document_title: Timeline of Roman history

question_text: what were the territories that rome conquered called

text: Timeline of Roman history

text: This is a timeline of Roman history, comprising important legal and territorial changes and political events in the Roman Kingdom and Republic and the Roman and Byzantine Empires. To read about the background of these events, see Ancient Rome and History of the Byzantine Empire.

text: Following tradition, this timeline marks the deposition of Romulus Augustulus and the Fall of Constantinople as the end of Rome in the west and east, respectively. See Third Rome for a discussion of claimants to the succession of Rome.

text: 7th century BC[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Event

753 BC
21 April
Rome was founded.

673 BC

Tullus Hostilius became King of Rome.

667 BC

Byzantium was founded by Megarian colonists.

642 BC

Tullus Hostilius died.

The Curiate Assembly, one of the legislative assemblies of the Roman Kingdom, elected Ancus Marcius King of Rome.

617 BC

Ancus Marcius died.

616 BC

The Curiate Assembly elected Lucius Tarquinius Priscus King of Rome.

tag: table

text: 6th century BC[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Event

579 BC

Lucius Tarquinius Priscus was killed in a riot instigated by the sons of Ancus Marcius.

575 BC

The Senate accepted the regent Servius Tullius as king of Rome.

535 BC

Servius Tullius was murdered by his daughter Tullia Minor and her husband Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, who declared himself king of Rome on the steps of the Curia Hostilia.

509 BC

The patrician Lucretia was raped by Lucius Tarquinius Superbus's son Sextus Tarquinius.

Overthrow of the Roman monarchy: Following Lucretia's suicide, Lucius Junius Brutus called the Curiate Assembly, one of the legislative assemblies of the Roman Kingdom. The latter agreed to the overthrow and expulsion of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus and to a provisional constitution under which two consuls acted as a joint executive and a Curiate Assembly held legislative power, and swore never again to let a king rule Rome. It further elected Lucius Junius Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, Lucretia's husband, as consuls.

Battle of Silva Arsia: Tarquinian and Veientine forces loyal to Lucius Tarquinius Superbus were defeated in the Silva Arsia by a Roman army. Lucius Junius Brutus was killed. Publius Valerius Publicola, returning to Rome with the spoils of war, was awarded the first Roman Triumph on March 1.

The consul Publius Valerius Publicola promulgated a number of liberal reforms, including opening the office of consul to all Roman citizens and placing the treasury under the administration of appointed quaestors.

13 September
The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus was ceremonially dedicated to the Capitoline Triad.

508 BC

Roman–Etruscan Wars: A Clusian army failed to conquer Rome.

501 BC

In the face of a potential Sabine invasion, the Senate passed a senatus consultum authorizing the consuls to appoint a dictator, a magistrate who held absolute power during a national emergency. The dictator would in turn appoint the Magister equitum, the commander of the cavalry. The consuls Titus Lartius and Postumus Cominius Auruncus selected the former as dictator.

text: 5th century BC[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Event

496 BC

Battle of Lake Regillus: Latin League invasion near modern Frascati which sought to reinstall Lucius Tarquinius Superbus.

494 BC

First secessio plebis:
Lucius Sicinius Vellutus, the plebs abandoned Rome for the nearby Monte Sacro.

471 BC

After a law allowing organization of the plebs tribe, the Plebeian Council was reorganized by tribes rather than curiae.

459 BC

Under popular pressure, the Senate tribunes of the plebs from two to ten.

458 BC

The first dictatorship of Cincinnatus, Aequian offensive, breaking a truce. Cincinnatus defeated the Aquians at the Battle of Mount Algidus and after a triumph, returned to his farm after sixteen days.[1]

449 BC

Resolutions of the Plebeian Council were given the full force of law subject to Senate veto.

The second of two decemviri, special elected ten-man commissions, issued the last of the Twelve Tables, the fundamental law of the republic.

447 BC

The Tribal Assembly was established, and granted the right to elect quaestors.

445 BC

Marriage between patricians and plebeians was legalized.

443 BC

The offices of the Tribuni militum consulari potestate were established. A collegium of three patrician or plebeian tribunes, one each from the Roman tribes the Titienses, the Ramnenses, and the Luceres, would hold the power of the consuls from year to year by the decision of the Senate.

The office of the censor, a patrician magistrate responsible for conducting the census in years without a consul, was established.

439 BC

After the patricians suspected Spurius Maelius of intending to buy the support of the plebeians with wheat and set himself up as a king, Cincinnatus was called for a second dictatorship. Gaius Servilius Ahala was appointed magister equitum in order to stop him, and after having been attacked by Maelius, Ahala slew him. Cincinnatus again resigned his dictatorship and returned to his farm after 21 days.[2]

435 BC

Fidenae, an important trade post up the Tiber, was captured from the Veii.[3]

408 BC

The Tribuni militum consulari potestate held office.

text: 4th century BC[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Event

396 BC

Battle of Veii: Roman forces led by the dictator Marcus Furius Camillus conquered Veii.

Roman soldiers first earned a salary.

394 BC

The consuls held office.

391 BC

The Tribuni militum consulari potestate held office.

390 BC
18 July
Battle of the Allia: The Senones routed a Roman force at the confluence of the Allia and the Tiber.

The Senones sacked Rome.

367 BC

The consuls held office.

366 BC

Lucius Sextius was elected the first plebeian consul.

The office of the Praetor, which took the judiciary responsibilities of the consul and could be held only by a patrician, was established.

351 BC

The first plebeian dictator was elected.

The first plebeian censor was elected.

343 BC

Samnite Wars: Rome marched against the Samnites, probably after an appeal from the Campanians.

Battle of Mount Gaurus: A Samnite force was put to flight by a Roman army near Mount Barbaro.

342 BC

The Leges Genuciae were passed, banning lending at interest and the holding of two offices at the same time or during any ten-year period.

341 BC

Samnite Wars: The Senate agreed to peace following a Samnite appeal to an earlier treaty of friendship.

340 BC

Latin War: The Latin League invaded Samnium.

339 BC

A law was passed which required the election of at least one plebeian censor every five years.

338 BC

Latin War: The Latin armies were defeated.

337 BC

The first plebeian Praetor was elected.

328 BC

Samnite Wars: Rome declared war on the Samnites after their failure to prevent their subjects raiding Fregellae.

321 BC

Battle of the Caudine Forks: Roman forces were allowed to leave after being trapped in a waterless mountain pass near Caudium by a Samnite army.

315 BC

Battle of Lautulae: A decisive Samnite victory near Terracina split Rome in half.

311 BC

Samnite Wars: The Etruscans laid siege to Sutri.

310 BC

Battle of Lake Vadimo (310 BC): Rome dealt a bloody defeat to the Etruscans at Lake Vadimo.

308 BC

Samnite Wars: The Umbri, Picentes and Marsi joined the Samnites against Rome.

306 BC

The Hernici declared their independence of Rome.

305 BC

Battle of Bovianum: A Roman force destroyed the majority of the Samnite army.

304 BC

Rome conquered the Aequi.

Samnite Wars: The treaty of friendship between the Romans and Samnites was restored.

text: 3rd century BC[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Event

300 BC

The Lex Ogulnia was passed, allowing plebeians to take roles in the priesthood.

298 BC

Samnite Wars: Rome declared war on the Samnites after an appeal by the Lucani.

Samnite Wars: Rome captured the Samnite cities of Bojano and Castel di Sangro.

297 BC

Battle of Tifernum: A Roman army defeated a numerically superior Samnite force at Città di Castello.

295 BC

Battle of Sentinum: A Roman army decisively defeated a numerically superior force of Samnites, Etruscans, Umbri and Senones in coalition at Sentinum. The consul Publius Decius Mus (consul 312 BC) was killed.

294 BC

Samnite Wars: Roman and Samnite forces met in battle at Lucera.

293 BC

Battle of Aquilonia: A Roman army destroyed the majority of Samnite forces, probably in modern Agnone.

A census counted some three hundred thousand as residents of Rome.

291 BC

Samnite Wars: Rome conquered and colonized the Samnite city of Venosa.

290 BC

Samnite Wars: The last Samnite resistance was crushed.

287 BC

Conflict of the Orders: A secessio plebis took place.

Conflict of the Orders: The Lex Hortensia was passed, ending the power of the Senate to veto resolutions of the Plebeian Council.

283 BC

Battle of Lake Vadimo (283 BC): A Roman army defeated a combined force of Etruscans, Boii and Senones near Lake Vadimo.

281 BC

Taranto appealed to Epirus for aid against Rome.

280 BC

Pyrrhic War: An Epirote army of some twenty-five thousand landed at Taranto.

July
Battle of Heraclea: A Greek coalition force led by the Epirote king Pyrrhus of Epirus defeated a Roman army after their deployment of war elephants at Heraclea Lucania.

279 BC

Battle of Asculum: A Greek force led by the Epirote king Pyrrhus defeated a Roman army at modern Ascoli Satriano, despite suffering heavy losses.

275 BC

Battle of Beneventum (275 BC): Roman and Epirote armies met in a bloody battle at Benevento.

272 BC

Pyrrhic War: Pyrrhus withdrew with his army to Epirus.

Pyrrhic War: Taranto surrendered to Rome.

267 BC

The number of quaestors was raised from four to ten.

264 BC

Battle of Messana: A Roman force defeated a Carthaginian and Siracusani garrison at Messina.

242 BC

The office of the praetor qui inter peregrinos ius dicit, a Praetor with jurisdiction over foreigners, was created.

241 BC

First Punic War: Sicily was organized as the province of Sicilia.

238 BC

Mercenary War: Carthage surrendered its claims on Sardinia and Corsica to Rome.

229 BC

Illyrian Wars: Rome invaded the territory of the Ardiaei.

228 BC

Illyrian Wars: The Ardiaei surrendered some territory, including strategically significant ports, to Rome, ending the war.

225 BC

Battle of Telamon: A Roman army decisively defeated a Gallic invasion near modern Talamone. The consul Gaius Atilius Regulus was killed.

219 BC

Illyrian Wars: Rome invaded Hvar.

218 BC

Second Punic War: A Carthaginian army departed Cartagena.

Illyrian Wars: Demetrius of Pharos fled to Macedonia.

216 BC
2 August
Battle of Cannae: The Carthaginian general Hannibal decisively defeated a numerically superior Roman force at Cannae.

214 BC

First Macedonian War: A Macedonian fleet captured Oricum.

Siege of Syracuse (214–212 BC): Rome laid siege to Syracuse.

212 BC

Siege of Syracuse (214–212 BC): Roman forces breached the inner citadel of Syracuse and slaughtered its inhabitants.

205 BC

First Macedonian War: Rome and Macedonia signed the Treaty of Phoenice, according to which Macedonia renounced its alliance with Carthage in exchange for Roman recognition of its gains in Illyria.

204 BC

Second Punic War: The consul Scipio Africanus landed an invasion fleet at Utica.

202 BC
19 October
Battle of Zama: A Roman army decisively defeated Carthage, probably near modern Sakiet Sidi Youssef.

201 BC

Second Punic War: Carthage accepted Roman conditions for peace, including disarmament, a war indemnity of ten thousand talents, and the cession of Iberia, ending the war.

text: 2nd century BC[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Event

200 BC

Second Macedonian War: A Roman fleet arrived in Illyria to relieve a Macedonian siege of Abydos.

