document_title: Oppositional defiant disorder

question_text: when did oppositional defiant disorder become a diagnosis

text: Oppositional defiant disorder

text: Signs and symptoms[edit]

text: The fourth revision of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-IV-TR) (now replaced by DSM-5) stated that the child must exhibit four out of the eight signs and symptoms to meet the diagnostic threshold for oppositional defiant disorder.[4] These symptoms include:

text: (1) Often loses temper

text: (2) Is often touchy or easily annoyed

text: (3) Is often angry and resentful

text: (4) Often argues with authority figures or for children and adolescents, with adults

text: (5) Often actively defies or refuses to comply with requests from authority figures or with rules

text: (6) Often deliberately annoys others

text: (7) Often blames others for his or her mistakes or misbehavior

text: (8) Has been spiteful or vindictive at least twice within the past 6 months.[5][6]

text: These behaviors are mostly directed towards an authority figure such as a teacher or a parent. Although these behaviors can be typical among siblings they must be observed with individuals other than siblings.[5] Children with ODD can be verbally aggressive. However, they do not display physical aggressiveness, a behavior observed in conduct disorder.[6] Furthermore, they must be perpetuated for longer than six months and must be considered beyond a normal child's age, gender and culture to fit the diagnosis.[7][5] For children under 5 years of age, they occur on most days over a period of 6 months. For children over 5 years of age they occur at least once a week for at least 6 months.[5] It is possible to observe these symptoms in only 1 setting, most commonly home. Thus the severity would be mild. If it is observed in two settings then it would be characterized as moderate and if the symptoms are observed in 3 or more settings then it would be considered severe.[5]

text: These patterns of behavior result in impairment at school and/or other social venues.[7][8]

text: Etiology[edit]

text: The cause of ODD is unknown. There is no specific element that has yet been identified as directly causing ODD. Researches looking precisely at the etiological factors linked with ODD are limited. The literature often examines common risk factors linked with all disruptive behaviours, rather than specifically about ODD. Symptoms of ODD are also often believed to be the same as CD even though the disorders have their own respective set of symptoms. When looking at disruptive behaviours such as ODD, research has shown that the causes of behaviours are multifactorial. However, disruptive behaviours have been identified as being mostly due either to biological or environmental factors.[9]

text: Genetic influences[edit]

text: Research indicates that parents pass on a tendency for externalizing disorders to their children that may be displayed in multiple ways, such as inattention, hyperactivity, or oppositional and conduct problems. Research has also shown that there is a genetic overlap between ODD and other externalizing disorders. Heritability can vary by age, age of onset, and other factors. Adoption and twin studies indicate that 50% or more of the variance causing antisocial behavior is attributable to heredity for both males and females. ODD also tends to occur in families with a history of ADHD, substance use disorders, or mood disorders, suggesting that a vulnerability to develop ODD may be inherited. A difficult temperament, impulsivity, and a tendency to seek rewards can also increase the risk of developing ODD. New studies into gene variants have also identified possible gene-environment (G x E) interactions, specifically in the development of conduct problems. A variant of the gene that encodes the neurotransmitter metabolizing enzyme monoamine oxidase-A (MAOA), which relates to neural systems involved in aggression, plays a key role in regulating behavior following threatening events. Brain imaging studies show patterns of arousal in areas of the brain that are associated with aggression in response to emotion-provoking stimuli.[10]

text: Prenatal factors and birth complications[edit]

text: Many pregnancy and birth problems are related to the development of conduct problems. Malnutrition, specifically protein deficiency, lead poisoning or exposure to lead,[11] and mother's use of alcohol or other substances during pregnancy may increase the risk of developing ODD. In numerous research, substance abuse prior to birth have also been associated with developing disruptive behaviours such as ODD.[12][13][14][15] Although pregnancy and birth factors are correlated with ODD, strong evidence of direct biological causation is lacking.

text: Neurobiological factors[edit]

text: Deficits and injuries to certain areas of the brain can lead to serious behavioral problems in children. Brain imaging studies have suggested that children with ODD may have subtle differences in the part of the brain responsible for reasoning, judgment and impulse control.[medical citation needed] Children with ODD are thought to have an overactive behavioral activation system (BAS), and underactive behavioral inhibition system (BIS).[medical citation needed] The BAS stimulates behavior in response to signals of reward or nonpunishment. The BIS produces anxiety and inhibits ongoing behavior in the presence of novel events, innate fear stimuli, and signals of nonreward or punishment. Neuroimaging studies have also identified structural and functional brain abnormalities in several brain regions in youths with conduct disorders. These brain regions are the amygdala, prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate, and insula, as well as interconnected regions.[10]

text: Social-cognitive factors[edit]

text:
As many as 40 percent of boys and 25 percent of girls with persistent conduct problems display significant social-cognitive impairments. Some of these deficits include immature forms of thinking (such as egocentrism), failure to use verbal mediators to regulate his or her behavior, and cognitive distortions, such as interpreting a neutral event as an intentional hostile act.[10]
Children with ODD have difficulty controlling their emotions or behaviors. In fact, students with ODD have limited social knowledge that is only based on individual experiences that shapes how they process information and solve problems cognitively.
This information can be linked with the social information processing model (SIP) that describes how children process information in order to respond appropriately or inappropriately in social settings. This model explains that children will go through five stages before displaying behaviors: encoding, mental representations, response accessing, evaluation and enactment.
However, children with ODD have cognitive distortions and impaired cognitive processes.
This will therefore directly impact their interactions and relationship negatively. It has been shown that social and cognitive impairments result in negative peer relationships, loss of friendship and an interruption in socially engaging in activities.
Children learn through observational learning and social learning. Therefore, observations of models have a direct impact and greatly influence children's behaviors and decision-making processes. Children often learn through modeling behavior. Modeling can act as a powerful tool to modify children’s cognition and behaviours.[9]

text: Environmental factors[edit]

text: Negative parenting practices and parent–child conflict may lead to antisocial behaviour, but they may also be a reaction to the oppositional and aggressive behaviors of children. Factors such as a family history of mental illnesses and/or substance abuse as well as a dysfunctional family and inconsistent discipline by a parent or guardian can lead to the development of behavior disorders.[medical citation needed]  Parenting practices not providing adequate or appropriate adjustment to situations as well as high ratio of conflicting events within a family have been shown to be causal factors of risk for developing ODD.[9]

text: Insecure parent–child attachments can also contribute to ODD. Often little internalization of parent and societal standards exists in children with conduct problems. These weak bonds with their parents may lead children to associate with delinquency and substance abuse. Family instability and stress can also contribute to the development of ODD. Although the association between family factors and conduct problems is well established, the nature of this association and the possible causal role of family factors continues to be debated.[10]

text: In a number of studies, low socioeconomic status has also been associated with disruptive behaviours such as ODD.[16][17]

text: Other social factors such as neglect, abuse, uninvolved parents and lack of supervision can also contribute to ODD.[18]

text: Externalizing problems are reported to be more frequent among minority-status youth, a finding that is likely related to economic hardship, limited employment opportunities, and living in high-risk urban neighbourhoods.[10] Studies have also found that the state of being exposed to violence was also a contribution factor for externalizing behaviours to occur.[16][17][19]

text: Diagnosis[edit]

text: For a child or adolescent to qualify for a diagnosis of ODD, behaviours must cause considerable distress for the family or interfere significantly with academic or social functioning. Interference might take the form of preventing the child or adolescent from learning at school or making friends, or placing him or her in harmful situations. These behaviours must also persist for at least six months.  Effects of ODD can be greatly amplified by other disorders in comorbidity such as ADHD.[medical citation needed] Other common comorbid disorders include depression and substance use disorders.[20]

text: Management[edit]

text: Approaches to the treatment of ODD include parent management training, individual psychotherapy, family therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, and social skills training.[21][22] According to the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, treatments for ODD are tailored specifically to the individual child, and different treatment techniques are applied for pre-schoolers and adolescents.[21]

text: Psychopharmacological treatment[edit]

text: Psychopharmacological treatment is the use of prescribed medication in managing oppositional defiant disorder. Prescribed medication to control ODD include mood stabilizers, antipsychotics, and stimulants. In two controlled randomized trials, it was found that between administered lithium and the placebo group, administering lithium decreased aggression in children with conduct disorder in a safe manner. However, in a third study it found the treatment of lithium over a period of two weeks invalid.[23] Other drugs seen in studies include haloperidol, thioridazine, and methylphenidate which also is effective in treating ADHD, as it is a common comorbidity.

