document_title: Neck (music)

question_text: what are the dots on the neck of a guitar

text: Neck (music)

text: Guitar[edit]

text: The neck of a guitar includes the guitar's frets, fretboard, tuners, headstock, and truss rod. The wood used to make the fretboard will usually differ from the wood in the rest of the neck. The bending stress on the neck is considerable, particularly when heavier gauge strings are used (see Strings and tuning), and the ability of the neck to resist bending (see Truss rod) is important to the guitar's ability to hold a constant pitch during tuning or when strings are fretted. The rigidity of the neck with respect to the body of the guitar is one determinant of an instrument's quality. Conversely, the ability to change the pitch of the note slightly by deliberately bending the neck forcibly with the fretting arm is a technique occasionally used, particularly in the blues genre and those derived from it, such as rock and roll. The shape of the neck's cross-section can also vary from a gentle curve to a more pronounced "V" shape. (The fretboard is typically gently rounded across its width.)

text: Marker dots (see Inlay (guitar)) on the face of the fretboard are usually placed at frets 3, 5, 7, 9, 12 (double dot to indicate the octave), 15, 17, 19, 21, 24 (double dot to indicate the second octave). It's also common that there are marker dots on the "upper" side of the neck, near the edge of the fretboard, where the player can easily see which fret he or she is on. Sometimes the dots are replaced with bars, the octave positions having a wider bar. Classical guitars almost never feature position markers, especially on the fretboard's face, whereas electric guitars usually do. This is due to several factors:

text: 1) Electric guitars do not rely on a resonating body chamber to produce sound and therefore the inert bodywood may be carved more deeply to allow better access to higher frets.

text: 2) Electric guitars also sport an extended high-end range, due to the above reason. Typically, up to 24 frets are used.

text: 3) Electric guitars vary greatly in terms of scale length, depth of lower and - if present - upper rout and where these connect to the neck at its heel, and number of frets (usually between 21 and 24). In contrast, classical guitar dimensions are standardised, with the 12th fret aligning with the neck-end of the body, use of only 19 frets, and scale length of 25.6".

text: While it may be perceived that position markers are featured on popular instruments to accommodate their typically lesser-educated users (in contrast to classical instruments), on the contrary, for the above reasons, position markers are of much help to electric guitarists of any level of competence.

text: Violin[edit]

text: The neck of a violin is usually maple with a flamed figure compatible with that of the ribs and back. The shape of the neck and fingerboard affect how easily the violin may be played. Fingerboards are dressed to a particular transverse curve, and have a small lengthwise "scoop," or concavity, slightly more pronounced on the lower strings, especially when meant for gut or synthetic strings. Many authentic old instruments have had their necks reset to a slightly increased angle, and lengthened by about a centimeter. The neck graft allows the original scroll to be kept with a Baroque violin when bringing its neck to conformance with modern standard.

text: Lute[edit]

text: The neck of a lute is made of light wood, with a veneer of hardwood (usually ebony) to provide durability for the fretboard beneath the strings.

text: Saxophone[edit]

text: Saxophone necks are typically made from brass, are detachable and either straight or curved.

text: Attachment in string instruments[edit]

text: The method of connecting the neck to the body of the instrument varies according by instrument. This ranges from necks that are simply screwed onto the body of the instrument (such as in electric guitars like the Fender Stratocaster) to various types of glued joints.

text: There are basically four ways of attaching the neck to the body using glued joints:

text:
With a dovetail joint, where the dovetail is cut into the end of the neck assembly and fits into a mating mortise in the instrument's endblock. This is typically used on acoustic and hollow-body electric guitars.
With a simpler mortise and tenon joint, which is similar to a dovetail joint, except that the tenon is straight instead of tapered. Sometimes these joints are reinforced with screws, nails or pins. Since this joint is inherently weaker than a dovetail joint, it is usually only found on violins and similar instruments with less string tension.
With a neck that ends in a "foot" that is glued to the instrument body proper. This method is mostly used in building classical and flamenco guitars. The "foot" is on the bottom of the neck, and affords a large gluing surface to the back of the instrument.
With neck-through, making the neck part of the body. This method is used on some solid-body electric guitars, where the piece of wood that is the neck runs the entire length of the instrument and is laminated to the rest of the body. This makes an extremely strong joint.

text: The two factors in deciding what type of neck joint to use are:

text:
Strength: will the joint hold under the instrument's string tension without pulling out?
Repairability: can the joint be easily repaired if needed? While the latter two methods (using a "foot" and laminating the neck into the instrument) create very strong joints, they are not very repairable, and require tearing the instrument apart if repairs are needed.

tag: ol

text: Profile[edit]

text: A profile is the shape of the neck's cross-section. A variety of shapes are used and the choice is a matter of personal taste and preference.[1]


document_title: Alex (A Clockwork Orange)

question_text: who does alex kill in a clockwork orange

root

text: Alex (A Clockwork Orange)

text: Character overview[edit]

text: Alex is the narrator, protagonist and antihero in the novel A Clockwork Orange. The character is portrayed as a sociopath who robs, rapes, and assaults innocent people for his own amusement. Intellectually, he knows that such behaviour is morally wrong, saying that "you can't have a society with everybody behaving in my manner of the night". He nevertheless professes to be puzzled by the motivations of those who wish to reform him and others like him, saying that he would never interfere with their desire to be good; he simply "goes to the other shop".

tag: p

text: He speaks Nadsat, a teenage slang created by author Anthony Burgess. The language is based on largely English and Russian words, but also borrows from other sources such as Cockney rhyming slang, Romani speech, and schoolboy colloquialisms. His beverage of choice is milk spiked with various drugs, which he and his fellow gang members ("droogs") drink to fortify themselves for "ultraviolence". Alex is very fond of classical music, particularly Ludwig van Beethoven, whom he habitually refers to as "Ludwig Van". While listening to this music, he fantasises about endless rampages of rape, torture and slaughter. Alex's favourite melee weapon is a "cut-throat britva", or straight razor.

text: Character biography[edit]

text: Alex lives with his parents in a block of flats in a dystopian England in which his brand of "ultraviolence" is common. At the age of 15, he is already a veteran of state reform institutions (In the film, he is somewhat older). While the youngest of his gang, he is the most intelligent, and designates himself as the leader. Another member of the gang, Georgie, resents his high-handedness, and begins plotting against him along with the rest of the gang. One night, the gang breaks into a woman's house, and Alex assaults and kills her by ramming her face with a sculpture of a penis and testicles (in the film: in the book it is a bust of Beethoven). As Alex flees from the house after hearing police sirens, Dim hits him with his chain (a milk bottle in the film) and the gang leaves him to be arrested. Alex is found guilty of murder and sentenced to 14 years in prison.

text: Over the next two years, Alex is a model prisoner, endearing himself to the prison chaplain by studying the Bible. He is especially fond of the passages in the Old Testament portraying torture and murder. Eventually, prison officials recommend him for the Ludovico Technique, an experimental treatment designed to eliminate criminal impulses. During the treatment, prison doctors inject him with nausea-inducing drugs and make him watch films portraying murder, torture and rape. The treatment conditions him to associate violent thoughts and feelings with sickness. Alex is particularly affected by watching footage of Nazi war crimes set to Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, one of his favourite pieces of music, and he can no longer hear it without feeling sick.

text: His sentence is commuted to time served, and he is released. Once he returns to society, however, he finds that the treatment worked too well: any thought of violence brings him to his knees with pain, and he cannot defend himself. His parents have rented out his room, he is brutalised by his former victims, and beaten by his former accomplices Georgie and Dim, who are now police officers.

text: He collapses in front of an old house, owned by a writer the government considers "subversive". The writer is one of the gang's victims, but he does not recognise Alex, who had been wearing a mask as he and his friends beat the man and gang-raped his wife, who later died of her injuries. When Alex tells him of his plight, the writer promises to help him. However, the writer realises who Alex is upon hearing him singing "Singin' in the Rain", the very song he had sung while raping his wife. He drugs Alex and forces him to listen to the Ninth Symphony, which causes Alex so much pain that he attempts suicide by jumping out of the window.

text: He survives, but is badly injured, and wakes up in a state hospital. His parents take him back, while the government, smarting from the bad publicity, gives him a well-paying job. The treatment, meanwhile, has worn off, and Alex is his old ultraviolent self again, saying "I was cured all right".[5]

text: While the film ends here, the novel features an additional chapter in which Alex, now a few years older, outgrows his sociopathy and begins to think about starting a family.

text: Reception[edit]

text: The American Film Institute rated Alex the 12th greatest film villain of all time. Empire magazine selected Alex as the 42nd greatest movie character of all time[6] Wizard magazine rated Alex the 36th greatest villain of all time.[7] Malcolm McDowell's performance has been widely acclaimed by critics.[8][9][10] McDowell was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama, and some consider his failure to receive a Best Actor nomination at the Academy Awards a major snub.[11] In 2008, his performance was ranked #100 on Premiere Magazine's "100 Greatest Performances of All Time."[12] Vanessa Claire Smith won LA Weekly's Leading Female Performance award for her gender-bending performance in the stage production of A Clockwork Orange.[13][14]


document_title: Man of Steel (sculpture)

question_text: when will the yorkshire man of steel be erected

text: Man of Steel (sculpture)

text: The Steel Man will be a 32 metre high sculpture and Interpretation Hub located in Rotherham (J34,M1), forming a landmark gateway to Yorkshire and the Sheffield City Region.

text: The project began with a simple idea to create a landmark artwork and visitor centre that would act as a beacon for the Yorkshire region and a catalyst for change: The 32 metre high stainless steel sculpture and Hub will be built in Rotherham, a town steeped in the history of steel production for generations. The Steel Man will honour the people and places that forged this heritage of Steel and it will highlight the new technologies and specialised manufacturing that is helping to generate the northern powerhouse. Schools, Universities and other educational facilities have embraced the project which will stand as a totemic symbol of British manufacturing and innovation.

text: The sculpture and Interpretation Hub is widely supported by Rotherham Metropolitan Borough Council and a coalition of local companies and other organisations. It will stand on land provided by FCC Environment, (one of the world's largest waste services companies) next to the M1 motorway at Kimberworth in Rotherham, South Yorkshire, England. A 99-year lease has been generously provided by the landowners and work is expected to begin in 2017.

