document_title: List of Naruto episodes

question_text: how many episodes are in the first naruto series

root

text: List of Naruto episodes

text: Episode list[edit]

text: Season 1 (2002–03)[edit]

text:
No.

Title

Original airdate

English airdate

1
"Enter: Naruto Uzumaki!""Sanjō! Uzumaki Naruto!" (参上!うずまきナルト) October 3, 2002September 10, 2005
2
"My Name is Konohamaru!""Konohamaru da kore!" (木ノ葉丸だ コレ!) October 10, 2002September 10, 2005
3
"Sasuke and Sakura: Friends or Foes?""Shukuteki!? Sasuke to Sakura" (宿敵!?サスケとサクラ) October 17, 2002September 17, 2005
4
"Pass or Fail: Survival Test""Shiren! Sabaibaru enshū" (試練!サバイバル演習) October 24, 2002September 24, 2005
5
"You Failed! Kakashi's Final Decision""Shikkaku? Kakashi no Ketsuron" (失格?カカシの結論) October 31, 2002October 1, 2005
6
"A Dangerous Mission! Journey to the Land of Waves!""Jūyō ninmu! Nami no Kuni e chō-shuppatsu!" (重要任務!波の国へ超出発!) November 7, 2002October 8, 2005
7
"The Assassin of the Mist!""Kiri no ansatsusha!" (霧の暗殺者!) November 14, 2002October 15, 2005
8
"The Oath of Pain""Itami ni chikau ketsui" (痛みに誓う決意) November 21, 2002October 22, 2005
9
"Kakashi: Sharingan Warrior""Sharingan no Kakashi" (写輪眼のカカシ) November 28, 2002October 29, 2005
10
"The Forest of Chakra""Chakura no mori" (チャクラの森) December 5, 2002November 5, 2005
11
"The Land Where a Hero Once Lived""Eiyū no ita kuni" (英雄のいた国) December 12, 2002November 12, 2005
12
"Battle on the Bridge! Zabuza Returns!!""Kyōjō kessen! Zabuza futatabi!!" (橋上決戦!ザブザ再び!!) December 19, 2002November 19, 2005
13
"Haku's Secret Jutsu: Crystal Ice Mirrors""Haku no hijutsu - Makyō Hyōshō" (白の秘術•魔鏡氷晶) December 26, 2002November 26, 2005
14
"The Number One Hyperactive, Knucklehead Ninja Joins the Fight!!""Igaisei nanbā wan, Naruto sansen!" (意外性No. 1, ナルト参戦!) January 9, 2003December 3, 2005
15
"Zero Visibility: The Sharingan Shatters""Shikai zero no tatakai - Sharingan kuzushi" (視界ゼロの戦い•写輪眼崩し) January 16, 2003December 10, 2005
16
"The Broken Seal""Kaihōsareta fūin" (解放された封印) January 23, 2003December 17, 2005
17
"White Past: Hidden Ambition""Shiroi Kako - Himeta omoi" (白い過去•秘めた想い) January 30, 2003December 31, 2005
18
"The Weapons Known as Shinobi""Shinobi to iu na no dōgu" (忍という名の道具) February 6, 2003January 7, 2006
19
"The Demon in the Snow""Zabuza yuki ni chiru..." (ザブザ雪に散る...) February 13, 2003January 14, 2006
20
"A New Chapter Begins: The Chunin Exam!""Shinshō totsunyū! Chūnin Shiken dattebayo" (新章突入!中忍試験だってばよ) February 20, 2003January 21, 2006
21
"Identify Yourself: Powerful New Rivals""Nanore! Arawareta kyōteki tachi!!" (名乗れ!現れた強敵たち!!) February 27, 2003January 28, 2006
22
"Chunin Challenge: Rock Lee vs. Sasuke!""Kiai hyaku-nijū pāsento Nau de rokku na chōsenjō!" (気合い120% ナウでロックな挑戦状!) March 6, 2003February 4, 2006
23
"Genin Takedown! All Nine Rookies Face Off!""Kechirase raibaru! Rūkī nain zen'in shūgō" (蹴散らせライバル!新人9人全員集合) March 13, 2003February 11, 2006
24
"Start Your Engines: The Chunin Exam Begins!""Ikinari shikkaku? Chō-nankan no daiichi shiken" (いきなり失格?超難関の第一試験) March 20, 2003February 18, 2006
25
"The Tenth Question: All or Nothing!""Detatoko shōbu! Funbaridokoro no jū monme" (出たとこ勝負!踏ん張りどころの10問目) March 27, 2003February 25, 2006
26[16]
"Special Report: Live from the Forest of Death!""Zettai hikken! Shi no Mori chokusen rupo! Konoha no gakkyū shinbun da kore!" (絶対必見!死の森直前ルポ!木ノ葉の学級新聞だコレ!) April 2, 2003March 4, 2006
27[16]
"The Chunin Exam Stage 2: The Forest of Death""Daini shiken sutāto! Mawari wa minna teki darake!" (第二試験スタート!周りはみんな敵だらけ!) April 2, 2003April 15, 2006
28
"Eat or be Eaten: Panic in the Forest""Kū ka kuwareru ka! Esa ni natta Naruto" (喰うか喰われるか!エサになったナルト) April 9, 2003April 15, 2006
29
"Naruto's Counterattack: Never Give In!""Naruto hangeki! Nigenēndattebayo!" (ナルト反撃!逃げねーんだってばよ!) April 16, 2003April 15, 2006
30
"The Sharingan Revived: Dragon-Flame Jutsu!""Yomigaere Sharingan! Hissatsu: Katon Ryūka no Jutsu!" (蘇れ写輪眼!必殺•火遁龍火の術!) April 23, 2003April 22, 2006
31
"Bushy Brow's Pledge: Undying Love and Protection!""Geki mayu puratonikku! Boku wa shinu made anata o mamoru!!" (激まゆプラトニック!僕は死ぬまでアナタを守る!!) April 30, 2003April 29, 2006
32
"Sakura Blossoms!""Sakura saku! Ketsui no ushiro sugata" (サクラ咲く!決意の後ろ姿) May 7, 2003May 6, 2006
33
"Battle Formation: Ino-Shika-Cho!""Muteki no fōmēshon! InoShikaChō!!" (無敵のフォーメーション!いのシカチョウ!!) May 14, 2003May 13, 2006
34
"Akamaru Trembles: Gaara's Cruel Strength!""Akamaru bikkuri! Gaara, Kyōi no Jitsuryoku" (赤丸ビックリ!我愛羅, 驚異の実力) May 21, 2003May 20, 2006
35
"The Scroll's Secret: No Peeking Allowed""Nozokimi genkin! Makimono no himitsu" (のぞき見厳禁!巻き物の秘密) May 28, 2003May 27, 2006

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text: Season 2 (2003–04)[edit]

text:
No.

