document_title: Perspective (graphical)

question_text: who created the first mathematical system of perspective in painting

text: Perspective (graphical)

text: Overview[edit]

text: Linear perspective always works by representing the light that passes from a scene through an imaginary rectangle (realized as the plane of the painting), to the viewer's eye, as if a viewer were looking through a window and painting what is seen directly onto the windowpane. If viewed from the same spot as the windowpane was painted, the painted image would be identical to what was seen through the unpainted window. Each painted object in the scene is thus a flat, scaled down version of the object on the other side of the window.[4] Because each portion of the painted object lies on the straight line from the viewer's eye to the equivalent portion of the real object it represents, the viewer sees no difference (sans depth perception) between the painted scene on the windowpane and the view of the real scene. All perspective drawings assume the viewer is a certain distance away from the drawing. Objects are scaled relative to that viewer. An object is often not scaled evenly: a circle often appears as an ellipse and a square can appear as a trapezoid. This distortion is referred to as foreshortening.

text: Perspective drawings have a horizon line, which is often implied. This line, directly opposite the viewer's eye, represents objects infinitely far away. They have shrunk, in the distance, to the infinitesimal thickness of a line. It is analogous to (and named after) the Earth's horizon.

text: Any perspective representation of a scene that includes parallel lines has one or more vanishing points in a perspective drawing. A one-point perspective drawing means that the drawing has a single vanishing point, usually (though not necessarily) directly opposite the viewer's eye and usually (though not necessarily) on the horizon line. All lines parallel with the viewer's line of sight recede to the horizon towards this vanishing point. This is the standard "receding railroad tracks" phenomenon. A two-point drawing would have lines parallel to two different angles. Any number of vanishing points are possible in a drawing, one for each set of parallel lines that are at an angle relative to the plane of the drawing.

text: Perspectives consisting of many parallel lines are observed most often when drawing architecture (architecture frequently uses lines parallel to the x, y, and z axes). Because it is rare to have a scene consisting solely of lines parallel to the three Cartesian axes (x, y, and z), it is rare to see perspectives in practice with only one, two, or three vanishing points; even a simple house frequently has a peaked roof which results in a minimum of six sets of parallel lines, in turn corresponding to up to six vanishing points.

text: In contrast, natural scenes often do not have any sets of parallel lines and thus no vanishing points.

text: Early history[edit]

text: The earliest art paintings and drawings typically sized many objects and characters hierarchically according to their spiritual or thematic importance, not their distance from the viewer, and did not use foreshortening. The most important figures are often shown as the highest in a composition, also from hieratic motives, leading to the so-called "vertical perspective", common in the art of Ancient Egypt, where a group of "nearer" figures are shown below the larger figure or figures. The only method to indicate the relative position of elements in the composition was by overlapping, of which much use is made in works like the Parthenon Marbles.

text: History[edit]

text: Chinese artists made use of oblique perspective from the first or second century until the 18th century. It is not certain how they came to use the technique; some authorities suggest that the Chinese acquired the technique from India, which acquired it from Ancient Rome.[5] Oblique projection is also seen in Japanese art, such as in the Ukiyo-e paintings of Torii Kiyonaga (1752–1815).[5] In the 18th century, Chinese artists began to combine oblique perspective with regular diminution of size of people and objects with distance; no particular vantage point is chosen, but a convincing effect is achieved.[5]

text: Systematic attempts to evolve a system of perspective are usually considered to have begun around the fifth century BC in the art of ancient Greece, as part of a developing interest in illusionism allied to theatrical scenery. This was detailed within Aristotle's Poetics as skenographia: using flat panels on a stage to give the illusion of depth.[6] The philosophers Anaxagoras and Democritus worked out geometric theories of perspective for use with skenographia. Alcibiades had paintings in his house designed using skenographia, so this art was not confined merely to the stage. Euclid's Optics introduced a mathematical theory of perspective, but there is some debate over the extent to which Euclid's perspective coincides with the modern mathematical definition.

text: By the later periods of antiquity, artists, especially those in less popular traditions, were well aware that distant objects could be shown smaller than those close at hand for increased realism, but whether this convention was actually used in a work depended on many factors. Some of the paintings found in the ruins of Pompeii show a remarkable realism and perspective for their time.[7] It has been claimed that comprehensive systems of perspective were evolved in antiquity, but most scholars do not accept this. Hardly any of the many works where such a system would have been used have survived. A passage in Philostratus suggests that classical artists and theorists thought in terms of "circles" at equal distance from the viewer, like a classical semi-circular theatre seen from the stage.[8] The roof beams in rooms in the Vatican Virgil, from about 400 AD, are shown converging, more or less, on a common vanishing point, but this is not systematically related to the rest of the composition.[9] In the Late Antique period use of perspective techniques declined. The art of the new cultures of the Migration Period had no tradition of attempting compositions of large numbers of figures and Early Medieval art was slow and inconsistent in relearning the convention from classical models, though the process can be seen underway in Carolingian art.

text: Various paintings and drawings during the Middle Ages show amateur attempts at projections of furniture, where parallel lines are successfully represented in isometric projection, or by non parallel ones, but without a single vanishing point.

text: Medieval artists in Europe, like those in the Islamic world and China, were aware of the general principle of varying the relative size of elements according to distance, but even more than classical art was perfectly ready to override it for other reasons. Buildings were often shown obliquely according to a particular convention. The use and sophistication of attempts to convey distance increased steadily during the period, but without a basis in a systematic theory. Byzantine art was also aware of these principles, but also had the reverse perspective convention for the setting of principal figures.

text: Renaissance: mathematical basis[edit]

text: In about 1413 a contemporary of Ghiberti, Filippo Brunelleschi, demonstrated the geometrical method of perspective, used today by artists, by painting the outlines of various Florentine buildings onto a mirror. When the building's outline was continued, he noticed that all of the lines converged on the horizon line. According to Vasari, he then set up a demonstration of his painting of the Baptistery in the incomplete doorway of the Duomo. He had the viewer look through a small hole on the back of the painting, facing the Baptistery. He would then set up a mirror, facing the viewer, which reflected his painting. To the viewer, the painting of the Baptistery and the building itself were nearly indistinguishable.

text: Soon after, nearly every artist in Florence and in Italy used geometrical perspective in their paintings,[10] notably Paolo Uccello, Masolino da Panicale and Donatello. Donatello started sculpting elaborate checkerboard floors into the simple manger portrayed in the birth of Christ. Although hardly historically accurate, these checkerboard floors obeyed the primary laws of geometrical perspective: the lines converged approximately to a vanishing point, and the rate at which the horizontal lines receded into the distance was graphically determined. This became an integral part of Quattrocento art. Melozzo da Forlì first used the technique of upward foreshortening (in Rome, Loreto, Forlì and others), and was celebrated for that. Not only was perspective a way of showing depth, it was also a new method of composing a painting. Paintings began to show a single, unified scene, rather than a combination of several.

text: As shown by the quick proliferation of accurate perspective paintings in Florence, Brunelleschi likely understood (with help from his friend the mathematician Toscanelli),[11] but did not publish, the mathematics behind perspective. Decades later, his friend Leon Battista Alberti wrote De pictura (1435/1436), a treatise on proper methods of showing distance in painting. Alberti's primary breakthrough was not to show the mathematics in terms of conical projections, as it actually appears to the eye. Instead, he formulated the theory based on planar projections, or how the rays of light, passing from the viewer's eye to the landscape, would strike the picture plane (the painting). He was then able to calculate the apparent height of a distant object using two similar triangles. The mathematics behind similar triangles is relatively simple, having been long ago formulated by Euclid. In viewing a wall, for instance, the first triangle has a vertex at the user's eye, and vertices at the top and bottom of the wall. The bottom of this triangle is the distance from the viewer to the wall. The second, similar triangle, has a point at the viewer's eye, and has a length equal to the viewer's eye from the painting. The height of the second triangle can then be determined through a simple ratio, as proven by Euclid. Alberti was also trained in the science of optics through the school of Padua and under the influence of Biagio Pelacani da Parma who studied Alhazen's Book of Optics [12] (see what was noted above in this regard with respect to Ghiberti). Alhazen's Book of Optics, translated around 1200 into Latin, laid the mathematical foundation for perspective in Europe.[13]

text: Piero della Francesca elaborated on Della Pittura in his De Prospectiva Pingendi in the 1470s. Alberti had limited himself to figures on the ground plane and giving an overall basis for perspective. Della Francesca fleshed it out, explicitly covering solids in any area of the picture plane. Della Francesca also started the now common practice of using illustrated figures to explain the mathematical concepts, making his treatise easier to understand than Alberti's. Della Francesca was also the first to accurately draw the Platonic solids as they would appear in perspective. Luca Pacioli's 1509 De divina proportione (On Divine Proportion), illustrated by Leonardo da Vinci, summarized the use of perspective in painting.[14]

text: Perspective remained, for a while, the domain of Florence. Jan van Eyck, among others, was unable to create a consistent structure for the converging lines in paintings, as in London's The Arnolfini Portrait, because he was unaware of the theoretical breakthrough just then occurring in Italy. However he achieved very subtle effects by manipulations of scale in his interiors. Gradually, and partly through the movement of academies of the arts, the Italian techniques became part of the training of artists across Europe, and later other parts of the world.