text: The figure will be made from stainless steel, recognising the important development of stainless steel by Harry Brearley in Sheffield more than 100 years ago. It will sit on a coal-black column, which will honour the region's huge coal seams. The column will include an observation deck accessible by a lift and stairs. The sculpture will be widely visible to passing traffic travelling on the M1 across the Tinsley Viaduct and visitors to Meadowhall with a combined potential audience of many millions of people a year. The sculpture will overlook the site of the former Tinsley Towers (Blackburn Meadows) and provide a landmark as well as a catalyst for tourism and inward investment.

text: Heritage Lottery Fund: The Steel Man was awarded Heritage Lottery Funding support in April 2016. The award will help fund an eco-friendly Interpretation Hub, which will include an exhibition space, café and a shop. Schools and other visitors of all ages will learn about the heritage of the region and how it has influenced the present.

text: Heart of Steel Appeal: The 'Heart of Steel' appeal was launched in July 2014 and is an important part of the future community legacy of The Steel Man: a 2.5 metre 3 tonne Heart of Steel will sit inside the figure, with up to 150,000 names of people from across the region. Thousands of people with local connections and personal recollections have already donated to support the project.

text: The Rotherham Heart of Steel is a full-size replica of the 'Heart of Steel' and was unveiled in the Minster Gardens in Rotherham town centre on 4 July 2015. At the same time The Steel Man charity - Yorkshire Icon Ltd (reg no 1159282) - announced its official collaboration with the British Heart Foundation; 10% of all donations to the Heart of Steel appeal will support the BHF and their important work in life-saving heart research. The Rotherham Heart of Steel lighting up ceremony took place at the Minster Gardens on 29 September 2015.

text: The Steel Man is expected to be complete by 2019. The cost has been estimated at £4.2 million. [1]


document_title: Carnival in Goa

question_text: when was goa carnival cruise held in 2017

text: Carnival in Goa

text:
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tag: table

text: Carnival in Goa is one of the smaller celebrations of the carnival festival worldwide, but is the largest in India and one of the few happening across Asia. It usually takes place around February each year and earlier used to be called the carnival (or karnaval).

text: Since the 1960s, the festival got a boost after the end of Portuguese rule in Goa. From a rural-based festival sometimes taken over by boisterousness, it grew into an urban floats-based parade, where commercial entities and cultural groups play a significantly bigger role. It is still organised in a very traditional manner, including by the staging of streetside local plays, in the coastal Catholic-majority taluka of Salcete.

text: According to the government of Goa's Department of Tourism, the carnival is "Goa's most famous festival and has been celebrated since the 18th century."[1]

text: In 2017, the festival was celebrated from 25–28 February. In the urban areas, the float parades were held in state-capital Panjim (Panaji) on 25 February, Margao on 26 February, Vasco da Gama on 27 February, and Mapusa on 28 February.


document_title: Cuffy (Guyanese rebel)

question_text: where is the 1763 monument located in guyana

text: Cuffy (Guyanese rebel)

text: The Berbice Slave Uprising[edit]

text: Coffy lived in Lilienburg, a plantation on the Canje River, as a house-slave for a cooper (barrel maker). An uprising broke out at Magdalenenburg plantation, upper Canje River, in February 1763 and moved on to neighbouring plantations, attacking owners. When Governor Van Hogenheim sent military assistance to the region, the rebellion had reached the Berbice River and was moving steadily towards the Berbice capital, Fort Nassau. They took gunpowder and guns from the attacked plantations.

text: By 3 March the rebels were 500 in number. Led by Cosala,[citation needed] they tried to take the brick house of Peerboom. They agreed to allow the whites to leave the brick house, but as soon they left, the rebels killed many and took several prisoners, among them the wife of the Bearestyn Plantation owner, whom Cuffy kept as his wife.

text: Cuffy was soon accepted by the rebels as their leader and declared himself Governor of Berbice. Doing so he named Akara as his deputy and tried to establish discipline over the troops. Akara was skilful in military discipline. They organized the farms in order to provide food supplies.

text: Decadency of the rebellion[edit]

text: Van Hoogenheim committed himself to retake the colony. Akara attacked the whites three times without permission from Cuffy, but they were driven back. Thus began a dispute among the two rebels. On 2 April 1763 Cuffy wrote to Van Hoogenheim saying that he did not want a war against the whites and proposed a partition of Berbice with the whites occupying the coastal areas and the blacks the interior.[2] Van Hoogenheim delayed his decision waiting for support from neighboring colonies. Cuffy then ordered his forces to attack the whites on 13 May 1763, but in so doing had many losses. The defeat opened a division among the rebels and weakened their organization. Akara became the leader of a new faction opposed to Cuffy and led to a civil war among themselves. When Akara won, Cuffy killed himself.

text: National hero[edit]

text: The anniversary of the Cuffy slave rebellion, 23 February, has been Republic Day in Guyana since 1970. Cuffy is commemorated in the 1763 Monument in the Square of the Revolution in the capital Georgetown.


document_title: Salisbury steak

question_text: where does the name salisbury steak come from

text: Salisbury steak

text: History[edit]

text: The term "Salisbury steak" has been in use in the United States since 1897.[1] The dish is named after an American physician, James H. Salisbury (1823–1905).[1][2] The dish is popular in the United States, where it is traditionally served with gravy and mashed potatoes or pasta.

text: Standards of identity (for packaged product)[edit]

text: The USDA standards[3] for processed, packaged "Salisbury steak" require a minimum content of 65% meat, of which up to 25% can be pork, except if de-fatted beef or pork is used, the limit is 12% combined. No more than 30% may be fat. Meat byproducts are not permitted; however, beef heart meat is allowed. Extender (bread crumbs, flour, oat flakes, etc.) content is limited to 12%, except isolated soy protein at 6.8% is considered equivalent to 12% of the others. The remainder consists of seasonings, fungi or vegetables (onion, bell pepper, mushroom or the like), binders (can include egg) and liquids (such as water, milk, cream, skim milk, buttermilk, brine, vinegar etc.). The product must be fully cooked, or else labelled "Patties for Salisbury Steak".

text: The standards for hamburger[4] limit the meat to beef only, and of skeletal origin only. Salt, seasonings and vegetables in condimental proportions can be used, but liquids, binders and/or extenders preclude the use of the term "hamburger" or "burger". With these added, the product is considered "beef patties".

text: Products not made in USDA-inspected establishments are not bound by these standards and may be bound by other standards which vary from country to country.

text: Around the world[edit]

text: Hamburg steak is a very similar dish.

text: In Sweden, Pannbiff is similar to a Salisbury steak and is often made by a mix of ground pork and beef, chopped onions, salt and pepper. It is served with boiled potatoes, gravy made from cream, caramelized onions and lingonberries. It is a very traditional dish that is common in the husman cuisine.

text: Minced cutlet (котлета рубленая, kotleta rublenaya), or, since the late 19th century, simply "cutlet", is a staple of Russian cuisine. It is similar to a Salisbury steak, with the main difference being pure beef is rarely employed—usually pork or a beef-pork mixture is used. The meat is seasoned with salt and pepper, mixed with finely chopped onion (optionally fried), garlic, and a binder (eggs and breadcrumbs soaked in milk), divided into oval-shaped patties, lightly breaded and shallow-fried in a half-inch of vegetable oil. The similarly named Japanese dish, menchi katsu, is always deep-fried and heavily breaded, being essentially a mincemeat croquette, while the Russian version is always shallow-fried.[citation needed]

text: Grillsteaks are a similar product sold in the UK.[5]


document_title: Environment variable

question_text: which command will display all the environment variables on the system

text: Environment variable

text: Design[edit]

text: In all Unix and Unix-like systems, each process has its own separate set of environment variables. By default, when a process is created, it inherits a duplicate environment of its parent process, except for explicit changes made by the parent when it creates the child. At the API level, these changes must be done between running fork and exec. Alternatively, from command shells such as bash, a user can change environment variables for a particular command invocation by indirectly invoking it via env or using the ENVIRONMENT_VARIABLE=VALUE <command> notation. A running program can access the values of environment variables for configuration purposes.

text: Shell scripts and batch files use environment variables to communicate data and preferences to child processes. They can also be used to store temporary values for reference later in a shell script. However, in Unix, other variables are usually used for this.

text: In Unix, an environment variable that is changed in a script or compiled program will only affect that process and possibly child processes. The parent process and any unrelated processes will not be affected. In MS-DOS, changing or removing a variable's value inside a batch file will change the variable for the duration of COMMAND.COM's existence.

text: In Unix, the environment variables are normally initialized during system startup by the system init scripts, and hence inherited by all other processes in the system. Users can, and often do, augment them in the profile script for the command shell they are using. In Microsoft Windows, each environment variable's default value is stored in the Windows registry or set in the AUTOEXEC.BAT file.

text: On Unix, a setuid program is given an environment chosen by its caller, but it runs with different authority from its caller. The dynamic linker will usually load code from locations specified by the environment variables $LD_LIBRARY_PATH and $LD_PRELOAD and run it with the process's authority. If a setuid program did this, it would be insecure, because its caller could get it to run arbitrary code and hence misuse its authority. For this reason, libc unsets these environment variables at startup in a setuid process. setuid programs usually unset unknown environment variables and check others or set them to reasonable values.

text: Syntax[edit]

text: The variables can be used both in scripts and on the command line. They are usually referenced by putting special symbols in front of or around the variable name. For instance, to display the user home directory, in most scripting environments, the user has to type:

text: In DOS, OS/2 and Windows command-line interpreters such as COMMAND.COM and cmd.exe, the user has to type this:

text: In Windows PowerShell, the user has to type this:

text: The commands env, set, and printenv display all environment variables and their values. printenv can also be used to print a single variable by giving that variable name as the sole argument to the command.

text: Assignment[edit]

text: The commands env and set are also used to set environment variables and are often incorporated directly into the shell.

text: Unix[edit]

text: In Unix, the following commands can also be used, but are often dependent on a certain shell.

text: A few simple principles govern how environment variables achieve their effect.

text: Environment variables are local to the process in which they were set. If two shell processes are spawned and the value of an environment variable is changed in one, that change will not be seen by the other.

text: When a child process is created, it inherits all the environment variables and their values from the parent process. Usually, when a program calls another program, it first creates a child process by forking, then the child adjusts the environment as needed and lastly the child replaces itself with the program to be called. This procedure gives the calling program control over the environment of the called program.