Title

Original airdate

English airdate

36
"Clone vs. Clone: Mine are Better than Yours!""Bunshin taiketsu! Ore ga shuyaku dattebayo!" (分身対決!オレが主役だってばよ!) June 4, 2003June 3, 2006
37
"Surviving the Cut! The Rookie Nine Together Again!""Daini shiken toppa! Seizoroi rūkī nain!" (第二試験突破!勢ぞろいルーキーナイン!) June 11, 2003June 10, 2006
38
"Narrowing the Field: Sudden Death Elimination!""Gōkakusha nibun ni ichi!? Ikinari shiai dattebayo!!" (合格者二分の一!?イキナリ試合だってばよ!!) June 18, 2003June 17, 2006
39
"Bushy Brow's Jealousy: Lions Barrage Unleashed!""Geji mayu jerashī! "Shishi Rendan" Tanjō" (ゲジまゆジェラシー!「獅子連弾」誕生!) July 2, 2003June 24, 2006
40
"Kakashi and Orochimaru: Face-to-Face!""Isshoku sokuhatsu!! Kakashi vāsasu Orochimaru" (一触即発!!カカシVS大蛇丸) July 9, 2003July 1, 2006
41
"Kunoichi Rumble: The Rivals Get Serious!""Raibaru gekitotsu! Otomegokoro wa honki mōdo" (ライバル激突!オトメ心は本気モード) July 16, 2003July 8, 2006
42
"The Ultimate Battle: Cha!""Besuto batoru wa shānnarō!!" (ベストバトルはしゃーんなろー!!) July 23, 2003July 15, 2006
43
"Killer Kunoichi and a Shaky Shikamaru""Shikamaru tajitaji!? Kunoichi-tachi no atsuki tatakai" (シカマルタジタジ!?くの一達の熱き戦い) July 30, 2003July 15, 2006
44
"Akamaru Unleashed! Who's Top Dog Now?""Akamaru sansen! Makeinu wa docchi da?" (赤丸参戦!!負け犬はどっちだ?) August 6, 2003July 22, 2006
45
"Surprise Attack! Naruto's Secret Weapon!""Hinata sekimen! Kankyaku anguri, Naruto no oku no te" (ヒナタ赤面! 観客あんぐり, ナルトの奥の手) August 13, 2003July 29, 2006
46
"Byakugan Battle: Hinata Grows Bold!""Byakugan kaigen!! Uchiki na Hinata no daitan ketsui!" (白眼開眼!!内気なヒナタの大胆決意!) August 20, 2003August 8, 2006
47
"A Failure Stands Tall!""Akogare no hito no me no mae de!!" (憧れの人の目の前で!!) August 27, 2003August 12, 2006
48
"Gaara vs. Rock Lee: The Power of Youth Explodes!""Gaara funsai!! Wakasa da! Pawā da! Bakuhatsu da!" (我愛羅粉砕!!若さだ!パワーだ!爆発だ!) September 3, 2003August 19, 2006
49
"Lee's Hidden Strength: Forbidden Secret Jutsu!""Nekketsu ochikobore! Tsuini Sakuretsu, kindan no ōgi!" (熱血落ちこぼれ!遂に炸裂, 禁断の奥義!) September 10, 2003August 26, 2006
50
"The Fifth Gate: A Splendid Ninja is Born""Aa Rokku Rī! Kore ga otoko no ikizama yo!!" (嗚呼ロック·リー!これが男の生き様よ!!) September 17, 2003September 2, 2006
51
"A Shadow in Darkness: Danger Approaches Sasuke""Yami ni ugomeku kage Sasuke ni semaru kiki!" (闇にうごめく影 サスケに迫る危機!) September 24, 2003September 9, 2006
52
"Ebisu Returns: Naruto's Toughest Training Yet!""Ebisu futatabi! Harenchi wa watashi ga yurushimasen zo!" (エビス再び!ハレンチは私が許しませんぞ!) October 1, 2003September 16, 2006
53
"Coming Soon! : The Pervy Sage Returns!""Aiyashibaraku! Ero-sennin tōjō!" (あいやしばらく!エロ仙人登場!) October 8, 2003September 30, 2006
54
"The Summoning Jutsu: Wisdom of the Pervy Sage!""Ero-sennin jikiden Kuchiyose no Jutsu dattebayo!!" (エロ仙人直伝 口寄せの術だってばよ!!) October 15, 2003October 7, 2006
55
"A Feeling of Yearning, A Flower Full of Hope""Setsunai omoi Negai o kometa ichirin" (切ない想い 願いを込めた一輪) October 22, 2003October 21, 2006
56
"Live or Die: Risk it All to Win it All!""Sei ka shi ka!? Menkyokaiden wa inochigake!" (生か死か!?免許皆伝は命懸け!) October 29, 2003October 28, 2006
57
"He Flies! He Jumps! He Lurks! Chief Toad Appears!""Tonda! Haneta! Mogutta! Gama oyabun tōjō!!" (飛んだ!跳ねた!潜った!ガマ親分登場!!) November 5, 2003November 4, 2006
58
"Hospital Besieged: The Evil Hand Revealed!""Shinobiyoru ma no te! Nerawareta Byōshitsu" (しのび寄る魔の手!狙われた病室) November 12, 2003November 11, 2006
59
"The Final Rounds: Rush to the Battle Arena!""Mō retsu Mō Tsui Mō Dasshu Hansen kaishi dattebayo" (モー烈 モー追 モーダッシュ 本選開始だってばよ) November 19, 2003November 18, 2006
60
"Byakugan vs. Shadow Clone""Byakugan bāsasu Kage Bunshin! Ore wa zettē katsu!!" (白眼VS影分身!オレはゼってー勝つ!!) November 26, 2003November 18, 2006
61
"Ultimate Defense: Zero Blind Spot!""Shikaku zero! Mō hitotsu no zettai bōgyo" (死角ゼロ!もうひとつの絶対防御) December 3, 2003November 18, 2006
62
"A Failure's True Power""Ochikobore no Sokojikara!" (落ちこぼれの底力!) December 10, 2003November 18, 2006
63
"Hit it or Quit it: The Final Rounds Get Complicated!""Shikkaku!? Kiken! Maedaoshi! Haranbukumi no daihonsen!" (失格!?キケン!前倒し!波乱含みの大本戦) December 17, 2003November 25, 2006
64
"Zero Motivation: The Guy with Cloud Envy!""Kumo wa ii naa... yaruki zero no otoko" (雲はいいなあ...やる気ゼロの男) December 24, 2003December 2, 2006
65
"Dancing Leaf, Squirming Sand""Gekitotsu! Konoha mai Suna ugomeku toki" (激突!木ノ葉舞い砂うごめく瞬間) December 31, 2003December 9, 2006
66
"Bushy Brow's Jutsu: Sasuke Style!""Arashi o yobu otoko!! Sasuke no Gejimayu-ryū Taijutsu!" (嵐を呼ぶ男!!サスケのゲジマユ流体術!) January 14, 2004December 16, 2006
67
"Late for the Show, But Ready to Go! The Ultimate Secret Technique is Born!""Date ni okureta wake ja nai! Kyūkyoku ōgi - Chidori tanjō!!" (だてに遅れたわけじゃない!究極奥義·千鳥誕生!!) January 14, 2004December 23, 2006
68
"Zero Hour! The Destruction of the Hidden Leaf Village Begins!"""Konoha Kuzushi" Shidō!" (「木ノ葉崩し」始動!) January 28, 2004January 6, 2007
69
"Village in Distress: A New A-Ranked Mission!""Mattemashita! Ē-ranku ninmu dattebayo!!" (待ってました!Aランク任務だってばよ!!) February 4, 2004January 13, 2007
70
"A Shirker's Call to Action: A Layabout No More!""Nigegoshi nanbaa wan Mendokuse~ ga yarukkya nē!!" (逃げ腰NO.1 めんどくせーがやろっきゃねえ!!) February 11, 2004January 20, 2007
71
"An Unrivaled Match: Hokage Battle Royale!""Kokon musō! "Hokage" to iu reberu no tatakai" (古今無双!「火影」というレベルの戦い) February 18, 2004January 27, 2007
72
"A Mistake from the Past: A Face Revealed!""Hokage no ayamachi Kamen ni shita no sugao" (火影の過ち 仮面の下の素顔) February 25, 2004January 27, 2007
73
"Forbidden Secret Technique: Reaper Death Seal!""Kinjutsu ōgi! "Shiki Fūjin"" (禁術奥義!「屍鬼封尽」) March 3, 2004February 3, 2007
74
"Astonishing Truth! Gaara's Identity Emerges!""Kyōgaku! Gaara no Shōtai" (驚愕!我愛羅の正体) March 10, 2004February 10, 2007
75
"Sasuke's Decision: Pushed to the Edge!""Genkai o koete... Sasuke no ketsudan!!" (限界を越えて... サスケの決断!!) March 17, 2004February 17, 2007
76
"Assassin of the Moonlit Night""Tsukiyo no ansatsusha" (月夜の暗殺者) March 24, 2004February 24, 2007
77
"Light vs. Dark: The Two Faces of Gaara""Hikari to Yami Gaara to iu na" (光と闇 我愛羅という名) March 31, 2004March 3, 2007
78
"Naruto's Ninja Handbook""Bakuhatsu! Kore zo Naruto ninpōchō~~!!" (爆発!これぞナルト忍法帖〜〜っ!!) April 7, 2004March 10, 2007
79
"Beyond the Limit of Darkness and Light""Rimitto bucchigiri! ~Hikari to Yami~" (リミットぶっちぎり! 〜光と闇〜) April 14, 2004March 17, 2007
80
"The Third Hokage, Forever...""Sandaime yo, towa ni......!!" (三代目よ, 永久に......!!) April 21, 2004March 24, 2007
81
"Return of the Morning Mist""Asagiri no kikyō" (朝霧の帰郷) April 28, 2004March 31, 2007
82
"Eye to Eye: Sharingan vs. Sharingan!""Sharingan tai Sharingan!!" (写輪眼VS写輪眼!!) May 5, 2004April 7, 2007
83
"Jiraiya: Naruto's Potential Disaster!""Ō, nō~! Jiraiya no jonan, Naruto no sainan" (おお, のォ〜っ!自来也の女難, ナルトの災難) May 12, 2004April 14, 2007

text: Season 3 (2004–05)[edit]

text:
No.

