding Lewis.[20]

text: The photos, taken with a cheap Instamatic camera, show what appears to be a male ivory-billed woodpecker perched on the trunks of two trees in the Atchafalaya Basin of Louisiana. The bird's distinctive bill is not visible in either photo and the photos – taken from a distance – are very grainy. Lowery presented the photos at the 1971 annual meeting of the American Ornithologists Union. Skeptics dismissed the photos as frauds; seeing that the bird is in roughly the same position in both photos, they suggested they may have been of a mounted specimen.

text: Numerous unconfirmed reports of the bird remain,[21] but many ornithologists believe the species had been wiped out completely, and it was assessed as "extinct" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources in 1994. This assessment was later altered to "critically endangered" on the grounds that the species could still be extant.[1]

text: 2002 Pearl River expedition[edit]

text: In 1999, an unconfirmed sighting of a pair of birds was made in the Pearl River region of southeast Louisiana by a forestry student, David Kulivan, which some experts considered very compelling. In a 2002 expedition in the forests, swamps, and bayous of the Pearl River Wildlife Management Area by LSU, biologists spent 30 days searching for the bird.[22]

text: On the afternoon of 27 January 2002, after 10 days, a rapping sound similar to the "double knock" made by the ivory-billed woodpecker was heard and recorded. The exact source of the sound was not found because of the swampy terrain, but signs of active woodpeckers were found (i.e., scaled bark and large tree cavities). The expedition was inconclusive, however, as the recorded sounds were likely gunshot echoes rather than the distinctive double rap of the ivory-billed woodpecker.[23]

text: 2004/2005 Arkansas reports[edit]

text: A group of 17 authors headed by the Cornell Lab of Ornithology (CLO) reported the discovery of at least one ivory-billed woodpecker, a male, in the Big Woods area of Arkansas in 2004 and 2005, publishing the report in the journal Science on 28 April 2005.[3]

text: One of the authors, who was kayaking in the Cache River National Wildlife Refuge, Monroe County, Arkansas, on 11 February 2004, reported on a website the sighting of an unusually large red-crested woodpecker. This report led to more intensive searches in the area and in the White River National Wildlife Refuge, undertaken in secrecy for fear of a stampede of bird-watchers, by experienced observers over the next 14 months. About 15 sightings occurred during the period (seven of which were considered compelling enough to mention in the scientific article), possibly all of the same bird. One of these more reliable sightings was on 27 February 2004. Bobby Harrison of Huntsville, Alabama, and Tim Gallagher of Ithaca, New York, both reported seeing an ivory-billed woodpecker at the same time. The secrecy of the search permitted The Nature Conservancy and Cornell University to quietly buy up ivory-billed woodpecker habitat to add to the 120,000 acres (490 km2) of the Big Woods protected by the conservancy.

text: A large woodpecker was videotaped on 25 April 2004; its size, wing pattern at rest and in flight, and white plumage on its back between the wings were cited as evidence that the woodpecker sighted was an ivory-billed woodpecker. That same video included an earlier image of what was suggested to be such a bird perching on a water tupelo (Nyssa aquatica).

text: The report also notes that drumming consistent with that of ivory-billed woodpecker had been heard in the region. It describes the potential for a thinly distributed population in the area, though no birds have been located away from the primary site.

text: In the fall of 2006, researchers developed and installed an "autonomous observatory" using robotic video cameras with image processing software that detects and records high-resolution video of birds in flight inside a high-probability zone in the Cache River area. As of August 2007, hundreds of birds have been recorded, including pileated woodpeckers, but not the ivory-billed woodpecker.

text: Debate[edit]

text: In June 2005, ornithologists at Yale University, the University of Kansas, and Florida Gulf Coast University prepared a scientific paper skeptical of the initial reports of rediscovery.

text: We were very skeptical of the first published reports, and ... data were not sufficient to support this startling conclusion.[citation needed]

text: The paper was not published. Questions about the evidence for ivory-billed woodpecker persisted. The CLO authors could not say with absolute certainty that the sounds recorded in Arkansas were made by ivory-billed woodpeckers.[24] Some skeptics, including Richard Prum, believe the video could have been of a pileated woodpecker.[25]

text: An article by Dina Cappiello in the Houston Chronicle published 18 December 2005 presented Richard Prum's position as follows:

text: Prum, intrigued by some of the recordings taken in Arkansas' Big Woods, said the evidence thus far is refutable.

