document_title: Broncos–Raiders rivalry

question_text: when was the last time raiders beat broncos

text: Broncos–Raiders rivalry

text: Notable moments[edit]

text:
1977 season: The 1977 Raiders were the defending Super Bowl champions, whereas the Broncos had never qualified for postseason play — AFL or NFL. On October 16, the 4–0 Broncos defeated the 4–0 Raiders in Oakland, ending the Raiders' 17-game winning streak in a game where Raiders' quarterback Ken Stabler threw seven interceptions.[1] Two weeks later, the Raiders would defeat the Broncos in Denver. In the playoffs, the Broncos, competing in their first-ever postseason, and second-ever postseason game, defeated the Raiders 20–17 at Mile High Stadium to win their first AFC championship.[2]
September 26, 1988: The Broncos led 24–0 at halftime on Monday Night Football. However, the Raiders sparked one of the largest comebacks in NFL history, winning 30–27 in overtime. After serving as an offensive assistant under Broncos' head coach Dan Reeves in the mid-1980s (and again in the early 1990s), Mike Shanahan's first season as an NFL head coach was with the Los Angeles Raiders in 1988, before he was fired four games into the 1989 season.[3]
December 2, 1990: Raiders' defensive tackle Scott Davis blocked a 41-yard field goal attempt by Broncos' kicker David Treadwell in the final seconds for a 23–20 Raiders' win at Mile High Stadium.[4]
November 10, 1991: The Raiders won 17–16 in Denver, aided by two blocked kicks — an extra-point attempt and a last-second field goal attempt. The Broncos were trailing 17–10 with 8:37 left in the fourth quarter, and attempting to tie the game after a touchdown pass from John Elway to Vance Johnson. However, Raiders' defensive tackle Scott Davis blocked the extra-point attempt by Broncos' kicker David Treadwell. After the Broncos blocked a field goal attempt by Raiders' kicker Jeff Jaeger that would have increased the Raiders' lead with 1:55 left, the Raiders returned the favor, when offensive tackle James Fitzpatrick, playing on special teams, blocked a potential 48-yard game-winning field goal by Treadwell as time expired. It was the second consecutive meeting at Mile High Stadium in which the Raiders blocked a field goal in the game's final seconds.[5]
January 2 and 9, 1994: In the 1993 season finale (January 2, 1994), the Raiders rallied from a 30–13 deficit to beat the Broncos 33–30 in overtime to make the playoffs and set up another game between the two teams in Los Angeles the following week. Outspoken Raiders' owner Al Davis said before the playoff game that Denver was "scared to death of us."[6] Despite the Broncos' protests, the Raiders won, 42–24.

text:
1995 season: In 1995, former Raiders' head coach Mike Shanahan, who was in an ongoing contract dispute with owner Al Davis at the time, became the Broncos' new head coach, heightening an already contentious AFC West rivalry. Prior to Shanahan's arrival in Denver, the Broncos had lost 13 out of the previous 15 against the Raiders from 1988–94, but during Shanahan's 14 seasons as their head coach (1995–2008), the Broncos went 21–7 against Oakland.[7]
November 22, 1999: At the end of a Broncos' 27–21 overtime win in Denver on Monday Night Football, Raiders' safety Charles Woodson and offensive tackle Lincoln Kennedy engaged in a snowball fight with some fans, after being pelted with snowballs from some unruly fans. Woodson threw a snowball that struck a woman in the face, while Kennedy charged into the stands and assaulted a fan after being hit by a snowball.[7][8]
November 13, 2000: In the final Monday Night game at Mile High Stadium, Broncos' quarterback Brian Griese suffered a partially separated right shoulder in the second quarter, and after receiving a pain-killing shot and missing only six plays, he led the Broncos on a game-winning drive late in the fourth quarter that resulted in a last-second 41-yard field goal by kicker Jason Elam, for a 27–24 Broncos' win.[9][10]
November 11, 2002: The Raiders trounced the Broncos 34–10 in Denver on Monday Night Football. However, the game is notable for an incident between former teammates Bill Romanowski and Shannon Sharpe, in which Romanowski wrestled with and dislocated Sharpe's elbow following an incompletion, forcing Sharpe to miss three games. The two were teammates from 1996 to 2001, however, Romanowski had signed with the Raiders prior to the 2002 season.[7][11]
November 28, 2004: In a Sunday night game played in a Denver blizzard, the Broncos grabbed the early lead and appeared to be headed toward an easy victory. However, Raiders' quarterback Kerry Collins led a rally in snowy conditions and offensive tackle Langston Walker, playing on special teams, blocked a game-winning field goal attempt by Broncos' kicker Jason Elam in the game's final seconds for a 25–24 Raiders' win.[7][12]
September 16, 2007: As Raiders' kicker Sebastian Janikowski kicked what would have been a game-winning field goal in overtime, Broncos' head coach Mike Shanahan called a timeout right before he made it. After the timeout, Janikowski attempted the field goal again, but it hit the upright and missed. The Broncos then won on a field goal by Jason Elam.[7]
October 24, 2010: The Raiders scored 38 points in the first half in Denver. The Raiders routed the Broncos 59–14, not only making it the most points scored in a single game in franchise history, but also tying the highest point total that the Broncos have allowed in a single game, since a 59–7 loss to the Kansas City Chiefs in 1963.[13]
October 11, 2015: The Broncos were nursing a 9–7 lead at Oakland with 7:06 left. The Raiders were attempting to take the lead, until Broncos' cornerback Chris Harris, Jr. stepped in front of a pass by Raiders' quarterback Derek Carr and returned the interception 74 yards for a game-changing touchdown with 6:53 left. The Raiders pulled to within 16–10 late in the game, however, the Broncos' defense and special teams preserved the hard-fought victory.[14]
November 26, 2017: During the first quarter of a Raiders' 21–14 win in Oakland, Broncos' cornerback Aqib Talib and Raiders' wide receiver Michael Crabtree engaged in an ugly brawl on the sidelines that resulted in both players initially being suspended for two games, but reduced to one game apiece after an appeal. The two had a history of bad blood with each other, in which Talib yanked off a chain from Crabtree's neck, during the teams' 2016 regular season finale in Denver, with Talib repeating his actions that resulted in the brawl with Crabtree. During the play that preceded the brawl, Crabtree also punched Broncos' cornerback Chris Harris, Jr. in the stomach.[15]

text: Game results[edit]

text:
Broncos' victory

Raiders' victory

Tie

Postseason meeting

text:
Note: All game dates occur on Sunday unless indicated otherwise.
Source: Pro-Football-Reference.[16]

text: 1960s (Raiders 15–4–1)[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Winner
Result
Loser
Location

1960
October 2
Denver Broncos
31–14
Oakland Raiders
Denver

December 17 (Sat.)
Oakland Raiders
48–10
Denver Broncos
San Francisco (Kezar Stadium)

1961
October 1
Oakland Raiders
33–19
Denver Broncos
San Francisco (Candlestick Park)

October 15
Denver Broncos
27–24
Oakland Raiders
Denver

1962
October 5 (Fri.)
Denver Broncos
44–7
Oakland Raiders
Denver

October 14
Denver Broncos
23–6
Oakland Raiders
Oakland

1963
November 28 (Thur.)
Oakland Raiders
26–10
Denver Broncos
Denver

December 15
Oakland Raiders
35–31
Denver Broncos
Oakland

1964
October 25
Oakland Raiders
40–7
Denver Broncos
Oakland

November 29

20–20

Denver

1965
November 21
Oakland Raiders
28–20
Denver Broncos
Denver

December 5
Oakland Raiders
24–13
Denver Broncos
Oakland

1966
November 20
Oakland Raiders
17–3
Denver Broncos
Denver

December 11
Oakland Raiders
28–10
Denver Broncos
Oakland

1967
September 10
Oakland Raiders
51–0
Denver Broncos
Oakland

November 5
Oakland Raiders
21–17
Denver Broncos
Denver

1968
November 10
Oakland Raiders
43–7
Denver Broncos
Denver

December 8
Oakland Raiders
33–27
Denver Broncos
Oakland

1969
October 12
Oakland Raiders
24–14
Denver Broncos
Denver

November 9
Oakland Raiders
41–10
Denver Broncos
Oakland

text: 1970s (Raiders 14–6–1)[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Winner
Result
Loser
Location

1970
October 11
Oakland Raiders
35–23
Denver Broncos
Oakland

November 15
Oakland Raiders
24–19
Denver Broncos
Denver

1971
October 10
Oakland Raiders
27–16
Denver Broncos
Denver

December 19
Oakland Raiders
21–13
Denver Broncos
Oakland

1972
October 22
Denver Broncos
30–23
Oakland Raiders
Oakland

November 19
Oakland Raiders
37–20
Denver Broncos
Denver

1973
October 22 (Mon.)

23–23

Denver

December 16
Oakland Raiders
21–17
Denver Broncos
Oakland

1974
November 3
Oakland Raiders
28–17
Denver Broncos
Denver

November 24
Denver Broncos
20–17
Oakland Raiders
Oakland

1975
November 2
Oakland Raiders
42–17
Denver Broncos
Denver

December 8 (Mon.)
Oakland Raiders
17–10
Denver Broncos
Oakland

1976
October 17
Oakland Raiders
17–10
Denver Broncos
Denver

October 31
Oakland Raiders
19–6
Denver Broncos
Oakland

1977
October 16
Denver Broncos
30–7
Oakland Raiders
Oakland

October 30
Oakland Raiders
24–14
Denver Broncos
Denver

January 1, 1978
Denver Broncos
20–17
Oakland Raiders
Denver

1978
September 3
Denver Broncos
14–6
Oakland Raiders
Denver

December 3
Denver Broncos
21–6
Oakland Raiders
Oakland

1979
September 30
Oakland Raiders
27–3
Denver Broncos
Oakland

November 25
Oakland Raiders
14–10
Denver Broncos
Denver

text: 1980s (Raiders 10–9)[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Winner
Result
Loser
Location

1980
December 1 (Mon.)
Oakland Raiders
9–3
Denver Broncos
Oakland

December 14
Oakland Raiders
24–21
Denver Broncos
Denver

1981
September 6
Denver Broncos
9–7
Oakland Raiders
Denver

October 4
Denver Broncos
17–0
Oakland Raiders
Oakland

1982[b][c]
December 26
Los Angeles Raiders
27–10
Denver Broncos
Los Angeles

1983
September 25
Los Angeles Raiders
22–7
Denver Broncos
Denver

November 13
Los Angeles Raiders
22–20
Denver Broncos
Los Angeles

1984
September 30
Denver Broncos
16–13 (OT)
Los Angeles Raiders
Denver

October 28
Denver Broncos
22–19
Los Angeles Raiders
Los Angeles

1985
November 24
Los Angeles Raiders
31–28 (OT)
Denver Broncos
Los Angeles

December 8
Los Angeles Raiders
17–14 (OT)
Denver Broncos
Denver

1986
September 7
Denver Broncos
38–36
Los Angeles Raiders
Denver

November 2
Denver Broncos
21–10
Los Angeles Raiders
Los Angeles

1987
October 12 (Mon.)
Denver Broncos
30–14
Los Angeles Raiders
Denver

November 2
Denver Broncos
23–17
Los Angeles Raiders
Los Angeles

1988
September 26 (Mon.)
Los Angeles Raiders
30–27 (OT)
Denver Broncos
Denver

December 4
Los Angeles Raiders
21–20
Denver Broncos
Los Angeles

1989
September 24
Denver Broncos
31–21
Los Angeles Raiders
Denver

December 3
Los Angeles Raiders
16–13 (OT)
Denver Broncos
Los Angeles

text: 1990s (Raiders 11–10)[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Winner
Result
Loser
Location

