document_title: Spinal cord

question_text: where does the spinal cord begin and end in adults

text: Spinal cord

text: Structure[edit]

text: The spinal cord is the main pathway for information connecting the brain and peripheral nervous system.[2][3] Much shorter than its protecting spinal column, the human spinal cord originates in the brainstem, passes through the foramen magnum, and continues through to the conus medullaris near the second lumbar vertebra before terminating in a fibrous extension known as the filum terminale.

tag: p

text: It is about 45 cm (18 in) long in men and around 43 cm (17 in) in women, ovoid-shaped, and is enlarged in the cervical and lumbar regions. The cervical enlargement, stretching from the C5 to T1 vertebrae, is where sensory input comes from and motor output goes to the arms and trunk. The lumbar enlargement, located between L1 and S3, handles sensory input and motor output coming from and going to the legs.

text: The spinal cord is continuous with the caudal portion of the medulla, running from the base of the skull to the body of the first lumbar vertebra. It does not run the full length of the vertebral column in adults. It is made of 31 segments from which branch one pair of sensory nerve roots and one pair of motor nerve roots. The nerve roots then merge into bilaterally symmetrical pairs of spinal nerves. The peripheral nervous system is made up of these spinal roots, nerves, and ganglia.

text: The dorsal roots are afferent fascicles, receiving sensory information from the skin, muscles, and visceral organs to be relayed to the brain. The roots terminate in dorsal root ganglia, which are composed of the cell bodies of the corresponding neurons. Ventral roots consist of efferent fibers that arise from motor neurons whose cell bodies are found in the ventral (or anterior) gray horns of the spinal cord.

text: The spinal cord (and brain) are protected by three layers of tissue or membranes called meninges, that surround the canal . The dura mater is the outermost layer, and it forms a tough protective coating. Between the dura mater and the surrounding bone of the vertebrae is a space called the epidural space. The epidural space is filled with adipose tissue, and it contains a network of blood vessels. The arachnoid mater, the middle protective layer, is named for its open, spiderweb-like appearance. The space between the arachnoid and the underlying pia mater is called the subarachnoid space. The subarachnoid space contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which can be sampled with a lumbar puncture, or "spinal tap" procedure. The delicate pia mater, the innermost protective layer, is tightly associated with the surface of the spinal cord. The cord is stabilized within the dura mater by the connecting denticulate ligaments, which extend from the enveloping pia mater laterally between the dorsal and ventral roots. The dural sac ends at the vertebral level of the second sacral vertebra.

text: In cross-section, the peripheral region of the cord contains neuronal white matter tracts containing sensory and motor axons. Internal to this peripheral region is the grey matter, which contains the nerve cell bodies arranged in the three grey columns that give the region its butterfly-shape. This central region surrounds the central canal, which is an extension of the fourth ventricle and contains cerebrospinal fluid.

text: The spinal cord is elliptical in cross section, being compressed dorsolaterally. Two prominent grooves, or sulci, run along its length. The posterior median sulcus is the groove in the dorsal side, and the anterior median fissure is the groove in the ventral side.

text: Spinal cord segments[edit]

text: The human spinal cord is divided into segments where pairs of spinal nerves (mixed; sensory and motor) form. Six to eight motor nerve rootlets branch out of right and left ventro lateral sulci in a very orderly manner. Nerve rootlets combine to form nerve roots. Likewise, sensory nerve rootlets form off right and left dorsal lateral sulci and form sensory nerve roots. The ventral (motor) and dorsal (sensory) roots combine to form spinal nerves (mixed; motor and sensory), one on each side of the spinal cord. Spinal nerves, with the exception of C1 and C2, form inside the intervertebral foramen (IVF). These rootlets form the demarcation between the central and peripheral nervous systems.

text: The grey column, (as three regions of grey columns) in the center of the cord, is shaped like a butterfly and consists of cell bodies of interneurons, motor neurons, neuroglia cells and unmyelinated axons. The anterior and posterior grey column present as projections of the grey matter and are also known as the horns of the spinal cord. Together, the grey columns and the gray commissure form the "grey H."

text: The white matter is located outside of the grey matter and consists almost totally of myelinated motor and sensory axons. "Columns" of white matter carry information either up or down the spinal cord.

text: The spinal cord proper terminates in a region called the conus medullaris, while the pia mater continues as an extension called the filum terminale, which anchors the spinal cord to the coccyx. The cauda equina ("horse's tail") is a collection of nerves inferior to the conus medullaris that continue to travel through the vertebral column to the coccyx. The cauda equina forms because the spinal cord stops growing in length at about age four, even though the vertebral column continues to lengthen until adulthood. This results in sacral spinal nerves originating in the upper lumbar region.

text: Within the CNS, nerve cell bodies are generally organized into functional clusters, called nuclei. Axons within the CNS are grouped into tracts.

text: There are 31 spinal cord nerve segments in a human spinal cord:

text:
8 cervical segments forming 8 pairs of cervical nerves (C1 spinal nerves exit the spinal column between the foramen magnum and the C1 vertebra; C2 nerves exit between the posterior arch of the C1 vertebra and the lamina of C2; C3–C8 spinal nerves pass through the IVF above their corresponding cervical vertebrae, with the exception of the C8 pair which exit between the C7 and T1 vertebrae)
12 thoracic segments forming 12 pairs of thoracic nerves
5 lumbar segments forming 5 pairs of lumbar nerves
5 sacral segments forming 5 pairs of sacral nerves
1 coccygeal segment

tag: ul

text:
Spinal Cord Segments in Some Common Species [4]

Species
Cervical
Thoracic
Lumbar
Sacral
Caudal/Coccygeal
Total

Dog
8
13
7
3
5
36

Cat
8
13
7
3
5
36

Cow
8
13
6
5
5
37

Horse
8
18
6
5
5
42

Pig
8
15/14
6/7
4
5
38

Human
8
12
5
5
1
31

text: In the fetus, vertebral segments correspond with spinal cord segments. However, because the vertebral column grows longer than the spinal cord, spinal cord segments do not correspond to vertebral segments in the adult, particularly in the lower spinal cord. For example, lumbar and sacral spinal cord segments are found between vertebral levels T9 and L2, and the spinal cord ends around the L1/L2 vertebral level, forming a structure known as the conus medullaris.

text: Although the spinal cord cell bodies end around the L1/L2 vertebral level, the spinal nerves for each segment exit at the level of the corresponding vertebra. For the nerves of the lower spinal cord, this means that they exit the vertebral column much lower (more caudally) than their roots. As these nerves travel from their respective roots to their point of exit from the vertebral column, the nerves of the lower spinal segments form a bundle called the cauda equina.

text: There are two regions where the spinal cord enlarges:

text:
Cervical enlargement – corresponds roughly to the brachial plexus nerves, which innervate the upper limb. It includes spinal cord segments from about C4 to T1. The vertebral levels of the enlargement are roughly the same (C4 to T1).
Lumbar enlargement – corresponds to the lumbosacral plexus nerves, which innervate the lower limb. It comprises the spinal cord segments from L2 to S3 and is found about the vertebral levels of T9 to T12.

text: Development[edit]

text: The spinal cord is made from part of the neural tube during development. There are four stages of the spinal cord that arises from the neural tube: The neural plate, neural fold, neural tube, and the spinal cord. Neural differentiation occurs within the spinal cord portion of the tube.[5] As the neural tube begins to develop, the notochord begins to secrete a factor known as Sonic hedgehog or SHH. As a result, the floor plate then also begins to secrete SHH, and this will induce the basal plate to develop motor neurons. During the maturation of the neural tube, its lateral walls thicken and form a longtitudinal groove called the sulcus limitans. This extends the length of the spinal cord into dorsal and ventral portions as well.[6] Meanwhile, the overlying ectoderm secretes bone morphogenetic protein (BMP). This induces the roof plate to begin to secrete BMP, which will induce the alar plate to develop sensory neurons. Opposing gradients of such morphogens as BMP and SHH form different domains of dividing cells along the dorsal ventral axis.[7] Dorsal root ganglion neurons differentiate from neural crest progenitors. As the dorsal and ventral column cells proliferate, the lumen of the neural tube narrows to form the small central canal of the spinal cord.[8] The alar plate and the basal plate are separated by the sulcus limitans. Additionally, the floor plate also secretes netrins. The netrins act as chemoattractants to decussation of pain and temperature sensory neurons in the alar plate across the anterior white commissure, where they then ascend towards the thalamus. Following the closure of the caudal neuropore and formation of the brain's ventricles that contain the choroid plexus tissue, the central canal of the caudal spinal cord is filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

text: Earlier findings by Viktor Hamburger and Rita Levi-Montalcini in the chick embryo have been confirmed by more recent studies which have demonstrated that the elimination of neuronal cells by programmed cell death (PCD) is necessary for the correct assembly of the nervous system.[9]

text: Overall, spontaneous embryonic activity has been shown to play a role in neuron and muscle development but is probably not involved in the initial formation of connections between spinal neurons.

text: Blood supply[edit]

text: The spinal cord is supplied with blood by three arteries that run along its length starting in the brain, and many arteries that approach it through the sides of the spinal column. The three longitudinal arteries are the anterior spinal artery, and the right and left posterior spinal arteries.[10] These travel in the subarachnoid space and send branches into the spinal cord. They form anastamoses (connections) via the anterior and posterior segmental medullary arteries, which enter the spinal cord at various points along its length.[10] The actual blood flow caudally through these arteries, derived from the posterior cerebral circulation, is inadequate to maintain the spinal cord beyond the cervical segments.

text: The major contribution to the arterial blood supply of the spinal cord below the cervical region comes from the radially arranged posterior and anterior radicular arteries, which run into the spinal cord alongside the dorsal and ventral nerve roots, but with one exception do not connect directly with any of the three longitudinal arteries.[10] These intercostal and lumbar radicular arteries arise from the aorta, provide major anastomoses and supplement the blood flow to the spinal cord. In humans the largest of the anterior radicular arteries is known as the artery of Adamkiewicz, or anterior radicularis magna (ARM) artery, which usually arises between L1 and L2, but can arise anywhere from T9 to L5.[11] Impaired blood flow through these critical radicular arteries, especially during surgical procedures that involve abrupt disruption of blood flow through the aorta for example during aortic aneursym repair, can result in spinal cord infarction and paraplegia.

