document_title: Northern Isles

question_text: what other kingdom claimed ownership of the northern islands of scotland

text: Northern Isles

text: Geography[edit]

text: The phrase "Northern Isles" generally refers to the main islands of the Orkney and Shetland archipelagos. Stroma, which lies between mainland Scotland and Orkney, is part of Caithness, and so falls under Highland council area for local government purposes, not Orkney. It is, however, clearly one of the "northern isles" of Scotland.[3] Fair Isle and Foula are outliers of Shetland, but would normally be considered as part of Shetland and thus the Northern Isles. Similarly, Sule Skerry and Sule Stack, although distant from the main group, are part of Orkney and technically amongst the Northern Isles. However, the other small islands that lie off the north coast of Scotland are in Highland and thus not usually considered to be part of the Northern Isles.[4]

text:
Orkney is situated 16 kilometres (10 mi) north of the coast of mainland Scotland, from which it is separated by the waters of the Pentland Firth.
The largest island, known as the "Mainland" has an area of 523.25 square kilometres (202.03 sq mi), making it the sixth largest Scottish island.[5] The total population in 2001 was 19,245 and the largest town is Kirkwall.[6] Shetland is around 170 kilometres (110 mi) north of mainland Scotland, covers an area of 1,468 square kilometres (567 sq mi) and has a coastline 2,702 kilometres (1,679 mi) long.[7] Lerwick, the capital and largest settlement, has a population of around 7,500 and about half of the archipelago's total population of 22,000 people live within 16 kilometres (10 mi) of the town.[8] Orkney has 20 inhabited islands and Shetland a total of 16.[9][10]

text: Geology[edit]

text: The superficial rock of Orkney is almost entirely Old Red Sandstone, mostly of Middle Devonian age.[11] As in the neighbouring mainland county of Caithness, this sandstone rests upon the metamorphic rocks of the Moine series, as may be seen on the Orkney Mainland, where a narrow strip of the older rock is exposed between Stromness and Inganess, and again on the small island of Graemsay.[12]

text: Middle Devonian basaltic volcanic rocks are found on western Hoy, on Deerness in eastern Mainland and on Shapinsay. Correlation between the Hoy volcanics and the other two exposures has been proposed, but differences in chemistry means this remains uncertain.[13] Lamprophyre dykes of Late Permian age are found throughout Orkney.[14] Glacial striation and the presence of chalk and flint erratics that originated from the bed of the North Sea demonstrate the influence of ice action on the geomorphology of the islands. Boulder clay is also abundant and moraines cover substantial areas.[15]

text: The geology of Shetland is quite different. It is extremely complex, with numerous faults and fold axes. These islands are the northern outpost of the Caledonian orogeny and there are outcrops of Lewisian, Dalriadan and Moine metamorphic rocks with similar histories to their equivalents on the Scottish mainland. There are also small Old Red Sandstone deposits and granite intrusions. The most distinctive feature is the ultrabasic ophiolite, peridotite and gabbro on Unst and Fetlar, which are remnants of the Iapetus Ocean floor.[16] Much of Shetland's economy depends on the oil-bearing sediments in the surrounding seas.[17]

text: Geological evidence shows that at around 6100 BC a tsunami caused by the Storegga Slides hit the Northern Isles, (as well as much of the east coast of Scotland), and may have created a wave of up to 25 metres (82 ft) high in the voes of Shetland where modern populations are highest.[18]

text: Climate[edit]

text: The Northern Isles have a cool, temperate climate that is remarkably mild and steady for such a northerly latitude, due to the influence of the surrounding seas and the Gulf Stream.[19] In Shetland average peak temperatures are 5 °C (41 °F) in February and 15 °C (59 °F) in August and temperatures over 21 °C (70 °F) are rare.[20][21] The frost-free period may be as little as 3 months.[22]

text: The average annual rainfall is 982 millimetres (38.7 in) in Orkney[19] and 1,168 millimetres (46.0 in) in Shetland.[21] Winds are a key feature of the climate and even in summer there are almost constant breezes. In winter, there are frequent strong winds, with an average of 52 hours of gales being recorded annually in Orkney.[23] Burradale wind farm on Shetland, which operates with five Vestas V47 660 kW turbines, achieved a world record of 57.9% capacity over the course of 2005 due to the persistent strong winds.[24]

text: Snowfall is usually confined to the period November to February and seldom lies on the ground for more than a day. Less rain falls from April to August although no month receives less than an average of 50 mm (2.0 in).[19][20][21] Annual bright sunshine averages 1082 hours in Shetland and overcast days are common.[20]

text: To tourists, one of the fascinations of the islands is their "nightless" summers. On the longest day in Shetland there are over 19 hours of daylight and complete darkness is unknown. This long twilight is known in the Northern Isles as the "simmer dim". Winter nights are correspondingly long with less than six hours of daylight at midwinter.[25][26]  At this time of year the aurora borealis can occasionally be seen on the northern horizon during moderate auroral activity.[27]

text: Prehistory[edit]

text: There are numerous important prehistoric remains in Orkney, especially from the Neolithic period, four of which form the Heart of Neolithic Orkney UNESCO World Heritage Site that was inscribed in 1999: Skara Brae; Maes Howe; the Stones of Stenness; and Ring of Brodgar.[28] The Knap of Howar Neolithic farmstead situated on the island of Papa Westray is probably the oldest preserved house in northern Europe.  This structure was inhabited for 900 years from 3700 BC but was evidently built on the site of an even older settlement.[29][30][31] Shetland is also extremely rich in physical remains of the prehistoric eras and there are over 5,000 archaeological sites all told.[32] Funzie Girt is a remarkable Neolithic dividing wall that ran for 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) across the island of Fetlar,[33][34] although the Iron Age has provided the most outstanding archaeology on Shetland. Numerous brochs were erected  at that time of which the Broch of Mousa is the finest preserved example of these round towers.[35]  In 2011 the collective site, "The Crucible of Iron Age Shetland" including Broch of Mousa, Old Scatness and Jarlshof  joined the UK's "Tentative List" of World Heritage Sites.[36][37]

text: History, culture and politics[edit]

text: Pictish times[edit]

text: The culture that built the brochs is unknown, but by the late Iron Age the Northern Isles were  part of the Pictish kingdom.[38] The main archaeological relics from these times are symbol stones. One of the best examples is located on the Brough of Birsay; it shows three warriors with spears and sword scabbards combined with traditional Pictish symbols.[39][40] The St Ninian's Isle Treasure was discovered in 1958. The silver bowls, jewellery and other pieces are believed to date from approximately 800 AD.  O'Dell (1959) stated that "the treasure is the best survival of Scottish silver metalwork from the period" and that "the brooches show a variety of typical Pictish forms, with both animal-head and lobed geometrical forms of terminal".[41][42]

text: Christianity probably arrived in Orkney in the 6th century and organised church authority emerged in the 8th century. The Buckquoy spindle-whorl found at a Pictish site on Birsay is an Ogham–inscribed artefact whose interpretation has caused controversy although it is now generally considered to be of Irish Christian origin.[43][44]

text: Norse era[edit]

text: The 8th century was also the time the Viking invasions of the Scottish seaboard commenced and with them came the arrival of a new culture and language for the Northern Isles,[46] the fate of the existing indigenous population being uncertain. According to the Orkneyinga Saga, Vikings then made the islands the headquarters of  pirate expeditions carried out against Norway and the coasts of mainland Scotland. In response, Norwegian king Harald Hårfagre ("Harald Fair Hair") annexed the Northern Isles in 875  and Rognvald Eysteinsson received Orkney and Shetland from Harald as an earldom as reparation for the death of his son in battle in Scotland. (Some scholars believe that this story is apocryphal and based on the later voyages of Magnus Barelegs.)[47]

text: The islands were fully Christianised by Olav Tryggvasson in 995 when he stopped at South Walls on his way from Ireland to Norway. The King summoned the jarl Sigurd the Stout and said, "I order you and all your subjects to be baptised. If you refuse, I'll have you killed on the spot and I swear I will ravage every island with fire and steel." Unsurprisingly, Sigurd agreed and the islands became Christian at a stroke,[45] receiving their own bishop in the early 11th century.[48]

text: Annexation by Scotland[edit]

text: In the 14th century  Orkney and Shetland remained a Norwegian province, but Scottish influence was growing. Jon Haraldsson, who was murdered in Thurso in 1231, was the last of an unbroken line of Norse jarls,[49] and thereafter the earls were Scots noblemen of the houses of Angus and St. Clair.[50] In 1468 Shetland was pledged by Christian I, in his capacity as King of Norway, as security against the payment of the dowry of his daughter Margaret, betrothed to James III of Scotland. As the money was never paid, the connection with the crown of Scotland became permanent. In 1470 William Sinclair, 1st Earl of Caithness ceded his title to James III and the following year the Northern Isles were directly annexed to Scotland.[51]

text: 17th, 18th and 19th Centuries[edit]

text: From the early 15th century on the Shetlanders had sold their goods through the Hanseatic League of German merchantmen.[52][53] This trade with the North German towns lasted until the 1707 Act of Union when high salt duties prohibited the German merchants from trading with Shetland. Shetland then went into an economic depression as the Scottish and local traders were not as skilled in trading with salted fish. However, some local merchant-lairds took up where the German merchants had left off, and fitted out their own ships to export fish from Shetland to the Continent. For the independent farmer/fishermen of Shetland this had negative consequences, as they now had to fish for these merchant-lairds.[54]

text: British rule came at a price for many ordinary people as well as traders. The Shetlanders' nautical skills were sought by the Royal Navy: some 3,000 served during the Napoleonic Wars from 1800 to 1815 and press gangs were rife. During this period 120 men were taken from Fetlar alone and only 20 of them returned home. By the late 19th century 90% of all Shetland was owned by just 32 people, and between 1861 and 1881 more than 8,000 Shetlanders emigrated.[55][56] With the passing of the Crofters' Act in 1886 the Liberal prime minister William Gladstone emancipated crofters from the rule of the landlords. The Act enabled those who had effectively been landowners' serfs to become owner-occupiers of their own small farms.[57]

text: The Orcadian experience was somewhat different. An influx of Scottish entrepreneurs helped to create a diverse and independent community that included farmers, fishermen and merchants that called themselves comunitatis Orcadie and who proved themselves increasing able to defend their rights against their feudal overlords.[58][59] In the 17th century, Orcadians formed the overwhelming majority of employees of the Hudson's Bay Company in Canada. The harsh climate of Orkney and the Orcadian reputation for sobriety and their boat-handling skills made them ideal candidates for the rigours of the Canadian north.[60] During this period, burning kelp briefly became a mainstay of the islands' economy.  For example, on Shapinsay over 3,048 tonnes (3,000 long tons) of burned seaweed were produced per annum to make soda ash, bringing in £20,000 to the local economy.[61] Agricultural improvements beginning in the 17th century coincided with the enclosure of the commons and in the Victorian era the emergence of large and well-managed farms using a five-shift rotation system and producing high quality beef cattle.[62] There is little evidence of an Orcadian fishing fleet until the 19th century but it grew rapidly and 700 boats were involved by the 1840s with Stronsay and then later Stromness becoming leading centres of development.[63][Note 1] Many Orcadian seamen became involved in whaling in Arctic waters during the 19th century, although the boats were generally based elsewhere in Britain.[64]

