document_title: Production car speed record

question_text: who is the faster car in the world

question_tokens: who is the faster car in the world

text: Production car speed record

text: Difficulties with claims[edit]

text: Comparing claimed speeds of the fastest production cars in the world, especially in historical cases, is difficult as there is no standardized method for determining the top speed and no central authority to verify any such claims. Examples of the difficulties faced were shown up in the dispute between Bugatti and Hennessey over which car was the world's fastest.[1]

text: Koenigsegg CCR[edit]

text: The Koenigsegg CCR recorded a top speed of 387.866 km/h at the Nardo testing facility on 28 February 2005. This speed eclipsed the previous record of 355 km/h held by the McLaren F1. The record was supervised and accredited by Guinness World Records at the time and a certificate recognising this achievement was awarded. The certificate cites the CCR as "The fastest production car... which achieved a speed of 387.866 km/h over a measured kilometre at the Nardo Prototipo proving ground, Italy"

text: The CCR and it's predecessor, the identical-but-lesser-powered CC8S were produced in a total of 21 units (15 CCR, 6 CC8S). Although it was recognised by Guinness as the world's fastest production car at the time of the record, a total production run under 25 units does not qualify the CCR for inclusion on the table below.

text: Bugatti Veyron limiter removal[edit]

text: The current Guinness World Records title holder, the Bugatti Veyron Super Sport, was certified for the average top speed achieved on a two-way run, registering 431.072 km/h (267.856 mph). Bugatti made 5 Veyrons named the World Record Edition out of the initial production run of 30 Super Sports, all of which would be able to achieve this speed if the limiter was removed. With the limiter the Veyron SS goes 415 km/h (257.87 mph). Bugatti did not sell any with the limiter removed. Initially, when challenged by Hennessey, Guinness decided the Bugatti was ineligible because the test car was deemed as being modified. Bugatti sought a review of the decision and Guinness, after a review by a panel of experts, considered removing the limiter was not a modification and thereby making the car eligible for their publication.[2] To this day, even though the Bugatti Chiron is believed to have a top speed of around 463 km/h (288 mph), it is not verified, and with the limiter it has a non-verified top speed of 261 mph (420 km/h). As of August 2017[update], the Veyron SS is still classified as the fastest production car in the world.

text: Hennessey Venom GT one direction run[edit]

text: In 2014, a Hennessey Venom GT was recorded at 435.31 km/h (270.49 mph), but as the run was in one direction only and only 12 cars (+1 prototype) were ever made, it does not qualify under the Guinness Book of Records or this list's criteria as the world's fastest production car.[3] Guinness accepted it as production car, however.[4][5]

text: List rules[edit]

text: Because of the inconsistencies with the various definitions of production cars, dubious claims by manufacturers and self-interest groups, and inconsistent or changing application of the definitions this list has a defined set of requirements. For further explanation of how these were arrived at see the above link.

text: Post 1945 and over 124 mph (200 km/h) only[edit]

text: This list is also limited to post World War II production road cars which reached more than 124 mph (200 km/h), older cars are excluded even if they were faster. The Benz Velo as the first petrol driven car is the only exception.

text: Production car definition[edit]

text: For the purposes of this list a production car is defined as:

text:
being constructed principally for retail sale to consumers, for their personal use, and to transport people on public roads (no commercial or industrial vehicles are eligible);
having had 25 or more instances made by the original vehicle manufacturer, and offered for commercial sale to the public in new condition (cars modified by either professional tuners or individuals are not eligible); and
being street-legal in their intended markets, and capable of passing any official tests or inspections required to be granted this status.

tag: ol

text: Measurement of top speed[edit]

text: To establish the top speed for cars at least since the 1990s the requirement is, in addition to the above, an independent road test with a two-way run. The mean of the top speed for both runs is taken as the car's top speed.[6][7] In instances where the top speed has been determined by removing the limiter, the test met these requirements, and the car is sold with the limiter on then the limited speed is accepted as meeting this requirement.

text: Record-breaking production vehicles[edit]

text:
Year
Make and model
Top speed of production car
Number built
Comment

1894
Benz Velo
12 mph
(20 km/h)[8]
1,200
First production car

1949
Jaguar XK120
124.6 mph
(200.5 km/h)[9]
12,000
Some publications cite the XK120's timed top speed as almost 133 mph / 214 km/h in 1949.[10] The XK120 that achieved this speed was a tuned prototype, not a production car. The production car reached 124.6 mph (200.5 km/h).

1955
Mercedes-Benz 300SL
150.7 mph
(242.5 km/h)[11]
1,400
Two-way average speed tested by Automobil Revue in 1958. 245 km/h (152.2 mph) reached in one direction.

1959
Aston Martin DB4 GT
152 mph
(245 km/h)[12]
75
Tested by Autosport in December 1961.

1963
Iso Grifo GL 365
161 mph
(259 km/h)[13]
over 400
Tested by Autocar in 1966. A total of 412 Iso Grifos were built 1963–1974.[14]

1965
AC Cobra Mk III 427
165 mph
(266 km/h)[15]
>25
Tested by Car & Driver. Top speed described as observed

1967
Lamborghini Miura P400
171 mph
(275 km/h)[16]
over 750
Tested by Motor in June 1967. Over 750 units build in 1966–1973 period, which includes P400, P400 S and P400 SV models.

1968
Ferrari 365 GTB/4 Daytona
174 mph
(280 km/h)[17]
about 1,400
Tested by Autocar in 1971.

1974
Lamborghini Countach LP400
179 mph
(288 km/h)[18]
158
Tested by Auto, Motor und Sport

1982
Lamborghini Countach LP500 S
182 mph
(293 km/h)[19]
323
Tested by Auto, Motor und Sport

1984
Ferrari 288 GTO
188 mph
(303 km/h)[20]
272
Tested by Auto, Motor und Sport in 1985.

1986
Porsche 959
197 mph
(317 km/h)[21]
337
Tested by Road and Track in 1987. The most common 959 Deluxe version reached 197 mph (317 km/h), the Sport version 198 mph (319 km/h). 29 were built in a performance-enhanced 515 hp sports version which reached 210.645 mph (339 km/h) tested by Auto, Motor und Sport at Nardo in 1988.[22][23]

1987
Ruf CTR
212.509 mph
(342 km/h)[22]
29[24]
Tested by Auto, Motor und Sport at Nardò Ring in 1988

1995
Ruf CTR2
217 mph
(350 km/h)
31
Successor to the CTR, previous record holder from 1987. 16 of the 31 CTR2s were normal, while 15 were CTR2 "Sport".

1998
McLaren F1
221 mph
(355 km/h) estimated [25]
64[26]
Without the rev-limiter, it was able to reach a top-speed of 240.14 mph (386.5 km/h).[27]
It still remains the world's fastest naturally aspirated production car in terms of top speed.[28]

2005
Bugatti Veyron EB 16.4
253.81 mph
(408.47 km/h)
300
Recorded and verified by German inspection officials.[29]

2010
Bugatti Veyron 16.4 Super Sport
267.856 mph
(431 km/h)
30
Out of the initial production run of 30, 5 cars were named the Super Sport World Record Edition. With the electronic limiter turned off all 30 were capable of 267.856 mph (431.072 km/h). When sold they were electronically limited to 257.87 mph (415 km/h). Pierre-Henri Raphanel drove the unlimited car and its top speed was verified by Guinness World Records.[30][31][2]


document_title: List of Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles of 1997

question_text: what was the #1 song in october 1997

question_tokens: what was the # 1 song in october 1997

root

text: Chart history

text:
Key

Indicates best-performing single of 1997

tag: table

text:
Issue date

Song

Artist(s)

Ref.

January 4

"Un-Break My Heart"

Toni Braxton

[1]

January 11

[2]

January 18

[3]

January 25

[4]

February 1

[5]

February 8

[6]

February 15

[7]

February 22

"Wannabe"

Spice Girls

[8]

March 1

[9]

March 8

[10]

March 15

[11]

March 22

"Can't Nobody Hold Me Down"

Puff Daddy featuring Mase

[12]

March 29

[13]

April 5

[14]

April 12

[15]

April 19

[16]

April 26

[17]

May 3

"Hypnotize"

The Notorious B.I.G.

[18]

May 10

[19]

May 17

[20]

May 24

"MMMBop"

Hanson

[21]

May 31

[22]

June 7

[23]

June 14

"I'll Be Missing You"

Puff Daddy and Faith Evans featuring 112

[24]

June 21

[25]

June 28

[26]

July 5

[27]

July 12

[28]

July 19

[29]

July 26

[30]

August 2

[31]

August 9

[32]

August 16

[33]

August 23

[34]

August 30

"Mo Money Mo Problems"

The Notorious B.I.G. featuring Puff Daddy and Mase

[35]

September 6

[36]

September 13

"Honey"

Mariah Carey

[37]

September 20

[38]

September 27

[39]

October 4

"4 Seasons of Loneliness"

Boyz II Men

[40]

October 11

"Candle in the Wind 1997" /"Something About the Way You Look Tonight"

Elton John

[41]

October 18

[42]

October 25

[43]

November 1

[44]

November 8

[45]

November 15

[46]

November 22

[47]

November 29

[48]

December 6

[49]

December 13

[50]

December 20

[51]

December 27

[52]


document_title: The Spotted Pig

question_text: who owns the spotted pig in new york city

text: The Spotted Pig

text:
The Spotted PigRestaurant informationEstablished
2004Current owner(s)
Ken FriedmanChef
April BloomfieldFood type
European (modern), gastropub, hamburgers[1]City
New York CityState
New YorkPostal/ZIP Code
10014Country
United StatesSeating capacity
100

text: The Spotted Pig is a gastropub located at 314 West 11th Street (at Greenwich Street) in the West Village in Manhattan in New York City.[1][2] The 100-seat gastropub is owned by Ken Friedman. The chef is April Bloomfield, a British expatriate celebrity chef.[3] The restaurant held a single Michelin Star from about 2006 to 2016.[4]

tag: p

text: Sexual harassment and assault[edit]

text: In December 2017, owner Ken Friedman was accused of sexual harassment. The article's author interviewed many employees who said April Bloomfield was aware of his behavior. The article included the statement that "several other employees say they also brought their complaints and concerns about Mr. Friedman to Ms. Bloomfield. Her response was always the same. "That's who he is. Get used to it. Or go work for someone else."  April Bloomfield was also aware of her restaurant's third floor nickname, "Among employees and industry insiders, the third-floor space has earned a nickname: "the rape room.""[5] Friedman subsequently resigned from management duties of their restaurant group.[6] Shortly after in December 2017, Bloomfield posted an apology on Twitter for not protecting her staff.[7]


document_title: Eid Mubarak

question_text: what is the meaning of barka da sallah

question_tokens: what is the meaning of barka da sallah

text: Eid Mubarak

text: Regional variations[edit]

text: Throughout the Muslim world there are numerous other greetings for Eid ul-Adha and Eid ul-Fitr. The companions of the Prophet Muhammad used to say to each other when they met on Eid ul-Fitr: Taqabbalallâhu minnâ wa minkum (which means "[May] God accept from us and you [our fasts and deeds]"). Throughout the Muslim world, variations in Eid greetings exist.

