document_title: Cell cycle

question_text: when does chromosome replication occur in eukaryotic cell

text: Cell cycle

text: Phases[edit]

text: The cell cycle consists of four distinct phases: G1 phase, S phase (synthesis), G2 phase (collectively known as interphase) and M phase (mitosis). M phase is itself composed of two tightly coupled processes: karyokinesis, in which the cell's chromosomes are divided, and cytokinesis, in which the cell's cytoplasm divides forming two daughter cells. Activation of each phase is dependent on the proper progression and completion of the previous one. Cells that have temporarily or reversibly stopped dividing are said to have entered a state of quiescence called G0 phase.

text:
State
Phase
Abbreviation
Description

Resting
Gap 0
G0
A phase where the cell has left the cycle and has stopped dividing.

Interphase
Gap 1
G1
Cells increase in size in Gap 1. The G1 checkpoint control mechanism ensures that everything is ready for DNA synthesis.

Synthesis
S
DNA replication occurs during this phase.

Gap 2
G2
During the gap between DNA synthesis and mitosis, the cell will continue to grow. The G2 checkpoint control mechanism ensures that everything is ready to enter the M (mitosis) phase and divide.

Cell division
Mitosis
M
Cell growth stops at this stage and cellular energy is focused on the orderly division into two daughter cells. A checkpoint in the middle of mitosis (Metaphase Checkpoint) ensures that the cell is ready to complete cell division.

text: After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cycle. Although the various stages of interphase are not usually morphologically distinguishable, each phase of the cell cycle has a distinct set of specialized biochemical processes that prepare the cell for initiation of cell division.

text: G0 phase (quiescence)[edit]

text: G0 is a resting phase where the cell has left the cycle and has stopped dividing. The cell cycle starts with this phase. The word "post-mitotic" is sometimes used to refer to both quiescent and senescent cells. Non-proliferative (non-dividing) cells in multicellular eukaryotes generally enter the quiescent G0 state from G1 and may remain quiescent for long periods of time, possibly indefinitely (as is often the case for neurons). This is very common for cells that are fully differentiated. Cellular senescence occurs in response to DNA damage and external stress and usually constitutes an arrest in G1. Some cells enter the G0 phase semi-permanently and are considered post-mitotic, e.g., some liver, kidney, and stomach cells. Many cells do not enter G0 and continue to divide throughout an organism's life, e.g., epithelial cells.

text: Cellular senescence is also a state that occurs in response to DNA damage or degradation that would make a cell's progeny nonviable; it is often a biochemical alternative to the self-destruction of such a damaged cell by apoptosis.

text: Interphase (intermitosis)[edit]

text: Before a cell can enter cell division, it needs to take in nutrients. All of the preparations are done during interphase. Interphase is a series of changes that takes place in a newly formed cell and its nucleus, before it becomes capable of division again. It is also called preparatory phase or intermitosis. Previously it was called resting stage because there is no apparent activity related to cell division.Typically interphase lasts for at least 91% of the total time required for the cell cycle.

text: Interphase proceeds in three stages, G1, S, and G2, followed by the cycle of mitosis and cytokinesis. The cell's nuclear DNA contents are duplicated during S phase but may continue till G2 in case of heterochromatin.

text: G1 phase (First growth phase or Post mitotic gap phase)[edit]

text: The first phase within interphase, from the end of the previous M phase until the beginning of DNA synthesis, is called G1 (G indicating gap). It is also called the growth phase. During this phase, the biosynthetic activities of the cell, which are considerably slowed down during M phase, resume at a high rate. The duration of G1 is highly variable, even among different cells of the same species.[3] In this phase, the cell increases its supply of proteins, increases the number of organelles (such as mitochondria, ribosomes), and grows in size. In G1 phase, a cell has three options. (1) To continue cell cycle and enter S phase (2) Stop cell cycle and enter G0 phase for undergoing differentiation. (3) Get arrested in G1 phase hence it may enter G0 phase or re-enter cell cycle. The deciding factor is availability of nitrogens and storage of energy rich compounds at the deciding point called check point. This check point is called the restriction point or START and is regulated by G1/S cyclins, which cause transition from G1 to S phase. Passage through the G1 check point commits the cell to division.

text: S phase (DNA replication)[edit]

text: The ensuing S phase starts when DNA synthesis commences; when it is complete, all of the chromosomes have been replicated, i.e., each chromosome has two (sister) chromatids. Thus, during this phase, the amount of DNA in the cell has effectively doubled, though the ploidy of the cell remains the same. Rates of RNA transcription and protein synthesis are very low during this phase. An exception to this is histone production, most of which occurs during the S phase.[4][5][6]

text: G2 phase (growth)[edit]

text: G2 phase occurs after DNA replication and is a period of protein synthesis and rapid cell growth to prepare the cell for mitosis. During this phase microtubules begin to reorganize to form a spindle.

text: Mitotic phase (chromosome separation)[edit]

text: The relatively brief M phase consists of nuclear division (karyokinesis). It is a relatively short period of the cell cycle. M phase is complex and highly regulated. The sequence of events is divided into phases, corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next. These phases are sequentially known as:

text:
prophase,
metaphase,
anaphase,
telophase

text: Mitosis is the process by which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets in two nuclei.[7] During the process of mitosis the pairs of chromosomes condense and attach to fibers that pull the sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell.[8]

text: Mitosis occurs exclusively in eukaryotic cells, but occurs in different ways in different species. For example, animals undergo an "open" mitosis, where the nuclear envelope breaks down before the chromosomes separate, while fungi such as Aspergillus nidulans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) undergo a "closed" mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an intact cell nucleus.[9] Prokaryotic cells, which lack a nucleus, divide by a process called binary fission.

text: Cytokinesis phase (separation of all cell components)[edit]

text: Mitosis is immediately followed by cytokinesis, which divides the nuclei, cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells, genetically identical to each other and to their parent cell. This accounts for approximately 10% of the cell cycle.

text: Because cytokinesis usually occurs in conjunction with mitosis, "mitosis" is often used interchangeably with "M phase". However, there are many cells where mitosis and cytokinesis occur separately, forming single cells with multiple nuclei in a process called endoreplication. This occurs most notably among the fungi and slime moulds, but is found in various groups. Even in animals, cytokinesis and mitosis may occur independently, for instance during certain stages of fruit fly embryonic development.[10] Errors in mitosis can either kill a cell through apoptosis or cause mutations that may lead to cancer.

text: The process of mitosis is complex and highly regulated. The sequence of events is divided into phases, corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next. These stages are prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. During the process of mitosis the pairs of chromosomes condense and attach to fibers that pull the sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell. The cell then divides in cytokinesis, to produce two identical daughter cells.[8]

text: Regulation of eukaryotic cell cycle[edit]

text: Regulation of the cell cycle involves processes crucial to the survival of a cell, including the detection and repair of genetic damage as well as the prevention of uncontrolled cell division. The molecular events that control the cell cycle are ordered and directional; that is, each process occurs in a sequential fashion and it is impossible to "reverse" the cycle.

text: Role of cyclins and CDKs[edit]

text:
Nobel Laureate
Paul Nurse

Nobel Laureate
Tim Hunt

text: Two key classes of regulatory molecules, cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), determine a cell's progress through the cell cycle.[11] Leland H. Hartwell, R. Timothy Hunt, and Paul M. Nurse won the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of these central molecules.[12] Many of the genes encoding cyclins and CDKs are conserved among all eukaryotes, but in general more complex organisms have more elaborate cell cycle control systems that incorporate more individual components. Many of the relevant genes were first identified by studying yeast, especially Saccharomyces cerevisiae;[13] genetic nomenclature in yeast dubs many of these genes cdc (for "cell division cycle") followed by an identifying number, e.g. cdc25 or cdc20.

text: Cyclins form the regulatory subunits and CDKs the catalytic subunits of an activated heterodimer; cyclins have no catalytic activity and CDKs are inactive in the absence of a partner cyclin. When activated by a bound cyclin, CDKs perform a common biochemical reaction called phosphorylation that activates or inactivates target proteins to orchestrate coordinated entry into the next phase of the cell cycle. Different cyclin-CDK combinations determine the downstream proteins targeted. CDKs are constitutively expressed in cells whereas cyclins are synthesised at specific stages of the cell cycle, in response to various molecular signals.[14]

text: General mechanism of cyclin-CDK interaction[edit]

text: Upon receiving a pro-mitotic extracellular signal, G1 cyclin-CDK complexes become active to prepare the cell for S phase, promoting the expression of transcription factors that in turn promote the expression of S cyclins and of enzymes required for DNA replication. The G1 cyclin-CDK complexes also promote the degradation of molecules that function as S phase inhibitors by targeting them for ubiquitination. Once a protein has been ubiquitinated, it is targeted for proteolytic degradation by the proteasome. However, results from a recent study of E2F transcriptional dynamics at the single-cell level argue that the role of G1 cyclin-CDK activities, in particular cyclin D-CDK4/6, is to tune the timing rather than the commitment of cell cycle entry.[15]

text: Active S cyclin-CDK complexes phosphorylate proteins that make up the pre-replication complexes assembled during G1 phase on DNA replication origins. The phosphorylation serves two purposes: to activate each already-assembled pre-replication complex, and to prevent new complexes from forming. This ensures that every portion of the cell's genome will be replicated once and only once. The reason for prevention of gaps in replication is fairly clear, because daughter cells that are missing all or part of crucial genes will die. However, for reasons related to gene copy number effects, possession of extra copies of certain genes is also deleterious to the daughter cells.

