document_title: Oogenesis

question_text: the products of meiosis i in oogenesis are the

text: Oogenesis

text: Oogenesis in mammals[edit]

text: In mammals, the first part of oogenesis starts in the germinal epithelium, which gives rise to the development of ovarian follicles, the functional unit of the ovary.

text: Oogenesis consists of several sub-processes: oocytogenesis, ootidogenesis, and finally maturation to form an ovum (oogenesis proper). Folliculogenesis is a separate sub-process that accompanies and supports all three oogenetic sub-processes.

text:
Cell type
ploidy/chromosomes
chromatids
Process
Time of completion

Oogonium
diploid/46(2N)
2C
Oocytogenesis (mitosis)
Third trimester

primary oocyte
diploid/46(2N)
4C
Ootidogenesis (meiosis I) (Folliculogenesis)
Dictyate in prophase I for up to 50 years

secondary oocyte
haploid/23(1N)
2C
Ootidogenesis (meiosis II)
Halted in metaphase II until fertilization

Ootid
haploid/23(1N)
1C
Ootidogenesis (meiosis II)
Minutes after fertilization

Ovum
haploid/23(1N)
1C

text: Oogonium —(Oocytogenesis)—> Primary Oocyte —(Meiosis I)—> First Polar Body (Discarded afterward) + Secondary oocyte —(Meiosis II)—> Second Polar Body (Discarded afterward) + Ovum

text: It should be noted that oocyte meiosis, important to all animal life cycles yet unlike all other instances of animal cell division, occurs completely without the aid of spindle-coordinating centrosomes.[3][4]

text: The creation of oogonia[edit]

text: The creation of oogonia traditionally doesn't belong to oogenesis proper, but, instead, to the common process of gametogenesis, which, in the female human, begins with the processes of folliculogenesis, oocytogenesis, and ootidogenesis.

text: Human oogenesis[edit]

text: Oocytogenesis[edit]

text: Oogenesis starts with the process of developing oogonia, which occurs via the transformation of primordial follicles into primary oocytes, a process called oocytogenesis.[5] Oocytogenesis is complete either before or shortly after birth.

text: Number of primary oocytes[edit]

text: It is commonly believed that, when oocytogenesis is complete, no additional primary oocytes are created, in contrast to the male process of spermatogenesis, where gametocytes are continuously created. In other words, primary oocytes reach their maximum development at ~20[6] weeks of gestational age, when approximately seven million primary oocytes have been created; however, at birth, this number has already been reduced to approximately 1-2 million.

text: Recently, however, two publications have challenged the belief that a finite number of oocytes are set around the time of birth.[7][8] The renewal of ovarian follicles from germline stem cells (originating from bone marrow and peripheral blood) has been reported in the postnatal mouse ovary. In contrast, DNA clock measurements do not indicate ongoing oogenesis during human females' lifetimes.[9] Thus, further experiments are required to determine the true dynamics of small follicle formation.

text: Ootidogenesis[edit]

text: The succeeding phase of ootidogenesis occurs when the primary oocyte develops into an ootid. This is achieved by the process of meiosis. In fact, a primary oocyte is, by its biological definition, a cell whose primary function is to divide by the process of meiosis.[10]

text: However, although this process begins at prenatal age, it stops at prophase I. In late fetal life, all oocytes, still primary oocytes, have halted at this stage of development, called the dictyate. After menarche, these cells then continue to develop, although only a few do so every menstrual cycle.

text: Meiosis I[edit]

text: Meiosis I of ootidogenesis begins during embryonic development, but halts in the diplotene stage of prophase I until puberty. The mouse oocyte in the dictyate (prolonged diplotene) stage actively repairs DNA damage, whereas DNA repair is not detectable in the pre-dictyate (leptotene, zygotene and pachytene) stages of meiosis.[11] For those primary oocytes that continue to develop in each menstrual cycle, however, synapsis occurs and tetrads form, enabling chromosomal crossover to occur. As a result of meiosis I, the primary oocyte has now developed into the secondary oocyte and the first polar body.

text: Meiosis II[edit]

text: Immediately after meiosis I, the haploid secondary oocyte initiates meiosis II. However, this process is also halted at the metaphase II stage until fertilization, if such should ever occur. When meiosis II has completed, an ootid and another polar body have now been created.

text: Folliculogenesis[edit]

text: Synchronously with ootidogenesis, the ovarian follicle surrounding the ootid has developed from a primordial follicle to a preovulatory one.

text: Maturation into ovum[edit]

text: Both polar bodies disintegrate at the end of Meiosis II, leaving only the ootid, which then eventually undergoes maturation into a mature ovum.

text: The function of forming polar bodies is to discard the extra haploid sets of chromosomes that have resulted as a consequence of meiosis..

text: In vitro maturation[edit]

text: In vitro maturation (IVM) is the technique of letting ovarian follicles mature in vitro. It can potentially be performed before an IVF. In such cases, ovarian hyperstimulation isn't essential. Rather, oocytes can mature outside the body prior to IVF. Hence, no (or at least a lower dose of) gonadotropins have to be injected in the body.[12] However, there still isn't enough evidence to prove the effectiveness and security of the technique.[12]

text: Oogenesis in non-mammals[edit]

text: Some algae and the oomycetes produce eggs in oogonia. In the brown alga Fucus, all four egg cells survive oogenesis, which is an exception to the rule that generally only one product of female meiosis survives to maturity.

text: In plants, oogenesis occurs inside the female gametophyte via mitosis. In many plants such as bryophytes, ferns, and gymnosperms, egg cells are formed in archegonia. In flowering plants, the female gametophyte has been reduced to an eight-celled embryo sac within the ovule inside the ovary of the flower. Oogenesis occurs within the embryo sac and leads to the formation of a single egg cell per ovule.

text: In ascaris, the oocyte does not even begin meiosis until the sperm touches it, in contrast to mammals, where meiosis is completed in the estrus cycle.


document_title: List of Wimbledon ladies' singles champions

question_text: who won wimbledon women's singles champion 2014

question_tokens: who won wimbledon women 's singles champion 2014

root

text: History[edit]

text: Wimbledon has historically been played in the last week of June and the first week of July (though changed to the first two weeks of July in 2017), and has been chronologically the third of the four Grand Slam tournaments of the tennis season since 1987.[2] The event was not held from 1915 to 1918 because of World War I and again from 1940 to 1945 because of World War II.[4]

tag: p

text: The Ladies' Singles' rules have undergone several changes since the first edition. From 1886 until 1921, the event started with a knockout phase, the All Comers' Singles, whose winner then faced the defending champion in a challenge round. The All Comers' winner was automatically awarded the title six times (1887, 1891, 1895, 1907, 1908) in the absence of the previous year's champion. The challenge round system was abolished with the 1922 edition.[5] Since the first championships, all matches have been played at the best-of-three sets. Between 1877 and 1883, the winner of the next game at five games-all took the set in every match except the All Comers' final, and the challenge round, which were won with six games and a two games advantage. All sets were decided in two-game advantage format from 1884 to 1970.[5] The lingering death best-of-12 points tie-break was introduced in 1971 for the first two sets, played at eight games-all until 1978 and at six games-all since 1979.[5][6][7]

text: The Ladies' Singles champion receives a sterling silver salver commonly known as the "Venus Rosewater Dish", or simply the "Rosewater Dish". The salver, which is 18.75 inches (about 48 cm) in diameter, is decorated with figures from mythology.[8] New singles champions are traditionally elected honorary members of the AELTC by the club's committee.[c][9] In 2012, the Ladies' Singles winner received prize money of £1,150,000.[10]

text: These records include the Amateur Era only, Dorothea Lambert Chambers (1903–1904, 1906, 1910–1911, 1913–1914) holds the record for most titles, with seven, and Lottie Dod (1891–1893) and Suzanne Lenglen (1919–1921) holds the record for most consecutive wins in the Ladies' Singles during the challenge round era, with three victories each. The record for most consecutive and most wins post challenge round during the Amateur Era is Helen Wills Moody (1927–1930), with four straight wins, and Moody holds the record for most victories in this era with eight (1927–1930, 1932–1933, 1935, 1938).[4]

text: These records only include the Open Era, since the inclusion of the professional tennis players, Martina Navratilova (1978–1979, 1982–1987, 1990) holds the record for most victories with nine. Navratilova holds the record for most consecutive victories with six (1982–1987).[4]

text: This event has been won without the loss of a set, during the Open Era of Tennis, by the following players: Billie Jean King in 1968, 1972, 1973 and 1975, Margaret Court in 1970, Evonne Goolagong Cawley in 1971 and 1980, Chris Evert in 1974 and 1981, Martina Navratilova in 1979, 1983, 1984, 1986, 1987, and 1990, Steffi Graf in 1992 and 1996, Jana Novotná in 1998, Lindsay Davenport in 1999, Venus Williams in 2000, 2007 and 2008, Serena Williams in 2002, 2009, 2010, 2015 and 2016, Maria Sharapova in 2004, Petra Kvitová in 2011 and 2014 and Marion Bartoli in 2013.

text: Champions[edit]

text:
Regular competition

All Comers' winner, Challenge round winner ‡

Defending champion, Challenge round winner †

All Comers' winner, no Challenge round ◊

tag: table

text: Amateur Era[edit]

text:
Year[d]
Country
Champion
Country
Runner-up
Score in the final[4]

