document_title: History of the telescope

question_text: who built the first practical telescope and developed a theory of colour

text: History of the telescope

text: Optical telescopes

text: Optical foundations

text: Objects resembling lenses date back 4000 years although it is unknown if they were used for their optical properties or just as decoration.[6] Greek accounts of the optical properties of water filled spheres (5th century BC) followed by many centuries of writings on optics, including Ptolemy (2nd century) in his Optics, who wrote about the properties of light including reflection, refraction, and color, followed by Ibn Sahl (10th century) and Ibn Al-Haytham (11th century).[7][7]

text: Actual use of lenses dates back to the widespread manufacture and use of eyeglasses in Northern Italy beginning in the late 13th century.[8][6][9][10][11] The invention of the use of concave lenses to correct near-sightedness is ascribed to Nicholas of Cusa in 1451.

text: Invention

text: The first record of a telescope comes from the Netherlands in 1608. It is in a patent filed by Middelburg spectacle-maker Hans Lippershey with the States General of the Netherlands on 2 October 1608 for his instrument "for seeing things far away as if they were nearby".[12] A few weeks later another Dutch instrument-maker, Jacob Metius also applied for a patent. The States General did not award a patent since the knowledge of the device already seemed to be ubiquitous[13][14] but the Dutch government awarded Lippershey with a contract for copies of his design.

text: The original Dutch telescopes were composed of a convex and a concave lens—telescopes that are constructed this way do not invert the image. Lippershey's original design had only 3x magnification. Telescopes seem to have been made in the Netherlands in considerable numbers soon after this date of "invention", and rapidly found their way all over Europe.[citation needed]

text: Claims of prior invention

text: In 1655 Dutch diplomat William de Boreel tried to solve the mystery of who invented the telescope. He had a local magistrate in Middelburg follow up on Boreel's childhood and early adult recollections of a spectacle maker named "Hans" who he remembered as the inventor of the telescope. The magistrate was contacted by a then unknown claimant, Middelburg spectacle maker Johannes Zachariassen, who testified that his father, Zacharias Janssen invented the telescope and the microscope as early as 1590. This testimony seemed convincing to Boreel, who now recollected that Zacharias and his father, Hans Martens, must have been who he remembered.[17] Boreel's conclusion that Zacharias Janssen invented the telescope a little ahead of another spectacle maker, Hans Lippershey, was adopted by Pierre Borel in his 1656 book De vero telescopii inventore.[18][19] Discrepancies in Boreel's investigation and Zachariassen's testimony (including Zachariassen misrepresenting his date of birth and role in the invention) has led some historians to consider this claim dubious.[20] The "Janssen" claim would continue over the years and be added on to with Zacharias Snijder in 1841 presenting 4 iron tubes with lenses in them claimed to be 1590 examples of Janssen's telescope[16] and historian Cornelis de Waard's 1906 claim that the man who tried to sell a broken telescope to astronomer Simon Marius at the 1608 Frankfurt Book Fair must have been Janssen.[21]

text: In 1682,[22] the minutes of the Royal Society in London Robert Hooke noted Thomas Digges' 1571 Pantometria, (a book on measurement, partially based on his father Leonard Digges' notes and observations) seemed to support an English claim to the invention of the telescope, describing Leonard as having a fare seeing glass in the mid 1500s based on an idea by Roger Bacon.[23][24] Thomas described it as "by proportional Glasses duly situate in convenient angles, not only discovered things far off, read letters, numbered pieces of money with the very coin and superscription thereof, cast by some of his friends of purpose upon downs in open fields, but also seven miles off declared what hath been done at that instant in private places." Comments on the use of proportional or "perspective glass" are also made in the writings of John Dee (1575) and William Bourne (1585).[25] Bourne was asked in 1580 to investigate the Diggs device by Queen Elizabeth I's chief advisor Lord Burghley. Bourne's is the best description of it, and from his writing it seemed to consist of peering into a large curved mirror that reflected the image produced by a large lens.[26] The idea of an "Elizabethan Telescope" has been expanded over the years, including astronomer and historian Colin Ronan concluding in the 1990s that this reflecting/refracting telescope was built by Leonard Digges between 1540 and 1559.[27][28][29] This "backwards" reflecting telescope would have been unwieldy, it needed very large mirrors and lens to work, the observer had to stand backwards to look at an upside down view, and Bourne noted it had a very narrow field of view making it unsuitable for military purposes.[26] The optical performance required to see the details of coins lying about in fields, or private activities seven miles away, seems to be far beyond the technology of the time[30] and it could be the "perspective glass" being described was a far simpler idea, originating with Bacon, of using a single lens held in front of the eye to magnify a distant view.[31]

text: A 1959 research paper by Simon de Guilleuma claimed that evidence he had uncovered pointed to the French born spectacle maker Juan Roget (died before 1624) as another possible builder of an early telescope that predated Hans Lipperhey's patent application.[32] inventing early telescope-like devices.

text: Spread through Europe

text: Lippershey's application for a patent was mentioned at the end of a diplomatic report on an embassy to Holland from the Kingdom of Siam sent by the Siamese king Ekathotsarot: Ambassades du Roy de Siam envoyé à l'Excellence du Prince Maurice, arrivé à La Haye le 10 Septemb. 1608 (Embassy of the King of Siam sent to his Excellency Prince Maurice, arrived at The Hague on 10 September 1608). This report was issued in October 1608 and distributed across Europe, leading to experiments by other scientists, such as the Italian Paolo Sarpi, who received the report in November, and the English mathematician and astronomer Thomas Harriot, who used a six-powered telescope by the summer of 1609 to observe features on the moon.[33]

text: The Italian polymath Galileo Galilei was in Venice in June 1609[34] and there heard of the "Dutch perspective glass" by means of which distant objects appeared nearer and larger. Galileo states that he solved the problem of the construction of a telescope the first night after his return to Padua from Venice and made his first telescope the next day by fitting a convex lens in one extremity of a leaden tube and a concave lens in the other one. A few days afterwards, having succeeded in making a better telescope than the first, he took it to Venice where he communicated the details of his invention to the public and presented the instrument itself to the doge Leonardo Donato, who was sitting in full council. The senate in return settled him for life in his lectureship at Padua and doubled his salary.

text: Galileo spent his time to improving the telescope, producing telescopes of increased power. His first telescope had a 3x magnification, but he soon made instruments which magnified 8x and finally, one nearly a meter long with a 37mm objective (which he would stop down to 16mm or 12mm) and a 23x magnification.[35] With this last instrument he began a series of astronomical observations in October or November 1609, discovering the satellites of Jupiter, hills and valleys on the Moon, the phases of Venus[36] and observed spots on the sun (using the projection method rather than direct observation). Galileo noted that the revolution of the satellites of Jupiter, the phases of Venus, rotation of the Sun and the tilted path its spots followed for part of the year pointed to the validity of the sun-centered Copernican system over other Earth-centered systems such as the one proposed by Ptolemy. Galileo's instrument was the first to be given the name "telescope". The name was invented by the Greek poet/theologian Giovanni Demisiani at a banquet held on April 14, 1611 by Prince Federico Cesi to make Galileo Galilei a member of the Accademia dei Lincei.[37] The word was created from the Greek tele = 'far' and skopein = 'to look or see'; teleskopos = 'far-seeing'.

text: These observations, together with Galileo's improvement of the instrument, led to the adoption of the name of the Galilean telescope for these early forms of telescope that employed a negative lens.[38]

text: Further refinements

text: Refracting telescopes

text: Johannes Kepler first explained the theory and some of the practical advantages of a telescope constructed of two convex lenses in his Catoptrics (1611). The first person who actually constructed a telescope of this form was the Jesuit Christoph Scheiner who gives a description of it in his Rosa Ursina (1630).[38]

text: William Gascoigne was the first who commanded a chief advantage of the form of telescope suggested by Kepler: that a small material object could be placed at the common focal plane of the objective and the eyepiece. This led to his invention of the micrometer, and his application of telescopic sights to precision astronomical instruments. It was not till about the middle of the 17th century that Kepler's telescope came into general use: not so much because of the advantages pointed out by Gascoigne, but because its field of view was much larger than in the Galilean telescope.[38]

text: The first powerful telescopes of Keplerian construction were made by Christiaan Huygens after much labor—in which his brother assisted him. With one of these: an objective diameter of 2.24 inches (57 mm) and a 12 ft (3.7 m) focal length,[39] he discovered the brightest of Saturn's satellites (Titan) in 1655; in 1659, he published his "Systema Saturnium" which, for the first time, gave a true explanation of Saturn's ring—founded on observations made with the same instrument.[38]

text: Long focal length refractors

text: The sharpness of the image in Kepler's telescope was limited by the chromatic aberration introduced by the non-uniform refractive properties of the objective lens. The only way to overcome this limitation at high magnifying powers was to create objectives with very long focal lengths. Giovanni Cassini discovered Saturn's fifth satellite (Rhea) in 1672 with a telescope 35 feet (11 m) long. Astronomers such as Johannes Hevelius were constructing telescopes with focal lengths as long as 150 feet (46 m). Besides having really long tubes these telescopes needed scaffolding or long masts and cranes to hold them up. Their value as research tools was minimal since the telescope's frame "tube" flexed and vibrated in the slightest breeze and sometimes collapsed altogether.[40][41]

text: Aerial telescopes

text: In some of the very long refracting telescopes constructed after 1675, no tube was employed at all. The objective was mounted on a swiveling ball-joint on top of a pole, tree, or any available tall structure and aimed by means of string or connecting rod. The eyepiece was handheld or mounted on a stand at the focus, and the image was found by trial and error. These were consequently termed aerial telescopes.[42] and have been attributed to Christiaan Huygens and his brother Constantijn Huygens, Jr.[40][43] although it is not clear that they invented it.[44] Christiaan Huygens and his brother made objectives up to 8.5 inches (220 mm) diameter[39] and 210 ft (64 m) focal length and others such as Adrien Auzout made telescopes with focal lengths up to 600 ft (180 m). Telescopes of such great length were naturally difficult to use and must have taxed to the utmost the skill and patience of the observers.[38] Aerial telescopes were employed by several other astronomers. Cassini discovered Saturn's third and fourth satellites in 1684 with aerial telescope objectives made by Giuseppe Campani that were 100 and 136 ft (30 and 41 m) in focal length.