197 BC

The provinces of Hispania Ulterior and Hispania Citerior were organized.

The number of quaestors was increased to twelve.

The number of Praetors was increased to six.

196 BC

Second Macedonian War: Macedonia surrendered its conquests in Greece and agreed to pay a war indemnity, ending the war.

192 BC

Roman–Seleucid War: The Seleucid Empire invaded Greece.

188 BC

Roman–Seleucid War: The Seleucid Empire signed the Treaty of Apamea, under which it surrendered all territory west of the Taurus Mountains to the Roman clients Rhodes and Pergamon and agreed to disarm its navy and pay a war indemnity of fifteen thousand talents of silver to Rome.

180 BC

The Lex Villia annalis, which established minimum ages for high office and required a minimum of two years in private life between offices, was passed.

172 BC

Third Macedonian War: Rome declared war on Macedonia.

167 BC

Third Macedonian War: The Macedonian king Perseus of Macedon was captured. Macedonia was divided into four districts subject to Rome.

155 BC

Lusitanian War: The Lusitanians of Hispania Ulterior rebelled against Rome.

150 BC

Fourth Macedonian War: An Andriscus rebelled against Rome, claiming to be Perseus's son and the rightful king of Macedonia.

149 BC

Third Punic War: Rome declared war on Carthage.

The Lex Calpurnia was passed, establishing a Praetor-led court to hear appeals against extortionate taxes levied by governors in the provinces.

148 BC

Fourth Macedonian War: Andriscus was surrendered to Rome to be executed.

146 BC

Third Punic War: Roman forces breached the city of Carthage, burned it, and enslaved its surviving inhabitants.

Battle of Corinth (146 BC): Roman forces decisively defeated the armies of the Achaean League at Corinth.

The province of Macedonia was organized.

The province of Africa was organized on captured Carthaginian territory.

139 BC

Lusitanian War: The Lusitanian leader Viriatus was assassinated by his three ambassadors to Rome Audax, Ditalcus and Minurus.

133 BC

The Tribune of the Plebs Tiberius Gracchus was beaten to death by a mob of senators led by the Pontifex Maximus Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Serapio (consul 138 BC).

121 BC

The province of Gallia Narbonensis was organized.

The first Senatus consultum ultimum was passed, granting the consul Lucius Opimius emergency powers to defeat the partisans of Gaius Gracchus.

112 BC

Jugurthine War: Rome declared war on Numidia.

107 BC

Gaius Marius was elected consul.

Marius instituted the Marian reforms of the military, among them the establishment of a standing army and the recruitment of non-property owners.

106 BC

Marius was reelected consul.

Jugurthine War: The Numidian king Jugurtha was imprisoned in the Mamertine Prison.

105 BC
6 October
Battle of Arausio: A coalition of the Cimbri and Teutons inflicted a serious defeat on the Roman army at modern Orange. Some hundred thousand Roman soldiers were killed.

104 BC

Marius was elected consul for the first of three years in a row.

102 BC

Battle of Aquae Sextiae: Rome decisively defeated the forces of the Teutons and Ambrones and killed some ninety thousand soldiers and civilians.

101 BC

Battle of Vercellae: An invasion of Italy by the Cimbri was decisively defeated by a numerically inferior Roman force. Some hundred thousand Cimbri soldiers and civilians were killed along with their king Boiorix.

text: 1st century BC[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Event

100 BC

Marius was elected consul.

10 December
Assassins hired by Marius's political allies Lucius Appuleius Saturninus and Gaius Servilius Glaucia beat to death Gaius Memmius (tribune), a candidate for the consulship.

91 BC

Social War (91–88 BC): The Roman clients in Italy the Marsi, the Paeligni, the Vestini, the Marrucini, the Picentes, the Frentani, the Hirpini, the Iapyges, Pompeii, Venosa, Lucania and Samnium rebelled against Rome.

88 BC

Sulla's first civil war: The consul Sulla led an army of his partisans across the pomerium into Rome.

Social War (91–88 BC): The war ended.

87 BC

First Mithridatic War: Roman forces landed at Epirus.

85 BC

First Mithridatic War: A peace was agreed between Rome and Pontus under which the latter returned to its prewar borders.

83 BC

Sulla's second civil war: Sulla landed with an army at Brindisi.

Second Mithridatic War: The Roman general Lucius Licinius Murena invaded Pontus.

82 BC

Sulla's second civil war: Sulla was declared dictator.

81 BC

Second Mithridatic War: Murena withdrew from Pontus.

80 BC

Sertorian War: Quintus Sertorius landed on the Iberian Peninsula in support of a Lusitanian rebellion.

73 BC

Third Mithridatic War: Pontus invaded Bithynia.

Third Servile War: Some seventy gladiators, slaves of Lentulus Batiatus in Capua, made a violent escape.

72 BC

Sertorian War: Marcus Perpenna Vento, by now the leader of the Romans in revolt in Iberia, was executed by the general Pompey.

71 BC

Third Servile War: The slaves in rebellion were decisively defeated by Roman forces near Petelia. Their leader Spartacus was killed.

66 BC

The last of the Cilician pirates were wiped out by Pompey.

63 BC

Third Mithridatic War: Defeated, the Pontic king Mithridates VI of Pontus ordered his friend and bodyguard to kill him.

Siege of Jerusalem (63 BC): Pompey conquered Jerusalem and entered the Holy of Holies of the Second Temple.

Cicero was elected consul.

Second Catilinarian conspiracy: A conspiracy led by the senator Catiline to overthrow the Republic was exposed before the Senate. The five conspirators present were summarily executed in the Mamertine Prison.

59 BC

Pompey joined a political alliance, the so-called First Triumvirate, with the consul Julius Caesar and the censor Marcus Licinius Crassus.

58 BC

Gallic Wars: Roman forces barred the westward migration of the Helvetii across the Rhône.

53 BC
6 May
Battle of Carrhae: A Parthian army decisively defeated a numerically superior Roman invasion force near Harran. Crassus was killed.

50 BC

Gallic Wars: The last Gaulish rebels were defeated.

49 BC
10 January
Caesar's Civil War: Caesar illegally crossed the Rubicon into Italy with his army.

48 BC
4 January
Caesar's Civil War: Caesar landed at Durrës in pursuit of Pompey and his partisans the optimates.

46 BC
November
Caesar left Africa for Iberia in pursuit of Pompey's sons Gnaeus Pompeius (son of Pompey the Great) and Sextus Pompey.

44 BC
15 March
Assassination of Julius Caesar: Caesar was assassinated in the Theatre of Pompey by a conspiracy of senators.

43 BC
27 November
The Lex Titia was passed, granting the Second Triumvirate of Augustus, Mark Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir) the power to make and annul laws and appoint magistrates.

42 BC

Liberators' civil war: Augustus and Antony led some thirty legions to northern Greece in pursuit of Caesar's assassins Marcus Junius Brutus the Younger and Gaius Cassius Longinus.

23 October
Liberators' civil war: Brutus committed suicide after being defeated in battle.

33 BC

Antony's Parthian War: A campaign led by Antony against the Parthian Empire ended in failure.

The Second Triumvirate expired.

31 BC
2 September
Battle of Actium: Forces loyal to Augustus defeated Antony and his lover Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, in a naval battle near Actium.

30 BC
1 August
Final War of the Roman Republic: Antony's forces defected to Augustus. He committed suicide.

30 August
Cleopatra committed suicide, probably in Roman custody and by snakebite.

The province of Egypt was organized. Augustus took the title pharaoh.

29 BC

Moesia was annexed to Rome.

Cantabrian Wars: Rome deployed some eighty thousand soldiers against the Cantabri in Iberia.

27 BC
16 January
The Senate granted Augustus the titles augustus, majestic, and princeps, first.

25 BC

Augustus indicated his nephew Marcus Claudius Marcellus (Julio-Claudian dynasty) as his chosen successor by marrying him to his only daughter Julia the Elder.

The Roman client Amyntas of Galatia died. Augustus organized his territory as the province of Galatia.

24 BC

Augustus' campaigns against the Cantabrians in Hispania Tarraconensis, the Cantabrian Wars, ended.

23 BC

Coinage reform of Augustus: Augustus centralized the minting of and reformed the composition and value of the Roman currency.

Marcellus died.

21 BC

Augustus married Julia to his general Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa.

19 BC

Cantabrian Wars: The last major combat operations ended. The Cantabri and Astures were pacified.

17 BC

Augustus adopted the sons of Agrippa and Julia, his grandsons Gaius Caesar and Lucius Caesar, as his own sons.

16 BC

Raetia and Noricum were conquered and annexed to Rome.

12 BC

Germanic Wars: Roman forces crossed the Rhine into Germania.

Agrippa died of fever.

11 BC

Augustus married Julia to his general and stepson Tiberius.

9 BC

The Roman general Nero Claudius Drusus died from injuries sustained falling from a horse.

Pannonia was annexed and incorporated into Illyricum.

6 BC

Augustus offered Tiberius tribunician power and imperium over the eastern half of the Empire. Tiberius refused, announcing his retirement to Rhodes.

2 BC

Augustus was acclaimed Pater Patriae, father of the country, by the Senate.[4]

Augustus convicted Julia of adultery and treason, annulled her marriage to Tiberius, and exiled her with her mother Scribonia to Ventotene.

text: 1st century[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Event

AD 2
2 August
Lucius Caesar died of a sudden illness.

Augustus allowed Tiberius to return to Rome as a private citizen.

AD 4
21 February
Gaius Caesar died in Lycia from wounds suffered in battle.

Augustus adopted Tiberius as his son and granted him tribunician power.

AD 6

Augustus deposed Herod Archelaus, ethnarch in Samaria, Judea and Idumea, and organized the province of Judea on his territories.

Bellum Batonianum: The Daesitiates, an Illyrian people, rose up against Roman authority in Illyricum.

AD 9

Bellum Batonianum: The Daesitiate chieftain Bato (Daesitiate chieftain) surrendered to Roman forces.

September
Battle of the Teutoburg Forest: A coalition of Germanic forces ambushed and destroyed three Roman legions in the Teutoburg Forest. Publius Quinctilius Varus, the commander of Roman forces in Germania, committed suicide.

AD 10

Tiberius assumed command of Roman forces in Germania.

Illyricum was divided into the provinces of Pannonia and Dalmatia.

AD 13

Tiberius was granted power equal to Augustus as co-princeps.

AD 14
19 August
Augustus died.

Germanicus, son of Nero Claudius Drusus and adoptive son of Tiberius, was appointed commander of Roman forces in Germania.

Germanicus and Tiberius's natural son Drusus Julius Caesar were sent to suppress mutinies in Germania and Pannonia, respectively.

AD 15

Lucius Seius Strabo was appointed governor of Egypt. His son Sejanus remained as the sole prefect of the Praetorian Guard.

AD 16

Battle of the Weser River: A Roman army led by Germanicus decisively defeated a Germanic force on the Weser.

AD 17

Archelaus of Cappadocia, king in Cappadocia and a Roman client, died. Tiberius annexed his territory, organizing it as the province of Cappadocia.

