document_title: Isle of Wight

question_text: what is the size of the isle of wight

question_tokens: what is the size of the isle of wight

text: Isle of Wight

text: History[edit]

text: Neolithic Isle of Wight[edit]

text: During the last Ice Age, sea levels were lower and the Solent was part of a river flowing south east from current day Poole Harbour towards mid-Channel. As sea levels rose, the river valley became flooded, and the chalk ridge line west of the Needles breached to form the island.[9] The Isle of Wight is first mentioned in writing in Geography by Ptolemy.

text: Bronze and Iron Age Isle of Wight[edit]

text: Bronze Age Britain had large reserves of tin in the areas of Cornwall and Devon and tin is necessary to smelt bronze. At that time the sea level was much lower and carts of tin were brought across the Solent at low tide[10][11] for export, possibly on the Ferriby Boats. Anthony Snodgrass[12][13] suggests that a shortage of tin, as a part of the Bronze Age Collapse and trade disruptions in the Mediterranean around 1300 BC, forced metalworkers to seek an alternative to bronze. During Iron Age Britain,the Late Iron Age, the Isle of Wight would appear to have been occupied by the Celtic tribe, the Durotriges - as attested by finds of their coins, for example, the South Wight Hoard,[14][15] and the Shalfleet Hoard.[16] South eastern Britain experienced significant immigration that is reflected in the genetic makeup of the current residents.[17] As the Iron Age began the value of tin likely dropped sharply and this likely greatly changed the economy of the Isle of Wight. Trade however continued as evidenced by the remarkable local abundance of European Iron Age coins.[18][19]

text: Iron Age Isle of Wight[edit]

text: Commencing in the year 449AD (according the Anglo Saxon Chronicles) the 5th and 6th Century saw groups of Germanic speaking peoples from Northern Europe crossing the channel and setting up home.[20] Bede’s (731) Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum[21] identifies three separate groups of invaders, the Jutes from Denmark who settled the Isle of Wight and Kent From then onwards, there are indications that the island had wide trading links, with a port at Bouldnor,[22][23][24] evidence of Bronze Age tin trading,[11] and finds of Late Iron Age coins.[25]

text: Roman Isle of Wight[edit]

text: Julius Caesar reported that the Belgae took the Isle of Wight in about 85 BC,[26] and recognised the culture of this general region as "Belgic", but made no reference to Vectis.[27] The Roman historian Suetonius mentions that the island was captured by the commander Vespasian. The Romans built no towns or roads on the island, but the remains of at least seven Roman villas have been found, indicating the prosperity of local agriculture.[28] First century exports were principally hides, slaves, hunting dogs, grain, cattle, silver, gold, and iron.[27] Ferriby Boats and later Blackfriars Ships likely were important to the local economy.

text: During the Dark Ages the island was settled by Jutes as the pagan kingdom of Wihtwara under King Arwald. In 685 it was invaded by Caedwalla, who tried to replace the inhabitants with his own followers. In 686 Arwald was defeated and the island became the last part of English lands to be converted to Christianity,[29][30][31] added to Wessex and then becoming part of England under King Alfred the Great, included within the shire of Hampshire.

text: It suffered especially from Viking raids,[32] and was often used as a winter base by Viking raiders when they were unable to reach Normandy.[33] Later, both Earl Tostig and his brother Harold Godwinson (who became King Harold II) held manors on the island.[34][35]

text: Middle Ages[edit]

text: The Norman Conquest of 1066 created the position of Lord of the Isle of Wight, the island being given by William the Conqueror to his kinsman William FitzOsbern. Carisbrooke Priory and the fort of Carisbrooke Castle were then founded. Allegiance was sworn to FitzOsbern rather than the king; the Lordship was subsequently granted to the de Redvers family by Henry I, after his succession in 1100.

text: For nearly 200 years the island was a semi-independent feudal fiefdom, with the de Redvers family ruling from Carisbrooke. The final private owner was the Countess Isabella de Fortibus, who, on her deathbed in 1293, was persuaded to sell it to Edward I. Thereafter the island was under control of the English crown[36] and its Lordship a royal appointment.

text: The island continued to be attacked from the continent, raided in 1374 by the fleet of Castile,[37] and in 1377 by French raiders who burned several towns, including Newtown, and laid siege to Carisbrooke Castle before they were defeated.

text: Early modern period[edit]

text: Under Henry VIII, who developed the Royal Navy and its Portsmouth base, the island was fortified at Yarmouth, Cowes, East Cowes, and Sandown.

text: The French invasion on 21 July 1545 (famous for the sinking of the Mary Rose on the 19th) was repulsed by local militia.[38]

text: During the English Civil War, King Charles fled to the Isle of Wight, believing he would receive sympathy from the governor Robert Hammond, but Hammond imprisoned the king in Carisbrooke Castle.[39]

text: During the Seven Years' War, the island was used as a staging post for British troops departing on expeditions against the French coast, such as the Raid on Rochefort. During 1759, with a planned French invasion imminent, a large force of soldiers was stationed there. The French called off their invasion following the Battle of Quiberon Bay.[40]

text: Modern history[edit]

text: In the 1860s, what remains in real terms the most expensive ever government spending project saw fortifications built on the island and in the Solent, as well as elsewhere along the south coast, including the Palmerston Forts, The Needles Battery and Fort Victoria, because of fears about possible French invasion.[41]

text: The future Queen Victoria spent childhood holidays on the island and became fond of it. When queen she made Osborne House her winter home, and so the island became a fashionable holiday resort, including for Alfred, Lord Tennyson, Julia Margaret Cameron, and Charles Dickens (who wrote much of David Copperfield there), as well as the French painter Berthe Morisot and members of European royalty.[42] Until then, the island had been rural, with most people employed in farming, fishing or boat-building. The boom in tourism, spurred by growing wealth and leisure time, and by Victoria's example, led to significant urban development of the island's coastal resorts.

text: The world's first radio station was set up by Marconi in 1897, during her reign, at the Needles Battery, at the western tip of the island.[43][44] In 1898 the first paid wireless telegram (called a "Marconigram") was sent from this station, and the island is now the home of the National Wireless Museum, near Ryde.[45]

text: Queen Victoria died at Osborne House on 22 January 1901, aged 81.

text: During the Second World War the island was frequently bombed. With its proximity to German-occupied France, the island hosted observation stations and transmitters, as well as the RAF radar station at Ventnor. It was the starting-point for one of the earlier Operation Pluto pipelines to feed fuel to Europe after the Normandy landings.[46]

text: The Needles Battery was used to develop and test the Black Arrow and Black Knight space rockets, which were subsequently launched from Woomera, Australia.[47]

text: The Isle of Wight Festival was a very large rock festival that took place near Afton Down, West Wight in 1970, following two smaller concerts in 1968 and 1969. The 1970 show was notable both as one of the last public performances by Jimi Hendrix and for the number of attendees, reaching by some estimates 600,000.[48] The festival was revived in 2002 in a different format, and is now an annual event.[49]

text: Geography[edit]

text: The Isle of Wight is situated between the Solent and the English Channel, is roughly rhomboid in shape, and covers an area of 150 sq mi (380 km2). Slightly more than half, mainly in the west, is designated as the Isle of Wight Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The island has 100 sq mi (258 km2) of farmland, 20 sq mi (52 km2) of developed areas, and 57 miles (92 km) of coastline. Its landscapes are diverse, leading to its oft-quoted description as "England in miniature".

text: West Wight is predominantly rural, with dramatic coastlines dominated by the chalk downland ridge, running across the whole island and ending in the Needles stacks. The southwestern quarter is commonly referred to as the Back of the Wight, and has a unique character. The highest point on the island is St Boniface Down in the south east, which at 791 feet (241 m) is a marilyn.[50] The most notable habitats on the rest of the island are probably the soft cliffs and sea ledges, which are scenic features, important for wildlife, and internationally protected.

text: The island has three principal rivers. The River Medina flows north into the Solent, the Eastern Yar flows roughly northeast to Bembridge Harbour, and the Western Yar flows the short distance from Freshwater Bay to a relatively large estuary at Yarmouth. Without human intervention the sea might well have split the island into three: at the west end where a bank of pebbles separates Freshwater Bay from the marshy backwaters of the Western Yar east of Freshwater, and at the east end where a thin strip of land separates Sandown Bay from the marshy Eastern Yar basin.