1884
 BRI[e]
Watson, MaudMaud Watson
 BRI
Watson, LillianLillian Watson
6–8, 6–3, 6–3

1885
 BRI
Watson, MaudMaud Watson
 BRI
Bingley, BlancheBlanche Bingley
6–1, 7–5

1886
 BRI
Bingley, BlancheBlanche Bingley ‡
 BRI
Watson, MaudMaud Watson
6–3, 6–3

1887
 BRI
Dod, LottieLottie Dod ‡
 BRI
Bingley, BlancheBlanche Bingley
6–2, 6–0

1888
 BRI
Dod, LottieLottie Dod †
 BRI
Hillyard, BlancheBlanche Hillyard
6–3, 6–3

1889
 BRI
Hillyard, BlancheBlanche Hillyard ◊
 BRI
Rice, LenaLena Rice
4–6, 8–6, 6–4

1890
 BRI
Rice, LenaLena Rice ◊
 BRI
Jacks, MayMay Jacks
6–4, 6–1

1891
 BRI
Dod, LottieLottie Dod ◊
 BRI
Hillyard, BlancheBlanche Hillyard
6–2, 6–1

1892
 BRI
Dod, LottieLottie Dod †
 BRI
Hillyard, BlancheBlanche Hillyard
6–1, 6–1

1893
 BRI
Dod, LottieLottie Dod †
 BRI
Hillyard, BlancheBlanche Hillyard
6–8, 6–1, 6–4

1894
 BRI
Hillyard, BlancheBlanche Hillyard ◊
 BRI
Austin, EdithEdith Austin
6–1, 6–1

1895
 BRI
Cooper, CharlotteCharlotte Cooper ◊
 BRI
Jackson, HelenHelen Jackson
7–5, 8–6

1896
 BRI
Cooper, CharlotteCharlotte Cooper †
 BRI
Pickering, AliceAlice Pickering
6–2, 6–3

1897
 BRI
Hillyard, BlancheBlanche Hillyard ‡
 BRI
Cooper, CharlotteCharlotte Cooper
5–7, 7–5, 6–2

1898
 BRI
Cooper, CharlotteCharlotte Cooper ◊
 BRI
Martin, LouisaLouisa Martin
6–4, 6–4

1899
 BRI
Hillyard, BlancheBlanche Hillyard ‡
 BRI
Cooper, CharlotteCharlotte Cooper
6–2, 6–3

1900
 BRI
Hillyard, BlancheBlanche Hillyard †
 BRI
Cooper, CharlotteCharlotte Cooper
4–6, 6–4, 6–4

1901
 BRI
Sterry, CharlotteCharlotte Sterry ‡
 BRI
Hillyard, BlancheBlanche Hillyard
6–2, 6–2

1902
 BRI
Robb, MurielMuriel Robb ‡
 BRI
Sterry, CharlotteCharlotte Sterry
7–5, 6–1

1903
 BRI
Douglass, DorotheaDorothea Douglass ◊
 BRI
Larcombe, EthelEthel Larcombe
4–6, 6–4, 6–2

1904
 BRI
Douglass, DorotheaDorothea Douglass †
 BRI
Sterry, CharlotteCharlotte Sterry
6–0, 6–3

1905
 USA
Sutton, MayMay Sutton ‡
 BRI
Douglass, DorotheaDorothea Douglass
6–3, 6–4

1906
 BRI
Douglass, DorotheaDorothea Douglass ‡
 USA
Sutton, MayMay Sutton
6–3, 9–7

1907
 USA
Sutton, MayMay Sutton ‡
 BRI
Lambert Chambers, DorotheaDorothea Lambert Chambers
6–1, 6–4

1908
 BRI
Sterry, CharlotteCharlotte Sterry ◊
 BRI
Morton, AgnesAgnes Morton
6–4, 6–4

1909
 BRI
Boothby, DoraDora Boothby ◊
 BRI
Morton, AgnesAgnes Morton
6–4, 4–6, 8–6

1910
 BRI
Lambert Chambers, DorotheaDorothea Lambert Chambers ‡
 BRI
Boothby, DoraDora Boothby
6–2, 6–2

1911
 BRI
Lambert Chambers, DorotheaDorothea Lambert Chambers †
 BRI
Boothby, DoraDora Boothby
6–0, 6–0

1912
 BRI
Larcombe, EthelEthel Larcombe ◊
 BRI
Sterry, CharlotteCharlotte Sterry
6–3, 6–1

1913
 BRI
Lambert Chambers, DorotheaDorothea Lambert Chambers ◊
 BRI
McNair, WinifredWinifred McNair
6–0, 6–4

1914
 BRI
Lambert Chambers, DorotheaDorothea Lambert Chambers †
 BRI
Larcombe, EthelEthel Larcombe
7–5, 6–4

1915
No competition (due to World War I)

1916

1917

1918

1919
 FRA
Lenglen, SuzanneSuzanne Lenglen ‡
 BRI
Lambert Chambers, DorotheaDorothea Lambert Chambers
10–8, 4–6, 9–7

1920
 FRA
Lenglen, SuzanneSuzanne Lenglen †
 BRI
Lambert Chambers, DorotheaDorothea Lambert Chambers
6–3, 6–0

1921
 FRA
Lenglen, SuzanneSuzanne Lenglen †
 USA
Ryan, ElizabethElizabeth Ryan
6–2, 6–0

1922
 FRA
Lenglen, SuzanneSuzanne Lenglen
 USA
Mallory, MollaMolla Mallory
6–2, 6–0

1923
 FRA
Lenglen, SuzanneSuzanne Lenglen
 GBR
McKane, KittyKitty McKane
6–2, 6–2

1924
 GBR
McKane, KittyKitty McKane
 USA
Wills, HelenHelen Wills
4–6, 6–4, 6–4

1925
 FRA
Lenglen, SuzanneSuzanne Lenglen
 GBR
Fry, JoanJoan Fry
6–2, 6–0

1926
 GBR
Godfree, KittyKitty Godfree
 ESP
Álvarez, LilíLilí Álvarez
6–2, 4–6, 6–3

1927
 USA
Wills, HelenHelen Wills
 ESP
Álvarez, LilíLilí Álvarez
6–2, 6–4

1928
 USA
Wills, HelenHelen Wills
 ESP
Álvarez, LilíLilí Álvarez
6–2, 6–3

1929
 USA
Wills, HelenHelen Wills
 USA
Jacobs, HelenHelen Jacobs
6–1, 6–2

1930
 USA
Moody, HelenHelen Moody
 USA
Ryan, ElizabethElizabeth Ryan
6–2, 6–2

1931
 GER
Aussem, CillyCilly Aussem
 GER
Krahwinkel Sperling, HildeHilde Krahwinkel Sperling
6–2, 7–5

1932
 USA
Moody, HelenHelen Moody
 USA
Jacobs, HelenHelen Jacobs
6–3, 6–1

1933
 USA
Moody, HelenHelen Moody
 GBR
Round, DorothyDorothy Round
6–4, 6–8, 6–3

1934
 GBR
Round, DorothyDorothy Round
 USA
Jacobs, HelenHelen Jacobs
6–2, 5–7, 6–3

1935
 USA
Moody, HelenHelen Moody
 USA
Jacobs, HelenHelen Jacobs
6–3, 3–6, 7–5

1936
 USA
Jacobs, HelenHelen Jacobs
 DEN
Krahwinkel Sperling, HildeHilde Krahwinkel Sperling
6–2, 4–6, 7–5

1937
 GBR
Round, DorothyDorothy Round
 POL
Jędrzejowska, JadwigaJadwiga Jędrzejowska
6–2, 2–6, 7–5

1938
 USA
Moody, HelenHelen Moody
 USA
Jacobs, HelenHelen Jacobs
6–4, 6–0

1939
 USA
Marble, AliceAlice Marble
 GBR
Stammers, KayKay Stammers
6–2, 6–0

1940
No competition (due to World War II)

1941

1942

1943

1944

1945

1946
 USA
Betz, PaulinePauline Betz
 USA
Brough Clapp, LouiseLouise Brough Clapp
6–2, 6–4

1947
 USA
Osborne, MargaretMargaret Osborne
 USA
Hart, DorisDoris Hart
6–2, 6–4

1948
 USA
Brough, LouiseLouise Brough
 USA
Hart, DorisDoris Hart
6–3, 8–6

1949
 USA
Brough, LouiseLouise Brough
 USA
duPont, MargaretMargaret duPont
10–8, 1–6, 10–8

1950
 USA
Brough, LouiseLouise Brough
 USA
duPont, MargaretMargaret duPont
6–1, 3–6, 6–1

1951
 USA
Hart, DorisDoris Hart
 USA
Fry, ShirleyShirley Fry
6–1, 6–0

1952
 USA
Connolly, MaureenMaureen Connolly
 USA
Brough, LouiseLouise Brough
7–5, 6–3

1953
 USA
Connolly, MaureenMaureen Connolly
 USA
Hart, DorisDoris Hart
8–6, 7–5

1954
 USA
Connolly, MaureenMaureen Connolly
 USA
Brough, LouiseLouise Brough
6–2, 7–5

1955
 USA
Brough, LouiseLouise Brough
 USA
Fleitz, BeverlyBeverly Fleitz
7–5, 8–6

1956
 USA
Fry, ShirleyShirley Fry
 GBR
Buxton, AngelaAngela Buxton
6–3, 6–1

1957
 USA
Gibson, AltheaAlthea Gibson
 USA
Hard, DarleneDarlene Hard
6–3, 6–2

1958
 USA
Gibson, AltheaAlthea Gibson
 GBR
Mortimer, AngelaAngela Mortimer
8–6, 6–2

1959
 BRA
Bueno, MariaMaria Bueno
 USA
Hard, DarleneDarlene Hard
6–4, 6–3

1960
 BRA
Bueno, MariaMaria Bueno
 RSA
Reynolds, SandraSandra Reynolds
8–6, 6–0

1961
 GBR
Mortimer, AngelaAngela Mortimer
 GBR
Truman, ChristineChristine Truman
4–6, 6–4, 7–5

1962
 USA
Susman, KarenKaren Susman
 TCH
Suková, VěraVěra Suková
6–4, 6–4

1963
 AUS
Smith, MargaretMargaret Smith
 USA
Moffitt, Billie JeanBillie Jean Moffitt
6–3, 6–4

1964
 BRA
Bueno, MariaMaria Bueno
 AUS
Smith, MargaretMargaret Smith
6–4, 7–9, 6–3

1965
 AUS
Smith, MargaretMargaret Smith
 BRA
Bueno, MariaMaria Bueno
6–4, 7–5

1966
 USA
King, Billie JeanBillie Jean King
 BRA
Bueno, MariaMaria Bueno
6–3, 3–6, 6–1

1967
 USA
Jean King, BillieBillie Jean King
 GBR
Jones, AnnAnn Jones
6–3, 6–4

text: Open Era[edit]

text:
Year[d]
Country
Champion
Country
Runner-up
Score in the final[4]