text: Reflecting telescopes

text: The ability of a curved mirror to form an image may have been known since the time of Euclid[45] and had been extensively studied by Alhazen in the 11th century. Galileo, Giovanni Francesco Sagredo, and others, spurred on by their knowledge that curved mirrors had similar properties to lenses, discussed the idea of building a telescope using a mirror as the image forming objective.[46] Niccolò Zucchi, an Italian Jesuit astronomer and physicist, wrote in his book Optica philosophia of 1652 that he tried replacing the lens of a refracting telescope with a bronze concave mirror in 1616. Zucchi tried looking into the mirror with a hand held concave lens but did not get a satisfactory image, possibly due to the poor quality of the mirror, the angle it was tilted at, or the fact that his head partially obstructed the image.[47]

text: In 1636 Marin Mersenne proposed a telescope consisting of a paraboloidal primary mirror and a paraboloidal secondary mirror bouncing the image through a hole in the primary, solving the problem of viewing the image.[48] James Gregory went into further detail in his book Optica Promota (1663), pointing out that a reflecting telescope with a mirror that was shaped like the part of a conic section, would correct spherical aberration as well as the chromatic aberration seen in refractors. The design he came up with bears his name: the "Gregorian telescope"; but according to his own confession, Gregory had no practical skill and he could find no optician capable of realizing his ideas and after some fruitless attempts, was obliged to abandon all hope of bringing his telescope into practical use.

text: In 1666 Isaac Newton, based on his theories of refraction and color, perceived that the faults of the refracting telescope were due more to a lens's varying refraction of light of different colors than to a lens's imperfect shape. He concluded that light could not be refracted through a lens without causing chromatic aberrations, although he incorrectly concluded from some rough experiments[50] that all refracting substances would diverge the prismatic colors in a constant proportion to their mean refraction. From these experiments Newton concluded that no improvement could be made in the refracting telescope.[51] Newton's experiments with mirrors showed that they did not suffer from the chromatic errors of lenses, for all colors of light the angle of incidence reflected in a mirror was equal to the angle of reflection, so as a proof to his theories Newton set out to build a reflecting telescope.[52] Newton completed his first telescope in 1668 and it is the earliest known functional reflecting telescope.[53] After much experiment, he chose an alloy (speculum metal) of tin and copper as the most suitable material for his objective mirror. He later devised means for grinding and polishing them, but chose a spherical shape for his mirror instead of a parabola to simplify construction. He added to his reflector what is the hallmark of the design of a "Newtonian telescope", a secondary "diagonal" mirror near the primary mirror's focus to reflect the image at 90° angle to an eyepiece mounted on the side of the telescope. This unique addition allowed the image to be viewed with minimal obstruction of the objective mirror. He also made all the tube, mount, and fittings. Newton's first compact reflecting telescope had a mirror diameter of 1.3 inches and a focal ratio of f/5.[54] With it he found that he could see the four Galilean moons of Jupiter and the crescent phase of the planet Venus. Encouraged by this success, he made a second telescope with a magnifying power of 38x which he presented to the Royal Society of London in December 1672. This type of telescope is still called a Newtonian telescope.

text: A third form of reflecting telescope, the "Cassegrain reflector" was devised in 1672 by Laurent Cassegrain. The telescope had a small convex hyperboloidal secondary mirror placed near the prime focus to reflect light through a central hole in the main mirror.

text: No further practical advance appears to have been made in the design or construction of the reflecting telescopes for another 50 years until John Hadley (best known as the inventor of the octant) developed ways to make precision aspheric and parabolic speculum metal mirrors. In 1721 he showed the first parabolic Newtonian reflector to the Royal Society.[55] It had a 6-inch (15 cm) diameter, 62 3⁄4-inch (159 cm) focal length speculum metal objective mirror. The instrument was examined by James Pound and James Bradley.[56] After remarking that Newton's telescope had lain neglected for fifty years, they stated that Hadley had sufficiently shown that the invention did not consist in bare theory. They compared its performance with that of a 7.5 inches (190 mm) diameter aerial telescope originally presented to the Royal Society by Constantijn Huygens, Jr. and found that Hadley's reflector, "will bear such a charge as to make it magnify the object as many times as the latter with its due charge", and that it represents objects as distinct, though not altogether so clear and bright.

text: Bradley and Samuel Molyneux, having been instructed by Hadley in his methods of polishing speculum metal, succeeded in producing large reflecting telescopes of their own, one of which had a focal length of 8 ft (2.4 m). These methods of fabricating mirrors were passed on by Molyneux to two London opticians —Scarlet and Hearn— who started a business manufacturing telescopes.[57]

text: The British mathematician, optician James Short began experimenting with building telescopes based on Gregory's designs in the 1730s. He first tried making his mirrors out of glass as suggested by Gregory, but he later switched to speculum metal mirrors creating Gregorian telescopes with original designers parabolic and elliptic figures. Short then adopted telescope-making as his profession which he practised first in Edinburgh, and afterward in London. All Short's telescopes were of the Gregorian form. Short died in London in 1768, having made a considerable fortune selling telescopes.

text: Since speculum metal mirror secondaries or diagonal mirrors greatly reduced the light that reached the eyepiece, several reflecting telescope designers tried to do away with them. In 1762 Mikhail Lomonosov presented a reflecting telescope before the Russian Academy of Sciences forum. It had its primary mirror tilted at four degrees to telescope's axis so the image could be viewed via an eyepiece mounted at the front of the telescope tube without the observer's head blocking the incoming light. This innovation was not published until 1827, so this type came to be called the Herschelian telescope after a similar design by William Herschel.[58]

text: About the year 1774 William Herschel (then a teacher of music in Bath, England) began to occupy his leisure hours with the construction of reflector telescope mirrors, finally devoted himself entirely to their construction and use in astronomical research. In 1778, he selected a 6 1⁄4-inch (16 cm) reflector mirror (the best of some 400 telescope mirrors which he had made) and with it, built a 7-foot (2.1 m) focal length telescope. Using this telescope, he made his early brilliant astronomical discoveries. In 1783, Herschel completed a reflector of approximately 18 inches (46 cm) in diameter and 20 ft (6.1 m) focal length. He observed the heavens with this telescope for some twenty years, replacing the mirror several times. In 1789 Herschel finished building his largest reflecting telescope with a mirror of 49 inches (120 cm) and a focal length of 40 ft (12 m), (commonly known as his 40-foot telescope) at his new home, at Observatory House in Slough, England. To cut down on the light loss from the poor reflectivity of the speculum mirrors of that day, Herschel eliminated the small diagonal mirror from his design and tilted his primary mirror so he could view the formed image directly. This design has come to be called the Herschelian telescope. He discovered Saturn's sixth known moon, Enceladus, the first night he used it (August 28, 1789), and on September 17, its seventh known moon, Mimas. This telescope was world's largest telescope for over 50 years. However, this large scope was difficult to handle and thus less used than his favorite 18.7-inch reflector.

text: In 1845 William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse built his 72-inch (180 cm) Newtonian reflector called the "Leviathan of Parsonstown" with which he discovered the spiral form of galaxies.

text: All of these larger reflectors suffered from the poor reflectivity and fast tarnishing nature of their speculum metal mirrors. This meant they need more than one mirror per telescope since mirrors had to be frequently removed and re-polished. This was time consuming since the polishing process could change the curve of the mirror so it usually had to be "re-figured" to the correct shape.

text: Achromatic refracting telescopes

text: From the time of the invention of the first refracting telescopes it was generally supposed that chromatic errors seen in lenses simply arose from errors in the spherical figure of their surfaces. Opticians tried to construct lenses of varying forms of curvature to correct these errors.[38] Isaac Newton discovered in 1666 that chromatic colors actually arose from the un-even refraction of light as it passed through the glass medium. This led opticians to experiment with lenses constructed of more than one type of glass in an attempt to canceling the errors produced by each type of glass. It was hoped that this would create an "achromatic lens"; a lens that would focus all colors to a single point, and produce instruments of much shorter focal length.

text: The first person who succeeded in making a practical achromatic refracting telescope was Chester Moore Hall from Essex, England.[citation needed] He argued that the different humours of the human eye refract rays of light to produce an image on the retina which is free from color, and he reasonably argued that it might be possible to produce a like result by combining lenses composed of different refracting media. After devoting some time to the inquiry he found that by combining two lenses formed of different kinds of glass, he could make an achromatic lens where the effects of the unequal refractions of two colors of light (red and blue) was corrected. In 1733, he succeeded in constructing telescope lenses which exhibited much reduced chromatic aberration. One of his instruments had an objective measuring 2 1⁄2 inches (6.4 cm) with a relatively short focal length of 20 inches (51 cm).

text: Hall was a man of independent means and seems to have been careless of fame; at least he took no trouble to communicate his invention to the world. At a trial in Westminster Hall about the patent rights granted to John Dollond (Watkin v. Dollond), Hall was admitted to be the first inventor of the achromatic telescope. However, it was ruled by Lord Mansfield that it was not the original inventor who ought to profit from such invention, but the one who brought it forth for the benefit of mankind.

text: In 1747, Leonhard Euler sent to the Prussian Academy of Sciences a paper in which he tried to prove the possibility of correcting both the chromatic and the spherical aberration of a lens. Like Gregory and Hall, he argued that since the various humours of the human eye were so combined as to produce a perfect image, it should be possible by suitable combinations of lenses of different refracting media to construct a perfect telescope objective. Adopting a hypothetical law of the dispersion of differently colored rays of light, he proved analytically the possibility of constructing an achromatic objective composed of lenses of glass and water.

text: All of Euler's efforts to produce an actual objective of this construction were fruitless—a failure which he attributed solely to the difficulty of procuring lenses that worked precisely to the requisite curves.[59] John Dollond agreed with the accuracy of Euler's analysis, but disputed his hypothesis on the grounds that it was purely a theoretical assumption: that the theory was opposed to the results of Newton's experiments on the refraction of light, and that it was impossible to determine a physical law from analytical reasoning alone.[60]

text: In 1754, Euler sent to the Berlin Academy a further paper in which starting from the hypothesis that light consists of vibrations excited in an elastic fluid by luminous bodies—and that the difference of color of light is due to the greater or lesser frequency of these vibrations in a given time— he deduced his previous results. He did not doubt the accuracy of Newton's experiments quoted by Dollond.

