document_title: Canadian Open (golf)

question_text: where is the rbc canadian open being held

text: Canadian Open (golf)

text: Tournament[edit]

text: As a national open, and especially as the most accessible non-U.S. national open for American golfers, the event had a special status in the era before the professional tour system became dominant in golf. In the interwar years, it was sometimes considered the third most prestigious tournament in the sport, after The Open Championship and the U.S. Open. This previous status was noted in the media in 2000, when Tiger Woods became the first man to win The Triple Crown (all three Opens in the same season) in 29 years, since Lee Trevino in 1971. In the decades preceding the tournament's move to an undesirable September date in 1988, the Canadian Open was often unofficially referred to as the fifth major. Due to the PGA Tour's unfavorable scheduling, this special status has largely dissipated, but the Canadian Open remains a well-regarded fixture on the PGA Tour.

text: The top three golfers on the PGA Tour Canada Order of Merit prior to the tournament are given entry into the Canadian Open. However, prize money won at the Canadian Open does not count towards the Canadian Tour money list.

text: Celebrated winners include Hall of Fame members Leo Diegel, Walter Hagen, Tommy Armour, Harry Cooper, Lawson Little, Sam Snead, Craig Wood, Byron Nelson, Doug Ford, Bobby Locke, Bob Charles, Arnold Palmer, Kel Nagle, Billy Casper, Gene Littler, Lee Trevino, Curtis Strange, Greg Norman, Nick Price, Vijay Singh, and Mark O'Meara. The Canadian Open is regarded as the most prestigious tournament never won by Jack Nicklaus, a seven-time runner-up. Diegel has the most titles, with four in the 1920s.

text: In the early 2000s, the tournament was still being held in early September. Seeking to change back to a more desirable summer date in the schedule, the RCGA lobbied for a better date. When the PGA Tour's schedule was revamped to accommodate the FedEx Cup in 2007, the Canadian Open was rescheduled for late July, sandwiched between three events with even higher profiles (The Open Championship the week prior, the WGC-Bridgestone Invitational the week after, and the PGA Championship the week after that). The tournament counts towards the FedEx Cup standings, and earns the winner a Masters invitation. In 2019 and subsequent years, the Canadian Open will be held in early June to avoid conflict with the Open Championship.

text: Courses[edit]

text: Glen Abbey Golf Course has hosted the most Canadian Opens, with 30 to date. Glen Abbey was designed in 1976 by Jack Nicklaus for the Royal Canadian Golf Association, to serve as the permanent home for the championship.

text: In the mid-1990s, the RCGA decided to move the championship around the country, and continues to alternate between Glen Abbey and other clubs. The owner since 2005, Clublink Corp filed an application in October 2015[3] to redevelop the property into a residential community, with offices and retail stores. There was no provision for a golf course in the plan.[4] The Town of Oakville Council responded in August 2017 by declaring the golf course a heritage site under the Ontario Heritage Act. This would make it more difficult for ClubLink to develop the area as it had planned.[5][6] Golf Canada was also concerned since it could not predict whether it could get the necessary permit to hold the Canadian Open at Glen Abbey in 2018 as it had planned.[7] The dispute between the Town of Oakville and ClubLink remains before the provincial appeal tribunal. Due to this situation, the Open will be held at Hamilton Golf and Country Club in 2019.[8]

text: Royal Montreal Golf Club, home of the first Open in 1904, ranks second with nine times hosted. Mississaugua Golf & Country Club has hosted six Opens, and will host again in 2020.[9]

text: Three clubs—Toronto Golf Club, St. George's Golf and Country Club, and Hamilton Golf and Country Club—have each hosted five Opens.

text: Three clubs have each hosted four Opens: Lambton Golf Club, Shaughnessy Golf & Country Club, and Scarboro Golf and Country Club.

text: The championship has for the most part been held in Ontario and Quebec, between them having seen all but nine Opens. New Brunswick had the Open in 1939, Manitoba in 1952 and 1961, Alberta in 1958, and British Columbia in 1948, 1954, 1966, 2005 and 2011.

text: History[edit]

text: The Royal Montreal Golf Club, founded in 1873, is the oldest continuously running official golf club in North America. The club was the host of the first Canadian Open championship in 1904, and has been host to eight other Canadian Opens, at two locations, with the club moving to its current site on an island west of Montreal in 1959. The 1912 Canadian Open at the Rosedale Golf Club was famed American golfer Walter Hagen's first professional competition.[10] In 1914, Karl Keffer won the event, being the last Canadian-born champion.

text: Englishman J. Douglas Edgar captured the 1919 championship at Hamilton Golf and Country Club by a record 16-stroke margin;[11] 17-year-old amateur prodigy Bobby Jones (who was coached by Edgar) tied for second. The 1930 Canadian Open at Hamilton was another stellar tournament. Tommy Armour blazed his way around the course over the final 18 holes of regulation play, shooting a 64. Four-time champion Diegel and Armour went to a 36-hole playoff to decide the title. Armour shot 138 (69-69) to defeat Diegel by three strokes.[12]

text: Toronto's St. Andrews Golf Club hosted the Open in 1936 and 1937 – the only course to hold back-to-back Opens until the creation of Glen Abbey – before it felt the impact of the growth of the city, and was ploughed under to allow for the creation of Highway 401. The Riverside Golf and Country Club of Saint John, New Brunswick was host to the 1939 Canadian Open where Harold "Jug" McSpaden was champion. This was the only time the Open has been held in Atlantic Canada.[13]

text: Scarboro Golf and Country Club in eastern Toronto was host to four Canadian Opens: 1940, 1947, 1953, and 1963. Three of these events were decided by one stroke, and the only time the margin was two shots was when Bobby Locke defeated Ed "Porky" Oliver in 1947. With his win at Scarboro in 1947, the golfer from South Africa became just the second non-North American winner of the Canadian Open. Locke fired four rounds in the 60s to finish at 16-under-par, two strokes better than the American Oliver. After the prize presentation Locke was given a standing ovation, and was then hoisted to shoulders by fellow countrymen who were then residents of Canada.

text: In 1948, for the first time, the Canadian Open traveled west of Ontario, landing at Shaughnessy Heights Golf Club in Vancouver, British Columbia, where Charles Congdon sealed his victory on the 16th hole with a 150-yard bunker shot that stopped eight feet from the cup. The following birdie gave him the lead, and Congdon went on to win by three shots.

text: Mississaugua Golf & Country Club has hosted six Canadian Opens: 1931, 1938, 1942, 1951, 1965, and 1974. The 1951 Open tournament was won by Jim Ferrier, who successfully defended the title he had won at Royal Montreal a year earlier. Winnipeg's St. Charles Country Club hosted the 1952 Canadian Open, and saw Johnny Palmer set the 72-hole scoring record of 263, which still stands after more than 60 years. Palmer's rounds of 66-65-66-66 bettered the old 1947 mark set by Bobby Locke by five shots. In 1955, Arnold Palmer captured the Canadian Open championship, his first PGA Tour victory, at the Weston Golf and Country Club.

text: Montreal, Quebec's Laval-sur-le-Lac hosted the 1962 Open where Gary Player was disqualified after the first round, when he recorded the wrong score on the 10th hole. He had won the PGA Championship the week before. Californian Charlie Sifford attended the 1962 Canadian Open in part to raise the profile of African-American players on the PGA Tour. He was one of only 16 of the top 100 players on tour to play there in 1962.

text: Pinegrove Country Club played host to the Canadian Open in 1964 and 1969. Australian Kel Nagle edged Arnold Palmer and Raymond Floyd at the 1964 Open to become, aged almost 44 at the time, the oldest player to win the title. Five years later, Tommy Aaron fired a final-round 64 to force a playoff with 57-year-old Sam Snead. Aaron won the 18-hole playoff, beating Snead by two strokes (70-72).

text: The small town of Ridgeway, Ontario in the Niagara Peninsula was host of the 1972 Open at Cherry Hill Golf Club. A popular choice of venue, it drew rave reviews by the players, specifically the 1972 champion Gay Brewer, who called it the best course he had ever played in Canada, and Arnold Palmer, who suggested the Open be held there again the following year. In 1975, Tom Weiskopf won his second Open in three years in dramatic fashion at the Blue Course of Royal Montreal's new venue, defeating Jack Nicklaus on the first hole of a sudden-death playoff, after almost holing his short-iron approach. Windsor, Ontario's Essex Golf & Country Club was host of the 1976 Canadian Open, where Jack Nicklaus again finished second, this time behind champion Jerry Pate. Essex came to the rescue late in the game, when it was determined that the newly built Glen Abbey was not yet ready to host the Canadian Open. The 1997 Open at Royal Montreal was the first time Tiger Woods ever missed a professional cut, after winning the Masters Tournament a few months before.

text: Angus Glen Golf Club was host to two recent Canadian Opens, 2002 and 2007. In 2007 Jim Furyk became one of a few golfers who have won two consecutive Canadian Open titles, joining James Douglas Edgar, Leo Diegel, Sam Snead and Jim Ferrier. Angus Glen owns the unique distinction of having each of its two courses (North and South) host the Canadian Open.

text: Glen Abbey Golf Club of Oakville, Ontario has hosted 30 Open Championships (1977–79, 1981–96, 1998–2000, 2004, 2008–09, 2013, 2015-2018), and has crowned 24 different champions. The 11th hole at Glen Abbey is widely considered its signature hole, and begins the world-famous valley sequence of five holes from 11 to 15. The picturesque 11th is a 459-yard straightaway par-4, where players tee off 100 feet above the fairway, which ends at Sixteen Mile Creek, just short of the green. John Daly left his mark, and a plaque is permanently displayed on the back tee deck, recounting Daly's attempt to reach the green with his tee shot. His ball landed in the creek.

text: In 2000, Tiger Woods dueled with Grant Waite over the final 18 holes, before finally subduing the New Zealander on the 72nd hole with one of the most memorable shots of his career.[according to whom?] Holding a one-shot advantage, Woods found his tee shot in a fairway bunker, and after watching Waite put his second shot 30 feet from the hole, decided to go for the green. Woods hit a 6-iron which carried a lake and settled on the fringe just past the flag, which was 218 yards away, and then chipped to tap-in range for the title-clinching birdie.[14] With the victory, Woods became only the second golfer to capture the U.S. Open, Open Championship and Canadian Open in the same year, earning him the Triple Crown trophy; he matched Lee Trevino (1971).