text: World Wars[edit]

text: Orkney was the site of a naval base at Scapa Flow, which played a major role in World War I. After the Armistice in 1918, the German High Seas Fleet was transferred in its entirety to Scapa Flow while a decision was to be made on its future; however, the German sailors opened the sea-cocks and scuttled all the ships. During World War I the 10th Cruiser Squadron was stationed at Swarbacks Minn in Shetland and during a single year from March 1917 more than 4,500 ships sailed from Lerwick as part of an escorted convoy system. In total, Shetland lost more than 500 men, a higher proportion than any other part of Britain, and there were waves of emigration in the 1920s and 1930s.[56][65]

text: One month into World War II, the Royal Navy battleship HMS Royal Oak was sunk by a German U-boat in Scapa Flow. As a result barriers were built to close most of the access channels; these had the advantage of creating causeways enabling travellers to go from island to island by road instead of being obliged to rely on ferries. The causeways were constructed by Italian prisoners of war, who also constructed the ornate Italian Chapel.[66] The Scapa Flow base was run down after the war, eventually closing in 1957.[67]

text: During World War II a Norwegian naval unit nicknamed the "Shetland Bus" was established by the Special Operations Executive in the autumn of 1940 with a base first at Lunna and later in Scalloway to conduct operations around the coast of Norway. About 30 fishing vessels used by Norwegian refugees were gathered and the Shetland Bus conducted covert operations, carrying intelligence agents, refugees, instructors for the resistance, and military supplies. It made over 200 trips across the sea with Leif Larsen, the most highly decorated allied naval officer of the war, making 52 of them.[68][69]

text: The problem of a declining population was significant in the post-war years, although in the last decades of the 20th century there was a recovery and life in the islands focused on growing prosperity and the emergence of a relatively classless society.[67]

text: Modern times[edit]

text: Politics[edit]

text: Due to their history, the islands have a Norse, rather than a Gaelic flavour, and have historic links with the Faroes, Iceland, and Norway. The similarities of both geography and history are matched by some elements of the current political process. Both Orkney and Shetland are represented in the House of Commons as constituting the Orkney and Shetland constituency, which elects one Member of Parliament (MP), the current incumbent being Alistair Carmichael.[70][71][72]  Both are also within the Highlands and Islands electoral region for the Scottish Parliament.

text: However there are also two separate constituencies that elect one Member of the Scottish Parliament each for Orkney and Shetland by the first past the post system.[73][74] Orkney and Shetland also have separate local Councils which are dominated by independents, that is they are not members of a political party.[75][76][77]

text: The Orkney Movement, a political party that supported devolution for Orkney from the rest of Scotland, contested the 1987 general election as the Orkney and Shetland Movement (a coalition of the Orkney movement and its equivalent for Shetland). Their candidate, John Goodlad, came 4th with 3,095 votes, 14.5% of those cast, but the experiment has not been repeated.[78]

text: Transport[edit]

text: Ferry services link Orkney and Shetland to the rest of Scotland, the main routes being Scrabster harbour, Thurso to Stromness and Aberdeen to Lerwick, both operated by NorthLink Ferries.[79][80] Inter-island ferry services are operated by Orkney Ferries and SIC Ferries, which are operated by the respective local authorities and Northlink also run a Lerwick to Kirkwall service.[80][81] The archipelago is exposed to wind and tide, and there are numerous sites of wrecked ships. Lighthouses are sited as an aid to navigation at various locations.[82]

text: The main airport in Orkney is at Kirkwall, operated by Highland and Islands Airports. Loganair, a franchise of Flybe, provides services to the Scottish mainland (Aberdeen, Edinburgh, Glasgow and Inverness), as well as to Sumburgh Airport in Shetland. Similar services fly from Sumburgh to the Scottish mainland.[80][83]

text: Inter-Island flights are available from Kirkwall to several Orkney islands and from the Shetland Mainland to most of the inhabited islands including those from Tingwall Airport.  There are frequent charter flights from Aberdeen to Scatsta near Sullom Voe, which are used to transport oilfield workers and this small terminal has the fifth largest number of international passengers in Scotland.[84] The scheduled air service between Westray and Papa Westray is reputedly the shortest in the world at two minutes' duration.[85]

text: Economics[edit]

text: The very different geologies of the  two archipelagos have resulted in dissimilar local economies. In Shetland, the main revenue producers are agriculture, aquaculture, fishing, renewable energy, the petroleum industry (offshore crude oil and natural gas production), the creative industries and tourism.[86] Oil and gas was first landed at Sullom Voe in 1978, and it has subsequently become one of the largest oil terminals in Europe.[87] Taxes from the oil have increased public sector spending in Shetland on social welfare, art, sport, environmental measures and financial development. Three quarters of the islands' work force is employed in the service sector[88][89] and Shetland Islands Council alone accounted for 27.9% of output in 2003.[90][91] Fishing remains central to the islands' economy today, with the total catch being 75,767 tonnes (74,570 long tons; 83,519 short tons) in 2009, valued at over £73.2 million.[92]

text: By contrast, fishing has declined in Orkney since the 19th century and the impact of the oil industry has been much less significant.  However, the soil of Orkney is generally very fertile and most of the land is taken up by farms, agriculture being by far the most important sector of the economy and providing employment for a quarter of the workforce.[93] More than 90% of agricultural land is used for grazing for sheep and cattle, with cereal production utilising about 4% (4,200 hectares (10,000 acres)), although woodland occupies only 134 hectares (330 acres).[94]

text: Orkney and Shetland have significant wind and marine energy resources, and renewable energy has recently come into prominence. The European Marine Energy Centre is a Scottish Government-backed research facility that has installed a wave testing system at Billia Croo on the Orkney Mainland and a tidal power testing station on the island of Eday.[95] This has been described as "the first of its kind in the world set up to provide developers of wave and tidal energy devices with a purpose-built performance testing facility."[96] Billia Croo also houses an experimental underwater data center run by Microsoft.[97]

text: Culture[edit]

text:
The Northern Isles have a rich folklore. For example, there are many Orcadian tales concerning trows, a form of troll that draws on the islands' Scandinavian connections.[98] Local customs in the past included marriage ceremonies at the Odin Stone that forms part of the Stones of Stenness.[99]
The best known literary figures from modern Orkney are the poet Edwin Muir, the poet and novelist George Mackay Brown and the novelist Eric Linklater.[100]

text: Shetland has a strong tradition of local music. The Forty Fiddlers was formed in the 1950s to promote the traditional fiddle style, which is a vibrant part of local culture today.[101]  Notable exponents of Shetland folk music include Aly Bain and the late Tom Anderson and Peerie Willie Johnson.  Thomas Fraser was a country musician who never released a commercial recording during his life, but whose work has become popular more than 20 years after his untimely death in 1978.[102]

text: Language[edit]

text: The Norn language formerly spoken in the islands, a descendant of the Old Norse of the Vikings, became extinct in the 18th or 19th century.[103][104] The local dialects of the Scots language, collectively known as Insular Scots, are highly distinctive and retain strong Norn influences.[105]

text: Island names[edit]

text: The etymology of the island names is dominated by Norse influence. There follows a listing of the derivation of all the inhabited islands in the Northern Isles.

text: Shetland[edit]

text: The oldest version of the modern name Shetland is Hetlandensis recorded in 1190 becoming Hetland in 1431 after various intermediate transformations.[106][107] This then became Hjaltland in the 16th century.[108] As Shetlandic Norn was gradually replaced by Scots Hjaltland became Ȝetland. When use of the letter yogh was discontinued, it was often replaced by the similar-looking letter z, hence Zetland, the mispronounced form used to describe the pre-1975 county council. However the earlier name is Innse Chat – the island of the cats (or the cat tribe) as referred to in early Irish literature and it is just possible that this forms part of the Norse name.[106][107] The Cat tribe also occupied parts of the northern Scottish mainland – hence the name of Caithness via the Norse Katanes ("headland of the cat"), and the Gaelic name for Sutherland, Cataibh, meaning "among the Cats".[109][110]

text: The location of "Thule", first mentioned by Pytheas of Massilia when he visited Britain sometime between 322 and 285 BC[111] is not known for certain. When Tacitus mentioned it in AD 98 it is clear he was referring to Shetland.[112]

text:
Island

Derivation

Language

Meaning

Alternatives

Bressay

Breiðøy

Norse

broad island[113]

Bruray

Norse

east isle[114]

Norse: bruarøy – bridge island"[114]

East Burra

Scots/Norse

east broch island[115]

Fair Isle

Frioarøy

Norse

fair island[116]

Norse: feoerøy – "far-off isle".[116]

Fetlar

Unknown

Pre-Celtic?

Unknown

Norse: fetill – "shoulder-straps"[117] or "fat land".[118] See also Funzie Girt.

Foula

Fugløy

Norse

bird island[119]

Housay

Húsøy

Norse

house isle[114]

Shetland Mainland

Hetlandensis

Norse/ Gaelic

island of the cat people?[109]

Perhaps originally from Gaelic: Innse Chat – see above[109]

Muckle Roe

Rauðey Milkla

Scots/Norse

big red island[115]

Papa Stour

Papøy Stóra

Celtic/Norse

big island of the priests[120]

Trondra

Norse

boar island[121]

Norse: "Þrondr's isle" or "Þraendir's isle". The first is a personal name, the second a tribal name from the Trondheim area.[121]

Unst

Unknown

Pre-Celtic?

Unknown

Norse: omstr – "corn-stack"[117] or ørn-vist – "home of the eagle"[122]

Vaila

Valøy

Norse

falcon island[123]

Norse: "horse island", "battlefield island" or "round island"[123]

West Burra

Scots/Norse

west broch island[115]

Whalsay

Hvalsey

Norse

whale island[124]

Yell

Unknown

Pre-Celtic?