text: Dollond did not reply to this, but soon afterwards he received an abstract of a paper by the Swedish mathematician and astronomer, Samuel Klingenstierna, which led him to doubt the accuracy of the results deduced by Newton on the dispersion of refracted light. Klingenstierna showed from purely geometrical considerations (fully appreciated by Dollond) that the results of Newton's experiments could not be brought into harmony with other universally accepted facts of refraction.

text: As a practical man, Dollond at once put his doubts to the test of experiment: he confirmed the conclusions of Klingenstierna, discovered a difference far beyond his hopes in the refractive qualities of different kinds of glass with respect to the divergence of colors, and was thus rapidly led to the construction of lenses in which first the chromatic aberration—and afterwards—the spherical aberration were corrected.[61]

text: Dollond was aware of the conditions necessary for the attainment of achromatism in refracting telescopes, but relied on the accuracy of experiments made by Newton. His writings show that with the exception of his bravado, he would have arrived sooner at a discovery for which his mind was fully prepared. Dollond's paper[61] recounts the successive steps by which he arrived at his discovery independently of Hall's earlier invention—and the logical processes by which these steps were suggested to his mind.

text: In 1765 Peter Dollond (son of John Dollond) introduced the triple objective, which consisted of a combination of two convex lenses of crown glass with a concave flint lens between them. He made many telescopes of this kind.[citation needed]

text: The difficulty of procuring disks of glass (especially of flint glass) of suitable purity and homogeneity limited the diameter and light gathering power of the lenses found in the achromatic telescope. It was in vain that the French Academy of Sciences offered prizes for large perfect disks of optical flint glass.

text: The difficulties with the impractical metal mirrors of reflecting telescopes led to the construction of large refracting telescopes. By 1866 refracting telescopes had reached 18 inches (46 cm) in aperture with many larger "Great refractors" being built in the mid to late 19th century. In 1897, the refractor reached its maximum practical limit in a research telescope with the construction of the Yerkes Observatorys' 40-inch (100 cm) refractor (although a larger refractor Great Paris Exhibition Telescope of 1900 with an objective of 49.2 inches (1.25 m) diameter was temporarily exhibited at the Paris 1900 Exposition). No larger refractors could be built because of gravity's effect on the lens. Since a lens can only be held in place by its edge, the center of a large lens will sag due to gravity, distorting the image it produces.[62]

text: Large reflecting telescopes

text: In 1856–57, Karl August von Steinheil and Léon Foucault introduced a process of depositing a layer of silver on glass telescope mirrors. The silver layer was not only much more reflective and longer lasting than the finish on speculum mirrors, it had the advantage of being able to be removed and re-deposited without changing the shape of the glass substrate. Towards the end of the 19th century very large silver on glass mirror reflecting telescopes were built.

text: The beginning of the 20th century saw construction of the first of the "modern" large research reflectors, designed for precision photographic imaging and located at remote high altitude clear sky locations[63] such as the 60-inch Hale telescope of 1908, and the 100-inch (2.5 m) Hooker telescope in 1917, both located at Mount Wilson Observatory.[64] These and other telescopes of this size had to have provisions to allow for the removal of their main mirrors for re-silvering every few months. John Donavan Strong, a young physicist at the California Institute of Technology, developed a technique for coating a mirror with a much longer lasting aluminum coating using thermal vacuum evaporation. In 1932, he became the first person to "aluminize" a mirror; three years later the 60-inch (1,500 mm) and 100-inch (2,500 mm) telescopes became the first large astronomical telescopes to have their mirrors aluminized.[65] 1948 saw the completion of the 200-inch (510 cm) Hale reflector at Mount Palomar which was the largest telescope in the world up until the completion of the massive 605 cm (238 in) BTA-6 in Russia twenty-seven years later. The Hale reflector introduced several technical innovations used in future telescopes, including hydrostatic bearings for very low friction, the Serrurier truss for equal deflections of the two mirrors as the tube sags under gravity, and the use of Pyrex low-expansion glass for the mirrors. The arrival of substantially larger telescopes had to await the introduction of methods other than the rigidity of glass to maintain the proper shape of the mirror.

text: Active and adaptive optics

text: The 1980s saw the introduction of two new technologies for building larger telescopes and improving image quality, known as active optics and adaptive optics. In active optics, an image analyser senses the aberrations of a star image a few times per minute, and a computer adjusts many support forces on the primary mirror and the location of the secondary mirror to maintain the optics in optimal shape and alignment. This is too slow to correct for atmospheric blurring effects, but enables the use of thin single mirrors up to 8 m diameter, or even larger segmented mirrors. This method was pioneered by the ESO New Technology Telescope in the late 1980s.

text: The 1990s saw a new generation of giant telescopes appear using active optics, beginning with the construction of the first of the two 10 m (390 in) Keck telescopes in 1993. Other giant telescopes built since then include: the two Gemini telescopes, the four separate telescopes of the Very Large Telescope, and the Large Binocular Telescope.

text: Adaptive optics uses a similar principle, but applying corrections several hundred times per second to compensate the effects of rapidly changing optical distortion due to the motion of turbulence in the Earth's atmosphere. Adaptive optics works by measuring the distortions in a wavefront and then compensating for them by rapid changes of actuators applied to a small deformable mirror or with a liquid crystal array filter. AO was first envisioned by Horace W. Babcock in 1953, but did not come into common usage in astronomical telescopes until advances in computer and detector technology during the 1990s made it possible to calculate the compensation needed in real time.[66] In adaptive optics, the high-speed corrections needed mean that a fairly bright star is needed very close to the target of interest (or an artificial star is created by a laser). Also, with a single star or laser the corrections are only effective over a very narrow field (tens of arcsec), and current systems operating on several 8-10m telescopes work mainly in near-infrared wavelengths for single-object observations.

text: Developments of adaptive optics include systems with multiple lasers over a wider corrected field, and/or working above kiloHertz rates for good correction at visible wavelengths; these are currently in progress but not yet in routine operation as of 2015.

text: Other wavelengths

text: The twentieth century saw the construction of telescopes which could produce images using wavelengths other than visible light starting in 1931 when Karl Jansky discovered astronomical objects gave off radio emissions; this prompted a new era of observational astronomy after World War II, with telescopes being developed for other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum from radio to gamma-rays.

text: Radio telescopes

text: Radio astronomy began in 1931 when Karl Jansky discovered that the Milky Way was a source of radio emission while doing research on terrestrial static with a direction antenna. Building on Jansky's work, Grote Reber built a more sophisticated purpose-built radio telescope in 1937, with a 31.4-foot (9.6 m) dish; using this, he discovered various unexplained radio sources in the sky. Interest in radio astronomy grew after the Second World War when much larger dishes were built including: the 250-foot (76 m) Jodrell bank telescope (1957), the 300-foot (91 m) Green Bank Telescope (1962), and the 100-metre (330 ft) Effelsberg telescope (1971). The huge 1,000-foot (300 m) Arecibo telescope (1963) is so large that it is fixed into a natural depression in the ground; the central antenna can be steered to allow the telescope to study objects up to twenty degrees from the zenith. However, not every radio telescope is of the dish type. For example, the Mills Cross Telescope (1954) was an early example of an array which used two perpendicular lines of antennae 1,500 feet (460 m) in length to survey the sky.

text: High-energy radio waves are known as microwaves and this has been an important area of astronomy ever since the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1964. Many ground-based radio telescopes can study microwaves. Short wavelength microwaves are best studied from space because water vapor (even at high altitudes) strongly weakens the signal. The Cosmic Background Explorer (1989) revolutionized the study of the microwave background radiation.

text: Because radio telescopes have low resolution, they were the first instruments to use interferometry allowing two or more widely separated instruments to simultaneously observe the same source. Very long baseline interferometry extended the technique over thousands of kilometers and allowed resolutions down to a few milli-arcseconds.

text: A telescope like the Large Millimeter Telescope (active since 2006) observes from 0.85 to 4 mm (850 to 4,000 μm), bridging between the far-infrared/submillimeter telescopes and longer wavelength radio telescopes including the microwave band from about 1 mm (1,000 μm) to 1,000 mm (1.0 m) in wavelength.

text: Infrared telescopes (700 nm/ 0.7 µm – 1000 µm/1 mm)

text: Although most infrared radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere, infrared astronomy at certain wavelengths can be conducted on high mountains where there is little absorption by atmospheric water vapor. Ever since suitable detectors became available, most optical telescopes at high-altitudes have been able to image at infrared wavelengths. Some telescopes such as the 3.8-metre (150 in) UKIRT, and the 3-metre (120 in) IRTF — both on Mauna Kea — are dedicated infrared telescopes. The launch of the IRAS satellite in 1983 revolutionized infrared astronomy from space. This reflecting telescope which had a 60-centimetre (24 in) mirror, operated for nine months until its supply of coolant (liquid helium) ran out. It surveyed the entire sky detecting 245,000 infrared sources—more than 100 times the number previously known.

text: Ultra-violet telescopes (10 nm – 400 nm)

text: Although optical telescopes can image the near ultraviolet, the ozone layer in the stratosphere absorbs ultraviolet radiation shorter than 300 nm so most ultra-violet astronomy is conducted with satellites. Ultraviolet telescopes resemble optical telescopes, but conventional aluminium-coated mirrors cannot be used and alternative coatings such as magnesium fluoride or lithium fluoride are used instead. The Orbiting Solar Observatory satellite carried out observations in the ultra-violet as early as 1962. The International Ultraviolet Explorer (1978) systematically surveyed the sky for eighteen years, using a 45-centimetre (18 in) aperture telescope with two spectroscopes. Extreme-ultraviolet astronomy (10–100 nm) is a discipline in its own right and involves many of the techniques of X-ray astronomy; the Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer (1992) was a satellite operating at these wavelengths.