text: Effectiveness of drug and medication treatment is not well established. Affects that can result in taking these medications include hypotension, extrapyramidal symptoms, tardive dyskinesia, obesity, and increase in weight. Psychopharmacological treatment is found to be most effective when paired with another treatment plan, such as individual intervention or multimodal intervention.[23]

text: Individual interventions[edit]

text: Individual interventions are focused on child specific individualized plans. These interventions include anger control/stress inoculation, assertiveness training, and child-focused problem solving skills training program, and self-monitoring skills.[23]

text: Anger control and stress inoculation helps prepare the child for possible upsetting situations or events that may cause anger and stress. It includes a process of steps they may go through.

text: Assertiveness training educates individuals in keeping balance between passivity and aggression. It is about creating a response that is controlled, and fair.

text: Child- focused problem solving skills training program aims to teach the child new skills and cognitive processes that teach how deal with negative thoughts, feelings and actions.

text: Parent and family treatment[edit]

text: According to randomized trials evidence shows that parent management training is most effective.[24] It has strong influences over a longer period of time and in various environments.[23]

text: Parent-child interaction training is intended to coach the parents while involving the child. This training has two phases. The first phase being child-directed interaction, whereby it is focused on teaching the child non directive play skills. The second phase is parent directed interaction, where the parents are coached on aspects including clear instruction, praise for compliance, and time-out noncompliance. The parent-child interaction training is best suited for elementary aged children.[23]

text: Parent and family treatment has a low financial cost, that can yield an increase in beneficial results.[23]

text: Multimodal intervention[edit]

text: Multimodal intervention is an effective treatment that looks at different levels including family, peers, school, and neighbourhood. It is an intervention that concentrates on multiple risk factors. The focus is on parent training, classroom social skills, and playground behaviour program. The intervention is intensive and addresses barriers to individuals improvement such as parental substance abuse or parental marital conflict.[23]

text: An impediment to treatment includes the nature of the disorder itself, whereby treatment is often not complied with and is not continued or stuck with for adequate periods of time.[23]

text: Comorbidity[edit]

text: Oppositional defiant disorder can be described as a term or disorder with lots of different pathways in regard to comorbidity. A high importance must be given to the representation of ODD as a distinct psychiatric disorder independent of construct disorder.[25]

text: In the context of oppositional defiant disorder and comorbidity with other disorders, researchers often conclude that ODD co-occurs with an attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), anxiety disorders, emotional disorders as well as mood disorders.[26] Those mood disorders can be linked to major depression or bipolar disorder. Indirect consequences of ODD can also be related or associated with a later mental disorder. For instance, conduct disorder is often studied in connection with ODD. A strong comorbidity can be observed within those two disorders but an even higher connection with ADHD in relations to ODD can be seen.[26] For instance, children or adolescents who have ODD with coexistence of ADHD will usually be more aggressive, will have more of the negative behavioral symptoms of ODD and thus, inhibit them from having a successful academic life. This will be reflected in their academic path as students.[27]

text: Other conditions that can be predicted in children or people with ODD are learning disorders in which the person has significant impairments in regard to the academic area and language disorders in which problems can be observed related to language production and/or comprehension.[27]

text: Epidemiology[edit]

text: Oppositional defiant disorder has a prevalence of 1% to 11%.[28] The average prevalence is approximately 3.3%.[28] Gender and age play an important role in the rate of the disorder.[28] In fact, ODD gradually develops and becomes apparent in preschool years; often before the age of eight years old.[28][29][30] However, it is very unlikely to emerge following early adolescence.[31] There is difference in prevalence between boys and girls. The ratio of this prevalence is 1.4 to 1 in favor of boys being more prevalent than girls before adolescence.[28] On the other hand, girls' prevalence tends to increase after puberty.[29] When researchers observed the general prevalence of oppositional defiant disorder throughout cultures, they noticed that it remained constant.[30] However, the sex difference in ODD prevalence is only significant in Western cultures.[30] There are two possible explanations for this difference which are that in non-Western cultures there is a decrease prevalence of ODD in boys or an increase prevalence of ODD in girls.[30] There are other factors that can influence the prevalence of the disorder. One of these factors is the socioeconomic status. Youths living in families of low socioeconomic status have a higher prevalence.[32] Another factor is based on the criteria used to diagnose an individual. When the disorder was first included in the DSM-III, the prevalence was 25% higher than when the DSM-IV revised the criteria of diagnosis.[32] The DSM-V made more changes to the criteria grouping certain characteristics together in order to demonstrate that ODD display both emotional and behavioral symptomatology.[33] In addition, criteria was added to help guide clinicians in diagnosis because of the difficulty found in identifying whether the behaviors or symptoms are directly related to the disorder or simply a phase in a child's life.[33] Consequently, future studies may obtain results indicating a declination in prevalence between the DSM-IV and the DSM-V due to these changes.

text: History[edit]

text: Oppositional defiant disorder was first defined in the DSM-III (1980). Since the introduction of ODD as an independent disorder, the field trials to inform the definition of this disorder have included predominantly male subjects. Some clinicians have debated whether the diagnostic criteria presented above would be clinically relevant for use with females. Furthermore, some have questioned whether gender-specific criteria and thresholds should be included. Additionally, some clinicians have questioned the preclusion of ODD when conduct disorder is present.[4]  According to Dickstein, the DSM-5 attempts to:


document_title: Casual Corner

question_text: when did petite sophisticate go out of business

root

text: Casual Corner

text:
Casual Corner

Defunct
2005

Headquarters
West Hartford, Connecticut

Number of locations

500+ at peak

Area served

U.S.

Products
Clothing

tag: table

text: Casual Corner was an American retail clothing chain founded in 1950. It operated stores under the names Casual Corner, Petite Sophisticate and August Max Woman brands among others. Casual Corner operated more than 525 stores at its peak.

tag: p

text: History[edit]

text: Charles E. Carples and Stanley W. Vogel co-founded Casual Corner in 1950[1] in West Hartford, Connecticut.[2] It was sold to United States Shoe Corporation in 1970 when the chain included 20 stores.[3] A year later, the chain opened its twenty-fifth store[4] and continued to grow rapidly after that.

text: The chain's target demographic was originally sports-themed wear for women,[5] but by the 1990s it had been redesigned to target working-class women.[6] Casual Corner became the foundation of a larger holding company entitled Women's Specialty Retailing Group, which in addition to Casual Corner owned and operated several other brands including August Max, Sophisticated Woman (these two entities were later combined and renamed August Max Woman), Petite Sophisticate, Ups & Downs, J. Riggings, Caren Charles and Casual Corner Annex.[7] At its peak, US Specialty Retailing included over 1,300 stores nationwide. In 1995, United States Shoe was sold to the Del Vecchio family which took the Women's Specialty Retailing Group private again, after incorporating LensCrafters into their Luxottica business unit and selling the shoe division to Nine West.