1968
 USA
King, Billie JeanBillie Jean King
 AUS
Tegart, JudyJudy Tegart
9–7, 7–5

1969
 GBR
Jones, AnnAnn Jones
 USA
King, Billie JeanBillie Jean King
3–6, 6–3, 6–2

1970
 AUS
Court, MargaretMargaret Court
 USA
King, Billie JeanBillie Jean King
14–12, 11–9

1971
 AUS
Goolagong, EvonneEvonne Goolagong
 AUS
Court, MargaretMargaret Court
6–4, 6–1

1972
 USA
King, Billie JeanBillie Jean King
 AUS
Goolagong, EvonneEvonne Goolagong
6–3, 6–3

1973
 USA
King, Billie JeanBillie Jean King
 USA
Evert, ChrisChris Evert
6–0, 7–5

1974
 USA
Evert, ChrisChris Evert
 URS
Morozova, OlgaOlga Morozova
6–0, 6–4

1975
 USA
King, Billie JeanBillie Jean King
 AUS
Goolagong Cawley, EvonneEvonne Goolagong Cawley
6–0, 6–1

1976
 USA
Evert, ChrisChris Evert
 AUS
Goolagong Cawley, EvonneEvonne Goolagong Cawley
6–3, 4–6, 8–6

1977
 GBR
Wade, VirginiaVirginia Wade
 NED
Stöve, BettyBetty Stöve
4–6, 6–3, 6–1

1978
 USA
Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova[i][11]
 USA
Evert, ChrisChris Evert
2–6, 6–4, 7–5

1979
 USA
Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova
 USA
Evert-Lloyd, ChrisChris Evert-Lloyd
6–4, 6–4

1980
 AUS
Goolagong Cawley, EvonneEvonne Goolagong Cawley
 USA
Evert-Lloyd, ChrisChris Evert-Lloyd
6–1, 7–6(7–4)

1981
 USA
Evert-Lloyd, ChrisChris Evert-Lloyd
 TCH[h]
Mandlíková, HanaHana Mandlíková
6–2, 6–2

1982
 USA
Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova
 USA
Evert-Lloyd, ChrisChris Evert-Lloyd
6–1, 3–6, 6–2

1983
 USA
Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova
 USA
Jaeger, AndreaAndrea Jaeger
6–0, 6–3

1984
 USA
Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova
 USA
Evert-Lloyd, ChrisChris Evert-Lloyd
7–6(7–5), 6–2

1985
 USA
Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova
 USA
Evert-Lloyd, ChrisChris Evert-Lloyd
4–6, 6–3, 6–2

1986
 USA
Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova
 TCH
Mandlíková, HanaHana Mandlíková
7–6(7–1), 6–3

1987
 USA
Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova
 FRG[j]
Graf, SteffiSteffi Graf
7–5, 6–3

1988
 FRG[j]
Graf, SteffiSteffi Graf
 USA
Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova
5–7, 6–2, 6–1

1989
 FRG
Graf, SteffiSteffi Graf
 USA
Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova
6–2, 6–7(1–7), 6–1

1990
 USA
Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova
 USA
Garrison, ZinaZina Garrison
6–4, 6–1

1991
 GER
Graf, SteffiSteffi Graf
 ARG
Sabatini, GabrielaGabriela Sabatini
6–4, 3–6, 8–6

1992
 GER
Graf, SteffiSteffi Graf
 YUG
Seles, MonicaMonica Seles
6–2, 6–1

1993
 GER
Graf, SteffiSteffi Graf
 CZE
Novotná, JanaJana Novotná
7–6(8–6), 1–6, 6–4

1994
 ESP
Martínez, ConchitaConchita Martínez
 USA
Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova
6–4, 3–6, 6–3

1995
 GER
Graf, SteffiSteffi Graf
 ESP
Sánchez Vicario, ArantxaArantxa Sánchez Vicario
4–6, 6–1, 7–5

1996
 GER
Graf, SteffiSteffi Graf
 ESP
Sánchez Vicario, ArantxaArantxa Sánchez Vicario
6–3, 7–5

1997
  SUI
Hingis, MartinaMartina Hingis
 CZE
Novotná, JanaJana Novotná
2–6, 6–3, 6–3

1998
 CZE
Novotná, JanaJana Novotná
 FRA
Tauziat, NathalieNathalie Tauziat
6–4, 7–6(7–2)

1999
 USA
Davenport, LindsayLindsay Davenport
 GER
Graf, SteffiSteffi Graf
6–4, 7–5

2000
 USA
Williams, VenusVenus Williams
 USA
Davenport, LindsayLindsay Davenport
6–3, 7–6(7–3)

2001
 USA
Williams, VenusVenus Williams
 BEL
Henin, JustineJustine Henin
6–1, 3–6, 6–0

2002
 USA
Williams, SerenaSerena Williams
 USA
Williams, VenusVenus Williams
7–6(7–4), 6–3

2003
 USA
Williams, SerenaSerena Williams
 USA
Williams, VenusVenus Williams
4–6, 6–4, 6–2

2004
 RUS
Sharapova, MariaMaria Sharapova
 USA
Williams, SerenaSerena Williams
6–1, 6–4

2005
 USA
Williams, VenusVenus Williams
 USA
Davenport, LindsayLindsay Davenport
4–6, 7–6(7–4), 9–7

2006
 FRA
Mauresmo, AmélieAmélie Mauresmo
 BEL
Henin, JustineJustine Henin
2–6, 6–3, 6–4

2007
 USA
Williams, VenusVenus Williams
 FRA
Bartoli, MarionMarion Bartoli
6–4, 6–1

2008
 USA
Williams, VenusVenus Williams
 USA
Williams, SerenaSerena Williams
7–5, 6–4

2009
 USA
Williams, SerenaSerena Williams
 USA
Williams, VenusVenus Williams
7–6(7–3), 6–2

2010
 USA
Williams, SerenaSerena Williams
 RUS
Zvonareva, VeraVera Zvonareva
6–3, 6–2

2011
 CZE
Kvitová, PetraPetra Kvitová
 RUS
Sharapova, MariaMaria Sharapova
6–3, 6–4

2012
 USA
Williams, SerenaSerena Williams
 POL
Radwańska, AgnieszkaAgnieszka Radwańska
6–1, 5–7, 6–2

2013
 FRA
Bartoli, MarionMarion Bartoli
 GER
Lisicki, SabineSabine Lisicki
6–1, 6–4

2014
 CZE
Kvitová, PetraPetra Kvitová
 CAN
Bouchard, EugenieEugenie Bouchard
6–3, 6–0

2015
 USA
Williams, SerenaSerena Williams
 ESP
Muguruza, GarbiñeGarbiñe Muguruza
6–4, 6–4

2016
 USA
Williams, SerenaSerena Williams
 GER
Kerber, AngeliqueAngelique Kerber
7–5, 6–3

2017
 ESP
Muguruza, GarbiñeGarbiñe Muguruza
 USA
Williams, VenusVenus Williams
7–5, 6–0

text: Statistics[edit]

text: Multiple champions[edit]

text: Title defended in the challenge round

text:
Player
Amateur Era
Open Era
All-time
Years

 Navratilova, MartinaMartina Navratilova (USA)[i]
0
9
9
1978, 1979, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1990

 Wills Moody, HelenHelen Wills Moody (USA)
8
0
8
1927, 1928, 1929, 1930, 1932, 1933, 1935, 1938

 Lambert Chambers, DorotheaDorothea Lambert Chambers (UK)
7
0
7
1903, 1904, 1906, 1910, 1911, 1913, 1914

 Graf, SteffiSteffi Graf (GER)
0
7
7
1988, 1989, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1995, 1996

 Williams, SerenaSerena Williams (USA)
0
7
7
2002, 2003, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2015, 2016

 Bingley, BlancheBlanche Bingley (UK)
6
0
6
1886, 1889, 1894, 1897, 1899, 1900

 Lenglen, SuzanneSuzanne Lenglen (FRA)
6
0
6
1919, 1920, 1921, 1922, 1923, 1925

 King, Billie JeanBillie Jean King (USA)
2
4
6
1966, 1967, 1968, 1972, 1973, 1975

 Cooper Sterry, CharlotteCharlotte Cooper Sterry (UK)
5
0
5
1895, 1896, 1898, 1901, 1908

 Dod, LottieLottie Dod (UK)
5
0
5
1887, 1888, 1891, 1892, 1893

 Williams, VenusVenus Williams (USA)
0
5
5
2000, 2001, 2005, 2007, 2008

 Brough Clapp, LouiseLouise Brough Clapp (USA)
4
0
4
1948, 1949, 1950, 1955

 Connolly, MaureenMaureen Connolly (USA)
3
0
3
1952, 1953, 1954

 Bueno, MariaMaria Bueno (BRA)
3
0
3
1959, 1960, 1964

 Court, MargaretMargaret Court (AUS)
2
1
3
1963, 1965, 1970

 Evert, ChrisChris Evert (USA)
0
3
3
1974, 1976, 1981

 Gibson, AltheaAlthea Gibson (USA)
2
0
2
1957, 1958

 McKane Godfree, KittyKitty McKane Godfree (UK)
2
0
2
1924, 1926

 Sutton Bundy, MayMay Sutton Bundy (USA)
2
0
2
1905, 1907

 Watson, MaudMaud Watson (UK)
2
0
2
1884, 1885

 Goolagong Cawley, EvonneEvonne Goolagong Cawley (AUS)
0
2
2
1971, 1980

 Kvitová, PetraPetra Kvitová (CZE)
0
2
2
2011, 2014

text: Championships by country[edit]

text:
Country
Amateur Era
Open Era
All-time
First title
Last title

 United States (USA)
28
29
57
1905
2016

 United Kingdom (UK)
33
2
35
1884
1977

 Germany (GER)[j]
1
7
8
1931
1996

 France (FRA)
6
2
8
1919
2013

 Australia (AUS)
2
3
5
1963
1980

 Brazil (BRA)
3
0
3
1959
1964

 Czech Republic (CZE)
0
3
3
1998
2014

 Spain (ESP)
0
2
2
1994
2017

  Switzerland (SUI)
0
1
1
1997
1997

 Russia (RUS)
0
1
1
2004
2004


document_title: Earl Campbell

question_text: where did earl campbell go to high school

text: Earl Campbell

text: Early life and high school[edit]

text: Earl Christian Campbell was born on March 29, 1955, the sixth of eleven siblings, in Tyler, Texas, leading to the eponymous nickname, "The Tyler Rose" later in his career. His father died when Campbell was 11 years old.[3] He began playing football in fifth grade as a kicker, but moved to linebacker in sixth grade after watching Dick Butkus, whom he modeled his playing style after.[4][5] His mother Ann Campbell attempted to persuade Earl not to play football in high school. "I dis-encouraged Earl," she said. "But he always loved football."[6] In 1973, he led the Corky Nelson-coached John Tyler High School to the Texas 4A State Championship (4A then was the largest classification in the state). That season, he was named Mr. Football USA as he was adjudged the national high school player of the year.[7]

text: While heavily recruited, Campbell narrowed his choices to Houston, Oklahoma, Texas, Arkansas, and Baylor. After in-home visits from Barry Switzer from Oklahoma and Darrell Royal from Texas, Campbell ultimately chose Texas.[4] Switzer, who unsuccessfully recruited Campbell, said in his 1989 book that Campbell was the only player he ever saw who could have gone straight from high school to the NFL and immediately become a star.[8]

text: College career[edit]

