document_title: Validity (statistics)

question_text: refers to the degree to which two measures of the same construct correlate to each other

text: Validity (statistics)

text: Test validity[edit]

text: Validity (accuracy) [edit]

text: Validity[3] of an assessment is the degree to which it measures what it is supposed to measure. This is not the same as reliability, which is the extent to which a measurement gives results that are very consistent. Within validity, the measurement does not always have to be similar, as it does in reliability. However, just because a measure is reliable, it is not necessarily valid eg. A scale that is 5 pounds off is reliable but not valid. A test cannot be valid unless it is reliable. Validity is also dependent on the measurement measuring what it was designed to measure, and not something else instead.[4] Validity (similar to reliability) is a relative concept; validity is not an all-or-nothing idea. There are many different types of validity.

text: Construct validity[edit]

text: Construct validity refers to the extent to which operationalizations of a construct (e.g., practical tests developed from a theory) measure a construct as defined by a theory. It subsumes all other types of validity. For example, the extent to which a test measures intelligence is a question of construct validity. A measure of intelligence presumes, among other things, that the measure is associated with things it should be associated with (convergent validity), not associated with things it should not be associated with (discriminant validity).[5]

text: Construct validity evidence involves the empirical and theoretical support for the interpretation of the construct. Such lines of evidence include statistical analyses of the internal structure of the test including the relationships between responses to different test items. They also include relationships between the test and measures of other constructs. As currently understood, construct validity is not distinct from the support for the substantive theory of the construct that the test is designed to measure. As such, experiments designed to reveal aspects of the causal role of the construct also contribute to construct validity evidence.[5]

text: Content validity[edit]

text: Content validity is a non-statistical type of validity that involves "the systematic examination of the test content to determine whether it covers a representative sample of the behavior domain to be measured" (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997 p. 114). For example, does an IQ questionnaire have items covering all areas of intelligence discussed in the scientific literature?

text: Content validity evidence involves the degree to which the content of the test matches a content domain associated with the construct. For example, a test of the ability to add two numbers should include a range of combinations of digits. A test with only one-digit numbers, or only even numbers, would not have good coverage of the content domain. Content related evidence typically involves a subject matter expert (SME) evaluating test items against the test specifications. Before going to final administration of questionnaires, the researcher should consult the validity of items against each of the constructs or variables and accordingly modify measurement instruments on the basis of SME's opinion.

text: A test has content validity built into it by careful selection of which items to include (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997). Items are chosen so that they comply with the test specification which is drawn up through a thorough examination of the subject domain. Foxcroft, Paterson, le Roux & Herbst (2004, p. 49)[6] note that by using a panel of experts to review the test specifications and the selection of items the content validity of a test can be improved. The experts will be able to review the items and comment on whether the items cover a representative sample of the behaviour domain.

text: Face validity[edit]

text: Face validity is an estimate of whether a test appears to measure a certain criterion; it does not guarantee that the test actually measures phenomena in that domain. Measures may have high validity, but when the test does not appear to be measuring what it is, it has low face validity. Indeed, when a test is subject to faking (malingering), low face validity might make the test more valid. Considering one may get more honest answers with lower face validity, it is sometimes important to make it appear as though there is low face validity whilst administering the measures.

text: Face validity is very closely related to content validity. While content validity depends on a theoretical basis for assuming if a test is assessing all domains of a certain criterion (e.g. does assessing addition skills yield in a good measure for mathematical skills? To answer this you have to know, what different kinds of arithmetic skills mathematical skills include) face validity relates to whether a test appears to be a good measure or not. This judgment is made on the "face" of the test, thus it can also be judged by the amateur.

text: Face validity is a starting point, but should never be assumed to be probably valid for any given purpose, as the "experts" have been wrong before—the Malleus Malificarum (Hammer of Witches) had no support for its conclusions other than the self-imagined competence of two "experts" in "witchcraft detection," yet it was used as a "test" to condemn and burn at the stake tens of thousands women as "witches."[7]

text: Criterion validity[edit]

text: Criterion validity evidence involves the correlation between the test and a criterion variable (or variables) taken as representative of the construct. In other words, it compares the test with other measures or outcomes (the criteria) already held to be valid. For example, employee selection tests are often validated against measures of job performance (the criterion), and IQ tests are often validated against measures of academic performance (the criterion).

text: If the test data and criterion data are collected at the same time, this is referred to as concurrent validity evidence. If the test data are collected first in order to predict criterion data collected at a later point in time, then this is referred to as predictive validity evidence.

text: Concurrent validity[edit]

text: Concurrent validity refers to the degree to which the operationalization correlates with other measures of the same construct that are measured at the same time. When the measure is compared to another measure of the same type, they will be related (or correlated). Returning to the selection test example, this would mean that the tests are administered to current employees and then correlated with their scores on performance reviews.

text: Predictive validity[edit]

text: Predictive validity refers to the degree to which the operationalization can predict (or correlate with) other measures of the same construct that are measured at some time in the future. Again, with the selection test example, this would mean that the tests are administered to applicants, all applicants are hired, their performance is reviewed at a later time, and then their scores on the two measures are correlated.

text: This is also when measurement predicts a relationship between what is measured and something else; predicting whether or not the other thing will happen in the future. This type of validity is important from a public view standpoint; is this going to look acceptable to the public or not?

text: Experimental validity[edit]

text: The validity of the design of experimental research studies is a fundamental part of the scientific method, and a concern of research ethics. Without a valid design, valid scientific conclusions cannot be drawn.

text: Statistical conclusion validity[edit]

text: Statistical conclusion validity is the degree to which conclusions about the relationship among variables based on the data are correct or ‘reasonable’. This began as being solely about whether the statistical conclusion about the relationship of the variables was correct, but now there is a movement towards moving to ‘reasonable’ conclusions that use: quantitative, statistical, and qualitative data.[8]

text: Statistical conclusion validity involves ensuring the use of adequate sampling procedures, appropriate statistical tests, and reliable measurement procedures.[9] As this type of validity is concerned solely with the relationship that is found among variables, the relationship may be solely a correlation.

text: Internal validity[edit]

text: Internal validity is an inductive estimate of the degree to which conclusions about causal relationships can be made (e.g. cause and effect), based on the measures used, the research setting, and the whole research design. Good experimental techniques, in which the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable is studied under highly controlled conditions, usually allow for higher degrees of internal validity than, for example, single-case designs.

text: Eight kinds of confounding variable can interfere with internal validity (i.e. with the attempt to isolate causal relationships):

text:
History, the specific events occurring between the first and second measurements in addition to the experimental variables
Maturation, processes within the participants as a function of the passage of time (not specific to particular events), e.g., growing older, hungrier, more tired, and so on.
Testing, the effects of taking a test upon the scores of a second testing.
Instrumentation, changes in calibration of a measurement tool or changes in the observers or scorers may produce changes in the obtained measurements.
Statistical regression, operating where groups have been selected on the basis of their extreme scores.
Selection, biases resulting from differential selection of respondents for the comparison groups.
Experimental mortality, or differential loss of respondents from the comparison groups.
Selection-maturation interaction, etc. e.g., in multiple-group quasi-experimental designs

tag: ol

text: External validity[edit]

text: External validity concerns the extent to which the (internally valid) results of a study can be held to be true for other cases, for example to different people, places or times. In other words, it is about whether findings can be validly generalized. If the same research study was conducted in those other cases, would it get the same results?

text: A major factor in this is whether the study sample (e.g. the research participants) are representative of the general population along relevant dimensions. Other factors jeopardizing external validity are:

text:
Reactive or interaction effect of testing, a pretest might increase the scores on a posttest
Interaction effects of selection biases and the experimental variable.
Reactive effects of experimental arrangements, which would preclude generalization about the effect of the experimental variable upon persons being exposed to it in non-experimental settings
Multiple-treatment interference, where effects of earlier treatments are not erasable.

text: Ecological validity[edit]

text: Ecological validity is the extent to which research results can be applied to real-life situations outside of research settings. This issue is closely related to external validity but covers the question of to what degree experimental findings mirror what can be observed in the real world (ecology = the science of interaction between organism and its environment). To be ecologically valid, the methods, materials and setting of a study must approximate the real-life situation that is under investigation.

text: Ecological validity is partly related to the issue of experiment versus observation. Typically in science, there are two domains of research: observational (passive) and experimental (active). The purpose of experimental designs is to test causality, so that you can infer A causes B or B causes A. But sometimes, ethical and/or methological restrictions prevent you from conducting an experiment (e.g. how does isolation influence a child's cognitive functioning?). Then you can still do research, but it is not causal, it is correlational. You can only conclude that A occurs together with B. Both techniques have their strengths and weaknesses.

text: Relationship to internal validity[edit]

text: On first glance, internal and external validity seem to contradict each other – to get an experimental design you have to control for all interfering variables. That is why you often conduct your experiment in a laboratory setting. While gaining internal validity (excluding interfering variables by keeping them constant) you lose ecological or external validity because you establish an artificial laboratory setting. On the other hand, with observational research you can not control for interfering variables (low internal validity) but you can measure in the natural (ecological) environment, at the place where behavior normally occurs. However, in doing so, you sacrifice internal validity.

text: The apparent contradiction of internal validity and external validity is, however, only superficial. The question of whether results from a particular study generalize to other people, places or times arises only when one follows an inductivist research strategy. If the goal of a study is to deductively test a theory, one is only concerned with factors which might undermine the rigor of the study, i.e. threats to internal validity.