text: The culmination of these Renaissance traditions finds its ultimate synthesis in the research of the 17th century architect, geometer, and optician Girard Desargues on perspective, optics and projective geometry. Further advances in projective geometry, in the 19th and 20th centuries, led to the development of analytic geometry, algebraic geometry, relativity and quantum mechanics.

text: Present: computer graphics[edit]

text: 3-D computer games and ray-tracers often use a modified version of perspective. Like the painter, the computer program is generally not concerned with every ray of light that is in a scene. Instead, the program simulates rays of light traveling backwards from the monitor (one for every pixel), and checks to see what it hits. In this way, the program does not have to compute the trajectories of millions of rays of light that pass from a light source, hit an object, and miss the viewer.[dubious – discuss]

text: CAD software, and some computer games (especially games using 3-D polygons) use linear algebra, and in particular matrix multiplication, to create a sense of perspective. The scene is a set of points, and these points are projected to a plane (computer screen)[dubious – discuss] in front of the view point (the viewer's eye). The problem of perspective is simply finding the corresponding coordinates on the plane corresponding to the points in the scene. By the theories of linear algebra, a matrix multiplication directly computes the desired coordinates, thus bypassing any descriptive geometry theorems used in perspective drawing.[dubious – discuss].

text: Types[edit]

text: Of the many types of perspective drawings, the most common categorizations of artificial perspective are one-, two- and three-point. The names of these categories refer to the number of vanishing points in the perspective drawing.

text: One-point perspective[edit]

text: A drawing has one-point perspective when it contains only one vanishing point on the horizon line. This type of perspective is typically used for images of roads, railway tracks, hallways, or buildings viewed so that the front is directly facing the viewer. Any objects that are made up of lines either directly parallel with the viewer's line of sight or directly perpendicular (the railroad slats) can be represented with one-point perspective. These parallel lines converge at the vanishing point.

text: One-point perspective exists when the picture plane is parallel to two axes of a rectilinear (or Cartesian) scene – a scene which is composed entirely of linear elements that intersect only at right angles. If one axis is parallel with the picture plane, then all elements are either parallel to the picture plane (either horizontally or vertically) or perpendicular to it. All elements that are parallel to the picture plane are drawn as parallel lines. All elements that are perpendicular to the picture plane converge at a single point (a vanishing point) on the horizon.

text: Examples of one-point perspective

text: Two-point perspective[edit]

text: A drawing has two-point perspective when it contains two vanishing points on the horizon line. In an illustration, these vanishing points can be placed arbitrarily along the horizon. Two-point perspective can be used to draw the same objects as one-point perspective, rotated: looking at the corner of a house, or at two forked roads shrinking into the distance, for example. One point represents one set of parallel lines, the other point represents the other. Seen from the corner, one wall of a house would recede towards one vanishing point while the other wall recedes towards the opposite vanishing point.

text: Two-point perspective exists when the painting plate is parallel to a Cartesian scene in one axis (usually the z-axis) but not to the other two axes. If the scene being viewed consists solely of a cylinder sitting on a horizontal plane, no difference exists in the image of the cylinder between a one-point and two-point perspective.

text: Two-point perspective has one set of lines parallel to the picture plane and two sets oblique to it. Parallel lines oblique to the picture plane converge to a vanishing point, which means that this set-up will require two vanishing points.

text: Three-point perspective[edit]

text: Three-point perspective is often used for buildings seen from above (or below). In addition to the two vanishing points from before, one for each wall, there is now one for how the vertical lines of the walls recede. For an object seen from above, this third vanishing point is below the ground. For an object seen from below, as when the viewer looks up at a tall building, the third vanishing point is high in space.

text: Three-point perspective exists when the perspective is a view of a Cartesian scene where the picture plane is not parallel to any of the scene's three axes. Each of the three vanishing points corresponds with one of the three axes of the scene. One, two and three-point perspectives appear to embody different forms of calculated perspective, and are generated by different methods. Mathematically, however, all three are identical; the difference is merely in the relative orientation of the rectilinear scene to the viewer.

text: Four-point perspective[edit]

text: Four-point perspective, also called infinite-point perspective, is the curvilinear (see curvilinear perspective) variant of two-point perspective. A four-point perspective image can represent a 360° panorama, and even beyond 360° to depict impossible scenes. This perspective can be used with either a horizontal or a vertical horizon line: in the latter configuration it can depict both a worm's-eye and bird's-eye view of a scene at the same time.

text: Like all other foreshortened variants of perspective (one-point to six-point perspectives), it starts off with a horizon line, followed by four equally spaced vanishing points to delineate four vertical lines. The vanishing points made to create the curvilinear orthogonals are thus made ad hoc on the four vertical lines placed on the opposite side of the horizon line. The only dimension not foreshortened in this type of perspective is that of the rectilinear and parallel lines perpendicular to the horizon line – similar to the vertical lines used in two-point perspective.

text: One-point, two-point, and three-point perspective are dependent on the structure of the scene being viewed. These only exist for strict Cartesian (rectilinear) scenes. By inserting into a Cartesian scene a set of parallel lines that are not parallel to any of the three axes of the scene, a new distinct vanishing point is created. Therefore, it is possible to have an infinite-point perspective if the scene being viewed is not a Cartesian scene but instead consists of infinite pairs of parallel lines, where each pair is not parallel to any other pair.

text: Zero-point perspective[edit]

text: In its usual sense, zero-point perspective is not truly "zero-point". Rather, because vanishing points exist only when parallel lines are present in the scene, a perspective with no vanishing points ("zero-point" perspective) occurs if the viewer is observing a non-linear scene containing no parallel lines.[15] The most common example of such a nonlinear scene is a natural scene (e.g., a mountain range) which frequently does not contain any parallel lines. This is not to be confused with elevation, since a view without explicit vanishing points may still have been drawn such that, there would have been vanishing points had there been parallel lines, and thus enjoy the sense of depth as a perspective projection.

text: On the other hand, parallel projection such as elevation can be approximated by viewing the object in question from very far away, because projection lines from the point of view approaches parallel when the point of view (POV) approaches infinity. This may account for the confusion over zero-point perspective, since natural scenes often are viewed from very far away, and the size of objects within the scene would be insignificant compared to their distance to the POV. Any given small objects in said scene would thus mimic the look of parallel projection.

text: Foreshortening[edit]

text: Foreshortening is the visual effect or optical illusion that causes an object or distance to appear shorter than it actually is because it is angled toward the viewer. Additionally, an object is often not scaled evenly: a circle often appears as an ellipse and a square can appear as a trapezoid.

text: Although foreshortening is an important element in art where visual perspective is being depicted, foreshortening occurs in other types of two-dimensional representations of three-dimensional scenes. Some other types where foreshortening can occur include oblique parallel projection drawings. Foreshortening also occurs when imaging rugged terrain using a synthetic aperture radar system.[citation needed]

text: In painting, foreshortening in the depiction of the human figure was perfected in the Italian Renaissance, and the Lamentation over the Dead Christ by Andrea Mantegna (1480s) is one of the most famous of a number of works that show off the new technique, which thereafter became a standard part of the training of artists.

text: Methods of construction[edit]

text: Several methods of constructing perspectives exist, including:

text:
Freehand sketching (common in art)
Graphically constructing (once common in architecture)
Using a perspective grid
Computing a perspective transform (common in 3D computer applications)
Mimicry using tools such as a proportional divider (sometimes called a variscaler)
Copying a photograph

text: Example[edit]

text: One of the most common, and earliest, uses of geometrical perspective is a checkerboard floor. It is a simple but striking application of one-point perspective. Many of the properties of perspective drawing are used while drawing a checkerboard. The checkerboard floor is, essentially, just a combination of a series of squares. Once a single square is drawn, it can be widened or subdivided into a checkerboard. Where necessary, lines and points will be referred to by their colors in the diagram.

text: To draw a square in perspective, the artist starts by drawing a horizon line (black) and determining where the vanishing point (green) should be. The higher up the horizon line is, the lower the viewer will appear to be looking, and vice versa. The more off-center the vanishing point, the more tilted the square will be. Because the square is made up of right angles, the vanishing point should be directly in the middle of the horizon line. A rotated square is drawn using two-point perspective, with each set of parallel lines leading to a different vanishing point.