text: Arab world[edit]

text: Speakers of Arabic might also add "kul 'am wantum bikhair", which means "I hope for you to stay safe in the passing year". [May] Ala hool ala akba". كل عام و أنتم بخير

text: Bosnia & Herzegovina[edit]

text: Bosnian Muslims also commonly say "Bajram Šerif mubarek olsun", the response is "Allah razi olsun". Another common Eid greeting by Bosnian Muslims is "Bajram barećula".

text: Philippines[edit]

text: In the Philippines, it is recognized as a legal holiday, though the greeting of Eid Mubarak has gained traction only recently.

text: Turkey[edit]

text: In Turkey, Turks wish each other happy holidays with Turkish phrases including: "Bayramınız kutlu olsun," "Iyi Bayramlar," the phrase, "Bayramınız mübarek olsun" is also used.

text: South Asia[edit]

text: In India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, Eid Mubarak wishes are very common and often accompanied by hugging three times after the Salat al Eid.

text: Pakistan[edit]

text: Pashto speakers (mainly Pashtun people from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province and eastern Afghanistan) also use the Eid greeting "May your festival be blessed" (Pashto: اختر دی مبارک سه ; akhtar de nekmregha sha). Balochi speakers (mainly Baloch people from Balochistan province and Iran's Sistan and Baluchestan Province) also use the Eid greeting "May your Eid be blessed" (عید تر مبارک با ; aied tara mubarak ba). Brahui speakers may also use the Eid greeting "Have a blessed Eid" (عید نے مبارک مارے ; aied ne mubarak mare).

text: Bangladesh[edit]

text: Many Bangladeshis may also use the Eid greeting, "Eid's Greetings" (ঈদের শুভেচ্ছা; Eider Shubheccha).

text: West Africa[edit]

text: Hausa language originally from Northern Nigeria is widely spoken among Muslims in West Africa. Their equivalent Eid greetings in Hausa is "Barka da Sallah" which translates to "blessed Eid prayers".

text: Ghana[edit]

text: "Ni ti yuun' palli" is the Eid greetings among Dagbanli speakers in Ghana. It means "Happy new Eid season". The Hausa greeting "Barka da Sallah" is also a common exchange during the period.

text: Southeast Asia[edit]

text: Muslims in other countries, such as Indonesia and Malay language-speaking population (Malaysia, Brunei, & Singapore) use the expression "Selamat Hari Raya" or "Selamat Idul Fitri" (Indonesian) or "Salam Aidilfitri" (Malay). This expression is usually accompanied by the popular expression "Minal Aidin wal Faizin", an Arab sentence meaning "May we be sacred one more time and succeed in our fasting". The expression is not recognized by people in the Arab world, although it's in the Arabic language. It is a quotation from a poem written by Shafiyuddin Al-Huli during the time Muslims ruled in Al-Andalus.


document_title: Big Four (banking)

question_text: market share of big 4 banks in australia

question_tokens: market share of big 4 banks in australia

text: Big Four (banking)

text: International use[edit]

text: Internationally, the term "Big Four Banks" has traditionally referred to the following central banks:[1]

text:
The Federal Reserve
 The Bank of England[2]
 The Bank of Japan
 The European Central Bank

tag: ul

text: Australia/New Zealand[edit]

text: In Australia, the "big four banks" refers to the four largest banks[3] by market share, who between them hold 80% of the home loan markets in the country. In 2012, their combined total asset is A$2.66 trillion, which is about 200% of Australian GDP in 2011. In order of total assets, these are:

text:
National Australia Bank (NAB)
Commonwealth Bank (CBA) (was owned by Australian Government until 1996[4])
Australia and New Zealand Banking Group (ANZ)
Westpac (WBC)

text: A longstanding policy of the federal government in Australia has been to maintain this status quo, called the "four pillars policy". The policy has been maintained through the Global Recession of 2008–09, as Westpac acquired St.George Bank and the Commonwealth Bank acquired Bankwest, reinforcing the special status of the "big four".

text: Being New Zealand's closest neighbour, with very close ties culturally and economically, has helped Australia dominate the banking sector there. Often referred to collectively as the 'big banks'[5][6][7] or the 'big Aussie banks', the "Big Four" Australian banks also dominate the New Zealand banking sector in the form of:

text:
Australia and New Zealand Banking Group, or ANZ, also comprising the former business of The National Bank.
ASB Bank, formerly Auckland Savings Bank, wholly owned by the Commonwealth Bank
The Bank of New Zealand (BNZ), wholly owned by the National Australia Bank
Westpac, formerly known as WestpacTrust after a merger with the Trust Bank.

text: Together they hold over 90% of gross loans and advances in New Zealand [8] as well as close to 90% of all mortgages.[9]

text: These four subsidiaries are massively profitable and in some cases even outperform the Australian parent company.[10] The extent to which they dominate the banking sector can be seen in profits: In the 2012/2013 financial year, the largest of the Big Banks, ANZ New Zealand, made a profit of NZ$1.37 billion. The smallest, BNZ, made a profit of NZ$695 million.[5] State-owned Kiwibank, community trust-owned TSB Bank, SBS Bank (formerly Southland Building Society) and Heartland Bank, the next four largest banks by profit, made NZ$97 million,[11] NZ$73.5 million,[12] NZ$14 million[13] and NZ$7 million (albeit with an underlying result of about NZ$30 million) respectively.[14] In other words, the profit of New Zealand's next four largest banks (after the Big Four) is equal to less than 30% of the smallest of the Big Four, BNZ.

text: Austria[edit]

text: The "Big Four" banks of Austria are [15]:

text:
Erste Bank / Sparkasse* (credit unions)
UniCredit Bank Austria (formerly Creditanstalt)
Raiffeisen Bankengruppe*
Österreichische Postsparkasse

text: *separate legal entities operating under a common brand

text: Belgium[edit]

text: The "Big Four" banks of Belgium are a result of national- and international mergers in the early 90s.

text:
Belfius, government owned bank
BNP Paribas Fortis, subsidiary of BNP Paribas
ING Bank, subsidiary of the ING Group
KBC Bank, including its CBC Banque subsidiary in the French Community of Belgium and KBC Brussels brand in the Brussels-Capital Region

text: Brazil[edit]

text: In Brazil, the "big four", according to Exame Magazine [16] in 2016:

text:
Name
Description
Year
Net Assets

Itaú Unibanco
Largest Private bank
2017
US$ 452.6 billion

Banco do Brasil
Largest State Owned Bank
2017
US$ 430.2 billion

Caixa Econômica Federal
State Owned Bank
2017
US$ 406.0 billion

Banco Bradesco
Private Bank
2017
US$ 391.6 billion

text: Canada[edit]

text: There are five banks dominating the Canadian banking world, hence the "Big Five" is used instead of "Big Four". The operation of Canadian banks include retail banking, mutual funds, insurance, credit cards, and brokerage activities. In addition, they have significant international operations in the form of subsidiaries (i.e. CIBC FirstCaribbean International Bank, and TD Bank, N.A.). The Canadian banking operations of the Big Five are largely conducted out of each parent company, unlike U.S. banks that use a holding company structure to hold their primary retail banking subsidiaries. The Big Five include:

text:
Royal Bank of Canada (RBC)
Toronto-Dominion Bank (TD)
Bank of Nova Scotia (Scotiabank)
Bank of Montreal (BMO)
Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce (CIBC)

text: China[edit]

text: During the 1920s, the term "Big Four" applied to the Four Northern Banks of the Republic of China (i.e. the four most capitalized commercial banks in Northern China).[17] These were the Yien Yieh Commercial Bank, the Kincheng Banking Corporation, the Continental Bank and The China & South Sea Bank. These were contrasted with the Three Southern Banks of Southern China.

text: By 1949, the Big Four banks were the Bank of China, the Bank of Communications, the Central Bank of China and the Farmers Bank of China. All four were state-owned banks. These four, together with Central Trust of China, Postal Savings and Remittance Bureau of China, Central Cooperative Treasury of China, were called the "Four Banks, Two Bureaus, One Treasury" or "四行两局一库".[18]

text: In the People's Republic of China, the Big Four state-owned commercial banks ("四大国有商业银行") are:

text:
Industrial and Commercial Bank of China
Bank of China
China Construction Bank
Agricultural Bank of China

text: and have been described as such in the Western press.[19] All four are state-controlled banks with commercial banking operations.

text: Colombia[edit]

text: In Colombia, the ten biggest banking service networks are:[20][21]

text:
Name
Description
Year
Net Assets

Banco de Bogotá
Largest Private Bank
2017
COP 3.6 trillions

Bancolombia
Largest Private Bank
2017
COP 2.6 trillions

Banco Davivienda
Largest Private Bank
2017
COP 1,204 trillions

Banco de Occidente Credencial
Private Bank
2017
COP 932.827 billions

BBVA Colombia
Private Bank
2017
COP 346.333 billions

Banco Agrario de Colombia
State owned Bank
2017
COP 339.410 billions

Banco Colpatria
Private Bank
2017
COP 253.572 billion

Banco Caja Social
Private Bank
2017
COP 238.116 billions

Citibank Colombia
Private Bank
2017
COP 172.051 billions

Banco Popular
Private Bank
2017
COP 156.033 billions

text: Czech Republic[edit]

text: In Czech Republic, according to R. Pazderník,[22] the "big four" are:

text:
Česká spořitelna, subsidiary of Erste Group
Československá obchodní banka, subsidiary of KBC Bank
Komerční banka, subsidiary of Société Générale (formerly Státní banka československá, or State Bank of Czechoslovakia)
Investiční a poštovní banka.

text: Finland[edit]

text: The biggest banks in Finland are:

text: Osuuspankki (fully Finnish), Nordea (predominantly Swedish), Danske Bank, the fourth place is a tie between Aktia, S-pankki and Ålandsbanken.

text: Finland does not follow the Big 4 model so much as a model of 3 Major + 3 minor.

text: France[edit]

text:
BNP Paribas
Crédit Agricole
Société Générale
BPCE

text: Greece[edit]

text: In Greece, after a series of mergers and acquisitions following the Greek government-debt crisis, the sector has concentrated with the below four banks controlling more than 90% of the market.

text:
National Bank of Greece
Piraeus Bank
Alpha Bank
Eurobank Ergasias

text: In 2013 the National Bank of Greece attempted to acquire Eurobank Ergasias but later the plan was abandoned.

text: Hong Kong[edit]

text:
The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation
Bank of China (Hong Kong)
Hang Seng Bank
Standard Chartered Hong Kong

text: Hungary[edit]

text:
OTP Bank
UniCredit
K&H Bank
Raiffeisen Bank (Hungary)

text: India[edit]

text: In India, the largest four banks are:

text:
HDFC Bank[23]
State Bank of India
ICICI Bank
Bank of Baroda

text: Ireland[edit]

text: In Ireland, the term "big four" applies to the four largest banks by market capitalisation.[24][25] These all operate in both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland, and have a wider international presence; these banks also issue banknotes in Northern Ireland.[26][27]

text:
Bank of Ireland
Allied Irish Banks (operates as First Trust Bank in Northern Ireland)[28]
Danske Bank (also operates as Danske Bank in Northern Ireland[29]) - Irish Branch of Danske Bank A/S since 2007.
Ulster Bank - Subsidiary of The Royal Bank of Scotland Group since 2000/2001

text: Ever since Danske Bank has phased out its personal banking services, it has been suggested that either KBC Ireland or Permanent TSB could replace, in the medium-term, Danske Bank in the "Big Four" ranking.

