document_title: Welcome Back, Kotter

question_text: who played mary johnson on welcome back kotter

text: Welcome Back, Kotter

text: Premise[edit]

text: The show stars stand-up comedian and actor Gabriel 'Gabe' Kaplan as the title character, Gabe Kotter, a wisecracking teacher who returns to his alma mater, James Buchanan High School in Brooklyn, New York, to teach a remedial class of loafers, called "Sweathogs." Kotter's class is held in Room 11. The school's principal is referred to, but rarely seen on-screen. The rigid vice principal, Michael Woodman (John Sylvester White), dismisses the Sweathogs as witless hoodlums, and only expects Kotter to contain them until they drop out or are otherwise banished. As a former remedial student, and a founding member of the original class of Sweathogs, Kotter befriends the current Sweathogs and stimulates their potential. A pupil-teacher rapport is formed, and the students often visit Kotter's Bensonhurst apartment, sometimes via the fire-escape window, much to the chagrin of his wife, Julie (Marcia Strassman).

text: The fictional James Buchanan High is based on the Brooklyn high school that Kaplan attended in real life, New Utrecht High School,[2] which is also shown in the opening credits. Many of the show's characters were also based on people Kaplan knew during his teen years as a remedial student, several of whom were described in one of Kaplan's stand-up comic routines entitled "Holes and Mellow Rolls." "Vinnie Barbarino" was inspired by Eddie Lecarri and Ray Barbarino; "Freddie 'Boom Boom' Washington" was inspired by Freddie "Furdy" Peyton; "Juan Epstein" was partially inspired by Epstein "The Animal"; however, "Arnold Horshack" was unchanged.

text: Characters[edit]

text: Gabe Kotter[edit]

text: Played by Gabe Kaplan

text: Gabe Kotter is a flippant, but well-meaning teacher who returns to his alma mater, Buchanan High, to teach a group of remedial students known as the Sweathogs. Being a founding member of the original Sweathogs, Kotter has a special understanding of the potential of these supposedly "unteachable" students. On his first day on the job, he launches into a Groucho Marx impersonation. Kotter is married to Julie, with whom he eventually has twin girls, Robin and Rachel. It is confirmed by Julie in the episode "Follow the Leader (part 1)" that Gabe is Jewish. During season four, Kaplan had contract issues with the executive producer, and only appeared in a handful of episodes. In season four, the invisible principal John Lazarus retires, and Kotter becomes the vice-principal. Though he is said to maintain some social studies teaching duties, most of that season's shows are filmed outside his classroom (#11), or if in room 11, Mr. Woodman is teaching. To minimize Kotter's absence, scenes were shot in either the school's hallway, the schoolyard, or the principal's waiting area. Season four ended the series.

text: Julie Kotter[edit]

text: Played by Marcia Strassman

text: Julie Kotter is Gabe's wife and closest friend. Though she has a sense of humor, she often wishes Gabe would take matters more seriously. She is occasionally upset with the amount of time her husband spends with his students, and she is troubled that he allows them to visit their apartment regularly; in the two-part story arc "Follow the Leader", the Sweathogs' constant intrusions lead Julie to separate briefly from Gabe and even seriously consider divorce. Originally from Nebraska, with a college degree in anthropology, Julie eventually became a secretary, and later a substitute teacher at Buchanan after Gabe's promotion to vice-principal. She makes several references to her "world famous tuna casserole", a common meal at the Kotter dinner table, which Gabe and the Sweathogs dislike.

text: Michael Woodman[edit]

text: Played by John Sylvester White

text: Michael Woodman is the curmudgeonly vice-principal (and later principal) of Buchanan High. He makes no secret of his dislike for the Sweathogs, whom he considers the bottom of the social register at his school. He refers to non-Sweathogs as "real" students. When Kotter was a student at Buchanan, Woodman taught social studies, the same class Kotter returns to Buchanan to teach. His old age, and sometimes his diminutive height, are common jokes with the Sweathogs. Woodman was totally against Kotter's unorthodox teaching methods (though as the series progresses, he begins to tolerate them marginally), and at one point even put Kotter in front of the school's review board in an unsuccessful attempt to have him fired. Nonetheless, in the season one episode "No More Mr. Nice Guy", Woodman is shown to be a gifted teacher, willing to wear historic costumes, and role-play in front of the class during his lessons.