text: Function[edit]

text: Somatosensory organization[edit]

text: Somatosensory organization is divided into the dorsal column-medial lemniscus tract (the touch/proprioception/vibration sensory pathway) and the anterolateral system, or ALS (the pain/temperature sensory pathway). Both sensory pathways use three different neurons to get information from sensory receptors at the periphery to the cerebral cortex. These neurons are designated primary, secondary and tertiary sensory neurons. In both pathways, primary sensory neuron cell bodies are found in the dorsal root ganglia, and their central axons project into the spinal cord.

text: In the dorsal column-medial leminiscus tract, a primary neuron's axon enters the spinal cord and then enters the dorsal column. If the primary axon enters below spinal level T6, the axon travels in the fasciculus gracilis, the medial part of the column. If the axon enters above level T6, then it travels in the fasciculus cuneatus, which is lateral to the fasciculus gracilis. Either way, the primary axon ascends to the lower medulla, where it leaves its fasciculus and synapses with a secondary neuron in one of the dorsal column nuclei: either the nucleus gracilis or the nucleus cuneatus, depending on the pathway it took. At this point, the secondary axon leaves its nucleus and passes anteriorly and medially. The collection of secondary axons that do this are known as internal arcuate fibers. The internal arcuate fibers decussate and continue ascending as the contralateral medial lemniscus. Secondary axons from the medial lemniscus finally terminate in the ventral posterolateral nucleus (VPLN) of the thalamus, where they synapse with tertiary neurons. From there, tertiary neurons ascend via the posterior limb of the internal capsule and end in the primary sensory cortex.

text: The proprioception of the lower limbs differs from the upper limbs and upper trunk. There is a four-neuron pathway for lower limb proprioception. This pathway initially follows the dorsal spino-cerebellar pathway. It is arranged as follows: proprioceptive receptors of lower limb -> peripheral process -> dorsal root ganglion -> central process -> Clarke's column -> 2nd order neuron -> medulla oblogata (Caudate nucleus) -> 3rd order neuron -> VPLN of thalamus -> 4th order neuron -> posterior limb of internal capsule -> corona radiata -> sensory area of cerebrum.

text: The anterolateral system works somewhat differently. Its primary neurons axons enter the spinal cord and then ascend one to two levels before synapsing in the substantia gelatinosa. The tract that ascends before synapsing is known as Lissauer's tract. After synapsing, secondary axons decussate and ascend in the anterior lateral portion of the spinal cord as the spinothalamic tract. This tract ascends all the way to the VPLN, where it synapses on tertiary neurons. Tertiary neuronal axons then travel to the primary sensory cortex via the posterior limb of the internal capsule.

text: It should be noted that some of the "pain fibers" in the ALS deviate from their pathway towards the VPLN. In one such deviation, axons travel towards the reticular formation in the midbrain. The reticular formation then projects to a number of places including the hippocampus (to create memories about the pain), the centromedian nucleus (to cause diffuse, non-specific pain) and various parts of the cortex. Additionally, some ALS axons project to the periaqueductal gray in the pons, and the axons forming the periaqueductal gray then project to the nucleus raphes magnus, which projects back down to where the pain signal is coming from and inhibits it. This helps control the sensation of pain to some degree.

text: Motor organization[edit]

text:
Actions of the spinal nerves edit

Level
Motor Function

C1–C6
Neck flexors

C1–T1
Neck extensors

C3, C4, C5
Supply diaphragm (mostly C4)

C5, C6
Move shoulder, raise arm (deltoid); flex elbow (biceps)

C6
externally rotate (supinate) the arm

C6, C7
Extend elbow and wrist (triceps and wrist extensors); pronate wrist

C7, C8
Flex wrist; supply small muscles of the hand

T1–T6
Intercostals and trunk above the waist

T7–L1
Abdominal muscles

L1–L4
Flex thigh

L2, L3, L4
Adduct thigh; Extend leg at the knee (quadriceps femoris)

L4, L5, S1
abduct thigh; Flex leg at the knee (hamstrings); Dorsiflex foot (tibialis anterior); Extend toes

L5, S1, S2
Extend leg at the hip (gluteus maximus); Plantar flex foot and flex toes

text: The corticospinal tract serves as the motor pathway for upper motor neuronal signals coming from the cerebral cortex and from primitive brainstem motor nuclei.

text: Cortical upper motor neurons originate from Brodmann areas 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 and then descend in the posterior limb of the internal capsule, through the crus cerebri, down through the pons, and to the medullary pyramids, where about 90% of the axons cross to the contralateral side at the decussation of the pyramids. They then descend as the lateral corticospinal tract. These axons synapse with lower motor neurons in the ventral horns of all levels of the spinal cord. The remaining 10% of axons descend on the ipsilateral side as the ventral corticospinal tract. These axons also synapse with lower motor neurons in the ventral horns. Most of them will cross to the contralateral side of the cord (via the anterior white commissure) right before synapsing.

text: The midbrain nuclei include four motor tracts that send upper motor neuronal axons down the spinal cord to lower motor neurons. These are the rubrospinal tract, the vestibulospinal tract, the tectospinal tract and the reticulospinal tract. The rubrospinal tract descends with the lateral corticospinal tract, and the remaining three descend with the anterior corticospinal tract.

text: The function of lower motor neurons can be divided into two different groups: the lateral corticospinal tract and the anterior cortical spinal tract. The lateral tract contains upper motor neuronal axons which synapse on dorsal lateral (DL) lower motor neurons. The DL neurons are involved in distal limb control. Therefore, these DL neurons are found specifically only in the cervical and lumbosacral enlargements within the spinal cord. There is no decussation in the lateral corticospinal tract after the decussation at the medullary pyramids.

text: The anterior corticospinal tract descends ipsilaterally in the anterior column, where the axons emerge and either synapse on lower ventromedial (VM) motor neurons in the ventral horn ipsilaterally or descussate at the anterior white commissure where they synapse on VM lower motor neurons contralaterally . The tectospinal, vestibulospinal and reticulospinal descend ipsilaterally in the anterior column but do not synapse across the anterior white commissure. Rather, they only synapse on VM lower motor neurons ipsilaterally. The VM lower motor neurons control the large, postural muscles of the axial skeleton. These lower motor neurons, unlike those of the DL, are located in the ventral horn all the way throughout the spinal cord.

text: Spinocerebellar tracts[edit]

text: Proprioceptive information in the body travels up the spinal cord via three tracks. Below L2, the proprioceptive information travels up the spinal cord in the ventral spinocerebellar tract. Also known as the anterior spinocerebellar tract, sensory receptors take in the information and travel into the spinal cord. The cell bodies of these primary neurons are located in the dorsal root ganglia. In the spinal cord, the axons synapse and the secondary neuronal axons decussates and then travel up to the superior cerebellar peduncle where they decussate again. From here, the information is brought to deep nuclei of the cerebellum including the fastigial and interposed nuclei.

text: From the levels of L2 to T1, proprioceptive information enters the spinal cord and ascends ipsilaterally, where it synapses in Clarke's nucleus. The secondary neuronal axons continue to ascend ipsilaterally and then pass into the cerebellum via the inferior cerebellar peduncle. This tract is known as the dorsal spinocerebellar tract.

text: From above T1, proprioceptive primary axons enter the spinal cord and ascend ipsilaterally until reaching the accessory cuneate nucleus, where they synapse. The secondary axons pass into the cerebellum via the inferior cerebellar peduncle where again, these axons synapse on cerebellar deep nuclei. This tract is known as the cuneocerebellar tract.

text: Motor information travels from the brain down the spinal cord via descending spinal cord tracts. Descending tracts involve two neurons: the upper motor neuron (UMN) and lower motor neuron (LMN).[12] A nerve signal travels down the upper motor neuron until it synapses with the lower motor neuron in the spinal cord. Then, the lower motor neuron conducts the nerve signal to the spinal root where efferent nerve fibers carry the motor signal toward the target muscle. The descending tracts are composed of white matter. There are several descending tracts serving different functions. The corticospinal tracts (lateral and anterior) are responsible for coordinated limb movements.[12]

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: A congenital disorder is diastematomyelia in which part of the spinal cord is split usually at the level of the upper lumbar vertebrae. Sometimes the split can be along the length of the spinal cord.

text: Injury[edit]

text: Spinal cord injuries can be caused by trauma to the spinal column (stretching, bruising, applying pressure, severing, laceration, etc.). The vertebral bones or intervertebral disks can shatter, causing the spinal cord to be punctured by a sharp fragment of bone. Usually, victims of spinal cord injuries will suffer loss of feeling in certain parts of their body. In milder cases, a victim might only suffer loss of hand or foot function. More severe injuries may result in paraplegia, tetraplegia (also known as quadriplegia), or full body paralysis below the site of injury to the spinal cord.

text: Damage to upper motor neuron axons in the spinal cord results in a characteristic pattern of ipsilateral deficits. These include hyperreflexia, hypertonia and muscle weakness. Lower motor neuronal damage results in its own characteristic pattern of deficits. Rather than an entire side of deficits, there is a pattern relating to the myotome affected by the damage. Additionally, lower motor neurons are characterized by muscle weakness, hypotonia, hyporeflexia and muscle atrophy.

text: Spinal shock and neurogenic shock can occur from a spinal injury. Spinal shock is usually temporary, lasting only for 24–48 hours, and is a temporary absence of sensory and motor functions. Neurogenic shock lasts for weeks and can lead to a loss of muscle tone due to disuse of the muscles below the injured site.

text: The two areas of the spinal cord most commonly injured are the cervical spine (C1-C7) and the lumbar spine (L1-L5). (The notation C1, C7, L1, L5 refer to the location of a specific vertebra in either the cervical, thoracic, or lumbar region of the spine.) Spinal cord injury can also be non-traumatic and caused by disease (transverse myelitis, polio, spina bifida, Friedreich's ataxia, spinal cord tumor, spinal stenosis etc.)[13]

text: In the U.S., 10,000-12,000 people become paralyzed annually as a result of various injuries to the spinal cord.[citation needed]

text: Treatment[edit]

text: Real or suspected spinal cord injuries need immediate immobilisation including that of the head. Scans will be needed to assess the injury. A steroid, methylprednisolone, can be of help as can physical therapy and possibly antioxidants.[citation needed] Treatments need to focus on limiting post-injury cell death, promoting cell regeneration, and replacing lost cells. Regeneration is facilitated by maintaining electric transmission in neural elements. Replacement of lost cells is facilitated by transplants with embryonic stem cells, stem cells from the spinal cord, and spinal cord cells from fetuses.

text: Lumbar puncture[edit]

text: The spinal cord ends at the level of vertebrae L1–L2, while the subarachnoid space —the compartment that contains cerebrospinal fluid— extends down to the lower border of S2.[13] Lumbar punctures in adults are usually performed between L3–L5 (cauda equina level) in order to avoid damage to the spinal cord.[13] In the fetus, the spinal cord extends the full length of the spine and regresses as the body grows.

text: Tumours[edit]

text: Spinal tumours can occur in the spinal cord and these can be either inside (intradural) or outside (extradural) the dura mater.

