document_title: Trump tariffs

question_text: when do the steel tariffs go into effect

text: Trump tariffs

text: Background[edit]

text: During the 2016 presidential campaign, Trump repeatedly favored policy proposals that re-negotiate trade deals for the United States. During a meeting with the New York Times Editorial Board in January of 2016, Trump said that he would tax Chinese imports into the United States by 45%. [12] Trump frequently criticized the North American Free Trade Agreement calling it "the worst trade deal the U.S. has ever signed." [13] He also called Trans-Pacific Partnership "the death blow for American manufacturing" and that it would "put the interests of foreign countries above our own."[14]

text: On November 21 2016, in a video message, Trump introduced an economic strategy of "putting America first", stating that he would negotiate "fair, bilateral trade deals that bring jobs and industry back onto American shores." On January 23, 2017, three days after becoming president, Trump withdrew the United States from the politically divisive Trans-Pacific Partnership believing that the agreement would "undermine" the U.S. economy and their independence.[15][16][17][18]

text: Trump has also indicated desire to end the North American Free Trade Agreement with Canada and Mexico. His administration has been in the process of renegotiating the terms of the agreement. Although vague on the exact terms he seeks in a renegotiated NAFTA, Trump threatened to withdraw from it if negotiations fail.[19] He has specifically criticized the Ford Motor Co.,[20] Carrier Corporation,[20] and Mondelez International for having operations based in Mexico.[20][21][22] In August 2015, in response to Oreo maker Mondelez International's announcement that it would move manufacturing to Mexico, Trump said that he would boycott Oreos.[22]

text: Similar to his approach to trade deals, Trump also pledged, as part of the Contract with the American Voter, to impose tariffs to discourage companies from laying off workers or relocating to other countries, through an "End the Offshoring Act".[23][24][25] No such act has been introduced in Congress,[26][27] but Trump has moved to impose tariffs on solar panels, washing machines, steel, and aluminum. The enforcement of the tariffs falls primarily within the purview of Department of Commerce and Office of the United States Trade Representative.

text: Analysis[edit]

text: John Cassidy of the New Yorker writes that Trump seeks to make the Republican Party "into a more populist, nativist, avowedly protectionist, and semi-isolationist party that is skeptical of immigration, free trade, and military interventionism."[28] Trump is a protectionist, according to free-market advocate Stephen Moore and conservative economist Lawrence Kudlow.[29]

text: His anti-globalization policies of trade protectionism often cross party lines.[30] For example, U.S. Senator Bernie Sanders applauded the withdrawal from the Trans-Pacific Partnership, saying "For the last 30 years, we have had a series of trade deals[...] which have cost us millions of decent-paying jobs and caused a ‘race to the bottom’ which has lowered wages for American workers."[31]

text: According to economic experts canvassed by PolitiFact, the tariffs could help create new manufacturing jobs and lead to some concessions from the U.S.'s foreign trading partners, but consumer costs and production costs would almost certainly rise, the stock market would fall, interest rates could rise, and trade wars could occur.[32] PolitiFact noted that lower-income consumers in the United States would be hurt the most.[32] Similar concerns were expressed by the tariffs imposed by the Obama administration.[33]

text: Steel and aluminum[edit]

text: On March 1, 2018 Trump announced his intention to enforce a 25 percent tariff on steel and a 10 percent tariff on aluminum imports.[34] In a tweet issued the next day, Trump asserted that "Trade wars are good, and easy to win."[35] On March 8, he signed an order to impose the tariffs effective after 15 days.[2] Canada and Mexico are exempt from the order under a carve-out provision.[2] An administration official later said that the exemptions for Canada and Mexico were not permanent, but depend on their renegotiating NAFTA to Trump's liking.[36] Trump and his aides said that extending exemptions to other countries was possible,[37][2] with Trump specifically citing Australia as a possibility.[2] The tariffs went into effect March 23, 2018.

text: Exception[edit]

text: On March 22, 2018 the White House announced that it would suspend the tariffs on the following countries: Canada, Mexico, the European Union, Australia, South Korea, Brazil, and Argentina until May 1, 2018.[38]

text: Legal basis and challenges[edit]

text: The legal basis cited in Trump's tariff order is Section 232 of the Trade Expansion Act of 1962 which under certain circumstances allows the president to impose tariffs based on the recommendation from the U.S. Secretary of Commerce if "an article is being imported into the United States in such quantities or under such circumstances as to threaten or impair the national security."[39] This section is rarely used,[39] and has never been invoked since the creation of the World Trade Organization was established in 1995.[40]

text: Economic and trade analysis[edit]

text: A survey of leading economists by the Initiative on Global Markets at the University of Chicago Booth School of Business showed a consensus that imposing new US tariffs on steel and aluminum will not improve Americans’ welfare.[41] Economists say that the tariffs will lead to more harm than gains, as the price for steel increases, which will harm consumers and Americans working in manufacturing industries that use steel (these jobs outnumber those who work in steel-producing sectors by 80 to 1).[42][43][44] The big winners of the tariffs are some American steel- and aluminum-producing industries; some of the producers (especially small- and middle-sized ones) who are reliant on foreign inputs may struggle as a result of the tariffs.[44][45][46] A study of the proposal indicated that it would lead to an estimated loss of 146,000 jobs.[47] Studies of the 2002 steel tariffs enacted by the Bush administration show that they caused more job losses than job gains.[42] Jobs losses could be even greater if other countries retaliate against the United States with their own tariffs on various American products.[48]

text: Scholars warned that the Trump administration's use of "national security" rationales[49] (these have not been commonly used by past administrations) for the tariffs could undermine the international trading order, as other states could use the same rationales for their own tariffs.[42][50][44][51] The WTO allows states to take actions necessary to ensure their national security, but this provision has been sparsely used, given that it could be abused.[52] Whereas national security reasons were cited for the tariffs, it has been noted that tariffs primarily harm American allies, not enemies; the United States imports very little steel and aluminum from China directly.[36] Trade experts furthermore noted that the United States already produces more than two-thirds of its own steel.[51]

text: Response[edit]

text: The Dow Jones Industrial Average tumbled more than 500 points, or 2%, after the initial announcement. Large steel consumers, like U.S. car manufacturers, Ford and General Motors saw even larger drops in share price.[53] U.S. metal manufacturers like AK Steel Holding, U.S. Steel, and Nucor saw sizable gains.[54] U. S. Steel said it would reopen a plant in Illinois.[37]

text: China, Canada, and the European Union responded negatively to the initial announcement (which did not mention the exemptions for Canada and Mexico). Canada supplies sixteen percent of U.S. demand for steel, followed by Brazil at thirteen percent, South Korea at ten percent,[55] Mexico at nine percent, versus China’s two percent.[53] From 2013 to 2016, Canada was the largest source of aluminum imports to the U.S.[56] China threatened to curb imports of U.S. soybeans.[54] Canadian Trade Minister, Francois-Phillippe Champagne, said the tariffs would be "unacceptable."[57] Jean-Claude Juncker, the president of the European Commission, stated such an action by the U.S. would face a legal challenge at the World Trade Organization.[58]

text: The AFL-CIO, the largest labor union in the U.S., praised Trump for the tariffs, as did Democratic Ohio Senator Sherrod Brown, who said that the action would be a boon for "steel plants across Ohio." Many congressional Republicans expressed fear that the tariffs might damage the economy or lead to retaliatory tariffs from other countries. Speaker of the House Paul Ryan and Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell urged Trump to rethink his proposal or to target the tariffs more narrowly so as to avoid "unintended consequences and collateral damage."[59] House Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi, while calling for strategic and targeted actions against "trade cheaters," criticized Trump's rollout of the tariffs, calling it "chaotic" and that it was "maximizing the collateral damage to American workers, consumers and our international alliances."[60] The proposal drew comparisons to a tariff imposed by his Republican presidential predecessor, George W. Bush;[53] in 2002 the U.S. enforced heavy steel tariffs that were largely seen as ineffectual or even harmful to the U.S., and were withdrawn after 18 months.[61]

text: On March 6, 2018, Gary Cohn, chair of the National Economic Council, announced his intention to resign; the announcement followed Trump's cancellation of a meeting with end-users of steel and aluminum that Cohn had arranged in an attempt to dissuade the president from the planned tariffs.[62]

text: A March 2018 Quinnipiac University poll showed widespread disapproval of the tariffs, with only 29 percent of Americans agreeing with a "25% tariff on steel imports and a 10% tariff on aluminum imports" if it raised their cost of living.[63]

text: Solar panels[edit]

text: On January 23, 2018, news outlets announced that Trump had imposed tariffs on solar panels produced outside the United States. The tariffs initially start at thirty percent and will gradually fall to fifteen in four years.[64][65]

text:
Tariffs on Solar Panels[66]