text: Vincent "Vinnie" Barbarino[edit]

text: Played by John Travolta

text: Vinnie Barbarino is a cocky Italian-American, the "unofficial official" leader and resident heartthrob of the Sweathogs. He has a need to be the center of attention, as seen when he admits to making it rain in the school gymnasium. In the two-episode "Follow the Leader," Barbarino quits the Sweathogs and drops out of school in anger when Freddy Washington is chosen as the "leader" of the group, though he returns as leader at the finish of the story. Barbarino's prowess with women is a source of envy (and more often amusement) among his classmates. On occasion, he breaks out in song about his last name sung to the tune of Jan and Deans' song, "Barbara Ann". He was the first of the Sweathogs to move out on his own when he got a job as a hospital orderly. In the first episode of the series and fourth season, he has a girlfriend, Sally. Vinnie is Catholic (often describing his mother as a saint), and, as shown in "I'm Having Their Baby", is a Star Trek fan. Little is known about Vinnie's home life other than that his parents argue a lot ("Follow the Leader (part 2)") and take turns beating him when in a mutual rage. His mother's name is Margie ("The Great Debate"), and he shares a bed with his brother. The episode "Don't Come Up And See Me Sometime" implies that Vinnie is the older of the two. Travolta himself was a high school drop-out.[3] In Travolta's screen test for the series, Barbarino is Barbarini.

text: Arnold Dingfelder Horshack[edit]

text: Played by Ron Palillo

text: The class clown of the Sweathogs, Arnold Horshack, is completely comfortable with his oddball, if naïve, personality. Horshack was known for his unique observations and his wheezing laugh, similar to that of a hyena. (Palillo revealed on a 1995 episode of The Jenny Jones Show that it originated from the way his father breathed during the last two weeks of his life as he lay dying from lung cancer.) It is possible that academically he is the smartest Sweathog. He is the only central Sweathog character to be promoted out of remedial academics class, but he soon returns after feeling out of place. He has an affection for acting and enjoys old movies, particularly 1930s musicals. He eventually marries Mary Johnson, a co-worker and fellow Sweathog. Although his surname sounds like a term for a bordello, he claimed it is a "very old and respected name" meaning "the cattle are dying." His middle name (and his mother's maiden name) is "Dingfelder."

text: Freddie Percy "Boom Boom" Washington[edit]

text: Played by Lawrence Hilton-Jacobs

text: The hip, black student known as the athletic Sweathog for his skills on the basketball court, Washington claimed his nickname came from his habit of "pretending to play the bass" and singing "Boom-boom-boom-boom!". His trademark phrase is, "Hi, there" (spoken with a deep voice and a broad smile). Though often the voice of reason among his classmates, Washington nonetheless is a willing participant in the Sweathogs' various antics and pranks. Freddie also finds success as a radio disc jockey along with another former Sweathog, Wally "The Wow" (played by George Carlin). At one point, Washington challenges Barbarino for leadership of the Sweathogs, and even replaces him for a time until the group grows tired of his dictatorial style.

text: Washington has an older sister, who got divorced twice while living in Vermont ("The Longest Weekend"), and a brother, Leroy. In "The Great Debate" it is revealed that he has another brother, Douglas, and that his father's name is Lincoln. Kotter uses his own past to bond with Freddie, because in addition to being a former Sweathog he was also a former star of Buchanan's basketball team.

