document_title: List of Florida's highest points

question_text: what is the highest point in south florida

text: List of Florida's highest points

text: This list of Florida's highest points catalogs the highest locations in the state of Florida in a table which may be sorted by point name, elevation, range/region, or county.

text: The majority of Florida’s named highest points reside in Holmes, Walton, and Washington counties, in the sub-Piedmont highlands of northern Florida. The highest points in peninsular Florida are found along the Lake Wales Ridge, running through the central portion of the peninsula, and the Brooksville Ridge, which parallels the northwestern coast of the peninsula.

text: Geographic points (permanent earthworks) of human origin are also included below. For range/region, these points are designated as "N/A, Artificial".

text:
Point
Elevation (ft)
Range/Region
County
Geographic Coordinates

Britton Hill
345 feet (105 m)
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°59′18″N 86°16′55″W / 30.988333°N 86.281944°W / 30.988333; -86.281944 (Britton Hill)

Oak Hill
331
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°41′46″N 85°27′51″W / 30.696143°N 85.464037°W / 30.696143; -85.464037 (Oak Hill)

High Hill
323
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°43′53″N 85°29′07″W / 30.731389°N 85.485278°W / 30.731389; -85.485278 (High Hill)

Falling Waters Hill
318
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°43′53″N 85°32′06″W / 30.73131°N 85.535°W / 30.73131; -85.535 (Falling Waters Hill)

Sugarloaf Mountain
312
Lake Wales Ridge
Lake County
28°38′58″N 81°43′59″W / 28.649441°N 81.733132°W / 28.649441; -81.733132 (Sugarloaf Mountain)

Unnamed Peak south of Camp Lake
310
Lake Wales Ridge
Lake County
28°35′55″N 81°43′46″W / 28.598709°N 81.729345°W / 28.598709; -81.729345 (Unnamed Peak south of Camp Lake)

Unnamed Peak east of Jacks Lake
307
Lake Wales Ridge
Lake County
28°33′22″N 81°43′06″W / 28.55622°N 81.71830°W / 28.55622; -81.71830 (Unnamed Peak east of Jacks Lake)

Danley Hill
305
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°58′25″N 86°11′46″W / 30.97351°N 86.196°W / 30.97351; -86.196 (Danley Hill)

Clay Hill (Pasco County High Point)
301
Brooksville Ridge
Pasco County
28°25′38″N 82°15′42″W / 28.42723°N 82.26164°W / 28.42723; -82.26164 (Pasco County High Point)

Polk County High Point
300+
Lake Wales Ridge
Polk County
27°48′32″N 81°32′18″W / 27.8089°N 81.538405°W / 27.8089; -81.538405 (Polk County High Point)
Orange Hill
300+
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°40′26″N 85°30′34″W / 30.67385°N 85.50937°W / 30.67385; -85.50937 (Orange Hill)

Iron Mountain
295
Lake Wales Ridge
Polk County
27°56′09″N 81°34′38″W / 27.93583°N 81.577359°W / 27.93583; -81.577359 (Iron Mountain)

Mount Pleasant
295
Northern Florida Highlands
Gadsden County
30°39′25″N 84°41′28″W / 30.657°N 84.691°W / 30.657; -84.691 (Mount Pleasant)

Sandy Mountain
295
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°39′45″N 86°17′02″W / 30.6624°N 86.284°W / 30.6624; -86.284 (Sandy Mountain)

Mud Hill
285
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°37′05″N 85°37′13″W / 30.61810°N 85.62017°W / 30.61810; -85.62017 (Mud Hill)

Hudson Hill
282
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°51′28″N 85°56′19″W / 30.85784°N 85.93856°W / 30.85784; -85.93856 (Hudson Hill)

Sexton Hill
282
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°36′40″N 85°34′12″W / 30.61110°N 85.56991°W / 30.61110; -85.56991 (Sexton Hill)

Fox Hill
276
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°49′26″N 86°17′36″W / 30.82387°N 86.29327°W / 30.82387; -86.29327 (Fox Hill)

Weaver Hill
276
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°37′08″N 85°38′16″W / 30.61889°N 85.63783°W / 30.61889; -85.63783 (Weaver Hill)

Sand Mountain
272
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°33′33″N 85°31′34″W / 30.559167°N 85.526111°W / 30.559167; -85.526111 (Sand Mountain)

Unnamed Peak southeast of Brooksville
270+
Brooksville Ridge
Hernando County
28°30′08″N 82°21′38″W / 28.50213°N 82.36059°W / 28.50213; -82.36059 (Unnamed Peak southeast of Brooksville)

Chinsegut Hill
269
Brooksville Ridge
Hernando County
28°37′09″N 82°21′52″W / 28.619158°N 82.364537°W / 28.619158; -82.364537 (Chinsegut Hill)

Chalk Hill
269
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°34′23″N 85°33′30″W / 30.57297°N 85.55826°W / 30.57297; -85.55826 (Chalk Hill)

Munden Hill
262
Brooksville Ridge
Hernando County
28°32′39″N 82°18′20″W / 28.54415°N 82.30550°W / 28.54415; -82.30550 (Munden Hill)

Tate Hill
262
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°51′30″N 85°55′41″W / 30.85829°N 85.92819°W / 30.85829; -85.92819 (Tate Hill)

Brownell Hill
259
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°49′41″N 85°55′37″W / 30.82797°N 85.92681°W / 30.82797; -85.92681 (Brownell Hill)

Reynolds Hill
256
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°50′29″N 85°57′20″W / 30.84150°N 85.95555°W / 30.84150; -85.95555 (Reynolds Hill)

Frazee Hill
251
Brooksville Ridge
Pasco County
28°23′47″N 82°12′36″W / 28.39627°N 82.21006°W / 28.39627; -82.21006 (Frazee Hill)

Bunker Hill
249
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°47′45″N 85°58′25″W / 30.79597°N 85.97360°W / 30.79597; -85.97360 (Bunker Hill)

Corbett Hill
249
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°58′18″N 85°37′59″W / 30.97157°N 85.63318°W / 30.97157; -85.63318 (Corbett Hill)

Le Heup Hill
243
Brooksville Ridge
Pasco County
28°18′49″N 82°12′04″W / 28.313523°N 82.201174°W / 28.313523; -82.201174 (Le Heup Hill)

Nursery Hill
243
Brooksville Ridge
Pasco County
28°19′03″N 82°11′58″W / 28.31746°N 82.19935°W / 28.31746; -82.19935 (Nursery Hill)

Murphy Hill
243
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°58′24″N 85°34′33″W / 30.97330°N 85.57594°W / 30.97330; -85.57594 (Murphy Hill)

Ray Hill
240+
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°39′34″N 85°57′30″W / 30.65949°N 85.95832°W / 30.65949; -85.95832 (Ray Hill)

Hickory Hill
300
Brooksville Ridge
Hernando County
28°17′03″N 82°10′29″W / 28.28404°N 82.17478°W / 28.28404; -82.17478 (Hickory Hill)

Balcom Hill
240
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°58′59″N 85°33′47″W / 30.98304°N 85.56316°W / 30.98304; -85.56316 (Balcom Hill)

Riley Hill
240
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°58′32″N 85°33′49″W / 30.97562°N 85.56367°W / 30.97562; -85.56367 (Riley Hill)

Jackson Hill
236
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°50′39″N 85°56′26″W / 30.84429°N 85.94066°W / 30.84429; -85.94066 (Jackson Hill)

McIntosh Hill
233
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°56′48″N 85°35′00″W / 30.94663°N 85.58341°W / 30.94663; -85.58341 (McIntosh Hill)

Nancy Padgett Hill
233
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°48′30″N 85°59′49″W / 30.80833°N 85.99707°W / 30.80833; -85.99707 (Nancy Padgett Hill)

Citrus County High Point
230+
Brooksville Ridge
Citrus County
28°53′40″N 82°26′41″W / 28.894434°N 82.444612°W / 28.894434; -82.444612 (Citrus County High Point)

Coates Hill
230
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°59′15″N 85°41′16″W / 30.98743°N 85.68764°W / 30.98743; -85.68764 (Coates Hill)

Marsh Hill
230
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°56′41″N 85°35′50″W / 30.94463°N 85.59715°W / 30.94463; -85.59715 (Marsh Hill)

Texas Hill
230
Northern Florida Highlands
Jefferson County
30°33′24″N 83°52′19″W / 30.55653°N 83.87184°W / 30.55653; -83.87184 (Texas Hill)

Mount Trashmore
225
N/A, Artificial
Broward County
26°17′01″N 80°09′42″W / 26.28349°N 80.16166°W / 26.28349; -80.16166 (Mt Trashmore)

Greer Hill
223
Brooksville Ridge
Pasco County
28°17′48″N 82°11′20″W / 28.29674°N 82.18899°W / 28.29674; -82.18899 (Greer Hill)

Crater Hill
220
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°56′52″N 85°36′13″W / 30.94780°N 85.60367°W / 30.94780; -85.60367 (Crater Hill)

Kirk Hill
213
Brooksville Ridge
Hernando County
28°35′05″N 82°18′27″W / 28.58479°N 82.30763°W / 28.58479; -82.30763 (Kirk Hill)

Brown Hill
213
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°58′20″N 85°35′29″W / 30.97230°N 85.59142°W / 30.97230; -85.59142 (Brown Hill)

Smothers Hill
213
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°54′44″N 85°35′26″W / 30.91211°N 85.59049°W / 30.91211; -85.59049 (Smothers Hill)

Taylor Hill
213
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°57′21″N 85°38′40″W / 30.95571°N 85.64441°W / 30.95571; -85.64441 (Taylor Hill)