text: Mitotic cyclin-CDK complexes, which are synthesized but inactivated during S and G2 phases, promote the initiation of mitosis by stimulating downstream proteins involved in chromosome condensation and mitotic spindle assembly. A critical complex activated during this process is a ubiquitin ligase known as the anaphase-promoting complex (APC), which promotes degradation of structural proteins associated with the chromosomal kinetochore. APC also targets the mitotic cyclins for degradation, ensuring that telophase and cytokinesis can proceed.[16]

text: Specific action of cyclin-CDK complexes[edit]

text: Cyclin D is the first cyclin produced in the cell cycle, in response to extracellular signals (e.g. growth factors). Cyclin D binds to existing CDK4, forming the active cyclin D-CDK4 complex. Cyclin D-CDK4 complex in turn phosphorylates the retinoblastoma susceptibility protein (Rb). The hyperphosphorylated Rb dissociates from the E2F/DP1/Rb complex (which was bound to the E2F responsive genes, effectively "blocking" them from transcription), activating E2F. Activation of E2F results in transcription of various genes like cyclin E, cyclin A, DNA polymerase, thymidine kinase, etc. Cyclin E thus produced binds to CDK2, forming the cyclin E-CDK2 complex, which pushes the cell from G1 to S phase (G1/S, which initiates the G2/M transition).[17] Cyclin B-cdk1 complex activation causes breakdown of nuclear envelope and initiation of prophase, and subsequently, its deactivation causes the cell to exit mitosis.[14] A quantitative study of E2F transcriptional dynamics at the single-cell level by using engineered fluorescent reporter cells provided a quantitative framework for understanding the control logic of cell cycle entry, challenging the canonical textbook model. Genes that regulate the amplitude of E2F accumulation, such as Myc, determine the commitment in cell cycle and S phase entry. G1 cyclin-CDK activities are not the driver of cell cycle entry. Instead, they primarily tune the timing of E2F increase, thereby modulating the pace of cell cycle progression.[15]

text: Inhibitors[edit]

text: Two families of genes, the cip/kip (CDK interacting protein/Kinase inhibitory protein) family and the INK4a/ARF (Inhibitor of Kinase 4/Alternative Reading Frame) family, prevent the progression of the cell cycle. Because these genes are instrumental in prevention of tumor formation, they are known as tumor suppressors.

text: The cip/kip family includes the genes p21, p27 and p57. They halt cell cycle in G1 phase, by binding to, and inactivating, cyclin-CDK complexes. p21 is activated by p53 (which, in turn, is triggered by DNA damage e.g. due to radiation). p27 is activated by Transforming Growth Factor of β (TGF β), a growth inhibitor.

text: The INK4a/ARF family includes p16INK4a, which binds to CDK4 and arrests the cell cycle in G1 phase, and p14ARF which prevents p53 degradation.

text: Synthetic inhibitors of Cdc25 could also be useful for the arrest of cell cycle and therefore be useful as antineoplastic and anticancer agents.[18]

text: Transcriptional regulatory network[edit]

text: Current evidence suggests that a semi-autonomous transcriptional network acts in concert with the CDK-cyclin machinery to regulate the cell cycle. Several gene expression studies in Saccharomyces cerevisiae have identified 800–1200 genes that change expression over the course of the cell cycle.[13][19][20] They are transcribed at high levels at specific points in the cell cycle, and remain at lower levels throughout the rest of the cycle. While the set of identified genes differs between studies due to the computational methods and criteria used to identify them, each study indicates that a large portion of yeast genes are temporally regulated.[21]

text: Many periodically expressed genes are driven by transcription factors that are also periodically expressed. One screen of single-gene knockouts identified 48 transcription factors (about 20% of all non-essential transcription factors) that show cell cycle progression defects.[22] Genome-wide studies using high throughput technologies have identified the transcription factors that bind to the promoters of yeast genes, and correlating these findings with temporal expression patterns have allowed the identification of transcription factors that drive phase-specific gene expression.[19][23] The expression profiles of these transcription factors are driven by the transcription factors that peak in the prior phase, and computational models have shown that a CDK-autonomous network of these transcription factors is sufficient to produce steady-state oscillations in gene expression).[20][24]

text: Experimental evidence also suggests that gene expression can oscillate with the period seen in dividing wild-type cells independently of the CDK machinery. Orlando et al. used microarrays to measure the expression of a set of 1,271 genes that they identified as periodic in both wild type cells and cells lacking all S-phase and mitotic cyclins (clb1,2,3,4,5,6). Of the 1,271 genes assayed, 882 continued to be expressed in the cyclin-deficient cells at the same time as in the wild type cells, despite the fact that the cyclin-deficient cells arrest at the border between G1 and S phase. However, 833 of the genes assayed changed behavior between the wild type and mutant cells, indicating that these genes are likely directly or indirectly regulated by the CDK-cyclin machinery. Some genes that continued to be expressed on time in the mutant cells were also expressed at different levels in the mutant and wild type cells. These findings suggest that while the transcriptional network may oscillate independently of the CDK-cyclin oscillator, they are coupled in a manner that requires both to ensure the proper timing of cell cycle events.[20] Other work indicates that phosphorylation, a post-translational modification, of cell cycle transcription factors by Cdk1 may alter the localization or activity of the transcription factors in order to tightly control timing of target genes.[22][25][26]

text: While oscillatory transcription plays a key role in the progression of the yeast cell cycle, the CDK-cyclin machinery operates independently in the early embryonic cell cycle. Before the midblastula transition, zygotic transcription does not occur and all needed proteins, such as the B-type cyclins, are translated from maternally loaded mRNA.[27]

text: DNA replication and DNA replication origin activity[edit]

text: Analyses of synchronized cultures of Saccharomyces cerevisiae under conditions that prevent DNA replication initiation without delaying cell cycle progression showed that origin licensing decreases the expression of genes with origins near their 3' ends, revealing that downstream origins can regulate the expression of upstream genes.[28] This confirms previous predictions from mathematical modeling of a global causal coordination between DNA replication origin activity and mRNA expression,[29][30][31] and shows that mathematical modeling of DNA microarray data can be used to correctly predict previously unknown biological modes of regulation.

text: Checkpoints[edit]

text: Cell cycle checkpoints are used by the cell to monitor and regulate the progress of the cell cycle.[32] Checkpoints prevent cell cycle progression at specific points, allowing verification of necessary phase processes and repair of DNA damage. The cell cannot proceed to the next phase until checkpoint requirements have been met. Checkpoints typically consist of a network of regulatory proteins that monitor and dictate the progression of the cell through the different stages of the cell cycle.

text: There are several checkpoints to ensure that damaged or incomplete DNA is not passed on to daughter cells. Three main checkpoints exist: the G1/S checkpoint, the G2/M checkpoint and the metaphase (mitotic) checkpoint.

text: G1/S transition is a rate-limiting step in the cell cycle and is also known as restriction point.[14] This is where the cell checks whether it has enough raw materials to fully replicate its DNA (nucleotide bases, DNA synthase, chromatin, etc.). An unhealthy or malnourished cell will get stuck at this checkpoint.

text: The G2/M checkpoint is where the cell ensures that it has enough cytoplasm and phospholipids for two daughter cells. But sometimes more importantly, it checks to see if it is the right time to replicate. There are some situations where many cells need to all replicate simultaneously (for example, a growing embryo should have a symmetric cell distribution until it reaches the mid-blastula transition). This is done by controlling the G2/M checkpoint.

text: The metaphase checkpoint is a fairly minor checkpoint, in that once a cell is in metaphase, it has committed to undergoing mitosis. However that's not to say it isn't important. In this checkpoint, the cell checks to ensure that the spindle has formed and that all of the chromosomes are aligned at the spindle equator before anaphase begins.[33]

text: While these are the three "main" checkpoints, not all cells have to pass through each of these checkpoints in this order to replicate. Many types of cancer are caused by mutations that allow the cells to speed through the various checkpoints or even skip them altogether. Going from S to M to S phase almost consecutively. Because these cells have lost their checkpoints, any DNA mutations that may have occurred are disregarded and passed on to the daughter cells. This is one reason why cancer cells have a tendency to exponentially accrue mutations. Aside from cancer cells, many fully differentiated cell types no longer replicate so they leave the cell cycle and stay in G0 until their death. Thus removing the need for cellular checkpoints. An alternative model of the cell cycle response to DNA damage has also been proposed, known as the postreplication checkpoint.

text: Checkpoint regulation plays an important role in an organism's development. In sexual reproduction, when egg fertilization occurs, when the sperm binds to the egg, it releases signalling factors that notify the egg that it has been fertilized. Among other things, this induces the now fertilized oocyte to return from its previously dormant, G0, state back into the cell cycle and on to mitotic replication and division.

text: p53 plays an important role in triggering the control mechanisms at both G1/S and G2/M checkpoints. In addition to p53, checkpoint regulators are being heavily researched for their roles in cancer growth and proliferation.