text: The foremost edge of the (orange) square is drawn near the bottom of the painting. Because the viewer's picture plane is parallel to the bottom of the square, this line is horizontal. Lines connecting each side of the foremost edge to the vanishing point are drawn (in grey). These lines give the basic, one point "railroad tracks" perspective. The closer it is the horizon line, the farther away it is from the viewer, and the smaller it will appear. The farther away from the viewer it is, the closer it is to being perpendicular to the picture plane.

text: A new point (the eye) is now chosen, on the horizon line, either to the left or right of the vanishing point. The distance from this point to the vanishing point represents the distance of the viewer from the drawing. If this point is very far from the vanishing point, the square will appear squashed, and far away. If it is close, it will appear stretched out, as if it is very close to the viewer.

text: A line connecting this point to the opposite corner of the square is drawn. Where this (blue) line hits the side of the square, a horizontal line is drawn, representing the farthest edge of the square. The line just drawn represents the ray of light traveling from the farthest edge of the square to the viewer's eye. This step is key to understanding perspective drawing. The light that passes through the picture plane obviously can not be traced. Instead, lines that represent those rays of light are drawn on the picture plane. In the case of the square, the side of the square also represents the picture plane (at an angle), so there is a small shortcut: when the line hits the side of the square, it has also hit the appropriate spot in the picture plane. The (blue) line is drawn to the opposite edge of the foremost edge because of another shortcut: since all sides are the same length, the foremost edge can stand in for the side edge.

text: Original formulations used, instead of the side of the square, a vertical line to one side, representing the picture plane. Each line drawn through this plane was identical to the line of sight from the viewer's eye to the drawing, only rotated around the y-axis ninety degrees. It is, conceptually, an easier way of thinking of perspective. It can be easily shown that both methods are mathematically identical, and result in the same placement of the farthest side.

text: Limitations[edit]

text: Plato was one of the first to discuss the problems of perspective.

text: "Thus (through perspective) every sort of confusion is revealed within us; and this is that weakness of the human mind on which the art of conjuring and of deceiving by light and shadow and other ingenious devices imposes, having an effect upon us like magic... And the arts of measuring and numbering and weighing come to the rescue of the human understanding – there is the beauty of them – and the apparent greater or less, or more or heavier, no longer have the mastery over us, but give way before calculation and measure and weight?"[16]

text: Perspective images are calculated assuming a particular vanishing point. In order for the resulting image to appear identical to the original scene, a viewer of the perspective must view the image from the exact vantage point used in the calculations relative to the image. This cancels out what would appear to be distortions in the image when viewed from a different point. These apparent distortions are more pronounced away from the center of the image as the angle between a projected ray (from the scene to the eye) becomes more acute relative to the picture plane. In practice, unless the viewer chooses an extreme angle, like looking at it from the bottom corner of the window, the perspective normally looks more or less correct. This is referred to as "Zeeman's Paradox".[17] It has been suggested that a drawing in perspective still seems to be in perspective at other spots because we still perceive it as a drawing, because it lacks depth of field cues.[18]

text: For a typical perspective, however, the field of view is narrow enough (often only 60 degrees) that the distortions are similarly minimal enough that the image can be viewed from a point other than the actual calculated vantage point without appearing significantly distorted. When a larger angle of view is required, the standard method of projecting rays onto a flat picture plane becomes impractical. As a theoretical maximum, the field of view of a flat picture plane must be less than 180 degrees (as the field of view increases towards 180 degrees, the required breadth of the picture plane approaches infinity).

text: To create a projected ray image with a large field of view, one can project the image onto a curved surface. To have a large field of view horizontally in the image, a surface that is a vertical cylinder (i.e., the axis of the cylinder is parallel to the z-axis) will suffice (similarly, if the desired large field of view is only in the vertical direction of the image, a horizontal cylinder will suffice). A cylindrical picture surface will allow for a projected ray image up to a full 360 degrees in either the horizontal or vertical dimension of the perspective image (depending on the orientation of the cylinder). In the same way, by using a spherical picture surface, the field of view can be a full 360 degrees in any direction (note that for a spherical surface, all projected rays from the scene to the eye intersect the surface at a right angle).

text: Just as a standard perspective image must be viewed from the calculated vantage point for the image to appear identical to the true scene, a projected image onto a cylinder or sphere must likewise be viewed from the calculated vantage point for it to be precisely identical to the original scene. If an image projected onto a cylindrical surface is "unrolled" into a flat image, different types of distortions occur. For example, many of the scene's straight lines will be drawn as curves. An image projected onto a spherical surface can be flattened in various ways:

text:
An image equivalent to an unrolled cylinder
A portion of the sphere can be flattened into an image equivalent to a standard perspective
An image similar to a fisheye photograph


document_title: Pakistan Aeronautical Complex

question_text: aeronautical complex kamra built with the help of

root

text: Pakistan Aeronautical Complex

text: Operations[edit]

text: Since 1947, the Pakistan Air Force operated largely dependent on foreign suppliers, fighter jets and aircraft had to be sent abroad for desired inspection, development, and to produce parts to maintain the fighter aircraft in service, causing the downsizing of the air force.[1]

tag: p

text: After consultation from the PAF's commanders at AHQ at the Pindi Cantt and assistance from the Chinese government, the Pakistan Aeronautical Complex (PAC) was established in 1973 in Kamra with Aircraft Rebuild Factory first being functional.[8][9] PAC was established by the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) as part of the new defence policy introduced in 1972; the PAC represents wide range of corporate revenue of the air force while fulfilling the national security needs of the country.[1] The Pakistan Aeronautical Complex started with three main Ministry of Defence projects designated P-721, P-741 and P-751.[8] The first two digits show the year of project approval and launch, the third digit is a serial designator.[8]

text: Since 1980s–90s, PAC functions include licensed-built Mirage-III, Mirage-5, and the F-16s as well as building the F100 engines for the F-16s under license from Pratt & Whitney.[10]

text: Aircraft Rebuild Factory[edit]

text: Aircraft Rebuild Factory (ARF), formerly known as F-6 Rebuild Factory (F-6RF) and P-721, is primarily dedicated to the overhaul and parts manufacture of Chinese aircraft in service with the Pakistan Air force (PAF). The factory is capable of overhauling and parts manufacturing for the Shenyang F-6 (now retired by the PAF), Nanchang A-5 (also retired by the PAF) and F-7 combat aircraft, as well as the Shenyang FT-5 and FT-6 jet trainer aircraft. ARF is also capable of manufacturing Drop Tanks and harnesses of aircraft.

text: Mirage Rebuild Factory[edit]

text: The Mirage Rebuild Factory (MRF), formerly known as P-741, is dedicated to the overhaul of French origin military aircraft in service with the Pakistan Air Force (PAF), the Dassault Mirage III and Mirage V combat aircraft. Overhaul and manufacturing services were used by other countries with French Mirage aircraft in service. The Mirage III ana Mirage 5 are under license and built at the PAC factory. This factory also grew to service and overhaul the Pratt & Whitney F100 turbofan engines belonging to the F-16 Fighting Falcon combat aircraft of the PAF. Due to lack of budget for replacing outdated aircraft, the MRF was devoted to domestically overhauling them, which according to claims, saved the country billions of dollars.[11]

text: Aircraft Manufacturing Factory[edit]

text: Aircraft Manufacturing Factory (AMF), formerly known as P-751, is dedicated to heavy military aircraft manufacturing. The MFI-17 Mushshak basic trainer aircraft built under license for use by the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) and Pakistan Army aviation wing. This factory project managed the aircraft modification and development venture that resulted in the MFI-395 Super Mushshak basic trainer, based on the MFI-17 Mushshak. Development of the K-8 Karakorum (also known as Hongdu JL-8) intermediate/advanced jet trainer was done in co-operation with Hongdu Aviation Industry Group of China, with AMF manufacturing parts for the aircraft. The JF-17 multi-role combat aircraft (also known as FC-1), a joint project between China and Pakistan, is now being manufactured by AMF. The MFI-17, MFI-395, K-8 and JF-17 are now in service with the (PAF). AMF also designs and manufactures unmanned aerial vehicles for uses such as target practice.

text: Manufacture of sub-assemblies for the JF-17 light-weight multi-role fighter began on 22 January 2008, while serial production of the fighter began on 30 June 2009.