text: Diagnostic validity[edit]

text: In psychiatry there is a particular issue with assessing the validity of the diagnostic categories themselves. In this context:[10]

text:
content validity may refer to symptoms and diagnostic criteria;
concurrent validity may be defined by various correlates or markers, and perhaps also treatment response;
predictive validity may refer mainly to diagnostic stability over time;
discriminant validity may involve delimitation from other disorders.

text: Robins and Guze proposed in 1970 what were to become influential formal criteria for establishing the validity of psychiatric diagnoses. They listed five criteria:[10]

text:
distinct clinical description (including symptom profiles, demographic characteristics, and typical precipitants)
laboratory studies (including psychological tests, radiology and postmortem findings)
delimitation from other disorders (by means of exclusion criteria)
follow-up studies showing a characteristic course (including evidence of diagnostic stability)
family studies showing familial clustering

text: These were incorporated into the Feighner Criteria and Research Diagnostic Criteria that have since formed the basis of the DSM and ICD classification systems.

text: Kendler in 1980 distinguished between:[10]

text:
antecedent validators (familial aggregation, premorbid personality, and precipitating factors)
concurrent validators (including psychological tests)
predictive validators (diagnostic consistency over time, rates of relapse and recovery, and response to treatment)

text: Nancy Andreasen (1995) listed several additional validators – molecular genetics and molecular biology, neurochemistry, neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, and cognitive neuroscience – that are all potentially capable of linking symptoms and diagnoses to their neural substrates.[10]

text: Kendell and Jablinsky (2003) emphasized the importance of distinguishing between validity and utility, and argued that diagnostic categories defined by their syndromes should be regarded as valid only if they have been shown to be discrete entities with natural boundaries that separate them from other disorders.[10]

text: Kendler (2006) emphasized that to be useful, a validating criterion must be sensitive enough to validate most syndromes that are true disorders, while also being specific enough to invalidate most syndromes that are not true disorders. On this basis, he argues that a Robins and Guze criterion of "runs in the family" is inadequately specific because most human psychological and physical traits would qualify - for example, an arbitrary syndrome comprising a mixture of "height over 6 ft, red hair, and a large nose" will be found to "run in families" and be "hereditary", but this should not be considered evidence that it is a disorder. Kendler has further suggested that "essentialist" gene models of psychiatric disorders, and the hope that we will be able to validate categorical psychiatric diagnoses by "carving nature at its joints" solely as a result of gene discovery, are implausible.[11]

text: In the United States Federal Court System validity and reliability of evidence is evaluated using the Daubert Standard: see Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals. Perri and Lichtenwald (2010) provide a starting point for a discussion about a wide range of reliability and validity topics in their analysis of a wrongful murder conviction.[12]


document_title: Climate of Australia

question_text: where does it snow the most in australia

question_tokens: where does it snow the most in australia

root

text: Climate of Australia

text: States and Territories[edit]

text: Australian Capital Territory[edit]

text: Because of its elevation (650 m (2,130 ft)) and distance from the coast, the Australian Capital Territory experiences a continental climate, unlike many other Australian cities whose climates are moderated by the sea.[4] Canberra is notorious for hot, dry summers, and cold winters with occasional fog and frequent frosts. Many of the higher mountains in the territory’s south-west are snow-covered for at least part of the winter. Thunderstorms can occur between October and March, and annual rainfall is 623 mm (25 in), with rainfall highest in spring and summer and lowest in winter

tag: p

text: The highest maximum temperature recorded in the ACT was 42.8 °C (109.0 °F) at Acton on 11 January 1939. The lowest minimum temperature was −14.6 °C (5.7 °F) at Gudgenby on 11 July 1971.[5]

text: New South Wales[edit]

text: Over half of New South Wales has an arid or semi-arid climate. However, the eastern portion has a temperate climate, ranging from humid subtropical to the Central Coast and most of Sydney, and oceanic to the south coast. The Snowy Mountains region in the south-east falls in the alpine climate/highland climate zone, with cool to cold weather all year around and snowfalls in the winter. Further inland, the climate gets semi-arid and a desert climate towards the western part of the state.

text: The weather in the southern half of the state is generally warm to hot in summer and cool in the winter. The seasons are more defined in the southern half of the state, especially as one moves inland, towards South West Slopes, Central West and the Riverina region. Rainfall usually peaks in the summer in most of parts of the state. Though, the Riverina region, which is in the southern-central part of the state, bordering Victoria, has drier summers and a winter rainfall peak.

text: The warmest region is the north-west part of the state, where summers are very hot, and winters cooler and drier. The weather in the northeast region of the state, or the North Coast, bordering Queensland, is hot and humid in the summer, with a rainfall peak, and mild in winter with more sunshine, and little seasonal temperature difference. The Northern Tablelands, which are also on the north coast, have relatively mild summers and cold winters, due to their high elevation on the Great Dividing Range.

text: The coldest region is the Snowy Mountains where the snow and frost continues for quite long period during the winter months. The Blue Mountains, Southern Tablelands and Central Tablelands, which are situated on the Great Dividing Range, have mild to warm summers and cold winters, although not as severe as those in the Snowy Mountains. Interestingly, some places situated in or around the Range have recorded freezing and near-freezing lows in nearly every month of the year, a feat not experienced in many other places of similar latitude and altitude in the northern hemisphere.

text: The highest maximum temperature recorded was 49.8 °C (121.6 °F) at Menindee in the state's west on 10 January 1939. The lowest minimum temperature was −23.0 °C (−9.4 °F) at Charlotte Pass on 29 June 1994 in the Snowy Mountains. This is also the lowest temperature recorded in the whole of Australia excluding Australian Antarctic Territory.[6]

text: Rainfall varies throughout the state. The far north-west receives the least, less than 180 mm (7 in) annually, while the east receives between 600 to 1,200 mm (24 to 47 in) of rain.

text:
City
January Max. Temp
January Min. Temp
July Max. Temp
July Min. Temp
No. Clear days
Annual Rainfall

Sydney[7]
26 °C (79 °F)
19 °C (66 °F)
16 °C (61 °F)
8 °C (46 °F)
104
1,222 mm (48 in)

Penrith[8]
31 °C (88 °F)
18 °C (64 °F)
18 °C (64 °F)
5 °C (41 °F)
103
696 mm (27 in)

Wollongong[9]
26 °C (79 °F)
18 °C (64 °F)
17 °C (63 °F)
8 °C (46 °F)
107
1,346 mm (53 in)

Coffs Harbour[10]
27 °C (81 °F)
19 °C (66 °F)
19 °C (66 °F)
8 °C (46 °F)
122
1,679 mm (66 in)

Armidale[11]
27 °C (81 °F)
13 °C (55 °F)
12 °C (54 °F)
0 °C (32 °F)
106
791 mm (31 in)

Orange[12]
26 °C (79 °F)
12 °C (54 °F)
9 °C (48 °F)
1 °C (34 °F)
100
898 mm (35 in)

Wagga Wagga[13]
32 °C (90 °F)
16 °C (61 °F)
13 °C (55 °F)
3 °C (37 °F)
124
566 mm (22 in)

Broken Hill[14]
33 °C (91 °F)
19 °C (66 °F)
15 °C (59 °F)
5 °C (41 °F)
137
245 mm (10 in)

tag: table

text: Northern Territory[edit]

text:
Average monthly maximum
temperature in Northern Territory

Month
Darwin
Alice Springs

January
31.8 °C (89.2 °F)
36.4 °C (97.5 °F)

February
31.4 °C (88.5 °F)
35.1 °C (95.2 °F)

March
31.9 °C (89.4 °F)
32.7 °C (90.9 °F)

April
32.7 °C (90.9 °F)
28.2 °C (82.8 °F)

May
32.0 °C (89.6 °F)
23.0 °C (73.4 °F)

June
30.6 °C (87.1 °F)
19.8 °C (67.6 °F)

July
30.5 °C (86.9 °F)
19.7 °C (67.5 °F)

August
31.3 °C (88.3 °F)
22.5 °C (72.5 °F)

September
32.5 °C (90.5 °F)
27.2 °C (81.0 °F)

October
33.2 °C (91.8 °F)
31.0 °C (87.8 °F)

November
33.3 °C (91.9 °F)
33.6 °C (92.5 °F)

December
32.6 °C (90.7 °F)
35.4 °C (95.7 °F)

Source: Bureau of Meteorology[15][16]

text: The Northern Territory has two distinctive climate zones. The northern end, including Darwin, has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen Aw)[17] with high humidity and two seasons, the wet (November to April) and dry season (May to October). During the dry season nearly every day is warm and sunny, and afternoon humidity averages around 30%. There is very little rainfall between May and September. In the coolest months of June and July, the daily minimum temperature may dip as low as 14 °C (57 °F), but very rarely lower, and frost has never been recorded.

text: The wet season is associated with tropical cyclones and monsoon rains. The majority of rainfall occurs between December and March (the Southern Hemisphere summer), when thunderstorms are common and afternoon relative humidity averages over 70% during the wettest months. On average more than 1,570 mm (62 in) of rain falls in the north. Thunderstorms can produce spectacular lightning displays.