text: Fluorescence imaging of the cell cycle[edit]

text: Pioneering work by Atsushi Miyawaki and coworkers developed the fluorescent ubiquitination-based cell cycle indicator (FUCCI), which enables fluorescence imaging of the cell cycle. Originally, a green fluorescent protein, mAG, was fused to hGem(1/110) and an orange fluorescent protein (mKO2) was fused to hCdt1(30/120). Note, these fusions are fragments that contain a nuclear localization signal and ubiquitination sites for degradation, but are not functional proteins. The green fluorescent protein is made during the S, G2, or M phase and degraded during the G0 or G1 phase, while the orange fluorescent protein is made during the G0 or G1 phase and destroyed during the S, G2, or M phase.[34] A far-red and near-infrared FUCCI was developed using a cyanobacteria-derived fluorescent protein (smURFP) and a bacteriophytochrome-derived fluorescent protein (movie found at this link).[35]

text: Role in tumor formation[edit]

text: A disregulation of the cell cycle components may lead to tumor formation.[36] As mentioned above, when some genes like the cell cycle inhibitors, RB, p53 etc. mutate, they may cause the cell to multiply uncontrollably, forming a tumor. Although the duration of cell cycle in tumor cells is equal to or longer than that of normal cell cycle, the proportion of cells that are in active cell division (versus quiescent cells in G0 phase) in tumors is much higher than that in normal tissue.[citation needed] Thus there is a net increase in cell number as the number of cells that die by apoptosis or senescence remains the same.

text: The cells which are actively undergoing cell cycle are targeted in cancer therapy as the DNA is relatively exposed during cell division and hence susceptible to damage by drugs or radiation. This fact is made use of in cancer treatment; by a process known as debulking, a significant mass of the tumor is removed which pushes a significant number of the remaining tumor cells from G0 to G1 phase (due to increased availability of nutrients, oxygen, growth factors etc.). Radiation or chemotherapy following the debulking procedure kills these cells which have newly entered the cell cycle.[14]

text: The fastest cycling mammalian cells in culture, crypt cells in the intestinal epithelium, have a cycle time as short as 9 to 10 hours. Stem cells in resting mouse skin may have a cycle time of more than 200 hours. Most of this difference is due to the varying length of G1, the most variable phase of the cycle. M and S do not vary much.

text: In general, cells are most radiosensitive in late M and G2 phases and most resistant in late S phase.

text: For cells with a longer cell cycle time and a significantly long G1 phase, there is a second peak of resistance late in G1.

text: The pattern of resistance and sensitivity correlates with the level of sulfhydryl compounds in the cell. Sulfhydryls are natural substances that protect cells from radiation damage and tend to be at their highest levels in S and at their lowest near mitosis.


document_title: Supreme Court of India

question_text: who appoints the judge of the supreme court of india

question_tokens: who appoints the judge of the supreme court of india

root

text: Supreme Court of India

text: History[edit]

text: In 1861 the Indian High Courts Act 1861 was enacted to create high courts for various provinces and abolished supreme courts at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay and also the sadar adalats in presidency towns which had acted as the highest court in their respective regions. These new high courts had the distinction of being the highest courts for all cases till the creation of Federal Court of India under the Government of India Act 1935. The Federal Court had jurisdiction to solve disputes between provinces and federal states and hear appeal against judgements of the high courts. The first CJI of India was H.J.Kania.[4]

tag: p

text: The Supreme Court of India came into being on 28 January 1950.[5] It replaced both the Federal Court of India and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council which were then at the apex of the Indian court system.

text: Supreme court initially had its seat at Chamber of Princes in the parliament building where the previous Federal Court of India sat from 1937 to 1950. The first Chief Justice of India was Sir H J Kania. In 1958, the supreme court moved to its present premises.[5] Originally, the Constitution of India envisaged a supreme court with a chief justice and seven judges; leaving it to parliament to increase this number.[6] In formative years, the supreme court met from 10 to 12 in the morning and then 2 to 4 in the afternoon for 28 days in a month.[7]

text: Court building architecture[edit]

text: The building is shaped to symbolize scales of justice with its centre-beam being the Central Wing of the building comprising the chief justice’s court, the largest of the courtrooms, with two court halls on either side. The Right Wing of the structure has the bar – room, the offices of the Attorney General of India and other law officers and the library of the court. The Left Wing has the offices of the court. In all, there are 15 courtrooms in the various wings of the building.[4][5][8]

text: The foundation stone of the supreme court's building was laid on 29 October 1954 by Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the first President of India. The main block of the building has been built on a triangular plot of 17 acres and has been designed in an Indo-British style by the chief architect Ganesh Bhikaji Deolalikar, the first Indian to head the Central Public Works Department.It has a 27.6 m (90 ft 7 in) high dome and a spacious colonnaded verandah. The Court moved into the building in 1958. In 1979, two new wings – the East Wing and the West Wing – were added to the complex. 1994 saw the last extension.[5]

text: Mother and Child Sculpture[edit]

text: On 20 February 1980, a black bronze sculpture of 210 cm (6 ft 11 in) height was installed in the lawn of the supreme court. It portrays Mother India in the form of the figure of a lady, sheltering the young Republic of India represented by the symbol of a child, who is upholding the laws of land symbolically shown in the form of an open book. On the book, a balance beam is shown, which represents dispensation of equal justice to all. The sculpture was made by the renowned artist Chintamoni Kar. The sculpture is just behind the statue of Mahatma Gandhi.

text: Seal[edit]

text: The design of the Court's seal is reproduced from the wheel that appears on the abacus of the Sarnath Lion capital of Asoka with 24 spokes. The inscription in Sanskrit, यतो धर्मस्ततो जयः (IAST: Yato Dharmastato Jayaḥ, means "whence law (dharma), thence victory". It is also referred to – as the wheel of righteousness, encompassing truth, goodness and equity.[4]

text: Constitution of the court[edit]

text: Registry[edit]

text: The registry of the supreme court is headed by the Secretary-General who is assisted by 8 registrars, several additional and deputy registrars, etc., with 1770 employees in all (221 gazetted officers, 805 non-gazetted and 744 Class IV employees)[9] Article 146 of the constitution deals with the appointments of officers and servants of the supreme court registry.[10][11]

text: Supreme court advocates[edit]

text: Supreme Court Rules, 2013 entitle only those advocates who are registered with the supreme court, called 'advocates-on-record' to appear, act and plead for a party in the court.[12] Those advocates who are designated as 'senior advocates' by the supreme court or any of the high courts can appear for clients along with an advocate-on-record. Any other advocate can appear for a party along with or under instructions from an advocate-on-record.

text: Composition[edit]

text: Size of the court[edit]

text: Initially the Constitution of India provided for a supreme court with a chief justice and 7 judges. In the early years, a full bench of the supreme court sat together to hear the cases presented before them. As the work of the Court increased and cases began to accumulate, parliament increased the number of judges from the original 8 in 1950 to 10 in 1956, 13 in 1960, 17 in 1977, 26 in 1986 and 31 in 2008 (current strength). As the number of the judges has increased, they sit in smaller benches of two or three (referred to as a division bench) [13]— coming together in larger benches of five or more (referred to as a constitution bench) when required to settle fundamental questions of law. A bench may refer a case before it to a larger bench, should the need arise.[14]

text: Eligibility of a judge of the Supreme Court[edit]

text: A citizen of India not exceeding 65 years age per Article 124 of the constitution who has been

text:
a judge of one high court or more (continuously), for at least five years, or
an advocate there, for at least ten years, or
a distinguished jurist, in the opinion of the president,power conferred by clause(2) of article 124 of the Constitution of India

tag: ul

text: is eligible to be recommended for appointment, a judge of the supreme court.[15]

text: Court demographics[edit]

text: I am proud to be an Indian. India is the only country where a member of the minority Parsi community with a  population of 1,67,000, like myself, can aspire to attain the post of the Chief Justice of India. These things do not happen in our neighbouring countries.

text: In practice, judges of the supreme court have been selected so far, mostly from amongst judges of the high courts. Barely seven justices — S. M. Sikri, S. Chandra Roy, Kuldip Singh, Santosh Hegde, R. F. Nariman, U. U. Lalit, L. Nageswara Rao and  Indu Malhotra— have been appointed to the supreme court directly from the bar (i.e. who were practising advocates).[18][19]

text: The supreme court saw its first woman judge when Justice M. Fathima Beevi was sworn into office in 1989.[20] The seventh and the most recent woman judge in the court is Justice Indu Malhotra.[21][22] In 1968, Justice Mohammad Hidayatullah became the first Muslim Chief Justice of India. In 2000, Justice K. G. Balakrishnan became the first judge from the dalit community. In 2007 he also became the first dalit Chief Justice of India. In 2010, Justice S. H. Kapadia coming from a Parsi minority community became the Chief Justice of India.[16][23] In 2017, Justice Jagdish Singh Khehar became the first Sikh Chief Justice of India. Indu Malhotra is the first women justice to be selected directly from bar.

text: Judicial independence[edit]

text: The constitution seeks to ensure the independence of supreme court judges in various ways. Per Article 50 of directive principles of state policy, the state shall take steps to separate the judiciary from the executive. Independence of the judiciary, the supremacy of the constitution and rule of law are the features of the basic structure of the constitution. Supreme court and high courts are empowered to frame suo moto cases without receiving the formal petitions/complaints on any suspected injustice including actions/acts indulging in contempt of court and contempt of the constitution by the executive, legislators, citizens, etc.[24] The main purpose of supreme court is to decide constitutional issues.[25] It is the duty of the judiciary to frame suo moto cases or to probe the cases/petitions at the earliest against the executive or legislature when laws are implemented violating the basic foundation and basic structure of the constitution as the Article 38 (1) of directive principles ensures that the state / judiciary shall strive to promote the welfare of the people by securing a social order in which social, economic and political justice is animated/informed in all institutions of life.[26]

text: Dr. Ambedkar clarified as given below in the Constituent Assembly debates on Article 38 (1) high lighting its inevitable implementation.