1990
September 9
Los Angeles Raiders
14–9
Denver Broncos
Los Angeles

December 2
Los Angeles Raiders
23–20
Denver Broncos
Denver

1991
September 8
Los Angeles Raiders
16–13
Denver Broncos
Los Angeles

November 10
Los Angeles Raiders
17–16
Denver Broncos
Denver

1992
September 6
Denver Broncos
17–13
Los Angeles Raiders
Denver

November 22
Los Angeles Raiders
24–0
Denver Broncos
Los Angeles

1993
October 18 (Mon.)
Los Angeles Raiders
23–20
Denver Broncos
Denver

January 2, 1994
Los Angeles Raiders
33–30 (OT)
Denver Broncos
Los Angeles

January 9, 1994
Los Angeles Raiders
42–24
Denver Broncos
Los Angeles

1994
September 18
Los Angeles Raiders
48–16
Denver Broncos
Denver

December 11
Los Angeles Raiders
23–13
Denver Broncos
Los Angeles

1995[c]
October 16 (Mon.)
Denver Broncos
27–0
Oakland Raiders
Denver

December 24
Denver Broncos
31–28
Oakland Raiders
Oakland

1996
November 4 (Mon.)
Denver Broncos
22–21
Oakland Raiders
Oakland

December 15
Denver Broncos
24–19
Oakland Raiders
Denver

1997
October 19
Oakland Raiders
28–25
Denver Broncos
Oakland

November 24 (Mon.)
Denver Broncos
31–3
Oakland Raiders
Denver

1998
September 20
Denver Broncos
34–17
Oakland Raiders
Oakland

November 22
Denver Broncos
40–14
Oakland Raiders
Denver

1999
October 10
Denver Broncos
16–13
Oakland Raiders
Oakland

November 22 (Mon.)
Denver Broncos
27–21 (OT)
Oakland Raiders
Denver

text: 2000s (Broncos 13–7)[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Winner
Result
Loser
Location

2000
September 17
Denver Broncos
33–24
Oakland Raiders
Oakland

November 13 (Mon.)
Denver Broncos
23–20
Oakland Raiders
Denver

2001
November 5 (Mon.)
Oakland Raiders
38–28
Denver Broncos
Oakland

December 30
Denver Broncos
23–17
Oakland Raiders
Denver

2002
November 11 (Mon.)
Oakland Raiders
34–10
Denver Broncos
Denver

December 22
Oakland Raiders
28–16
Denver Broncos
Oakland

2003
September 22 (Mon.)
Denver Broncos
31–10
Oakland Raiders
Denver

November 30
Denver Broncos
22–8
Oakland Raiders
Oakland

2004
October 17
Denver Broncos
31–3
Oakland Raiders
Oakland

November 28
Oakland Raiders
25–24
Denver Broncos
Denver

2005
November 13
Denver Broncos
31–17
Oakland Raiders
Oakland

December 24 (Sat.)
Denver Broncos
22–3
Oakland Raiders
Denver

2006
October 15
Denver Broncos
13–3
Oakland Raiders
Denver

November 12
Denver Broncos
17–13
Oakland Raiders
Oakland

2007
September 16
Denver Broncos
23–20 (OT)
Oakland Raiders
Denver

December 2
Oakland Raiders
34–20
Denver Broncos
Oakland

2008
September 8 (Mon.)
Denver Broncos
41–14
Oakland Raiders
Oakland

November 23
Oakland Raiders
31–10
Denver Broncos
Denver

2009
September 27
Denver Broncos
23–3
Oakland Raiders
Oakland

December 20
Oakland Raiders
20–19
Denver Broncos
Denver

text: 2010s (Broncos 10–6)[edit]

text:
Year
Date
Winner
Result
Loser
Location

2010
October 24
Oakland Raiders
59–14
Denver Broncos
Denver

December 19
Oakland Raiders
39–23
Denver Broncos
Oakland

2011
September 12 (Mon.)
Oakland Raiders
23–20
Denver Broncos
Denver

November 6
Denver Broncos
38–24
Oakland Raiders
Oakland

2012
September 30
Denver Broncos
37–6
Oakland Raiders
Denver

December 6 (Thur.)
Denver Broncos
26–13
Oakland Raiders
Oakland

2013
September 23 (Mon.)
Denver Broncos
37–21
Oakland Raiders
Denver

December 29
Denver Broncos
34–14
Oakland Raiders
Oakland

2014
November 9
Denver Broncos
41–17
Oakland Raiders
Oakland

December 28
Denver Broncos
47–14
Oakland Raiders
Denver

2015
October 11
Denver Broncos
16–10
Oakland Raiders
Oakland

December 13
Oakland Raiders
15–12
Denver Broncos
Denver

2016
November 6
Oakland Raiders
30–20
Denver Broncos
Oakland

January 1, 2017
Denver Broncos
24–6
Oakland Raiders
Denver

2017
October 1
Denver Broncos
16–10
Oakland Raiders
Denver

November 26
Oakland Raiders
21–14
Denver Broncos
Oakland

text: Monday Night Football[edit]

text: As of 2013, the Broncos and Raiders have met 17 times on Monday Night Football,[10] tied for the most frequent pairing in Monday Night Football history with the Dallas Cowboys & Washington Redskins, who met for a 17th time in 2015. The teams have met at the Broncos' home field 12 times (8 times at Mile High Stadium, 4 at Sports Authority Field at Mile High) and at the Raiders' home field 5 times (all in Oakland). The Broncos currently hold a 9–7–1 lead in this rivalry on Monday Night Football.

text:
Date
Winner
Result
Location

October 22, 1973
Tie
23–23
Denver

December 8, 1975
Oakland Raiders
17–10
Oakland

December 1, 1980
Oakland Raiders
9–3
Oakland

October 12, 1987
Denver Broncos
30–14
Denver

September 25, 1988
Los Angeles Raiders
30–27 (OT)
Denver

October 18, 1993
Los Angeles Raiders
23–20
Denver

October 16, 1995
Denver Broncos
27–0
Denver

November 4, 1996
Denver Broncos
22–21
Oakland

November 24, 1997
Denver Broncos
31–3
Denver

November 22, 1999
Denver Broncos
27–21 (OT)
Denver

November 13, 2000
Denver Broncos
27–24
Denver

November 5, 2001
Oakland Raiders
38–28
Oakland

November 11, 2002
Oakland Raiders
34–10
Denver

September 22, 2003
Denver Broncos
31–10
Denver

September 8, 2008
Denver Broncos
41–14
Oakland

September 12, 2011
Oakland Raiders
23–20
Denver

September 23, 2013
Denver Broncos
37–21
Denver

text: Connections between the teams[edit]

text: Coaches[edit]

text:
Name
Years with Broncos
Years with Raiders

Dennis Allen
Defensive coordinator, 2011
Head coach, 2012–14

James Cregg
Assistant offensive line coach, 2014–16
Assistant offensive line coach, 2007–08

Jack Del Rio
Defensive coordinator, 2012–14[d]
Head coach, 2015–present

John Fox
Head coach, 2011–14
Defensive coordinator, 1994–95

Greg Knapp
Quarterbacks coach, 2013–16
Offensive coordinator, 2007–08

Don Martindale
Defensive coordinator, 2010
Linebackers coach, 2004–08

Keith Millard
Defensive line coach, 2001–04
Defensive line coach, 2005–08

Bill Musgrave
Quarterback, 1995–96
Quarterbacks coach/Offensive coordinator, 2017–present
Quarterbacks coach, 1997
Offensive coordinator, 2015–16

Fred Pagac
Linebackers coach, 2015–present
Linebackers coach, 2001–03

Marcus Robertson
Defensive backs coach, 2017–present
Assistant defensive backs coach, 2014
Defensive backs coach, 2015–16

Mike Shanahan
Offensive coordinator, 1984–87
Offensive assistant, 1990–91
Head coach, 1995–2008
Head coach, 1988–89

Joe Woods
Defensive backs coach, 2015–16
Defensive coordinator, 2017–present
Defensive backs coach, 2014

text: Players[edit]

text:
Name
Position(s)
Years with Broncos
Years with Raiders

Sam Adams
Defensive tackle
2007
2002

Elijah Alexander
Linebacker
1993–95
2000–01

Lyle Alzado
Defensive end
1971–78
1982–85

Willie Brown
Cornerback
1963–66
1967–78 (Cornerback)
1979–88 (Defensive Backs coach)

Cooper Carlisle
Guard
2000–06
2007–12

Brad Daluiso
Placekicker
1992
2001

Darrien Gordon
Cornerback
Punt returner
1997–98
1999–2000, 2002

Cornell Green
Offensive tackle
2004–05
2007–09

Mike Harden
Safety
1980–88
1989–90

Shelby Harris
Defensive end
2017–present
2014–15

Renaldo Hill
Safety
2009–10
2005

Michael Huff
Safety
2013
2006–12

Jason Hunter
Defensive end
2010–12
2013

Tory James
Cornerback
1996–99
2000–02

LaMont Jordan
Running back
2009
2005–07

Ashley Lelie
Wide receiver
2002–05
2008

Chester McGlockton
Defensive tackle
2001–02
1992–97

Jarvis Moss
Defensive end
2007–10
2010–11

Tyrone Poole
Cornerback
2001–02
2006

Tracy Porter
Cornerback
2012
2013

Bill Romanowski
Linebacker
1996–2001
2002–03

Antonio Smith
Defensive end
2015
2014

Jeremy Stewart
Running back
2014
2012–13

Denard Walker
Safety
2001–02
2004–05

Vance Walker
Defensive end
2015–16
2013

Javon Walker
Wide receiver
2006–07
2008–09

Gerard Warren
Defensive tackle
2005–06
2007–09

Ted Washington
Nose tackle
1994
2004–05

Lionel Washington
Cornerback
1995–96
1987–1994, 1997 (Cornerback)
2009–10 (Defensive Backs coach)

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ The Raiders and Kansas City Chiefs finished tied with a 12–2 record, but the Raiders were crowned 1968 division champions. Both teams qualified for the AFL playoffs.
Jump up ^ The Broncos and Raiders met only once during the strike-shortened 1982 season.
^ Jump up to: a b The Raiders relocated from Oakland to Los Angeles in 1982, and played their home games at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum from 1982–1994, before returning to Oakland in 1995.
Jump up ^ Jack Del Rio served as interim head coach for four games in the 2013 season while John Fox recovered from heart surgery.

tag: ol


document_title: Sita

question_text: who was the first one to find where sita was being held captive

root

text: Sita

text: Etymology and other names[edit]

text: The goddess is best known by the name "Sita", derived from the Sanskrit word sīta, furrow.[14]

tag: p

text: According to Ramayana, Janaka found her while ploughing as a part of a yagna and adopted her. The word Sīta was a poetic term, its imagery redolent of fecundity and the many blessings coming from settled agriculture. The Sita of the Ramayana may have been named after a more ancient Vedic goddess Sita, who is mentioned once in the Rigveda as an earth goddess who blesses the land with good crops. In the Vedic period, she was one of the goddesses associated with fertility. A Vedic hymn(Rig Veda 4:57) recites:

text:
“
Auspicious Sita, come thou near;
We venerate and worship thee
That thou mayst bless and prosper us
And bring us fruits abundantly.