text: Italy[edit]

text: In Italy the term "big four" is not explicitly used. As of 2017, the four largest banks by total assets are:

text:
Banca Monte dei Paschi di Siena
Banco BPM
Intesa Sanpaolo
UniCredit

text: Japan[edit]

text: In Japan, the "big four"[30] are:

text:
Mitsubishi UFJ Financial Group
Sumitomo Mitsui Financial Group
Mizuho Financial Group
Japan Post Bank

text: However, a widely cited grouping is the three "megabanks," which include only the first three listed above.[31]

text: Lebanon[edit]

text: In Lebanon, where the banks have retained their banking secrecy laws since 1956, which is prevalent in the whole MENA region, and while adopting international measures to fight money laundering, the "big four" banks consist of:[32]

text:
Audi Saradar Bank (founded in 1830 and ranked on the Forbes Magazine Global 2000 list of largest public companies in the world in 2016)
Byblos Bank (founded in 1950 as "Société Commerciale et Agricole Byblos Bassil Frères & Co.")
BLOM Bank: Banque du Liban et d'Outre-Mer S.A.L (founded in 1951)
Fransabank (founded in 1921 as Société Centrale de Banque)

text: Furthermore, as of September 2016, there are more than 51 banks in Lebanon, one of the smallest countries in the middle east, the fact that has always made investors from the Arab countries, especially the GCC petrodollar in addition to the European and world investors, to place their funds in the Lebanese banks.

text: Luxembourg[edit]

text: The big four full-service in Luxembourg are:[33]

text:
Banque et Caisse d'Épargne de l'État (Spuerkeess), state owned bank
Banque Internationale à Luxembourg,
BGL BNP Paribas
ING Luxembourg

text: There are bigger banks in Luxembourg, but these only deliver a limited number of services such as investment banking, private banking or corporate banking only. Luxembourg is a financial center.

text: Netherlands[edit]

text: The "big four" banks in the Netherlands by market concentration are:[34]

text:
ING Group
Rabobank
ABN AMRO
de Volksbank, state owned banking arm of SNS Reaal

text: The market leader for the Netherlands, ING Group, is one of the largest multinational banking and financial service corporations in the world, with products and services reaching over 41 countries worldwide.[35]

text: Nigeria[edit]

text: The term "Big Five" is used instead of four, with five banks dominating the Nigerian banking world. In 2011, these top five banks had a combined balance sheet, including contingents, of 12.9 trillion naira ($821 billion), 33 percent higher than the prior year.[36]

text:
Zenith Bank
First Bank of Nigeria
Guaranty Trust Bank
Access Bank
United Bank for Africa (UBA)

text: Pakistan[edit]

text: The "top five" banks of Pakistan are:[37]

text:
Habib Bank
MCB Bank Limited
National Bank of Pakistan
United Bank
Allied Bank Limited

text: Philippines[edit]

text: There are four banks that have at least ₱1 trillion (around US$20 billion) worth of assets as of 2017, making them the "big four" banks by default:[38]

text:
Banco de Oro
Metrobank
Land Bank of the Philippines
Bank of the Philippine Islands

text: Portugal[edit]

text: In Portugal, the "big four" are:[39]

text:
Banco Comercial Português
Banco Português de Investimento
Caixa Geral de Depósitos (state-owned)
Novo Banco (former Banco Espírito Santo)

text: Romania[edit]

text:
Banca Comercială Română (of the Erste Group)
BRD – Groupe Société Générale
Banca Transilvania
Raiffeisen Bank

text: Singapore[edit]

text: The term 'Big Three' is used instead of four. 'Big Four' was previously used before Overseas Union Bank was acquired by United Overseas Bank. The 'Big Three' are:

text:
DBS Bank
OCBC Bank
United Overseas Bank

text: South Africa[edit]

text: In South Africa, the "big five" are:[40]

text:
Standard Bank (Not at all related to Standard Chartered Bank)
FirstRand Bank (operators of First National Bank)
Nedbank - owned by Old Mutual.
Barclays Africa Group Limited trading as ABSA (also capitalised as Absa)- majority owned by Barclays since 2005; remainder owned by the public.
Capitec Bank by 1 August 2017 businesstech.co.za said Capitec is now the second biggest bank in South Africa.

text: South Korea[edit]

text: In South Korea, the term "Big Five", is used as opposed to four. The "big five" are:[citation needed]

text:
KB Kookmin Bank
Nonghyup Bank
Shinhan Bank
Woori Bank
Hana Bank

text: Spain[edit]

text: In Spain, the "big four" are, as of March 2017:[41]

text:
Santander
BBVA (Bank of Bilbao and Biscay)
Caixabank (Bank of Barcelona and Seville)
Bankia (Bank of Madrid and Valencia)

text: Sweden[edit]

text: In Sweden, the "big four" are:[42]

text:
Nordea Bank AB
Skandinaviska Enskilda Banken AB
Svenska Handelsbanken AB
Swedbank AB

text: Taiwan[edit]

text:
Bank of Taiwan
Taiwan Cooperative Bank
Land Bank of Taiwan
Mega International Commercial Bank

text: The "Big Five" also includes:

text: First Commercial Bank (zh) or CTBC Bank

text: Thailand[edit]

text: Before the Siamese Revolution, the banking system were controlled by foreign powers, particularly the "big four" European banks.

text:
The Hongkong and Shanghai Bank in 1888 (Now HSBC)
The Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China in 1894 (Now Standard Chartered Bank Thailand)
Banque de l'Indochine in 1897 (Now Banque Calyon, a subsidiary of Crédit Agricole)
Mercantile Bank of India in 1923 (Now Citibank Thailand, a subsidiary of Citigroup)

text: in 2014, the "big four" Bank [43] Together they hold over 66% of gross loans and controlling more than 67% of total assets in banking system [44]

text:
Bangkok Bank
Siam Commercial Bank
Krung Thai Bank
Kasikornbank

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: In relation to the United Kingdom (England and Wales), the phrase "big four banks" is currently used to refer to the four largest UK-based banking groups, being:

text:
Barclays;
HSBC;
Lloyds Banking Group; and
The Royal Bank of Scotland Group.[45][46]

text: Until 1970, the phrase "big five banks" was used to refer to the five largest UK clearing banks (institutions which clear bankers' cheques), which in England and Wales were:

text:
Barclays Bank (now part of Barclays);
Midland Bank (now HSBC Bank and part of HSBC);
Lloyds Bank (now part of Lloyds Banking Group);
National Provincial Bank and
Westminster Bank

text: After the merger of Westminster Bank and National Provincial Bank to form NatWest (now part of The Royal Bank of Scotland Group) in 1970, the term "big four" was used.

text: In Scotland the "big four" are:

text:
The Royal Bank of Scotland ("RBS") (part of The Royal Bank of Scotland Group);
Bank of Scotland (part of Lloyds Banking Group);
Clydesdale Bank (part of CYBG plc); and
Trustee Savings Bank ("TSB") (now part of TSB ).[47]

text: United States[edit]

text: In the United States, the "big four" banks hold 39% of all U.S. customer deposits (as of 2015), and consist of:[48][49]

text:
Bank of America (headquartered and bank chartered in Charlotte, North Carolina)
Citigroup (headquartered in New York, New York, bank chartered in Sioux Falls, South Dakota)
JPMorgan Chase (headquartered in New York, New York, bank chartered in Columbus, Ohio)
Wells Fargo (headquartered in San Francisco, California, bank chartered in Sioux Falls, South Dakota)

text: From a retail banking perspective, U.S. Bancorp (headquartered in Minneapolis, Minnesota/bank charter Cincinnati, Ohio) and PNC Financial Services (headquartered in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania/bank charter Wilmington, Delaware) both have significantly more branches than Citibank, the retail banking arm of Citigroup.[50] However, Citibank still has significantly more assets than U.S. Bancorp and PNC.[51]

text: Vietnam[edit]

text: In Vietnam, the "big four" banks by total assets are four commercial banks:

text:
Agribank
BIDV
VietinBank
Vietcombank


document_title: Impractical Jokers

question_text: where did the impractical jokers go to school

text: Impractical Jokers

text: Development[edit]

text: Joseph "Joe" Gatto, James "Murr" Murray, Brian "Q" Quinn, and Salvatore "Sal" Vulcano, four high school friends who attended Monsignor Farrell High School, from Staten Island, New York, formed the live improv and sketch comedy troupe, The Tenderloins in 1999. After a long and successful history, including winning the $100,000 grand prize in NBC's "It’s Your Show" competition, the group went into television. In 2008, they filmed a pilot episode for a scripted sitcom for Spike TV, but the show did not go to series. TruTV announced the series Impractical Jokers, originally slated to be named Mission: Uncomfortable, on April 12, 2011, eight months before the show's debut. Murray explained how the hidden camera format made sense based on the jokesters skills. "We needed to find the right format... thing is, we've been doing this for years, but when it's on camera, the embarrassment is amplified."[5] Q and Sal have said when they gave their pilot episode to TruTV, it was recorded on their iPhones. At the time they pitched the idea to TruTV, Murray was VP of Development for NorthSouth Productions; the company that has produced the series since its inception.

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
16
December 15, 2011 (2011-12-15)
May 4, 2012 (2012-05-04)

2
28
September 6, 2012 (2012-09-06)
December 12, 2013 (2013-12-12)

3
31
January 2, 2014 (2014-01-02)
October 30, 2014 (2014-10-30)

4
26
January 29, 2015 (2015-01-29)
October 22, 2015 (2015-10-22)

5
26
February 11, 2016 (2016-02-11)
November 3, 2016 (2016-11-03)

6
26
February 9, 2017 (2017-02-09)
November 2, 2017 (2017-11-02)

7
26[6]
February 1, 2018 (2018-02-01)
TBA

Specials
24
February 2, 2012 (2012-02-02)
TBA

text: Before every challenge, the Jokers explain where they are, what the challenge is, and what will happen if they fail. Often (but not always) there is an ear piece placed on the cast member(s) performing the prank while the others have a mic in a covert location. There are also hidden cameras near the area to capture the action. The location in which the challenge takes place is usually a public area in or around New York City such as a city park, or store. The criteria of each challenge are the same for each of the jokers competing in the round. If the joker cannot complete their task, they get a Thumbs-Down. At the end of the episode, the joker or jokers with the most thumbs down is punished, and the punishments are usually more embarrassing, humiliating, disgusting, painful or scary than any of the challenges. Punishments cannot be refused, or the joker is off the show.

text: Statistics[edit]

text:
Impractical Jokers statistics

Joker
Punishments
Thumbs down
Thumbs up
Challenges

Joe
35 (23.4%)
134 (35.9%)
253 (68.5%)
377 (92.0%)

Murr
50 (34.0%)
168 (48.7%)
226 (59.3%)
379 (92.6%)

Q
39 (26.1%)
137 (38.0%)
250 (69.0%)
375 (91.4%)

Sal
53 (35.7%)
159 (42.3%)
235 (65.8%)
377 (92.0%)

text:
Punishments include double, triple, and in one episode, all four punished
Some statistics have been rounded.
Some challenges involved double-thumbs down (Sal 3, Murr 3, Joe 2, Q 1); punishment percentage rates based on total episodes that involve punishments (147 out of 150) challenge percentage rates based on total challenges attempted (418 as of October 12, 2017)

text: In some instances, a joker can bet that another joker can't complete a (usually difficult) task. If the task is complete, the challenge will end (even if not all jokers participated), and the joker who loses the bet loses the entire episode, regardless of the loser board. This has only happened on three occasions in the show's run; one of those occasions, the joker was successful on the bet and didn't take the loss on the episode.