Bailey Hill
210
Brooksville Ridge
Hernando County
28°36′07″N 82°28′44″W / 28.60203°N 82.47889°W / 28.60203; -82.47889 (Bailey Hill)

Stokes Hill
203
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°56′25″N 85°36′43″W / 30.94037°N 85.61195°W / 30.94037; -85.61195 (Stokes Hill)

Blackburn Hill
200
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°56′27″N 85°39′18″W / 30.94090°N 85.65497°W / 30.94090; -85.65497 (Blackburn Hill)

Sixteenth Hill
200
Northern Florida Highlands
Jackson County
30°44′29″N 84°56′13″W / 30.74141°N 84.93707°W / 30.74141; -84.93707 (Sixteenth Hill)

Saddle Hill
194
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°46′49″N 85°55′17″W / 30.78023°N 85.92128°W / 30.78023; -85.92128 (Saddle Hill)

Big Hill
190
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°40′57″N 85°46′28″W / 30.68247°N 85.77443°W / 30.68247; -85.77443 (Big Hill)

Bunker Hill
186
Lake Wales Ridge
Osceola County
28°19′20″N 81°35′56″W / 28.32219°N 81.59901°W / 28.32219; -81.59901 (Bunker Hill)

Dykes Hill
184
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°36′12″N 85°58′33″W / 30.60331°N 85.97576°W / 30.60331; -85.97576 (Dykes Hill)

McKinnon Hill
184
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°36′10″N 85°57′30″W / 30.60286°N 85.95837°W / 30.60286; -85.95837 (McKinnon Hill)

Tucker Hill
180
Brooksville Ridge
Hernando County
28°35′35″N 82°17′49″W / 28.59294°N 82.29703°W / 28.59294; -82.29703 (Tucker Hill)

Worley Hill
180
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°53′12″N 85°36′46″W / 30.88665°N 85.61269°W / 30.88665; -85.61269 (Worley Hill)

Laurel Hill
177
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°35′32″N 85°55′48″W / 30.59221°N 85.93006°W / 30.59221; -85.93006 (Laurel Hill)

Big Hill
174
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°36′02″N 85°57′02″W / 30.60059°N 85.95057°W / 30.60059; -85.95057 (Big Hill)

Hudson Hill
174
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°34′14″N 85°40′53″W / 30.57050°N 85.68130°W / 30.57050; -85.68130 (Hudson Hill)

Morrison Hill
174
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°45′33″N 85°57′30″W / 30.75919°N 85.95845°W / 30.75919; -85.95845 (Morrison Hill)

Hunter Hill
171
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°36′04″N 85°56′27″W / 30.60105°N 85.94092°W / 30.60105; -85.94092 (Hunter Hill)

Nearing Hill
164
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°45′22″N 85°33′15″W / 30.75599°N 85.55430°W / 30.75599; -85.55430 (Nearing Hill)

Haddock Hill
161
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°38′00″N 85°39′30″W / 30.63345°N 85.65836°W / 30.63345; -85.65836 (Haddock Hill)

Poplar Head Hill
161
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°43′47″N 85°39′07″W / 30.72986°N 85.65196°W / 30.72986; -85.65196 (Poplar Head Hill)

Sheep Hill
161
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°43′29″N 85°55′03″W / 30.72481°N 85.91750°W / 30.72481; -85.91750 (Sheep Hill)

Long Pond Hill
154
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°43′38″N 85°58′08″W / 30.72715°N 85.96899°W / 30.72715; -85.96899 (Long Pond Hill)

Sand Hill
154
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°46′58″N 85°32′56″W / 30.78272°N 85.54886°W / 30.78272; -85.54886 (Sand Hill)

Reynold Hill
151
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°54′09″N 85°53′34″W / 30.90246°N 85.89269°W / 30.90246; -85.89269 (Reynold Hill)

Saint Paul Hill
148
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°40′54″N 85°56′32″W / 30.68170°N 85.94215°W / 30.68170; -85.94215 (Saint Paul Hill)

Scrub Hill
144
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°34′23″N 86°08′41″W / 30.57316°N 86.14470°W / 30.57316; -86.14470 (Scrub Hill)

Hickory Hill
131
Northern Florida Highlands
Jackson County
30°37′01″N 84°56′03″W / 30.61696°N 84.93420°W / 30.61696; -84.93420 (Hickory Hill)

Hicks Hill
131
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°51′51″N 85°35′13″W / 30.86408°N 85.58695°W / 30.86408; -85.58695 (Hicks Hill)

Mill Spring Hill
131
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°50′59″N 85°53′36″W / 30.84965°N 85.89340°W / 30.84965; -85.89340 (Mill Spring Hill)

Old Hammock Hill
131
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°57′09″N 85°40′51″W / 30.95260°N 85.68097°W / 30.95260; -85.68097 (Old Hammock Hill)

Steep Hollow Hill
128
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°41′33″N 85°50′53″W / 30.69246°N 85.84819°W / 30.69246; -85.84819 (Steep Hollow Hill)

Hogan Hill
108
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°36′11″N 85°56′01″W / 30.60308°N 85.93371°W / 30.60308; -85.93371 (Hogan Hill)

Crawford Hill
105
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°35′45″N 85°55′36″W / 30.59587°N 85.92665°W / 30.59587; -85.92665 (Crawford Hill)

Bess Nook
92
Northern Florida Highlands
Washington County
30°43′07″N 85°44′03″W / 30.71855°N 85.73426°W / 30.71855; -85.73426 (Bess Nook)

Skyline Drive
80
Atlantic Coastal Ridge
Martin County
27°15′09″N 80°14′00″W / 27.25251°N 80.23333°W / 27.25251; -80.23333 (Skyline Drive)

Slaughter Hill
79
Northern Florida Highlands
Holmes County
30°51′46″N 85°52′47″W / 30.86271°N 85.87971°W / 30.86271; -85.87971 (Slaughter Hill)

Blue Mountain
56
Northern Florida Highlands
Walton County
30°20′50″N 86°12′11″W / 30.34736°N 86.20315°W / 30.34736; -86.20315 (Blue Mountain)

Red Hill
49
Northern Florida Highlands
Liberty County
30°13′20″N 85°03′59″W / 30.22216°N 85.06626°W / 30.22216; -85.06626 (Red Hill)


document_title: Sympathetic nervous system

question_text: how does the sympathetic nervous system affect the lungs

root

text: Sympathetic nervous system

text: Structure[edit]

text: There are two kinds of neurons involved in the transmission of any signal through the sympathetic system: pre-ganglionic and post-ganglionic. The shorter preganglionic neurons originate from the thoracolumbar region of the spinal cord specifically at T1 to L2~L3, and travel to a ganglion, often one of the paravertebral ganglia, where they synapse with a postganglionic neuron. From there, the long postganglionic neurons extend across most of the body.[4]

tag: p

text: At the synapses within the ganglia, preganglionic neurons release acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter that activates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on postganglionic neurons. In response to this stimulus, the postganglionic neurons release norepinephrine, which activates adrenergic receptors that are present on the peripheral target tissues. The activation of target tissue receptors causes the effects associated with the sympathetic system. However, there are three important exceptions:[5]

text:
Postganglionic neurons of sweat glands release acetylcholine for the activation of muscarinic receptors, except for areas of thick skin, the palms and the plantar surfaces of the feet, where norepinephrine is released and acts on adrenergic receptors.
Chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla are analogous to post-ganglionic neurons; the adrenal medulla develops in tandem with the sympathetic nervous system and acts as a modified sympathetic ganglion. Within this endocrine gland, pre-ganglionic neurons synapse with chromaffin cells, triggering the release of two transmitters: a small proportion of norepinephrine, and more substantially, epinephrine. The synthesis and release of epinephrine as opposed to norepinephrine is another distinguishing feature of chromaffin cells compared to postganglionic sympathetic neurons.[6]
Postganglionic sympathetic nerves terminating in the kidney release dopamine, which acts on dopamine D1 receptors of blood vessels to control how much blood the kidney filters. Dopamine is the immediate metabolic precursor to norepinephrine, but is nonetheless a distinct signaling molecule.[7]

tag: ol

text: Organization[edit]

text: Sympathetic nerves arise from near the middle of the spinal cord in the intermediolateral nucleus of the lateral grey column, beginning at the first thoracic vertebra of the vertebral column and are thought to extend to the second or third lumbar vertebra. Because its cells begin in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord, the sympathetic nervous system is said to have a thoracolumbar outflow. Axons of these nerves leave the spinal cord through the anterior root.  They pass near the spinal (sensory) ganglion, where they enter the anterior rami of the spinal nerves. However, unlike somatic innervation, they quickly separate out through white rami connectors (so called from the shiny white sheaths of myelin around each axon) that connect to either the paravertebral (which lie near the vertebral column) or prevertebral (which lie near the aortic bifurcation) ganglia extending alongside the spinal column.

text: To reach target organs and glands, the axons must travel long distances in the body, and, to accomplish this, many axons relay their message to a second cell through synaptic transmission. The ends of the axons link across a space, the synapse, to the dendrites of the second cell.  The first cell (the presynaptic cell) sends a neurotransmitter across the synaptic cleft where it activates the second cell (the postsynaptic cell). The message is then carried to the final destination.

text: Presynaptic nerves' axons terminate in either the paravertebral ganglia or prevertebral ganglia. There are four different paths an axon can take before reaching its terminal. In all cases, the axon enters the paravertebral ganglion at the level of its originating spinal nerve. After this, it can then either synapse in this ganglion, ascend to a more superior or descend to a more inferior paravertebral ganglion and synapse there, or it can descend to a prevertebral ganglion and synapse there with the postsynaptic cell.

