document_title: End zone

question_text: when was the goal post moved in the nfl

question_tokens: when was the goal post moved in the nfl

text: End zone

text: History[edit]

text: The end zones were invented as a result of the creation of the forward pass. Prior to this, the goal line and end line were the same, and players scored a touchdown by leaving the field of play through that line. Goal posts were placed on the goal line, and any kicks that did not result in field goals but left the field through the end lines were simply recorded as touchbacks (or, in the Canadian game, singles; it was during the pre-end zone era that Hugh Gall set the record for most singles in a game, with eight).

text: In the earliest days of the forward pass, the pass had to be caught in-bounds and could not be thrown across the goal line (as the receiver would be out of bounds). This also made it difficult to pass the ball when very close to one's own goal line, since merely dropping back to pass or kick would result in a safety (rules of the forward pass at the time required the passer to be five yards behind the line of scrimmage, which would make throwing the forward pass when the ball was snapped from behind one's own five-yard line illegal in itself).

text: Thus, in 1912, the end zone was introduced in American football. In an era when professional football was still in its early years and college football dominated the game, the resulting enlargement of the field was constrained by fact that many college teams were already playing in well-developed stadiums, complete with stands and other structures at the ends of the fields, thereby making any substantial enlargement of the field unfeasible at many schools. Eventually, a compromise was reached: 12 yards of end zone were added to each end of the field, but in return, the playing field was shortened from 110 yards to 100, resulting in the physical size of the field being only slightly longer than before. Goal posts were originally kept on the goal lines, but after they began to interfere with play, they moved back to the end lines in 1927, where they have remained in college football ever since. The National Football League moved the goal posts up to the goal line again in 1933, then back again to the end line in 1974.

text: As with many other aspects of gridiron football, Canadian football adopted the forward pass and end zones much later than American football. The forward pass and end zones were adopted in 1929. In Canada, college football never reached a level of prominence comparable to U.S. college football, and professional football was still in its infancy in the 1920s. As a result, Canadian football was still being played in rudimentary facilities in the late 1920s. A further consideration was that the Canadian Rugby Union (the governing body of Canadian football at the time) wanted to reduce the prominence of single points (then called rouges) in the game. Therefore, the CRU simply appended 25-yard end zones to the ends of the existing 110-yard field, creating a much larger field of play. Since moving the goal posts back 25 yards would have made the scoring of field goals excessively difficult, and since the CRU did not want to reduce the prominence of field goals, the goal posts were left on the goal line where they remain today. However, the rules governing the scoring of singles were changed: teams were required to either kick the ball out of bounds through the end zone or force the opposition to down a kicked ball in their own end zone in order to be awarded a point. By 1986, at which point CFL stadiums were becoming bigger and comparable in development to their American counterparts in an effort to stay financially competitive, the CFL reduced the depth of the end zone to 20 yards.

text: Scoring[edit]

text: A team scores a touchdown by entering its opponent's end zone while carrying the ball or catching the ball while being within the end zone. If the ball is carried by a player, it is considered a score when any part of the ball is directly above or beyond any part of the goal line between the pylons.[1] In addition, a two-point conversion may be scored after a touchdown by similar means.

text: In Ultimate Frisbee, a goal is scored by completing a pass into the end zone.[2]

text: Size[edit]

text: The end zone in American football is 10 yards long by 53 1⁄3 yards (160 feet) wide. Each corner is marked with a pylon.

text: A full-sized end zone in Canadian football is 20 yards long by 65 yards wide. Prior to the 1980s, the Canadian end zone was 25 yards long. The first stadium to use the 20 yard long end zone was B.C. Place in Vancouver, which was completed in 1983. The floor of B.C. Place was (and is) too short to accommodate a field 160 yards in length. The shorter end zone proved popular enough that the CFL adopted it league-wide in 1986.[3] At BMO Field, home to the Toronto Argonauts, the end zones are only 18 yards. [1]

text: In Canadian football stadiums that also feature a running track, it is usually necessary to truncate the back corners of the end zones, since a rectangular field 150 yards long and 65 yards wide will not fit completely inside an oval-shaped running track. Such truncations are marked as straight diagonal lines, resulting in an end zone with six corners and six pylons. As of 2016, Montreal's Percival Molson Stadium is the only CFL stadium that has the rounded-off style end zones.

text: During the CFL's American expansion in the mid-1990s, several stadiums, by necessity, used 15-yard end zones (some even shorter than 15).

text: Ultimate Frisbee uses an end zone 40 yards wide and 20 yards deep (37 m × 18 m).[4]

text: The goal post[edit]

text: The location and dimensions of a goal post differ from league to league, but it is usually within the boundaries of the end zone. In earlier football games (both professional and collegiate), the goal post began at the goal line, and was usually an H-shaped bar. Nowadays, for player safety reasons, almost all goal posts in the professional and collegiate levels of American football are T-shaped, and reside just outside the rear of both end zones.

text: The goal posts in Canadian football still reside on the goal line instead of the back of the end zones, partly because the number of field goal attempts would dramatically decrease if the posts were moved 20 yards back in that sport, and also because the larger end zone and wider field makes the resulting interference in play by the goal post a less serious problem.

text: At the high school level, it is not uncommon to see multi-purpose goal posts that include football goal posts at the top and a soccer net at the bottom; these are usually seen at smaller schools and in multi-purpose stadiums where facilities are used for multiple sports. When these or H-shaped goal posts are used in football, the lower portions of the posts are covered with several inches of heavy foam padding to protect the safety of the players.

text: Decoration[edit]

text: Most professional and collegiate teams have their logo, team name, or both painted on the surface of the end zone, with team colors filling the background. Many championship and bowl games at college and professional level are commemorated by the names of the opposing teams each being painted in one of the opposite end zones. In some leagues, along with bowl games, local, national, or bowl game sponsors may also have their logos placed in the end zone. In the CFL, fully painted end zones are nonexistent, though some feature club logos or sponsors. Additionally, the Canadian end zone, being a live-ball part of the field, often features yardage dashes, not unlike the field of play itself.

text: In many places, particularly in smaller high schools and colleges, end zones are undecorated, or have plain white diagonal stripes spaced several yards apart, in lieu of colors and decorations. One notable use of this design in higher levels is with the Pittsburgh Steelers, who kept their diagonal-line end zone decoration at Heinz Field after positive fan reaction.

text: One of the quirks of the American Football League was its use of unusual patterns such as argyle in its end zones, a tradition revived in 2009 by the Denver Broncos, itself a former AFL team. The XFL standardized its playing fields so that all eight of its teams had uniform fields with the XFL logo in each end zone and no team identification.


document_title: List of Governors of Reserve Bank of India

question_text: who had the shortest tenure as governor of reserve bank

root

text:
Governor of the Reserve Bank of India

Seal of RBI

Incumbent
Urjit Patel
since 4 September 2016

Appointer
Government of India

Inaugural holder
Osborne Smith

Formation
1 April 1935

tag: table

text: The Governor of the Reserve Bank of India is the chief executive of India's central bank and the ex-officio chairperson of its Central Board of Directors. Indian Rupee currency notes, issued by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), bear the governor's signature. Since its establishment in 1935 by the British colonial government, the RBI has been headed by 24 governors. The term of office typically runs for 3 years.

tag: p

text: The inaugural officeholder was the British banker Osborne Smith, while C. D. Deshmukh was the first Indian governor. The position is currently held by Urjit Patel, who took over from Raghuram Rajan on 4 September 2016.j

text: RBI governors[edit]

text:
No.
Name
Term of office

Began
Ended
Length

1
Osborne Smith[1]
1 April 1935
30 June 1937
7002821000000000000♠2 years, 90 days

2
James Braid Taylor, ICS[2]
1 July 1937
17 February 1943
7003205700000000000♠5 years, 231 days

3
C. D. Deshmukh, ICS
11 August 1943
30 June 1949
7003215000000000000♠5 years, 323 days

4
Benegal Rama Rau, ICS
1 July 1949
14 January 1957
7003275400000000000♠7 years, 197 days

5
K. G. Ambegaonkar, ICS
14 January 1957
28 February 1957
7001450000000000000♠45 days

6
H. V. R. Iyengar, ICS
1 March 1957
28 February 1962
7003182500000000000♠4 years, 364 days

7
P. C. Bhattacharya
1 March 1962
30 June 1967
7003194700000000000♠5 years, 121 days

8
L. K. Jha
1 July 1967
3 May 1970
7003103700000000000♠2 years, 306 days

9
B. N. Adarkar
4 May 1970
15 June 1970
7001420000000000000♠42 days

10
S. Jagannathan
16 June 1970
19 May 1975
7003179800000000000♠4 years, 337 days

11
N. C. Sen Gupta
19 May 1975
19 August 1975
7001920000000000000♠92 days

12
K. R. Puri
20 August 1975
2 May 1977
7002621000000000000♠1 year, 255 days

13
M. Narasimham
3 May 1977
30 November 1977
7002211000000000000♠211 days

14
I. G. Patel
1 December 1977
15 September 1982
7003174900000000000♠4 years, 288 days

15
Manmohan Singh
16 September 1982
14 January 1985
7002851000000000000♠2 years, 120 days

16
Amitav Ghosh
15 January 1985
4 February 1985
7001200000000000000♠20 days

17
R. N. Malhotra, IAS
4 February 1985
22 December 1990
7003214700000000000♠5 years, 321 days

18
S. Venkitaramanan, IAS
22 December 1990
21 December 1992
7002730000000000000♠1 year, 365 days

19
C. Rangarajan
22 December 1992
21 November 1997
7003179500000000000♠4 years, 334 days

20
Bimal Jalan
22 November 1997
6 September 2003
7003211400000000000♠5 years, 288 days

21
Y. V. Reddy, IAS
6 September 2003
5 September 2008
7003182600000000000♠4 years, 365 days

22
D. Subbarao, IAS
5 September 2008
4 September 2013
7003182500000000000♠4 years, 364 days

23
Raghuram Rajan
4 September 2013
4 September 2016
7003109600000000000♠3 years, 0 days

24
Urjit Patel
4 September 2016
Incumbent
7002379000000000000♠1 year, 14 days


document_title: Economic system

question_text: which economic system is based on private ownership of land and resources