text: X-ray telescopes (0.01 nm – 10 nm)

text: X-rays from space do not reach the Earth's surface so X-ray astronomy has to be conducted above the Earth's atmosphere. The first X-ray experiments were conducted on sub-orbital rocket flights which enabled the first detection of X-rays from the Sun (1948) and the first galactic X-ray sources: Scorpius X-1 (June 1962) and the Crab Nebula (October 1962). Since then, X-ray telescopes (Wolter telescopes) have been built using nested grazing-incidence mirrors which deflect X-rays to a detector. Some of the OAO satellites conducted X-ray astronomy in the late 1960s, but the first dedicated X-ray satellite was the Uhuru (1970) which discovered 300 sources. More recent X-ray satellites include: the EXOSAT (1983), ROSAT (1990), Chandra (1999), and Newton (1999).

text: Gamma-ray telescopes (less than 0.01 nm)

text: Gamma rays are absorbed high in the Earth's atmosphere so most gamma-ray astronomy is conducted with satellites. Gamma-ray telescopes use scintillation counters, spark chambers and more recently, solid-state detectors. The angular resolution of these devices is typically very poor. There were balloon-borne experiments in the early 1960s, but gamma-ray astronomy really began with the launch of the OSO 3 satellite in 1967; the first dedicated gamma-ray satellites were SAS B (1972) and Cos B (1975). The Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (1991) was a big improvement on previous surveys. Very high-energy gamma-rays (above 200 GeV) can be detected from the ground via the Cerenkov radiation produced by the passage of the gamma-rays in the Earth's atmosphere. Several Cerenkov imaging telescopes have been built around the world including: the HEGRA (1987), STACEE (2001), HESS (2003), and MAGIC (2004).

text: Interferometric telescopes

text: In 1868, Fizeau noted that the purpose of the arrangement of mirrors or glass lenses in a conventional telescope was simply to provide an approximation to a Fourier transform of the optical wave field entering the telescope. As this mathematical transformation was well understood and could be performed mathematically on paper, he noted that by using an array of small instruments it would be possible to measure the diameter of a star with the same precision as a single telescope which was as large as the whole array— a technique which later became known as astronomical interferometry. It was not until 1891 that Albert A. Michelson successfully used this technique for the measurement of astronomical angular diameters: the diameters of Jupiter's satellites (Michelson 1891). Thirty years later, a direct interferometric measurement of a stellar diameter was finally realized by Michelson & Francis G. Pease (1921) which was applied by their 20 ft (6.1 m) interferometer mounted on the 100 inch Hooker Telescope on Mount Wilson.

text: The next major development came in 1946 when Ryle and Vonberg (Ryle and Vonberg 1946) located a number of new cosmic radio sources by constructing a radio analogue of the Michelson interferometer. The signals from two radio antennas were added electronically to produce interference. Ryle and Vonberg's telescope used the rotation of the Earth to scan the sky in one dimension. With the development of larger arrays and of computers which could rapidly perform the necessary Fourier transforms, the first aperture synthesis imaging instruments were soon developed which could obtain high resolution images without the need of a giant parabolic reflector to perform the Fourier transform. This technique is now used in most radio astronomy observations. Radio astronomers soon developed the mathematical methods to perform aperture synthesis Fourier imaging using much larger arrays of telescopes —often spread across more than one continent. In the 1980s, the aperture synthesis technique was extended to visible light as well as infrared astronomy, providing the first very high resolution optical and infrared images of nearby stars.

text: In 1995 this imaging technique was demonstrated on an array of separate optical telescopes for the first time, allowing a further improvement in resolution, and also allowing even higher resolution imaging of stellar surfaces. The same techniques have now been applied at a number of other astronomical telescope arrays including: the Navy Prototype Optical Interferometer, the CHARA array, and the IOTA array. A detailed description of the development of astronomical optical interferometry can be found here [3].

text: In 2008, Max Tegmark and Matias Zaldarriaga proposed a "Fast Fourier Transform Telescope" design in which the lenses and mirrors could be dispensed with altogether when computers become fast enough to perform all the necessary transforms.


document_title: List of exercises of the Indian Army

question_text: what is the name of joint military exercise of india & france

root

text: List of exercises of the Indian Army

text: Summary of exercises[edit]

text:
Year
List of Countries
Number of exercises

2005
United Kingdom, Russia, Mongolia
3

2006
Uzbekistan, United States
2

2007
United Kingdom, United States, China, Russia
4

2008
United Kingdom, China, United States
3

2009
Maldives, United States
2

2010
Russia, United States
2

2011
Nepal(twice), United Kingdom, France, Bangladesh
5

2012
Singapore, Nepal(twice), Bangladesh, Indonesia, United States, Mongolia, Maldives
8

2013
United Kingdom, France, Nepal, United States, Russia, China
6

2014
Nepal(twice), United States, Maldives, Sri Lanka, China
6

2015
Mongolia, Oman, Kyrgyzstan, United Kingdom, Maldives, United States, Sri Lanka, China, Russia
9

2016
Nepal(twice), Seychelles, Indonesia, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Thailand, Kazakhstan, United States, Russia, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, China, Maldives
14

2017
Kyrgyzstan, Nepal(twice), Oman, Singapore, Mongolia, Thailand, United States, Sri Lanka, Russia, Kazakhstan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, United Kingdom, Maldives
15

2018
United States, Vietnam, France, Seychelles, Nepal, Kyrgyzstan
6

tag: table

text: The following is a list of exercises of the Indian Army.

tag: p

text:
Indian Army

Headquarters

New Delhi

History and traditions

Indian military history
British Indian Army
Indian National Army

Equipment

Equipment of the Indian Army

Installations

Regiments

Exercises

Exercises

Personnel

Chief of Army Staff
Ranks and insignia
Para Special Forces

This box:

view
talk
edit

text:
Name
Participating Country
Units
Date
Location
References

2002

Yudh Abyas
United States

Indian Special Forces
United States Special Forces

16 - 26 May
Agra, India
[1][2]

2004

Nomadic Elephant I
Mongolia

October
Mongolia
[3]

Yudh Abyas
United States

27 March - 17 April
Vairangte, India
[4]

2005

Emerald Mercury
United Kingdom

11 - 22 March
Hyderabad, India
[5][6]

Yudh Abhyas
United States

22 Maratha Light Infantry
25 Infantry Division
1 Guam National Guard

September - October
Vairangte, India
[7][8]

Indra II
Russia

10 - 20 October
Agra, India
[9][10][11]

Nomadic Elephant II
Mongolia

5 - 14 December
Vairangte, India
[3][12]

2006

Uzbekistan

Uzbekistan Special Forces

January

[13]

Desert Strike
-

April
Rajasthan, India
[14]

Yudh Abyas
United States

5 Gorkha Rifles
Garud Commando Force
25 Infantry Division

6 - 23 September
Schofield Army Base barracks, United States
[citation needed]

Shatrujeet
United States

1 Rifle Company, 21 Punjab Regiment
Company, 2/4 Marine Expeditionary Unit

31 October - 2 November
Belgaum, India
[13][15]

2007

Himalayan Warrior
United Kingdom

Parachute Regiment
Royal Marines

17 September - 11 October
Leh, India
[16][17]

Yud Abhyas
United States

5 Gorkha Rifles
C Company 3/ 21 Infantry Division

November
Chaubatia, India
[18]

Hand in Hand I
China

19 - 27 December
Kunming, China
[19][10][20]

Indra III
Russia

Pskov, Russia

2008

Brazen Chariots
-

March
Rajasthan, India
[21]

Ajeya Warrior
United Kingdom

16 Mechanized Regiment
3 Mercian Regiment

29 August - 19 September
Salisbury Plain, United Kingdom
[22][23]

Yudh Abhyas
United States

49th Infantry Brigade
9 Mission Support Command,
California Army National Guard,
40 Infantry Brigade Combat Team

24 October - November 5
Honolulu, United States
[24]

Hand in Hand II
China

8 Maratha Light Infantry
1 Company, Infantry Battalion, Chengdu Military Area Command

4 - 14 December
Belgaum, India
[19][25]

2009

Hind Shakti
-

II Corps

3 - 6 May
Punjab, India
[26]

Yudh Abhyas
United States

Mechanised Infantry Battalion
2 Squadron, 14 Cavalry, 25 Stryker Brigade Combat Team

12 - 29 October
Babina, India
[27][28]

Ekuverin
Maldives

16 Madras Regiment
2 Parachute Regiment

18 - 30 October
Belgaum, India
[29][30]

2010

Indra III
Russia

13 - 23 October
Ranikhet, India
[10]

Yudh Abyas
United States

62 Infantry Division
5 Parachute Regiment
4 Brigade Combat Team (Airborne), 25 Infantry Division
79 Infantry Brigade Combat Team (National Guard)

1 - 14 November
Joint Base Elmendorf–Richardson, United States
[31][32]

2011

Surya Kiran I
Nepal

Vairengte, India

Ajeya Warrior IV
United Kingdom

3 Bihar Regiment, 83 Infantry Brigade
B Company, 2 Battalion The Royal Welsh, 19 Light Brigade

20 July - 19 August
Salisbury Plain, United Kingdom
[33]

Surya Kiran II
Nepal

Amlekhganj, Nepal

Shakti I
France

2 Bihar Regiment, 99 Mountain Brigade
13 Mountain Infantry Battalion

9 - 21 October
Chaubatia, India
[34]

Sampriti I
Banglsdesh

Assam, India

Sudarshan Shakti
-

XXI Corps

28 November - 14 December
Rajasthan, India
[35][36]

2012

Bold Kurukshetra
Singapore

March
Babina, India
[37]

Surya Kiran III
Nepal

27 June

[38]

Sampriti II
Bangladesh

[37]

Garud Shakti
Indonesia

19 Madras Regiment, 21 Mountain Division
13 Infantry Brigade

20 February -1 March
Vairengte, India
[39][40]

Yudh Abhyas VII
United States

2 Mechanised Regiment
2 Squadron 14 Cavalry, 25 Stryker Brigade Combat Team
6 Engineer Battalion (Airborne), 2 Engineer Brigade

5 - 12 March
Jaisalmer, India
[41][42][43]

Shoor Veer
-

South Western Command

April
Rajasthan, India
[39][44]