text: The postsynaptic cell then goes on to innervate the targeted end effector (i.e. gland, smooth muscle, etc.).  Because paravertebral and prevertebral ganglia are relatively close to the spinal cord, presynaptic neurons are generally much shorter than their postsynaptic counterparts, which must extend throughout the body to reach their destinations.

text: A notable exception to the routes mentioned above is the sympathetic innervation of the suprarenal (adrenal) medulla.  In this case, presynaptic neurons pass through paravertebral ganglia, on through prevertebral ganglia and then synapse directly with suprarenal tissue. This tissue consists of cells that have pseudo-neuron like qualities in that when activated by the presynaptic neuron, they will release their neurotransmitter (epinephrine) directly into the bloodstream.

text: In the sympathetic nervous system and other components of the peripheral nervous system, these synapses are made at sites called ganglia. The cell that sends its fiber is called a preganglionic cell, while the cell whose fiber leaves the ganglion is called a postganglionic cell. As mentioned previously, the preganglionic cells of the sympathetic nervous system are located between the first thoracic segment and third lumbar segments of the spinal cord. Postganglionic cells have their cell bodies in the ganglia and send their axons to target organs or glands.

text: The ganglia include not just the sympathetic trunks but also the cervical ganglia (superior, middle and inferior), which sends sympathetic nerve fibers to the head and thorax organs, and the celiac and mesenteric ganglia (which send sympathetic fibers to the gut).

text:
Autonomic nervous supply to organs in the human body edit

Organ
Nerves[8]
Spinal column origin[8]

stomach

PS: anterior and posterior vagal trunks
S: greater splanchnic nerves

T5,T6, T7, T8, T9, sometimes T10

duodenum

PS: vagus nerves
S: greater splanchnic nerves

T5, T6, T7, T8, T9, sometimes T10

jejunum and ileum

PS: posterior vagal trunks
S: greater splanchnic nerves

T5, T6, T7, T8, T9

spleen

S: greater splanchnic nerves

T6, T7, T8

gallbladder and liver

PS: vagus nerve
S: celiac plexus
right phrenic nerve

T6, T7, T8, T9

colon

PS: vagus nerves and pelvic splanchnic nerves
S: lesser and least splanchnic nerves

T10, T11, T12 (proximal colon)
L1, L2, L3,  (distal colon)

pancreatic head

PS: vagus nerves
S: thoracic splanchnic nerves

T8, T9

vermiform appendix

nerves to superior mesenteric plexus

T10

kidneys and ureters

PS: vagus nerve
S: thoracic and lumbar splanchnic nerves

T11, T12

tag: table

text: Information transmission[edit]

text: Messages travel through the sympathetic nervous system in a bi-directional flow. Efferent messages can trigger changes in different parts of the body simultaneously. For example, the sympathetic nervous system can accelerate heart rate; widen bronchial passages; decrease motility (movement) of the large intestine; constrict blood vessels; increase peristalsis in the oesophagus; cause pupillary dilation, piloerection (goose bumps) and perspiration (sweating); and raise blood pressure. One exception is with certain blood vessels such as those in the cerebral and coronary arteries, which dilate (rather than constrict) with an increase in sympathetic tone. This is because of a proportional increase in the presence of β2 adrenergic receptors rather than α1 receptors. β2 receptors promote vessel dilation instead of constriction like α1 receptors. An alternative explanation is that the primary (and direct) effect of sympathetic stimulation on coronary arteries is vasoconstriction followed by a secondary vasodilation caused by the release of vasodilatory metabolites due to the sympathetically increased cardiac inotropy and heart rate. This secondary vasodilation caused by the primary vasoconstriction is termed functional sympatholysis, the overall effect of which on coronary arteries is dilation.[9]

text: The target synapse of the postganglionic neuron is mediated by adrenergic receptors and is activated by either norepinephrine (noradrenaline) or epinephrine (adrenaline).

text: Function[edit]

text:
Examples of sympathetic system action on various organs[6] except where otherwise indicated.

Organ

Effect

Eye

Dilates

Heart

Increases rate and force of contraction

Lungs

Dilates bronchioles via circulating adrenaline[10]

Blood vessels

Dilate in skeletal muscle (in animals).[11]

Constricts in gastrointestinal organs

Sweat glands

Activates sweat secretion

Digestive tract

Inhibits peristalsis

Kidney

Increases renin secretion

Penis

Inhibits Tumescence

Ductus deferens

Promotes emission prior to ejaculation

text: The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for up- and down-regulating many homeostatic mechanisms in living organisms. Fibers from the SNS innervate tissues in almost every organ system, providing at least some regulation of functions as diverse as pupil diameter, gut motility, and urinary system output and function.[12] It is perhaps best known for mediating the neuronal and hormonal stress response commonly known as the fight-or-flight response. This response is also known as sympatho-adrenal response of the body, as the preganglionic sympathetic fibers that end in the adrenal medulla (but also all other sympathetic fibers) secrete acetylcholine, which activates the great secretion of adrenaline (epinephrine) and to a lesser extent noradrenaline (norepinephrine) from it. Therefore, this response that acts primarily on the cardiovascular system is mediated directly via impulses transmitted through the sympathetic nervous system and indirectly via catecholamines secreted from the adrenal medulla.

text: The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for priming the body for action, particularly in situations threatening survival.[13] One example of this priming is in the moments before waking, in which sympathetic outflow spontaneously increases in preparation for action.

text: Sympathetic nervous system stimulation causes vasoconstriction of most blood vessels, including many of those in the skin, the digestive tract, and the kidneys. This occurs as a result of activation of alpha-1 adrenergic receptors by norepinephrine released by post-ganglionic sympathetic neurons. These receptors exist throughout the vasculature of the body but are inhibited and counterbalanced by beta-2 adrenergic receptors (stimulated by epinephrine release from the adrenal glands) in the skeletal muscles, the heart, the lungs, and the brain during a sympathoadrenal response. The net effect of this is a shunting of blood away from the organs not necessary to the immediate survival of the organism and an increase in blood flow to those organs involved in intense physical activity.

text: Sensation[edit]

text: The afferent fibers of the autonomic nervous system, which transmit sensory information from the internal organs of the body back to the central nervous system (or CNS), are not divided into parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers as the efferent fibers are.[14]  Instead, autonomic sensory information is conducted by general visceral afferent fibers.

text: General visceral afferent sensations are mostly unconscious visceral motor reflex sensations from hollow organs and glands that are transmitted to the CNS.  While the unconscious reflex arcs normally are undetectable, in certain instances they may send pain sensations to the CNS masked as referred pain. If the peritoneal cavity becomes inflamed or if the bowel is suddenly distended, the body will interpret the afferent pain stimulus as somatic in origin. This pain is usually non-localized. The pain is also usually referred to dermatomes that are at the same spinal nerve level as the visceral afferent synapse.[citation needed]

text: Relationship with the parasympathetic nervous system[edit]

text: Together with the other component of the autonomic nervous system, the parasympathetic nervous system, the sympathetic nervous system aids in the control of most of the body's internal organs. Reaction to stress—as in the flight-or-fight response—is thought to counteract the parasympathetic system, which generally works to promote maintenance of the body at rest. The comprehensive functions of both the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems are not so straightforward, but this is a useful rule of thumb.[3][15]

text: Disorders[edit]

text: In heart failure, the sympathetic nervous system increases its activity, leading to increased force of muscular contractions that in turn increases the stroke volume, as well as peripheral vasoconstriction to maintain blood pressure. However, these effects accelerate disease progression, eventually increasing mortality in heart failure.[16]

text: Sympathicotonia is a stimulated[17] condition of the sympathetic nervous system, marked by vascular spasm,[18] elevated blood pressure,[18] and goose bumps.[18] A recent study has shown the expansion of Foxp3+ natural Treg in the bone marrow of mice after brain ischemia and this myeloid Treg expansion is related to sympathetic stress signaling after brain ischemia.[19]

text: History and etymology[edit]

text: The name of this system can be traced to the concept of sympathy, in the sense of "connection between parts", first used medically by Galen.[20] In the 18th century, Jacob B. Winslow applied the term specifically to nerves.[21]


document_title: Seed

question_text: the hard outer covering of a seed is called

question_tokens: the hard outer covering of a seed is called

text: Seed

text: Seed production[edit]

text: Seeds are produced in several related groups of plants, and their manner of production distinguishes the angiosperms ("enclosed seeds") from the gymnosperms ("naked seeds").  Angiosperm seeds are produced in a hard or fleshy structure called a fruit that encloses the seeds for protection in order to secure healthy growth. Some fruits have layers of both hard and fleshy material.  In gymnosperms, no special structure develops to enclose the seeds, which begin their development "naked" on the bracts of cones. However, the seeds do become covered by the cone scales as they develop in some species of conifer.

text: Seed production in natural plant populations varies widely from year to year in response to weather variables, insects and diseases, and internal cycles within the plants themselves.  Over a 20-year period, for example, forests composed of loblolly pine and shortleaf pine produced from 0 to nearly 5 million sound pine seeds per hectare.[1]  Over this period, there were six bumper, five poor, and nine good seed crops, when evaluated for production of adequate seedlings for natural forest reproduction.

text: Development[edit]

text: I Zygote II Proembryo III Globular      IV  Heart V  Torpedo VI  Mature Embryo

text: Angiosperm (flowering plants) seeds consist of three genetically distinct constituents: (1) the embryo formed from the zygote, (2) the endosperm, which is normally triploid, (3) the seed coat from tissue derived from the maternal tissue of the ovule. In angiosperms, the process of seed development begins with double fertilization, which involves the fusion of two male gametes with the egg cell and the central cell to form the primary endosperm and the zygote.  Right after fertilization, the zygote is mostly inactive, but the primary endosperm divides rapidly to form the endosperm tissue.  This tissue becomes the food the young plant will consume until the roots have developed after germination.