text: The Undercliff between St Catherine's Point and Bonchurch is the largest area of landslip morphology in western Europe.

text: The north coast is unusual in having four high tides each day, with a double high tide every twelve and a half hours. This arises because the western Solent is narrower than the eastern; the initial tide of water flowing from the west starts to ebb before the stronger flow around the south of the island returns through the eastern Solent to create a second high water.[51]

text: Geology[edit]

text: The Isle of Wight is made up of a variety of rock types dating from early Cretaceous (around 127 million years ago) to the middle of the Palaeogene (around 30 million years ago). The geological structure is dominated by a large monocline which causes a marked change in age of strata from the northern younger Tertiary beds to the older Cretaceous beds of the south. This gives rise to a dip of almost 90 degrees in the chalk beds, seen best at the Needles.

text: The northern half of the island is mainly composed of clays, with the southern half formed of the chalk of the central east–west downs, as well as Upper and Lower Greensands and Wealden strata.[52] These strata continue west from the island across the Solent into Dorset, forming the basin of Poole Harbour (Tertiary) and the Isle of Purbeck (Cretaceous) respectively. The chalky ridges of Wight and Purbeck were a single formation before they were breached by waters from the River Frome during the last ice age, forming the Solent and turning Wight into an island. The Needles, along with Old Harry Rocks on Purbeck, represent the edges of this breach.

text: All the rocks found on the island are sedimentary, such as limestones, mudstones and sandstones. They are rich in fossils; many can be seen exposed on beaches as the cliffs erode. Lignitic coal is present in small quantities within seams, and can be seen on the cliffs and shore at Whitecliff Bay. Fossilised molluscs have been found there, and also on the northern coast along with fossilised crocodiles, turtles and mammal bones; the youngest date back to around 30 million years ago.

text: The island is one of the most important areas in Europe for dinosaur fossils. The eroding cliffs often reveal previously hidden remains, particularly along the Back of the Wight.[53] Dinosaur bones and fossilised footprints can be seen in and on the rocks exposed around the island's beaches, especially at Yaverland and Compton Bay. As a result, the island has been nicknamed "Dinosaur Island" and Dinosaur Isle was established in 2001.

text: The area was affected by sea level changes during the repeated Quaternary glaciations. The island probably became separated from the mainland about 125,000 years ago, during the Ipswichian interglacial.[54]

text:
Ordnance Survey map of the island

Geological map of the island

Blackgang Chine, circa 1910

A view of the Needles and Alum Bay

text: Climate[edit]

text: Like the rest of the UK, the island has an oceanic climate, but is somewhat milder and sunnier, which makes it a holiday destination. It also has a longer growing season. Lower Ventnor and the neighbouring Undercliff have a particular microclimate, because of their sheltered position south of the downs. The island enjoys 1,800–2,100 hours of sunshine a year.[55] Some years have almost no snow in winter, and only a few days of hard frost.[56] The island is in Hardiness zone 9.[57]

text:
[hide]Climate data for Shanklin

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Average high °C (°F)
8.1
(46.6)
7.9
(46.2)
10.0
(50)
12.3
(54.1)
15.6
(60.1)
18.2
(64.8)
20.4
(68.7)
20.5
(68.9)
18.3
(64.9)
15.0
(59)
11.3
(52.3)
8.8
(47.8)
13.87
(56.95)

Average low °C (°F)
3.5
(38.3)
2.9
(37.2)
4.3
(39.7)
5.4
(41.7)
8.4
(47.1)
11.1
(52)
13.4
(56.1)
13.5
(56.3)
11.8
(53.2)
9.5
(49.1)
6.2
(43.2)
4.0
(39.2)
7.83
(46.09)

Average precipitation mm (inches)
90.8
(3.575)
65.5
(2.579)
66.0
(2.598)
53.4
(2.102)
52.1
(2.051)
46.3
(1.823)
47.1
(1.854)
54.6
(2.15)
70.5
(2.776)
115.0
(4.528)
108.6
(4.276)
101.0
(3.976)
870.9
(34.288)

Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0)
13.1
9.8
10.4
9.1
8.2
7.6
6.9
7.4
8.9
12.7
12.7
12.9
119.7

Mean monthly sunshine hours
68.2
89.8
132.9
201.4
241.1
247.7
262.3
240.9
173.1
122.3
82.6
60.7
1,923

Source: Met Office Climate Averages, Shanklin, 1981-2010

text: Wildlife[edit]

text: The Isle of Wight is one of the few places in England where the red squirrel is still flourishing; no grey squirrels are to be found.[58] There are occasional sightings of wild deer, and there is a colony of wild goats on Ventnor's downs.[59][60][61][62] Protected species such as the dormouse and rare bats can be found. The Glanville fritillary butterfly's distribution in the United Kingdom is largely restricted to the edges of the island's crumbling cliffs.[63]

text: A competition in 2002 named the pyramidal orchid as the Isle of Wight's county flower.[64]

text: Politics[edit]

text: The island has a single Member of Parliament and 138,300 permanent residents in 2011, being one of the most populated constituencies in the United Kingdom (more than 50% above the English average).[65] However, in 2011 the Parliamentary Voting System and Constituencies Act was to have changed this, as part of the Sixth Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies,[66] but this was deferred to no earlier than October 2018 by the Electoral Registration and Administration Act 2013. Thus the single constituency remained for the 2015 general election. However, two separate East and West constituencies are proposed for the island under the 2018 review now underway.

text: The Isle of Wight is a ceremonial and non-metropolitan county. Since the abolition of its two borough councils and restructuring of the county council as Isle of Wight Council in 1995, it has been a unitary authority.

text: Elections in the constituency have traditionally been a battle between the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats. Andrew Turner of the Conservative Party gained the seat from Peter Brand of the Lib Dems at the 2001 general election. Since 2009, Turner has been embroiled in controversy over his expenses, health, and relationships with colleagues, with local Conservatives having tried but failed to remove him in the runup to the 2015 general election.[67] He stood down prior to the 2017 snap general election, and the new Conservative Party candidate Bob Seely was elected with a majority of 21,069 votes.

text: At the Isle of Wight Council election of 2013, the Conservatives lost the majority which they had held since 2005 to the Island Independents, with Island Independent councillors holding 16 of the 40 seats, and a further five councillors sitting as independents outside the group.[68] The Conservatives regained control, winning 25 seats at the 2017 local election.[4]

text: There have been small regionalist movements: the Vectis National Party and the Isle of Wight Party; but they have attracted little support at elections.[69]

text: Main towns[edit]

text:
Newport is the centrally located county town, with a population of about 25,000[70] and the island's main shopping area. Located next to the River Medina, Newport Quay was a busy port until the mid-19th century.
Ryde, the largest town with a population of about 30,000, is in the northeast. It is Victorian with the oldest seaside pier in England and miles of sandy and pebble beaches.
Cowes hosts the annual Cowes Week and is an international sailing centre.
East Cowes is famous for Osborne House, Norris Castle and as the home from 1929 to 1964 of Saunders-Roe, the historic aircraft, flying boat, rocket and hovercraft company.
Sandown is a popular seaside resort. It is home to the Isle of Wight Zoo, the Dinosaur Isle geological museum and one of the island's two 18-hole golf courses.
Shanklin, just south of Sandown, attracts tourists with its high summer sunshine levels, sandy beaches, Shanklin Chine and the old village.
Ventnor, built on the steep slopes of St Boniface Down on the south coast of the island, leads down to a picturesque bay that attracts many tourists. Ventnor Haven is a small harbour.