text: With 525 stores in business, Casual Corner closed its remaining locations in late 2005 after selling them to a liquidator.[7][8] The stores were closed due to increased competition.[9]


document_title: Portmanteau

question_text: combining 2 names to make a new name

question_tokens: combining 2 names to make a new name

text: Portmanteau

text: Origin[edit]

text: The word portmanteau was first used in this sense by Lewis Carroll in the book Through the Looking-Glass (1871),[10] in which Humpty Dumpty explains to Alice the coinage of the unusual words in "Jabberwocky",[11] where slithy means "slimy and lithe" and mimsy is "miserable and flimsy". Humpty Dumpty explains to Alice the practice of combining words in various ways:

text: You see it's like a portmanteau—there are two meanings packed up into one word.

text: In his introduction to The Hunting of the Snark, Carroll uses portmanteau when discussing lexical selection:

text: Humpty Dumpty's theory, of two meanings packed into one word like a portmanteau, seems to me the right explanation for all. For instance, take the two words "fuming" and "furious." Make up your mind that you will say both words, but leave it unsettled which you will say first … if you have the rarest of gifts, a perfectly balanced mind, you will say "frumious."[11]

text: In then-contemporary English, a portmanteau was a suitcase that opened into two equal sections. The etymology of the word is the French porte-manteau, from porter, "to carry", and manteau, "cloak" (from Old French mantel, from Latin mantellum).[12] In modern French, a porte-manteau is a clothes valet, a coat-tree or similar article of furniture for hanging up jackets, hats, umbrellas and the like.[13][14][15]

text: An occasional synonym for "portmanteau word" is frankenword, an autological word exemplifying the phenomenon it describes, blending "Frankenstein" and "word".[16]

text: Examples in English[edit]

text: Standard English[edit]

text: Formal[edit]

text: Many neologisms are examples of blends, but many blends have become part of the lexicon.[11] In Punch in 1896, the word brunch (breakfast + lunch) was introduced as a "portmanteau word."[17] In 1964, the newly independent African republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar chose the portmanteau word Tanzania as its name. Similarly Eurasia is a portmanteau of Europe and Asia.

text: Some city names are portmanteaus of the border regions they straddle: Texarkana spreads across the Texas-Arkansas border, while Calexico and Mexicali are respectively the American and Mexican sides of a single conurbation. A scientific example is a liger, which is a cross between a male lion and a female tiger (a tigon or tiglon is a similar cross in which the male is a tiger).

text: Many company or brand names are portmanteaus, including Microsoft, a portmanteau of microcomputer and software; the cheese "Cambozola" combines a similar rind to "Camembert" with the same mold used to make "Gorgonzola"; passenger rail company "Amtrak", a portmanteau of "America" and "track"; "Velcro", a portmanteau of the French "Velours" (velvet) and "Crochet" (hook); "Verizon," a portmanteau of "veritas" (Latin for truth) and "horizon"; and ComEd (a Chicago-area electric utility company), a portmanteau of "Commonwealth" and Edison (Thomas Edison).

text: "Jeoportmanteau!" is a recurring category on the American television quiz show Jeopardy!. The category's name is itself a portmanteau of the words "Jeopardy" and "portmanteau." Responses in the category are portmanteaus constructed by fitting two words together.

text: Informal[edit]

text: Portmanteau words may be produced by joining together proper nouns with common nouns, such as "gerrymandering", which refers to the scheme of Massachusetts Governor Elbridge Gerry for politically contrived redistricting; the perimeter of one of the districts thereby created resembled a very curvy salamander in outline. The term gerrymander has itself contributed to portmanteau terms bjelkemander and playmander.

text: Oxbridge is a common portmanteau for the UK's two oldest universities, those of Oxford and Cambridge.

text: Many portmanteau words receive some use but do not appear in all dictionaries. For example, a spork is an eating utensil that is a combination of a spoon and a fork, and a skort is an item of clothing that is part skirt, part shorts. On the other hand, turducken, a dish made by inserting a chicken into a duck, and the duck into a turkey, was added to the Oxford English Dictionary in 2010.

text: Similarly, the word refudiate was first used by Sarah Palin when she misspoke, conflating the words refute and repudiate. Though initially a gaffe, the word was recognized as the New Oxford American Dictionary's "Word of the Year" in 2010.[18]

text: Brexit is a recent (2016) example, referring to Britain's planned exit from the European Union.

text: Business[edit]

text: The business lexicon is replete with newly coined portmanteau words like "permalance" (permanent freelance), "advertainment" (advertising as entertainment), "advertorial" (a blurred distinction between advertising and editorial), "infotainment" (information about entertainment or itself intended to entertain by virtue of its manner of presentation), and "infomercial" (informational commercial).

text: A company name may also be portmanteau (e.g., Timex is a portmanteau of Time (referring to Time magazine) and Kleenex)[19] as well as a product name (e.g., Renault markets its Twingo, a combination of twist, swing and tango).[20]

text: Non-standard English[edit]

text: Name-meshing[edit]

text: Two proper names can also be used in creating a portmanteau word in reference to the partnership between people, especially in cases where both persons are well-known, or sometimes to produce epithets such as "Billary" (referring to former United States president Bill Clinton and his wife, former United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton). In this example of recent American political history, the purpose for blending is not so much to combine the meanings of the source words but "to suggest a resemblance of one named person to the other"; the effect is often derogatory, as linguist Benjamin Zimmer states.[21] By contrast, the public, including the media, use portmanteaus to refer to their favorite pairings as a way to "...giv[e] people an essence of who they are within the same name."[22] This is particularly seen in cases of fictional and real-life "supercouples". An early known example, Bennifer, referred to film stars Ben Affleck and Jennifer Lopez. Other examples include Brangelina (Brad Pitt and Angelina Jolie) and TomKat (Tom Cruise and Katie Holmes).[22] "Desilu Productions" was a Los Angeles, California-based company jointly owned by couple and actors Desi Arnaz and Lucille Ball. Miramax is the combination of the first names of the parents of the Weinstein brothers. On Wednesday, June 28, 2017, The New York Times crossword included the quip, "How I wish Natalie Portman dated Jacques Cousteau, so I could call them 'Portmanteau'."[23]

text: Holidays are another example, as in Thanksgivukkah, a portmanteau neologism given to the convergence of the American holiday of Thanksgiving and the first day of the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah on Thursday, 28 November 2013.[24][25]

text: For the Disney film Big Hero 6, there is a location called "San Fransokyo", a fusion between San Francisco and Tokyo.

text: Other languages[edit]

text: Arabic[edit]

text: In vernacular Arabic, contractions are a pretty common phenomenon, in which mostly prepositions are added to other words to create a word with a new meaning. For example, the Hejazi word for "not yet" is لسع/لسه (lessa/lessaʕ), which is a combination of the words لـ (li, for) and الساعة (assaʕa,the hour). Other examples in Hejazi Arabic include:

text:
إيش (ʔēš , what), from أي (ʔay, which) and شيء (šayʔ, thing).
ليش (lēš, why), from لـ (li, for) and أي (ʔay, which) and شيء (šayʔ, thing).
معليش (maʕlēš, is it ok?/sorry), from ما (mā, nothing) and عليه (ʕalayh, on him) and شيء (šayʔ, thing).
فين (fēn, where), from في (fī, in) and أين (ʔayn, where).
دحين (daḥēn or daḥīn, now), from ذا (ḏā, this) and الحين (alḥīn, part of time).
إلين (ʔilēn, until), from إلى (ʔilā, to) and أن (ʔan, that).
بعدين (baʕdēn, later), from بَعْد (baʕd, after) and أََيْن (ʔayn, part of time).
علشان/عشان (ʕašān/ʕalašān, because), from على (ʕalā, on) and شأن (šaʔn, matter).
كمان (kamān, also/more), from كما (kamā as) and أن (ʔan that).
إيوه (ʔīwa, yes), from إي (ʔī, yes) and و (wa, swear to or promise by) and الله (allāh, God).[26][clarification needed]