text: ... The word 'strive' which occurs in the Draft Constitution, in judgement, is very important. We have used it because our intention is even when there are circumstances which prevent the Government, or which stand in the way of the Government giving effect to these Directive Principles, they shall, even under hard and unpropitious circumstances, always strive in the fulfilment of these Directives. That is why we have used the word 'strive'. Otherwise, it would be open for any Government to say that the circumstances are so bad, that the finances are so inadequate that we cannot even make an effort in the direction in which the Constitution asks us to go.

text: Appointments and the Collegium[edit]

text: As per the constitution, as held by the court in the Three Judges Cases – (1982, 1993, 1998), a judge is appointed to the supreme court by the president on the recommendation of the collegium  — a closed group of the Chief Justice of India, the four most senior judges of the court and the senior-most judge hailing from the high court of a prospective appointee.[27] This has resulted in a Memorandum of Procedure being followed, for the appointments.

text: Judges used to be appointed by the President on the advice of the Union Cabinet. After 1993 (the Second judges' Case), no minister, or even the executive collectively, can suggest any names to the President,[28][29] who ultimately decides on appointing them from a list of names recommended only by the collegium of the judiciary. Simultaneously, as held in that judgment, the executive was given the power to reject a recommended name. However, according to some,[who?] the executive has not been diligent in using this power to reject the names of bad candidates recommended by the judiciary.[30][31][32]

text: The collegium system has come under a fair amount of criticism.[29] In 2015, the parliament passed a law to replace the collegium with a National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC). This was struck down as unconstitutional by the supreme court, in the Fourth judges' Case, as the new system would undermine the independence of the judiciary.[33] Putting the old system of the collegium back, the court invited suggestions, even from the general public, on how to improve the collegium system, broadly along the lines of — setting up an eligibility criteria for appointments, a permanent secretariat to help the collegium sift through material on potential candidates, infusing more transparency into the selection process, grievance redressal and any other suggestion not in these four categories, like transfer of judges.[34] This resulted in the court asking the government and the collegium to finalize the memorandum of procedure incorporating the above.[35]

text: Once, in 2009, the recommendation for the appointment of a judge of a high court made by the collegium of that court, had come to be challenged in the supreme court. The court held that who could become a judge was a matter of fact, and any person had a right to question it. But who should become a judge was a matter of opinion and could not be questioned. As long as an effective consultation took place within a collegium in arriving at that opinion, the content or material placed before it to form the opinion could not be called for scrutiny in court.[36]

text: Tenure[edit]

text: Supreme court judges retire at the age of 65. However, there have been suggestions from the judges of the Supreme Court of India to provide for a fixed term for the judges including the Chief Justice of India.[37]

text: Salary[edit]

text: Article 125 of the Indian constitution leaves it to the Indian parliament to determine the salary, other allowances, leave of absence, pension, etc. of the supreme court judges. However, the parliament cannot alter any of these privileges and rights to the judge's disadvantage after his/her appointment.[38] A judge of the supreme court draws a salary of ₹250,000 (US$3,600) per month, equivalent to the Cabinet Secretary of India, while the chief justice earns ₹280,000 (US$4,100) per month.[39]

text: Oath of affirmation[edit]

text: As Per Article 124 and third Schedule of the constitution, the chief justice (or a judge) of the Supreme Court of India is required to make and subscribe in the presence of the President an oath or affirmation that he/she

text: will bear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution of India as by law established, that I will uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India, that I will duly and faithfully and to the best of my ability, knowledge and judgement perform the duties of my office without fear or favour, affection or ill-will and that I will uphold the Constitution and the laws.

text: Removal[edit]

text: Per Article 124(4) of the constitution, President can remove a judge on proved misbehaviour or incapacity when parliament approves with a majority of the total membership of each house in favour of impeachment and not less than two thirds of the members of each house present. For initiating impeachment proceedings against a judge, at least 50 members of Rajya Sabha or 100 members of Lok Sabha shall issue the notice as per judges (inquiry) act,1968.[40] Then a judicial committee would be formed to frame charges against the judge, to conduct the fair trial and to submit its report to parliament. When the judicial committee report finds the judge guilty of misbehaviour or incapacity, further removal proceedings would be taken up by the parliament if the judge is not resigning himself.[41][42][43]

text: The judge upon proven guilty is also liable for punishment as per applicable laws or for contempt of the constitution by breaching the oath under disrespecting constitution[44]

text: Post-retirement[edit]

text: A Person who has retired as a judge of the supreme court is debarred from practicing in any court of law or before any other authority in India.

text: Review petition[edit]

text: Article 137 of the Constitution of India lays down provision for the power of the supreme court to review its own judgements. As per this Article, subject to the provisions of any law made by parliament or any rules made under Article 145, the supreme court shall have power to review any judgment pronounced or order made by it.[45]

text: Under Order XL of the supreme court Rules, that have been framed under its powers under Article 145 of the constitution, the supreme court may review its judgment or order but no application for review is to be entertained in a civil proceeding except on the grounds mentioned in Order XLVII, Rule 1 of the Code of Civil Procedure.

text: Powers to punish for contempt[edit]

text: Under Articles 129 and 142 of the constitution the supreme court has been vested with power to punish anyone for contempt of any court in India including itself. The supreme court performed an unprecedented action when it directed a sitting Minister of the state of Maharashtra, Swaroop Singh Naik,[46] to be jailed for 1-month on a charge of contempt of court on 12 May 2006. This was the first time that a serving Minister was ever jailed.[47][48]

text: Rules[edit]

text: The Constitution of India under Article 145 empowers the supreme court to frame its own rules for regulating the practice and procedure of the Court as and when required (with the approval of the President of India). Accordingly, "supreme court Rules, 1950" were framed. The 1950 Rules were replaced by the supreme court Rules, 1966.[49] In 2014, supreme court notified the supreme court Rules, 2013 replacing the 1966 Rules effective from 19 August 2014.[12]

text: Roster system[edit]

text: The supreme court decided to follow a new roster system from February 5, 2018 for allocation of matters to judges. Under the new roster system, the CJI will hear all special leave petitions (SLPs), and matters related to public interest, social justice, elections, arbitration, and criminal matters, among others. The other collegium/senior judges to hear matters related to labour disputes, taxation matters, compensation matters, consumer protection matters, maritime law matters, mortgage matters, personal law matters, family law matters, land acquisition matters, service matters, company matters etc.[50]

text: Reporting and citation[edit]

text: Supreme court Reports is the official journal of reportable supreme court decisions. It is published under the authority of the Supreme Court of India by the Controller of Publications, Government of India, Delhi.[51] In addition, there are many other reputed private journals that report supreme court decisions. Some of these other important journals are: SCR (The supreme court Reports), SCC(supreme court Cases), AIR (All India Reporter), SCALE, etc.

text: Right to Information[edit]

text: In the year 2010, the supreme court filed an appeal before itself challenging the judgement of the Delhi high court holding that the office of the chief justice of India came under the ambit of the RTI Act and was liable to reveal information under it.[52] Though the supreme court is in favour of bringing CJI office under RTI act, the judgement of the pending case is not yet pronounced.[53][54]

text: Facilities on the campus[edit]

text: Legal-aid,[55][56][57] court-fee vendors, first-aid post, dental clinic, physiotherapy unit and pathology lab; rail-reservation counter, canteen, post office and a branch and 3 ATMs of UCO Bank, supreme court Museum[9] can be availed by litigants and visitors.

text: Landmark judgments[edit]

text: Land reform[edit]

text: After some of the courts overturned state laws for redistributing land from zamindar (landlord) estates on the ground that the laws violated the zamindars' fundamental rights, the parliament passed the 1st amendment to the constitution in 1951, followed by the 4th amendment in 1955, to uphold its authority to redistribute land. The supreme court countered these amendments in 1967 when it ruled in Golaknath v. State of Punjab[58] that the parliament did not have the power to abrogate fundamental rights, including the provisions on private property. The 25th amendment to the constitution in 1971 curtailed the right of a citizen to property as a fundamental right and gave authority to the government to infringe private property, which led to a furor amongst the zamindars.

text: Emergency (1975–1977)[edit]

text: The independence of judiciary was severely curtailed[59] during the Indian Emergency (1975–1977) of Indira Gandhi. The constitutional rights of imprisoned persons were restricted under Preventive detention laws passed by the parliament. In the case of Shiva Kant Shukla Additional District Magistrate of Jabalpur v. Shiv Kant Shukla, popularly known as the Habeas Corpus case, a bench of five senior-most judges of supreme court ruled in favour of state's right for unrestricted powers of detention during the emergency. Justices A.N. Ray, P. N. Bhagwati, Y. V. Chandrachud, and M.H. Beg, stated in the majority decision:[60]

text: The only dissenting opinion was from Justice H. R. Khanna, who stated:

text: It is believed that before delivering his dissenting opinion, Justice Khanna had mentioned to his sister: "I have prepared my judgment, which is going to cost me the Chief Justice-ship of India."[61] In January 1977, Justice Khanna was superseded despite being the most senior judge at the time and thereby Government broke the convention of appointing only the senior most judge to the position of Chief Justice of India. Justice Khanna remains a legendary figure among the legal fraternity in India for this decision.

text: The New York Times, wrote of this opinion: "The submission of an independent judiciary to absolutist government is virtually the last step in the destruction of a democratic society; and the Indian supreme court's decision appears close to utter surrender."