text: Culture[edit]

text: Language and dialect[edit]

text: The local accent is similar to the traditional dialect of Hampshire, featuring the dropping of some consonants and an emphasis on longer vowels. It is similar to the West Country dialects heard in South West England, but less pronounced.[71][72]

text: The island has its own local and regional words. Some, such as nipper/nips (a young male person), are still commonly used and are shared with neighbouring areas of the mainland. A few are unique to the island, for example overner and caulkhead (see below). Others are more obscure and now used mainly for comic emphasis, such as mallishag (meaning "caterpillar"), gurt meaning "large", nammit (a mid-morning snack) and gallybagger ("scarecrow", and now the name of a local cheese).[73]

text: Identity[edit]

text: There remains occasional confusion between the Isle of Wight as a county and its former position within Hampshire.[74] The island was regarded and administered as a part of Hampshire until 1890, when its distinct identity was recognised with the formation of Isle of Wight County Council (see also Politics of the Isle of Wight). However, it remained a part of Hampshire until the local government reforms of 1974 when it became a full ceremonial county with its own Lord Lieutenant.[75]

text: In January 2009, the first general flag for the county was accepted by the Flag Institute.[76]

text: Island residents are sometimes referred to as "Vectensians", "Vectians" or, if born on the island, "caulkheads".[77] One theory is that this last comes from the once prevalent local industry of caulking or sealing wooden boats; the term became attached to islanders either because they were so employed, or as a derisory term for perceived unintelligent labourers from elsewhere. The term "overner" is used for island residents originating from the mainland (an abbreviated form of "overlander", which is an archaic term for "outsider" still found in parts of Australia).[78]

text: Residents refer to the island as "The Island", as did Jane Austen in Mansfield Park, and sometimes to the UK mainland as "North Island".[79]

text: To promote the island's identity and culture, the High Sheriff Robin Courage founded an Isle of Wight Day; the first was held on Saturday 24 September 2016.

text: "Hauntings"[edit]

text: The island is said to be the most haunted in the world, sometimes referred to as "Ghost Island". Notable claimed hauntings include God's Providence House in Newport (now a tea room), Appuldurcombe House, and the remains of Knighton Gorges.[45]

text: Sport[edit]

text: Cycling[edit]

text: The island is well known for its cycling, and it was included within Lonely Planet's Best in Travel Guide (2010) top ten cycling locations. The island also hosts events such as the Isle of Wight Randonnée and the Isle of Wight Cycling Festival each year. A popular cycling track is the Sunshine Trail which starts in Newport and ends in Sandown.

text: Rowing[edit]

text: There are rowing clubs at Newport, Ryde and Shanklin, all members of the Hants and Dorset rowing association.

text: There is a long tradition of rowing around the island dating back to the 1880s.

text: In May 1999 a group of local women made history by becoming the first ladies crew to row around the island, in ten hours and twenty minutes. Rowers from Ryde Rowing Club have rowed around the island several times since 1880. The fours record was set 16 August 1995 at 7 hours 54 minutes.[80]

text: Two rowers from Southampton ARC (Chris Bennett and Roger Slaymaker) set the two-man record in July 2003 at 8 hours 34 minutes, and in 2005 Gus McKechnie of Coalporters Rowing Club became the first adaptive rower to row around, completing a clockwise row.[81]

text: The route around the island is about 60 miles (97 km) and usually rowed anticlockwise. Even in good conditions, it includes a number of significant obstacles such as the Needles and the overfalls at St Catherine's Point. The traditional start and finish were at Ryde Rowing Club; however other starts have been chosen in recent years to give a tidal advantage.

text: Sailing[edit]

text: Cowes is a centre for sailing, hosting several racing regattas. Cowes Week is the longest-running regular regatta in the world, with over 1,000 yachts and 8,500 competitors taking part in over 50 classes of racing.[82] In 1851 the first America's Cup race was around the island. Other major sailing events hosted in Cowes include the Fastnet race, the Round the Island Race,[83] the Admiral's Cup, and the Commodore's Cup.[84]

text: Trampolining[edit]

text: There are two main trampoline clubs on the island, in Freshwater and Newport, competing at regional, national and international grades.[85][86]

text: Marathon[edit]

text: The Isle of Wight Marathon is the United Kingdom's oldest continuously held marathon, having been run every year since 1957.[87] Since 2013 the course has started and finished in Cowes, heading out to the west of the island and passing through Gurnard, Rew Street, Porchfield, Shalfleet, Yarmouth, Afton, Willmingham, Thorley, Wellow, Shalfleet, Porchfield, and Northwood. It is an undulating course with a total climb of 1,043 feet (318 m).

text: Speedway[edit]

text: The island is home to the Wightlink Warriors speedway team, who compete in the sport's third division, the National League.

text: Field hockey[edit]

text: Following an amalgamation of local hockey clubs in 2011, the Isle of Wight Hockey Club now runs two men's senior and two ladies' senior teams. These compete at a range of levels in the Hampshire open leagues.[88]

text: Football[edit]

text: The now-disbanded Ryde Sports F.C., founded in 1888, was one of the eight founder members of the Hampshire League in 1896. There are several non-league clubs such as Newport (IW) F.C. There is an Isle of Wight Saturday Football League with two divisions and two reserve team leagues , and a rugby union club.[89][90]

text: Cricket[edit]

text: The Isle of Wight is the 39th official county in English cricket, and the Isle of Wight Cricket Board organises a league of local clubs. Ventnor Cricket Club competes in the Southern Premier League, and has won the Second Division several times. Newclose County Cricket Ground near Newport[91][92][93] opened officially in 2009 but with its first match held on 6 September 2008.[94] The island has produced some notable cricketers, such as Danny Briggs, who plays county cricket for Hampshire.

text: Island Games[edit]

text: The Isle of Wight competes in the biennial Island Games, which it hosted in 1993 and again in 2011.

text: Motor scooter[edit]

text: The annual Isle of Wight International Scooter Rally has since 1980 met on the August Bank Holiday. This is now one of the biggest scooter rallies in the world, attracting between four and seven thousand participants.[95]

text: Music[edit]

text: The island is home to the Isle of Wight Festival and until 2016, Bestival before it was relocated to Lulworth Estate in Dorset. In 1970, the festival was headlined by Jimi Hendrix attracting an audience of 600,000, some six times the local population at the time.[96] It is the home of the band The Bees, Trixie's Big Red Motorbike,[97] as well as three of the founding members of Level 42 (Mark King, Boon Gould and Phil Gould). It has also hosted a one-day festival called "Summer Madness", which started in 2009, headlined by Madness. In January 2011 it was reported that the promoter of Summer Madness was insolvent.

text: Economy[edit]

text: Socio-economic data[edit]

text: The table below shows the regional gross value (in millions of pounds) added by the Isle of Wight economy, at current prices, compiled by the Office for National Statistics.[98][99]

text:
Regional gross value in millions of pounds sterling

Year
Regional gross value added[100]
Agriculture[101]
Industry[102]
Services[103]

1995
831
28
218
585

2000
1,369
27
375
800

2003
1,521
42
288
1,161

2008
2,023

2012
2,175

text: According to the 2011 census,[104] the island's population of 138,625 lives in 61,085 households, giving an average household size of 2.27 people.

text: 41% of households own their home outright and a further 29% own with a mortgage, so in total 70% of households are owned (compared to 68% for South East England).

text: Compared to South East England, the island has fewer children (19% aged 0–17 against 22% for the South East) and more elderly (24% aged 65+ against 16%), giving an average age of 44 years for an island resident compared to 40 in South East England.

text: Industry and agriculture[edit]

text: The largest industry is tourism, but the island also has a strong agricultural heritage, including sheep and dairy farming and arable crops. Traditional agricultural commodities are more difficult to market off the island because of transport costs, but local farmers have managed successfully to exploit some specialist markets, with the higher price of such products being able to absorb the transport costs. One of the most successful agricultural sectors is now the growing of crops under cover, particularly salad crops including tomatoes and cucumbers. The island has a warmer climate and longer growing season than much of the United Kingdom. Garlic has been successfully grown in Newchurch for many years, and is even exported to France. This has led to the establishment of an annual Garlic Festival at Newchurch, which is one of the largest events of the local calendar. A favourable climate supports two vineyards, including one of the oldest in the British Isles at Adgestone.[105] Lavender is grown for its oil.[106] The largest agricultural sector has been dairying, but due to low milk prices and strict legislation for UK milk producers, the dairy industry has been in decline: there were nearly 150 producers in the mid-1980s, but now just 24.