Components
Year 1
Year 2
Year 3
Year 4

Safeguard Tariff on Modules and Cells
30%
25%
20%
15%

Cells Exempted from Tariff
2.5 gigawatts
2.5 gigawatts
2.5 gigawatts
2.5 gigawatts

text: China is currently the world leader in solar panel manufacture, and the Chinese nation has decried the tariffs.[67] Zhong Shan, the Chinese Ministry of Commerce said in a statement, “With regard to the wrong measures taken by the United States, China will work with other W.T.O. members to resolutely defend our legitimate interests.[68]

text: Environmentalists and animal rights advocates have expressed concern that the new tariffs will hurt the growth of sustainable energy and the species which are on the endangered list due to climate change.[69]

text: Washing machines[edit]

text: On January 23, 2018, in conjunction with the tariffs placed on solar panels, Office of the U.S. Trade Representative announced tariffs on washing machines.[66] According to the U.S. International Trade Commission (ITC), imports of large residential washers increased "steadily" from 2012 to 2016, and that domestic producers’ financial performance "declined precipitously".[70] In the first year, the tariffs start at twenty percent for the first 1.2 million units of imported finished washers, and all subsequent washers within that year will have a fifty percent tariff. By the third year initial tariff will go down to sixteen and forty percent, following the same pattern.

text: The tariffs came after a petition was filed by Whirlpool, a U.S.-based washing machine manufacturer facing tough competition from LG Electronics and Samsung both based in South Korea.[71]

text:
Tariffs on Washing Machines[66]

Components
Year 1
Year 2
Year 3

First 1.2 million units of imported finished washers
20%
18%
16%

All subsequent imports of finished washers
50%
45%
40%

Tariff on covered parts
50%
45%
40%

Covered parts excluded from tariff
50,000 units
70,000 units
90,000 units

text: China exported $425 million worth of washers to the United States in 2016, followed by Mexico's $240 million, and South Korean companies $130 million.[70] Samsung and LG are among the top exporters of washers to the United States. Two weeks prior to the announcement of the tariffs, Samsung moved its production of washing machines to a new plant in South Carolina. In response Samsung said U.S. consumers will "pay more, with fewer choices." Mexican officials said they would respond to the tariffs during the ongoing NAFTA renegotiations.[72]

text: Chinese products[edit]

text: On March 22, 2018, Trump signed a memorandum under the Section 301 of the 1974 Trade Act, instructing the United States Trade Representative (USTR) to apply tariffs of $50 billion on Chinese goods. Trump stated that the tariffs would be imposed due to Chinese theft of U.S intellectual property.[73] Trump said that his planned tariffs on Chinese imports would make the United States "a much stronger, much richer nation."[74] However, the steps toward imposing the tariffs led to increased concerns of a global trade war.[73]

text: The Dow Jones Industrial Average fell 724 points, or 2.9%, after the tariffs were announced due to concerns over a trade war.[75] Corporations that traded with China, such as Caterpillar Inc.and Boeing suffered large losses in their stock price.[76]

text: In response, the Ministry of Commerce of the People's Republic of China announced plans to implement its own tariffs on 128 U.S. products. 120 of those products, such as fruit and wine, will be taxed at a 15 percent duty while the remaining 8 products, including pork, will receive a 25 percent tariff.[77][78] China implemented their tariffs on April 2, 2018.[79][80]

text: On April 3, 2018, the U.S. Trade Representative's office published an initial list of 1,300+ Chinese goods to impose levies upon, including products like flat-screen televisions, weapons, satellites, medical devices, aircraft parts and batteries.[81][82][83] Chinese Ambassador Cui Tiankai responded by warning the US that they may fight back, saying "We have done the utmost to avoid this kind of situation, but if the other side makes the wrong choice, then we have no alternative but to fight back."[84]

text: On April 4, 2018, China's Customs Tariff Commission of the State Council decided to announce a plan of additional tariffs of 25 percent on 106 items of products including automobiles, airplanes, and soybeans.[85] Soybeans are the top U.S. agricultural export to China.[86][87]

text: The increased tit-for-tat tariff announcements stoked fears that the two countries are inching closer to a trade war.[88][89][90] On April 4, 2018, President Trump responded to speculation through Twitter, "We are not in a trade war with China, that war was lost many years ago by the foolish, or incompetent, people who represented the U.S. Now we have a Trade Deficit of $500 Billion a year, with Intellectual Property Theft of another $300 Billion. We cannot let this continue!"[91] The next day Trump directed the USTR to consider $100 billion in additional tariffs.[92][93]

text: On May 9, 2018, China are cancel Soybean order export to United States from China trade war, Zhang Xiaoping, China director for the U.S. Soybean Export Council said, The buyers literally stopped buying from the U.S.,”“Exporters cannot find any buyers in China".[94]

text: KORUS[edit]

text: On March 28, 2018 the United States and South Korea announced major changes to the bilateral United States–Korea Free Trade Agreement (KORUS FTA) in response to the numerous tariffs and the proposed North Korean-United States diplomatic meeting.[95] The 25 percent tariff on South Korean trucks will be extend until 2041, adding twenty years to the current 2021 target phase out date. No South Korean auto manufacturer exports trucks to the United States. The United States will partially exempt South Korea from its steel and aluminum tariffs.[96][97]

text: Proposed tariffs[edit]

text: Automobiles[edit]

text: During the campaign Trump said he would impose tariffs — in the range of 15 to 35 percent — on companies that move their operations to Mexico.[21] Trump proposed a 35 percent tariff on "every car, every truck and every part manufactured in Ford's Mexico plant that comes across the border."[98] Tariffs at that level would be far higher than the international norms (which are around 2.67 percent for the U.S. and most other advanced economies and under 10 percent for most developing countries).[99]

text: After the European Union threatened to impose retaliatory tariffs should a tariff on steel and aluminum be imposed, on March 3, 2018 Trump countered with a threat to tariff European car manufacturers.[100]


document_title: MS Voyager of the Seas

question_text: when was the voyager of the seas refurbished

root

text: MS Voyager of the Seas

text: This article contains content that is written like an advertisement. Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view. (October 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text:
Voyager of the Seas in Sydney, Australia,
following her 2014 refurbishment

History

Name:
Voyager of the Seas

Operator:
Royal Caribbean International

Port of registry:

1999–2002: Monrovia,  Liberia
2002 onwards: Nassau,  Bahamas

Route:
Asia, Australia and New Zealand

Builder:

Kværner Masa-Yards
Turku New Shipyard,
Turku, Finland

Cost:
US$650 million

Yard number:
1344

Launched:
November 27, 1998

Sponsored by:
Katarina Witt

Christened:
November 20, 1999

Maiden voyage:
November 21, 1999

Identification:

ABS class no:
Call sign: C6SE5
DNV GL ID: 19902
IMO number: 9161716
MMSI number: 311317000

Status:
In service

Notes:
[1][2]

General characteristics

Class and type:
Voyager-class cruise ship

Tonnage:

138,194 GT
108,654 NT
11,132 DWT

Length:
311.1 m (1,021 ft)

Beam:

38.6 m (127 ft) - Waterline
47.4 m (156 ft) - Max[1]

Height:
63 m (206.69 ft)

Draught:
9.1 m (30 ft)

Depth:
24

Decks:
15

Deck clearance:
7

Ramps:
4

Installed power:
6 × Wärtsilä 12V46 (6 × 12,600 kW)

Propulsion:

Diesel-electric
Two ABB Azipods and one Fixipod
Four bow thrusters

Speed:
23.7 knots (43.9 km/h; 27.3 mph)

Capacity:
3,138 passengers

Crew:
1,181 crew

Notes:
[3]

text: MS Voyager of the Seas is the lead ship of the Voyager-class of cruise ships operated by Royal Caribbean International (RCI). Constructed by Kværner Masa-Yards at its Turku New Shipyard in Turku, Finland, she was serviced on November 27, 1998, and christened by Olympic gold medal-winning figure skater Katarina Witt on November 20, 1999.