text: Ovule[edit]

text: After fertilization the ovules develop into the seeds. The ovule consists of a number of components:

text:
The funicle (funiculus, funiculi) or seed stalk which attaches the ovule to the placenta and hence ovary or fruit wall, at the pericarp.
The nucellus, the remnant of the  megasporangium and main region of the ovule where the megagametophyte develops.
The micropyle, a small pore or opening in the apex of the integument of the ovule where the pollen tube usually enters during the process of fertilization.
The chalaza, the base of the ovule opposite the micropyle, where integument and nucellus are joined together.[2]

tag: ul

text: The shape of the ovules as they develop often affects the final shape of the seeds.  Plants generally produce ovules of four shapes: the most common shape is called anatropous, with a curved shape. Orthotropous ovules are straight with all the parts of the ovule lined up in a long row producing an uncurved seed. Campylotropous ovules have a curved megagametophyte often giving the seed a tight "C" shape. The last ovule shape is called amphitropous, where the ovule is partly inverted and turned back 90 degrees on its stalk (the funicle or funiculus).

text: In the majority of flowering plants, the zygote's first division is transversely oriented in regards to the long axis, and this establishes the polarity of the embryo. The upper or chalazal pole becomes the main area of growth of the embryo, while the lower or micropylar pole produces the stalk-like suspensor that attaches to the micropyle. The suspensor absorbs and manufactures nutrients from the endosperm that are used during the embryo's growth.[3]

text: Embryo[edit]

text: The main components of the embryo are:

text:
The cotyledons, the seed leaves, attached to the embryonic axis. There may be one (Monocotyledons), or two (Dicotyledons). The cotyledons are also the source of nutrients in the non-endospermic dicotyledons, in which case they replace the endosperm, and are thick and leathery. In endospermic seeds the cotyledons are thin and papery. Dicotyledons have the point of attachment opposite one another on the axis.
The epicotyl, the  embryonic axis above the point of attachment of the cotyledon(s).
The plumule, the tip of the epicotyl, and has a feathery appearance due to the presence of young leaf primordia at the apex, and will become the shoot upon germination.
The hypocotyl, the embryonic axis below the point of attachment of the cotyledon(s), connecting the epicotyl and the radicle, being the stem-root transition zone.
The radicle, the basal tip of the hypocotyl, grows into the primary root.

text: Monocotyledonous plants have two additional structures in the form of sheaths. The plumule is covered with a coleoptile that forms the first leaf while the radicle is covered with a coleorhiza that connects to the primary root and adventitious roots form from the sides. Here the hypocotyl is a rudimentary axis between radicle and plumule. The seeds of corn are constructed with these structures; pericarp, scutellum (single large cotyledon) that absorbs nutrients from the endosperm, plumule, radicle, coleoptile and coleorhiza—these last two structures are sheath-like and enclose the plumule and radicle, acting as a protective covering.

text: Seed coat[edit]

text: The maturing ovule undergoes marked changes in the integuments, generally a reduction and disorganisation but occasionally a thickening. The seed coat forms from the two integuments or outer layers of cells of the ovule, which derive from tissue from the mother plant, the inner integument forms the tegmen and the outer forms the testa.  (The seed coats of some mononocotyledon plants, such as the grasses, are not distinct structures, but are fused with the fruit wall to form a pericarp.) The testae of both monocots and dicots are often marked with patterns and textured markings, or have wings or tufts of hair. When the seed coat forms from only one layer, it is also called the testa, though not all such testae are homologous from one species to the next. The funiculus abscises (detaches at fixed point – abscission zone), the scar forming an oval depression, the hilum. Anatropous ovules have a portion of the funiculus that is adnate (fused to the seed coat), and which forms a longitudinal ridge, or raphe, just above the hilum. In bitegmic ovules (e.g. Gossypium described here) both inner and outer integuments contribute to the seed coat formation. With continuing maturation the cells enlarge in the outer integument. While the inner epidermis may remain a single layer, it may also divide to produce two to three layers and accumulates starch, and is referred to as the colourless layer. By contrast the outer epidermis becomes tanniferous. The inner integument may consist of eight to fifteen layers. (Kozlowski 1972)

text: As the cells enlarge, and starch is deposited in the outer layers of the pigmented zone below the outer epidermis, this zone begins to lignify, while the cells of the outer epidermis enlarge radially and their walls thicken, with nucleus and cytoplasm compressed into the outer layer. these cells which are broader on their inner surface are called palisade cells. In the inner epidermis the cells also enlarge radially with plate like thickening of the walls. The mature inner integument has a palisade layer, a pigmented zone with 15-20 layers, while the innermost layer is known as the fringe layer. (Kozlowski 1972)

text: Gymnosperms[edit]

text: This section's factual accuracy is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced. (October 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: In gymnosperms, which do not form ovaries, the ovules and hence the seeds are exposed. This is the basis for their nomenclature – naked seeded plants. Two sperm cells transferred from the pollen do not develop the seed by double fertilization, but one sperm nucleus unites with the egg nucleus and the other sperm is not used.

text: [4] Sometimes each sperm fertilizes an egg cell and one zygote is then aborted or absorbed during early development.[5] The seed is composed of the embryo (the result of fertilization) and tissue from the mother plant, which also form a cone around the seed in coniferous plants such as pine and spruce.

text: Shape and appearance[edit]

text: A large number of terms are used to describe seed shapes, many of which are largely self-explanatory such as Bean-shaped (reniform) – resembling a kidney, with lobed ends on either side of the hilum, Square or Oblong – angular with all sides more or less equal or longer than wide, Triangular – three sided, broadest below middle, Elliptic or Ovate or Obovate – rounded at both ends, or egg shaped (ovate or obovate, broader at one end), being rounded but either symmetrical about the middle or broader below the middle or broader above the middle.[6]

text: Other less obvious terms include discoid (resembling a disc or plate, having both thickness and parallel faces and with a rounded margin), ellipsoid, globose (spherical), or subglobose (Inflated, but less than spherical), lenticular, oblong, ovoid, reniform and sectoroid. Striate seeds are striped with parallel, longitudinal lines or ridges. The commonest colours are brown and black, other colours are infrequent. The surface varies from highly polished to considerably roughened. The surface may have a variety of appendages (see Seed coat). A seed coat with the consistency of cork is referred to as suberose. Other terms include crustaceous (hard, thin or brittle).

text: Structure[edit]

text: A typical seed includes two basic parts:

text:
an embryo;
a seed coat.

text: In addition, the endosperm forms a supply of nutrients for the embryo in most monocotyledons and the endospermic dicotyledons.

text: Seed types[edit]

text: Seeds have been considered to occur in many structurally different types (Martin 1946).[7] These are based on a number of criteria, of which the dominant one is the embryo-to-seed size ratio. This reflects the degree to which the developing cotyledons absorb the nutrients of the endosperm, and thus obliterate it.[citation needed]

text: Six types occur amongst the monocotyledons, ten in the dicotyledons, and two in the gymnosperms (linear and spatulate).[8] This classification is based on three characteristics: embryo morphology, amount of endosperm and the position of the embryo relative to the endosperm.

text: Embryo[edit]

text: In endospermic seeds, there are two distinct regions inside the seed coat, an upper and larger endosperm and a lower smaller embryo. The embryo is the fertilised ovule, an immature plant from which a new plant will grow under proper conditions. The embryo has one cotyledon or seed leaf in monocotyledons, two cotyledons in almost all dicotyledons and two or more in gymnosperms. In the fruit of grains (caryopses) the single monocotyledon is shield shaped and hence called a scutellum. The scutellum is pressed closely against the endosperm from which it absorbs food, and passes it to the growing parts. Embryo descriptors include small, straight, bent, curved and curled.

text: Nutrient storage[edit]

text: Within the seed, there usually is a store of nutrients for the seedling that will grow from the embryo.  The form of the stored nutrition varies depending on the kind of plant. In angiosperms, the stored food begins as a tissue called the endosperm, which is derived from the mother plant and the pollen via double fertilization. It is usually triploid, and is rich in oil or starch, and protein. In gymnosperms, such as conifers, the food storage tissue (also called endosperm) is part of the female gametophyte, a haploid tissue. The endosperm is surrounded by the aleurone layer (peripheral endosperm), filled with proteinaceous aleurone grains.

text: Originally, by analogy with the animal ovum, the outer nucellus layer (perisperm) was referred to as albumen, and the inner endosperm layer as vitellus. Although misleading, the term began to be applied to all the nutrient matter. This terminology persists in referring to endospermic seeds as "albuminous". The nature of this material is used in both describing and classifying seeds, in addition to the embryo to endosperm size ratio. The endosperm may be considered to be farinaceous (or mealy) in which the cells are filled with starch, as for instance cereal grains, or not (non-farinaceous). The endosperm may also be referred to as "fleshy" or "cartilaginous" with thicker soft cells such as coconut, but may also be oily as in Ricinus (castor oil), Croton and Poppy. The endosperm is called "horny" when the cell walls are thicker such as date and coffee, or "ruminated"  if mottled, as in nutmeg, palms and Annonaceae.[9]

text: In most monocotyledons (such as grasses and palms) and some (endospermic or albuminous) dicotyledons (such as castor beans) the embryo is embedded in the endosperm (and nucellus), which the seedling will use upon germination. In the non-endospermic dicotyledons the endosperm is absorbed by the embryo as the latter grows within the developing seed, and the cotyledons of the embryo become filled with stored food. At maturity, seeds of these species have no endosperm and are also referred to as exalbuminous seeds. The exalbuminous seeds include the legumes (such as beans and peas), trees such as the oak and walnut, vegetables such as squash and radish, and sunflowers. According to Bewley and Black (1978), Brazil nut storage is in hypocotyl, this place of storage is uncommon among seeds.[10] All gymnosperm seeds are albuminous.