text: In Unix and Unix-like systems, the names of environment variables are case-sensitive.

text: In Unix shells, variables may be assigned without the export keyword. Variables defined in this way are displayed by the set command, but are not true environment variables, as they are stored only by the shell and not recognized by the kernel. The printenv command will not display them, and child processes do not inherit them.

text: However, if used in front of a program to run, the variables will be exported to the environment and thus appear as real environment variables to the program:

text: The persistence of an environment variable can be session-wide or system-wide.

text: unset command[edit]

text: unset is a builtin command implemented by both the Bourne shell family (sh, ksh, bash, etc.) and the C shell family (csh, tcsh, etc.) of Unix command line shells. It unsets a shell variable, removing it from memory and the shell's exported environment. It is implemented as a shell builtin, because it directly manipulates the internals of the shell.[1][2]

text: Read-only shell variables cannot be unset. If one tries to unset a read-only variable, the unset command will print an error message and return a non-zero exit code.

text: DOS, OS/2 and Windows[edit]

text: In DOS, OS/2 and Windows command-line interpreters such as COMMAND.COM and cmd.exe, the SET command is used to assign environment variables and values using the following arguments:

text: The SET command without any arguments displays all environment variables along with their values.

text: Examples[edit]

text: Examples of environment variables include:

text:
PATH: a list of directory paths. When the user types a command without providing the full path, this list is checked to see whether it contains a path that leads to the command.
HOME (Unix-like) and USERPROFILE (Microsoft Windows): indicate where a user's home directory is located in the file system.
HOME/{.AppName} (Unix-like) and APPDATA\{DeveloperName\AppName} (Microsoft Windows): for storing application settings. Many applications incorrectly use USERPROFILE for application settings in Windows: USERPROFILE should only be used in dialogs that allow user to choose between paths like Documents/Pictures/Downloads/Music; for programmatic purposes, APPDATA (for roaming application settings shared across multiple devices), LOCALAPPDATA (for local application settings) or PROGRAMDATA (for application settings shared between multiple OS users) should be used.[3]
TERM (Unix-like): specifies the type of computer terminal or terminal emulator being used (e.g., vt100 or dumb).
PS1 (Unix-like): specifies how the prompt is displayed in the Bourne shell and variants.
MAIL (Unix-like): used to indicate where a user's mail is to be found.
TEMP: location where processes can store temporary files.

tag: ul

text: True environment variables[edit]

text: Unix[edit]

text: DOS[edit]

text: Under DOS the master environment is provided by the primary command processor, which inherits the pre-environment defined in CONFIG.SYS when first loaded. Its size can be configured through the COMMAND /E:n parameter between 160[4] and 32767[4] bytes. Local environment segments inherited to child processes are typically reduced down to the size of the contents they hold. Some command-line processors (like 4DOS) allow to define a minimum amount of free environment space that will be available when launching secondary shells. While the content of environment variables remains unchanged upon storage, their names (without the "%") are always converted to uppercase, with the exception of pre-environment variables defined via the CONFIG.SYS directive SET under DR DOS 6.0 and higher[5] (and only with SWITCHES=/L (for "allow lowercase names") under DR-DOS 7.02 and higher).[4][6] In principle, MS-DOS 7.0 and higher also supports lowercase variable names (%windir%), but provides no means for the user to define them. Environment variable names containing lowercase letters are stored in the environment just like normal environment variables, but remain invisible to most DOS software, since they are written to expect uppercase variables only.[4][5] Some command processors limit the maximum length of an variable name to 80 characters.[4] While principally only limited by the size of the environment segment, some DOS and 16-bit Windows programs do not expect the contents of environment variables to exceed 128 characters. DR-DOS COMMAND.COM supports environment variables up to 255, 4DOS even up to 512 characters.[4] Since COMMAND.COM can be configured (via /L:128..1024) to support command lines up to 1024 characters internally under MS-DOS 7.0 and higher, environment variables should be expected to contain at least 1024 characters as well.

text: In batch mode, non-existent environment variables are replaced by a zero-length string.

text: Standard environment variables or reserved environment variables include:

text: The DR-DOS family supports a number of additional standard environment variables including:

text: GEM[edit]

text: This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (August 2014)

text: Windows[edit]

text: System path variables[citation needed] refer to locations of critical operating system resources, and as such generally are not user-dependent.

text: User management variables[citation needed] store information related to resources and settings owned by various user profiles within the system. As a general rule, these variables do not refer to critical system resources or locations that are necessary for the OS to run.

text: Optional System variables[citation needed] are not explicitly specified by default but can be used to modify the default behaviour of certain built-in console commands. These variables also do not need to be explicitly specified as command line arguments.

text: Default values[edit]

text: The following tables shows typical default values of certain environment variables under English versions of Windows as they can be retrieved under CMD.

text: (Some of these variables are also defined when running COMMAND.COM under Windows, but differ in certain important details: Under COMMAND.COM, the names of environment variable are always uppercased. Some, but not all variables contain short 8.3 rather than long file names. While some variables present in the CMD environment are missing, there are also some variables specific to the COMMAND environment.)

text:
Variable
Locale specific
Windows XP (CMD)
Windows Vista/7/8 (CMD)

 %ALLUSERSPROFILE%[10]
Yes
C:\Documents and Settings\All Users
C:\ProgramData[10]

 %APPDATA%[10]
Yes
C:\Documents and Settings\{username}\Application Data
C:\Users\{username}\AppData\Roaming[10]

 %CommonProgramFiles%[10]
Yes
C:\Program Files\Common Files
C:\Program Files\Common Files[10]

 %CommonProgramFiles(x86)%[10]
Yes
C:\Program Files (x86)\Common Files (only in 64-bit version)
C:\Program Files (x86)\Common Files (only in 64-bit version)[10]

 %CommonProgramW6432%[10]
Yes
 %CommonProgramW6432% (not supported, not replaced by any value)
C:\Program Files\Common Files (only in 64-bit version)[10]

 %COMPUTERNAME%
No
{computername}
{computername}

 %ComSpec%
No
C:\Windows\System32\cmd.exe
C:\Windows\System32\cmd.exe

 %HOMEDRIVE%[10]
No
C:
C:[10]

 %HOMEPATH%[10]
Yes
\Documents and Settings\{username}
\Users\{username}[10]

 %LOCALAPPDATA%[10]
Yes
 %LOCALAPPDATA% (not supported, not replaced by any value)
C:\Users\{username}\AppData\Local[10]

 %LOGONSERVER%
No
\\{domain_logon_server}
\\{domain_logon_server}

 %PATH%
Yes
C:\Windows\system32;C:\Windows;C:\Windows\System32\Wbem;{plus program paths}
C:\Windows\system32;C:\Windows;C:\Windows\System32\Wbem;{plus program paths}

 %PATHEXT%
No
.COM;.EXE;.BAT;.CMD;.VBS;.VBE;.JS;.WSF;.WSH
.com;.exe;.bat;.cmd;.vbs;.vbe;.js;.jse;.wsf;.wsh;.msc

 %ProgramData%[10]
Yes
 %ProgramData% (not supported, not replaced by any value)
 %SystemDrive%\ProgramData[10]

 %ProgramFiles%[10]
Yes
 %SystemDrive%\Program Files
 %SystemDrive%\Program Files[10]

 %ProgramFiles(x86)%[10]
Yes
 %SystemDrive%\Program Files (x86) (only in 64-bit version)
 %SystemDrive%\Program Files (x86) (only in 64-bit version)[10]

 %ProgramW6432%[10]
Yes
 %ProgramW6432% (not supported, not replaced by any value)
 %SystemDrive%\Program Files (only in 64-bit version)[10]

 %PROMPT%
No
Code for current command prompt format, usually $P$G
Code for current command prompt format, usually $P$G

 %PSModulePath%

 %PSModulePath% (not supported, not replaced by any value)
 %SystemRoot%\system32\WindowsPowerShell\v1.0\Modules\

 %PUBLIC%[10]
Yes
 %PUBLIC% (not supported, not replaced by any value)
 %SystemDrive%\Users\Public[10]

 %SystemDrive%[10]
No
C:
C:[10]

 %SystemRoot%[10]
No
The Windows directory, usually C:\Windows, formerly C:\WINNT
 %SystemDrive%\Windows[10]

 %TEMP%[10] and %TMP%[10]
Yes
 %SystemDrive%\Documents and Settings\{username}\Local Settings\Temp
 %SystemRoot%\TEMP (for system environment variables %TMP% and %TEMP%), %USERPROFILE%\AppData\Local\Temp[10] (for user environment variables %TMP% and %TEMP%)

 %USERDOMAIN%
No
{userdomain}
{userdomain}

 %USERNAME%
No
{username}
{username}

 %USERPROFILE%[10]
Yes
 %SystemDrive%\Documents and Settings\{username}
 %SystemDrive%\Users\{username}[10]

 %windir%[10]
No
 %SystemDrive%\WINDOWS
 %SystemDrive%\Windows[10]

text: In this list, there is no environment variable that refers to the location of the user's My Documents directory, so there is no standard method for setting a program's home directory to be the My Documents directory.

text: Pseudo-environment variables[edit]

text: DOS[edit]

text: Besides true environment variables, which are statically stored in the environment until changed or deleted, a number of pseudo-environment variables exist for batch processing.

text: The so-called replacement parameters or replaceable parameters (Microsoft / IBM terminology) aka replacement variables (Digital Research / Novell / Caldera terminology)[8] or batch file parameters (JP Software terminology)[4] %1..%9 and %0 can be used to retrieve the calling parameters of a batchjob, see SHIFT. In batchjobs, they can be retrieved just like environment variables, but are not actually stored in the environment.

text: Some command-line processors (like DR-DOS COMMAND.COM,[8] Multiuser DOS MDOS.COM/TMP.EXE (Terminal Message Process), JP Software 4DOS, 4OS2, 4NT, Take Command and Windows CMD.EXE) support a type of pseudo-environment variables named system information variables (Novell / Caldera terminology)[8] or internal variables (JP Software terminology),[4] which can be used to retrieve various possibly dynamic, but read-only information about the running system in batch jobs. The returned values represent the status of the system in the moment these variables are queried; that is, reading them multiple times in a row may return different values even within the same command; querying them has no direct effect on the system. Since they are not stored in the environment, they are not listed by SET and do not exist for external programs to retrieve. If a true environment variable of the same name is defined, it takes precedence over the corresponding variable until the environment variable is deleted again. They are not case-sensitive. While almost all such variables are prefixed with an underscore ("_") by 4DOS etc. by convention (f.e. %_SECOND%),[4] they are not under DR-DOS COMMAND.COM (f.e. %OS_VERSION%).