text: Economic system

text: Components[edit]

text: There are multiple components to economic system.Decision-making structures of an economy determine the use of economic inputs (the factors of production), distribution of output, the level of centralization in decision-making, and who makes these decisions. Decisions might be carried out by industrial councils, by a government agency, or by private owners.

text: An economic system is a system of production, resource allocation, exchange, and distribution of goods and services in a society or a given geographic area

text: In one view, every economic system represents an attempt to solve three fundamental and interdependent problems:

text:
What goods and services shall be produced, and in what quantities?
How shall goods and services be produced? That is, by whom and with what resources and technologies?
For whom shall goods and services be produced? That is, who is to enjoy the benefits of the goods and services and how is the total product to be distributed among individuals and groups in the society?[5]

tag: ul

text: Thus every economy is a system that allocates resources for exchange, production, distribution, and consumption. The system is stabilized through a combination of threat and trust, which are the outcome of institutional arrangements.[6] An economic system possesses the following institutions:

text:
Methods of control over the factors or means of production: this may include ownership of, or property rights to, the means of production and therefore may give rise to claims to the proceeds from production. The means of production may be owned privately, by the state, by those who use them or be held in common.
A decision-making system: this determines who is eligible to make decisions over economic activities. Economic agents with decision-making powers can enter into binding contracts with one another.
A coordination mechanism: this determines how information is obtained and used in decision-making. The two dominant forms of coordination are planning and markets; planning can be either decentralized or centralized, and the two coordination mechanisms are not mutually exclusive and often co-exist.[7]
An incentive system: this induces and motivates economic agents to engage in productive activities. It can be based on either material reward (compensation or self-interest) or moral suasion (for instance, social prestige or through a democratic decision-making process that binds those involved). The incentive system may encourage specialization and the division of labor.
Organizational form: there are two basic forms of organization: actors and regulators. Economic actors include households, work gangs and production teams, firms, joint-ventures and cartels. Economically regulative organizations are represented by the state and market authorities; the latter may be private or public entities.
A distribution system: this allocates the proceeds from productive activity, which is distributed as income among the economic organizations, individuals and groups within society, such as property owners, workers, and non-workers, or the state (from taxes).
A public choice mechanism for law-making, establishing rules, norms and standards and levying taxes. Usually, this is the responsibility of the state but other means of collective decision-making are possible, such as chambers of commerce or workers’ councils.[8]

text: Typology[edit]

text: There are several basic questions that must be answered in order for an economy to run satisfactorily. The scarcity problem, for example, requires answers to basic questions, such as: what to produce, how to produce it, and who gets what is produced. An economic system is a way of answering these basic questions, and different economic systems answer them differently. Many different objectives may be seen as desirable for an economy, like efficiency, growth, liberty, and equality.[9]

text: Economic systems are commonly segmented by their property rights regime for the means of production and by their dominant resource allocation mechanism. Economies that combine private ownership with market allocation are called "market capitalism", and economies that combine private ownership with economic planning are labelled "command capitalism" or dirigisme. Likewise, systems that mix public or cooperative ownership of the means of production with economic planning are called "socialist planned economies", and systems that combine public or cooperative ownership with markets are called "market socialism".[10] Some perspectives build upon this basic nomenclature to take other variables into account, such as class processes within an economy. This leads some economists to categorize, for example, the Soviet Union's economy as state capitalism based on the analysis that the working class was exploited by the party leadership. Instead of looking at nominal ownership, this perspective takes into account the organizational form within economic enterprises.[11]

text: In a capitalist economic system, production is carried out for private profit, and decisions regarding investment and allocation of factor inputs are determined by business owners in factor markets. The means of production are primarily owned by private enterprises, and decisions regarding production and investment are determined by private owners in capital markets. Capitalist systems range from laissez-faire, with minimal government regulation and state enterprise, to regulated and social market systems, with the aims of ameliorating market failures (see economic intervention) or supplementing the private marketplace with social policies to promote equal opportunities (see welfare state), respectively.

text: In socialist economic systems (socialism), production for use is carried out; decisions regarding the use of the means of production are adjusted to satisfy economic demand; investment is determined through economic planning procedures. There is a wide range of proposed planning procedures and ownership structures for socialist systems, with the common feature among them being the social ownership of the means of production. This might take the form of public ownership by all of the society, or ownership cooperatively by their employees. A socialist economic system that features social ownership but is based on the process of capital accumulation and utilization of capital markets for the allocation of capital goods between socially-owned enterprises falls under the subcategory of market socialism.

text: Allocation mechanism[edit]

text: The basic and general economic systems segmented by allocation are:

text:
Market economy ("hands off" systems, such as laissez-faire capitalism)
Mixed economy (a hybrid that blends some aspects of both market and planned economies)
Planned economy ("hands on" systems, such as state socialism, also known as "command economy" when referring to the Soviet model)
Traditional economy (a generic term for older economic systems)
Participatory economics (a system where the production and distribution of goods is guided by public participation)
Gift economy (where an exchange is made without any explicit agreement for immediate or future rewards)
Barter economy (where goods and services are directly exchanged for other goods or services)
Post-scarcity economy (a hypothetical form where resources aren't scarce, such as Marx's concept of a Communist society)

text: Types[edit]

text: Capitalism[edit]

text: Capitalism generally features the private ownership of the means of production (capital), and a market economy for coordination. Corporate capitalism refers to a capitalist marketplace characterized by the dominance of hierarchical, bureaucratic corporations.

text: Mercantilism was the dominant model in Western Europe from the 16th to 18th century. This encouraged imperialism and colonialism until economic and political changes resulted in global decolonization. Modern capitalism has favored free trade to take advantages of increased efficiency due to national comparative advantage and economies of scale in a larger, more universal market. Some critics[who?] have applied the term neo-colonialism to the power imbalance between multi-national corporations operating in a free market vs. seemingly impoverished people in developing countries.

text: Mixed economy[edit]

text: There is no precise definition of a "mixed economy". Theoretically, it may refer to an economic system that combines one of three characteristics: public and private ownership of industry, market-based allocation with economic planning, or free markets with state interventionism.

text: In practice, "mixed economy" generally refers to market economies with substantial state interventionism and/or sizable public sector alongside a dominant private sector. Actually, mixed economies gravitate more heavily to one end of the spectrum. Notable economic models and theories that have been described as a "mixed economy" include:

text:
Georgism – socialized rents on land
Mixed economy

American School
Dirigisme
Nordic model
Japanese system
Social market economy also known as Soziale Marktwirtschaft
Social corporatism
Socialist market economy
Progressive utilization theory
Indicative planning also known as a planned market economy
State capitalism

text: Socialism[edit]

text: Socialist economic systems (all of which feature social ownership of the means of production) can be subdivided by their coordinating mechanism (planning and markets) into planned socialist and market socialist systems. Additionally, socialism can be divided based on their property structures between those that are based on public ownership, worker or consumer cooperatives and common ownership (i.e., non-ownership). Communism is a hypothetical stage of Socialist development articulated by Marx as "second stage Socialism" in Critique of the Gotha Program, whereby the economic output is distributed based on need and not simply on the basis of labor contribution.

text: The original conception of socialism involved the substitution of money as a unit of calculation and monetary prices as a whole with calculation in kind (or a valuation based on natural units), with business and financial decisions replaced by engineering and technical criteria for managing the economy. Fundamentally, this meant that socialism would operate under different economic dynamics than those of capitalism and the price system.[12] Later models of socialism developed by neoclassical economists (most notably Oskar Lange and Abba Lerner) were based on the use of notional prices derived from a trial-and-error approach to achieve market clearing prices on the part of a planning agency. These models of socialism were called "market socialism" because they included a role for markets, money, and prices.

text: The primary emphasis of socialist planned economies is to coordinate production to produce economic output to directly satisfy economic demand as opposed to the indirect mechanism of the profit system where satisfying needs is subordinate to the pursuit of profit; and to advance the productive forces of the economy in a more efficient manner while being immune to the perceived systemic inefficiencies (cyclical processes) and crisis of overproduction so that production would be subject to the needs of society as opposed to being ordered around capital accumulation.[13][14]

text: In a pure socialist planned economy that involves different processes of resource allocation, production and means of quantifying value, the use of money would be replaced with a different measure of value and accounting tool that would embody more accurate information about an object or resource.