text: Campbell attended the University of Texas at Austin, where he played college football for the Texas Longhorns football team from 1974 to 1977.[9] As a freshman in 1974, he played in all 11 games and rushed for 928 yards and six touchdowns on 162 attempts. In 1975, he was a first-team All-America selection at fullback by the American Football Coaches Association,[10] after he led the Southwest Conference with 1,118 rushing yards, 13 rushing touchdowns, and 78 points scored. Leg injuries kept him out of four games during his junior season,[11] and he rushed for 653 yards and three touchdowns in seven games as Texas finished with a 5–5–1 record.[12]

text: Campbell led the nation in rushing as a senior in 1977, with 1,744 yards and 19 touchdowns. In the third game of the season, against the Rice Owls, Campbell scored four touchdowns during a 72–15 blowout in which Texas kicker Russell Erxleben set an NCAA record with a 67-yard field goal.[13] In his final regular season game, Campbell rushed for a career-high 222 yards in a 57–28 victory over rival Texas A&M, and the Longhorns finished the regular season undefeated. After clinching the Southwest Conference championship, the top-ranked Longhorns then faced No. 5 Notre Dame, led by quarterback Joe Montana, in the Cotton Bowl Classic. Campbell carried 29 times for 116 yards in the game, but Notre Dame was victorious, 38–10, and claimed the national championship. Texas was ranked fourth in the final AP Poll.[14]

text: Campbell was awarded the Heisman Memorial Trophy as the most outstanding college player after the season, becoming the University of Texas' first winner of the award.[6] He also became the first recipient of the Davey O'Brien Memorial Trophy which was awarded to the outstanding player in the Southwest Conference.[15] The Sporting News and United Press International each named Campbell the college football player of the year.[16][17] He was a unanimous All-American, being named to the first team by every major selector.[18] He finished his college career with 4,443 rushing yards and 40 rushing touchdowns in 40 games through four seasons.

text: College rushing statistics[edit]

text:
Year

G

Att

Yds

Avg

TD

1974
11
162
928
5.7
6

1975
11
198
1,118
5.6
13

1976
7
138
653
4.7
3

1977
11
267
1,744
6.5
18

Career
40
765
4,443
5.8
40

text: Professional career[edit]

text: Houston Oilers[edit]

text: Campbell was the first overall draft pick in the 1978 NFL Draft, selected by the Houston Oilers, who signed him to a six-year, $1.4 million contract. The Oilers obtained the pick from the Tampa Bay Buccaneers by trading tight end Jimmie Giles, their first and second round picks in the 1978 Draft, and their third and fifth round picks in the 1979 Draft. "This is a commitment to excellence," said Oilers head coach Bum Phillips. "It takes a great running back to have a winning football team and this kid is a great running back."[19] After rushing for a league-leading and rookie record 1,450 yards,[20] Campbell was named the Offensive Rookie of the Year by the Sporting News and Associated Press (AP).[21][22] He was also named the AFC Offensive Player of the Year by United Press International (UPI),[23] NFL Offensive Player of the Year by the AP,[24] and the NFL Most Valuable Player (MVP) by the Newspaper Enterprise Association (NEA) and Pro Football Writers of America (PFWA).[25][26] Campbell's emergence contributed to the start of the Luv Ya Blue era in Houston.[27]

text: With quarterback Dan Pastorini nursing a mid-season shoulder injury, Campbell carried the Oilers to a five-game winning streak in 1979, which concluded with a 30–24 win over the Dallas Cowboys on Thanksgiving Day, in which he rushed for 195 yards and two touchdowns.[27] He finished the season with 1,697 rushing yards and 19 touchdowns, leading the league in both categories.[28] He also set NFL records with eleven 100-yard rushing games, seven consecutive 100-yard games, and 368 carries.[29] He was named NFL MVP by the AP,[29] NEA,[30] and PFWA.[31] He also repeated as the AP Offensive Player of the Year, and won the Bert Bell Award as the league's most outstanding player.[32][33]

text: With his aggressive running style which favored running over players instead of around them, questions began to arise over how long Campbell could stay healthy.[34] "He runs with a lot of reckless abandon," said Ron Johnson, a former running back whose own career was cut short. "You can run like that in college. But you can't do that for 10 years and hope to survive."[34] Pittsburgh Steelers running back Franco Harris said "Knocking over people can look very good but you can't do it forever. Sometimes it's going to be somebody else who knocks you over ... so the most important thing I think isn't to get a few extra yards every time but to make sure you're healthy enough to play."[34] Bum Phillips, though, favored Campbell's running style. "I've been looking for a back like Earl," he said. "I'm not going to change his style. Why would I? You don't want a guy who gets hit and then flops on the ground. Earl does the same thing other backs do, only better."[34]

text: After an 11–5 regular season record in 1979, the Oilers defeated the Denver Broncos in the wild-card round for their first home playoff win since 1960.[27] Houston then won the divisional round game against the San Diego Chargers despite both Pastorini and Campbell missing the game due to injuries.[35] With both back in the lineup, however, the Oilers lost the conference championship game the following week against the Pittsburgh Steelers.[27] Campbell was held to just 15 yards on 17 carries against Pittsburgh's "Steel Curtain" defense.[36]

text: Campbell had his most productive rushing yardage season in 1980, with 1,934 yards in 15 games—an average of 128.9 yards per game. He finished 70 yards short of breaking O. J. Simpson's single-season rushing yards record set in 1973.[37] He again led the league in rushing yards and touchdowns, and broke his own record for carries, with 373. Over 60 percent of his yards came in the fourth quarter. "That's when the tough get going," said Campbell.[38] He had four games of over 200 rushing yards, a single-season record that still stands as of the end of the 2016 season.[39] He also threw a 57-yard touchdown pass to receiver Billy "White Shoes" Johnson against the Steelers for his only career completion out of three attempts.[40] The Oilers again finished with an 11–5 regular season record, but lost the wild-card playoff game to the Oakland Raiders. For the third straight year, Campbell was awarded the Jim Thorpe Trophy by the Newspaper Enterprise Association as the league's MVP,[41] and named the Offensive Player of the Year by the AP.[37]

text: Bum Phillips was fired three days after Houston's loss in the wild-card game, and defensive coordinator Ed Biles was given the head coaching job.[42] In 1981, the Oilers finished 7–9 and failed to make the playoffs for the first time with Campbell on the roster. Also for the first time, Campbell did not claim the rushing yards title, as he finished fifth in yards with 1,376 and seventh in touchdowns with 10.[28] The highlight of the season was back-to-back rushing performances of over 180 yards, against the Bengals in Week 5 and the Seahawks in Week 6. His 39 carries against the Seahawks set an Oilers single-game record.[43] Campbell was invited to his fourth Pro Bowl, but failed to make an All-Pro roster. A players' strike in 1982 shortened the season to nine games and the Oilers finished with a 1–8 record. Campbell had just two touchdowns and 538 rushing yards, an average of 59.8 yards per game—far below his average of 104.1 per game over the previous four seasons.[44]

text: Campbell's production improved greatly in 1983 as he had 1,301 yards and 12 touchdowns, and was invited to his fifth Pro Bowl. However, the Oilers finished the season tied for the worst record in the league at 2–14. Unhappy after he was pulled in the second half against the Cincinnati Bengals in Week 10, Campbell demanded to be traded.[45] He completed the season with the team but remained adamant with his demand in the off-season. "I'm tired of hearing every week how I'm too dumb, washed up, too dumb to read holes, can't block, can't catch the football," he said.[46] The team's back-to-back dismal seasons also added to his frustration.[47] In 1984, under new head coach Hugh Campbell, Houston started the season with six straight losses.[48] After rushing for 278 yards total in the first six games of 1984, Campbell was traded to the New Orleans Saints, reuniting him with Bum Phillips.[49]

text: New Orleans Saints[edit]

text: The Saints received Campbell in exchange for their first round draft pick in 1985,[50] with which Houston selected cornerback Richard Johnson. The trade came as a surprise in New Orleans;[51] the team already had the young George Rogers, the 1981 No. 1 overall draft pick and that year's Rookie of the Year and rushing champion.[52] With Campbell and Rogers, the Saints now had two Heisman Trophy winners in the backfield.[51] In his first game with New Orleans, Campbell carried five times for 19 yards, and continued to have a diminished role in the offense throughout the rest of the season.[50] He rushed for a total of 468 yards and four touchdowns in 1984, and failed to record a 100-yard game during the season.[53]

text: His final 100-yard game was his only one in 1985: a 160-yard outburst against the Minnesota Vikings in which he scored his only touchdown of the season.[53] He finished the year with 643 rushing yards on 158 carries. After considering a return for one more season to reach 10,000 career rushing yards,[54] Campbell retired during the preseason of 1986, feeling that the beating he had taken during his career had taken too much of a toll.[55] "I'm a man; I'm not a little boy," he said. "I believe this is the best thing—not only for myself, but for the Saints."[56] He finished his career having carried 2,187 times for 9,407 yards and 74 touchdowns in the regular season.

text: NFL statistics[edit]

text:
Legend

Led the league

Bold

Career high

text:
Year

Team

Games

Rushing

Receiving

Fumbles

G
GS
Att
Yds
Avg
TD
Rec
Yds
Avg
TD

1978
HOU

15
14
302
1,450
4.8
13
12
48
4.0
0
9

1979
HOU

16
16
368
1,697
4.6
19
16
94
5.9
0
8

1980
HOU

15
15
373
1,934
5.2
13
11
47
4.3
0
4

1981
HOU

16
16
361
1,376
3.8
10
36
156
4.3
0
10

1982
HOU

9
9
157
538
3.4
2
18
130
7.2
0
2

1983
HOU

14
14
322
1,301
4.0
12
19
216
11.4
0
4

1984
HOU

6
6
96
278
2.9
4
3
27
9.0
0
2

NO

8
0
50
190
3.8
0
0
0
0.0
0
0

1985
NO

16
12
158
643
4.1
1
6
88
14.7
0
4

Career[28]
115
102
2,187
9,407
4.3
74
121
806
6.7
0
43

text: Legacy and honors[edit]

text: Campbell is widely acknowledged as one of the best power running backs in NFL history,[57][58] and was highly regarded by his peers. "Every time you hit him you lower your own IQ," said Redskins linebacker Pete Wysocki.[34] Cornerback Lester Hayes of the Raiders said "Earl Campbell was put on this earth to play football."[59] Cliff Harris, safety for the Cowboys, recalled Campbell as "the hardest-hitting running back I ever played against. He didn't have the elusiveness of an O. J. Simpson. But when you finished a game against Earl, you had to sit in a tub with Epsom salts."[60] Bum Phillips, when asked if Campbell was in a class by himself, quipped, "I dunno. But if he ain't, it don't take long to call the roll."[60]