Title

Original airdate

English airdate

84
"Roar, Chidori! Brother vs. Brother!""Unare Chidori, Hoero Sasuke!" (唸れ千鳥 吠えろサスケ!) May 19, 2004April 21, 2007
85
"Hate Among the Uchihas: The Last of the Clan!""Orokanaru otōto yo urame, nikume!" (愚かなる弟よ 恨め, 憎め!) May 26, 2004April 28, 2007
86
"A New Training Begins: I Will Be Strong!""Shugyō kaishi, Ore wa zettē tsuyoku naru!" (修行開始 オレはぜってー強くなる!) June 2, 2004May 5, 2007
87
"Keep on Training: Pop Goes the Water Balloon!""Konjō!!! Warero mizufūsen" (根性!!!割れろ水風船) June 9, 2004May 12, 2007
88
"Focal Point: The Mark of the Leaf""Konoha māku to hitaiate" (木ノ葉マークと額当て) June 16, 2004May 19, 2007
89
"An Impossible Choice: The Pain Within Tsunade's Heart""Hamon" (波紋) June 23, 2004May 26, 2007
90
"Unforgivable! A Total Lack of Respect!""Ikari bakuhatsu! Yurusanēttebayo" (怒りバクハツ!許さねーってばよ) July 7, 2004June 9, 2007
91
"Inheritence! The Necklace of Death!""Shodai Hokage no isan Shi o yobu kubikazari" (初代火影の遺産 死を呼ぶ首飾り) July 14, 2004June 16, 2007
92
"A Dubious Offer! Tsunade's Choice!""YES ka NO ka! Tsunade no kaitō" (YESかNOか!ツナデの回答) July 21, 2004June 23, 2007
93
"Breakdown! The Deal is Off!""Kōshō Ketsuretsu!" (交渉決裂!!) July 28, 2004June 30, 2007
94
"Attack! Fury of the Rasengan!""Kurae! Ikari no Rasengan" (くらえ!怒りの螺旋丸) August 4, 2004July 7, 2007
95
"The Fifth Hokage! A Life on the Line!""Godaime Hokage, Inochi o kaketa tatakai!" (五代目火影 命を賭けた戦い) August 11, 2004July 7, 2007
96
"Deadlock! Sannin Showdown!""Sansukumi no tatakai" (三すくみの戦い) August 11, 2004July 14, 2007
97
"Kidnapped! Naruto's Hot Spring Adventure!""Naruto no yukemuri chindōchū" (ナルトの湯けむり珍道中) August 18, 2004July 21, 2007
98
"Tsunade's Warning: Ninja No More!""Ninja o yamero! Tsunade no tsūkoku" (忍者を辞めろ!ツナデの通告) August 25, 2004July 28, 2007
99
"The Will of Fire Still Burns!""Hi no ishi o tsugu mono" (火の意志を継ぐもの) September 1, 2004August 4, 2007
100
"Sensei and Student: The Bond of the Shinobi""Nekketsu shitei no kizuna ~Otoko ga nindō o tsuranuku toki~" (熱血師弟の絆〜男が忍道を貫くとき〜) September 8, 2004August 19, 2007
101
"Gotta See! Gotta Know! Kakashi-Sensei's True Face!""Mitai, Shiritai, Tashikametai Kakashi-sensei no sugao" (見たい, 知りたい, 確かめたい カカシ先生の素顔) September 15, 2004August 25, 2007
102
"Mission: Help an Old Friend in the Land of Tea""Iza shin ninmu Giri to ninjō to Chakoku o sukue!" (いざ新任務 義理と人情と茶国を救え!) September 22, 2004September 1, 2007
103
"The Race is on! Trouble on the High Seas!""Naruto gekichin!? Inbau uzumaku ōunabara" (ナルト撃沈!?陰謀うずまく大海原) September 29, 2004September 15, 2007
104
"Run Idate Run! Nagi Island Awaits!""Hashire Idate! Arashi o yubi haran no Nagitō!!" (走れイダテ!嵐を呼ぶ波乱のナギ島!!) October 13, 2004September 22, 2007
105
"A Fierce Battle of Rolling Thunder!""Gōru chokuzen! Raimei todoroku daigekitō" (ゴール直前!雷鳴とどろく大激闘) October 20, 2004September 29, 2007
106
"The Last Leg: A Final Act of Desperation""Todoku ka Idate! Shūnen no rasuto supāto!!" (届くかイダテ!執念のラストスパート!!) October 27, 2004October 6, 2007
107
"The Battle Begins: Naruto vs. Sasuke""Omae to tatakaitai! Tsuini gekitotsu Sasuke tai Naruto" (オマエと戦いたい!ついに激突 サスケVSナルト) November 3, 2004October 13, 2007
108
"Bitter Rivals and Broken Bonds""Mienai kiretsu" (見えない亀裂) November 10, 2004October 20, 2007
109
"An Invitation from the Sound""Oto no izanai" (音の誘い) November 17, 2004October 20, 2007
110
"Formation! The Sasuke Retrieval Squad""Kessei! Teppeki fōmēshon" (結成!鉄壁のフォーメーション) November 24, 2004October 27, 2007
111
"Sound vs. Leaf""Sesshoku ~Oto Yoninshū no jitsuryoku~" (接触〜音四人衆の実力〜) November 24, 2004October 27, 2007
112
"Squad Mutiny: Everything Falls Apart!""Ikinari nakamaware!? Shikamaru shōtai daipinchi" (イキナリ仲間割れ!?シカマル小隊大ピンチ) December 1, 2004November 3, 2007
113
"Full Throttle Power! Choji, Ablaze!""Pawā zenkai! Moero Chōji" (パワー全開!燃えろチョウジ) December 8, 2004November 3, 2007
114
"Good-bye Old Friend...! I'll Always Believe in You!""Saraba tomo yo...! Soredemo ore wa shinjiteru" (さらば友よ...!それでもオレは信じてる) December 15, 2004November 10, 2007
115
"Your Opponent Is Me!""Omae no aite wa kono ore da!" (お前の相手はこのオレだ!) December 22, 2004November 10, 2007
116
"360 Degrees of Vision: The Byakugan's Blind Spot""Shikai sanbyaku-rokujū do, Byakugan no shikaku" (視界360度 白眼の死角) January 5, 2005November 24, 2007
117
"Losing is Not an Option!""Makerarenai riyū" (負けられない理由) January 5, 2005November 24, 2007
118
"The Vessel Arrives Too Late""Dakkan ~ Ma ni awanakatta utsuwa" (奪還〜間に合わなかった器) January 12, 2005December 1, 2007
119
"Miscalculation: A New Enemy Appears!""Shissaku! Aratanaru teki" (失策!新たなる敵) January 19, 2005December 1, 2007
120
"Roar and Howl! The Ultimate Tag Team""Unare! Hoero! Kyūkyoku no taggu" (唸れ!吠えろ!究極のタッグ) February 2, 2005December 8, 2007
121
"To Each His Own Battle""Sorezore no tatakai" (それぞれの闘い) February 9, 2005December 8, 2007
122
"Fakeout: Shikamaru's Comeback!""Feiku! Otoko Shikamaru kishikaisei no kake" (フェイク!男シカマル起死回生の賭け) February 16, 2005December 15, 2007
123
"The Leaf's Handsome Devil!""Konoha no aoki yajū kenzan!" (木ノ葉の碧き野獣見参!) February 23, 2005December 15, 2007
124
"The Beast Within""Yajū sakuretsu! Hajikero futtobe tsukinukero!" (野獣炸裂!弾けろ吹っ飛べ突き抜けろ!) March 2, 2005December 22, 2007
125
"The Sand Shinobi: Allies of the Leaf""Konoha dōmeikoku Suna no shinobi" (木ノ葉同盟国砂の忍) March 9, 2005December 22, 2007
126
"Showdown: Gaara vs. Kimimaro!""Saikyō taiketsu! Gaara tai Kimimaro!!" (最強対決!我愛羅VS君麻呂!!) March 16, 2005December 29, 2007
127
"Vengeful Strike! The Bracken Dance""Shūnen no ichigeki Sawarabi no Mai" (執念の一撃!早蕨の舞) March 30, 2005December 29, 2007
128
"A Cry on Deaf Ears""Todokanai sakebi" (届かない叫び) March 30, 2005January 5, 2008
129
"Brothers: Distance Among the Uchiha""Itachi to Sasuke tōsugiru sonzai" (兄と弟 遠すぎる存在) April 6, 2005January 5, 2008
130
"Father and Son, the Broken Crest""Chichi to ko Hibiwareta kamon" (父と子 ひび割れた家紋) April 13, 2005January 12, 2008
131
"The Secrets of the Mangekyo Sharingan!""Kaigan Mangekyō Sharingan no himitsu" (開眼 万華鏡写輪眼の秘密) April 20, 2005January 12, 2008

text: Season 4 (2005–06)[edit]

text:
No.

Title

Original airdate

English airdate

132
"For a Friend""Tomo yo!" (親友よ!) April 27, 2005January 19, 2008
133
"A Plea From a Friend""Namida no hōkō! Omae wa ore no tomodachi da" (涙の咆哮!オマエはオレの友達だ) May 4, 2005January 19, 2008
134
"The End of Tears""Namida ame no ketsumatsu" (涙雨の結末) May 11, 2005January 26, 2008
135
"The Promise That Could Not Be Kept""Mamorenakatta yakusoku" (守れなかった約束) May 18, 2005January 26, 2008
136
"Deep Cover!? A Super S-Ranked Mission!""Sennyū sōsa!? Tsui ni kitakita chō-Esu-kyū ninmu" (潜入捜査!? 遂にきたきた超S級任務) May 25, 2005February 2, 2008
137
"A Town of Outlaws, the Shadow of the Fuma Clan""Muhōmano no machi Fūma ichizoku no kage" (無法者の街 ふうま一族の影) June 1, 2005February 2, 2008
138
"Pure Betrayal, and a Fleeting Plea!""Kiyoki uragiri Hakanaki negai" (清き裏切り はかなき願い) June 8, 2005February 9, 2008
139
"Pure Terror! The House of Orochimaru""Kyōfu! Orochimaru no yakata" (恐怖!大蛇丸の館) June 15, 2005February 9, 2008
140
"Two Heartbeats: Kabuto's Trap""Futatsu no kodō Kabuto no wana" (二つの鼓動 カブトの罠) June 22, 2005February 16, 2008
141
"Sakura's Determination""Sakura no ketsui" (サクラの決意) June 29, 2005February 16, 2008
142
"The Three Villains from the Maximum Security Prison""Genkai shisetsu no san akunin" (厳戒施設の三悪人) July 6, 2005February 23, 2008
143
"Tonton! I'm Counting on You!""Hashire Tonton! Omae no hana ga tayori dattebayo" (走れトントン!お前の鼻が頼りだってばよ) July 13, 2005February 23, 2008
144
"A New Squad! Two People and a Dog?!""Shin'sei surīman seru futari to ippiki" (新生三人一組 二人と一匹!) July 20, 2005March 1, 2008
145
"A New Formation: Ino-Shika-Cho!""Sakuretsu! Nyū fōmēshon Inoshikachō" (炸裂!ニューフォーメーションいのシカチョウ) July 27, 2005March 1, 2008
146
"Orochimaru's Shadow""Nokosareta yabō Orochimaru no kage" (残された野望 大蛇丸の影) August 10, 2005March 8, 2008
147
"A Clash of Fate: You Can't Bring Me Down""Innen no taiketsu! Omae ni ore wa taosenee" (因縁の対決!オマエにオレは倒せねえ) August 17, 2005March 8, 2008
148
"Search for the Rare Bikochu Beetle""Chō-tsuibiryoku ni Akamaru mo shitto! Maboroshi no Bikōchū o sagase" (超追尾力に赤丸も嫉妬!幻の微香虫を探せ) August 17, 2005March 15, 2008
149
"What's the Difference? Don't All Insects Look Alike?""Doko ga chigau no sa!? Mushi tte onaji mienai ka" (どこが違うのさ!? 虫って同じに見えないか) August 24, 2005March 15, 2008
150
"A Battle of Bugs: The Deceivers and the Deceived""Damashite bakashite damasarete! Sōzetsu mushimushi dai batoru" (だまして化かしてだまされて! 壮絶ムシムシ大バトル) August 31, 2005March 22, 2008
151
"Blaze Away Byakugan: This Is My Ninja Way""Moe yo Byakugan! Kore ga watashi no nindō yo" (燃えよ白眼! これが私の忍道よ) September 14, 2005March 22, 2008
152
"Funeral March for the Living""Sei aru mono e no sōsōkyoku" (生あるものへの葬送曲) September 21, 2005March 29, 2008
153
"A Lesson Learned: The Iron Fist of Love""Kokoro no todoke! Ai no Tekken" (心に届け!愛の鉄拳) September 28, 2005March 29, 2008
154
"The Enemy of the Byakugan""Byakugan no tenteki" (白眼の天敵) October 5, 2005April 5, 2008
155
"The Dark Creeping Clouds""Shinobi yoru anun" (忍び寄る暗雲) October 12, 2005April 5, 2008
156
"Raiga's Counterattack""Gyakushū no Raiga" (逆襲の雷牙) October 19, 2005April 12, 2008
157
"Run! The Curry of Life""Hashire!!! Seimei no karē" (走れ!!!生命のカレー) October 26, 2005April 12, 2008
158
"Follow My Lead! The Great Survival Challenge""Minna ore ni tsuite koi! Ase to namida no takurami dai sabaibaru" (みんなオレについて来い!汗と涙のタクラミ大サバイバル) November 2, 2005April 19, 2008
159
"Bounty Hunter from the Wilderness""Teki ka mikata ka!? Kōya no shōkinkasegi" (敵か味方か!?荒野の賞金稼ぎ) November 9, 2005April 19, 2008
160
"Hunt or Be Hunted?! Showdown at the O.K. Temple!""Eru ka erareru ka!? Okkē tera no kettō" (獲るか獲られるか!?オッケー寺の決斗) November 16, 2005April 26, 2008
161
"The Appearance of Strange Visitors""Sankyaku kenzan Ao no Yajū? Mōjū?... Sanjū?" (珍客見参 碧の野獣?猛獣?...珍獣?) November 23, 2005April 26, 2008
162
"The Cursed Warrior""Shiroki noroi musha" (白き呪いの武者) November 30, 2005May 3, 2008
163
"The Tactician's Intent""Sakushi - Kōmei no omowaku" (策士·紅明の思惑) December 7, 2005May 3, 2008
164
"Too Late for Help""Ososugita suketto" (遅すぎた助っ人) December 14, 2005May 10, 2008
165
"The Death of Naruto""Naruto shisu" (ナルト死す) December 21, 2005May 10, 2008
166
"When Time Stands Still""Todomatta mama no jikan" (止まったままの時間) January 4, 2006May 17, 2008
167
"When Egrets Flap Their Wings""Shirasagi no habataku jikan" (白鷺のはばたく時間) January 4, 2006May 17, 2008
168
"Mix It, Stretch It, Boil It Up! Burn, Copper Pot, Burn!""Moero Zundō! Mazete nobashite yude agero!" (燃えろ寸胴!混ぜて伸ばして茹で上げろ!) January 18, 2006May 24, 2008
169
"Remembrance: The Lost Page""Kioku Ushinawareta peiji" (記憶 失われた頁) January 25, 2006May 24, 2008
170
"The Closed Door""Shōgeki Tozasareta doa" (衝撃 閉ざされた扉) February 1, 2006May 31, 2008
171
"Infiltration: The Set-Up!""Sen'nyū Shikumareta torappu" (潜入 仕組まれた罠) February 8, 2006May 31, 2008
172
"Despair: A Fractured Heart""Zetsubō Hikisakareta hāto" (絶望 引き裂かれた心) February 15, 2006June 7, 2008
173
"The Battle at Sea: The Power Unleashed!""Kaisen Tokihanatareta pawā" (海戦 解き放たれた力) February 22, 2006June 7, 2008
174
"Impossible! Celebrity Ninja Art - Money Style Jutsu!""Arienēttebayo! Serebu ninpō - Kinton no Jutsu" (ありえねーってばよ! セレブ忍法·金遁の術) March 1, 2006June 14, 2008
175
"The Treasure Hunt is On!""Koko hore wan wan! Maizōkin o sagase" (ここ掘れワンワン! 埋蔵金を探せ) March 8, 2006June 14, 2008
176
"Run, Dodge, Zigzag! Chase or Be Chased!""Shissō, Meisō, Jiguzagu sō! Otte owarete machigaete" (疾走, 迷走, ジグザグ走!追って追われて間違えて) March 15, 2006June 21, 2008
177
"Please, Mr. Postman!""OH!? Purīzu ♥ Misutā Posutoman" (OH!?ぷりーず♥みすたーぽすとまん) March 22, 2006June 21, 2008
178
"Encounter! The Boy with a Star's Name""Deai "Hoshi" no na o motsu shōnen" (出会い 「星」の名を持つ少年) March 29, 2006June 28, 2008
179
"The Remembered Lullaby""Natsuhi Boshi, Omoide no Komori Uta" (ナツヒボシ 思い出の子守唄) April 5, 2006June 28, 2008
180
"Hidden Jutsu: The Price of The Ninja Art: Kujaku""Hijutsu Kujaku Myōhō no Daishō" (秘術 孔雀妙法の代償) April 12, 2006July 5, 2008
181
"Hoshikage, The Buried Truth""Hoshikage Hōmurisarareta Shinjutsu" (星影 葬り去られた真実) April 19, 2006July 5, 2008
182
"Reunion, The Remaining time""Saikai Nokosareta jikan" (再会 残された時間) April 26, 2006July 26, 2008
183
"The Star's Radiance""Hoshi wa kagayaki o mashite" (星は輝きを増して) May 3, 2006July 26, 2008
184
"Kiba's Long Day!""Inuzuka Kiba no naga~i ichinichi" (犬塚キバのなが〜い一日) May 10, 2006August 2, 2008
185
"A Legend from the Hidden Leaf: The Onbaa!""Konohagakure no Densetsu, Onbaa wa jitsuzai shita!!" (木ノ葉隠れの伝説 オンバアは実在した!!) May 17, 2006August 2, 2008