text: In practice, the economic system of the former Soviet Union and Eastern bloc operated as a command economy, featuring a combination of state owned enterprises and central planning using the material balances method. The extent to which these economic systems achieved socialism or represented a viable alternative to capitalism is subject to debate.[15]

text: In orthodox Marxism, the mode of production is tantamount to the subject of this article, determining with a superstructure of relations the entirety of a given culture or stage of human development.

text: Other aspects[edit]

text: Corporatism refers to economic tripartite involving negotiations between business, labor, and state interest groups to establish economic policy, or more generally to assigning people to political groups based on their occupational affiliation.

text: Certain subsets of an economy, or the particular goods, services, techniques of production, or moral rules can also be described as an "economy". For example, some terms emphasize specific sectors or externalizes:

text:
Digital economy
Green economy
Information economy
Internet economy
Knowledge economy
Natural economy
Virtual economy
Circular economy

text: Others emphasize a particular religion:

text:
Arthashastra – Hindu Economics
Buddhist economics
Islamic economics
Distributism – Catholic ideal of a "third way" economy, featuring more distributed ownership in a mixed economy

text: Evolutionary economics[edit]

text: Karl Marx's theory of economic development was based on the premise of evolving economic systems; specifically, in his view, over the course of history superior economic systems would replace inferior ones. "Inferior" systems were beset by "internal contradictions" and "inefficiencies" that make them "impossible" to survive over the long term. In Marx's scheme, feudalism was replaced by capitalism, which would eventually be superseded by socialism.[16] Joseph Schumpeter had an evolutionary conception of economic development, but unlike Marx, he de-emphasized the role of class struggle in contributing to qualitative change in the economic mode of production. In subsequent world history, Communist states run according to Marxist-Leninist ideologies have either collapsed or gradually reformed their centrally-planned economies toward market-based economies, for example with perestroika and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Chinese economic reform, and Đổi Mới in Vietnam.

text: Mainstream evolutionary economics continues to study economic change in modern times. There has also been renewed interest in understanding economic systems as evolutionary systems in the emerging field of Complexity economics.

text: Context in society[edit]

text: An economic system can be considered a part of the social system and hierarchically equal to the law system, political system, cultural, etc. There is often a strong correlation between certain ideologies, political systems and certain economic systems (for example, consider the meanings of the term "communism"). Many economic systems overlap each other in various areas (for example, the term "mixed economy" can be argued to include elements from various systems). There are also various mutually exclusive hierarchical categorizations.

text: Political ideologies[edit]

text: Anarchist and libertarianism[edit]

text: Various strains of anarchism advocate different economic systems, all of which have very small or no government involvement. These include:

text:
Left wing

Anarcho-communism
Anarcho-syndicalism
Anarcho-socialism

Right wing

Anarcho-capitalism

text: Libertarianism also advocates a minimal role for government, including economic systems like:

text:
Libertarian communism
Libertarian socialism
Syndicalism

text: List of economic systems[edit]

text: This article duplicates the scope of other articles. Please discuss this issue on the talk page and edit it to conform with Wikipedia's Manual of Style. (August 2014)

text: (merge in progress)

text: Unsorted:

text:
Autogestion
Capitalism
Communism
Distributism
Feudalism
Hydraulic despotism
Inclusive democracy
Mercantilism
Mutualism
Network economy
Non-property system
Fascist socialization
Palace economy
Participatory economy
Potlatch
Progressive Utilization Theory (PROUTist economy)
Proprietism
Social Credit
Socialism
Syndicalism


document_title: The Bodyguard (1992 film)

question_text: who played whitney houston sister in the bodyguard

text: The Bodyguard (1992 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Rachel Marron (Whitney Houston) is an Academy Award-nominated music superstar who is being stalked and sent death threats. Things get dangerously out of hand when a bomb disguised as a doll explodes in her dressing room. Rachel's manager, Bill Devaney (Bill Cobbs), seeks the services of a professional bodyguard, Frank Farmer (Kevin Costner), to protect her.[7] He is a highly successful private bodyguard, mostly protecting corporate VIPs. Formerly he was a Secret Service agent who served as part of the presidential protection detail during two presidencies. Frank is reluctant to accept the offer to guard Rachel as he sees her as a spoiled diva who is oblivious to the threats against her life.

text: Frank's concerns are quickly realized when Rachel looks upon Frank as being paranoid and his extensive protection techniques as intrusive. Rachel's existing bodyguard Tony (Mike Starr) resents Frank's presence. But at a concert where Rachel is performing, a riot breaks out and Frank rescues her from danger. As a result, the two develop a closer relationship. Frank tries to remain professional, but the two sleep together. However, recognizing that this compromises his ability to protect his client, Frank breaks off their affair. Hurt, Rachel begins to defy Frank's painstaking security measures. She even goes as far as attempting to sleep with his former Secret Service colleague Greg Portman (Tomas Arana). But after she has personal contact with her stalker via a threatening phone call, Rachel realizes that she must put her trust in Frank ahead of her own desire for personal gratification. She finally recognizes the seriousness of the situation and cancels the rest of her tour.

text: Frank, Rachel, Rachel's driver Henry (Christopher Birt), Rachel's son Fletcher (DeVaughn Nixon), and her sister Nicki (Michele Lamar Richards) then travel to a large lakefront cabin in the mountains, the home of Frank’s father, Herb (Ralph Waite). The next day, Fletcher is almost killed when a bomb explodes inside the boat he rode moments before. After finding footprints around the cabin and sabotaged automobiles, Frank realizes that Rachel's stalker has followed them. After securing the house for the night, Frank learns that Rachel's obsessive stalker and the person trying to kill her are not the same person. Angry and drunk, Nicki admits that during a drug-induced fit of jealousy she hired a hitman to kill Rachel, but that the letters from the stalker came before that. However, she cannot call it off because she does not know the killer's identity.

text: Abruptly, the hitman breaks into the house and fatally shoots Nicki. Frank, who is armed with a semi-automatic pistol, ensures that his father has secured the rest of the group on the second floor. Upon tracking the killer and then pursuing him into the woods, Frank shoots but misses, allowing the shooter to escape capture. Frank learns the next day, from his Secret Service contacts, that they have apprehended the stalker and were interviewing him when Nicki was shot.

text: Frank and Rachel attend Nicki's funeral and then the Academy Awards ceremony, where Frank gives Rachel a panic button in the shape of a cross to immediately alert him to any trouble. A host of backstage technical issues hamper Frank's efforts to monitor the proceedings closely. During the actual show, Rachel freezes and runs offstage, angry at Frank for embarrassing her with overprotective measures. However, Rachel returns to the audience and is present when announced as the winner for Best Actress. As she comes toward the stage to accept the award, the hitman is revealed to be Portman. Frank notices Portman pointing a gun disguised as a camera at Rachel. As Portman prepares for the fatal shot, Frank runs on stage and leaps in front of Rachel, intercepting the shot. Once regaining his balance, he shoots Portman through his camera-gun, killing him. Frank is left wounded and Rachel calls for help—all the while urging him to stay with her.

text: Frank recovers from the shooting and goes to say goodbye to Rachel at the airport. After the plane starts to taxi, Rachel suddenly jumps out and runs to Frank for one last passionate kiss. The film ends with a scene from Frank's next assignment—protecting a mob-fighting U.S. congressman—where a priest, using the emergency cross earlier given to Rachel, provides a solemn benediction as the lawmaker's new bodyguard keeps a watchful eye.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Kevin Costner as Frank Farmer
Whitney Houston as Rachel Marron
Gary Kemp as Sy Spector
Bill Cobbs as Bill Devaney
Ralph Waite as Herb Farmer
Tomas Arana as Greg Portman
Michele Lamar Richards as Nicki Marron
Mike Starr as Tony Scipelli
Christopher Birt as Henry Adams
DeVaughn Nixon as Fletcher Marron
Tony Pierce as the Stalker
Gerry Bamman as Ray Court
Joe Urla as Minella
Charles Keating as Klingman
Nathaniel Parker as Clive Healy
Richard Schiff as Skip Thomas
Donald Hotton as Reverend Hardy
Rollin Jarrett as Miami Reporter
Robert Wuhl as Academy Awards Host
Chris Connelly as Academy Awards Arrivals M.C.
Debbie Reynolds as herself

text: Background[edit]

text: Lawrence Kasdan's first screenplay,[5] the film was originally proposed in 1976 with Steve McQueen and Diana Ross in the leads,[8] but the project stalled.