tag: p

text: Upon her departure on her maiden voyage the following day, November 21, 1999, Voyager of the Seas was the largest cruise ship in the world, although she was overtaken the following year by her sister ship Explorer of the Seas. She measured 137,276 GT at launch with a displacement of 58,000 t (57,000 long tons; 64,000 short tons), and a 2015 refurbishment increased her tonnage to 138,194 GT.[1][4] She is 311 m (1,020 ft) long overall, has a waterline beam (width) of 36.8 m (121 ft) and a height of 63 m (207 ft).

text: Design[edit]

text: Voyager of the Seas contains the first rock climbing wall at sea (mounted on funnel) and the first ice-skating rink at sea, as well as a horizontal atrium concept known as the Royal Promenade.[5]

text: During Voyager of the Seas' first weeks at sea, there were doubts about how effective the ice rink would be due to the ice occasionally cracking in places due to the instability of the ship and hot ventilation pipes on the deck below, although these merely turned out to be teething troubles. Today the ice rink is used throughout the cruise as a public ice-skating venue and for professional ice shows.

text: The Royal Promenade is a marble floored street stretching just over 3/4 the length of the ship including shops and light dining venues. This area is the heart of the ship of evening activity, along with the 3 story high La Scala theatre in which some of the latest production technology is used to produce Broadway standard production shows at night.

text: All cabins on Voyager of the Seas feature en-suite bathrooms and an interactive television service, and most outward facing cabins on the upper decks feature balconies.

text: In October and November 2014, Voyager of the Seas underwent dry dock refurbishment to receive "Royal Advantage" upgrades.[6] These upgrades included the installation of an outdoor movie screen near the pool, replacing the inline skating track with a flowrider surf simulator,[7] changing the Italian restaurant from Portofino to Giovanni's Table, and adding the Izumi asian fusion restaurant, Chops steakhouse, Diamond Club, digital signage, and ship-wide Wifi.[8][9]

text: Itineraries[edit]

text: As of 2016[update] Voyager of the Seas alternates between Australia and New Zealand itineraries out of Sydney in Southern Hemisphere summer and Asia itineraries out of Singapore [10] and Hong Kong in the Northern Hemisphere summer.[11]

text: In early 2017, Royal Caribbean announced that the Voyager of The Seas would be leaving Australia for the 2018-19 season, and that it will be sailing in Singapore and China for a year-round season.

text: Amenities[edit]

text:
Royal Promenade
Casino
FlowRider
Three-story main dining room
Additional fee restaurants including Johnny Rockets, Giovanni's Table, Izumi and Chops Grille
Themed bars and lounges
Day spa and fitness centre
Wedding chapel
Swimming pools
Library
"Optix" teen club
Ben and Jerry's
Video Arcade
Ice Skating Rink called Studio B
Outdoor Movie Screen

tag: ul

text:
Voyager of the Seas in Hong Kong in February 2015

Voyager of the Seas in La Seyne-sur-Mer, France

The bow of the ship

The stern of the ship

The ship at Kobe Port

The ship at Labadee

The ship as leaving Auckland, New Zealand

The ship at Hakata Port


document_title: Shrinky Dinks

question_text: what kind of plastic are shrinky-dinks made of

text: Shrinky Dinks

text: Shrinky Dinks are a children's toy and activity kit consisting of large flexible sheets which, when heated in an oven, shrink to small hard plates without altering their color or shape. They reached the height of their popularity in the 1980s. Most sets are pre-printed with outline images of popular children's characters or other subjects, which are then colored in before baking.

text: Shrinky Dinks were invented in 1973 by two housewives (Betty Morris and Kate Bloomberg) of Brookfield, Wisconsin, as a Cub Scout project with their sons.[1] The first kits were sold at a local shopping mall and became very popular. Shrinky Dinks were soon licensed to be manufactured by the major toy companies of the time such as Milton Bradley, Colorforms, Western Publishing and Skyline Toys. The shrink plastic is still available from many retailers and can be used for anything from charms to pins.

text: The base material consists of thin, flexible polystyrene plastic (#6) sheets.[2] Prior to heating, the plastic sheets can be colored with felt-tip pens, acrylic paint, colored pencils, etc. and cut into shapes. However, oily or waxy substances (such as cheap colored pencils, crayons, or oil paint) are not suitable because they melt or burn in high heat. When heated with the Easy-Bake Oven, a conventional oven, or a heat gun, the plastic shrinks by about five-eighths and becomes thicker and more rigid, while retaining the colored design.

text: Although Shrinky Dinks are primarily an arts and crafts product marketed for children, many adult crafters and artists find the product to be suitable for jewelry making and other projects. Blank sheets are available in bulk for this purpose, and Shrinky Dinks have, rather unexpectedly, become a serious artistic medium.[3]

text: In 2008, University of California, Irvine Professor Michelle Khine applied Shrinky Dinks to create tiny structures for the application of microfluidics to topics such as stem cell research.[4]

text: In 2009, an art therapy supervision class at Emporia State University explored the use of Shrinky Dinks in art therapy.[5] In 2014, Shrinky Dinks were presented as an art therapy media in a workshop at the American Art Therapy Association Conference.[6]

text: In 2014, a team from Harvard University and MIT used Shrinky Dinks to create self-assembling robots.[7]

text: In 1992, the California rock band Sugar Ray formed with the name "Shrinky Dinx", but later changed it upon threat of lawsuit from Milton Bradley.[8]


document_title: Heartbleed

question_text: first 1.0.1 version of openssl that was not vulnerable to heartbleed

question_tokens: first 1.0.1 version of openssl that was not vulnerable to heartbleed

text: Heartbleed

text: History[edit]

text: The Heartbeat Extension for the Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS) protocols was proposed as a standard in February 2012 by RFC 6520.[10] It provides a way to test and keep alive secure communication links without the need to renegotiate the connection each time. In 2011, one of the RFC's authors, Robin Seggelmann, then a Ph.D. student at the Fachhochschule Münster, implemented the Heartbeat Extension for OpenSSL. Following Seggelmann's request to put the result of his work into OpenSSL,[11][12][13] his change was reviewed by Stephen N. Henson, one of OpenSSL's four core developers. Henson failed to notice a bug in Seggelmann's implementation, and introduced the flawed code into OpenSSL's source code repository on December 31, 2011. The defect spread with the release of OpenSSL version 1.0.1 on March 14, 2012. Heartbeat support was enabled by default, causing affected versions to be vulnerable.[14][15][16]

text: Discovery[edit]

text: According to Mark J. Cox of OpenSSL, Neel Mehta of Google's security team secretly reported Heartbleed on April 1, 2014 11:09 UTC.[17]

text: The bug was named by an engineer at Codenomicon, a Finnish cyber security company that also created the bleeding heart logo and launched the domain heartbleed.com to explain the bug to the public.[18]  While Google's security team reported Heartbleed to OpenSSL first, both Google and Codenomicon discovered it independently at approximately the same time.[19][14][20] Codenomicon reports April 3, 2014 as their date of discovery and their date of notification of NCSC-FI for vulnerability coordination.[14][21]

text: At the time of disclosure, some 17% (around half a million) of the Internet's secure web servers certified by trusted authorities were believed to be vulnerable to the attack, allowing theft of the servers' private keys and users' session cookies and passwords.[22][23][24][25][26] The Electronic Frontier Foundation,[27] Ars Technica,[28] and Bruce Schneier[29] all deemed the Heartbleed bug catastrophic. Forbes cybersecurity columnist Joseph Steinberg wrote:

text: Some might argue that Heartbleed is the worst vulnerability found (at least in terms of its potential impact) since commercial traffic began to flow on the Internet.[30]

text: A British Cabinet spokesman recommended that:

text: People should take advice on changing passwords from the websites they use.