text: In addition, 4DOS, 4OS2, 4NT, and Take Command also support so called variable functions,[4] including user-definable ones. They work just like internal variables, but can take optional parameters (f.e. %@EVAL[]%) and may even change the system status depending on their function.

text: System information variables supported by DR-DOS COMMAND.COM:

text: System information variables supported by DR-DOS COMMAND.COM with networking loaded:

text: Windows[edit]

text: Dynamic environment variables (also named internal variables or system information variables under DOS) are pseudo-environment variables supported by CMD when command-line extensions are enabled, and they expand to various discrete values whenever queried, that is, their values can change when queried multiple times even within the same command. While they can be used in batchjobs and at the prompt, they are not stored in the environment. Consequently, they are neither listed by SET nor do they exist for external programs to read. They are not case-sensitive.

text: Indirectly, they are also supported under Windows' COMMAND.COM, which has been modified to internally call CMD.EXE to execute the commands.


document_title: Eleanor (automobile)

question_text: who built the mustang in gone in 60 seconds

text: Eleanor (automobile)

text: Eleanor - 1974 film[edit]

text: Though four Mustangs are portrayed in the film as "Eleanor" targets, only two cars were used for filming the movie, with license plates and tires alternated as necessary. Of these two, one car was modified for the stunt driving necessitated by the final chase and wrecked in said process, while the other was kept intact for all external "beauty shots." The latter car was also used for all but two interior shots.[3]

text: Prepping the two 1971 Mustangs for the film[edit]

text: Both 1971 Mustang Sportsroofs used in the film (neither car has been proven to be a Mach 1, as often assumed) were bought in 1971, but - as it was three years before Halicki could raise sufficient funds to start filming - each car was facelifted with 1973 grilles for the film. Both cars retain their 1971 front bumper and valance panels, as retrofitting the 1973 parts to the car would have required swapping the fenders as well.[4]

text: As with the liberties taken with the body modifications, Halicki's paint scheme on both cars were similar - but not identical - to Ford factory offerings. Both cars received blackout treatment to the lower bodyside - resembling Mach 1's and base models equipped with the Exterior Decor Group - and a unique blackout treatment to the standard hood; not seen on any factory 1971-1973 Mustang. Additionally, neither car wears any identifiable badging spelling the "Mustang" name in type, though the pony badge and "Ford Motor Company" hubcaps are visible in the film.[5]

text: Despite rumors that both cars were painted in Ford's Medium Yellow Gold, Halicki - in a 1974 interview - stated that the cars were painted "generic school bus yellow" to save money.[6]

text: Stunt Eleanor[edit]

text: The modified car required 250 hours of labor before it was ready for the film.[7] All body panels were removed[8] in order to install a roll cage throughout the Mustang's stock unibody. The transmission was also chained in for safety. An adjustable camera rig was mounted in the back seat to capture footage from the internal “driver's point of view.”

text: The wrecked Eleanor was equipped with a base interior and no instrumentation package, but utilized seats from the Mustang's deluxe interior package; sourced from the beauty car. Conversely, the beauty car had deluxe interior, with the standard seats from the stunt car swapped into it.

text: Other safety modifications included:[9]

text:
Heavy duty Simpson shoulder harness
Deadbolt door locks
Aftermarket hood pins
24-volt electrical system
On-board first-aid kit
Electrical kill switches
Individual locking rear brakes[10]
Fish plating of the undercarriage - 3” x 3/8” steel

text: The interior of the stunt car is seen only once in the film, when Halicki - as Maindrian Pace - places his hands against the windshield when cornered by the Long Beach police. The rollcage is clearly visible against the A-pillar. All other interior shots were executed with the "beauty" car, generally on alternate filming dates.

text: Additional history[edit]

text: The stunt car survives to this day,[11] despite two serious incidents during filming:

text: The first occurred during a stunt wherein "Eleanor" cuts across multiple lanes of freeway traffic. The stunt driver leading the "traffic" overshot his mark during the take, clipping the Mustang and causing it to careen into a nearby light pole. Halicki was rendered unconscious from the impact, but filming resumed the following week - utilizing this accident as part of the final film.[12] Halicki's first words - upon regaining consciousness - were "Did we get coverage?"[13]

text: Following the incident with the light pole, Halicki compressed multiple vertibrae after performing the impressive 128-foot jump in the closing minutes of the film. The modified Mustang survived, despite the rough nose landing.[14]

text: 2007-2009 Classic Recreations manufactured Eleanor mustangs under license by Halicki Films/Eleanor Licensing. After two years Classic Recreations terminated the licensing agreement. Classic Recreations produced two models of the Eleanor Mustang (535 model,750 model).

text: Beauty Eleanor[edit]

text: The second car was left absolutely stock - as noted by cinematographer Jack Vacek in the film's DVD commentary - and was not modified extensively other than the obligatory matching paint job, grille change, and seat swap with the stunt car.

text: Though this car was not damaged during filming, Halicki stated (in 1974, at the film's premiere) that the car was crushed.[15]

text: Plates worn in the film[edit]

text: California[edit]

text:
869 FLA
613 HSO (Airport Eleanor)
614 HSO (Hal McClain[16] Eleanor)
359 JRA
820 FUA (Eleanor at car wash)

text: New York[edit]

text: RMH 100 (Fake plates affixed to 820 FUA)

text: Eleanor - 2000 film[edit]

text: In 1995, Denice Halicki licensed the rights of the 1974 film to Disney for a remake of the same name. The new 2000 Gone in 60 Seconds film, produced by Jerry Bruckheimer, features Nicolas Cage as master auto thief Randall "Memphis" Raines. Both films share plot similarities about a crew of thieves who steal a large order of cars (48 in the original, 50 in the 2000 film) and deliver them to the Long Beach docks. Once again, the "Eleanor" name is given to the film's featured car; now a Dupont Pepper Grey 1967 Ford Mustang fastback, depicted as a Shelby GT500, with a customized body kit designed by Steve Stanford.[17]

text: Screen-used vehicles[edit]

text: Depending on the source, either eleven[18] or twelve[19] cars were built by Cinema Vehicle Services for the film (not including CVS's creation of one additional Eleanor clone - with a Ford 428 - for producer Bruckheimer).[20] Nine were shells, and three were built as fully functional vehicles.[21] Seven were reported to have "survived the filming [and] made it back to Cinema Vehicle Services" according to research by Mustangandfords.com.[22]

text: Of the surviving vehicles, three cars have been offered to the public with claims of originality and screen-use in the film, as follows:

text:
Cinema Vehicle Services number[23]
VIN
Sales history

?
7R02S211287
Sold at Barrett-Jackson's 2009 Scottsdale, AZ auction for $216,700.[24]

7
7R02C173895
Sold at COYS Autosport International January 2012 auction (Birmingham, UK) for £95,000.[25] Later offered at Mecum's Austin, Texas auction on December 12, 2014; did not meet reserve at $380,000 USD.[26]

9
7R02C179710
Sold at Mecum's Indianapolis auction on May 18, 2013 for $1,000,000 USD. Touted as the "main" hero car in the film and used for promotional photographs.[27][28][29]

text: All three claim to be functional builds for the film.[30][31][32] Whether the two wrecked cars were rebuilt - or whether surviving shells were built up into functional cars - remains unknown and unpublicized.

text: A fourth car, VIN #7F02C229830, last offered for sale in Dubai, also claims originality to the film. This car has not been authenticated.[33][34]

text: License plate numbers[edit]

text: California[edit]

text:
LYN 274
ELNOR 2


document_title: Sam Hill (euphemism)

question_text: where did the phrase sam hell come from

question_tokens: where did the phrase sam hell come from

text: Sam Hill (euphemism)

text: Sam Hill is an American English slang phrase, a euphemism or minced oath for "the devil" or "hell" personified (as in, "What in the Sam Hill is that?"). The "Sam" coming from salmon(sal(o)mon an oath) and "Hill" from hell. Etymologist Michael Quinion and others date the expression back to the late 1830s;[1][2] they and others[3] consider the expression to have been a simple bowdlerization, with, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, an unknown origin.

text: Possible referents[edit]

text: Candidate referents for the use date back to at least the 19th century. The following are possibilities of the term's origin.

text: Euphemism for the devil: H. L. Mencken suggested that the phrase derives from Samiel, the name of the Devil in Der Freischütz, an opera by Carl Maria von Weber that was performed in New York City in 1825. The phrase "Sa' m Hill" can also be seen in the variant "Samil."[4]

text: Store owner in Arizona: Sam Hill was also a mercantile store owner who offered a vast and diverse inventory of goods. People began using the term "what in the Sam Hill is that?" to describe something they found odd or unusual, just like the inventory found in Sam Hill's store. The original Sam Hill Mercantile building still stands on Montezuma Street in Prescott, Arizona, and is listed on the register of Historic Places.[5]

text: Politician in Connecticut: An article in the New England Magazine in December 1889 entitled "Two Centuries and a Half in Guilford, Connecticut" mentioned that, "Between 1727 and 1752 Mr. Sam. Hill represented Guilford in forty-three out of forty-nine sessions of the Legislature, and when he was gathered to his fathers, his son Nathaniel reigned in his stead" and a footnote queried whether this might be the source of the "popular Connecticut adjuration to 'Give 'em Sam Hill'?"[1]