”

tag: table

text: In Harivamsa, Sita has been invoked as one of the names of goddess Arya:

text:
“
O goddess, you are the altar's center in the sacrifice,
The priest's fee
Sita to those who hold the plough
And Earth to all living being.

”

text: The Kausik-sutra and the Paraskara-sutra associate her repeatedly as the wife of Parjanya (a god associated with rains) and Indra.[14]

text: Sita is known by many epithets. She is called Jānaki as the daughter of Janaka and Maithili as the princess of Mithila.[15] As the wife of Rama, she is called Ramā. Her father Janaka had earned the sobriquet Videha due to his ability to transcend body consciousness; Sita is therefore also known as Vaidehi.[15]

text: Legend[edit]

text: Birth[edit]

text: The birthplace of Sita is disputed.[16]The Sita Kund[17] pilgrimage site which is located in present-day Sitamarhi district,[18][19]Bihar, India is viewed as the birthplace of Sita. Apart from Sitamarhi, Janakpur which is located in the present-day Province No. 2, Nepal,[20][21] is also described as Sita's birthplace.

text:
Valmiki's Ramayana: In Valmiki's Ramayana and Kamban's Tamil epic Ramavataram, Sita is said to have been discovered in a furrow in a ploughed field, believed to be Sitamarhi in Mithila region of present-day Bihar, and for that reason is regarded as a daughter of Bhūmi Devi[22] (the goddess earth). She was discovered, adopted and brought up by Janaka, king of Mithila and his wife Sunaina.
Ramayana Manjari: In Ramayana Manjari (verses 344–366), North-western and Bengal recensions of Valmiki Ramayana, it has been described as on hearing a voice from the sky and then seeing Menaka, Janaka expresses his wish to obtain a child and when he finds the child, he hears the same voice again telling him the infant is his spiritual child, born of Menaka.[23]
Janka's real daughter: In Ramopkhyana of the Mahabharata and also in Paumachariya of Vimala Suri, Sita has been depicted as Janaka's real daughter. According to Rev. Fr. Camille Bulcke, this motif that Sita was the real daughter of Janaka, as described in Ramopkhyana Mahabharata was based on the authentic version of Valmiki Ramayana. Later the story of Sita miraculously appearing in a furrow was inserted in Valmiki Ramayana.[23]
Reincarnation of Vedavati: Some versions of the Ramayana suggest that Sita was a reincarnation of Vedavati. Ravana tried to molest Vedavati and her chastity was sullied beyond Ravana's redemption when she was performing penance to become consort of Vishnu. Vedavati immolated herself on a pyre to escape Ravana's lust, vowing to return in another age and be the cause of Ravana's destruction. She was duly reborn as Sita.[23]
Reincarnation of Manivati: According to Gunabhadra's Uttara Purana of the ninth century BCE, Ravana disturbs the asceticism of Manivati, daughter of Amitavega of Alkapuri and she pledges to take revenge on Ravana. Manivati is later reborn as the daughter of Ravana and Mandodari. But, astrologers predict ruin of Ravana because of this child. So, Ravana orders to kill the child. Manivati is placed in a casket and buried in the ground of Mithila where she is discovered by some of the farmers of the kingdom. Then Janka, king of that state adopts her.[23]
Ravana's daughter: In Sanghadasa's Jaina version of Ramayana and also in Adbhuta Ramayana, Sita, entitled Vasudevahindi, is born as daughter of Ravana. According to this version, astrologers predict that first child of Vidyadhara Maya (Ravana's wife) will destroy his lineage. Thus, Ravana abandons her and orders the infant to be buried in a distant land where she is later discovered and adopted by Janaka.[23]

tag: ul

text: Marriage[edit]

text: When Sita reaches adulthood, Janaka organizes a Swayamvara in Janakpurdham with the condition that Sita would marry only that person who would be able to string Pinaka, the bow of the god Shiva. Janaka knew that the bow of Shiva was not even liftable, let alone stringable for ordinary mortals, and for selfish people it was not even approachable. Thus, Janaka tries to find the best husband for Sita.

text: At this time, Vishvamitra had brought Rama and his brother Lakshmana to the forest for the protection of sacrifice. Hearing about this swayamvara, Vishvamitra asks Rama to participate in it and takes Rama and Lakshmana to the palace of Janaka in Janakpur. Janaka is greatly pleased to learn that Rama and Lakshmana are sons of Dasharatha. Next morning, in the middle of the hall, Rama lifts up the bow of Shiva with his left hand, fastens the string tightly and finally breaks the bow. However, another avatar of Vishnu, Parashurama, became really angry as the bow of Shiva was broken. However, he does not realize that Rama is also an avatar of Vishnu, therefore after being informed of this, he apologizes for getting angry. Thus, Rama fulfills Janaka's condition to marry Sita. Later on Vivaha Panchami, a marriage ceremony is conducted under the guidance of Satananda. Rama marries Sita, Bharata marries Mandavi, Lakshmana marries Urmila and Shatrughna marries Shrutakirti.[8]

text: Exile and abduction[edit]

text: Some time after the wedding, Kaikeyi, Rama's stepmother, compelled Dasharatha to make Bharata king, prompted by the coaxing of her maid Manthara, and forced Rama to leave Ayodhya and spend a period of exile in the forests of Dandaka and later Panchavati. Sita and Lakshmana willingly renounced the comforts of the palace and joined Rama in exile. The Panchavati forest became the scene for Sita's abduction by Ravana, King of Lanka. Ravana kidnapped Sita, disguising himself as a mendicant, while Rama was away fetching a golden deer to please her. Some versions of the Ramayana describe Sita taking refuge with the fire-god Agni, while Maya Sita, her illusionary double, is kidnapped by the demon-king. Jatayu, the vulture-king, tried to protect Sita but Ravana chopped off his wings. Jatayu survived long enough to inform Rama of what had happened.[24]

text: Ravana took her back to his kingdom in Lanka and Sita was held as a prisoner in one of his palaces. During her captivity for a year in Lanka, Ravana expressed his desire for her; however, Sita refused his advances and struggled to maintain her chastity. Hanuman was sent by Rama to seek Sita and eventually succeeded in discovering Sita's whereabouts. Sita gave Hanuman her jewellery and asked him to give it to her husband. Hanuman returned across the sea to Rama.[24]

text: Sita was finally rescued by Rama, who waged a war to defeat Ravana. Upon rescue, Rama makes Sita undergo a trial by fire to prove her chastity. In some versions of Ramayana, during this test the fire-god Agni appears in front of Rama and attests to Sita's purity, or hands over to him the real Sita and declares it was Maya Sita who was abducted by Ravana.[24] The Thai version of the Ramayana, however, tells of Sita walking on the fire, of her own accord, to feel clean, as opposed to jumping in it. She is not burnt, and the coals turn to lotuses.

text: Abandonment and later life[edit]

text: The couple came back to Ayodhya, where Rama was crowned king with Sita by his side.

text: While Rama's trust and affection for Sita never wavered, it soon became evident that some people in Ayodhya could not accept Sita's long captivity under Ravana. During Rama's period of rule, an intemperate washerman, while berating his wayward wife, declared that he was "no pusillanimous Rama who would take his wife back after she had lived in the house of another man". This statement was reported back to Rama, who knew that the accusation against Sita was baseless. Nevertheless, he would not let slander undermine his rule, so he sent Sita away.

text: Thus Sita was forced into exile a second time. Sita, who was pregnant, was given refuge in the hermitage of Valmiki, where she delivered twin sons named Kusha and Lava.[8] In the hermitage, Sita raised her sons alone, as a single mother.[25] They grew up to be valiant and intelligent and were eventually united with their father. Once she had witnessed the acceptance of her children by Rama, Sita sought final refuge in the arms of her mother Bhūmi. Hearing her plea for release from an unjust world and from a life that had rarely been happy, the Earth dramatically split open; Bhūmi appeared and took Sita away.

text: Speeches in the Ramayana[edit]

text: While the Ramayana mostly concentrates on Rama's actions, Sita also speaks many times during the exile. The first time is in the town of Chitrakuta where she narrates an ancient story to Rama, whereby Rama promises to Sita that he will never kill anybody without provocation.

text: The second time Sita is shown talking prominently is when she speaks to Ravana. Ravana has come to her in the form of a mendicant and Sita tells him that he does not look like one.

text: Some of her most prominent speeches are with Hanuman when he reaches Lanka. Hanuman wants an immediate union of Rama and Sita and thus he proposes to Sita to ride on his back. Sita refuses as she does not want to run away like a thief; instead she wants her husband Rama to come and defeat Ravana to save her.

text: Jain version[edit]

text: Sita is said to be the daughter of Ravana's queen Mandodari. It was predicted that the first child of Mandodari would bring annihilation to the family. Hence, Ravana deserted the child when she was born. The minister who was responsible for this took her in a pearl-box, placed her near a plough and told King Janaka of Mithila that the girl had been born from the furrow. Janaka's queen Sunaina became Sita's foster mother.

text: There is also a narration about Sita's brother Bhamandala. He did not know that Sita was his sister and wanted to marry her. He even wanted to abduct her. This story ends when Bhamandala, after learning that Sita is his sister, becomes a Jain ascetic.

text: Symbolism[edit]

text: A female deity of agricultural fertility by the name Sita was known before Valmiki's Ramayana, but was overshadowed by better-known goddesses associated with fertility. According to Ramayana, Sita was discovered in a furrow when Janaka was ploughing. Since Janaka was a king, it is likely that ploughing was part of a royal ritual to ensure fertility of the land. Sita is considered to be a child of Mother Earth, produced by union between the king and the land. Sita is a personification of Earth's fertility, abundance and well-being.

text: Swami Vivekananda on Sita[edit]

text: Swami Vivekananda states that Rama is considered the type of the Absolute and Sita that of Power. Sita is the ideal of a woman in India and worshiped as God incarnate.[26]

text: According to Swami Vivekananda, Sita is typical of India – the idealized India. Swami Vivekananda assured that if world literature of the past and world literature of the future were thoroughly exhausted, yet, it would not be possible to find another Sita, because Sita is unique; the character was depicted once for all. Swami Vivekananda felt there may have been several Ramas, perhaps, but never more than one Sita.

text: Vivekananda said:

text: "All our mythology may vanish, even our Vedas may depart and our Sanskrit language may vanish for ever, but so long as there will be five Hindus living here, even if only seeking the most vulgar patois, there will be the story of Sita present."

text: Sita was a true Indian by nature, Vivekananda concluded, who never returned injury.[27]

text: Portrayal[edit]

text: Sita has been a much revered figure amongst the Hindus. She has been portrayed as an ideal daughter, an ideal wife and an ideal mother in various texts, stories, illustrations, movies and modern media. Sita is often worshipped with Rama as his consort. The occasion of her marriage to Rama is celebrated as Vivaha Panchami.

text: The actions, reactions and instincts manifested by Sita at every juncture in a long and arduous life are deemed exemplary. Her story has been portrayed in the book Sitayanam.[28] The values that she enshrined and adhered to at every point in the course of a demanding life are the values of womanly virtue held sacred by countless generations of Nepalese and Indians. ← What is ambiguous is her portrayal as an ideal queen. Was she a good statesperson? Was she a warrior? Her sacrifices and actions are most often portrayed in her personal capacity and not as a governance figure. Sita was abducted because she had to step out of the safety line to give alms to Ravana disguised as a Brahmin. The giving of alms to Brahmin in those times was more of a duty to be performed, rather than an optional charitable act. This held true more so for the royals and they were to lead by example. Also, the incident of Sita's refusal to come back with Hanuman like a common thief, her renunciation of queenhood and exile from Ayodhya after her return. All her key aspects are shown in a favourable light, but not as a head of state, but as an ideal woman. This is in stark contrast to Sri Rama, who is always portrayed as an ideal king who was just and fair and always thought of his people before all else in addition to being depicted as an ideal husband and an ideal son.