text: Maritime industries, especially the making of sailcloth and boat building, has long been associated with the island, although this has diminished somewhat in recent years. GKN operates what began as the British Hovercraft Corporation, a subsidiary of (and known latterly as) Westland Aircraft, although they have reduced the extent of plant and workforce and sold the main site. Previously it had been the independent company Saunders-Roe, one of the island's most notable historic firms that produced many flying boats and the world's first hovercraft.[107]

text: Another manufacturing activity is in composite materials, used by boat-builders and the wind turbine manufacturer Vestas, which has a wind turbine blade factory and testing facilities in West Medina Mills and East Cowes.[108]

text: Bembridge Airfield is the home of Britten-Norman, manufacturers of the Islander and Trislander aircraft. This is shortly to become the site of the European assembly line for Cirrus light aircraft. The Norman Aeroplane Company is a smaller aircraft manufacturing company operating in Sandown. There have been three other firms that built planes on the island.[109]

text: In 2005, Northern Petroleum began exploratory drilling for oil at its Sandhills-2 borehole at Porchfield, but ceased operations in October that year after failing to find significant reserves.[110]

text: Breweries[edit]

text: There are three breweries on the island. Goddards Brewery in Ryde opened in 1993.[111] David Yates, who was head brewer of the Island Brewery, started brewing as Yates Brewery at the Inn at St Lawrence in 2000.[112]

text: Ventnor Brewery, which closed in 2009, was the last incarnation of Burt's Brewery, brewing since the 1840s in Ventnor.[113] Until the 1960s most pubs were owned by Mews Brewery, situated in Newport near the old railway station, but it closed and the pubs were taken over by Strong's, and then by Whitbread. By some accounts Mews beer was apt to be rather cloudy and dark. In the 19th century they pioneered the use of screw top cans for export to British India.[114]

text: Services[edit]

text: Tourism and heritage[edit]

text: Its heritage is a major asset that has for many years supported the island's tourist economy. Holidays focused on natural heritage, including wildlife and geology, are becoming an alternative to the traditional British seaside holiday, which went into decline in the second half of the 20th century due to the increased affordability of foreign holidays.[115] The island is still an important destination for coach tours from other parts of the United Kingdom.

text: Tourism is still the largest industry, and most island towns and villages offer hotels, hostels and camping sites. In 1999, it hosted 2.7 million visitors, with 1.5 million staying overnight, and 1.2 million visits day visits; only 150,000 of these were from abroad. Between 1993 and 2000, visits increased at an average rate of 3% per year.[116]

text: At the turn of the 19th century the island had ten pleasure piers including two at Ryde and a "chain pier" at Seaview. The Victoria Pier in Cowes succeeded the earlier Royal Pier but was itself removed in 1960. The piers at Ryde, Seaview, Sandown, Shanklin and Ventnor originally served a coastal steamer service that operated from Southsea on the mainland. The piers at Seaview, Shanklin, Ventnor and Alum Bay were all destroyed by various storms during the 20th century; only the railway pier at Ryde and the piers at Sandown, Totland Bay (currently closed to the public) and Yarmouth survive.

text: Blackgang Chine is the oldest theme park in Britain, opened in 1843.[117] The skeleton of a dead whale that its founder Alexander Dabell found in 1844 is still on display.[45]

text: As well as its more traditional attractions, the island is often host to walking[118] or cycling holidays through the attractive scenery. An annual walking festival[119] has attracted considerable interest. The 70 miles (113 km) Isle of Wight Coastal Path follows the coastline as far as possible, deviating onto roads where the route along the coast is impassable.[120]

text: A major contributor to the local economy is sailing and marine-related tourism.[121]

text: Summer Camp at Camp Beaumont is an attraction at the old Bembridge School site.[122]

text: Transport[edit]

text: The Isle of Wight has 489 miles (787 km) of roadway. It does not have a motorway, although there is a short stretch of dual carriageway towards the north of Newport near the hospital and prison.

text: A comprehensive bus network operated by Southern Vectis links most settlements, with Newport as its central hub.[123]

text: Journeys away from the island involve a ferry journey. Car ferry and passenger catamaran services are run by Wightlink and Red Funnel, and a hovercraft passenger service (the only such remaining in the world[124]) by Hovertravel.

text: The island formerly had its own railway network of over 55 miles (89 km), but only one line remains in regular use. The Island Line is part of the United Kingdom's National Rail network, running a little under 9 miles (14 km) from Shanklin to Ryde Pier Head, where there is a connecting ferry service to Portsmouth Harbour station on the mainland network. The line was opened by the Isle of Wight Railway in 1864, and from 1996 to 2007 was run by the smallest train operating company on the network, Island Line Trains. It is notable for utilising old ex-London Underground rolling stock, due to the small size of its tunnels and unmodernised signalling. Branching off the Island Line at Smallbrook Junction is the heritage Isle of Wight Steam Railway, which runs for 5 1⁄2 miles (8.9 km) to the outskirts of Wootton on the former line to Newport.[125]

text: There are two airfields for general aviation, Isle of Wight Airport at Sandown and Bembridge Airport.

text: The island has over 200 miles (322 km) of cycleways, many of which can be enjoyed off-road. The principal trails are:[126]

text:
The Sunshine Trail, which is a circular route linking Sandown, Shanklin, Godshill, and Wroxall of 12 miles (19 km);
The Troll Trail between Cowes and Sandown of 13 miles (21 km), 90% off-road;
The Round the Island Cycle Route of 62 miles (100 km).

text: Media[edit]

text: The main local newspaper is the Isle of Wight County Press, published most Fridays.

text: The island has an online 24/7 breaking news source Island Echo,[127] which was launched in May 2012.

text: The island has one local commercial radio station: Isle of Wight Radio has broadcast in the medium-wave band since 1990 and on 107.0 MHz (with three smaller transmitters on 102.0 MHz) FM since 1998, as well as streaming on the Internet.[128] The island is also covered by a number of local stations on the mainland, including the BBC station BBC Radio Solent broadcast from Southampton.

text: The island's not-for-profit community radio station Angel Radio opened in 2007. Angel Radio began broadcasting on 91.5 MHz from studios in Cowes and a transmitter near Newport.[129][130]

text: Local online radio station Vectis Radio has broadcast since 2010, broadcasting from the Riverside Centre in Newport.[131]

text: Other online news sources for the Isle of Wight include On the Wight[132].

text: The island has had community television stations in the past, first TV12 and then Solent TV from 2002 until its closure on 24 May 2007. iWight.tv is a local internet video news channel.

text: The Isle of Wight is part of the BBC South region and the ITV Meridian region.

text: Important broadcasting infrastructure includes Chillerton Down transmitting station with a mast that is the tallest structure on the island, and Rowridge transmitting station, which broadcasts the main television signal both locally and for most of Hampshire and parts of Dorset and West Sussex.[133]

text: Prisons[edit]

text: Its separation from the mainland yet being near the densely populated south of England led to it hosting three prisons: Albany, Camp Hill and Parkhurst, all located outside Newport near the main road to Cowes. Albany and Parkhurst were among the few Category A prisons in the UK until they were downgraded in the 1990s.[134] The downgrading of Parkhurst was precipitated by a major escape: three prisoners (two murderers and a blackmailer) escaped from the prison on 3 January 1995 for four days, before being recaptured.[135] Parkhurst enjoyed notoriety as one of the toughest jails in the United Kingdom, and housed many notable inmates including the Yorkshire Ripper Peter Sutcliffe, New Zealand drug lord Terry Clark and the Kray twins.

text: Camp Hill is located adjacent but to the west of Albany and Parkhurst, on the very edge of Parkhurst Forest, having been converted first to a borstal and later to a Category C prison. It was built on the site of an army camp (both Albany and Parkhurst were barracks); there is a small estate of tree-lined roads with the former officers' quarters (now privately owned) to the south and east. Camp Hill closed as a prison in March 2013.

text: The management of all three prisons was merged into a single administration, under HMP Isle of Wight in April 2009.

text: Education[edit]

text: There are sixty-nine Local Education Authority-maintained schools on the Isle of Wight, and two independent schools.[136] As a rural community, many of these are small and with fewer pupils than in urban areas. The Isle of Wight College is located on the outskirts of Newport.

text: From September 2010, there was a transition period from the three-tier system of primary, middle and high schools to the two-tier system that is usual in England.[137] Some schools have now closed, such as Chale C.E. Primary. Others have become "federated", such as Brading C.E. Primary and St Helen's Primary. Christ the King College started as two "middle schools," Trinity Middle School and Archbishop King Catholic Middle School, but has now been converted into a dual-faith secondary school and sixth form.

text: Since September 2011 five new secondary schools, with an age range of 11 to 18 years, replaced the island's high schools (as a part of the previous three-tier system).