Nomadic Elephant
Mongolia

Jat Regiment

August 2012
Belgaum, India
[45][46]

Surya Kiran IV
Nepal

Ekuverin
Maldives

12 - 25 November
Belgaum, India
[47]

2013

Rudra Akrosh
-

South Western Command

January
Rajasthan, India
[48]

Ajeya Warrior V
United Kingdom

4 April - 3 May
Belgaum, India
[49]

Yudh Abhyas VIII
United States

2/5 Gurkha Rifles, 99th Mountain Brigade
1st Brigade Combat Team, 82nd Airborne Division

3 - 17 May
Fort Bragg, United States
[50][51]

Shakti II
France

9 - 20 September
Jodhpur, India
[49]

Surya Kiran V
Nepal

23 September - 6 October
Pithoragarh, India
[49]

Indra V
Russia

17 - 28 October
Jaisalmer, India
[49][52]

Hand in Hand III
China

4 - 14 November
Chengdu, China
[49][53]

2014

Surya Kiran VI
Nepal

5 - 19 March
Saljhandi, Nepal
[54]

Sarvada Vijay
-

May
Rajasthan, India
[55]

Surya Kiran VII
Nepal

Garud Division

18 - 31 August
Pithoragarh, India
[56]

Yudh Abhyas X
United States

17 - 30 September
Ranikeht, India
[57][58]

Ekuverin
Maldives

November
Maafilafushi, Maldives
[59]

Mitra Shakti
Sri Lanka

Indian Special Forces
Sri Lankan Special Forces

3 - 23 November
Colombo, Sri Lanka
[60][61]

Hand in Hand IV
China

13 Group Army

17 - 25 November
Pune, India
[62][63]

2015

Nomadic Elephant X
Mongolia

84 Airborne Special Forces Battalion

23 January - 6 February
Gwalior, India
[64][65]

Al Nagah-Ii |
Oman

Muscat, Oman
[66]

Garud Shakti III
Indonesia

432 Battalion Kostrad Infantry

9 - 21 February
Vairengte, India
[67]

Surya Kiran VIII
Nepal

Garud Division

23 February - 7 March
Salijhandi, Nepal
[68][69][70]

Khanjar ||
Kyrgyzstan

Indian Special Forces
Scorpions - Kyrgyzstani Special Forces

March
Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan
[71][72][73]

Brahmashira
-

II Corps

April
Suratgarh, India
[74]

Ajeya Warrior VI
United Kingdom

Kumaon Regiment

13 - 28 June
Salisbury Plain, United Kingdom
[75][76]

Ekuverin VI
Maldives

Bihar Regiment

31 August - 13 September
Trivandrum, India
[29][77]

Yudh Abhyas X|
United States

9 - 23 September
Joint Base Lewis McChord, United States
[78]

Sampriti V
Banglaesh

Binnaguri, India

Mitra Shakti III
Sri Lanka

29 September - 12 October
Pune, India
[79][80]

Hand in Hand V
China

Naga Regiment
Chengdu Military Area Command

12 - 22 October
Kunming, China
[81][82][83]

Indra VII
Russia

Red Eagle Division
Independent Motorised Brigade

8 - 18 November
Bikaner, India
[84][85]

Drad Sanklap
-

Southern Command

2 December
Rajasthan, India
[86]

2016

Shakti VII
France

6 - 16 January

[87]

Sino-India Joint I
China

1 February
Chusul, China
[87]

Surya Kiran IX
Nepal

Panchshul Brigade

8 - 21 February
Pithoragarh, India
[88]

Lamitye V||
Seychelles

Indian Special Forces
Tazar (Special Forces Unit)

15 - 28 February
Port Victoria, Seychelles
[89]

Force 18
ASEAN plus

2 - 8 March
Pune, India
[90]

Garuda Shakti IV
Indonesia

503 Airborne Battalion

10 - 23 March
Magelang, Indonesia
[91]

Khanjar |||
Kyrgyzstan

March - April
Gwalior, India
[73]

Shatrujeet
-

I Corps

16 April
Rajasthan, India
[92]

Nomadic Elephant XI
Mongolia

Kumaon Regiment

25 April - 8 May
Mongolia
[93]

Chakravyuh - II
-

Pivot Corps

6 May
Suratgarh, India
[94]

Jalrahat
-

29 June
Guwahati, India
[87]

Megh Prahar
-

I Corps

14 July
Mathura, India
[95]

Maitree
Thailand

15 - 30 July
Krabi, Thailand
[96]

Prabal Dostyk I
Kazakhstan

Special Operating Force’s Unit

7 - 17 September
Karaganda, Kazakhstan
[97]

Yudh Abhyas XII
United States

5th Infantry Battalion, 20 Infantry Regiment
2 Stryker Brigade Combat Team, 7 Infantry Division

14 - 27 September
Chaubattia, India
[98][99]

Indra VIII
Russia

Kumaon Regiment
59th Motorized Infantry Brigade

22 September - 2 October
Vladivostok, Russia
[100]

Sino-India Joint II
China

19 October

[87]

Mitra Shakti
Sri Lanka

Rajuputana Rifles
Sinha Regiment

24 October - 6 November
Ambepussa, Sri Lanka
[101]

Surya Kiran X
Nepal

Kumaon Regiment
Jabar Jung Battalion

31 October - 13 November
Saljhandi, Nepal
[102]

Sampriti VI
Bangladesh

Mahar Regiment

5 - 18 November
Dhaka, Bangladesh
[103][104]

Hand in Hand VI
China

13 Group Army

16 - 27 November
Pune, India
[105]

Ekuverin VII
Maldives

Bihar Regiment

15 - 28 December
Laamu Atoll, Maldives
[106]

2017

Khanjar IV
Kyrgyzstan

Indian Special Forces

20 February - 5 March
Kok Jhangak, Kyrgyzstan
[107][108]

Surya Kiran XI
Nepal

Ekta Shakti Battalion (Punjab Regiment)/ 28 Punjab
Durga Baksh Battalion

7 - 20 March
Pithoragarh, India
[109][110][111]

Al Nagah-Ii II
Oman

7 - 10 March
Bakloh, India
[112]

Bold Kurukshetra
Singapore

31st Indian Armored Division
3rd Singapore Division

4 - 21 March
Madhya Pradesh, India
[113][114][115]

Nomadic Elephant XII
Mongolia

15 Jammu and Kashmir Light Infantry
084 Special Forces Task Battalion

5 - 21 April
Vairengte, India
[116][117][118]

Thar Shakti
-

X Corps

17 April - 17 May
Rajasthan, India
[119][120]

Maitree
Thailand

Northern Command

3 - 17 July
Bakloh, Himachal Pradesh
[121][122]

Surya Kiran XII
Nepal

3 -16 September
Saljhandi, Nepal
[123]

Yudh Abhyas XIII
United States

2/11 Gorkha Rifles
5th Battalion, 20th Infantry Regiment, 1-2 Stryker Brigade Combat Team

14 - 27 September
Joint Base Lewis-McChord, Washington
[124][125]

Mitra Shakti
Sri Lanka

1 Mahar Regiment
Sinha Regiment

13 - 25 October
Pune, India
[126][127]

Indra
Russia

5th Red Banner Army

19 - 29 October
249th Combined Army Range Sergeevisky, Russia
[128]

Prabal Dostyk II
Kazakhstan

3/11 Gorkha Rifles

2 - 15 November
Bakloh, India
[129][130]

Sampriti VII
Bangladesh

Red Horns Division

6 - 11 November
Shillong, India
[131][132]

Danx
-

50 Parachute Brigade

20 - 24 November
Andaman & Nicobar islands, India
[133][134]

Imbax I
Myanmar

Red Horns Division

20 - 25 November
Shillong, India
[135][136]

Ajeya Warrior
United Kingdom

20 Rajputana Rifles
1 Royal Anglican Regiment

1 - 14 December
Mahajan Firing Range, India
[137]

Ekuverin VIII
Maldives

8 Gorkha Rifles

14 - 27 December
Belgaum, India
[138][139]

Hamesha Vijayee
-

Southern Command

16 - 22 December
Rajasthan
[140][141]

2018

Vinbax I
Vietnam

30 January - 3 February
Jabalpur, India
[142]

Vajra Prahar
United States

Special forces, Southern Command

January
Joint Base Lewis-McChord, United States
[143]

Shakti IV
France

2/8 Gorkha Rifles
2nd Marine Infantry Regiment

31 January - 5 February
Mailly-le-Camp. France
[144]

Lamitye VIII
Seychelles

Southern Command

24 February - 4 March
Mahe, Seychelles
[145][146]

Surya Kiran XIII
Nepal

Pithoragarh, India
[147]

Khanjar V
Kyrgyzstan

Indian Special Forces

16 - 29 March
Vairengte, India
[148]


document_title: Ballon d'Or

question_text: who has the most ballon d'or in history

question_tokens: who has the most ballon d'or in history

text: Ballon d'Or

text: History[edit]

text: Stanley Matthews of Blackpool was the inaugural winner of the Ballon d'Or.[4] Prior to 1995, the award was often known in English language media as the European Footballer of the Year award. Milan's George Weah, the only African recipient, became the first non-European to win the award in the year the rules of eligibility were changed.[2] Ronaldo of Internazionale became the first South American winner two years later.[2] Three players have won the award three times each: Johan Cruyff of Ajax and Barcelona, Michel Platini of Juventus and Marco van Basten of Milan. With seven awards each, Dutch and German players won the most Ballons d'Or. Spanish club Barcelona had the most winners.[5]

text: Between 2010 and 2015 inclusive the award was merged with a similar award, the FIFA World Player of the Year award, to create the FIFA Ballon d'Or, which was awarded to the world's best male player, before FIFA and France Football broke the merging agreement.[6] After 2011, UEFA created the UEFA Best Player in Europe Award to maintain the format of the original Ballon d'Or.[7]

text: Winners[edit]

text:
Key

Indicates player also won the FIFA World Player of the Year (1991–2009) or The Best FIFA Men's Player (2016–) in the same year

text:
Year
Rank
Player
Team
Points

Ballon d'Or (1956–2009)