text: Seed coat[edit]

text: The seed coat develops from the maternal tissue, the integuments, originally surrounding the ovule. The seed coat in the mature seed can be a paper-thin layer (e.g. peanut) or something more substantial (e.g. thick and hard in honey locust and coconut), or fleshy as in the sarcotesta of pomegranate. The seed coat helps protect the embryo from mechanical injury, predators and drying out. Depending on its development, the seed coat is either bitegmic or unitegmic. Bitegmic seeds form a testa from the outer integument and a tegmen from the inner integument while unitegmic seeds have only one integument. Usually parts of the testa or tegmen form a hard protective mechanical layer. The mechanical layer may prevent water penetration and germination. Amongst the barriers may be the presence of lignified sclereids.[11]

text: The outer integument has a number of layers, generally between four and eight organised into three layers: (a) outer epidermis, (b) outer pigmented zone of two to five layers containing tannin and starch, and (c) inner epidermis.  The endotegmen is derived from the inner epidermis of the inner integument, the exotegmen from the outer surface of the inner integument. The endotesta is derived from the inner epidermis of the outer integument, and the outer layer of the testa from the outer surface of the outer integument is referred to as the exotesta. If the exotesta is also the mechanical layer, this is called an exotestal seed, but if the mechanical layer is the endotegmen, then the seed is endotestal. The exotesta may consist of one or more rows of cells that are elongated and pallisade like (e.g. Fabaceae), hence 'palisade exotesta'.[12][13]

text: In addition to the three basic seed parts, some seeds have an appendage, an aril, a fleshy outgrowth of the funicle (funiculus), (as in yew and nutmeg) or an oily appendage, an elaiosome (as in Corydalis), or hairs (trichomes). In the latter example these hairs are the source of the textile crop cotton. Other seed appendages include the raphe (a ridge), wings, caruncles (a soft spongy outgrowth from the outer integument in the vicinity of the micropyle), spines, or tubercles.

text: A scar also may remain on the seed coat, called the hilum, where the seed was attached to the ovary wall by the funicle. Just below it is a small pore, representing the micropyle of the ovule.

text: Size and seed set[edit]

text: Seeds are very diverse in size. The dust-like orchid seeds are the smallest, with about one million seeds per gram; they are often embryonic seeds with immature embryos and no significant energy reserves. Orchids and a few other groups of plants are mycoheterotrophs which depend on mycorrhizal fungi for nutrition during germination and the early growth of the seedling.  Some terrestrial orchid seedlings, in fact, spend the first few years of their lives deriving energy from the fungi and do not produce green leaves.[14] At over 20 kg, the largest seed is the coco de mer.  Plants that produce smaller seeds can generate many more seeds per flower, while plants with larger seeds invest more resources into those seeds and normally produce fewer seeds. Small seeds are quicker to ripen and can be dispersed sooner, so fall blooming plants often have small seeds. Many annual plants produce great quantities of smaller seeds; this helps to ensure at least a few will end in a favorable place for growth.  Herbaceous perennials and woody plants often have larger seeds; they can produce seeds over many years, and larger seeds have more energy reserves for germination and seedling growth and produce larger, more established seedlings after germination.[15][16]

text: Functions[edit]

text: Seeds serve several functions for the plants that produce them.  Key among these functions are nourishment of the embryo, dispersal to a new location, and dormancy during unfavorable conditions.  Seeds fundamentally are means of reproduction, and most seeds are the product of sexual reproduction which produces a remixing of genetic material and phenotype variability on which natural selection acts.

text: Embryo nourishment[edit]

text: Seeds protect and nourish the embryo or young plant. They usually give a seedling a faster start than a sporeling from a spore, because of the larger food reserves in the seed and the multicellularity of the enclosed embryo.

text: Dispersal[edit]

text: Unlike animals, plants are limited in their ability to seek out favorable conditions for life and growth. As a result, plants have evolved many ways to disperse their offspring by dispersing their seeds (see also vegetative reproduction). A seed must somehow "arrive" at a location and be there at a time favorable for germination and growth. When the fruits open and release their seeds in a regular way, it is called dehiscent, which is often distinctive for related groups of plants; these fruits include capsules, follicles, legumes, silicles and siliques.  When fruits do not open and release their seeds in a regular fashion, they are called indehiscent, which include the fruits achenes, caryopsis, nuts, samaras, and utricles.[17]

text: By wind (anemochory)[edit]

text:
Some seeds (e.g., pine) have a wing that aids in wind dispersal.
The dustlike seeds of orchids are carried efficiently by the wind.
Some seeds (e.g. milkweed, poplar) have hairs that aid in wind dispersal.[18]

text: Other seeds are enclosed in fruit structures that aid wind dispersal in similar ways:

text:
Dandelion achenes have hairs.
Maple samaras have two wings.

text: By water (hydrochory)[edit]

text: Some plants, such as Mucuna and Dioclea, produce buoyant seeds termed sea-beans or drift seeds because they float in rivers to the oceans and wash up on beaches.[19]

text: By animals (zoochory)[edit]

text:
Seeds (burrs) with barbs or hooks (e.g. acaena, burdock, dock) which attach to animal fur or feathers, and then drop off later.
Seeds with a fleshy covering (e.g. apple, cherry, juniper) are eaten by animals (birds, mammals, reptiles, fish) which then disperse these seeds in their droppings.
Seeds (nuts) are attractive long-term storable food resources for animals (e.g. acorns, hazelnut, walnut); the seeds are stored some distance from the parent plant, and some escape being eaten if the animal forgets them.

text: Myrmecochory is the dispersal of seeds by ants. Foraging ants disperse seeds which have appendages called elaiosomes[20] (e.g. bloodroot, trilliums, acacias, and many species of Proteaceae).  Elaiosomes are soft, fleshy structures that contain nutrients for animals that eat them.  The ants carry such seeds back to their nest, where the elaiosomes are eaten.  The remainder of the seed, which is hard and inedible to the ants, then germinates either within the nest or at a removal site where the seed has been discarded by the ants.[21]  This dispersal relationship is an example of mutualism, since the plants depend upon the ants to disperse seeds, while the ants depend upon the plants seeds for food.  As a result, a drop in numbers of one partner can reduce success of the other.  In South Africa, the Argentine ant (Linepithema humile) has invaded and displaced native species of ants.  Unlike the native ant species, Argentine ants do not collect the seeds of Mimetes cucullatus or eat the elaiosomes.  In areas where these ants have invaded, the numbers of Mimetes seedlings have dropped.[22]

text: Dormancy[edit]

text: Seed dormancy has two main functions: the first is synchronizing germination with the optimal conditions for survival of the resulting seedling; the second is spreading germination of a batch of seeds over time so a catastrophe (e.g. late frosts, drought, herbivory) does not result in the death of all offspring of a plant (bet-hedging).[23] Seed dormancy is defined as a seed failing to germinate under environmental conditions optimal for germination, normally when the environment is at a suitable temperature with proper soil moisture. This true dormancy or innate dormancy is therefore caused by conditions within the seed that prevent germination. Thus dormancy is a state of the seed, not of the environment.[24] Induced dormancy, enforced dormancy or seed quiescence occurs when a seed fails to germinate because the external environmental conditions are inappropriate for germination, mostly in response to conditions being too dark or light, too cold or hot, or too dry.

text: Seed dormancy is not the same as seed persistence in the soil or on the plant, though even in scientific publications dormancy and persistence are often confused or used as synonyms.[25]

text: Often, seed dormancy is divided into four major categories: exogenous; endogenous; combinational; and secondary. A more recent system distinguishes five classes: morphological, physiological, morphophysiological, physical, and combinational dormancy.[26]

text: Exogenous dormancy is caused by conditions outside the embryo, including:

text:
Physical dormancy or hard seed coats occurs when seeds are impermeable to water. At dormancy break, a specialized structure, the ‘water gap’, is disrupted in response to environmental cues, especially temperature, so water can enter the seed and germination can occur. Plant families where physical dormancy occurs include Anacardiaceae, Cannaceae, Convulvulaceae, Fabaceae and Malvaceae.[27]
Chemical dormancy considers species that lack physiological dormancy, but where a chemical prevents germination. This chemical can be leached out of the seed by rainwater or snow melt or be deactivated somehow.[28] Leaching of chemical inhibitors from the seed by rain water is often cited as an important cause of dormancy release in seeds of desert plants, but little evidence exists to support this claim.[29]

text: Endogenous dormancy is caused by conditions within the embryo itself, including:

text:
In morphological dormancy, germination is prevented due to morphological characteristics of the embryo. In some species, the embryo is just a mass of cells when seeds are dispersed; it is not differentiated. Before germination can take place, both differentiation and growth of the embryo have to occur. In other species, the embryo is differentiated but not fully grown (underdeveloped) at dispersal, and embryo growth up to a species specific length is required before germination can occur. Examples of plant families where morphological dormancy occurs are Apiaceae, Cycadaceae, Liliaceae, Magnoliaceae and Ranunculaceae.[30][31]
Morphophysiological dormancy includes seeds with underdeveloped embryos, and also have physiological components to dormancy. These seeds, therefore, require a dormancy-breaking treatments, as well as a period of time to develop fully grown embryos. Plant families where morphophysiological dormancy occurs include Apiaceae, Aquifoliaceae, Liliaceae, Magnoliaceae, Papaveraceae and Ranunculaceae.[30] Some plants with morphophysiological dormancy, such as Asarum or Trillium species, have multiple types of dormancy, one affects radicle (root) growth, while the other affects plumule (shoot) growth. The terms "double dormancy" and "two-year seeds" are used for species whose seeds need two years to complete germination or at least two winters and one summer. Dormancy of the radicle (seedling root) is broken during the first winter after dispersal while dormancy of the shoot bud is broken during the second winter.[30]
Physiological dormancy means the embryo, due to physiological causes, cannot generate enough power to break through the seed coat, endosperm or other covering structures. Dormancy is typically broken at cool wet, warm wet or warm dry conditions. Abscisic acid is usually the growth inhibitor in seeds, and its production can be affected by light.
Drying, in some plants, including a number of grasses and those from seasonally arid regions, is needed before they will germinate. The seeds are released, but need to have a lower moisture content before germination can begin. If the seeds remain moist after dispersal, germination can be delayed for many months or even years. Many herbaceous plants from temperate climate zones have physiological dormancy that disappears with drying of the seeds. Other species will germinate after dispersal only under very narrow temperature ranges, but as the seeds dry, they are able to germinate over a wider temperature range.[32]
In seeds with combinational dormancy, the seed or fruit coat is impermeable to water and the embryo has physiological dormancy. Depending on the species, physical dormancy can be broken before or after physiological dormancy is broken.[31]
Secondary dormancy* is caused by conditions after the seed has been dispersed and occurs in some seeds when nondormant seed is exposed to conditions that are not favorable to germination, very often high temperatures. The mechanisms of secondary dormancy are not yet fully understood, but might involve the loss of sensitivity in receptors in the plasma membrane.[33]

text: The following types of seed dormancy do not involve seed dormancy, strictly speaking, as lack of germination is prevented by the environment, not by characteristics of the seed itself (see Germination):

text:
Photodormancy or light sensitivity affects germination of some seeds. These photoblastic seeds need a period of darkness or light to germinate.  In species with thin seed coats, light may be able to penetrate into the dormant embryo. The presence of light or the absence of light may trigger the germination process, inhibiting germination in some seeds buried too deeply or in others not buried in the soil.
Thermodormancy is seed sensitivity to heat or cold. Some seeds, including cocklebur and amaranth, germinate only at high temperatures (30 °C or 86 °F); many plants that have seeds that germinate in early to midsummer have thermodormancy, so germinate only when the soil temperature is warm. Other seeds need cool soils to germinate, while others, such as celery, are inhibited when soil temperatures are too warm.  Often, thermodormancy requirements disappear as the seed ages or dries.

text: Not all seeds undergo a period of dormancy.  Seeds of some mangroves are viviparous; they begin to germinate while still attached to the parent. The large, heavy root allows the seed to penetrate into the ground when it falls. Many garden plant seeds will germinate readily as soon as they have water and are warm enough; though their wild ancestors may have had dormancy, these cultivated plants lack it.  After many generations of selective pressure by plant breeders and gardeners, dormancy has been selected out.

text: For annuals, seeds are a way for the species to survive dry or cold seasons. Ephemeral plants are usually annuals that can go from seed to seed in as few as six weeks.[34]

text: Persistence and seed banks[edit]

text: Germination[edit]

text: Seed germination is a process by which a seed embryo develops into a seedling. It involves the reactivation of the metabolic pathways that lead to growth and the emergence of the radicle or seed root and plumule or shoot. The emergence of the seedling above the soil surface is the next phase of the plant's growth and is called seedling establishment.[35]

text: Three fundamental conditions must exist before germination can occur. (1) The embryo must be alive, called seed viability. (2) Any dormancy requirements that prevent germination must be overcome. (3) The proper environmental conditions must exist for germination.

text: Seed viability is the ability of the embryo to germinate and is affected by a number of different conditions. Some plants do not produce seeds that have functional complete embryos, or the seed may have no embryo at all, often called empty seeds. Predators and pathogens can damage or kill the seed while it is still in the fruit or after it is dispersed. Environmental conditions like flooding or heat can kill the seed before or during germination. The age of the seed affects its health and germination ability: since the seed has a living embryo, over time cells die and cannot be replaced. Some seeds can live for a long time before germination, while others can only survive for a short period after dispersal before they die.

text: Seed vigor is a measure of the quality of seed, and involves the viability of the seed, the germination percentage, germination rate and the strength of the seedlings produced.[36]

text: The germination percentage is simply the proportion of seeds that germinate from all seeds subject to the right conditions for growth. The germination rate is the length of time it takes for the seeds to germinate. Germination percentages and rates are affected by seed viability, dormancy and environmental effects that impact on the seed and seedling. In agriculture and horticulture quality seeds have high viability, measured by germination percentage plus the rate of germination. This is given as a percent of germination over a certain amount of time, 90% germination in 20 days, for example. 'Dormancy' is covered above; many plants produce seeds with varying degrees of dormancy, and different seeds from the same fruit can have different degrees of dormancy.[37] It's possible to have seeds with no dormancy if they are dispersed right away and do not dry (if the seeds dry they go into physiological dormancy). There is great variation amongst plants and a dormant seed is still a viable seed even though the germination rate might be very low.

text: Environmental conditions affecting seed germination include; water, oxygen, temperature and light.

text: Three distinct phases of seed germination occur: water imbibition; lag phase; and radicle emergence.

text: In order for the seed coat to split, the embryo must imbibe (soak up water), which causes it to swell, splitting the seed coat. However, the nature of the seed coat determines how rapidly water can penetrate and subsequently initiate germination. The rate of imbibition is dependent on the permeability of the seed coat, amount of water in the environment and the area of contact the seed has to the source of water. For some seeds, imbibing too much water too quickly can kill the seed. For some seeds, once water is imbibed the germination process cannot be stopped, and drying then becomes fatal. Other seeds can imbibe and lose water a few times without causing ill effects, but drying can cause secondary dormancy.

text: Repair of DNA damage[edit]

text: During seed dormancy, often associated with unpredictable and stressful environments, DNA damage accumulates as the seeds age.[38][39][40]  In rye seeds, the reduction of DNA integrity due to damage is associated with loss of seed viability during storage.[38]  Upon germination, seeds of Vicia faba undergo DNA repair.[39]  A plant DNA ligase that is involved in repair of single- and double-strand breaks during seed germination is an important determinant of seed longevity.[41]  Also, in Arabidopsis seeds, the activities of the DNA repair enzymes Poly ADP ribose polymerases (PARP) are likely needed for successful germination.[42]  Thus DNA damages that accumulate during dormancy appear to be a problem for seed survival, and the enzymatic repair of DNA damages during germination appears to be important for seed viability.

text: Inducing germination[edit]

text: A number of different strategies are used by gardeners and horticulturists to break seed dormancy.

text: Scarification allows water and gases to penetrate into the seed; it includes methods to physically break the hard seed coats or soften them by chemicals, such as soaking in hot water or poking holes in the seed with a pin or rubbing them on sandpaper or cracking with a press or hammer.  Sometimes fruits are harvested while the seeds are still immature and the seed coat is not fully developed and sown right away before the seed coat become impermeable.  Under natural conditions, seed coats are worn down by rodents chewing on the seed, the seeds rubbing against rocks (seeds are moved by the wind or water currents), by undergoing freezing and thawing of surface water, or passing through an animal's digestive tract. In the latter case, the seed coat protects the seed from digestion, while often weakening the seed coat such that the embryo is ready to sprout when it is deposited, along with a bit of fecal matter that acts as fertilizer, far from the parent plant.  Microorganisms are often effective in breaking down hard seed coats and are sometimes used by people as a treatment; the seeds are stored in a moist warm sandy medium for several months under nonsterile conditions.

text: Stratification, also called moist-chilling, breaks down physiological dormancy, and involves the addition of moisture to the seeds so they absorb water, and they are then subjected to a period of moist chilling to after-ripen the embryo. Sowing in late summer and fall and allowing to overwinter under cool conditions is an effective way to stratify seeds; some seeds respond more favorably to periods of oscillating temperatures which are a part of the natural environment.

text: Leaching or the soaking in water removes chemical inhibitors in some seeds that prevent germination. Rain and melting snow naturally accomplish this task. For seeds planted in gardens, running water is best—if soaked in a container, 12 to 24 hours of soaking is sufficient. Soaking longer, especially in stagnant water, can result in oxygen starvation and seed death. Seeds with hard seed coats can be soaked in hot water to break open the impermeable cell layers that prevent water intake.

text: Other methods used to assist in the germination of seeds that have dormancy include prechilling, predrying, daily alternation of temperature, light exposure, potassium nitrate, the use of plant growth regulators, such as gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene, thiourea, sodium hypochlorite, and others.[43] Some seeds germinate best after a fire. For some seeds, fire cracks hard seed coats, while in others, chemical dormancy is broken in reaction to the presence of smoke. Liquid smoke is often used by gardeners to assist in the germination of these species.[44]

text: Sterile seeds[edit]

text: Seeds may be sterile for few reasons: they may have been irradiated, unpollinated, cells lived past expectancy, or bred for the purpose.

text: Evolution and origin of seeds[edit]

text: The origin of seed plants is a problem that still remains unsolved. However, more and more data tends to place this origin in the middle Devonian. The description in 2004 of the proto-seed Runcaria heinzelinii in the Givetian of Belgium is an indication of that ancient origin of seed-plants. As with modern ferns, most land plants before this time reproduced by sending spores into the air, that would land and become whole new plants.

text: The first "true" seeds are described from the upper Devonian, which is probably the theater of their true first evolutionary radiation. With this radiation came an evolution of seed size, shape, dispersal and eventually the radiation of gymnosperms and angiosperms and monocotyledons and dicotyledons. The seed plants progressively became one of the major elements of nearly all ecosystems.