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: The Bodyguard received mixed to negative reviews from film critics. As of August 2017, the film holds a 31% rating on the film aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, with the consensus, "The Bodyguard is a cheesy, melodramatic potboiler with occasional moments of electricity from Whitney Houston."[9] It received seven Golden Raspberry Award nominations, including Worst Picture.[10] Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly reviewed the film negatively, stating, "To say that Houston and Costner fail to strike sparks would be putting it mildly." He added that "the movie gives us these two self-contained celebrity icons working hard to look as if they want each other. It's like watching two statues attempting to mate."[11] Other critics were more mixed or positive, including Roger Ebert, who praised the film and gave it three out of four stars, remarking, "The movie does contain a love story, but it's the kind of guarded passion that grows between two people who spend a lot of time keeping their priorities straight."[12]

text: Two songs from the film, "Run to You" and "I Have Nothing", were nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song.[13] The soundtrack was also nominated for four Grammy Awards, winning three, including Album of the Year for its album of the same name.[14] The film was nominated for several MTV Movie Awards, an Image Award, BMI Film & TV Awards, a Golden Screen Award in Germany and an Award of the Japanese Academy, according to the Internet Movie Database.

text: The film is listed in Golden Raspberry Award founder John Wilson's book The Official Razzie Movie Guide as one of The 100 Most Enjoyably Bad Movies Ever Made.[15]

text: Box office[edit]

text: In the United States, The Bodyguard opened on November 25, 1992 in 1,717 theaters; it grossed $16.6 million in its opening weekend, ranking third.[16] The film was in theaters for thirteen non-consecutive weeks, ultimately grossing $121.9 million domestically, and $410.9 million worldwide. It was the seventh highest-grossing film of 1992 in North America, and the second highest-grossing film of 1992, worldwide.[17] At the time, it was one of the top 100 highest-grossing films of all time, but it has since been overtaken by other films.[18]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:

text:
2002: AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions – Nominated[19]
2004: AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs:

"I Will Always Love You" – #65[20]

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text: The Bodyguard: Original Soundtrack Album became the best-selling soundtrack of all time. It has been certified diamond in the United States (sales of at least ten million) with shipments of over 17 million copies.[21] Worldwide, the sales are over 45 million copies.[22] In addition, Houston's cover of "I Will Always Love You" sold 12 million units worldwide.[23]

text: The soundtrack features five songs which were hit singles for Houston: "I Will Always Love You", "I'm Every Woman", the two Oscar-nominated songs, "I Have Nothing" and "Run to You", and "Queen of the Night".

text: In 2013, La-La Land Records released a limited edition CD (3500 units) of Alan Silvestri's original score.[24]

text: Parodies[edit]

text:
The Simpsons—in the episode "Mayored to the Mob", Homer Simpson receives bodyguard training from an instructor singing "I Will Always Love You" after graduating his class. Also in the episode, Mark Hamill gets carried by Homer in a fashion which parodies the way Costner carries Houston in the film.
30 Rock—in the episode "Hard Ball", Tracy Jordan is rescued from a mob by his entourage; his character sang "I Will Always Love You" during the scene.
Bulletproof—a scene in the film parodies The Bodyguard with Adam Sandler's character singing "I Will Always Love You" and remarking that Damon Wayans's character can always be his bodyguard.
The Venture Bros.—in the second-season episode "I Know Why the Caged Bird Kills", after having fallen in love with her charge, Dr. Venture, bodyguard Myra Brandish says she was taught "Never let them out of your sight. Never let your guard down. Never fall in love", the tag line from the film.
In Living Color—Kim Wayans plays Grace Jones as the Whitney Houston character and Jim Carrey plays the Kevin Costner character, complete with bad hair. The scene when Kevin Costner carries Whitney Houston off-stage from the original movie is reversed with Grace Jones carrying Frank Farmer off while singing "I Will Always Love You".
The Hitman's Bodyguard—Teaser trailer featuring Houston's song "I Will Always Love You", and movie poster spoof.[25][26][27]

text: Sequel and remake[edit]

text: In 2011, Warner Bros. announced a remake that will update the story to reflect the world of the Internet; in which sites such as Twitter, Google Maps and other sites make access to celebrities easier than ever. The remake will be penned by Jeremiah Friedman and Nick Palmer. Singer Rihanna was once sought to play the role of Rachel.[28]

text: On March 10, 2011, Rihanna ruled out playing the part, saying "Absolutely not. I hate it when singers do singing movies all the time, because you can never look at them as anybody else. I want to play a character. My whole life is playing Rihanna; being a singer won't be a stretch for me."[29]

text: Musical adaptation[edit]

text: A musical adaptation of the film opened in London's Adelphi Theatre in the West End in Fall 2012. David Ian, who produces the musical, received the stage rights from Costner, a producer of the film as well as its star, and Kasdan, who wrote the film, reports Baz Bamigboye. The film's famous soundtrack is used as a score for the production. In addition to the mega-hit "I Will Always Love You", the songs include "I'm Every Woman", "Run to You", "Jesus Loves Me", and "Queen of the Night". Several of Houston's other songs are used as well, including "I'm Your Baby Tonight", "How Will I Know", and "I Wanna Dance with Somebody (Who Loves Me)". Tony Award-winning actress and singer Heather Headley was cast to play Rachel, the role played in the film by Houston. MOBO Award-winning and BRIT-nominated singer Beverley Knight took over Rachel in September 2013 through to May 2014; she was replaced by Alexandra Burke in June 2014, who was then replaced by Grammy award winning R&B singer Deborah Cox.


document_title: The Open Boat

question_text: who is the injured man in the open boat

question_tokens: who is the injured man in the open boat

text: The Open Boat

text: Background[edit]

text: Hired by the Bacheller newspaper syndicate to serve as a war correspondent during the Cuban insurrection against Spain, the 25-year-old Stephen Crane boarded the filibustering steamship SS Commodore on New Year's Eve, 1896. The ship sailed from Jacksonville, Florida, with 27 or 28 men and a cargo of supplies and ammunition for the Cuban rebels.[2] On the St. Johns River, less than 2 miles (3 km) from Jacksonville, Commodore struck a sandbar in a dense fog and damaged its hull. Although towed off the sandbar the following day, it was again beached in Mayport, Florida, and further damaged.[3] A leak began in the boiler room that evening, and as a result of malfunctioning water pumps, the ship came to a standstill about 16 miles (26 km) from Mosquito Inlet (now called Ponce de León Inlet). As the ship took on more water, Crane described the engine room as resembling "a scene at this time taken from the middle kitchen of Hades."[4]

text: Commodore's lifeboats were lowered in the early hours of the morning on January 2, 1897, and the ship sank at 7 a.m. Crane was one of the last to leave the ship in a 10-foot (3.0 m) dinghy. He and three other men (including the captain, Edward Murphy) floundered off the coast of Florida for a day and a half before attempting to land their craft at Daytona Beach. The small boat, however, overturned in the surf, forcing the exhausted men to swim to shore; one of them, an oiler named Billie Higgins, died.[5] The disaster was front-page news in newspapers across the country; rumors that the ship had been sabotaged were widely circulated but never substantiated.[6]

text: Crane was reunited with his partner, Cora, several days after the ordeal, and quickly wrote his initial report of the sinking while waiting in Jacksonville for another ship. Desperate for work, he soon left for New York to secure a job covering the impending Greco-Turkish War. Crane completed the story that would become "The Open Boat" a few weeks later, in mid-February.[7] According to fellow correspondent Ralph D. Paine, Crane had the opportunity to show the first draft of the short story to Murphy when Crane again passed through Jacksonville. When Crane asked his opinion, Murphy allegedly replied, "You've got it, Steve ... That is just how it happened, and how we felt. Read me some more of it".[8]

text: Publication history[edit]

text: Crane's report of the incident appeared on the front page of the New York Press on January 7, 1897, only three days after his rescue, and was quickly reprinted in various other papers. The account, titled "Stephen Crane's Own Story", concentrates mainly on the sinking of the Commodore, and the ensuing chaos. Crane dedicates just two paragraphs to the fate of his compatriots and himself on the dinghy, while detailing their inability to save those stranded on the sinking ship:[9]

text: The cook let go of the line. We rowed around to see if we could not get a line from the chief engineer, and all this time, mind you, there were no shrieks, no groans, but silence, silence and silence, and then the Commodore sank. She lurched to windward, then swung afar back, righted and dove into the sea, and the rafts were suddenly swallowed by this frightful maw of the ocean. And then by the men on the ten-foot dingy were words said that were still not words—something far beyond words.[10]

text: The report caused a sensation and spurred the author to write a narrative version of the events. The short story first appeared in the June 1897 issue of Scribner's Magazine. A second and lesser story, "Flanagan and His Short Filibustering Adventure", based upon the same shipwreck but told from the point of view of the captain, was published in McClure's Magazine in October 1897.[11] "The Open Boat" was published in the United States by Doubleday & McClure in April 1898 as part of the book The Open Boat and Other Tales of Adventure, which included additional works by Crane such as "The Bride Comes to Yellow Sky", "Death and the Child", and "The Wise Men". The English volume, published simultaneously with the American one, was titled The Open Boat and Other Stories and published by William Heinemann.[12] Both editions included the subtitle "A Tale Intended to Be after the Fact. Being the Experience of Four Men from the Sunk Steamer 'Commodore' ", and were dedicated "To the late William Higgins and to Captain Edward Murphy and Steward C. B. Montgomery of the Sunk Steamer Commodore".[13]

text: Plot summary[edit]

text: None of them knew the color of the sky. Their eyes glanced level, and were fastened upon the waves that swept toward them. These waves were of the hue of slate, save for the tops, which were of foaming white, and all of the men knew the colors of the sea. The horizon narrowed and widened, and dipped and rose, and at all times its edge was jagged with waves that seemed thrust up in points like rocks.[14]

text: "The Open Boat" is divided into seven sections, each told mainly from the point of view of the correspondent, based upon Crane himself. The first part introduces the four characters—the correspondent, a condescending observer detached from the rest of the group;[15] the captain, who is injured and morose at having lost his ship, yet capable of leadership; the cook, fat and comical, but optimistic that they will be rescued; and the oiler, Billie, who is physically the strongest, and the only one in the story referred to by name. The four are survivors of a shipwreck, which occurred before the beginning of the story, and are drifting at sea in a small dinghy.