text: Season 5 (2006–07)[edit]

text:
No.

Title

Original airdate

English airdate

186
"Laughing Shino""Warau Shino" (笑うシノ) May 24, 2006August 9, 2008
187
"Open for Business! The Leaf Moving Service""Kaigyō!! Konoha hikkoshi sentā" (開業!!木ノ葉引越センター) May 31, 2006August 9, 2008
188
"Mystery of the Targeted Merchants""Fukakai, nerawareta gyōshōnin" (不可解 狙われた行商人) June 7, 2006August 16, 2008
189
"A Limitless Supply of Ninja Tools""Chikasui Mujinzou no ningu" (地下水 無尽蔵の忍具) June 14, 2006August 16, 2008
190
"The Byakugan Sees the Blind Spot""Byakugan wa mita! Jiki tsukai no shikaku" (白眼は見た!磁気使いの死角) June 21, 2006August 23, 2008
191
"Forecast: Death! Cloudy with Chance of Sun""Shi no Senkoku "Kumori Tokidoki Hare"" (死の宣告“くもり時々晴れ”) June 28, 2006August 23, 2008
192
"Ino Screams! Chubby Paradise!""Ino zekkyō! Pocchari ♥ Paradaisu" (いの絶叫! ポッチャリ♥パラダイス) July 5, 2006August 30, 2008
193
"Viva Dojo Challenge! Youth Is All About Passion!""Biba dōjōyaburi! Seishun wa bakuhatsu da" (ビバ道場破り! 青春はバクハツだ) July 12, 2006August 30, 2008
194
"The Mysterious Curse of the Haunted Castle""Kaiki, norowareta yureishiro" (怪奇 呪われた幽霊城) July 19, 2006September 6, 2008
195
"The Third Super-Beast!""Daisan no chōjū, Saidai no raibaru" (第三の超獣 最大のライバル) July 26, 2006September 6, 2008
196
"Hot-Blooded Confrontation: Student vs. Sensei""Namida no Gekitotsu! Nekketsu shitei taiketsu" (涙の激突! 熱血師弟対決) August 9, 2006September 13, 2008
197
"Crisis! The Hidden Leaf 11 Gather!""Daipinchi! Konoha no jūichi nin zen'in shūgō" (大ピンチ! 木の葉の11人全員集合) August 16, 2006September 13, 2008
198
"The ANBU Gives Up? Naruto's Recollection""ANBU mō teage, Naruto no kioku" (暗部もお手上げ ナルトの記憶) August 23, 2006September 20, 2008
199
"The Missed Target""Matohazure, Mietekita hyōteki" (的外れ 見えてきた標的) August 30, 2006September 20, 2008
200
"The Powerful Helper""Gen'eki baribari, Saikyō no suketto" (現役バリバリ 最強の助っ人) September 13, 2006October 4, 2008
201
"Multiple Traps! Countdown to Destruction""Tajū torappu, Hōkai no kauntodaun" (多重トラップ 崩壊のカウントダウン) September 20, 2006October 18, 2008
202
"The Top 5 Ninja Battles""Honjitsu Happyō! "Ninjatachi no ase to namida no Meishōbu Besuto 5! Otanoshimi no bangai hen moaruttebayo" Supesharu" (本日発表!「忍者たちの汗と涙の名勝負ベスト5! お楽しみの番外編もあるってばよ」スペシャル) September 27, 2006November 1, 2008
203
"Kurenai's Decision, Squad 8 Left Behind""Kurenai no ketsudan, Torinokosareta Daihappan" (紅の決断 とり残された第8班) October 5, 2006November 15, 2008
204
"Yakumo's Sealed Ability""Nerawareta Yakumo, Fūinsareta nōryoku" (狙われた八雲 封印された能力) October 5, 2006November 22, 2008
205
"Kurenai's Top-Secret Mission: The Promise With the Third Hokage""Kurenai no gokuhi ninmu ~Sandaime to no yakusoku~" (紅の極秘任務〜三代目との約束〜) October 5, 2006December 27, 2008
206
"Genjutsu or Reality?""Genjutsu ka genjitsu ka, Gokan o seisuru mono" (幻術か現実か 五感を制するもの) October 19, 2006January 3, 2009
207
"The Supposed Sealed Ability""Fūjiraretahazu no nōryoku" (封じられたはずの能力) October 26, 2006January 10, 2009
208
"The Weight of the Prized Artifact!""Meiki, Kachōfūgetsu no omosa" (名器 花鳥風月の重さ) November 2, 2006January 24, 2009
209
"The Enemy: Ninja Dropouts""Teki wa "Shinobazu"" (敵は「不忍」) November 9, 2006January 31, 2009
210
"The Bewildering Forest""Mayoi no mori" (迷いの森) November 16, 2006October 25, 2009
211
"Memory of Flames""Honō no kioku" (炎の記憶) November 30, 2006October 25, 2009
212
"To Each His Own Path""Sorezore no michi" (それぞれの道) December 7, 2006November 8, 2009
213
"Vanished Memories""Ushinawareta kioku" (失われた記憶) December 14, 2006November 8, 2009
214
"Bringing Back Reality""Torimodoshita genjitsu" (取り戻した現実) December 21, 2006November 15, 2009
215
"A Past to Be Erased""Keshi saritai kako" (消し去りたい過去) December 21, 2006November 15, 2009
216
"The Targeted Shukaku""Kieta takumi - Nerawareta Shukaku" (消えた匠 狙われた守鶴) January 11, 2007November 22, 2009
217
"Sand Alliance With The Leaf Shinobi""Suna no dōmeikoku - Konoha no shinobi" (砂の同盟国 木ノ葉の忍) January 18, 2007November 22, 2009
218
"The Counterattack!""Fūjiwareta suna, Suiko no hangeki" (封じられた砂 水虎の反撃) January 25, 2007November 29, 2009
219
"The Ultimate Weapon Reborn""Yomigaetta kyūkyoku heiki" (よみがえった究極兵器) February 1, 2007November 29, 2009
220
"Departure""Tabidachi" (旅立ち) February 8, 2007December 6, 2009

text: DVD releases[edit]

text:
Naruto Uncut (USA)

Volume

Date

Discs

Episodes

Reference

1

July 4, 2006

3

1–13

[15]

2

December 5, 2006

3

14–25

[17]

3

May 29, 2007

3

26–38

[18]

4

August 7, 2007

3

39–52

[19]

5

December 4, 2007

3

53–65

[20]

6

February 12, 2008

3

66–78

[21]

7

May 6, 2008

3

79–92

[22]

8

June 10, 2008

3

93–106

[23]

9

August 12, 2008

3

107–120

[24]