text: Economic importance[edit]

text: Edible seeds[edit]

text: Many seeds are edible and the majority of human calories comes from seeds,[45] especially from cereals, legumes and nuts. Seeds also provide most cooking oils, many beverages and spices and some important food additives.  In different seeds the seed embryo or the endosperm dominates and provides most of the nutrients. The storage proteins of the embryo and endosperm differ in their amino acid content and physical properties.  For example, the gluten of wheat, important in providing the elastic property to bread dough is strictly an endosperm protein.

text: Seeds are used to propagate many crops such as cereals, legumes, forest trees, turfgrasses, and pasture grasses. Particularly in developing countries, a major constraint faced is the inadequacy of the marketing channels to get the seed to poor farmers.[46] Thus the use of farmer-retained seed remains quite common.

text: Seeds are also eaten by animals (seed predation), and are also fed to livestock or provided as birdseed.

text: Poison and food safety[edit]

text: While some seeds are edible, others are harmful, poisonous or deadly.[47]  Plants and seeds often contain chemical compounds to discourage herbivores and seed predators.  In some cases, these compounds simply taste bad (such as in mustard), but other compounds are toxic or break down into toxic compounds within the digestive system.  Children, being smaller than adults, are more susceptible to poisoning by plants and seeds.[48]

text:
A deadly poison, ricin, comes from seeds of the castor bean.   Reported lethal doses are anywhere from two to eight seeds,[49][50]
though only a few deaths have been reported when castor beans have been ingested by animals.[51]

text:
In addition, seeds containing amygdalin—apple, apricot, bitter almond,[52] peach, plum, cherry, quince, and others—when consumed in sufficient amounts, may cause cyanide poisoning.[52][53]
Other seeds that contain poisons include annona, cotton, custard apple, datura, uncooked durian, golden chain, horse-chestnut, larkspur, locoweed, lychee, nectarine, rambutan, rosary pea, sour sop, sugar apple, wisteria, and yew.[49][54]  The seeds of the strychnine tree are also poisonous, containing the poison strychnine.

text: The seeds of many legumes, including the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), contain proteins called lectins which can cause gastric distress if the beans are eaten without cooking.  The common bean and many others, including the soybean, also contain trypsin inhibitors which interfere with the action of the digestive enzyme trypsin.  Normal cooking processes degrade lectins and trypsin inhibitors to harmless forms.[55]

text: Please see the category plant toxins for further relevant articles.

text: Other uses[edit]

text: Cotton fiber grows attached to cotton plant seeds. Other seed fibers are from kapok and milkweed.

text: Many important nonfood oils are extracted from seeds. Linseed oil is used in paints. Oil from jojoba and crambe are similar to whale oil.

text: Seeds are the source of some medicines including castor oil, tea tree oil and the quack cancer drug Laetrile.

text: Many seeds have been used as beads in necklaces and rosaries including Job's tears, Chinaberry, rosary pea, and castor bean. However, the latter three are also poisonous.

text: Other seed uses include:

text:
Seeds once used as weights for balances.
Seeds used as toys by children, such as for the game Conkers.
Resin from Clusia rosea seeds used to caulk boats.
Nematicide from milkweed seeds.
Cottonseed meal used as animal feed and fertilizer.

text: Seed records[edit]

text:
The oldest viable carbon-14-dated seed that has grown into a plant was a Judean date palm seed about 2,000 years old, recovered from excavations at Herod the Great's palace on Masada in Israel. It was germinated in 2005.[56] (A reported regeneration of Silene stenophylla (narrow-leafed campion) from material preserved for 31,800 years in the Siberian permafrost was achieved using fruit tissue, not seed.[57][58])
The largest seed is produced by the coco de mer, or "double coconut palm", Lodoicea maldivica.  The entire fruit may weigh up to 23 kilograms (50 pounds) and usually contains a single seed.[59]
The smallest seeds are produced by epiphytic orchids. They are only 85 micrometers long, and weigh 0.81 micrograms. They have no endosperm and contain underdeveloped embryos.[60]
The earliest fossil seeds are around 365 million years old from the Late Devonian of West Virginia.  The seeds are preserved immature ovules of the plant Elkinsia polymorpha.[61]

text: In religion[edit]

text: The Book of Genesis in the Old Testament begins with an explanation of how all plant forms began:

text: And God said, Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth: and it was so. And the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding seed after its kind, and the tree yielding fruit, whose seed was in itself, after its kind: and God saw that it was good. And the evening and the morning were the third day.[62]

text: The Quran speaks of seed germination thus:

text: It is Allah Who causeth the seed-grain and the date-stone to split and sprout. He causeth the living to issue from the dead, and He is the one to cause the dead to issue from the living. That is Allah: then how are ye deluded away from the truth?[63]


document_title: Separate but equal

question_text: who led the team that challenged the separate but equal ruling

text: Separate but equal

text: Origins[edit]

text: The American Civil War (1861–1865), though technically focused on whether (pro-slavery) Southern states could secede from the Union, brought slavery in the United States to an end, with the Emancipation Proclamation during the war, and the Thirteenth Amendment shortly after.[2] Following the war, the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution guaranteed equal protection under the law to all citizens, and Congress established the Freedmen's Bureau to assist the integration of former slaves into Southern society. After the end of Reconstruction with the Compromise of 1877, and the withdrawal of federal troops from all Southern states, former slave-holding states enacted various laws to undermine the equal treatment of African Americans, although the Fourteenth Amendment as well as federal Civil Rights laws enacted during reconstruction were meant to guarantee it. However, Southern states contended that the requirement of equality could be met in a manner that kept the races separate. Furthermore, the state and federal courts tended to reject the pleas by African Americans that their Fourteenth Amendment rights were violated, arguing that the Fourteenth Amendment applied only to federal, not state, citizenship. This rejection is evident in the Slaughter-House Cases and Civil Rights Cases.

text: After the end of Reconstruction, the federal government adopted a general policy of leaving racial segregation up to the individual states. One example of this policy was the second Morrill Act (Morrill Act of 1890). Before the end of the war, the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act (Morrill Act of 1862) had provided federal funding for higher education by each state with the details left to the state legislatures.[3] The 1890 Act which implicitly accepted the legal concept of separate but equal for the 17 states which had institutionalized segregation.

text: Provided, That no money shall be paid out under this act to any State or Territory for the support and maintenance of a college where a distinction of race or color is made in the admission of students, but the establishment and maintenance of such colleges separately for white and colored students shall be held to be a compliance with the provisions of this act if the funds received in such State or Territory be equitably divided as hereinafter set forth.[4][5]

text: Prior to the Second Morrill Act, 17 states excluded blacks from access to the land grant colleges without providing similar educational opportunities. In response to the Second Morrill Act, 17 states established separate land grant colleges for blacks which are now referred to as public historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs). In fact, some states adopted laws prohibiting schools from educating blacks and whites together, even if a school was willing to do so. (The Constitutionality of such laws was upheld in Berea College v. Kentucky, 211 U.S. 45 (1908).) Under the 'separate but equal doctrine', blacks were entitled to receive the same public services and accommodations such as schools, bathrooms, and water fountains, but states were allowed to maintain different facilities for the two groups. The legitimacy of such laws under the 14th Amendment was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in the 1896 case of Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537. The Plessy doctrine was extended to the public schools in Cumming v. Richmond County Board of Education, 175 U.S. 528 (1899).

text: Although the Constitutional doctrine required equality, the facilities and social services offered to African-Americans were almost always of lower quality than those offered to white Americans; for example, many African American schools received less public funding per student than nearby white schools. In Texas, the state established a state-funded law school for white students without any law school for black students.

text: In 1892, Homer Plessy, who was of mixed ancestry and appeared to be white, boarded an all-white railroad car between New Orleans and Covington, Louisiana. The conductor of the train collected passenger tickets at their seats. When Plessy told the conductor he was 7/8ths white and 1/8th black, he was advised he needed to move to a coloreds-only car. Plessy said he resented sitting in a coloreds-only car and was arrested immediately.

text: One month after his arrest, Plessy appeared in court before Judge John Howard Ferguson. Plessy's lawyer, Albion Tourgee, claimed Plessy’s 13th and 14th amendment rights were violated. The 13th amendment abolished slavery, and the 14th amendment granted equal protection to all under the law.

text: The Supreme Court decision in Plessy v. Ferguson established the phrase "separate but equal". The ruling "[required] railway companies carrying passengers in their coaches in that State to provide equal, but separate, accommodations for the white and colored races…".[6] Accommodations provided on each railroad car were required to be the same as those provided on the others. Separate railroad cars could be provided. The railroad could refuse service to passengers who refused to comply, and the Supreme Court ruled this did not infringe upon the 13th and 14th amendments.

text: The "separate but equal" doctrine applied to railroad cars and to schools, voting rights, and drinking fountains. Segregated schools were created for students, as long as they followed "separate but equal". The majority of all black schools received old textbooks, used equipment, and poorly prepared or trained teachers.[7] A study conducted by the American Psychological Association found that black students were emotionally impaired when segregated at a young age.[8] State voting right restrictions, such as literacy tests and poll taxes created an environment that made it almost impossible for blacks to vote. This era also saw separate drinking fountains in public areas.

text: The "Separate but Equal" doctrine was eventually overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court in the case of Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. But African Americans were still not equal; poorer services and restrictions on voting rights still limited them throughout the United States, and they still were not granted more political and social power than before.

text: Rejection[edit]

text: This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (March 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The repeal of such restrictive laws, generally known as Jim Crow laws, was a key focus of the Civil Rights Movement prior to 1954. In Sweatt v. Painter, the Supreme Court addressed a legal challenge to the doctrine by a student seeking admission to a state-supported law school in Texas. Because Texas did not have a law school for blacks, the lower court delayed the case until Texas could create one. However, the Supreme Court ordered that the student be admitted to the white law school on the grounds that the separate school failed to qualify as being "equal," both because of quantitative differences in facilities and intangible factors, such as its isolation from most of the future lawyers with whom its graduates would interact. The court held that, when considering graduate education, intangibles must be considered as part of "substantive equality." The same day, the Supreme Court in McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents ruled that Oklahoma segregation laws which required a graduate student working on a Doctor of Education degree to sit in the hallway outside the classroom door did not qualify as 'separate but equal.' These cases ended 'separate but equal' in graduate and professional education.