text: In 2009, Mark Calcavecchia scored nine consecutive birdies at the second round, breaking the PGA Tour record.[15]

text: Canadian performances[edit]

text: A Canadian has not won the Canadian Open since Pat Fletcher in 1954. One of the most exciting conclusions ever seen at the Open came in 2004, extending that streak. Mike Weir had never done well at the Glen Abbey Golf Course, the site of the tournament that week. In fact, he had only made the cut once at any of the Opens contested at Glen Abbey. But Weir clawed his way to the top of the leaderboard by Friday. And by the third day at the 100th anniversary Open, he had a three-stroke lead, and many Canadians were buzzing about the possibility of the streak's end. Weir started off with a double bogey, but then went 4-under to keep his 3-stroke lead, with only eight holes left. Yet, with the expectations of Canadian observers abnormally high, there was another roadblock in the way of Mike Weir: Vijay Singh. Weir bogeyed three holes on the back nine but still had a chance to win the tournament with a 10-footer on the 72nd hole. When he missed the putt, the two entered a sudden-death playoff. Weir missed two more chances to win the tournament: a 25-foot putt for eagle on No. 18 on the first hole of sudden-death, and a 5-foot putt on No. 17, the second playoff hole. On the third playoff hole, Weir put his third shot into the water after a horrid drive and lay-up, and Singh was safely on the green in two. Singh won the Open and overtook Tiger Woods as the world's number one player.[16]

text: Canadian David Hearn took a two-shot lead into the final round in 2015. He still had the lead as late as the 15th hole, but was being closely pursued by three players ranked near the top of the Official World Golf Ranking – Bubba Watson, Jim Furyk, and Jason Day. All four golfers had chances to win right until the end. Hearn was overtaken by champion Day's three consecutive birdies to close the round; Day finished one shot ahead of Watson, who also birdied the final three holes, narrowly missing an eagle attempt on a final hole greenside chip that would have tied. Day's fourth career Tour triumph came after he had just missed a potential tying putt on the final hole at the Open Championship the previous week. Hearn finished third, the best result by a Canadian since Weir's near-miss in 2004.[17] In 2016, Canadian amateur Jared du Toit was only one stroke behind going into the final round, allowing him to play in the final group. He finished tied for ninth, three strokes behind eventual winner Jhonattan Vegas.

text: Event titles[edit]

text:
Years
Event title

1904–1993, 2006–2007

Canadian Open

1994–2005

Bell Canadian Open

2008–present

RBC Canadian Open

text: Winners[edit]

text:
George Sargent, winner of the 1912 Canadian Open at Rosedale Golf Club.

Tommy Armour, three-time Canadian Open champion in 1927, 1930 and 1934. Other three-time winners are Sam Snead and Lee Trevino.

Walter Hagen, winner at the 1931 Canadian Open Championship.

Arnold Palmer, 1955 Open winner, his first PGA Tour victory.

Greg Norman, two-time Canadian Open champion in 1984 and 1992.

Tiger Woods, champion of the 2000 Canadian Open and winner of the Triple Crown along with Lee Trevino (1971).

Jim Furyk, back-to-back Canadian Open winner in 2006–07, along with James Douglas Edgar, Leo Diegel, Sam Snead, Jim Ferrier, and Jhonattan Vegas

text:
Year
Player
Country
Score
To par
Marginof victory
Runner(s)-up
Winner'sshare ($)
Purse ($)
Course
Location

2018
Dustin Johnson
 United States
265
−23
3 strokes
 An Byeong-hun Kim Meen-whee
1,116,000
6,200,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

2017
Jhonattan Vegas (2)
 Venezuela
267
−21
Playoff
 Charley Hoffman
1,080,000
6,000,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

2016
Jhonattan Vegas
 Venezuela
276
−12
1 stroke
 Dustin Johnson  Martin Laird Jon Rahm
1,062,000
5,900,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

2015
Jason Day
 Australia
271
−17
1 stroke
 Bubba Watson
1,044,000
5,800,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

2014
Tim Clark
 South Africa
263
−17
1 stroke
 Jim Furyk
1,026,000
5,700,000
Royal Montreal Golf Club
Île Bizard, Quebec

2013
Brandt Snedeker
 United States
272
−16
3 strokes
 Jason Bohn Dustin Johnson Matt Kuchar William McGirt
1,008,000
5,600,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

2012
Scott Piercy
 United States
263
−17
1 stroke
 Robert Garrigus William McGirt
936,000
5,200,000
Hamilton Golf and Country Club
Ancaster, Ontario

2011
Sean O'Hair
 United States
276
−4
Playoff
 Kris Blanks
936,000
5,200,000
Shaughnessy Golf & Country Club
Vancouver, British Columbia

2010
Carl Pettersson
 Sweden
266
−14
1 stroke
 Dean Wilson
918,000
5,100,000
St. George's Golf and Country Club
Toronto, Ontario

2009
Nathan Green
 Australia
270
−18
Playoff
 Retief Goosen
918,000
5,100,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

2008
Chez Reavie
 United States
267
−17
3 strokes
 Billy Mayfair
900,000
5,000,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

2007
Jim Furyk (2)
 United States
268
−16
1 stroke
 Vijay Singh
900,000
5,000,000
Angus Glen Golf Club (North Course)
Markham, Ontario

2006
Jim Furyk
 United States
266
−14
1 stroke
 Bart Bryant
900,000
5,000,000
Hamilton Golf and Country Club
Ancaster, Ontario

2005
Mark Calcavecchia
 United States
275
−5
1 stroke
 Ben Crane Ryan Moore
882,000
4,900,000
Shaughnessy Golf & Country Club
Vancouver, British Columbia

2004
Vijay Singh
 Fiji
275
−9
Playoff
 Mike Weir
810,000
4,500,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

2003
Bob Tway
 United States
272
−8
Playoff
 Brad Faxon
756,000
4,200,000
Hamilton Golf and Country Club
Ancaster, Ontario

2002
John Rollins
 United States
272
−16
Playoff
 Neal Lancaster Justin Leonard
720,000
4,000,000
Angus Glen Golf Club (South Course)
Markham, Ontario

2001
Scott Verplank
 United States
266
−14
3 strokes
 Bob Estes Joey Sindelar
684,000
3,800,000
Royal Montreal Golf Club
Île-Bizard, Quebec

2000
Tiger Woods
 United States
266
−22
1 stroke
 Grant Waite
594,000
3,300,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

1999
Hal Sutton
 United States
275
−13
3 strokes
 Dennis Paulson
450,000
2,500,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

1998
Billy Andrade
 United States
275
−13
Playoff
 Bob Friend
396,000
2,200,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

1997
Steve Jones (2)
 United States
275
−5
1 stroke
 Greg Norman
270,000
1,500,000
Royal Montreal Golf Club
Île-Bizard, Quebec

1996
Dudley Hart
 United States
202
−14
1 stroke
 David Duval
270,000
1,500,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

1995
Mark O'Meara
 United States
274
−14
Playoff
 Bob Lohr
234,000
1,300,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

1994
Nick Price (2)
 Zimbabwe
275
−13
1 stroke
 Mark Calcavecchia
234,000
1,300,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

1993
David Frost
 South Africa
279
−9
1 stroke
 Fred Couples
180,000
1,000,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

1992
Greg Norman (2)
 Australia
280
−8
Playoff
 Bruce Lietzke
180,000
1,000,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

1991
Nick Price
 Zimbabwe
273
−15
1 stroke
 David Edwards
180,000
1,000,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

1990
Wayne Levi
 United States
278
−10
1 stroke
 Ian Baker-Finch Jim Woodward
180,000
1,000,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

1989
Steve Jones
 United States
271
−17
2 strokes
 Clark Burroughs Mark Calcavecchia Mike Hulbert
162,000
900,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

1988
Ken Green
 United States
275
−13
1 stroke
 Bill Glasson Scott Verplank
135,000
900,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

1987
Curtis Strange (2)
 United States
276
−12
3 strokes
 David Frost Jodie Mudd Nick Price
108,000
600,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

1986
Bob Murphy
 United States
280
−8
3 strokes
 Greg Norman
108,000
600,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

1985
Curtis Strange
 United States
279
−9
2 strokes
 Jack Nicklaus Greg Norman
86,507
580,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

1984
Greg Norman
 Australia
278
−10
2 strokes
 Jack Nicklaus
72,000
525,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

1983
John Cook
 United States
277
−7
Playoff
 Johnny Miller
63,000
425,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

1982
Bruce Lietzke (2)
 United States
277
−7
2 strokes
 Hal Sutton
76,500
425,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

1981
Peter Oosterhuis
 England
280
−4
1 stroke
 Bruce Lietzke Jack Nicklaus Andy North
76,500
425,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

1980
Bob Gilder
 United States
274
−6
2 strokes
 Jerry Pate Leonard Thompson
63,000
350,000
Royal Montreal Golf Club
Île-Bizard, Quebec

1979
Lee Trevino (3)
 United States
281
−3
3 strokes
 Ben Crenshaw
63,000
350,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

1978
Bruce Lietzke
 United States
283
−1
1 stroke
 Pat McGowan
50,000
250,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

1977
Lee Trevino (2)
 United States
280
−8
4 strokes
 Peter Oosterhuis
45,000
225,000
Glen Abbey Golf Course
Oakville, Ontario

1976
Jerry Pate
 United States
267
−13
4 strokes
 Jack Nicklaus
40,000
200,000
Essex Golf & Country Club
Windsor, Ontario

1975
Tom Weiskopf (2)
 United States
274
−6
Playoff
 Jack Nicklaus
40,000
200,000
Royal Montreal Golf Club
Île-Bizard, Quebec

1974
Bobby Nichols
 United States
270
−10
4 strokes
 John Schlee Larry Ziegler
40,000
200,000
Mississaugua Golf & Country Club
Mississauga, Ontario

1973
Tom Weiskopf
 United States
278
−6
2 strokes
 Forrest Fezler
35,000
175,000
Richelieu Valley Golf & Country Club
Ste.-Julie, Quebec