text: Temples[edit]

text: Although Sita's statue is always kept with Rama's statue in Rama temples, there are some temples dedicated to Sita:

text:
Janaki Mandir, located at Janakpur, Nepal
Sita Mai Temple, situated in Sitamai village in the Karnal district of Haryana, India
Sita Kund, Punaura Dham, situated in Sitamarhi District in Bihar, India
Seetha Devi Temple, Pulpally in the Waynad district, Kerala, India
Seetha Amman Temple, Nähe Nuwara Eliya, Sri Lanka


document_title: Easter Island

question_text: where are the moai statues located on easter island

question_tokens: where are the moai statues located on easter island

text: Easter Island

text: Name[edit]

text: The name "Easter Island" was given by the island's first recorded European visitor, the Dutch explorer Jacob Roggeveen, who encountered it on Easter Sunday (5 April) in 1722, while searching for Davis or David's island. Roggeveen named it Paasch-Eyland (18th-century Dutch for "Easter Island").[9][10] The island's official Spanish name, Isla de Pascua, also means "Easter Island".

text: The current Polynesian name of the island, Rapa Nui ("Big Rapa"), was coined after the slave raids of the early 1860s, and refers to the island's topographic resemblance to the island of Rapa in the Bass Islands of the Austral Islands group.[11] However, Norwegian ethnographer Thor Heyerdahl argued that Rapa was the original name of Easter Island and that Rapa Iti was named by refugees from there.[12]

text: The phrase Te pito o te henua has been said to be the original name of the island since French ethnologist Alphonse Pinart gave it the romantic translation "the Navel of the World" in his Voyage à l'Île de Pâques, published in 1877.[13] William Churchill (1912) inquired about the phrase and was told that there were three te pito o te henua, these being the three capes (land's ends) of the island. The phrase appears to have been used in the same sense as the designation of "Land's End" at the tip of Cornwall. He was unable to elicit a Polynesian name for the island itself, and concluded that there may not have been one.[14]

text: According to Barthel (1974), oral tradition has it that the island was first named Te pito o te kainga a Hau Maka, "The little piece of land of Hau Maka".[15] However, there are two words pronounced pito in Rapa Nui, one meaning 'end' and one 'navel', and the phrase can thus also mean "the Navel of the World". Another name, Mata ki te rangi, means "Eyes looking to the sky".[16]

text: Islanders are referred to in Spanish as pascuense; however it is common to refer to members of the indigenous community as Rapa Nui.

text: History[edit]

text: Introduction[edit]

text: Oral tradition states the island was first settled by a two-canoe expedition, originating from Marae Renga (or Marae Toe Hau), and led by the chief Hotu Matu'a and his captain Tu'u ko Iho. The island was first scouted after Haumaka dreamed of such a far off country; Hotu deemed it a worthwhile place to flee from a neighboring chief, one to whom he had already lost three battles. At their time of arrival, the island had one lone settler, Nga Tavake 'a Te Rona. After a brief stay at Anakena, the colonists settled in different parts of the island. Hotu's heir, Tu'u ma Heke, was born on the island. Tu'u ko Iho is viewed as the leader who brought the statues and caused them to walk.[17]

text: The earliest radiocarbon dates for the island, AD 690±130, occur on the southwestern portion of the island at Ahu Tahai near Hanga Roa. Archaeological and paleobotanical evidence also point to this area as the early center of habitation. Anthropometrical, skeletal, and linguistic evidence show the Easter Islanders to be close relatives of the Mangarevans. Thus, the Easter Islanders are considered to be South-East Polynesians, originating from the general area of Mangareva-Pitcairn-Henderson. Contact, at least culturally, carried onwards for at least 400 years. Similar sacred zones with statuary (marae and ahu) in East Polynesia lends support to this interaction from the 12th to the 15th centuries. The south coast was colonized starting in the 1300s. Then, Easter Island appears to have become isolated by about 1500, and mo'ai carving and transport ceased. The last forest was cut down by about 1640, and by about 1700, the flora was almost completely gone. The soil was eroded or leached, and water resources dried up. Only the three crater swamps, and isolated springs such as Vai Tapa Eru, provided fresh water. A peak population of about 12,000 seen in the 14th and 15th centuries had shrunk to perhaps 6,000.[17]:17-18,20-21,31,41-45

text: By the 15th century, two confederations, hanau, of social groupings, mata, existed, based on lineage. The western and northern portion of the island belonged to the Tu'u, which included the royal Miru, with the royal center at Anakena, though Tahai and Te Peu served as earlier capitals. The eastern portion of the island belonged to the 'Otu 'Itu. Shortly after the Dutch visit, from 1724 until 1750, the 'Otu 'Itu fought the Tu'u for control of the island. This fighting would continue until the 1860s. Famine followed the burning of huts and the destruction of fields. Social control vanished as the ordered way of life gave way to lawlessness and predatory bands as the warrior class took over. Homelessness prevailed with many living underground. After the Spanish visit, from 1770 onwards, a period of statue toppling, huri mo'ai, commenced. This was an attempt by competing groups to destroy the socio-spiritual power, or mana, represented by statues, making sure to break them in the fall to ensure they were dead and without power. None were left standing by the time of the arrival of the French missionaries in the 1860s.[17]:21-24,27,54-56,64-65

text: Between 1862 and 1888, about 94% of the population perished or emigrated. The island was victimized by Blackbirding from 1862 to 1863, resulting in the abduction or killing of about 1500, with 1408 working as indentured servants in Peru. Only about a dozen were to return to Easter Island, but they brought smallpox, which decimated the remaining population of 1500. Those who perished included the island's tumu ivi 'atua, bearers of the island's culture, history, and genealogy besides the rongorongo experts.[17]:86-91

text: Discussion[edit]

text: Estimated dates of initial settlement of Easter Island have ranged from 300 to 1200 AD, approximately coinciding with the arrival of the first settlers in Hawaii. Rectifications in radiocarbon dating have changed almost all of the previously posited early settlement dates in Polynesia. Rapa Nui is now considered to have been settled in the narrower range of 700 to 1100 AD. Ongoing archaeological studies suggest a still-later date: "Radiocarbon dates for the earliest stratigraphic layers at Anakena, Easter Island, and analysis of previous radiocarbon dates imply that the island was colonized late, about 1200 AD. Significant ecological impacts and major cultural investments in monumental architecture and statuary thus began soon after initial settlement."[18][19]

text: According to oral tradition, the first settlement was at Anakena. Researchers have noted that the Caleta Anakena landing point provides the island's best shelter from prevailing swells as well as a sandy beach for canoe landings and launchings so it appeals as a likely early place of settlement. However, this conclusion contradicts radiocarbon dating, according to which other sites preceded Anakena by many years, especially the Tahai, whose radiocarbon dates precede Anakena's by several centuries.

text: The island was most likely populated by Polynesians who navigated in canoes or catamarans from the Gambier Islands (Mangareva, 2,600 km (1,600 mi) away) or the Marquesas Islands, 3,200 km (2,000 mi) away. According to some theories, such as the Polynesian Diaspora Theory, there is a possibility that early Polynesian settlers arrived from South America due to their remarkable sea-navigation abilities. Theorists have supported this through the agricultural evidence of the sweet potato. The sweet potato was a favoured crop found among Polynesian society for generations. However, the origins of the sweet potato trace back to South America, proving evidence of interaction at some point in time between these two geographic areas.[20] When James Cook visited the island, one of his crew members, a Polynesian from Bora Bora, Hitihiti, was able to communicate with the Rapa Nui.[21]:296–297 The language most similar to Rapa Nui is Mangarevan, with an estimated 80 percent similarity in vocabulary. In 1999, a voyage with reconstructed Polynesian boats was able to reach Easter Island from Mangareva in 19 days.[22]

text: According to oral traditions recorded by missionaries in the 1860s, the island originally had a strong class system, with an ariki, or high chief, wielding great power over nine other clans and their respective chiefs. The high chief was the eldest descendent through first-born lines of the island's legendary founder, Hotu Matu'a. The most visible element in the culture was the production of massive statues called moai that some believe represented deified ancestors. According to National Geographic, "Most scholars suspect that the moai were created to honor ancestors, chiefs, or other important personages, However, no written and little oral history exists on the island, so it’s impossible to be certain."[24]

text: It was believed that the living had a symbiotic relationship with the dead in which the dead provided everything that the living needed (health, fertility of land and animals, fortune etc.) and the living, through offerings, provided the dead with a better place in the spirit world. Most settlements were located on the coast and most moai were erected along the coastline, watching over their descendants in the settlements before them, with their backs toward the spirit world in the sea.

text: Jared Diamond suggested that cannibalism took place on Easter Island after the construction of the moai contributed to environmental degradation when extreme deforestation destabilized an already precarious ecosystem.[25] Archeological record shows that at the time of the initial settlement the island was home to many species of trees, including at least three species which grew up to 15 metres (49 ft) or more: Paschalococos – possibly the largest palm trees in the world at the time, Alphitonia zizyphoides, and Elaeocarpus rarotongensis, as well as at least six species of native land birds. A major factor that contributed to the extinction of multiple plant species was the introduction of the Polynesian rat. Studies by paleobotanists have shown rats can dramatically affect the reproduction of vegetation in an ecosystem. In the case of Rapa Nui, recovered plant shell seeds showed markings of being gnawed on by rats.[4] Barbara A. West wrote, "Sometime before the arrival of Europeans on Easter Island, the Rapanui experienced a tremendous upheaval in their social system brought about by a change in their island's ecology... By the time of European arrival in 1722, the island's population had dropped to 2,000–3,000 from a high of approximately 15,000 just a century earlier."[26]

text: By that time, 21 species of trees and all species of land birds became extinct through some combination of overharvesting/overhunting, rat predation, and climate change. The island was largely deforested, and it did not have any trees more than 3 metres (10 feet) tall. Loss of large trees meant that residents were no longer able to build seaworthy vessels, significantly diminishing their fishing abilities. One theory regarding the deforestation that caused such ecological and social damage was that the trees were used as rollers to move the statues to their place of erection from the quarry at Rano Raraku.[27] Deforestation also affected agricultural production on Rapa Nui. At first, the native tropical forests provided ideal shade cover for soil. But with many of the native forest being destroyed, the topsoil became eroded causing a sharp decline in agricultural production.[4] This was further exacerbated by the loss of land birds and the collapse in seabird populations as a potential source of food. By the 18th century, residents of the island were largely sustained by farming, with domestic chickens as the primary source of protein.[28]

text: As the island became overpopulated and resources diminished, warriors known as matatoa gained more power and the Ancestor Cult ended, making way for the Bird Man Cult. Beverly Haun wrote, "The concept of mana (power) invested in hereditary leaders was recast into the person of the birdman, apparently beginning circa 1540, and coinciding with the final vestiges of the moai period."[29] This cult maintained that, although the ancestors still provided for their descendants, the medium through which the living could contact the dead was no longer statues, but human beings chosen through a competition. The god responsible for creating humans, Makemake, played an important role in this process. Katherine Routledge, who systematically collected the island's traditions in her 1919 expedition,[30] showed that the competitions for Bird Man (Rapanui: tangata manu) started around 1760, after the arrival of the first Europeans, and ended in 1878, with the construction of the first church by Roman Catholic missionaries who formally arrived in 1864. Petroglyphs representing Bird Men on Easter Island are exactly the same as some in Hawaii, indicating that this concept was probably brought by the original settlers; only the competition itself was unique to Easter Island.