text: In Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), attorneys for the NAACP referred to the phrase "equal but separate" used in Plessy v. Ferguson as a custom de jure racial segregation enacted into law. The NAACP, led by the soon-to-be first black Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall, was successful in challenging the constitutional viability of the separate but equal doctrine, and the court voted to overturn sixty years of law that had developed under Plessy. The Supreme Court outlawed segregated public education facilities for blacks and whites at the state level. The companion case of Bolling v. Sharpe, 347 U.S. 497 outlawed such practices at the Federal level in the District of Columbia. The court held:

text: We conclude that, in the field of public education, the doctrine of "separate but equal" has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. Therefore, we hold that the plaintiffs and others similarly situated for whom the actions have been brought are, by reason of the segregation complained of, deprived of the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment.

text: Although Brown overturned the doctrine of separate but equal with respect to institutions of public education, it would be almost ten more years before the Civil Rights Act of 1964 would prohibit private discrimination in facilities, such as transportation and hotels, that were considered public accommodations. Additionally, in 1967 under Loving v. Virginia, the United States Supreme Court declared Virginia's anti-miscegenation statute, the "Racial Integrity Act of 1924", unconstitutional, and invalidated all anti-miscegenation laws in the United States. Although federal legislation prohibits racial discrimination in college admissions, the historically black colleges and universities continue to teach student bodies that are 75% to 90% African American.[9] This however does not necessarily indicate racial discrimination within college admissions in those schools when factors such as student preference are taken into account.[citation needed] In 1975, Jake Ayers Sr. filed a lawsuit against Mississippi, stating that they gave more financial support to the predominantly white public colleges. The state settled the lawsuit in 2002, directing $503 million to three historically black colleges over 17 years.[10]


document_title: Just Do It

question_text: when did nike start the just do it campaign

text: Just Do It

text: Just Do It (stylized as JUST DO IT.)[1] is a trademark of shoe company Nike, and one of the core components of Nike's brand. The slogan was coined in 1988 at an advertising agency meeting. The founder of Wieden+Kennedy agency, Dan Wieden credits the inspiration for his "Just Do It" Nike slogan to Gary Gilmore’s last words: "Let's do it."[2] The "Just Do It" campaign allowed Nike to further increase its share of the North American domestic sport-shoe business from 18% to 43%, (from $877 million to $9.2 billion in worldwide sales) from 1988 to 1998.[3] In many Nike-related situations, "Just Do It" appears alongside the Nike logo, known as the Swoosh.

text: Campaign[edit]

text: This Section is written like a personal reflection or opinion essay that states a Wikipedia editor's personal feelings about a topic. Please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style. (August 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The "Just Do It" campaign launched in 1988 was highly successful with the Age selecting the campaign as one of the top two taglines of the 20th century with it being both "universal and intensely personal".[2][not in citation given] While Reebok was directing their campaign at aerobics during the fitness craze of the 1980s, Nike responded with "a tough, take no prisoners ad campaign". One of the campaign's objectives was to target all Americans regardless of age, gender or physical fitness level [3] which led to Nike becoming worn as a fashion statement, not just as fitness gear (Nearly 80% of Nike’s running shoes are not worn for their intended purpose). Nike’s fundamental objective was to represent sneakers as a fashion statement to consumers, especially females, teens and males aged 18–40.

text: Throughout the campaign Nike enlisted numerous notable athletes in order to attract customers and promote the image of Nike as being reliable to not only everyday customers but professional athletes. Athletes such as football stars Ronaldinho and Wayne Rooney, basketball stars Michael Jordan, and Kobe Bryant and tennis stars Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal were used in their advertisements, including a range of people from varying ethnicities and races.[4][unreliable source?]

text: Nike was faced with criticism by Ernst & Young surrounding the campaign, with the pay of elite athletes compared to those in overseas shoe factories, and for violating the minimum wage in their operations in Vietnam.[5][unreliable source?] [6]

text: The "Just Do It" campaign went out to a range of media outlets including merchandise, outdoor billboards, print media, and graffiti art.

text: The campaign embodied Nike's image as an innovative American icon associated with success through the combination of professional athletes and motivational slogans emphasizing sportsmanship and health. This led to customers associating their purchases with the prospect of achieving greatness.[7][unreliable source?]

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: In 2015, actor Shia LaBeouf used this phrase in LaBeouf, Rönkkö & Turner's #INTRODUCTIONS video, which later become an Internet meme.[8]


document_title: Chain Gang (Only Fools and Horses)

question_text: who played arnie in only fools and horses

text: Chain Gang (Only Fools and Horses)

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: At the One-Eleven Club, Rodney introduces Cassandra to Del Boy. They also meet Arnie, a retired jeweller, who interests the Trotters in 250 18 carat gold chains. Arnie explains that he acquired the chains for another man, Mr Stavros, but has not heard from him since, and now he is willing to sell them for half their wholesale price. Del forms a consortium of himself, Rodney, Albert, Boycie, Trigger, and Mike who purchase the chains for £12,500. However, seconds after the deal has gone through, Arnie calls his wife, who informs him that Mr Stavros has made contact and now wishes to purchase the chains. Arnie is distraught as he has shaken on the deal, and worries about having to explain to Stavros that he has sold the chains. Del calms the situation down with an idea. Arnie will sell the chains to Stavros on the consortium's behalf for the original price of £25,000, with Arnie receiving £2,000 for his troubles, leaving the consortium with a healthy profit.

text: At an Italian restaurant, Arnie, with the briefcase containing the chains handcuffed to his wrist, sits down and waits for Stavros. Del and Boycie keep an eye on him from another table, while Rodney and Albert wait outside in the Trotters' Reliant Regal van, backed up by Mike and Trigger who are in Mike's car. Suddenly, Arnie starts to have a heart attack, and collapses on the floor. A sagacious Boycie realises if the chains and cash accompany Arnie to an NHS hospital they may lose them for good. So, impersonating a doctor, Boycie discreetly tries to get the case. A fellow diner spots this and punches Boycie. The restaurant's proprietor is about to call the police but Del is able to save Boycie by pretending to be a police officer. An ambulance arrives surprisingly quickly, and Arnie is taken to hospital. The group try to follow the ambulance in Mike's car, so they know which hospital to visit, only to find it in the process of being clamped. Rodney and Albert drive off in the van after the ambulance.

text: The consortium wait for news back at Nelson Mandela House. A short time later, Rodney and Albert return home to say that they lost the ambulance at a red traffic light. They then receive a call from a doctor who informs them that Arnie has died. The doctor is unable to give Del Arnie's address and hangs up. As no one knows Arnie's surname and he was not a member of the One-Eleven club, they are unable to trace him. Albert suggests that they use the redial button on the phone, as Arnie was the last person to use it when he phoned his wife. Del gives it a try, but comes up short and gets put through to the Highcliffe Hotel in Guernsey (Rodney had phoned to contact Cassandra). Now resigned to losing the gold chains for good, a despondent Mike, Boycie, and Trigger leave the flat.

text: A few days later, while picking up Cassandra at the airport, Rodney spots Arnie - this time in West London - being carried into an ambulance by two paramedics. At the Nag's Head, the consortium realise the truth: Arnie is a con man who tricks people into buying his gold chains, then fakes a heart attack and makes off with the money and the chains. The group reason that Arnie's two sons are also in on the scam and have acquired an old ambulance, which would be the perfect getaway vehicle for such deals; the disguise would allow Arnie and his sons to make the getaway without suspicion, and nobody can follow the ambulance through red lights. Del also says that he spoke to the manager of the Italian restaurant, who had told him the real ambulance arrived shortly after Arnie's ambulance left. They then hear that Denzil and his brothers are about to become the latest victims of Arnie's scam, but Denzil leaves the Nag's Head before Del and Rodney can warn him about Arnie.

text: The next day, at an Indian restaurant, Denzil and his brother Carl are keeping an eye on Arnie from a nearby table. Meanwhile, Gary and Steven are standing by in their ambulance, waiting for their father to fake his heart attack. Arnie does so, but when he gets loaded into the ambulance, Arnie finds himself surrounded by Del Boy, Rodney, Albert, Mike, Boycie, and Trigger, all disguised as paramedics - in a clever double-cross, they have bought their own ambulance with which to capture Arnie. Once Arnie's sons arrive at the restaurant, they are apprehended by Denzil and his brothers. Arnie tries to reason with his former customers, as Albert passes Del a large pair of bolt cutters. Arnie says there is no need to cut the chain because he has the key. Del then remarks "Who said anything about cutting the chain off?". Arnie begins to wheeze, and Del quips that Arnie should calm down or else he may give himself a heart attack.

text: Episode cast[edit]

text:
Actor
Role

David Jason
Del Boy

Nicholas Lyndhurst
Rodney

Buster Merryfield
Uncle Albert

Gwyneth Strong
Cassandra

Philip McGough
Arnie

John Challis
Boycie

Roger Lloyd-Pack
Trigger

Kenneth MacDonald
Mike

Paul Barber
Denzil

Mick Oliver
Otto

Frank Coda
Mario (waiter)

Sam Howard
Steven

Steve Fortune
Gary

Peter Rutherford
Grayson

text: Music[edit]

text:
Mica Paris: My One Temptation
Wet Wet Wet: Sweet Little Mystery