Unknown

Norse: í Ála – "deep furrow"[117] or Jala – "white island"[125]

text: Orkney[edit]

text: Pytheas described Great Britain as being triangular in shape, with a northern tip called Orcas.[111] This may have referred to Dunnet Head, from which Orkney is visible.[126] Writing in the 1st century AD, the Roman geographer Pomponius Mela called the Orkney islands Orcades, as did Tacitus in AD 98[126][127] "Orc" is usually interpreted as a Pictish tribal name meaning "young pig" or "young boar".[128] The old Irish Gaelic name for the islands was Insi Orc ("island of the pigs").[129][130][Note 2] The ogham script on the Buckquoy spindle-whorl is also cited as evidence for the pre-Norse existence of Old Irish in Orkney.[132] The Pictish association with Orkney is leant weight by the Norse name for the Pentland Firth – Pettaland-fjörðr i.e "Pictland Firth.[110]

text: The Norse retained the earlier root but changed the meaning, providing the only definite example of an adaption of a pre-Norse place name in the Northern Isles. The islands became Orkneyar meaning "seal islands".[133] An alternative name for Orkney is recorded in 1300—Hrossey, meaning "horse isle" and this may also contain a Pictish element of ros meaning "moor" or "plain".[106]

text: Unlike most of the larger Orkney islands, the derivation of the name "Shapinsay" is not obvious. The final 'ay' is from the Old Norse for island, but the first two syllables are more difficult to interpret. Haswell-Smith (2004) suggests the root may be hjalpandis-øy (helpful island) due to the presence of a good harbour, although anchorages are plentiful in the archipelago.[134] The first written record dates from 1375 in a reference to Scalpandisay, which may suggest a derivation from "judge's island". Another suggestion is "Hyalpandi's island", although no one of that name is known to have been associated with Shapinsay.[135]

text:
Island

Derivation

Language

Meaning

Alternatives

Auskerry

Østr sker

Norse

east skerry[136]

Burray

Borgrøy

Norse

broch island[137]

Eday

Eidøy

Norse

isthmus island[138]

Egilsay

Égillsey

Norse or Gaelic

Egil's island[139]

Possibly from Gaelic eaglais" – church island[140]

Flotta

Flottøy

Norse

flat, grassy isle[141]

Gairsay

Gáreksøy

Norse

Gárekr's isle[142]

Graemsay

Grims-øy

Norse

Grim's island[143]

Holm of Grimbister

Norse

Small and rounded islet of Grim's farm

Hoy

Háøy

Norse

high island[144]

Inner Holm

English/Norse

inner rounded islet

North Ronaldsay

Rinansøy

Norse

Uncertain – possibly "Ringa's isle"[145]

Orkney Mainland

Orcades

Various

isle(s) of the young pig[128]

See above

Papa Stronsay

Papey Minni

Norse

priest isle of Stronsay[146]

The Norse name is literally "little priest isle"[146]

Papa Westray

Papey Meiri

Norse

priest isle of Westray[147]

The Norse name is literally "big priest isle"[147]

Rousay

Hrólfsøy

Norse

Hrólfs island[148]

Sanday

Sandøy

Norse

sand island[149]

Shapinsay

Unknown

Possibly "helpful island"[134]

See above

South Ronaldsay

Rognvaldsey

Norse

Rognvald's island[137]

South Walls

Sooth Was

Scots/Norse

"southern voes"

"Voe" means fjord. Possibly "south bays".

Stronsay

Possibly Strjónsøy

Norse

good fishing and farming island[150]

Westray

Vestrøy

Norse

western island[151]

Wyre

Vigr

Norse

spear-like island[152]

text: Uninhabited islands[edit]

text:
Stroma, from the Norse Straumøy[153] means "current island"[154]
or "island in the tidal stream",[153] a reference to the strong currents in the Pentland Firth. The Norse often gave animal names to islands and these have been transferred into English in for example, the Calf of Flotta and Horse of Copinsay. Brother Isle is an anglicisation of the Norse breiðareøy meaning "broad beach island".[155] The Norse holmr, meaning  "a small islet" has become "Holm" in English and there are numerous examples of this use including Corn Holm, Thieves Holm and Little Holm. "Muckle" meaning large or big is one of few Scots words in the island names of the Nordreyar and appears in Muckle Roe and Muckle Flugga in Shetland and Muckle Green Holm and Muckle Skerry in Orkney. Many small islets and skerries have Scots or Insular Scots names such as Da Skerries o da Rokness and Da Buddle Stane  in Shetland, and Kirk Rocks in Orkney.


document_title: Cell theory

question_text: who introduce the first term cell in the year 1665

root

text: Cell theory

text: Microscopes

text: The discovery of the cell was made possible through the invention of the microscope. In the first century BC, Romans were able to make glass, discovering that objects appeared to be larger under the glass. In Italy during the 12th century, Salvino D’Armate made a piece of glass fit over one eye, allowing for a magnification effect to that eye. The expanded use of lenses in eyeglasses in the 13th century probably led to wider spread use of simple microscopes (magnifying glasses) with limited magnification.[3] Compound microscope, which combine an objective lens with an eyepiece to view a real image achieving much higher magnification, first appeared in Europe around 1620[4][5] In 1665, Robert Hooke used a microscope about six inches long with two convex lenses inside and examined specimens under reflected light for the observations in his book Micrographia. Hooke also used a simpler microscope with a single lens for examining specimens with directly transmitted light, because this allowed for a clearer image.[6]

tag: p

text: Extensive microscopic study was done by Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a draper who took the interest in microscopes after seeing one while on an apprenticeship in Amsterdam in 1648. At some point in his life before 1668, he was able to learn how to grind lenses. This eventually led to Leeuwenhoek making his own unique microscope. His were a single lens simple microscope, rather than a compound microscope. This was because he was able to use a single lens that was a small glass sphere but allowed for a magnification of 270x. This was a large progression since the magnification before was only a maximum of 50x. After Leeuwenhoek, there was not much progress for the microscopes until the 1850s, two hundred years later. Carl Zeiss, a German engineer who manufactured microscopes, began to make changes to the lenses used. But the optical quality did not improve until the 1880s when he hired Otto Schott and eventually Ernst Abbe.[7]

text: Optical microscopes can focus on objects the size of a wavelength or larger, giving restrictions still to advancement in discoveries with objects smaller than the wavelengths of visible light. Later in the 1920s, the electron microscope was developed, making it possible to view objects that are smaller than optical wavelengths, once again, changing the possibilities in science.[7]

text: Discovery of cells

text: The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, which can be found to be described in his book Micrographia. In this book, he gave 60 ‘observations’ in detail of various objects under a coarse, compound microscope.[6] One observation was from very thin slices of bottle cork. Hooke discovered a multitude of tiny pores that he named "cells". This came from the Latin word Cella, meaning ‘a small room’ like monks lived in and also Cellulae, which meant the six sided cell of a honeycomb. However, Hooke did not know their real structure or function.[8] What Hooke had thought were cells, were actually empty cell walls of plant tissues. With microscopes during this time having a low magnification, Hooke was unable to see that there were other internal components to the cells he was observing. Therefore, he did not think the "cellulae" were alive.[9] His cell observations gave no indication of the nucleus and other organelles found in most living cells. In Micrographia, Hooke also observed mould, bluish in color, found on leather. After studying it under his microscope, he was unable to observe “seeds” that would have indicated how the mould was multiplying in quantity. This led to Hooke suggesting that spontaneous generation, from either natural or artificial heat, was the cause. Since this was an old Aristotelian theory still accepted at the time, others did not reject it and was not disproved until Leeuwenhoek later discovers generation is achieved otherwise.[6]

text: Anton van Leeuwenhoek is another scientist who saw these cells soon after Hooke did. He made use of a microscope containing improved lenses that could magnify objects almost 300-fold, or 270x.[9] Under these microscopes, Leeuwenhoek found motile objects. In a letter to The Royal Society on October 9, 1676, he states that motility is a quality of life therefore these were living organisms. Over time, he wrote many more papers in which described many specific forms of microorganisms. Leeuwenhoek named these “animalcules,” which included protozoa and other unicellular organisms, like bacteria.[7] Though he did not have much formal education, he was able to identify the first accurate description of red blood cells and discovered bacteria after gaining interest in the sense of taste that resulted in Leeuwenhoek to observe the tongue of an ox, then leading him to study "pepper water" in 1676. He also found for the first time the sperm cells of animals and humans. Once discovering these types of cells, Leeuwenhoek saw that the fertilization process requires the sperm cell to enter the egg cell. This put an end to the previous theory of spontaneous generation. After reading letters by Leeuwenhoek, Hooke was the first to confirm his observations that were thought to be unlikely by other contemporaries.[6]

text: The cells in animal tissues were observed after plants were because the tissues were so fragile and susceptible to tearing, it was difficult for such thin slices to be prepared for studying. Biologists believed that there was a fundamental unit to life, but were unsure what this was. It would not be until over a hundred years later that this fundamental unit was connected to cellular structure and existence of cells in animals or plants.[10] This conclusion was not made until Henri Dutrochet. Besides stating “the cell is the fundamental element of organization”,[11] Dutrochet also claimed that cells were not just a structural unit, but also a physiological unit.

text: In 1804, Karl Rudolphi and J.H.F. Link were awarded the prize for "solving the problem of the nature of cells", meaning they were the first to prove that cells had independent cell walls by the Königliche Societät der Wissenschaft (Royal Society of Science), Göttingen.[12] Before, it had been thought that cells shared walls and the fluid passed between them this way.

text: Cell theory

text: Credit for developing cell theory is usually given to two scientists: Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden.[13] While Rudolf Virchow contributed to the theory, he is not as credited for his attributions toward it. In 1839, Schleiden suggested that every structural part of a plant was made up of cells or the result of cells. He also suggested that cells were made by a crystallization process either within other cells or from the outside.[14] However, this was not an original idea of Schleiden. He claimed this theory as his own, though Barthelemy Dumortier had stated it years before him. This crystallization process is no longer accepted with modern cell theory. In 1839, Theodor Schwann states that along with plants, animals are composed of cells or the product of cells in their structures.[15] This was a major advancement in the field of biology since little was known about animal structure up to this point compared to plants. From these conclusions about plants and animals, two of the three tenets of cell theory were postulated.[10]

text: 1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells

text: 2. The cell is the most basic unit of life

text: Schleiden's theory of free cell formation through crystallization was refuted in the 1850s by Robert Remak, Rudolf Virchow, and Albert Kolliker.[7] In 1855, Rudolf Virchow added the third tenet to cell theory. In Latin, this tenet states Omnis cellula e cellula.[10] This translated to:

text: 3. All cells arise only from pre-existing cells

text: However, the idea that all cells come from pre-existing cells had in fact already been proposed by Robert Remak; it has been suggested that Virchow plagiarized Remak and did not give him credit.[16] Remak published observations in 1852 on cell division, claiming Schleiden and Schawnn were incorrect about generation schemes. He instead said that binary fission, which was first introduced by Dumortier, was how reproduction of new animal cells were made. Once this tenet was added, the classical cell theory was complete.