text: Most websites have corrected the bug and are best placed to advise what action, if any, people need to take.[31]

text: On the day of disclosure, the Tor Project advised:

text: If you need strong anonymity or privacy on the Internet, you might want to stay away from the Internet entirely for the next few days while things settle.[32]

text: The Sydney Morning Herald published a timeline of the discovery on April 15, 2014, showing that some organizations had been able to patch the bug before its public disclosure. In some cases, it is not clear how they found out.[33]

text: Bugfix and deployment[edit]

text: Bodo Moeller and Adam Langley of Google prepared the fix for Heartbleed. The resulting patch was added to Red Hat's issue tracker on March 21, 2014.[34] Stephen N. Henson applied the fix to OpenSSL's version control system on 7 April.[35] The first fixed version, 1.0.1g, was released on the same day. As of  June 21, 2014[update], 309,197 public web servers remained vulnerable.[36]

text: Certificate renewal and revocation[edit]

text: According to Netcraft, about 30,000 of the 500,000+ X.509 certificates which could have been compromised due to Heartbleed had been reissued by April 11, 2014, although fewer had been revoked.[37]

text: By May 9, 2014, only 43% of affected web sites had reissued their security certificates. In addition, 7% of the reissued security certificates used the potentially compromised keys.  Netcraft stated:

text: By reusing the same private key, a site that was affected by the Heartbleed bug still faces exactly the same risks as those that have not yet replaced their SSL certificates.[38]

text: eWeek said, "[Heartbleed is] likely to remain a risk for months, if not years, to come."[39]

text: Exploitation[edit]

text: The Canada Revenue Agency reported a theft of Social Insurance Numbers belonging to 900 taxpayers, and said that they were accessed through an exploit of the bug during a 6-hour period on April 8, 2014.[40]  After the discovery of the attack, the agency shut down its website and extended the taxpayer filing deadline from April 30 to May 5.[41] The agency said it would provide credit protection services at no cost to anyone affected. On April 16, the RCMP announced they had charged a computer science student in relation to the theft with unauthorized use of a computer and mischief in relation to data.[42][43]

text: The UK parenting site Mumsnet had several user accounts hijacked, and its CEO was impersonated.[44] The site later published an explanation of the incident saying it was due to Heartbleed and the technical staff patched it promptly.[45]

text: Anti-malware researchers also exploited Heartbleed to their own advantage in order to access secret forums used by cybercriminals.[46] Studies were also conducted by deliberately setting up vulnerable machines. For example, on April 12, 2014, at least two independent researchers were able to steal private keys from an experimental server intentionally set up for that purpose by CloudFlare.[47][48] Also, on April 15, 2014, J. Alex Halderman, a professor at University of Michigan, reported that his honeypot server, an intentionally vulnerable server designed to attract attacks in order to study them, had received numerous attacks originating from China. Halderman concluded that because it was a fairly obscure server, these attacks were probably sweeping attacks affecting large areas of the Internet.[49]

text: In August 2014, it was made public that the Heartbleed vulnerability enabled hackers to steal security keys from Community Health Systems, the second-biggest for-profit U.S. hospital chain in the United States, compromising the confidentiality of 4.5 million patient records. The breach happened a week after Heartbleed was first made public.[50]

text: Possible prior knowledge and exploitation[edit]

text: Many major web sites patched the bug or disabled the Heartbeat Extension within days of its announcement,[51] but it is unclear whether potential attackers were aware of it earlier and to what extent it was exploited.

text: Based on examinations of audit logs by researchers, it has been reported that some attackers may have exploited the flaw for at least five months before discovery and announcement.[52][53] Errata Security pointed out that a widely used non-malicious program called Masscan, introduced six months before Heartbleed's disclosure, abruptly terminates the connection in the middle of handshaking in the same way as Heartbleed, generating the same server log messages, adding "Two new things producing the same error messages might seem like the two are correlated, but of course, they aren't.[54]"

text: According to Bloomberg News, two unnamed insider sources informed it that the United States' National Security Agency had been aware of the flaw since shortly after its appearance but—instead of reporting it—kept it secret among other unreported zero-day vulnerabilities in order to exploit it for the NSA's own purposes.[55][56][57] The NSA has denied this claim,[58] as has Richard A. Clarke, a member of the National Intelligence Review Group on Intelligence and Communications Technologies that reviewed the United States' electronic surveillance policy; he told Reuters on April 11, 2014 that the NSA had not known of Heartbleed.[59] The allegation prompted the American government to make, for the first time, a public statement on its zero-day vulnerabilities policy, accepting the recommendation of the review group's 2013 report that had asserted "in almost all instances, for widely used code, it is in the national interest to eliminate software vulnerabilities rather than to use them for US intelligence collection", and saying that the decision to withhold should move from the NSA to the White House.[60]

text: Behavior[edit]

text: The RFC 6520 Heartbeat Extension tests TLS/DTLS secure communication links by allowing a computer at one end of a connection to send a Heartbeat Request message, consisting of a payload, typically a text string, along with the payload's length as a 16-bit integer. The receiving computer then must send exactly the same payload back to the sender.

text: The affected versions of OpenSSL allocate a memory buffer for the message to be returned based on the length field in the requesting message, without regard to the actual size of that message's payload. Because of this failure to do proper bounds checking, the message returned consists of the payload, possibly followed by whatever else happened to be in the allocated memory buffer.

text: Heartbleed is therefore exploited by sending a malformed heartbeat request with a small payload and large length field to the vulnerable party (usually a server) in order to elicit the victim's response, permitting attackers to read up to 64 kilobytes of the victim's memory that was likely to have been used previously by OpenSSL.[61] Where a Heartbeat Request might ask a party to "send back the four-letter word 'bird'", resulting in a response of "bird", a "Heartbleed Request" (a malicious heartbeat request) of "send back the 500-letter word 'bird'" would cause the victim to return "bird" followed by whatever 496 characters the victim happened to have in active memory. Attackers in this way could receive sensitive data, compromising the confidentiality of the victim's communications. Although an attacker has some control over the disclosed memory block's size, it has no control over its location, and therefore cannot choose what content is revealed.

text: Affected OpenSSL installations[edit]

text: The affected versions of OpenSSL are OpenSSL 1.0.1 through 1.0.1f (inclusive). Subsequent versions (1.0.1g[62] and later) and previous versions (1.0.0 branch and older) are not vulnerable.[63] Installations of the affected versions are vulnerable unless OpenSSL was compiled with -DOPENSSL_NO_HEARTBEATS.[64][65]

text: Vulnerable program and function[edit]

text: The vulnerable program source files are t1_lib.c and d1_both.c and the vulnerable functions are tls1_process_heartbeat() and dtls1_process_heartbeat().[66][67]

text: Patch[edit]

text: The problem can be fixed by ignoring Heartbeat Request messages that ask for more data than their payload needs.

text: Version 1.0.1g of OpenSSL adds some bounds checks to prevent the buffer over-read. For example, the following test was introduced to determine whether a heartbeat request would trigger Heartbleed; it silently discards malicious requests.

text: The version control system contains a complete list of changes.[35]

text: Impact[edit]

text: The data obtained by a Heartbleed attack may include unencrypted exchanges between TLS parties likely to be confidential, including any form post data in users' requests. Moreover, the confidential data exposed could include authentication secrets such as session cookies and passwords, which might allow attackers to impersonate a user of the service.[68]

text: An attack may also reveal private keys of compromised parties,[14][16][69] which would enable attackers to decrypt communications (future or past stored traffic captured via passive eavesdropping, unless perfect forward secrecy is used, in which case only future traffic can be decrypted if intercepted via man-in-the-middle attacks).

text: An attacker having gained authentication material may impersonate the material's owner after the victim has patched Heartbleed, as long as the material is accepted (for example, until the password is changed or the private key revoked). Heartbleed therefore constitutes a critical threat to confidentiality. However, an attacker impersonating a victim may also alter data. Indirectly, Heartbleed's consequences may thus go far beyond a confidentiality breach for many systems.[70]

text: A survey of American adults conducted in April 2014 showed that 60 percent had heard about Heartbleed. Among those using the Internet, 39 percent had protected their online accounts, for example by changing passwords or canceling accounts; 29 percent believed their personal information was put at risk because of the Heartbleed bug; and 6 percent believed their personal information had been stolen.[71]

text: Client-side vulnerability[edit]

text: Although the bug received more attention due to the threat it represents for servers,[72] TLS clients using affected OpenSSL instances are also vulnerable. In what The Guardian therefore dubbed Reverse Heartbleed, malicious servers are able to exploit Heartbleed to read data from a vulnerable client's memory.[73] Security researcher Steve Gibson said of Heartbleed that:

text: It's not just a server-side vulnerability, it's also a client-side vulnerability because the server, or whomever you connect to, is as able to ask you for a heartbeat back as you are to ask them.[74]

text: The stolen data could contain usernames and passwords.[75] Reverse Heartbleed affected millions of application instances.[73] Some of the vulnerable applications are listed in the "Software applications" section below.