text: Surveyor in Michigan: A possible origin for the phrase "Sam Hill" is the surveyor Samuel W. Hill (1819–1889), associated with the Keweenaw Peninsula area.[6] Hill allegedly used such foul language that his name became a euphemism for swear words. In the words of Charles Eschbach, "Back in the 1850s the Keweenaw's copper mining boom was underway. There were about a dozen men who pretty much ran the Keweenaw. They were mining company agents, the 'go between' for the investors from Boston and the actual mining production people. Their names were attached to every report sent back to eastern investors. Among these company agents was a man named Samuel W. Hill. Sam was a geologist, surveyor, and mining engineer and had considerable power in the Keweenaw."[7] According to author Ellis W. Courter, Samuel Hill "was an adventurer, explorer, miner, and surveyor. He had worked with Christopher C. Douglas and Douglas Houghton on the early State survey. His judgment was respected. Although he was a rough character, he possessed a big heart and in the fall of 1847 had risked his life to help avert a threatened food shortage in the Copper Harbor district. Generally he was regarded as a hero throughout the entire Copper Country, however, he was contemptuous of all the praise that was heaped upon him. Hill also gained a reputation as being one of the most blasphemous and obscene swearers in the Keweenaw Peninsula. Although he had a colorful vocabulary and told many a good story of his early adventures, his ubiquitous use of lurid cuss words became legendary. Whenever friends or neighbors retold his colorful tales in more polite society, they had to tame his unmentionables by substituting the sinless sounding words 'Sam Hill'. In time the expression, 'What the Sam Hill' spread far beyond the Copper Country. Today it has become a part of the American language. Few who utter these words ever heard of Samuel Hill, or know that he was the unconscious originator of a sinless synonym for profanity."[8]

text: Adjutant General in Kentucky: Another possibility involves the former adjutant general of Kentucky Samuel Ewing Hill, who was sent by the governor of Kentucky to see what was going on in reference to the Hatfields & McCoys family feud in 1887. Between 1880 and 1891, the feud claimed more than a dozen members of the two families, becoming headline news around the country, and compelling the governors of both Kentucky and West Virginia to call up their state militias to restore order. The governor of West Virginia once even threatened to have his militia invade Kentucky. Kentucky governor Simon Bolivar Buckner in response sent his adjutant general Sam Hill to Pike County, Kentucky to investigate the situation. Newspapers from around the country awaited word from Hill to find out "what in the Sam Hill was going on up there".[9][10]

text: Non-contender: Millionaire in Pacific North West: The millionaire Samuel Hill, a businessman and "good roads" advocate in the Pacific Northwest, became associated with the phrase in the 1920s. A reference appeared in Time magazine when Hill convinced Queen Marie of Romania to travel to rural Washington to dedicate Hill's Maryhill Museum of Art.[11] The fact that "Father of Good Roads" Samuel Hill hadn't been born when the figure of speech first appeared in a publication rules out the possibility that he was the original Sam Hill in question.[2][12]


document_title: I'm Dying Up Here

question_text: who is clay from i'm dying up here

question_tokens: who is clay from i 'm dying up here

text: I'm Dying Up Here

text: Premise[edit]

text: I'm Dying Up Here explores the Los Angeles stand-up scene of the early 1970s as a group of young comedians attempt to become successful at Goldie's comedy club and potentially gain a shot on Johnny Carson's Tonight Show. Club owner Goldie mentors the young comics with a combination of toughness and encouragement in order to further their chances at success. The show focuses on the daily struggles and successes of both Goldie and the comics.

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Melissa Leo as Goldie Herschlag: a brassy comedy club owner (loosely based on Mitzi Shore)
Ari Graynor as Cassie Feder: an ambitious comedian from Wink, Texas and Clay's ex
Clark Duke as Ron Shack: a Boston comic who travels with Eddie to LA
Michael Angarano as Eddie Zeidel: a Boston comic and Clay's friend who travels with Ron to LA
Andrew Santino as Bill Hobbs: a comedy club favorite
Stephen Guarino as Sully Patterson: a zany stand-up comedian (Season 1; Guest Season 2)
Erik Griffin as Ralph Carnegie: a Vietnam vet, comic, and writer for Sonny & Cher
RJ Cyler as Adam Proteau: a struggling stand-up comedian
Al Madrigal as Edgar Martinez: a loose cannon comedian
Jake Lacy as Nick Beverly: a  stand up comedian who returns to Los Angeles after being on the road

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Ginger Gonzaga as Maggie: Arnie's/Ron's girlfriend, a waitress at the club
Jon Daly as Arnie: a struggling comic
Obba Babatundé as Barton Royce
W. Earl Brown as Teddy
Jeffrey Nordling as Eli Goldman
Rick Overton as Mitch Bombadier: an executive for The Tonight Show
Dylan Baker as Johnny Carson: the host of The Tonight Show.
Brianne Howey as Kay: a waitress at the club
Ryan Alosio as Miles Farber: an ambitious talent agent
Tommy Snider as Wolfman Jack: a famous disc jockey in Los Angeles.
Brad Garrett as Roy Martin (season 2): a legendary comedian who comes to the club and offers the up-and-coming comedians advice. Goldie attempts to join into a partnership with him as she expands her business pursuits.[7]
Nicole Ari Parker as Gloria Whitfield (season 2): a producer for Soul Train who enters into a relationship with one of the comics.[8]
Stefania LaVie Owen as Amanda Robbins (season 2): Goldie's estranged daughter who reenters her life after running away at 17.[8]
Xosha Roquemore as Dawn Lima (season 2): a female comic who is new to Los Angeles and struggling with her sexual identity as she enters into a sexual relationship with Nick.[9]
Dana Gould as Bruce (season 2): Adam's agent.[10]
Beau Mirchoff as Saul Hudson (season 2): a TV producer whom Ralph works for.[10]

text: Guest[edit]

text:
Joey "Coco" Diaz as Taffy
Sebastian Stan as Clay Appuzzo: Cassie's ex, who hits stardom with his first Tonight Show appearance
Alfred Molina as Carl: a mediocre talent manager
Robert Forster as Guy: Clay's father
Cathy Moriarty as Angie: Clay's mother
Scott Cohen as Roy Brenner
David Paymer as Ernie Falk
Richard Kind as Marty Dansak
Dom Irrera as Fitzy
Sarah Hay as Tawny
Sarah Stiles as Toni 'the Tiger' Luddy: a comedy club groupie
Jere Burns as Sid Robbins
Jocko Sims as Melvin
John Caponera as Howard Leetch
Armen Weitzman as Rob Cheevers
Dennis Haskins as Father Jacobs
Ken Lerner as Sam Doak
Brandon Ford Green as Richard Pryor

text: Episodes[edit]

text: SeasonEpisodesOriginally airedFirst airedLast aired110May 22, 2017 (2017-05-22)August 13, 2017 (2017-08-13)210May 6, 2018 (2018-05-06)July 8, 2018 (2018-07-08)

text: Season 1 (2017)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateU.S. viewers(millions)11"Pilot"Jonathan LevineDave FlebotteMay 22, 2017 (2017-05-22) (online)June 4, 2017 (2017-06-04) (Showtime)0.167[11]
22"Midnight Special"Jon S. BairdCindy ChupackJune 5, 2017 (2017-06-05) (online)June 11, 2017 (2017-06-11) (Showtime)0.120[12]
33"The Cost of a Free Buffet"Iain B. MacDonaldDave HolsteinJune 18, 2017 (2017-06-18)0.124[13]
44"Sugar and Spice"David EvansDave FlebotteJune 25, 2017 (2017-06-25)0.113[14]
55"The Return"Jake SchreierJeff ShakoorJune 30, 2017 (2017-06-30) (online)July 9, 2017 (2017-07-09) (Showtime)0.114[15]
66"Girls Are Funny, Too"Iain B. MacDonaldCindy CaponeraJuly 16, 2017 (2017-07-16)0.148[16]
77"My Rifle, My Pony and Me"Adam DavidsonMartin WeissJuly 23, 2017 (2017-07-23)0.126[17]
88"The Unbelievable Power of Believing"Kate DennisCindy Chupack & Justin HillianJuly 30, 2017 (2017-07-30)0.135[18]
99"Lingchi"Julie Anne RobinsonAlex HerschlagAugust 6, 2017 (2017-08-06)0.163[19]
1010"Creative Indifferences"Adam DavidsonDave FlebotteAugust 13, 2017 (2017-08-13)0.215[20]

text: Season 2 (2018)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateU.S. viewers(millions)111"Gone with the Wind"Adam DavidsonDave FlebotteMay 6, 2018 (2018-05-06)0.168[21]
122"Plus One"Adam DavidsonCindy ChupackMay 13, 2018 (2018-05-13)0.232[22]
133"Bete Noire"Ernest R. DickersonPeter ElkoffMay 20, 2018 (2018-05-20)0.207[23]
144"The Mattresses"Jake SchreierMartin WeissMay 27, 2018 (2018-05-27)0.159[24]
155"Heroes and Villains"Adam DavidsonJustin HillianJune 3, 2018 (2018-06-03)0.197[25]
166"Between Us"Salli Richardson-WhitfieldDiarra KilpatrickJune 10, 2018 (2018-06-10)0.179[26]
177"Call Me a Ham"Mark PolishJessica Lee Williamson & Dave FlebotteJune 17, 2018 (2018-06-17)0.164[27]
188"Now You See Me, Now You Don't"Cindy ChupackPeter ElkoffJune 24, 2018 (2018-06-24)0.184[28]
199"Deathbed Confessions"Jessica YuCindy ChupackJuly 1, 2018 (2018-07-01)0.145[29]
2010"Lines Crossed"Adam DavidsonDavid FlebotteJuly 8, 2018 (2018-07-08)0.162[30]


document_title: Lake Eyre

question_text: where does the salt in lake eyre come from

text: Lake Eyre

text: Geography[edit]

text: Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre is located in the deserts of central Australia, in northern South Australia. The Lake Eyre Basin is a large endorheic system surrounding the lakebed, the lowest part of which is filled with the characteristic salt pan caused by the seasonal expansion and subsequent evaporation of the trapped waters. Even in the dry season there is usually some water remaining in Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre, normally collecting in over 200 smaller sub-lakes within its margins. The lake was formed by aeolian processes after tectonic upwarping occurred to the south subsequent to the end of the Pleistocene epoch.[3]

text: During the rainy season the rivers from the north-east part of the Lake Eyre Basin (in outback (south-west and central) Queensland) flow towards the lake through the Channel Country. The amount of water from the monsoon determines whether water will reach the lake and if it does, how deep the lake will get. The average rainfall in the area of the lake is 100 to 150 millimetres (3.9 to 5.9 in) per year.[3]

text: The −15 m (−49 ft) altitude usually attributed to Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre refers to the deepest parts of the lake floor, in Belt Bay and the Madigan Gulf. The shoreline lies at −9 m (−30 ft).[4] The lake is the area of maximum deposition of sediment in the Lake Eyre Basin.[5]