text: The central region is the desert centre of the country, which includes Alice Springs and Uluru, and is arid or semi-arid with little rain usually falling during the hottest months from October to March. Its seasons are more defined than the northern parts, with summers being very hot, where temperatures often exceed 35 °C (95 °F) on average and winters relatively cool with average minimum temperatures dipping as low as 5 °C (41 °F), with a few frosty nights. Central Australia receives less than 250 mm (10 in) of rain per year.

text: The highest maximum temperature recorded in the territory was 48.3 °C (118.9 °F) at Finke on 1 and 2 January 1960. The lowest minimum temperature was −7.5 °C (18.5 °F) at Alice Springs on 12 July 1976.[6]

text: Queensland[edit]

text: Because of its size, there is significant variation in climate across the state. Low rainfall and hot summers are typical for the inland west, a monsoonal 'wet' season in the far north, and warm subtropical conditions along the coastal strip. Inland and in southern ranges cooler temperatures are experienced, especially at nights. The climate of the coastal strip is influenced by warm ocean waters, keeping the region free from extremes of temperature and providing moisture for rainfall.[18]

text: There are five predominant climatic zones in Queensland,[19] based on temperature and humidity:

text:
hot humid summer (far north and coastal)
warm humid summer (coastal elevated hinterlands and coastal south-east)
hot dry summer, mild winter (central west)
hot dry summer, cold winter (southern west)
temperate - warm summer, cold winter (inland south-east, e.g. Granite Belt)

tag: ul

text: However, most of the Queensland populace experience two weather seasons: a winter period of rather warm temperatures and minimal rainfall and a sultry summer period of hot, sticky temperatures and higher levels of rainfall.

text: The highest maximum temperature observed in the state is 49.5 °C (121.1 °F) at Birdsville on 24 December 1972. The temperature of 53.1 °C (127.6 °F) at Cloncurry on 16 January 1889 is not considered official; the figure quoted from Birdsville is the next highest, so that record is considered as being official.

text: The lowest minimum temperature is −10.6 °C (12.9 °F) at Stanthorpe on 23 June 1961 and at The Hermitage on 12 July 1965.[6]

text:
City
January Max. Temp
January Min. Temp
July Max. Temp
July Min. Temp
No. Clear days
Annual Rainfall

Brisbane[20]
30 °C (86 °F)
21 °C (70 °F)
22 °C (72 °F)
10 °C (50 °F)
123
1,022 mm (40 in)

Gold Coast[21]
29 °C (84 °F)
22 °C (72 °F)
21 °C (70 °F)
12 °C (54 °F)
n/a
1,273 mm (50 in)

Mackay[22]
30 °C (86 °F)
24 °C (75 °F)
21 °C (70 °F)
13 °C (55 °F)
123
1,610 mm (63 in)

Cairns[23]
31 °C (88 °F)
24 °C (75 °F)
26 °C (79 °F)
17 °C (63 °F)
90
1,991 mm (78 in)

Townsville[24]
31 °C (88 °F)
24 °C (75 °F)
25 °C (77 °F)
14 °C (57 °F)
121
1,132 mm (45 in)

Toowoomba[25]
28 °C (82 °F)
17 °C (63 °F)
16 °C (61 °F)
5 °C (41 °F)
114
952 mm (37 in)

Rockhampton[26]
32 °C (90 °F)
22 °C (72 °F)
23 °C (73 °F)
10 °C (50 °F)
116
812 mm (32 in)

Mt Isa[27]
37 °C (99 °F)
24 °C (75 °F)
25 °C (77 °F)
9 °C (48 °F)
175
462 mm (18 in)

text: South Australia[edit]

text: The majority of the state has the arid and semi-arid climates. The southern coastal parts of the state have a Mediterranean climate with mild wet winters and hot dry summers. The highest rainfall occurs along the southern coasts and the Mount Lofty Ranges (with an average annual rainfall of 1,200 millimetres (47 in) in the vicinity of Mount Lofty); the lowest rainfall occurs in the Lake Eyre basin where the average annual totals are less than 150 millimetres (6 in) and possibly even 100 millimetres (4 in). Most of the rain in the southern districts of the State fall during the winter months when the sub-tropical high-pressure belt is displaced to the north over the Australian continent.[28]

text: South Australia's mean temperature range is 29 °C (84 °F) in January and 15 °C (59 °F) in July. Daily temperatures in parts of the state in January and February can be up to 48 °C (118 °F). The highest maximum temperature was recorded as 50.7 °C (123.3 °F) at Oodnadatta on 2 January 1960, which is the highest official temperature recorded in Australia. The lowest minimum temperature was −8.0 °C (17.6 °F) at Yongala on 20 July 1976.[6]

text:
City
January Max. Temp
January Min. Temp
July Max. Temp
July Min. Temp
No. Clear days
Annual Rainfall

Adelaide[29]
29 °C (84 °F)
17 °C (63 °F)
15 °C (59 °F)
7 °C (45 °F)
87
551 mm (22 in)

Mount Gambier[30]
25 °C (77 °F)
11 °C (52 °F)
13 °C (55 °F)
5 °C (41 °F)
40
710 mm (28 in)

Whyalla[31]
30 °C (86 °F)
18 °C (64 °F)
17 °C (63 °F)
5 °C (41 °F)
63
267 mm (11 in)

Port Augusta[32]
34 °C (93 °F)
19 °C (66 °F)
18 °C (64 °F)
5 °C (41 °F)
142
218 mm (9 in)

Oodnadatta[33]
38 °C (100 °F)
23 °C (73 °F)
20 °C (68 °F)
6 °C (43 °F)
182
176 mm (7 in)

text: Tasmania[edit]

text: Tasmania has a cool temperate climate with four seasons. Summer lasts from December to February when the average maximum sea temperature is 21 °C (70 °F) and inland areas around Launceston reach 24 °C (75 °F). Other inland areas are much cooler with Liawenee, located on the Central Plateau, one of the coldest places in Australia with temperatures in February ranging between 4 to 17 °C (39 to 63 °F). Autumn lasts between March and May and experiences changeable weather, where summer weather patterns gradually take on the shape of winter patterns.[34]

text: The highest recorded maximum temperature in Tasmania was 42.2 °C (108.0 °F) at Scamander on 30 January 2009, during the 2009 south-eastern Australia heat wave. Tasmania's lowest recorded minimum temperature was −13 °C (8.6 °F) on 30 June 1983, at Butlers Gorge, Shannon, and Tarraleah.[6]

text:
City
January Max. Temp
January Min. Temp
July Max. Temp
July Min. Temp
No. Clear days
Annual Rainfall

Hobart[35]
22 °C (72 °F)
12 °C (54 °F)
12 °C (54 °F)
5 °C (41 °F)
41
615 mm (24 in)

Launceston[36]
25 °C (77 °F)
11 °C (52 °F)
12 °C (54 °F)
2 °C (36 °F)
50
630 mm (25 in)

Devonport[37]
21 °C (70 °F)
12 °C (54 °F)
13 °C (55 °F)
5 °C (41 °F)
56
773 mm (30 in)

Strahan[38]
21 °C (70 °F)
11 °C (52 °F)
12 °C (54 °F)
5 °C (41 °F)
16
1,544 mm (61 in)

text: Victoria[edit]

text:
Average monthly maximum
temperature in Victoria

Month
Melbourne
Mildura

January
25.8 °C (78.4 °F)
32.8 °C (91.0 °F)

February
25.8 °C (78.4 °F)
32.7 °C (90.9 °F)

March
23.8 °C (74.8 °F)
29.3 °C (84.7 °F)

April
20.2 °C (68.4 °F)
24.1 °C (75.4 °F)

May
16.6 °C (61.9 °F)
19.6 °C (67.3 °F)

June
14.0 °C (57.2 °F)
16.0 °C (60.8 °F)

July
13.4 °C (56.1 °F)
15.4 °C (59.7 °F)

August
14.9 °C (58.8 °F)
17.7 °C (63.9 °F)

September
17.2 °C (63.0 °F)
21.1 °C (70.0 °F)

October
19.6 °C (67.3 °F)
25.0 °C (77.0 °F)

November
21.8 °C (71.2 °F)
29.0 °C (84.2 °F)

December
24.1 °C (75.4 °F)
31.7 °C (89.1 °F)

Source: Bureau of Meteorology

text: Wikimedia Commons has media related to Climate diagrams of Victoria.

text: Victoria has a varied climate despite its small size. It ranges from semi-arid and hot in the north-west, to temperate and cool along the coast. Victoria's main land feature, the Great Dividing Range, produces a cooler, mountain climate in the centre of the state.

text: Victoria's southernmost position on the Australian mainland means it is cooler and wetter than other mainland states and territories. The coastal plain south of the Great Dividing Range has Victoria's mildest climate. Air from the Southern Ocean helps reduce the heat of summer and the cold of winter. Melbourne and other large cities are located in this temperate region.

text: The Mallee and upper Wimmera are Victoria's warmest regions with hot winds blowing from nearby deserts. Average temperatures top 30 °C (86 °F) during summer and 15 °C (59 °F) in winter. Victoria's highest maximum temperature of 48.8 °C (119.8 °F) was recorded in Hopetoun on 7 February 2009, during the 2009 south-eastern Australia heat wave.[6] A screen temperature of 50.7 °C (123.3 °F) was recorded on 7 January 1906 in Mildura.[39][40]

text: The Victorian Alps in the north-east are the coldest part of Victoria. The Alps are part of the Great Dividing Range mountain system extending east-west through the centre of Victoria. Average temperatures are less than 9 °C (48 °F) in winter and below 0 °C (32 °F) in the highest parts of the ranges. The state's lowest minimum temperature of −11.7 °C (10.9 °F) was recorded at Omeo on 13 June 1965, and again at Falls Creek on 3 July 1970.[6]

text: Victoria is the wettest Australian state after Tasmania. Rainfall in Victoria increases from north to south, with higher averages in areas of high altitude. Median annual rainfall exceeds 1,800 mm (71 in) in some parts of the north-east but is less than 250 mm (10 in) in the Mallee.