1956
1st
 Stanley Matthews
 Blackpool
47

2nd
 Alfredo Di Stéfano
 Real Madrid
44

3rd
 Raymond Kopa
 Real Madrid
33

1957
1st
 Alfredo Di Stéfano[note 1]
 Real Madrid
72

2nd
 Billy Wright
 Wolverhampton Wanderers
19

3rd
 Duncan Edwards
 Manchester United
16

 Raymond Kopa
 Real Madrid

1958
1st
 Raymond Kopa
 Real Madrid
71

2nd
 Helmut Rahn
 Rot-Weiss Essen
40

3rd
 Just Fontaine
 Stade de Reims
23

1959
1st
 Alfredo Di Stéfano
 Real Madrid
80

2nd
 Raymond Kopa
 Real Madrid
42

3rd
 John Charles
 Juventus
24

1960
1st
 Luis Suárez
 Barcelona
54

2nd
 Ferenc Puskás
 Real Madrid
37

3rd
 Uwe Seeler
 Hamburg
33

1961
1st
 Omar Sívori[note 2]
 Juventus
46

2nd
 Luis Suárez
 Internazionale
40

3rd
 Johnny Haynes
 Fulham
22

1962
1st
 Josef Masopust
 Dukla Prague
65

2nd
 Eusébio
 Benfica
53

3rd
 Karl-Heinz Schnellinger
 Köln
33

1963
1st
 Lev Yashin
 Dynamo Moscow
73

2nd
 Gianni Rivera
 Milan
53

3rd
 Jimmy Greaves
 Tottenham Hotspur
33

1964
1st
 Denis Law
 Manchester United
61

2nd
 Luis Suárez
 Internazionale
43

3rd
 Amancio
 Real Madrid
38

1965
1st
 Eusébio
 Benfica
67

2nd
 Giacinto Facchetti
 Internazionale
59

3rd
 Luis Suárez
 Internazionale
45

1966
1st
 Bobby Charlton
 Manchester United
81

2nd
 Eusébio
 Benfica
80

3rd
 Franz Beckenbauer
 Bayern Munich
59

1967
1st
 Flórián Albert
 Ferencváros
68

2nd
 Bobby Charlton
 Manchester United
40

3rd
 Jimmy Johnstone
 Celtic
39

1968
1st
 George Best
 Manchester United
61

2nd
 Bobby Charlton
 Manchester United
53

3rd
 Dragan Džajić
 Red Star Belgrade
46

1969
1st
 Gianni Rivera
 Milan
83

2nd
 Luigi Riva
 Cagliari
79

3rd
 Gerd Müller
 Bayern Munich
38

1970
1st
 Gerd Müller
 Bayern Munich
77

2nd
 Bobby Moore
 West Ham United
70

3rd
 Luigi Riva
 Cagliari
65

1971
1st
 Johan Cruyff
 Ajax
116

2nd
 Sandro Mazzola
 Internazionale
57

3rd
 George Best
 Manchester United
56

1972
1st
 Franz Beckenbauer
 Bayern Munich
81

2nd
 Gerd Müller
 Bayern Munich
79

 Günter Netzer
 Borussia Mönchengladbach

1973
1st
 Johan Cruyff[note 3]
 Barcelona
96

2nd
 Dino Zoff
 Juventus
47

3rd
 Gerd Müller
 Bayern Munich
44

1974
1st
 Johan Cruyff
 Barcelona
116

2nd
 Franz Beckenbauer
 Bayern Munich
105

3rd
 Kazimierz Deyna
 Legia Warsaw
35

1975
1st
 Oleg Blokhin
 Dynamo Kyiv
122

2nd
 Franz Beckenbauer
 Bayern Munich
42

3rd
 Johan Cruyff
 Barcelona
27

1976
1st
 Franz Beckenbauer
 Bayern Munich
91

2nd
 Rob Rensenbrink
 Anderlecht
75

3rd
 Ivo Viktor
 Dukla Prague
52

1977
1st
 Allan Simonsen
 Borussia Mönchengladbach
74

2nd
 Kevin Keegan[note 4]
 Hamburg
71

3rd
 Michel Platini
 Nancy
70

1978
1st
 Kevin Keegan
 Hamburg
87

2nd
 Hans Krankl
 Barcelona
81

3rd
 Rob Rensenbrink
 Anderlecht
50

1979
1st
 Kevin Keegan
 Hamburg
118

2nd
 Karl-Heinz Rummenigge
 Bayern Munich
52

3rd
 Ruud Krol
 Ajax
41

1980
1st
 Karl-Heinz Rummenigge
 Bayern Munich
122

2nd
 Bernd Schuster
 Barcelona
34

3rd
 Michel Platini
 Saint-Étienne
33

1981
1st
 Karl-Heinz Rummenigge
 Bayern Munich
106

2nd
 Paul Breitner
 Bayern Munich
64

3rd
 Bernd Schuster
 Barcelona
39

1982
1st
 Paolo Rossi
 Juventus
115

2nd
 Alain Giresse
 Bordeaux
64

3rd
 Zbigniew Boniek
 Juventus
39

1983
1st
 Michel Platini
 Juventus
110

2nd
 Kenny Dalglish
 Liverpool
26

3rd
 Allan Simonsen
 Vejle
25

1984
1st
 Michel Platini
 Juventus
110

2nd
 Jean Tigana
 Bordeaux
57

3rd
 Preben Elkjær
 Hellas Verona
48

1985
1st
 Michel Platini
 Juventus
127

2nd
 Preben Elkjær
 Hellas Verona
71

3rd
 Bernd Schuster
 Barcelona
46

1986
1st
 Igor Belanov
 Dynamo Kyiv
84

2nd
 Gary Lineker[note 5]
 Barcelona
62

3rd
 Emilio Butragueño
 Real Madrid
59

1987
1st
 Ruud Gullit[note 6]
 Milan
106

2nd
 Paulo Futre[note 7]
 Atlético Madrid
91

3rd
 Emilio Butragueño
 Real Madrid
61

1988
1st
 Marco van Basten
 Milan
129

2nd
 Ruud Gullit
 Milan
88

3rd
 Frank Rijkaard[note 8]
 Milan
45

1989
1st
 Marco van Basten
 Milan
129

2nd
 Franco Baresi
 Milan
80

3rd
 Frank Rijkaard
 Milan
43

1990
1st
 Lothar Matthäus
 Internazionale
137

2nd
 Salvatore Schillaci
 Juventus
84

3rd
 Andreas Brehme
 Internazionale
68

1991
1st
 Jean-Pierre Papin
 Marseille
141

2nd
 Dejan Savićević
 Red Star Belgrade
42

 Darko Pančev
 Red Star Belgrade

 Lothar Matthäus
 Internazionale

1992
1st
 Marco van Basten
 Milan
98

2nd
 Hristo Stoichkov
 Barcelona
80

3rd
 Dennis Bergkamp
 Ajax
53

1993
1st
 Roberto Baggio
 Juventus
142

2nd
 Dennis Bergkamp
 Internazionale
83

3rd
 Eric Cantona
 Manchester United
34

1994
1st
 Hristo Stoichkov
 Barcelona
210

2nd
 Roberto Baggio
 Juventus
136

3rd
 Paolo Maldini
 Milan
109

1995
1st
 George Weah[note 9]
 Milan
144

2nd
 Jürgen Klinsmann
 Bayern Munich
108

3rd
 Jari Litmanen
 Ajax
67

1996
1st
 Matthias Sammer
 Borussia Dortmund
144

2nd
 Ronaldo[note 10]
 Barcelona
143

3rd
 Alan Shearer
 Newcastle United
107

1997
1st
 Ronaldo[note 11]
 Internazionale
222

2nd
 Predrag Mijatović
 Real Madrid
68

3rd
 Zinedine Zidane
 Juventus
63

1998
1st
 Zinedine Zidane
 Juventus
244

2nd
 Davor Šuker
 Real Madrid
68

3rd
 Ronaldo
 Internazionale
66

1999
1st
 Rivaldo
 Barcelona
219

2nd
 David Beckham
 Manchester United
154

3rd
 Andriy Shevchenko
 Milan
64

2000
1st
 Luís Figo[note 12]
 Real Madrid
197

2nd
 Zinedine Zidane
 Juventus
181

3rd
 Andriy Shevchenko
 Milan
85

2001
1st
 Michael Owen
 Liverpool
176

2nd
 Raúl
 Real Madrid
140

3rd
 Oliver Kahn
 Bayern Munich
114

2002
1st
 Ronaldo[note 13]
 Real Madrid
169

2nd
 Roberto Carlos
 Real Madrid
145

3rd
 Oliver Kahn
 Bayern Munich
110

2003
1st
 Pavel Nedvěd
 Juventus
190

2nd
 Thierry Henry
 Arsenal
128

3rd
 Paolo Maldini
 Milan
123

2004
1st
 Andriy Shevchenko
 Milan
175

2nd
 Deco[note 14]
 Porto
139

3rd
 Ronaldinho
 Barcelona
133

2005
1st
 Ronaldinho
 Barcelona
225

2nd
 Frank Lampard
 Chelsea
148

3rd
 Steven Gerrard
 Liverpool
142

2006
1st
 Fabio Cannavaro[note 15]
 Real Madrid
173

2nd
 Gianluigi Buffon
 Juventus
124

3rd
 Thierry Henry
 Arsenal
121

2007
1st
 Kaká
 Milan
444

2nd
 Cristiano Ronaldo
 Manchester United
277

3rd
 Lionel Messi
 Barcelona
255

2008
1st
 Cristiano Ronaldo
 Manchester United
446

2nd
 Lionel Messi
 Barcelona
281

3rd
 Fernando Torres
 Liverpool
179

2009
1st
 Lionel Messi
 Barcelona
473

2nd
 Cristiano Ronaldo[note 16]
 Real Madrid
233

3rd
 Xavi
 Barcelona
170

FIFA Ballon d'Or (2010–2015)