text: On 20 August 2009 the PAF announced that it would begin production of its own unmanned aerial vehicles in collaboration with Italian company Selex Galileo. Production of the UAV, named Falco, was to begin soon.[12] An earlier opportunity to manufacture a fighter aircraft was lost when the Pakistan Air Force abandoned Project Sabre II in 1987, a joint effort by Pakistan, China and Grumman Aerospace that would have seen AMF manufacturing a re-designed Chengdu F-7 variant.

text: Avionics Production Factory (APF)[edit]

text: Avionics production Factory (APF), formerly known as Kamra Avionics and Radar Factory (KARF) was initiated as Radar Maintenance Centre (RMC) in 1983 to overhaul and rebuild ground-based radar systems. In 1989, RMC was expanded to become Kamra Radar & Avionics Factory (KARF). APF has the facilities to assemble and overhaul airborne as well as ground-based radar systems, electronics and avionics. Currently the only ISO 9002 certified facility among PAC, the factory was involved in upgrading the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) Chengdu F-7P interceptor fleet by replacing the original Italian built FIAR Grifo-7 radar with the more capable FIAR Grifo-7 mk-II radar, which was assembled under licence by APF. More recently, radar production involved the license assembly of the latest upgrade variant of the FIAR Grifo-7, the Grifo-7MG radar, which arms the Chengdu F-7PG combat aircraft of the PAF. In mid-2009 it was reported that APF personnel had completed training on printed circuit board assembly machines supplied by US company APS Novastar, which would be used to make circuit boards for combat aircraft avionics.[13]

text: As PAC's capabilities become competitive in the region, commercial ventures from national and international companies are also being undertaken.

text: Project Azm[edit]

text: On 7 July 2017 the Pakistan Air Force announced the development of a fifth-generation fighter, a medium-altitude long-endurance unmanned aerial vehicle (MALE UAV) and munitions under the banner of Project Azm (resolve or determination).[14][15][16][17][18] Air Chief Marshal Sohail Aman stated that the design phase for the MALE UAV was in its final stages.[14][18]

text: Products[edit]

text: Aircraft[edit]

text:
CAC/PAC JF-17 Thunder - Co-produced with China[19]
K-8 Karakorum - Licensed copy of Hongdu JL-8
PAC MFI-17 Mushshak - Licensed and improved copy of Saab Safari
PAC Super Mushshak - Upgraded variant MFI-17 Mushshak

tag: ul

text: Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV)[edit]

text:
Ababeel Aerial Drone – A small arms target designed for target practice use by operators of small arms, machine guns. Also used to train operators for the larger and faster Baaz Aerial Drone. Can be very effective for recce missions.[20]
Baaz Aerial Drone – A recoverable aerial target designed for use with air defence guns and surface-to-air missile (SAM) systems. It has a very high rate of accuracy[21]
SELEX Galileo Falco – A surveillance UAV, production began in August 2009.[22][23]

text: Consumer Electronics[edit]

text:
The PAC also builds Android tablets PAC-PAD 1 and PAC-PAD Takhti7.[24]
The PAC e-book 1[25]
The PAC n-book 1[26]

text: Services[edit]

text:
Aircraft
Engine Overhaul
Radar Overhaul
Component Overhaul


document_title: Buffalo Bills

question_text: where does the buffalo bills name come from

question_tokens: where does the buffalo bills name come from

text: Buffalo Bills

text: History

text: The Bills began competitive play in 1960 as a charter member of the American Football League led by head coach Buster Ramsey and joined the NFL as part of the AFL–NFL merger in 1970.[11] The Bills won two consecutive American Football League titles in 1964 and 1965, but the club has yet to win a league championship since.

text: Once the AFL–NFL merger took effect, the Bills became the second NFL team to represent the city; they followed the Buffalo All-Americans, a charter member of the league. Buffalo had been left out of the league since the All-Americans (by that point renamed the Bisons) folded in 1929; the Bills were no less than the third professional non-NFL team to compete in the city before the merger, following the Indians/Tigers of the early 1940s and an earlier team named the Bills, originally the Bisons, in the late 1940s in the All-America Football Conference (AAFC).

text: In 1947 a contest was held to rename the Bisons, which was owned by James Breuil of the Frontier Oil Company. The winning entry suggested Bills, reflecting on the famous western frontiersman, Buffalo Bill Cody. Carrying the "frontier" theme further, the winning contestant offered the team was being supported by Frontier Oil and was "opening a new frontier in sports in Western New York." When Buffalo joined the new American Football League in 1960, the name of the city's earlier pro football entry was adopted.[12]

text: After being pushed to the brink of failure in the mid-1980s, the collapse of the United States Football League and a series of high draft picks allowed the Bills to rebuild into a perennial contender in the late 1980s through the mid-1990s, a period in which the team won four consecutive AFC Championships; the team nevertheless lost all four subsequent Super Bowls, records in both categories that still stand.

text: The rise of the division rival New England Patriots under Tom Brady, along with numerous failed attempts at rebuilding in the 2000s and 2010s, prevented the Bills from reaching the playoffs in seventeen consecutive seasons between 2000 and 2016, a 17-year drought that was the longest active playoff drought in all major professional sports at the time. It was broken when the Bills secured a wild-card berth on December 31, 2017. On October 8, 2014, Buffalo Sabres owners Terry and Kim Pegula received unanimous approval to acquire the Bills during the NFL owners' meetings, becoming the second ownership group of the team after team founder Ralph Wilson.[8]

text: Logos and uniforms

text: The Bills' uniforms in its first two seasons were based on those of the Detroit Lions at the time.[13][14]

text: The team's original colors were Honolulu blue, silver and white, and the helmets were silver with no striping. There was no logo on the helmet, which displayed the players' numbers on each side.

text: In 1962, the standing red bison was designated as the logo and took its place on a white helmet.[13] In 1962, the team's colors also changed to red, white, and blue. The team switched to blue jerseys with red and white "LSU" stripes on the shoulders. the helmets were white with a red center stripe.[13] The jerseys again saw a change in 1964 when the shoulder stripes were replaced by a distinctive stripe pattern on the sleeves consisting of four stripes, two thicker inner stripes and two thinner outer stripes all bordered by red piping. By 1965, red and blue center stripes were put on the helmets.[15]

text: The Bills introduced blue pants worn with the white jerseys in 1973, the last year of the standing buffalo helmet. The blue pants remained through 1985.[16] The face mask on the helmet was blue from 1974 through 1986 before changing to white.

text: The standing bison logo was replaced by a blue charging one with a red slanting stripe streaming from its horn. The newer emblem, which is still the primary one used by the franchise, was designed by aerospace designer Stevens Wright in 1974.[17][18]

text: In 1984, the helmet's shell color was changed from white to red, primarily to help Bills quarterback Joe Ferguson distinguish them more readily from three of their division rivals at that time, the Baltimore Colts, the Miami Dolphins, and the New England Patriots, who all also wore white helmets at that point. Ferguson said "Everyone we played had white helmets at that time. Our new head coach Kay Stephenson just wanted to get more of a contrast on the field that may help spot a receiver down the field."[19] (The Patriots now use a silver helmet, the Colts have since been realigned to the AFC South, and the New York Jets, who switched to green helmets after the 1977 season, have since switched back to white helmets.)

text: In 2002, under the direction of general manager Tom Donahoe, the Bills' uniforms went through radical changes. A darker shade of blue was introduced as the main jersey color, and nickel gray was introduced as an accent color. Both the blue and white jerseys featured red side panels. The white jerseys included a dark blue shoulder yoke and royal blue numbers. The helmet remained primarily red with one navy blue, two nickel, two royal blue, two white stripes, and white face mask. A new logo, a stylized "B" consisting of two bullets and a more detailed buffalo head on top, was proposed and had been released (it can be seen on a few baseball caps that were released for sale), but fan backlash led to the team retaining the running bison logo. The helmet logo adopted in 1974—a charging royal blue bison, with a red streak, white horn and eyeball—remained unchanged.

text: In 2005, the Bills revived the standing bison helmet and uniform of the mid-1960s as a throwback uniform.

text: The Bills usually wore the all-blue combination at home and the all-white combination on the road when not wearing the throwback uniforms. They stopped wearing blue-on-white after 2006, while the white-on-blue was not worn after 2007.

text: For the 2011 season, the Bills unveiled a new uniform design, an updated rendition of the 1975–83 design. This change includes a return to the white helmets with "charging buffalo" logo, and a return to royal blue instead of navy.[4][20]

text: Buffalo sporadically wore white at home in the 1980s, but stopped doing so before their Super Bowl years. On November 6, 2011, against the New York Jets, the Bills wore white at home for the first time since 1986. Since 2011, the Bills have worn white for a home game either with their primary uniform or a throwback set.