tag: ul

text: A few rare or facetious examples would include:

text:
لعم[pronunciation?] from ("naʕm", yes) and ("la", no), implying you are not sure
متشائل[pronunciation?] ("mutashaʔim", pessimist) and ("mutafaʔil", optimist), the title of a novel published by Emile Habibi in 1974. The title is translated in English to "The Pessoptimist."
كهرماء ("kahramaʔ", utilities) coined from كهرباء ("kahrabaʔ", electricity) and ماء ("maʔ", water), the national utilities company of Qatar
كهرطيسي ("kahratisi", electromagnetic) coined from كهرباء ("kahrabaʔ", electricity) and مغناطيسي[pronunciation?]("magnetic")

text: Bulgarian[edit]

text: In the Bulgarian language, the most common use of portmanteau is as a part of advertising campaigns. One such example is the word gintuition (джинтуиция pronounced dzhintuitsia), which is made up from the words gin and intuition. This one, in particular, is used, not surprisingly, as a part of a gin commercial. Another example is the word charomat, which consists of the words чар (the Bulgarian word for charm) and аромат (meaning aroma), made popular by an ad about a coffee brand.

text: Filipino[edit]

text: Certain portmanteaus in Filipino have come into use to describe popular combinations of items in a Filipino breakfast. An example of such a combination order is kankamtuy: an order of kanin (rice), kamatis (tomatoes) and tuyo (dried fish). Another is tapsi: an order of tapa and sinangág. Other examples include variations using a silog suffix, usually some kind of meat served with sinangág and itlog (egg). The three most commonly seen silogs are tapsilog (having tapa as the meat portion), tocilog (having tocino as the meat portion), and longsilog (having longganisa as the meat portion). Other silogs include hotsilog (with a hot dog), bangsilog (with bangus (milkfish)), dangsilog (with danggit (rabbitfish)), spamsilog (with Spam), adosilog (with adobo), chosilog (with chorizo), chiksilog (with chicken), cornsilog (with corned beef), and litsilog (with lechon/litson). An establishment that specializes in such meals is called a tapsihan or "tapsilugan".

text: The name of a common Filipino mongrel dogs askal is derived from Tagalog words "asong kalye" or "street dog" because these dogs are commonly seen in streets. Askals are also called "aspins", a combination of "asong Pinoy" or "Philippine Dog".

text: Another Filipino portmanteau is a popular but slightly dated female name Luzviminda derived from the Philippines' three major island groups Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao.

text: Many Filipinos are very fond of speaking in Tagalog with some English words and thus are actually speaking in Taglish. Tagalog is a dialect in the island of Luzon and the basis for the national language Filipino.

text: French[edit]

text: Despite its French etymology (modern spelling: portemanteau), portmanteau is not used in French in this context. It is indeed a false friend. It refers to a coat stand or coat hook (literally a "coat support"), but in the past, it could also refer to a cloth drape knights would use to pack their gear. It was in this context that it first came to its English use, and the metaphorical use of a linguistic phenomenon (putting one word inside another, as into a case) is an English coinage. The French linguistic term mot-valise, literally a "suitcase-word", is a relatively recent back-translation from English, attested only since 1970.

text: Although French of France is regulated by the Académie française (which has had a conservative attitude to neologisms) it produced a number of portmanteau words such as franglais (frenglish) or courriel (courrier électronique = email) and has used the technique in literature (Boris Vian) or to create brands: Transilien (Transports franciliens = Île-de-France transportation system).[27]

text: French in Canada has a second regulatory body, named OQLF, an agency of the Government of Quebec, which is independent of the Académie. It has a tendency to produce neologisms in order to replace anglicisms. It created the portmanteaus courriel and clavardage (clavier + bavardage), for example.[clarification needed] Another example in Quebec (but made outside of OQLF) is Centricois, which means person from the region Centre-du-Québec (winner of a contest organised by the SSJB of Centre-du-Québec in 1999).[citation needed]

text: Galician[edit]

text: Galician has many portmanteaus, some existing also in Portuguese but many others not (or only in the North of Portugal, close to Galicia), which can be explained by its popular origin: carambelo (frozen candy), from caramelo (candy) and carámbano (icicle); martabela (a kind of dead bolt), from martelo (hammer) and tarabela (a kind of drill bit); rabuñar (to scratch with a fingernail, for instance a cat or a person), from rabuxa (a small tail, and also a common ill in tails) and rañar (to scratch); millenta ("many thousands", also common in Portuguese milhenta), from milleiro (one thousand) and cento (one hundred); runxir (to crackle, applied to some things only), from ruxir (to howl) and renxer (to grind the teeth), or vagamundo (tramp), from vagabundo (wanderer) and mundo (world), currently "vagamundo" and "vagabundo" mean the same, and the former is considered a vulgarism[clarification needed].

text: German[edit]

text: Kofferwort, a German synonym for portmanteau, is a recent literal translation of French mot-valise, attested since 1983. However, the phenomenon is well known in German poetry. A modern example of German portmanteau is 'Teuro', combining 'teuer' (expensive) and 'Euro'. Other examples are Mainhattan, a Central business district in Frankfurt on the river Main like Manhattan, New York and Kreuzkölln, the Berlin area bordering between Kreuzberg and Neukölln. 'Jein' is a widely used contraction of 'Ja' (yes) and 'Nein' (no), to indicate a combination of the two.

text: Modern Hebrew[edit]

text: Modern Hebrew abounds with European mechanisms such as blending: Along with קומפקט דיסק (kompaktdisk, compact disc), Hebrew has the blend תקליטור (taklitor), which consists of the Jewish-descent תקליט (taklít, record) and אור (or, light). Modern Hebrew is full of portmanteau blends, such as the following:[28]

text:
ערפיח (arpíakh, smog), from ערפל (arafél, fog) and פיח (píakh, soot)
מדרחוב (midrakhov, (pedestrian) promenade), from מדרכה (midrakhá, footpath) and רחוב (rekhóv, street)
מחזמר (makhazémer, musical), from מחזה (makhazé, play [noun]) and זמר (zémer, song)

text: Other blends include the following:

text:
מגדלור (migdalór, lighthouse), from מגדל (migdál, tower) and אור (or, light)
רמזור (ramzór, traffic light), from רמז (rémez, signal) and אור (or, light)

text: Sometimes the root of the second word is truncated, giving rise to a blend that resembles an acrostic:

text: תפוז (tapúz, orange (fruit), from תפוח (tapúakh, apple) and זהב (zaháv, gold)

text: Portuguese[edit]

text: On Brazilian Portuguese, portmanteaus are usually slangs, some of them include:

text: Cantriz, from cantora (female singer) and atriz (actress), which defines women that both sing and act.[29][30]

text:
Aborrescente, from aborrecer (annoy) and adolescente (teenager), which is a pejorative term for teenagers.[31][32]
Pescotapa, from pescoço (neck) and tapa (slap), which defines a slap on the back of the neck.[33] [34]

text: On European Portuguese, there is the word telemóvel, which means mobile phone, comes from telefone (telephone) and móvel (mobile).[35]

text: Hindi[edit]

text: A portmanteau common in both Hindi and English is Hinglish, which refers to the vernacular of the people in (the Hindi-speaking regions of) North India, where they mix Hindi and English in the spoken language.

text: Another modern day example is the BrahMos missile, whose name is a portmanteau of two rivers, Brahmaputra and Moskva.

text: Compounds displaying Sanskritic sandhi are extremely commonplace in Hindi, but as compounds showing sandhi still consist of multiple morphemes, these are not portmanteaus.