text: The American Birding Association largely stayed out of the debate. On page 13 of Winging It (November/December 2005), a brief reference was made:

text: The American Birding Association Checklist Committee has not changed the status of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker from Code 6 (Extinct) to another level that would reflect a small surviving population. The Committee is waiting for unequivocal proof that the species still exists.

text: In a Perspectives in Ornithology commentary published in The Auk in January 2006,[26] ornithologist Jerome Jackson detailed his skepticism of the ivory-billed woodpecker evidence:

text: Prum, Robbins, Brett Benz, and I remain steadfast in our belief that the bird in the Luneau video is a normal pileated woodpecker. Others have independently come to the same conclusion, and publication of independent analyses may be forthcoming [...] For scientists to label sight reports and questionable photographs as 'proof' of such an extraordinary record is delving into 'faith-based' ornithology and doing a disservice to science."

text: Fitzpatrick and co-authors responded with a lengthy piece[27] in the same scientific journal, protesting Jackson's harsh language, dismissive tone, "factual errors", and "poorly substantiated opinions" about the original paper. One of the most rancorous debates in the history of ornithology had begun in earnest. The two sides each published additional responses that seemed, to many ornithological observers, to have departed markedly from accepted scientific decorum. Jackson accused the Fitzpatrick team of "untruths", and Fitzpatrick accused Jackson of obviating the normal peer-review system with an opinion piece "treated as a scientific contribution by the public media."

text: In March 2006, a team headed by David A. Sibley of Concord, Massachusetts, published a response[28] in the journal Science, asserting that the videotape was most likely of a pileated woodpecker, with mistakes having been made in the interpretation of its posture. They conclude that it lacked certain features of an ivory-billed woodpecker, and had others consistent with the pileated woodpecker; they asserted positively that the blurry video images belonged to pileated woodpecker. The CLO team responded in the same issue of Science, standing by their original findings,[29] stating:

text: Claims that the bird in the Luneau video is a normal pileated woodpecker are based on misrepresentations of a pileated's underwing pattern, interpretation of video artifacts as plumage pattern, and inaccurate models of takeoff and flight behavior. These claims are contradicted by experimental data and fail to explain evidence in the Luneau video of white dorsal plumage, distinctive flight behavior, and a perched woodpecker with white upper parts."[29]

text: Other workers made claims disputing the validity of the Luneau video, including a website discussing the evidence by Colby College biologist Louis Bevier, who stated:[30]

text: In sum, no evidence confirms the alleged rediscovery of the ivory-billed woodpecker. Indeed, confidence in the claim has eroded with failure to verify its existence despite massive searches.

text: A 2007 paper concluded that the Luneau video was consistent with the pileated woodpecker:[31]

text: New video analysis of pileated woodpeckers in escape flights comparable to that of the putative ivory-billed woodpecker filmed in Arkansas shows that pileated woodpeckers can display a wingbeat frequency equivalent to that of the Arkansas bird during escape flight. The critical frames from the Arkansas video that were used to identify the bird as an ivory-billed woodpecker are shown to be equally, or more, compatible with the pileated woodpecker.…The identification of the bird filmed in Arkansas in April 2004 as an ivory-billed woodpecker is best regarded as unsafe. The similarities between the Arkansas bird and known pileated woodpeckers suggest that it was most likely a pileated woodpecker.

text: Doubt was also cast on some of the auditory evidence (ARU recordings of double-raps) for the presence of ivory-billed woodpeckers in Arkansas and Florida. One group of researchers stated:[32]

text: All ARU double raps suggesting the presence of an ivory-billed woodpecker should be reconsidered in light of the phenomenon of duck wingtip collisions, especially those recorded in the winter months, when duck flocks are common across flooded bottomlands of the southeastern United States.