text: Specific systems affected[edit]

text: Cisco Systems has identified 78 of its products as vulnerable, including IP phone systems and telepresence (video conferencing) systems.[76]

text: Websites and other online services[edit]

text: An analysis posted on GitHub of the most visited websites on April 8, 2014 revealed vulnerabilities in sites including Yahoo!, Imgur, Stack Overflow, Slate, and DuckDuckGo.[77][78]  The following sites have services affected or made announcements recommending that users update passwords in response to the bug:

text:
Akamai Technologies[79]
Amazon Web Services[80]
Ars Technica[81]
Bitbucket[82]
BrandVerity[83]
Freenode[84]
GitHub[85]
IFTTT[86]
Internet Archive[87]
Mojang[88]
Mumsnet[44]
PeerJ[89]
Pinterest[90]
Prezi[91]
Reddit[92]
Something Awful[93]
SoundCloud[94]
SourceForge[95]
SparkFun[96]
Stripe[97]
Tumblr[98][99]
All Wikimedia Foundation wikis (including Wikipedia in all languages)[100][101]
Wunderlist[102]

text: The Canadian federal government temporarily shut online services of the Canada Revenue Agency (CRA) and several government departments over Heartbleed bug security concerns.[103][104]

text: Platform maintainers like the Wikimedia Foundation advised their users to change passwords.[100]

text: The servers of LastPass were vulnerable,[105] but due to additional encryption and forward secrecy, potential attacks were not able to exploit this bug. However, LastPass recommended that its users change passwords for vulnerable websites.[106]

text: The Tor Project recommended that Tor relay operators and hidden service operators revoke and generate fresh keys after patching OpenSSL, but noted that Tor relays use two sets of keys and that Tor's multi-hop design minimizes the impact of exploiting a single relay.[32] 586 relays later found to be susceptible to the Heartbleed bug were taken off-line as a precautionary measure.[107][108][109][110]

text: Game-related services including Steam, Minecraft, Wargaming.net, League of Legends, GOG.com, Origin, Sony Online Entertainment, Humble Bundle, and Path of Exile were affected and subsequently fixed.[111]

text: Software applications[edit]

text: Vulnerable software applications include:

text:
Several Hewlett-Packard server applications, such as HP System Management Homepage (SMH) for Linux and Windows.[112]
Some versions of FileMaker 13[113]
LibreOffice 4.2.0 to 4.2.2 (fixed in 4.2.3)[114][115]
LogMeIn claimed to have "updated many products and parts of our services that rely on OpenSSL".[116]
Multiple McAfee products, in particular some versions of software providing anti-viral coverage for Microsoft Exchange, software firewalls, and McAfee Email and Web Gateways[117]
MySQL Workbench 6.1.4 and earlier[118]
Oracle MySQL Connector/C 6.1.0-6.1.3 and Connector/ODBC 5.1.13, 5.2.5-5.2.6, 5.3.2[118]
Oracle Big Data Appliance (includes Oracle Linux 6)[118]
Primavera P6 Professional Project Management (includes Primavera P6 Enterprise Project Portfolio Management)[118]
WinSCP (FTP client for Windows) 5.5.2 and some earlier versions (only vulnerable with FTP over TLS/SSL, fixed in 5.5.3)[119]
Multiple VMware products, including VMware ESXi 5.5, VMware Player 6.0, VMware Workstation 10 and the series of Horizon products, emulators and cloud computing suites[120]

text: Several other Oracle Corporation applications were affected.[118]

text: Operating systems/firmware[edit]

text: Several GNU/Linux distributions were affected, including Debian[121] (and derivatives such as Linux Mint and Ubuntu[122]) and Red Hat Enterprise Linux[123] (and derivatives such as CentOS,[124] Oracle Linux 6[118] and Amazon Linux[125]), as well as the following operating systems and firmware implementations:

text:
Android 4.1.1, used in various portable devices.[126] Chris Smith writes in Boy Genius Report that just this one version of Android is affected but that it is a popular version of Android (Chitika claim 4.1.1 is on 50 million devices;[127] Google describe it as less than 10% of activated Android devices). Other Android versions are not vulnerable as they either have heartbeats disabled or use an unaffected version of OpenSSL.[128][129]
Firmware for some AirPort base stations[130]
Firmware for some Cisco Systems routers[76][131][132]
Firmware for some Juniper Networks routers[132][133]
pfSense 2.1.0 and 2.1.1 (fixed in 2.1.2)[134]
DD-WRT versions between and including 19163 and 23881 (fixed in 23882)[135]
Western Digital My Cloud product family firmware[136]

text: Vulnerability testing services[edit]

text: Several services have been made available to test whether Heartbleed affects a given site. However, many services have been claimed to be ineffective for detecting the bug.[137] The available tools include:

text:
Tripwire SecureScan[138]
AppCheck – static binary scan, from Codenomicon[139]
Arbor Network's Pravail Security Analytics[140]
Norton Safeweb Heartbleed Check Tool[141]
Heartbleed testing tool by a European IT security company[142]
Heartbleed Scanner by Italian cryptologist Filippo Valsorda[143]
Heartbleed Vulnerability Test by Cyberoam[144]
Critical Watch Free Online Heartbleed Tester[145]
Metasploit Heartbleed scanner module[146]
Heartbleed Server Scanner by Rehmann[147]
Lookout Mobile Security Heartbleed Detector, an app for Android devices that determines the OpenSSL version of the device and indicates whether the vulnerable heartbeat is enabled[148]
Heartbleed checker hosted by LastPass[149]
Online network range scanner for Heartbleed vulnerability by Pentest-Tools.com[150]
Official Red Hat offline scanner written in the Python language[151]
Qualys SSL Labs' SSL Server Test[152] which not only looks for the Heartbleed bug, but can also find other SSL/TLS implementation errors.
Browser extensions, such as Chromebleed[153] and FoxBleed[154]
SSL Diagnos[155]
CrowdStrike Heartbleed Scanner[156] – Scans routers, printers and other devices connected inside a network including intranet web sites.[157]
Netcraft Site Report[158] – indicates whether a website's confidentiality could be jeopardized due to a past exploitation of Heartbleed by checking data from Netcraft's SSL Survey to determine whether a site offered the heartbeat TLS Extension prior to the Heartbleed disclosure. The Netcraft Extensions for Chrome, Firefox and Opera[159] also perform this check, whilst looking for potentially compromised certificates.[160]

text: Other security tools have added support for finding this bug. For example, Tenable Network Security wrote a plugin for its Nessus vulnerability scanner that can scan for this fault.[161] The Nmap security scanner includes a Heartbleed detection script from version 6.45.[162]

text: Sourcefire has released Snort rules to detect Heartbleed attack traffic and possible Heartbleed response traffic.[163] Open source packet analysis software such as Wireshark and tcpdump can identify Heartbleed packets using specific BPF packet filters that can be used on stored packet captures or live traffic.[164]

text: Remediation[edit]

text: Vulnerability to Heartbleed is resolved by updating OpenSSL to a patched version (1.0.1g or later).  OpenSSL can be used either as a standalone program, a dynamic shared object, or a statically-linked library; therefore, the updating process can require restarting processes loaded with a vulnerable version of OpenSSL as well as re-linking programs and libraries that linked it statically.  In practice this means updating packages that link OpenSSL statically, and restarting running programs to remove the in-memory copy of the old, vulnerable OpenSSL code.

text: After the vulnerability is patched, server administrators must address the potential breach of confidentiality.  Because Heartbleed allowed attackers to disclose private keys, they must be treated as compromised; keypairs must be regenerated, and certificates that use them must be reissued; the old certificates must be revoked.  Heartbleed also had the potential to allow disclosure of other in-memory secrets; therefore, other authentication material (such as passwords) should also be regenerated.  It is rarely possible to confirm that a system which was affected has not been compromised, or to determine whether a specific piece of information was leaked.[165]

text: Since it is difficult or impossible to determine when a credential might have been compromised and how it might have been used by an attacker, certain systems may warrant additional remediation work even after patching the vulnerability and replacing credentials.  For example, signatures made by keys that were in use with a vulnerable OpenSSL version might well have been made by an attacker; this raises the possibility integrity has been violated, and opens signatures to repudiation.  Validation of signatures and the legitimacy of other authentications made with a potentially compromised key (such as client certificate use) must be done with regard to the specific system involved.

text: Browser security certificate revocation awareness[edit]

text: Since Heartbleed threatened the privacy of private keys, users of a website which was compromised could continue to suffer from Heartbleed's effects until their browser is made aware of the certificate revocation or the compromised certificate expires.[166]  For this reason, remediation also depends on users making use of browsers that have up-to-date certificate revocation lists (or OCSP support) and honour certificate revocations.