text: Hungarian[edit]

text: In Hungarian language, the first decades of the 19th century saw the language-reforming movement (Hungarian: nyelvújítás), when some authors and poets, like Ferenc Kazinczy, Pál Bugát, Mihály Fazekas, Miklós Révai and others created approximately 10,000 new words and phrases in order to develop Hungarian language to a modern and progressive tongue. Among these new phrases there are some portmanteaus:

text: gyufa (safety matches), consists of gyújtó (burner) and fa (wood).

text: Icelandic[edit]

text: There is a tradition of linguistic purism in Icelandic, and neologisms are frequently created from pre-existing words. For example, Tölva ("computer") is a portmanteau of tala ("digit; number") and völva ("oracle or seeress").[36]

text: Indonesian[edit]

text: In Indonesian, portmanteaus are often used as both formal and informal acronyms and referrals. Many organizations and government bodies use them for brevity. Journalists often create portmanteaus for particular historical moments. Examples include:

text: Formal and journalism uses:

text:
Golput: voters who abstain from voting, from Golongan Putih, "blank party" or "white party".[37]
Jagorawi: a motorway linking the cities of Jakarta, Bogor and Ciawi.
Jabodetabek: the neighboring cities of Jakarta, consisting of Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, Bekasi, and sometimes Cianjur (Jabodetabekjur).
The Suramadu Bridge connects the cities of Surabaya and Madura
"Malari": refers to "Malapetaka 15 Januari" – a social riot that happened on 15 January 1974.
Military units, e.g. Kopassus army special forces unit, from Komando Pasukan Khusus, "special forces command". Another example is the Kopaska navy frogman unit, from Komando Pasukan Katak, "Frogman Command".
Governmental bodies, e.g. "Kemdikbud", refers to "Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan" (Education and Culture Ministry), where the ministry leader is called "Mendikbud", "Menteri Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan" (Minister of Education and Culture).

text: Informal uses, for example:

text:
Asbun = Asal bunyi: carelessly speaking
Mafia = matematika + fisika + kimia: math, physics, and chemistry, three school subjects that are often related with arithmetic
Caper = cari perhatian: attention seeker
Warnet = warung internet: internet cafe
Alay = anak layangan: unfashionable people
Copas = Copy paste: copying other people's work without permission
Ropang = roti panggang: toasted bread
Nasgor = nasi goreng

text: Japanese[edit]

text: A very common type of portmanteau in Japanese forms one word from the beginnings of two others (that is, from two back-clippings).[38] The portion of each input word retained is usually two morae, which is tantamount to one kanji in most words written in kanji.

text: The inputs to the process can be native words, Sino-Japanese words, gairaigo (later borrowings), or combinations thereof. A Sino-Japanese example is the name 東大 (Tōdai) for the University of Tokyo, in full 東京大学 (Tōkyō daigaku). With borrowings, typical results are words such as パソコン (pasokon), meaning personal computer (PC), which despite being formed of English elements does not exist in English; it is a uniquely Japanese contraction of the English personal computer (パーソナル・コンピュータ, pāsonaru konpyūta). Another example, Pokémon (ポケモン), is a contracted form of the English words pocket (ポケット, poketto) and monsters (モンスター, monsutā).[39] A famous example of a blend with mixed sources is karaoke (カラオケ, karaoke), blending the Japanese word for empty (空, kara) and the English word orchestra (オーケストラ, ōkesutora).

text: Some Anime titles also are portmanteaus, such as Hetalia (ヘタリア). It came from Hetare (ヘタレ) which means "idiot" and Itaria (イタリア) which means Italy, and for the anime Servamp which came from English word Servant (サヴァント)　and Vampire (ヴァンパイア).

text: Spanish[edit]

text: Although not very common in Spanish[citation needed] (except for a pair of compulsory contractions, 'a el'='al' and 'de el'='del'), portmanteaus are finding their way into the language mainly through marketing and media efforts, such as in Mexican Spanish 'cafebrería' from 'cafetería' and 'librería', or Teletón from 'televisión' and 'maratón'. However, it is very frequent in commercial brands of any type (for instance, "chocolleta", from "chocolate" + "galleta", cookie), and above all family-owned business (of small size, for instance: Rocar, from "Roberto" + "Carlos", and Mafer, from "Maria" + "Fernanda"). Such usages are obviously prompted by the registering of a distinguishable trademark, but with time is common that a specific trademark became the name of the all similar products, like in Cola Cao, a name which is very common to use to refer any similar product. Examples of a portmanteau in Spanish includes the word ofimática (office automation), a blend of the words oficina (office) and informática (computing).

text: A somewhat popular example in Spain is the word Gallifante[40], a portmanteau of Gallo y Elefante (Cockerel and Elephant). It was the prize on the Spanish version of the children TV show Child's Play (Juego de niños)[41][better source needed] that ran on the public television channel La 1 of Television Española (TVE) from 1988 to 1992.[42]

text: Tibetan[edit]

text: Neologisms are also frequently created from pre-existing words in the Tibetan languages. For example, kubkyab (the common word for "chair") combines the words kub ("butt"), kyag ("a stand"), and gyab nye ("cushion," often for the back). Gyabnye is itself a blend of gyabten ("back support") and nyeba, the verb for "lean against, recline, rest on." Thus the word for chair is "a standing support for one's butt and back to rest on." Tibetan also employs portmanteaus frequently in names of important figures and spiritual practices, such as His Holiness Penor Rinpoche, with Penor being pema norbu ("lotus jewel"), and the Buddhist practice of Dzogchen, or dzogpa chenpo, the "Great Perfection." Tibetan is rich with portmanteaus.

text: Word/morph (linguistics)[edit]

text: In linguistics, the term blend is used to refer to the general combination of words, and the term portmanteau is reserved for the narrow sense of combining two or more morphemes in one morph[citation needed]. E.g. in the Latin word animalis the ending -is is a portmanteau morph because it is used for two morphemes: the singularity and the genitive case. In English two separate morphs are used (of an animal).

text: The term may also be extended to include (written) contractions. Examples of such combinations include:

text:
Language
Combination
Portmanteau

Portuguese
a o
ao

a a
à

de o
do

de a
da

a aquele
àquele

a aquela
àquela

a aquilo
àquilo

de ela
dela

de ele
dele

de eles
deles

de elas
delas

em uma
numa

em um
num

em uns
nuns

em umas
numas

em a
na

em o
no

em as
nas

em os
nos

French
à le
au

à les
aux

de le
du

de les
des

en les
ès

German
in das
ins

in dem
im

von dem
vom

an dem
am

an das
ans

zu dem
zum

zu der
zur

Irish
de an
den

do an
don

Spanish
a el
al

de el
del

Italian
a il
al

a la
alla

a lo
allo

a l'
all'

a i
ai

a gli
agli

a le
alle

di il
del

di la
della

di lo
dello

di l'
dell'

di i
dei

di gli
degli

di le
delle

da il
dal

da la
dalla

da lo
dallo

da l'
dall'

da i
dai

da gli
dagli

da le
dalle

Cornish
a an
a'n

Welsh
i ein
i'n

o ein
o'n

West Frisian
bist do
bisto

yn de
yn 'e

text: This usage has been referred to as "portmanteau morph".[6]

text: While in Portuguese, French, Spanish and Italian the use of the short forms is obligatory (with the exception of ès in French, which is archaic in most senses), German and Cornish speakers theoretically may freely choose the form they use. In German, portmanteaus clearly dominate in spoken language, whilst in written language, both forms are in use.