text: According to Diamond and Heyerdahl's version of the island's history, the huri mo'ai—"statue-toppling"—continued into the 1830s as a part of fierce internal wars. By 1838 the only standing moai were on the slopes of Rano Raraku, in Hoa Hakananai'a in Orongo, and Ariki Paro in Ahu Te Pito Kura. A study headed by Douglas Owsley published in 1994 asserted that there is little archaeological evidence of pre-European societal collapse. Bone pathology and osteometric data from islanders of that period clearly suggest few fatalities can be attributed directly to violence.[31]

text: European contact[edit]

text: The first-recorded European contact with the island was on 5 April (Easter Sunday), 1722, by Dutch navigator Jacob Roggeveen.[21] His visit resulted in the death of about a dozen islanders, including the tumu ivi 'atua, and the wounding of many others.[17]:46-53

text: The next foreign visitors (on 15 November 1770) were two Spanish ships, San Lorenzo and Santa Rosalia, under the command of Captain Don Felipe Gonzalez de Ahedo.[21]:238,504 The Spanish were amazed by the "standing idols", all of which were erect that you witnessed.[17]:60-64

text: Four years later, in 1774, British explorer James Cook visited Easter Island; he reported that some statues had been toppled. Through the interpretation of Hitihiti, Cook learned the statues commemorated their former high chiefs, including their names and ranks.[21]:296–297

text: The British ship HMS Blossom arrived in 1825.[17]:79

text: 19th century[edit]

text: A series of devastating events killed or removed most of the population in the 1860s. In December 1862, Peruvian slave raiders struck. Violent abductions continued for several months, eventually capturing around 1,500 men and women, half of the island's population.[32] Among those captured were the island's paramount chief, his heir, and those who knew how to read and write the rongorongo script, the only Polynesian script to have been found to date. (Although serious debate exists about whether this is proto-writing or true writing.)

text: When the slave raiders were forced to repatriate the people they had kidnapped, carriers of smallpox disembarked together with a few survivors on each of the islands.[33] This created devastating epidemics from Easter Island to the Marquesas islands. Easter Island's population was reduced to the point where some of the dead were not even buried.[17]:91

text: Tuberculosis, introduced by whalers in the mid-19th century, had already killed several islanders when the first Christian missionary, Eugène Eyraud, died from this disease in 1867. About a quarter of the island's population succumbed along with him. In the following years, the managers of the sheep ranch and the missionaries started buying the newly available lands of the deceased, and this led to great confrontations between natives and settlers.

text: Jean-Baptiste Dutrou-Bornier bought up all of the island apart from the missionaries' area around Hanga Roa and moved a few hundred Rapanui to Tahiti to work for his backers. In 1871 the missionaries, having fallen out with Dutrou-Bornier, evacuated all but 171 Rapanui to the Gambier islands.[34] Those who remained were mostly older men. Six years later, only 111 people lived on Easter Island, and only 36 of them had any offspring.[35] From that point on the island's population slowly recovered. But with over 97% of the population dead or gone in less than a decade, much of the island's cultural knowledge had been lost.

text: Alexander Salmon, Jr., a son of an English Jewish merchant and a Pōmare Dynasty princess, eventually worked to repatriate workers from his inherited copra plantation. He eventually bought up all lands on the island with the exception of the mission, and was its sole employer. He worked to develop tourism on the island, and was the principal informant for the British and German archaeological expeditions for the island. He sent several pieces of genuine Rongorongo to his niece's husband, the German consul in Valparaíso, Chile. Salmon sold the Brander Easter Island holdings to the Chilean government on January 2 1888 and signed as a witness to the cession of the island. He returned to Tahiti in December of that year. He effectively ruled the island from 1878 until his cession to Chile in 1888.

text: Easter Island was annexed by Chile on 9 September 1888 by Policarpo Toro by means of the "Treaty of Annexation of the Island" (Tratado de Anexión de la isla). Toro, then representing the government of Chile, signed with Atamu Tekena, designated "King" by the Roman Catholic missionaries after the paramount chief and his heir had died. The validity of this treaty is still contested by some Rapanui. Officially, Chile purchased the nearly all encompassing Mason-Brander sheep ranch, comprised from lands purchased from the descendants of Rapanui who died during the epidemics, and then claimed sovereignty over the island.

text: 20th century[edit]

text: Until the 1960s the surviving Rapanui were confined to Hanga Roa. The rest of the island was rented to the Williamson-Balfour Company as a sheep farm until 1953.[36] The island was then managed by the Chilean Navy until 1966, at which point the island was reopened in its entirety. In 1966 the Rapanui were given Chilean citizenship.[37]

text: Following the 1973 Chilean coup d'état that brought Augusto Pinochet to power, Easter Island was placed under martial law. Tourism slowed down and private property was restored. During his time in power, Pinochet visited Easter Island on three occasions. The military built a number of new military facilities and a new city hall.[38]

text: After an agreement in 1985 between Chile and United States, the runway at Mataveri International Airport was enlarged and was inaugurated in 1987. The runway was expanded 423 metres (1,388 ft) reaching 3,353 metres (11,001 ft). Pinochet is reported to have refused to attend the inauguration in protest of pressures from the United States to attend human rights cases.[39]

text: 21st century[edit]

text: Fishers of Rapa Nui have shown their concern of illegal fishing on the island. “Since the year 2000 we started to lose tuna, which is the basis of the fishing on the island, so then we began to take the fish from the shore to feed our families, but in less than two years we depleted all of it,” Pakarati said.[40] On 30 July 2007, a constitutional reform gave Easter Island and the Juan Fernández Islands (also known as Robinson Crusoe Island) the status of "special territories" of Chile. Pending the enactment of a special charter, the island continued to be governed as a province of the V Region of Valparaíso.[41]

text: A total solar eclipse visible from Easter Island occurred for the first time in over 1,300 years on 11 July 2010, at 18:15:15.[42]

text: Species of fish were collected in Easter Island for one month in different habitats including shallow lava pools, depths of 43 meters, and deep waters. Within these habitats, two holotypes and paratypes, Antennarius randalli and Antennarius moai, were discovered. These are considered frog-fish because of their characteristics: "12 dorsal rays, last two or three branched; bony part of first dorsal spine slightly shorter than second dorsal spine; body without bold zebra-like markings; caudal peduncle short, but distinct; last pelvic ray divided; pectoral rays 11 or 12".[43]

text: Indigenous rights movement[edit]

text: Starting in August 2010, members of the indigenous Hitorangi clan occupied the Hangaroa Eco Village and Spa.[44][45] The occupiers allege that the hotel was bought from the Pinochet government, in violation of a Chilean agreement with the indigenous Rapa Nui, in the 1990s.[46] The occupiers say their ancestors had been cheated into giving up the land.[47] According to a BBC report, on 3 December 2010, at least 25 people were injured when Chilean police using pellet guns attempted to evict from these buildings a group of Rapa Nui who had claimed that the land the buildings stood on had been illegally taken from their ancestors.[48]

text: In January 2011, the UN's Special Rapporteur on Indigenous People, James Anaya, expressed concern about the treatment of the indigenous Rapa Nui by the Chilean government, urging Chile to "make every effort to conduct a dialogue in good faith with representatives of the Rapa Nui people to solve, as soon as possible the real underlying problems that explain the current situation".[44]

text: The incident ended in February 2011, when up to 50 armed police broke into the hotel to remove the final five occupiers. They were arrested by the government and no injuries were reported.[44]

text: Geography[edit]

text: Easter Island is one of the world's most isolated inhabited islands. Its closest inhabited neighbour is Pitcairn Island, 2,075 km (1,289 mi) to the west, with fewer than 100 inhabitants. The nearest continental point lies in central Chile near Concepción, at 3,512 kilometres (2,182 mi). Easter Island's latitude is similar to that of Caldera, Chile, and it lies 3,510 km (2,180 mi) west of continental Chile at its nearest point (between Lota and Lebu in the Biobío Region). Isla Salas y Gómez, 415 km (258 mi) to the east, is closer but is uninhabited. Archipelago Tristan da Cunha in the southern Atlantic competes for the title of the most remote island, lying 2,430 kilometres (1,510 mi) from Saint Helena island and 2,816 kilometres (1,750 mi) from the South African coast.

text: The island is about 24.6 km (15.3 mi) long by 12.3 km (7.6 mi) at its widest point; its overall shape is triangular. It has an area of 163.6 square kilometres (63.2 sq mi), and a maximum altitude of 507 metres (1,663 ft). There are three Rano (freshwater crater lakes), at Rano Kau, Rano Raraku and Rano Aroi, near the summit of Terevaka, but no permanent streams or rivers.

text: Geology[edit]

text: Easter Island is a volcanic high island, consisting mainly of three extinct coalesced volcanoes: Terevaka (altitude 507 metres) forms the bulk of the island, while two other volcanoes, Poike and Rano Kau, form the eastern and southern headlands and give the island its roughly triangular shape. Lesser cones and other volcanic features include the crater Rano Raraku, the cinder cone Puna Pau and many volcanic caves including lava tubes.[49] Poike used to be a separate island until volcanic material from Terevaka united it to the larger whole. The island is dominated by hawaiite and basalt flows which are rich in iron and show affinity with igneous rocks found in the Galápagos Islands.[50]

text: Easter Island and surrounding islets, such as Motu Nui and Motu Iti, form the summit of a large volcanic mountain rising over 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) from the sea bed. The mountain is part of the Sala y Gómez Ridge, a (mostly submarine) mountain range with dozens of seamounts, formed by the Easter hotspot. The range begins with Pukao and next Moai, two seamounts to the west of Easter Island, and extends 2,700 km (1,700 mi) east to the Nazca Ridge. The ridge was formed by the Nazca Plate moving over the Easter hotspot.[51]

text: Located about 350 km east of the East Pacific Rise, Easter Island lies within the Nazca Plate, bordering the Easter Microplate. The Nazca-Pacific relative plate movement due to the seafloor spreading, amounts to about 150 mm per year. This movement over the Easter hotspot has resulted in the Easter Seamount Chain, which merges into the Nazca Ridge further to the east. Easter Island and Sala y Gómez are surface representations of that chain. The chain has progressively younger ages to the west. The current hotspot location is speculated to be west of Easter Island, amidst the Ahu, Umu and Tupa submarine volcanic fields and the Pukao and Moai seamounts.[52]

text: Easter Island lies atop the Rano Kau Ridge, and consists of three shield volcanoes with parallel geologic histories. Poike and Rano Kau exist on the east and south slopes of Terevaka, respectively. Rano Kau developed between 0.78 and 0.46 Ma from tholeiitic to alkalic basalts. This volcano possesses a clearly defined summit caldera. Benmoreitic lavas extruded about the rim from 0.35 to 0.34 Ma. Finally, between 0.24 and 0.11 Ma, a 6.5 km fissure developed along a NE-SW trend, forming monogenetic vents and rhyolitic intrusions. These include the cryptodome islets of Motu Nui and Motu Iti, the islet of Motu Kao Kao, the sheet intrusion of Te Kari Kari, the perlitic obsidian Te Manavai dome and the Maunga Orito dome.[52]