text: Lake Eyre is divided into two sections which are joined by the Goyder Channel. These are known as Lake Eyre North, which is 144 kilometres (89 mi) in length and 65 kilometres (40 mi) wide, and Lake Eyre South, which measures 65 by 24 kilometres (40 by 15 mi).[6] The salt crusts are thickest (up to 50 cm (20 in)) in the southern Belt Bay, Jackboot Bay and Madigan Gulf sub-basins of Lake Eyre North.[7]

text: Since 1883, proposals have been made to flood Lake Eyre with seawater brought to the basin via a canal or pipeline. The purpose was, in part, to increase evaporation and thereby increase rainfall in the region downwind of an enlarged Lake Eyre.[8] The added rainfall has been modeled as small.[9] Due to the basin's low elevation below sea level and the region's high annual evaporation rate (between 2,500 and 3,500 millimetres (98 and 138 in)[10]), such schemes have generally been considered impractical as it is likely that accumulation of salt deposits would rapidly block the engineered channel.[11] At a rate of 1 cm (0.39 in) evaporation per day, a 3 m (9.8 ft) viaduct flowing a 0.5 m/s (1.6 ft/s) would supply enough water to create a 100 km2 (39 sq mi) sea. If brine water was not sent back to the ocean, it would precipitate 90,000 long tons (91,000 t) of salt every year.[citation needed]

text: Salinity[edit]

text: The salinity in the lake increases as the 450 mm (18 in) salt crust dissolves over a period of six months of a major flood resulting in a massive fish kill. When over 4 m (13 ft) deep the lake is no more salty than the sea, but salinity increases as the water evaporates, with saturation occurring at about a 500 mm (20 in) depth. The lake takes on a pink hue when saturated due to the presence of beta-carotene pigment caused by the algae Dunaliella salina.

text: Floods[edit]

text: Typically a 1.5 m (5 ft) flood occurs every three years, a 4 m (13 ft) flood every decade, and a fill or near fill a few times a century. The water in the lake soon evaporates with a minor or medium flood drying by the end of the following summer. Most of the water entering the lakes arrives via Warburton River.[3]

text: In strong La Niña years the lake can fill. Since 1885 this has occurred in 1886–1887, 1889–1890, 1916–1917, 1950, 1955, 1974–1977,[12] and 1999–2001,[13] with the highest flood of 6 m (20 ft) in 1974. Local rain can also fill Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre to 3–4 m (9.8–13.1 ft) as occurred in 1984 and 1989. Torrential rain in January 2007 took about six weeks to reach the lake but only placed a small amount of water into it.[14]

text: When recently flooded the lake is almost fresh and native freshwater fish, including bony bream (Nematolosa erebi), the Lake Eyre Basin sub-species of golden perch (Macquaria ambigua) and various small hardyhead species (Craterocephalus spp.) can survive in it.

text: 2009 to 2011[edit]

text: The 2009 Lake Eyre flood peaked at 1.5 m (5 ft) deep in late May, which is a quarter of its maximum recorded depth of 6 m (20 ft). 9 km3 (2 cu mi) of water crossed the Queensland–South Australian border with most of it coming from massive floods in the Georgina River. However, owing to the very low rainfall in the lower reaches of these rivers (contrasting with heavy rainfall in the upper catchments)[15] the greater proportion soaked into the desert or evaporated en route to the lake, leaving less than 4 km3 (0.96 cu mi) in the lake which covered an area of 800 km2 (309 sq mi) or 12% of the total. As the flood did not start filling the lake's deepest point (Belt Bay) until late March, little bird life appeared preferring instead to nest in the upper reaches of the Lake Eyre Basin, north of Birdsville, where large lakes appeared in January as a result of monsoonal rain.

text: The high rainfall in summer 2010 sent flood water into the Diamantina, Georgina and Cooper Creek catchments of the Lake Eyre basin, with the Cooper Creek reaching the lake for the first time since 1990. The higher rainfall has prompted many different birds to migrate back to the area for breeding.[16]

text: Heavy local rain in early March 2011 in the Stuart Creek and Warriner catchments filled Lake Eyre South, with Lake Eyre North about 75 per cent covered with water firstly from the Neales and Macumba Rivers, and later from the Warburton River.[17]

text: 2015 to 2016[edit]

text: In late 2015, water began flowing into Lake Eyre following heavy rain in the north-east of the state.[18]

text: Yacht club[edit]

text: The Lake Eyre Yacht Club is a dedicated group of sailors who sail on the lake's floods, including recent trips in 1997, 2000, 2001, 2004, 2007 and 2009.[19] A number of 6 m (20 ft) trailer sailers sailed on Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre in 1975, 1976, and 1984 when the flood depth reached 3–6 m (9.8–19.7 ft). In July 2010 The Yacht Club held its first regatta since 1976[20] and its first on Lake Killamperpunna, a freshwater lake on Cooper Creek. The Cooper had reached Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre for the first time since 1990.[citation needed]

text: When the lake is full, a notable phenomenon is that around midday the surface can often become very flat. The surface then reflects the sky in a way that leaves both the horizon and water surface virtually impossible to see. The commodore of the Lake Eyre Yacht Club has stated that sailing during this time has the appearance of sailing in the sky.[21]

text: Land speed record attempts[edit]

text: Kati Thanda–Lake Eyre has been a site for various land speed record attempts on its salt flats, especially those by Donald Campbell with the Bluebird-Proteus CN7.[22]

text: Wildlife[edit]

text: Phytoplankton in the lake includes Nodularia spumigena and a number of species of Dunaliella.[3]

text: Birds[edit]

text: Birds such as pelicans and banded stilts are drawn to a filled lake from southern coastal regions of Australia, and from as far afield as Papua New Guinea. During the 1989–1990 flood it was estimated that 200,000 pelicans, 80% of Australia's total population, came to feed & roost at Lake Eyre.[23] Scientists are presently unable to determine how such birds appear able to detect the filling of the lake, even when hundreds or thousands of miles away from the basin.[24]

text: Protected area status[edit]

text: Statutory[edit]

text: The extent of the lake is covered by two protected areas declared by the Government of South Australia - the Kati Thanda-Lake Eyre National Park and the Elliot Price Conservation Park.[25]

text: Non-statutory[edit]

text: Wetlands[edit]

text: Lake Eyre is on the list of wetlands of national importance known as A Directory of Important Wetlands in Australia.[26]

text: Important bird area[edit]

text: Lake Eyre has been identified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area (IBA) known as the Lake Eyre Important Bird Area because, when flooded, it supports major breeding events of the Banded stilt and Australian pelican, as well as over 1% of the world populations of Red-necked avocets, Sharp-tailed sandpipers, Red-necked stints, Silver gulls and Caspian terns.[27]


document_title: American Income Life Insurance Company

question_text: who is the owner of american income life

text: American Income Life Insurance Company

text:
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text:
American Income Life Insurance Company

Type

Subsidiary of Torchmark Corporation

Industry
Life insurance

Founded
1951

Founder
Bernard Rapoport

Headquarters
Waco, Texas

Area served

United States
Canada
New Zealand

Key people

Roger Smith, CEO

Products
supplemental health
and life insurance

Website
http://www.ailife.com

text: American Income Life Insurance Company (formerly NASDAQ: AINC), based in Waco, Texas, provides supplemental life insurance to labor unions, credit unions, and associations. American Income Life (AIL) was founded in 1951. The company's executive offices have been located in Waco, Texas, since 1959. American Income Life is licensed in 49 states, the District of Columbia, Canada, and is registered to carry on business in New Zealand. AIL also has two wholly owned subsidiaries: National Income Life Insurance Company, licensed in the state of New York, and Union Heritage Life Assurance Company Limited, licensed in the Republic of Ireland.

text: AIL has more than two million policyholders (as of June 2013).[1] With its New York subsidiary, National Income Life Insurance Company (NILICO), the company has combined assets of more than $2.6 billion, with more than $41.3 billion of life insurance in force (as of April 2013).[2] American Income Life is a wholly owned subsidiary of Torchmark Corporation (NYSE: TMK), based in McKinney, Texas.[3]

text: History[edit]

text: The company's history began in 1951 under the name American Income. American Income was chartered as a mutual assessment association in Indiana with $25,000 of borrowed capital. It was reinsured through American Standard Insurance Company as a new mutual reserve company in March 1951. American Income Insurance Company was officially founded in May 1951 by the company's president, Harold Goodman, and executive vice president, Bernard Rapoport (Goodman's nephew). The company's home offices were located in Indianapolis, Indiana.

text: American Income originally sold low-cost hospital insurance plans. During its first year, the company took in about $95,000 worth of premium income. The company reached $1 million worth of insurance premiums in 1953. By 1954, the company was receiving 6,000 insurance policy applications per month.

text: In September 1954, with $200,000 in capital and $100,000 of surplus, Goodman and Rapoport formed a new company called American Income Life Insurance Company (AIL). American Income Life reinsured the policies of American Income and was transformed from a mutual reserve company to a stock company. American Standard, the company's original insurer, was merged with American Income Life, and the company acquired about $400,000 worth of premiums.

text: Between 1954 and 1955, AIL's assets had doubled, its net reserve had tripled, its capital and surplus more than doubled, and it had about $15 million of insurance in force.[3] In 1956, Rapoport desired to take the Indiana-based company national. He obtained a license in Ohio and opened a central office in Columbus. By the close of 1956, American Income Life was operating in thirteen states with 300 sales personnel in the field operating out of 96 general agencies. In March 1958, the company's home offices were moved from Indianapolis, Indiana, to Waco, Texas.

text: In 1961, AIL began providing supplemental insurance to members of labor unions and serving union policyholders in ways unfamiliar to the industry. For example, AIL waived payment of premiums by union members during an authorized strike action, a benefit still offered in 2017. AIL also developed a college scholarship program for children of union members, and the company contributed to the strike funds of unions engaged in lawful strikes.[3] The company was positioned as the only 100% union insurance company, and termed the phrase, “Be Union-Buy Union." In 1963, AIL's income was about $6 or $7 million.[3] By 1973, income reached $31.5 million.