document_title: Petrarch

question_text: who was the italian poet who perfected the sonnet

text: Petrarch

text: Biography[edit]

text: Youth and early career[edit]

text: Petrarch was born in the Tuscan city of Arezzo in 1304. He was the son of Ser Petracco and his wife Eletta Canigiani. His given name was Francesco Petracco. The name was Latinized to Petrarca. Petrarch's younger brother was born in Incisa in Val d'Arno in 1307. Dante was a friend of his father.[5]

text: Petrarch spent his early childhood in the village of Incisa, near Florence. He spent much of his early life at Avignon and nearby Carpentras, where his family moved to follow Pope Clement V who moved there in 1309 to begin the Avignon Papacy. He studied law at the University of Montpellier (1316–20) and Bologna (1320–23) with a lifelong friend and schoolmate called Guido Sette. Because his father was in the profession of law, he insisted that Petrarch and his brother study law also. Petrarch however, was primarily interested in writing and Latin literature and considered these seven years wasted. Additionally, he proclaimed that through legal manipulation his guardians robbed him of his small property inheritance in Florence, which only reinforced his dislike for the legal system. He protested, "I couldn't face making a merchandise of my mind," as he viewed the legal system as the art of selling justice.[5]

text: Petrarch was a prolific letter writer and counted Boccaccio among his notable friends to whom he wrote often. After the death of their parents, Petrarch and his brother Gherardo went back to Avignon in 1326, where he worked in numerous clerical offices. This work gave him much time to devote to his writing. With his first large-scale work, Africa, an epic in Latin about the great Roman general Scipio Africanus, Petrarch emerged as a European celebrity. On April 8, 1341, he became the second [6] poet laureate since antiquity and was crowned by Roman Senatori Giordano Orsini and Orso dell'Anguillara on the holy grounds of Rome's Capitol.[7][8][9]

text: He traveled widely in Europe, served as an ambassador, and has been called "the first tourist"[10] because he traveled just for pleasure,[11] and the reason he climbed Mont Ventoux.[12] During his travels, he collected crumbling Latin manuscripts and was a prime mover in the recovery of knowledge from writers of Rome and Greece. He encouraged and advised Leontius Pilatus's translation of Homer from a manuscript purchased by Boccaccio, although he was severely critical of the result. Petrarch had acquired a copy, which he did not entrust to Leontius,[13] but he knew no Greek; Homer, Petrarch said, "was dumb to him, while he was deaf to Homer".[14] In 1345 he personally discovered a collection of Cicero's letters not previously known to have existed, the collection Epistulae ad Atticum.

text: Disdaining what he believed to be the ignorance of the centuries preceding the era in which he lived, Petrarch is credited or charged with creating the concept of a historical "Dark Ages".[3]

text: Mount Ventoux[edit]

text: Petrarch recounts that on April 26, 1336, with his brother and two servants, he climbed to the top of Mont Ventoux (1,912 meters (6,273 ft), a feat which he undertook for recreation rather than necessity.[15] The exploit is described in a celebrated letter addressed to his friend and confessor, the monk Dionigi di Borgo San Sepolcro, composed some time after the fact. In it Petrarch claimed to have been inspired by Philip V of Macedon's ascent of Mount Haemo and that an aged peasant had told him that nobody had ascended Ventoux before or after himself, 50 years before, and warned him against attempting to do so. The nineteenth-century Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt noted that Jean Buridan had climbed the same mountain a few years before, and ascents accomplished during the Middle Ages have been recorded, including that of Anno II, Archbishop of Cologne.[16][17]

text: Scholars[18] note that Petrarch's letter[19][20] to Dionigi displays a strikingly "modern" attitude of aesthetic gratification in the grandeur of the scenery and is still often cited in books and journals devoted to the sport of mountaineering. In Petrarch, this attitude is coupled with an aspiration for a virtuous Christian life, and on reaching the summit, he took from his pocket a volume by his beloved mentor, Saint Augustine, that he always carried with him.[21]

text: For pleasure alone he climbed Mount Ventoux, which rises to more than six thousand feet, beyond Vaucluse. It was no great feat, of course; but he was the first recorded Alpinist of modern times, the first to climb a mountain merely for the delight of looking from its top. (Or almost the first; for in a high pasture he met an old shepherd, who said that fifty years before he had attained the summit, and had got nothing from it save toil and repentance and torn clothing.) Petrarch was dazed and stirred by the view of the Alps, the mountains around Lyons, the Rhone, the Bay of Marseilles. He took St. Augustine's Confessions from his pocket and reflected that his climb was merely an allegory of aspiration towards a better life.[12]

text: As the book fell open, Petrarch's eyes were immediately drawn to the following words:

text: And men go about to wonder at the heights of the mountains, and the mighty waves of the sea, and the wide sweep of rivers, and the circuit of the ocean, and the revolution of the stars, but themselves they consider not.[19]

text: Petrarch's response was to turn from the outer world of nature to the inner world of "soul":

text: I closed the book, angry with myself that I should still be admiring earthly things who might long ago have learned from even the pagan philosophers that nothing is wonderful but the soul, which, when great itself, finds nothing great outside itself. Then, in truth, I was satisfied that I had seen enough of the mountain; I turned my inward eye upon myself, and from that time not a syllable fell from my lips until we reached the bottom again. [...] [W]e look about us for what is to be found only within. [...] How many times, think you, did I turn back that day, to glance at the summit of the mountain which seemed scarcely a cubit high compared with the range of human contemplation [...][19]

text: James Hillman argues that this rediscovery of the inner world is the real significance of the Ventoux event.[22] The Renaissance begins not with the ascent of Mont Ventoux but with the subsequent descent—the "return [...] to the valley of soul", as Hillman puts it. Arguing against such a singular and hyperbolic periodization, Paul James suggests a different reading:

text: In the alternative argument that I want to make, these emotional responses, marked by the changing senses of space and time in Petrarch’s writing, suggest a person caught in unsettled tension between two different but contemporaneous ontological formations: the traditional and the modern.[23]

text: Later years[edit]

text: Petrarch spent the later part of his life journeying through northern Italy as an international scholar and poet-diplomat. His career in the Church did not allow him to marry, but he is believed to have fathered two children by a woman or women unknown to posterity. A son, Giovanni, was born in 1337, and a daughter, Francesca, was born in 1343. Both he later legitimized.[24]

text: Giovanni died of the plague in 1361. In the same year Petrarch was named canon in Monselice near Padua. Francesca married Francescuolo da Brossano (who was later named executor of Petrarch's will) that same year. In 1362, shortly after the birth of a daughter, Eletta (the same name as Petrarch's mother), they joined Petrarch in Venice to flee the plague then ravaging parts of Europe. A second grandchild, Francesco, was born in 1366, but died before his second birthday. Francesca and her family lived with Petrarch in Venice for five years from 1362 to 1367 at Palazzo Molina; although Petrarch continued to travel in those years. Between 1361 and 1369 the younger Boccaccio paid the older Petrarch two visits. The first was in Venice, the second was in Padua.