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
Spinal Cord Sectional Anatomy. Animation in the reference.

Diagrams of the spinal cord.

Cross-section through the spinal cord at the mid-thoracic level.

Cross-sections of the spinal cord at varying levels.

Cervical vertebra

A portion of the spinal cord, showing its right lateral surface. The dura is opened and arranged to show the nerve roots.

The spinal cord with dura cut open, showing the exits of the spinal nerves.

The spinal cord showing how the anterior and posterior roots join in the spinal nerves.

The spinal cord showing how the anterior and posterior roots join in the spinal nerves.

A longer view of the spinal cord.

Projections of the spinal cord into the nerves (red motor, blue sensory).

Projections of the spinal cord into the nerves (red motor, blue sensory).

Cross-section of rabbit spinal cord.

Cross-section of adult mouse spinal cord: astrocytes (red) and neurons (green)

Cross section of adult rat spinal cord stained using Cajal method.

text:
[show]Dissection images

An overview of the spinal cord.

Sagittal section of pig vertebrae showing a section of the spinal cord.

The base of the brain and the top of the spinal cord

Spinal cord. Spinal membranes and nerve roots.Deep dissection. Posterior view.

Spinal cord. Spinal membranes and nerve roots.Deep dissection. Posterior view.

Spinal cord. Spinal membranes and nerve roots.Deep dissection. Posterior view.

Spinal cord. Spinal membranes and nerve roots.Deep dissection. Posterior view.

Spinal cord. Spinal membranes and nerve roots.Deep dissection. Posterior view.

Spinal cord. Spinal membranes and nerve roots.Deep dissection. Posterior view.

Spinal cord. Spinal membranes and nerve roots.Deep dissection. Posterior view.

Cerebrum.Inferior view.Deep dissection

Cerebrum.Inferior view.Deep dissection

Spinal cord. Brachial plexus. Cerebrum.Inferior view.Deep dissection.

Spinal cord. Brachial plexus. Cerebrum.Inferior view.Deep dissection.

Spinal cord

Medulla spinalis of 8-week-old human embryo


document_title: Snow White and the Huntsman

question_text: who were the seven dwarfs in snow white and the huntsman

root

text: Snow White and the Huntsman

text: Plot[edit]

text: While admiring a rose blooming in the winter, Queen Eleanor of the kingdom of Tabor pricks her finger on one of its thorns. Three drops of blood fall onto the snow-covered ground, and she wishes for a daughter as white as the snow, with lips as red as the blood, hair as black as a raven's wings and a heart as strong and defiant as the rose. Queen Eleanor gives birth to her daughter Snow White, but soon after falls ill and dies. After her death, Snow White's father, King Magnus, and his army battle an invading Dark Army of demonic glass soldiers. Upon rescuing their prisoner Ravenna, he becomes enchanted with her beauty and marries her.

text: Ravenna is in fact a powerful sorceress and the Dark Army's master. On their wedding night, Magnus, enchanted, throws Ravenna into the bed and proceeds to make love. Ravenna confesses there was a king much like Magnus that hurt her. During foreplay, she declares she cannot be a weak queen and kills Magnus before unleashing her invading army upon the kingdom. Snow White's childhood friend William and his father Duke Hammond escape the castle but are unable to rescue her, and she is captured by Ravenna's brother Finn and locked away in the north tower of the castle for many years.

text: Tabor is ruined under Queen Ravenna's rule as she periodically drains the youth from the kingdom's young women in order to maintain a spell cast over her as a child by her mother which allows her to keep her youthful beauty. When Snow White comes of age, Queen Ravenna learns from her Magic Mirror, in the form of a golden, reflective liquid shaped like a man, that her stepdaughter Snow White is destined to destroy her unless Queen Ravenna consumes the young girl's heart, which will make her truly immortal. Queen Ravenna orders Finn to bring her Snow White's heart, but Snow White escapes into the Dark Forest, where Ravenna has no power. Queen Ravenna makes a bargain with Eric the Huntsman, a widower and drunkard, to capture Snow White, promising to bring his wife back to life in exchange. The Huntsman tracks down Snow White, but when Finn reveals that Queen Ravenna does not actually have the power to do what she promised, the Huntsman fights him and his men while Snow White runs away. When the Huntsman catches up with her, she promises him gold if he will escort her to Duke Hammond's castle. Meanwhile, Finn gathers another band of men to find her, and Duke Hammond and his son William learn that she is alive. William leaves the castle on his own to find her, joining Finn's band as a bowman.

text: The Huntsman and Snow White leave the Dark Forest, where she saves his life by charming a huge troll that attacks them. They make their way to a fishing village populated by women who have disfigured themselves to save their own lives, becoming useless to Queen Ravenna, who wants to use their beauty and youth to extend and prolong hers, as she does with Gretta whilst Snow White is still imprisoned. While there, the Huntsman learns Snow White's true identity, and initially leaves her in the care of the women. He soon returns when he sees the village being burned down by Finn's men. Snow White and the Huntsman evade them and eventually meet a band of eight dwarves named Beith, Muir, Quert, Coll, Duir, Gort, Nion, and Gus. The blind Muir perceives that Snow White is the daughter of the former king, and the only person who can defeat Ravenna and end her reign.

text: As they travel through a fairy sanctuary, Snow White encounters a magical reindeer that was only in tales of legend, but as the reindeer and Snow White are about to embrace, the group is attacked by Finn and his men. The Huntsman battles Finn and eventually kills him, and William reveals himself and helps defeat Finn's men. However, Gus is killed when he sacrifices himself to take an arrow meant for Snow White. William joins the group which continues the journey to Hammond's castle.

text: Halfway to Duke Hammond's castle, Queen Ravenna disguises herself as William and tempts Snow White into eating a poisoned apple, but is forced to flee when the Huntsman and William discover her. William kisses Snow White, whom he believes to be dead and does not notice a tear fall from one of her eyes. She is taken to Hammond's castle. As she lies in repose, the Huntsman professes his regret for not saving Snow White, who reminds him of his late wife, Sara; and he kisses her, not noticing a second tear coming from her other eye falling. The spell broken by the love of two men she treasures, Snow White awakens and walks into the courtyard; rallying the Duke's army to mount a siege against Queen Ravenna.

text: The dwarves infiltrate the castle through the sewers and open the gates, allowing the Duke's army inside. Snow White confronts Queen Ravenna, but is overpowered. Queen Ravenna is about to kill Snow White and consume her heart. Eventually, Snow White uses a move the Huntsman taught her and mortally wounds Queen Ravenna, and Duke Hammond's army is victorious. With Queen Ravenna defeated, the kingdom once again enjoys peace and harmony as Snow White is crowned queen.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Kristen Stewart as Snow White[6]

Raffey Cassidy as young Snow White

Chris Hemsworth as The Huntsman
Charlize Theron as Queen Ravenna, Snow White's evil stepmother

Izzy Meikle-Small as young Ravenna

Sam Claflin as William, son of Duke Hammond

Xavier Atkins as young William

Sam Spruell as Finn, Ravenna's brother and enforcer

Elliot Reeve as young Finn

Vincent Regan as Duke Hammond, William's father
Lily Cole as Greta, a young girl who befriends Snow White
Noah Huntley as King Magnus, Snow White's father
Liberty Ross as Queen Eleanor, Snow White's mother
Chris Obi as the voice of Mirror Man, the physical form of the Magic Mirror
Rachael Stirling as Anna
Hattie Gotobed as Lily
Greg Hicks as Black Knight General
Peter Ferdinando as Black Knight
Anastasia Hille as Ravenna's Mother
Annabelle Wallis as Sara, The Huntsman's Wife

text: The Dwarves[edit]

text:
Ian McShane as Beith, the leader of the Dwarves.
Bob Hoskins as Muir, the blind elder Dwarf, who possesses the powers of premonition. This was Hoskins's final role before his retirement from acting (and his death) due to Parkinson's disease.
Ray Winstone as Gort, an ill-tempered Dwarf.
Nick Frost as Nion,[7] Beith's right-hand man.
Toby Jones as Coll, Duir's brother.
Eddie Marsan as Duir, Coll's brother.
Johnny Harris as Quert, Duir's son.
Brian Gleeson as Gus, the youngest of the Dwarfs who develops a bond with Snow White and later sacrifices himself to save her.