text: In June 1966, the Office and Professional Employees International Union (OPEIU) organized the Home Office staff, making AIL the only insurance company with all union employees. In October 1973, the company was granted an official designation as a Union Label company by the AFL-CIO. AIL was one of only two insurance companies in the entire United States with the official Union Label.

text: In 1994, American Income Life was sold to Torchmark Corporation for $563 million.[3]

text: in 2012, American Income Life Insurance Co. sued Google, Inc. and the unnamed owners of two websites for featuring unflattering results for the company in the top page of search results.[4]


document_title: Tribe of Judah

question_text: what tribe was david from in the bible

question_tokens: what tribe was david from in the bible

text: Tribe of Judah

text: Biblical account[edit]

text: The Tribe of Judah, its conquests, and the centrality of its capital in Jerusalem for the worship of the god Yahweh figure prominently in the Deuteronomistic history, encompassing the books of Deuteronomy through II Kings, which most scholars agree was reduced to written form, although subject to exilic and post-exilic alterations and emendations, during the reign of the Judahist reformer Josiah from 641–609 BCE.[1]

text: According to the account in the Book of Joshua, following a partial conquest of Canaan by the Israelite tribes (the Jebusites still held Jerusalem),[2] Joshua allocated the land among the twelve tribes. Judah's divinely ordained portion is described in Joshua 15 as encompassing most of the southern portion of the Land of Israel, including the Negev, the Wilderness of Zin and Jerusalem. However, the consensus of modern scholars is that it never occurred.[3][4][5] Other scholars point to extra-biblical references to Israel and Canaan as evidence for the potential historicity of the conquest.[6][7]

text: In the opening words of the Book of Judges, following the death of Joshua, the Israelites "asked the Lord" which tribe should be first to go to occupy its allotted territory, and the tribe of Judah was identified as the first tribe.[8] According to the narrative in the Book of Judges, the tribe of Judah invited the tribe of Simeon to fight with them in alliance to secure each of their allotted territories. As is the case with Joshua, many scholars do not believe that the book of Judges contains reliable history.[9][10][11]

text: The Book of Samuel describes God's repudiation of a monarchic line arising from the northern Tribe of Benjamin due to the sinfulness of King Saul, which was then bestowed onto the Tribe of Judah for all time in the person of King David. In Samuel's account, after the death of Saul, all the tribes other than Judah remained loyal to the House of Saul, while Judah chose David as its king. However, after the death of Ish-bosheth, Saul's son and successor to the throne of Israel, all the other Israelite tribes made David, who was then the king of Judah, king of a re-united Kingdom of Israel. The Book of Kings follows the expansion and unparalleled glory of the United Monarchy under King Solomon. A majority of scholars believe that the accounts concerning David and Solomon's territory in the "united monarchy" are exaggerated, and a minority believe that the "united monarchy" never existed at all.[12][13][14] Disagreeing with the latter view, Old Testament scholar Walter Dietrich contends that the biblical stories of circa 10th-century BCE monarchs contain a significant historical kernel and are not simply late fictions.[15]

text: On the accession of Rehoboam, Solomon's son, in c. 930 BCE, the ten northern tribes under the leadership of Jeroboam from the Tribe of Ephraim split from the House of David to create the Northern Kingdom in Samaria. The Book of Kings is uncompromising in its low opinion of its larger and richer neighbor to the north, and understands its conquest by Assyria in 722 BCE as divine retribution for the Kingdom's return to idolatry.[16]

text: The tribes of Judah and Benjamin remained loyal to the House of David. These tribes formed the Kingdom of Judah, which existed until Judah was conquered by Babylon in c. 586 BCE and the population deported.

text: When the Jews returned from Babylonian exile, residual tribal affiliations were abandoned, probably because of the impossibility of reestablishing previous tribal land holdings. However, the special religious roles decreed for the Levites and Kohanim were preserved, but Jerusalem became the sole place of worship and sacrifice among the returning exiles, northerners and southerners alike.

text: Territory and main cities[edit]

text: According to the biblical account, at its height, the Tribe of Judah was the leading tribe of the Kingdom of Judah, and occupied most of the territory of the kingdom, except for a small region in the north east occupied by Benjamin, and an enclave towards the south west which was occupied by Simeon. Bethlehem and Hebron were initially the main cities within the territory of the tribe.

text: The size of the territory of the tribe of Judah meant that in practice it had four distinct regions:

text:
The Negev (Hebrew: south) – the southern portion of the land, which was highly suitable for pasture
The Shephelah (Hebrew: lowland) – the coastal region, between the highlands and the Mediterranean sea, which was used for agriculture, in particular for grains.
The wilderness – the barren region immediately next to the Dead Sea, and below sea level; it was wild, and barely inhabitable, to the extent that animals and people which were made unwelcome elsewhere, such as bears, leopards, and outlaws, made it their home. In biblical times, this region was further subdivided into three sections – the wilderness of En Gedi,[17] the wilderness of Judah,[18] and the wilderness of Maon.[19]
The hill country – the elevated plateau situated between the Shephelah and the wilderness, with rocky slopes but very fertile soil. This region was used for the production of grain, olives, grapes, and other fruit, and hence produced oil and wine.

text: Origin[edit]

text: According to the Torah, the tribe consisted of descendants of Judah, the fourth son of Jacob and of Leah. Some Biblical scholars view this as an etiological myth created in hindsight to explain the tribe's name and connect it to the other tribes in the Israelite confederation.[20][21] With Leah as a matriarch, Biblical scholars regard the tribe as having been believed by the text's authors to have been part of the original Israelite confederation.[21]

text: Like the other tribes of the kingdom of Judah, the tribe of Judah is entirely absent from the ancient Song of Deborah, rather than present but described as unwilling to assist in the battle between Israelites and their enemy. Traditionally, this has been explained as being due to the southern kingdom being too far away to be involved in the battle, but Israel Finkelstein et al. claim the alternative explanation that the southern kingdom was simply an insignificant rural backwater at the time the poem was written.[22]

text: Character[edit]

text: As depicted by the Deuteronomists and post-exilic writers, the tribe of Judah was the leading tribe of the Kingdom of Judah. David and the royal line belonged to the tribe, and the line continued even after the fall of the Kingdom of Judah in the Exilarchs. The traditional Jewish belief is that the (Jewish) Messiah will be of the Davidic line, based on the LORD's promise to David of an everlasting throne for his offspring (Isaiah 9:6–7, Jeremiah 33:15-21, 2 Samuel 7:12–16, Psalms 89:35–37).

text: Indeed, many of the Jewish leaders and prophets of the Hebrew Bible claimed membership in the tribe of Judah. For example, the literary prophets Isaiah, Amos, Habakkuk, Joel, Micah, Obadiah, Zechariah, and Zephaniah, all belonged to the tribe. Later, during the Babylonian Exile, the Exilarchs (officially recognised community leaders) claimed Davidic lineage, and when the Exile ended, Zerubbabel (the leader of the first Jews to return to Yehud province) was also said to be of the Davidic line, as were Shealtiel (a somewhat mysterious figure) and Nehemiah (one of the earliest and most prominent Achamenid-appointed governors of Yehud). In the time of Roman rule, all the holders of the office of Nasi (prince) after Shemaiah, claimed Davidic lineage, through Hillel, who was rumoured to have maternal lineage from the Davidic line.

text: In Matthew 1:1–6 and Luke 3:31–34 of the New Testament, Jesus is described as a member of the tribe of Judah by lineage. Revelation 5:5 also mentions an apocalyptic vision of the Lion of the tribe of Judah.

text: Fate[edit]

text: As part of the kingdom of Judah, the tribe of Judah survived the destruction of Israel by the Assyrians, and instead was subjected to the Babylonian captivity; when the captivity ended, the distinction between the tribes were lost in favour of a common identity. Since Simeon and Benjamin had been very much the junior partners in the Kingdom of Judah, it was Judah that gave its name to the identity—that of the Jews.

text: After the fall of Jerusalem, Babylonia (modern day Iraq), would become the focus of Jewish life for 1000 years. The first Jewish communities in Babylonia started with the exile of the Tribe of Judah to Babylon by Jehoiachin in 597 BCE as well as after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 586 BCE.[23] Many more Jews migrated to Babylon in CE 135 after the Bar Kokhba revolt and in the centuries after.[23]

text: Ethiopia's traditions, recorded and elaborated in a 13th-century treatise, the "Kebre Negest", assert descent from a retinue of Israelites who returned with the Queen of Sheba from her visit to King Solomon in Jerusalem, by whom she had conceived the Solomonic dynasty's founder, Menelik I. Both Christian and Jewish Ethiopian tradition has it that these immigrants were mostly of the Tribes of Dan and Judah;[24] hence the Ge'ez motto Mo`a 'Anbessa Ze'imnegede Yihuda ("The Lion of the Tribe of Judah has conquered"), one of many names for Jesus of Nazareth. The phrase "The Lion of the Tribe of Judah has conquered" is also found in the Book of Revelation.


document_title: Canada in the Cold War

question_text: where was canada during the cold war geographically-speaking

text: Canada in the Cold War

text: Early Cold War[edit]

text: Canada emerged from the Second World War as a world power, radically transforming a principally agricultural and rural dominion of a dying empire into a truly sovereign nation, with a market economy focused on a combination of resource extraction and refinement, heavy manufacturing, and high-technology research and development. As a consequence of supplying so much of the war effort for six long years, Canada's military grew to an exceptional size: over a million service personnel, the world's third largest surface fleet and fourth largest air force. Despite a draw-down at the end of the war, the Canadian military nonetheless executed Operation Muskox, a massive deployment across the Canadian Arctic designed in part to train for a ground and air war in the region. Canadians also assisted in humanitarian efforts, and sending observers for the United Nations to India and Palestine in 1947 and 1948.

text: There was never any doubt early on as to which side Canada was on in the Cold War due to its location. On the domestic front, the Canadian state at all levels fought vehemently against what it characterized as communist subversion. Canadian and business leaders opposed the advance of the labour movement on the grounds that it was a Bolshevik conspiracy during the interwar period. The peak moments of this effort were the Winnipeg General Strike of 1919 and the anticommunist campaigns of the depression, including the stopping of the On-to-Ottawa Trek. The formal onset of the Cold War, usually pegged with the 1945 defection of a Soviet cipher clerk working in Ottawa, Igor Gouzenko, was therefore a continuation and extension of, rather than a departure from, Canadian anticommunist policies.