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text: Brian "Q" Quinn (born March 14, 1976) is an American improvisational comedian from the New York City borough of Staten Island. He attended Monsignor Farrell High School where he was involved in numerous activities including drama and sports.[7] Following his graduation, he attended Brooklyn College and later went on to join the New York City Fire Department.[8] He is also the third host of the podcast Tell 'Em Steve-Dave! on SModcast.com.

text: James "Murr" Murray (born May 1, 1976) is an American improvisational comedian from the New York City borough of Staten Island. He attended Monsignor Farrell High School there and was also a part of a community theatre.[7] He continued his education at Georgetown University where he received a BA in English.[9] He currently continues to work at NorthSouth Productions where he is the Senior Vice President of Development.[10]

text: Salvatore "Sal" Vulcano (born November 5, 1976) is an American improvisational and stand-up comedian from the New York City borough of Staten Island. He attended Monsignor Farrell High School in Staten Island where he took part in various sports such as hockey, basketball and football. He received a degree in Finance from St. John's University.

text: Joseph "Joe" Gatto Jr. (born June 5, 1976) is an American improvisational comedian from the New York City borough of Staten Island. While in Staten Island, he went to Monsignor Farrell High School.[7] After graduation, he studied at LIU Post where he received a degree in Accounting.[11] He founded the Tenderloins comedy troupe in 2000 and worked at the baby retail store, Giggle, until January 2011.[12]

text: Guest appearances[edit]

text:
Daniel Ribacoff Season 2
Rosie O'Donnell Season 2
Imagine Dragons Season 2
Joey Fatone Seasons 3, 5-7
Tommy Dreamer Seasons 3, 6
Soren Thompson Seasons 4, 7
Danica McKellar Seasons 4, 6
Ulambayaryn Byambajav Season 4
Grant Marshall Season 4
Colin White Season 4
Alex Brightman Season 5
Howie Mandel Season 4
James Buckley Season 5
Travis Pastrana Season 5
Gary Busey Seasons 6-7
Bully Ray Season 6
Velvet Sky Season 6
Jesse Bravo Season 6
Matthew Lewis Season 6
Victoria Justice Season 6
Noah Syndergaard Season 6
Kayla Harrison Seasons 6-7
Casey Jost Seasons 2-3, 5-7
Johnny Launonen Seasons 4-5
Mike Langan Season 4
Rob Emmer Seasons 2-6
Dr. Frank Contacessa Seasons 5, 7

text: Reception[edit]

text: Impractical Jokers has been very well received by some critics with Linda Stasi of the New York Post calling it "possibly the funniest, most ridiculous show I’ve seen in years."[13]

text: While it has been compared to earlier hit prank shows such as Candid Camera and Jackass, critics have offered praise for its unique twist on the genre, wherein the stars' reactions to the pranks are often equally as humorous as those of the innocent bystanders. Neil Genzlinger of The New York Times stated that "the gag pays off twice: once in the reaction of the unsuspecting passer-by, once in the discomfort of the fellow doing the asking." He later wrote that the cast-members' occasional integrity [kept] these four clowns a little bit lovable."[14] Dean Robbins of The Daily Page echoed this sentiment, stating that "the friends are jovial rather than Jackass-obnoxious, even rejecting some dares as too offensive."[15]

text: The series has been generally well received, garnering 1.5 million viewers during its December 15, 2011, premiere.[16]

text: The review of the show by Variety's Brian Lowry was less positive, ending with this statement: "Nobody will ever confuse Impractical Jokers with high art, certainly, but as low-brow, micro-cost comedy in the context of TruTV's programming resources, it's actually quite practical—and occasionally funny."[17]

text: Impractical Jokers: Inside Jokes[edit]

text: Impractical Jokers: Inside Jokes is a spin-off of Impractical Jokers in which episodes that have already aired are shown again with pop-up facts throughout, including behind-the-scenes stories and facts directly from the Jokers. The first episode of Impractical Jokers: Inside Jokes aired on July 14, 2016, following the mid season British special"[18][19]

text: Impractical Jokers: After Party[edit]

text: Impractical Jokers: After Party is a spin-off of Impractical Jokers, hosted by Joey Fatone, in which the Jokers and surprise guests go through a deep dive of challenges, special play-by-play punishment analysis from the latest episode, and bonus content from the latest episode or the whole show. The first episode of the series aired on August 3, 2017 after the episode "The Q-Pay" had aired.

text: Impractical Insider[edit]

text: Impractical Insider is a segment which airs after punishments have concluded, where crew member Casey Jost shows bonus footage to show how the punishment came together.

text: International versions[edit]

text:
A UK version of Impractical Jokers began airing in winter 2012 on BBC Three. It starred comedians Paul McCaffrey, Joel Dommett, Marek Larwood and Roisin Conaty.[20] The pilot was filmed and placed online as part of "The Comedy Kitchen" in 2012. The first series included six episodes, which aired from November 15 - December 20, 2012. The second series also included six episodes, and aired from February 24 - April 2, 2014. It is produced by Yalli Productions.[21] It was cancelled after Series 2 in April 2014 mainly due to its unpopularity. However, more recently, Comedy Central and Channel 5 picked up the rights to co-produce a third season of Impractical Jokers UK with Yalli Productions, starring Late Night Gimp Fight.[22]
 A Dutch version was broadcast on Veronica in 2013, called "De Fukkers". In 2015 a new version started at RTL 5 with the name "Foute Vrienden", like the Flemish version.[23]
 A Belgian (Flemish) version broadcast on 2BE in fall 2012, with the title "Foute Vrienden". James Murray was spotted in episode 5 of the first season.[24] The second season, which started in March 2014, includes 10 episodes.
 A Brazilian version is currently being broadcast on SBT with the title "Amigos da Onça". The series premiere aired January 7, 2013[25] and ended August 13, 2013. James Murray was spotted in episode 3 of the second season.
 A Lebanese version broadcast on Al Jadeed in autumn / fall 2013.
 A Mexican version broadcast on TBS Latin America started on May 20, 2015 with the title "Impractical Jokers".
 A Greek version broadcast on Ant1 in February 2014 with the title "Wanted".
 A French-Canadian version broadcast on V on February 24, 2014 with the title "Les Jokers".
 A Swedish version broadcast on TV6 in April 2014 with the title "Radiostyrd".
 A Spanish version broadcast on Neox in 2014 with the title "Sinvergüenzas".
 An Egyptian version was released in 2015 with the title "Al Mohayesoun".[26]

text: International broadcasts[edit]

text:
On April 18, 2014, during the first ever live recording of their "What Say You?" Podcast at the Prince Charles Cinema in London, Q and Sal stated that, when the BBC bought the rights to create a UK version of the show, they also bought the rights to air the US version of the show in the UK. This was meant to be aired after the 1st season of the UK show, but the BBC never aired it. However it finally came to air on August 22, 2014. The US version now airs on Comedy Central UK and Channel 5.
 It is presently airing on RTÉ2 in Ireland
 The series currently airs on Comedy Central India (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan and Maldives), WB Channel (India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan and Maldives) and WB Channel Pakistan (Pakistan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, Iran and Tajikistan)
 The series currently airs in Canada on ACTION, CMT and OLN.[27]
 It is currently being shown in Australia on The Comedy Channel.
 It is currently being shown in New Zealand on Comedy Central New Zealand.
 The series currently airs in France and Belgium on MTV France with the title "Les Jokers".
 The series currently airs in Italy on DMAX with the title "Cattivissimi amici".
 The series currently airs in Mexico on cable companies carrying the Tru TV channel with the original title.
 The series currently airs in Spain on Neox and Comedy Central Spain with the title "Agárralos como Puedas".
 The series currently airs in Brazil on TBS with the title "Tirando a Maior Onda".
 The series currently airs in Bulgaria on BTV with the title "Шегаджии".[28]
 The series currently airs in Germany on ProSieben Maxx.[29]
 The original series currently airs in Poland on TTV.
 The original series currently airs in Russia on MTV Russia with the title "Нереальные подставы" (Unreal Trolling).[30]
 The show aired on +TVI and Sic Radical with the original title.
 In Malaysia, Impractical Jokers is shown in Warner TV.
 The original series currently airs in the Netherlands on RTL 5.
 The series currently airs in Vietnam on Warner TV.


document_title: Silk Road

question_text: when did the mongols take over the silk road

question_tokens: when did the mongols take over the silk road

text: Silk Road

text: Name[edit]

text: The Silk Road derives its name from the lucrative Asian silk,[11][12] a major reason for the connection of trade routes into an extensive transcontinental network.[13][14] The German terms Seidenstraße and Seidenstraßen ("the Silk Road(s)") were coined by Ferdinand von Richthofen, who made seven expeditions to China from 1868 to 1872.[15][16][17] The term Silk Route is also used.[18] Although the term was coined in the 19th century, it did not gain widespread acceptance in academia or popularity among the public until the 20th century.[17] The first book entitled The Silk Road was by Swedish geographer Sven Hedin in 1938.[17] The fall of the Soviet Union and 'Iron Curtain' in 1989 led to a surge of public and academic interest in Silk Road sites and studies in the former Soviet republics of Central Asia.[17]

text: Use of the term 'Silk Road' is not without its detractors. For instance, Warwick Ball contends that the maritime spice trade with India and Arabia was far more consequential for the economy of the Roman Empire than the silk trade with China, which at sea was conducted mostly through India and on land was handled by numerous intermediaries such as the Sogdians.[19] Going as far as to call the whole thing a "myth" of modern academia, Ball argues that there was no coherent overland trade system and no free movement of goods from East Asia to the West until the period of the Mongol Empire.[20] He notes that traditional authors discussing East-West trade such as Marco Polo and Edward Gibbon never labelled any route a "silk" one in particular.[17]

text: History[edit]

text: Precursors[edit]

text: Chinese and Central Asian contacts[edit]