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: Evan Daugherty initially wrote the screenplay in 2003, when he was studying at NYU. [8] At the time reboots of fairy tales were not a popular film genre and according to Daugherty "no one really knew what to do with it" [8] More problems came when the release of Terry Gilliam's The Brothers Grimm (2005) flopped at the box office which caused potential buyers to be hesitant about the script.[8] The script was finally greenlit after the success of Tim Burton's Alice in Wonderland (2010).[8]

text: Casting[edit]

text: Film producers considered casting a lesser-known actress for the role of Snow White, with mention of Riley Keough, Felicity Jones, Bella Heathcote, Alicia Vikander, and Rachel Maxwell as possible picks. This idea became less likely as known actresses Dakota Fanning and Kristen Stewart were later rumored to be short-listed for the role.[9] On March 4, 2011 a series of tweets from co-producer Palak Patel confirmed that Stewart was offered the role.[10] Winona Ryder was initially considered to play Queen Ravenna, before the role went to Charlize Theron.[11] Tom Hardy was supposedly first offered the role of Eric, the Huntsman, but turned down the offer. The role was then apparently offered to Michael Fassbender,[12] and then Johnny Depp, but both claim to have declined it.[13] Viggo Mortensen was said to have been in negotiations with Universal for the part, but supposedly turned down the role, too.[14] It was claimed that Hugh Jackman was offered the role, but that he declined.[15] In 2011, Thor star Chris Hemsworth was eventually cast in the role of the Huntsman.[16] The Dwarfs were played by actors of average height who had their faces digitally superimposed onto small bodies. This caused a protest from the Little People of America.[17]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Principal photography took place in the United Kingdom.[18] The beach scenes were predominantly filmed in Pembrokeshire, on the Marloes Sands beach near the village of Marloes between September 26 and 29, 2011.[19] Though the beach was not closed to the public during filming, as filming progressed, certain parts were advised to be off limits. A computer-generated castle was set on nearby Gateholm island. A field above the beach was used for production purposes, and a special wooden ramp was built for vehicles and horses to access the beach.[citation needed] The film used academic consultants from the University of Chichester and the University of Oxford for back-up research on fairy tales and medieval battles.[20] The English band Florence and the Machine recorded "Breath of Life" exclusively for the film, which was reportedly inspired by Theron's character Queen Ravenna.[21][22]

text: Release[edit]

text: The film had its premiere on May 14, 2012, at the Empire, Leicester Square, in London.[23]

text: Home media[edit]

text: The film was released on DVD and Blu-ray in Region 1 on September 11, 2012,[24] with both the theatrical version (127 minutes) and an extended version (132 minutes) available on both formats. The film was released on the same formats in Region 2 on October 1, 2012.[25]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: Snow White and the Huntsman earned $155,332,381 in North America, along with $241,260,448 in other territories, for a worldwide total of $396,592,829.[5] In North America, the film earned $1,383,000 from midnight showings.[26] For its opening day, the film topped the box office with $20,468,525.[27] It debuted in first place at the box office during its opening weekend with $56,217,700.[28] It is the seventeenth highest-grossing 2012 film.[29] Outside North America, Snow White and the Huntsman had an opening of $39.3 million, ranking second overall for the weekend behind Men in Black 3; however, it ranked number 1 in 30 countries.[30]

text: Critical reaction[edit]

text: Snow White and the Huntsman received mixed reviews from critics. The film has a 48% "rotten" score on Rotten Tomatoes based on 221 reviews, with an average rating of 5.6/10. The site's consensus states: "While it offers an appropriately dark take on the fairy tale that inspired it, Snow White & the Huntsman is undone by uneven acting, problematic pacing, and a confused script."[31] On Metacritic, the film has a score of 57 out of 100, based on 39 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". CinemaScore polls conducted revealed the average grade that filmgoers gave the film was a "B" on an A+ to F scale.[32]

text: David Edelstein of New York praised the film's revisionist tone and said the film was "strongly influenced by a lot of smart, feminist thinking".[33] Roger Ebert gave the film 3.5 stars out of 4.[34] A.O. Scott of The New York Times praised Theron's performance and also wrote, "Though it is an ambitious – at times mesmerizing – application of the latest cinematic technology, the movie tries to recapture some of the menace of the stories that used to be told to scare children rather than console them."[35] Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote, "Ravenna hates living in a world where men can feed on women's beauty and then toss them away. She's a fascist of feminism, and Theron's acting has the blood of operatic anger coursing through it."[36] Betsy Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times said the film is, "an absolute wonder to watch and creates a warrior princess for the ages. But what this revisionist fairy tale does not give us is a passionate love – its kisses are as chaste as the snow is white."[37] Rolling Stone's Peter Travers called it "a visual marvel" while noting that Stewart "morphs convincingly from a skittish girl into a determined warrior princess."[38] MSN news said that Stewart "grows into her character, it seems, and eventually got this reviewer completely on her side.[39] Colin Covert of the Minneapolis Star Tribune gave the film 4/4 stars.[40] Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian said that while the film is "less jokey than the recent Mirror Mirror", "this Twilightified fairytale has the same basic problem," and that, "The result is tangled and overblown."[41] Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle called it "[a] slow, boring film that has no charm and is highlighted only by a handful of special effects and Charlize Theron's truly evil queen."[42] Michael O'Sullivan of the Washington Post also gave the film a negative review: "Overlong, overcrowded, overstimulating and with an over-the-top performance by Charlize Theron as the evil queen Ravenna, the movie is a virtual orchard of toxic excess, starting with the unnecessarily sprawling cast of characters."[43] Lisa Kennedy of the Denver Post gave the film two out of four stars and said, "Only Bob Hoskins as the blind seer Muir comes close to making us care. We can almost glean Snow White's heroic possibilities through his clouded eyes. As much as we'd like to, we certainly can't from Stewart's efforts."[44] Scott Foundas states that "Stewart’s Snow White... pouts her lips, bats her bedroom eyes, and scarcely seems to have more on her mind than who might take her to the senior prom—let alone the destiny of an entire kingdom."[45] Richard Roeper gave the movie a B+, calling it "Vastly superior to Mirror, Mirror", and praising Theron and Stewart's performances.[46]

text: Accolades[edit]

text:
List of awards and nominations

Year
Recipient
Award
Category
Result

2012
Charlize Theron
Teen Choice Award
Choice Movie: Hissy Fit
Won

Kristen Stewart
Teen Choice Award
Choice Summer Movie Star: Female
Won

Chris Hemsworth
Teen Choice Award
Choice Summer Movie Star: Male (also for The Avengers)
Won

Sam Claflin
Teen Choice Award
Choice Movie: Breakout
Nominated

Charlize Theron
Teen Choice Award
Choice Movie: Villain
Nominated

Charlize Theron
Teen Choice Award
Choice Summer Movie Star: Female (also for Prometheus)
Nominated

Chris Hemsworth
GQ Award
GQ Men Of The Year Award for International Breakthrough
Won

Colleen Atwood
Gucci Award
Best Costume Design
Nominated

Florence and the Machine
World Soundtrack Awards
Best Original Song Written Directly for a Film
Nominated

Chris Munro and Craig Henighan
Satellite Award
Best Sound (Editing & Mixing)
Nominated

Wild Card and Universal Pictures
Golden Trailer Award
Best Action (for "Forever")
Won

Universal Pictures
Golden Trailer Award
Best Summer Blockbuster 2012 TV Spot (for "Ravenna")
Won

Universal Pictures
Golden Trailer Award
Best Motion/Title Graphics (for "Domestic Trailer 2")
Nominated

Universal Pictures and Wild Card
Golden Trailer Award
Best Summer Blockbuster 2012 TV Spot (for "Bound")
Nominated

Universal Pictures and Aspect Ratio
Golden Trailer Award
Best Summer Blockbuster 2012 TV Spot (for "Kingdom")
Nominated

Universal Pictures and Wild Card
Golden Trailer Award
Best in Show (for "Forever")
Nominated

Cedric Nicolas-Troyan, Philip Brennan, Neil Corbould, and Michael Dawson
St. Louis Gateway Film Critics Association
Best Visual Effects
Nominated

Greig Fraser
San Diego Film Critics Society Awards
Special Award
Won

2012

People's Choice Awards
Favorite Film
Nominated

2013
Chris Hemsworth
People's Choice Awards
Favorite Action Movie Star (also for The Avengers)
Nominated

Charlize Theron
People's Choice Awards
Favorite Dramatic Movie Actress (also for Prometheus)
Nominated

Kristen Stewart and Chris Hemsworth
People's Choice Awards
Favorite On-Screen Chemistry
Nominated

Kristen Stewart
People's Choice Awards
Favorite Face of Heroism
Nominated

Colleen Atwood
Academy Awards
Best Costume Design
Nominated

Cedric Nicolas-Troyan, Philip Brennan, Neil Corbould, and Michael Dawson
Academy Awards
Best Visual Effects
Nominated

Kristen Stewart
Golden Raspberry Awards
Worst Actress (also for The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn - Part 2)
Won

Film
Saturn Awards
Best Fantasy Film
Nominated

Charlize Theron
Saturn Awards
Best Supporting Actress
Nominated

Colleen Atwood
Saturn Awards
Best Costume
Nominated

Cedric Nicolas-Troyan, Philip Brennan, Neil Corbould and Michael Dawson
Saturn Awards
Best Special Effects
Nominated