Antiochus III of Commagene, king of Commagene and a Roman client, died. Tiberius annexed his territory to the province of Syria.

AD 18

Tiberius granted Germanicus imperium over the eastern half of the Empire.

AD 19
10 October
Germanicus died in Antioch, possibly after being poisoned on Tiberius's orders.

AD 22

Tiberius granted Drusus Julius Caesar tribunician power, marking him as his choice as successor.

AD 23
14 September
Drusus Julius Caesar died, possibly after being poisoned by Sejanus or his wife Livilla.

AD 26

Tiberius retired to Capri, leaving Sejanus in control of Rome through his office.

AD 28

The Frisii hanged their Roman tax collectors and expelled the governor.

AD 29

Livia, Augustus's widow and Tiberius's mother, died.

AD 31
18 October
Sejanus was executed on Tiberius's orders.

Tiberius invited Germanicus's son Caligula to join him on Capri.

AD 37
16 March
Tiberius died. His will left his offices jointly to Caligula and Drusus Julius Caesar's son, his grandson Tiberius Gemellus.

AD 38

Tiberius Gemellus was murdered on Caligula's orders.

AD 40

Ptolemy of Mauretania, king of Mauretania and a Roman client, was murdered on Caligula's orders during a state visit to Rome. His slave Aedemon rose in revolt against Roman rule.

AD 41

The general Gaius Suetonius Paulinus was appointed to suppress the rebellion in Mauretania.

24 January
Caligula was assassinated by the centurion Cassius Chaerea.

The Praetorian Guard acclaimed Nero Claudius Drusus's son Claudius princeps.

Claudius restored the Judean monarchy under king Herod Agrippa.

AD 42

The territory of the former Mauretania was organized into the provinces of Mauretania Caesariensis and Mauretania Tingitana.

AD 43

Roman conquest of Britain: The senator Aulus Plautius led four legions into Great Britain in support of king Verica of the Atrebates.

Claudius annexed Lycia into the Empire as a province.

AD 46

The Odrysian king Rhoemetalces III, a Roman client, was killed by anti-Roman insurgents.

Odrysia was incorporated into the Empire as the province of Thracia.

AD 48

Claudius's wife Messalina was executed for conspiracy.

Claudius appointed Herod Agrippa's son Herod Agrippa II king of Judea.

AD 49

Claudius married his niece, Germanicus's daughter Agrippina the Younger.

AD 50

Claudius adopted Agrippina's son Nero as his own son.

AD 54
13 October
Claudius died after being poisoned by Agrippina. Nero succeeded him as princeps.

AD 55
11 February
Claudius's young natural son Britannicus died, probably by poison.

AD 58

Roman–Parthian War of 58–63: Roman forces attacked Armenia in support of their preferred king Tigranes VI of Armenia against the Parthian candidate Tiridates I of Armenia.

AD 59
23 March
Agrippina died, probably murdered by her son Nero.

AD 60

Boudica, a queen of the Iceni, was appointed to lead a revolt of the Iceni and the Trinovantes against Rome.

AD 61

Battle of Watling Street: Some eighty thousand soldiers and civilians among the Iceni and Trinovantes were killed, probably in the modern West Midlands, ending Boudica's revolt.

AD 63

Roman–Parthian War of 58–63: The Roman and Parthian Empires agreed that Tiridates and his descendants would remain kings of Armenia as Roman clients, ending the war.

AD 64
18 July
Great Fire of Rome: A fire began which would cause massive property damage and loss of life over six days in Rome.

Nero began construction of his large and extravagant villa the Domus Aurea.

AD 65
19 April
Pisonian conspiracy: Nero was informed of a broad conspiracy to assassinate him and appoint the senator Gaius Calpurnius Piso leader of Rome.

AD 66

First Jewish–Roman War: The Jewish population of Judea revolted against Roman rule.

AD 68
9 June
Nero, then in hiding in the villa of the freedman Phaon (freedman), was notified that the Senate had declared him an enemy of the state and ordered him brought to the Forum to be publicly beaten to death. He ordered his secretary Epaphroditos to kill him.

The Senate accepted Galba, governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, as ruler of Rome.

Zealot Temple Siege: The forces of Ananus ben Ananus, the Jewish former High Priest of Israel, laid siege to the Zealots in the Second Temple.

AD 69
15 January
The Praetorian Guard assassinated Galba and acclaimed Otho ruler of Rome.

16 April
Following his defeat by Vitellius, the commander of the Roman army on the lower Rhine, near modern Calvatone, and to prevent further civil war, Otho committed suicide.

Revolt of the Batavi: Gaius Julius Civilis, commander of the Batavi auxiliaries in the Rhine legions, turned against Rome.

December
The Senate recognized Vespasian, the commander of Roman forces in Egypt and Judea, as ruler of Rome.

22 December
Vitellius was executed in Rome by troops loyal to Vespasian.

AD 70

Revolt of the Batavi: Following a series of battlefield reversals, Civilis accepted peace terms from the Roman general Quintus Petillius Cerialis.

September
Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE): The Roman general Titus breached the walls of Jerusalem, sacked the city and destroyed the Second Temple.

AD 71

Roman conquest of Britain: Roman forces entered modern Scotland.

AD 73
16 April
Siege of Masada: Roman forces breached the walls of Masada, a mountain fortress held by the Jewish extremist sect the Sicarii.

AD 77

Gnaeus Julius Agricola was appointed consul and governor of Britain.

AD 79
23 June
Vespasian died. He was succeeded by his son Titus.

24 August
Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79: Mount Vesuvius erupted, destroying the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum.

AD 80

Rome was partially destroyed by fire.

March
The Colosseum was completed.

AD 81
13 September
Titus died of fever. He was succeeded by his younger brother Domitian.

AD 85

Agricola was recalled to Rome.

AD 86

Domitian's Dacian War: The Dacian king Decebalus invaded Moesia.

AD 88

Domitian's Dacian War: Decebalus agreed to return all Roman prisoners of war and accept his status as a Roman client in exchange for an annual subsidy of eight million sestertii, ending the war.

AD 89
1 January
Lucius Antonius Saturninus, governor of Germania Superior, revolted against Domitian's rule.

Saturninus was executed.

AD 96
18 September
Domitian was assassinated by members of the royal household.

Nerva was declared ruler of Rome by the Senate.

AD 97

Nerva adopted the general and former consul Trajan as his son.

AD 98
27 January
Nerva died. Trajan succeeded him.

text: 2nd century[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Event

101

First Dacian War: Rome invaded Dacia.

September
Second Battle of Tapae: Dacian forces retreated from contact with the Romans at Tapae.

102

First Dacian War: The Dacian king Decebalus reaffirmed his loyalty to Rome, ending the war.

105

Second Dacian War: Trajan responded to the resumption of raids on Roman settlements in Moesia by invading Dacia.

106

Battle of Sarmisegetusa: Roman forces breached the Dacian capital Sarmizegetusa Regia. The Dacian king Decebalus escaped to the east.

The Nabatean king Rabbel II Soter died.

22 March
Nabatea was annexed to the Roman empire as the province of Arabia Petraea.

Second Dacian War: The Dacian king Decebalus committed suicide in his fortification at Ranisstorum to avoid capture.

107

The province of Dacia was organized.

112

Trajan's Forum was inaugurated.

113

Roman–Parthian Wars: Trajan launched an expedition against Parthia.

Trajan's Column was erected in Trajan's Forum to commemorate the victory over Dacia.

114

Trajan deposed the Armenian king Parthamasiris of Armenia, a Roman client, and organized the province of Armenia on his territory.

115

Kitos War: The Jews in Cyrene rose up against Roman authority.

116

The provinces of Mesopotamia and Assyria were organized on territory conquered from Parthia.

Trajan captured the Parthian capital Ctesiphon and deposed its shah Osroes I in favor of his son Parthamaspates of Parthia.

117

Kitos War: Roman forces captured the rebel stronghold of Lod and executed many of its inhabitants.

8 August
Trajan died.

10 August
The Senate accepted the general Hadrian as ruler of Rome, following the appearance of documents indicating he had been adopted by Trajan.

Osroes I deposed his son Parthamaspates of Parthia and replaced him as shah of Parthia.

118

Hadrian withdrew from the territories of Armenia, Assyria and Mesopotamia, allowing the return of their respective client monarchies.

119

A rebellion took place in Britain.

122

The construction of Hadrian's Wall at the northern border of Britain began.

123

Hadrian arrived in Mauretania to suppress a local revolt.

124

Hadrian travelled to Greece.

126

Hadrian returned to Rome.

The rebuilt Pantheon was dedicated to Agrippa, its original builder.

132

Bar Kokhba revolt: Simon bar Kokhba, believed by his followers to be the Messiah, launched a revolt against Roman authority in Judea.

135

Bar Kokhba revolt: The revolt ended at a cost of tens of thousands of Roman soldiers and some six hundred thousand Jewish rebels and civilians, including bar Kokhba, killed. Judea and Syria were combined into the single province of Syria Palaestina.

136

Hadrian adopted Lucius Aelius as his son and successor.

138
1 January
Lucius Aelius died.

25 February
Hadrian adopted Antoninus Pius as his son and successor and granted him tribunician power and imperium, on the condition that he in turn adopt Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus as his sons.

10 July
Hadrian died, probably from heart failure.

11 July
Antoninus succeeded Hadrian.

141

Roman conquest of Britain: Roman forces invaded modern Scotland under the command of the British governor Quintus Lollius Urbicus.

142

The construction of the Antonine Wall at the northern border of Britain began.

161
7 March
Antoninus died. He was succeeded by Marcus and Lucius Verus.

Roman–Parthian War of 161–166: The Parthian Empire deposed the Armenian king Sohaemus of Armenia, a Roman client, and installed Bakur.

165

Antonine Plague: A pandemic, probably of smallpox or measles, began which would kill some five million people throughout the Roman Empire.

166

Roman–Parthian War of 161–166: Roman forces sacked the Parthian capital Ctesiphon.

169

Lucius Verus died of disease, leaving Marcus the sole ruler of Rome.

Marcomannic Wars: A coalition of Germanic tribes led by the Marcomanni invaded the Roman Empire across the Danube.

175

Marcomannic Wars: Rome and the Iazyges signed a treaty under which the latter agreed to return Roman prisoners of war and supply troops to the Auxilia, ending the war.

177

Marcus named his natural son Commodus co-ruler with himself.

180
17 March
Marcus died.

Antonine Plague: The pandemic ended.

184

The Antonine Wall was abandoned by Roman forces.

192
31 December
Commodus was strangled to death.

193
1 January
The Praetorian Guard acclaimed the consul Pertinax ruler of Rome at the Castra Praetoria.

28 March
Pertinax was assassinated by the Praetorian Guard.

The Praetorian Guard acclaimed the former consul Didius Julianus, who had provided the highest bid, ruler of Rome.

9 April
Pescennius Niger, the legatus Augusti pro praetore of Syria Palaestina, was proclaimed ruler of Rome by his legions.

14 April
The Legio XIV Gemina acclaimed its commander Septimius Severus ruler of Rome at Carnuntum.

May
The Senate recognized Septimius Severus as ruler of Rome and sentenced Julianus to death.