text: Cornell search efforts 2005–09[edit]

text: Cornell-organized searches in Arkansas and elsewhere from 2005 to 2008 did not produce any new photographic evidence of the species. The press release summarizing the 2005–6 search season stated:[33]

text: There were teasing glimpses and tantalizing sounds, but the 2005–2006 search for the ivory-billed woodpecker in Arkansas has concluded without the definitive visual documentation being sought. The search, led by the Cornell Lab of Ornithology, with support from Audubon Arkansas, stretched from November through April when ivory-bill activity would be highest and a lack of leaf-cover permitted clear views through the dense forest.… “The search teams were very skilled, not only technically but in the execution of the search,” said Dr. John Fitzpatrick, director of the Cornell Lab of Ornithology. “Even though we didn’t get additional definitive evidence of the ivory-bill in Arkansas, we’re not discouraged. The vastness of the forest combined with the highly mobile nature of the bird warrant additional searching.”

text: It is interesting to note that, despite his harsh criticism of the 2005 evidence, Jerome A. Jackson agrees with the value of additional searches.[26] In May 2006, it was announced that a large search effort led by the Cornell team had been suspended for the season with only a handful of unconfirmed, fleeting sightings to report. At that point, conservation officers allowed the public back into areas of the Cache River National Wildlife Refuge that had been restricted upon the initial reported sightings.[34] The 2006–07 search season had similar results to those of the previous year: [35]

text: The Lab and its partners concluded the 2006–07 field season in Arkansas at the end of April with no additional definitive evidence of ivory-bills to complement the data gathered in 2004 and 2005. But [Ronald] Rohrbaugh and others are convinced the research should continue, not only in Arkansas, but in other states that are part of the bird’s historic range. “We’ll return to Arkansas for at least another field season,” says Rohrbaugh. “Searches there and searches conducted by other agencies throughout the Southeast are still turning up reports of sounds that cannot be explained away. However, there’s no way to know for sure yet if reported double knocks and kent-like sounds were made by an ivory-bill or something else.”

text: Likewise, the 2007–08 search season did not deliver conclusive evidence of the bird:[36]

text: The search teams covered lots of ground and tried new survey techniques…. Searchers documented more possible sightings and possible ivory-bill double knocks heard, but the definitive photograph, like the bird itself, remained elusive.

text: Cornell University did not field a search team in Arkansas during 2008–2009, but focused on mangrove habitats in southwest Florida, with a later visit planned for South Carolina. According to a Cornell University press release from January 2009, the 2008–09 season will be the last Cornell-sponsored search, absent confirmation of the bird:[37]

text: There will be a distinctly different flavor to this season’s search for the ivory-billed woodpecker. Seven members of the Cornell Lab of Ornithology’s mobile search team will plunge into some of the most forbidding wilderness in southwestern Florida. …The work begins in Florida in early January and continues through mid-March. …In mid-March the Cornell Lab of Ornithology team will join the South Carolina search along the Congaree, PeeDee, and Santee Rivers.

text: “The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service-funded ivory-billed woodpecker searches will continue through the 2008–09 search season,” says Laurie Fenwood, Ivory-billed Woodpecker Recovery Team Coordinator for the U.S, Fish and Wildlife Service.…If no birds are confirmed, the Cornell Lab of Ornithology will not send an organized team into the field next year. “We remain committed to our original goal of striving to locate breeding pairs,” says Cornell Lab of Ornithology director John Fitzpatrick. “We will continue to accept and investigate credible reports of ivory-billed woodpeckers, and to promote protection and restoration of the old-growth conditions upon which this magnificent species depended across the entire southeastern United States.”

text: The 2008–09 search effort in southwest Florida found no evidence of the bird:[38]

text: We have found no signs of ivory-billed woodpeckers. No sightings, double knocks or calls, no replies to our many double-knock imitations. We have seen a few cavities of the appropriate size and shape for ivory-bills, but these can be old, or exceptionally large pileated woodpecker cavities, or mammal-enlarged pileated woodpecker cavities.… Given the results, it is unlikely a population of any meaningful size of ivory-billed woodpeckers exists in south Florida.

text: In October 2009, Cornell scientists announced that their search for the ivory-billed woodpecker in North America was being suspended.[39] As of February 2010, the Cornell researchers concluded there was no hope of saving the bird, if it still exists:[40]

text: But after five years of fruitless searching, hopes of saving the species have faded. "We don't believe a recoverable population of ivory-billed woodpeckers exists," says Ron Rohrbaugh, a conservation biologist at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, who headed the original search team.