Kristen Stewart
2013 MTV Movie Awards
Best Hero
Nominated

tag: table

text: Prequel/Sequel[edit]

text: A sequel was planned, with director Rupert Sanders in talks to return.[citation needed] In August 2012, The Hollywood Reporter reported that the sequel was shelved in the aftermath of the scandal involving Sanders cheating on his wife with Stewart and that a spin-off film concentrating on the Huntsman was planned instead, which would not star Stewart.[47] Universal announced a few days later that they were not shelving the sequel.[48] A 2012 report stated that Universal has authorized a sequel[49] and Stewart was set to reprise her role, but without Sanders to return as the director due to the scandal.[50] The script was written and production was set to begin in 2013.[49]

text: The film was originally scheduled for release in 2015.[51] In September 2013, Chris Hemsworth stated he did not know anything about the sequel while speaking to E!.[52] On June 4, 2014, Deadline reported that Frank Darabont, Gavin O'Connor and Andrés Muschietti were on the shortlist to direct the sequel.[53] On June 26, 2014, Deadline reported that Darabont was in talks to direct the sequel.[54] Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and Legendary Pictures were set to co-finance the film with Universal but dropped out and were replaced by Perfect World Pictures. On July 31, 2014, the project was described as a prequel titled The Huntsman scheduled for April 22, 2016, which would not star Stewart as Snow White.[55] In January 2015, Darabont left the project as director,[56] but the third leading role was set with Emily Blunt. It was later announced that Cedric Nicolas-Troyan would take over as the new director for the film.[57][58] Nick Frost will return as Dwarf Nion and Jessica Chastain will star.[59] On March 18, 2015, Rob Brydon, Alexandra Roach and Sheridan Smith were added to the cast as dwarves.[60] TheWrap confirmed on May 7, 2015, that Sam Claflin would return as William in this sequel.[61]

text: It was later revealed that the film would feature Ravenna's sister, the Ice Queen, and would reveal the origins of the Huntsman, while also continuing the story of the first film.[62]


document_title: Death notification

question_text: who informs family of killed in action soldiers

text: Death notification

text: Death notifiers[edit]

text: The protocol for each notifier differs because each situation is unique. Police officers become very involved with most families that deal with death outside of medical facilities. The news should be delivered in person, as soon as possible, with another officer, in clear and plain language, and with compassion. One of the main reasons there should be two people is so that if an individual has a negative reaction there is additional support for them and support for the notifier in case of a person lashing out. The officers should enter the receiver’s residence to make the situation more personal. A chaplain, a clergy member who works in hospitals, nursing homes, prisons, armed forces, police, or emergency medical services may alternatively deliver the news. The main goal is to deliver the news of a death, but also to help mend a broken family emotionally and spirituality. He also must try to explain and make sense of the tragedy. Medics do not have time to establish a bond with the family and should deliver the news in an authoritative manner then try to reassure and relieve them.[2] The Military of the United States withholds the name of a deceased member until 24 hours after the family has been notified.

text: For military notifications, there are usually multiple persons involved: the notifying officer, a chaplain who accompanies the notifying officer throughout the process and who may also assist in delivering the news, a medic (in case the family member faints), and an officer that stays in the car in case the family members react violently.

text: The US Army Manual states that

text: "The Next of Kin will be notified promptly in an appropriate dignified and understanding manner by a uniformed service representative. He/she will wear the Class "A" uniform and present a soldierly appearance when making notification."

text: It is the Army policy to make personal notification to the primary next of kin and secondary next of kin of the deceased soldier within four hours after learning of the death. Notification should take place from 0600 to 2200.

text: The process for death notification in the military is a three phase process. The people doing the notifying are also in the military, and are usually in a four-member team.[3]

text: Phase 1- This phase deals with both logistical and personal preparation such as designating who will do the talking.

text: Phase 2- This phase involves driving to the home, knocking on the door, and stating

text: "I have been asked to inform you that your son has been reported dead in [city, state, country] at 0700 on August 26, 1991. [Briefly state the circumstances.] On the behalf of the Secretary of Defense, I extend to you and your family my deepest sympathy in your great loss".[3]

text: Phase 3- This phase is when the team leaves the home. The team leader must feel that the situation is under control before they leave the premises.

text: Denny Hayes, who spent fifteen years as a chaplain for the FBI’s critical response team, says:

text:
Always deliver bad news in person.
Always bring a partner ("95 percent of them defer to me to do the actual speaking of the words—nobody wants to experience sad").
Skip the euphemisms—they comfort no one except the person speaking them.
Never abandon anyone until they have someone else to hold onto.[4]

text: "You can’t make it better," said Dr. Nancy Davis, former chief of counseling services for the FBI. "But you can definitely make it worse."[4]

text: Death receivers[edit]

text: Death receivers include parents, children, friends, lovers, co-workers, and other incident survivors. Each receiver responds to the news in a different way because each relationship was unique to the deceased. Most parents want to hold their child’s body and collect a physical memento. They often create a memory box filled with the child handprint, lock of hair, and/or clothing. Centers believe that parents should be encouraged to see their dead child multiple times to provide relief. Children have unpredictable reactions to death, and depend on their age, previous experience with death, and the emotional support around them. When telling a child about a death, one should use real words to describe the death and let them know that the death is permanent. Children can understand death at a very young age so they should be told the truth about the situation. The notifier should answer questions the child has and allow the child to express their feelings. When notifying friends, encouragement to seek closure about unresolved issues with the deceased is most efficient.[5]

text: Death education in professions[edit]

text: Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) received a grant from the Department of Justice in 1988 to train police officers in death notification. If it's done properly, the receiver will be able to go on through the mourning process.[6] MADD began their death notification education program in order to create comforting and professional death notifications. Police officers have to report the most deaths compared to any other occupation, which is why the education provided by MADD is so crucial. Licensed social workers collaborated with health care professionals to create a protocol for notifying the family of the deceased. This includes having the family view the body and talk with the medical staff in order to answer questions about the situation and discuss the next steps to take.[7]

text: Notifications in various settings[edit]

text: Physicians and other health care professionals are faced with losing patients more times than they would want to think about. Due to this, they too are responsible for coming to the family with the distressing news. Along with law enforcement notification, physicians "do not receive specific instructions on death notification skills" (Henderson, 2012). Since there is a lack of training, this makes breaking the bad news extremely stressful, which then leaves the physicians more susceptible to burnout and becoming dissatisfied with their job performance and duties (Henderson, 2012). Explaining what happened and being clear with the family is very important when giving a death notification, not using words that are difficult to understand is crucial (Vandekieft, 2001). Death notification can be completed in, are an office (work) setting and or a hospital. In both of these settings one delivers the notification in a room that the survivor can have their own privacy in. For example, when giving the death notification in a work setting, ask permission from their supervisor and take them to a private room to deliver the notification. When giving death notification in a hospital setting there are already set protocols since it is a large institution, but it would still be in a private room. When giving death notification in a hospital it is key that this notification is not done in a common area such as a waiting room or hallway. Once the notification is complete there are various forms that survivors must complete and the notifiers help in completing these. Aside from the forms, the notifiers also can take the survivors to the body if the survivors chose to do so. The "last" part of the job that the individual notifying survivors completes is to follow up and stay in contact while the family needs support and help in answering any questions about the death.

text: Universal tips for death notification[edit]

text: Since death notification is such a difficult job there are universal guidelines, which can be used across professions. Giving unfortunate news in person is extremely important (Campbell, 1992), so making sure the families do not find out through social media, a phone call, or any other types of communication is necessary. A person notifying will ensure the family that someone cares and is supported. Thinking before they speak, (Moldovan, 2009) and not giving the family harmful information that may cause more pain. Making sure the notification happens in a timely manner (Flaherty, 2005) although this may focus more on military and law enforcement, it is important for the families. Finally, for the person doing the notification (Vandekieft, 2001) they should allow themselves to be sympathetic of the family’s loss, without being overly emotional or coming off as uncaring. It is clear that no matter the profession, a death notification needs to be done sensitively, clearly, and efficiently.


document_title: Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain

question_text: in what direction was the pacific plate moving while the emperor seamounts were forming

text: Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain

text: Regions[edit]

text: The chain can be divided into three subsections. The first, the Hawaiian archipelago (also known as the Windward isles), consists of the islands comprising the U.S. state of Hawaii. As it is the closest to the hotspot, this volcanically active region is the youngest part of the chain, with ages ranging from 400,000 years[1] to 5.1 million years.[2] The island of Hawaiʻi is composed of five volcanoes, of which three (Kilauea, Mauna Loa, and Hualalai) are still active. Lōʻihi Seamount continues to grow offshore, and is the only known volcano in the chain in the submarine pre-shield stage.[3]

text: The second part of the chain is composed of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, collectively referred to as the Leeward isles, the constituents of which are between 7.2 and 27.7 million years in age.[2] Erosion has long since overtaken volcanic activity at these islands, and most of them are atolls, atoll islands, and extinct islands. They contain many of the most northerly atolls in the world; one of them, Kure Atoll, is the northernmost atoll in the world.[4] On June 15, 2006, U.S. President George W. Bush issued a proclamation creating Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument under the Antiquities Act of 1906. The national monument, meant to protect the biodiversity of the Hawaiian isles,[n 1] encompasses all of the northern isles, and is one of the largest such protected areas in the world. The proclamation limits tourism to the area, and calls for a phase-out of fishing by 2011.[5]

text: The oldest and most heavily eroded part of the chain are the Emperor seamounts, which are 39[6] to 85 million years in age.[7] The Emperor and Hawaiian chains form an angle of about 120°. This bend was long attributed to a relatively sudden change of 60° in the direction of plate motion, but research conducted in 2003 suggests that it was the movement of the hotspot itself that caused the bend.[8] The issue is still currently under debate.[9] All of the volcanoes in this part of the chain have long since subsided below sea level, becoming seamounts and guyots (see also the seamount and guyot stages of Hawaiian volcanism). Many of the volcanoes are named after former emperors of Japan. The seamount chain extends to the West Pacific, and terminates at the Kuril–Kamchatka Trench, a subduction zone at the border of Russia.[10]

text: Formation[edit]

text: The oldest age for the Emperor Seamounts is 81 million years, and comes from Detroit Seamount. However, Meiji Guyot, located to the north of Detroit Seamount, is likely somewhat older.

text: In 1963, geologist John Tuzo Wilson hypothesized the origins of the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain, explaining that they were created by a hotspot of volcanic activity that was essentially stationary as the Pacific tectonic plate drifted in a northwesterly direction, leaving a trail of increasingly eroded volcanic islands and seamounts in its wake. An otherwise inexplicable kink in the chain marks a shift in the movement of the Pacific plate some 47 million years ago, from a northward to a more northwesterly direction, and the kink has been presented in geology texts as an example of how a tectonic plate can shift direction comparatively suddenly. A look at the USGS map on the origin of the Hawaiian Islands[11] clearly shows this "spearpoint".