1972
Gay Brewer
 United States
275
−9
1 stroke
 Sam Adams Dave Hill
30,000
150,000
Cherry Hill Club
Ridgeway, Ontario

1971
Lee Trevino
 United States
275
−13
Playoff
 Art Wall, Jr.
30,000
150,000
Richelieu Valley Golf & Country Club
Ste.-Julie, Quebec

1970
Kermit Zarley
 United States
279
−9
3 strokes
 Gibby Gilbert
25,000
125,000
London Hunt & Country Club
London, Ontario

1969
Tommy Aaron
 United States
275
−13
Playoff
 Sam Snead
25,000
125,000
Pine Grove Golf & Country Club
St. Luc, Quebec

1968
Bob Charles
 New Zealand
274
−6
2 strokes
 Jack Nicklaus
25,000
125,000
St. George's Golf and Country Club
Toronto, Ontario

1967
Billy Casper
 United States
279
−5
Playoff
 Art Wall, Jr.
30,000
100,000
Montreal Municipal Golf Club
Montreal, Quebec

1966
Don Massengale
 United States
280
−4
3 strokes
 Chi-Chi Rodríguez
20,000
100,000
Shaughnessy Golf & Country Club
Vancouver, British Columbia

1965
Gene Littler
 United States
273
−7
1 stroke
 Jack Nicklaus
20,000
100,000
Mississaugua Golf & Country Club
Mississauga, Ontario

1964
Kel Nagle
 Australia
277
−11
2 strokes
 Arnold Palmer
7,500
50,000
Pine Grove Golf & Country Club
St. Luc, Quebec

1963
Doug Ford (2)
 United States
280
−4
1 stroke
 Al Geiberger
9,000
50,000
Scarboro Golf and Country Club
Toronto, Ontario

1962
Ted Kroll
 United States
278
−10
2 strokes
 Charlie Sifford
4,300
30,000
Le Club Laval-sur-le-Lac
Laval-sur-le-Lac, Quebec

1961
Jacky Cupit
 United States
270
−10
5 strokes
 Buster Cupit Dow Finsterwald Bobby Nichols
4,300
30,000
Niakwa Country Club
Winnipeg, Manitoba

1960
Art Wall, Jr.
 United States
269
−19
6 strokes
 Bob Goalby Jay Hebert
3,500
25,000
St. George's Golf and Country Club
Toronto, Ontario

1959
Doug Ford
 United States
276
−12
2 strokes
 Dow Finsterwald Art Wall, Jr. Bo Wininger
3,500
25,000
Islesmere Golf & Country Club
Montreal, Quebec

1958
Wes Ellis
 United States
267
−13
1 stroke
 Jay Hebert
3,500
25,000
Royal Mayfair Golf & Country Club
Edmonton, Alberta

1957
George Bayer
 United States
271
−13
2 strokes
 Bo Wininger
3,500
25,000
Westmount Golf and Country Club
Kitchener, Ontario

1956
Doug Sanders (a)
 United States
273
−11
Playoff
 Dow Finsterwald
2,400
15,000
Beaconsfield Golf Club
Montreal, Quebec

1955
Arnold Palmer
 United States
265
−23
4 strokes
 Jack Burke, Jr.
2,400
15,000
Weston Golf and Country Club
Toronto, Ontario

1954
Pat Fletcher
 Canada
280
−8
4 strokes
 Gordie Brydson Bill Welch
3,000
15,000
Point Grey Golf and Country Club
Vancouver, British Columbia

1953
Dave Douglas
 United States
273
−11
1 stroke
 Wally Ulrich
3,000
15,000
Scarboro Golf and Country Club
Toronto,  Ontario

1952
Johnny Palmer
 United States
263
−25
11 strokes
 Fred Haas Dick Mayer
3,000
15,000
St. Charles Country Club
Winnipeg, Manitoba

1951
Jim Ferrier (2)
 Australia
273
−7
2 strokes
 Fred Hawkins Ed Oliver
2,250
15,000
Mississaugua Golf & Country Club
Mississauga, Ontario

1950
Jim Ferrier
 Australia
271
−17
3 strokes
 Ted Kroll
2,000
10,000
Royal Montreal Golf Club
Dorval, Quebec

1949
E. J. Harrison
 United States
271
−17
4 strokes
 Jim Ferrier
2,000
9,200
St. George's Golf and Country Club
Toronto, Ontario

1948
Charles Congdon
 United States
280
−4
3 strokes
 Vic Ghezzi Ky Laffoon Dick Metz
2,000
9,000
Shaughnessy Golf & Country Club
Vancouver, British Columbia

1947
Bobby Locke
 South Africa
268
−16
2 strokes
 Ed Oliver
2,000
10,000
Scarboro Golf and Country Club
Toronto, Ontario

1946
George Fazio
 United States
278
−6
Playoff
 Dick Metz
2,000
9,000
Beaconsfield Golf Club
Montreal, Quebec

1945
Byron Nelson
 United States
280
−8
4 strokes
 Herman Barron
2,000
10,000
Thornhill Golf Club
Thornhill, Ontario

1943–44: Cancelled due to World War II

1942
Craig Wood
 United States
275
−13
4 strokes
 Mike Turnesa
1,000
3,000
Mississaugua Golf & Country Club
Mississauga, Ontario

1941
Sam Snead (3)
 United States
274
−6
2 strokes
 Bob Gray, Jr.
1,000
3,000
Lambton Golf Club
Toronto, Ontario

1940
Sam Snead (2)
 United States
281
−3
Playoff
 Jug McSpaden
1,000
3,000
Scarboro Golf and Country Club
Toronto, Ontario

1939
Jug McSpaden
 United States
282
+2
5 strokes
 Ralph Guldahl
1,000
3,000
Riverside Country Club
Saint John, New Brunswick

1938
Sam Snead
 United States
277
−11
Playoff
 Harry Cooper
1,000
3,000
Mississaugua Golf & Country Club
Mississauga, Ontario

1937
Harry Cooper (2)
 England
285
+5
2 strokes
 Ralph Guldahl
1,000
3,200
St. Andrews Club
Toronto, Ontario]]

1936
Lawson Little
 United States
271
−9
8 strokes
 Jimmy Thomson
1,000
3,000
St. Andrews Club
Toronto, Ontario]]

1935
Gene Kunes
 United States
280
−8
2 strokes
 Vic Ghezzi
500
1,465
Summerlea Golf Club
Montreal, Quebec

1934
Tommy Armour (3)
 United States
287
−1
2 strokes
 Ky Laffoon
500
1,465
Lakeview Golf Club
Mississauga, Ontario

1933
Joe Kirkwood Sr.
 Australia
282
−2
8 strokes
 Harry Cooper Lex Robson
500
1,465
St. George's Golf and Country Club
Toronto, Ontario

1932
Harry Cooper
 England
290
+2
3 strokes
 Al Watrous
500
1,465
Ottawa Hunt and Golf Club
Ottawa, Ontario

1931
Walter Hagen
 United States
292
+4
Playoff
 Percy Alliss
500
1,485
Mississaugua Golf & Country Club
Mississauga, Ontario

1930
Tommy Armour (2)
 United States
273
−7
Playoff
 Leo Diegel
500
1,475
Hamilton Golf and Country Club
Ancaster, Ontario

1929
Leo Diegel (4)
 United States
274
−6
3 strokes
 Tommy Armour
400
1,320
Kanawaki Golf Club
Kahnawake, Quebec

1928
Leo Diegel (3)
 United States
282
−2
2 strokes
 Archie Compston Walter Hagen Macdonald Smith
400
1,320
Rosedale Golf Club
Toronto, Ontario

1927
Tommy Armour
 United States
288
E
1 stroke
 Macdonald Smith
400
1,320
Toronto Golf Club
Mississauga, Ontario

1926
Macdonald Smith
 Scotland
283
+3
3 strokes
 Gene Sarazen
500
1,575
Royal Montreal Golf Club
Dorval, Quebec

1925
Leo Diegel (2)
 United States
295
+11
2 strokes
 Mike Brady
500
900
Lambton Golf Club
Toronto, Ontario

1924
Leo Diegel
 United States
285
+1
2 strokes
 Gene Sarazen
400
750
Mt. Bruno Golf Club
St. Bruno, Quebec

1923
Clarence Hackney
 Scotland
295
+7
5 strokes
 Tom Kerrigan
350
580
Lakeview Golf Club
Mississauga, Ontario

1922
Al Watrous
 United States
303
+19
1 stroke
 Tom Kerrigan
250
450
Mt. Bruno Golf Club
St. Bruno, Quebec

1921
William Trovinger
 United States
293
+5
3 strokes
 Mike Brady
250
450
Toronto Golf Club
Mississauga, Ontario

1920
James Douglas Edgar (2)
 England
298
+10
Playoff
 Tommy Armour (a) Charlie Murray
300
600
Rivermead Golf Club
Aylmer, Quebec

1919
James Douglas Edgar
 England
278
−2
16 strokes
 Jim Barnes Bobby Jones (a) Karl Keffer
200
435
Hamilton Golf and Country Club
Ancaster, Ontario

1915–18: Cancelled due to World War I

1914
Karl Keffer (2)
 Canada
300
+12
1 stroke
 George Cumming
100
265
Toronto Golf Club
Mississauga, Ontario

1913
Albert Murray (2)
 Canada
295
+15
6 strokes
 Jack Burke Sr. Nicol Thompson
100
265
Royal Montreal Golf Club
Dorval, Quebec

1912
George Sargent
 England
299
+19
1 stroke
 Jim Barnes
100
265
Rosedale Golf Club
Toronto, Ontario

1911
Charlie Murray (2)
 Canada
314
+26
2 strokes
 Davie Black
100
265
Royal Ottawa Golf Club
Aylmer, Quebec

1910
Daniel Kenny
 United States
303
+19
4 strokes
 George Lyon (a)
100
265
Lambton Golf Club
Toronto, Ontario

1909
Karl Keffer
 Canada
309
+21
3 strokes
 George Cumming
100
265
Toronto Golf Club
Toronto, Ontario

1908
Albert Murray
 Canada
300
+20
4 strokes
 George Sargent
80
225
Royal Montreal Golf Club
Dorval, Quebec

1907
Percy Barrett
 England
306
+22
2 strokes
 George Cumming
80
245
Lambton Golf Club
Toronto, Ontario

1906
Charlie Murray
 Canada
170
+26
1 stroke
 George Cumming Tom Reith (a) Alex Robertson
70
225
Royal Ottawa Golf Club
Aylmer, Quebec