text: In the following four sections, the moods of the men fluctuate from anger at their desperate situation, to a growing empathy for one another and the sudden realization that nature is indifferent to their fates. The men become fatigued and bicker with one another; nevertheless, the oiler and the correspondent take turns rowing toward shore, while the cook bails water to keep the boat afloat. When they see a lighthouse on the horizon, their hope is tempered with the realization of the danger of trying to reach it. Their hopes dwindle further when, after seeing a man waving from shore, and what may or may not be another boat, they fail to make contact. The correspondent and the oiler continue to take turns rowing, while the others sleep fitfully during the night. The correspondent then notices a shark swimming near the boat, but he does not seem to be bothered by it as one would expect. In the penultimate chapter, the correspondent wearily recalls a verse from the poem "Bingen on the Rhine" by Caroline Norton, in which a "soldier of the Legion" dies far from home.

text: The final chapter begins with the men's resolution to abandon the floundering dinghy they have occupied for thirty hours and to swim ashore. As they begin the long swim to the beach, Billie the oiler, the strongest of the four, swims ahead of the others; the captain advances towards the shore while still holding onto the boat, and the cook uses a surviving oar. The correspondent is trapped by a local current, but is eventually able to swim on. After three of the men safely reach the shore and are met by a group of rescuers, they find Billie dead, his body washed up on the beach.

text: Style and genre[edit]

text: Although autobiographical in nature, "The Open Boat" is a work of fiction; it is often considered a principal example of Naturalism, an offshoot of the Realist literary movement, in which scientific principles of objectivity and detachment are applied to the study of human characteristics. While a majority of critics agree that the story acts as a paradigm of the human situation, they disagree as to its precise nature.[16] Some believe the story affirms man's place in the world by concentrating on the characters' isolation,[17] while others—including those who call "The Open Boat" ideologically Symbolist—insist that the story questions man's place in the universe through metaphorical or indirect means.[18]

text: Like other major works by Stephen Crane, "The Open Boat" contains numerous examples of symbolism, imagery and metaphor. Vibrant descriptions of color, combined with simple, clear writing, are also apparent throughout, and humor in the form of irony serves in stark opposition to the dreary setting and desperate characters.[19] Editor Vincent Starrett stated in his introduction to the 1921 collection of Crane's work entitled Men, Women and Boats that the author keeps "down the tone where another writer might have attempted 'fine writing' and have been lost."[20] Other critics have noted similarities between the story and shipwreck-related articles Crane wrote while working as a reporter for the New York Tribune earlier in his career. Articles such as "The Wreck of the New Era", which describes a group of castaways drowning in sight of a helpless crowd, and "Ghosts on the Jersey Coast" contain stark imagery that strongly prefigures that of "The Open Boat".[21]

text: Major themes[edit]

text: Man vs. nature[edit]

text: Similar to other Naturalist works, "The Open Boat" scrutinizes the position of man, who has been isolated not only from society, but also from God and nature. The struggle between man and the natural world is the most apparent theme in the work,[15] and while the characters at first believe the turbulent sea to be a hostile force set against them, they come to believe that nature is instead ambivalent. At the beginning of the last section, the correspondent rethinks his view of nature's hostility: "the serenity of nature amid the struggles of the individual—nature in the wind, and nature in the vision of men. She did not seem cruel to him, nor beneficent, nor treacherous, nor wise. But she was indifferent, flatly indifferent."[22] The correspondent regularly refers to the sea with feminine pronouns, pitting the four men in the boat against an intangible, yet effeminate, threat; critic Leedice Kissane further pointed to the story's seeming denigration of women, noting the castaways' personification of Fate as "an old ninny-woman" and "an old hen".[23] That nature is ultimately disinterested is an idea that appears in other works by Crane; a poem from Crane's 1899 collection War is Kind and Other Lines also echoes Crane's common theme of universal indifference:[24]

text: A man said to the universe:

text:
"Sir, I exist!"
"However," replied the universe,
"The fact has not created in me

text: A sense of obligation."[25]

text: The metaphysical conflicts born from man's isolation are also important themes throughout the story, as the characters cannot rely on a higher cause or being for protection.[26] The correspondent laments the lack of religious support, as well as his inability to blame God for his misfortunes,[27] musing: "When it occurs to a man that nature does not regard him as important, and that she feels she would not maim the universe by disposing of him, he at first wishes to throw bricks at the temple, and he hates deeply that there are no bricks and no temples."[28] Man's perception of himself and the world around him are also constantly questioned; the correspondent regularly refers to the way things "seemed" or "appeared", leaving how a thing actually "was" entirely ambiguous.[29] Wolford similarly pointed to the importance of the story's strong yet problematic opening line—"None of them knew the color of the sky"—as one that sets the scene for the story's sense of unease and uncertainty.[30]

text: Survival and solidarity[edit]

text: Chester Wolford noted in his critical analysis of Crane's short fiction that although one of the author's most familiar themes deals with a character's seeming insignificance in an indifferent universe, the correspondent's experience in "The Open Boat" is perhaps more personal than what was described in earlier stories because of Crane's obvious connection to the story.[31] Sergio Perosa similarly described how Crane "transfigures an actual occurrence into existential drama, and confers universal meaning and poetic value on the simple retelling of man's struggle for survival".[32]

text: Facing an ultimately detached nature, the characters find solace in human solidarity.[33] They are often referred to collectively as "the men", rather than singularly by their professions, creating a silent understanding between them of their togetherness.[34] The first few sentences of section three attest to this connection: "It would be difficult to describe the subtle brotherhood of men that was here established on the seas. No one said that it was so. No one mentioned it. But it dwelt in the boat, and each man felt it warm him. They were a captain, an oiler, a cook, and a correspondent, and they were friends, friends in a more curiously iron-bound degree than may be common."[35] Survival is also an important thematic element in itself, as it is contingent upon the men to battle the elements in order to save themselves. The correspondent's desire to survive is evident in his refrain of the lyrical line: "If I am going to be drowned—if I am going to be drowned—if I am going to be drowned, why, in the name of the seven mad gods who rule the sea, was I allowed to come thus far and contemplate sand and trees?"[36] By repeating himself, the correspondent expresses himself ritualistically, and yet he remains existentially adrift.[34]

text: Sympathy[edit]

text: In his 1990 book Sea-Brothers: The Tradition of American Sea Fiction from Moby-Dick to the Present, author Bert Bender noted Crane's sympathetic portrayal of the oiler Billie, the most physically able of the four characters, and yet the only one to perish. The correspondent even notes with wonder Billie's exceptional ability to row despite having worked a double shift before the ship sank.[37] Bender wrote that Crane "emphasizes that Billie's steady, simple labor is the tangible basis for his role here as a savior," and that the oiler's portrayal as a "simple, working seaman, clearly expresses his sympathy with the democratic ideal of the sailor before the mast that figures so crucially in the tradition of American sea fiction."[38] That Billie does not survive the ordeal, however, can be seen as an antithesis to Darwinism in that the only person to not survive was in fact the strongest physically.[39]

text:
A Soldier of the Legion lay dying in Algiers,
There was lack of woman's nursing, there was dearth of woman's tears;
But a comrade stood beside him, and he took that comrade's hand,
And he said, "I nevermore shall see my own, my native land".