text: Root causes, possible lessons, and reactions[edit]

text: Although evaluating the total cost of Heartbleed is difficult, eWEEK estimated US$500 million as a starting point.[167]

text: David A. Wheeler's paper How to Prevent the next Heartbleed analyzes why Heartbleed wasn't discovered earlier, and suggests several techniques which could have led to a faster identification, as well as techniques which could have reduced its impact. According to Wheeler, the most efficient technique which could have prevented Heartbleed is a test suite thoroughly performing robustness testing, i.e. testing that invalid inputs cause failures rather than successes. Wheeler highlights that a single general-purpose test suite could serve as a base for all TLS implementations.[168]

text: According to an article on The Conversation written by Robert Merkel, Heartbleed revealed a massive failure of risk analysis. Merkel thinks OpenSSL gives more importance to performance than to security, which no longer makes sense in his opinion. But Merkel considers that OpenSSL should not be blamed as much as OpenSSL users, who chose to use OpenSSL, without funding better auditing and testing. Merkel explains that two aspects determine the risk that more similar bugs will cause vulnerabilities. One, the library's source code influences the risk of writing bugs with such an impact. Secondly, OpenSSL's processes affect the chances of catching bugs quickly. On the first aspect, Merkel mentions the use of the C programming language as one risk factor which favored Heartbleed's appearance, echoing Wheeler's analysis.[168][169]

text: On the same aspect, Theo de Raadt, founder and leader of the OpenBSD and OpenSSH projects, has criticized the OpenSSL developers for writing their own memory management routines and thereby, he claims, circumventing OpenBSD C standard library exploit countermeasures, saying "OpenSSL is not developed by a responsible team."[170][171] Following Heartbleed's disclosure, members of the OpenBSD project forked OpenSSL into LibreSSL.[172]

text: The author of the change which introduced Heartbleed, Robin Seggelmann,[173] stated that he missed validating a variable containing a length and denied any intention to submit a flawed implementation.[11] Following Heartbleed's disclosure, Seggelmann suggested focusing on the second aspect, stating that OpenSSL is not reviewed by enough people.[174] Although Seggelmann's work was reviewed by an OpenSSL core developer, the review was also intended to verify functional improvements, a situation making vulnerabilities much easier to miss.[168]

text: OpenSSL core developer Ben Laurie claimed that a security audit of OpenSSL would have caught Heartbleed.[175] Software engineer John Walsh commented:

text: Think about it, OpenSSL only has two [fulltime] people to write, maintain, test, and review 500,000 lines of business critical code.[176]

text: The OpenSSL foundation's president, Steve Marquess, said "The mystery is not that a few overworked volunteers missed this bug; the mystery is why it hasn't happened more often."[177] David A. Wheeler described audits as an excellent way to find vulnerabilities in typical cases, but noted that "OpenSSL uses unnecessarily complex structures, which makes it harder to both humans and machines to review." He wrote:

text: There should be a continuous effort to simplify the code, because otherwise just adding capabilities will slowly increase the software complexity. The code should be refactored over time to make it simple and clear, not just constantly add new features. The goal should be code that is “obviously right”, as opposed to code that is so complicated that “I can’t see any problems”.[168]

text: LibreSSL made a big code cleanup, removing more than 90,000 lines of C code just in its first week.[178]

text: According to security researcher Dan Kaminsky, Heartbleed is sign of an economic problem which needs to be fixed. Seeing the time taken to catch this simple error in a simple feature from a "critical" dependency, Kaminsky fears numerous future vulnerabilities if nothing is done. When Heartbleed was discovered, OpenSSL was maintained by a handful of volunteers, only one of whom worked full-time.[179] Yearly donations to the OpenSSL project were about US$2,000.[180] The Heartbleed website from Codenomicon advised money donations to the OpenSSL project.[14] After learning about donations for the 2 or 3 days following Heartbleed's disclosure totaling US$841, Kaminsky commented "We are building the most important technologies for the global economy on shockingly underfunded infrastructure."[181] Core developer Ben Laurie has qualified the project as "completely unfunded".[180] Although the OpenSSL Software Foundation has no bug bounty program, the Internet Bug Bounty initiative awarded US$15,000 to Google's Neel Mehta, who discovered Heartbleed, for his responsible disclosure.[180]

text: Paul Chiusano suggested Heartbleed may have resulted from failed software economics.[182]

text: The industry's collective response to the crisis was the Core Infrastructure Initiative, a multimillion-dollar project announced by the Linux Foundation on April 24, 2014 to provide funds to critical elements of the global information infrastructure.[183] The initiative intends to allow lead developers to work full-time on their projects and to pay for security audits, hardware and software infrastructure, travel, and other expenses.[184] OpenSSL is a candidate to become the first recipient of the initiative's funding.[183]

text: After the discovery Google established Project Zero which is tasked with finding zero-day vulnerabilities to help secure the Web and society.[185]


document_title: Haematopoiesis

question_text: where does myeloid hematopoiesis take place in adults

text: Haematopoiesis

text: Haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs)[edit]

text: Haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) reside in the medulla of the bone (bone marrow) and have the unique ability to give rise to all of the different mature blood cell types and tissues.[1] HSCs are self-renewing cells: when they proliferate, at least some of their daughter cells remain as HSCs, so the pool of stem cells is not depleted.This phenomenon is called asymmetric division.[4] The other daughters of HSCs (myeloid and lymphoid progenitor cells) can follow any of the other differentiation pathways that lead to the production of one or more specific types of blood cell, but cannot renew themselves. The pool of progenitors is heterogeneous and can be divided into two groups; long-term self-renewing HSC and only transiently self-renewing HSC, also called short-terms.[5] This is one of the main vital processes in the body.

text: All blood cells are divided into three lineages.[6]

text:
Erythroid cells are the oxygen carrying red blood cells. Both reticulocytes and erythrocytes are functional and are released into the blood. In fact, a reticulocyte count estimates the rate of erythropoiesis.
Lymphocytes are the cornerstone of the adaptive immune system. They are derived from common lymphoid progenitors. The lymphoid lineage is primarily composed of T-cells and B-cells (types of white blood cells). This is lymphopoiesis.
Myelocytes, which include granulocytes, megakaryocytes and macrophages and are derived from common myeloid progenitors, are involved in such diverse roles as innate immunity, adaptive immunity, and blood clotting. This is myelopoiesis.

text: Granulopoiesis (or granulocytopoiesis) is haematopoiesis of granulocytes.

text: Megakaryocytopoiesis is haematopoiesis of megakaryocytes.

text: Locations[edit]

text: In developing embryos, blood formation occurs in aggregates of blood cells in the yolk sac, called blood islands. As development progresses, blood formation occurs in the spleen, liver and lymph nodes. When bone marrow develops, it eventually assumes the task of forming most of the blood cells for the entire organism.[1] However, maturation, activation, and some proliferation of lymphoid cells occurs in the spleen, thymus, and lymph nodes. In children, haematopoiesis occurs in the marrow of the long bones such as the femur and tibia. In adults, it occurs mainly in the pelvis, cranium, vertebrae, and sternum.[7]

text: Extramedullary[edit]

text: In some cases, the liver, thymus, and spleen may resume their haematopoietic function, if necessary. This is called extramedullary haematopoiesis. It may cause these organs to increase in size substantially. During fetal development, since bones and thus the bone marrow develop later, the liver functions as the main haematopoetic organ. Therefore, the liver is enlarged during development.[8]

text: Other vertebrates[edit]

text: In some vertebrates, haematopoiesis can occur wherever there is a loose stroma of connective tissue and slow blood supply, such as the gut, spleen or kidney.[9]

text: Maturation[edit]

text: As a stem cell matures it undergoes changes in gene expression that limit the cell types that it can become and moves it closer to a specific cell type (cellular differentiation). These changes can often be tracked by monitoring the presence of proteins on the surface of the cell. Each successive change moves the cell closer to the final cell type and further limits its potential to become a different cell type.