1905
George Cumming
 Canada
148
+8
3 strokes
 Percy Barrett
60
225
Toronto Golf Club
Toronto, Ontario

1904
Jack Oke
 England
156
+16
2 strokes
 Percy Barrett
60
170
Royal Montreal Golf Club
Dorval, Quebec

text:
Yellow highlight indicates a winner of the Triple Crown of Golf.
Green highlight indicates scoring records.
Source[18]

text: Multiple and consecutive champions[edit]

text: This table lists the golfers who have won more than one Canadian Open.

text:
Deceased golfer †

Major championship winner the same year as the Open win ‡

Major championship winner M

text:
Country

Golfer

Total

Years

 United States

Leo Diegel ‡†M

4

1924, 1925, 1928, 1929

 United States

Tommy Armour ‡†M

3

1927, 1930, 1934

 United States

Sam Snead M†

3

1938, 1940, 1941

 United States

Lee Trevino ‡M

3

1971, 1977, 1979TC

 Canada

Charles Murray †

2

1906, 1911

 Canada

Albert Murray †

2

1908, 1913

 Canada

Karl Keffer †

2

1909, 1914

 England

James Douglas Edgar †

2

1919, 1920

 England

Harry Cooper †

2

1932, 1937

 Australia

Jim Ferrier M†

2

1950, 1951

 United States

Doug Ford M

2

1959, 1963

 United States

Tom Weiskopf ‡M

2

1973, 1975

 United States

Bruce Lietzke

2

1978, 1982

 United States

Curtis Strange M

2

1985, 1987

 Australia

Greg Norman M

2

1984, 1992

 Zimbabwe

Nick Price ‡M

2

1991, 1994

 United States

Steve Jones M

2

1989, 1997

 United States

Jim Furyk M

2

2006, 2007

 Venezuela

Jhonattan Vegas

2

2016, 2017

text:
Bolded years and player names means back-to-back wins
TC denotes Triple-Crown winner in 1971.

text: Champions by nationality[edit]

text: This table lists the total number of titles won by golfers of each nationality.

text:
Rank
Country
Wins
Winners
First title
Last title

1
 United States
72
55
1910
2013

T2
 England
8
6
1904
1981

 Australia
8
6
1933
2015

4
 Canada
7
4
1906
1954

T5
 Scotland
3
3
1905
1926

 South Africa
3
3
1947
2014

T6
 Zimbabwe
2
1
1991
1994

 Venezuela
2
1
2016
2017

T8
 New Zealand
1
1
1968

 Fiji
1
1
2004

 Sweden
1
1
2010

text: Trophies[edit]

text:
Canadian Amateur Trophy 1895–1907
The Seagram Gold Cup 1935–1970
The Du Maurier Trophy 1971–1993
Earl Grey Trophy 1908–
RBC Canadian Open Trophy 1994–present
Rivermead Challenge Cup (presented to low Canadian) 1936–1961, 2007–

text: Future sites[edit]

text:
Year
Edition
Course
City
Dates

2019
110th
Hamilton
Ancaster, Ontario
June 6–9

2020
111th
TBD
TBD
June 11–14

2021
112th
TBD
TBD
June 10–13

2022
113th
TBD
TBD
June 9–12

2023
114th
Hamilton
Ancaster, Ontario
June 8–11


document_title: Military budget of the United States

question_text: how much of us gdp goes to military

question_tokens: how much of us gdp goes to military

root

text: Military budget of the United States

text: Budget by Year[edit]

text: The following is historical spending on defense from 1996-2015, spending for 2014-15 is estimated.[1] The Defense Budget is shown in billions of dollars and total budget in trillions of dollars. The percentage of the total U.S. budget spent on defense is indicated in the third row, and change in defense spending from the previous year in the final row.

tag: p

text:
1990s
2000s
2010s

96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15

Defense Budget (Billions)
266
270
271
292
304
335
362
456
491
506
556
625
696
698
721
717
681
610
614
637

Total Budget (Trillions)
1.58
1.64
1.69
1.78
1.82
1.96
2.09
2.27
2.41
2.58
2.78
2.86
3.32
4.08
3.48
3.51
3.58
3.48
3.64
3.97

Defense Budget %
16.8
16.5
16.0
16.4
16.7
17.1
17.3
20.1
20.4
19.6
20.0
21.9
20.9
17.1
20.7
20.4
19.1
17.5
16.8
16.0

Defense Spending % Change
-0.1
+1.6
+0.2
+7.8
+4.0
+10.1
+8.2
+26.0
+7.6
+3.1
+10.0
+12.5
+11.3
+0.2
+3.4
-0.6
-5.0
-10.5
+0.6
+3.8

tag: table

text: Budget for 2011[edit]

text: For the 2011 fiscal year, the president's base budget for the Department of Defense and spending on "overseas contingency operations" combine to bring the sum to US$664.84 billion.[2][3]

text: When the budget was signed into law on 28 October 2009, the final size of the Department of Defense's budget was $680 billion, $16 billion more than President Obama had requested.[4] An additional $37 billion supplemental bill to support the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan was expected to pass in the spring of 2010, but has been delayed by the House of Representatives after passing the Senate.[5][6]

text: Emergency and supplemental spending[edit]

text: The recent invasions of Iraq and Afghanistan were largely funded through supplementary spending bills outside the federal budget, which are not included in the military budget figures listed below.[7] However, the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan were categorized as "overseas contingency operations" in the starting of the fiscal year 2010, and the budget is included in the federal budget.[citation needed]

text: By the end of 2008, the U.S. had spent approximately $900 billion in direct costs on the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. The government also incurred indirect costs, which include interests on additional debt and incremental costs, financed by the Veterans Administration, of caring for more than 33,000 wounded. Some experts estimate the indirect costs will eventually exceed the direct costs.[8] As of June 2011, the total cost of the wars was approximately $1.3 trillion.[9]

text: By title[edit]

text: The federally budgeted (see below) military expenditure of the United States Department of Defense for fiscal year 2013 are as follows. While data is provided from the 2015 budget, data for 2014 and 2015 is estimated, and thus data is shown for the last year for which definite data exists (2013).[1]

text:
Components
Funding
Change, 2012 to 2013

Operations and maintenance
$258.277 billion
-9.9%

Military Personnel
$153.531 billion
-3.0%

Procurement
$97.757 billion
-17.4%

Research, Development, Testing & Evaluation
$63.347 billion
-12.1%

Military Construction
$8.069 billion
-29.0%

Family Housing
$1.483 billion
-12.2%

Other Miscellaneous Costs
$2.775 billion
-59.5%

Atomic energy defense activities
$17.424 billion
-4.8%

Defense-related activities
$7.433 billion
-3.8%

Total Spending
$610.096 billion
-10.5%

text: By entity[edit]

text:
Entity
2010 Budget request[10]
Percentage of Total
Notes

Army
$244.8 billion
31.8%

Marine Corps
$40.6 billion
4%
Total Budget taken allotted from Department of Navy

Navy
$379.8 billion
43.4%
excluding Marine Corps

Air Force
$170.6 billion
22%

Defense Intelligence
$80.1 billion[11]
3.3%
Because of classified nature, budget is an estimate and may not be the actual figure

Defense Wide Joint Activities
$118.7 billion
15.5%

text: Programs spending more than $1.5 billion[edit]

text: The Department of Defense's FY 2011 $137.5 billion procurement and $77.2 billion RDT&E budget requests included several programs with more than $1.5 billion.

text:
Program
2011 Budget request[12]
Change, 2010 to 2011

F-35 Joint Strike Fighter
$11.4 billion
+2.1%

Ballistic Missile Defense (Aegis, THAAD, PAC-3)
$9.9 billion
+7.3%

Virginia class submarine
$5.4 billion
+28.0%

Brigade Combat Team Modernization
$3.2 billion
+21.8%

DDG 51 Burke-class Aegis Destroyer
$3.0 billion
+19.6%

P–8A Poseidon
$2.9 billion
−1.6%

V-22 Osprey
$2.8 billion
−6.5%

Carrier Replacement Program
$2.7 billion
+95.8%

F/A-18E/F Hornet
$2.0 billion
+17.4%

Predator and Reaper Unmanned Aerial System
$1.9 billion
+57.8%

Littoral combat ship
$1.8 billion
+12.5%

CVN Refueling and Complex Overhaul
$1.7 billion
−6.0%

Chemical Demilitarization
$1.6 billion
−7.0%

RQ-4 Global Hawk
$1.5 billion
+6.7%

Space-Based Infrared System
$1.5 billion
+54.0%

text: Other military-related expenditures[edit]

text: This does not include many military-related items that are outside of the Defense Department budget, such as nuclear weapons research, maintenance, cleanup, and production, which are in the Atomic Energy Defense Activities section,[15] Veterans Affairs, the Treasury Department's payments in pensions to military retirees and widows and their families, interest on debt incurred in past wars, or State Department financing of foreign arms sales and militarily-related development assistance. Neither does it include defense spending that is not military in nature, such as the Department of Homeland Security, counter-terrorism spending by the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and intelligence-gathering spending by NSA.

text: Audit of 2011 budget[edit]

text: Again in 2011, the GAO could not "render an opinion on the 2011 consolidated financial statements of the federal government", with a major obstacle again being "serious financial management problems at the Department of Defense (DOD) that made its financial statements unauditable".[16]

text: In December 2011, the GAO found that "neither the Navy nor the Marine Corps have implemented effective processes for reconciling their FBWT." According to the GAO, "An agency’s FBWT account is similar in concept to a corporate bank account. The difference is that instead of a cash balance, FBWT represents unexpended spending authority in appropriations." In addition, "As of April 2011, there were more than $22 billion unmatched disbursements and collections affecting more than 10,000 lines of accounting."[17]

text: Audit of implementation of budget for 2010[edit]

text: The US Government Accountability Office (GAO) was unable to provide an audit opinion on the 2010 financial statements of the US Government because of 'widespread material internal control weaknesses, significant uncertainties, and other limitations'.[18] The GAO cited as the principal obstacle to its provision of an audit opinion 'serious financial management problems at the Department of Defense that made its financial statements unauditable'.[18]

text: In FY 2010, six out of thirty-three DoD reporting entities received unqualified audit opinions.[19]

text: Chief financial officer and Under Secretary of Defense Robert F. Hale acknowledged enterprise-wide problems with systems and processes,[20] while the DoD's Inspector General reported 'material internal control weaknesses ... that affect the safeguarding of assets, proper use of funds, and impair the prevention and identification of fraud, waste, and abuse'.[21] Further management discussion in the FY 2010 DoD Financial Report states 'it is not feasible to deploy a vast number of accountants to manually reconcile our books' and concludes that 'although the financial statements are not auditable for FY 2010, the Department's financial managers are meeting warfighter needs'.[22]

text: Budget for 2016[edit]

text: On February 9, 2016, the US Department of Defense under President Obama released a statement outlining the proposed 2016 and 2017 defense spending budgets that "[reflect] the priorities necessary for our force today and in the future to best serve and protect our nation in a rapidly changing security environment."[23]

text:
Budget by Appropriation[23]