text: Rain is heaviest in the Otway Ranges and Gippsland in southern Victoria and in the mountainous north-east. Snow generally falls only in the mountains and hills in the centre of the state. Rain falls most frequently in winter, but summer precipitation is heavier. Rainfall is most reliable in Gippsland and the Western District, making them both leading farming areas. Victoria's highest recorded daily rainfall was 375 millimetres (14.8 in) at Tanybryn in the Otway Ranges on 22 March 1983.[6]

text:
City
January Max. Temp
January Min. Temp
July Max. Temp
July Min. Temp
No. Clear days
Annual Rainfall

Melbourne[41]
26 °C (79 °F)
14 °C (57 °F)
14 °C (57 °F)
6 °C (43 °F)
49
648 mm (26 in)

Ballarat[42]
25 °C (77 °F)
11 °C (52 °F)
10 °C (50 °F)
3 °C (37 °F)
55
690 mm (27 in)

Bendigo[43]
30 °C (86 °F)
14 °C (57 °F)
12 °C (54 °F)
3 °C (37 °F)
110
514 mm (20 in)

Mildura[44]
32 °C (90 °F)
17 °C (63 °F)
15 °C (59 °F)
4 °C (39 °F)
132
291 mm (11 in)

Shepparton[45]
32 °C (90 °F)
15 °C (59 °F)
13 °C (55 °F)
3 °C (37 °F)
n/a
452 mm (18 in)

Bairnsdale[46]
26 °C (79 °F)
13 °C (55 °F)
15 °C (59 °F)
4 °C (39 °F)
60
650 mm (26 in)

Warnambool[47]
22 °C (72 °F)
13 °C (55 °F)
13 °C (55 °F)
6 °C (43 °F)
53
743 mm (29 in)

text:
Temperature and precipitation for Victoria.
Source: Bureau of Meteorology, Department of Primary Industries, Australian Natural Resources Atlas

Average January temperatures: Victoria's north is always hotter than coastal and mountainous areas.

Average July temperatures: Victoria's hills and ranges are coolest during winter. Snow also falls there.

Average yearly precipitation: Victoria's rainfall is concentrated in the mountainous north-east and coast.

text: Western Australia[edit]

text: Most of Western Australia has a hot arid and semi-arid climate. However, the south-west corner of the state has a Mediterranean climate.[48] The area was originally heavily forested, including large stands of the karri, one of the tallest trees in the world. This agricultural region of Western Australia is in the top nine terrestrial habitats for terrestrial biodiversity, with a higher proportion of endemic species than most other equivalent regions. Due to the offshore Leeuwin Current, the area numbers in the top six regions for marine biodiversity, containing the most southerly coral reefs in the world.

text: Average annual rainfall varies from 300 mm (12 in) at the edge of the Wheatbelt region to 1,400 mm (55 in) in the wettest areas near Northcliffe, but in the months of November to March evaporation exceeds rainfall, and it is generally very dry. Plants must be adapted to this as well as the extreme poverty of all soils. A major reduction in rainfall has been observed, with a greater number of rainfall events in the summer months. The central four-fifths of the state is semi-arid or desert and is lightly inhabited with the only significant activity being mining. Annual rainfall averages about 200 to 250 mm (8 to 10 in), most of which occurs in sporadic torrential falls related to cyclone events in summer months.

text: An exception to this is the northern tropical regions. The Kimberley has an extremely hot monsoonal climate with average annual rainfall ranging from 500 to 1,500 mm (20 to 59 in), but there is a very long almost rainless season from April to November. Eighty-five percent of the state's runoff occurs in the Kimberley, but because it occurs in violent floods and because of the insurmountable poverty of the generally shallow soils, the only development has taken place along the Ord River.

text: Australia's tropical/subtropical location and cold waters off the western coast make most of Western Australia a hot desert with aridity a marked feature of a greater part of the continent. These cold waters produce precious little moisture needed on the mainland. A 2005 study by Australian and American researchers[49] investigated the desertification of the interior, and suggested that one explanation was related to human settlers who arrived about 50,000 years ago. Regular burning by these settlers could have prevented monsoons from reaching interior Australia.

text: Snowfall in the state is rare, and typically only in the Stirling Range near Albany, as it is the only mountain range far enough south and with sufficient elevation. More rarely, snow can fall on the nearby Porongurup Range. Snow outside these areas is a major event; it usually occurs in hilly areas of south-western Australia. The most widespread low-level snow occurred on 26 June 1956 when snow was reported in the Perth Hills, as far north as Wongan Hills and as far east as Salmon Gums. However, even in the Stirling Range, snowfalls rarely exceed 5 cm (2 in) and rarely settle for more than one day.[50]

text: The highest observed maximum temperature of 50.5 °C (122.9 °F) was recorded at Mardie Station on 19 February 1998. The lowest minimum temperature recorded was −7.2 °C (19.0 °F) at Eyre Bird Observatory on 17 August 2008.[6]

text:
City
January Max. Temp
January Min. Temp
July Max. Temp
July Min. Temp
No. Clear days
Annual Rainfall

Perth[51]
30 °C (86 °F)
18 °C (64 °F)
17 °C (63 °F)
9 °C (48 °F)
131
868 mm (34 in)

Albany[52]
23 °C (73 °F)
15 °C (59 °F)
16 °C (61 °F)
8 °C (46 °F)
45
929 mm (37 in)

Kalgoorlie[53]
34 °C (93 °F)
18 °C (64 °F)
17 °C (63 °F)
5 °C (41 °F)
151
266 mm (10 in)

Geraldton[54]
32 °C (90 °F)
18 °C (64 °F)
19 °C (66 °F)
9 °C (48 °F)
164
441 mm (17 in)

Karratha[55]
36 °C (97 °F)
27 °C (81 °F)
26 °C (79 °F)
14 °C (57 °F)
158
297 mm (12 in)

Broome[56]
33 °C (91 °F)
26 °C (79 °F)
29 °C (84 °F)
14 °C (57 °F)
182
613 mm (24 in)

text: Precipitation[edit]

text: Rain[edit]

text: More than 80% of the continent has an annual rainfall of less than 600 mm (24 in); only Antarctica receives less rainfall than Australia.[57] A place inland near Lake Eyre (in South Australia) would only receive 81 mm (3 in) of rain annually.[58] Another place, Troudaninna Bore (29°11′44″S 138°59′28″E / 29.19556°S 138.99111°E / -29.19556; 138.99111, altitude : 46 m) in South Australia, from 1893 to 1936, received, in average, 104.9 mm (4.13 inches) of precipitation.[59] From one extreme to another, parts of the far North Queensland coast annually average over 4,000 mm (157 in), with the Australian annual record being 12,461 mm (491 in), set at the summit of Mount Bellenden Ker in 2000. There are four main factors that contribute to the dryness of the Australian landmass:

text:
Cold ocean currents off the west coast
Low elevation of landforms
Dominance of high-pressure systems
Shape of the landmass

text: The average annual rainfall in the Australian desert is low, ranging from 81 to 250 mm (3 to 10 in) per year. Thunderstorms are relatively common in the region, with an average of 15 - 20 thunderstorms per annum.[60] Summer daytime temperatures range from 32 to 40 °C (90 to 104 °F). In winter, this falls to 18 to 23 °C (64 to 73 °F).

text: The southern parts of Australia get the usual westerly winds and rain-bearing cold fronts that come when the high pressure systems move towards northern Australia during winter. Cold snaps may bring frosts inland, though temperatures near the coast are mild or near mild all year round. Summers in southern Australia are generally dry and hot with coastal sea breezes. During a lengthy dry spell, hot and dry winds from the interior can cause bushfires in some southern and eastern states, though most commonly Victoria and New South Wales.

text: The tropical areas of northern Australia have a wet summer because of the monsoon. During "the wet", typically October to April, humid north-westerly winds bring showers and thunderstorms. Occasionally, tropical cyclones can bring heavy rainfall to tropical coastal regions, which is also likely to reach further inland. After the monsoonal season, the dry season comes ("winter"), which brings mostly clear skies and milder conditions.

text: Rainfall records tend to be concentrated along the east coast of Australia, particularly in tropical north Queensland. The highest 24‑hour rainfall on record in Australia was 907.0 millimetres (35.7 in) in Crohamhurst on 3 February 1893.[61] The highest monthly rainfall on record was 5,387.0 millimetres (212.1 in) recorded at Mount Bellenden Ker, Queensland in January 1979.[61] The highest annual rainfall was 12,461.0 millimetres (490.6 in) recorded also at Mount Bellenden Ker in the year 2000.[61] Additionally, the location which receives the highest average annual rainfall in Australia is Babinda in Queensland with an annual average of 4,279.4 millimetres (168.5 in).[62]

text: Low rate of evaporation from this very cool body of water result in little evaporation occurring. Hence, rain clouds are sparsely formed and very rarely do they form long enough for a continuous period of rain to be recorded. Australia's arid/semi-arid zone extends to this region. The absence of any significant mountain range or area of substantial height above sea level, results in very little rainfall caused by orographic uplift. In the east the Great Dividing Range limits rain moving into inland Australia.