2010
1st
 Lionel Messi
 Barcelona
22.65%

2nd
 Andrés Iniesta
 Barcelona
17.36%

3rd
 Xavi
 Barcelona
16.48%

2011
1st
 Lionel Messi
 Barcelona
47.88%

2nd
 Cristiano Ronaldo
 Real Madrid
21.60%

3rd
 Xavi
 Barcelona
9.23%

2012
1st
 Lionel Messi
 Barcelona
41.60%

2nd
 Cristiano Ronaldo
 Real Madrid
23.68%

3rd
 Andrés Iniesta
 Barcelona
10.91%

2013
1st
 Cristiano Ronaldo
 Real Madrid
27.99%

2nd
 Lionel Messi
 Barcelona
24.72%

3rd
 Franck Ribéry
 Bayern Munich
23.36%

2014
1st
 Cristiano Ronaldo
 Real Madrid
37.66%

2nd
 Lionel Messi
 Barcelona
15.76%

3rd
 Manuel Neuer
 Bayern Munich
15.72%

2015
1st
 Lionel Messi
 Barcelona
41.33%

2nd
 Cristiano Ronaldo
 Real Madrid
27.76%

3rd
 Neymar
 Barcelona
7.86%

Ballon d'Or (2016–present)

2016
1st
 Cristiano Ronaldo
 Real Madrid
745

2nd
 Lionel Messi
 Barcelona
316

3rd
 Antoine Griezmann
 Atlético Madrid
198

text: Wins by player[edit]

text: One-time winners are only included if they have also finished 2nd or 3rd in another year.

text:
Player
1st
2nd
3rd

 Lionel Messi[note 17]
5 (2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2015)
4 (2008, 2013, 2014, 2016)
1 (2007)

 Cristiano Ronaldo[note 18]
4 (2008, 2013, 2014, 2016)
5 (2007, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2015)
—

 Michel Platini
3 (1983, 1984, 1985)
—
2 (1977, 1980)

 Johan Cruyff
3 (1971, 1973, 1974)
—
1 (1975)

 Marco van Basten
3 (1988, 1989, 1992)
—
—

 Franz Beckenbauer
2 (1972, 1976)
2 (1974, 1975)
1 (1966)

 Ronaldo
2 (1997, 2002)
1 (1996)
1 (1998)

 Alfredo Di Stéfano
2 (1957, 1959)
1 (1956)
—

 Kevin Keegan
2 (1978, 1979)
1 (1977)
—

 Karl-Heinz Rummenigge
2 (1980, 1981)
1 (1979)
—

 Luis Suárez
1 (1960)
2 (1961, 1964)
1 (1965)

 Eusébio
1 (1965)
2 (1962, 1966)
—

 Bobby Charlton
1 (1966)
2 (1967, 1968)
—

 Raymond Kopa
1 (1958)
1 (1959)
2 (1956, 1957)

 Gerd Müller
1 (1970)
1 (1972)
2 (1969, 1973)

 Zinedine Zidane
1 (1998)
1 (2000)
1 (1997)

 Gianni Rivera
1 (1969)
1 (1963)
—

 Ruud Gullit
1 (1987)
1 (1988)
—

 Lothar Matthäus
1 (1990)
1 (1991)
—

 Roberto Baggio
1 (1993)
1 (1994)
—

 Hristo Stoichkov
1 (1994)
1 (1992)
—

 Andriy Shevchenko
1 (2004)
—
2 (1999, 2000)

 George Best
1 (1968)
—
1 (1971)

 Allan Simonsen
1 (1977)
—
1 (1983)

 Ronaldinho
1 (2005)
—
1 (2004)

text: Wins by country[edit]

text:
Country
Players
Total

 Germany
5
7

 Netherlands
3
7

 France
4
6

 Portugal
3
6

 Italy
5
5

 Brazil
4
5

 England
4
5

 Argentina
1
5

 Soviet Union
3
3

 Spain
2
3

 Czech Republic
2
2

 Bulgaria
1
1

 Denmark
1
1

 Hungary
1
1

 Liberia
1
1

 Northern Ireland
1
1

 Scotland
1
1

 Ukraine
1
1

text: Wins by club[edit]

text:
Club
Players
Total

 Barcelona
6
11

 Real Madrid
6
9

 Juventus
6
8

 Milan
6
8

 Bayern Munich
3
5

 Manchester United
4
4

 Dynamo Kyiv
2
2

 Internazionale
2
2

 Hamburg
1
2

 Ajax
1
1

 Benfica
1
1

 Blackpool
1
1

 Borussia Dortmund
1
1

 Borussia Mönchengladbach
1
1

 Dukla Prague
1
1

 Dynamo Moscow
1
1

 Ferencváros
1
1

 Liverpool
1
1

 Marseille
1
1

text: Additional awards[edit]

text: A special Ballon d'Or, under the name Super Ballon d'Or, was awarded to Alfredo Di Stéfano in 1989, after he surpassed Johan Cruyff and Michel Platini in France Football's voting.[10] A decade later, France Football elected Pelé the Football Player of the Century after consulting their former Ballon d'Or recipients. Among the 34 previous winners, 30 cast their votes; Stanley Matthews, Omar Sívori and George Best abstained, and Lev Yashin had died. Each voter was allotted five votes worth up to five points; however, Di Stéfano only chose a first place, Platini a first and second place, and George Weah two players for fifth place. Pelé was named the greatest by 17 voters, receiving almost double the number of points earned by the runner-up, Diego Maradona.[11]

text:
Football Player of the Century

Player
Pts
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th

 Pelé (BRA)
122
17
5
4
2
1

 Diego Maradona (ARG)
65
3
6
5
5
1

 Johan Cruyff (NED)
62
1
4
7
9
2

 Alfredo Di Stéfano (ESP)
44
4
3
3
1
1

 Michel Platini (FRA)
40
1
5
1
3
6

text: To coincide with the 60th anniversary of the Ballon d'Or in 2016, France Football published a reevaluation of the awards presented before 1995, when only European players were eligible to win the award. 12 out of the 39 Ballons d'Or presented during this time period would have been awarded to South American players; in addition to Pelé and Diego Maradona, Garrincha, Mario Kempes, and Romário were retrospectively recognized as worthy winners. The original recipients, however, remain unchanged.[12] Maradona and Pelé received honorary Ballons d'Or for their services to football in 1996 and 2013, respectively.[13][14]

text:
Le nouveau palmarès (the new winners)

Year
Original
Alternative

1958
 Raymond Kopa (FRA)
 Pelé (BRA)

1959
 Alfredo Di Stéfano (ESP)
 Pelé (BRA)

1960
 Luis Suárez (ESP)
 Pelé (BRA)

1961
 Omar Sívori (ITA)
 Pelé (BRA)

1962
 Josef Masopust (TCH)
 Garrincha (BRA)

1963
 Lev Yashin (URS)
 Pelé (BRA)

1964
 Denis Law (SCO)
 Pelé (BRA)

1970
 Gerd Müller (FRG)
 Pelé (BRA)

1978
 Kevin Keegan (ENG)
 Mario Kempes (ARG)

1986
 Igor Belanov (URS)
 Diego Maradona (ARG)

1990
 Lothar Matthäus (GER)
 Diego Maradona (ARG)

1994
 Hristo Stoichkov (BUL)
 Romário (BRA)


document_title: Project Mc2

question_text: when does season 5 of project mc2 come out

text: Project Mc2

text: Plot

text: The series is set in a fictional city called Maywood Glen, California, it revolves around the fields of STEAM, and the adventures of McKeyla McAlister and her best friends, who work for a government organization called NOV8 (pronounced "innovate"), a highly secretive group of teenage female government operatives who are trying to protect the world.

text: Cast and characters

text: Main

text:
Mika Abdalla as McKeyla McAlister, the lead girl and an agent of NOV8. At the beginning of Part 4, she was given the name "The Owl".
Ysa Penarejo as Camryn Coyle, the engineer with a high IQ
Victoria Vida as Adrienne Attoms, the culinary chemist from Spain[2] who always wears high heels
Genneya Walton as Bryden Bandweth, the tech junkie of the group
Antonio Marziale as Prince Xander (main: Part 1, recurring: Part 4)
Marcus Choi (main: Part 1) and Ash Lee (recurring: Part 5) as Charles Coyle
Madeline Whitby as Jillian (Part 1)
Bernardo De Paula as Defector (Part 1)
Troy Fromin as George the Security Guard (Part 1)
Oliver Vaquer as Francois (Part 1)
Danica McKellar as the Quail (Parts 1–2, 4–6), the group's chief intelligence agent in NOV8[3] and McKeyla's mother[4]
Alyssa Lynch (main: Parts 2–4[note 1]) and Maddie Phillips (recurring: Part 5) as Devon D'Marco
Belle Shouse as Ember Evergreen (Parts 2–6)

tag: ul

text: Recurring

text:
Jonathon Buckley as Henry (Part 1)
Melissa Mabie as A.D.I.S.N. (voice), McKeyla's talking notebook. Her name is short for "Advanced Digital Intelligence Spy Notebook".[5] It is pronounced as "Addison".
Johanna Newmarch as Carson Lazarus (Parts 2–3)
Ty Wood as Justin (Parts 2–3)
Maxwell Haynes as Kyle (Parts 2–6)
Adrian Petriw as Retro (voice; Part 2)
Kurt Evans as Assistant Principal Wilson (Part 2)
Vanessa Parise as the Falcon (Part 3), McKeyla's aunt Montana[6] who is also a substitute for the Quail while she's off the grid
Sarah Desjardins as Maddy McAlister (Parts 3–4, 6), McKeyla's big sister. At the beginning of Part 4, she was given the name "The Nighthawk".
Adam Beauchesne as Simon Temple (Part 3)
Emily Delahunty as Tessa (Part 5)
Houston Stevenson as Zach (Parts 5–6)
Jody Thompson as Jenny Wallis (Part 5)
Catherine Haggquist as Dr. A. Crawford (Part 5)
Richard Ian Cox as Professor Kato (Part 5)
Jay Hindle as Max McAlister (Part 6), McKeyla's father
Chris Rosamond as Bobby Stone (Part 6)
Loretta Walsh as Charlotte Adele (Part 6)

text: Episodes

text: Series overview

text:
Part
Episodes
Originally released

1
3
August 7, 2015 (2015-08-07)

2
6
August 12, 2016 (2016-08-12)

3
6
October 14, 2016 (2016-10-14)

4
1
February 14, 2017 (2017-02-14)

5
5
September 15, 2017 (2017-09-15)

6
5
November 7, 2017 (2017-11-07)

text: Part 1 (2015)

text:
No.
overall
No. in part
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date

1
1
"The New Girl"
Michael Younesi
Jordana Arkin
August 7, 2015 (2015-08-07)

McKeyla McAlister receives a new mission. She transfers to a school in Maywood Glen, where she bumps into two girls, Camryn and Bryden. A computer AI program in her notebook, A.D.I.S.N., accidentally speaks in front of the girls, which causes them to become suspicious. Meanwhile, Space Inc. receives an anonymous phone call threatening them with serious consequences for everyone if they don't cancel Prince Xander's space flight. Camryn's dad remembers that he left his laptop closed at the office, but when he went back in the morning, it was open. The girls suspect McKeyla is involved, and ask Adrienne to help them get the fingerprint from the laptop. They steal McKeyla's pen and manage to get a partial fingerprint match. They follow her, but shortly, McKeyla notices that they had given her a camera pen and catches the girls spying on her. They get into the house before she can stop them, and they meet McKeyla's boss, the Quail, who is a member of NOV8. She reveals that they are trying to protect the prince, and invites the girls to join McKeyla in the mission.