text: About 1368 Petrarch and his daughter Francesca (with her family) moved to the small town of Arquà in the Euganean Hills near Padua, where he passed his remaining years in religious contemplation. He died in his house in Arquà early on July 20, 1374 – his seventieth birthday. The house hosts now a permanent exhibition of Petrarchian works and curiosities; among others you find the famous tomb of Petrarch's beloved cat who was embalmed. On the marble slab there is a Latin inscription written by Antonio Quarenghi:

text:
Etruscus gemino vates ardebat amore:
Maximus ignis ego; Laura secundus erat.
Quid rides? divinæ illam si gratia formæ,
Me dignam eximio fecit amante fides.
Si numeros geniumque sacris dedit illa libellis
Causa ego ne sævis muribus esca forent.
Arcebam sacro vivens a limine mures,
Ne domini exitio scripta diserta forent;
Incutio trepidis eadem defuncta pavorem,
Et viget exanimi in corpore prisca fides.[25]

text: Petrarch's will (dated April 4, 1370) leaves 50 florins to Boccaccio "to buy a warm winter dressing gown"; various legacies (a horse, a silver cup, a lute, a Madonna) to his brother and his friends; his house in Vaucluse to its caretaker; for his soul, and for the poor; and the bulk of his estate to his son-in-law, Francescuolo da Brossano, who is to give half of it to "the person to whom, as he knows, I wish it to go"; presumably his daughter, Francesca, Brossano's wife. The will mentions neither the property in Arquà nor his library; Petrarch's library of notable manuscripts was already promised to Venice, in exchange for the Palazzo Molina. This arrangement was probably cancelled when he moved to Padua, the enemy of Venice, in 1368. The library was seized by the lords of Padua, and his books and manuscripts are now widely scattered over Europe.[26] Nevertheless, the Biblioteca Marciana traditionally claimed this bequest as its founding, although it was in fact founded by Cardinal Bessarion in 1468.[27]

text: Works[edit]

text: Petrarch is best known for his Italian poetry, notably the Canzoniere ("Songbook") and the Trionfi ("Triumphs"). However, Petrarch was an enthusiastic Latin scholar and did most of his writing in this language. His Latin writings include scholarly works, introspective essays, letters, and more poetry. Among them are Secretum Meum ("My Secret Book"), an intensely personal, guilt-ridden imaginary dialogue with Augustine of Hippo; De Viris Illustribus ("On Famous Men"), a series of moral biographies; Rerum Memorandarum Libri, an incomplete treatise on the cardinal virtues; De Otio Religiosorum ("On Religious Leisure")[28] and De Vita Solitaria ("On the Solitary Life"), which praise the contemplative life; De Remediis Utriusque Fortunae ("Remedies for Fortune Fair and Foul"), a self-help book which remained popular for hundreds of years; Itinerarium ("Petrarch's Guide to the Holy Land"); invectives against opponents such as doctors, scholastics, and the French; the Carmen Bucolicum, a collection of 12 pastoral poems; and the unfinished epic Africa. He translated seven psalms, a collection known as the Penitential Psalms.[29]

text: Petrarch also published many volumes of his letters, including a few written to his long-dead friends from history such as Cicero and Virgil. Cicero, Virgil, and Seneca were his literary models. Most of his Latin writings are difficult to find today, but several of his works are available in English translations. Several of his Latin works are scheduled to appear in the Harvard University Press series I Tatti.[30] It is difficult to assign any precise dates to his writings because he tended to revise them throughout his life.

text: Petrarch collected his letters into two major sets of books called Epistolae familiares ("Letters on Familiar Matters") and Seniles ("Letters of Old Age"), both of which are available in English translation.[31] The plan for his letters was suggested to him by knowledge of Cicero's letters. These were published "without names" to protect the recipients, all of whom had close relationships to Petrarch. The recipients of these letters included Philippe de Cabassoles, bishop of Cavaillon; Ildebrandino Conti, bishop of Padua; Cola di Rienzo, tribune of Rome; Francesco Nelli, priest of the Prior of the Church of the Holy Apostles in Florence; and Niccolò di Capoccia, a cardinal and priest of Saint Vitalis. His "Letter to Posterity" (the last letter in Seniles)[32] gives an autobiography and a synopsis of his philosophy in life. It was originally written in Latin and was completed in 1371 or 1372 - the first such autobiography in a thousand years (since Saint Augustine).[33][34]

text: While Petrarch's poetry was set to music frequently after his death, especially by Italian madrigal composers of the Renaissance in the 16th century, only one musical setting composed during Petrarch's lifetime survives. This is Non al suo amante by Jacopo da Bologna, written around 1350.

text: Laura and poetry[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: On April 6, 1327,[35] after Petrarch gave up his vocation as a priest, the sight of a woman called "Laura" in the church of Sainte-Claire d'Avignon awoke in him a lasting passion, celebrated in the Rime sparse ("Scattered rhymes"). Later, Renaissance poets who copied Petrarch's style named this collection of 366 poems Il Canzoniere ("Song Book").[36] Laura may have been Laura de Noves, the wife of Count Hugues de Sade (an ancestor of the Marquis de Sade). There is little definite information in Petrarch's work concerning Laura, except that she is lovely to look at, fair-haired, with a modest, dignified bearing. Laura and Petrarch had little or no personal contact. According to his "Secretum", she refused him because she was already married. He channeled his feelings into love poems that were exclamatory rather than persuasive, and wrote prose that showed his contempt for men who pursue women. Upon her death in 1348, the poet found that his grief was as difficult to live with as was his former despair. Later in his "Letter to Posterity", Petrarch wrote: "In my younger days I struggled constantly with an overwhelming but pure love affair – my only one, and I would have struggled with it longer had not premature death, bitter but salutary for me, extinguished the cooling flames. I certainly wish I could say that I have always been entirely free from desires of the flesh, but I would be lying if I did".

text: While it is possible she was an idealized or pseudonymous character – particularly since the name "Laura" has a linguistic connection to the poetic "laurels" Petrarch coveted – Petrarch himself always denied it. His frequent use of l'aura is also remarkable: for example, the line "Erano i capei d'oro a l'aura sparsi" may both mean "her hair was all over Laura's body", and "the wind ("l'aura") blew through her hair". There is psychological realism in the description of Laura, although Petrarch draws heavily on conventionalised descriptions of love and lovers from troubadour songs and other literature of courtly love. Her presence causes him unspeakable joy, but his unrequited love creates unendurable desires, inner conflicts between the ardent lover and the mystic Christian, making it impossible to reconcile the two. Petrarch's quest for love leads to hopelessness and irreconcilable anguish, as he expresses in the series of paradoxes in Rima 134 "Pace non trovo, et non ò da far guerra;/e temo, et spero; et ardo, et son un ghiaccio": "I find no peace, and yet I make no war:/and fear, and hope: and burn, and I am ice".[37]

text: Laura is unreachable – the few physical descriptions of her are vague, almost impalpable as the love he pines for, and such is perhaps the power of his verse, which lives off the melodies it evokes against the fading, diaphanous image that is no more consistent than a ghost. Francesco De Sanctis remarks much the same thing in his Storia della letteratura italiana, and contemporary critics agree on the powerful music of his verse. Perhaps the poet was inspired by a famous singer he met in Veneto around the 1350s.[38] Gianfranco Contini, in a famous essay on Petrarch's language ("Preliminari sulla lingua del Petrarca". Petrarca, Canzoniere. Turin, Einaudi, 1964) has spoken of linguistic indeterminacy – Petrarch never rises above the "bel pié" (her lovely foot): Laura is too holy to be painted; she is an awe-inspiring goddess. Sensuality and passion are suggested rather by the rhythm and music that shape the vague contours of the lady.

text: Sonnet 227[edit]

text:
Original Italian[39]
English translation by A. S. Kline[40]

Aura che quelle chiome bionde et crespe
cercondi et movi, et se’ mossa da loro,
soavemente, et spargi quel dolce oro,
et poi ’l raccogli, e ’n bei nodi il rincrespe,

tu stai nelli occhi ond’amorose vespe
mi pungon sí, che ’nfin qua il sento et ploro,
et vacillando cerco il mio thesoro,
come animal che spesso adombre e ’ncespe:

ch’or me ’l par ritrovar, et or m’accorgo
ch’i’ ne son lunge, or mi sollievo or caggio,
ch’or quel ch’i’ bramo, or quel ch’è vero scorgo.

Aër felice, col bel vivo raggio
rimanti; et tu corrente et chiaro gorgo,
ché non poss’io cangiar teco vïaggio?