194

Battle of Issus (194): Niger's forces were decisively defeated by the armies of Septimius Severus at Issus.

196

Clodius Albinus, the commander of Roman troops in Britain and Iberia, took the title Imperator Caesar Decimus Clodius Septimius Albinus Augustus.

197
19 February
Battle of Lugdunum: Septimius Severus and Albinus met in battle at Lugdunum.

Albinus committed suicide or was killed.

Roman–Parthian Wars: Septimius Severus sacked the Parthian capital Ctesiphon.

198

Septimius Severus appointed his eldest natural son Caracalla co-ruler with himself.

text: 3rd century[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Event

208

Roman invasion of Caledonia 208–210: Septimius Severus invaded modern Scotland.

209

Septimius Severus named his youngest natural son Publius Septimius Geta co-ruler with himself and Caracalla.

211
4 February
Septimius Severus died.

Roman invasion of Caledonia 208–210: Caracalla ended the campaign.

26 December
Geta was murdered in his mother's arms by members of the Praetorian Guard loyal to Caracalla.

217
8 April
Caracalla was assassinated by a member of his bodyguard.

The Praetorian Guard acclaimed their prefect Macrinus ruler of Rome.

218
8 June
Macrinus was captured and executed by an army loyal to Elagabalus, supposedly the illegitimate son of Caracalla.

222
11 March
Elagabalus was assassinated by the Praetorian Guard, which installed his young cousin Severus Alexander as ruler of Rome.

230

Roman–Persian Wars: The Sasanian shah Ardashir I invaded Mesopotamia and Syria.

232

Roman–Persian Wars: Alexander repelled the Sasanian invasion.

235
19 March
Alexander was killed in a mutiny of the Legio XXII Primigenia at Mainz.

20 March
The army elected Maximinus Thrax, commander of the Legio IV Italica, ruler of Rome.

238
22 March
Gordian I, governor of Africa, accepted the rule of Rome at the urging of rebels in his province. He appointed his son Gordian II to rule jointly with him.

2 April
The Senate accepted Gordian I and Gordian II as rulers of Rome.

Battle of Carthage (238): Forces loyal to Gordian I and Gordian II were defeated by the army of Capelianus, the governor of Numidia, who claimed fealty to Maximinus. Gordian II was killed. Gordian I committed suicide.

22 April
The Senate elected two senators, Pupienus and Balbinus, as joint rulers of the Empire.

Facing popular opposition to Pupienus and Balbinus, the Senate gave Gordian I's young grandson Gordian III the title Caesar.

May
Maximinus was murdered with his son during a mutiny of the Legio II Parthica at Aquileia.

29 July
Pupienus and Balbinus were tortured and murdered by the Praetorian Guard in their barracks.

243

Battle of Resaena: Roman forces defeated the Sasanian Empire at Resaena.

244

Battle of Misiche: The Sasanian Empire decisively defeated a Roman force at Misiche, near modern Fallujah. Gordian III was killed, probably by a fellow Roman. He was succeeded by Philip the Arab, the prefect of the Praetorian Guard, who was forced to cede Mesopotamia and Armenia to the Sasanian Empire.

249

Philip was killed at Verona in battle with Decius, commander of Roman forces in Pannonia and Moesia.

251

Decius appointed his natural son Herennius Etruscus co-ruler of Rome jointly with himself.

Battle of Abritus: Roman forces were dealt a bloody defeat by the Goths near modern Razgrad. Decius and Herennius were killed.

The armies of the Danube region acclaimed their commander Trebonianus Gallus ruler of Rome.

The Senate recognized Decius's son Hostilian as ruler of Rome. Gallus adopted Hostilian as his son.

Plague of Cyprian: Hostilian died, probably of plague.

Gallus appointed his natural son Volusianus co-ruler jointly with himself.

253

Battle of Barbalissos: A Sasanian force destroyed a Roman army at Barbalissos.

August
Gallus and Volusianus were killed in a mutiny at Terni. The army acclaimed Aemilianus, governor of Pannonia and Moesia, ruler of Rome.

Aemilianus was killed by his own soldiers in the face of the army of the general Valerian (emperor).

22 October
Valerian gave his son Gallienus the title Caesar.

256

The Sasanian Empire conquered and sacked Antioch.

257

Valerian reconquered Antioch.

258

The Goths invaded Asia Minor.

260

Death of Dacian king Regalianus that became Roman emperor for a brief period.

260

Valerian was taken prisoner by the Sasanian Empire during truce negotiations.

September
The general Postumus was declared ruler of Rome in the Gallic Empire.

264

Valerian died in captivity.

267

Odaenathus, the king of Palmyra and a Roman client, was assassinated. His widow Zenobia took power as regent for their son Vaballathus.

268

Gallienus was murdered by his soldiers during a siege of Pontirolo Nuovo.

September
The general Claudius Gothicus was declared ruler of Rome by his soldiers.

269

Postumus was killed by his soldiers, who in turn acclaimed one of their own, Marcus Aurelius Marius, emperor of the Gallic Empire.

Marius was murdered by Victorinus, formerly prefect of Postumus's Praetorian Guard, who replaced him as emperor of the Gallic Empire.

Zenobia conquered Egypt.

Battle of Naissus: Roman forces decisively defeated the Goths at modern Niš, stalling an invasion of the Balkans.

270
January
Claudius Gothicus died. He was succeeded by his brother Quintillus.

April
Quintillus died at Aquileia.

September
Aurelian became ruler of Rome.

271

Battle of Fano: A Roman force defeated the Juthungi on the Metauro.

Victorinus was murdered by an officer he had cuckolded.

Tetricus I, praeses of Gallia Aquitania was acclaimed emperor of the Gallic Empire. He appointed his natural son Tetricus II to rule jointly with him.

272

Zenobia was arrested en route to refuge in the Sasanian Empire.

273

Palmyra rebelled against Roman authority and was destroyed.

274

Battle of Châlons (274): Aurelian defeated the forces of Tetricus I and Tetricus II at modern Châlons-en-Champagne.

275
September
Aurelian was murdered by the Praetorian Guard.

25 September
The Senate elected Tacitus (emperor) ruler of Rome.

276
June
Tacitus died.

Marcus Aurelius Probus, commander of Roman forces in the east and Tacitus's half-brother, was acclaimed ruler of Rome by his troops.

Florianus, prefect of the Praetorian Guard and commander of Roman forces in the west, was acclaimed ruler of Rome by his troops.

September
Florianus was assassinated near Tarsus by his troops following a defeat at the hands of Probus.

279

Probus launched a campaign against the Vandals in Illyricum.

282

The Praetorian Guard elected their prefect Carus ruler of Rome.

Probus was assassinated.

Carus gave his sons Carinus and Numerian the title Caesar.

283

Carus died.

284

Numerian died.

20 November
Roman forces in the east elected the consul Diocletian their ruler and proclaimed him augustus.

285
July
Battle of the Margus: Forces loyal to Diocletian defeated Carinus in battle on the Morava. Carinus was killed.

July
Diocletian gave Maximian the title Caesar.

286

Carausian Revolt: The naval commander Carausius declared himself emperor in Britain and northern Gaul.

2 April
Diocletian proclaimed Maximian augustus of the west, ruling himself as augustus of the east.

293

Diocletian established the Tetrarchy, appointing Constantius Chlorus to hold the office of Caesar under Maximian in the west and Galerius to hold the title under himself in the east.

Carausian Revolt: Constantius Chlorus conquered Carausius's Gallic territories.

Carausius was murdered by his finance minister Allectus, who replaced him as emperor in Britain.

296

Carausian Revolt: Allectus was defeated in battle and killed at Calleva Atrebatum.

text: 4th century[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Event

301

Diocletian issued the Edict on Maximum Prices, reforming the currency and setting price ceilings on a number of goods.

303
24 February
Diocletianic Persecution: Diocletian issued his first edict against Christians, calling for the destruction of Christian holy books and places of worship and stripping Christians of their government positions and political rights.

305
1 May
Diocletian and Maximian abdicated. Constantius and Galerius were elevated to augusti in the west and east. Galerius appointed Flavius Valerius Severus Caesar in the west and Maximinus II Caesar in the east.

306
25 July
Constantius died at Eboracum. By his dying wish, his troops acclaimed his son Constantine the Great augustus.

Galerius recognized Flavius Valerius Severus as augustus in the west and granted Constantine the Great the lesser title of Caesar, which he accepted.

Civil wars of the Tetrarchy: Rioters in Rome acclaimed Maximian's son Maxentius ruler of Rome. He took the title princeps invictus, undefeated prince.

Maxentius invited Maximian to reclaim the title augustus.

307

Civil wars of the Tetrarchy: Flavius Valerius Severus surrendered to Maximian at Ravenna.

Civil wars of the Tetrarchy: Galerius laid siege to Rome. Many of his soldiers defected to Maxentius and he was forced to flee.

308

Civil wars of the Tetrarchy: After a failed coup against his son Maxentius, Maximian was forced to flee to Constantine's court.

11 November
Maximian resigned as augustus. Galerius appointed Licinius augustus of the west and confirmed his recognition of Constantine the Great as Caesar of the west.

310
July
Civil wars of the Tetrarchy: Maximian was forced to commit suicide following a failed coup against Constantine the Great.

311
May
Galerius died. Licinius and Maximinus agreed to divide the eastern Empire between themselves.

Civil wars of the Tetrarchy: Constantine the Great concluded an alliance with Licinius, offering his half-sister Flavia Julia Constantia to him in marriage.

Civil wars of the Tetrarchy: Maximinus entered a secret alliance with Maxentius.

3 December
Diocletian died, possibly from suicide.

312
28 October
Battle of the Milvian Bridge: Constantine the Great had a vision of the cross appearing over the sun at the Ponte Milvio with the words "in this sign, conquer." His forces defeated and killed Maxentius.

313
February
Constantine the Great and Licinius issued the Edict of Milan, providing for restitution to Christians injured during the persecutions.

March
Licinius married Constantia.

30 April
Battle of Tzirallum: Licinius defeated a vastly numerically superior force loyal to Maximinus at modern Çorlu. Maximinus fled to Nicomedia.

August
Maximinus died at Tarsus.

314
8 October
Battle of Cibalae: Constantine the Great dealt a bloody defeat to Licinius's forces at modern Vinkovci.

317

Battle of Mardia: After a bloody battle, probably at modern Harmanli, Licinius retreated from contact with Constantine the Great.

1 March
Licinius recognized Constantine the Great as his superior, ceded all his territories outside of Thrace, and agreed to depose and execute Valerius Valens, whom he had raised to augustus.

324
3 July
Battle of Adrianople (324): Licinius suffered a bloody defeat at the hands of Constantine the Great on the Maritsa.

18 September
Battle of Chrysopolis: Constantine the Great dealt a decisive defeat to the remnants of Licinius's army. Licinius surrendered.

325
20 May
First Council of Nicaea: An ecumenical council called by Constantine the Great at Nicaea opened which would establish the Nicene Creed, asserting Jesus to be equal to and of the same substance as God the Father.

Licinius was executed.

326

Constantine the Great ordered the death of his oldest son Crispus.