10

October 14, 2008

3

121–135

[25]

11

December 16, 2008

3

136–149

[26]

12

February 10, 2009

3

150–163

[27]

13

April 7, 2009

3

164–177

[28]

14

May 26, 2009

3

178–191

[29]

15

July 21, 2009

3

192–205

[30]

16

September 22, 2009

3

206–220

[7]

text:
Naruto Season Box Set (USA)

Box Set

Date

Discs

Episodes

Reference

Season 1, Vol. 1

October 6, 2009

6

1–25

[31]

Season 1, Vol. 2

November 24, 2009

6

26–52

[32]

Season 2, Vol. 1

February 16, 2010

6

53–78

[33]

Season 2, Vol. 2

April 27, 2010

6

79–106

[34]

Season 3, Vol. 1

June 29, 2010

6

107–135

[35]

Season 3, Vol. 2

August 31, 2010

6

136–163

[36]

Season 4, Vol. 1

October 26, 2010

6

164–191

[37]

Season 4, Vol. 2

December 14, 2010

6

192–220

[38]

text:
Naruto Unleashed (UK)

Volume

Date

Box Set Release

Disc

Episodes

Reference

Series 1 Part 1

August 21, 2006

September 3, 2007[39]

3

1–13

[40]

Series 1 Part 2

December 26, 2006

3

14–26

[41]

Series 2 Part 1

May 21, 2007

December 24, 2007[42]

3

27–39

[43]

Series 2 Part 2

September 3, 2007

3

40–52

[44]

Series 3 Part 1

April 7, 2008

October 20, 2008[45]

3

53–65

[46]

Series 3 Part 2

May 26, 2008

3

66–78

[47]

Series 4 Part 1

August 25, 2008

February 23, 2009[48]

3

79–91

[49]

Series 4 Part 2

October 20, 2008

3

92–104

[50]

Series 5 Part 1

December 15, 2008

June 29, 2009[51]

3

105–117

[52]

Series 5 Part 2

February 23, 2009

3

118–130

[53]

Series 6 Part 1

April 20, 2009

October 26, 2009[54]

3

131–143

[55]

Series 6 Part 2

June 29, 2009

3

144–156

[56]

Series 7 Part 1

August 24, 2009

February 1, 2010[57]

3

157–169

[58]

Series 7 Part 2

October 26, 2009

3

170–182

[59]

Series 8 Part 1

December 14, 2009

June 14, 2010[60]

3

183–195

[61]

Series 8 Part 2

February 1, 2010

3

196–208

[62]

Series 9

April 19, 2010

3

209–220

[63]

text:
Naruto Uncut (AUS/NZ)

Collection

Episodes

DVD release date

Reference

1

1–13

May 14, 2008

[64]

2

14–25

June 11, 2008

[65]

3

26–38

July 23, 2008

[66]

4

39–52

August 20, 2008

[67]

5

53–65

September 17, 2008

[68]

6

66–78

October 22, 2008

[69]

7

79–92

November 12, 2008

[70]

8

93–106

December 3, 2008

[71]

9

107–120

January 14, 2009

[72]

10

121–135

February 18, 2009

[73]

11

136–149

April 15, 2009

[74]

12

150–163

June 24, 2009

[75]

13

164–177

August 19, 2009

[76]

14

178–191

October 21, 2009

[77]

15

192–205

December 16, 2009

[78]

16

206–220

February 17, 2010

[79]

Jump Festa

2003 and 2004 Specials

June 11, 2008

[80]


document_title: Constitution

question_text: what is the name of the introduction to the constitution

question_tokens: what is the name of the introduction to the constitution

text: Constitution

text: Etymology

text: The term constitution comes through French from the Latin word constitutio, used for regulations and orders, such as the imperial enactments (constitutiones principis: edicta, mandata, decreta, rescripta).[9] Later, the term was widely used in canon law for an important determination, especially a decree issued by the Pope, now referred to as an apostolic constitution.

text: General features

text: Generally, every modern written constitution confers specific powers to an organization or institutional entity, established upon the primary condition that it abide by the said constitution's limitations. According to Scott Gordon, a political organization is constitutional to the extent that it "contain[s] institutionalized mechanisms of power control for the protection of the interests and liberties of the citizenry, including those that may be in the minority".[10]

text: Activities of officials within an organization or polity that fall within the constitutional or statutory authority of those officials are termed "within power" (or, in Latin, intra vires); if they do not, they are termed "beyond power" (or, in Latin, ultra vires). For example, a students' union may be prohibited as an organization from engaging in activities not concerning students; if the union becomes involved in non-student activities, these activities are considered to be ultra vires of the union's charter, and nobody would be compelled by the charter to follow them. An example from the constitutional law of sovereign states would be a provincial parliament in a federal state trying to legislate in an area that the constitution allocates exclusively to the federal parliament, such as ratifying a treaty. Action that appears to be beyond power may be judicially reviewed and, if found to be beyond power, must cease. Legislation that is found to be beyond power will be "invalid" and of no force; this applies to primary legislation, requiring constitutional authorization, and secondary legislation, ordinarily requiring statutory authorization. In this context, "within power", intra vires, "authorized" and "valid" have the same meaning; as do "beyond power", ultra vires, "not authorized" and "invalid".

text: In most but not all modern states the constitution has supremacy over ordinary statutory law (see Uncodified constitution below); in such states when an official act is unconstitutional, i.e. it is not a power granted to the government by the constitution, that act is null and void, and the nullification is ab initio, that is, from inception, not from the date of the finding. It was never "law", even though, if it had been a statute or statutory provision, it might have been adopted according to the procedures for adopting legislation. Sometimes the problem is not that a statute is unconstitutional, but the application of it is, on a particular occasion, and a court may decide that while there are ways it could be applied that are constitutional, that instance was not allowed or legitimate. In such a case, only the application may be ruled unconstitutional. Historically, the remedy for such violations have been petitions for common law writs, such as quo warranto.

text: History and development

text: Pre-modern constitutions

text: Ancient

text: Excavations in modern-day Iraq by Ernest de Sarzec in 1877 found evidence of the earliest known code of justice, issued by the Sumerian king Urukagina of Lagash ca 2300 BC. Perhaps the earliest prototype for a law of government, this document itself has not yet been discovered; however it is known that it allowed some rights to his citizens. For example, it is known that it relieved tax for widows and orphans, and protected the poor from the usury of the rich.

text: After that, many governments ruled by special codes of written laws. The oldest such document still known to exist seems to be the Code of Ur-Nammu of Ur (ca 2050 BC). Some of the better-known ancient law codes include the code of Lipit-Ishtar of Isin, the code of Hammurabi of Babylonia, the Hittite code, the Assyrian code and Mosaic law.

text: In 621 BC, a scribe named Draco codified the cruel oral laws of the city-state of Athens; this code prescribed the death penalty for many offences (nowadays very severe rules are often called "Draconian"). In 594 BC, Solon, the ruler of Athens, created the new Solonian Constitution. It eased the burden of the workers, and determined that membership of the ruling class was to be based on wealth (plutocracy), rather than by birth (aristocracy). Cleisthenes again reformed the Athenian constitution and set it on a democratic footing in 508 BC.

text: Aristotle (ca 350 BC) was the first to make a formal distinction between ordinary law and constitutional law, establishing ideas of constitution and constitutionalism, and attempting to classify different forms of constitutional government. The most basic definition he used to describe a constitution in general terms was "the arrangement of the offices in a state". In his works Constitution of Athens, Politics, and Nicomachean Ethics he explores different constitutions of his day, including those of Athens, Sparta, and Carthage. He classified both what he regarded as good and what he regarded as bad constitutions, and came to the conclusion that the best constitution was a mixed system, including monarchic, aristocratic, and democratic elements. He also distinguished between citizens, who had the right to participate in the state, and non-citizens and slaves, who did not.

text: The Romans first codified their constitution in 450 BC as the Twelve Tables. They operated under a series of laws that were added from time to time, but Roman law was never reorganised into a single code until the Codex Theodosianus (AD 438); later, in the Eastern Empire the Codex repetitæ prælectionis (534) was highly influential throughout Europe. This was followed in the east by the Ecloga of Leo III the Isaurian (740) and the Basilica of Basil I (878).

text: The Edicts of Ashoka established constitutional principles for the 3rd century BC Maurya king's rule in Ancient India. For constitutional principles almost lost to antiquity, see the code of Manu.

text: Dark ages and early Middle ages

text: Many of the Germanic people that filled the power vacuum left by the Western Roman Empire in the Early Middle Ages codified their laws. One of the first of these Germanic law codes to be written was the Visigothic Code of Euric (471). This was followed by the Lex Burgundionum, applying separate codes for Germans and for Romans; the Pactus Alamannorum; and the Salic Law of the Franks, all written soon after 500. In 506, the Breviarum or "Lex Romana" of Alaric II, king of the Visigoths, adopted and consolidated the Codex Theodosianus together with assorted earlier Roman laws. Systems that appeared somewhat later include the Edictum Rothari of the Lombards (643), the Lex Visigothorum (654), the Lex Alamannorum (730) and the Lex Frisionum (ca 785). These continental codes were all composed in Latin, while Anglo-Saxon was used for those of England, beginning with the Code of Æthelberht of Kent (602). In ca. 893, Alfred the Great combined this and two other earlier Saxon codes, with various Mosaic and Christian precepts, to produce the Doom book code of laws for England.

text: Japan's Seventeen-article constitution written in 604, reportedly by Prince Shōtoku, is an early example of a constitution in Asian political history. Influenced by Buddhist teachings, the document focuses more on social morality than institutions of government per se and remains a notable early attempt at a government constitution.

text: The Constitution of Medina (Arabic: صحیفة المدینه, Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīna), also known as the Charter of Medina, was drafted by the Islamic prophet Muhammad after his flight (hijra) to Yathrib where he became political leader. It constituted a formal agreement between Muhammad and all of the significant tribes and families of Yathrib (later known as Medina), including Muslims, Jews, and pagans.[11][12] The document was drawn up with the explicit concern of bringing to an end the bitter intertribal fighting between the clans of the Aws (Aus) and Khazraj within Medina. To this effect it instituted a number of rights and responsibilities for the Muslim, Jewish, and pagan communities of Medina bringing them within the fold of one community—the Ummah.[13] The precise dating of the Constitution of Medina remains debated but generally scholars agree it was written shortly after the Hijra (622).[14]

text: In Wales, the Cyfraith Hywel was codified by Hywel Dda c. 942–950.