Components
Dollars In Billions

Military Personnel
138.6

Operation and Maintenance
244.4

Procurement
118.9

RDT&E
69.0

Revolving and Management Funds
1.3

Military Construction
6.9

Family Housing
1.3

Total
580.3

text:
Budget by Military Departments[23]

Departments
Dollars in Billions

Army
146.9

Navy
168.8

Air Force
161.8

Defense Wide
102.8

Total
580.3

text: Budget request for FY2018[edit]

text: On March 16, 2017 President Trump submitted his request to Congress for $639 billion in military spending—$54 billion—which represents a 10 percent increase—for FY 2018 as well as $30 billion for FY2017 which ends in September. With a total federal budget of $3.9 trillion for FY2018, the increase in military spending would result in deep cuts to many other federal agencies and domestic programs, as well as the State Department.[24][24][25][26][27][28] Trump had pledged to "rebuild" the military as part of his 2016 Presidential campaign.[29]

text: In April 2017, journalist Scot J. Paltrow raised concerns about the increase in spending with the Pentagon's history of "faulty accounting".[30]

text: On the 14th of July, H.R. 2810 the National Defense Authorization Act 2018 was passed by the U.S. House of Representatives 344 - 8, with 8 not voting. 60% of Democrats voted for this bill, which represented an 18% increase in defense spending. The Congress increased the budget to total 696 billion dollars.

text: Budget request for FY2017[edit]

text: The currently available budget request for 2017 was filed on February 9, 2016,[23][31] under now former-President Barack Obama.

text: The press release of the proposal specifies the structure and goals for the Fiscal Year (FY) 2017 budget:

text: The FY 2017 budget reflects recent strategic threats and changes that have taken place in Asia, the Middle East and Europe. Russian aggression, terrorism by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) and others, and China’s island building and claims of sovereignty in international waters all necessitate changes in our strategic outlook and in our operational commitments. Threats and actions originating in Iran and North Korea negatively affect our interests and our allies. These challenges have sharpened the focus of our planning and budgeting.[23]

text: The proposal also includes a comparison of the 2016 and the proposed 2017 request amounts, a summary of acquisitions requested for 2017 and enacted in 2016, and provides in detail a breakdown of specific programs to be funded.

text: Investments[edit]

text:
FY 2016 Enacted
FY 2017 Request
Change

Aircraft and Related Systems
50.6
45.3
-5.3

C4I Systems
7.1
7.4
0.3

Ground Systems
9.9
9.8
-0.1

Missile Defense Programs
9.1
8.5
-0.6

Missiles and Munitions
12.7
13.9
1.2

Mission Support
52.9
52.4
-0.5

Science & Technology (S&T)
13.0
12.5
-0.5

Shipbuilding and Maritime Systems
27.5
27.0
-0.5

Space-Based Systems
7.0
7.1
0.1

Rescissions
-1.8
-
+1.8

Total
188
183.9
-4.1

text: Amounts are in $ billions.

text: Major Acquisition Programs[edit]

text: These are the top 25 DoD weapon programs described in detail:

text:
FY 2016
FY 2017

Qty
$
Qty
$

Aircraft

F-35
Joint Strike Fighter
68
11.6
63
10.5

KC-46A
Tanker
12
3.0
15
3.3

P-8A
Poseidon
17
3.4
11
2.2

V-22
Osprey
20
1.6
16
1.5

E-2D AHE
Advanced Hawkeye
5
1.2
6
1.4

AH-64E
Apache Helicopter
64
1.4
52
1.1

C/HC/MC-130J
Hercules
29
2.4
14
1.3

UH-60
Black Hawk Helicopter
107
1.8
36
1.0

CH-53K
King Stallion Helicopter
--
0.6
2
0.8

MQ-4C
Triton
4
1.0
2
0.8

H-1 Upgrades
Bell Helicopter
29
0.9
24
0.8

NGJ
Next Generation Jammer Increment 1
--
0.4
--
0.6

CH-47F
Chinook Helicopter
39
1.1
22
0.7

Missile Defense/Missiles

BMDS
Ballistic Missile Defense
--
7.7
--
6.9

Trident II
Trident II Missile Modifications
--
1.2
--
1.2

AMRAAM
Advanced Medium Range Air to Air Missile
429
0.7
419
0.7

Ships

SSN 774
VIRGINIA Submarine
2
5.7
2
5.3

DDG 51
AEGIS Destroyer
2
4.4
2
3.5

CVN 78
FORD Aircraft Carrier
--
2.8
--
2.8

ORR
Ohio Replacement
--
1.4
--
1.9

LHA-6
Amphibious Assault Ship
--
0.5
1
1.6

LCS
Littoral Combat Ship
3
1.8
2
1.6

Space

AEHF
Advanced Extremely High Frequency Satellite
--
0.6
--
0.9

EELV
Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle
4
1.5
5
1.8

Trucks

JLTV
Joint Light Tactical Vehicle
804
0.4
2,020
0.7

text: $ in billions, Qty being the number of items requested.

text: Science and Technology Program[edit]

text: This program's purpose is to "invest in and develop capabilities that advance the technical superiority of the U.S. Military to counter new and emerging threats.".[31] It has a budget of $12.5 billion, but is apart from the overall Research, Development, Test, and Evaluation (RDT&E) portfolio, which compromises $71.8 billion. Efforts funded apply to the Obama administration's refocusing of the US military to Asia, identifying investments to "sustain and advance [the] DoD's military dominance for the 21st century", counter the "technological advances of U.S. foes",[31] and support Manufacturing Initiative institutes. A breakdown of the amounts provided, by tier of research, is provided:

text:
Program
FY 2016 Request
FY 2016 Enacted
FY 2017 Request
Change (FY16 Enacted - FY17 Request)

Basic Research
2.1
2.3
2.1
-0.2

Applied Research
4.7
5.0
4.8
-0.2

Advanced Technology Development
5.5
5.7
5.6
-0.1

Total
12.3
13.0
12.5
0.5

text: Total Budget by Department[edit]

text:
Total Budget
FY 2016 Enacted
FY 2017 Request
Change

Army
146,928,044
148,033,950
+1,105,906

Navy
168,786,798
164,861,078
-3,925,720

Air Force
161,783,330
166,879,239
+5,095,909

Defense-Wide
102,801,512
102,927,320
+125,808

Total
580,299,684
582,701,587
+2,401,903

text: Amounts in Thousands of $USD

text: Total Budget of Military[edit]

text:
Total Budget
FY 2016 Enacted
FY 2017 Request
Change

Military Personnel
138,552,886
138,831,498
+278,612

Operation and Maintenance
244,434,932
250,894,310
+6,459,378

Procurement
118,866,320
112,081,088
-6,785,232

RDT&E*
69,009,764
71,765,940
+2,756,176

Revolving and Management Funds
1,264,782
1,512,246
+247,464

Military Construction
6,909,712
6,296,653
-613,059

Family Housing
1,261,288
1,319,852
+58,564

Total
580,299,684
582,701,587
+2,401,903

text: *Research, Development, Test and Evaluation

text: Amounts in thousands of $USD

text: Funding of payments and benefits[edit]

text: This portion of the military budget comprises roughly one third to one half of the total defense budget, considering only military personnel or additionally including civilian personnel, respectively. These expenditures "will likely always be, the single largest expense category for the Department." Since 2001, military pay and benefits have increased by 85%, but remained roughly one third of the total budget due to an overall increased budget. Military pay remains at about the 70th percentile compared to the private sector to attract sufficient amounts of qualified personnel.[32]

text:
Military Pay and Benefits Funding
FY 2016 Enacted
FY 2017 Request

Military Personnel Appropriations
128.7
128.9

Medicare-Eligible Retiree Health Care Accruals
6.6
6.4

Defense Health Program
32.9
33.8

DoD Education Activity
3.1
2.9

Family Housing
1.3
1.3

Commissary Subsidy
1.4
1.2

Other Benefit Programs
3.5
3.4

Military Pay and Benefits Funding
177.5
177.9

Civilian Pay and Benefits Funding
71.8
72.9

Total Pay and Benefits Funding
249.3
250.8

DoD Base Budget Authority
521.7
523.9

Military Pay and Benefits as % of Budget
34.0%
34.0%

Total Pay and Benefits as % of Budget
47.8%
47.9%

text: Funding the military health system[edit]

text: The request for 2017 amounts to $48.8 billion. The system has 9.4 million beneficiaries, including active, retired, and eligible Reserve Component military personnel and their families, and dependent survivors.[32]

text:
Program
FY 2017 Request

Defense Health (DHP)
33.5

Military Personnel
8.6

Military Construction
0.3

Health Care Accrual
6.4

Unified Medical Budget
48.8

text: Support service contractors[edit]

text: The role of support service contractors has increased since 2001 and in 2007 payments for contractor services exceeded investments in equipment for the armed forces for the first time.[33] In the 2010 budget, the support service contractors will be reduced from the current 39 percent of the workforce down to the pre-2001 level of 26 percent.[34] In a Pentagon review of January 2011, service contractors were found to be "increasingly unaffordable."[35]

text: Military budget and total US federal spending[edit]

text: The U.S. Department of Defense budget accounted in fiscal year 2010 for about 19% of the United States federal budgeted expenditures and 28% of estimated tax revenues. Including non-DOD expenditures, military spending was approximately 28–38% of budgeted expenditures and 42–57% of estimated tax revenues.[citation needed] According to the Congressional Budget Office, defense spending grew 9% annually on average from fiscal year 2000–2009.[36]

text: Because of constitutional limitations, military funding is appropriated in a discretionary spending account. (Such accounts permit government planners to have more flexibility to change spending each year, as opposed to mandatory spending accounts that mandate spending on programs in accordance with the law, outside of the budgetary process.) In recent years, discretionary spending as a whole has amounted to about one-third of total federal outlays.[37] Department of Defense spending's share of discretionary spending was 50.5% in 2003, and has risen to between 53% and 54% in recent years.[38]

text: For FY 2010, Department of Defense spending amounts to 4.7% of GDP.[39] Because the U.S. GDP has risen over time, the military budget can rise in absolute terms while shrinking as a percentage of the GDP. For example, the Department of Defense budget is slated to be $664 billion in 2010 (including the cost of operations in Iraq and Afghanistan previously funded through supplementary budget legislation[40][41]), higher than at any other point in American history, but still 1.1–1.4% lower as a percentage of GDP than the amount spent on military during the peak of Cold-War military spending in the late 1980s.[39] Admiral Mike Mullen, former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, has called four percent an "absolute floor".[42] This calculation does not take into account some other military-related non-DOD spending, such as Veterans Affairs, Homeland Security, and interest paid on debt incurred in past wars, which has increased even as a percentage of the national GDP.