text: During the emergency period, the government also passed the 39th amendment, which sought to limit judicial review for the election of the prime minister; only a body constituted by parliament could review this election.[62] Subsequently, the parliament, with most opposition members in jail during the emergency, passed the 42nd Amendment which prevented any court from reviewing any amendment to the constitution with the exception of procedural issues concerning ratification. A few years after the emergency, however, the supreme court rejected the absoluteness of the 42nd amendment and reaffirmed its power of judicial review in the Minerva Mills case (1980).

text: Post-1980: an assertive court[edit]

text: After Indira Gandhi lost elections in 1977, the new government of Morarji Desai, and especially law minister Shanti Bhushan (who had earlier argued for the detenues in the Habeas Corpus case), introduced a number of amendments making it more difficult to declare and sustain an emergency, and reinstated much of the power to the supreme court. It is said that the Basic Structure doctrine, created in Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala, was strengthened in Indira Gandhi's case and set in stone in Minerva Mills v. Union of India.[63]

text: The supreme court's creative and expansive interpretations of Article 21 (Life and Personal Liberty), primarily after the Emergency period, have given rise to a new jurisprudence of public interest litigation that has vigorously promoted many important economic and social rights (constitutionally protected but not enforceable) including, but not restricted to, the rights to free education, livelihood, a clean environment,[64] food and many others. Civil and political rights (traditionally protected in the Fundamental Rights chapter of the Indian constitution) have also been expanded and more fiercely protected. These new interpretations have opened the avenue for litigation on a number of important issues.

text: Recent important cases[edit]

text: Among the important pronouncements of the supreme court post 2000 is the Coelho case I.R. Coelho v. State of Tamil Nadu (Judgment of 11 January 2007). A unanimous bench of 9 judges reaffirmed the basic structure doctrine. It held that a constitutional amendment which entails violation of any fundamental rights which the Court regards as forming part of the basic structure of the constitution, then the same can be struck down depending upon its impact and consequences. The judgment clearly imposes further limitations on the constituent power of parliament with respect to the principles underlying certain fundamental rights. The judgment in Coelho has in effect restored the decision in Golak Nath regarding non-amendability of the constitution on account of infraction of fundamental rights, contrary to the judgment in the Kesavananda Bharati case.

text: Another important decision was of the five-judge bench in Ashoka Kumar Thakur v. Union of India; where the constitutional validity of Central Educational Institutions (Reservations in Admissions) Act, 2006 was upheld, subject to the "creamy layer" criteria. Importantly, the Court refused to follow the 'strict scrutiny' standards of review followed by the United States supreme court. At the same time, the Court has applied the strict scrutiny standards in Anuj Garg v. Hotel Association of India (2007) ([1])a

text: 2G spectrum case[edit]

text: The supreme court declared allotment of spectrum as "unconstitutional and arbitrary" and quashed all the 122 licenses issued in 2008 during tenure of A. Raja (then minister for communications & IT), the main official accused in the 2G case.[65]

text: Black money[edit]

text: The government refused to disclose details of about 18 Indians holding accounts in LGT Bank, Liechtenstein, evoking a sharp response from a bench comprising justices B Sudershan Reddy and S S Nijjar. The court ordered Special investigation team (SIT) to probe the matter.[66][67] Lack of enthusiasm made the court create a special investigative team (SIT).[68]

text: Minority reservations[edit]

text: The supreme court refused to stay the Andhra Pradesh High Court judgement quashing 4.5% sub-quota for minorities under OBC reservation quota of 27%.[69]

text: Online/postal ballot for Indian citizen living abroad (NRIs)[edit]

text: Three judge bench presided by chief justice, Justice Altamas Kabir issued notice to the Centre and the Election Commission of India (EC) on the PIL filed by a group of NRIs for online/postal ballot for the Indian citizens living abroad.[70][71]

text: T. S. R. Subramanian vs. Union of India[edit]

text: While hearing T.S.R. Subramanian vs Union of India, a division bench of the supreme court ruled that—

text:
Officers of the Indian Administrative Service (IAS), officers other All India Services, and other civil servants not required to follow oral instructions, as they 'undermine credibility'.[72][73][74][75]
Civil Services Board (CSB), headed by the Cabinet Secretary at national level, and Chief Secretary at state level, be set up to recommend transfer/postings of the officers of the All India Services (IAS, IFoS and IPS).[76][77][78][79]
Transfers of Group 'B' officers to be done by Head of Department (HoDs).[80][81]
No interference of Ministers in state, other than the Chief Minister, in transfer/postings of civil servants.[80][81]

text: These rulings were received mostly positively, and were termed as a 'major reform'.[73][75][76][82][83]

text: Recognition of transgender as 'third gender' in law[edit]

text: In April 2014, Justice K. S. Radhakrishnan declared transgender to be the 'third gender' in Indian law, in the case, National Legal Services Authority v. Union of India.[84][85][86] The ruling said:[87]

text:
Seldom, our society realises or cares to realise the trauma, agony and pain which the members of Transgender community undergo, nor appreciates the innate feelings of the members of the Transgender community, especially of those whose mind and body disown their biological sex. Our society often ridicules and abuses the Transgender community and in public places like railway stations, bus stands, schools, workplaces, malls, theatres,
hospitals, they are sidelined and treated as untouchables, forgetting the fact that the moral failure lies in the society's unwillingness to contain or embrace different gender identities and expressions, a mindset which we have to change.

text: Justice Radhakrishnan said that transgender people should be treated consistently with other minorities under the law, enabling them to access jobs, healthcare and education.[88] He framed the issue as one of human rights, saying that, "These TGs, even though insignificant in numbers, are still human beings and therefore they have every right to enjoy their human rights", concluding by declaring that:[87]

text:
(1) Hijras, eunuchs, apart from binary gender, be treated as "third gender" for the purpose of safeguarding their
rights under Part III of our constitution and the laws made by the parliament and the State Legislature.

text: (2) Transgender persons' right to decide their self-identified gender is also upheld and the Centre and State Governments are directed to grant legal recognition of their gender identity such as male, female or as third gender.

text: Relief to over 35,000 public servants[edit]

text: In B.Prabhakara Rao vs. State of A.P. involved sudden reduction in age of superannuation from 58 years to 55 years of over 35,000 public servants of State Government, public sector undertakings, statutory bodies, educational institutions and Tirupathi-Tirumalai Devasthanams (TTD). They lost first round of litigation in the supreme court. Realising the mistake, fresh legislation was brought restoring the original age of superannuation of 58 years but providing that the benefit of new legislation would not extend to those whose reduction of age of superannuation had been upheld. In challenge to this law, Subodh Markandeya argued that all that was required was to strike down naughty “not” – which found favour with the supreme court bringing relief to over 35,000 public servants.

text: Criticism[edit]

text: Corruption[edit]

text: The year 2008 saw the supreme court embroiled in several controversies, from serious allegations of corruption at the highest level of the judiciary,[89] expensive private holidays at the tax payers expense,[90] refusal to divulge details of judges' assets to the public,[91] secrecy in the appointments of judges',[92] to refusal to make information public under the Right to Information Act.[93] The chief justice K. G. Balakrishnan invited a lot of criticism for his comments on his post not being that of a public servant, but that of a constitutional authority.[94] He later went back on this stand.[95] The judiciary has come in for serious criticisms from former presidents Pratibha Patil and A. P. J. Abdul Kalam for failure in handling its duties.[96] Former prime minister Manmohan Singh, has stated that corruption is one of the major challenges facing the judiciary, and suggested that there is an urgent need to eradicate this menace.[97]

text: The Cabinet Secretary of India introduced the judges Inquiry (Amendment) Bill 2008 in parliament for setting up of a panel called the National Judicial Council, headed by the Chief Justice of India, that will probe into allegations of corruption and misconduct by High Court and supreme court judges.[98][99]

text: Pending cases[edit]

text: According to supreme court newsletter, there are 58,519 cases pending in the supreme court, out of which 37,385 are pending for more than a year, at the end of 2011. Excluding connected cases, there are still 33,892 pending cases.[100] As per the latest pendency data made available by the supreme court, the total number of pending cases in the supreme court as on 1 November 2017 is 55,259 which includes 32,160 admission matters (miscellaneous) and 23,099 regular hearing matters.[101] In May, 2014, former Chief Justice of India, Justice R.M. Lodha, proposed to make Indian judiciary work throughout the year (instead of the present system of having long vacations, specially in the higher courts) in order to reduce pendency of cases in Indian courts; however, as per this proposal there is not going to be any increase in the number of working days or working hours of any of the judges and it only meant that different judges would be going on vacation during different periods of the year as per their choice; but, the Bar Council of India rejected this proposal mainly because it would have inconvenienced the advocates who would have to work throughout the year.[102] More over, various time frames specified in 'code of civil procedure' are also diluted by supreme court judgements to give the courts right to endlessly adjourn the cases.[103][104]

text: Rule of law[edit]