text: The Bills' uniform received minor alterations as part of the league's new uniform contract with Nike. The new Nike uniform was unveiled on April 3, 2012.[21]

text: On November 12, 2015, the Bills and the New York Jets became the first two teams to participate in the NFL's Color Rush uniform initiative, with Buffalo wearing an all-red combination for the first time in team history.[22]

text: A notable use of the Bills' uniforms outside of football was in the 2018 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships, when the United States men's national junior ice hockey team wore Bills-inspired uniforms in their outdoor game against Team Canada on December 29, 2017.[23]

text: Rivalries

text: The Bills have rivalries with their three AFC East opponents, and also have had occasional or historical rivalries with other teams such as the Baltimore/Indianapolis Colts (a former divisional rival), Kansas City Chiefs, Houston Oilers/Tennessee Titans, Cleveland Browns, and Dallas Cowboys.[24] They also play an annual preseason game against the Detroit Lions.

text: Divisional rivalries

text: Miami Dolphins

text: This is often considered Buffalo's most famous rivalry. Though the Bills and Dolphins both originated in the American Football League, the Dolphins did not start playing until 1966 as an expansion team while the Bills were one of the original eight teams. The rivalry first gained prominence when the Dolphins won every match-up against the Bills in the 1970s for an NFL-record 20 straight wins against a single opponent. Fortunes changed in the following decades with the rise of Jim Kelly as Buffalo's franchise quarterback, and though Kelly and Dolphins quarterback Dan Marino shared a competitive rivalry in the 1980s and 1990s, the Bills became dominant in the 1990s. Things have since cooled down after the retirements of Kelly and Marino and the rise of the Belichick/Brady-led Patriots, but Miami remains a fierce rival of the Bills, coming in second place in a recent poll of Buffalo's primary rival,[25] and the two teams have typically been close to each other in win-loss records. Miami leads the overall series 60-47-1 as of 2017, but Buffalo has the advantage in the playoffs at 3-1.[26]

text: New England Patriots

text: The rivalry with the New England Patriots first started when both teams were original franchises in the American Football League prior to the NFL-AFL merger. After the rise of head coach Bill Belichick and quarterback Tom Brady in New England, the Patriots have dominated the AFC East, including the Bills. The Bills-Patriots rivalry in particular has become lopsided as the Patriots are 29-5 against the Bills since Belichick became head coach. This has led many fans and players in the 2000s and beyond to replace the Dolphins with the Patriots as Buffalo's most hated rival.[25][27] Overall, the Patriots lead the series 72-43-1 as of 2017.[28]

text: The rivalry is also notable as numerous players, including Drew Bledsoe, Doug Flutie, Lawyer Milloy, Brandon Spikes, Scott Chandler, Chris Hogan, Mike Gillislee and Stephon Gilmore have played for both teams at some point in their careers.

text: New York Jets

text: The Bills and Jets both represent the state of New York, though the Jets actually play their games in East Rutherford, New Jersey. The series started as the Bills and Jets were both original teams in the AFL. Though the rivalry represents the differences between New York City and Upstate New York, it is not as intense as the Bills' rivalries with the Dolphins and Patriots, and the teams' fanbases either have begrudging respect or low-key annoyance for each other when not playing one another. Often times the rivalry has become characterized by ugly games and shared mediocrity, but it has had a handful of competitive moments and briefly heated up when former Jets head coach Rex Ryan became head coach of the Bills for two seasons. Buffalo leads the series 61-54 as of 2017, including a playoff win in 1981.[29]

text: Other rivalries

text: Kansas City Chiefs

text: The Bills and Chiefs were also original teams in the AFL and have had a long history against each other, despite never being in the same division. This rivalry heated up recently as the Bills and Chiefs met in consecutive years from 2008 to 2015, and again in 2017.[30] The teams have played three playoff games against each other, including the AFL Championship game that determined the AFL's (later AFC) representative in the first Super Bowl, with Kansas City winning and going on to face the Green Bay Packers in the Super Bowl. Buffalo currently leads the series 26-21-1.[31]

text: Tennessee Titans

text: The Tennessee Titans, formerly the Houston Oilers, were another fellow rival from the AFL, sharing extended history with the Bills as well. The Oilers were a divisional rival before the NFL-AFL merger as part of the AFL East Division. Matchups were intense in the 1990s with quarterback Warren Moon leading the Oilers against Jim Kelly's Bills.[32] Memorable playoff moments between the teams include The Comeback, in which the Frank Reich-led Bills overcame a 35-3 deficit to stun the Oilers 41-38 in 1992,[32] and the Music City Miracle, in which the now-Titans scored on a near-last-minute kickoff return with a controversial lateral pass to stun the Bills 22-16 in 1999.[33] The Music City Miracle was notable for being Buffalo's last playoff appearance until 2017.[34] The Titans currently lead the series 28-18.[35]

text: Cleveland Browns

text: Though the two teams are in different divisions and did not start playing each other until after 1972, match-ups between the Bills and the Cleveland Browns occasionally get heated up due to the proximity and similarity between the cities of Buffalo and Cleveland. Like the Bills-Jets rivalry, the Bills and Browns often share bad luck and have had their share of ugly games, including a 6-3 Browns win in which the winning quarterback only completed 2 of 17 passes.[36] However, there have been other occasions when both teams have been competitive such as in the 1980s and most recently in 2007 and 2014.[37] The rivalry also gained heat when former Bills safety Donte Whitner was with the Browns.[38] The Browns currently lead the series 12-9, including a playoff win in 1990, though the Bills have outscored the Browns in the series.[39]

text: The Browns shared a rivalry with the Bills' predecessors in the All-America Football Conference, playing them twice in the AAFC playoffs before becoming one of three AAFC teams to join the NFL. The Bills were not selected to join the NFL and folded with the rest of the AAFC, leaving Buffalo without professional football until the current Bills were formed in 1959.[37]

text: Playoffs

text:
1963 AFL Eastern Division Playoff: Boston Patriots 26, Buffalo Bills 8
1964 AFL Championship: Buffalo Bills 20, San Diego Chargers 7
1965 AFL Championship: Buffalo Bills 23, San Diego Chargers 0
1966 AFL Championship: Kansas City Chiefs 31, Buffalo Bills 7
1974 Divisional Playoffs: Pittsburgh Steelers 32, Buffalo Bills 14
1980 Divisional Playoffs: San Diego Chargers 20, Buffalo Bills 14
1981 Wild Card Game: Buffalo Bills 31, New York Jets 27
1981 Divisional Playoffs: Cincinnati Bengals 28, Buffalo Bills 21
1988 Divisional Playoffs: Buffalo Bills 17, Houston Oilers 10
1988 AFC Championship: Cincinnati Bengals 21, Buffalo Bills 10
1989 Divisional Playoffs: Cleveland Browns 34, Buffalo Bills 30
1990 Divisional Playoffs: Buffalo Bills 44, Miami Dolphins 34
1990 AFC Championship: Buffalo Bills 51, Los Angeles Raiders 3
Super Bowl XXV: New York Giants 20, Buffalo Bills 19
1991 Divisional Playoffs: Buffalo Bills 37, Kansas City Chiefs 14
AFC Championship: Buffalo Bills 10, Denver Broncos 7
Super Bowl XXVI: Washington Redskins 37, Buffalo Bills 24
1992 AFC Wild Card Game: Buffalo Bills 41, Houston Oilers 38 OT
1992 AFC Divisional Playoffs: Buffalo Bills 24, 1992 Pittsburgh Steelers 3
1992 AFC Championship: Buffalo Bills 29, Miami Dolphins 10
Super Bowl XXVII: Dallas Cowboys 52, Buffalo Bills 17
1993 Divisional Playoffs: Buffalo Bills 29, Los Angeles Raiders 23
AFC Championship: Buffalo Bills 30, Kansas City Chiefs 13
Super Bowl XXVIII: Dallas Cowboys 30, Buffalo Bills 13
1995 Wild Card Game: Buffalo Bills 37, Miami Dolphins 22
1995 Divisional Playoffs: Pittsburgh Steelers 40, Buffalo Bills 21
1996 Wild Card Game: Jacksonville Jaguars 30, Buffalo Bills 27
1998 Wild Card Game: Miami Dolphins 24, Buffalo Bills 17
1999 Wild Card Game: Tennessee Titans 22, Buffalo Bills 16
2017 Wild Card Game: Jacksonville Jaguars 10, Buffalo Bills 3
Playoff record: 14 wins, 16 losses[40]

text: Notable players

text: Retired numbers

text: The Buffalo Bills have retired two numbers in franchise history: No. 12 for Jim Kelly, No. 34 for Thurman Thomas and No. 78 for Bruce Smith. Despite the fact that the Bills have only retired two jersey numbers in franchise history, the team has other numbers no longer issued to any player or in reduced circulation.[41][42]

text:
Buffalo Bills retired numbers

No.