text: In a more recent study, Sharp and Clague (2006) interpret the bend as starting at about 50 million years ago. They also conclude that the bend formed from a "traditional" cause—a change in the direction of motion of the Pacific plate.

text: However, recent research shows that the hotspot itself may have moved with time. Some evidence comes from analysis of the orientation of the ancient magnetic field preserved by magnetite in ancient lava flows sampled at four seamounts (Tarduno et al., 2003): this evidence from paleomagnetism shows a more complex history than the commonly accepted view of a stationary hotspot. If the hotspot had remained above a fixed mantle plume during the past 80 million years, the latitude as recorded by the orientation of the ancient magnetic field preserved by magnetite (paleolatitude) should be constant for each sample; this should also signify original cooling at the same latitude as the current location of the Hawaiian hotspot. Instead of remaining constant, the paleolatitudes of the Emperor Seamounts show a change from north to south, with decreasing age. The paleomagnetic data from the seamounts of the Emperor chain suggest motion of the Hawaiian hotspot in Earth's mantle. Tarduno et al. (2009) have summarized evidence that the bend in the seamount chain may be caused by circulation patterns in the flowing solid mantle (mantle "wind") rather than a change in plate motion.

text: Aging[edit]

text: The chain has been produced by the movement of the ocean crust over the Hawaiʻi hotspot, an upwelling of hot rock from the Earth's mantle. As the oceanic crust moves the volcanoes farther away from their source of magma, their eruptions become less frequent and less powerful until they eventually cease to erupt altogether. At that point erosion of the volcano and subsidence of the seafloor cause the volcano to gradually diminish. As the volcano sinks and erodes, it first becomes an atoll island and then an atoll. Further subsidence causes the volcano to sink below the sea surface, becoming a seamount and/or a guyot.[3]


document_title: Metrication in Canada

question_text: when did canada convert from imperial to metric

text: Metrication in Canada

text: Before conversion[edit]

text: Until the 1970s, Canada traditionally used the Imperial measurement system, labelled as "Canadian units of measurements" under Schedule II, Section 4 of the Weights and Measures Act (R.S., 1985, c. W-6).[3] These units have the same name and, with the exception of capacity measures such as the gallon, the same values as US customary units. For example, before metrication in Canada, gasoline was sold by the imperial gallon (about 4.55 litres). In cross-border transactions, it was often unclear whether values quoted in gallons, etc. were referring to the US values (3.79 litres) or the imperial values of these units.

text: Conversion process[edit]

text: The Liberal federal government of Pierre Trudeau first began implementing metrication in Canada in 1970 with a government agency dedicated to implementing the project, the Metric Commission, being established in 1971. By the mid-1970s, metric product labelling was introduced. In 1972, the provinces agreed to make all road signs metric by 1977. There was some resistance to metrication, especially as the sectors of the economy where the federal Weights and Measures Act required metric to be used grew in number. The metrication of gasoline and diesel fuel sales in 1979 prompted 37 Progressive Conservative Members of Parliament to open a "freedom to measure" gas station in Carleton Place, Ontario, selling gas in both imperial gallons and litres. The city of Peterborough, Ontario, was a noted hotbed of opposition to metrication, having been one of the government's three test centres for the metrication process. Bill Domm, a Member of Parliament representing the riding of Peterborough, was one of the country's most outspoken opponents of metrication. During this period, a few government employees lost their jobs for their opposition to metrication.[4] Neil Fraser, an official with Revenue Canada who publicly opposed mandatory metric conversion, was dismissed for "conduct unacceptable for a public servant."

text: Changeover[edit]

text: Since 1976, the law requires that all prepackaged food products must declare their mass or their volume in metric units, though Canadian imperial units are still legally permitted on packaging.[5] Milk has been thoroughly metric since 1980. In April 1975, Fahrenheit temperatures were replaced by Celsius. In September 1975, rainfall was first measured in millimetres and snow in centimetres. Since April 1976, wind speed, visibility, and barometric pressure have been in metric units, with the pressure in kilopascals instead of the hectopascals (millibars) used in most of the rest of the world. In September 1977, every speed-limit sign in the country was changed from miles per hour to kilometres per hour.[6]

text: Metrication stalled[edit]

text: The election of the Progressive Conservative government of Brian Mulroney in 1984 resulted in the abolition of the Metric Commission on March 31, 1985. This ended the process of affirmative metrication in Canada, and some regulations requiring metric measurements either have been repealed or are no longer enforced.

text: Training on metric conversion was not universal. Poor metrication training was a contributing factor to Air Canada Flight 143, the so-called Gimli Glider, running out of fuel mid-flight on 23 July 1983.

text: Notwithstanding the end of officially sanctioned metrication in Canada, most laws, regulations, and official forms exclusively use metric measurements.[citation needed] However, imperial measures still have legal definitions in Canada and can be used alongside metric units.[3][7][8]

text: Common usage today[edit]

text: Daily usage[edit]

text: Canadians typically discuss the weather in degrees Celsius, purchase gasoline in litres, observe speed limits set in kilometres per hour (km/h), and read road signs and maps displaying distances in kilometres. Cars have metric speedometers and odometers, although some speedometers include smaller figures in miles per hour (mph). Fuel efficiency for new vehicles is published by Natural Resources Canada in litres per 100 kilometres, (not kilometres per litre as a direct equivalent of miles per gallon) and miles per gallon.[9] Window stickers in dealer showrooms often include "miles per gallon" conversions. The railways of Canada continue to measure their trackage in miles, and speed limits in mph. (In part this can be attributed to both CP and CN operating into the US and having bought US railroads). Canadian railcars show weight figures in both imperial and metric.

text: Today, Canadians typically use a mix of metric and imperial measurements in their daily lives. However the use of the metric and imperial systems varies according to generations. Newborns are measured in metric at hospitals, but the birth weight and length is also announced to family and friends in imperial units. Among the broader population, imperial units are sometimes informally used to indicate height and weight, especially by those of older generations. [10] However, Canadian driver's licences give height in centimetres.[11][12] In addition, Fahrenheit is often used for cooking, as are imperial cooking measurements, due to the import of kitchen appliances from the United States. It should also be noted that in the cupboards of many Canadians, are cookbooks which still reference the imperial system in temperature, volume and weight. However, most appliances in Canada are labelled with degrees Celsius or are convertible, and metric cooking measures are widely available; imperial temperatures are also occasionally used outside of the kitchen, such as when measuring the water temperature in a pool. Stationery and photographic prints are also sold in sizes based on inches and the most popular paper sizes, letter and legal, are sized in imperial units. Canadian Football League games continue to be played on fields measured in yards; golfers also expect courses to be measured in yards. However newer generations are moving away from the imperial system.

text: Experience[edit]

text: The use of metric or imperial measurements varies by age and region.[citation needed] Canadians who have received only metric instruction in school (from the early 1970s) are more familiar with metric measurements. However metrication in the Francophone province of Quebec has been more fully implemented and metric measures are more consistently used than elsewhere in Canada.[citation needed] The use of imperial units is more common in rural areas than in the rest of the country, where opposition to metrication was strongest, rather than in urban areas.[citation needed]

text: Canadians are exposed to both metric and imperial units, and it is not unusual for there to be references to both metres and feet, acres and hectares, or grams and ounces, in the same conversation.[citation needed]

text: Temperature[edit]

text: Despite the exclusive use of degrees Celsius in weather reports, some older Canadians still use Fahrenheit. Most outdoor thermometers display temperatures in both Fahrenheit and Celsius. Additionally, outdoor signs usually display Celsius with occasional references to Fahrenheit. Inside newer buildings, digital and analog thermostats display temperature settings in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit. Environment Canada still offers an imperial unit option beside metric units.[13]

text: Products and retail[edit]

text: Many food and retail products are sold according to metric units, though this is not always the case. The price of a piece of meat, for example a steak, is typically advertised per pound, but the price printed on the package is per kilogram; the latter is calculated. The prices of fruits and vegetables are usually advertised in pounds, although the price per kilogram is also displayed, usually in smaller type. More expensive items such as deli, meats, and fish are often advertised per 100 grams. Many, but not all, products are sold in imperial sizes, but labelled in metric units. An example of this is butter, which is sold in a 454 gram package (and labelled as such), even though it represents one pound (and in many cases is also labelled with the imperial unit). This is known as "soft metric" (as opposed to a "hard metric" system, where packages and measures are generally sold in "round numbers"; in a hard metric system, butter might come in a 500 g package).

text: In restaurants, wine is usually served by the litre, 750 mL (26-imperial-fluid-ounce; 25-US-fluid-ounce) or 500 mL (18-imperial-fluid-ounce; 17-US-fluid-ounce) bottle, but a wine glass is measured in ounces. Similarly, fast food restaurants (e.g. McDonald's Quarter Pounder) often advertise measurements of food and drink in US customary units, but converted to metric units, because either the containers are made to US standards, or the franchise is US-based and uses a standard size for its products. Thus in Canada a 20 US fluid ounce bottled soft drink is labelled as 591 mL (or occasionally rounded up to 600 mL). Beer in bottles continues to be 12 imperial fluid ounces (labelled as 341 mL), but beer in cans is filled to 12 US fluid ounces (labelled as 355 mL).[14] There is also a larger sized beer bottle which is labelled as containing 1.18 L (42 imperial fluid ounces; 40 US fluid ounces).[14] Some of these package sizes have been introduced since Canadian metrication began; for example, the traditional Canadian soft drink can was 10 imperial fluid ounces (284 mL), later marketed as 280 mL. Only in the early 1990s did the US-derived 355 mL size displace it. Television sets and computer screens are also measured in inches. Standard and special fasteners like alloys, nuts, bolts, washers, studs, tapping, self drilling screw and socket screware are often quoted in both imperial and metric; products range from 2⁄56 in (0.91 mm) diameter up to 4 in (100 mm).[15]

text: Commercial usage[edit]

text: Supermarkets will often advertise foods such as meats and produce "per pound", and small businesses are exempt from having metric scales and legally sell by the pound. While most supermarket scales display both metric and imperial units,[16] products advertised by the pound in a supermarket flyer are invariably sold to the customer (at the point of sale) based on a price "per 100 grams" or "per kilogram".