text: Modern interpretation

text: The generally accepted parts of modern cell theory include:

text:
All known living things are made up of one or more cells[17]
All living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division.
The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms.[18]
The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells.[citation needed]
Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells.[citation needed]
Cells contain DNA which is found specifically in the chromosome and RNA found in the cell nucleus and cytoplasm.[19]
All cells are basically the same in chemical composition in organisms of similar species .[citation needed]

tag: ol

text: Modern version

text: The modern version of the cell theory includes the ideas that:

text:
Energy flow occurs within cells.[20]
Heredity information (DNA) is passed on from cell to cell.[20]
All cells have the same basic chemical composition.[20]

tag: ul

text: Opposing concepts in cell theory: history and background

text: The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 using a microscope. The first cell theory is credited to the work of Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden in the 1830s. In this theory the internal contents of cells were called protoplasm and described as a jelly-like substance, sometimes called living jelly. At about the same time, colloidal chemistry began its development, and the concepts of bound water emerged. A colloid being something between a solution and a suspension, where Brownian motion is sufficient to prevent sedimentation. The idea of a semipermeable membrane, a barrier that is permeable to solvent but impermeable to solute molecules was developed at about the same time. The term osmosis originated in 1827 and its importance to physiological phenomena realized, but it wasn’t until 1877, when the botanist Pfeffer proposed the membrane theory of cell physiology. In this view, the cell was seen to be enclosed by a thin surface, the plasma membrane, and cell water and solutes such as a potassium ion existed in a physical state like that of a dilute solution. In 1889 Hamburger used hemolysis of erythrocytes to determine the permeability of various solutes. By measuring the time required for the cells to swell past their elastic limit, the rate at which solutes entered the cells could be estimated by the accompanying change in cell volume. He also found that there was an apparent nonsolvent volume of about 50% in red blood cells and later showed that this includes water of hydration in addition to the protein and other nonsolvent components of the cells.

text: Evolution of the membrane and bulk phase theories

text: Two opposing concepts developed within the context of studies on osmosis, permeability, and electrical properties of cells.[21] The first held that these properties all belonged to the plasma membrane whereas the other predominant view was that the protoplasm was responsible for these properties. The membrane theory developed as a succession of ad-hoc additions and changes to the theory to overcome experimental hurdles. Overton (a distant cousin of Charles Darwin) first proposed the concept of a lipid (oil) plasma membrane in 1899. The major weakness of the lipid membrane was the lack of an explanation of the high permeability to water, so Nathansohn (1904) proposed the mosaic theory. In this view, the membrane is not a pure lipid layer, but a mosaic of areas with lipid and areas with semipermeable gel. Ruhland refined the mosaic theory to include pores to allow additional passage of small molecules. Since membranes are generally less permeable to anions, Leonor Michaelis concluded that ions are adsorbed to the walls of the pores, changing the permeability of the pores to ions by electrostatic repulsion. Michaelis demonstrated the membrane potential (1926) and proposed that it was related to the distribution of ions across the membrane.[22] Harvey and Danielli (1939) proposed a lipid bilayer membrane covered on each side with a layer of protein to account for measurements of surface tension. In 1941 Boyle & Conway showed that the membrane of frog muscle was permeable to both K+ and Cl−, but apparently not to Na+, so the idea of electrical charges in the pores was unnecessary since a single critical pore size would explain the permeability to K+, H+, and Cl− as well as the impermeability to Na+, Ca+, and Mg2+. Over the same time period, it was shown (Procter & Wilson, 1916) that gels, which do not have a semipermeable membrane, would swell in dilute solutions. Loeb (1920) also studied gelatin extensively, with and without a membrane, showing that more of the properties attributed to the plasma membrane could be duplicated in gels without a membrane. In particular, he found that an electrical potential difference between the gelatin and the outside medium could be developed, based on the H+ concentration. Some criticisms of the membrane theory developed in the 1930s, based on observations such as the ability of some cells to swell and increase their surface area by a factor of 1000. A lipid layer cannot stretch to that extent without becoming a patchwork (thereby losing its barrier properties. Such criticisms stimulated continued studies on protoplasm as the principal agent determining cell permeability properties. In 1938, Fischer and Suer proposed that water in the protoplasm is not free but in a chemically combined form—the protoplasm represents a combination of protein, salt and water—and demonstrated the basic similarity between swelling in living tissues and the swelling of gelatin and fibrin gels. Dimitri Nasonov (1944) viewed proteins as the central components responsible for many properties of the cell, including electrical properties. By the 1940s, the bulk phase theories were not as well developed as the membrane theories. In 1941, Brooks & Brooks published a monograph, "The Permeability of Living Cells", which rejects the bulk phase theories.

text: Emergence of the steady-state membrane pump concept

text: With the development of radioactive tracers, it was shown that cells are not impermeable to Na+. This was difficult to explain with the membrane barrier theory, so the sodium pump was proposed to continually remove Na+ as it permeates cells. This drove the concept that cells are in a state of dynamic equilibrium, constantly using energy to maintain ion gradients. In 1935, Karl Lohmann discovered ATP and its role as a source of energy for cells, so the concept of a metabolically-driven sodium pump was proposed. The tremendous success of Hodgkin, Huxley, and Katz in the development of the membrane theory of cellular membrane potentials, with differential equations that modeled the phenomena correctly, provided even more support for the membrane pump hypothesis.

text: The modern view of the plasma membrane is of a fluid lipid bilayer that has protein components embedded within it. The structure of the membrane is now known in great detail, including 3D models of many of the hundreds of different proteins that are bound to the membrane. These major developments in cell physiology placed the membrane theory in a position of dominance and stimulated the imagination of most physiologists, who now apparently accept the theory as fact—there are, however, a few dissenters.[citation needed]

text: The reemergence of the bulk phase theories

text: In 1956, Afanasy S. Troshin published a book, The Problems of Cell Permeability, in Russian (1958 in German, 1961 in Chinese, 1966 in English) in which he found that permeability was of secondary importance in determination of the patterns of equilibrium between the cell and its environment. Troshin showed that cell water decreased in solutions of galactose or urea although these compounds did slowly permeate cells. Since the membrane theory requires an impermanent solute to sustain cell shrinkage, these experiments cast doubt on the theory. Others questioned whether the cell has enough energy to sustain the sodium/potassium pump. Such questions became even more urgent as dozens of new metabolic pumps were added as new chemical gradients were discovered.

text: In 1962, Gilbert Ling became the champion of the bulk phase theories and proposed his association-induction hypothesis of living cells.

text: Types of cells

text: Cells can be subdivided into the following subcategories:

text:
Prokaryotes: Prokaryotes are relatively small cells surrounded by the plasma membrane, with a characteristic cell wall that may differ in composition depending on the particular organism.[23] Prokaryotes lack a nucleus (although they do have circular or linear DNA) and other membrane-bound organelles (though they do contain ribosomes). The protoplasm of a prokaryote contains the chromosomal region that appears as fibrous deposits under the microscope, and the cytoplasm.[23] Bacteria and Archaea are the two domains of prokaryotes.
Eukaryotes: Eukaryotic cells are also surrounded by the plasma membrane, but on the other hand, they have distinct nuclei bound by a nuclear membrane or envelope. Eukaryotic cells also contain membrane-bound organelles, such as (mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles).[24] In addition, they possess organized chromosomes which store genetic material.[citation needed]

text: Animals have evolved a greater diversity of cell types in a multicellular body (100–150 different cell types), compared with 10–20 in plants, fungi, and protoctista.[25]


document_title: Federal Road Safety Corps (Nigeria)

question_text: the frsc was formally established by the act of parliament in

text: Federal Road Safety Corps (Nigeria)

text: Historical Perspective[edit]

text: Prior to the establishment of Federal Road Safety Commission in 1988, there was no concrete and sustained policy action to address the carnage on Nigerian roads. Earlier attempts in this direction were limited to discrete and isolated attempts by some states of the federation and individuals.

text: Notable among the efforts to institute a formidable road safety program was the effort of Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria (SPDC) between 1960 and 1965. The effort of the Nigerian Army in the training of its officers and men on road safety in the early 1970s also contributed to road safety ideas and consciousness in Nigeria: The Nigerian Army started the First Public Road Safety Campaign in 1972 when it initiated an annual Road Safety Week[4].

text: The first deliberate policy on road safety was the creation in 1974 of the National Road Safety Commission (NRSC) by the then military government. The impact of the Commission was however, not sustained. In 1977, the Military Administration in Oyo State, Nigeria established the Oyo State Road Safety Corps which made some local significant improvements in road safety and road discipline in the state. That lasted till 1983, when it was disbanded by the federal government.

text: With the continued dangerous trend of road traffic accidents in Nigeria then, which placed it as one of the most road traffic accident (RTA) prone countries worldwide (the most in Africa) in 2013[5][6], the Nigerian government saw the need to establish the present Federal Road Safety Corps in 1988 to address the carnage on the highways.

text: Establishment Act[edit]

text: The unpleasant trend in the nation's road traffic system which resulted in upsurge in road traffic accidents made the Federal Government initiate a search for a credible and effective response to the challenge.

text: In February 1988, the Federal Government established the Federal Road Safety Commission through Decree No. 45 of the 1988 as amended by Decree 35 of 1992 referred to in the statute books as the FRSC Act cap 141 Laws of the Federation of Nigeria (LFN), passed by the National Assembly as Federal Road Safety Corps (establishment) Act 2007.[7]

text: Statutory functions[edit]

text: The functions of the Commission generally relates to:

text:
Making the highway safe for motorists and other road users.
Recommending works and devices designed to eliminate or minimize accidents on the highways and advising the Federal and State Governments including the Federal Capital Territory Administration and relevant governmental agencies on the localities where such works and devices are required, and
Educating motorists and members of the public on the importance of discipline on the highway.

text: In particular, the Commission is charged with responsibilities as follows:

text:
Preventing or minimizing accidents on the highway.
Clearing obstructions on any part of the highways.
Educating drivers, motorists and other members of the public generally on the proper use of the highways.
Designing and producing the driver's license to be used by various categories of vehicle operators.
Determining, from time to time, the requirements to be satisfied by an applicant for a driver's licence.
Designing and producing vehicle number plates.
The standardization of highway traffic codes.