2
2
"Secret Agenting"
Michael Younesi
Jordana Arkin
August 7, 2015 (2015-08-07)

McKeyla is doubting that the girls can take the job seriously enough, and would prefer working alone, but NOV8 wants her to have extra support due to the threat against the prince. McKeyla wants the girls to show her their skills. Adrienne makes a volcano cake. Bryden takes a picture of McKeyla and hacks into her lab's wireless system to display it on every screen in the lab. Camryn makes a "portable police scanner with added features", which they use to locate the prince. The girls notice a suspicious car, and manage to distract the guards and break into the facility where they're keeping the prince. They warn the prince that someone might be trying to kidnap him, and they take him to Bryden's house. NOV8 discovers that the prince's capsule will come close to a U.S. government cyber-satellite at the peak of his flight. Meanwhile, their location is discovered because Bryden tweeted from there, so they take the prince to a NOV8 safe house. Later, they find out that the logo they saw on the car belongs to a cyber security company called Black Star. A few minutes later, the girls get distracted and the prince disappears.

3
3
"Smart Is the New Cool"
Michael Younesi
Jordana Arkin
August 7, 2015 (2015-08-07)

The girls research the organization called Black Star, and interrogate one of their top agents, who believes that they are doing wrong but is too scared to turn them in to the authorities. It turns out that they were not trying to kidnap the prince at all, but instead they are using his luggage to store a device that can be used to hack into a government satellite. It will allow Black Star to access each and every person's personal data, such as email, texting, and other information that they can then sell for billions of dollars. The four sneak into the launch site, find the device inside the prince's luggage, and destroy it before they are caught by security. Black Star's head, Darone, is caught and Jillian, the prince's assistant, is revealed to be working for them out of contempt that the prince can boss her around and she can do nothing about it, and sent to jail as well. In the end, the prince goes to space and he sends the girls a Snapchat from space, and McKeyla is given permission from the Quail to stay at Maywood Glen as her base. She is shown to be attending school with her friends.

text: Part 2 (2016)

text:
No.
overall
No. in part
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date

4
1
"Back to Basics"
Michael Younesi
Mitchel Katlin & Nat Bernstein
August 12, 2016 (2016-08-12)

The four girls are demoted back to basics after they make a big deal out of saving the prince in Part 1. They are not allowed on any mission, even as a suspicious figure, Carson Lazarus, a criminal mastermind, is released from jail. Soon after, a figure who calls themselves "Retro" causes all technology to malfunction and glitch in Maywood Glen. The girls strongly suspect that the two are linked. The video shows that in the background, there is something labeled "Property of MGA" – where MGA stands for Maywood Glen Academy – and it is very possible that Retro is a student at the academy. Meanwhile, McKeyla tries to fit in and becomes "study buddies" with Kyle Lewis, a rather awkward and suspicious teenager.

5
2
"No Laughing Matter"
Michael Younesi
Paul Ciancarelli & David DiPietro
August 12, 2016 (2016-08-12)

The Quail allows the four girls to figure out this case. McKeyla becomes increasingly suspicious of Kyle, but soon dismisses the idea of him being Retro. They also suspect Devon D'Marco, a troublemaker, as she spray-paints handcuffs on a picture of a drone on a poster about the upcoming launch. All four girls except Bry, who has to babysit, make ways to get detention on Saturday with Devon. Bry runs a vocal recognition as Cam and Adri confront the troublemaker and McKeyla looks through her bag. Devon is proven to be innocent, just using the school's 3D printer to make skulls for her nana's birthday. The three hide in the janitor's closet as the assistant principal walks by, and find out that Retro is planning to send a radio signal to the drone, making it crash, and pipe laughing gas through the vents so when the drone crashes, everybody will be laughing. The girls block the radio signal, and heat up the gas so it separates and becomes harmless.

6
3
"Trashed"
Vanessa Parise
Jessica Kaminsky
August 12, 2016 (2016-08-12)

7
4
"Dam Fine Mess"
Vanessa Parise
Elizabeth Hackett & Hilary Galanoy
August 12, 2016 (2016-08-12)

8
5
"Bye Bye Birdie"
Michael Younesi
Annie Burgstede & Kate Duffy
August 12, 2016 (2016-08-12)

9
6
"Mission Totally Possible"
Michael Younesi
Kathy Fischer
August 12, 2016 (2016-08-12)

text: Part 3 (2016)

text:
No.
overall
No. in part
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date

10
1
"Finding Maddy"
Michael Robison
Nat Bernstein & Mitchel Katlin
October 14, 2016 (2016-10-14)

11
2
"Gummying Up the Works"
Michael Robison
Paul Ciancarelli & David DiPietro
October 14, 2016 (2016-10-14)

12
3
"Crate Expectations"
Ken Friss
Jessica Kaminsky
October 14, 2016 (2016-10-14)

13
4
"One Track Mind"
Ken Friss
Elizabeth Hackett & Hilary Galanoy
October 14, 2016 (2016-10-14)

14
5
"Simon Sayz"
Jon Rosenbaum
Elaine Aronson
October 14, 2016 (2016-10-14)

15
6
"Ear Today. Gone Tomorrow"
Jon Rosenbaum
Kathy Fischer
October 14, 2016 (2016-10-14)

text: Part 4 (2017)

text:
No.
overall
No. in part
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date

16
1
"A Royal Pain"
Ken Friss
Elizabeth Hackett & Hilary Galanoy
February 14, 2017 (2017-02-14)

text: Part 5 (2017)

text:
No.
overall
No. in part
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date

17
1
"If You Fail on Mars Can Anyone Hear You Scream"
Ken Friss
Mitchel Katlin
September 15, 2017 (2017-09-15)

18
2
"Nanobots, Souffles and Gray Goo, Oh My"
Ken Friss
Nat Bernstein
September 15, 2017 (2017-09-15)

19
3
"Bad Air Day"
Michael Younesi
Elizabeth Hackett & Hilary Galanoy
September 15, 2017 (2017-09-15)

20
4
"Totally Marble Nailed It"
Michael Younesi
Kathleen Fischer
September 15, 2017 (2017-09-15)

21
5
"Gray Goo on the Loose"
Ken Friss
Nat Bernstein & Mitchel Katlin
September 15, 2017 (2017-09-15)

text: Part 6 (2017)

text:
No.
overall
No. in part
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date

22
1
"Stone Acres Is the Place to Be"
Ken Friss
Mitchel Katlin
November 7, 2017 (2017-11-07)

23
2
"Smoke Gets in Your Eyes"
Allan Harmon
Elaine Aronson
November 7, 2017 (2017-11-07)

24
3
"Zorro Dark Thirty"
Allan Harmon
Elizabeth Hackett & Hilary Galanoy
November 7, 2017 (2017-11-07)

25
4
"Water from a Bobby Store"
Ken Friss
Kathleen Fischer
November 7, 2017 (2017-11-07)

26
5
"Family Affair"
Ken Friss
Elaine Aronson
November 7, 2017 (2017-11-07)

text: Production

text: The first season of the series, consisting of three episodes, was released on August 7, 2015.[7] On April 6, 2016, Netflix announced that the series has been renewed for its second and third seasons. The second season was released on August 12, 2016,[8] and the third season was released on October 14, 2016.[9] Both consisted of six episodes. An extended 34-minute Valentine's Day special was released as the first and only episode of the fourth season on February 14, 2017.[10] A fifth season consisting of five episodes was released on September 15, 2017. A sixth season, also consisting of five episodes, was released on November 7, 2017.

text: The series is filmed primarily in and around the San Fernando Valley area of Los Angeles, including Chatsworth, Woodland Hills, Van Nuys, and Northridge, as well as in Alhambra.

text: Notes

text: Jump up ^ Lynch appears in archive footage, and is credited, in the final episode of Part 6, "Family Affair".

tag: ol


document_title: List of Seattle Mariners owners and executives

question_text: who are the owners of the seattle mariners

text: Owners[edit]

text:
Name
Years

Stanley Golub, Danny Kaye, Walter Schoenfeld, Lester Smith, James Stillwell Jr. and James A Walsh
1976–1981

George Argyros
1981–1989

Jeff Smulyan, Emmis Broadcasting, Michael Browning and the Morgan Stanley Group, Inc., with Smulyan as chairman
1989–1992

Nintendo of America, represented by CEO Howard Lincoln
1992–2016[1][2]

Baseball Club of Seattle, LP, represented by CEO John Stanton
2016–present[3]

text: General managers[edit]

text:
Name
Years

Dick Vertlieb
1977—1978

Lou Gorman
1979—1980

Hal Keller
1981—1985

Dick Balderson
1986—1988

Woody Woodward
1989—1999

Pat Gillick
2000—2003

Bill Bavasi
2003—2008

Lee Pelekoudas (Interim)
2008

Jack Zduriencik
2008—2015

Jerry Dipoto
2015–

text: Other executives[edit]

text:
Chuck Armstrong
John Boles
Mel Didier
Kevin Mather
Dan O'Brien, Jr.
Dan O'Brien, Sr.
Dick Vertlieb
Reggie Waller