text: Cell fate determination[edit]

text: Two models for hematopoiesis have been proposed: determinism and stochastic theory.[10] For the stem cells and other undifferentiated blood cells in the bone marrow, the determination is generally explained by the determinism theory of haematopoiesis, saying that colony stimulating factors and other factors of the haematopoietic microenvironment determine the cells to follow a certain path of cell differentiation.[1] This is the classical way of describing haematopoiesis. In stochastic theory, undifferentiated blood cells differentiate to specific cell types by randomness. This theory has been supported by experiments showing that within a population of mouse haematopoietic progenitor cells, underlying stochastic variability in the distribution of Sca-1, a stem cell factor, subdivides the population into groups exhibiting variable rates of cellular differentiation. For example, under the influence of erythropoietin (an erythrocyte-differentiation factor), a subpopulation of cells (as defined by the levels of Sca-1) differentiated into erythrocytes at a sevenfold higher rate than the rest of the population.[11] Furthermore, it was shown that if allowed to grow, this subpopulation re-established the original subpopulation of cells, supporting the theory that this is a stochastic, reversible process. Another level at which stochasticity may be important is in the process of apoptosis and self-renewal. In this case, the haematopoietic microenvironment prevails upon some of the cells to survive and some, on the other hand, to perform apoptosis and die.[1] By regulating this balance between different cell types, the bone marrow can alter the quantity of different cells to ultimately be produced.[12]

text: Growth factors[edit]

text: Red and white blood cell production is regulated with great precision in healthy humans, and the production of leukocytes is rapidly increased during infection. The proliferation and self-renewal of these cells depend on growth factors. One of the key players in self-renewal and development of haematopoietic cells is stem cell factor (SCF),[15] which binds to the c-kit receptor on the HSC. Absence of SCF is lethal. There are other important glycoprotein growth factors which regulate the proliferation and maturation, such as interleukins IL-2, IL-3, IL-6, IL-7. Other factors, termed colony-stimulating factors (CSFs), specifically stimulate the production of committed cells. Three CSFs are granulocyte-macrophage CSF (GM-CSF), granulocyte CSF (G-CSF) and macrophage CSF (M-CSF).[16] These stimulate granulocyte formation and are active on either progenitor cells or end product cells.

text: Erythropoietin is required for a myeloid progenitor cell to become an erythrocyte.[13] On the other hand, thrombopoietin makes myeloid progenitor cells differentiate to megakaryocytes (thrombocyte-forming cells).[13] The diagram to the right provides examples of cytokines and the differentiated blood cells they give rise to.[17]

text: Transcription factors[edit]

text: Growth factors initiate signal transduction pathways, which lead to activation of transcription factors. Growth factors elicit different outcomes depending on the combination of factors and the cell's stage of differentiation. For example, long-term expression of PU.1 results in myeloid commitment, and short-term induction of PU.1 activity leads to the formation of immature eosinophils.[18] Recently, it was reported that transcription factors such as NF-κB can be regulated by microRNAs (e.g., miR-125b) in haematopoiesis.[19]

text: The first key player of differentiation from HSC to a multipotent progenitor (MPP) is transcription factor CCAAT-enhancer binding protein α (C/EBPα). Mutations in C/EBPα are associated with acute myeloid leukaemia.[20] From this point, cells can either differentiate along the Erythroid-megakaryocyte lineage or lymphoid and myeloid lineage, which have common progenitor, called lymphoid-primed multipotent progenitor. There are two main transcription factors. PU.1 for Erythroid-megakaryocyte lineage and GATA-1, which leads to a lymphoid-primed multipotent progenitor.[21]

text: Other transcription factors include Ikaros[22] (B cell development), and Gfi1[23] (promotes Th2 development and inhibits Th1) or IRF8[24] (basophils and mast cells). Significantly, certain factors elicit different responses at different stages in the haematopoiesis. For example, CEBPα in neutrophil development or PU.1 in monocytes and dendritic cell development. It is important to note that processes are not unidirectional: differentiated cells may regain attributes of progenitor cells.

text: An example is PAX5 factor, which is important in B cell development and associated with lymphomas.[25] Surprisingly, pax5 conditional knock out mice allowed peripheral mature B cells to de-differentiate to early bone marrow progenitors. These findings show that transcription factors act as caretakers of differentiation level and not only as initiators.[26]

text: Mutations in transcription factors are tightly connected to blood cancers, as acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) or acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). For example, Ikaros is known to be regulator of numerous biological events. Mice with no Ikaros lack B cells, Natural killer and T cells.[27] Ikaros has six zinc fingers domains, four are conserved DNA-binding domain and two are for dimerization.[28] Very important finding is, that different zinc fingers are involved in binding to different place in DNA and this is the reason for pleiotropic effect of Ikaros and different involvement in cancer, but mainly are mutations associated with BCR-Abl patients and it is bad prognostic marker.[29]

text: Myeloid-based model[edit]

text: For a decade now, the evidence is growing that HSC maturation follows a myeloid-based model instead of the 'classical' schoolbook dichotomy model. In the latter model, the HSC first generates a common myeloid-erythroid progenitor (CMEP) and a common lymphoid progenitor (CLP). The CLP produces only T or B cells. The myeloid-based model postulates that HSCs first diverge into the CMEP and a common myelo-lymphoid progenitor (CMLP), which generates T and B cell progenitors through a bipotential myeloid-T progenitor and a myeloid-B progenitor stage. The main difference is that in this new model, all erythroid, T and B lineage branches retain the potential to generate myeloid cells (even after the segregation of T and B cell lineages). The model proposes the idea of erythroid, T and B cells as specialized types of a prototypic myeloid HSC. Read more in Kawamoto et al. 2010.[30]


document_title: States Reorganisation Commission

question_text: who was the chairman of the state re - organising committee

text: States Reorganisation Commission

text: Background[edit]

text: After India became independent from the British Empire in 1947, the constituent units of India were classified under the following distinct categories:[1][2]

text:
Category
Description
Administrator
States

Part A states
Former British provinces
An elected governor and state legislature
9 states: Assam, Bihar, Bombay, East Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal

Part B states
Former princely states or groups of Covenanting states
Rajpramukh (former princes)
9 states: Hyderabad, Jammu and Kashmir, Madhya Bharat, Mysore, Patiala and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU), Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Travancore-Cochin, and Vindhya Pradesh

Part C
Former princely states and provinces
Chief commissioner
10 states: Ajmer, Coorg, Cooch-Behar, Bhopal, Bilaspur, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Kutch, Manipur, and Tripura

Part D
Union Territory
Governor appointed by the Indian president
Andaman and Nicobar Islands

text: The borders of these states, inherited from British India, were not suitable for easy administration. The internal provincial borders of British India were a result of historical events, as well as political, military and strategic planning by the British. The Government agreed that the reorganisation of state borders was necessary, but the basis of reorganisation was yet to be determined.

text: One of the proposals was to reorganise the state on the basis of languages of India. This would make administration easier, and would help replace the caste and religion-based identities with less controversial linguistic identities. Earlier in 1920, the members of the Indian National Congress had agreed on the linguistic reorganisation of the Indian states as one of the party's political goals.[3] The Provincial Committees of the party were set on this basis since 1920. In 1927, the Congress declared that it was committed to "the redistribution of provinces on a linguistic basis", and reaffirmed its stance several times, including in the election manifesto of 1945-46.[4]

text: But, soon after independence, the Congress-led Government became concerned that the states formed solely on a linguistic basis might be unsuitable, and might even pose a risk to the national unity.[3] On 17 June 1948, Rajendra Prasad, the President of the Constituent Assembly, set up the Linguistic Provinces Commission (aka Dhar Commission) to recommend whether the states should be reorganised on linguistic basis or not. The committee included SK Dhar (retired Judge of the Allahabad High Court), JN Lal (lawyer) and Panna Lall (retired Indian Civil Service officer). In its 10 December 1948 report, the Commission recommended that "the formation of provinces on exclusively or even mainly linguistic considerations is not in the larger interests of the Indian nation".[5] It recommended the reorganisation of the provinces of Madras, Bombay and Central Provinces and Berar primarily on the basis of geographical contiguity, financial self-sufficiency and ease of administration. Soon after the report was published, the Congress, at its Jaipur session, set up the "JVP committee" to study the recommendations of the Dar Commission. The committee, comprised Jawaharlal Nehru and Vallabhbhai Patel, in addition to the Congress president Pattabhi Sitaramayya. In its report dated 1 April 1949, the Committee stated that the time was not suitable for formation of new provinces, but also stated "if public sentiment is insistent and overwhelming, we, as democrats, have to submit to it, but subject to certain limitations in regard to the good of India as a whole".[4]

text: B. R. Ambedkar submitted a Memorandum (dated 14 October 1948) to the Dar Commission, supporting the formation of linguistic provinces, specifically the formation of the Marathi-majority Maharashtra state with Bombay as its capital. To address the concern of national unity, he suggested that the official language of every province should be same as the official language of the Central Government.[6] KM Munshi, a Gujarati leader opposed to incorporation of Bombay in the proposed Maharashtra state, opposed the linguistic reorganisation proposal, saying that "the political ambition of a linguistic group can only be satisfied by the exclusion and discrimination of other linguistic groups within the area. No safeguards and no fundamental rights can save them from the subtle psychological exclusion which linguism implies."[4]

text: By the 1952, the demand for creation of a Telugu-majority state in the parts of the Madras State had become powerful. Potti Sreeramulu, one of the activists demanding the formation of a Telugu-majority state, died on 16 December 1952 after undertaking a fast-unto-death. Subsequently, the Telugu-majority Andhra State was formed in 1953. This sparked off agitations all over the country, with linguistic groups demanding separate statehoods.[2]

text: To reorganise the states, the Government of India constituted the State Reorganisation Commission (SRC) under the chairmanship of Fazl Ali, a former Supreme Court judge.