Educating drivers, motorists and other members of the public generally on the proper use of the highways.
Giving prompt attention and care to victims of accidents.
Conducting researches into causes of motor accidents and methods of preventing them and putting into use the result of such researches.
Determining and enforcing speed limits for all categories of roads and vehicles and controlling the use of speed limiting devices.
Cooperating with bodies or agencies or groups in road safety activities or in prevention of accidents on the highways.
Making regulations in pursuance of any of the functions assigned to the Corps by or under this Act.
Regulating the use of sirens, flashers and beacon lights on vehicles other than ambulances and vehicles belonging to the Armed Forces, Nigeria Police, Fire Service and other Paramilitary agencies;
Providing roadside and mobile clinics for the treatment of accident victims free of charge.
Regulating the use of mobile phones by motorists.
Regulating the use of seat belts and other safety devices.
Regulating the use of motorcycles on the highways.
Maintaining the validity period for drivers' licences which shall be three years subject to renewal at the expiration of the validity period.

text: In exercising these functions, members of the Commission have the power to arrest and prosecute persons reasonably suspected of having committed any traffic offence.

text: External links associated[edit]

text: Official Website


document_title: Tiffany Pollard

question_text: who did new york choose on i love new york

text: Tiffany Pollard

text: Personal life[edit]

text: Pollard was born in Utica, New York to Michelle Rothschild-Patterson (also known as "Sister Patterson") and Alex Pollard.[5] Pollard has used the surnames of both her parents, who are unmarried.[6] She attended John F. Kennedy Middle School and graduated from Thomas R. Proctor High School.[7]

text: Pollard was engaged to I Love New York season 1 winner Patrick "Tango" Hunter for a six-month period until Hunter called off the engagement on the reunion show.[8] She was also engaged to George "Tailor Made" Weisgerber, the winner of I Love New York 2. On September 8, 2008, she announced on episode 6 of her show, New York Goes to Hollywood, that she had officially separated from Weisgerber.[9]

text: In an episode of Brunch with Tiffany, Pollard revealed that she has bipolar disorder.[10]

text: Television appearances[edit]

text: 2006: Breakthrough with Flavor of Love[edit]

text: Flavor of Love[edit]

text: Pollard clashed with virtually all the other contestants. Although these feuds were, in general, nothing more than screaming matches, an incident in the penultimate episode of season one led to violence. After her elimination, an outraged Brooke "Pumkin" Thompson spat on Pollard after the two had exchanged words.[11] Pollard vowed to "whoop Pumkin's ass", and attempted to do so at the season one reunion.[12] The moment was rated number one on various VH1 and MTV reality show specials, including VH1's 20 Greatest Celebreality Fights.[citation needed] The final two contestants journeyed to Puerto Vallarta, Mexico where Flavor Flav chose Nicole "Hoopz" Alexander over Pollard, to be his mate.[13]

text: Flavor of Love 2[edit]

text: After his relationship did not work out with Alexander, Flavor Flav chose to do a second season of his dating show and invited Pollard to help him eliminate contestants halfway through the season. She agreed and was later added as a participant.[14] In the finale, Flav chose Deelishis over Pollard.[15] Pollard verbally fought with Flav in the season finale, asking why he had brought her back only to be ultimately eliminated.[16] However, the two announced on the Flavor of Love: After the Lovin reunion show that aired October 28, 2006, that they would remain friends.[17]

text: 2007–2009: VH1 Spinoffs[edit]

text: I Love New York[edit]

text: I Love New York was Tiffany Pollard's first reality television series on VH1. The series is a spin-off of another relationship competition series, the Flavor of Love, which featured Pollard as a finalist in two consecutive seasons. In July 2006, VH1 published a casting call for contestants for a new series tentatively titled The Flavorette. Various blogs speculated that the star of this program could be Flavor of Love season 1 contestant Rain, Hoopz (Nicole Alexander) or Pollard. Before the season 2 Flavor of Love finale, Pollard denied having her own show but after the finale aired, she confirmed she was the "Flavorette" and that she was already down to the final three contestants. The show premiered on Monday, January 8, 2007 and was the most-watched series debut in VH1 history with 4.426 million viewers.[18] Its season 1 finale brought in 4.8M million viewers and its reunion show ratings held 5.01 million viewers. Spin-offs from the series include I Love Money, New York Goes to Hollywood, Real Chance of Love, New York Goes to Work, and Frank the Entertainer in a Basement Affair.

text: I Love New York 2[edit]

text: I Love New York 2 premiered October 8, 2007 on VH1.[19] In the finale of I Love New York 2, contestant "Tailor Made" (real name George Weisgerber) proposed to Pollard, but was turned down. The finale earned 5.4 million viewers. During the I Love New York 2 reunion special, Tailor Made proposed a second time and Pollard accepted. The reunion special earned 4.86 million viewers.[20][21]

text: New York Goes to Hollywood[edit]

text: New York Goes to Hollywood premiered August 4, 2008 on VH1. The eight episode season follows Pollard as she tries to establish herself as an actress in Hollywood, California.

text: New York Goes to Work[edit]

text: New York Goes to Work premiered on May 4, 2009. The reality show follows Pollard as she searches for a regular job.[22] The jobs are selected by fans (via text messaging) from a list of three possible jobs for each episode. Pollard receives a $10,000 bonus each week if she is able to impress her employer. However, if she instead quits, fails or gets fired, she receives no bonus for the week. Altogether, Pollard wins $45000, earning bonuses in 4 jobs (in episodes 1, 2, 5 and 6); losing, failing in, or quitting 4 jobs (in episodes 3, 4, 7 and 8); and coming to a draw in the season finale. At the end of the series, a mobile poll is presented giving three choices for New York's next task, and the most votes are cast for I Love New York 3.

text: I Love New York 3[edit]

text: Production for I Love New York 3 was set to kick off sometime in the first quarter of 2010; however, prior to that time frame, VH1 requested immediate cancellation on the Celebreality franchise and shelved plans for I Love New York 3. In the summer of 2011, Pollard hinted that I Love New York 3 was cancelled due to the murder-suicide case of Ryan Jenkins, who was a former contestant of Megan Wants a Millionaire.[23]

text: 2015–present: Reality television comeback[edit]

text: On April 14, 2015, Pollard appeared on an episode of the E! Network's series, Botched, where she details her botched surgeries that have left her breasts sagging with extra skin. She appears on the show in hopes of getting them corrected, so she may resume her reality TV career.[3][24][25]

text: On January 5, 2016, Pollard entered the Celebrity Big Brother house in the United Kingdom to participate in the seventeenth season of the show. She was involved in an infamous misunderstanding in which Pollard believed that David Gest had died of cancer inside the house; it subsequently turned out to be David Bowie that had died, the ex-husband of fellow housemate Angie Bowie.[26] Throughout her time on the show, Pollard proved popular with the British public, and achieved the most votes to save over her fellow contestants on at least one occasion. On February 5, Pollard made the final and came in fourth place - ranking higher than any other American female who had been on the show.[27] Due to her popularity on the show, Pollard appeared in many UK publications including New! magazine. She also became a regular fixture on the Big Brother spin off show Big Brother's Bit on the Side during Big Brother 17 (UK).

text: In January 2016, Pollard was announced as a main cast member on TV One's The Next :15 which premiered on February 10, 2016.[28] In February 2016, Pollard was announced as a cast member on the first season of Family Therapy with Dr. Jenn which premiered on March 16, 2016 on VH1. In August 2016, it was announced that Pollard would host new gay dating show, The Ex in which she also served as executive producer. The show hasn't been picked up by a network yet.[29][30] On February 9, 2017, Tiffany's VH1 digital series Brunch with Tiffany premiered. The series follows Tiffany as she informally interviews a celebrity guest over brunch. The pilot featured Real Housewives of New York star Sonja Morgan.[31]

text: In August 2017, it was announced that Pollard would compete in the first season of VH1's Scared Famous, which premiered on October 23, 2017.[32]

text: Several images and GIFs of Pollard, taken from her various VH1 appearances, have developed into internet memes on social network sites such as Tumblr and Twitter.[33] A notable example includes "New York on a Bed," which became a popular meme on Twitter used to express emotions of frustration and discomfort as well as moments of awkwardness.[34]

text: Acting career[edit]

text: Pollard's first movie role was in 2008, in the comedy First Sunday. She appeared in a supporting role, acting alongside Ice Cube, Regina Hall, and C. J. Sanders.

text: Pollard participated in a 2009 national tour of the Vagina Monologues with an all-black cast, most of whom are also former reality show contestants.[35] Pollard has also appeared in a play called The Clean Up Woman in 2009, and The Trial of The Chicago 7 in 2010.

text: Filmography[edit]

text: Film[edit]

text:
Year
Title
Role
Notes

2008
First Sunday
Client
As Omunique's Client

2014
The Shop
Kiana

tag: table

text: Television[edit]

text:
Year
Title
Notes

2006–2007
Flavor of Love
Contestant and runner-up of first 2 seasons

2007–2008
I Love New York
Herself; 2 seasons

2007
The Tyra Banks Show
Guest

Jimmy Kimmel Live
Guest

Maury
Guest

MTV's Say What? Karaoke
Guest

Nip/Tuck
1 episode, season 5[36]

Flavor of Love Girls: Charm School
1 episode[37]

VH1's 20 Greatest Celebreality Fights
Commentary

What Perez Sez
1 episode

2008
New York Goes to Hollywood
Herself

2009
New York Goes to Work
Herself

2011
Baggage
Season 3 Episode 71

2012
DTLA
Episode 3 and 4

Life After
1 episode

2013
That Sex Show
Commentary

2015
Botched
Herself; 1 Episode

Candidly Nicole
Herself; Season 2 Episode 8

2016
Celebrity Big Brother
Housemate; 4th place

The Saturday Show
Guest; Interviewee - 6 February 2016

This Morning
Guest; Interviewee - 8 February 2016

The Next :15
Cast member

Family Therapy with Dr. Jenn
Herself

Steve Harvey
Herself

Up Late with Rylan
Guest; Interviewee

Big Brother's Bit on the Side
Herself; panellist

2017
Famously Single
Herself

Sharknado 5
Vega

Scared Famous
Herself; contestant

2018
The Ex
Herself

I Love New York 3
Herself

text: Theater[edit]

text:
Year
Title
Notes

2009
The Clean Up Woman

2010
The Trial of the Chicago 7


document_title: Zody's

question_text: when did zody's go out of business

question_tokens: when did zody 's go out of business

text: Zody's

text:
Zodys

Former type

Subsidiary

Industry
Department store, Retail

Fate
Bankruptcy

Founded
June 13, 1960; 57 years ago (1960-06-13) in Garden Grove, California

Defunct
March 1986; 32 years ago (1986-03)

Headquarters
Los Angeles, California

Area served

Arizona, California, Michigan, Nevada, New Mexico

Products
Clothing, foodwear, bedding, furniture, jewelry, beauty products, electronics and housewares.