—Caroline Norton, "Bingen on the Rhine", as quoted in "The Open Boat"[40]

tag: div

text: "The Open Boat" directly references Lady Caroline Norton's 1883 poem "Bingen on the Rhine", which focuses on the death of a French Foreign Legionnaire, far from home, while grasping the hand of a comrade. Recalling the poem, the correspondent sees how the soldier's dire circumstances mirror his own, leading him to feel sorry for the anonymous poetic figure; noting the similarities between the dying soldier and the shipwrecked correspondent, critics such as Edward Stone and Max Westbrook believe this realization causes the correspondent to discover the necessity for human sympathy in an uncaring world.[41] While the literary reference may be considered ironic, unsympathetic, and only of minor interest, Stone for one argued that this poem may also have served as a source for The Red Badge of Courage, which also explores man's relationship with the metaphysical.[42]

text: Reception and legacy[edit]

text: "The Open Boat" is one of the most frequently discussed works in Crane's canon, and is regularly anthologized. Wilson Follett included the story in the twelfth volume of his 1927 collection of Crane's work, and it also appeared in Robert Stallman's 1952 volume Stephen Crane: An Omnibus.[43] The story and its subsequent eponymous collections received high acclaim from contemporary critics and authors. Praising the merit of the story and his friend's literary importance, journalist Harold Frederic wrote in his review for The New York Times that "even if he had written nothing else, ["The Open Boat" would] have placed [Crane] where he now undoubtedly stands."[44] English poet Robert Bridges likewise praised the story in his review for Life, stating that Crane "has indelibly fixed the experience on your mind, and that is the test of a literary artisan".[45] American Newspaperman and author Harry Esty Dounce praised the story as chief among Crane's work, despite its seemingly simple plot, writing for the New York Evening Sun that "those who have read 'The Open Boat' will forget every technical feat of construction before they forget the long, heartbreaking mockery of the day, with land so near, the bailing, the egg-shell changes of seats, the terrible, steady cheerfulness and brotherhood of the queer little human group".[46]

text: After Crane's premature death from tuberculosis at the age of 28, his work enjoyed a resurgence of popularity. Author and critic Elbert Hubbard wrote in Crane's obituary in the Philistine that "The Open Boat" was "the sternest, creepiest bit of realism ever penned".[47] Also noting the depressing Realism utilized in the story, editor Vincent Starrett stated: "It is a desolate picture, and the tale is one of our greatest short stories."[20] Another of the author's friends, H. G. Wells, wrote that "The Open Boat" was "beyond all question, the crown of all [Crane's] work."[1] Singling out Crane's usage of color and chiaroscuro in his writing, Wells continued: "It has all the stark power of the earlier stories, with a new element of restraint; the color is as full and strong as ever, fuller and stronger, indeed; but those chromatic splashes that at times deafen and confuse in The Red Badge, those images that astonish rather than enlighten, are disciplined and controlled."[1] The story remains popular with critics; Thomas Kent referred to "The Open Boat" as Crane's "magnum opus",[48] while Crane biographer Stanley Wertheim called it "Crane's finest short story and one of the masterworks of late nineteenth-century American literature".[15]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
^ Jump up to: a b c Weatherford (1997), p. 271

Jump up ^ Wertheim (1994), p. 232

Jump up ^ Wertheim (1994), p. 233

Jump up ^ Wertheim (1994), p. 234

Jump up ^ Wertheim (1994), p. 236

Jump up ^ Davis (1998), p. 187

Jump up ^ Wertheim (1994), p. 240

Jump up ^ Sorrentino (2006), p. 191

Jump up ^ Halliburton (1989), p. 237

Jump up ^ "Stephen Crane's Own Story Archived 2010-02-16 at WebCite". Ponce de Leon Inlet Lighthouse Website. Retrieved on February 15, 2010.

Jump up ^ Schaefer (1996), p. 304

Jump up ^ Wertheim (1997), pp. 250–251

Jump up ^ Crane (1898), p. x

Jump up ^ Crane (1898), p. 3

^ Jump up to: a b c Wertheim (1997), p. 248

Jump up ^ Schaefer (1996), p. 316

Jump up ^ Bassan (1967), p. 7

Jump up ^ Kent (1986), pp. 125–126

Jump up ^ Weatherford (1997), p. 330

^ Jump up to: a b Starrett (1921), p. 11

Jump up ^ Schaefer (1996), p. 299

Jump up ^ Crane (1898), p. 52

Jump up ^ Schaefer (1996), p. 302

Jump up ^ Wertheim (1997), p. 27

Jump up ^ Halliburton (1989), pp. 251–252

Jump up ^ Bender (1990), p. 75

Jump up ^ Wertheim (1997), p. 249

Jump up ^ Crane (1898), p. 44

Jump up ^ Halliburton (1989), p. 238

Jump up ^ Wolford (1989), p. 18

Jump up ^ Wolford (1989), p. 17

Jump up ^ Schaefer (1996), p. 315

Jump up ^ Dooley (1994), p. 68

^ Jump up to: a b Wolford (1989), p. 19

Jump up ^ Crane (1898), p. 16

Jump up ^ Crane (1898), pp. 25, 36, 43

Jump up ^ Halliburton (1989), p. 246

Jump up ^ Bender (1990), p. 69

Jump up ^ Wertheim (1997), p. 150

Jump up ^ Crane (1898), pp. 45–46. Two lines of Norton's first stanza ("But a comrade stood beside him, while his lifeblood ebbed away,/And bent with pitying glances, to hear what he might say") are missing in Crane's quotation, and it is disputed whether Crane accidentally misquoted or deliberately truncated the verse. (Jackson, David H. (1983). "Textual Questions Raised by Crane's 'Soldier of the Legion'". American Literature. 55 (1): 77–80. JSTOR 2925884. )

Jump up ^ Schaefer (1996), p. 300

Jump up ^ Schaefer (1996), pp. 302–303

Jump up ^ Schaefer (1996), p. 296

Jump up ^ Weatherford (1997), p. 216

Jump up ^ Wertheim (1994), p. 305

Jump up ^ Current Opinion, Volume 62. Current Literature Pub. Co., 1917.

Jump up ^ Weatherford (1997), p. 265

Jump up ^ Kent (1986), p. 145

tag: ol


document_title: Yuri Gagarin

question_text: when was the first person sent to space

question_tokens: when was the first person sent to space

text: Yuri Gagarin

text: Early life and education

text: Yuri Gagarin was born in the village of Klushino, near Gzhatsk (renamed Gagarin in 1968 after his death), on 9 March 1934.[1] His parents worked on a collective farm:[2] Alexey Ivanovich Gagarin as a carpenter and bricklayer, and Anna Timofeyevna Gagarina as a milkmaid.[note 2][3] Yuri was the third of four children: older brother Valentin, older sister Zoya, and younger brother Boris.[4]

text: Like millions of people in the Soviet Union, the Gagarin family suffered during Nazi occupation in World War II. Klushino was occupied in November 1941 during the German advance on Moscow, and an officer took over the Gagarin residence. The family was allowed to build a mud hut, approximately 3 by 3 metres (10 by 10 ft) inside, on the land behind their house, where they spent a year and nine months until the end of the occupation.[5] His two older siblings were deported by the Germans to Poland for slave labour in 1943, and did not return until after the war in 1945.[4][6] In 1946, the family moved to Gzhatsk, where Gagarin continued his secondary education.[5]

text: In 1950, Gagarin entered into an apprenticeship at age 16 as a foundryman at the Lyubertsy Steel Plant near Moscow,[4][6] and also enrolled at a local "young workers" school for seventh grade evening classes.[7] After graduating in 1951 from both the seventh grade and the vocational school with honours in moldmaking and foundry work,[7] he was selected for further training at the Saratov Industrial Technical School, where he studied tractors.[4][6][8] While in Saratov, Gagarin volunteered for weekend training as a Soviet air cadet at a local flying club, where he learned to fly — at first in a biplane and later in a Yak-18 trainer.[6][8] He also earned extra money as a part-time dock laborer on the Volga River.[5]

text: Soviet Air Force

text: After graduating from the technical school in 1955, the Soviet Army drafted Gagarin.[7] On a recommendation, Gagarin was sent to the First Chkalov Air Force Pilot's School in Orenburg, and soloed in a MiG-15 in 1957.[4][6][7] After graduation, he was assigned to the Luostari airbase in Murmansk Oblast, close to the Norwegian border, where terrible weather made flying risky. He became a Lieutenant in the Soviet Air Forces on 5 November 1957; on 6 November 1959 he received the rank of Senior Lieutenant.[9]

text: Soviet space program

text: Selection and training

text: In 1960, after an extensive search and selection process, Gagarin was chosen with 19 other pilots for the Soviet space program. Gagarin was further selected for an elite training group known as the Sochi Six, from which the first cosmonauts of the Vostok programme would be chosen. Gagarin and other prospective candidates were subjected to experiments designed to test physical and psychological endurance; he also underwent training for the upcoming flight. Out of the twenty selected, the eventual choices for the first launch were Gagarin and Gherman Titov due to their performance during training sessions as well as their physical characteristics — space was limited in the small Vostok cockpit, and both men were rather short. Gagarin was 1.57 metres (5 ft 2 in) tall.[2]

text: In August 1960, when Gagarin was one of 20 possible candidates, a Soviet Air Force doctor evaluated his personality as follows:

text: Modest; embarrasses when his humor gets a little too racy; high degree of intellectual development evident in Yuriy; fantastic memory; distinguishes himself from his colleagues by his sharp and far-ranging sense of attention to his surroundings; a well-developed imagination; quick reactions; persevering, prepares himself painstakingly for his activities and training exercises, handles celestial mechanics and mathematical formulae with ease as well as excels in higher mathematics; does not feel constrained when he has to defend his point of view if he considers himself right; appears that he understands life better than a lot of his friends.[10]

text: Gagarin was also a favoured candidate by his peers. When the 20 candidates were asked to anonymously vote for which other candidate they would like to see as the first to fly, all but three chose Gagarin.[11] One of these candidates, Yevgeny Khrunov, believed that Gagarin was very focused, and was demanding of himself and others when necessary.[12]

text: Gagarin kept physically fit throughout his life, and was a keen sportsman. Cosmonaut Valery Bykovsky wrote:

text: Service in the Air Force made us strong, both physically and morally. All of us cosmonauts took up sports and PT seriously when we served in the Air Force. I know that Yuri Gagarin was fond of ice hockey. He liked to play goal keeper... I don't think I am wrong when I say that sports became a fixture in the life of the cosmonauts.[13]

text: In addition to being a keen ice hockey player, Gagarin was also a basketball fan, and coached the Saratov Industrial Technical School team, as well as being a referee.[14]

text: Vostok 1

text: On 12 April 1961, the Vostok 3KA-3 (Vostok 1) spacecraft with Gagarin aboard was launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome. Gagarin thus became both the first human to travel into space, and the first to orbit the Earth. His call sign was Kedr (Russian: Кедр, Siberian pine or Cedar).[15]

text:
Poyekhali!