text: Central Eurasia has been known from ancient times for its horse riding and horse breeding communities, and the overland Steppe Route across the northern steppes of Central Eurasia was in use long before that of the Silk Road.[12] Archeological sites such as the Berel burial ground in Kazakhstan, confirmed that the nomadic Arimaspians were not only breeding horses for trade but also great craftsmen able to propagate exquisite art pieces along the Silk Road.[21][22] From the 2nd millennium BCE, nephrite jade was being traded from mines in the region of Yarkand and Khotan to China. Significantly, these mines were not very far from the lapis lazuli and spinel ("Balas Ruby") mines in Badakhshan, and, although separated by the formidable Pamir Mountains, routes across them were apparently in use from very early times.[citation needed]

text: Some remnants of what was probably Chinese silk dating from 1070 BCE have been found in Ancient Egypt. The Great Oasis cities of Central Asia played a crucial role in the effective functioning of the Silk Road trade.[23] The originating source seems sufficiently reliable, but silk degrades very rapidly, so it cannot be verified whether it was cultivated silk (which almost certainly came from China) or a type of wild silk, which might have come from the Mediterranean or Middle East.[24]

text: Following contacts between Metropolitan China and nomadic western border territories in the 8th century BCE, gold was introduced from Central Asia, and Chinese jade carvers began to make imitation designs of the steppes, adopting the Scythian-style animal art of the steppes (depictions of animals locked in combat). This style is particularly reflected in the rectangular belt plaques made of gold and bronze, with other versions in jade and steatite.[citation needed] An elite burial near Stuttgart, Germany, dated to the 6th century BCE, was excavated and found to have not only Greek bronzes but also Chinese silks.[25] Similar animal-shaped pieces of art and wrestler motifs on belts have been found in Scythian grave sites stretching from the Black Sea region all the way to Warring States era archaeological sites in Inner Mongolia (at Aluchaideng) and Shaanxi (at Keshengzhuang) in China.[25]

text: The expansion of Scythian cultures, stretching from the Hungarian plain and the Carpathian Mountains to the Chinese Kansu Corridor, and linking the Middle East with Northern India and the Punjab, undoubtedly played an important role in the development of the Silk Road. Scythians accompanied the Assyrian Esarhaddon on his invasion of Egypt, and their distinctive triangular arrowheads have been found as far south as Aswan. These nomadic peoples were dependent upon neighbouring settled populations for a number of important technologies, and in addition to raiding vulnerable settlements for these commodities, they also encouraged long-distance merchants as a source of income through the enforced payment of tariffs. Sogdians played a major role in facilitating trade between China and Central Asia along the Silk Roads as late as the 10th century, their language serving as a lingua franca for Asian trade as far back as the 4th century.[26][27]

text: Persian Royal Road[edit]

text: By the time of Herodotus (c. 475 BCE), the Royal Road of the Persian Empire ran some 2,857 km (1,775 mi) from the city of Susa on the Karun (250 km (155 mi) east of the Tigris) to the port of Smyrna (modern İzmir in Turkey) on the Aegean Sea.[28] It was maintained and protected by the Achaemenid Empire (c. 500–330 BCE) and had postal stations and relays at regular intervals. By having fresh horses and riders ready at each relay, royal couriers could carry messages and traverse the length of the road in nine days, while normal travellers took about three months.[citation needed]

text: Hellenistic era[edit]

text: The next major step in the development of the Silk Road was the expansion of the Greek empire of Alexander the Great into Central Asia. In August 329 BC, at the mouth of the Fergana Valley in Tajikistan, he founded the city of Alexandria Eschate or "Alexandria The Furthest".[30]

text: The Greeks remained in Central Asia for the next three centuries, first through the administration of the Seleucid Empire, and then with the establishment of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (250–125 BCE) in Bactria (modern Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Pakistan) and the later Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BCE – 10 CE) in modern Northern Pakistan and Afghanistan. They continued to expand eastward, especially during the reign of Euthydemus (230–200 BCE), who extended his control beyond Alexandria Eschate to Sogdiana. There are indications that he may have led expeditions as far as Kashgar in Chinese Turkestan, leading to the first known contacts between China and the West around 200 BCE. The Greek historian Strabo writes, "they extended their empire even as far as the Seres (China) and the Phryni."[31]

text: The Hellenistic world and Classical Greek philosophy mixed with Eastern philosophies,[32] leading to syncretisms such as Greco-Buddhism.

text: Chinese exploration of Central Asia[edit]

text: With the Mediterranean linked to the Fergana Valley, the next step was to open a route across the Tarim Basin and the Hexi Corridor to China Proper. This extension came around 130 BCE, with the embassies of the Han dynasty to Central Asia following the reports of the ambassador Zhang Qian[33] (who was originally sent to obtain an alliance with the Yuezhi against the Xiongnu). Zhang Qian visited directly the kingdom of Dayuan in Ferghana, the territories of the Yuezhi in Transoxiana, the Bactrian country of Daxia with its remnants of Greco-Bactrian rule, and Kangju. He also made reports on neighbouring countries that he did not visit, such as Anxi (Parthia), Tiaozhi (Mesopotamia), Shendu (Pakistan) and the Wusun.[34] Zhang Qian's report suggested the economic reason for Chinese expansion and wall-building westward, and trailblazed the silk road, which is one of the most famous trade routes.[35] After the defeat of the Xiongnu, however, Chinese armies established themselves in Central Asia, initiating the Silk Route as a major avenue of international trade.[36] Some say that the Chinese Emperor Wu became interested in developing commercial relationships with the sophisticated urban civilizations of Ferghana, Bactria, and the Parthian Empire: "The Son of Heaven on hearing all this reasoned thus: Ferghana (Dayuan "Great Ionians") and the possessions of Bactria (Ta-Hsia) and Parthian Empire (Anxi) are large countries, full of rare things, with a population living in fixed abodes and given to occupations somewhat identical with those of the Chinese people, but with weak armies, and placing great value on the rich produce of China" (Hou Hanshu, Later Han History). Others[37] say that Emperor Wu was mainly interested in fighting the Xiongnu and that major trade began only after the Chinese pacified the Hexi Corridor.

text: The Silk Roads' origin lied in the hands the Chinese. The soil in China lacked Selenium, a deficiency which contributed to muscular weakness and reduced growth in horses.[38] Consequently, horses in China were too frail to support the weight of a Chinese soldier.[39] The Chinese needed the superior horses that nomads bred on the Eurasian steppes, and nomads wanted things only agricultural societies produced, such as grain and silk. Even after the construction of the Great Wall, nomads gathered at the gates of the wall to exchange. Soldiers sent to guard the wall were often paid in silk which they traded with the nomads.[40] Past its inception, the Chinese continued to dominate the Silk Roads, a process which was accelerated when "China snatched control of the Silk Road from the Hsiung-nu" and the Chinese general Cheng Ki "installed himself as protector of the Tarim at Wu-lei, situated between Kara Shahr and Kucha." "China's control of the Silk Road at the time of the later Han, by ensuring the freedom of transcontinental trade along the double chain of oases north and south of the Tarim, favoured the dissemination of Buddhism in the river basin, and with it Indian literature and Hellenistic art."[41]

text: The Chinese were also strongly attracted by the tall and powerful horses (named "Heavenly horses") in the possession of the Dayuan (literally the "Great Ionians", the Greek kingdoms of Central Asia), which were of capital importance in fighting the nomadic Xiongnu. The Chinese subsequently sent numerous embassies, around ten every year, to these countries and as far as Seleucid Syria. "Thus more embassies were dispatched to Anxi [Parthia], Yancai [who later joined the Alans ], Lijian [Syria under the Greek Seleucids], Tiaozhi (Mesopotamia), and Tianzhu [northwestern India]... As a rule, rather more than ten such missions went forward in the course of a year, and at the least five or six." (Hou Hanshu, Later Han History).These connections marked the beginning of the Silk Road trade network that extended to the Roman Empire.[42] The Chinese campaigned in Central Asia on several occasions, and direct encounters between Han troops and Roman legionaries (probably captured or recruited as mercenaries by the Xiong Nu) are recorded, particularly in the 36 BCE battle of Sogdiana (Joseph Needham, Sidney Shapiro). It has been suggested that the Chinese crossbow was transmitted to the Roman world on such occasions, although the Greek gastraphetes provides an alternative origin. R. Ernest Dupuy and Trevor N. Dupuy suggest that in 36 BCE, a "Han expedition into central Asia, west of Jaxartes River, apparently encountered and defeated a contingent of Roman legionaries. The Romans may have been part of Antony's army invading Parthia. Sogdiana (modern Bukhara), east of the Oxus River, on the Polytimetus River, was apparently the most easterly penetration ever made by Roman forces in Asia. The margin of Chinese victory appears to have been their crossbows, whose bolts and darts seem easily to have penetrated Roman shields and armour."[43] The Roman historian Florus also describes the visit of numerous envoys, which included Seres(China), to the first Roman Emperor Augustus, who reigned between 27 BCE and 14 CE:

text: Even the rest of the nations of the world which were not subject to the imperial sway were sensible of its grandeur, and looked with reverence to the Roman people, the great conqueror of nations. Thus even Scythians and Sarmatians sent envoys to seek the friendship of Rome. Nay, the Seres came likewise, and the Indians who dwelt beneath the vertical sun, bringing presents of precious stones and pearls and elephants, but thinking all of less moment than the vastness of the journey which they had undertaken, and which they said had occupied four years. In truth it needed but to look at their complexion to see that they were people of another world than ours.

text: The Han army regularly policed the trade route against nomadic bandit forces generally identified as Xiongnu. Han general Ban Chao led an army of 70,000 mounted infantry and light cavalry troops in the 1st century CE to secure the trade routes, reaching far west to the Tarim basin. Ban Chao expanded his conquests across the Pamirs to the shores of the Caspian Sea and the borders of Parthia.[44] It was from here that the Han general dispatched envoy Gan Ying to Daqin (Rome).[45] The Silk Road essentially came into being from the 1st century BCE, following these efforts by China to consolidate a road to the Western world and India, both through direct settlements in the area of the Tarim Basin and diplomatic relations with the countries of the Dayuan, Parthians and Bactrians further west. The Silk Roads were a "complex network of trade routes" that gave people the chance to exchange goods and culture.[46]

text: A maritime Silk Route opened up between Chinese-controlled Giao Chỉ (centred in modern Vietnam, near Hanoi), probably by the 1st century. It extended, via ports on the coasts of India and Sri Lanka, all the way to Roman-controlled ports in Roman Egypt and the Nabataean territories on the northeastern coast of the Red Sea. The earliest Roman glassware bowl found in China was unearthed from a Western Han tomb in Guangzhou, dated to the early 1st century BCE, indicating that Roman commercial items were being imported through the South China Sea.[47] According to Chinese dynastic histories, it is from this region that the Roman embassies arrived in China, beginning in 166 CE during the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and Emperor Huan of Han.[48][49][50] Other Roman glasswares have been found in Eastern-Han-era tombs (25–220 CE) more further inland in Nanjing and Luoyang.[51] P.O. Harper asserts that a 2nd or 3rd-century Roman gilt silver plate found in Jingyuan, Gansu, China with a central image of the Greco-Roman god Dionysus resting on a feline creature, most likely came via Greater Iran (i.e. Sogdiana).[52] Valerie Hansen (2012) believed that earliest Roman coins found in China date to the 4th century, during Late Antiquity and the Dominate period, and come from the Byzantine Empire.[53] However, Warwick Ball (2016) highlights the recent discovery of sixteen Principate-era Roman coins found in Xi'an (formerly Chang'an, one of the two Han capitals) that were minted during the reigns of Roman emperors spanning from Tiberius to Aurelian (i.e. 1st to 3rd centuries CE).[54] It is true that these coins were found in China, but they were deposited there in the twentieth century, not in ancient times, and therefore they do not shed light on historic contacts between China and Rome.[55] Roman golden medallions made during the reign of Antoninus Pius and quite possibly his successor Marcus Aurelius have been found at Óc Eo in southern Vietnam, which was then part of the Kingdom of Funan bordering the Chinese province of Jiaozhi in northern Vietnam.[56][57] Given the archaeological finds of Mediterranean artefacts made by Louis Malleret in the 1940s,[57] Óc Eo may have been the same site as the port city of Kattigara described by Ptolemy in his Geography (c. 150 CE),[56] although Ferdinand von Richthofen had previously believed it was closer to Hanoi.[58]