330
11 May
Constantine the Great moved his capital to Byzantium and renamed the city Constantinople, city of Constantine.

332

Constantine the Great campaigned against the Goths.

334

Constantine the Great campaigned against the Sarmatians.

337

Roman–Persian Wars: The Sasanian shah Shapur II invaded Armenia and Mesopotamia.

22 May
Constantine the Great died.

9 September
Constantine the Great's three sons declared themselves augusti and divided their father's empire into three parts, with Constantine II (emperor) receiving Britain, Iberia, Gaul and Illyria, Constantius II Asia, Syria Palaestina and Egypt, and Constans Italy and Africa. The young Constans was placed under Constantine II's guardianship.

338

Constantine II campaigned against the Alemanni.

Constantine II granted Illyria to his brother Constans.

340

Constantine II invaded Italy. He was ambushed and slain at Aquileia by Constans, who inherited his territory.

341

Constans and Constantius II issued a ban against pagan sacrifice.

344

Siege of Singara: Sasanian forces failed to capture the Roman fortress of Singara.

350
18 January
Magnentius, commander of the Jovians and Herculians, was acclaimed ruler of Rome by his legions.

Constans was killed in Elne by followers of Magnentius.

3 June
Constantius Chlorus's grandson Nepotianus entered Rome with a band of gladiators and there declared himself imperator.

30 June
Marcellinus (magister officiorum), one of Magnentius's generals, entered Rome and executed Nepotianus.

351
15 March
Constantius II granted his cousin Constantius Gallus the title Caesar.

28 September
Battle of Mursa Major: Constantius II defeated Magnentius in a bloody battle in the valley of the Drava.

353

Battle of Mons Seleucus: Constantius II dealt Magnentius a decisive defeat at modern La Bâtie-Montsaléon. Magnentius committed suicide.

354

Gallus was put to death.

355
6 November
Constantius II declared Julian (emperor) Caesar and granted him command in Gaul.

357

Battle of Strasbourg: Julian defeated a vastly superior Alemanni force near Argentoratum, solidifying Roman control west of the Rhine.

360
February
The Petulantes, ordered east from Paris in preparation for a war with the Sasanian Empire, instead mutinied and proclaimed Julian augustus.

361
3 November
Constantius II named Julian as his successor before dying of fever.

363
5 March
Julian's Persian War: Roman forces embarked from Antioch on a punitive expedition against the Sasanian Empire.

26 June
Battle of Samarra: Sasanian forces harassed a Roman army in retreat at Samarra from a failed siege of their capital Ctesiphon. Julian was killed.

27 June
Julian's army declared one of their generals, Jovian (emperor), augustus.

July
Julian's Persian War: Jovian agreed to cede the five provinces east of the Tigris to the Sasanian Empire, ending the war.

364
17 February
Jovian died.

26 February
The army acclaimed the general Valentinian I the Great augustus.

28 March
Valentinian the Great appointed his younger brother Valens augustus with rule over the eastern Empire, and continued as augustus in the west.

375
17 November
Valentinian the Great died of a stroke. His son Gratian, then junior augustus in the west, succeeded him as senior augustus.

22 November
The army acclaimed Valentinian the Great's young son Valentinian II augustus of the west.

376

Fleeing Hunnic aggression, the Goths, under the leadership of the Thervingi chieftain Fritigern, crossed the Danube and entered the eastern Empire as political refugees.

Gothic War (376–382): Following the deaths of several Roman soldiers during civil unrest in Thrace, the officer Lupicinus (Roman) arrested Fritigern and the Greuthungi chieftain Alatheus.

378
9 August
Battle of Adrianople: A combined Gothic-Alanic force decisively defeated the Roman army near Edirne. Valens was killed.

379
19 January
Gratian named the general Theodosius I the Great augustus in the east.

380
27 February
Theodosius the Great issued the Edict of Thessalonica, making Christianity the state church of the Roman Empire.

382
3 October
Gothic War (376–382): The Goths were made foederati of Rome and granted land and autonomy in Thrace, ending the war.

383
25 August
Gratian was delivered by mutineers to the Magister equitum Andragathius and executed.

392
15 May
Valentinian II was found hanged in his residence. He may have been murdered by his guardian, the Frankish general Arbogast (general).

22 August
Arbogast declared Eugenius augustus and ruler in the west.

393
23 January
Theodosius the Great appointed his younger son Honorius (emperor) augustus in the west.

394
6 September
Battle of the Frigidus: Forces loyal to Theodosius the Great defeated and killed Arbogast and Eugenius, probably near the Vipava.

395
17 January
Theodosius the Great died. His elder son Arcadius succeeded him as augustus in the eastern Byzantine Empire. The young Honorius became sole augustus in the Western Roman Empire under the regency of Magister militum Stilicho.

398

Gildonic War: Gildo, comes of Africa, was killed following a failed rebellion against the Western Roman Empire.

text: 5th century[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Event

402

The capital of the Western Roman Empire was moved to Ravenna.

406
31 December
Crossing of the Rhine: A coalition of foreign tribes including the Vandals, Alans and Suebi invaded the Western Roman Empire across the Rhine.

408
1 May
Arcadius died.

410
24 August
Sack of Rome (410): Rome was sacked by the Visigoths under their king Alaric I.

End of Roman rule in Britain: The last Roman forces left Britain.

421
8 February
Honorius appointed his brother-in-law and Magister militum Constantius III co-ruler of the Western Roman Empire with himself.

2 September
Constantius III died.

423
15 August
Honorius died.

The Western Roman patrician Castinus declared the primicerius Joannes augustus.

424
23 October
The Byzantine augustus Theodosius II the Younger, the Calligrapher named the young Valentinian III, his cousin and Constantius III's son, Caesar with rule over the west. His mother Galla Placidia was appointed regent.

425

Joannes was executed in Aquileia.

447

Battle of the Utus: The Huns under Attila defeated a Byzantine army in a bloody battle near the Vit.

450
28 July
Theodosius the Younger died in a riding accident.

452

Attila abandoned his invasion of Italy following a meeting at the Mincio with the pope Pope Leo I.

455
16 March
Valentinian III was assassinated on orders of the senator Petronius Maximus.

17 March
The Senate acclaimed Maximus augustus of the Western Roman Empire.

31 May
Maximus was killed by a mob as he attempted to flee Rome in the face of a Vandal advance.

2 June
Sack of Rome (455): The Vandals entered and began to sack Rome.

9 July
The Magister militum Avitus was pronounced augustus of the Western Roman Empire at Toulouse by the Visigothic king Theodoric II.

456
17 October
Avitus was forced to flee Rome following a military coup by the general Ricimer and the domesticus Majorian.

457

Avitus died.

27 January
The Byzantine augustus Marcian died.

28 February
The Byzantine augustus Leo I the Thracian appointed Majorian Magister militum in the west.

1 April
The army acclaimed Majorian augustus of the Western Roman Empire.

461
7 August
Majorian was killed after torture near the Staffora on Ricimer's orders.

19 November
The Senate elected Libius Severus from among their number as augustus of the Western Roman Empire.

465
15 August
Severus died.

467
12 April
Leo the Thracian elevated the comes Anthemius to Caesar with rule over the Western Roman Empire.

468

Battle of Cap Bon (468): The Vandal Kingdom destroyed a combined Western Roman and Byzantine invasion fleet at Cap Bon.

472
11 July
Anthemius was killed in flight following Ricimer's conquest of Rome. Maximus's son Olybrius was acclaimed augustus of the Western Roman Empire.

18 August
Ricimer died.

Ricimer's nephew Gundobad succeeded him as Magister militum and took the title Patrician.

Olybrius died.

473
3 March
The Germanic elements of the army elected the domesticus Glycerius augustus of the Western Roman Empire.

Gundobad relinquished his Western Roman titles to succeed his father as king of Burgundy.

474

Leo the Thracian appointed Julius Nepos, his nephew and governor of Dalmatia, ruler of the Western Roman Empire in opposition to Glycerius.

18 January
Leo the Thracian died. He was succeeded by his grandson Leo II (emperor).

9 February
Zeno (emperor) became co-augustus of the Byzantine Empire with his young son Leo II.

July
Nepos deposed Glycerius.

17 November
Leo II died, possibly after being poisoned by his mother Ariadne (empress).

475
January
Zeno was forced to flee Constantinople for his homeland Isauria in the face of a popular revolt.

9 January
Basiliscus, brother of Leo the Thracian's widow Verina, was acclaimed augustus of the Byzantine Empire by the Byzantine Senate.

Nepos appointed Orestes (father of Romulus Augustulus) Magister militum and commander-in-chief of the Western Roman military.

28 August
Orestes took control of the Western Roman capital Ravenna, forcing Nepos to flee to Dalmatia.

31 October
Orestes declared his young son Romulus Augustulus augustus of the Western Roman Empire.

476
August
Zeno recaptured Constantinople and accepted Basiliscus's surrender.

23 August
Germanic foederati under the command of the general Odoacer renounced Western Roman authority and declared Odoacer their king.

28 August
Odoacer captured and executed Orestes at Piacenza.

4 September
Odoacer conquered the Western Roman capital Ravenna, forced Romulus to abdicate and declared himself king of Italy.

The Senate sent Zeno the imperial regalia of the Western Roman Empire.

480
25 April
Nepos was murdered in his residence in Split.

491
9 April
Zeno died.

text: 6th century[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Event

518
9 July
Augustus Anastasius I Dicorus died.

527
1 April
Augustus Justin I appointed his older son Justinian I the Great co-augustus with himself.

1 August
Justin I died.

529
7 April
The Codex Justinianus, which attempted to consolidate and reconcile contradictions in Roman law, was promulgated.

532

Justinian the Great ordered the construction of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.

533
21 June
Vandalic War: A Byzantine force under the general Belisarius departed for the Vandal Kingdom.

13 September
Battle of Ad Decimum: A Byzantine army defeated a Vandal force near Carthage.

15 December
Battle of Tricamarum: The Byzantines defeated a Vandal army and forced their king Gelimer into flight.

534
March
Vandalic War: Gelimer surrendered to Belisarius and accepted his offer of a peaceful retirement in Galatia, ending the war. The territory of the Vandal Kingdom was reorganized as the praetorian prefecture of Africa.

535

Gothic War (535–554): Byzantine forces crossing from Africa invaded Sicily, then an Ostrogothic possession.

536
December
Gothic War (535–554): Byzantium took Rome with little Ostrogothic resistance.

537
27 December
The Hagia Sophia was completed.

552
July
Battle of Taginae: A Byzantine army dealt a decisive defeat to the Ostrogoths at Gualdo Tadino. The Ostrogoth king Totila was killed.

553

Battle of Mons Lactarius: An Ostrogothic force was ambushed and destroyed at Monti Lattari on its way to relieve a Byzantine siege of Cumae. The Ostrogoth king Teia was killed.

565
March
Belisarius died.

14 November
Justinian the Great died.

568

The Lombards invaded Italy.

573

The general Narses died.

574

Augustus Justin II began to suffer from fits of insanity.

578
5 October
Justin II died.

582
14 August
Augustus Tiberius II Constantine died.

text: 7th century[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Event

602

Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628: The Sasanian Empire declared war on Byzantium.