Gagarin's voice

Problems playing this file? See media help.

text: The radio communication between the launch control room and Gagarin included the following dialogue at the moment of rocket launch:

text: Korolev: "Preliminary stage..... intermediate..... main..... lift off! We wish you a good flight. Everything is all right."

text: Gagarin: "Поехали!" (Poyekhali!—Let's go!).[16]

text: Gagarin's informal poyekhali! became a historical phrase in the Eastern Bloc, used to refer to the beginning of the Space Age in human history.[17][18]

text: In his post-flight report, Gagarin recalled his experience of spaceflight, having been the first human in space:

text: The feeling of weightlessness was somewhat unfamiliar compared with Earth conditions. Here, you feel as if you were hanging in a horizontal position in straps. You feel as if you are suspended.[19]

text: Following the flight, Gagarin told the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev that during reentry he had whistled the tune "The Motherland Hears, The Motherland Knows" (Russian: "Родина слышит, Родина знает").[20][21] The first two lines of the song are: "The Motherland hears, the Motherland knows/Where her son flies in the sky".[22] This patriotic song was written by Dmitri Shostakovich in 1951 (opus 86), with words by Yevgeniy Dolmatovsky.

text: Some sources have claimed that Gagarin commented during the flight, "I don't see any God up here." However, no such words appear in the verbatim record of his conversations with Earth-based stations during the spaceflight.[23] In a 2006 interview, Gagarin's friend Colonel Valentin Petrov stated that the cosmonaut never said such words, and that the quote originated from Nikita Khrushchev's speech at the plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU about the state's anti-religion campaign, saying "Gagarin flew into space, but didn't see any god there."[24] Petrov also said that Gagarin had been baptised into the Orthodox Church as a child, and a 2011 Foma magazine article quoted the rector of the Orthodox church in Star City saying, "Gagarin baptized his elder daughter Yelena shortly before his space flight; and his family used to celebrate Christmas and Easter and keep icons in the house."[25]

text: After the Soviet space program

text: Gagarin's flight was a triumph for the Soviet space program. The announcement on the Soviet radio was made by Yuri Levitan, the same speaker who announced all major events in the Great Patriotic War. Gagarin became a national hero of the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc, and a worldwide celebrity. Newspapers around the globe published his biography and details of his flight. Moscow and other cities in the USSR held mass demonstrations, the scale of which was second only to World War II Victory Parades. Gagarin was escorted in a long motorcade of high-ranking officials through the streets of Moscow to the Kremlin where, in a lavish ceremony, he was awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union, by Nikita Khrushchev.[26]

text: Later on, Gagarin toured widely abroad. He visited Italy, Germany, Canada, Brazil, Japan, Egypt[27] and Finland to promote the Soviet Union's accomplishment of putting the first human in space. He visited the United Kingdom three months after the Vostok 1 mission, going to London and Manchester.[28][29]

text: The sudden rise to fame took its toll on Gagarin. While acquaintances say Gagarin had been a "sensible drinker", his touring schedule placed him in social situations where he was always expected to drink. Gagarin was also reportedly caught by his wife in a room with another woman, a nurse named Anna who had aided him after a boating incident earlier in the day, at a Black Sea resort in September 1961. He attempted to escape by leaving through a window and jumping off her second floor balcony, hitting his face on a kerbstone and leaving a permanent scar above his left eyebrow.[4][8]

text: In 1962, he began serving as a Deputy to the Soviet of the Union,[30] and was elected to the Central Committee of the Young Communist League. He later returned to Star City, the cosmonaut facility, where he spent several years working on designs for a reusable spacecraft. He became a lieutenant colonel of the Soviet Air Forces on 12 June 1962, and received the rank of colonel on 6 November 1963.[9] Soviet officials tried to keep him away from any flights, being worried of losing their hero in an accident. Gagarin was backup pilot for his friend Vladimir Komarov in the Soyuz 1 flight, which was launched despite Gagarin's protests that additional safety precautions were necessary.[31] When Komarov's flight ended in a fatal crash, Gagarin was permanently banned from training for and participating in further spaceflights.

text: On 20 December 1963, Gagarin had become Deputy Training Director of the Star City cosmonaut training base.[32] Two years later he was re-elected as a deputy to the SSSU, but this time to the Soviet of Nationalities.[30] Next year he began to re-qualify as a fighter pilot.[33] On 17 February 1968 he successfully defended his aerospace engineering thesis on the subject of spaceplane aerodynamic configuration, passing with flying colors.[34][35]

text: Death

text: On 27 March 1968, while on a routine training flight from Chkalovsky Air Base, he and flight instructor Vladimir Seryogin died in a MiG-15UTI crash near the town of Kirzhach. The bodies of Gagarin and Seryogin were cremated and the ashes were buried in the walls of the Kremlin on Red Square.

text: Gagarin is survived by his wife Valentina, and daughters Yelena and Galina.

text: Cause of jet crash

text: The cause of the crash that killed Gagarin is not entirely certain, and has been subject to speculation about conspiracy theories over the ensuing decades.

text: Soviet documents declassified in March 2003 showed that the KGB had conducted their own investigation of the accident, in addition to one government and two military investigations. The KGB's report dismissed various conspiracy theories, instead indicating that the actions of airbase personnel contributed to the crash. The report states that an air traffic controller provided Gagarin with outdated weather information, and that by the time of his flight, conditions had deteriorated significantly. Ground crew also left external fuel tanks attached to the aircraft. Gagarin's planned flight activities needed clear weather and no outboard tanks. The investigation concluded that Gagarin's aircraft entered a spin, either due to a bird strike or because of a sudden move to avoid another aircraft. Because of the out-of-date weather report, the crew believed their altitude to be higher than it actually was, and could not react properly to bring the MiG-15 out of its spin.[36]

text: Another theory, advanced by the original crash investigator in 2005, hypothesizes that a cabin air vent was accidentally left open by the crew or the previous pilot, leading to oxygen deprivation and leaving the crew incapable of controlling the aircraft.[37] A similar theory, published in Air & Space magazine, is that the crew detected the open vent and followed procedure by executing a rapid dive to a lower altitude. This dive caused them to lose consciousness and crash.[38]

text: On 12 April 2007, the Kremlin vetoed a new investigation into the death of Gagarin. Government officials said that they saw no reason to begin a new investigation.[39]

text: In April 2011, documents from a 1968 commission set up by the Central Committee of the Communist Party to investigate the accident were declassified. Those documents revealed that the commission's original conclusion was that Gagarin or Seryogin had maneuvered sharply either to avoid a weather balloon, leading the jet into a "super-critical flight regime and to its stalling in complex meteorological conditions," or to avoid "entry into the upper limit of the first layer of cloud cover".[40]

text: In his 2004 book Two Sides of the Moon, Alexey Leonov, who was part of a State Commission established to investigate the death in 1968, recounts that he was flying a helicopter in the same area that day when he heard "two loud booms in the distance." Corroborating other theories, his conclusion is that a Sukhoi jet (which he identifies as a Su-15 'Flagon') was flying below its minimum allowed altitude, and "without realizing it because of the terrible weather conditions, he passed within 10 or 20 meters of Yuri and Seregin's plane while breaking the sound barrier." The resulting turbulence would have sent the MiG into an uncontrolled spin. Leonov believes the first boom he heard was that of the jet breaking the sound barrier, and the second was Gagarin's plane crashing.[41] In a June 2013 interview with Russian television network RT, Leonov said that a declassified report on the incident revealed the presence of a second, "unauthorized" Su-15 flying in the area. Leonov states that this aircraft had descended to 450 metres (1,480 ft) and that, while running afterburners, "the aircraft reduced its echelon at a distance of 10–15 meters in the clouds, passing close to Gagarin, turning his plane and thus sending it into a tailspin – a deep spiral, to be precise – at a speed of 750 kilometers per hour." As a condition of being allowed to discuss the report, however, Leonov was required to not disclose the name of the other pilot, who was reported to be 80 years old (as of 2013) and in poor health.[42][43]

text: Personal life

text: In 1957, while at the First Chkalov Air Force Pilot's School in Orenburg, Gagarin met Valentina Ivanovna Goryacheva,[3] a medical technician graduate of the Orenburg Medical School.[6][8] They were married on 7 November 1957, the same day Gagarin graduated from Orenburg, and they have two daughters.[3][6]