Breeze, blowing that blonde curling hair,
stirring it, and being softly stirred in turn,
scattering that sweet gold about, then
gathering it, in a lovely knot of curls again,

you linger around bright eyes whose loving sting
pierces me so, till I feel it and weep,
and I wander searching for my treasure,
like a creature that often shies and kicks:

now I seem to find her, now I realise
she’s far away, now I’m comforted, now despair,
now longing for her, now truly seeing her.

Happy air, remain here with your
living rays: and you, clear running stream,
why can’t I exchange my path for yours?

text: Dante[edit]

text: Petrarch is a world apart from Dante and his Divina Commedia. In spite of the metaphysical subject, the Commedia is deeply rooted in the cultural and social milieu of turn-of-the-century Florence: Dante's rise to power (1300) and exile (1302), his political passions call for a "violent" use of language, where he uses all the registers, from low and trivial to sublime and philosophical. Petrarch confessed to Boccaccio that he had never read the Commedia, remarks Contini, wondering whether this was true or Petrarch wanted to distance himself from Dante. Dante's language evolves as he grows old, from the courtly love of his early stilnovistic Rime and Vita nuova to the Convivio and Divina Commedia, where Beatrice is sanctified as the goddess of philosophy – the philosophy announced by the Donna Gentile at the death of Beatrice.[41]

text: In contrast, Petrarch's thought and style are relatively uniform throughout his life – he spent much of it revising the songs and sonnets of the Canzoniere rather than moving to new subjects or poetry. Here, poetry alone provides a consolation for personal grief, much less philosophy or politics (as in Dante), for Petrarch fights within himself (sensuality versus mysticism, profane versus Christian literature), not against anything outside of himself. The strong moral and political convictions which had inspired Dante belong to the Middle Ages and the libertarian spirit of the commune; Petrarch's moral dilemmas, his refusal to take a stand in politics, his reclusive life point to a different direction, or time. The free commune, the place that had made Dante an eminent politician and scholar, was being dismantled: the signoria was taking its place. Humanism and its spirit of empirical inquiry, however, were making progress – but the papacy (especially after Avignon) and the empire (Henry VII, the last hope of the white Guelphs, died near Siena in 1313) had lost much of their original prestige.[42]

text: Petrarch polished and perfected the sonnet form inherited from Giacomo da Lentini and which Dante widely used in his Vita nuova to popularise the new courtly love of the Dolce Stil Novo. The tercet benefits from Dante's terza rima (compare the Divina Commedia), the quatrains prefer the ABBA-ABBA to the ABAB-ABAB scheme of the Sicilians. The imperfect rhymes of u with closed o and i with closed e (inherited from Guittone's mistaken rendering of Sicilian verse) are excluded, but the rhyme of open and closed o is kept. Finally, Petrarch's enjambment creates longer semantic units by connecting one line to the following. The vast majority (317) of Petrarch's 366 poems collected in the Canzoniere (dedicated to Laura) were sonnets, and the Petrarchan sonnet still bears his name.[43]

text: Philosophy[edit]

text: Petrarch is traditionally called the father of Humanism and considered by many to be the "father of the Renaissance."[44] In his work Secretum meum he points out that secular achievements did not necessarily preclude an authentic relationship with God. Petrarch argued instead that God had given humans their vast intellectual and creative potential to be used to their fullest.[45] He inspired humanist philosophy which led to the intellectual flowering of the Renaissance. He believed in the immense moral and practical value of the study of ancient history and literature – that is, the study of human thought and action. Petrarch was a devout Catholic and did not see a conflict between realizing humanity's potential and having religious faith.

text: A highly introspective man, he shaped the nascent humanist movement a great deal because many of the internal conflicts and musings expressed in his writings were seized upon by Renaissance humanist philosophers and argued continually for the next 200 years. For example, Petrarch struggled with the proper relation between the active and contemplative life, and tended to emphasize the importance of solitude and study. In a clear disagreement with Dante, in 1346 Petrarch argued in his De vita solitaria that Pope Celestine V's refusal of the papacy in 1294 was as a virtuous example of solitary life.[46] Later the politician and thinker Leonardo Bruni argued for the active life, or "civic humanism". As a result, a number of political, military, and religious leaders during the Renaissance were inculcated with the notion that their pursuit of personal fulfillment should be grounded in classical example and philosophical contemplation.[47]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: Petrarch's influence is evident in the works of Serafino Ciminelli from Aquila (1466-1500) and in the works of Marin Držić (1508-1567) from Dubrovnik.[48]

text: The Romantic composer Franz Liszt set three of Petrarch's Sonnets (47, 104, and 123) to music for voice, Tre sonetti del Petrarca, which he later would transcribe for solo piano for inclusion in the suite Années de Pèlerinage. Liszt also set a poem by Victor Hugo, " O quand je dors" in which Petrarch and Laura are invoked as the epitome of erotic love.

text: While in Avignon in 1991, Modernist composer Elliott Carter completed his solo flute piece Scrivo in Vento which is in part inspired by and structured by Petrarch's Sonnet 212, Beato in sogno.[49] It was premiered on Petrarch's 687th birthday.[50]

text: In November 2003, it was announced that pathological anatomists would be exhuming Petrarch's body from his casket in Arquà Petrarca, in order to verify 19th-century reports that he had stood 1.83 meters (about six feet), which would have been tall for his period. The team from the University of Padua also hoped to reconstruct his cranium in order to generate a computerized image of his features to coincide with his 700th birthday. The tomb had been opened previously in 1873 by Professor Giovanni Canestrini, also of Padua University. When the tomb was opened, the skull was discovered in fragments and a DNA test revealed that the skull was not Petrarch's,[51] prompting calls for the return of Petrarch's skull.

text: The researchers are fairly certain that the body in the tomb is Petrarch's due to the fact that the skeleton bears evidence of injuries mentioned by Petrarch in his writings, including a kick from a donkey when he was 42.[52]


document_title: List of ministries, agencies and commissions in Akwa Ibom State

question_text: current commissioner of education in akwa ibom state

text: This is a list of the government ministries of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria under the governor Udom Gabriel Emmanuel led administration. Each ministry is headed by the Commissioner, assisted by a Permanent Secretary.[1][2][3]

text: List of ministries and their commissioners[edit]

text:
MINISTRIES

COMMISSIONERS

Min. Of Culture and Tourism

Hon. Victor Antai

Ministry of Justice, Attorney General

Barr. Uwemdimo Thomas Nwoko

Min. of Finance

Mr.Linus Nkan

Min. of Agricultural Resources

Dr Umoinyang

Ministry of Works

Mr. Ephraim Akparawa Inyangeyen

Ministry of Transport and Petroleum

Orman Esin

Ministry of Education

Hon.Paul Udoufia

Ministry of Health

Dr. Dominic Ukpong

Min. of Lands/Town Planning

Arc Ime Ekpo

Min. of Urban Renewal And Special Duties

Mr. Akan Okon

Min. of Environment and Mineral Resources

Dr. Iniobong Ene Essien

Min. of Information and Strategy

Hon.Charles Udo

Min. of Local Govt. and Chieftaincy Affairs

Hon.Udo Ekpenyong

Min. of Investment and Commerce

Prof. Eno Ikpe

Min. of Rural Development

Rt. Hon. (Barr.) Ekong Sampson

Min. of Economic Planning/Development and Manpower

Idorenyin Sunday Udo

Min. of Science and Technology

Dr. (Mrs.) Elizabeth Donald Obot

Min. of Women Affairs and Social Welfare

Dr. Glory Emmanuel Edet

Min. of Youths and Sports

Sir Monday Ebong Uko

Bureau of Labour, Productivity and Manpower planning

Mr. Enyina Ekpenyong

Bureau of Political & Legislative Affairs

Rt. Hon Anietie Sunday Etuk

Special Adviser

Barr. Ekong Sampson

Special Adviser

Mrs Ekemini Umoh