607
1 August
Augustus Phocas dedicated the Column of Phocas in the Roman Forum.

626
June
Siege of Constantinople (626): Sasanian and Avar forces laid siege to Constantinople.

634
April
Muslim conquest of the Levant: A Rashidun army departed Medina for the Levant.

640
January
Muslim conquest of Egypt: A Rashidun force laid siege to Pelusium.

The legions of the East Roman army were reorganized into themes.

641
8 November
Siege of Alexandria (641): Byzantine authorities in the Egyptian capital Alexandria surrendered to the besieging Rashidun army.

663

Basileus Constans II visited Rome.

698

Battle of Carthage (698): An Umayyad siege and blockade of Carthage forced the retreat of Byzantine forces. The city was conquered and destroyed.

text: 8th century[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Event

730

Basileus Leo III the Isaurian promulgated an edict forbidding the veneration of religious images, beginning the first Byzantine Iconoclasm.

787
23 October
Second Council of Nicaea: An ecumenical council in Nicaea ended which endorsed the veneration of images, ending the first Byzantine Iconoclasm.

text: 9th century[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Event

813
June
A group of soldiers broke into the Church of the Holy Apostles and pleaded with the body of the iconoclast basileus Constantine V to restore the Empire, marking the beginning of the second Byzantine Iconoclasm.

843

The Byzantine regent Theodora (wife of Theophilos) restored the veneration of religious images, ending the second Byzantine Iconoclasm.

867
24 September
Basileus Michael III was assassinated by his co-basileus Basil I, who became sole ruler of the Empire.

text: 10th century[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Event

976
10 January
Basileus John I Tzimiskes died. His co-basileus and nephew Basil II became sole ruler of the Empire.

text: 11th century[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Event

1002

Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria: Byzantine forces invaded Bulgaria.

1014
29 July
Battle of Kleidion: Basil dealt a decisive and bloody defeat to Bulgarian forces in the Belasica near Klyuch.

1018

Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria: The Bulgarian boyars accepted the establishment of the theme of Bulgaria on the territory of the former Empire, with significant autonomy for themselves.

1025
15 December
Basil died.

1054
16 July
East–West Schism: The papal legate Humbert of Silva Candida laid on the altar of Hagia Sophia a document proclaiming the excommunication of Michael I Cerularius, the patriarch of Constantinople.

1071
15 April
Siege of Bari: Italo-Norman forces captured Bari, capital of the katepanikion of Italy.

26 August
Battle of Manzikert: The Byzantine Empire was decisively defeated by a Seljuk force near Malazgirt. The basileus Romanos IV Diogenes was captured.

1081
1 April
Nikephoros III Botaneiates was deposed and replaced as basileus by Alexios I Komnenos.

1091
29 April
Battle of Levounion: The Byzantine army dealt a bloody defeat to a Pecheneg invasion force.

1097
19 June
Siege of Nicaea: The Rum occupants of Nicaea surrendered to Byzantine and First Crusader forces.

1098

Following the conquest of Antioch, the First Crusader leader Bohemond I of Antioch declared himself prince of Antioch.

text: 12th century[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Event

1122

Battle of Beroia: A Byzantine army wiped out the Pechenegs at Stara Zagora.

1167
8 July
Battle of Sirmium: Byzantium decisively defeated a Hungarian force at Sirmium.

1176
17 September
Battle of Myriokephalon: A Byzantine invasion force was ambushed and forced to retreat through a mountain pass by Rum near Lake Beyşehir.

1180
24 September
Basileus Manuel I Komnenos died.

1185
26 October
Uprising of Asen and Peter: A tax revolt began in Paristrion which would result in the establishment of the Second Bulgarian Empire.

text: 13th century[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Event

1204
13 April
Siege of Constantinople (1204): Fourth Crusaders breached and sacked Constantinople, deposed the basileus Alexios V Doukas and established the Latin Empire under their leader Baldwin I, Latin Emperor as Latin Emperor. Theodore I Laskaris was acclaimed basileus but forced to flee with his court to establish the Empire of Nicaea at Nicaea.

April
Alexios I of Trebizond, a grandson of the former basileus Andronikos I Komnenos, declared himself ruler of Trebizond.

1205

Michael I Komnenos Doukas, a descendant of Alexios I Komnenos, established himself as despot of Epirus.

1261
25 July
The Nicaean ruler Michael VIII Palaiologos conquered Constantinople .

15 August
Michael was crowned basileus in Constantinople along with his infant son Andronikos II Palaiologos.

text: 14th century[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Event

1326

Byzantine–Ottoman Wars: The Ottoman Empire conquered Bursa.

1331

Byzantine–Ottoman Wars: The Ottoman Empire captured Nicaea.

1341
26 October
Byzantine civil war of 1341–47: The regent John VI Kantakouzenos was declared basileus by his supporters in opposition to the young John V Palaiologos.

1347
8 February
Byzantine civil war of 1341–47: John VI concluded an arrangement under which he would rule as senior basileus alongside John V for ten years.

text: 15th century[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Event

1453
29 May
Fall of Constantinople: Ottoman forces entered Constantinople. Basileus Constantine XI Palaiologos was killed.


document_title: Mozart in the Jungle

question_text: who plays rodrigo in mozart in the jungle

root

text: Mozart in the Jungle

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Main cast[edit]

text:
Lola Kirke as Hailey Rutledge, an oboist with a yearning ambition to play with the New York Symphony. She develops a strong bond with Rodrigo as the series progresses.
Gael García Bernal as Rodrigo De Souza, the new eccentric conductor of the New York Symphony.
Bernadette Peters as Gloria Windsor, the president of the New York Symphony (season 2-present; recurring, season 1)
Malcolm McDowell as Thomas Pembridge, the conductor emeritus of the New York Symphony
Saffron Burrows as Cynthia Taylor, a philandering cellist with the New York Symphony
Hannah Dunne as Elizabeth "Lizzie" Campbell, Hailey's roommate and best friend
Peter Vack as Alex Merriweather, Hailey's dancer boyfriend (seasons 1-2)

tag: ul

text: Recurring cast[edit]

text:
Debra Monk as Betty Cragdale, the long-time oboist for the New York Symphony who instantly despises Hailey
Mark Blum as Union Bob, a piccolo player for the symphony and known for bringing up the union rules
Jennifer Kim as Sharon, Rodrigo's assistant
Joel Bernstein as Warren Boyd, the concertmaster for the symphony
Nora Arnezeder as Ana Maria, Rodrigo's estranged violinist wife
John Miller as Dee Dee, the drug-dealing percussionist of the New York Symphony
Rubio Qian as Triangle Tanya, the triangle player of the New York Symphony.
Brennan Brown as Edward Biben, an orchestra board member
Gretchen Mol as Nina, the New York Symphony's lawyer who falls for Cynthia
Makenzie Leigh as Addison, Alex's dancing partner and roommate
Margaret Ladd as Claire, Thomas' ex-wife who dies after hearing his completed symphony.
Jason Schwartzman as Bradford Sharpe, a classical music enthusiast and host of his own podcast, "B-Sharpe"
John Hodgman as Marlin Guggenheim, a purported billionaire infatuated with Hailey
Wallace Shawn as Winslow Eliot, a neurotic concert pianist.
Tenoch Huerta Mejía as Manuel, Rodrigo's childhood friend
Dermot Mulroney as Andrew Walsh, a cello soloist who fraternizes with Hailey.
Monica Bellucci as Alessandra, a reclusive Italian soprano living in Venice, Italy, also known as "La fiamma".

Ana María Martínez provides Alessandra's singing voice.

Sandro Isaack as Pavel, the orchestra's stagehand who becomes friendly with Gloria
Philip Jackson Smith as Mike, a friend of Hailey's whom she recruits to work for the orchestra

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
10
February 6, 2014 (2014-02-06)
December 23, 2014 (2014-12-23)

2
10
December 30, 2015 (2015-12-30)
December 30, 2015 (2015-12-30)

3
10
December 9, 2016 (2016-12-09)
December 9, 2016 (2016-12-09)

text: Production[edit]

text: The many oboe solos played by the protagonist and other characters throughout the series are performed by Lelie Resnick, principal oboist of the Hollywood Bowl Orchestra, while the character of Rodrigo is loosely based on Gustavo Dudamel, the Venezuelan music director of the Los Angeles Philharmonic.[10] Dudamel coached García Bernal before the latter conducted, in the character of Rodrigo, for a real performance of the Los Angeles Philharmonic at the Hollywood Bowl, scenes of which were used for the second season opener.[11] Dudamel has a cameo in that episode, acting as a stagehand trying to convince Rodrigo to move to Los Angeles. Other musicians that have cameos in the series are violinist Joshua Bell, pianists Emanuel Ax and Lang Lang, composers Anton Coppola and Nico Muhly, Broadway star Brian d'Arcy James and conductors Alan Gilbert and Bernard Uzan. Blair Tindall, oboist and writer of the book on which the series is based, also appears in a cameo.[12] Interior shots of the home concert hall were filmed at the Performing Arts Center at SUNY Purchase.[13]

tag: p

text: Reception[edit]

text: The first season of the series received positive reviews from critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the series a 'fresh' 95% rating based on 20 critic reviews, with the critical consensus "Though confined to the isolated world of classical music, Mozart in the Jungle's Gael Garcia Bernal makes this charming little show sing."[14] Metacritic gave the series a 73 out of 100, indicating 'generally favorable reviews.'[15] Cory Barker, writing for TV.com, praised the series. "What works so well is that Mozart isn't afraid to throw you into a world you're likely unfamiliar with, but it doesn't swim so far into the deep end that you immediately drown in jargon and distanced dramatic stakes."[16] Robert Lloyd, writing for The Los Angeles Times, also lauded the first season. He stated that "Characters who were mouthpieces for attitudes start to seem like people, more complicated than a thumbnail description can accommodate. You grow interested in what will become of them without expecting or rooting for any particular outcome."[17] Kory Grow of Rolling Stone also praised the series, writing that "[t]hanks to quirky scripts and a smart ensemble cast... it comes off whimsical without ringing off-pitch."[18]

text: Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter also gave the first season a positive review. "Bernal is both likable and magnetic, and makes the eclectic maestro surge on the screen. He alone is worth streaming the series, but, thankfully, there's a lot more going on here."[19] Brian Lowry, writing for Variety, also lauded the series. "While Mozart is surely a niche confection, the show generally shines by proving long on charm even when it's short on laughs."[20] In a more mixed review, Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly gave the series a "B-".

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
Year
Award
Category
Recipients
Result
Ref.