text: Australia has a compact shape, and no significant bodies of water penetrate very far inland. This is important inasmuch as moist winds are prevented from penetrating inland, so keeping rainfall low.[63]

text: Snow[edit]

text: In Australia, snow falls frequently on the highlands near the east coast, in the states of Victoria, New South Wales and Tasmania and in the Australian Capital Territory. There is a regular snow season in several areas which have seasonal ski tourism industries. Snow also falls with some regularity on the Great Dividing Range as far north as Stanthorpe, Queensland and in isolated parts of South Australia and Western Australia, but outside these areas, snow is an extremely rare occurrence. Snow has also fallen on Uluru and near Alice Springs on at least one occasion.

text: Snow at sea level is occasionally recorded on mainland Australia, but is more frequent in Tasmania where snowfalls at sea level can occur during the winter months. Snow has been recorded across most of Tasmania, though it is rare on the northern coast at sea level. Snow is rare in the southernmost capitals like Melbourne and Hobart, falling less than once every five years, and in the other capitals it is unknown (however snow has fallen in the hill suburbs of Perth and Adelaide). However, there are extensive, well-developed ski fields in the Great Dividing Range, a few hours' drive from Melbourne and Sydney.[64] Light snow generally falls every winter in Canberra, however, and other cities that may receive regular seasonal snowfalls include Orange, Oberon, Lithgow and Katoomba in New South Wales.

text: The occasional cold snap, caused by cold air drifting north from Antarctica, can cause significant snowfall in rural areas, as well as major cities such as Hobart, Melbourne's outer mountain suburbs and Canberra. Such occasions are rare, but have occurred in 1958, 1965, 1986, 2005 and 2015, the 1965 event causing snow to fall as far north as Eungella, near Mackay in tropical Queensland.[65] Extreme snow events have also produced snow as far north-west as Longreach in Queensland and in the ranges near Alice Springs, and also in lowland towns such as Dubbo and Wagga Wagga in New South Wales. The frequency and intensity of such events has been decreasing significantly over the past 40 years and the most northerly occurrence of snow in this time frame has been the Bunya Mountains in southern Queensland.[66]

text: Temperatures[edit]

text: The tropical savannah zone of Northern Australia is warm to hot all year round. Summers are hot in most of the country with average January maximum temperatures exceeding 30 °C over most areas of the mainland, except for those at high elevations though. Winters are warm in the north and cool in the south, with nightly frosts common in inland areas south of the Tropic of Capricorn. Only at the highly elevated areas do wintertime temperatures approach those found in much of Europe or North America, especially the southern parts.

text: Temperatures in Australia have followed an increasing trend between the years of 1910 to 2004 by approximately 0.7 °C. Overnight minimum temperatures have warmed more rapidly than daytime maximum temperatures. The observed warming has hastened in recent years. The late-20th century warming has been largely attributed to the increased greenhouse effect.[1] Temperature differences between winter and summer are minor in the tropical region of Australia. However, they are greatest in the southern inland, with seasonal differences along the coast being moderated by the ocean’s proximity. In July, a more common latitudinal distribution of average maximums is apparent, ranging from 30 °C near the north coast to below 3 °C in the mountainous areas of the south-east.[67]

text: Average minimum temperatures in all seasons are highest in northern Australia and near the coastal areas, and are lowest in the elevated areas of the south-east. The highest average January minimum temperatures (near 27 °C) are found near the north-west coast, while in winter they exceed 20 °C at some coastal locations in northern Australia and on the Torres Strait and Tiwi Islands. In the mountains of New South Wales, it is not unusual to have average low minimum temperatures dipping below 5 °C in January and -5 °C in July. Comparatively, most inland (non-mountainous) areas south of the tropics have average July minimum between 0° and 6 °C.

text: In the desert, the dry air and clear skies give rather large ranges in temperature between day and night. Ranges of 15 °C being typical and 20 °C not quite unusual. Light nighttime frosts in winter occur over much of the southern half of the arid zone, where mean July minimum temperatures are mostly in the 3-6 °C range. Moving north, frosts become increasingly rare, with mean July minimum being around 10 °C on the northern boundary.

text: The highest maximums in Australia are recorded in two regions, the Pilbara and Gascoyne regions of north-western Western Australia and the area extending from south-western Queensland across South Australia into south-eastern Western Australia. Many locations in this region have recorded temperatures exceeding 48 °C. In January, average maximum temperatures exceed 35 °C over a large area of the interior and exceed 40 °C over areas in the north-west. The highest summer maximums in the Pilbara and Gascoyne average at around 41 °C (in some years daily maximums consecutively exceed 40 °C for several weeks at a time).

text: Extremes[edit]

text: The most powerful heatwave in the history of south-eastern Australia occurred in January 1939. Adelaide (46.1 °C on the 12th), Melbourne (45.6 °C on the 13th) and Sydney (45.3 °C on the 14th) all had record high temperatures during this period, as did many other central district areas in New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia. The record number of consecutive days in Melbourne over 40 °C is five, with Brisbane and Sydney each having two. Heatwaves usually bring by oppressively warm nights, with Oodnadatta, SA recording an Australian record of nine nights above 30 °C in February 2004.[68] Another extreme event was a prolonged period of extensive heatwaves known as the Angry Summer in early 2013.

text: Marble Bar achieved 160 consecutive days above 37.8 °C (100° Fahrenheit) in 1923-24. Nyang had an average maximum of 44.8 °C for the months of February 1998 and January 2005, an Australian record. At the other extreme, average January maximums are near 15 °C on the highest peaks of the south-east ranges and near 20 °C in much of Tasmania. In most of the desert region during summer, cool days are rare and usually associated with major rain events - a rather exceptional example occurred in February 1949, when many areas failed to reach 20 °C on one or more days, and the maximum at Boulia, western Queensland was at 14.4 °C, which was 23 °C below normal.

text: Many other locations in Australia, except those above 500 metres, have extreme maximums between 43° and 48 °C. Most Tasmanian sites away from the north coast have had extreme maximums between 35° and 40 °C. The lowest extreme maximums are found along the north coast of Tasmania (e.g. 29.5 °C at Low Head) and at high elevations (27.0 °C at Thredbo). While extreme high temperatures are more common inland than they are near the coast, notable extreme maximum have been observed near the coast; 50.5 °C at Mardie, 49.1 °C at Roebourne, Western Australia, 49.4 °C at Whyalla and 47.9 °C at Ceduna, South Australia.

text: At lower elevations, most inland places south of the tropics have extreme minimum between -3 °C and -7 °C, and these low temperatures have also occurred in locations within a few kilometres of southern and eastern coasts, such as Sale, Victoria (-5.6 °C), Bega, New South Wales (-8.1 °C), Grove, Tasmania (-7.5 °C) and Taree, New South Wales (-5.0 °C). Many locations in this region have recorded -10 °C or lower, including Gudgenby in the Australian Capital Territory (-14.6 °C) and Woolbrook, New South Wales (-14.5 °C). In the desert, the lowest extreme minimum occur at high elevations, especially around Alice Springs, where the temperature has fallen as low as -7.5 °C.

text: In the tropics, extreme minimum near or below 0 °C have occurred at many places distant from the coast, as far north as Herberton, Queensland (-5.0 °C). Some locations near tropical coasts, such as Mackay (-0.8 °C), Townsville (0.1 °C) and Kalumburu, Western Australia (0.3 °C) have also recorded temperatures near 0 °C. In contrast, some coastal locations, such as Darwin, have never fallen below 10 °C, and Thursday Island, in the Torres Strait, has an extreme minimum of 16.1 °C. The lowest maximum temperature on record in Australia was −6.9 °C (19.6 °F), recorded on 9 July 1978 at Thredbo Ski Resort in New South Wales.[69] The highest minimum temperature on record was 35.5 °C (95.9 °F), recorded on 24 January 1982 in Arkaroola, South Australia and again on 21 January 2003 in Wittenoom, Western Australia.[70]

text: A list of extremes can be found in the tables below:

text:
Absolute temperature ranges

Month
Maximum temperatures
Minimum temperatures

°C
°F
location and date
°C
°F
location and date

January
50.7
123.3

Oodnadatta, South Australia (2 January 1960)[71]

−7.7
18.1

Thredbo Ski Resort, New South Wales (24 January 2000)[72]

February
50.5
122.9

Mardie, Western Australia (19 February 1998)[73]

−7.0
19.4

Perisher Ski Resort, New South Wales (17 February 1979)[74]

March
47.8
118.0

Carnarvon, Western Australia (6 March 2007)/Roebourne, Western Australia (4 March 1998)[75]

−7.2
19.0

Kiandra, New South Wales (25 March 1964)/Bullocks Flat, New South Wales (31 March 1988)[76]

April
45.0
113.0

Port Hedland, Western Australia (1 April 1948)/Marble Bar, Western Australia (2 April 1928)[77]

−13.0
8.6

Charlotte Pass, New South Wales (29 April 2009)[74]

May
40.6
105.1

Bidyadanga, Western Australia (6 May 1990)[78]