text: Construction materials, including construction lumber and drywall, continue to be sold in imperial measurements; retrofitting metric-sized (designed for 400 mm centres) wallboard on old 16 in (410 mm) spaced studs is difficult. In English-speaking Canada commercial and residential spaces are mostly (but not exclusively) constructed using imperial units and advertised accordingly, while in French-speaking Quebec commercial and residential spaces are constructed in metres and advertised using both metric and imperial units as equivalents.[17][18] However, the zoning by-laws and building codes that govern construction are in metric, although most building codes will also contain imperial equivalents. In addition, rural areas in Western Canada (Canadian Prairies) were mapped and segmented using the Dominion Land Survey. This based most rural roads on a mile measurement which when viewed from the air has the appearance of a checkerboard or grid.[19] Because of this standard now etched into the landscape, it is still common to refer to distance in miles, since counting the number of mile roads is easy. In contrast, in much of southern Ontario the basic survey grid was based on a mile-and-a-quarter (1.25 mi), which corresponds almost exactly to a 2 kilometre grid and which makes miles no more natural than kilometres. It should be noted that 1.25 mi is equal to 100 chains (or 10 furlongs) and it was that sized grid that was used in the original surveys and thus would have been more familiar.[20][21]

text: Free trade with the United States has resulted in continued exposure to the US system. Since the United States is Canada's largest trading partner and vice versa, Canadian exporters and importers must be accustomed to dealing in US customary units as well as metric.

text: Agriculture[edit]

text: Canada uses an Avery or imperial bushel (36.369 litres) when selling oats, wheat, and other grains. When dealing with the US oat markets though, special attention must be paid to the definition of bushel weight because US uses a Winchester bushel (35.239 litres).[22] In livestock auction markets, cattle are sold in dollars per hundredweight (short), whereas hogs are sold in dollars per hundred kilograms.[citation needed]

text: Health care[edit]

text: In the health care system, metric units are often given precedence, although actual metric units may still be different than the United States (for example, for measurements of blood cholesterol, the units are millimole per litre, whereas they are milligram per decilitre in the United States). Most physicians chart patient height and weight in imperial units, and while most growth charts display both systems of measurement, the majority of hospitals officially document such parameters in metric.[23] Dieticians still use kilocalories, and doctors use millimetres of mercury.[6] While these units are metric derivatives, they are not metric units.

text: Engineering[edit]

text: Because most fasteners, machine parts, pumps, piping, and all building materials are sold in imperial or US customary units, many mechanical and civil engineers in Canada mainly use imperial units for these items. Overall building dimensions for new construction are usually in SI units.[citation needed]. On the other hand, many chemical, nuclear and electrical engineers and engineering physicists employ metric units. As in the United States, Canadian engineers are educated in both systems and are keenly aware of the differences between the imperial, metric and US customary systems.

text: Trades[edit]

text: Trades associated with machine work, such as machinists, automotive, and heavy duty technicians, frequently use both metric and imperial. Machines made in Canada often incorporate parts from other countries and thus the finished product may have both metric and imperial parts. Farm and industrial equipment manufactured in Canada will most often use inch system fasteners and structural steel, but fluid capacities are always listed in metric.

text: Building trades such as plumbing and carpentry often use imperial units. Rough timber, drywall, plywood, fasteners, pipes, and tubing are all sold in imperial units. Nails in hardware stores are measured in inches but sold in metric weight packages.

text: Electricians in every country use metric units such as volts and amperes, but motors and engines are still quoted in horsepower. Electric car motors are rated in kilowatts. However, Canada uses, among other things, the US American wire gauge standard instead of the square millimetre (mm2) used in the IEC 60228 standard of the International Electrotechnical Commission. Conduit sizes are in inch diameters, although some manufacturers include the metric size printed on the conduits (for example, 1⁄2 in (13 mm), 5⁄8 in (16 mm), 3⁄4 in (19 mm).

text: Firearms[edit]

text: Imperial units also remain in common use in firearms and ammunition. Imperial measures are still used in the description of cartridge types, even when the cartridge is of relatively recent invention (e.g. .204 Ruger, .17 HMR, where the calibre is expressed in decimal fractions of an inch). However, ammunition which is classified in metric already is still kept metric (e.g. 9 mm, 7.62 mm). In the manufacture of ammunition, bullet and powder weights are expressed in terms of grains for both metric and imperial cartridges.[citation needed]

text: Print[edit]

text: Canada uses the inch-based paper standard e.g. the US Letter, rather than the metric-based A4 paper size used throughout most of the world. The government, however, uses a combination of ISO paper sizes, and CAN 2-9.60M "Paper Sizes for Correspondence" specifies P1 through P6 paper sizes, which are the US paper sizes rounded to the nearest 5 mm.[24][25]

text: Air transportation[edit]

text: Luggage restrictions and limits at Canadian airports are in metric values with soft imperial conversion values.[26] Runway lengths are given in feet and speed in knots[27][28] as in the US. Like a number of metric countries altitude is given in feet.[29][30]

text: Fuel is nowadays measured in metric units. The Gimli Glider incident in July 1983 is a famous case of a kilogram-pound mistake, in which the miscalculation of the amount of fuel in an Air Canada airplane with a malfunctioning fuel gauge caused the plane to run out of fuel mid-flight.

text: Education regarding the imperial system[edit]

text: In 2005, the Ontario government announced changes to the secondary-school mathematics curriculum that would allow imperial units to be taught along with metric units.[31] This marked a departure from previous governments' efforts to make sure that the curriculum used only the metric system. This was done in light of the refusal or reluctance of much of the private sector to metricate; thus students had been leaving school unprepared for the units used in the workplace. Many other provinces and territories also include the imperial system of measurements as part of their educational curriculum.[32][33][34][35][36][37]


document_title: Jack-o'-lantern

question_text: where did jack-o'-lanterns originate and what where they first made of

question_tokens: where did jack-o ' - lanterns originate and what where they first made of

text: Jack-o'-lantern

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The term jack-o'-lantern was originally used to describe the visual phenomenon ignis fatuus (lit., "foolish fire") known as a will-o'-the-wisp in English folklore. Used especially in East England, its earliest known use dates to the 1660s.[1] The term "will-o'-the-wisp" uses "wisp" (a bundle of sticks or paper sometimes used as a torch) and the proper name "Will": thus, "Will-of-the-torch." The term jack-o'-lantern is of the same construction: "Jack of [the] lantern."

text: History[edit]

text: Origin[edit]

text: The carving of vegetables has been a common practice in many parts of the world, and gourds were one of the earliest plant species domesticated by humans c. 10,000 years ago.[2] For example, gourds were used to carve lanterns by the Maori over 700 years ago;[3] the Māori word for a gourd also describes a lampshade.[4]

text: It is believed that the custom of making jack-o'-lanterns at Halloween began in Ireland.[5][6][7] In the 19th century, "turnips or mangel wurzels, hollowed out to act as lanterns and often carved with grotesque faces," were used at Halloween in parts of Ireland and the Scottish Highlands.[8] In these Celtic-speaking regions, Halloween was also the festival of Samhain and was seen as a time when supernatural beings (the Aos Sí), and the souls of the dead, roamed the earth. The belief that the souls of the dead roamed the earth at Halloween was also found in other parts of Europe. Jack-o'-lanterns were also made at Halloween in Somerset (see Punkie Night) during the 19th century.[8]

text: By those who made them, the lanterns were variously said to represent the spirits or supernatural beings,[8] or were used to ward off evil spirits.[9] For example, sometimes they were used by Halloween guisers to frighten people,[9][10][11] and sometimes they were set on windowsills to keep harmful spirits out of one's home.[10] It has also been suggested that the jack-o'-lanterns originally represented Christian souls in purgatory, as Halloween is the eve of All Saints' Day (1 November)/All Souls' Day (2 November).[12]

text: At Halloween in 1835, the Dublin Penny Journal carried a lengthy discourse on the legend of "Jack-o'-the-Lantern".[13] In 1837, the Limerick Chronicle refers to a local pub holding a carved gourd competition and presenting a prize to "the best crown of Jack McLantern". The term "McLantern" also appears in an 1841 publication of the same paper.[14]

text: There is also evidence that turnips were used to carve what was called a "Hoberdy's Lantern" in Worcestershire, England, at the end of the 18th century. The folklorist Jabez Allies recalls:

text: In my juvenile days I remember to have seen peasant boys make, what they called a "Hoberdy's Lantern," by hollowing out a turnip, and cutting eyes, nose, and mouth therein, in the true moon-like style; and having lighted it up by inserting the stump of a candle, they used to place it upon a hedge to frighten unwary travellers in the night.[15]

text: In North America[edit]

text: Adaptations of Washington Irving's short story "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" (1820) often depict the Headless Horseman with a pumpkin or jack-o'-lantern in place of his severed head. (In the original story, a shattered pumpkin is discovered next to Ichabod Crane's abandoned hat on the morning after Crane's supposed encounter with the Horseman.)

text: The application of the term to carved pumpkins in American English is first attested in 1834.[16] The carved pumpkin lantern's association with Halloween is recorded in the 1 November 1866 edition of the Daily News (Kingston, Ontario):

text: The old time custom of keeping up Hallowe'en was not forgotten last night by the youngsters of the city. They had their maskings and their merry-makings, and perambulated the streets after dark in a way which was no doubt amusing to themselves. There was a great sacrifice of pumpkins from which to make transparent heads and face, lighted up by the unfailing two inches of tallow candle.[17]

text: James Fenimore Cooper wrote a nautical novel titled The Jack O'lantern (le Feu-Follet), Or the Privateer (1842). The Jack O'lantern was the name of the ship.[18]

text: The poet John Greenleaf Whittier, who was born in Massachusetts in 1807, wrote the poem "The Pumpkin" (1850):[19]

text:
Oh!—fruit loved of boyhood!—the old days recalling,
When wood-grapes were purpling and brown nuts were falling!
When wild, ugly faces we carved in its skin,
Glaring out through the dark with a candle within!