text: Campbell is considered one of the greatest running backs in Texas Longhorns and college football history.[18][61][62] He was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1990, along with fellow Heisman winner Jim Plunkett of Stanford.[63] Campbell became the first Texas Longhorns football player to have his jersey retired by the University, his number 20 being retired in 1979.[64] In 2000, an internet poll of Longhorns fans voted Campbell to Texas' All-Century team. He received the most votes, beating out recently graduated Ricky Williams.[65]

text: On July 27, 1991, Campbell was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Others inducted in the 1991 class were John Hannah, Stan Jones, Tex Schramm, and Jan Stenerud.[66] He was introduced at the ceremony by Bum Phillips. Campbell's jersey number 34 was retired by the Oilers in 1987.[67] He was inducted as one of six charter members into the Titans Hall of Fame in 1999, although he declined an invitation to the induction ceremony, stating, "I was a Houston Oiler, not a Tennessee Titan."[a][68][69]

text: In 1999, Campbell was ranked number 33 on The Sporting News' list of the 100 greatest football players,[70] the highest-ranked player for the Houston Oilers franchise. In 2010, NFL Network ranked Campbell the 55th greatest player of all time in The Top 100: NFL's Greatest Players,[71] and he was ranked by the sportswriter Max Bertellotti of the Turner Sports Network as the number 3 "power back" of all time, behind Jim Brown and John Riggins.[72]

text: He was honored at halftime against Ohio State on September 9, 2006, including the unveiling of a 9-foot (2.7 m) bronze statue of Campbell in the southwest corner of Royal-Memorial Stadium.[73] The same year, Campbell was featured on the cover of Dave Campbell's Texas Football, an honor that eluded him during his playing days.[74]

text: A section of roadway in Tyler, Texas extending from Loop 323 to SH155 was named the Earl Campbell Parkway at its opening in 2012.[75] In 2013, the Earl Campbell Tyler Rose Award, an award given to the best offensive player in NCAA Division I with Texas ties, was named in Campbell's honor.[76][77]

text: Personal and later life[edit]

text: While at the University of Texas, Campbell was a member of the honorary men's service organization, the Texas Cowboys. As of 2016, he still actively participates in University of Texas athletics, where he serves as special assistant to the football team.[78] In 1990, he founded Earl Campbell Meat Products, Inc. which manufactures and sells Earl Campbell's Smoked Sausage and other food products and barbecue sauce.[79] Campbell and his associates also opened a restaurant in 1999 on Sixth Street in Austin called Earl Campbell's Lone Star BBQ, which closed in 2001.[80]

text: Campbell has two sons: Christian and Tyler. Christian played high school football with Drew Brees, nephew of his father's former Longhorns teammate Marty Akins, at Westlake High and ran track for the University of Houston.[81] Tyler was a running back for Pasadena City College and San Diego State[82] but was forced to give up the sport due to multiple sclerosis (MS).[83] He returned to Texas after graduation and divides his time between the family business and raising awareness of MS with his father.[84][85]

text: Health[edit]

text: Campbell has experienced various physical ailments in his later life. By 2001, at age 46, he could barely close his fist due to arthritis in his hands.[86] He developed foot drop due to nerve damage in his legs, and has difficulty bending his back and knees.[86][87] He was diagnosed with spinal stenosis in 2009.[88] Because of his difficulty walking he uses a cane or a walker, and for longer distances a wheelchair.[5][89] Campbell at first maintained the ailments were genetic,[89][90] but said in 2012, "I think some of it came from playing football, playing the way I did."[84][91]

text: In 2009, Campbell became addicted to painkillers prescribed for his spinal stenosis, taking as many as ten OxyContin pills a day with Budweiser.[88][91][92] He went through rehabilitation and broke his addiction the same year, and since publicizing the incident in 2013 has spoken out about the dangers of substance abuse.[88]


document_title: Edo period

question_text: where did the shogun live during the edo period

text: Edo period

text: Consolidation of the shogunate[edit]

text: A revolution took place from the time of the Kamakura shogunate, which existed with the Tenno's court, to the Tokugawa, when the samurai became the unchallenged rulers in what historian Edwin O. Reischauer called a "centralized feudal" form of shogunate. Instrumental in the rise of the new-existing bakufu was Tokugawa Ieyasu, the main beneficiary of the achievements of Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Already powerful, Ieyasu profited by his transfer to the rich Kantō area. He maintained two million koku of land, a new headquarters at Edo, a strategically situated castle town (the future Tokyo), and also had an additional two million koku of land and thirty-eight vassals under his control. After Hideyoshi's death, Ieyasu moved quickly to seize control from the Toyotomi family.

text: Ieyasu's victory over the western daimyōs at the Battle of Sekigahara (October 21, 1600, or in the Japanese calendar on the 15th day of the ninth month of the fifth year of the Keichō era) gave him control of all Japan. He rapidly abolished numerous enemy daimyō houses, reduced others, such as that of the Toyotomi, and redistributed the spoils of war to his family and allies. Ieyasu still failed to achieve complete control of the western daimyōs, but his assumption of the title of shogun helped consolidate the alliance system. After further strengthening his power base, Ieyasu installed his son Hidetada (1579–1632) as shogun and himself as retired shogun in 1605. The Toyotomi were still a significant threat, and Ieyasu devoted the next decade to their eradication. In 1615, the Tokugawa army destroyed the Toyotomi stronghold at Osaka.

text: The Tokugawa (or Edo) period brought 250 years of stability to Japan. The political system evolved into what historians call bakuhan, a combination of the terms bakufu and han (domains) to describe the government and society of the period.[1] In the bakuhan, the shogun had national authority and the daimyōs had regional authority. This represented a new unity in the feudal structure, which featured an increasingly large bureaucracy to administer the mixture of centralized and decentralized authorities. The Tokugawa became more powerful during their first century of rule: land redistribution gave them nearly seven million koku, control of the most important cities, and a land assessment system reaping great revenues.

text: The feudal hierarchy was completed by the various classes of daimyō. Closest to the Tokugawa house were the shinpan, or "related houses". They were twenty-three daimyōs on the borders of Tokugawa lands, all directly related to Ieyasu. The shinpan held mostly honorary titles and advisory posts in the bakufu. The second class of the hierarchy were the fudai, or "house daimyōs", rewarded with lands close to the Tokugawa holdings for their faithful service. By the 18th century, 145 fudai controlled such smaller han, the greatest assessed at 250,000 koku. Members of the fudai class staffed most of the major bakufu offices. Ninety-seven han formed the third group, the tozama (outside vassals), former opponents or new allies. The tozama were located mostly on the peripheries of the archipelago and collectively controlled nearly ten million koku of productive land. Because the tozama were least trusted of the daimyō, they were the most cautiously managed and generously treated, although they were excluded from central government positions.

text: The Tokugawa shogunate not only consolidated their control over a reunified Japan, they also had unprecedented power over the emperor, the court, all daimyōs and the religious orders. The emperor was held up as the ultimate source of political sanction for the shogun, who ostensibly was the vassal of the imperial family. The Tokugawa helped the imperial family recapture its old glory by rebuilding its palaces and granting it new lands. To ensure a close tie between the imperial clan and the Tokugawa family, Ieyasu's granddaughter was made an imperial consort in 1619.

text: A code of laws was established to regulate the daimyō houses. The code encompassed private conduct, marriage, dress, types of weapons and numbers of troops allowed; required feudal lords to reside in Edo every other year (the sankin kōtai system); prohibited the construction of ocean-going ships; proscribed Christianity; restricted castles to one per domain (han) and stipulated that bakufu regulations were the national law. Although the daimyō were not taxed per se, they were regularly levied for contributions for military and logistical support and for such public works projects as castles, roads, bridges and palaces. The various regulations and levies not only strengthened the Tokugawa but also depleted the wealth of the daimyōs, thus weakening their threat to the central administration. The han, once military-centered domains, became mere local administrative units. The daimyōs did have full administrative control over their territory and their complex systems of retainers, bureaucrats and commoners. Loyalty was exacted from religious foundations, already greatly weakened by Nobunaga and Hideyoshi, through a variety of control mechanisms.

text: Foreign trade relations[edit]

text: Like Hideyoshi, Ieyasu encouraged foreign trade but also was suspicious of outsiders. He wanted to make Edo a major port, but once he learned that the Europeans favored ports in Kyūshū and that China had rejected his plans for official trade, he moved to control existing trade and allowed only certain ports to handle specific kinds of commodities.

text: The beginning of the Edo period coincides with the last decades of the Nanban trade period during which intense interaction with European powers, on the economic and religious plane, took place. It is at the beginning of the Edo period that Japan built its first ocean-going Western-style warships, such as the San Juan Bautista, a 500-ton galleon-type ship that transported a Japanese embassy headed by Hasekura Tsunenaga to the Americas and then to Europe. Also during that period, the bakufu commissioned around 720 Red Seal Ships, three-masted and armed trade ships, for intra-Asian commerce. Japanese adventurers, such as Yamada Nagamasa, used those ships throughout Asia.

text: The "Christian problem" was, in effect, a problem of controlling both the Christian daimyōs in Kyūshū and their trade with the Europeans. By 1612, the shogun's retainers and residents of Tokugawa lands had been ordered to forswear Christianity. More restrictions came in 1616 (the restriction of foreign trade to Nagasaki and Hirado, an island northwest of Kyūshū), 1622 (the execution of 120 missionaries and converts), 1624 (the expulsion of the Spanish), and 1629 (the execution of thousands of Christians). Finally, the Closed Country Edict of 1635 prohibited any Japanese from traveling outside Japan or, if someone left, from ever returning. In 1636 the Dutch were restricted to Dejima, a small artificial island—and thus, not true Japanese soil—in Nagasaki's harbor.

text: The shogunate perceived Catholic Christianity to be an extremely destabilizing factor, and so decided to persecute it. The Shimabara Rebellion of 1637–38, in which discontented Catholic Christian samurai and peasants rebelled against the bakufu—and Edo called in Dutch ships to bombard the rebel stronghold—marked the end of the Christian movement, although some Catholic Christians survived by going underground, the so-called Kakure Kirishitan. Soon thereafter, the Portuguese were permanently expelled, members of the Portuguese diplomatic mission were executed, all subjects were ordered to register at a Buddhist or Shinto temple, and the Dutch and Chinese were restricted, respectively, to Dejima and to a special quarter in Nagasaki. Besides small trade of some outer daimyōs with Korea and the Ryukyu Islands, to the southwest of Japan's main islands, by 1641, foreign contacts were limited by the policy of sakoku to Nagasaki.

text: The last Jesuit was either killed or reconverted by 1644[2] and by the 1660s, Christianity was almost completely eradicated, and its external political, economic, and religious influence on Japan became quite limited.[3] Only China, the Dutch East India Company, and for a short period, the English, enjoyed the right to visit Japan during this period, for commercial purposes only, and they were restricted to the Dejima port in Nagasaki. Other Europeans who landed on Japanese shores were put to death without trial.