text: Poike formed from tholeiitic to alkali basalts from 0.78 to 0.41 Ma. Its summit collapsed into a caldera which was subsequently filled by the Puakatiki lava cone pahoehoe flows at 0.36 Ma. Finally, the trachytic lava domes of Maunga Vai a Heva, Maunga Tea Tea, and Maunga Parehe formed along a NE-SW trending fissure.[52]

text: Terevaka formed around 0.77 Ma of tholeiitic to alkali basalts, followed by the collapse of its summit into a caldera. Then at about 0.3Ma, cinder cones formed along a NNE-SSW trend on the western rim, while porphyritic benmoreitic lava filled the caldera, and pahoehoe flowed towards the northern coast, forming lava tubes, and to the southeast. Lava domes and a vent complex formed in the Maunga Puka area, while breccias formed along the vents on the western portion of Rano Aroi crater. This volcano's southern and southeastern flanks are composed of younger flows consisting of basalt, alkali basalt, hawaiite, mugearite, and benmoreite from eruptive fissures starting at 0.24 Ma. The youngest lava flow, Roiho, is dated at 0.11 Ma. The Hanga O Teo embayment is interpreted to be a 200 m high landslide scarp.[52]

text: Rano Raraku and Maunga Toa Toa are isolated tuff cones of about 0.21 Ma. The crater of Rano Raraku contains a freshwater lake. The stratified tuff is composed of sideromelane, slightly altered to palagonite, and somewhat lithified. The tuff contains lithic fragments of older lava flows. The northwest sector of Rano Raraku contains reddish ash.[52] According to Bandy, "...all of the great images of Easter Island are carved from" the light and porous tuff from Rano Raraku. A carving was abandoned when a large, dense and hard lithic fragment was encountered. However, these lithics became the basis for stone hammers and chisels. The Puna Pau crater contains an extremely porous pumice, from which was carved the Pukao "hats". The Maunga Orito obsidian was used to make the "mataa" spearheads.[53]

text: In the first half of the 20th century, steam reportedly came out of the Rano Kau crater wall. This was photographed by the island's manager, Mr. Edmunds.[54]

text: Climate[edit]

text: Under the Köppen climate classification, the climate of Easter Island is classified as a tropical rainforest climate (Af) that borders on a humid subtropical climate. The lowest temperatures are recorded in July and August (minimum 15 °C or 59 °F) and the highest in February (maximum temperature 28 °C or 82 °F[55]), the summer season in the southern hemisphere. Winters are relatively mild. The rainiest month is May, though the island experiences year-round rainfall.[56] Easter Island's isolated location exposes it to winds which help to keep the temperature fairly cool. Precipitation averages 1,118 millimetres or 44 inches per year. Occasionally, heavy rainfall and rainstorms strike the island. These occur mostly in the winter months (June–August). Since it is close to the South Pacific High and outside the range of the intertropical convergence zone, cyclones and hurricanes do not occur around Easter island.[57] There is significant temperature moderation due to its isolated position in the middle of the ocean.

text:
[hide]Climate data for Easter Island (1961–1990, extremes 1912–1990)

Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year

Record high °C (°F)
32.0
(89.6)
31.0
(87.8)
32.0
(89.6)
31.0
(87.8)
30.0
(86)
29.0
(84.2)
31.0
(87.8)
28.3
(82.9)
30.0
(86)
29.0
(84.2)
33.0
(91.4)
34.0
(93.2)
34.0
(93.2)

Average high °C (°F)
27.0
(80.6)
27.3
(81.1)
26.9
(80.4)
25.4
(77.7)
23.4
(74.1)
22.0
(71.6)
21.3
(70.3)
21.2
(70.2)
21.7
(71.1)
22.5
(72.5)
23.9
(75)
25.4
(77.7)
24.0
(75.2)

Daily mean °C (°F)
23.3
(73.9)
23.6
(74.5)
23.1
(73.6)
21.8
(71.2)
20.2
(68.4)
18.8
(65.8)
18.2
(64.8)
18.0
(64.4)
18.3
(64.9)
19.1
(66.4)
20.4
(68.7)
21.8
(71.2)
20.6
(69.1)

Average low °C (°F)
19.8
(67.6)
20.2
(68.4)
19.9
(67.8)
18.9
(66)
17.7
(63.9)
16.5
(61.7)
15.7
(60.3)
15.4
(59.7)
15.5
(59.9)
16.0
(60.8)
17.3
(63.1)
18.4
(65.1)
17.6
(63.7)

Record low °C (°F)
12.0
(53.6)
14.0
(57.2)
11.0
(51.8)
12.7
(54.9)
10.0
(50)
7.0
(44.6)
9.4
(48.9)
7.0
(44.6)
8.0
(46.4)
8.0
(46.4)
8.0
(46.4)
12.0
(53.6)
7.0
(44.6)

Average precipitation mm (inches)
72.8
(2.866)
84.8
(3.339)
95.6
(3.764)
120.7
(4.752)
152.9
(6.02)
106.3
(4.185)
105.1
(4.138)
93.8
(3.693)
86.8
(3.417)
68.0
(2.677)
74.0
(2.913)
86.4
(3.402)
1,147.2
(45.165)

Average relative humidity (%)
77
79
79
81
81
81
80
80
79
77
77
78
79

Mean monthly sunshine hours
291.4
245.8
238.7
195.0
176.7
155.0
151.9
173.6
183.0
220.1
219.0
263.5
2,513.7

Mean daily sunshine hours
9.4
8.7
7.7
6.5
5.7
5.0
4.9
5.6
6.1
7.1
7.3
8.5
6.88

Source #1: Universidad de Chile (normals and sunshine hours)[58][59]

Source #2: Deutscher Wetterdienst (extremes and humidity)[60]

text: Ecology[edit]

text: Easter Island, together with its closest neighbour, the tiny island of Isla Sala y Gómez 415 kilometres (258 mi) farther east, is recognized by ecologists as a distinct ecoregion, the Rapa Nui subtropical broadleaf forests. The original subtropical moist broadleaf forests are now gone, but paleobotanical studies of fossil pollen, tree moulds left by lava flows, and root casts found in local soils indicate that the island was formerly forested, with a range of trees, shrubs, ferns, and grasses. A large extinct palm, Paschalococos disperta, related to the Chilean wine palm (Jubaea chilensis), was one of the dominant trees as attested by fossil evidence. Like its Chilean counterpart it probably took close to 100 years to reach adult height. The Polynesian rat, which the original settlers brought with them, played a very important role in the disappearance of the Rapanui palm. Although some may believe that rats played a major role in the degradation of the forest, less than 10% of palm nuts show teeth marks from rats. The remains of palm stumps in different places indicate that humans caused the trees to fall because in large areas, the stumps were cut efficiently.[61]

text: The clearance of the palms to make the settlements led to their extinction almost 350 years ago.[62] The toromiro tree (Sophora toromiro) was prehistorically present on Easter Island, but is now extinct in the wild. However the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and the Göteborg Botanical Garden are jointly leading a scientific program to reintroduce the toromiro to Easter Island. With the palm and the toromiro virtually gone, there was considerably less rainfall as a result of less condensation. After the island was used to feed thousands of sheep for almost a century, by the mid-1900s the island was mostly covered in grassland with nga'atu or bulrush (Schoenoplectus californicus tatora) in the crater lakes of Rano Raraku and Rano Kau. The presence of these reeds, which are called totora in the Andes, was used to support the argument of a South American origin of the statue builders, but pollen analysis of lake sediments shows these reeds have grown on the island for over 30,000 years.[citation needed] Before the arrival of humans, Easter Island had vast seabird colonies containing probably over 30 resident species, perhaps the world's richest.[63] Such colonies are no longer found on the main island. Fossil evidence indicates five species of landbirds (two rails, two parrots and a heron), all of which have become extinct.[64] Five introduced species of landbird are known to have breeding populations (see List of birds of Easter Island).

text: Lacks of studies resulting in poor understandings of oceanic fauna of Easter Island and waters in vicinity, however possibilities of undiscovered breeding grounds for humpback, southern blue and pygmy blue whales including Easter Island and Isla Salas y Gómez have been considered.[65] Potential breeding area for fin whales have been detected off northeast of the island as well.[66]

text:
Vegetation on the island

View of Easter Island from space, 2001. The Poike peninsula is on the right.

Digital recreation of its ancient landscape, with tropical forest and palm trees

View toward the interior of the island

View of Rano Kau and Pacific Ocean

text: The immunosuppressant drug sirolimus was first discovered in the bacterium Streptomyces hygroscopicus in a soil sample from Easter Island. The drug is also known as rapamycin, after Rapa Nui.[67] It is now being studied for extending longevity in mice.[68]

text: Trees are sparse, rarely forming natural groves, and it has been argued whether native Easter Islanders deforested the island in the process of erecting their statues,[69] and in providing sustenance for an overpopulated island.[citation needed] Experimental archaeology demonstrated that some statues certainly could have been placed on "Y" shaped wooden frames called miro manga erua and then pulled to their final destinations on ceremonial sites.[69] Other theories involve the use of "ladders" (parallel wooden rails) over which the statues could have been dragged.[70] Rapanui traditions metaphorically refer to spiritual power (mana) as the means by which the moai were "walked" from the quarry. Recent experimental recreations have proven that it is fully possible that the moai were literally walked from their quarries to their final positions by use of ropes, casting doubt on the role that their existence plays in the environmental collapse of the island.[71]

text: Given the island's southern latitude, the climatic effects of the Little Ice Age (about 1650 to 1850) may have exacerbated deforestation, although this remains speculative.[69] Many researchers[72] point to the climatic downtrend caused by the Little Ice Age as a contributing factor to resource stress and to the palm tree's disappearance. Experts, however, do not agree on when exactly the island's palms became extinct.

text: Jared Diamond dismisses past climate change as a dominant cause of the island's deforestation in his book Collapse which assesses the collapse of the ancient Easter Islanders.[73] Influenced by Heyerdahl's romantic interpretation of Easter's history (as he acknowledges in chapter 2 of Collapse), Diamond insists that the disappearance of the island's trees seems to coincide with a decline of its civilization around the 17th and 18th centuries. He notes that they stopped making statues at that time and started destroying the ahu. But the link is weakened because the Bird Man cult continued to thrive and survived the great impact caused by the arrival of explorers, whalers, sandalwood traders, and slave raiders.

text: Midden contents show that the main source of protein was tuna and dolphin. With the loss of the trees, there was a sudden drop in the quantities of fish bones found in middens as the islanders lost the means to construct fishing vessels, coinciding with a large increase in bird bones. This was followed by a decrease in the number of bird bones as birds lost their nesting sites or became extinct. A new style of art from this period shows people with exposed ribs and distended bellies, indicative of malnutrition, and it is around this time that many islanders moved to living in fortified caves and the first signs of warfare and cannibalism appear.