−13.4
7.9

Charlotte Pass, New South Wales (24 May 2008)[79]

June
37.8
100.0

Wyndham, Western Australia (2 June 1962)[80]

−23.0
−9.4

Charlotte Pass, New South Wales (29 June 1994)[81]

July
37.6
99.7

Wyndham, Western Australia (19 July 1996)[82]

−19.6
−3.3

Charlotte Pass, New South Wales (20 July 2010)[83]

August
40.0
104.0

Kalumburu, Western Australia (27 August 1970)[84]

−20.6
−5.1

Charlotte Pass, New South Wales (14 August 1968)[85]

September
43.1
109.6

Roebuck Bay, Western Australia (27 September 2003)[84]

−16.7
1.9

Charlotte Pass, New South Wales (20 September 1967)[86]

October
46.9
116.4

Port Hedland, Western Australia (22 October 2002)[87]

−12.0
10.4

Charlotte Pass, New South Wales (29 October 2006)[88]

November
48.7
119.7

Birdsville, Queensland (17 November 1990)[89]

−9.4
15.1

Charlotte Pass, New South Wales (26 November 1968)[90]

December
49.5
121.1

Birdsville, Queensland (24 December 1972)[91]

−9.0
15.8

Thredbo Ski Resort, New South Wales (13 December 1976)[92]

text: Natural hazards and disasters[edit]

text: Bushfires[edit]

text: Climatic factors contribute to Australia's high incidence of bushfires, particularly during the summer months. Low relative humidity, wind and lack of rain can cause a small fire, either man-made or caused naturally by lightning strikes, to spread rapidly over large distances. Low humidity, the heat of the sun and lack of water cause vegetation to dry out becoming a perfect fuel for the fire. High winds fan the flames, increasing their intensity and the speed and distance at which they can travel.[93]

text: Many of the worst bushfires in eastern Australia, such as the 1983 Ash Wednesday fires, accompany El Niño-Southern Oscillation events which tend to cause a warm, dry and windy climate.[94] The worst bushfires in Australian history occurred on Black Saturday in February 2009. The human death toll of the disaster was 173, and over 2000 homes were lost.[95]

text: Flooding[edit]

text: Though Australia is generally dry and arid, a large portion of the country is in the tropics. Rainfall in these areas is extremely heavy. With some are areas recording world record breaking rain, such as the mountains which lie to the south west of Cairns. Through La Niña years the eastern seaboard of Australia records above average rainfall usually creating damaging floods.

text: The 2010–2011 La Nina system has broken many rainfall records in Australia, particularly in the states of Queensland and New South Wales, which have seen extensive flooding which has caused major damage to infrastructure and crops. The central east area of Queensland, an area the size of Germany and France combined, was under water in 2010–2011. The estimated damage bill could reach into the billions.

text: Some places that see heavy monthly (or yearly) rainfall include: Darwin, Cairns, Townsville, Rockhampton, Innisfail, Strahan, Tasmania, Queenstown, Thursday Island and Mount Read (Tasmania).

text: Global warming[edit]

text: According to climate scientists, climate change is predicted by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO)[96] to have significant effects on the climate of and extreme weather events in Australia, increasing temperatures and the likelihood of heat waves. According to the Bureau of Meteorology, Australia’s annual mean temperature for 2009 was 0.90 °C (1.62 °F) above the 1961-90 average, making it the nation’s second warmest year since high-quality records began in 1910.[97] Summer in both 2013 and 2014 continued this trend of record-breaking heat–2014 was Australia's third hottest year on record and 2013 broke national records.[98]

text: In January 2013, the Bureau of Meteorology altered its weather forecasting chart's temperature scale to include a range, coloured purple, between 52° and 54 °C.[99][100]

text: Coastal communities face risks from sea level rise, albeit over a long period of time based on current estimates of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report. The Gold Coast, being built on sand and with many canal developments, could be considered particularly at risk. Suburbs of Sydney like Drummoyne and Concord on rivers like the Parramatta River face risks of inundation of low-lying areas such as parks (such as Timbrell Park and Majors Bay Reserve) reclaimed from mudflats at the heads of bays, or massive expenses in rebuilding seawalls to higher levels.

text: Currently, there are several environmental movements and campaigners advocating for action on climate change. One such campaign is "The Big Switch", Australia's largest community climate change campaign.[101]

text: New projections for Australia's changing climate includes:[102]

text:
droughts are likely to become more frequent, particularly in the south-west
evaporation rates are likely to increase, particularly in the north and east
high-fire-danger weather is likely to increase in the south-east
sea levels will continue to rise

text: Drought[edit]

text: Drought in Australia is defined by rainfall over a three-month period being in the lowest ten percent of amounts having been recorded for that region in the past.[103] This definition takes into account that low rainfall is a relative term and rainfall deficiencies need to be compared to typical rainfall patterns including seasonal variations. Specifically drought in Australia is defined in relation to a rainfall deficiency of pastoral leases and is determined by decile analysis applied to a certain area.[104]

text: Historical climatic records are now sufficiently reliable to profile climate variability taking into account expectations for regions.[105] State Governments are responsible for declaring a region drought affected and the declaration will take into account factors other than rainfall.[103]

text: Cyclones[edit]

text: Australia is affected by tropical cyclones which primarily occur between December and April but have developed in November and May, as well.[106] Cyclones over mainland Australia occur on average five to six times each year.[57] The region between Broome and Exmouth are most prone to cyclones.[107] Tropical cyclones are known to bring destructive winds, heavy rain with flooding creating storm surges along the coast, causing inundation in low-lying areas. The strongest Australian region cyclone was Cyclone Monica in 2006 which had wind gusts in excess of 350 km/h (220 mph). Cyclones can also move inland, decaying to a rain depression, which dump heavy rain in these areas and causing flooding.[108]

text: The worst cyclones of Australia have caused billions of dollars of damage and many deaths. Cyclone Tracy crossed directly over Darwin in 1974, 71 people were killed. Adjusted for inflation it was Australia's most damaging cyclone.[109] Cyclone Mahina in 1899 brought a storm surge to Far North Queensland reaching 13 m (43 ft) high, causing 400 deaths and making it the worst natural disaster to befall Australia.[110] Cyclone Larry struck North Queensland and passed over Innisfail in 2006 causing damages estimated at A$1.5 billion but no lives were lost. Cyclone Yasi caused severe flooding and had a total estimated cost of A$3.5 billion making it the second most costliest cyclone to strike Australia.[109]

text: Blizzards[edit]

text: Blizzards are not common in mainland Australia, but occur frequently in the Snowy Mountains in New South Wales and Victoria. When blizzards do occur, they can affect the Tasmanian Highlands and, particularly, Mount Wellington, which towers over the Tasmanian capital Hobart. Blizzards do not affect any major towns or cities, because there are no populated areas located in the mountains except for the ski resort towns of New South Wales and Victoria.

text: Dust storms[edit]

text: A dust storm or sandstorm, a meteorological phenomenon common in arid and semi-arid regions, arises when a gust front passes or when the wind force exceeds the threshold value where loose sand and dust are removed from the dry surface. Particles are transported by saltation and suspension, causing soil erosion from one place and deposition in another.

text: The term sandstorm is used[by whom?] most often in the context of desert sandstorms, especially in the Sahara, when, in addition to fine particles obscuring visibility, a considerable amount of larger sand particles moves closer to the surface. The term dust storm is more likely to be used when finer particles are blown long distances, especially when the dust storm affects urban areas.


document_title: European Council

question_text: who sits for ireland at the european council table

text: European Council

text: Scope[edit]

text: While the European Council has no formal legislative power, it is a strategic (and crisis-solving) body that provides the union with general political directions and priorities, and acts as a collective presidency. The European Commission remains the sole initiator of legislation, but the European Council is able to provide an impetus to guide legislative policy.[2][3]

text: The meetings of the European Council, still commonly referred to as EU summits, are chaired by its president and take place at least twice every six months;[1] usually in the Europa building in Brussels.[4][5] Decisions of the European Council are taken by consensus, except where the Treaties provide otherwise.[6]

text: History[edit]

text: The European Council officially gained the status of an EU institution after the Treaty of Lisbon in 2007, distinct from the Council of the European Union (Council of Ministers). Before that, the first summits of EU heads of state or government were held in February and July 1961 (in Paris and Bonn respectively). They were informal summits of the leaders of the European Community, and were started due to then-French President Charles de Gaulle's resentment at the domination of supranational institutions (e.g. the European Commission) over the integration process, but petered out. The first influential summit held, after the departure of de Gaulle, was the Hague summit of 1969, which reached an agreement on the admittance of the United Kingdom into the Community and initiated foreign policy cooperation (the European Political Cooperation) taking integration beyond economics.[1][7]

text: The summits were only formalised in the period between 1974 and 1988. At the December summit in Paris in 1974, following a proposal from then-French president Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, it was agreed that more high level, political input was needed following the "empty chair crisis" and economic problems.[8] The inaugural European Council, as it became known, was held in Dublin on 10 and 11 March 1975 during Ireland's first Presidency of the Council of Ministers. In 1987, it was included in the treaties for the first time (the Single European Act) and had a defined role for the first time in the Maastricht Treaty. At first only a minimum of two meetings per year were required, which resulted in an average of three meetings per year being held for the 1975-1995 period. Since 1996, the number of meetings were required to be minimum four per year. For the latest 2008-2014 period, this minimum was well exceeded, by an average of seven meetings being held per year. The seat of the Council was formalised in 2002, basing it in Brussels. Three types of European Councils exist: Informal, Scheduled and Extraordinary. While the informal meetings are also scheduled 1½ years in advance, they differ from the scheduled ordinary meetings by not ending with official Council conclusions, as they instead end by more broad political Statements on some cherry picked policy matters. The extraordinary meetings always end with official Council conclusions - but differs from the scheduled meetings by not being scheduled more than a year in advance, as for example in 2001 when the European Council gathered to lead the European Union's response to the 11 September attacks.[1][7]