text: Notable residents[edit]

text: Notable residents have included:

text: 17th century and earlier[edit]

text:
King Arwald, last pagan king in England
King Charles I of England, who was imprisoned at Carisbrooke Castle
Viking Earl Tostig Godwinson
Actor, highwayman and conspirator Cardell "Scum" Goodman
Soldier and regicide of Charles I Thomas Harrison, imprisoned at Carisbrooke with John Rogers & Christopher Feake
Soldier Peter de Heyno
Philosopher and polymath Robert Hooke
Murderer Michal Morey

text: 18th century[edit]

text:
Explorer Anthony Henday
Radical journalist John Wilkes

text: 19th century[edit]

text:
Queen Victoria and Prince Albert (monarch and consort), who built and lived at Osborne House
Photographer Julia Margaret Cameron, who lived at Dimbola Lodge
Irish Republican Thomas Clarke
Naval captain Jeremiah Coghlan CBG, who retired to Ryde
Writer Charles Dickens
Poet John Keats
Inventor and radio pioneer Guglielmo Marconi
Poet and hymnwriter Albert Midlane
Geologist and engineer John Milne
Regency architect John Nash
Novelist Miss Harriet Parr
Early Hong Kong Government administrator William Pedder
New Zealand PM Henry Sewell
Poet Algernon Charles Swinburne
Poet Alfred Tennyson
Philosopher Karl Marx, who stayed at 1, St. Boniface Gardens, Ventnor
Surgeon James Mann Williamson, at the Royal National Hospital, Ventnor

text: 20th century onwards[edit]

text:
Scriptwriter Raymond Allen
Indie rock group The Bees
Concert organist E. Power Biggs
Darts player Keegan Brown
Singer Sarah Close
Inventor of the hovercraft Sir Christopher Cockerell
Presenter and actor Ray Cokes
Actress Bella Emberg
Yachtsman Uffa Fox
Actor Marius Goring
Survival expert and Chief Scout Bear Grylls
Actress Sheila Hancock
Folk-rock musician Robyn Hitchcock
Actor Geoffrey Hughes
Author and conspiracy theorist David Icke
Actor Jeremy Irons
Comedian Phill Jupitus
Actor Laura Michelle Kelly
Composer Albert Ketèlbey
Iranian poet Mimi Khalvati
Musician Mark King
Radio presenter Allan Lake
Writer James Leavey
Musician Jack Green
Yachtswoman Ellen MacArthur
BBC 'Tonight' presenter Cliff Michelmore

text:
Film director Anthony Minghella
Actor David Niven
Cyclist Kieran Page
TV personality Anneka Rice
Heptathlete Kelly Sotherton
Gardener and presenter Alan Titchmarsh
Novelist Edward Upward

text: Places of interest[edit]

text:
Key

Abbey/Priory/Cathedral

Accessible open space

Amusement/Theme Park

Castle

Country Park

English Heritage

Forestry Commission

Heritage railway

Historic House

Museum (free/not free)

National Trust

Theatre

Zoo

text:
Alum Bay
Appuldurcombe House
Amazon World Zoo
Bembridge Lifeboat Station
Blackgang Chine
Brading Roman Villa
Carisbrooke Castle
Classic Boat Museum, East Cowes
Compton Bay
Dimbola Lodge
Dinosaur Isle
Fort Victoria
Godshill village and model village
Isle of Wight Bus & Coach Museum
Isle of Wight Steam Railway
Isle of Wight Zoo, Yaverland
Medina Theatre
The Needles
Newport Roman Villa.
Osborne House
Quarr Abbey
Robin Hill
Botanic Gardens, Ventnor
Yarmouth Castle

text: Overseas names[edit]

text: The Isle of Wight has given names to many parts of former colonies, most notably Isle of Wight County in Virginia founded by settlers from the island in the 17th century. Its county seat is a town named Isle of Wight.

text: Other notable examples include:

text:
Isle of Wight - an island off Maryland, United States
Dunnose Head, West Falkland
Ventnor, Cowes on Philip Island, Victoria, Australia
Carisbrook, Victoria, Australia
Carisbrook, a former stadium in Dunedin, New Zealand
Ryde, New South Wales, Australia
Shanklin, Sandown, New Hampshire, United States
Ventnor City, New Jersey, United States
Gardiners Island, New York, United States shown as "Isle of Wight" on some of the older maps.[138]

text: Media references[edit]

text: Film[edit]

text:
The film Something to Hide (1972; US title Shattered), starring Peter Finch, was filmed near Cowes, including a scene on the Red Funnel ferry;
The British film That'll Be the Day (1973), starring David Essex and Ringo Starr, included scenes shot in Ryde (notably Cross Street), Sandown (school), Shanklin (beach) and Wootton Bridge (fairground);
Mrs. Brown (1997), with Dame Judi Dench and Billy Connolly, was filmed at Osborne and Chale;
The film Fragile (2005), starring Calista Flockhart, is based on the Isle of Wight.
Victoria and Abdul (2017) starring Dame Judi Dench and Ali Fazal began shooting principal photography at Osborne House in September 2016.

text: Games[edit]

text: John Worsley's Commodore 64 game Spirit of the Stones was set on the Isle of Wight.[140]

text: Literature[edit]

text: The Isle of Wight was:[141]

text:
the setting of Julian Barnes's novel England, England;
called The Island in some editions of Thomas Hardy's novels in his fictional Wessex;
selected for the development of a new base by the supercomputer "Colossus", in D. F. Jones' novel Colossus (1966);
the setting for D.H. Lawrence's book The Trespasser, filmed for TV on location in 1981;
the setting of Graham Masterton's book Prey;
mentioned in J.K. Rowling's first Harry Potter book, which refers to Uncle Vernon's sister Marge on holiday on the island, who got sick after eating a whelk;
a major element in Daniel O'Malley's series The Rook (2012) & its sequel Stiletto (2016). The antagonists try to invade in the 1600s, the effects of which continue to colour perceptions of the Crown's secret supernatural agency, the "Checquy Group";
the refuge of the British monarchy & government in S.M. Stirling's alternative history novel The Protector's War (2005), in which high energy technology ceased to function. After an ensuing holocaust, the island was the base for re-population of Europe, whose populations had mostly perished;
one of the destinations to which the British government evacuates in Frank Tayell's post-apocalyptic novel Surviving the Evacuation Book One: London (2013), guided by the mistaken impression that it would be defensible against the zombie hordes;[142]
featured in John Wyndham's novel The Day of the Triffids and Simon Clark's sequel The Night of the Triffids.

text: Music[edit]

text:
The Beatles' song "When I'm Sixty-Four" (1967), credited to Lennon-McCartney and sung by Paul McCartney, refers to renting a cottage on the island;[143]
Bob Dylan recorded "Like a Rolling Stone" (1965), "Minstrel Boy", "Quinn the Eskimo (The Mighty Quinn)" (1967), and "She Belongs to Me" (1965) for the album Self Portrait (1970) live on the island;
"Wight Is Wight" (1969), a song by French artist Michel Delpech, also spawned an Italian cover by Dik Dik, titled "L'isola di Wight"(IT) (1970).

text: Radio[edit]

text: There was a running joke in radio sitcom The Navy Lark involving Sub-Lieutenant Phillips's inability to navigate and subsequently tail the Isle of Wight ferry.[144]

text: Television[edit]

text:
ITV's dramatisation of Dennis Potter's work Blade on the Feather (19 October 1980) was filmed on the island.[145]
The 1984 TV mini series , Annika, was partly filmed in Ryde.
A 2002 Top Gear feature showed an Aston Martin being driven around Cowes, East Cowes, and along the Military Road and seawall at Freshwater Bay.[146]
The setting for Free Rein was based on the Isle of Wight.[147]


document_title: Internet protocol suite

question_text: which came first tcp/ip or osi

question_tokens: which came first tcp / ip or osi

root

text: Internet protocol suite

text: History[edit]

text: Early research[edit]

text: The Internet protocol suite resulted from research and development conducted by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in the late 1960s.[3] After initiating the pioneering ARPANET in 1969, DARPA started work on a number of other data transmission technologies. In 1972, Robert E. Kahn joined the DARPA Information Processing Technology Office, where he worked on both satellite packet networks and ground-based radio packet networks, and recognized the value of being able to communicate across both. In the spring of 1973, Vinton Cerf, the developer of the existing ARPANET Network Control Program (NCP) protocol, joined Kahn to work on open-architecture interconnection models with the goal of designing the next protocol generation for the ARPANET.