text: In 2015, Pentagon and related spending totaled $598 billion. Military expenditures exceed the total amount of funds allocated to support social security, transportation, unemployment, labor, science, energy and the environment, international affairs, housing, veteran’s benefits, medicare, education.

text: In addition, the United States will spend at least $179 billion over the fiscal years of 2010-2018 on its nuclear arsenal, averaging $20 billion per year. Despite President Barack Obama’s attempts in the media to reduce the scope of the current nuclear arms race, the U.S. intends to spend an additional $1 trillion over the next 30 years modernizing its nuclear arsenal.

text: Federal waste[edit]

text: As of September 2014, the Department of Defense was estimated to have “$857 million in excess parts and supplies”.[43] This figure has risen over the past years and of the Pentagon waste that has been calculated, two figures that are especially worth mentioning is the expenditure of “$150 million on private villas for a handful of Pentagon employees in Afghanistan and the procurement of the JLENS air-defense balloon” which, throughout the program’s development over the past two decades, is estimated to have cost $2.7 billion.[43] Also, it is important to note that the JLENS air-balloon still does not function properly.

text: Comparison with other countries[edit]

text: The United States spends more on their defense budget than China, Saudi Arabia, Russia, the United Kingdom, India, France, and Japan combined.[45] The 2009 U.S. military budget accounts for approximately 40% of global arms spending. The 2012 budget is 6–7 times larger than the $106 billion military budget of China. The United States and its close allies are responsible for two-thirds to three-quarters of the world's military spending (of which, in turn, the U.S. is responsible for the majority).[46][47][48] The US also maintains the largest number of military bases on foreign soil across the world.[49] While there are no freestanding foreign bases permanently located in the United States, there are now around 800 U.S. bases in foreign countries. Military spending makes up nearly 16% percent of entire federal spending and approximately half of discretionary spending. In a general sense discretionary spending (defense and non-defense spending) makes up one-third of the annual federal budget.[50]

text: In 2015, out of its budget of 1.11 trillion, the United States spent $598 billion on military. U.S. defense spending is equivalent to the next seven largest military budgets—India, the United Kingdom, Japan, France, Saudi Arabia, Russia, and China—combined.

text: In 2017, the U.S. military budget is 773.5 billion and is estimated to increase in the upcoming years.

text: In 2005, the United States spent 4.06% of its GDP on its military (considering only basic Department of Defense budget spending), more than France's 2.6% and less than Saudi Arabia's 10%.[51]information 2006 This is historically low for the United States since it peaked in 1944 at 37.8% of GDP (it reached the lowest point of 3.0% in 1999–2001). Even during the peak of the Vietnam War the percentage reached a high of 9.4% in 1968.[52]

text: The US Military’s budget has plateaued in 2009, but is still considerably larger than any other military power.

text: Past commentary on military budget[edit]

text: In 2009, Secretary of Defense Robert Gates wrote that the U.S. should adjust its priorities and spending to address the changing nature of threats in the world: "What all these potential adversaries—from terrorist cells to rogue nations to rising powers—have in common is that they have learned that it is unwise to confront the United States directly on conventional military terms. The United States cannot take its current dominance for granted and needs to invest in the programs, platforms, and personnel that will ensure that dominance's persistence. But it is also important to keep some perspective. As much as the U.S. Navy has shrunk since the end of the Cold War, for example, in terms of tonnage, its battle fleet is still larger than the next 13 navies combined—and 11 of those 13 navies are U.S. allies or partners."[53] Secretary Gates announced some of his budget recommendations in April 2009.[54]

text: According to a 2009 Congressional Research Service there was a discrepancy between a budget that is declining as a percentage of GDP while the responsibilities of the DoD have not decreased and additional pressures on the military budget have arisen due to broader missions in the post-9/11 world, dramatic increases in personnel and operating costs, and new requirements resulting from wartime lessons in the Iraq War and Operation Enduring Freedom.[55]

text: In 2012, four billion dollars of the five billion dollars in budget cuts mandated by the Congress in the 2013 budget were achieved by declaring that nearly 65 thousand troops were now temporary and no longer part of the permanent forces and so their costs were shifted to the Afghanistan war budget.[56]

text: In May 2012, as part of Obama's East Asia "pivot", his 2013 national military request moved funding from the Army and Marines to favor the Navy, but the Congress has resisted this.[57]

text: Reports emerged in February 2014 that Secretary of Defense Chuck Hagel was planning to trim the defense budget by billions of dollars. The secretary in his first defense budget planned to limit pay rises, increase fees for healthcare benefits, freeze the pay of senior officers, and reduce military housing allowances. A reduction in the number of soldiers serving in the U.S. Army would reduce the size of the force to levels not seen since prior to the start of World War II.[58]

text: In July 2014, American Enterprise Institute scholar Michael Auslin opined in the National Review that the Air Force needs to be fully funded as a priority, due to the air superiority, global airlift, and long-range strike capabilities it provides.[59]

text: In January 2015 Defense Department published its internal study on how to save $125 billion on its military budget from 2016 to 2020 by renegotiating vendor contracts and pushing for stronger deals, and by offering workers early retirement and retraining.[60]

text: 2012 fiscal cliff[edit]

text: On 5 December 2012, the Department of Defense announced it was planning for automatic spending cuts, which include $500 billion and an additional $487 billion due to the 2011 Budget Control Act, due to the fiscal cliff.[61][62][63][64][65] According to Politico, the Department of Defense declined to explain to the House of Representatives Appropriations Committee, which controls federal spending, what its plans were regarding the fiscal cliff planning.[66]

text: This was after half a dozen defense experts either resigned from Congress or lost their reelection fights.[67]

text: Lawrence Korb has noted that given recent trends military entitlements and personnel costs will take up the entire defense budget by 2039.[68]

text: GAO audits[edit]

text: The Government Accountability Office was unable to provide an audit opinion on the 2010 financial statements of the U.S. government due to "widespread material internal control weaknesses, significant uncertainties, and other limitations."[69] The GAO cited as the principal obstacle to its provision of an audit opinion "serious financial management problems at the Department of Defense that made its financial statements unauditable."[70]

text: In Fiscal Year (FY) 2011, seven out of 33 DoD reporting entities received unqualified audit opinions.[71] Under Secretary of Defense Robert F. Hale acknowledged enterprise-wide weaknesses with controls and systems.[72] Further management discussion in the FY 2011 DoD Financial Report states "we are not able to deploy the vast numbers of accountants that would be required to reconcile our books manually".[71] Congress has established a deadline of FY 2017 for the DoD to achieve audit readiness.[73]

text: For FYs 1998-2010 the Department of Defense's financial statements were either unauditable or such that no audit opinion could be expressed.[74][75][76][77][78][79][80][81][82][83][84][85]

text: Reform[edit]

text: In a statement of 6 January 2011 Defense Secretary Robert M. Gates stated: "This department simply cannot risk continuing down the same path – where our investment priorities, bureaucratic habits and lax attitude towards costs are increasingly divorced from the real threats of today, the growing perils of tomorrow and the nation's grim financial outlook." Gates has proposed a budget that, if approved by Congress, would reduce the costs of many DOD programs and policies, including reports, the IT infrastructure, fuel, weapon programs, DOD bureaucracies, and personnel.[86]

text: The 2015 expenditure for Army research, development and acquisition changed from $32 billion projected in 2012 for FY15, to $21 billion for FY15 expected in 2014.[87]


document_title: Indian astronomy

question_text: who was the famous indian astronomer who discovered that earth revolves on an axis

text: Indian astronomy

text: History[edit]

text: Some of the earliest forms of astronomy can be dated to the period of Indus Valley Civilization, or earlier.[1][2] Some cosmological concepts are present in the Vedas, as are notions of the movement of heavenly bodies and the course of the year.[3] As in other traditions, there is a close association of astronomy and religion during the early history of the science, astronomical observation being necessitated by spatial and temporal requirements of correct performance of religious ritual. Thus, the Shulba Sutras, texts dedicated to altar construction, discusses advanced mathematics and basic astronomy.[11] Vedanga Jyotisha is another of the earliest known Indian texts on astronomy,[12] it includes the details about the sun, moon, nakshatras, lunisolar calendar.[13][14]

text: Greek astronomical ideas began to enter India in the 4th century BCE following the conquests of Alexander the Great.[6][7][8][9] By the early centuries of the Common Era, Indo-Greek influence on the astronomical tradition is visible, with texts such as the Yavanajataka[6] and Romaka Siddhanta.[9] Later astronomers mention the existence of various siddhantas during this period, among them a text known as the Surya Siddhanta. These were not fixed texts but rather an oral tradition of knowledge, and their content is not extant. The text today known as Surya Siddhanta dates to the Gupta period and was received by Aryabhata.