text: 2005/2006 Florida reports[edit]

text: In September 2006, new claims that the ivory-billed woodpecker may not be extinct were released by a research group consisting of members from Auburn University in Alabama and the University of Windsor in Ontario. Dr. Geoffrey E. Hill of Auburn University and Dr. Daniel Mennill of the University of Windsor have revealed a collection of evidence that the birds may still exist in the cypress swamps of the Florida panhandle. Their evidence includes 14 sightings of the birds and 300 recordings of sounds that can be attributed to the ivory-billed woodpecker, but also includes tell-tale foraging signs and appropriately sized tree nest cavities. This evidence remains inconclusive as it excludes the photographic or DNA evidence that many experts cite as necessary before the presence of the species can be confirmed. While Dr. Hill and Dr. Mennill are themselves convinced of the bird's existence in Florida, they are quick to acknowledge that they have not yet conclusively proven the species' existence. The research team is currently undertaking a more complete survey of the Choctawhatchee River, in hopes of obtaining photographic evidence of the bird's existence.[41] In March 2007 the Florida Ornithological Society Records Committee voted unanimously not to accept the 2005–06 reports of the ivory-billed woodpecker on the Choctawhatchee River:[42]

text: RC 06-610. Ivory-billed Woodpecker, Campephilus principalis. 21 May 2005 – 26 April 2006. Choctawhatchee River, Washington/Bay/Walton cos. A population of unknown size has been reported by a team from Auburn University from the lower Choctawhatchee River. There have been a few sightings but no photographs, some interesting recordings of “kent” calls and of double rap drums, and photographs taken of cavities and bark scaling. These observations were made on the heels of the much-publicized “rediscovery” of the species in Arkansas (Fitzpatrick et al. 2005). The species had not been documented to occur since 1944. The video documentation of the bird(s) from Arkansas, however, has been debated by many, although the record was accepted by the Arkansas Bird Records Committee. Our Committee felt that given the controversy of the Arkansas evidence, the species is best considered still extinct. Therefore only evidence that undoubtedly showed a living bird would be considered sufficient to accept a report.

text: The last specimen taken in Florida was in 1925; there have been numerous sight reports of varying credibility since, and one record of a feather found in a nest cavity in 1968 that was identified as an ivory-billed woodpecker inner secondary by Alexander Wetmore.

text: VOTE: NOT ACCEPT (0–7)

text: The Auburn/University of Windsor team continued search efforts, but planned to cease updates on their website in August 2009:[43]

text: (12 June 2008) We completed our 2008 effort to get definitive evidence for ivorybills in the Choctawhatchee River Basin in early May…. Team members had no sightings of ivorybills and only two sound detections in 2008.… So where does all this leave us? Pretty much in the same position as in June 2006. We have a large body of evidence that Ivory-billed Woodpeckers persist along the Choctawhatchee River in the Florida panhandle, but we do not have definitive proof that they exist. Either the excitement of the ivorybill hunt causes competent birders to see and hear things that do not exist and leads competent sound analysts to misidentify hundreds of recorded sounds, or the few ivorybills in the Choctawhatchee River Basin are among the most elusive birds on the planet.

text: (9 February 2009) There has been little to report, and my students and I [Geoff Hill] have been enjoying the calm. We continue to work to get definitive documentation of the ivory-billed woodpecker in the Choctawhatchee River Basin.… To my knowledge, there have been no sightings of ivory-billed woodpeckers in the Choctawhatchee region since last spring. There were a few double knock detections in January, but not by my paid crew, Brian [Rolek], or me.

text: (2 August 2009) I haven’t posted many updates on this site in the past 9 months because there hasn’t not  [sic] been much to report.… Since the winter of 2008, we have had few sightings or sound detections by anyone—none by Brian or me—and none that I would rate very highly.… In short, our experience over the past year indicates that ivorybills have moved out of the areas where we encountered them from 2005 to 2008.… There is no way to know whether the birds are in different areas in the Choctawhatchee Basin, different forests in the region, or dead.…I won’t post any more updates on this site.