text: Middle ages after 1000

text: The Pravda Yaroslava, originally combined by Yaroslav the Wise the Grand Prince of Kyiv, was granted to Great Novgorod around 1017, and in 1054 was incorporated into the Ruska Pravda, that became the law for all of Kievan Rus. It survived only in later editions of the 15th century.

text: In England, Henry I's proclamation of the Charter of Liberties in 1100 bound the king for the first time in his treatment of the clergy and the nobility. This idea was extended and refined by the English barony when they forced King John to sign Magna Carta in 1215. The most important single article of the Magna Carta, related to "habeas corpus", provided that the king was not permitted to imprison, outlaw, exile or kill anyone at a whim—there must be due process of law first. This article, Article 39, of the Magna Carta read:

text: No free man shall be arrested, or imprisoned, or deprived of his property, or outlawed, or exiled, or in any way destroyed, nor shall we go against him or send against him, unless by legal judgement of his peers, or by the law of the land.

text: This provision became the cornerstone of English liberty after that point. The social contract in the original case was between the king and the nobility, but was gradually extended to all of the people. It led to the system of Constitutional Monarchy, with further reforms shifting the balance of power from the monarchy and nobility to the House of Commons.

text: The Nomocanon of Saint Sava (Serbian: Законоправило/Zakonopravilo)[15][16][17] was the first Serbian constitution from 1219. This legal act was well developed. St. Sava's Nomocanon was the compilation of Civil law, based on Roman Law and Canon law, based on Ecumenical Councils and its basic purpose was to organize functioning of the young Serbian kingdom and the Serbian church. Saint Sava began the work on the Serbian Nomocanon in 1208 while being at Mount Athos, using The Nomocanon in Fourteen Titles, Synopsis of Stefan the Efesian, Nomocanon of John Scholasticus, Ecumenical Councils' documents, which he modified with the canonical commentaries of Aristinos and Joannes Zonaras, local church meetings, rules of the Holy Fathers, the law of Moses, translation of Prohiron and the Byzantine emperors' Novellae (most were taken from Justinian's Novellae). The Nomocanon was completely new compilation of civil and canonical regulations, taken from the Byzantine sources, but completed and reformed by St. Sava to function properly in Serbia. Beside decrees that organized the life of church, there are various norms regarding civil life, most of them were taken from Prohiron. Legal transplants of Roman-Byzantine law became the basis of the Serbian medieval law. The essence of Zakonopravilo was based on Corpus Iuris Civilis.

text: Stefan Dušan, Emperor of Serbs and Greeks, enacted Dušan's Code (Serbian: Душанов Законик/Dušanov Zakonik)[18] in Serbia, in two state congresses: in 1349 in Skopje and in 1354 in Serres. It regulated all social spheres, so it was the second Serbian constitution, after St. Sava's Nomocanon (Zakonopravilo). The Code was based on Roman-Byzantine law. The legal transplanting is notable with the articles 171 and 172 of Dušan's Code, which regulated the juridical independence. They were taken from the Byzantine code Basilika (book VII, 1, 16–17).

text: In 1222, Hungarian King Andrew II issued the Golden Bull of 1222.

text: Between 1220 and 1230, a Saxon administrator, Eike von Repgow, composed the Sachsenspiegel, which became the supreme law used in parts of Germany as late as 1900.

text: In 1998, S. Kouyaté reconstructed from oral tradition what he claims is a 14th-century charter of the Mali Empire, called the Kouroukan Fouga.[19]

text: Around 1240, the Coptic Egyptian Christian writer, 'Abul Fada'il Ibn al-'Assal, wrote the Fetha Negest in Arabic. 'Ibn al-Assal took his laws partly from apostolic writings and Mosaic law, and partly from the former Byzantine codes. There are a few historical records claiming that this law code was translated into Ge'ez and entered Ethiopia around 1450 in the reign of Zara Yaqob. Even so, its first recorded use in the function of a constitution (supreme law of the land) is with Sarsa Dengel beginning in 1563. The Fetha Negest remained the supreme law in Ethiopia until 1931, when a modern-style Constitution was first granted by Emperor Haile Selassie I.

text: In the Principality of Catalonia, the Catalan constitutions were promulgated by the Court from 1283 (or even two centuries before, if we consider the Usatges of Barcelona as part of the compilation of Constitutions) until 1716, when Philip V of Spain gave the Nueva Planta decrees, finishing with the historical laws of Catalonia. These Constitutions were usually made formally as a royal initiative, but required for its approval or repeal the favorable vote of the Catalan Courts, the medieval antecedent of the modern Parliaments. These laws had, as the other modern constitutions, preeminence over other laws, and they could not be contradicted by mere decrees or edicts of the king.

text: The Golden Bull of 1356 was a decree issued by a Reichstag in Nuremberg headed by Emperor Charles IV that fixed, for a period of more than four hundred years, an important aspect of the constitutional structure of the Holy Roman Empire.

text: In China, the Hongwu Emperor created and refined a document he called Ancestral Injunctions (first published in 1375, revised twice more before his death in 1398). These rules served in a very real sense as a constitution for the Ming Dynasty for the next 250 years.

text: The oldest written document still governing a sovereign nation today[20] is that of San Marino. The Leges Statutae Republicae Sancti Marini was written in Latin and consists of six books. The first book, with 62 articles, establishes councils, courts, various executive officers and the powers assigned to them. The remaining books cover criminal and civil law, judicial procedures and remedies. Written in 1600, the document was based upon the Statuti Comunali (Town Statute) of 1300, itself influenced by the Codex Justinianus, and it remains in force today.

text: In 1392 the Carta de Logu was legal code of the Giudicato of Arborea promulgated by the giudicessa Eleanor. It was in force in Sardinia until it was superseded by the code of Charles Felix in April 1827. The Carta was a work of great importance in Sardinian history. It was an organic, coherent, and systematic work of legislation encompassing the civil and penal law.

text: Iroquois "Great Law of Peace"

text: The Gayanashagowa, the oral constitution of the Iroquois nation also known as the Great Law of Peace, established a system of governance in which sachems (tribal chiefs) of the members of the Iroquois League made decisions on the basis of universal consensus of all chiefs following discussions that were initiated by a single tribe. The position of sachem descended through families, and were allocated by senior female relatives.[21]

text: Historians including Donald Grinde,[22] Bruce Johansen[23] and others[24] believe that the Iroquois constitution provided inspiration for the United States Constitution and in 1988 was recognised by a resolution in Congress.[25] The thesis is not considered credible by some scholars.[21][26] Stanford University historian Jack N. Rakove stated that "The voluminous records we have for the constitutional debates of the late 1780s contain no significant references to the Iroquois" and stated that there are ample European precedents to the democratic institutions of the United States.[27] Francis Jennings noted that the statement made by Benjamin Franklin frequently quoted by proponents of the thesis does not support this idea as it is advocating for a union against these "ignorant savages" and called the idea "absurd".[28] Bruce Johansen contends Jennings, Tooker etc. have "humorlessly missed the ironic nature of Franklin's statement"[29] and persist in "ignoring the relevant sources".[30] Anthropologist Dean Snow stated that though Franklin's Albany Plan may have drawn some inspiration from the Iroquois League, there is little evidence that either the Plan or the Constitution drew substantially from this source and argues that "...such claims muddle and denigrate the subtle and remarkable features of Iroquois government. The two forms of government are distinctive and individually remarkable in conception."[31]

text: Modern constitutions

text: In 1639, the Colony of Connecticut adopted the Fundamental Orders, which was the first North American constitution, and is the basis for every new Connecticut constitution since, and is also the reason for Connecticut's nickname, "the Constitution State".

text: The English Protectorate that was set up by Oliver Cromwell after the English Civil War promulgated the first detailed written constitution adopted by a modern state;[32] it was called the Instrument of Government. This formed the basis of government for the short lived republic from 1653 to 1657 by providing a legal rationale for the increasing power of Cromwell, after Parliament consistently failed to govern effectively. Most of the concepts and ideas embedded into modern constitutional theory, especially bicameralism, separation of powers, the written constitution, and judicial review, can be traced back to the experiments of that period. [33]

text: Drafted by Major-General John Lambert in 1653, the Instrument of Government included elements incorporated from an earlier document "Heads of Proposals",[34][35] which had been agreed to by the Army Council in 1647, as a set of propositions intended to be a basis for a constitutional settlement after King Charles I was defeated in the First English Civil War. Charles had rejected the propositions, but before the start of the Second Civil War, the Grandees of the New Model Army had presented the Heads of Proposals as their alternative to the more radical Agreement of the People presented by the Agitators and their civilian supporters at the Putney Debates.

text: On January 4, 1649 the Rump Parliament declared "that the people are, under God, the original of all just power; that the Commons of England, being chosen by and representing the people, have the supreme power in this nation".[36]

text: The Instrument of Government was adopted by Parliament on December 15, 1653 and Oliver Cromwell was installed as Lord Protector on the following day. The constitution set up a state council consisting of 21 members while executive authority was vested in the office of "Lord Protector of the Commonwealth"; this position was designated as a non-hereditary life appointment. It also required the calling of triennial Parliaments, with each sitting for at least five months.

text: The Instrument of Government was replaced in May 1657 by England's second, and last, codified constitution, the Humble Petition and Advice, proposed by Sir Christopher Packe.[37] The Petition offered hereditary monarchy to Oliver Cromwell, asserted Parliament's control over issuing new taxation, provided an independent council to advise the king and safeguarded 'Triennial' meetings of Parliament. A modified version of the Humble Petition with the clause on kingship removed was ratified on 25 May. This finally met its demise in conjunction with the death of Cromwell and the Restoration of the monarchy.

text: Other examples of European constitutions of this era were the Corsican Constitution of 1755 and the Swedish Constitution of 1772.

text: All of the British colonies in North America that were to become the 13 original United States, adopted their own constitutions in 1776 and 1777, during the American Revolution (and before the later Articles of Confederation and United States Constitution), with the exceptions of Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island. The Commonwealth of Massachusetts adopted its Constitution in 1780, the oldest still-functioning constitution of any U.S. state; while Connecticut and Rhode Island officially continued to operate under their old colonial charters, until they adopted their first state constitutions in 1818 and 1843, respectively.