text: SRC report[edit]

text: The Commission submitted its report on 30 September 1955, with the following recommendations:[2]

text:
The three-tier (Part-A/B/C) state system should be abolished
The institution of Rajapramukh and special agreement with former princely states should be abolished
The general control vested in Government of India by Article 371 should be abolished
Only the following 3 states should be the Union Territories: Andaman & Nicobar, Delhi and Manipur. The other Part-C/D territories should be merged with the adjoining states

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text: The report was tabled in the Lok Sabha on 14 December 1955.

text: In Part II of Report of the States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) 1955, titled “Factors Bearing on Reorganisation”, the Commission clearly said that “it is neither possible nor desirable to reorganise States on the basis of the single test of either language or culture, but that a balanced approach to the whole problem is necessary in the interest of our national unity.“[7]

text: Implementation[edit]

text: The States Reorganisation Act of 1956 implemented some of the recommendations of the SRC. In addition to the three Union Territories (UTs) proposed by the SRC, it also established Laccadive, Minicoy & Amindivi Islands, Himachal Pradesh and Tripura as UTs. It established a total of 14 states in addition to these UTs.

text: Controversies[edit]

text: The recommendations of the commission were not accepted universally.

text: Vidarbha[edit]

text: The SRC recommended formation of separate Vidarbha State by splitting majority Marathi speaking areas from Madhya Pradesh state.[8] However, the Indian government did not accept the recommendation and merged these areas in the predominantly Marathi speaking Bombay state. Vidarbha would have been the second Marathi majority state for the people of a regional /provincial language in India. Similarly, Telangana state would have been the second state for the Telugu speaking people beside Andhra state as per the SRC recommendation. Eventually, Telangana did become a separate state on 2nd June, 2014.

text: Kerala-Madras[edit]

text: The Travancore Tamil Nadu Congress demanded to merge Thovalai, Agasteeswaram, Kalkulam, Vilavancode, Neyyatinkara, Senkottai, Deviculam and Peermade with Madras State.[9] However, the Commission recommended only the merger of Thovalai, Agasteeswaram, Kalkulam, Vilvancode and Shenkottai with Madras State. In Neyyatinkara Taluk the Commission found that 86% of the people knew Malayalam. So the Commission did not favour the merger of this Taluk with Madras State. During the Lok Sabha (Parliament) discussions, the representatives of Travancore-Cochin State vehemently opposed the Commission's recommendations for the merger of the Southern Taluks with Madras State.[9] A. Nesamony argued for the merger of Neyyatinkara, Deviculam, Peermade and Chittoor with the Tamil-majority Madras State.[9]

text: Even though the SRC recommended for the merger of the entire Shenkottai taluk, the subsequently formed Joint Committee recommended the eastern portion of Shenkottai alone to be merged with Madras State. This decision was finally published authoritatively on 16 January 1956. In the July 1956 Lok Sabha meeting, Nesamony argued for the full merger of Shencottai as recommended by SRC. The House refused to reconsider the decision of the joint Committee by over-ruling the recommendation of the SRC.[9]

text: On the basis of the percentage of the people speaking Tamil, the S.R.Commission recommended for the transfer of four taluks namely, Agasteeswaram, Thovalai, Kalkulam and Vilavancode to Tamil Nadu from the State of Travancore-Cochin. The same yard stick was used for the transfer of Shenkotta Taluk to Tamil Nadu. While dealing with Devikulam and Peermede taluks, even though the majority was Tamil-speaking people and the representatives to the State Assembly were Tamils as in the case of the above indicated five taluks, the commission used a different yard stick and recommended to retain in Travancore-Cochin State due to geographical reasons. Even though Shenkotta was fully transferred by the commission, the Joint Committee appointed to fix the exact boundaries of the states, divided Shenkotta Taluk and allowed Travancore–Cochin State to retain a major portion.

text: Andhra-Telangana[edit]

text: The Commission's report judged the arguments for and against the merger of the Telugu-majority Telangana region (of Hyderabad State) and the Andhra State (created in 1953). Para 369 to 389 of SRC deals with the merger of Telangana and Andhra to establish the Andhra Pradesh state (complete text of the recommendations is available on Wikisource). Para 386 of SRC says, "After taking all these factors into consideration we have come to the conclusions that it will be in the interests of Andhra as well as Telangana, if for the present, the Telangana area is to constitute into a separate State, which may be known as the Hyderabad State with provision for its unification with Andhra after the general elections likely to be held in or about 1961 if by a two thirds majority the legislature of the residency Hyderabad State expresses itself in favor of such unification".

text: Hyderabad Chief minister in his letter to Congress President said Communist parties supported the merger for their political calculations. Hyderabad PCC chief said overwhelming majority from Congress opposed the merger and Communists were elected in special circumstances in 1951 and Visalandhra was not a political issue in 1951 and Assembly does not reflect people's view on this issue. He also said 80% of Congress delegates who were elected in 1955 opposed the merger.[10]

text: In Hyderabad assembly out of 174 MLAs, 147 MLAs expressed their view. 103 MLAs (including Marathi and Kannada MLAs) supported the merger and opposed the Fazal Ali Commission's recommendation to keep Telangana as a separate state for 5 years; and 29 opposed such merger. Among Telangana MLAs, 59 Telangana MLAs agreed with the merger, 25 Telangana MLAs opposed the merger. Out of 94 Telangana MLAs in the assembly, 36 were Communists(PDF), 40 were Congress, 11 were Socialist party(SP), 9 were independents. Voting did not take place on the resolution because Telangana proponents asked to include the phrase "As per the wishes of people" in the resolution.[11][12]

text: An agreement was reached between Telangana leaders and Andhra leaders on 20 February 1956 to merge Telangana and Andhra with promises to safeguard Telangana's interests.[13][14] Popular newspaper in Telangana, Golconda Patrika, in its editorial on 8 March 1956, immediately after Nehru public declaration about the merger, expressing doubts about the Gentleman's agreement said Andhra older brother might say any number of sweet things now, but they have to be committed to their promises and they should not exploit Telangana younger brother in future."[15]

text: Following the Gentlemen's agreement, the central government established a unified Andhra Pradesh on November 1, 1956.

text: There have been several movements to invalidate the merger of Telangana and Andhra, major ones occurring in 1969, 1972 and 2000s onwards. The Telangana movement gained momentum over decades becoming a widespread political demand of creating a new state from the Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh.[16] In early 2014, the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 was approved by the Indian parliament, and Telangana became India's 29th state on 2 June 2014.

text: Punjabi Suba[edit]

text: The Akali Dal, a Sikh-dominated political party active mainly in Punjab, sought to create a Punjabi Suba (a Punjabi-majority) province. This new state would be a Sikh-majority state, which caused concern among the Punjabi Hindus. The Sikh leaders such Fateh Singh tactically stressed the linguistic basis of the demand, while downplaying its religious basis — a state where the distinct Sikh identity could be preserved.[17] The Hindu newspapers from Jalandhar, exhorted the Punjabi Hindus to declare Hindi as their "mother tongue", so that the Punjabi Suba proponents could be deprived of the argument that their demand was solely linguistic.

text: The States Reorganisation Commission rejected the demand for a Punjabi-majority state saying that it lacked a majority support and that Punjabi was not grammatically very distinct from Hindi. The Patiala and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU) was merged with Punjab, though. Akali Dal continued its movement, and in 1966 the Punjab Reorganisation Act split Punjab into the Sikh-majority Punjab state and the Hindu-majority state of Haryana, with Chandigarh, administered as a separate union territory, as the shared capital of the two states.

text: Belgaum[edit]

text: After India became independent in 1947, the Belgaum district (which was in the erstwhile Bombay Presidency) became a part of the Bombay State. The award of the Belgaum district to the Kannada-majority Mysore State (later Karnataka) was contested by the Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti, which wanted it to be included in the proposed Marathi-majority Maharashtra state.