text: Roman Empire[edit]

text: Soon after the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE, regular communications and trade between China, Southeast Asia, India, the Middle East, Africa, and Europe blossomed on an unprecedented scale. The Roman Empire inherited eastern trade routes that were part of the Silk Road from the earlier Hellenistic powers and the Arabs. With control of these trade routes, citizens of the Roman Empire received new luxuries and greater prosperity for the Empire as a whole.[59] The Roman-style glassware discovered in the archeological sites of Gyeongju, capital of the Silla kingdom (Korea) showed that Roman artifacts were traded as far as the Korean peninsula.[6] The Greco-Roman trade with India started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE continued to increase, and according to Strabo (II.5.12), by the time of Augustus, up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos in Roman Egypt to India.[60] The Roman Empire connected with the Central Asian Silk Road through their ports in Barygaza (known today as Bharuch [61]) and Barbaricum (known today as the cities of Karachi, Sindh, and Pakistan [62]) and continued along the western coast of India.[63] An ancient "travel guide" to this Indian Ocean trade route was the Greek Periplus of the Erythraean Sea written in 60 CE.

text: The travelling party of Maës Titianus penetrated farthest east along the Silk Road from the Mediterranean world, probably with the aim of regularising contacts and reducing the role of middlemen, during one of the lulls in Rome's intermittent wars with Parthia, which repeatedly obstructed movement along the Silk Road. Intercontinental trade and communication became regular, organised, and protected by the 'Great Powers.' Intense trade with the Roman Empire soon followed, confirmed by the Roman craze for Chinese silk (supplied through the Parthians), even though the Romans thought silk was obtained from trees. This belief was affirmed by Seneca the Younger in his Phaedra and by Virgil in his Georgics. Notably, Pliny the Elder knew better. Speaking of the bombyx or silk moth, he wrote in his Natural Histories "They weave webs, like spiders, that become a luxurious clothing material for women, called silk."[64] The Romans traded spices, glassware, perfumes, and silk.[65]

text: Roman artisans began to replace yarn with valuable plain silk cloths from China and the Silla Kingdom in Gyeongju, Korea.[66][6] Chinese wealth grew as they delivered silk and other luxury goods to the Roman Empire, whose wealthy Roman women admired their beauty.[67] The Roman Senate issued, in vain, several edicts to prohibit the wearing of silk, on economic and moral grounds: the import of Chinese silk caused a huge outflow of gold, and silk clothes were considered decadent and immoral.

text: I can see clothes of silk, if materials that do not hide the body, nor even one's decency, can be called clothes... Wretched flocks of maids labour so that the adulteress may be visible through her thin dress, so that her husband has no more acquaintance than any outsider or foreigner with his wife's body.[68]

text: The Roman Empire, and its demand for sophisticated Asian products, crumbled in the West around the 5th century.

text: The unification of Central Asia and Northern India within Kushan Empire in the 1st to 3rd centuries reinforced the role of the powerful merchants from Bactria and Taxila.[69] They fostered multi-cultural interaction as indicated by their 2nd century treasure hoards filled with products from the Greco-Roman world, China, and India, such as in the archeological site of Begram.

text: Byzantine Empire[edit]

text: Byzantine Greek historian Procopius stated that two Nestorian Christian monks eventually uncovered the way silk was made. From this revelation, monks were sent by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian (ruled 527–565) as spies on the Silk Road from Constantinople to China and back to steal the silkworm eggs, resulting in silk production in the Mediterranean, particularly in Thrace in northern Greece,[70] and giving the Byzantine Empire a monopoly on silk production in medieval Europe. In 568 the Byzantine ruler Justin II was greeted by a Sogdian embassy representing Istämi, ruler of the Turkic Khaganate, who formed an alliance with the Byzantines against Khosrow I of the Sasanian Empire that allowed the Byzantines to bypass the Sasanian merchants and trade directly with the Sogdians for purchasing Chinese silk.[71][72][73] Although the Byzantines had already procured silkworm eggs from China by this point, the quality of Chinese silk was still far greater than anything produced in the West, a fact that is perhaps emphasized by the discovery of coins minted by Justin II found in a Chinese tomb of Shanxi province dated to the Sui dynasty (581–618).[74]

text: Both the Old Book of Tang and New Book of Tang, covering the history of the Chinese Tang dynasty (618–907), record that a new state called Fu-lin (拂菻; i.e. Byzantine Empire) was virtually identical to the previous Daqin (大秦; i.e. Roman Empire).[48] Several Fu-lin embassies were recorded for the Tang period, starting in 643 with an alleged embassy by Constans II (transliterated as Bo duo li, 波多力, from his nickname "Kōnstantinos Pogonatos") to the court of Emperor Taizong of Tang.[48] The History of Song describes the final embassy and its arrival in 1081, apparently sent by Michael VII Doukas (transliterated as Mie li sha ling kai sa, 滅力沙靈改撒, from his name and title Michael VII Parapinakēs Caesar) to the court of Emperor Shenzong of the Song dynasty (960–1279).[48] However, the History of Yuan claims that a Byzantine man became a leading astronomer and physician in Khanbaliq, at the court of Kublai Khan, Mongol founder of the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) and was even granted the noble title 'Prince of Fu lin' (Chinese: 拂菻王; Fú lǐn wáng).[75] The Uyghur Nestorian Christian diplomat Rabban Bar Sauma, who set out from his Chinese home in Khanbaliq (Beijing) and acted as a representative for Arghun (a grandnephew of Kublai Khan),[76][77][78][79] traveled throughout Europe and attempted to secure military alliances with Edward I of England, Philip IV of France, Pope Nicholas IV, as well as the Byzantine ruler Andronikos II Palaiologos.[80][78] Andronikos II had two half-sisters who were married to great-grandsons of Genghis Khan, which made him an in-law with the Yuan-dynasty Mongol ruler in Beijing, Kublai Khan.[81] The History of Ming preserves an account where the Hongwu Emperor, after founding the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), had a supposed Byzantine merchant named Nieh-ku-lun (捏古倫) deliver his proclamation about the establishment of a new dynasty to the Byzantine court of John V Palaiologos in September 1371.[82][48] Friedrich Hirth (1885), Emil Bretschneider (1888), and more recently Edward Luttwak (2009) presumed that this was none other than Nicolaus de Bentra, a Roman Catholic bishop of Khanbilaq chosen by Pope John XXII to replace the previous archbishop John of Montecorvino.[83][84][48]

text: Tang dynasty reopens the route[edit]

text: Although the Silk Road was initially formulated during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (141–87 BCE), it was reopened by the Tang Empire in 639 when Hou Junji conquered the Western Regions, and remained open for almost four decades. It was closed after the Tibetans captured it in 678, but in 699, during Empress Wu's period, the Silk Road reopened when the Tang reconquered the Four Garrisons of Anxi originally installed in 640,[85] once again connecting China directly to the West for land-based trade.[86] The Tang captured the vital route through the Gilgit Valley from Tibet in 722, lost it to the Tibetans in 737, and regained it under the command of the Goguryeo-Korean General Gao Xianzhi.[87]

text: While the Turks were settled in the Ordos region (former territory of the Xiongnu), the Tang government took on the military policy of dominating the central steppe. The Tang dynasty (along with Turkic allies) conquered and subdued Central Asia during the 640s and 650s.[88] During Emperor Taizong's reign alone, large campaigns were launched against not only the Göktürks, but also separate campaigns against the Tuyuhun, the oasis states, and the Xueyantuo. Under Emperor Taizong, Tang general Li Jing conquered the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. Under Emperor Gaozong, Tang general Su Dingfang conquered the Western Turkic Khaganate, which was an important ally of Byzantine empire.[89] After these conquests, the Tang dynasty fully controlled the Xiyu, which was the strategic location astride the Silk Road.[90] This led the Tang dynasty to reopen the Silk Road.

text: The Tang dynasty established a second Pax Sinica, and the Silk Road reached its golden age, whereby Persian and Sogdian merchants benefited from the commerce between East and West. At the same time, the Chinese empire welcomed foreign cultures, making it very cosmopolitan in its urban centres. In addition to the land route, the Tang dynasty also developed the maritime Silk Route. Chinese envoys had been sailing through the Indian Ocean to India since perhaps the 2nd century BCE,[91] yet it was during the Tang dynasty that a strong Chinese maritime presence could be found in the Persian Gulf and Red Sea into Persia, Mesopotamia (sailing up the Euphrates River in modern-day Iraq), Arabia, Egypt, Aksum (Ethiopia), and Somalia in the Horn of Africa.[92]

text: Medieval[edit]

text: The Silk Road represents an early phenomenon of political and cultural integration due to inter-regional trade. In its heyday, it sustained an international culture that strung together groups as diverse as the Magyars, Armenians, and Chinese. The Silk Road reached its peak in the west during the time of the Byzantine Empire; in the Nile-Oxus section, from the Sassanid Empire period to the Il Khanate period; and in the sinitic zone from the Three Kingdoms period to the Yuan dynasty period. Trade between East and West also developed across the Indian Ocean, between Alexandria in Egypt and Guangzhou in China. Persian Sassanid coins emerged as a means of currency, just as valuable as silk yarn and textiles.[93]

text: Under its strong integrating dynamics on the one hand and the impacts of change it transmitted on the other, tribal societies previously living in isolation along the Silk Road, and pastoralists who were of barbarian cultural development, were drawn to the riches and opportunities of the civilisations connected by the routes, taking on the trades of marauders or mercenaries.[citation needed] "Many barbarian tribes became skilled warriors able to conquer rich cities and fertile lands and to forge strong military empires."[94]

text: The Sogdians dominated the East-West trade after the 4th century up to the 8th century, with Suyab and Talas ranking among their main centres in the north. They were the main caravan merchants of Central Asia. Their commercial interests were protected by the resurgent military power of the Göktürks, whose empire has been described as "the joint enterprise of the Ashina clan and the Soghdians".[69][95] A.V. Dybo noted that "according to historians, the main driving force of the Great Silk Road were not just Sogdians, but the carriers of a mixed Sogdian-Türkic culture that often came from mixed families."[96] Their trade, with some interruptions, continued in the 9th century within the framework of the Uighur Empire, which until 840 extended across northern Central Asia and obtained from China enormous deliveries of silk in exchange for horses. At this time caravans of Sogdians travelling to Upper Mongolia are mentioned in Chinese sources. They played an equally important religious and cultural role. Part of the data about eastern Asia provided by Muslim geographers of the 10th century actually goes back to Sogdian data of the period 750–840 and thus shows the survival of links between east and west. However, after the end of the Uighur Empire, Sogdian trade went through a crisis. What mainly issued from Muslim Central Asia was the trade of the Samanids, which resumed the northwestern road leading to the Khazars and the Urals and the northeastern one toward the nearby Turkic tribes.[69]

text: The Silk Road gave rise to the clusters of military states of nomadic origins in North China, ushered the Nestorian, Manichaean, Buddhist, and later Islamic religions into Central Asia and China.