text: Canada was a founding member of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), of which Prime Minister St. Laurent was a chief architect.  Canada was one of its most ardent supporters and pushed (largely unsuccessfully) to have it become an economic and cultural organization in addition to a military alliance.

text: It played a middle power role in international affairs, and pursued diplomatic relations with Communist countries that the US had severed ties with, such as Cuba and China after their respective revolutions. Canada argued that rather than being soft on Communism, it was pursuing a strategy of "constructive engagement" whereby it sought to influence Communism through the course of its international relationships.

text: Domestic anti-Communism[edit]

text: Canada had far less of the anti-Communist hysteria that had afflicted the United States.  The United States wished the Canadian government would go further, asking for a purging of trade unions, but Canada saw this as American hysteria, and left the purge of trade unions to the AFL-CIO. The American officials were especially concerned about the sailors on Great Lakes freight vessels, and, in 1951, Canada added them to those already screened by its secret anti-communist screening program. The Communist Party of Canada had not been outlawed since Section 98 was repealed by Prime Minister Mackenzie King in 1935.[1]

text: Despite its comparatively moderate stance towards Communism, the Canadian state continued intensive surveillance of Communists and sharing of intelligence with the US. PROFUNC was a Government of Canada top secret plan to identify and detain Communist sympathizers during the height of the Cold War.[2]

text: Tensions between Canada and the United States heightened during this time as on April 4, 1957, Canadian Ambassador to Egypt, E. Herbert Norman, leaped to his death from a Cairo building after the United States Senate Subcommittee on Internal Security released a textual record of a previous hearing to the media. Despite having been cleared several years earlier, first by the RCMP in 1950, then again by the Canadian Minister of External Affairs, Lester B. Pearson, the United States media portrayed Norman as a spy and traitor. The only evidence the United States had was that as a student at Cambridge and Harvard he was a part of a Marxist communist study group. This made Pearson, who was still External Affairs Minister, backed by outrage across the country, send a note to the US Government, threatening to offer no more security information on Canadian citizens until it was guaranteed that this information would not slip beyond the executive branch of the government.[3]

text: Peacekeeping[edit]

text: It was during the Cold War period that Canada began to assert the international clout that went along with the reputation it had built on the international stage in World War I and World War II.

text: In the Korean War, the moderately sized contingent of volunteer soldiers from Canada made noteworthy contributions to the United Nations forces and served with distinction.  Of particular note is the Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry's contribution to the Battle of Kapyong.

text: Canada's major Cold War contribution to international politics was made in the innovation and implementation of 'Peacekeeping'.  Although a United Nations military force had been proposed and advocated for the preservation of peace vis a vis the U.N.'s mandate by Canada's representatives Prime Minister Mackenzie King and his Secretary of State for External Affairs Louis St. Laurent at the United Nations Conference on International Organization in San Francisco in June 1945, it was not adopted at that time.

text: During the Suez Crisis of 1956, the idea promoted by Canada in 1945 of a United Nations military force returned to the fore.  The conflict involving Britain, France, Israel and Egypt quickly developed into a potential flashpoint between the emerging 'superpowers' of the United States and the Soviet Union as the Soviets made intimations that they would militarily support Egypt's cause.  The Soviets went as far as to say they would be willing to use "all types of modern weapons of destruction" on London and Paris – an overt threat of nuclear attack.  Canadian diplomat Lester B. Pearson re-introduced then Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent's UN military force concept in the form of an 'Emergency Force' that would intercede and divide the combatants, and form a buffer zone or 'human shield' between the opposing forces.  Pearson's United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) – the first peacekeeping force, was deployed to separate the combatants and a cease-fire and resolution was drawn up to end the hostilities.

text: Canada–U.S. tensions[edit]

text: To defend North America against a possible enemy attack, Canada and the United States began to work very closely together in the 1950s. The North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) created a joint air-defense system.  In northern Canada, the Distant Early Warning Line (Dew Line) was established to give warning of Soviet bombers heading over the north pole.  Great debate broke out while John Diefenbaker was Prime Minister as to whether Canada should accept U.S. nuclear weapons on its territory.  Diefenbaker had already agreed to buy the BOMARC missile system from the Americans, which would be not as effective without nuclear warheads, but balked at permitting the weapons into Canada.

text: Canada also maintained diplomatic and economic ties with Cuba following the Cuban Revolution. Prior to the Cuban Missile Crisis, the insistence on a much more placated policy towards the Cuban government had been a source of contention between the United States and Canada.[4] Prime Minister Diefenbaker firmly stood by his policy decision, insisting that this was the result of the rights of states to establish their own forms of government, rejection of current US interpretation of the Monroe Doctrine as well as Canada's right to establish its own foreign policy.[4]  Concern in the Canadian government was focused primarily on nuclear weapons, many politicians in the opposition and in power believed that as long as the US president retained absolute control of the nuclear weapons, Canadian forces could be ordered to undertake nuclear missions for the US without Canadian consent.[5] During the Cuban Missile Crisis, Canada was expected to fall in line with American foreign policy, in that Canada's military forces were expected to go on immediate war alert status.[6]  Diefenbaker however, refused to do so emphasizing the need for United Nations intervention.[6] It would only be after a tense phone call between President John F. Kennedy and Diefenbaker that Canada's armed forces would begin preparations for "immediate enemy attack".[6] Although the crisis would eventually be solved by diplomatic talks between Nikita Khrushchev and Kennedy, nothing would loom larger over the Canadian state in the months following the crisis than the governing party's disarray on the question of nuclear arms.[7]

text: In the 1963 Canadian election, Diefenbaker was replaced by the famed diplomat Lester B. Pearson, who accepted the warheads.  Further tensions developed when Pearson criticized the American role in the Vietnam War in a speech he gave at Temple University in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. See also Canada and the Vietnam War.

text: Canada also refused to join the Organization of American States, disliking the support and tolerance of the Cold War OAS for dictators. Under Pearson's successor Pierre Trudeau, US-Canadian policies grew further apart. Trudeau removed nuclear weapons from Canadian soil, formally recognized the People's Republic of China, established a personal friendship with Castro, and decreased the number of Canadian troops stationed at NATO bases in Europe.

text: End of the Cold War[edit]

text: Brian Mulroney and Ronald Reagan had a close relationship, but the 1980s also saw widespread protests against American testing of cruise missiles in Canada's north.[citation needed]

text: When the Cold War ended, Canadian Forces were withdrawn from their NATO commitments in Germany, military spending was cut, and air raid sirens were removed across the country. The Diefenbunkers, Canada's military-operated fallout shelters designed to ensure continuity of government, were decommissioned. In 1994, the last active United States military base in Canada, Naval Station Argentia Newfoundland, was decommissioned and the facility was turned over to the Government of Canada. The base was a storage facility for the Mk 101 Lulu and B57 nuclear bombs[8] and a key node in the US Navy's SOSUS network to detect Soviet nuclear submarines. Canada continues to participate in Cold War institutions such as NORAD and NATO, but they have been given new missions and priorities.

text: In addition, Canada may have played a small role in helping to bring about glasnost and perestroika. In the mid-1970s, Alexander Yakovlev was appointed as ambassador to Canada, remaining at that post for a decade. During this time, he and Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau became close friends.[citation needed]

text: In the early 1980s, Yakovlev accompanied Mikhail Gorbachev, who at the time was the Soviet official in charge of agriculture, on his tour of Canada. The purpose of the visit was to tour Canadian farms and agricultural institutions in the hopes of taking lessons that could be applied in the Soviet Union; however, the two began, tentatively at first, to discuss the need for liberalisation in the Soviet Union. Yakovlev then returned to Moscow, and would eventually be called the "godfather of glasnost",[9] the intellectual force behind Gorbachev's reform program.

text: In 1987, Canada released a long-awaited White Paper on Defence;[10] signalling its intent to re-assert sovereignty over its Arctic Waters. Concerned that Soviet submarines were operating in Canada's Arctic Archipelago, several programs were proposed to close the gap between Canada's current capabilities and its commitments to NATO. Project Spinnaker was born, a joint Canada–US endeavour whose secret purpose was to provide the capability to monitor submarine traffic in Canadian Arctic waters by deploying acoustic listening posts on the seafloor. This project required the development of a large autonomous underwater vehicle – named Theseus – whose sole purpose was to lay communications trunk cables on the seafloor in waters with a permanent ice cover. In the spring of 1996, Theseus was transported to CFS Alert (on the northeastern tip of Ellesmere Island) then was deployed from an ice camp where it laid 180km of fibre optic cable on the seafloor in ice-covered waters, successfully delivering it to an acoustic array deployed on the edge of the Continental Shelf.

text: The Cold War in Canada came to an end during the period 1990–1995 as the traditional mission to contain Soviet expansion faded into the new realities of warfare. The Cold War required permanent foreign deployments to Western Europe, something which was no longer necessary, and as such bases closed down. Less equipment was needed, and so much was sold off, soon to be replaced by newer equipment designed for future conflicts. At home, bases were closed and operations consolidated and streamlined for maximum efficiency, as by the early 1990s many Canadians were openly questioning the necessity of large defence budgets.

text: In 1990, Canadian troops were deployed to assist provincial police in Québec in an effort to defuse tensions between Mohawk Warriors and the Sureté du Québec and local residents. In 1991 Canadian Forces personnel deployed in support of the American liberation of Kuwait. By 1992, Canadian peacekeepers were deployed to Cambodia, Croatia and Somalia. In 1993 Balkan involvement expanded into Bosnia and Canadian troops participated in some of the fiercest combat since the Korean War during Operation Medak Pocket.

text: By the end of the 1990s, Canada would have a completely different military, one more inclined towards the rigours of peacekeeping and peace-making operations under multi-national coalitions. The country would be further involved in the Yugoslav Wars throughout the rest of the decade, would become involved in Haiti, and would further see action again in Zaire and East Timor. The Navy, by decade's end (and prior to the modern post-9/11 era), was comparatively brand new, the Air Force well-balanced and modern as well. The Army began to acquire new equipment, such as the LAV-III, Bison APC and the Coyote Reconnaissance Vehicle as it transitioned to fighting irregular warfare instead of the large tank battles once feared would rage across Western Europe. It is with Canada's late-Cold War and early-Peacekeeping Era military that Canada would embark on its deployment to Afghanistan, currently Canada's longest-running war.