text: The classical era of Indian astronomy begins in the late Gupta era, in the 5th to 6th centuries. The Pañcasiddhāntikā by Varāhamihira (505 CE) approximates the method for determination of the meridian direction from any three positions of the shadow using a gnomon.[11] By the time of Aryabhata the motion of planets was treated to be elliptical rather than circular.[15] Other topics included definitions of different units of time, eccentric models of planetary motion, epicyclic models of planetary motion, and planetary longitude corrections for various terrestrial locations.[15]

text: Calendars[edit]

text: The divisions of the year were on the basis of religious rites and seasons (Rtu).[16] The duration from mid March—Mid May was taken to be spring (vasanta), mid May—mid July: summer ("grishma"), mid July—mid September: rains (varsha), mid September—mid November: autumn, mid November—mid January: winter, mid January—mid March: dew (śiśira).[16]

text: In the Vedānga Jyotiṣa, the year begins with the winter solstice.[17] Hindu calendars have several eras:

text:
The Hindu calendar, counting from the start of the Kali Yuga, has its epoch on 18 February 3102 BCE Julian (23 January 3102 BCE Gregorian).
The Vikrama Samvat calendar, introduced about the 12th century, counts from 56–57 BCE.
The "Saka Era", used in some Hindu calendars and in the Indian national calendar, has its epoch near the vernal equinox of year 78.
The Saptarshi calendar traditionally has its epoch at 3076 BCE.[18]

tag: ul

text: J.A.B. van Buitenen (2008) reports on the calendars in India:

text: The oldest system, in many respects the basis of the classical one, is known from texts of about 1000 BCE. It divides an approximate solar year of 360 days into 12 lunar months of 27 (according to the early Vedic text Taittirīya Saṃhitā 4.4.10.1–3) or 28 (according to the Atharvaveda, the fourth of the Vedas, 19.7.1.) days. The resulting discrepancy was resolved by the intercalation of a leap month every 60 months. Time was reckoned by the position marked off in constellations on the ecliptic in which the Moon rises daily in the course of one lunation (the period from New Moon to New Moon) and the Sun rises monthly in the course of one year. These constellations (nakṣatra) each measure an arc of 13° 20′ of the ecliptic circle. The positions of the Moon were directly observable, and those of the Sun inferred from the Moon's position at Full Moon, when the Sun is on the opposite side of the Moon. The position of the Sun at midnight was calculated from the nakṣatra that culminated on the meridian at that time, the Sun then being in opposition to that nakṣatra.[16]

text: Astronomers[edit]

text:
Name
Year
Contributions

Lagadha
1st millennium BCE
The earliest astronomical text—named Vedānga Jyotiṣa details several astronomical attributes generally applied for timing social and religious events.[19] The Vedānga Jyotiṣa also details astronomical calculations, calendrical studies, and establishes rules for empirical observation.[19] Since the texts written by 1200 BCE were largely religious compositions the Vedānga Jyotiṣa has connections with Indian astrology and details several important aspects of the time and seasons, including lunar months, solar months, and their adjustment by a lunar leap month of Adhimāsa.[20] Ritus are also described as ((yugams)).[20] Tripathi (2008) holds that ' Twenty-seven constellations, eclipses, seven planets, and twelve signs of the zodiac were also known at that time.'[20]

Aryabhata
476–550 CE
Aryabhata was the author of the Āryabhatīya and the Aryabhatasiddhanta, which, according to Hayashi (2008): 'circulated mainly in the northwest of India and, through the Sāsānian dynasty (224–651) of Iran, had a profound influence on the development of Islamic astronomy. Its contents are preserved to some extent in the works of Varahamihira (flourished c. 550), Bhaskara I (flourished c. 629), Brahmagupta (598–c. 665), and others. It is one of the earliest astronomical works to assign the start of each day to midnight.'[15] Aryabhata explicitly mentioned that the earth rotates about its axis, thereby causing what appears to be an apparent westward motion of the stars.[15] In his book, Aryabhatiya, he suggested that the Earth was sphere, containing a circumference of 24,835 miles (39,967 km).[21] Aryabhata also mentioned that reflected sunlight is the cause behind the shining of the moon.[15] Aryabhata's followers were particularly strong in South India, where his principles of the diurnal rotation of the earth, among others, were followed and a number of secondary works were based on them.[3]

Brahmagupta
598–668 CE
Brahmasphuta-siddhanta (Correctly Established Doctrine of Brahma, 628 CE) dealt with both Indian mathematics and astronomy. Hayashi (2008) writes: 'It was translated into Arabic in Baghdad about 771 and had a major impact on Islamic mathematics and astronomy.'[22] In Khandakhadyaka (A Piece Eatable, 665 CE) Brahmagupta reinforced Aryabhata's idea of another day beginning at midnight.[22] Bahmagupta also calculated the instantaneous motion of a planet, gave correct equations for parallax, and some information related to the computation of eclipses.[3] His works introduced Indian concept of mathematics based astronomy into the Arab world.[3] He also theorized that all bodies with mass are attracted to the earth.[23]

Varāhamihira
505 CE
Varāhamihira was an astronomer and mathematician who studied and Indian astronomy as well as the many principles of Greek, Egyptian, and Roman astronomical sciences.[24] His Pañcasiddhāntikā is a treatise and compendium drawing from several knowledge systems.[24]

Bhāskara I
629 CE
Authored the astronomical works Mahabhaskariya (Great Book of Bhaskara), Laghubhaskariya (Small Book of Bhaskara), and the Aryabhatiyabhashya (629 CE)—a commentary on the Āryabhatīya written by Aryabhata.[25] Hayashi (2008) writes 'Planetary longitudes, heliacal rising and setting of the planets, conjunctions among the planets and stars, solar and lunar eclipses, and the phases of the Moon are among the topics Bhaskara discusses in his astronomical treatises.'[25] Baskara I's works were followed by Vateśvara (880 CE), who in his eight chapter Vateśvarasiddhānta devised methods for determining the parallax in longitude directly, the motion of the equinoxes and the solstices, and the quadrant of the sun at any given time.[3]

Lalla
8th century CE
Author of the Śisyadhīvrddhida (Treatise Which Expands the Intellect of Students), which corrects several assumptions of Āryabhata.[26] The Śisyadhīvrddhida of Lalla itself is divided into two parts:Grahādhyāya and Golādhyāya.[26] Grahādhyāya (Chapter I-XIII) deals with planetary calculations, determination of the mean and true planets, three problems pertaining to diurnal motion of Earth, eclipses, rising and setting of the planets, the various cusps of the moon, planetary and astral conjunctions, and complementary situations of the sun and the moon.[26] The second part—titled Golādhyāya (chapter XIV–XXII)—deals with graphical representation of planetary motion, astronomical instruments, spherics, and emphasizes on corrections and rejection of flawed principles.[26] Lalla shows influence of Āryabhata, Brahmagupta, and Bhāskara I.[26] His works were followed by later astronomers Śrīpati, Vateśvara, and Bhāskara II.[26] Lalla also authored the Siddhāntatilaka.[26]

Bhāskara II
1114 CE
Authored Siddhāntaśiromaṇi (Head Jewel of Accuracy) and Karaṇakutūhala (Calculation of Astronomical Wonders) and reported on his observations of planetary positions, conjunctions, eclipses, cosmography, geography, mathematics, and astronomical equipment used in his research at the observatory in Ujjain, which he headed.[27]

Śrīpati
1045 CE
Śrīpati was an astronomer and mathematician who followed the Brhmagupta school and authored the Siddhāntaśekhara (The Crest of Established Doctrines) in 20 chapters, thereby introducing several new concepts, including moon's second inequality.[3][28]

Mahendra Suri
14th century CE
Mahendra Suri authored the Yantra-rāja (The King of Instruments, written in 1370 CE)—a Sanskrit work on the astrolabe, itself introduced in India during the reign of the 14th century Tughlaq dynasty ruler Firuz Shah Tughluq (1351–1388 CE).[29] Suri seems to have been a Jain astronomer in the service of Firuz Shah Tughluq.[29] The 182 verse Yantra-rāja mentions the astrolabe from the first chapter onwards, and also presents a fundamental formula along with a numerical table for drawing an astrolabe although the proof itself has not been detailed.[29] Longitudes of 32 stars as well as their latitudes have also been mentioned.[29] Mahendra Suri also explained the Gnomon, equatorial co-ordinates, and elliptical co-ordinates.[29] The works of Mahendra Suri may have influenced later astronomers like Padmanābha (1423 CE)—author of the Yantra-rāja-adhikāra, the first chapter of his Yantra-kirnāvali.[29]

Nilakanthan Somayaji
1444–1544 CE
In 1500, Nilakanthan Somayaji of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics, in his Tantrasangraha, revised Aryabhata's model for the planets Mercury and Venus. His equation of the centre for these planets remained the most accurate until the time of Johannes Kepler in the 17th century.[30] Nilakanthan Somayaji, in his Aryabhatiyabhasya, a commentary on Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya, developed his own computational system for a partially heliocentric planetary model, in which Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn orbit the Sun, which in turn orbits the Earth, similar to the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century. Nilakantha's system, however, was mathematically more efficient than the Tychonic system, due to correctly taking into account the equation of the centre and latitudinal motion of Mercury and Venus. Most astronomers of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics who followed him accepted his planetary model.[30][31] He also authored a treatise titled Jyotirmimamsa stressing the necessity and importance of astronomical observations to obtain correct parameters for computations.