text: Islamic era and the Silk Road[edit]

text: By the Umayyad era, Damascus had overtaken Ctesiphon as a major trade center until the Abbasid dynasty built the city of Baghdad, which became the most important city along the silk road.

text: At the end of its glory, the routes brought about the largest continental empire ever, the Mongol Empire, with its political centres strung along the Silk Road (Beijing in North China, Karakorum in central Mongolia, Sarmakhand in Transoxiana, Tabriz in Northern Iran, Sarai and Astrakhan in lower Volga, Solkhat in Crimea, Kazan in Central Russia, Erzurum in eastern Anatolia), realising the political unification of zones previously loosely and intermittently connected by material and cultural goods.[citation needed]

text: The Islamic world was expanded into Central Asia during the 8th century, under the Umayyad Caliphate, while its successor the Abbasid Caliphate put a halt to Chinese westward expansion at the Battle of Talas in 751 (near the Talas River in modern-day Kyrgyzstan).[97] However, following the disastrous An Lushan Rebellion (755–763) and the conquest of the Western Regions by the Tibetan Empire, the Tang Empire was unable to reassert its control over Central Asia.[98] Contemporary Tang authors noted how the dynasty had gone into decline after this point.[99] In 848 the Tang Chinese, led by the commander Zhang Yichao, were only able to reclaim the Hexi Corridor and Dunhuang in Gansu from the Tibetans.[100] The Persian Samanid Empire (819–999) centered in Bukhara (Uzbekistan) continued the trade legacy of the Sogdians.[97] The disruptions of trade were curtailed in that part of the world by the end of the 10th century and conquests of Central Asia by the Turkic Islamic Kara-Khanid Khanate, yet Nestorian Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, and Buddhism in Central Asia virtually disappeared.[101]

text: During the early 13th century Khwarezmia was invaded by the early Mongol Empire. The Mongol ruler Genghis Khan had the once vibrant cities of Bukhara and Samarkand burned to the ground after besieging them.[102] However, in 1370 Samarkand saw a revival as the capital of the new Timurid Empire. The Turko-Mongol ruler Timur forcefully moved artisans and intellectuals from across Asia to Samarkand, making it one of the most important trade centers and cultural entrepôts of the Islamic world.[103]

text: Mongol age[edit]

text: The Mongol expansion throughout the Asian continent from around 1207 to 1360 helped bring political stability and re-established the Silk Road (via Karakorum). It also brought an end to the dominance of the Islamic Caliphate over world trade. Because the Mongols came to control the trade routes, trade circulated throughout the region, though they never abandoned their nomadic lifestyle.

text: The Mongol rulers wanted to establish their capital on the Central Asian steppe, so to accomplish this goal, after every conquest they enlisted local people (traders, scholars, artisans) to help them construct and manage their empire.[104]

text: The Mongol diplomat Rabban Bar Sauma visited the courts of Europe in 1287–88 and provided a detailed written report to the Mongols. Around the same time, the Venetian explorer Marco Polo became one of the first Europeans to travel the Silk Road to China. His tales, documented in The Travels of Marco Polo, opened Western eyes to some of the customs of the Far East. He was not the first to bring back stories, but he was one of the most widely read. He had been preceded by numerous Christian missionaries to the East, such as William of Rubruck, Benedykt Polak, Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, and Andrew of Longjumeau. Later envoys included Odoric of Pordenone, Giovanni de' Marignolli, John of Montecorvino, Niccolò de' Conti, and Ibn Battuta, a Moroccan Muslim traveller who passed through the present-day Middle East and across the Silk Road from Tabriz between 1325–54.[105]

text: In the 13th century efforts were made at forming a Franco-Mongol alliance, with an exchange of ambassadors and (failed) attempts at military collaboration in the Holy Land during the later Crusades. Eventually the Mongols in the Ilkhanate, after they had destroyed the Abbasid and Ayyubid dynasties, converted to Islam and signed the 1323 Treaty of Aleppo with the surviving Muslim power, the Egyptian Mamluks.[citation needed]

text: Some studies indicate that the Black Death, which devastated Europe starting in the late 1340s, may have reached Europe from Central Asia (or China) along the trade routes of the Mongol Empire.[106] One theory holds that Genoese traders coming from the entrepot of Trebizond in northern Turkey carried the disease to Western Europe; like many other outbreaks of plague, there is strong evidence that it originated in marmots in Central Asia and was carried westwards to the Black Sea by Silk Road traders.[107]

text: Decline and disintegration[edit]

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text: The fragmentation of the Mongol Empire loosened the political, cultural, and economic unity of the Silk Road. Turkmeni marching lords seized land around the western part of the Silk Road from the decaying Byzantine Empire. After the fall of the Mongol Empire, the great political powers along the Silk Road became economically and culturally separated. Accompanying the crystallisation of regional states was the decline of nomad power, partly due to the devastation of the Black Death and partly due to the encroachment of sedentary civilisations equipped with gunpowder.[citation needed]

text: The consolidation of the Ottoman and Safavid empires in the Middle East led to a revival of overland trade, interrupted sporadically by warfare between them. The silk trade continued to flourish until it was disrupted by the collapse of the Safavid Empire in the 1720s.[109]

text: New Silk Road[edit]

text: After an earthquake that hit Tashkent in Central Asia in 1966, the city had to rebuild itself. Although it took a huge toll on their markets, this commenced a revival of modern silk road cities.[111]

text: The Eurasian Land Bridge (a railway through China, Kazakhstan, Mongolia and Russia) is sometimes referred to as the "New Silk Road".[112] The last link in one of these two railway routes was completed in 1990, when the railway systems of China and Kazakhstan connected at Alataw Pass (Alashan Kou). In 2008 the line was used to connect the cities of Ürümqi in China's Xinjiang Province to Almaty and Astana in Kazakhstan.[113] In October 2008 the first Trans-Eurasia Logistics train reached Hamburg from Xiangtan. Starting in July 2011 the line has been used by a freight service that connects Chongqing, China with Duisburg, Germany,[114] cutting travel time for cargo from about 36 days by container ship to just 13 days by freight train. In 2013, Hewlett-Packard began moving large freight trains of laptop computers and monitors along this rail route.[112] In January 2017, the service sent its first train to London. The network additionally connects to Madrid and Milan.[115][116]

text: One Belt, One Road[edit]

text: In September 2013, during a visit to Kazakhstan, Chinese President Xi Jinping introduced a plan for a New Silk Road from China to Europe. The latest iterations of this plan, dubbed "One Belt, One Road" (OBOR), includes a land-based Silk Road Economic Belt and Maritime Silk Road, with primary points in Ürümqi, Dostyk, Astana, Gomel, Brest, and the Polish cities of Małaszewicze and Łódź—which would be hubs of logistics and transshipment to other countries of Europe.[117][118][119][120]

text: On 15 February 2016, with a change in routing, the first train dispatched under the OBOR scheme arrived from eastern Zhejiang Province to Tehran.[121] Though this section does not complete the Silk Road–style overland connection between China and Europe, plans are underway to extend the route past Tehran, through Istanbul, into Europe.[120] The actual route went through Almaty, Bishkek, Samarkand, and Dushanbe.[120]

text: Routes[edit]

text: The Silk Road consisted of several routes. As it extended westwards from the ancient commercial centres of China, the overland, intercontinental Silk Road divided into northern and southern routes bypassing the Taklamakan Desert and Lop Nur. Merchants along these routes where involved in "relay trade" in which goods changed "hands many times before reaching their final destinations."[122]

text: Northern route[edit]

text: The northern route started at Chang'an (now called Xi'an), an ancient capital of China that was moved further east during the Later Han to Luoyang. The route was defined around the 1st century BCE when Han Wudi put an end to harassment by nomadic tribes.[citation needed]

text: The northern route travelled northwest through the Chinese province of Gansu from Shaanxi Province and split into three further routes, two of them following the mountain ranges to the north and south of the Taklamakan Desert to rejoin at Kashgar, and the other going north of the Tian Shan mountains through Turpan, Talgar, and Almaty (in what is now southeast Kazakhstan). The routes split again west of Kashgar, with a southern branch heading down the Alai Valley towards Termez (in modern Uzbekistan) and Balkh (Afghanistan), while the other travelled through Kokand in the Fergana Valley (in present-day eastern Uzbekistan) and then west across the Karakum Desert. Both routes joined the main southern route before reaching ancient Merv, Turkmenistan. Another branch of the northern route turned northwest past the Aral Sea and north of the Caspian Sea, then and on to the Black Sea.

text: A route for caravans, the northern Silk Road brought to China many goods such as "dates, saffron powder and pistachio nuts from Persia; frankincense, aloes and myrrh from Somalia; sandalwood from India; glass bottles from Egypt, and other expensive and desirable goods from other parts of the world."[123] In exchange, the caravans sent back bolts of silk brocade, lacquer-ware, and porcelain.