text: Supreme court has not taken up the trail of many pending cases, since April 2014 (more than three years), challenging the validity of the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 which was enacted by the parliament without following the stipulated procedure in the constitution and is claimed detrimental to the basic foundation of the constitution on which the basic structure of the constitution is resting.[105] The basic foundation of the constitution is the dignity and the freedom of its citizens which is of supreme importance and can not be destroyed by any legislation of the parliament.[106] Whereas the fair trial to examine the validity of the ninety-ninth constitutional amendment dated 31 December 2014, to form National Judicial Appointments Commission for the purpose of appointing the judges of the supreme court and high courts, was conducted on utmost priority and supreme court delivered its judgement on 16 October 2015 (within a year) quashing the constitutional amendment as unconstitutional and ultra virus stating the said amendment is interfering with the independence of the judiciary.[107] Disposal of the various petitions filed against Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 is also equally important as it has alienated the basic rights of a vast section of Indian citizens and also against federal character of the constitution which is part of the basic structure of the constitution. Supreme court is also wasting its valuable time by not taking up the case in toto but conducted a piecemeal trail by delivering its judgement to dispose the petitions related with apportionment of assets between the newly formed states Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.[108] Supreme court is also conducting piecemeal trail of the petitions filed by the states regarding water sharing of rivers and bifurcation of the common high court without considering the earlier pending petitions challenging the validity of the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 which is the basic cause of all these disputes.[109][110] Under checks and balances as provided in the constitution, it is the duty of the judiciary/supreme court to establish the rule of law at the earliest by rectifying any misuse of the constitution by the parliament and the executive without colluding with them and to remove perceptions of people that rule of law is side lined and a section of its citizens are subjected to discrimination.[111][112]

text: Four judges vs chief justice[edit]

text: On 12 January 2018, four senior judges of the supreme court; Jasti Chelameswar, Ranjan Gogoi, Madan Lokur and Kurian Joseph addressed a press conference criticizing Chief Justice Dipak Misra's style of administration and the manner in which he allocated cases among judges of the supreme court. However, people close to Misra refuted the allegations that allocation of cases was unfair.[113] On 20 April 2018, seven opposition parties submitted a petition seeking impeachment of Dipak Misra to the Vice President Venkaiah Naidu, with signatures from seventy-one parliamentarians.[114] On 23 April 2018, the petition was rejected by Vice President Venkaiah Naidu, primarily on the basis that the complaints were about administration and not misbehaviour, and that thus impeachment would seriously interfere with the constitutionally protected independence of the judiciary.[115][116][117]


document_title: Didn't We Almost Have It All?

question_text: why did burke leave yang at the altar

question_tokens: why did burke leave yang at the altar

text: Didn't We Almost Have It All?

text: Plot[edit]

text:
The episode opens to a voice-over narrative from Richard Webber (James Pickens, Jr.).
Addison gets to the ER with the woman from the bar, the previous episode. Burke starts treating her and decides that the babies must be born. Joe and Walter adopt them. Derek, Mark and Bailey start treating the climber. The other climbers eventually talk to the police. Cristina tries to write her vows. Callie writes them on Cristina's hand. At work, Cristina discovers that the wedding has given her the day off. Jeff Pope arrives and hugs Rebecca. Alex asks Jeff why he didn't search for his wife before. Rebecca wants Alex, but he tells her to stay with her 'decent guy'. Derek tells Meredith that he met a girl in the bar. Meredith seems confused. Meanwhile, Adele has a miscarriage, revealing Richard was the father. Mama Burke forces Cristina to remove her eyebrows; she panics and convinces Bailey to let her scrub in. Bailey agrees, having found out that Callie is the new chief resident. Derek removes the axe from the fourth climber while Burke treats the new babies. Callie and George agree to have children, but Izzie tells George she's in love with him. The interns receive their test results. George hides the fact that he didn't pass. Derek feels Meredith is taking him for granted. She evades responding and goes to the chapel. Mark, Addison and Burke are rejected as Chief candidates. At the chapel, Burke finds out Derek is not the new Chief, though Derek doesn't explain. Addison tells Alex to fight for Rebecca. Outside SGH, Bailey and George talk. She thinks that she failed him, but he says: "I failed you". Alex decides to find Rebecca. Callie tells Izzie she is planning to have a baby; Izzie is stunned. Cristina realizes that she washed her vows off when she scrubbed in, and freaks out. Meredith convinces her to go on. Burke sees the delay and calls off the wedding, feeling he has forced her to change. He walks away. Meredith tells everybody that it is over. She looks at Derek, and leaves the Chapel. Cristina arrives at Burke's apartment. He's gone. Cristina starts shaking uncontrollably and crying. To calm her down, Meredith squeezes and hugs her. George runs into the new interns, and meets Lexie Grey, Meredith's half sister. Richard tells Derek he is the new Chief, but Derek suggests he start over. We see the Chief looking over the Hospital.

text: Production[edit]

text: After an off-screen incident, in which Isaiah Washington aimed a homophobic slur at gay actor T.R. Knight, ABC chose not to renew Washington's contract, making "Didn't We Almost Have It All?" his final appearance to the series.[1] It was also the last episode to feature Chyler Leigh as a guest star, since she was promoted to star billing in the season four premiere[2] and Kate Walsh's last regular episode as she would only make guest appearances in the future, due to her being a main character on the Grey's Anatomy spin-off Private Practice.

text: The wedding scenes were filmed at the First Baptist Church of Los Angeles.[3] Kenneth Pool designed the Amsale wedding dress worn by Cristina.[4]

text: Music[edit]

text:
"Roboxula" - The Jealous Girlfriends
"Falling Or Flying" - Grace Potter
"Hold You In My Arms" - Ray Lamontagne
"Closer" - Coburn
"Within You" - Ray Lamontagne
"Eulogy" - The Hereafter
"Explosions" - The Mary Onettes
"Keep Breathing" - Ingrid Michaelson

text: Reception[edit]

text: Maureen Ryan from the Chicago Tribune wrote that the episode was "as overstuffed as a clown car at the circus." She added: "That finale was just too much for me. Too much padding, too much repetition, too many characters forced into ridiculous situations", citing as example Adele Webber's pregnancy at 52. She criticized Shepherd for being arrogant and condescending.[5] Salon.com's TV critic Heather Havrilesky found that Shepherd's threat to break up with Grey came in a bad timing after what she went through during the season and wondered why he did not so when she questioned their relationship. She then wrote: "Grey’s Anatomy has countless charms — snappy yet moving dialogue, nice-looking humans, fast-moving story lines. But lately one of those strengths — those hurtling plotlines — seems to be killing creator Shonda Rhimes’ golden goose." Havrilesky cited Sandra Oh as one of the episode's highlight deeming her "fantastic" and "believable", and named the moment when Yang goes home to find Burke and breaks down the best scene of the finale.[6]

text: Writing for Entertainment Weekly, Gregory Kirschling thought that "as a finale, maybe the show lacked a defining happy, warm-gooseflesh moment" but that in comparison to normal episodes, this one was "well above average". To him, Shepherd's speech to Grey before the start of the wedding was the highlight of the episode, explaining he likes to see "these two flailing hot people — he soft, she hard — trade well-turned TV wooing dialogue. It still works; it's still romantic." However, he considered what followed, Grey's non-response, not romantic and though he likes their goo-goo courtship scenes together, he wrote it was time for them to be happy together. Kirschling criticized the choice of Torres as Chief of residents instead of Bailey. He praised Oh's performance in the episode, especially during Burke's dumping speech calling it "so affecting" and in her last scene, which he described as "an amazing breakdown".[7] Commenting on the finale, Andy Dehnart of MSNBC wrote that the stories were completed "in mostly unsatisfying, occasionally depressing, and sometimes illogical ways that will leave the show decidedly changed."[8]


document_title: Blood proteins

question_text: about 7 of plasma is made up of proteins. the most abundant of these plasma proteins is

question_tokens: about 7 of plasma is made up of proteins . the most abundant of these plasma proteins is

text: Blood proteins

text: Blood proteins, also termed plasma proteins or serum proteins, are proteins present in blood plasma. They serve many different functions, including transport of lipids, hormones, vitamins and minerals in activity and functioning of the immune system. Other blood proteins act as enzymes, complement components, protease inhibitors or kinin precursors. Contrary to popular belief, haemoglobin is not a blood protein, as it is carried within red blood cells, rather than in the blood serum.

text: Serum albumin accounts for 55% of blood proteins, and is a major contributor to maintaining the osmotic pressure of plasma to assist in the transport of lipids and steroid hormones. Globulins make up 38% of blood proteins and transport ions, hormones, and lipids assisting in immune function. Fibrinogen comprises 7% of blood proteins; conversion of fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin is essential for blood clotting. The remainder of the plasma proteins (1%) are regulatory proteins, such as enzymes, proenzymes, and hormones. All blood proteins are synthesized in liver except for the gamma globulins.

text: Separating serum proteins by electrophoresis is a valuable diagnostic tool as well as a way to monitor clinical progress. Current research regarding blood plasma proteins is centered on performing proteomics analyses of serum/plasma in the search for biomarkers. These efforts started with two-dimensional gel electrophoresis[1] efforts in the 1970s and in more recent times this research has been performed using LC-tandem MS[2][3][4] based proteomics. The normal laboratory value of serum total protein is around 7 g/dL.

text: Families of blood proteins[edit]

text:
Blood protein
Normal level
 %
Function

Albumins
3.5-5.0 g/dl[citation needed]
55%
create and maintain oncotic pressure; transport insoluble molecules

Globulins
2.0-2.5 g/dl[citation needed]
38%
participate in immune system

Fibrinogen
0.2-0.45 g/dl[citation needed]
7%
Blood coagulation

Regulatory proteins

<1%[citation needed]
Regulation of gene expression

Clotting factors

<1%[citation needed]
Conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin

tag: table

text: Examples of specific blood proteins:

text:
Prealbumin (transthyretin)
Alpha 1 antitrypsin (neutralizes trypsin that has leaked from the digestive system)
Alpha 1 acid glycoprotein
Alpha 1 fetoprotein
alpha2-macroglobulin
Gamma globulins
Beta-2 microglobulin
Haptoglobin
Ceruloplasmin
Complement component 3
Complement component 4
C-reactive protein (CRP)
Lipoproteins (chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL, HDL)
Transferrin
Prothrombin
MBL or MBP