Parent
Hartfield Stores/Hartfield-Zody's/HRT Industries

text: Zodys was a chain of discount retail stores that operated in the United States from 1960 to 1986. The chain operated locations in California, Arizona, Nevada, New Mexico, and Michigan.

text: The first store in this Southern California–based discount chain was opened June 13, 1960 in Garden Grove, California, by Hartfield Stores, Inc. By 1969 there were 19 stores. In 1972, the Hartfield-Zodys parent company acquired the Yankee Stores chain of Flint, Michigan, briefly re-branding the stores as Yankee-Zodys, and later as Zodys.[1] The Michigan stores were unprofitable, and were sold in 1974 when Hartfield-Zodys filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection.[1] A brief period of prosperity brought expansions into Arizona, Nevada and New Mexico. In 1979 there were 37 stores.

text: Bankrupt again by the early 1980s, the parent company, now known as HRT Industries, began closing stores in 1984. The remaining Zodys stores in California were shuttered in March 1986,[2][3][4] with many locations being sold to Federated Stores, the parent company of Ralphs supermarket chain,[5][6] while other locations were purchased by HomeClub, a home improvement store chain.[7]


document_title: Goliath (TV series)

question_text: who plays the judge in goliath season 2

question_tokens: who plays the judge in goliath season 2

text: Goliath (TV series)

text: Premise[edit]

text: Goliath follows "a down-and-out lawyer (Thornton) as he seeks redemption. His one shot depends on getting justice in a legal system where truth has become a commodity, and the scales of justice have never been more heavily weighed toward the rich and powerful."[7]

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Billy Bob Thornton as Billy McBride: formerly a brilliant and personable lawyer who founded the law firm Cooperman McBride with Donald Cooperman, and the two of them built it to be a successful legal firm.  He walked out of the firm and became an alcoholic after a murder suspect he got acquitted on a technicality went on to kill an entire family. He lives in an extended-stay hotel by the Santa Monica Pier.[8]
Nina Arianda as Patty Solis-Papagian: a DUI lawyer and real estate agent, who brings Rachel Kennedy's case to McBride.[9]
Tania Raymonde as Brittany Gold: a prostitute who cares about Billy McBride and sometimes works as his legal assistant.[10]
Diana Hopper as Denise McBride (recurring season 1, main season 2): Billy and Michelle's 16-year-old daughter.[11]

text: Season 1[edit]

text:
William Hurt as Donald Cooperman: McBride's partner in founding Cooperman McBride. He is disfigured with facial burns, and functions as a recluse: he rarely if ever leaves his office, and most people at the firm have never seen him. He monitors meetings and depositions remotely by cameras. Without the staff's knowledge, he has the entire office bugged, giving him access to everything that happens. He holds a grudge against McBride.[12]
Maria Bello as Michelle McBride: Billy's ex-wife and a partner at Cooperman McBride. She is angry with McBride, but respects his legal skills and is still fond of him.[13]
Olivia Thirlby as Lucy Kittridge: a young associate at Cooperman McBride who Cooperman installs on the Larson case.[14]
Molly Parker as Callie Senate: a senior lawyer at the firm who previously used a relationship with Cooperman to advance her career.[15]
Sarah Wynter as Gina Larson: widow of Ryan Larson (who worked at Borns Tech and is supposed to have committed suicide by blowing himself up on a boat).[16]
Britain Dalton as Jason Larson: son of Ryan and Gina. He eventually becomes the plaintiff in the case.[17]

text: Season 2[edit]

text:
Ana de la Reguera as Marisol Silva, a city councilwoman from East Los Angeles, in the race to be the first Latina mayor of Los Angeles.[18]
Matthew Del Negro as Danny Loomis, a charismatic yet devious political operator and consiglieri to the city's power elite under the guise of being a "financial analyst".[19]
Morris Chestnut as Deputy District Attorney Hakeem Rashad, who was on the losing side of Billy’s last criminal case and has a bitter, old grudge against him.[20]
Mark Duplass as Tom Wyatt, a successful Los Angeles developer who wants to give the city a distinct skyline. A prominent philanthropist, he is a major contributor to mayoral candidate Marisol Silva.[21]

text: Recurring[edit]

text: Julie Brister as Marva Jefferson: Billy's legal assistant.

text: Season 1[edit]

text:
Damon Gupton as Leonard Letts: Corporate counsel to Borns Tech.
Dwight Yoakam as Wendell Corey: CEO of Borns Tech.[22]
Harold Perrineau as Judge Roston Keller: The presiding judge on the Larson case.[22]
Ever Carradine as Rachel Kennedy: Ryan's sister, and the initial plaintiff in the wrongful death case against Borns Tech.
Kevin Weisman as Ned Berring: A former employee at Borns Tech and a key witness in the case.
Jason Ritter as FBI Agent Farley.

text: Season 2[edit]

text:
Diego Josef as Julio Suarez, the son of the owner of Chez Jay, who is falsely accused of murder.
Dominic Fumusa as Detective Keith Roman: An LAPD detective involved in the conspiracy. Roman blames Billy for getting a killer off who then went on to murder a family a few years ago.[11]
Paul Williams as J. T., a former colleague of Billy's with extensive contacts, who left his legal practice following the execution of a client.
James Wolk as FBI Special Agent Jeff Clayton, who agrees to help Billy hunt down his prime suspect in the Marcos Pena murder.[23]
Alexandra Billings as Judge Martha Wallace, the judge in the Pena murder case, and a former prosecutor who has history with both Billy and J.T.[24]
Manuel Garcia-Rulfo as Gabriel Ortega, a powerful drug lord behind the murder conspiracy; he has childhood connections to Marisol.
Annika Marks as Mary Roman[25]
JC Gonzalez as DJ Diego Spiz.[26]

text: Episodes[edit]

text: SeasonEpisodesOriginally airedFirst airedLast aired18October 13, 2016 (2016-10-13)28June 15, 2018 (2018-06-15)

text: Season 1 (2016)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal release date11"Of Mice and Men"Lawrence TrillingDavid E. Kelley & Jonathan ShapiroOctober 13, 2016 (2016-10-13)
22"Pride and Prejudice"Alik SakharovJonathan Shapiro & David E. KelleyOctober 13, 2016 (2016-10-13)
33"Game On"Bill D'EliaJonathan Shapiro & David E. KelleyOctober 13, 2016 (2016-10-13)
44"It's Donald"Alik SakharovJonathan ShapiroOctober 13, 2016 (2016-10-13)
55"Cover Your Ass"Anthony HemingwayJonathan ShapiroOctober 13, 2016 (2016-10-13)
66"Line of Fire"Lawrence TrillingJonathan ShapiroOctober 13, 2016 (2016-10-13)
77"Beauty and the Beast"Lawrence TrillingJonathan Shapiro & David E. KelleyOctober 13, 2016 (2016-10-13)
88"Citizens United"Lawrence TrillingJonathan Shapiro & David E. KelleyOctober 13, 2016 (2016-10-13)

text: Season 2 (2018)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal release date91"La Mano"Lawrence TrillingBen MyerJune 15, 2018 (2018-06-15)
102"Politics"Lawrence TrillingNoelle Valdivia and Tony SaltzmanJune 15, 2018 (2018-06-15)
113"Fresh Flowers"Dennie GordonJennifer Ames and Steve Turner & Marisa WegrzynJune 15, 2018 (2018-06-15)
124"Alo"Dennie GordonNoelle Valdivia and Tony SaltzmanJune 15, 2018 (2018-06-15)
135"Who's Gabriel"Dennie GordonTony SaltzmanJune 15, 2018 (2018-06-15)
146"Two Cinderellas"Lawrence TrillingNoelle ValdiviaJune 15, 2018 (2018-06-15)
157"Diablo Verde"Lawrence TrillingJennifer Ames and Steve TurnerJune 15, 2018 (2018-06-15)
168"Tongue Tied"Dennie GordonMarisa WegrzynJune 15, 2018 (2018-06-15)

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: On May 14, 2015, it was announced that Amazon had issued a pilot order for the series, then titled Trial, based off a script by David E. Kelley and Jonathan Shapiro.[27] On December 1, 2015, Amazon announced that it was bypassing the pilot process with the project and was instead issuing a straight-to-series order consisting of a ten-episode first season to premiere in 2016.[2]  The first season would ultimately come to consist of eight episodes total. On August 7, 2016, it was announced that the first season would premiere on October 13, 2016.[3]

text: Casting[edit]

text: On June 25, 2015, it was reported that Kevin Costner was in talks to join the series in the lead role of Billy McBride.[28] By June 30, he had exited talks.[29] On July 23, 2015, it was confirmed that Billy Bob Thornton had ultimately been cast in the role.[8] In August, Olivia Thirlby and Maria Bello joined the main cast.[14][13] On September 14, Sarah Wynter was cast in the series regular role of Gina Larson.[16] In November, Molly Parker and Britain Dalton joined the production as series regulars.[15][17] The following March, Nina Arianda and Tania Raymonde were also announced as part of the main cast.[9][10] In June, Dwight Yoakam and Harold Perrineau were cast in recurring roles.[22] In August, the final casting announcements, of Diana Hopper and Jason Ritter in recurring roles, were made.[7][30]

text: Renewal[edit]

text: On February 15, 2017, Amazon announced the series had been renewed for a second season. In that announcement, it was also confirmed that Clyde Phillips was joining the series in season two as the day-to-day showrunner. Kelley, Shapiro and Ross Fineman were set to remain in their roles as executive producers.[4]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the first season holds an approval rating of 78% based on 36 reviews, with an average score of 6.04/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Compelling performances from an excellent cast—led by standout Billy Bob Thornton—propel David E. Kelley's Goliath into must-watch TV territory."[31] On Metacritic the first season has a weighted average score of 65 out of 100, based on 26 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[32]

text: Season two holds a rating of 86% based on 7 professional reviews on Rotten Tomatoes. Audience reviews are sharply at odds with those of professional critics, scoring only a 53% rating, with many reviews scoring 1-star, or even half a star.[33]

text: Among Amazon Prime subscribers, Season two scores a mere 2.7 out of 5 stars with more than 4,700 reviews posted, 43% of which are rated one-star.[34]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year

Ceremony

Category

Recipient(s)

Result

Ref.

2017

74th Golden Globe Awards

Best Actor – Television Series Drama

Billy Bob Thornton

Won

[35]


document_title: South Beach

question_text: what is the main street in south beach miami

text: South Beach

text: History[edit]

text: South Beach started as farmland. In 1870, Henry and Charles Lum purchased 165 acres (67 ha) for coconut farming. Charles Lum built the first house on the beach in 1886. In 1894, the Lum brothers left the island, leaving control of the plantation to John Collins, who came to South Beach two years later to survey the land. He used the land for farming purposes, discovering fresh water and extending his parcel from 14th Street to 67th in 1907.[citation needed]

text: In 1912, Miami businessmen the Lummus Brothers acquired 400 acres (160 ha) of Collins' land in an effort to build an oceanfront city of modest single family residences. In 1913 Collins started construction of a bridge from Miami to Miami Beach. Although some local residents invested in the bridge, Collins ran short of money before he could complete it.[2]

text: Carl G. Fisher, a successful entrepreneur who made millions in 1909 after selling a business to Union Carbide, came to the beach in 1913. His vision was to establish South Beach as a successful city independent of Miami. This was the same year that the restaurant Joe's Stone Crab opened. Fisher loaned $50,000 to Collins for his bridge, which was completed in June, 1913. The Collins Bridge was later replaced by the Venetian Causeway.[3]

text: On March 26, 1915, Collins, Lummus, and Fisher consolidated their efforts and incorporated the Town of Miami Beach. In 1920 the County Causeway (renamed MacArthur Causeway in 1942[4]) was completed.[5] The Lummus brothers sold their oceanfront property, between 6th and 14th Streets, to the city. To this day, this area is known as Lummus Park.[citation needed]

text: In 1920, the Miami Beach land boom began. South Beach's main streets (5th Street, Alton Road, Collins Avenue, Washington Avenue, and Ocean Drive) were all suitable for automobile traffic. The population was growing in the 1920s, and several millionaires such as Harvey Firestone, J.C. Penney, Harry C. Stutz,[6] Albert Champion, Frank Seiberling, and Rockwell LaGorce built homes on Miami Beach. President Warren G. Harding stayed at the Flamingo Hotel during this time, increasing interest in the area.[citation needed]