tag: p

text: By the summer of 1973, Kahn and Cerf had worked out a fundamental reformulation, in which the differences between local network protocols were hidden by using a common internetwork protocol, and, instead of the network being responsible for reliability, as in the ARPANET, this function was delegated to the hosts. Cerf credits Hubert Zimmermann and Louis Pouzin, designer of the CYCLADES network, with important influences on this design. The protocol was implemented as the Transmission Control Program, first published in 1974.[4]

text: Initially, the TCP managed both datagram transmissions and routing, but as the protocol grew, other researchers recommended a division of functionality into protocol layers. Advocates included Jonathan Postel of the University of Southern California's Information Sciences Institute, who edited the Request for Comments (RFCs), the technical and strategic document series that has both documented and catalyzed Internet development.[5] Postel stated, "We are screwing up in our design of Internet protocols by violating the principle of layering."[6] Encapsulation of different mechanisms was intended to create an environment where the upper layers could access only what was needed from the lower layers. A monolithic design would be inflexible and lead to scalability issues. The Transmission Control Program was split into two distinct protocols, the Transmission Control Protocol and the Internet Protocol.

text: The design of the network included the recognition that it should provide only the functions of efficiently transmitting and routing traffic between end nodes and that all other intelligence should be located at the edge of the network, in the end nodes. This design is known as the end-to-end principle. Using this design, it became possible to connect almost any network to the ARPANET, irrespective of the local characteristics, thereby solving Kahn's initial internetworking problem. One popular expression is that TCP/IP, the eventual product of Cerf and Kahn's work, can run over "two tin cans and a string."[citation needed] Years later, as a joke, the IP over Avian Carriers formal protocol specification was created and successfully tested.

text: A computer called a router is provided with an interface to each network. It forwards network packets back and forth between them.[7] Originally a router was called gateway, but the term was changed to avoid confusion with other types of gateways.[citation needed]

text: Specification[edit]

text: From 1973 to 1974, Cerf's networking research group at Stanford worked out details of the idea, resulting in the first TCP specification.[8] A significant technical influence was the early networking work at Xerox PARC, which produced the PARC Universal Packet protocol suite, much of which existed around that time.

text: DARPA then contracted with BBN Technologies, Stanford University, and the University College London to develop operational versions of the protocol on different hardware platforms. Four versions were developed: TCP v1, TCP v2, TCP v3 and IP v3, and TCP/IP v4. The last protocol is still in use today. In 1975, a two-network TCP/IP communications test was performed between Stanford and University College London (UCL). In November, 1977, a three-network TCP/IP test was conducted between sites in the US, the UK, and Norway. Several other TCP/IP prototypes were developed at multiple research centers between 1978 and 1983. The migration of the ARPANET to TCP/IP was officially completed on flag day January 1, 1983, when the new protocols were permanently activated.[9]

text: Adoption[edit]

text: In March 1982, the US Department of Defense declared TCP/IP as the standard for all military computer networking.[10]

text: In 1985, the Internet Advisory Board (later renamed the Internet Architecture Board) held a three-day workshop on TCP/IP for the computer industry, attended by 250 vendor representatives, promoting the protocol and leading to its increasing commercial use. In 1985, the first Interop conference focused on network interoperability by broader adoption of TCP/IP. The conference was founded by Dan Lynch, an early Internet activist. From the beginning, large corporations, such as IBM and DEC, attended the meeting.[11]

text: IBM, AT&T and DEC were the first major corporations to adopt TCP/IP, this despite having competing proprietary protocols (SNA, XNS, DECNET). In IBM, from 1984, Barry Appelman's group did TCP/IP development. They navigated the corporate politics to get a stream of TCP/IP products for various IBM systems, including MVS, VM, and OS/2. At the same time, several smaller companies, such as FTP Software and the Wollongong Group, began offering TCP/IP stacks for DOS and MS Windows.[12] The first VM/CMS TCP/IP stack came from the University of Wisconsin.[13]

text: Some of these TCP/IP stacks were written single-handedly by a few programmers. Jay Elinsky and Oleg Vishnepolsky of IBM Research wrote TCP/IP stacks for VM/CMS and OS/2, respectively.[14] In 1984 Donald Gillies at MIT wrote a 'ntcp' multi-connection TCP which ran atop the IP/PacketDriver layer maintained by John Romkey at MIT in 1983-4. Romkey leveraged this TCP in 1986 when FTP Software was founded.[15][16] Phil Karn created KA9Q TCP (a multi-connection TCP for ham radio applications) starting in 1985.[17]

text: The spread of TCP/IP was fueled further in June 1989, when AT&T agreed to place the TCP/IP code developed for UNIX into the public domain. Various vendors, including IBM, included this code in their own TCP/IP stacks. Many companies sold TCP/IP stacks for Windows until Microsoft released a native TCP/IP stack in Windows 95. This event was a little late in the evolution of the Internet, but it cemented TCP/IP's dominance over other protocols, which began to lose ground. These protocols included IBM Systems Network Architecture (SNA), Digital Equipment Corporation's DECnet, Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), and Xerox Network Systems (XNS).

text: Key architectural principles[edit]

text: An early architectural document, RFC 1122, emphasizes architectural principles over layering.[18]

text: The end-to-end principle has evolved over time. Its original expression put the maintenance of state and overall intelligence at the edges, and assumed the Internet that connected the edges retained no state and concentrated on speed and simplicity. Real-world needs for firewalls, network address translators, web content caches and the like have forced changes in this principle.[19]

text: The robustness principle states: "In general, an implementation must be conservative in its sending behavior, and liberal in its receiving behavior. That is, it must be careful to send well-formed datagrams, but must accept any datagram that it can interpret (e.g., not object to technical errors where the meaning is still clear)."[20] "The second part of the principle is almost as important: software on other hosts may contain deficiencies that make it unwise to exploit legal but obscure protocol features."[21] Postel famously summarized the principle as, "Be conservative in what you do, be liberal in what you accept from others"—a saying that came to be known as "Postel's Law."

text: Encapsulation is used to provide abstraction of protocols and services. Encapsulation is usually aligned with the division of the protocol suite into layers of general functionality. In general, an application (the highest level of the model) uses a set of protocols to send its data down the layers, being further encapsulated at each level.

text: The layers of the protocol suite near the top are logically closer to the user application, while those near the bottom are logically closer to the physical transmission of the data. Viewing layers as providing or consuming a service is a method of abstraction to isolate upper layer protocols from the details of transmitting bits over, for example, Ethernet and collision detection, while the lower layers avoid having to know the details of each and every application and its protocol.

text: Even when the layers are examined, the assorted architectural documents—there is no single architectural model such as ISO 7498, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model—have fewer and less rigidly defined layers than the OSI model, and thus provide an easier fit for real-world protocols. One frequently referenced document, RFC 1958, does not contain a stack of layers. The lack of emphasis on layering is a major difference between the IETF and OSI approaches. It only refers to the existence of the internetworking layer and generally to upper layers; this document was intended as a 1996 snapshot of the architecture: "The Internet and its architecture have grown in evolutionary fashion from modest beginnings, rather than from a Grand Plan. While this process of evolution is one of the main reasons for the technology's success, it nevertheless seems useful to record a snapshot of the current principles of the Internet architecture."

text: RFC 1122, entitled Host Requirements, is structured in paragraphs referring to layers, but the document refers to many other architectural principles not emphasizing layering. It loosely defines a four-layer model, with the layers having names, not numbers, as follows:

text: The Internet protocol suite and the layered protocol stack design were in use before the OSI model was established. Since then, the TCP/IP model has been compared with the OSI model in books and classrooms, which often results in confusion because the two models use different assumptions and goals, including the relative importance of strict layering.

text: This abstraction also allows upper layers to provide services that the lower layers do not provide. While the original OSI model was extended to include connectionless services (OSIRM CL),[22] IP is not designed to be reliable and is a best effort delivery protocol. This means that all transport layer implementations must choose whether or how to provide reliability. UDP provides data integrity via a checksum but does not guarantee delivery; TCP provides both data integrity and delivery guarantee by retransmitting until the receiver acknowledges the reception of the packet.

text: This model lacks the formalism of the OSI model and associated documents, but the IETF does not use a formal model and does not consider this a limitation, as illustrated in the comment by David D. Clark, "We reject: kings, presidents and voting. We believe in: rough consensus and running code." Criticisms of this model, which have been made with respect to the OSI model, often do not consider ISO's later extensions to that model.