text: Society[edit]

text: Edo society had an elaborate social structure, in which everyone knew their place and level of prestige. At the top were the Emperor and the court nobility, invincible in prestige but weak in power. Next came the shōgun, daimyōs and layers of feudal lords whose rank was indicated by their closeness to the Tokugawa. They had power. The daimyōs comprised about 250 local lords of local "han" with annual outputs of 50,000 or more bushels of rice. The upper strata was much given to elaborate and expensive rituals, including elegant architecture, landscaped gardens, Noh drama, patronage of the arts, and the tea ceremony.[4]

text: After a long period of inner conflict, the first goal of the newly established Tokugawa government was to pacify the country. It created a balance of power that remained (fairly) stable for the next 250 years, influenced by Confucian principles of social order. Most samurai lost their direct possession of the land: the daimyōs took over their land. The samurai had a choice: give up their sword and become peasants, or move to the city of their feudal lord and become a paid retainer. Only a few land samurai remained in the border provinces of the north, or as direct vassals of the shogun, the 5,000 so-called hatamoto. The daimyōs were put under tight control of the shogunate. Their families had to reside in Edo; the daimyōs themselves had to reside in Edo for one year and in their province (han) for the next. This system was called sankin kōtai.

text: The individual had no legal rights in Tokugawa Japan. The family was the smallest legal entity, and the maintenance of family status and privileges was of great importance at all levels of society. The 1711 Gotōke reijō was compiled from over 600 statutes promulgated between 1597 and 1696.[5]

text: During the Tokugawa period, the social order, based on inherited position rather than personal merits, was rigid and highly formalized. At the top were the emperor and court nobles (kuge), together with the shogun and daimyōs. Below them the population was divided into four classes in a system known as mibunsei (身分制): the samurai on top (about 5% of the population) and the peasants (more than 80% of the population) on the second level. Below the peasants were the craftsmen, and even below them, on the fourth level, were the merchants.[6] Only the peasants lived in the rural areas. Samurai, craftsmen and merchants lived in the cities that were built around the daimyōs' castles, each restricted to their own quarter.

text: Outside the four classes were the so-called eta and hinin, those whose professions broke the taboos of Buddhism. Eta were butchers, tanners and undertakers. Hinin served as town guards, street cleaners, and executioners. Other outsiders included the beggars, entertainers, and prostitutes. The word eta literally translates to "filthy" and hinin to "non-humans", a thorough reflection of the attitude held by other classes that the eta and hinin were not even people.[7] Hinin were only allowed inside a special quarter of the city. Other persecution of the hinin included disallowing them from wearing robes longer than knee-length and the wearing of hats.[7] Sometimes eta villages were not even printed on official maps. A sub-class of hinin who were born into their social class had no option of mobility to a different social class whereas the other class of hinin who had lost their previous class status could be reinstated in Japanese society.[7] In the 19th century the umbrella term burakumin was coined to name the eta and hinin because both classes were forced to live in separate village neighborhoods.[8] The eta, hinin and burakumin classes were officially abolished in 1871.[7] However, their cultural and societal impact, including some forms of discrimination, continued into modern times.[8]

text: Economic development[edit]

text: The Edo period bequeathed a vital commercial sector to be in burgeoning urban centers, a relatively well-educated elite, a sophisticated government bureaucracy, productive agriculture, a closely unified nation with highly developed financial and marketing systems, and a national infrastructure of roads.

text: Economic development during the Tokugawa period included urbanization, increased shipping of commodities, a significant expansion of domestic and, initially, foreign commerce, and a diffusion of trade and handicraft industries. The construction trades flourished, along with banking facilities and merchant associations. Increasingly, han authorities oversaw the rising agricultural production and the spread of rural handicrafts.

text: Population[edit]

text: By the mid-18th century, Edo had a population of more than one million, and Osaka and Kyoto each had more than 400,000 inhabitants. Many other castle towns grew as well. Japan had almost zero population growth between the 1720s and 1820s, often attributed to lower birth rates in response to widespread famine, but some historians have presented different theories, such as a high rate of infanticide artificially controlling population.[9] Osaka and Kyoto became busy trading and handicraft production centers, while Edo was the center for the supply of food and essential urban consumer goods.

text: Agriculture[edit]

text: Rice was the base of the economy. About 80% of the people were rice farmers.[10] Rice production increased steadily, but population remained stable, so prosperity increased. Rice paddies grew from 1.6 million chō in 1600 to 3 million by 1720.[11] Improved technology helped farmers control the all-important flow of irrigation to their paddies. The daimyō operated several hundred castle towns, which became loci of domestic trade. Large-scale rice markets developed, centered on Edo and Ōsaka.[12] In the cities and towns, guilds of merchants and artisans met the growing demand for goods and services. The merchants, while low in status, prospered, especially those with official patronage. Merchants invented credit instruments to transfer money, currency came into common use, and the strengthening credit market encouraged entrepreneurship.[13] The daimyōs collected the taxes from the peasants in the form of rice. Taxes were high, about 40% of the harvest. The rice was sold at the fudasashi market in Edo. To raise money, the daimyōs used forward contracts to sell rice that was not even harvested yet. These contracts were similar to modern futures trading.

text: It was during the Edo period that Japan developed an advanced forest management policy. Increased demand for timber resources for construction, shipbuilding and fuel had led to widespread deforestation, which resulted in forest fires, floods and soil erosion. In response the shogun, beginning around 1666, instituted a policy to reduce logging and increase the planting of trees. The policy mandated that only the shogun and daimyōs could authorize the use of wood. By the 18th century, Japan had developed detailed scientific knowledge about silviculture and plantation forestry.[14]

text: Artistic and intellectual development[edit]

text: During the period, Japan studied Western sciences and techniques (called rangaku, "Dutch studies") through the information and books received through the Dutch traders in Dejima. The main areas that were studied included geography, medicine, natural sciences, astronomy, art, languages, physical sciences such as the study of electrical phenomena, and mechanical sciences as exemplified by the development of Japanese clockwatches, or wadokei, inspired by Western techniques.

text: The flourishing of Neo-Confucianism was the major intellectual development of the Tokugawa period. Confucian studies had long been kept active in Japan by Buddhist clerics, but during the Tokugawa period, Confucianism emerged from Buddhist religious control. This system of thought increased attention to a secular view of man and society. The ethical humanism, rationalism, and historical perspective of neo-Confucian doctrine appealed to the official class. By the mid-17th century, neo-Confucianism was Japan's dominant legal philosophy and contributed directly to the development of the kokugaku (national learning) school of thought.

text: Advanced studies and growing applications of neo-Confucianism contributed to the transition of the social and political order from feudal norms to class- and large-group-oriented practices. The rule of the people or Confucian man was gradually replaced by the rule of law. New laws were developed, and new administrative devices were instituted. A new theory of government and a new vision of society emerged as a means of justifying more comprehensive governance by the bakufu. Each person had a distinct place in society and was expected to work to fulfill his or her mission in life. The people were to be ruled with benevolence by those whose assigned duty it was to rule. Government was all-powerful but responsible and humane. Although the class system was influenced by neo-Confucianism, it was not identical to it. Whereas soldiers and clergy were at the bottom of the hierarchy in the Chinese model, in Japan, some members of these classes constituted the ruling elite.

text: Members of the samurai class adhered to bushi traditions with a renewed interest in Japanese history and in cultivation of the ways of Confucian scholar-administrators. Another special way of life—chōnindō—also emerged. Chōnindō ("the way of the townspeople") was a distinct culture that arose in cities such as Osaka, Kyoto, and Edo. It encouraged aspiration to bushido qualities—diligence, honesty, honor, loyalty, and frugality—while blending Shinto, neo-Confucian, and Buddhist beliefs. Study of mathematics, astronomy, cartography, engineering, and medicine were also encouraged. Emphasis was placed on quality of workmanship, especially in the arts.

text: For the first time, urban populations had the means and leisure time to support a new mass culture. Their search for enjoyment became known as ukiyo (the floating world), an ideal world of fashion, popular entertainment, and the discovery of aesthetic qualities in objects and actions of everyday life. This increasing interest in pursuing recreational activities helped to develop an array of new industries, many of which could be found in an area known as Yoshiwara. The region was better known for being the center of Edo’s developing sense of elegance and refinement. This place of pleasure and luxury became a destination for the elite and wealthy merchants who wished to flaunt their fortune.[15] Their economy relied primarily on the patronage of such individuals in order to sustain itself. For many of those who inhabited and worked in this region maintaining the illusion of grandeur was the only way of supporting their business.

text: Yoshiwara was home to mostly women who, due to unfortunate circumstances, found themselves working in this secluded environment. Combining factors such as rent, value of their employment contract, cost of clothing, make-up, gift giving, and other expenses ensured that many would spend their entire lives working to pay off their debts. These females were expected to perform dances, sing, play an instrument, gossip or provide companionship so that their guests would come again. As a result, the region developed its own culture which, in turn, determined what would be popular in the rest of the country. This was particularly true for fashion because a woman's identity was determined by her clothing, specifically it clarified what her profession and status was within that field. The quality of her attire ensured that she stood out from the rest of her competition. It was her only means of establishing a reputation and helped to market her talents. However, Yoshiwara also possessed a seedier side. Much of the business conducted here incorporated the use of prostitution as a means to deal with the women's cost of living. As a result, since its establishment was first authorised by Toyotomi Hideyoshi in 1589,[16] this area became the country's government sanctioned red-light district. This designation lasted for about 250 years.

text: Professional female entertainers (geisha), music, popular stories, Kabuki and bunraku (puppet theater), poetry, a rich literature, and art, exemplified by beautiful woodblock prints (known as ukiyo-e), were all part of this flowering of culture. Literature also flourished with the talented examples of the playwright Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653–1724) and the poet, essayist, and travel writer Matsuo Bashō (1644–94).

text: Matsumura Keibun is one of the most significant painters of this period. His works commonly included realistic depictions of birds, flowers and animals.[17]

text: Ukiyo-e is a genre of painting and printmaking that developed in the late 17th century, at first depicting the entertainments of the pleasure districts of Edo, such as courtesans and kabuki actors. Harunobu produced the first full-colour nishiki-e prints in 1765, a form that has become synonymous to most with ukiyo-e. The genre reached a peak in technique towards the end of the century with the works of such artists as Kiyonaga and Utamaro. As the Edo period came to an end a great diversity of genres proliferated: warriors, nature, folklore, and the landscapes of Hokusai and Hiroshige. The genre declined throughout the rest of the century in the face of modernization that saw ukiyo-e as both old-fashioned and laborious to produce compared to Western technologies. Ukiyo-e was a primary part of the wave of Japonism that swept Western art in the late 19th century.