text: In the 1930s, an architectural revolution came to South Beach, bringing Art Deco, Streamline Moderne, and Nautical Moderne architecture to the Beach. South Beach claims to be the world's largest collection of Streamline Moderne Art Deco architecture. Napier, New Zealand, another notable Art Deco city, is architecturally comparable to Miami Beach as it was rebuilt in the Ziggurat Art Deco style after being destroyed by an earthquake in 1931.[7]

text: By 1940, the beach had a population of 28,000. After the December 7, 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor, the Army Air Corps took command over Miami Beach.[citation needed] That year, tourism brought almost two million people to South Beach.[8]

text: In 1964, South Beach became even more famous when Jackie Gleason brought his weekly variety series, The Jackie Gleason Show to the area for taping, a rarity in the industry. Beginning in the mid 1960s and continuing through the 1980s, South Beach was used as a retirement community with most of its ocean-front hotels and apartment buildings filled with elderly people living on small, fixed incomes. This period also saw the introduction of the "cocaine cowboys," drug dealers who used the area as a base for their illicit drug activities. Scarface, released in 1983, typifies this activity. In addition, television show Miami Vice used South Beach as a backdrop for much of its filming because of the area's raw and unique visual beauty. A somewhat recurring theme of early Miami Vice episodes was thugs and drug addicts barricading themselves in utterly run-down, almost ruin-like empty buildings. Only minor alterations had to be made for these scenes because many buildings in South Beach really were in such poor condition at the time.[citation needed]

text: While many of the unique Art Deco buildings, such as the New Yorker Hotel, were lost to developers in the years before 1980, the area was saved as a cohesive unit by Barbara Capitman and a group of activists who spearheaded the movement to place almost one square mile of South Beach on the National Register of Historic Places. The Miami Beach Architectural District was designated in 1979.[citation needed]

text: Before the days of Miami Vice, South Beach was considered a very poor area with a very high rate of crime. Today, it is considered one of the wealthiest and most prosperous commercial areas on the beach. Despite this, poverty and crime still exist in some isolated places surrounding the area.[9]

text: In 2009, Natalie O'Neill of the Miami New Times said, "Until the 1980s, Miami Beach was a peculiar mix of criminals, Cubans, and little old ladies. Then the beautiful people moved in."[10] In the late 1980s, a renaissance began in South Beach, with an influx of fashion industry professionals moving into the area. In 1989, Irene Marie purchased the Sun Ray Apartments (famous for the chainsaw scene in Scarface) located on Ocean Drive and opened Irene Marie Models.[11]

text: Thomas Kramer is credited with starting the construction boom in South Beach, driving the gentrification of the area. It is now a popular living destination for the wealthy. Condominium units in the upscale high rises sell for millions. There are a number of vocal critics of the developments. The high-rise and high-density buildings are derided as a "concrete jungle". However, even critics concede that the development has changed the area into a pedestrian friendly, low-crime neighborhood.[12][13]

text: Today[edit]

text: In both daytime and at nightfall, the South Beach section of Miami Beach is a major entertainment destination with hundreds of nightclubs, restaurants, boutiques and hotels. The area is popular with tourists from Canada, Europe, Israel and the entire Western Hemisphere, with some having permanent or second homes. South Beach has also been visited by many American and foreign tourists by the fact that the practice of topless sunbathing by women on the beach and in a few hotel pools on Miami Beach has been considered by the local citizens as being more permissible than on most beaches of the United States, and despite the fact that the practice has not been officially legalized by the local government, it continues to be adopted in large scale.[14][15]

text: South Beach's residents' varied backgrounds are evident in the many languages spoken. In 2000, 55% of residents of the city of Miami Beach spoke Spanish as a first language, while English was the first language for 33% of the population. Portuguese (mainly Brazilian Portuguese) was spoken by 3% of residents, while French (including Canadian French) was spoken by 2%, and German by 1%. Italian, Russian, Yiddish and Hebrew were all spoken by less than 1%.[16]

text: Another unique aesthetic attribute of South Beach is the presence of several colorful and unique stands used by Miami Beach's lifeguards on South Beach. After Hurricane Andrew, Architect William Lane donated his design services to the city and added new stops on design tours in the form of lifeguard towers. His towers instantly became symbols of the revived City of Miami Beach.

text: LGBT Community[edit]

text: After decades of economic and social decline, an influx of gay men and lesbians moving to South Beach in the late-1980s to mid-1990s helped contribute to Miami Beach's revitalization. The newcomers purchased and restored dilapidated Art Deco hotels and clubs, started numerous businesses, and built political power in city and county government.[17] As South Beach became more popular as a national and international tourist destination, there have been occasional clashes between cultures and disputes about whether South Beach is as "gay friendly" as it once was.[18]

text: While being a gay mecca of the 1980s and 1990s, Miami Beach never had a city-sanctioned Gay Pride Parade until April 2009.[19] With strong support from Mayor Bower,[20] Miami Beach had its first Gay Pride Festival in April 2009.[21] It is now an annual event. The 2010 Pride drew tens of thousands of people.[22]

text: Miami Beach Gay Pride weekend has gained prominence since it first started in 2009, there has been an increase in attendance every year. In 2013 there were more than 80,000 people who participated in the event.[23] It has also attracted many celebrities such as Chaz Bono,[24] Adam Lambert,[25] Gloria Estefan, Mario Lopez, and Elvis Duran who were Grand Marshals for Pride weekend from 2012 through 2016[23][26] respectively. There are over 125 businesses who are LGBT supportive that sponsor Miami beach Gay Pride week end. The sponsors include Pinnacle Vodka, Fiat, Hard Rock Cafe, Miami’s hit radio station 103.5 The beat WMIB and Jeep.[27] Also, at the 2015 Pride Festival, the city decided to commemorate two gay “Legacy couples” who have been together for more than 50 years. The two couples Frank Petrole and Mark Rudick who have been together for 55 years and Mary Maguire and Jackie Emmett who have been together for 53 years.[28]

text: Controversy[edit]

text: In 2009, the ACLU began looking into instances of Miami Beach Police targeting gay men for harassment.[29] In February 2010, ACLU announced that it would sue the City of Miami Beach for an ongoing targeting and arrests of gay men in public.[30] According to the ACLU, Miami Beach police have a history of arresting gay men for simply looking “too gay”.[31]

text: At the meeting with the local gay leaders, Miami Beach Police Chief Carlos Noriega claimed that the incidents were isolated, and promised increased diversity training for police officers. He also announced that a captain, who is a lesbian, would soon be reassigned to internal affairs to handle complaints about police officers accused of harassing gays. Some members of the committee were skeptical of Noriega's assertion that the recent case wasn't indicative of a larger problem in the MBPD, and provided examples of other cases.[32]

text: Geography[edit]

text: South Beach is traversed by numerical streets which run east-west, starting with Biscayne Street, now popularly known as South Pointe Drive, one block south of First Street and the largely pedestrianized Lincoln Road (running parallel between 16th and 17th streets). It also has 13 principal Roads and Avenues running north-south, which, from the Biscayne Bay side, are Bay Road, West Avenue, Alton Road, Lenox Avenue, Michigan Avenue, Jefferson Avenue, Meridian Avenue, Euclid Avenue, Pennsylvania Avenue, Drexel Avenue, Washington Avenue, Collins Avenue (State Road A1A), and Ocean Drive. There are three smaller avenues (that do not run the entire length of South Beach) in the Collins Park area, named Park, Liberty, and James. Most locals agree that South Beach's northern boundary runs along Dade Boulevard from Lincoln Road on the bay side of the island, and heads east-north-east until it connects with 23rd Street, which forms the northern boundary on the ocean side.

text: Neighborhoods[edit]

text:
Belle Isle
City Center
Di Lido Island
Flagler Monument Island
Flamingo/Lummus
Hibiscus Island
Palm Island
Rivo Alto Island
San Marino Island
Star Island
South Pointe
SoFi- South of Fifth
West Avenue Corridor

text: Climate[edit]

text: Köppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies its climate as borderline between tropical monsoon (Am) and humid subtropical (Cfa).

text:
[hide]Climate data for South Beach

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Average high °F (°C)
73
(23)
73
(23)
79
(26)
81
(27)
86
(30)
88
(31)
90
(32)
90
(32)
88
(31)
84
(29)
79
(26)
75
(24)
82.2
(27.8)

Average low °F (°C)
54
(12)
54
(12)
59
(15)
63
(17)
68
(20)
72
(22)
73
(23)
73
(23)
73
(23)
68
(20)
61
(16)
55
(13)
64.4
(18)

Average precipitation inches (mm)
2.44
(62)
2.99
(76)
3.5
(89)
2.72
(69)
3.74
(95)
5.67
(144)
5.79
(147)
5.94
(151)
7.44
(189)
6.34
(161)
3.19
(81)
2.01
(51)
51.77
(1,315)

Average rainy days
8
7
8
5
10
14
15
16
15
10
8
7
123

Mean daily sunshine hours
7
8
9
9
9
9
9
9
8
8
7
7
8.3

Source: Weather2Travel[33]

text:
South Beach mean sea temperature[33]

Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec

75 °F (24 °C)
73 °F (23 °C)
75 °F (24 °C)
77 °F (25 °C)
81 °F (27 °C)
82 °F (28 °C)
84 °F (29 °C)
84 °F (29 °C)
84 °F (29 °C)
81 °F (27 °C)
79 °F (26 °C)
77 °F (25 °C)

text: Parks[edit]

text:
Collins Park - Collins Ave and 21st St
Flamingo Park- In between Michigan Ave and Meridian Av from 11th St to Española Way
Lummus Park - Ocean Drive from 5th St to 14th St
Maurice Gibb Park - Purdy Ave and Dade Blvd
Miami Beach Golf Club - Alton Road and W 23rd St
South Pointe Park - Washington Ave and South Pointe Dr
Washington Park - Washington Ave and 2nd St

text: Transportation[edit]

text: Public Transportation in South Beach, along with Downtown and Brickell, is heavily used, and is a vital part of South Beach life. Although South Beach has no direct Metrorail stations, numerous Metrobus lines (operated by Miami-Dade Transit), connect to Downtown Miami and Metrorail (i.e.: the 'S' bus line). The 'South Beach Local' or 'SBL' is one of the most heavily used lines in Miami, and connects all major points of South Beach to other major bus lines in the city. The ride for the SBL costs $0.25.