text: For multi-access links with their own addressing systems (e.g. Ethernet) an address mapping protocol is needed. Such protocols can be considered to be below IP but above the existing link system. While the IETF does not use the terminology, this is a subnetwork dependent convergence facility according to an extension to the OSI model, the internal organization of the network layer (IONL).[23]

text: ICMP & IGMP operate on top of IP but do not transport data like UDP or TCP. Again, this functionality exists as layer management extensions to the OSI model, in its Management Framework (OSIRM MF)[24]

text: The SSL/TLS library operates above the transport layer (uses TCP) but below application protocols. Again, there was no intention, on the part of the designers of these protocols, to comply with OSI architecture.

text: The link is treated as a black box. The IETF explicitly does not intend to discuss transmission systems, which is a less academic[25][citation needed] but practical alternative to the OSI model.

text: The following is a description of each layer in the TCP/IP networking model starting from the lowest level.

text: Link layer[edit]

text: The link layer has the networking scope of the local network connection to which a host is attached. This regime is called the link in TCP/IP literature. It is the lowest component layer of the Internet protocols, as TCP/IP is designed to be hardware independent. As a result, TCP/IP may be implemented on top of virtually any hardware networking technology.

text: The link layer is used to move packets between the Internet layer interfaces of two different hosts on the same link. The processes of transmitting and receiving packets on a given link can be controlled both in the software device driver for the network card, as well as on firmware or specialized chipsets. These perform data link functions such as adding a packet header to prepare it for transmission, then actually transmit the frame over a physical medium. The TCP/IP model includes specifications of translating the network addressing methods used in the Internet Protocol to link layer addresses, such as Media Access Control (MAC) addresses. All other aspects below that level, however, are implicitly assumed to exist in the link layer, but are not explicitly defined.

text: This is also the layer where packets may be selected to be sent over a virtual private network or other networking tunnel. In this scenario, the link layer data may be considered application data which traverses another instantiation of the IP stack for transmission or reception over another IP connection. Such a connection, or virtual link, may be established with a transport protocol or even an application scope protocol that serves as a tunnel in the link layer of the protocol stack. Thus, the TCP/IP model does not dictate a strict hierarchical encapsulation sequence.

text: The TCP/IP model's link layer corresponds to the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model physical and data link layers, layers one and two of the OSI model.

text: Internet layer[edit]

text: The internet layer has the responsibility of sending packets across potentially multiple networks. Internetworking requires sending data from the source network to the destination network. This process is called routing.

text: The Internet Protocol performs two basic functions:

text:
Host addressing and identification: This is accomplished with a hierarchical IP addressing system.
Packet routing: This is the basic task of sending packets of data (datagrams) from source to destination by forwarding them to the next network router closer to the final destination.

tag: ul

text: The internet layer is not only agnostic of data structures at the transport layer, but it also does not distinguish between operation of the various transport layer protocols. IP carries data for a variety of different upper layer protocols. These protocols are each identified by a unique protocol number: for example, Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) and Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) are protocols 1 and 2, respectively.

text: Some of the protocols carried by IP, such as ICMP which is used to transmit diagnostic information, and IGMP which is used to manage IP Multicast data, are layered on top of IP but perform internetworking functions. This illustrates the differences in the architecture of the TCP/IP stack of the Internet and the OSI model. The TCP/IP model's internet layer corresponds to layer three of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, where it is referred to as the network layer.

text: The internet layer provides an unreliable datagram transmission facility between hosts located on potentially different IP networks by forwarding the transport layer datagrams to an appropriate next-hop router for further relaying to its destination. With this functionality, the internet layer makes possible internetworking, the interworking of different IP networks, and it essentially establishes the Internet. The Internet Protocol is the principal component of the internet layer, and it defines two addressing systems to identify network hosts' computers, and to locate them on the network. The original address system of the ARPANET and its successor, the Internet, is Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4). It uses a 32-bit IP address and is therefore capable of identifying approximately four billion hosts. This limitation was eliminated in 1998 by the standardization of Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) which uses 128-bit addresses. IPv6 production implementations emerged in approximately 2006.

text: Transport layer[edit]

text: The transport layer establishes basic data channels that applications use for task-specific data exchange. The layer establishes process-to-process connectivity, meaning it provides end-to-end services that are independent of the structure of user data and the logistics of exchanging information for any particular specific purpose. Its responsibility includes end-to-end message transfer independent of the underlying network, along with error control, segmentation, flow control, congestion control, and application addressing (port numbers). End-to-end message transmission or connecting applications at the transport layer can be categorized as either connection-oriented, implemented in TCP, or connectionless, implemented in UDP.

text: For the purpose of providing process-specific transmission channels for applications, the layer establishes the concept of the port. This is a numbered logical construct allocated specifically for each of the communication channels an application needs. For many types of services, these port numbers have been standardized so that client computers may address specific services of a server computer without the involvement of service announcements or directory services.

text: Because IP provides only a best effort delivery, some transport layer protocols offer reliability. However, IP can run over a reliable data link protocol such as the High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC).

text: For example, the TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that addresses numerous reliability issues in providing a reliable byte stream:

text:
data arrives in-order
data has minimal error (i.e., correctness)
duplicate data is discarded
lost or discarded packets are resent
includes traffic congestion control

text: The newer Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) is also a reliable, connection-oriented transport mechanism. It is message-stream-oriented—not byte-stream-oriented like TCP—and provides multiple streams multiplexed over a single connection. It also provides multi-homing support, in which a connection end can be represented by multiple IP addresses (representing multiple physical interfaces), such that if one fails, the connection is not interrupted. It was developed initially for telephony applications (to transport SS7 over IP), but can also be used for other applications.

text: The User Datagram Protocol is a connectionless datagram protocol. Like IP, it is a best effort, "unreliable" protocol. Reliability is addressed through error detection using a weak checksum algorithm. UDP is typically used for applications such as streaming media (audio, video, Voice over IP etc.) where on-time arrival is more important than reliability, or for simple query/response applications like DNS lookups, where the overhead of setting up a reliable connection is disproportionately large. Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) is a datagram protocol that is designed for real-time data such as streaming audio and video.

text: The applications at any given network address are distinguished by their TCP or UDP port. By convention certain well known ports are associated with specific applications.

text: The TCP/IP model's transport or host-to-host layer corresponds to the fourth layer in the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, also called the transport layer.

text: Application layer[edit]

text: The application layer includes the protocols used by most applications for providing user services or exchanging application data over the network connections established by the lower level protocols. This may include some basic network support services such as protocols for routing and host configuration. Examples of application layer protocols include the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), the File Transfer Protocol (FTP), the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).[26] Data coded according to application layer protocols are encapsulated into transport layer protocol units (such as TCP or UDP messages), which in turn use lower layer protocols to effect actual data transfer.

text: The TCP/IP model does not consider the specifics of formatting and presenting data, and does not define additional layers between the application and transport layers as in the OSI model (presentation and session layers). Such functions are the realm of libraries and application programming interfaces.

text: Application layer protocols generally treat the transport layer (and lower) protocols as black boxes which provide a stable network connection across which to communicate, although the applications are usually aware of key qualities of the transport layer connection such as the end point IP addresses and port numbers. Application layer protocols are often associated with particular client-server applications, and common services have well-known port numbers reserved by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). For example, the HyperText Transfer Protocol uses server port 80 and Telnet uses server port 23. Clients connecting to a service usually use ephemeral ports, i.e., port numbers assigned only for the duration of the transaction at random or from a specific range configured in the application.

text: The transport layer and lower-level layers are unconcerned with the specifics of application layer protocols. Routers and switches do not typically examine the encapsulated traffic, rather they just provide a conduit for it. However, some firewall and bandwidth throttling applications must interpret application data. An example is the Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP). It is also sometimes necessary for network address translator (NAT) traversal to consider the application payload.

text: The application layer in the TCP/IP model is often compared as equivalent to a combination of the fifth (Session), sixth (Presentation), and the seventh (Application) layers of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.

text: Furthermore, the TCP/IP reference model distinguishes between user protocols and support protocols.[27] Support protocols provide services to a system. User protocols are used for actual user applications. For example, FTP is a user protocol and DNS is a support protocol.

text: Layer names and number of layers in the literature[edit]

text: The following table shows various networking models. The number of layers varies between three and seven.

text:
RFC 1122, Internet STD 3 (1989)
Cisco Academy[28]
Kurose,[29] Forouzan[30]
Comer,[31] Kozierok[32]
Stallings[33]
Tanenbaum[34]
Arpanet Reference Model (RFC 871)
OSI model