2015
Imagen Foundation Awards
Best Actor - Television
Gael Garcia Bernal
Won
[21]

2016
Golden Globe Awards
Best Television Series – Comedy
Mozart in the Jungle
Won
[22]

Best Actor in a Television Series – Musical or Comedy
Gael Garcia Bernal
Won

Primetime Emmy Awards
Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series (Half-Hour) and Animation
Thomas Varga, Andy D'Addario, Bill Higley, Chris Navarro (for "Nothing Resonates Like Rhinoceros Foreskin")
Won
[23]

Imagen Foundation Awards
Best Actor - Television
Gael García Bernal
Won
[24]

2017
Golden Globe Awards
Best Television Series – Comedy
Mozart in the Jungle
Nominated
[25]

Best Actor in a Television Series – Musical or Comedy
Gael Garcia Bernal
Nominated

Primetime Emmy Awards
Outstanding Cinematography for a Single-Camera Series (Half-Hour)
Tobias Datum (for "Now I Will Sing")
Nominated
[26]

Outstanding Production Design for a Narrative Program (Half-Hour or Less)
Tommaso Ortino, Susanna Codognato, Letizia Santucci (for "Now I Will Sing")
Nominated

Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series (Half-Hour) and Animation
Andy D'Addario, Gary Gegan, Marco Fiumara (for "Now I Will Sing")
Won


document_title: Great Pyramid of Giza

question_text: how tall is the great pyramid of egypt

question_tokens: how tall is the great pyramid of egypt

text: Great Pyramid of Giza

text: History and description

text: Egyptologists believe the pyramid was built as a tomb for the Fourth Dynasty Egyptian pharaoh Khufu (often Hellenicised as "Cheops") and was constructed over a 20-year period. Khufu's vizier, Hemiunu (also called Hemon), is believed by some to be the architect of the Great Pyramid.[2] It is thought that, at construction, the Great Pyramid was originally 280 Egyptian Royal cubits tall (146.5 metres (480.6 ft)), but with erosion and absence of its pyramidion, its present height is 138.8 metres (455.4 ft). Each base side was 440 cubits, 230.4 metres (755.9 ft) long. The mass of the pyramid is estimated at 5.9 million tonnes. The volume, including an internal hillock, is roughly 2,500,000 cubic metres (88,000,000 cu ft).[3]

text: Based on these estimates, building the pyramid in 20 years would involve installing approximately 800 tonnes of stone every day. Additionally, since it consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks, completing the building in 20 years would involve moving an average of more than 12 of the blocks into place each hour, day and night. The first precision measurements of the pyramid were made by Egyptologist Sir Flinders Petrie in 1880–82 and published as The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh.[4] Almost all reports are based on his measurements. Many of the casing stones and inner chamber blocks of the Great Pyramid fit together with extremely high precision. Based on measurements taken on the northeastern casing stones, the mean opening of the joints is only 0.5 millimetre wide (1/50 of an inch).[5]

text: The pyramid remained the tallest man-made structure in the world for over 3,800 years,[6] unsurpassed until the 160-metre-tall (520 ft) spire of Lincoln Cathedral was completed c. 1300. The accuracy of the pyramid's workmanship is such that the four sides of the base have an average error of only 58 millimetres in length.[7] The base is horizontal and flat to within ±15 mm (0.6 in).[8] The sides of the square base are closely aligned to the four cardinal compass points (within four minutes of arc)[9] based on true north, not magnetic north,[10] and the finished base was squared to a mean corner error of only 12 seconds of arc.[11]

text: The completed design dimensions, as suggested by Petrie's survey and subsequent studies, are estimated to have originally been 280 Egyptian Royal cubits high by 440 cubits long at each of the four sides of its base. The ratio of the perimeter to height of 1760/280 Egyptian Royal cubits equates to 2π to an accuracy of better than 0.05% (corresponding to the well-known approximation of π as 22/7). Some Egyptologists consider this to have been the result of deliberate design proportion. Verner wrote, "We can conclude that although the ancient Egyptians could not precisely define the value of π, in practice they used it".[12] Petrie, author of Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh concluded: "but these relations of areas and of circular ratio are so systematic that we should grant that they were in the builder's design".[13] Others have argued that the Ancient Egyptians had no concept of pi and would not have thought to encode it in their monuments. They believe that the observed pyramid slope may be based on a simple seked slope choice alone, with no regard to the overall size and proportions of the finished building.[14] In 2013, rolls of papyrus called the Diary of Merer were discovered written by some of those who delivered limestone and other construction materials from Tora to Giza.[15]

text: Materials

text: The Great Pyramid consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks which most believe to have been transported from nearby quarries. The Tura limestone used for the casing was quarried across the river. The largest granite stones in the pyramid, found in the "King's" chamber, weigh 25 to 80 tonnes and were transported from Aswan, more than 800 km (500 mi) away. Traditionally,[clarification needed] ancient Egyptians cut stone blocks by hammering into them wooden wedges, which were then soaked with water. As the water was absorbed, the wedges expanded, causing the rock to crack. Once they were cut, they were carried by boat either up or down the Nile River to the pyramid.[16] It is estimated that 5.5 million tonnes of limestone, 8,000 tonnes of granite (imported from Aswan), and 500,000 tonnes of mortar were used in the construction of the Great Pyramid.[17]

text: Casing stones

text: At completion, the Great Pyramid was surfaced by white "casing stones" – slant-faced, but flat-topped, blocks of highly polished white limestone. These were carefully cut to what is approximately a face slope with a seked of 5½ palms to give the required dimensions. Visibly, all that remains is the underlying stepped core structure seen today. In AD 1303, a massive earthquake loosened many of the outer casing stones, which were then carted away by Bahri Sultan An-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din al-Hasan in 1356 to build mosques and fortresses in nearby Cairo. Many more casing stones were removed from the great pyramids by Muhammad Ali Pasha in the early 19th century to build the upper portion of his Alabaster Mosque in Cairo not far from Giza. These limestone casings can still be seen as parts of these structures. Later explorers reported massive piles of rubble at the base of the pyramids left over from the continuing collapse of the casing stones, which were subsequently cleared away during continuing excavations of the site.

text: Nevertheless, a few of the casing stones from the lowest course can be seen to this day in situ around the base of the Great Pyramid, and display the same workmanship and precision that has been reported for centuries. Petrie also found a different orientation in the core and in the casing measuring 193 centimetres ± 25 centimetres. He suggested a redetermination of north was made after the construction of the core, but a mistake was made, and the casing was built with a different orientation.[4] Petrie related the precision of the casing stones as to being "equal to opticians' work of the present day, but on a scale of acres" and "to place such stones in exact contact would be careful work; but to do so with cement in the joints seems almost impossible".[19] It has been suggested it was the mortar (Petrie's "cement") that made this seemingly impossible task possible, providing a level bed, which enabled the masons to set the stones exactly.[20][21]

text: Construction theories

text: Many alternative, often contradictory, theories have been proposed regarding the pyramid's construction techniques.[22] Many disagree on whether the blocks were dragged, lifted, or even rolled into place. The Greeks believed that slave labour was used, but modern discoveries made at nearby workers' camps associated with construction at Giza suggest that it was built instead by tens of thousands of skilled workers. Verner posited that the labour was organized into a hierarchy, consisting of two gangs of 100,000 men, divided into five zaa or phyle of 20,000 men each, which may have been further divided according to the skills of the workers.[23]

text: One mystery of the pyramid's construction is its planning. John Romer suggests that they used the same method that had been used for earlier and later constructions, laying out parts of the plan on the ground at a 1-to-1 scale. He writes that "such a working diagram would also serve to generate the architecture of the pyramid with precision unmatched by any other means".[24] He also argues for a 14-year time span for its construction.[25] A modern construction management study, in association with Mark Lehner and other Egyptologists, estimated that the total project required an average workforce of about 14,500 people and a peak workforce of roughly 40,000. Without the use of pulleys, wheels, or iron tools, they used critical path analysis methods, which suggest that the Great Pyramid was completed from start to finish in approximately 10 years.[26]

text: Interior

text: The original entrance to the Great Pyramid is on the north, 17 metres (56 ft) vertically above ground level and 7.29 metres (23.9 ft) east of the centre line of the pyramid. From this original entrance, there is a Descending Passage 0.96 metres (3.1 ft) high and 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide, which goes down at an angle of 26° 31'23" through the masonry of the pyramid and then into the bedrock beneath it. After 105.23 metres (345.2 ft), the passage becomes level and continues for an additional 8.84 metres (29.0 ft) to the lower Chamber, which appears not to have been finished. There is a continuation of the horizontal passage in the south wall of the lower chamber; there is also a pit dug in the floor of the chamber. Some Egyptologists suggest that this Lower Chamber was intended to be the original burial chamber, but Pharaoh Khufu later changed his mind and wanted it to be higher up in the pyramid.[27]

text: 28.2 metres (93 ft) from the entrance is a square hole in the roof of the Descending Passage. Originally concealed with a slab of stone, this is the beginning of the Ascending Passage. The Ascending Passage is 39.3 metres (129 ft) long, as wide and high as the Descending Passage and slopes up at almost precisely the same angle to reach the Grand Gallery. The lower end of the Ascending Passage is closed by three huge blocks of granite, each about 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) long. One must use the Robbers' Tunnel (see below) to access the Ascending Passage. At the start of the Grand Gallery on the right-hand side there is a hole cut in the wall. This is the start of a vertical shaft which follows an irregular path through the masonry of the pyramid to join the Descending Passage. Also at the start of the Grand Gallery there is the Horizontal Passage leading to the "Queen's Chamber". The passage is 1.1m (3'8") high for most of its length, but near the chamber there is a step in the floor, after which the passage is 1.73 metres (5.7 ft) high.

text: Queen's Chamber

text: The "Queen's Chamber"[1] is exactly halfway between the north and south faces of the pyramid and measures 5.75 metres (18.9 ft) north to south, 5.23 metres (17.2 ft) east to west, and has a pointed roof with an apex 6.23 metres (20.4 ft) above the floor. At the eastern end of the chamber there is a niche 4.67 metres (15.3 ft) high. The original depth of the niche was 1.04 metres (3.4 ft), but has since been deepened by treasure hunters.[28]

text: In the north and south walls of the Queen's Chamber there are shafts, which unlike those in the King's Chamber that immediately slope upwards (see below), are horizontal for around 2 m (6.6 ft) before sloping upwards. The horizontal distance was cut in 1872 by a British engineer, Waynman Dixon, who believed a shaft similar to those in the King's Chamber must also exist. He was proved right, but because the shafts are not connected to the outer faces of the pyramid or the Queen's Chamber, their purpose is unknown. At the end of one of his shafts, Dixon discovered a ball of black diorite (a type of rock) and a bronze implement of unknown purpose. Both objects are currently in the British Museum.[29]

text: The shafts in the Queen's Chamber were explored in 1993 by the German engineer Rudolf Gantenbrink using a crawler robot he designed, Upuaut 2. After a climb of 65 m (213 ft),[30] he discovered that one of the shafts was blocked by limestone "doors" with two eroded copper "handles". Some years later the National Geographic Society created a similar robot which, in September 2002, drilled a small hole in the southern door, only to find another door behind it.[31] The northern passage, which was difficult to navigate because of twists and turns, was also found to be blocked by a door.[32]

text: Research continued in 2011 with the Djedi Project. Realizing the problem was that the National Geographic Society's camera was only able to see straight ahead of it, they instead used a fiber-optic "micro snake camera" that could see around corners. With this they were able to penetrate the first door of the southern shaft through the hole drilled in 2002, and view all the sides of the small chamber behind it. They discovered hieroglyphs written in red paint. They were also able to scrutinize the inside of the two copper "handles" embedded in the door, and they now believe them to be for decorative purposes. They also found the reverse side of the "door" to be finished and polished, which suggests that it was not put there just to block the shaft from debris, but rather for a more specific reason.[33]

text: Grand Gallery

text: The Grand Gallery continues the slope of the Ascending Passage, but is 8.6 metres (28 ft) high and 46.68 metres (153.1 ft) long. At the base it is 2.06 metres (6.8 ft) wide, but after 2.29 metres (7.5 ft) the blocks of stone in the walls are corbelled inwards by 7.6 centimetres (3.0 in) on each side. There are seven of these steps, so, at the top, the Grand Gallery is only 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide. It is roofed by slabs of stone laid at a slightly steeper angle than the floor of the gallery, so that each stone fits into a slot cut in the top of the gallery like the teeth of a ratchet. The purpose was to have each block supported by the wall of the Gallery, rather than resting on the block beneath it, in order to prevent cumulative pressure.[34]

text: At the upper end of the Gallery on the right-hand side there is a hole near the roof that opens into a short tunnel by which access can be gained to the lowest of the Relieving Chambers. The other Relieving Chambers were discovered in 1837–1838 by Colonel Howard Vyse and J. S. Perring, who dug tunnels upwards using blasting powder.