text: Louisiana 2006/2008[edit]

text: Dr. Michael Collins reported nine sightings of Ivory-billed Woodpeckers in the Pearl River in Louisiana in 2006 and 2008, including an encounter in which kent calls came from two directions at the same time, and an additional sighting (of two birds) in the Choctawhatchee River in 2007.[6] Three of these sightings are supported by video evidence. Additional analysis of these videos was published in an earlier paper, along with comments by independent experts.[44] Bret Tobalske, an ornithologist who specializes in the flight mechanics of woodpeckers, performed an analysis of wing motion and concluded that the bird in the 2008 video is a large woodpecker. Only two large woodpeckers occur north of Mexico, but the flap rate is about ten standard deviations greater than the mean flap rate of the pileated woodpecker. The flight speed, narrow wings, and prominent white patches on the dorsal surfaces of the wings are also consistent with ivory-billed but not pileated woodpecker. Avian artist Julie Zickefoose analyzed the 2006 video and commented on the "rared-back pose, long but fluffy and squared-off crest, and extremely long, erect head and neck" and an unusual short flight that does not seem to be consistent with a pileated woodpecker. A size comparison was carried out using part of the tree in which the bird in the 2006 video was perched.[6] Two forks made it possible to scale frames from the video relative to a photo of a pileated woodpecker specimen that was mounted on the tree. On the basis of the comparison, it is clear that the bird in the video is a large woodpecker, and the size appears to be consistent with an ivory-billed woodpecker. The 2007 video shows events involving a woodpecker delivering a blow that is accompanied by an audible double knock, unusual swooping flights that are consistent with historical accounts of the ivory-billed woodpecker, and a takeoff with deep and rapid flaps that are similar to the flaps of the closely related imperial woodpecker (Campephilus imperialis) taking off.

text: Publicity and tourism[edit]

text: In economically struggling east Arkansas, the speculation of a possible return of the Ivory-bill has served as a great source of economic exploitation, with tourist spending up 30%, primarily in and around the city of Brinkley, Arkansas. A woodpecker "festival", a woodpecker hairstyle (a sort of mohawk with red, white, and black dye), and an "Ivory-bill Burger" (made with 100% beef) have been featured locally. The lack of confirmed proof of the bird's existence, and the extremely small chance of actually seeing the bird even if it does exist (especially since the exact locations of the reported sightings are still guarded), have prevented the explosion in tourism some locals had anticipated.

text: Ivorybills have also been featured in "Skink, No Surrender" by Carl Hiaasen as a clue to where the protagonist's cousin can be found, for Ivorybills could only be found in one place in the world. Since the cousin was kidnapped and could not tell the people who were trying to find her where she was, she gave an implicit hint that she saw an Ivorybill, telling her finders where she was.

text: Brinkley hosted "The Call of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker Celebration" in February 2006. The celebration included exhibits, birding tours, educational presentations, a vendor market, and more.

text: Interviews with residents of Brinkley, Arkansas, heard on National Public Radio following the reported rediscovery were shared with musician Sufjan Stevens, who used the material to write a song titled "The Lord God Bird".[45][46]

text: Arkansas has made license plates featuring a graphic of an Ivory-billed Woodpecker.


document_title: Timeline of Amazon.com

question_text: when did amazon start selling things other than books

text: Timeline of Amazon.com

text: Overview[edit]

text:
Time period
Key developments at Amazon

1994–1998
Amazon starts off as an online bookstore selling books, primarily competing with local booksellers and Barnes & Noble. It IPOs in 1997.

1998–2004
Amazon starts to expand its services beyond books. It also starts offering convenience services, such as Free Super Savers Shipping.

2005–2011
Amazon moves into the cloud computing area with Amazon AWS, as well as the crowdsourcing area with Amazon Mechanical Turk. By being an early player, it eventually dominates the cloud computing scene, allowing it to control much of the physical infrastructure of the Internet.[1] Amazon also offers the Amazon Kindle for people to purchase their books as eBooks, and by 2010, more people buy ebooks than physical books off of Amazon.