Four layers
Four layers
Five layers
Four+one layers
Five layers
Five layers
Three layers
Seven layers

"Internet model"
"Internet model"
"Five-layer Internet model" or "TCP/IP protocol suite"
"TCP/IP 5-layer reference model"
"TCP/IP model"
"TCP/IP 5-layer reference model"
"Arpanet reference model"
OSI model

Application
Application
Application
Application
Application
Application
Application/Process
Application

Presentation

Session

Transport
Transport
Transport
Transport
Host-to-host or transport
Transport
Host-to-host
Transport

Internet
Internetwork
Network
Internet
Internet
Internet
Network

Link
Network interface
Data link
Data link (Network interface)
Network access
Data link
Network interface
Data link

Physical
(Hardware)
Physical
Physical

Physical

tag: table

text: Some of the networking models are from textbooks, which are secondary sources that may conflict with the intent of RFC 1122 and other IETF primary sources.[35]

text: Comparison of TCP/IP and OSI layering[edit]

text: The three top layers in the OSI model, i.e. the application layer, the presentation layer and the session layer, are not distinguished separately in the TCP/IP model which only has an application layer above the transport layer. While some pure OSI protocol applications, such as X.400, also combined them, there is no requirement that a TCP/IP protocol stack must impose monolithic architecture above the transport layer. For example, the NFS application protocol runs over the eXternal Data Representation (XDR) presentation protocol, which, in turn, runs over a protocol called Remote Procedure Call (RPC). RPC provides reliable record transmission, so it can safely use the best-effort UDP transport.

text: Different authors have interpreted the TCP/IP model differently, and disagree whether the link layer, or the entire TCP/IP model, covers OSI layer 1 (physical layer) issues, or whether a hardware layer is assumed below the link layer.

text: Several authors have attempted to incorporate the OSI model's layers 1 and 2 into the TCP/IP model, since these are commonly referred to in modern standards (for example, by IEEE and ITU). This often results in a model with five layers, where the link layer or network access layer is split into the OSI model's layers 1 and 2.

text: The IETF protocol development effort is not concerned with strict layering. Some of its protocols may not fit cleanly into the OSI model, although RFCs sometimes refer to it and often use the old OSI layer numbers. The IETF has repeatedly stated[citation needed] that Internet protocol and architecture development is not intended to be OSI-compliant. RFC 3439, addressing Internet architecture, contains a section entitled: "Layering Considered Harmful".[35]

text: For example, the session and presentation layers of the OSI suite are considered to be included to the application layer of the TCP/IP suite. The functionality of the session layer can be found in protocols like HTTP and SMTP and is more evident in protocols like Telnet and the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP). Session layer functionality is also realized with the port numbering of the TCP and UDP protocols, which cover the transport layer in the TCP/IP suite. Functions of the presentation layer are realized in the TCP/IP applications with the MIME standard in data exchange.

text: Conflicts are apparent also in the original OSI model, ISO 7498, when not considering the annexes to this model, e.g., the ISO 7498/4 Management Framework, or the ISO 8648 Internal Organization of the Network layer (IONL). When the IONL and Management Framework documents are considered, the ICMP and IGMP are defined as layer management protocols for the network layer. In like manner, the IONL provides a structure for "subnetwork dependent convergence facilities" such as ARP and RARP.

text: IETF protocols can be encapsulated recursively, as demonstrated by tunneling protocols such as Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE). GRE uses the same mechanism that OSI uses for tunneling at the network layer.

text: Implementations[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The Internet protocol suite does not presume any specific hardware or software environment. It only requires that hardware and a software layer exists that is capable of sending and receiving packets on a computer network. As a result, the suite has been implemented on essentially every computing platform. A minimal implementation of TCP/IP includes the following: Internet Protocol (IP), Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP), and Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP). In addition to IP, ICMP, TCP, UDP, Internet Protocol version 6 requires Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP), ICMPv6, and IGMPv6 and is often accompanied by an integrated IPSec security layer.

text: Application programmers are typically concerned only with interfaces in the application layer and often also in the transport layer, while the layers below are services provided by the TCP/IP stack in the operating system. Most IP implementations are accessible to programmers through sockets and APIs.

text: Unique implementations include Lightweight TCP/IP, an open source stack designed for embedded systems, and KA9Q NOS, a stack and associated protocols for amateur packet radio systems and personal computers connected via serial lines.

text: Microcontroller firmware in the network adapter typically handles link issues, supported by driver software in the operating system. Non-programmable analog and digital electronics are normally in charge of the physical components below the link layer, typically using an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) chipset for each network interface or other physical standard. High-performance routers are to a large extent based on fast non-programmable digital electronics, carrying out link level switching.


document_title: Hazel

question_text: a deciduous shrub with edible brown nuts a species of hazel

text: Hazel

text: Species[edit]

text: Corylus has 14–18 species. The circumscription of species in eastern Asia is disputed, with WCSP and the Flora of China differing in which taxa are accepted; within this region, only those taxa accepted by both sources are listed below.[4][9][10][11] The species are grouped as follows:

text:
Nut surrounded by a soft, leafy involucre, multiple-stemmed, suckering shrubs to 12 m tall

Involucre short, about the same length as the nut

Corylus americana—American hazel, eastern North America
Corylus avellana—Common hazel, Europe and western Asia
Corylus heterophylla—Asian hazel, Asia
Corylus yunnanensis—Yunnan hazel, central and southern China

Involucre long, twice the length of the nut or more, forming a 'beak'

Corylus colchica—Colchican filbert, Caucasus
Corylus cornuta—Beaked hazel, North America
Corylus maxima—Filbert, southeastern Europe and southwest Asia
Corylus sieboldiana—Asian beaked hazel, northeastern Asia and Japan (syn. C. mandshurica)

Nut surrounded by a stiff, spiny involucre, single-stemmed trees to 20–35 m tall

Involucre moderately spiny and also with glandular hairs

Corylus chinensis—Chinese hazel, western China
Corylus colurna—Turkish hazel, southeastern Europe and Asia Minor
Corylus fargesii—Farges' hazel, western China
Corylus jacquemontii—Jacquemont's hazel, Himalaya
Corylus wangii—Wang's hazel, southwest China

Involucre densely spiny, resembling a chestnut burr

Corylus ferox—Himalayan hazel, Himalaya, Tibet and southwest China (syn. C. tibetica).

text: Several hybrids exist, and can occur between species in different sections of the genus, e.g. Corylus × colurnoides (C. avellana × C. colurna). The oldest confirmed hazel species is Corylus johnsonii found as fossils in the Ypresian-age rocks of Ferry County, Washington.[12]

text: Uses[edit]

text: The nuts of all hazels are edible. The common hazel is the species most extensively grown for its nuts, followed in importance by the filbert. Nuts are also harvested from the other species, but apart from the filbert, none is of significant commercial importance.[5]

text: A number of cultivars of the common hazel and filbert are grown as ornamental plants in gardens, including forms with contorted stems (C. avellana 'Contorta', popularly known as "Harry Lauder's walking stick" from its gnarled appearance); with weeping branches (C. avellana 'Pendula'); and with purple leaves (C. maxima 'Purpurea').

text: Hazel is a traditional material used for making wattle, withy fencing, baskets, and the frames of coracle boats. The tree can be coppiced, and regenerating shoots allow for harvests every few years.

text: Hazels are used as food plants by the larvae of various species of Lepidoptera.

text: Mythology and folklore[edit]

text: The Celts believed hazelnuts gave one wisdom and inspiration. There are numerous variations on an ancient tale that nine hazel trees grew around a sacred pool, dropping into the water nuts that were eaten by salmon (a fish sacred to Druids), which absorbed the wisdom. A Druid teacher, in his bid to become omniscient, caught one of these special salmon and asked a student to cook the fish, but not to eat it. While he was cooking it, a blister formed and the pupil used his thumb to burst it, which he naturally sucked to cool, thereby absorbing the fish's wisdom. This boy was called Fionn Mac Cumhail (Fin McCool) and went on to become one of the most heroic leaders in Gaelic mythology.[13]

text: "The Hazel Branch" from Grimms' Fairy Tales claims that hazel branches offer the greatest protection from snakes and other things that creep on the earth.

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Form (Farges' hazel)

Male catkins (common hazel)

Female flower (common hazel)

Leaves and nuts with spiny husks (Turkish hazel)

Hazelnuts