text: Soil erosion because of lack of trees is apparent in some places. Sediment samples document that up to half of the native plants had become extinct and that the vegetation of the island drastically altered. Polynesians were primarily farmers, not fishermen, and their diet consisted mainly of cultivated staples such as taro root, sweet potato, yams, cassava, and bananas. With no trees to protect them, sea spray led to crop failures exacerbated by a sudden reduction in fresh water flows. There is evidence that the islanders took to planting crops in caves beneath collapsed ceilings and covered the soil with rocks to reduce evaporation. Cannibalism occurred on many Polynesian islands, sometimes in times of plenty as well as famine. Its presence on Easter Island (based on human remains associated with cooking sites, especially in caves) is supported by oral histories.[citation needed]

text: Benny Peiser[5] noted evidence of self-sufficiency when Europeans first arrived. The island still had smaller trees, mainly toromiro, which became extinct in the wild in the 20th century probably because of slow growth and changes in the island's ecosystem. Cornelis Bouman, Jakob Roggeveen's captain, stated in his logbook, "... of yams, bananas and small coconut palms we saw little and no other trees or crops." According to Carl Friedrich Behrens, Roggeveen's officer, "The natives presented palm branches as peace offerings." According to ethnographer Alfred Mètraux, the most common type of house was called "hare paenga" (and is known today as "boat house") because the roof resembled an overturned boat. The foundations of the houses were made of buried basalt slabs with holes for wooden beams to connect with each other throughout the width of the house. These were then covered with a layer of totora reed, followed by a layer of woven sugarcane leaves, and lastly a layer of woven grass. There were reports by European visitors who said they had seen "boles of large palm trees".[citation needed]

text: Peiser claims that these reports indicate that large trees existed at that time, which is perhaps contradicted by the Bouman quote above. Plantations were often located farther inland, next to foothills, inside open-ceiling lava tubes, and in other places protected from the strong salt winds and salt spray affecting areas closer to the coast. It is possible many of the Europeans did not venture inland. The statue quarry, only one kilometre (0.62 miles) from the coast with an impressive cliff 100 m (330 ft) high, was not explored by Europeans until well into the 19th century.

text: Easter Island has suffered from heavy soil erosion in recent centuries, perhaps aggravated by agriculture and massive deforestation. This process seems to have been gradual and may have been aggravated by sheep farming throughout most of the 20th century. Jakob Roggeveen reported that Easter Island was exceptionally fertile. "Fowls are the only animals they keep. They cultivate bananas, sugar cane, and above all sweet potatoes." In 1786 Jean-François de La Pérouse visited Easter Island and his gardener declared that "three days' work a year" would be enough to support the population.

text: Rollin, a major in the Pérouse expedition, wrote, "Instead of meeting with men exhausted by famine... I found, on the contrary, a considerable population, with more beauty and grace than I afterwards met in any other island; and a soil, which, with very little labor, furnished excellent provisions, and in an abundance more than sufficient for the consumption of the inhabitants."[75]

text: According to Diamond, the oral traditions (the veracity of which has been questioned by Routledge, Lavachery, Mètraux, Peiser and others) of the current islanders seem obsessed with cannibalism, which he offers as evidence supporting a rapid collapse. For example, he states, to severely insult an enemy one would say, "The flesh of your mother sticks between my teeth." This, Diamond asserts, means the food supply of the people ultimately ran out.[76] Cannibalism, however, was widespread across Polynesian cultures.[77] Human bones have not been found in earth ovens other than those behind the religious platforms, indicating that cannibalism in Easter Island was a ritualistic practice. Contemporary ethnographic research has proven there is scarcely any tangible evidence for widespread cannibalism anywhere and at any time on the Island.[78] The first scientific exploration of Easter Island (1914) recorded that the indigenous population strongly rejected allegations that they or their ancestors had been cannibals.[30]

text: Culture[edit]

text: Mythology[edit]

text: The most important myths are:

text:
Tangata manu, the Birdman cult which was practised until the 1860s.
Makemake, an important god.
Aku-aku, the guardians of the sacred family caves.
Moai-kava-kava a ghost man of the Hanau epe (long-ears.)
Hekai ite umu pare haonga takapu Hanau epe kai noruego, the sacred chant to appease the aku-aku before entering a family cave.

text: Stone work[edit]

text: The Rapa Nui people had a Stone Age culture and made extensive use of local stone:

text:
Basalt, a hard, dense stone used for toki and at least one of the moai.
Obsidian, a volcanic glass with sharp edges used for sharp-edged implements such as Mataa and for the black pupils of the eyes of the moai.
Red scoria from Puna Pau, a very light red stone used for the pukao and a few moai.
Tuff from Rano Raraku, a much more easily worked rock than basalt that was used for most of the moai.

text: Statues[edit]

text: The large stone statues, or moai, for which Easter Island is famous, were carved in the period 1100–1680 AD (rectified radio-carbon dates).[16] A total of 887 monolithic stone statues have been inventoried on the island and in museum collections.[79] Although often identified as "Easter Island heads", the statues have torsos, most of them ending at the top of the thighs, although a small number are complete figures that kneel on bent knees with their hands over their stomachs.[80][81] Some upright moai have become buried up to their necks by shifting soils.

text: Almost all (95%)[citation needed] moai were carved from compressed, easily worked solidified volcanic ash or tuff found at a single site on the side of the extinct volcano Rano Raraku. The native islanders who carved them used only stone hand chisels, mainly basalt toki, which lie in place all over the quarry. The stone chisels were sharpened by chipping off a new edge when dulled. While sculpting was going on, the volcanic stone was splashed with water to soften it. While many teams worked on different statues at the same time, a single moai took a team of five or six men approximately a year to complete. Each statue represented the deceased head of a lineage.

text: Only a quarter of the statues were installed. Nearly half remained in the quarry at Rano Raraku, and the rest sat elsewhere, presumably on their way to intended locations. The largest moai raised on a platform is known as "Paro". It weighs 82 tonnes (90.4 short tons), and is 9.89 m (32.4 ft) long.[82][83] Several other statues of similar weight were transported to ahu on the north and south coasts.

text: Possible means by which the statues were moved include employment of a miro manga erua, a Y-shaped sledge with cross pieces, pulled with ropes made from the tough bark of the hau tree[84] and tied around the statue's neck. Anywhere from 180 to 250 men were required for pulling, depending on the size of the moai. Some 50 of the statues were re-erected in modern times. One of the first was on Ahu Ature Huke in Anakena beach in 1956.[85] It was raised using traditional methods during a Heyerdahl expedition.

text: Another method that might have been used would be to attach ropes to the statue and rock it, tugging it forward as it rocked. This would fit the legend of the Mo'ai 'walking' to their final locations.[86][87][88] This might have been managed by as few as 15 people, supported by the following evidence:

text:
The heads of the moai in the quarry are sloped forward whereas the ones moved to final locations are not. This would serve to provide a better centre of gravity for transport.
The statues found along the transport roads have wider bases than statues installed on ahu; this would facilitate more stable transport. Studies have shown fractures along the bases of the statues in transport; these could have arisen from rocking the statue back and forth and placing great pressures on the edges. The statues found mounted on ahu do not have wide bases and stone chips found at the sites suggest they were further modified on placement.
The abandoned and fallen statues near the old roads are found (more often than would be expected from chance) face down on ascending grades and on their backs when headed uphill. Some were documented standing upright along the old roads, e.g., by a party from Captain Cook's voyage that rested in the shade of a standing statue. This would be consistent with upright transport.

text: There is debate around the moai regarding the effects of the monument creation process on the environment. Some believe that the process of creating the moai caused widespread deforestation and ultimately a civil war over scarce resources.[89]

text: In 2011, a large moai statue was excavated from the ground.[90] During the same excavation program, some larger moai were found to have complex dorsal petroglyphs, revealed by deep excavation of the torso.[91]

text:
Moais

Tukuturi, an unusual bearded kneeling moai

All fifteen standing moai at Ahu Tongariki, excavated and restored in the 1990s

Ahu Akivi, one of the few inland ahu, with the only moai facing the ocean

text: Stone platforms[edit]

text: Ahu are stone platforms. Varying greatly in layout, many were reworked during or after the huri mo'ai or statue-toppling era; many became ossuaries; one was dynamited open; and Ahu Tongariki was swept inland by a tsunami. Of the 313 known ahu, 125 carried moai—usually just one, probably because of the shortness of the moai period and transportation difficulties. Ahu Tongariki, one kilometre (0.62 miles) from Rano Raraku, had the most and tallest moai, 15 in total.[92] Other notable ahu with moai are Ahu Akivi, restored in 1960 by William Mulloy, Nau Nau at Anakena and Tahai. Some moai may have been made from wood and were lost.

text: The classic elements of ahu design are:

text:
A retaining rear wall several feet high, usually facing the sea
A front wall made of rectangular basalt slabs called paenga
A fascia made of red scoria that went over the front wall (platforms built after 1300)
A sloping ramp in the inland part of the platform, extending outward like wings
A pavement of even-sized, round water-worn stones called poro
An alignment of stones before the ramp
A paved plaza before the ahu. This was called marae
Inside the ahu was a fill of rubble.

text: On top of many ahu would have been:

text:
Moai on squareish "pedestals" looking inland, the ramp with the poro before them.
Pukao or Hau Hiti Rau on the moai heads (platforms built after 1300).
When a ceremony took place, "eyes" were placed on the statues. The whites of the eyes were made of coral, the iris was made of obsidian or red scoria.

text: Ahu evolved from the traditional Polynesian marae. In this context ahu referred to a small structure sometimes covered with a thatched roof where sacred objects, including statues, were stored. The ahu were usually adjacent to the marae or main central court where ceremonies took place, though on Easter Island ahu and moai evolved to much greater size. There the marae is the unpaved plaza before the ahu. The biggest ahu is 220 metres (720 ft) and holds 15 statues, some of which are 9 metres (30 ft) high. The filling of an ahu was sourced locally (apart from broken, old moai, fragments of which have been used in the fill).[74] Individual stones are mostly far smaller than the moai, so less work was needed to transport the raw material, but artificially levelling the terrain for the plaza and filling the ahu was laborious.

text: Ahu are found mostly on the coast, where they are distributed fairly evenly except on the western slopes of Mount Terevaka and the Rano Kau and Poike[93] headlands. These are the three areas with the least low-lying coastal land, and apart from Poike the furthest areas from Rano Raraku. One ahu with several moai was recorded on the cliffs at Rano Kau in the 1880s but had fallen to the beach before the Routledge expedition.[30]

text: Stone walls[edit]

text: One of the highest-quality examples of Easter Island stone masonry is the rear wall of the ahu at Vinapu. Made without mortar by shaping hard basalt rocks of up to 7 tonnes to match each other exactly, it has a superficial similarity to some Inca stone walls in South America.[94]

text: Stone houses[edit]

text: Two types of houses are known from the past: hare paenga, a house with an elliptical foundation, made with basalt slabs and covered with a thatched roof that resembled an overturned boat, and hare oka, a round stone structure. Related stone structures called Tupa look very similar to the hare oka, except that the Tupa were inhabited by astronomer-priests and located near the coast, where the movements of the stars could be easily observed. Settlements also contain hare moa ("chicken house"), oblong stone structures that housed chickens. The houses at the ceremonial village of Orongo are unique in that they are shaped like hare paenga but are made entirely of flat basalt slabs found inside Rano Kao crater. The entrances to all the houses are very low, and entry requires crawling.

text: In early times the people of Rapa Nui reportedly sent the dead out to sea in small funerary canoes, as did their Polynesian counterparts on other islands. They later started burying people in secret caves to save the bones from desecration by enemies. During the turmoil of the late 18th century, the islanders seem to have started to bury their dead in the space between the belly of a fallen moai and the front wall of the structure. During the time of the epidemics they made mass graves that were semi-pyramidal stone structures.