text: Juan Luis Pedro Felipo de Huevos Epstein[edit]

text: Played by Robert Hegyes

text: A fiercely proud Puerto Rican Jew (when asked if his mother was Puerto Rican, Juan replies that his mother's maiden name was Bibbermann and that his grandfather saw Puerto Rico from the ship as he was making his way to America and decided to settle there instead of Miami, making him one of the earliest Puerto Rican Jews; Juan is thus Puerto Rican on his father's side and Jewish on both parents' sides), Epstein is one of the toughest students at Buchanan High, despite his short stature. He normally walks with a tough-man strut, wears a red handkerchief hanging out of his right back pocket, and was voted "Most Likely to Take a Life" by his peers. In the season one episode, "One of Our Sweathogs Is Missing", Epstein was said to be the sixth of ten children (When speaking on the phone to his mother (who had failed to notice that he had been missing for three days), she apparently failed to recognize his name and he had to further identify himself as "Number Six."), although he later mentions, in "I'm Having Their Baby," that his mother only gave birth eight times, implying two of them were twin births. Only four of his siblings are mentioned by name: his brothers Pedro, Irving, and Sanchez ("One of Our Sweathogs Is Missing"), establishing that some of his siblings had Jewish names and others Puerto Rican names, and a younger sister, Carmen ("A Love Story"). Epstein's toughness was downplayed later on, and he became more of a wiseguy. He was also known to have a "buddy" relationship with Principal Lazarus as he often refers to him by his first name, Jack. On a few occasions, when Kotter did his Groucho Marx impersonation, Epstein would jump in and impersonate Chico Marx or Harpo Marx. Epstein's diminutive height, large hair, and fake excuse notes (always signed, "Epstein's Mother"), are common jokes associated with him.

text: Recurring characters[edit]

text: Rosalie "Hotsie" Totsie[edit]

text: Played by Debralee Scott

text: Rosie Totsie is the femme fatale purported to have put the "sweat" in Sweathog, though her reputation is largely exaggerated by the Sweathogs' word of mouth. Her promiscuity is at least in part a reaction to the strict discipline enforced by her father, the Reverend Totsie. To restore her good name, and to prove a point, she fabricates a story about one of the Sweathogs getting her pregnant.

text: The character was a favorite among male viewers but was phased out of the series at the end of the first season when Scott was picked to co-star in the syndicated Norman Lear comedy, Mary Hartman, Mary Hartman.[citation needed] She reprised the role in a 1978 episode, "The Return of Hotsie Totsie", in which it was revealed that she dropped out of school because she became pregnant and had to become a stripper to support her infant child.

text: Judy Borden[edit]

text: Played by Helaine Lembeck

text: A recurring non-Sweathog character in the earlier seasons, Borden is a Straight A student and editor of the Buchanan Bugle, the school newspaper. She was Barbarino's tutor, and even dated him at one point. Despite her academic superiority, she can easily hold her own in a Dozens contest against any Sweathog.

text: Beauregarde "Beau" De LaBarre[edit]

text: Played by Stephen Shortridge

text: Introduced as a regular character in the fourth and final season, Beau is a handsome, friendly, blond, silver-tongued southerner who transfers from New Orleans after being kicked out of several other schools. He ends up in Kotter's class. The producers sought a heart throb who was not a direct knock-off of the "Italian-Stallion" trend that was permeating Hollywood in the mid-1970s who would improve ratings in the South where the show's New York setting was seen as unrelatable. They wanted to retain female viewers, but avoid a Travolta clone. Beau's first reaction to the term "Sweathog" is, "That sounds gross." He seems to have a way with women, as shown in later episodes. One of his running jokes involves imparting whimsical sayings, such as one about how a real man never steps on a pregnant alligator.

text: Other recurring characters[edit]

text:
Vernee Watson as Verna Jean Williams, Freddie's girlfriend.
Susan Lanier as Bambi, a female addition to the Sweathogs introduced mostly as eye candy.
Charles Fleischer as Carvelli, introduced as a student foil to the Sweathogs in Season 2.
Bob Harcum as Murray, Carvelli's loyal, and extremely dim, sidekick.
Dennis Bowen as Todd Ludlow, a nerdy academic high achiever.
Geoffrey Stump as Kyle "the Heartbreaker" Lucas
Irene Arranga as Mary Johnson, later became Arnold Horshack's wife.
Melonie Haller as Angie Grabowski, introduced in Season 3 as the only official female Sweathog but was gone by the end of the season.