text: Buddhism and Shinto were both still important in Tokugawa Japan. Buddhism, together with neo-Confucianism, provided standards of social behavior. Although Buddhism was not as politically powerful as it had been in the past, Buddhism continued to be espoused by the upper classes. Proscriptions against Christianity benefited Buddhism in 1640 when the bakufu ordered everyone to register at a temple. The rigid separation of Tokugawa society into han, villages, wards, and households helped reaffirm local Shinto attachments. Shinto provided spiritual support to the political order and was an important tie between the individual and the community. Shinto also helped preserve a sense of national identity.

text: Shinto eventually assumed an intellectual form as shaped by neo-Confucian rationalism and materialism. The kokugaku movement emerged from the interactions of these two belief systems. Kokugaku contributed to the emperor-centered nationalism of modern Japan and the revival of Shinto as a national creed in the 18th and 19th centuries. The Kojiki, Nihon Shoki, and Man'yōshū were all studied anew in the search for the Japanese spirit. Some purists in the kokugaku movement, such as Motoori Norinaga, even criticized the Confucian and Buddhist influences—in effect, foreign influences—for contaminating Japan's ancient ways. Japan was the land of the kami and, as such, had a special destiny.[18]

text: Entertainment[edit]

text: The Edo period was characterized by an unprecedented series of economic developments (despite termination of contact with the outside world) and cultural maturation, especially in terms of theater, music, and other entertainment. For example, a poetic meter for music called kinsei kouta-chō was invented during this time[19] and is still used today in folk songs. Music and theater were influenced by the social gap between the noble and commoner classes, and different arts became more defined as this gap widened. Several different types of kabuki (puppet acting) emerged. Some, such as shibaraku, were only available at a certain time of year, while some companies only performed for nobles. Fashion trends, satirization of local news stories, and advertisements were often part of kabuki theater, as well.[20]

text: End of the shogunate[edit]

text: Decline of the Tokugawa[edit]

text: The end of this period is specifically called the late Tokugawa shogunate. The cause for the end of this period is controversial but is recounted as the forcing of Japan's opening to the world by Commodore Matthew Perry of the US Navy, whose armada (known by Japanese as "the black ships") fired weapons from Edo Bay. Several artificial land masses were created to block the range of the armada, and this land remains in what is presently called the Odaiba district.

text: The Tokugawa did not eventually collapse simply because of intrinsic failures. Foreign intrusions helped to precipitate a complex political struggle between the bakufu and a coalition of its critics. The continuity of the anti-bakufu movement in the mid-19th century would finally bring down the Tokugawa. Historians consider that a major contributing factor to the decline of the Tokugawa was "poor management of the central government by the shogun, which caused the social classes in Japan to fall apart". [21] From the outset, the Tokugawa attempted to restrict families' accumulation of wealth and fostered a "back to the soil" policy, in which the farmer, the ultimate producer, was the ideal person in society.

text: Despite these efforts to restrict wealth and partly because of the extraordinary period of peace, the standard of living for urban and rural dwellers alike grew significantly during the Tokugawa period. Better means of crop production, transport, housing, food, and entertainment were all available, as was more leisure time, at least for urban dwellers. The literacy rate was high for a preindustrial society (by some estimates the literacy rate in the city of Edo was 80 percent), and cultural values were redefined and widely imparted throughout the samurai and chōnin classes. Despite the reappearance of guilds, economic activities went well beyond the restrictive nature of the guilds, and commerce spread and a money economy developed. Although government heavily restricted the merchants and viewed them as unproductive and usurious members of society, the samurai, who gradually became separated from their rural ties, depended greatly on the merchants and artisans for consumer goods, artistic interests, and loans. In this way, a subtle subversion of the warrior class by the chōnin took place.

text: A struggle arose in the face of political limitations that the shogun imposed on the entrepreneurial class. The government ideal of an agrarian society failed to square with the reality of commercial distribution. A huge government bureaucracy had evolved, which now stagnated because of its discrepancy with a new and evolving social order. Compounding the situation, the population increased significantly during the first half of the Tokugawa period. Although the magnitude and growth rates are uncertain, there were at least 26 million commoners and about four million members of samurai families and their attendants when the first nationwide census was taken in 1721. Drought, followed by crop shortages and starvation, resulted in twenty great famines between 1675 and 1837. During the Tokugawa period, there were 154 famines, of which 21 were widespread and serious.[22] Peasant unrest grew, and by the late 18th century, mass protests over taxes and food shortages had become commonplace. Newly landless families became tenant farmers, while the displaced rural poor moved into the cities. As the fortunes of previously well-to-do families declined, others moved in to accumulate land, and a new, wealthy farming class emerged. Those people who benefited were able to diversify production and to hire laborers, while others were left discontented. Many samurai fell on hard times and were forced into handicraft production and wage jobs for merchants.

text: Although Japan was able to acquire and refine a wide variety of scientific knowledge, the rapid industrialization of the West during the 18th century created a material gap in terms of technologies and armament between Japan and the West, forcing it to abandon its policy of seclusion and contributing to the end of the Tokugawa regime.

text: Western intrusions were on the increase in the early 19th century. Russian warships and traders encroached on Karafuto (called Sakhalin under Russian and Soviet control) and on the Kuril Islands, the southernmost of which are considered by the Japanese as the northern islands of Hokkaidō. A British warship entered Nagasaki harbour searching for enemy Dutch ships in 1808, and other warships and whalers were seen in Japanese waters with increasing frequency in the 1810s and 1820s. Whalers and trading ships from the United States also arrived on Japan's shores. Although the Japanese made some minor concessions and allowed some landings, they largely attempted to keep all foreigners out, sometimes using force. Rangaku became crucial not only in understanding the foreign "barbarians" but also in using the knowledge gained from the West to fend them off.

text: By the 1830s, there was a general sense of crisis. Famines and natural disasters hit hard, and unrest led to a peasant uprising against officials and merchants in Osaka in 1837. Although it lasted only a day, the uprising made a dramatic impression. Remedies came in the form of traditional solutions that sought to reform moral decay rather than address institutional problems. The shogun's advisers pushed for a return to the martial spirit, more restrictions on foreign trade and contacts, suppression of rangaku, censorship of literature, and elimination of "luxury" in the government and samurai class. Others sought the overthrow of the Tokugawa and espoused the political doctrine of sonnō jōi (revere the emperor, expel the barbarians), which called for unity under imperial rule and opposed foreign intrusions. The bakufu persevered for the time being amidst growing concerns over Western successes in establishing colonial enclaves in China following the First Opium War of 1839–1842. More reforms were ordered, especially in the economic sector, to strengthen Japan against the Western threat.

text: Japan turned down a demand from the United States, which was greatly expanding its own presence in the Asia-Pacific region, to establish diplomatic relations when Commodore James Biddle appeared in Edo Bay with two warships in July 1846.

text: End of seclusion[edit]

text: When Commodore Matthew C. Perry's four-ship squadron appeared in Edo Bay in July 1853, the bakufu was thrown into turmoil. The chairman of the senior councillors, Abe Masahiro (1819–1857), was responsible for dealing with the Americans. Having no precedent to manage this threat to national security, Abe tried to balance the desires of the senior councillors to compromise with the foreigners, of the emperor who wanted to keep the foreigners out, and of the daimyōs who wanted to go to war. Lacking consensus, Abe decided to compromise by accepting Perry's demands for opening Japan to foreign trade while also making military preparations. In March 1854, the Treaty of Peace and Amity (or Treaty of Kanagawa) opened two ports to American ships seeking provisions, guaranteed good treatment to shipwrecked American sailors, and allowed a United States consul to take up residence in Shimoda, a seaport on the Izu Peninsula, southwest of Edo. The Treaty of Amity and Commerce Between the U.S. and Japan (Harris Treaty), opening still more areas to American trade, was forced on the bakufu five years later.

text: The resulting damage to the bakufu was significant. The devalued price for gold in Japan was one immediate, enormous effect.[23] The European and American traders purchased gold for its original price on the world market and then sold it to the Chinese for triple the price.[23] Along with this, cheap goods from these developed nations, like finished cotton, flooded the market forcing many Japanese out of business.[23] Debate over government policy was unusual and had engendered public criticism of the bakufu. In the hope of enlisting the support of new allies, Abe, to the consternation of the fudai, had consulted with the shinpan and tozama daimyōs, further undermining the already weakened bakufu. In the Ansei Reform (1854–1856), Abe then tried to strengthen the regime by ordering Dutch warships and armaments from the Netherlands and building new port defenses. In 1855, a naval training school with Dutch instructors was set up at Nagasaki, and a Western-style military school was established at Edo; by the next year, the government was translating Western books. Opposition to Abe increased within fudai circles, which opposed opening bakufu councils to tozama daimyōs, and he was replaced in 1855 as chairman of the senior councilors by Hotta Masayoshi (1810–1864).

text: At the head of the dissident faction was Tokugawa Nariaki, who had long embraced a militant loyalty to the emperor along with anti-foreign sentiments, and who had been put in charge of national defense in 1854. The Mito school—based on neo-Confucian and Shinto principles—had as its goal the restoration of the imperial institution, the turning back of the West, and the founding of a world empire under the divine Yamato dynasty.

text: In the final years of the Tokugawa, foreign contacts increased as more concessions were granted. The new treaty with the United States in 1859 allowed more ports to be opened to diplomatic representatives, unsupervised trade at four additional ports, and foreign residences in Osaka and Edo. It also embodied the concept of extraterritoriality (foreigners were subject to the laws of their own countries but not to Japanese law). Hotta lost the support of key daimyōs, and when Tokugawa Nariaki opposed the new treaty, Hotta sought imperial sanction. The court officials, perceiving the weakness of the bakufu, rejected Hotta's request and thus suddenly embroiled Kyoto and the emperor in Japan's internal politics for the first time in many centuries. When the shogun died without an heir, Nariaki appealed to the court for support of his own son, Tokugawa Yoshinobu (or Keiki), for shogun, a candidate favored by the shinpan and tozama daimyōs. The fudai won the power struggle, however, installing Tokugawa Yoshitomi, arresting Nariaki and Keiki, executing Yoshida Shōin (1830–1859), a leading sonnō-jōi intellectual who had opposed the American treaty and plotted a revolution against the bakufu), and signing treaties with the United States and five other nations, thus ending more than 200 years of exclusion.