text: Petroglyphs[edit]

text: Petroglyphs are pictures carved into rock, and Easter Island has one of the richest collections in all Polynesia. Around 1,000 sites with more than 4,000 petroglyphs are catalogued. Designs and images were carved out of rock for a variety of reasons: to create totems, to mark territory, or to memorialize a person or event. There are distinct variations around the island in the frequency of themes among petroglyphs, with a concentration of Birdmen at Orongo. Other subjects include sea turtles, Komari (vulvas) and Makemake, the chief god of the Tangata manu or Birdman cult.[95]

text:
Petroglyphs

Makemake with two birdmen, carved from red scoria

Fish petroglyph found near Ahu Tongariki

text: Caves[edit]

text: The island and neighbouring Motu Nui are riddled with caves, many of which show signs of past human use for planting and as fortifications, including narrowed entrances and crawl spaces with ambush points. Many caves feature in the myths and legends of the Rapa Nui.

text: Rongorongo[edit]

text: Easter Island once had an apparent script called rongorongo. Glyphs include pictographic and geometric shapes; the texts were incised in wood in reverse boustrophedon direction. It was first reported by a French missionary, Eugène Eyraud, in 1864. At that time, several islanders said they could understand the writing, but according to tradition, only ruling families and priests were ever literate, and none survived the slave raids and subsequent epidemics. Despite numerous attempts, the surviving texts have not been deciphered, and without decipherment it is not certain that they are actually writing. Part of the problem is the small amount that has survived: only two dozen texts, none of which remain on the island. There are also only a couple of similarities with the petroglyphs on the island.[96]

text: Wood carving[edit]

text:
Skeletal statuette
Atypical tubby statuette

text: Wood was scarce on Easter Island during the 18th and 19th centuries, but a number of highly detailed and distinctive carvings have found their way to the world's museums. Particular forms include:[97]

text:
Reimiro, a gorget or breast ornament of crescent shape with a head at one or both tips.[98] The same design appears on the flag of Rapa Nui. Two Rei Miru at the British Museum are inscribed with Rongorongo.
Moko Miro, a man with a lizard head. The Moko Miro was used as a club because of the legs, which formed a handle shape. If it wasn't held by hand, dancers wore it around their necks during feasts. The Moko Miro would also be placed at the doorway to protect the household from harm. It would be hanging from the roof or set in the ground. The original form had eyes made from white shells, and the pupils were made of obsidian.[99]
Moai kavakava are male carvings and the Moai Paepae are female carvings.[100] These grotesque and highly detailed human figures carved from Toromiro pine, represent ancestors. Sometimes these statues were used for fertility rites. Usually, they are used for harvest celebrations; "the first picking of fruits was heaped around them as offerings". When the statues were not used, they would be wrapped in bark cloth and kept at home. There were a few times that are reported when the islanders would pick up the figures like dolls and dance with them.[100] The earlier figures are rare and generally depict a male figure with an emaciated body and a goatee. The figures' ribs and vertebrae are exposed and many examples show carved glyphs on various parts of the body but more specifically, on the top of the head. The female figures, rarer than the males, depict the body as flat and often with the female's hand lying across the body. The figures, although some were quite large, were worn as ornamental pieces around a tribesman's neck. The more figures worn, the more important the man. The figures have a shiny patina developed from constant handling and contact with human skin.[citation needed]
Ao, a large dancing paddle

text: 21st-century culture[edit]

text: The Rapanui sponsor an annual festival, the Tapati, held since 1975 around the beginning of February to celebrate Rapanui culture. The islanders also maintain a national football team and three discos in the town of Hanga Roa. Other cultural activities include a musical tradition that combines South American and Polynesian influences and woodcarving.

text: Sports[edit]

text: The Chilean leg of the Red Bull Cliff Diving World Series takes place on the Island of Rapa Nui.

text: Demographics[edit]

text: 2012 census[edit]

text: Population at the 2012 census was 5,761 (increased from 3,791 in 2002).[101] In 2002, 60% were persons of indigenous Rapa Nui origin, 39% were mainland Chileans (or their Easter Island-born descendants) of European or mestizo (mixed European and indigenous Chilean Amerindian) origin, and the remaining 1% were indigenous mainland Chilean Amerindians (or their Easter Island-born descendants).[102] Population density on Easter Island in 2012 is only 35 inhabitants per square kilometre (91/sq mi).

text:
Real life in Rapa Nui

Polynesian dancing with feather costumes is on the tourist itinerary.

Hanga Roa town hall

Fishing boats

Front view of the Catholic Church, Hanga Roa

Catholic Church, Hanga Roa

Interior view of the Catholic Church in Hanga Roa

text: Demographic history[edit]

text: The 1982 population was 1,936. The increase in population in the last census was partly caused by the arrival of people of European or mixed European and Native American descent from the Chilean mainland. However, most married a Rapanui spouse. Around 70% of the population were natives. Estimates of the pre-European population range from 7–17,000. Easter Island's all-time low of 111 inhabitants was reported in 1877. Out of these 111 Rapanui, only 36 had descendants, but all of today's Rapanui claim descent from those 36.

text: Administration and legal status[edit]

text: Easter Island shares with Juan Fernández Islands the constitutional status of "special territory" of Chile, granted in 2007. As of 2011[update] a special charter for the island was under discussion in the Chilean Congress.

text: Administratively, the island is a province of the Valparaíso Region and contains a single commune (comuna). Both the province and the commune are called Isla de Pascua and encompass the whole island and its surrounding islets and rocks, plus Isla Salas y Gómez, some 380 km (236 mi) to the east. The provincial governor is appointed by the President of the Republic.[103] The municipal administration is located in Hanga Roa, led by a mayor and a six-member municipal council, all directly elected for a four-year mandate.

text: Notable people[edit]

text:
Kings of Easter Island
Hotu Matuʻa – island founder
Nga'ara – one of the last ‘ariki
Atamu Tekena – missionary installed king
Riro Kāinga – last person to hold title of king
Angata – native catechist and prophetess who led a 1914 rebellion
Juan Tepano – indigenous leader and cultural informant
Thor Heyerdahl – ethnographer
Eugène Eyraud – missionary
Hippolyte Roussel – missionary
Sebastian Englert—missionary and ethnologist
Katherine Routledge – archaeologist and anthropologist
William Mulloy – archaeologist
Pedro Pablo Edmunds Paoa – Mayor and former Governor
Melania Carolina Hotu Hey – Governor (2006–2010 and incumbent since 2015)
Juan Edmunds Rapahango – former Mayor

text: Transportation[edit]

text: Easter Island is served by Mataveri International Airport, with jet service (currently Boeing 767s and Boeing 787s) from LAN Airlines and, seasonally, subsidiaries such as LAN Peru.


document_title: Kim Possible (soundtrack)

question_text: who sang the theme song to kim possible

question_tokens: who sang the theme song to kim possible

text: Kim Possible (soundtrack)

text: List of songs[edit]

text: Original version - 2003[edit]

text:
"CALL ME, BEEP ME! (The Kim Possible Song)" - Christina Milian
"It's Just You" - LMNT
"I'm Ready" - Angela Michael
"Get Up on Ya Feet" - Aaron Carter
"Celebration" - Jump5
"Say The Word" - Kim Possible (Christy Carlson Romano)
"Summertime Guys" - Nikki Cleary
"This Year" - A*Teens
"Work it Out" -  Brassy
"E! Is for Everybody" - Cooler Kids
"Come On, Come On" - Smash Mouth
"The Naked Mole Rap" - Ron Stoppable (Will Friedle) and Rufus (Nancy Cartwright)
"CALL ME, BEEP ME! (The Kim Possible Song)" (Tony Phillips Remix) - Christina Milian

text: Kim-Proved version - 2005[edit]

text:
"CALL ME, BEEP ME! (The Kim Possible Song)" - Christina Milian
"It's Just You" - LMNT
"I'm Ready" - Angela Michael
"Get Up on Ya Feet" - Aaron Carter
"Say The Word" - Kim Possible (Christy Carlson Romano)
"Celebration" - Jump5
"Could It Be" - Christy Carlson Romano
"Summertime Guys" - Nikki Cleary
"E! Is for Everybody" - Cooler Kids
"The Naked Mole Rap" - Ron Stoppable (Will Friedle) and Rufus (Nancy Cartwright)
"Come On, Come On" - Smash Mouth
"Rappin' Drakken" - Dr. Drakken (John DiMaggio)
"CALL ME, BEEP ME! (The Kim Possible Song)" (Tony Phillips Remix) - Christina Milian
"CALL ME, BEEP ME! (Movie Mix)" - Angela Michael

text: Italian version - 2006[edit]

text:
"CALL ME, BEEP ME! (The Kim Possible Song)" - Christina Milian
"Wake Up" - Hilary Duff
"Superstar" - Jamelia
"It's Just You" - LMNT
"Get Up on Ya Feet" - Aaron Carter
"Io ci sarò" - Kim Possible (Valentina Mari)
"Celebration" - Jump5
"Un amore nascosto" - Kim Possible (Valentina Mari)
"Summertime Guys" - Nikki Cleary
"E! Is for Everybody" - Cooler Kids
"La talpa senza pelo" - Ron Stoppable (Marco Vivio) e Rufus (Tatiana Dessi)
"Get Your Shine on" - Jesse McCartney
"Lavati la testa" - Dott. Drakken (Ambrogio Colombo)
"CALL ME, BEEP ME! (The Kim Possible Song)" (Tony Phillips Remix) - Christina Milian

text: German version - 2006[1][edit]

text:
"CALL ME, BEEP ME! (The Kim Possible Song)" - Banaroo
"Wake Up" - Hilary Duff
"Superstar" - Jamelia
"It's Just You" - LMNT
"Get Up on Ya Feet" - Aaron Carter
"Sag Nur Ein Wort" - Marius Claren/Saskia Tanfal
"Celebration" - Jump5
"Kann Das Sein" - Saskia Tanfal
"Summertime Guys" - Nikki Cleary
"E Is for Everybody" - Cooler Kids
"Nacktmull-Rap" - Marius Claren/Ron Stoppable/Stefan Krause/Rufus
"Come On Come On" - Smash Mouth
"Get Your Shine on" - Jesse McCartney
"Schäumen, Spülen Und Parier'n" - Dr Drakken/Jan Spitzer
"CALL ME, BEEP ME! (The Kim Possible Song)" (Tony Phillips Remix) - Christina Milian

text: French version - 2006[2][edit]

text:
"Mission Kim Possible" - Priscilla Betti
"Wake Up" - Hilary Duff
"Ma Vie" (French version) - Amine
"Superstar" - Jamelia
"It's Just You" - LMNT
"Get Up on Ya Feet" - Aaron Carter
"Suffit d'un Mot" - Mery
"Celebration" - Jump5
"Dis Pourquoi" - Veronica Antico
"Summertime Guys" - Nikki Cleary
"E Is for Everybody" - Cooler Kids
"Le Rap Du Taupinet Tondu" - Donald Reignoux as Robin Trépide (Ron Stoppable) & Michel Costa as Rufus
"Come On Come On" - Smash Mouth
"Get Your Shine on" - Jesse McCartney
"Mousse, Rince, Obéi" - Michel Elias as Dr. Drakken
"CALL ME, BEEP ME! (The Kim Possible Song)" - Christina Milian
"Code S-pion : La mission" - Fabienne Darnaud & Joan Faggianelli

text: Differences[edit]

text: Differences from the original soundtrack to the Kim-Proved version are as follows:

text: The songs "This Year" by A*TEENS and "Work It Out" by Brassy on the original are replaced by "Could it Be" by Christy Carlson Romano and "Rappin' Drakken" by Dr. Drakken on the Kim-Proved version. The "CALL ME, BEEP ME! (Movie Mix)" by Angela Michael is added to the Kim-Proved version.

text: Charts[edit]

text:
Year

Chart

Position

2003

The Billboard 200

125[3]