text: Some meetings of the European Council—and, before the Council was formalised, meetings of the heads of government—are seen by some as turning points in the history of the European Union. For example:[1]

text:
1969, The Hague: Foreign policy and enlargement.
1974, Paris: Creation of the Council.
1985, Milan: Initiate IGC leading to the Single European Act.
1991, Maastricht: Agreement on the Maastricht Treaty.
1992, Edinburgh: Agreement (by treaty provision) to retain at Strasbourg the plenary seat of the European Parliament.
1993, Copenhagen: Leading to the definition of the Copenhagen Criteria.
1997, Amsterdam: Agreement on the Amsterdam Treaty.
1998, Brussels: Selected member states to adopt the euro.
1999; Cologne: Declaration on military forces.[9]
1999, Tampere: Institutional reform
2000, Lisbon: Lisbon Strategy
2002, Copenhagen: Agreement for May 2004 enlargement.
2007, Lisbon: Agreement on the Lisbon Treaty.
2009, Brussels: Appointment of first president and merged High Representative.
2010, European Financial Stability Facility

text: As such, the European Council had already existed before it gained the status as an institution of the European Union with the entering into force of the Treaty of Lisbon, but even after it had been mentioned in the treaties (since the Single European Act) it could only take political decisions, not formal legal acts. However, when necessary, the Heads of State or Government could also meet as the Council of Ministers and take formal decisions in that role. Sometimes, this was even compulsory, e.g. Article 214(2) of the Treaty establishing the European Community provided (before it was amended by the Treaty of Lisbon) that ‘the Council, meeting in the composition of Heads of State or Government and acting by a qualified majority, shall nominate the person it intends to appoint as President of the Commission’ (emphasis added); the same rule applied in some monetary policy provisions introduced by the Maastricht Treaty (e.g. Article 109j TEC). In that case, what was politically part of a European Council meeting was legally a meeting of the Council of Ministers. When the European Council, already introduced into the treaties by the Single European Act, became an institution by virtue of the Treaty of Lisbon, this was no longer necessary, and the "Council [of the European Union] meeting in the composition of the Heads of State or Government", was replaced in these instances by the European Council now taking formal legally binding decisions in these cases (Article 15 of the Treaty on European Union).[10]

text: The Treaty of Lisbon made the European Council a formal institution distinct from the (ordinary) Council of the EU, and created the present longer term and full-time presidency. As an outgrowth of the Council of the EU, the European Council had previously followed the same Presidency, rotating between each member state. While the Council of the EU retains that system, the European Council established, with no change in powers, a system of appointing an individual (without them being a national leader) for a two-and-a-half-year term - which can be renewed for the same person only once.[11] Following the ratification of the treaty in December 2009, the European Council elected the then-Prime Minister of Belgium Herman Van Rompuy as its first permanent president (resigning from Belgian Prime Minister).[12]

text: Powers and functions[edit]

text: The European Council is an official institution of the EU, mentioned by the Lisbon Treaty as a body which "shall provide the Union with the necessary impetus for its development". Essentially it defines the EU's policy agenda and has thus been considered to be the motor of European integration.[1] Beyond the need to provide "impetus", the Council has developed further roles: to "settle issues outstanding from discussions at a lower level", to lead in foreign policy — acting externally as a "collective Head of State", "formal ratification of important documents" and "involvement in the negotiation of the treaty changes".[4][7]

text: Since the institution is composed of national leaders, it gathers the executive power of the member states and has thus a great influence in high-profile policy areas as for example foreign policy. It also exercises powers of appointment, such as appointment of its own President, the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, and the President of the European Central Bank. It proposes, to the European Parliament, a candidate for President of the European Commission. Moreover, the European Council influences police and justice planning, the composition of the Commission, matters relating to the organisation of the rotating Council presidency, the suspension of membership rights, and changing the voting systems through the Passerelle Clause. Although the European Council has no direct legislative power, under the "emergency brake" procedure, a state outvoted in the Council of Ministers may refer contentious legislation to the European Council. However, the state may still be outvoted in the European Council.[11][13][14] Hence with powers over the supranational executive of the EU, in addition to its other powers, the European Council has been described by some as the Union's "supreme political authority".[4][7][11][15]

text: Composition[edit]

text: The European Council consists of the heads of state or government of the member states, alongside its own President and the Commission President (both non-voting). The meetings used to be regularly attended by the national foreign minister as well, and the Commission President likewise accompanied by another member of the Commission. However, since the Treaty of Lisbon, this has been discontinued, as the size of the body had become somewhat large following successive accessions of new Member States to the Union.[1][4]

text: Meetings can also include other invitees, such as the President of the European Central Bank, as required. The Secretary-General of the Council attends, and is responsible for organisational matters, including minutes. The President of the European Parliament also attends to give an opening speech outlining the European Parliament's position before talks begin.[1][4]

text: Additionally, the negotiations involve a large number of other people working behind the scenes. Most of those people, however, are not allowed to the conference room, except for two delegates per state to relay messages. At the push of a button members can also call for advice from a Permanent Representative via the "Antici Group" in an adjacent room. The group is composed of diplomats and assistants who convey information and requests. Interpreters are also required for meetings as members are permitted to speak in their own languages.[1]

text: As the composition is not precisely defined, some states which have a considerable division of executive power can find it difficult to decide who should attend the meetings. While an MEP, Alexander Stubb argued that there was no need for the President of Finland to attend Council meetings with or instead of the Prime Minister of Finland (who was head of European foreign policy).[16] In 2008, having become Finnish Foreign Minister, Stubb was forced out of the Finnish delegation to the emergency council meeting on the Georgian crisis because the President wanted to attend the high-profile summit as well as the Prime Minister (only two people from each country could attend the meetings). This was despite Stubb being head of the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe at the time which was heavily involved in the crisis. Problems also occurred in Poland where the President of Poland and the Prime Minister of Poland were of different parties and had a different foreign policy response to the crisis.[17] A similar situation arose in Romania between President Traian Băsescu and Prime Minister Călin Popescu-Tăriceanu in 2007–2008 and again in 2012 with Prime Minister Victor Ponta, who both opposed the president.

text: Eurozone summits[edit]

text: A number of ad hoc meetings of Heads of State or Government of the Euro area countries were held in 2010 and 2011 to discuss the Sovereign Debt crisis. It was agreed in October 2011 that they should meet regularly twice a year (with extra meetings if needed). This will normally be at the end of a European Council meeting and according to the same format (chaired by the President of the European Council and including the President of the Commission), but usually restricted to the (currently 19) Heads of State or Government of countries whose currency is the euro.

text: President[edit]

text: The President of the European Council is elected by the European Council by a qualified majority for a once-renewable term of two and a half years.[18] The President must report to the European Parliament after each European Council meeting.[4][15]

text: The post was created by the Treaty of Lisbon and was subject to a debate over its exact role. Prior to Lisbon, the Presidency rotated in accordance with the Presidency of the Council of the European Union.[4][15] The role of that President-in-Office was in no sense (other than protocol) equivalent to an office of a head of state, merely a primus inter pares (first among equals) role among other European heads of government. The President-in-Office was primarily responsible for preparing and chairing the Council meetings, and had no executive powers other than the task of representing the Union externally. Now the leader of the Council Presidency country can still act as president when the permanent president is absent.

text: Members[edit]

text: European People's Party (8 + 2 non-voting from the EU institutions)   Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (8)   Party of European Socialists (5)   Independent (4)   Alliance of Conservatives and Reformists in Europe (2)   Party of the European Left (1)

text:
Representative
Picture
Member State
Title
Political party
Member since
Elections
% population[a 1]

Tusk, DonaldDonald Tusk

 President
Non-voting
0 !President
European People's Party
National: Civic Platform (PO)
000000002014-12-01-00001 December 2014
Prime Minister of Poland: 2007–2014
2014
2017
Next by 2019
n/a

Juncker, Jean-ClaudeJean-Claude Juncker

 Commission
Non-voting
0 !President
European People's Party
National: Christian Social People's Party (CSV)
000000002014-11-01-00001 November 2014
Prime Minister of Luxembourg: 1995–2013
2014
Next in 2019
n/a

Kurz, SebastianSebastian Kurz

 Austria
1 !Chancellor
European People's Party
National: Austrian People's Party (ÖVP)
000000002017-12-18-000018 December 2017
2017
Next by 2022
7000171000000000000♠1.71%

Michel, CharlesCharles Michel

 Belgium
1 !Prime Minister
Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party
National: Reformist Movement (MR)
000000002014-10-11-000011 October 2014
2014
Next by 2019
7000221000000000000♠2.21%

Borisov, BoykoBoyko Borisov

 Bulgaria
1 !Prime Minister
European People's Party
National: GERB
000000002017-05-04-00004 May 2017
Prior term: 2009–2013, 2014–2017
2009
2014
2017
Next by 2021
7000138990000099999♠1.39%