text: Recently[when?] some scholars[who?] have suggested that there were more events that spurred this opening of Japan. From 1716 to 1745 Yoshimune (eighth shogun from 1716–1745) started the first Kyōhō reforms in an attempt to gain more revenue for the government.[24] In 1767 to 1786 Tanuma Okitsugu also initiated some unorthodox economic reforms to expand government income.[24] This led his conservative opponents to attack him and take his position as he was forced from government in disgrace.[24] Similarly, Matsudaira Sadanobu launched the Kansei Reforms in 1787–1793 to stabilize rice prices, cut government costs, and increase revenues.[24] The final economic reform of the Tenpō era of 1841–1843 had similar objectives. Most were ineffective and only worked in some areas. These economic failings would also have been a force in the opening of Japan, as Japanese businessmen desired larger markets. Some scholars also point to internal activism for political change. The Mito school had long been an active force in demanding political changes, such as restoring the powers of the Emperor. This anger can also be seen in the poetry of Matsuo Taseko (a woman who farmed silk worms in the Ina Valley) from Hirata Atsutane's School of National Learning:

text:
"It is disgusting
the agitation over thread
In today's world
Ever since the ships
from foreign countries
came for the jeweled
silkworm cocoons
to the land of the gods and the Emperor
Peoples hearts
awesome though they are,
are being pulled apart
and consumed by rage."

text: [25] This inspired many anti-Tokugawa activists as they blamed the Bakufu for impoverishing the people and dishonoring the emperor.[25]

text: Bakumatsu modernization and conflicts[edit]

text: During the last years of the bakufu, or bakumatsu, the bakufu took strong measures to try to reassert its dominance, although its involvement with modernization and foreign powers was to make it a target of anti-Western sentiment throughout the country.

text: The army and the navy were modernized. A naval training school was established in Nagasaki in 1855. Naval students were sent to study in Western naval schools for several years, starting a tradition of foreign-educated future leaders, such as Admiral Enomoto. French naval engineers were hired to build naval arsenals, such as Yokosuka and Nagasaki. By the end of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1867, the Japanese navy of the shogun already possessed eight Western-style steam warships around the flagship Kaiyō Maru, which were used against pro-imperial forces during the Boshin War under the command of Admiral Enomoto. A French military mission was established to help modernize the armies of the bakufu.

text: Revering the emperor as a symbol of unity, extremists wrought violence and death against the Bakufu and Han authorities and foreigners. Foreign naval retaliation in the Anglo-Satsuma War led to still another concessionary commercial treaty in 1865, but Yoshitomi was unable to enforce the Western treaties. A bakufu army was defeated when it was sent to crush dissent in the Satsuma and Chōshū Domains in 1866. Finally, in 1867, Emperor Kōmei died and was succeeded by his underaged son Emperor Meiji.

text: Tokugawa Yoshinobu reluctantly became head of the Tokugawa house and shogun. He tried to reorganize the government under the emperor while preserving the shogun's leadership role. Fearing the growing power of the Satsuma and Chōshū daimyōs, other daimyōs called for returning the shogun's political power to the emperor and a council of daimyōs chaired by the former Tokugawa shogun. Yoshinobu accepted the plan in late 1867 and resigned, announcing an "imperial restoration". The Satsuma, Chōshū, and other han leaders and radical courtiers, however, rebelled, seized the imperial palace, and announced their own restoration on January 3, 1868.

text: Following the Boshin War (1868–1869), the bakufu was abolished, and Yoshinobu was reduced to the ranks of the common daimyōs. Resistance continued in the North throughout 1868, and the bakufu naval forces under Admiral Enomoto Takeaki continued to hold out for another six months in Hokkaidō, where they founded the short-lived Republic of Ezo.

text: Events[edit]

text:
1600: Battle of Sekigahara. Tokugawa Ieyasu defeats a coalition of daimyōs and establishes hegemony over most of Japan.
1603: The emperor appoints Tokugawa Ieyasu as shogun, who moves his government to Edo (Tokyo) and founds the Tokugawa dynasty of shoguns.
1605: Tokugawa Ieyasu resigns as shogun and is succeeded by his son Tokugawa Hidetada.
1607: Korean Joseon dynasty sends an embassy to Tokugawa shogunate.
1611: Ryūkyū Islands become a vassal state of Satsuma Domain.
1614: Tokugawa Ieyasu bans Christianity from Japan.
1615: Battle of Osaka. Tokugawa Ieyasu besieges Osaka Castle, all opposition from forces loyal to the Toyotomi family. Tokugawa authority becomes paramount throughout Japan.
1616: Tokugawa Ieyasu dies.
1620: After Ieyasu dies the peasants and chōnins increase in population
1623: Tokugawa Iemitsu becomes the third shogun.
1633: Tokugawa Iemitsu forbids travelling abroad and reading foreign books.
1635: Tokugawa Iemitsu formalizes the system of mandatory alternate residence (sankin-kōtai) in Edo.
1637: Shimabara Rebellion (1637–38) mounted by overtaxed peasants.
1638: Tokugawa Iemitsu forbids ship building.
1639: Edicts establishing National Seclusion (Sakoku Rei) are completed. All Westerners except the Dutch are prohibited from entering Japan.
1641: Tokugawa Iemitsu bans all foreigners, except Chinese and Dutch, from Japan.
1657: The Great Fire of Meireki destroys most of the city of Edo.
1700: Kabuki and ukiyo-e become popular.
1707: Mount Fuji erupts.
1774: The anatomical text Kaitai Shinsho, the first complete Japanese translation of a Western medical work, is published by Sugita Genpaku and Maeno Ryotaku.
1787: Matsudaira Sadanobu becomes senior shogunal councillor and institutes the Kansei Reforms.
1792: Russian envoy Adam Laxman arrives at Nemuro in eastern Ezo (now Hokkaidō).
1804: Russian envoy Nikolai Rezanov reaches Nagasaki and unsuccessfully seeks the establishment of trade relations with Japan.
1837: Rebellion of Ōshio Heihachirō.
1841: Tenpō Reforms.
1854: The USA forces Japan to sign a trade agreement ("Treaty of Kanagawa") which reopens Japan to foreigners after two centuries.
1855: Russia and Japan establish diplomatic relations.
1864: British, French, Dutch and American warships bombard Shimonoseki and open more Japanese ports for foreigners.
1868: Tokugawa Yoshinobu resigns, the Tokugawa dynasty ends, and the emperor (or "mikado") Meiji is restored, but with capital in Edo/Tokyo and divine attributes.

tag: ul

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: The Edo period is the setting of many works of popular culture. These include novels, comics, stageplays, films, television shows, animated works, and manga.


document_title: Medical education in the United States

question_text: how many years is med school in us

question_tokens: how many years is med school in us

text: Medical education in the United States

text: Medical school[edit]

text: In the United States a medical school is an institution with the purpose of educating physicians in the United States in the field of medicine. Admission into medical school may not technically require completion of a previous degree; however, applicants are usually required to complete at least 3 years of "pre-med" courses at the university level because in the US medical degrees are classified as Second entry degrees. Once enrolled in a medical school the four years progressive study is divided into two roughly equal components: pre-clinical (consisting of didactic courses in the basic sciences) and clinical (clerkships consisting of rotations through different wards of a teaching hospital). The degree granted at the conclusion of these four years of study is Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) or, less commonly, Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.) depending on the medical school; both degrees allow the holder to practice medicine after completing an accredited residency program.[1][2]

text: Internship[edit]

text: During the last year of graduate medical education, students apply for postgraduate residencies in their chosen field of specialization. These vary in competitiveness depending upon the desirability of the specialty, prestige of the program, and the number of applicants relative to the number of available positions. All but a few positions are granted via a national computer match which pairs an applicant's preference with the programs' preference for applicants.

text: Historically, post-graduate medical education began with a free-standing, one-year internship. Completion of this year continues to be the minimum training requirement for obtaining a general license to practice medicine in most states. However, because of the gradual lengthening of post-graduate medical education, and the decline of its use as the terminal stage in training, most new physicians complete the internship requirement as their first year of residency.

text: Not withstanding the trend toward internships integrated into categorical residencies, the one-year "traditional rotating internship" (sometimes called a "transitional year") continues to exist. Some residency training programs, such as in neurology and ophthalmology, do not include an internship year and begin after completion of an internship or transitional year. Some use it to re-apply to programs into which they were not accepted, while others use it as a year to decide upon a specialty. In addition, osteopathic physicians "are required to have completed an American Osteopathic Association (AOA)-approved first year of training in order to be licensed in Florida, Michigan, Oklahoma and Pennsylvania."[3]

text: Residency[edit]

text: Each of the specialties in medicine has established its own curriculum, which defines the length and content of residency training necessary to practice in that specialty. Programs range from 3 years after medical school for internal medicine and pediatrics, to 5 years for general surgery, to 7 years for neurosurgery. Each specialty training program either incorporates an internship year to satisfy the requirements of state licensure, or stipulates that an internship year be completed before starting the program at the second post-graduate year (PGY-2).

text: Fellowship[edit]

text: A fellowship is a formal, full-time training program that focuses on a particular area within the specialty, with requirements beyond the related residency.[4] Many highly specialized fields require formal training beyond residency. Examples of these include cardiology, endocrinology, oncology after internal medicine; cardiothoracic anesthesiology after anesthesiology; cardiothoracic surgery, pediatric surgery, surgical oncology after general surgery; reproductive endocrinology/infertility, maternal-fetal medicine, gynecologic oncology after obstetrics/gynecology. There are many others for each field of study. In some specialties such as pathology and radiology, a majority of graduating residents go on to further their training. The training programs for these fields are known as fellowships and their participants are fellows, to denote that they already have completed a residency and are board eligible or board certified in their basic specialty. Fellowships range in length from one to three years and are granted by application to the individual program or sub-specialty organizing board. Fellowships often contain a research component.[5]

text: Board certification[edit]

text: The physician or surgeon who has completed his or her residency and possibly fellowship training and is in the practice of his or her specialty is known as an attending physician. Physicians then must pass written and oral exams in their specialty in order to become board certified. Each of the 26 medical specialties has different requirements for practitioners to undertake continuing medical education activities.

text: Footnotes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Medline Plus (2012). "Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine". U.S. National Library of Medicine of National Institutes of Health. Retrieved 20 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Medline Plus (2012). "Doctor of medicine profession (MD)". U.S. National Library of Medicine of National Institutes of Health. Retrieved 20 December 2012.
Jump up ^ DO-Online.org | Postdoctoral Training | FAQS, [1]
Jump up ^ "Osteopathic Postdoctoral Training Structure" (PDF). American Osteopathic Association. Retrieved 10 November 2012.
Jump up ^ "About Medical Specialties Matching Program". National Resident Matching Program. 2010. Retrieved 20 December 2012.

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