text: Agnes Carr Sage, in the article, Halloween Sports and Customs" (Harper's Young People (1885):[20]

text: It is an ancient British custom to light great bonfires (Bone-fire to clear before Winter froze the ground) on Hallowe'en, and carry blazing fagots about on long poles; but in place of this, American boys delight in the funny grinning jack-o'-lanterns made of huge yellow pumpkins with a candle inside.

text: In the United States, the carved pumpkin was first associated with the harvest season in general, long before it became an emblem of Halloween.[21] In 1900, an article on Thanksgiving entertaining recommended a lit jack-o'-lantern as part of the festivities.[21][22]

text: Folklore[edit]

text: The story of the jack-o'-lantern comes in many variants and is similar to the story of Will-o'-the-wisp[23] retold in different forms across Western Europe,[24] with variations being present in the folklore of Scotland, England, Wales, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Norway, Spain and Sweden.[25] In Switzerland, children will leave bowls of milk or cream out for mythical house spirits called Jack o' the bowl.[26] An old Irish folk tale from the mid-19th Century tells of Stingy Jack, a lazy yet shrewd blacksmith who uses a cross to trap Satan. One story says that Jack tricked Satan into climbing an apple tree, and once he was up there, Jack quickly placed crosses around the trunk or carved a cross into the bark, so that Satan couldn't get down.[27]

text: Another version[citation needed] of the story says that Jack was getting chased by some villagers from whom he had stolen, when he met Satan, who claimed it was time for him to die. However, the thief stalled his death by tempting Satan with a chance to bedevil the church-going villagers chasing him. Jack told Satan to turn into a coin with which he would pay for the stolen goods (Satan could take on any shape he wanted); later, when the coin (Satan) disappeared, the Christian villagers would fight over who had stolen it. The Devil agreed to this plan. He turned himself into a silver coin and jumped into Jack's wallet, only to find himself next to a cross Jack had also picked up in the village. Jack had closed the wallet tight, and the cross stripped the Devil of his powers; and so he was trapped.

text: In both folktales, Jack lets Satan go only after he agrees to never take his soul. Many years later, the thief died, as all living things do. Of course, Jack's life had been too sinful for him to go to heaven; however, Satan had promised not to take his soul, and so he was barred from hell as well. Jack now had nowhere to go. He asked how he would see where to go, as he had no light, and Satan mockingly tossed him an ember from the flames of Hades, that would never burn out. Jack carved out one of his turnips (which were his favorite food), put the ember inside it, and began endlessly wandering the Earth for a resting place. He became known as "Jack of the Lantern", or jack-o'-lantern.

text: Cornish folklorist Dr. Thomas Quiller Couch (d. 1884) recorded the use of the term in a rhyme used in Polperro, Cornwall, in conjunction with Joan the Wad, the Cornish version of Will-o'-the-wisp. The people of Polperro regarded them both as pixies. The rhyme goes:[28]

text:
Jack o' the lantern! Joan the wad,
Who tickled the maid and made her mad
Light me home, the weather's bad.

text: Jack-o-lanterns were also a way of protecting one's home against the undead. Superstitious people[where?] used them specifically to ward away vampires. They thought this because it was said that the jack-o-lantern's light was a way of identifying vampires who, once their identity was known, would give up their hunt for you.[citation needed]

text: In media[edit]

text: In addition to the folklore and literature noted above, jack-o'-lanterns have been the subject of numerous media works over the years.

text: Comics[edit]

text: In a Smurfs comic book story, Halloween, the Smurfs' archenemy the evil wizard Gargamel connives with a wicked witch to conjure up Jack himself to get revenge on the Smurflings for pulling some Halloween pranks on them using pumpkin jack-o'-lanterns. Unfortunately, instead of granting their request, Jack insists on carrying away whoever summoned him. When neither Gargamel and the witch will own up to summoning Jack, and try to pin it solely on each other, Jack punishes them both by turning Gargamel into a pumpkin and causing a string of sausages to grow from the witch's nose.

text: Games[edit]

text:
In Bully and Bully: Scholarship Edition, players must break 30 jack-o'-lanterns to earn a jack-o'-lantern hat. They are found Around Bullworth Academy on Halloween mission. If all of them are not destroyed, they can be found in the Bullworth Academy Basement.
In the Megami Tensei game series, Jack O'Lantern (also called Pyro Jack) is a commonly encountered demon.
In Pokémon X and Y, the Ghost Pokémon Pumpkaboo and Gourgeist resemble Jack-o-Lanterns.
In Five Nights at Freddy's 4: Halloween Edition, Nightmare Bonnie and Nightmare Chica were replaced by "Jack-O-Bonnie" and "Jack-O-Chica", Jack-O-Lantern versions of themselves. Nightmare Chica's Cupcake was replaced by a Jack-O-Lantern with an animated jumpscare. Also, "Halloweenish" decorations were put at Fredbear's Family Diner, replacing the previous birthday decorations.
In Quest 64 (released as Holy Magic Century in Australia, Europe, Japan, and New Zealand) the jack-o'-lantern is an enemy and can be found in Windward Forest. The element is fire for this monster.
In Plants vs Zombies 2, the Jack-o'-Lantern spray fire down a lane, doing extensive burning damage over a short distance.
In Dragonfable, an in-game holiday dubbed "Mogloween" involves titanic Jack-o'-lantern enemies, such as a pumpkin-headed Hydra.
In Cauldron II: The Pumpkin Strikes Back, the player controls a bouncing Jack-o'-lantern.
In the 1998 video game, Sanitarium, the Jack-o'-lantern is the main enemy faced in the pumpkin patch.
In the ClayFighter game series, Ickybod Clay is a combatant with a jack-o'-lantern for a head and a ghostly whispy body. His name is a clear play on Ichabod Crane.
In Minecraft, you can grow pumpkins and wear one as a mask, making yourself a jack-o-lantern.
In Guilty Gear Xrd -Revelator-, one character is called Jack-O, who is a girl that wears a jack-o-lantern mask to fight.
In MediEvil, there are two levels based around jack-o'-lanterns; Pumpkin Gorge and The Pumpkin Serpent.

text: Television[edit]

text:
In Gravity Falls the residents of the namesake location celebrate "Summerween" and carve "jack-o'-melons" out of watermelons, and in the episode named after the holiday, The Summerween Trickster threatened to eat Dipper, Mabel, Grenda, Soos, and Candy if they did not bring him 500 pieces of candy before all the jack-o'-melons extinguished, as the final extinguishing signaled the end of the holiday.
The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy Halloween special, Billy and Mandy's Jacked-Up Halloween, features a completely different if similar version of the story of Stingy Jack; Jack was depicted as the village trickster of Endsville long before the series' events. Despite being pleasant, he constantly pulled pranks on the villagers (and was rumored to have invented some tricks, as well as laughing himself to sleep), bad enough to make them send a prank gift to their Queen and frame Jack for it. She in response sent a knight to Jack's home and do away with him. When Grim came to reap him, Jack refused to go and managed to take Grim's scythe, only giving it back in exchange for eternal life. When he was granted it however, Grim, who does not like being tricked, decided to cut Jack's head off to make sure he doesn't bother the villagers anymore. Not long afterwards, Jack had found a pumpkin to use as a new head (giving him the name Jack O' Lantern) though he was shunned from society, forcing him to only come out every Halloween night to play his pranks. Jack later took the opportunity of revenge when he stole Grim's scythe once more (Billy, dressed as Grim, tried to trick-or-treat at Jack's house) with the ultimate goal of decapitating Grim. Jack is later referenced in the Big Boogey Adventure and also appears as a playable character in the video game.

text: Music[edit]

text: Jack is the mascot of the German power metal band, Helloween.

text: Pumpkin craft[edit]

text: Sections of the pumpkin or turnip are cut out to make holes, often depicting a face, which may be either cheerful, scary, or comical.[29] More complex carvings (or paintings on the gourds) are becoming more common such as: figures, logos, and symbols. A variety of tools can be used to carve and hollow out the gourd, ranging from simple knives and spoons to specialized instruments, typically sold in holiday sections of North American grocery stores. Printed stencils can be used as a guide for increasingly complex designs. After carving, a light source (such as a flame candle, electric candle, or tea light) is placed inside the gourd, and the top is put back into place. The light is normally inserted to illuminate the design from the inside and add an extra measure of spookiness. Sometimes a chimney is carved, too. It is possible to create surprisingly artistic designs, either simple or intricate in nature.

text:
Play media

Picking out and carving pumpkins for Halloween

A Halloween cake topped with a jack-o'-lantern

Pumpkin craft for Halloween, using a commercial carving pattern

text: World records[edit]

text: Most jack-o'-lanterns carved and lit in one place[edit]

text: For a long time, Keene, New Hampshire, held the world record for most jack-o'-lanterns carved and lit in one place. The Life is good company teamed up with Camp Sunshine, a camp for children with life-threatening illnesses and their families, to break the record; a record was set on October 21, 2006, when 30,128 jack-o'-lanterns were simultaneously lit on Boston Common.[30] Highwood, Illinois, tried to set the record on October 31, 2011, with an unofficial count of 30,919 but did not follow the Guinness regulations, so the achievement did not count.[31]

text: On October 19, 2013, Keene, New Hampshire, broke the Boston record and reclaimed the world record for most lit jack-o'-lanterns on display (30,581). Keene has now broken the record eight times since the original attempt.[32]

text: World's largest jack-o'-lantern[edit]

text: On October 31, 2005, Scott Cully carved the world's largest jack-o'-lantern from the world's-largest pumpkin (at the time), in Northern Cambria, Pennsylvania. The pumpkin was grown by Larry Checkon and weighed 1,469 lb (666.33 kg) on October 1, 2005, at the Pennsylvania Giant Pumpkin Growers Association Weigh-off.[33]