text: Yelena Yurievna Gagarina is an art historian who has worked as the Director-General of the Moscow Kremlin Museums since 2001.[44][45]

text: Galina Yurievna Gagarina is a professor of economics and the department chair at Plekhanov Russian University of Economics in Moscow.[44][46]

text: Legacy and tributes

text: Legacy

text: Aside from his short stature at 1.57 metres (5 ft 2 in), one of Gagarin's most notable traits was his smile.[47] Many commented on how Gagarin's smile gained the attention of crowds on the frequent tours he did in the months after the Vostok 1 mission success.[29]

text: Gagarin also garnered a reputation as an adept public figure. When he visited Manchester in the United Kingdom, it was pouring rain. However, Gagarin insisted that the convertible top remain down so that the cheering crowds could catch a glimpse of him. Gagarin stated, "If all these people have turned out to welcome me and can stand in the rain, so can I." Gagarin refused an umbrella and remained standing in his open-top Bentley so that the cheering crowds could still see him.[29]

text: Sergei Korolev, one of the masterminds behind the early years of the Soviet space program, later said that Gagarin possessed a smile "that lit up the Cold War".[48]

text: Tributes

text: 12 April, the date of Gagarin's space flight, has been commemorated as a special date. Since 1962, it has been celebrated in the USSR and later in Russia and other post-Soviet states as the Cosmonautics Day. In 2011 it was declared the International Day of Human Space Flight by the United Nations.[49]

text: Since 2001, Yuri's Night, an international celebration, is held every 12 April to commemorate milestones in space exploration.

text: A number of buildings and other sites on Earth have been named for Gagarin. The Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City was named in 1969. The launch pad at Baikonur Cosmodrome from which Sputnik 1 and Vostok 1 were launched, is now known as Gagarin's Start. Gagarin Raion in the Sevastopol city (Ukraine) was named after him during the period of the Soviet Union. The Air Force Academy was renamed Gagarin Air Force Academy in 1968.

text: Gagarin has been honored on the Moon by both astronauts and astronomers. He was honored by the American space program during Apollo 11 in 1969 when astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin left a memorial satchel containing medals commemorating Gagarin and fellow cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov on the surface.[50][51] In 1971, Apollo 15 astronauts David Scott and James Irwin left the Fallen Astronaut at their landing site as a memorial to all the American astronauts and Soviet cosmonauts who died in the Space Race, with Yuri Gagarin listed among 14 others.[52][53] He is memorialized by the official naming of a 265 km crater on the Far Side after him.

text: Several statues have been erected in his honor.

text: On 4 June 1980, a monument to Gagarin was opened on Gagarin Square in Leninsky Avenue, Moscow. The monument is 42.4 m tall and constructed of titanium. Beside the column is a replica of the descent module used by Gagarin.

text: In 2011 a statue, Yuri Gagarin, was unveiled at the Admiralty Arch end of The Mall in London, opposite the permanent sculpture of James Cook. It is a copy of the statue outside Gagarin's former school in Lyubertsy.[54] In 2013 the statue was moved to a permanent location outside the Royal Observatory in Greenwich.[55]

text: In 2012, a statue was unveiled at the site of NASA's original spaceflight headquarters on South Wayside Drive in Houston. The sculpture, completed in 2011 by artist/cosmonaut Alexsei Leonov, was a gift to Houston by various Russian organisations. Houston Mayor Annise Parker, NASA Administrator Charles Bolden, and Russian Ambassador Sergey Kislyak were present for the dedication.[56]

text: Gagarin is memorialized in music, including a cycle of Soviet patriotic songs The Constellation Gagarin (Russian: Созвездье Гагарина, tr. Sozvezdie Gagarina) was written by Alexandra Pakhmutova and Nikolai Dobronravov in 1970–1971.[57] The most famous of these songs referred to Gagarin's poyekhali!: He said "let's go!" He waved his hand.[17][57] He was the inspiration for the pieces "Hey Gagarin" by Jean Michel Jarre (on Métamorphoses), "Gagarin" by Public Service Broadcasting, and "Gagarin, I loved you" by Undervud.

text: Vessels have been named for him. Soviet tracking ship Kosmonavt Yuri Gagarin was built in 1971. Armenian airline Armavia named their first Sukhoi Superjet 100 in Gagarin's honour in 2011.[58]

text: There were two commemorative coins issued in the Soviet Union to honour the 20th and 30th anniversaries of his flight: 1 ruble coin (1981, copper-nickel) and 3 ruble coin (1991, silver). In 2001, to commemorate the 40th anniversary of Gagarin's flight, a series of four coins bearing his likeness was issued in Russia: 2 ruble coin (copper-nickel), 3 ruble coin (silver), 10 ruble coin (brass-copper, nickel), and 100 ruble coin (silver).[59] In 2011, Russia issued a 1,000 ruble coin (gold) and 3 ruble coin (silver) to mark the 50th anniversary of his flight.[60]

text: In 2008, the Kontinental Hockey League named their championship trophy the Gagarin Cup.[61] In a 2010 Space Foundation survey, Gagarin was ranked as the #6 most popular space hero, tied with Star Trek's fictional Capt. James T. Kirk.[62] The Russian docudrama, Gagarin: First in Space, was released in 2013.

text: 50th anniversary

text: The 50th anniversary of Gagarin's journey into space was marked in 2011 by tributes around the world. A film titled First Orbit was shot from the International Space Station, combining the original flight audio with footage of the route taken by Gagarin.[63] The Russian, American, and Italian Expedition 27 crew aboard the ISS sent a special video message to wish the people of the world a "Happy Yuri's Night", wearing shirts with an image of Gagarin.[64]

text: Swiss-based German watchmaker Bernhard Lederer created a limited edition of 50 Gagarin Tourbillons to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Yuri Gagarin's flight.[65]

text: The launch of Soyuz TMA-21 on 4 April 2011 was devoted to the 50th anniversary of the first manned space mission.[66]

text: Honours and awards

text:
Jubilee Medal "40 Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR" (USSR, 1958)
Hero of the Soviet Union (14 April 1961)
Order of Lenin (USSR, 14 April 1961)
Hero of Socialist Labour (Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, 29 April 1961)
Hero of Socialist Labour, (People's Republic of Bulgaria, 24 May 1961)
Order of Georgi Dimitrov (Bulgaria, 24 May 1961)
Order of the Star of Indonesia, 2nd Class (Indonesia, 10 June 1961)
Cross of Grunwald, 1st class (Poland, 20 June 1961)
Pilot-Cosmonaut of the USSR (27 June 1961)
The first Commander of the Order of Playa Girón (Cuba, 18 July 1961)
"For achievements in aeronautics" (Brazil, 2 August 1961)
Order of the Southern Cross (Brazil, 3 August 1961)[67]
Order of the Flag of the Hungarian Republic, 1st class with diamonds (Hungary, 21 August 1961)
Honored Master of Sports of the USSR (1961, title obtained as a reward for a space flight)
Military Pilot 1st Class (1961, awarded the qualification of space flight)
Gold Medal of the British Interplanetary Society, 1961
Honorary suvorovets (Moscow Suvorov Military School, 1962)
Order of the Nile (Egypt, 31 January 1962)
Order of the African Star (Liberia, 6 February 1962)
Hero of Labour, (Democratic Republic of Vietnam, 28 April 1962)
Gold Medal of the Austrian Government, 1962
Honorary president of the Soviet-Cuban friendship society
Honorary Member of the Society, "the Finland-Soviet Union"
Order of Karl Marx (German Democratic Republic, 22 October 1963)
Jubilee Medal "Twenty Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945" (USSR, 9 May 1965)
Medal "For Impeccable Service", 3rd class (Soviet Union, March 1966)
Honorary member of the International Academy of Astronautics (1966)
Order of Klement Gottwald (Czechoslovak Socialist Republic)
Jubilee Medal "50 Years of the Armed Forces of the USSR" (USSR, January 1968)
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky Gold Medal "for outstanding work in the field of interplanetary communications" (USSR)
Medal of de Lavaux (FAI)
Gold medal and diploma "Man in Space", the Italian Association of Space
Gold Medal "For outstanding difference" and the Royal Aero Club Diploma, Sweden
Medal of Columbus (Italy)
Gold Medal of Saint-Denis (France)
Gold Medal Award "for courage" of the Fund Matstsotti (Italy), 2007

text: and others.

text: Yuri Gagarin was elected an honorary citizen of the following cities:

text:
USSR: Kaluga, Novozybkov, Klintsy, Novocherkassk, Lyubertsy, Sumqayit (in modern-day Azerbaijan), Smolensk, Vinnytsia (in modern-day Ukraine), Sevastopol (in Crimea), Saratov, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, Tyumen
Russia: Orenburg[68]
Bulgaria: Sofia, Pernik, Plovdiv
Greece: Athens
Cyprus: Famagusta, Limassol
France: Saint-Denis
Czechoslovakia: Trenčianske Teplice

text: He was also awarded the golden keys to the gates of the Egyptian cities Cairo and Alexandria.