Player

Position

Tenure

12
Jim Kelly
QB
1986–1996[41]

34
Thurman Thomas
RB
1988–1999[43][44]

78
Bruce Smith
DE
1985–1999[42]

tag: table

text: 32 O. J. Simpson, RB, 1969–1977

text:
44 Elbert Dubenion, WR, 1960–1968
66 Billy Shaw, OG, 1961–1969
83 Andre Reed, WR, 1985–1999 (Lee Evans III wore #83 by special permission)

text: Since the earliest days of the team, the number 31 was not supposed to be issued to any other player. The Bills had stationery and various other team merchandise showing a running player wearing that number, and it was not supposed to represent any specific person, but the 'spirit of the team.' In the first three decades of the team's existence, the number 31 was only seen once: in 1969, when reserve running back Preston Ridlehuber damaged his number 36 jersey during a game, equipment manager Tony Marchitte gave him the number 31 jersey to wear while repairing the number 36. The number 31 was not issued again until 1990 when first round draft choice James (J.D.) Williams wore it for his first two seasons; it has since been returned to general circulation, with practice squad safety Dean Marlowe wearing the number in 2018.

text: Number 15 was historically only issued sparingly after the retirement of Jack Kemp,[41] but was later returned to general circulation. It is not being used as of the 2018 regular season.

text: Number 1 has also only rarely been used, for reasons never explained. Kicker Mike Hollis, who played one season for the Bills in 2002, was the most recent to wear the number.

text: Ralph C. Wilson Jr. Distinguished Service Award Recipients

text:
1986 – Ben Williams
1987 – Joe DeLamielleure
1988 – Steve Freeman
1989 – Jerry Butler
1990 – Tim Vogler
1991 – Joe Ferguson
1992 – Ken Jones
1993 – Booker Edgerson
1994 – George "Butch" Byrd
1995 – Tony Greene
1996 – Frank Lewis
1997 – Steven Paganelli

1996 – Roland Hooks
1997 – Jim Ritcher, Charley Ferguson
1998 – Stew Barber, Ed Rutkowski
1999 – Fred Smerlas, Reggie McKenzie
2000 – Darryl Talley, Ernie Warlick
2001 – Steve Tasker, Kent Hull
2002 – Don Beebe
2003 – Thurman Thomas
2004 – Paul Maguire
2005 – Frank Reich
2006 – Phil Hansen
2007 – Lou Piccone, Denny Lynch

2008 – Mark Kelso
2009 – Andre Reed
2010 – Ruben Brown
2011 – Scott Norwood[45]

text: Buffalo Bills Wall of Fame

text:
Buffalo Bills Wall of Fame

Inducted

No.

Name

Position

Tenure

1980
32
O. J. Simpson
RB
1969–1977

1984
15
Jack Kemp
QB
1962–1969

1985
—
Pat McGroder
ContributorGM
1961–19831983

1987
70
Tom Sestak
DT
1962–1968

1988
66
Billy Shaw
OG
1961–1969

1989
—
Ralph C. Wilson Jr.
Owner
1959–2014

1992
12
The 12th Man
Fans
1960–present

1993
44
Elbert Dubenion
WR
1960–1968

1994
58
Mike Stratton
LB
1962–1972

1995
12
Joe Ferguson
QB
1973–1984

1996
—
Marv Levy
HCGM
1986–19972006–2007

1997
68
Joe DeLamielleure
OG
1973–19791985

1998
20
Robert James
CB
1969–1974

1999
—
Edward Abramoski
Trainer
1960–1996

2000
61
Bob Kalsu
G
1968

26
George Saimes
S
1963–1969

2001
12
Jim Kelly
QB
1986–1996

76
Fred Smerlas
DT
1979–1989

2002
67
Kent Hull
C
1986–1996

2003
56
Darryl Talley
LB
1983–1994

2004
51
Jim Ritcher
C/G
1980–1993

2005
34
Thurman Thomas
RB
1988–1999

2006
83
Andre Reed
WR
1985–1999

2007
89
Steve Tasker
WR
1986–1997

2008
78
Bruce Smith
DE
1985–1999

2010
24
Booker Edgerson
DB
1962–1969

2011
90
Phil Hansen
DE
1991–2001

2012
—
Bill Polian
GM
1984–1992

2014
—
Van Miller
Broadcaster
1960–19711977–2003

2015
—
Lou Saban
Coach
1962–19651972–1976

2017
34
Cookie Gilchrist
RB
1962–1964

text: Pro Football Hall Of Fame

text:
Buffalo Bills Hall of Famers

Players

No.

Name

Position

Tenure

Inducted

32
O. J. Simpson
RB
1969–1977
1985

66
Billy Shaw
OG
1961–1969
1999

12
Jim Kelly
QB
1986–1996
2002

80
James Lofton
WR
1989–1992
2003

68
Joe DeLamielleure
OG
1973–19791985
2003

34
Thurman Thomas
RB
1988–1999
2007

78
Bruce Smith
DE
1985–1999
2009

83
Andre Reed
WR
1985–1999
2014[46]

81
Terrell Owens
WR
2009
2018

Coaches and Executives

Name

Position

Tenure

Inducted

Marv Levy
HCGM
1986–19972006–2007
2001

Ralph Wilson
Owner
1959–2014
2009

Bill Polian
GM
1984–1992
2015

text: All-time first round draft picks

text: Recent Pro Bowl selections

text: Coaches of note

text: Head coaches

text: Current staff

text:
Buffalo Bills staffvte

Front office
Owner/CEO – Terry Pegula
Owner/president – Kim Pegula
General manager – Brandon Beane
Assistant general manager – Joe Schoen
Director of player personnel – Dan Morgan
College scouting director – Terrance Gray
Senior VP of football administration – Jim Overdorf
Assistant director of college scouting – Lake Dawson
Director of pro personnel – Malik Boyd
Head coach
Head coach – Sean McDermott
Offensive coaches
Offensive coordinator – Brian Daboll
Quarterbacks – David Culley
Running backs – Kelly Skipper
Wide receivers – Terry Robiskie
Tight ends – Rob Boras
Offensive line/run game coordinator – Juan Castillo
Assistant offensive line – Andrew Dees
Offensive assistant – Chad Hall
Offensive assistant – Shea Tierney
Offensive assistant – William Vlachos
Offensive quality control/assistant QBs – Marc Lubick

Defensive coaches
Defensive coordinator – Leslie Frazier
Defensive line – Bill Teerlinck
Assistant defensive line – Aaron Whitecotton
Linebackers – Bob Babich
Defensive backs – John Butler
Safeties – Bobby Babich
Defensive assistant – Jim Salgado
Defensive quality control – John Egorugwu
Special teams coaches
Special teams – Danny Crossman
Assistant special teams – Matt Smiley
Strength and conditioning
Head strength and conditioning – Eric Ciano
Assistant strength and conditioning – Hal Luther
Assistant strength and conditioning – Jason Oszvart
Assistant strength and conditioning – Mark Loecher
Assistant strength and conditioning – Will Greenberg
→ Coaching staff
→ Management
→ More NFL staffs

AFC East
BUF
MIA
NE
NYJ
North
BAL
CIN
CLE
PIT
South
HOU
IND
JAX
TEN
West
DEN
KC
LAC
OAK
NFC East
DAL
NYG
PHI
WAS
North
CHI
DET
GB
MIN
South
ATL
CAR
NO
TB
West
ARI
LAR
SF
SEA

text: Current roster

text:
Buffalo Bills rosterviewtalkedit

Quarterbacks
17 Josh Allen
 3 Derek Anderson
 2 Nathan Peterman
Running backs

42 Patrick DiMarco FB
33 Chris Ivory
26 Taiwan Jones
25 LeSean McCoy
45 Marcus Murphy
Wide receivers

13 Kelvin Benjamin
18 Andre Holmes
11 Zay Jones
14 Ray-Ray McCloud
87 Cam Phillips
Tight ends

85 Charles Clay
80 Jason Croom
82 Logan Thomas

Offensive linemen
66 Russell Bodine C
65 Ike Boettger G
73 Dion Dawkins T
62 Vladimir Ducasse G
72 Ryan Groy C
68 Conor McDermott T
76 John Miller G
79 Jordan Mills T
74 Jeremiah Sirles T
75 Wyatt Teller G
Defensive linemen

55 Jerry Hughes DE
90 Shaq Lawson DE
98 Star Lotulelei DT
93 Trent Murphy DE
99 Harrison Phillips DT
97 Jordan Phillips DT
95 Kyle Williams DT
54 Eddie Yarbrough DE