text: Democratic constitutions

text: What is sometimes called the "enlightened constitution" model was developed by philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment such as Thomas Hobbes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and John Locke. The model proposed that constitutional governments should be stable, adaptable, accountable, open and should represent the people (i.e., support democracy).[38]

text: Agreements and Constitutions of Laws and Freedoms of the Zaporizian Host was written in 1710 by Pylyp Orlyk, hetman of the Zaporozhian Host. It was written to establish a free Zaporozhian-Ukrainian Republic, with the support of Charles XII of Sweden. It is notable in that it established a democratic standard for the separation of powers in government between the legislative, executive, and judiciary branches, well before the publication of Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws. This Constitution also limited the executive authority of the hetman, and established a democratically elected Cossack parliament called the General Council. However, Orlyk's project for an independent Ukrainian State never materialized, and his constitution, written in exile, never went into effect.

text: Corsican Constitutions of 1755 and 1794 were inspired by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. The later one introduced universal suffrage for property owners.

text: The United States Constitution, ratified June 21, 1788, was influenced by the writings of Polybius, Locke, Montesquieu, and others. The document became a benchmark for republicanism and codified constitutions written thereafter.[citation needed]

text: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Constitution was passed on May 3, 1791.[39][40][41] Another landmark document was the French Constitution, ratified on September 3, 1791.

text: On March 19, the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was ratified by a parliament gathered in Cadiz, the only Spanish continental city which was safe from French occupation. The Spanish Constitution served as a model for other liberal constitutions of several South-European and Latin American nations like, for example, Portuguese Constitution of 1822, constitutions of various Italian states during Carbonari revolts (i.e., in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies), the Norwegian constitution of 1814, or the Mexican Constitution of 1824.[42]

text: In Brazil, the Constitution of 1824 expressed the option for the monarchy as political system after Brazilian Independence. The leader of the national emancipation process was the Portuguese prince Pedro I, elder son of the king of Portugal. Pedro was crowned in 1822 as first emperor of Brazil. The country was ruled by Constitutional monarchy until 1889, when finally adopted the Republican model.

text: In Denmark, as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, the absolute monarchy lost its personal possession of Norway to another absolute monarchy, Sweden. However the Norwegians managed to infuse a radically democratic and liberal constitution in 1814, adopting many facets from the American constitution and the revolutionary French ones; but maintaining a hereditary monarch limited by the constitution, like the Spanish one.

text: The first Swiss Federal Constitution was put in force in September 1848 (with official revisions in 1878, 1891, 1949, 1971, 1982 and 1999).

text: The Serbian revolution initially led to a proclamation of a proto-constitution in 1811; the full-fledged Constitution of Serbia followed few decades later, in 1835. The first Serbian constitution (Sretenjski ustav) was adopted at the national assembly in Kragujevac on February 15, 1835.

text: The Constitution of Canada came into force on July 1, 1867 as the British North America Act, an act of the British Parliament. Over a century later, the BNA Act was patriated to the Canadian Parliament and augmented with the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[43] Apart from the Constitution Acts, 1867 to 1982, Canada's constitution also has unwritten elements based in common law and convention.[44][45]

text: Principles of constitutional design

text: After tribal people first began to live in cities and establish nations, many of these functioned according to unwritten customs, while some developed autocratic, even tyrannical monarchs, who ruled by decree, or mere personal whim. Such rule led some thinkers to take the position that what mattered was not the design of governmental institutions and operations, as much as the character of the rulers. This view can be seen in Plato, who called for rule by "philosopher-kings."[46] Later writers, such as Aristotle, Cicero and Plutarch, would examine designs for government from a legal and historical standpoint.

text: The Renaissance brought a series of political philosophers who wrote implied criticisms of the practices of monarchs and sought to identify principles of constitutional design that would be likely to yield more effective and just governance from their viewpoints. This began with revival of the Roman law of nations concept[47] and its application to the relations among nations, and they sought to establish customary "laws of war and peace"[48] to ameliorate wars and make them less likely. This led to considerations of what authority monarchs or other officials have and don't have, from where that authority derives, and the remedies for the abuse of such authority.[49]

text: A seminal juncture in this line of discourse arose in England from the Civil War, the Cromwellian Protectorate, the writings of Thomas Hobbes, Samuel Rutherford, the Levellers, John Milton, and James Harrington, leading to the debate between Robert Filmer, arguing for the divine right of monarchs, on the one side, and on the other, Henry Neville, James Tyrrell, Algernon Sidney, and John Locke. What arose from the latter was a concept of government being erected on the foundations of first, a state of nature governed by natural laws, then a state of society, established by a social contract or compact, which bring underlying natural or social laws, before governments are formally established on them as foundations.

text: Along the way several writers examined how the design of government was important, even if the government were headed by a monarch. They also classified various historical examples of governmental designs, typically into democracies, aristocracies, or monarchies, and considered how just and effective each tended to be and why, and how the advantages of each might be obtained by combining elements of each into a more complex design that balanced competing tendencies. Some, such as Montesquieu, also examined how the functions of government, such as legislative, executive, and judicial, might appropriately be separated into branches. The prevailing theme among these writers was that the design of constitutions is not completely arbitrary or a matter of taste. They generally held that there are underlying principles of design that constrain all constitutions for every polity or organization. Each built on the ideas of those before concerning what those principles might be.

text: The later writings of Orestes Brownson[50] would try to explain what constitutional designers were trying to do. According to Brownson there are, in a sense, three "constitutions" involved: The first the constitution of nature that includes all of what was called "natural law." The second is the constitution of society, an unwritten and commonly understood set of rules for the society formed by a social contract before it establishes a government, by which it establishes the third, a constitution of government. The second would include such elements as the making of decisions by public conventions called by public notice and conducted by established rules of procedure. Each constitution must be consistent with, and derive its authority from, the ones before it, as well as from a historical act of society formation or constitutional ratification. Brownson argued that a state is a society with effective dominion over a well-defined territory, that consent to a well-designed constitution of government arises from presence on that territory, and that it is possible for provisions of a written constitution of government to be "unconstitutional" if they are inconsistent with the constitutions of nature or society. Brownson argued that it is not ratification alone that makes a written constitution of government legitimate, but that it must also be competently designed and applied.

text: Other writers[51] have argued that such considerations apply not only to all national constitutions of government, but also to the constitutions of private organizations, that it is not an accident that the constitutions that tend to satisfy their members contain certain elements, as a minimum, or that their provisions tend to become very similar as they are amended after experience with their use. Provisions that give rise to certain kinds of questions are seen to need additional provisions for how to resolve those questions, and provisions that offer no course of action may best be omitted and left to policy decisions. Provisions that conflict with what Brownson and others can discern are the underlying "constitutions" of nature and society tend to be difficult or impossible to execute, or to lead to unresolvable disputes.

text: Constitutional design has been treated as a kind of metagame in which play consists of finding the best design and provisions for a written constitution that will be the rules for the game of government, and that will be most likely to optimize a balance of the utilities of justice, liberty, and security. An example is the metagame Nomic.[52]

text: Political economy theory regards constitutions as coordination devices that help citizens to prevent rulers from abusing power. If the citizenry can coordinate a response to police government officials in the face of a constitutional fault, then the government have the incentives to honor the rights that the constitution guarantees.[53] An alternative view considers that constitutions are not enforced by the citizens at-large, but rather by the administrative powers of the state. Because rulers cannot themselves implement their policies, they need to rely on a set of organizations (armies, courts, police agencies, tax collectors) to implement it. In this position, they can directly sanction the government by refusing to cooperate, disabling the authority of the rulers. Therefore, constitutions could be characterized by a self-enforcing equilibria between the rulers and powerful administrators.[54]

text: Governmental constitutions

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text: Most commonly, the term constitution refers to a set of rules and principles that define the nature and extent of government. Most constitutions seek to regulate the relationship between institutions of the state, in a basic sense the relationship between the executive, legislature and the judiciary, but also the relationship of institutions within those branches. For example, executive branches can be divided into a head of government, government departments/ministries, executive agencies and a civil service/administration. Most constitutions also attempt to define the relationship between individuals and the state, and to establish the broad rights of individual citizens. It is thus the most basic law of a territory from which all the other laws and rules are hierarchically derived; in some territories it is in fact called "Basic Law".

text: Key features

text: The following are features of democratic constitutions that have been identified by political scientists to exist, in one form or another, in virtually all national constitutions.

text: Classification

text:
Type
Form
Example

Codified
in single act (document)
Most of the world constitutions.

Uncodified
fully written (in few documents)
San Marino, Israel, Saudi Arabia

Uncodified
partially unwritten (see constitutional convention)
Canada, NZ, UK

text: Codification

text: A fundamental classification is codification or lack of codification. A codified constitution is one that is contained in a single document, which is the single source of constitutional law in a state. An uncodified constitution is one that is not contained in a single document, consisting of several different sources, which may be written or unwritten; see constitutional convention.

text: Codified constitution

text: Most states in the world have codified constitutions.

text: Codified constitutions are often the product of some dramatic political change, such as a revolution. The process by which a country adopts a constitution is closely tied to the historical and political context driving this fundamental change. The legitimacy (and often the longevity) of codified constitutions has often been tied to the process by which they are initially adopted and some scholars have pointed out that high constitutional turnover within a given country may itself be detrimental to separation of powers and the rule of law.

text: States that have codified constitutions normally give the constitution supremacy over ordinary statute law. That is, if there is any conflict between a legal statute and the codified constitution, all or part of the statute can be declared ultra vires by a court, and struck down as unconstitutional. In addition, exceptional procedures are often required to amend a constitution. These procedures may include: convocation of a special constituent assembly or constitutional convention, requiring a supermajority of legislators' votes, the consent of regional legislatures, a referendum process, and/or other procedures that make amending a constitution more difficult than passing a simple law.

text: Constitutions may also provide that their most basic principles can never be abolished, even by amendment. In case a formally valid amendment of a constitution infringes these principles protected against any amendment, it may constitute a so-called unconstitutional constitutional law.

text: Codified constitutions normally consist of a ceremonial preamble, which sets forth the goals of the state and the motivation for the constitution, and several articles containing the substantive provisions. The preamble, which is omitted in some constitutions, may contain a reference to God and/or to fundamental values of the state such as liberty, democracy or human rights. In ethnic nation-states such as Estonia, the mission of the state can be defined as preserving a specific nation, language and culture.

text: Uncodified constitution

text: As of 2017[update] only two sovereign states, New Zealand and the United Kingdom, have uncodified constitutions. The Basic Laws of Israel have since 1950 been intended to be the basis for a constitution, but as of 2017 it had not been drafted. The various Laws are considered to have precedence over other laws, and give the procedure by which they can be amended, typically by a simple majority of members of the Knesset (parliament).[55]

text: Uncodified constitutions are the product of an "evolution" of laws and conventions over centuries. By contrast to codified constitutions (in the Westminster System that originated in England), uncodified constitutions include written sources: e.g. constitutional statutes enacted by the Parliament and also unwritten sources: constitutional conventions, observation of precedents, royal prerogatives, custom and tradition, such as always holding the General Election on Thursdays; together these constitute the British constitutional law.