2011–2015
Amazon starts offering streaming services like Amazon Music and Amazon Video. By 2015, its market capitalization surpasses that of Walmart.

text: Full timeline[edit]

text:
Year
Month and date
Event type
Details

1994
July 5
Company
Amazon founded.[2]

1997
May 15
Company
Amazon IPOs at $18.00/share, raising $54 million.[2]

1998
April 27
Acquisitions
Amazon acquires the Internet Movie Database, a comprehensive repository for movie information on the Internet.[3]

1998
August 5
Company Direction
Amazon announces that it will move beyond books.[4]

1998
December
Competition
Jack Ma launches Alibaba in China, which would later grow to dominate the Chinese online retail market, and provide an obstacle to Amazon's attempts to expand in China.[5][6]

2002
January
Product
Amazon launches Free Super Saver Shipping, which allows customers to get free shipping for orders above $99.[2]

2002
March
Legal, Competition
Amazon settles its October 1999 patent infringement suit against Barnes & Noble (over its 1-Click checkout system, which it received a patent for in September 1999). It originally charged that Barnes&Noble.com had essentially copied Amazon's 1-Click technology.[7]

2003
October
Product
Amazon launches A9.com, a subsidiary of Amazon.com based in Palo Alto, California that develops search and advertising technology.[8]

2004
August 19
International
Amazon acquires Joyo, an online bookstore in China, for $75 million, which then becomes the 7th regional website of Amazon.com. joyo later becomes Amazon China.[9]

2005
February
Product
Amazon launches Amazon Prime, a membership offering free two-day shipping within the contiguous United States on all eligible purchases for a flat annual fee of $79.[2]

2005
November
Product
Amazon launches Amazon Mechanical Turk, an application programming interface (API) allowing any Internet user to perform "human-intelligence" tasks such as transcribing podcasts, often at very low wages.[2]

2006
August 25
Product
Amazon launches Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (Amazon EC2), a virtual site farm allowing users to use the Amazon infrastructure to run applications ranging from running simulations to web hosting.[10]

2006
September 19
Product
Amazon launches Fulfillment by Amazon, giving small businesses to use Amazon.com's own order fulfillment and customer service infrastructure - and customers of Amazon.com shipping offers when buying from 3rd-party sellers.[11]

2006

Legal
Amazon agrees to settle a legal dispute with Toys R Us (over a partnership that gave Toys R Us exclusive rights to supply some toy products on Amazon's website) and pays $51 million.[12]

2006
March
Product
Amazon launches Amazon Simple Storage Service (Amazon S3), which allows other websites/developers to store computer files on Amazon's servers.[2]

2007
August
Product
CreateSpace announces launch of Books on Demand service, which makes it easy for authors who want to self-publish their books to distribute them on Amazon.com.[13]

2007
August
Product
Amazon launches AmazonFresh, a grocery service offering perishable and nonperishable foods.[14]

2007
September 25
Products
Amazon launches Amazon Music, an online music store and music locker.[15]

2007
November 19
Products
Amazon launches the Amazon Kindle.[2]

2009
July 22
Acquisitions, Competition
Amazon acquires Zappos for $850 million.[16]

2009
October 20
Competition
Barnes & Noble announces the Nook, an eReader.[17]

2010
January
Competition
Apple introduces its own virtual bookstore, called iBooks, and then partners with five major book publishers.[18] It later convinces them to raise the price of ebooks (using the agency pricing model that gives publishers full control over ebook prices).

2010
February 1
Competition
Microsoft launches Microsoft Azure, a cloud computing platform that will compete with Amazon AWS over cloud services.

2010
July
Product
Amazon announced that e-book sales for its Kindle reader outnumbered sales of hardcover books for the first time ever.[19]

2011
January
Acquisitions, International
Amazon acquires Lovefilm, a DVD rental service known as the Netflix of Europe.[20]

2011
February 16
Competition
Borders Group, outcompeted by Amazon, applies for Chapter 11 bankruptcy.[21]

2011
February 22
Product
Amazon rebrands its Amazon Video service as Amazon Instant Video and adds access to 5,000 movies and TV shows for Amazon Prime members.[22][23]

2011
March 22
Product
Amazon launches the Amazon Appstore for Android devices and the service was made available in over 200 countries.[24]

2011
July 1
Legal
California starts collecting sales taxes on Amazon.com purchases.[25]

2011
September
Product
Amazon launches Amazon Locker, a delivery locker system that allows users to get items delivered at specially-designed lockers.[26]

2011
September 28
Product
Amazon announces the Kindle Fire, a tablet computer that takes aim at Apple's iPad with a smaller device that sells at $199, compared with the $499 value of Apple's cheapest iPad.[27]

2012
April
Legal
The Department of Justice files suit against Apple Inc and five major publishing houses (the "Big Five"), alleging that they colluded in 2010 to raise the price of ebooks (using the agency pricing model that gives publishers full control over ebook prices).[28] Amazon had originally set the price of ebooks at $9.99 (using the wholescale pricing model giving Amazon full control over ebook prices).