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Anderson NL, Anderson NG (1977). "High Resolution Two-Dimensional Electrophoresis of Human Plasma Proteins". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 74 (12): 5421–5425. doi:10.1073/pnas.74.12.5421. PMC 431746 . PMID 271964.
Jump up ^ Adkins JN; et al. (2002). "Toward a human blood serum proteome: analysis by multidimensional separation coupled with mass spectrometry". Molecular & Cellular Proteomics. 1 (12): 947–955. doi:10.1074/mcp.M200066-MCP200. PMID 12543931.
Jump up ^ Malmström, E; Kilsgård, O; Hauri, S; Smeds, E; Herwald, H; Malmström, L; Malmström, J (January 2016). "Large-scale inference of protein tissue origin in gram-positive sepsis plasma using quantitative targeted proteomics". Nat Commun. 7. doi:10.1038/ncomms10261. PMID 26732734.
Jump up ^ Geyer, PE; Kulak, NA; Pichler, G; Holdt, LM; Teupser, D; Mann, M (March 2016). "Plasma Proteome Profiling to Assess Human Health and Disease". Cell Syst. 2 (3): 185–95. doi:10.1016/j.cels.2016.02.015. PMID 27135364.

tag: ol


document_title: Public holidays in Puerto Rico

question_text: when is independence day celebrated in puerto rico

text: Public holidays in Puerto Rico

text: Official public holidays[edit]

text: Official public holidays are those recognized by the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico government. All public offices must close. Many businesses also elect to close. These public holidays include both federal and commonwealth-established holidays, since Puerto Rico recognizes all U.S. federal holidays.

text:
Date
English name
Local name (in Spanish)
Remarks

January 1
New Year's Day
Día de Año Nuevo
As in most countries, this holiday is celebrated with gatherings and fireworks. Although illegal, celebratory gunfire has sometimes led to injuries and even deaths on certain occasions.[4]

January 6
Three Kings Day/
Epiphany
Día de Reyes
This is a Commonwealth of Puerto Rico official holiday, as well as a religious holiday. It celebrates the Three Wise Men's visit to see the newborn Christ by exchanging gifts. Traditionally, children stack bundles of hay in boxes under their beds for each Wise Man's camel, to then find their boxes exchanged for gifts.[5]

Second Monday in January
Birthday of Eugenio María de Hostos
Natalicio de Eugenio María de Hostos
This is a Commonwealth of Puerto Rico official holiday. In recent years it has been celebrated on the 2nd Monday of January. Eugenio María de Hostos (1839–1903) was a writer and statesman who struggled for Puerto Rican independence and the end to slavery in the late 19th century.

Third Monday in January
Martin Luther King, Jr. Day
Natalicio de Martin Luther King, Jr.
A federal and commonwealth official holiday.

Third Monday in February
Presidents' Day, Washington's Birthday
Día de los Presidentes
Natalicio de Washington

A federal and commonwealth official holiday.

February 18
Birthday of Luis Muñoz Marín
Natalicio de Luis Muñoz Marín
Luis Muñoz Marín (1898–1980), was the first democratically elected governor of Puerto Rico. He founded the Partido Popular Democrático and was instrumental in establishing the Commonwealth status in 1952. He was a noted journalist and poet, and served four terms as governor. His birthday is now celebrated concurrently with Washington and Lincoln.

March 22
Emancipation Day
Día de la Abolición de Esclavitud
A Commonwealth of Puerto Rico official holiday. Slavery was abolished in Puerto Rico in 1873 while the Island was still a colony of Spain.

Friday in late March or early April
Good Friday
Viernes Santo
An official public holiday and a religious holiday; see notes below in the religious holidays section.

April 16
Birthday of José de Diego
Natalicio de José de Diego
A Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (ELA) official holiday. José de Diego (1867–1918) was a much-loved poet and political leader. In recent years, the holiday has been celebrated on the third Monday of April.

Last Monday of May
Memorial Day
Recordación de los Muertos de la Guerra
A federal and commonwealth official holiday.

July 4
Independence Day
Día de la Independencia de los Estados Unidos
Día de la Independencia
A federal and commonwealth official holiday.

Third Monday of July
Birthday of Don Luis Muñoz Rivera
Natalicio de Don Luis Muñoz Rivera
A Commonwealth of Puerto Rico holiday, celebrated in recent years on the 4th of July. Don Luis Muñoz Rivera (1859–1916) was a prominent journalist, poet, and politician who advocated independence from Spain and later, the United States. His son Luis Muñoz Marín was the first democratically elected governor of Puerto Rico.

July 25
Puerto Rico Constitution Day
Constitución de Puerto Rico
An official Commonwealth of Puerto Rico holiday. See also Constitution of Puerto Rico. Formerly called Occupation Day, commemorating the anniversary of the landing of American troops at Guánica in 1898.

July 27
Birthday of Dr. José Celso Barbosa
Natalicio de Dr. José Celso Barbosa
Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (ELA) holiday. Dr. José Celso Barbosa (1857–1921) was a medical doctor and an early advocate of statehood, founder of the Republican Party on the Island.

First Monday in September
Labor Day
Día del Trabajo
A federal and commonwealth official holiday.

Second Monday in October
Columbus Day
Día de la Raza
Descubrimiento de América
A federal and commonwealth official holiday.

November 11
Veterans Day
Día del Veterano
Día del Armisticio
A federal and commonwealth official holiday, usually observed at the Puerto Rico National Cemetery.

November 19
Discovery of Puerto Rico
Día del Descubrimiento de Puerto Rico
A Commonwealth of Puerto Rico official holiday. Christopher Columbus (Don Cristóbal Colón) landed on the northwest coast of Puerto Rico near Aguada on his second voyage to the New World in 1493.

Fourth Thursday in November
Thanksgiving Day
Acción de Gracias
Día de Acción de Gracias

A federal and commonwealth official holiday. It marks the beginning of the Holiday (Christmas) season.

December 24
Christmas Eve
Noche Buena
Nochebuena
A Commonwealth of Puerto Rico official holiday,[citation needed] sometimes only a half-day of work

December 25
Christmas
Día de Navidad
Navidad
Nacimiento del niñito Jesús
Día del niño Jesús

During Spanish colonial rule (1492 to 1898),"Navidad" (Christmas in English), marked the Christian ecumenical celebration date of the birth of Jesus of Nazareth. Is not until the development of the commercialization of Christmas, product of the subsequent American colonial rule, that "Navidad" becomes the delivery day for Santa Claus. As in the United States, Santa Claus leaves Christmas presents under the "Arbolito" Christmas tree. This has replaced in large part, but not entirely, the gift giving custom of Puerto Ricans in Three Kings Day. No other country celebrates a holiday for so long. Many countries celebrate Christmas for a couple of days, or as long as four or five. In Puerto Rico, however, the celebration starts after Thanksgiving and ends in the third week of January, on the last day of the St. Sebastian Street Festival in Old San Juan.

text: Religious holidays[edit]

text:
Date
English name
Local name (in Spanish)
Remarks

January 5
Eve of Epiphany
Víspera de los Tres Reyes Magos
Puerto Rican children leave a box with grass for the camels of the Three Wise Men and a glass of water for the magos themselves.

January 6
Three Kings Day
Epiphanys
Twelfth Night

Día de los Tres Reyes Magos
Children find that the camels ate the grass and the Three Kings drank the water left for them the day before. Traditionally the Kings leave presents under the children's beds.

the week before Ash Wednesday
Carnival
Carnaval
Like other Catholic cultures (Brazil, Trinidad, Louisiana), the solemn 40 days of Lent are preceded in Puerto Rico by a massive blow-out with elaborate costumes and parades. In the city of Ponce, in particular, Carnival time means characters in the streets wearing incredible horned-devil masks, called vejigantes.

First day of Lent
Ash Wednesday
Miércoles de Ceniza
Devout Roman Catholics abstain from eating meat or poultry on this day. Many attend church services.

Sunday before Easter Sunday
Palm Sunday
Domingo de Ramas

Palm Sunday through Easter
Holy Week
Semana Santa
Most schools, colleges, and universities give the complete week as a recess to students.

Friday before Easter
Good Friday
Viernes Santo
This is the most solemn day of the whole year on the island. All businesses close.

Easter
Easter
Domingo de la Resurrección
Domingo de Pascuas

June 24
Saint John's Day
Día de San Juan Bautista
Fiestas de San Juan

Since John the Baptist is the patron saint of the Island and the namesake of the capital city (San Juan), his day is widely celebrated by big parties on the beaches on the Eve of St. John's Day (June 23). One tradition is to walk backward into the ocean and fall in 12 times at midnight on the beginning of the 24th.

December 24
Christmas Eve
Nochebuena
Día de Nochebuena

Christmas traditions in Puerto Rico include a large supper with families and friends on Christmas Eve, and the Midnight Mass or misa de gallo. Anytime during las navidades neighbors and friends make a parranda or asalto, going from house to house singing Puerto Rican Christmas carols. Once everything has been eaten and drunk, the erstwhile 'host' joins the trulla and they all go to somebody else's house to eat and drink.