text: Written versus unwritten; codified versus uncodified

text: Some constitutions are largely, but not wholly, codified. For example, in the Constitution of Australia, most of its fundamental political principles and regulations concerning the relationship between branches of government, and concerning the government and the individual are codified in a single document, the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia. However, the presence of statutes with constitutional significance, namely the Statute of Westminster, as adopted by the Commonwealth in the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942, and the Australia Act 1986 means that Australia's constitution is not contained in a single constitutional document. It means the Constitution of Australia is uncodified, it also contains constitutional conventions, thus is partially unwritten.

text: The Constitution of Canada, which evolved from the British North America Acts until severed from nominal British control by the Canada Act 1982 (analogous to the Australia Act 1986), is a similar example. Canada's constitution consists of almost 30 different statutes.

text: The terms written constitution and codified constitution are often used interchangeably, as are unwritten constitution and uncodified constitution, although this usage is technically inaccurate. A codified constitution is a single document; states that do not have such a document have uncodified, but not entirely unwritten, constitutions, since much of an uncodified constitution is usually written in laws such as the Basic Laws of Israel and the Parliament Acts of the United Kingdom. Uncodified constitutions largely lack protection against amendment by the government of the time. For example, the UK Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 legislated by simple majority for strictly fixed-term parliaments; until then the ruling party could call a general election at any convenient time up to the maximum term of five years. This change would require a constitutional amendment in most nations.

text: Entrenchment

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text: The presence or lack of entrenchment is a fundamental feature of constitutions. An entrenched constitution cannot be altered in any way by a legislature as part of its normal business concerning ordinary statutory laws, but can only be amended by a different and more onerous procedure. There may be a requirement for a special body to be set up, or the proportion of favourable votes of members of existing legislative bodies may be required to be higher to pass a constitutional amendment than for statutes. The entrenched clauses of a constitution can create different degrees of entrenchment, ranging from simply excluding constitutional amendment from the normal business of a legislature, to making certain amendments either more difficult than normal modifications, or forbidden under any circumstances.

text: Entrenchment is an inherent feature in most codified constitutions. A codified constitution will incorporate the rules which must be followed for the constitution itself to be changed.

text: The US constitution is an example of an entrenched constitution, and the UK constitution is an example of a constitution that is not entrenched (or codified). In some states the text of the constitution may be changed; in others the original text is not changed, and amendments are passed which add to and may override the original text and earlier amendments.

text: Procedures for constitutional amendment vary between states. In a nation with a federal system of government the approval of a majority of state or provincial legislatures may be required. Alternatively, a national referendum may be required. Details are to be found in the articles on the constitutions of the various nations and federal states in the world.

text: In constitutions that are not entrenched, no special procedure is required for modification. Lack of entrenchment is a characteristic of uncodified constitutions; the constitution is not recognised with any higher legal status than ordinary statutes. In the UK, for example laws which modify written or unwritten provisions of the constitution are passed on a simple majority in Parliament. No special "constitutional amendment" procedure is required. The principle of parliamentary sovereignty holds that no sovereign parliament may be bound by the acts of its predecessors;[56] and there is no higher authority that can create law which binds Parliament. The sovereign is nominally the head of state with important powers, such as the power to declare war; the uncodified and unwritten constitution removes all these powers in practice.

text: In practice democratic governments do not use the lack of entrenchment of the constitution to impose the will of the government or abolish all civil rights, as they could in theory do, but the distinction between constitutional and other law is still somewhat arbitrary, usually following historical principles embodied in important past legislation. For example, several British Acts of Parliament such as the Bill of Rights, Human Rights Act and, prior to the creation of Parliament, Magna Carta are regarded as granting fundamental rights and principles which are treated as almost constitutional. Several rights that in another state might be guaranteed by constitution have indeed been abolished or modified by the British parliament in the early 21st century, including[citation needed] the unconditional right to trial by jury, the right to silence without prejudicial inference, permissible detention before a charge is made extended from 24 hours to 42 days, and the right not to be tried twice for the same offence.

text: Absolutely unmodifiable articles

text: The strongest level of entrenchment exists in those constitutions that state that some of their most fundamental principles are absolute, i.e. certain articles may not be amended under any circumstances. An amendment of a constitution that is made consistently with that constitution, except that it violates the absolute non-modifiability, can be called an unconstitutional constitutional law. Ultimately it is always possible for a constitution to be overthrown by internal or external force, for example, a revolution (perhaps claiming to be justified by the right to revolution) or invasion. In the Constitution of India, the Supreme Court has created the Doctrine of Basic Structure in Kesavananda Bharti's case (1973) stating that the essential features of the Basic structure cannot be amended by the Parliament. The Court has identified judicial review, independence of Judiciary, free and fair election, core of Fundamental Rights as a few of the essential features which are unamendable. However, the Supreme Court did not identify specific provisions which are in the category of absolute entrenchment. A critical analysis of the Doctrine of Basic Structure appears in Professor M.K. Bhandari's book Basic Structure of Indian Constitution - A Critical Reconsideration.

text: An example of absolute unmodifiability is found in the German constitution. Articles 1 and 20 protect human dignity, human rights, democracy, rule of law, federal and social state principles, and the people's right of resistance as a last resort against an attempt to abolish the constitutional order. Article 79, Section 3 states that these principles cannot be changed, even according to the methods of amendment defined elsewhere in the document, until a new constitution comes into effect.

text: Another example is the Constitution of Honduras, which has an article stating that the article itself and certain other articles cannot be changed in any circumstances. Article 374 of the Honduras Constitution asserts this unmodifiability, stating, "It is not possible to reform, in any case, the preceding article, the present article, the constitutional articles referring to the form of government, to the national territory, to the presidential period, the prohibition to serve again as President of the Republic, the citizen who has performed under any title in consequence of which she/he cannot be President of the Republic in the subsequent period."[57] This unmodifiability article played an important role in the 2009 Honduran constitutional crisis.

text: Distribution of sovereignty

text: Constitutions also establish where sovereignty is located in the state. There are three basic types of distribution of sovereignty according to the degree of centralisation of power: unitary, federal, and confederal. The distinction is not absolute.

text: In a unitary state, sovereignty resides in the state itself, and the constitution determines this. The territory of the state may be divided into regions, but they are not sovereign and are subordinate to the state. In the UK, the constitutional doctrine of Parliamentary sovereignty dictates than sovereignty is ultimately contained at the centre. Some powers have been devolved to Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales (but not England). Some unitary states (Spain is an example) devolve more and more power to sub-national governments until the state functions in practice much like a federal state.

text: A federal state has a central structure with at most a small amount of territory mainly containing the institutions of the federal government, and several regions (called states, provinces, etc.) which compose the territory of the whole state. Sovereignty is divided between the centre and the constituent regions. The constitutions of Canada and the United States establish federal states, with power divided between the federal government and the provinces or states. Each of the regions may in turn have its own constitution (of unitary nature).

text: A confederal state comprises again several regions, but the central structure has only limited coordinating power, and sovereignty is located in the regions. Confederal constitutions are rare, and there is often dispute to whether so-called "confederal" states are actually federal.

text: To some extent a group of states which do not constitute a federation as such may by treaties and accords give up parts of their sovereignty to a supranational entity. For example, the countries constituting the European Union have agreed to abide by some Union-wide measures which restrict their absolute sovereignty in some ways, e.g., the use of the metric system of measurement instead of national units previously used.

text: Separation of powers

text: Constitutions usually explicitly divide power between various branches of government. The standard model, described by the Baron de Montesquieu, involves three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. Some constitutions include additional branches, such as an auditory branch. Constitutions vary extensively as to the degree of separation of powers between these branches.

text: Lines of accountability

text: In presidential and semi-presidential systems of government, department secretaries/ministers are accountable to the president, who has patronage powers to appoint and dismiss ministers. The president is accountable to the people in an election.

text: In parliamentary systems, Cabinet Ministers are accountable to Parliament, but it is the prime minister who appoints and dismisses them. In the case of the United Kingdom and other countries with a monarchy, it is the monarch who appoints and dismisses ministers, on the advice of the prime minister. In turn the prime minister will resign if the government loses the confidence of the parliament (or a part of it). Confidence can be lost if the government loses a vote of no confidence or, depending on the country,[58] loses a particularly important vote in parliament, such as vote on the budget. When a government loses confidence, it stays in office until a new government is formed; something which normally but not necessarily required the holding of a general election.

text: State of emergency

text: Many constitutions allow the declaration under exceptional circumstances of some form of state of emergency during which some rights and guarantees are suspended. This provision can be and has been abused to allow a government to suppress dissent without regard for human rights—see the article on state of emergency.

text: Facade constitutions

text: Italian political theorist Giovanni Sartori noted the existence of national constitutions which are a facade for authoritarian sources of power. While such documents may express respect for human rights or establish an independent judiciary, they may be ignored when the government feels threatened, or never put into practice. An extreme example was the Constitution of the Soviet Union that on paper supported freedom of assembly and freedom of speech; however, citizens who transgressed unwritten limits were summarily imprisoned. The example demonstrates that the protections and benefits of a constitution are ultimately provided not through its written terms but through deference by government and society to its principles. A constitution may change from being real to a facade and back again as democratic and autocratic governments succeed each other.

text: Constitutional courts

text: Constitutions are often, but by no means always, protected by a legal body whose job it is to interpret those constitutions and, where applicable, declare void executive and legislative acts which infringe the constitution. In some countries, such as Germany, this function is carried out by a dedicated constitutional court which performs this (and only this) function. In other countries, such as Ireland, the ordinary courts may perform this function in addition to their other responsibilities. While elsewhere, like in the United Kingdom, the concept of declaring an act to be unconstitutional does not exist.

text: A constitutional violation is an action or legislative act that is judged by a constitutional court to be contrary to the constitution, that is, unconstitutional. An example of constitutional violation by the executive could be a public office holder who acts outside the powers granted to that office by a constitution. An example of constitutional violation by the legislature is an attempt to pass a law that would contradict the constitution, without first going through the proper constitutional amendment process.

text: Some countries, mainly those with uncodified constitutions, have no such courts at all. For example, the United Kingdom has traditionally operated under the principle of parliamentary sovereignty under which the laws passed by United Kingdom Parliament could not be questioned by the courts.