2012
March 19
Acquisitions
Amazon acquires Kiva Systems for $775 million, a robotics company that creates robots that can move items around warehouses.[29]

2012
April
Legal
Amazon agrees to allow collection of sales taxes in both Nevada and Texas (starting on July 1), and agrees to create 2,500 jobs and invest $200 million in new distribution centers in Texas.[30]

2012
September 6
Products
Amazon announces the Kindle Fire HD series of touchscreen tablet computers.[31]

2013
March
Acquisitions
Amazon acquires social reading and book-review site GoodReads.[32]

2013
June
International
Amazon launches in India.[33][34]

2014
July 25
Products
Amazon launches the Amazon Fire.[35]

2014
August 25
Acquisitions
Amazon announced its intent to acquire the video game streaming website Twitch for $970 million.[36]

2014
October
Legal
Amazon reaches agreement with Simon & Schuster, allowing the publisher to adopt the agency pricing model and set prices on its books sold on Amazon.[37]

2014
November 6 (announcement), actual rollout occurs through 2015
Products
Amazon unveils Amazon Echo, a wireless speaker and voice command device that can take commands and queries, and be used to add items to the Amazon.com shopping cart, among other things.[38][39] The Alexa Voice Service that is built into Amazon Echo can also be added to other Amazon devices.[40]

2014
November
Legal
Amazon resolves dispute with Hachette, allowing Hachette to adopt the agency-pricing model and set prices on Hachette books sold on Amazon.[41]

2015
July
Competition, International
Alibaba announces that it will invest $1 billion into its Aliyun cloud computing arm, some of which would go into new Aliyun international data centers. This would allow Aliyun to compete with Amazon Web Services outside of China.[42]

2015
August 26
Products
Amazon launches Amazon Underground, an Android app through which users can get gaming and other apps for free that they would otherwise have to pay for, and also get in-app purchases for free. App creator participation is voluntary. App creators are paid $0.002 for every minute a user spends in the app.[43][44][45]

2015
September 8
Products
Amazon launches its Amazon Restaurants service that delivers food from nearby restaurants, for Amazon Prime customers in Seattle.[46][47] The service would subsequently be roled out to many other cities.

2015
November 2
Products
Amazon opened its first physical retail store, a bookstore in the University Village shopping center in Seattle. The store, known as Amazon Books, has prices matched to those found on the Amazon website and integrate online reviews into the store's shelves.[48]

2015
December 14
Company
Amazon begins moving into their new headquarters campus in the Denny Triangle neighborhood of Seattle, beginning with the 38-story Amazon Tower I (nicknamed "Doppler" after the codename for Amazon Echo).[49] The three towers are scheduled to be completed by 2020.

2016
December 7
Delivery
Amazon Prime Air (Amazon's drone-based delivery system) makes its first delivery in Cambridge in the United Kingdom. The successful delivery is announced a week later, on December 14, along with video.[50][51]

2017
June 15
Acquisitions
Amazon acquires Whole Foods for $13.7 billion, a high end grocery store located throughout the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada.[52]

2017
September 7
Company
Amazon began search for Amazon HQ2, a second company headquarters to house up to 50,000 employees.[53][54]


document_title: Carl Marino

question_text: who is the actor who plays the young lieutenant joe kenda

text: Carl Marino

text: Carl Marino is an American actor and former deputy sheriff.[1][2][3][4] Since 2011 he has portrayed Lieutenant Joe Kenda on the Investigation Discovery series Homicide Hunter.[5]

text: Marino grew up in Hornell, New York, graduated from Hornell High School[6] and later attended the United States Military Academy at West Point and studied Criminal Justice at the Rochester Institute of Technology. He then worked for 17 years as  a Deputy Sheriff in upstate New York, much of the time in Monroe County, New York. He resides in San Francisco, California but spends months in Knoxville, Tennessee where the series is filmed. Prior roles included the movie Sedona’s Rule and Trauma (U.S. TV series).[7]