Plenković, AndrejAndrej Plenković

 Croatia
1 !Prime Minister
European People's Party
National: Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ)
000000002016-10-19-000019 October 2016
2016
Next by 2020
6999810000000000000♠0.81%

Anastasiades, NicosNicos Anastasiades

 Cyprus
0 !President
European People's Party
National: Democratic Rally (DISY)
000000002013-02-28-000028 February 2013
2013
2018
Next by 2023
6999170000000000000♠0.17%

Babiš, AndrejAndrej Babiš

 Czech Republic
1 !Prime Minister
Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party
National: ANO 2011
000000002017-12-13-000013 December 2017
2017
Next by 2021
7000204000000000000♠2.04%

Rasmussen, Lars LøkkeLars Løkke Rasmussen

 Denmark
1 !Prime Minister
Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party
National: Venstre (V)
000000002015-06-28-000028 June 2015
Prior term: 2009–2011
2015
Next by 2019
7000112000000000000♠1.12%

Ratas, JüriJüri Ratas

 Estonia
1 !Prime Minister
Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party
National: Estonian Centre Party (EK)
000000002016-11-23-000023 November 2016
Next by 2019
6999260000000000000♠0.26%

Sipilä, JuhaJuha Sipilä

 Finland
1 !Prime Minister
Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party
National: Centre Party (C)
000000002015-05-29-000029 May 2015
2015
Next by 2019
7000107000000000000♠1.07%

Macron, EmmanuelEmmanuel Macron

 France
1 !President
None
National: La République En Marche! (REM)
000000002017-05-14-000014 May 2017
2017
Next by 2022
7001130900000000000♠13.09%

Merkel, AngelaAngela Merkel

 Germany
1 !Chancellor
European People's Party
National: Christian Democratic Union (CDU)
000000002005-11-22-000022 November 2005
2005
2009
2013
2017
Next by 2021
7001161000000000000♠16.10%

Tsipras, AlexisAlexis Tsipras

 Greece
1 !Prime Minister
Party of the European Left
National: Coalition of the Radical Left (Syriza)
000000002015-09-21-000021 September 2015
Prior term: 2015
Jan. 2015
Sep. 2015
Next by 2019
7000210000000000000♠2.10%

Orbán, ViktorViktor Orbán

 Hungary
1 !Prime Minister
European People's Party
National: Civic Alliance (Fidesz)
000000002010-05-29-000029 May 2010
Prior term: 1998–2002
Member state since 2004
2010
2014
2018
Next by 2022
7000191000000000000♠1.91%

Varadkar, LeoLeo Varadkar

 Ireland
1 !Taoiseach[a 2]
European People's Party
National: Fine Gael (FG)
000000002017-06-14-000014 June 2017
Next by 2021
6999930000000000000♠0.93%

Conte, GiuseppeGiuseppe Conte

 Italy
1 !Prime Minister
None
000000002018-06-01-00001 June 2018
2018
Next by 2023
7001119500000000000♠11.95%

Kučinskis, MārisMāris Kučinskis

 Latvia
1 !Prime Minister
None
National: Liepāja Party (LP)
000000002016-02-11-000011 February 2016
Next in 2018
6999380000000000000♠0.38%

Grybauskaitė, DaliaDalia Grybauskaitė

 Lithuania
1 !President
None
000000002009-07-12-000012 July 2009
2009
2014
Next by 2019
6999560000000000000♠0.56%

Bettel, XavierXavier Bettel

 Luxembourg
1 !Prime Minister
Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party
National: Democratic Party (DP)
000000002013-12-04-00004 December 2013
2013
Next in 2018
6999120000000000000♠0.12%

Muscat, JosephJoseph Muscat

 Malta
1 !Prime Minister
Party of European Socialists
National: Labour Party (PL)
000000002013-03-11-000011 March 2013
2013
2017
Next by 2022
6998900000000000000♠0.09%

Rutte, MarkMark Rutte

 Netherlands
1 !Prime Minister
Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party
National: People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD)
000000002010-10-14-000014 October 2010
2010
2012
2017
Next by 2021
7000336000000000000♠3.36%

Morawiecki, MateuszMateusz Morawiecki

 Poland
1 !Prime Minister
Alliance of Conservatives and Reformists in Europe
National: Law and Justice (PiS)
000000002017-12-11-000011 December 2017
Next by 2019
7000741000000000000♠7.41%

Costa, AntónioAntónio Costa

 Portugal
1 !Prime Minister
Party of European Socialists
National: Socialist Party (PS)
000000002015-11-26-000026 November 2015
Next by 2019
7000200999999999999♠2.01%

Iohannis, KlausKlaus Iohannis

 Romania
1 !President
European People's Party[a 3]
National: None[a 4]
000000002014-12-21-000021 December 2014
2014
Next by 2019
7000383000000000000♠3.83%

Pellegrini, PeterPeter Pellegrini

 Slovakia
1 !Prime Minister
Party of European Socialists
National: Direction – Social Democracy (SMER-SD)
000000002018-03-22-000022 March 2018
Next by 2020
7000106000000000000♠1.06%

Cerar, MiroMiro Cerar

 Slovenia
1 !Prime Minister
Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party
National: Modern Centre Party (SMC)
000000002014-09-18-000018 September 2014
2014
2018
Next by 2022
6999400000000000000♠0.40%

Sánchez, PedroPedro Sánchez

 Spain
1 !Prime Minister
Party of European Socialists
National: Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE)
000000002018-06-02-00002 June 2018
Next by 2020
7000908000000000000♠9.08%

Löfven, StefanStefan Löfven

 Sweden
1 !Prime Minister
Party of European Socialists
National: Social Democratic Party (SAP)
000000002014-10-03-00003 October 2014
2014
Next in 2018
7000197000000000000♠1.97%

May, TheresaTheresa May

 United Kingdom
1 !Prime Minister
Alliance of Conservatives and Reformists in Europe
National: Conservative Party (C)
000000002016-07-13-000013 July 2016
2017[a 5]
7001128500000000000♠12.85%

text:
Jump up ^ Used in the calculation of the qualified majority voting. The share of the total population is based on the decision of the Council of the European Union on Member States populations for 2018
Jump up ^ The Irish Prime Minister is commonly referred to as the Taoiseach in both Irish and English. See: Article 28.5.1° of the Constitution of Ireland.
Jump up ^ Considered an EPP member according to its official webpage.
Jump up ^ Previously leader of the National Liberal Party (PNL) and supported by them during his election campaign, Iohannis is officially unaffiliated during his presidency according to the Constitution.
Jump up ^ Under the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011, the next general election is scheduled for 2022. The United Kingdom is expected to have left the European Union prior to this date, unless an early election is called or the negotiation period is extended.

text: Political parties[edit]

text: Almost all members of the European Council are members of a political party at national level, and most of these are members of a European-level political party. These frequently hold pre-meetings of their European Council members, prior to its meetings. However, the European Council is composed to represent the EU's states rather than political parties and decisions are generally made on these lines, though ideological alignment can colour their political agreements and their choice of appointments (such as their president).

text: The table below outlines the number of leaders affiliated to each party and their total voting weight. The map to the right indicates the alignment of each individual country.

text:
Party
Number of seats
Share of population

European People's Party
8
26.85%

Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party
8
10.60%

Party of European Socialists
5
14.21%

Alliance of Conservatives and Reformists in Europe
2
20.26%

Party of the European Left
1
2.10%

Independent
4
25.98%

Total
28
100%

text: Seat and meetings[edit]

text: The European Council is required by Article 15.3 TEU to meet at least twice every six months, but convenes more frequently in practice.[19][20] Despite efforts to contain business, meetings typically last for at least two days, and run long into the night.[20]

text: Until 2002, the venue for European Council summits was the member state that held the rotating Presidency of the Council of the European Union. However, European leaders agreed during ratification of the Nice Treaty to forego this arrangement at such a time as the total membership of the European Union surpassed 18 member states.[21] An advanced implementation of this agreement occurred in 2002, with certain states agreeing to waive their right to host meetings, favouring Brussels as the location.[22] Following the growth of the EU to 25 member states, with the 2004 enlargement, all subsequent official summits of the European Council have been in Brussels, with the exception of punctuated ad hoc meetings, such as the 2017 informal European Council in Malta.[23] The logistical, environmental, financial and security arrangements of hosting large summits are usually cited as the primary factors in the decision by EU leaders to move towards a permanent seat for the European Council.[7] Additionally, some scholars argue that the move, when coupled with the formalisation of the European Council in the Lisbon Treaty, represents an institutionalisation of an ad hoc EU organ that had its origins in Luxembourg compromise, with national leaders reasserting their dominance as the EU's "supreme political authority".[7]

text: Originally, both the European Council and the Council of the European Union utilised the Justus Lipsius building as their Brussels venue. In order to make room for additional meeting space a number of renovations were made, including the conversion of an underground carpark into additional press briefing rooms.[24] However, in 2004 leaders decided the logistical problems created by the outdated facilities warranted the construction of a new purpose built seat able to cope with the nearly 6,000 meetings, working groups, and summits per year.[5] This resulted in the Europa building, which opened its doors in 2017. The focal point of the new building, the distinctive multi-storey "lantern-shaped" structure in which the main meeting room is located, is utilised in both the European Council's and Council of the European Union's official logos.[25]