text: The floor of the Grand Gallery consists of a shelf or step on either side, 51 centimetres (20 in) wide, leaving a lower ramp 1.04 metres (3.4 ft) wide between them. In the shelves there are 54 slots, 27 on each side matched by vertical and horizontal slots in the walls of the Gallery. These form a cross shape that rises out of the slot in the shelf. The purpose of these slots is not known, but the central gutter in the floor of the Gallery, which is the same width as the Ascending Passage, has led to speculation that the blocking stones were stored in the Grand Gallery and the slots held wooden beams to restrain them from sliding down the passage.[35] This, in turn, has led to the proposal that originally many more than 3 blocking stones were intended, to completely fill the Ascending Passage.[citation needed]

text: At the top of the Grand Gallery, there is a step giving onto a horizontal passage some metres long and approximately 1.02 metres (3.3 ft) in height and width, in which can be detected four slots, three of which were probably intended to hold granite portcullises. Fragments of granite found by Petrie in the Descending Passage may have come from these now-vanished doors.

text: In 2017, scientists from the Scan Pyramids Project discovered a large cavity above the Grand Gallery, using muon radiography that can detect cosmic rays. Its length is at least 30 metres (98 ft) and its cross-section is similar to that of the Grand Gallery. It was detected using three different technologies: nuclear emulsion films, scintillator hodoscopes, and gas detectors.[36][37] The purpose of the cavity is not known and it is not accessible but according to Zahi Hawass it may have been a gap used in the construction of the Grand Gallery.[38] The Japanese research team disputes this, however, saying that the huge void is completely different from the construction spaces previously identified.[39]

text: King's Chamber

text: The "King's Chamber"[1] is 20 Egyptian Royal cubits or 10.47 metres (34.4 ft) from east to west and 10 cubits or 5.234 metres (17.17 ft) north to south. It has a flat roof 11 cubits and 5 digits or 5.852 metres (19 feet 2 inch) above the floor. 0.91 m (3.0 ft) above the floor there are two narrow shafts in the north and south walls (one is now filled by an extractor fan in an attempt to circulate air inside the pyramid). The purpose of these shafts is not clear: they appear to be aligned towards stars or areas of the northern and southern skies, yet one of them follows a dog-leg course through the masonry, indicating no intention to directly sight stars through them. They were long believed by Egyptologists to be "air shafts" for ventilation, but this idea has now been widely abandoned in favour of the shafts serving a ritualistic purpose associated with the ascension of the king’s spirit to the heavens.[40]

text: The King's Chamber is entirely faced with granite. Above the roof, which is formed of nine slabs of stone weighing in total about 400 tons, are five compartments known as Relieving Chambers. The first four, like the King's Chamber, have flat roofs formed by the floor of the chamber above, but the final chamber has a pointed roof. Vyse suspected the presence of upper chambers when he found that he could push a long reed through a crack in the ceiling of the first chamber. From lower to upper, the chambers are known as "Davison's Chamber", "Wellington's Chamber", "Nelson's Chamber", "Lady Arbuthnot's Chamber", and "Campbell's Chamber". It is believed that the compartments were intended to safeguard the King's Chamber from the possibility of a roof collapsing under the weight of stone above the Chamber. As the chambers were not intended to be seen, they were not finished in any way and a few of the stones still retain masons' marks painted on them. One of the stones in Campbell's Chamber bears a mark, apparently the name of a work gang.[41][42]

text: The only object in the King's Chamber is a rectangular granite sarcophagus, one corner of which is broken. The sarcophagus is slightly larger than the Ascending Passage, which indicates that it must have been placed in the Chamber before the roof was put in place. Unlike the fine masonry of the walls of the Chamber, the sarcophagus is roughly finished, with saw marks visible in several places. This is in contrast with the finely finished and decorated sarcophagi found in other pyramids of the same period. Petrie suggested that such a sarcophagus was intended but was lost in the river on the way north from Aswan and a hurriedly made replacement was used instead.

text: Modern entrance

text: Today tourists enter the Great Pyramid via the Robbers' Tunnel, a tunnel purportedly created around AD 820 by Caliph al-Ma'mun's workmen using a battering ram.[43] The tunnel is cut straight through the masonry of the pyramid for approximately 27 metres (89 ft), then turns sharply left to encounter the blocking stones in the Ascending Passage. It is believed that their efforts dislodged the stone fitted in the ceiling of the Descending Passage to hide the entrance to the Ascending Passage and it was the noise of that stone falling and then sliding down the Descending Passage, which alerted them to the need to turn left. Unable to remove these stones, however, the workmen tunnelled up beside them through the softer limestone of the Pyramid until they reached the Ascending Passage. It is possible to enter the Descending Passage from this point, but access is usually forbidden.[44]

text: Pyramid complex

text: The Great Pyramid is surrounded by a complex of several buildings including small pyramids. The Pyramid Temple, which stood on the east side of the pyramid and measured 52.2 metres (171 ft) north to south and 40 metres (130 ft) east to west, has almost entirely disappeared apart from the black basalt paving. There are only a few remnants of the causeway which linked the pyramid with the valley and the Valley Temple. The Valley Temple is buried beneath the village of Nazlet el-Samman; basalt paving and limestone walls have been found but the site has not been excavated.[45][46] The basalt blocks show "clear evidence" of having been cut with some kind of saw with an estimated cutting blade of 15 feet (4.6 m) in length, capable of cutting at a rate of 1.5 inches (38 mm) per minute. John Romer suggests that this "super saw" may have had copper teeth and weighed up to 300 pounds (140 kg). He theorizes that such a saw could have been attached to a wooden trestle and possibly used in conjunction with vegetable oil, cutting sand, emery or pounded quartz to cut the blocks, which would have required the labour of at least a dozen men to operate it.[47]

text: On the south side are the subsidiary pyramids, popularly known as Queens' Pyramids. Three remain standing to nearly full height but the fourth was so ruined that its existence was not suspected until the recent discovery of the first course of stones and the remains of the capstone. Hidden beneath the paving around the pyramid was the tomb of Queen Hetepheres I, sister-wife of Sneferu and mother of Khufu. Discovered by accident by the Reisner expedition, the burial was intact, though the carefully sealed coffin proved to be empty.

text: The Giza pyramid complex, which includes among other structures the pyramids of Khufu, Khafre and Menkaure, is surrounded by a cyclopean stone wall, the Wall of the Crow. Mark Lehner has discovered a worker's town outside of the wall, otherwise known as "The Lost City", dated by pottery styles, seal impressions, and stratigraphy to have been constructed and occupied sometime during the reigns of Khafre (2520–2494 BC) and Menkaure (2490–2472 BC).[48][49] Recent discoveries by Mark Lehner and his team at the town and nearby, including what appears to have been a thriving port, suggest the town and associated living quarters consisting of barracks called "galleries" may not have been for the pyramid workers after all, but rather for the soldiers and sailors who utilized the port. In light of this new discovery, as to where then the pyramid workers may have lived Lehner now suggests the alternative possibility they may have camped on the ramps he believes were used to construct the pyramids or possibly at nearby quarries.[50]

text: In the early 1970s, the Australian archaeologist Karl Kromer excavated a mound in the South Field of the plateau. This mound contained artefacts including mudbrick seals of Khufu, which he identified with an artisans' settlement.[51] Mudbrick buildings just south of Khufu's Valley Temple contained mud sealings of Khufu and have been suggested to be a settlement serving the cult of Khufu after his death.[52] A worker's cemetery used at least between Khufu's reign and the end of the Fifth Dynasty was discovered south of the Wall of the Crow by Zahi Hawass in 1990.[53]

text: Boats

text: There are three boat-shaped pits around the pyramid, of a size and shape to have held complete boats, though so shallow that any superstructure, if there ever was one, must have been removed or disassembled. In May 1954, the Egyptian archaeologist Kamal el-Mallakh discovered a fourth pit, a long, narrow rectangle, still covered with slabs of stone weighing up to 15 tons. Inside were 1,224 pieces of wood, the longest 23 metres (75 ft) long, the shortest 10 centimetres (0.33 ft). These were entrusted to a boat builder, Haj Ahmed Yusuf, who worked out how the pieces fit together. The entire process, including conservation and straightening of the warped wood, took fourteen years.

text: The result is a cedar-wood boat 43.6 metres (143 ft) long, its timbers held together by ropes, which is currently housed in a special boat-shaped, air-conditioned museum beside the pyramid. During construction of this museum, which stands above the boat pit, a second sealed boat pit was discovered. It was deliberately left unopened until 2011 when excavation began on the boat.[54]

text: Looting

text: Although succeeding pyramids were smaller, pyramid building continued until the end of the Middle Kingdom. However, as authors Briar and Hobbs claim, "all the pyramids were robbed" by the New Kingdom, when the construction of royal tombs in a desert valley, now known as the Valley of the Kings, began.[55][56] Joyce Tyldesley states that the Great Pyramid itself "is known to have been opened and emptied by the Middle Kingdom", before the Arab caliph Abdullah al-Mamun entered the pyramid around AD 820.[43]

text: I. E. S. Edwards discusses Strabo's mention that the pyramid "a little way up one side has a stone that may be taken out, which being raised up there is a sloping passage to the foundations". Edwards suggested that the pyramid was entered by robbers after the end of the Old Kingdom and sealed and then reopened more than once until Strabo's door was added. He adds: "If this highly speculative surmise be correct, it is also necessary to assume either that the existence of the door was forgotten or that the entrance was again blocked with facing stones", in order to explain why al-Ma'mun could not find the entrance.[57]

text: He also discusses a story told by Herodotus. Herodotus visited Egypt in the 5th century BC and recounts a story that he was told concerning vaults under the pyramid built on an island where the body of Cheops lies. Edwards notes that the pyramid had "almost certainly been opened and its contents plundered long before the time of Herodotus" and that it might have been closed again during the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt when other monuments were restored. He suggests that the story told to Herodotus could have been the result of almost two centuries of telling and retelling by Pyramid guides.[58]