Acyuta Pisārati
1550–1621 CE
Sphutanirnaya (Determination of True Planets) details an elliptical correction to existing notions.[32] Sphutanirnaya was later expanded to Rāśigolasphutānīti (True Longitude Computation of the Sphere of the Zodiac).[32] Another work, Karanottama deals with eclipses, complementary relationship between the sun and the moon, and 'the derivation of the mean and true planets'.[32] In Uparāgakriyākrama (Method of Computing Eclipses), Acyuta Pisārati suggests improvements in methods of calculation of eclipses.[32]

text: Instruments used[edit]

text: Among the devices used for astronomy was gnomon, known as Sanku, in which the shadow of a vertical rod is applied on a horizontal plane in order to ascertain the cardinal directions, the latitude of the point of observation, and the time of observation.[33] This device finds mention in the works of Varāhamihira, Āryabhata, Bhāskara, Brahmagupta, among others.[11] The Cross-staff, known as Yasti-yantra, was used by the time of Bhaskara II (1114–1185 CE).[33] This device could vary from a simple stick to V-shaped staffs designed specifically for determining angles with the help of a calibrated scale.[33] The clepsydra (Ghatī-yantra) was used in India for astronomical purposes until recent times.[33] Ōhashi (2008) notes that: "Several astronomers also described water-driven instruments such as the model of fighting sheep."[33]

text: The armillary sphere was used for observation in India since early times, and finds mention in the works of Āryabhata (476 CE).[34] The Goladīpikā—a detailed treatise dealing with globes and the armillary sphere was composed between 1380–1460 CE by Parameśvara.[34] On the subject of the usage of the armillary sphere in India, Ōhashi (2008) writes: "The Indian armillary sphere (gola-yantra) was based on equatorial coordinates, unlike the Greek armillary sphere, which was based on ecliptical coordinates, although the Indian armillary sphere also had an ecliptical hoop. Probably, the celestial coordinates of the junction stars of the lunar mansions were determined by the armillary sphere since the seventh century or so. There was also a celestial globe rotated by flowing water."[33]

text: An instrument invented by the mathematician and astronomer Bhaskara II (1114–1185 CE) consisted of a rectangular board with a pin and an index arm.[33] This device—called the Phalaka-yantra—was used to determine time from the sun's altitude.[33] The Kapālayantra was an equatorial sundial instrument used to determine the sun's azimuth.[33] Kartarī-yantra combined two semicircular board instruments to give rise to a 'scissors instrument'.[33] Introduced from the Islamic world and first finding mention in the works of Mahendra Sūri—the court astronomer of Firuz Shah Tughluq (1309–1388 CE)—the astrolabe was further mentioned by Padmanābha (1423 CE) and Rāmacandra (1428 CE) as its use grew in India.[33]

text: Invented by Padmanābha, a nocturnal polar rotation instrument consisted of a rectangular board with a slit and a set of pointers with concentric graduated circles.[33] Time and other astronomical quantities could be calculated by adjusting the slit to the directions of α and β Ursa Minor.[33] Ōhashi (2008) further explains that: "Its backside was made as a quadrant with a plumb and an index arm. Thirty parallel lines were drawn inside the quadrant, and trigonometrical calculations were done graphically. After determining the sun's altitude with the help of the plumb, time was calculated graphically with the help of the index arm."[33]

text: Ōhashi (2008) reports on the observatories constructed by Jai Singh II of Amber:

text: The Mahārāja of Jaipur, Sawai Jai Singh (1688–1743 CE), constructed five astronomical observatories at the beginning of the eighteenth century. The observatory in Mathura is not extant, but those in Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, and Banaras are. There are several huge instruments based on Hindu and Islamic astronomy. For example, the samrāt.-yantra (emperor instrument) is a huge sundial which consists of a triangular gnomon wall and a pair of quadrants toward the east and west of the gnomon wall. Time has been graduated on the quadrants.[33]

text: The seamless celestial globe invented in Mughal India, specifically Lahore and Kashmir, is considered to be one of the most impressive astronomical instruments and remarkable feats in metallurgy and engineering. All globes before and after this were seamed, and in the 20th century, it was believed by metallurgists to be technically impossible to create a metal globe without any seams, even with modern technology. It was in the 1980s, however, that Emilie Savage-Smith discovered several celestial globes without any seams in Lahore and Kashmir. The earliest was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 1589–90 CE during Akbar the Great's reign; another was produced in 1659–60 CE by Muhammad Salih Tahtawi with Arabic and Sanskrit inscriptions; and the last was produced in Lahore by a Hindu metallurgist Lala Balhumal Lahuri in 1842 during Jagatjit Singh Bahadur's reign. 21 such globes were produced, and these remain the only examples of seamless metal globes. These Mughal metallurgists developed the method of lost-wax casting in order to produce these globes.[35]

text: Global discourse[edit]

text: Indian and Greek astronomy[edit]

text: The earliest known Indian astronomical work (though it is restricted to calendrical discussions) is the Vedanga Jyotisha of Lagadha, which is dated to 1400–1200 BCE (with the extant form possibly from 700–600 BCE).[5] According to Pingree, there are a number of Indian astronomical texts that are dated to the sixth century CE or later with a high degree of certainty. There is substantial similarity between these and pre-Ptolomaic Greek astronomy.[36] Pingree believes that these similarities suggest a Greek origin for certain aspects of Indian astronomy. This has been contested by Bartel Leendert van der Waerden who maintains the originality and independent development of Indian astronomy.[37][38]

text: With the rise of Greek culture in the east, Hellenistic astronomy filtered eastwards to India, where it profoundly influenced the local astronomical tradition.[6][7][8][9][39] For example, Hellenistic astronomy is known to have been practiced near India in the Greco-Bactrian city of Ai-Khanoum from the 3rd century BCE. Various sun-dials, including an equatorial sundial adjusted to the latitude of Ujjain have been found in archaeological excavations there.[40] Numerous interactions with the Mauryan Empire, and the later expansion of the Indo-Greeks into India suggest that transmission of Greek astronomical ideas to India occurred during this period.[41] The Greek concept of a spherical earth surrounded by the spheres of planets, further influenced the astronomers like Varahamihira and Brahmagupta.[39][42]

text: Several Greco-Roman astrological treatises are also known to have been exported to India during the first few centuries of our era. The Yavanajataka was a Sanskrit text of the 3rd century CE on Greek horoscopy and mathematical astronomy.[6] Rudradaman's capital at Ujjain "became the Greenwich of Indian astronomers and the Arin of the Arabic and Latin astronomical treatises; for it was he and his successors who encouraged the introduction of Greek horoscopy and astronomy into India."[43]

text: Later in the 6th century, the Romaka Siddhanta ("Doctrine of the Romans"), and the Paulisa Siddhanta ("Doctrine of Paul") were considered as two of the five main astrological treatises, which were compiled by Varāhamihira in his Pañca-siddhāntikā ("Five Treatises").[44] Varāhamihira goes on to state that "The Greeks, indeed, are foreigners, but with them this science (astronomy) is in a flourishing state."[9] Another Indian text, the Gargi-Samhita, also similarly compliments the Yavanas (Greeks) noting that the Yavanas though barbarians must be respected as seers for their introduction of astronomy in India.[9]

text: Indian and Chinese astronomy[edit]

text: Indian astronomy reached China with the expansion of Buddhism during the Later Han (25–220 CE).[45] Further translation of Indian works on astronomy was completed in China by the Three Kingdoms era (220–265 CE).[45] However, the most detailed incorporation of Indian astronomy occurred only during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) when a number of Chinese scholars—such as Yi Xing— were versed both in Indian and Chinese astronomy.[45] A system of Indian astronomy was recorded in China as Jiuzhi-li (718 CE), the author of which was an Indian by the name of Qutan Xida—a translation of Devanagari Gotama Siddha—the director of the Tang dynasty's national astronomical observatory.[45]

text: Fragments of texts during this period indicate that Arabs adopted the sine function (inherited from Indian mathematics) instead of the chords of arc used in Hellenistic mathematics.[46] Another Indian influence was an approximate formula used for timekeeping by Muslim astronomers.[47] Through Islamic astronomy, Indian astronomy had an influence on European astronomy via Arabic translations. During the Latin translations of the 12th century, Muhammad al-Fazari's Great Sindhind (based on the Surya Siddhanta and the works of Brahmagupta), was translated into Latin in 1126 and was influential at the time.[48]

text: Indian and Islamic astronomy[edit]

text: In the 17th century, the Mughal Empire saw a synthesis between Islamic and Hindu astronomy, where Islamic observational instruments were combined with Hindu computational techniques. While there appears to have been little concern for planetary theory, Muslim and Hindu astronomers in India continued to make advances in observational astronomy and produced nearly a hundred Zij treatises. Humayun built a personal observatory near Delhi, while Jahangir and Shah Jahan were also intending to build observatories but were unable to do so. After the decline of the Mughal Empire, it was a Hindu king, Jai Singh II of Amber, who attempted to revive both the Islamic and Hindu traditions of astronomy which were stagnating in his time. In the early 18th century, he built several large observatories called Yantra Mandirs in order to rival Ulugh Beg's Samarkand observatory and in order to improve on the earlier Hindu computations in the Siddhantas and Islamic observations in Zij-i-Sultani. The instruments he used were influenced by Islamic astronomy, while the computational techniques were derived from Hindu astronomy.[49][50]

text: Indian astronomy and Europe[edit]

text: Some scholars have suggested that knowledge of the results of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics may have been transmitted to Europe through the trade route from Kerala by traders and Jesuit missionaries.[51] Kerala was in continuous contact with China, Arabia and Europe. The existence of circumstantial evidence[52] such as communication routes and a suitable chronology certainly make such a transmission a possibility. However, there is no direct evidence by way of relevant manuscripts that such a transmission took place.[51]

text: In the early 18th century, Jai Singh II of Amber invited European Jesuit astronomers to one of his Yantra Mandir observatories, who had bought back the astronomical tables compiled by Philippe de La Hire in 1702. After examining La Hire's work, Jai Singh concluded that the observational techniques and instruments used in European astronomy were inferior to those used in India at the time - it is uncertain whether he was aware of the Copernican Revolution via the Jesuits.[53] He did, however, employ the use of telescopes. In his Zij-i Muhammad Shahi, he states: "telescopes were constructed in my kingdom and using them a number of observations were carried out".[54]

text: Following the arrival of the British East India Company in the 18th century, the Hindu and Islamic traditions were slowly displaced by European astronomy, though there were attempts at harmonising these traditions. The Indian scholar Mir Muhammad Hussain had travelled to England in 1774 to study Western science and, on his return to India in 1777, he wrote a Persian treatise on astronomy. He wrote about the heliocentric model, and argued that there exists an infinite number of universes (awalim), each with their own planets and stars, and that this demonstrates the omnipotence of God, who is not confined to a single universe. Hussain's idea of a universe resembles the modern concept of a galaxy, thus his view corresponds to the modern view that the universe consists of billions of galaxies, each one consisting of billions of stars.[55] The last known Zij treatise was the Zij-i Bahadurkhani, written in 1838 by the Indian astronomer Ghulam Hussain Jaunpuri (1760–1862) and printed in 1855, dedicated to Bahadur Khan. The treatise incorporated the heliocentric system into the Zij tradition.[56]