December 28
Day of the Innocents, Festival of the Masks
Día de los Innocentes
Día de las Máscaras en Hatillo

A Christmas season tradition in the town on Hatillo on the north coast. Similar to Mardi Gras "crewes" in Louisiana, teams of friends completely cover cars, trucks, and floats with elaborate frilly decorations, and wearing head-to-toe costumes, while cruising the country roads, and playing practical jokes along the way. There is a not-to-be missed half-day long parade, full of loud noise and brilliant colors. The tricksters commemorate Herod's soldiers and the slaughter of the innocents in Bethlehem.

text: Puerto Rico portal


document_title: Breakfast of Champions

question_text: where did the phrase breakfast of champions come from

text: Breakfast of Champions

text: Plot summary[edit]

text: Kilgore Trout is a widely published, but otherwise unsung and virtually invisible writer who is invited to deliver a keynote address at a local arts festival in distant Midland City. Dwayne Hoover is a wealthy businessman who owns much of Midland City, but has become increasingly unstable mentally. The novel is achronological and frequently shifts focus between Hoover and Trout, as well as supporting characters like Hoover's son, Bunny, and Wayne Hoobler, and Kurt Vonnegut himself, who appears as the author of the book. "The novel's structure is a simple one, yet it employs simultaneously evolving plots from different times and spaces."[1] Early on, Vonnegut as narrator/creator says he's going to purge himself of mental clutter, and, throughout the novel, can be found examining and refuting disparate concepts, from the 'discovery' of the new world in 1492 to euphemisms for genitalia.[1]

text: When Kilgore finally arrives in Midland City he piques the interest of Dwayne. A confused Dwayne demands a message from Kilgore, who hands over a copy of his novel. Dwayne reads the novel, which purports to be a message from the Creator of the Universe explaining that the reader – in this case Dwayne – is the only individual in the universe with free will. Everyone else is a robot. Dwayne believes the novel to be factual and immediately goes on a violent rampage, severely beating his son, his lover, and nine other people before being taken into custody. While Kilgore is walking the streets of Midland after Dwayne's rampage the narrator of the book approaches Kilgore. The narrator tells Kilgore of his existence, and lets Kilgore be free and under his own will. Kilgore begs to be made young again, and the novel ends with a full-page drawing of Vonnegut crying.

text: Major themes[edit]

text: Suicide, free will, mental illness, and social and economic cruelty are dealt with throughout the novel. In the preface, Vonnegut states that he tends "to think of human beings as huge, rubbery test tubes, too, with chemical reactions seething inside." As with Slaughterhouse-Five (1969) and The Sirens of Titan (1959), the nature of free will is called into question, in this case by considering mankind as biological machines, and physical measurements of characters are often given when they are introduced. He attributes the mental illness of Dwayne Hoover and society at large to an abundance of "bad chemicals" in the brain which, when combined with bad ideas, formed "the Yin and Yang of madness." This idea, that humans are no more than machines, is contained within the novel Kilgore Trout gives to Dwayne Hoover. Both Trout and Vonnegut realize the power of bad ideas, with Vonnegut remarking how "natural it was for [people] to behave so abominably, and with such abominable results: They were doing their best to live like people invented in story books. This was the reason Americans shot each other so often: it was a convenient literary device for ending short stories and books." The view of humans as biological machines, initially accepted by Vonnegut, is counteracted by Rabo Karabekian, the abstract artist who suggests "Our awareness is all that is alive and maybe sacred in any of us. Everything else about us is dead machinery."

text: The novel is critical of American society and its treatment of its citizens, many of which Vonnegut writes "were so ignored and cheated and insulted that they thought they might be in the wrong country." He focuses largely on race, the poor, and the destruction of the environment, criticizing the hypocrisy of a land that claims to be based on the principles of freedom having been founded by people who "used human beings for machinery, and, even after slavery was eliminated, because it was so embarrassing, they and their descendants continued to think of ordinary human beings as machines." The incidents in the life of Wayne Hoobler, a black resident of Midland City, are frequently contrasted with those of the similarly named Dwayne Hoover, emphasizing the aforementioned impact of race.

text: Style[edit]

text: The novel is simple in syntax and sentence structure, part of Vonnegut's signature style. Likewise, irony, sentimentality, black humor, and didacticism, are prevalent throughout the work.[2] Like much of his oeuvre, Breakfast of Champions is broken into very small pieces, in this case separated by three dots. Vonnegut himself has claimed that his books "are essentially mosaics made up of a whole bunch of tiny little chips...and each chip is a joke."[3] Characteristically, he makes heavy use of repetition, in this case starting many sections with "Listen" and ending many with "And so on."[4]

text: The novel is full of drawings by the author, intending to illustrate various aspects of life on Earth, are sometimes pertinent to the story line and sometimes tangential. They include renderings of an anus, flags, the date 1492, a beaver, a vulva, a flamingo, little girls' underpants, a torch, headstones, the yin-yang symbol, guns, trucks, cows and the hamburgers that are made from them, chickens and the Kentucky Fried Chicken that is made from them, an electric chair, the letters ETC, Christmas cards, a right hand that has a severed ring finger, the chemical structure of a plastic molecule, an apple, pi, zero, infinity, and the sunglasses the author himself wears as he enters the storyline.

text: Breakfast of Champions makes heavy use of metafiction, with Vonnegut appearing as the narrator/creator of the work, explaining why and how he makes this world as it is, changing things when and as he sees fit, and even being surprised by events.

text: The novel also makes use of intertextuality with Vonnegut's other works. In addition to Kilgore Trout, characters from other Vonnegut books which appear here include Eliot Rosewater and Rabo Karabekian. Rosewater was the main character in God Bless You, Mr. Rosewater (1965) and a minor character in Slaughterhouse-Five (1969), while Karabekian later became the main character in Bluebeard (1988). Hoover's secretary, Francine Pefko, previously appeared in Cat's Cradle (1963), where she performed secretarial duties at General Forge and Foundry, in Ilium, New York. (Pefko also appears in "Fubar," a story released posthumously in Look at the Birdie.) Vonnegut uses the name "Khashdrahr Miasma" for a minor character, in reference to a character in Player Piano. The vicious guard dog, Kazak, was Winston Niles Rumfoord's pet in The Sirens of Titan (1959) and Selena MacIntosh's guide dog in Galápagos (1985). Many of Midland City's inhabitants reappear in Deadeye Dick (1982), which locates the city in Ohio.

text: Background[edit]

text: Title[edit]

text: The title, taken from the well-known slogan for Wheaties breakfast cereal, crops up in a key scene late in the novel when a waitress, apparently ironically, says "Breakfast of Champions" each time she serves a customer a martini. Vonnegut, in his typical ironic manner, mocks the legal and copyright systems as he notes meticulously that Breakfast of Champions is a registered trademark of General Mills, Inc. for its breakfast cereal products, and that his use of the term is not "intended to disparage their fine products."

text: Vonnegut refers to himself as "Philboyd Studge" in the preface, a name which he claims his friend Knox Burger associated with cumbersome writing. The name appears to have been borrowed from a short story by Edwardian satirist Saki. ("Filboid Studge, the Story of the Mouse that Helped", describes the success of the eponymous breakfast food through bizarrely counter-intuitive advertising.)

text: Doubts about publication[edit]

text: According to an article in the New York Times Magazine in January 1971, "Vonnegut says repeatedly he is through writing novels... After Slaughterhouse-Five, Vonnegut began work on a novel called Breakfast of Champions, about a world in which everyone but a single man, the narrator, is a robot. He gave it up, however, and it remains unfinished. I asked him why, and he said, 'Because it was a piece of ----." This view persisted, with Harlan Ellison claiming that Vonnegut's submission in the 1972 short-story anthology Again, Dangerous Visions, would be "the last new piece of fiction you will ever read by Kurt Vonnegut, Jr."[5] After the publication of Breakfast of Champions, Vonnegut stopped publishing short stories, and many believed he had given up writing altogether, with the New York Times book review stating

text: Vonnegut's persona gives up fiction before our very eyes. . . . When he self-destructs himself as a novelist by first warning us in the middle of his book that 'Once I understood what was making America such a dangerous, unhappy nation of people who had nothing to do with real life, I resolved to shun story-telling.'[6]

text: In the preface, Vonnegut states that as he reached his fiftieth birthday he felt a need to "clear his head of all the junk in there"—which includes the various subjects of his drawings, and the characters from his past novels and stories. To this end, he sprinkles plot descriptions for Trout's stories throughout the novel, illustrates the book with his own simple felt-tip pen drawings, and includes a number of characters from his other novels and short stories.

text: Fame[edit]

text: Vonnegut's previous novel, Slaughterhouse-Five, was his first commercial success, and brought him from being an unknown science-fiction writer to one of the most famous authors in the country.[1]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Breakfast of Champions spent a total of 56 weeks on the New York Times bestsellers list, 28 weeks for the hardcover edition and 28 for the paperback.[7] The novel received a negative review from the New York Times,[6] as opposed to positive reviews from TIME and Publishers Weekly. Vonnegut himself was unhappy with the novel, and gave it a C grade on a report card of his published work, lower than any other novel besides Slapstick (1976).[8] However, it remains one of Vonnegut's best-known and most-influential works.[2]

text: Adaptation[edit]

text: In 1999, the novel was made into a film of the same name, starring Bruce Willis, Albert Finney, Nick Nolte and Omar Epps; see Breakfast of Champions (film). The movie was widely panned by critics[9] and never went into wide release.[10]