text: The Airport-Beach Express (Route 150), operated by MDT, is a direct-service bus line that connects Miami International Airport to major points in South Beach. The ride costs $2.35, and runs every 30 minutes from 6:00 a.m. to 11:00 p.m. seven days a week.[34]

text: South Beach, along with a handful of other neighborhoods in Greater Miami (such as Downtown and Brickell), is one of the areas where a car-free lifestyle is commonplace. Many South Beach residents get around by foot, bicycle, motorcycle, bus or by taxi, as the neighborhood is very urban, and pedestrian-friendly. Automobile congestion in the area is frequent, so getting around in South Beach by car can often prove more difficult than simply walking. Recently, Miami Beach has begun bicycle initiaves promoting citywide bike parking and bike lanes, that have made bicycling much more popular for residents and tourists. The Venetian Causeway for example, is a popular bicycle commuter route that connects South Beach to Downtown.

text: Lincoln Road, Ocean Drive, Washington Avenue, and Collins Avenue are popular shopping, eating, and entertainment streets for pedestrians. Lincoln Road is a pedestrian-only shopping street, and Collins Avenue around 5th Street, is mostly upscale retail.

text: Currently, a streetcar system, named 'Baylink' is in the planning stages. Baylink would connect South Beach to Downtown at Government Center Station via the MacArthur Causeway.

text: Education[edit]

text: This section is in a list format that may be better presented using prose. You can help by converting this section to prose, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (April 2012)

text: Elementary schools[edit]

text: Public schools[edit]

text: Miami-Dade County Public Schools operates area public schools:

text:
South Pointe Elementary School
Feinberg-Fisher Elementary School

text: Private schools[edit]

text:
First Presbyterian International Christian School
Gordon Day School (Jewish)
Prima Casa Montessori School

text: High schools[edit]

text:
Miami Beach Senior High School (public)
Rabbi Alexander Gross High School (private, Jewish)

text: Colleges and universities[edit]

text:
The Florida International University School of Architecture has a sister campus at 420 Lincoln Road in South Beach, with classroom spaces for FIU architecture, art, music and theater graduate students[35]
Lubavitch Educational Center (private, Jewish)
Miami Ad School (private)

text: Cultural institutions[edit]

text: Festivals and events[edit]

text:
Art Basel Miami, art exhibition held in December
Food Network South Beach Wine and Food Festival, held in February
Mercedes-Benz Fashion Week Miami, held in July
Miami Fashion Week, held in March
Miami International Film Festival, held in March
Miami Marathon, held in January
Urban Beach Week, Memorial Day weekend, last weekend in May. Urban hip-hop festival since 2001.[36]
White Party, held in Spring
Winter Music Conference, held in March

text: Libraries[edit]

text:
Miami-Dade Public Library

Miami Beach Regional Library
South Shore Library

Wolfsonian-FIU Library

text: Museums and historic sites[edit]

text:
ArtCenter/South Florida
Bass Museum
Miami Holocaust Memorial
Jewish Museum of Florida
Wolfsonian-FIU
World Erotic Art Museum Miami

text: Places of worship[edit]

text:
Miami Beach Community Church
Pentecostal Church of God
Saint Frances De Sales Church
Temple Beth Shmuel
Temple Emanu-El

text: Theatres and performance arts[edit]

text:
Colony Theater
Lincoln Theatre
Jackie Gleason Theater
Miami City Ballet
New World Center and New World Symphony Orchestra
SoBe Institute of the Arts (SoBe Arts)

text: Commercial and other areas[edit]

text: Lincoln Road[edit]

text: Lincoln Road is an open-air pedestrian mall, considered South Beach's premiere shopping area. It is home to many restaurants and several night clubs, such as Score, as well as many retail outlets. While Lincoln Road was one time rather downtrodden, it began a renaissance in the 1980s as an arts and cultural center. With its unique boutique shops and restaurants, it has had "an esoteric chic that maintains its trendy appeal."[37] It runs parallel in between 16th Street and 17th Street and spans the Beach in an east-west direction. Lincoln Road was fully accessible to automobile traffic until the 1950s when automobile access was limited from Alton Road to Biscayne Bay on the west end and Washington Avenue to the beach on the east end of Lincoln Road with Lincoln Mall limited to pedestrians stretching from Alton Road to Washington Avenue. Among the late 1990s restaurants on Lincoln Road was one owned by actor Michael Caine, and managed by one of his daughters. The restaurant has since closed. The Miami Beach Preservation Board approved the closure of automobile traffic on the westward part of Lincoln Mall, in favor of the renovation of the SunTrust building including the development of the 1111 Lincoln Road parking garage. Several other parking garages nearby greatly facilitate commerce.

text: Ocean Drive[edit]

text: Ocean Drive is the easternmost street in South Beach, and stems from Biscayne Street to 15th Street, running in a north-south direction. Ocean Drive is responsible for the South Beach aesthetic that most out-of-town visitors expect. It is a popular Spring Break and tourist area, including the famous, yet predominantly local, Pearl and Nikki Beach night spots. It is also home to several prominent restaurants (including "News Cafe," "Mango's," and the MTV-popularized "Clevelander") and is the site of Gianni Versace's former ocean front mansion.

text:
Ocean Plaza Hotel

Versace Mansion - Casa Casuarina

Leslie Hotel

Edison Hotel

Victor Hotel viewed from Lummus Park

Tides Hotel from Lummus Park

View north with Victor Hotel on the left of picture.

Betsy Hotel

The Carlyle Hotel

Fat Tuesday Miami Beach

The Tides Hotel

text: Collins Avenue[edit]

text: Collins Avenue runs parallel to Ocean Drive, one block west. It is also State Road A1A. Collins is home to many historic Art Deco hotels, and several nightclubs to the north, including Mynt and Rokbar.

text: Española Way[edit]

text: Española Way, which runs from Collins Avenue to Pennsylvania Avenue, was conceived by N.B.T. Roney (of Roney Plaza Hotel fame) in 1925 as "The Historic Spanish Village," modeled after the romantic Mediterranean villages found in France and Spain. Today it consists of restaurants, bars, art galleries, and quirky shops.

text:
Española Way and Drexel Avenue (view north)

The Clay Hotel on Española Way and Washington Avenue (view west)

Reconstruction of roadbed in 2017 - View East from Mid Street

After Reconstruction

text: Alton Road[edit]

text: Alton Road is the main westside north-south street located 1-3 blocks from Biscayne Bay. On the part that traverses South Beach, the road is host to many local businesses, including dry cleaners, small furniture stores, small grocery markets, non-chain restaurants and fast food restaurants. It is mainly residential once it crosses Michigan Avenue north of South Beach.

text: Washington Avenue[edit]

text: Washington Avenue is one of the best-known streets in South Beach. Running parallel with Ocean and Collins, Washington is notorious for having some of the world's largest and most popular nightclubs, such as Cameo and Mansion. During "season" the street is jammed with traffic until early in the morning (as late as 6 am) every night of the week. In the 1990s explosion of South Beach as a nightclub venue, its nightclub moguls included Ingrid Casares, whose investors included the singer Madonna. Washington Avenue is also home to countless shops, hotels, and such noted architectural features as Temple Emanu-El.

text: Old City Hall on Washinton Ave

text: West Avenue Corridor[edit]

text: The West Avenue Corridor extends from 5th Street north to 17th Street and bounded by the east side of Alton Road and Biscayne Bay. Development in the West Avenue Corridor began in the 1920s when three grand hotels were built on the shores of Biscayne Bay: The Flamingo, The Fleetwood and the Floridian. Al Capone and vacationing billionaires from the Golden Age made these hotels their winter hideaway. By the 1950, the hotels fell into ruin and tourists abandoned this side of South Beach for the oceanside.

text: All three properties, along with the rest of the Corridor, have since evolved into a middle-class, mixed use residential neighborhood. Each passing decade saw the addition of new architectural styles that enhance the diversity and appeal of the neighborhood. Amenities for residents and visitors include shopping, houses of worship, cafes, restaurants, parks and gyms.

text: Today, the West Avenue Corridor is one of the most desirable places to live in Miami Beach. Vacationers, homeowners and renters can find an abode to suit any style in this neighborhood that supports a combination of single family homes, original art deco buildings, MiMo mid-rises and contemporary high density high-rises.

text: The Corridor is home to almost 10,000 residents, over 40 different condominiums, several single family homes and a number of rental buildings. The neighborhood has changed over the years. The recent Census shows the neighborhood to be much younger and more year-round than in years past. It is highly walkable since it is a quiet neighborhood and is close to many amenities - Flamingo Park, Lincoln Road, the ocean, the nightlife of Ocean Drive and Washington Avenue, Whole Foods Market, Publix and many restaurants.

text: Located at 10th Street and West Avenue, The Shoppes at West Avenue, built almost 12 years ago by Gumenick Properties, hosts a locus of business activity that complements the residential community. There is a parking garage disguised by the architecture and on the ground level are shops such as Starbucks, one of the most neighborly on the Beach, Oliver's Bistro, a local "joint" with a European flair overseen by the welcoming and gracious owner, Hagen Taudt, a dry cleaner, the South Beach Animal Hospital, a spa, Massage by Design and other businesses.

text: Adding the neighborhood's attractiveness is its proximity to the neighborhoods of South of Fifth, Sunset Harbor, Belle Isle, the Venetian Islands and North Bay Road. In the South of Fifth community is the highly rated South Pointe Elementary School, an "A" rated school boasting the highly coveted International Baccalaureate® program.

text: One could say the Corridor has come full circle - the forefathers intentions were to create a magical lifestyle in a tropical paradise, and the residents who now make their home along the Bay fulfill and continue that lifestyle.

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Night architecture - Ocean Drive

Panorama - Looking North From South Point

Corner of 15th Street and Washington Avenue

Hurricane Irma, Washington Avenue and 15th Street, September 9 and September 11, 2017

SoFi neighborhood - Louver House

York Towers Apartments, 15th Street and Drexel Avenue

Dune vegetation after Hurricane Irma, September 12, and September 21, 2017, showing recovery of plants near 14th Street and Ocean Drive, Miami Beach

text: South Beach in popular culture[edit]

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text: Film[edit]

text:
The film Miami Vice (2006) was set in and around Miami.
South Beach is the setting of the fictional Birdcage drag nightclub in the comedy film The Birdcage (1996).[38]
The two Michael Bay directed action comedy films starring Will Smith and Martin Lawrence, Bad Boys (1995) and Bad Boys II (2003) were set in and around Miami and South Beach.[39][40][41][42]

text: Music[edit]

text: The music video for Priyanka Chopra's single "Exotic" (2013) was filmed in South Beach.

text: Television[edit]

text:
A number of episodes of the action drama television series Burn Notice (2007–2013) take place in or reference South Beach.
The sixth season of the BET reality television series College Hill (2009) was set in South Beach.
The television series Miami Vice (1984 to 1989) was set and shot in and around Miami.
South Beach (1993) was an action television series set in South Beach that aired on NBC.
South Beach (2006) was a critically panned primetime television drama that aired on UPN.
South Beach Classics (2011) was a reality television series that aired on Discovery about persons who deal in classic, antique, muscle, and other specialized automobiles.
South Beach Tow (2011–present) is a reality television series that portrays dramatized reenactments of the day-to-day business of a real Miami towing company, Tremont Towing.