Linebackers
57 Lorenzo Alexander OLB
49 Tremaine Edmunds MLB
50 Ramon Humber OLB
44 Deon Lacey OLB
58 Matt Milano OLB
51 Julian Stanford MLB
Defensive backs

20 Rafael Bush FS
28 Phillip Gaines CB
23 Micah Hyde SS
36 Dontae Johnson CB
24 Taron Johnson CB
38 Ryan Lewis CB
29 Siran Neal SS
30 Lafayette Pitts CB
21 Jordan Poyer FS
27 Tre'Davious White CB
Special teams

 9 Corey Bojorquez P
69 Reid Ferguson LS
 4 Steven Hauschka K

Reserve lists
 7 Cory Carter P (IR)
22 Vontae Davis CB (Left Squad)
Practice squad

35 Keith Ford RB
16 Robert Foster WR
56 Mike Love DE
31 Dean Marlowe FS
91 Kyle Peko DT
15 Hunter Sharp WR
52 Corey Thompson OLB
96 Robert Thomas DT
89 Keith Towbridge TE
47 Levi Wallace CB
Rookies in italics
Roster updated October 19, 2018
Depth chart • Transactions
53 Active, 2 Inactive, 10 Practice squad

→ AFC rosters → NFC rosters

AFC East
BUF
MIA
NE
NYJ
North
BAL
CIN
CLE
PIT
South
HOU
IND
JAX
TEN
West
DEN
KC
LAC
OAK
NFC East
DAL
NYG
PHI
WAS
North
CHI
DET
GB
MIN
South
ATL
CAR
NO
TB
West
ARI
LAR
SF
SEA

text: Radio and television

text: The Buffalo Bills Radio Network is flagshipped at WGR, AM 550 in Buffalo. John Murphy is the team's current play-by-play announcer; he was a color commentator alongside, and eventually succeeded, longtime voice Van Miller after Miller's retirement at the end of the 2003 NFL season. Mark Kelso serves as the color analyst. The Bills radio network has approximately seventeen affiliates in upstate New York and one affiliate, CJCL 590AM (The Fan) in Toronto. As of early 2012, it is composed mostly of WGR, Entercom's sister stations WCMF (96.5 FM) and WROC-AM 950 in Rochester, and a fleet of independent AM and FM stations across upstate New York from Jamestown east to Albany. Previous flagship Citadel Broadcasting was purchased by Cumulus Media, who in turn ceased carrying Bills games at the end of the 2011 season, leaving the network without affiliates in Syracuse, Binghamton, and Erie. (The Syracuse affiliations were later picked up by Galaxy Communications.)

text: During the preseason, most games are televised on Buffalo's ABC affiliate, WKBW-TV channel 7. In 2018, the team signed an agreement with Nexstar Media Group to carry Bills games across its network of stations in the region, which includes WJET-TV in Erie, WROC-TV in Rochester, WSYR-TV in Syracuse, WUTR in Utica, WETM-TV in Elmira and WIVT in Binghamton). Following the expiration of its contract with WKBW in 2019, the flagship station will become WIVB-TV.[47] CBS analyst and former Bills special teams player Steve Tasker does color commentary on these games; the play-by-play position is rotated between his CBS partner Andrew Catalon and Rob Stone. WROC-TV reporter Thad Brown is the sideline reporter. Since 2008, preseason games have been broadcast in high definition.

text: Beginning in the 2016 season, as per a new rights deal which covers rights to the team as well as its sister NHL franchise, the Buffalo Sabres, most team-related programming, including studio programming and the coach's show, was re-located to MSG Western New York—a joint venture of MSG and the team ownership. Preseason games will continue to air in simulcast on WKBW.[48]

text: In the event regular season games are broadcast by ESPN, in accordance with the league's television policies, a local Buffalo station simulcasts the game. From 2014 to 2017, WKBW-TV held the broadcast rights to that contest, with the station having won back the rights to cable games after WBBZ-TV held the rights for 2012 and 2013.[49]

text: Training camp sites

text:
1960–1962 Roycroft Inn, East Aurora, New York
1963–1967 Camelot Hotel, Blasdell, New York
1968–1980 Niagara University, Lewiston, New York
1981–1999 State University of New York at Fredonia, Fredonia, New York
2000–present, St. John Fisher College, Pittsford, New York

text: Mascots, cheerleaders and marching band

text: The Bills' official mascot is Billy Buffalo, an eight-foot tall, anthropomorphic blue American bison who wears the jersey "number" BB.

text: The Bills currently do not have cheerleaders. The Bills operated a cheerleading squad named the Buffalo Jills from 1967 to 1985; from 1986 to 2013, the Jills operated as an independent organization sponsored by various companies, most recently by Citadel Broadcasting. The Jills suspended operations prior to the 2014 season due to legal actions.[51] The Bills and Jills are currently involved in a legal battle, in which the Jills allege they were employees, not independent contractors, and are seeking back pay.[52] Complicating matters is that Citadel's buyer, Cumulus Media, declared bankruptcy and sought to discharge its remaining Bills-related debts in January 2018.[53]

text: The Bills are one of six teams in the NFL to designate an official marching band or drumline (the others being the Baltimore Ravens, Washington Redskins, New York Jets, Carolina Panthers and Seattle Seahawks). Since the last game of the 2013 season, this position has been served by the Stampede Drumline, known outside of Buffalo as Downbeat Percussion.[54][55] The Bills have also used the full marching bands from Attica High School, the University of Pittsburgh and Syracuse University at home games in recent years.

text: The Bills have several theme songs associated with them. One is a variation of the Isley Brothers hit "Shout", recorded by Scott Kemper,[56] which served as the Bills' official promotional song from 1987 through 1990s. It was officially replaced circa 2000 with "The Power of the Bills", although "Shout" remains in use. The Bills' unofficial fight song, "Go Bills", was penned by Bills head coach Marv Levy in the mid-1990s on a friendly wager with his players that he will write the song if the team won a particular game.[57]

text: Supporters

text: The Bills Backers are the official fan organization of the Buffalo Bills. It has over 200 chapters across North America, Europe and Oceania.[58] Also notable is the Bills Mafia, a collection of Bills fans organized via Twitter beginning in 2010;[59] the phrase "Bills Mafia" had by 2017 grown to unofficially represent the broad community surrounding and encompassing the team as a whole, and players who join the Bills often speak of joining the Bills Mafia. Outsiders often treat the Bills' fan base in derogatory terms, especially since the 2010s, in part because of negative press coverage of select fans' wilder antics.[60] Bills fans have been noted as much for their boisterous behavior as they have for their generosity; after the Bills received help in breaking their 17-year playoff drought on a last-minute Cincinnati Bengals victory, Bills fans crowdfunded the charities of Bengals players Andy Dalton and Tyler Boyd with tens of thousands of dollars as a gesture of thanks.[61][62]

text: The Bills are one of the favorite teams of ESPN announcer Chris Berman, who picked the Bills to reach the Super Bowl nearly every year in the 1990s. Berman often uses the catchphrase "No one circles the wagons like the Buffalo Bills!" Berman gave the induction speech for Bills owner Ralph Wilson when Wilson was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2009.

text: The Bills were also the favorite team of late NBC political commentator Tim Russert, a South Buffalo native, who often referred to the Bills on his Sunday morning talk show, Meet the Press. (His son, Luke, is also a notable fan of the team.) CNN's Wolf Blitzer, also a Buffalo native, has proclaimed he is also a fan,[63] as has CBS Evening News lead anchor and Tonawanda native Jeff Glor.[64]

text: ESPN anchor Kevin Connors is also a noted Bills fan, dating to his time attending Ithaca College. Actor Nick Bakay, a Buffalo native, is also a well-known Bills fan; he has discussed the team in segments of NFL Top 10. Character actor William Fichtner, raised in Cheektowaga, is a fan,[65] and did a commercial for the team in 2014.[66] In 2015, Fichtner also narrated the ESPN 30 for 30 documentary on the Bills four Super Bowl appearances, "Four Falls of Buffalo". Former Olympic swimmer Summer Sanders has professed her fandom of the team.