text: Southern route[edit]

text: The southern route or Karakoram route was mainly a single route from China through the Karakoram mountains, where it persists in modern times as the Karakoram Highway, a paved road that connects Pakistan and China.[citation needed] It then set off westwards, but with southward spurs so travelers could complete the journey by sea from various points. Crossing the high mountains, it passed through northern Pakistan, over the Hindu Kush mountains, and into Afghanistan, rejoining the northern route near Merv, Turkmenistan. From Merv, it followed a nearly straight line west through mountainous northern Iran, Mesopotamia, and the northern tip of the Syrian Desert to the Levant, where Mediterranean trading ships plied regular routes to Italy, while land routes went either north through Anatolia or south to North Africa. Another branch road travelled from Herat through Susa to Charax Spasinu at the head of the Persian Gulf and across to Petra and on to Alexandria and other eastern Mediterranean ports from where ships carried the cargoes to Rome.[citation needed]

text: Southwestern route[edit]

text: The southwestern route is believed to be the Ganges/Brahmaputra Delta, which has been the subject of international interest for over two millennia. Strabo, the 1st-century Roman writer, mentions the deltaic lands: "Regarding merchants who now sail from Egypt...as far as the Ganges, they are only private citizens..." His comments are interesting as Roman beads and other materials are being found at Wari-Bateshwar ruins, the ancient city with roots from much earlier, before the Bronze Age, presently being slowly excavated beside the Old Brahmaputra in Bangladesh. Ptolemy's map of the Ganges Delta, a remarkably accurate effort, showed that his informants knew all about the course of the Brahmaputra River, crossing through the Himalayas then bending westward to its source in Tibet. It is doubtless that this delta was a major international trading center, almost certainly from much earlier than the Common Era. Gemstones and other merchandise from Thailand and Java were traded in the delta and through it. Chinese archaeological writer Bin Yang and some earlier writers and archaeologists, such as Janice Stargardt, strongly suggest this route of international trade as Sichuan-Yunnan-Burma-Bangladesh route. According to Bin Yang, especially from the 12th century the route was used to ship bullion from Yunnan (gold and silver are among the minerals in which Yunnan is rich), through northern Burma, into modern Bangladesh, making use of the ancient route, known as the 'Ledo' route. The emerging evidence of the ancient cities of Bangladesh, in particular Wari-Bateshwar ruins, Mahasthangarh, Bhitagarh, Bikrampur, Egarasindhur, and Sonargaon, are believed to be the international trade centers in this route.[124][125][126]

text: Maritime route[edit]

text: Maritime Silk Road or Maritime Silk Route refer to the maritime section of historic Silk Road that connects China to Southeast Asia, Indonesian archipelago, Indian subcontinent, Arabian peninsula, all the way to Egypt and finally Europe.[127]

text: The trade route encompassed numbers of bodies of waters; including South China Sea, Strait of Malacca, Indian Ocean, Gulf of Bengal, Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. The maritime route overlaps with historic Southeast Asian maritime trade, Spice trade, Indian Ocean trade and after 8th century – the Arabian naval trade network. The network also extend eastward to East China Sea and Yellow Sea to connect China with Korean Peninsula and Japanese archipelago.

text: Cultural exchanges[edit]

text: Richard Foltz, Xinru Liu, and others have described how trading activities along the Silk Road over many centuries facilitated the transmission not just of goods but also ideas and culture, notably in the area of religions. Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Buddhism, Christianity, Manichaeism, and Islam all spread across Eurasia through trade networks that were tied to specific religious communities and their institutions.[128] Notably, established Buddhist monasteries along the Silk Road offered a haven, as well as a new religion for foreigners.[129]

text: The spread of religions and cultural traditions along the Silk Roads, according to Jerry H. Bentley, also led to syncretism. One example was the encounter with the Chinese and Xiongnu nomads. These unlikely events of cross-cultural contact allowed both cultures to adapt to each other as an alternative. The Xiongnu adopted Chinese agricultural techniques, dress style, and lifestyle, while the Chinese adopted Xiongnu military techniques, some dress style, music, and dance.[130] Perhaps most surprising of the cultural exchanges between China and the Xiongnu, Chinese soldiers sometimes defected and converted to the Xiongnu way of life, and stayed in the steppes for fear of punishment.[130]

text: Nomadic mobility played a key role in facilitating inter-regional contacts and cultural exchanges along the ancient Silk Roads.[131][132]

text: Transmission of Christianity[edit]

text: The transmission of Christianity was primarily known as Nestorianism on the Silk Road. In 781, an inscribed stele shows Nestorian Christian missionaries arriving on the Silk Road. Christianity had spread both east and west, simultaneously bringing Syriac language and evolving the forms of worship.[133]

text: Transmission of Buddhism[edit]

text: The transmission of Buddhism to China via the Silk Road began in the 1st century CE, according to a semi-legendary account of an ambassador sent to the West by the Chinese Emperor Ming (58–75). During this period Buddhism began to spread throughout Southeast, East, and Central Asia.[137] Mahayana, Theravada, and Tibetan Buddhism are the three primary forms of Buddhism that spread across Asia via the Silk Road.[138]

text: The Buddhist movement was the first large-scale missionary movement in the history of world religions. Chinese missionaries were able to assimilate Buddhism, to an extent, to native Chinese Daoists, which brought the two beliefs together.[139] Buddha's community of followers, the Sangha, consisted of male and female monks and laity. These people moved through India and beyond to spread the ideas of Buddha.[140] As the number of members within the Sangha increased, it became costly so that only the larger cities were able to afford having the Buddha and his disciples visit.[141] It is believed that under the control of the Kushans, Buddhism was spread to China and other parts of Asia from the middle of the first century to the middle of the third century.[142] Extensive contacts started in the 2nd century, probably as a consequence of the expansion of the Kushan empire into the Chinese territory of the Tarim Basin, due to the missionary efforts of a great number of Buddhist monks to Chinese lands. The first missionaries and translators of Buddhists scriptures into Chinese were either Parthian, Kushan, Sogdian, or Kuchean.[143]

text: One result of the spread of Buddhism along the Silk Road was displacement and conflict. The Greek Seleucids were exiled to Iran and Central Asia because of a new Iranian dynasty called the Parthians at the beginning of the 2nd century BCE, and as a result the Parthians became the new middle men for trade in a period when the Romans were major customers for silk. Parthian scholars were involved in one of the first ever Buddhist text translations into the Chinese language. Its main trade centre on the Silk Road, the city of Merv, in due course and with the coming of age of Buddhism in China, became a major Buddhist centre by the middle of the 2nd century.[144] Knowledge among people on the silk roads also increased when Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya dynasty (268–239 BCE) converted to Buddhism and raised the religion to official status in his northern Indian empire.[145]

text: From the 4th century CE onward, Chinese pilgrims also started to travel on the Silk Road to India to get improved access to the original Buddhist scriptures, with Fa-hsien's pilgrimage to India (395–414), and later Xuanzang (629–644) and Hyecho, who traveled from Korea to India.[146] The travels of the priest Xuanzang were fictionalized in the 16th century in a fantasy adventure novel called Journey to the West, which told of trials with demons and the aid given by various disciples on the journey.

text: There were many different schools of Buddhism travelling on the Silk Road. The Dharmaguptakas and the Sarvastivadins were two of the major Nikaya schools. These were both eventually displaced by the Mahayana, also known as "Great Vehicle". This movement of Buddhism first gained influence in the Khotan region.[145] The Mahayana, which was more of a "pan-Buddhist movement" than a school of Buddhism, appears to have begun in northwestern India or Central Asia. It formed during the 1st century BCE and was small at first, and the origins of this "Greater Vehicle" are not fully clear. Some Mahayana scripts were found in northern Pakistan, but the main texts are still believed to have been composed in Central Asia along the Silk Road. These different schools and movements of Buddhism were a result of the diverse and complex influences and beliefs on the Silk Road.[147] With the rise of Mahayana Buddhism, the initial direction of Buddhist development changed. This form of Buddhism highlighted, as stated by Xinru Liu, "the elusiveness of physical reality, including material wealth." It also stressed getting rid of material desire to a certain point; this was often difficult for followers to understand.[148]

text: During the 5th and 6th centuries CE, merchants played a large role in the spread of religion, in particular Buddhism. Merchants found the moral and ethical teachings of Buddhism an appealing alternative to previous religions. As a result, merchants supported Buddhist monasteries along the Silk Road, and in return the Buddhists gave the merchants somewhere to stay as they traveled from city to city. As a result, merchants spread Buddhism to foreign encounters as they traveled.[149] Merchants also helped to establish diaspora within the communities they encountered, and over time their cultures became based on Buddhism. As a result, these communities became centers of literacy and culture with well-organized marketplaces, lodging, and storage.[150] The voluntary conversion of Chinese ruling elites helped the spread of Buddhism in East Asia and led Buddhism to become widespread in Chinese society.[151] The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism essentially ended around the 7th century with the rise of Islam in Central Asia.

text: Transmission of art[edit]

text: Many artistic influences were transmitted via the Silk Road, particularly through Central Asia, where Hellenistic, Iranian, Indian and Chinese influences could intermix. Greco-Buddhist art represents one of the most vivid examples of this interaction. Silk was also a representation of art, serving as a religious symbol. Most importantly, silk was used as currency for trade along the silk road.[152]

text: These artistic influences can be seen in the development of Buddhism where, for instance, Buddha was first depicted as human in the Kushan period. Many scholars have attributed this to Greek influence. The mixture of Greek and Indian elements can be found in later Buddhist art in China and throughout countries on the Silk Road.[153]

text: The production of art consisted of many different items that were traded along the Silk Roads from the East to the West. One common product, the lapis lazuli, was a blue stone with golden specks, which was used as paint after it was ground into powder.[154]

text: Commemoration[edit]

text: On 22 June 2014, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) named the Silk Road a World Heritage Site at the 2014 Conference on World Heritage. The United Nations World Tourism Organization has been working since 1993 to develop sustainable international tourism along the route with the stated goal of fostering peace and understanding.[155]

text: Bishkek and Almaty each have a major east-west street named after the Silk Road (Kyrgyz: Жибек жолу, Jibek Jolu in Bishkek, and Kazakh: Жібек жолы, Jibek Joly in Almaty).

text: Foreign language terms[edit]

text:
Language
Text
Transliteration (if applicable)

Chinese
絲綢之路 (traditional)
丝绸之路(simplified)
Sīchóu zhī lù

Persian
جاده ی ابریشم
Jâdeye Abrišam
Shâhrâh-i Abrešim

Punjabi
ਕੌਸ਼ਿਆ ਮਾਰਗ
Kausheya Māraga

Urdu
شاہراہ ریشم
shah rah resham

Hindi
रेशम सड़क
Resham sadak

Kawi language
Sutra dalan

Tamil
பட்டு வழி
Paṭṭu vaḻi

Uzbek
إيباك يولي
Ipak yo'li

Turkmen
Ýüpek ýoly

Turkish
İpek yolu

Azeri
İpək yolu

Arabic
طريق الحرير
Tarīq al-Ḥarīr

Hebrew
דרך המשי
Derekh ha-Meshi

Greek
Δρόμος του μεταξιού
Drómos tou metaxioú'

Latin
Via Serica

Armenian
Մետաքսի ճանապարհ
Metaksi chanaparh

Tagalog language
Daang Sutla, Daang Seda

Somali language
وادادا وادادا
Waddada Waddada

Korean
비단길
Bidangil

Sinhala
සේද මාවත
Sedha mawatha

text: Gallery[edit]

text:
Silk Road and artifacts

Caravanserai of Sa'd al-Saltaneh

Sultanhani caravanserai

Sultanhani caravanserai

Shaki Caravanserai, Azerbaijan

Orbelian's Caravanserai, Armenia

bridge in Ani, capital of medieval Armenia

Taldyk pass

Zeinodin Caravanserai

Sogdian man on a Bactrian camel, sancai ceramic glaze, Chinese Tang dynasty (618-907)

The ruins of a Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE) Chinese watchtower made of rammed earth at Dunhuang, Gansu province

A late Zhou or early Han Chinese bronze mirror inlaid with glass, perhaps incorporated Greco-Roman artistic patterns

A Chinese Western Han dynasty (202 BCE – 9 CE) bronze rhinoceros with gold and silver inlay

Han dynasty Granary west of Dunhuang on the Silk Road.

Green Roman glass cup unearthed from an Eastern Han dynasty (25-220 CE) tomb, Guangxi, southern China