text: Bills fans are particularly well known for their wearing of Zubaz zebra-printed sportswear; so much is the association between Bills fans and Zubaz that when a revival of the company opened their first brick-and-mortar storefront, it chose Western New York as its first location.[67]

text: Persons notable almost entirely for their Bills fandom include Ken "Pinto Ron" Johnson, whose antics while appearing at every Bills home and away game since 1994 earned enough scrutiny that his tailgate parties were banned from stadium property on order of the league;[68] John Lang, an Elvis impersonator who carries a large guitar that he uses as a billboard;[69] and Ezra Castro, also known as "Pancho Billa," a resident of the Dallas-Fort Worth Metroplex who wears a large sombrero and lucha mask. Castro was diagnosed with a spinal tumor that had metastasized in 2017; he was invited on stage during the 2018 NFL Draft to read one of the Bills' selections.[70]

text: In popular culture

text: This article appears to contain trivial, minor, or unrelated references to popular culture. Please reorganize this content to explain the subject's impact on popular culture, using references to reliable sources, rather than simply listing appearances. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2018)

text: Buffalo's rivalry with the Miami Dolphins is referenced on Steve Martin's 1979 album Comedy Is Not Pretty! on the track "How To Meet A Girl." On the track, Martin simulates chatter about football at a party, and one "partier" expresses disbelief that Buffalo could beat Miami – at the time of the album's release, the Dolphins had won 18 straight games over the Bills.

text: In the 1996 X-Files episode "Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man", the titular character, a member of a shadowy government cabal, states that the Buffalo Bills will not win a Super Bowl while he lives.

text: The Buffalo Bills were featured on the direct-to-TV movie Second String, and in the Vincent Gallo drama Buffalo 66.

text: Actor Dean Cain was briefly a member of the Bills. Because of this, references to the Bills have appeared in the television series Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman, in which Cain played the title character. In the first episode of season four, titled "Lord of the Flys", Clark picks up a blue Buffalo Bills hat with the Charging Buffalo emblem in the center and uses it to help disguise himself. In a later episode, he lets it be known the Metropolis Mammoths are playing the Bills.

text: In an April 2011 episode of the television series 30 Rock, titled "100", Alec Baldwin's character Jack Donaghy discovers that, in an alternate future, he would not only be wealthier and more successful, but he would also be the owner of a "New York football team." He later is disappointed to learn the team is not the New York Giants or New York Jets, but the Buffalo Bills.

text: The Bills are the team that eventually unseats the Orlando Breakers, the fictional NFL team that serves as the focus of the sitcom Coach in later seasons, in the playoffs.

text: In a March 2014 episode of the television series Family Guy entitled "3 Acts of God", Peter Griffin—along with his family and friends—attends a game between the Buffalo Bills and New England Patriots at Gillette Stadium in Foxborough, Massachusetts, which the Bills win. The episode also features Bills players Mario Williams and C. J. Spiller guest starring as themselves.[71]

text: Several former Buffalo Bills players have earned a name in politics after their playing careers had ended, almost always as members of the Republican Party. The most famous of these was quarterback Jack Kemp, who was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives from Western New York in 1971—two years after his playing career ended and remained there for nearly two decades, serving as the Republican Party nominee for Vice President of the United States under Bob Dole in 1996. Kemp's backup, Ed Rutkowski, served as county executive of Erie County from 1979 to 1987. Former tight end Jay Riemersma, defensive tackle Fred Smerlas and defensive end Phil Hansen have all run for Congress, though all three either lost or withdrew from their respective races. Quarterback Jim Kelly and running back Thurman Thomas have also both been mentioned as potential candidates for political office, although both have declined all requests to date.


document_title: World Hip Hop Dance Championship

question_text: winner of world hip hop dance championship 2015

text: World Hip Hop Dance Championship

text: The World Hip Hop Dance Championship is an international hip-hop dance competition created in 2002 by Hip Hop International. Countries that have participated in the past are Dominican Republic, Greece, Cyprus, Chile, Italy, Mexico, France, Japan, Switzerland, Morocco, Philippines, United Kingdom, China, Canada, Germany, Australia, Ireland, Malaysia, India, Colombia, South Africa, Nigeria, New Zealand, Denmark, Spain, Russia, Portugal, Netherlands, Argentina, Brazil, Trinidad and Tobago, Poland, Uruguay, Thailand and the United States of America. There are four sections of competition: hip-hop for adult, varsity (ages 12–17), and junior (ages 7–12) crews, popping for solo dancers, locking for solo dancers, and breaking for adult crews.

text: In August 2015, new countries, Gabon, Panama and South Korea, Kenya, among others, participated for the first time, joining a record 3000 contestants from 50 countries.[1] South Korea's, Lock 'N LOL won gold in the mega crew division.[1]

text: Winners[edit]

text:
2017
Hip-Hop
Mega Crews
UPeepz
 Philippines

2017
Hip-Hop
Adult Crews
S-Rank
 USA

2017
Hip-Hop
Varsity Crews
TLXWC
 USA

2017
Hip-Hop
Junior Crews
Blast
 Russia

2016
Hip-Hop
Mega Crews
UPeepz
 Philippines

2016
Hip-Hop
Adult Crews
The Bradas
 New Zealand

2016
Hip-Hop
Varsity Crews
Kana Boon
 Japan

2016
Hip-Hop
Junior Crews
Teenagers
 Canada

2015
Hip-Hop
Mega Crews
Lock N Lol[1]
 Korea

2015
Hip-Hop
Adult Crews
The Bradas
 New Zealand

2015
Hip-Hop
Varsity Crews
Kana-Boon!
Japan

2015
Hip-Hop
Junior Crews
Chapkidz
 USA

2014
Hip-Hop
Mega Crews
A-Team
 Philippines

2014
Hip-Hop
Adult Crews
Brotherhood
 Canada

2014
Hip-Hop
Varsity Crews
JB Star
 Japan

2014
Hip-Hop
Junior Crews
Freshh 2.0
 Canada

2013
Hip-Hop
Mega Crews
Royal Family
 New Zealand

2013
Hip-Hop
Adult Crews
Rockwell Family
 Canada

2013
Hip-Hop
Varsity Crews
Brotherhood
 Canada

2013
Hip-Hop
Junior Crews
Flip
 Canada

2012
Hip-Hop
Mega Crews
Royal Family
 New Zealand

2012
Hip-Hop
Adult Crews
The Crew
 Philippines

2012
Hip-Hop
Varsity Crews
Sol-T-Shine
 Japan

2012
Hip-Hop
Junior Crews
Bubblegum
 New Zealand

2011
Hip-Hop
Mega Crews
Royal Family
 New Zealand

2011
Hip-Hop
Adult Crews
Plague
 United Kingdom

2011
Hip-Hop
Varsity Crews
Sorority
 New Zealand

2011
Hip-Hop
Junior Crews
Bubblegum
 New Zealand

2011
Popping
Solo Dancers
Bionic
 USA

2011
Locking
Solo Dancers
Tiffany Bong
 USA

2011
Allstyles
Solo Dancers
J Boogie
 USA

2011
Breaking
Adult Crews
Fallen Kings
 USA

2010
Hip-Hop
Adult Crews
ReQuest
 New Zealand

2010
Hip-Hop
Varsity Crews
Zero
 Japan

2010
Hip-Hop
Junior Crews
Bubblegum
 Japan

2009
Hip-Hop
Adult Crews
R.A.F. Crew
 France

2009
Hip-Hop
Varsity Crews
ReQuest
 New Zealand

2009
Hip-Hop
Junior Crews
Lil' Phunk Boyz
 USA

2009
Popping
Solo Dancers
Marie Popppins

2009
Locking
Solo Dancers
Omar Thomas

2009
Breaking
Adult Crews
Philippine All Stars
 Philippines

2008
Hip-Hop
Adult Crews
Philippine All Stars
 Philippines

2008
Hip-Hop
Varsity Crews
Sweet & Sour
 New Zealand

2008
Hip-Hop
Junior Crews
Next Jr.

2008
Popping
Solo Dancers
Poppin' John

2008
Locking
Solo Dancers
Jo Dance
 Germany

2008
Breaking
Adult Crews
Knucklehead Zoo
 USA

2007
Hip-Hop
Adult Crews
Eclectik
 Trinidad & Tobago

2007
Hip-Hop
Varsity Crews
C.I.D.G
 Philippines

2007
Hip-Hop
Junior Crews
Freshh
 Canada

2006
Hip-Hop
Adult Crews
Philippine All Stars
 Philippines

2006
Hip-Hop
Varsity Crews
Future Shock

2006
Hip-Hop
Junior Crews
Mini Shock

2005
Hip-Hop
Adult Crews
Plague
 United Kingdom

2005
Hip-Hop
Varsity Crews
Future Shock

2004
Hip-Hop
Adult Crews
Extreme
 Canada

2004
Hip-Hop
Varsity Crews
4 Real

2004
Hip-Hop
Junior Crews
Junction8
 Japan

2003
Hip-Hop
Adult Crews
Extreme
 Canada

2002
Hip-Hop
Adult Crews
Total Workout Dance crew
 Netherlands

2002
Hip-Hop
Varsity Crews
Wanted Crew

2002
Hip-Hop
Junior Crews
Divas