text: Show history[edit]

text: Welcome Back, Kotter's first season was controversial. In Boston, the local ABC affiliate (WCVB-TV) initially refused to air the show.[4] The city was going through a tumultuous school busing program that involved widespread protests and riots, and the local affiliate felt Kotter's fictional integrated classroom would only add fuel to the fire. However, the show became an early ratings success and the affiliate relented, picking it up from its fifth episode.

text: Teachers in other cities had concerns about how Kotter would be portrayed, so producers allowed a union representative on the set to ensure the show protected the image of those in the profession. Kaplan opposed the idea, at one point asking a reporter if there was a junkman on the set of Sanford and Son to protect the reputation of junkmen.[citation needed]

text: Censor sentiments of Juvenile delinquency faded after the Sweathogs' antics proved to be silly rather than criminal. Like Kaplan, Hegyes was a fan of the Marx Brothers. Hegyes claimed that he suggested that the Sweathogs be modeled after the Marx Brothers in order to reduce tension.[5]

text: Ratings slipped greatly in the third season. Kaplan later attributed the decline to the age of the actors playing the Sweathogs, all then in their mid to late twenties, claiming that they were no longer believable as high school students. His idea was to have Kotter join the faculty of a community college attended by the Sweathogs;[6] however, this storyline never materialized. In order to increase viewership, the Kotters had twin girls, but this did not prove to be enough to regain the show's earlier momentum. The show introduced a female Sweathog, Angie Grabowski, played by Melonie Haller.

text: Major changes took place in the fourth and final season.

text: Shortly before the season began, the series was moved from its successful Thursday 8:00 pm time slot to Monday 8:00 pm to make way for the impending hit series Mork & Mindy.

text: Virtually the entire writing staff was fired after season 3, and replaced with veteran writers from family-based series (such as Bob Claver from Leave It To Beaver and The Munsters).

text: Travolta, who had already starred in box office hits such as Grease, Saturday Night Fever, and Carrie, began to focus more time on his film career. He was featured in eight episodes, earning $2,000 for each one, and he was billed as a special guest star.

text: Mr. Woodman was promoted to Principal of the school (Principal Lazarus quit to take a "less stressful" job at a high-security prison), and Kotter was promoted to Vice-Principal, purposefully moving the show's focus away from Kotter's class.

text: Major off-screen disputes led Kaplan to break his contract and reduce his appearances. To help fill the voids, Stephen Shortridge joined the cast as smooth-talking Southerner Beau De LaBarre, and Kotter's wife, Julie, became a school secretary and occasional fill-in teacher, despite having one-year-old twin daughters.

text: Knowing the series was in a nosedive, producer James Komack attempted to spin-off a newly married Arnold Horshack into a new sitcom (see section below).[citation needed]

text: Popularity[edit]

text: The show enjoyed ratings success during its first two seasons, spawning a host of merchandising tie-ins including: lunch boxes, dolls, comic books, novels, and even a board game, advertised as "The 'Up Your Nose With A Rubber Hose' Game" in a commercial with a class full of Sweathog look-alikes featuring Steve Guttenberg as Barbarino. The Sweathogs (or at least an impressionist's version of them) even made a crossover appearance with characters from the Happy Days universe on one track (the disco-themed "Fonzarelli Slide") of a 1976 TV-promoted oldies compilation album.

text: In 2010, the cast, including: Gabe Kaplan, Marcia Strassman, John Travolta, Robert Hegyes, Lawrence Hilton-Jacobs, and Ellen Travolta were honored at the TV Land Award ceremonies that year. Co-star Ron Palillo was not in attendance.

text: Theme song[edit]

text:
Welcome Back, Kotter theme song, (reduced quality)

from Welcome Back by John B. Sebastian, Reprise Records 1976. Sample from The Best of John Sebastian, Rhino Entertainment/WEA Corp., 1989, 1990

Problems playing this file? See media help.

text: The popular theme song, "Welcome Back", written and recorded by former Lovin' Spoonful frontman John Sebastian, became a No. 1 hit in the spring of 1976. The show was originally going to be called Kotter, but that was changed because of the theme song lyrics. Sebastian has said he tried to find a more general theme for the song after being unable to find any reasonable rhymes for Kotter.

text: Sebastian performed the song on Saturday Night Live (April 24, 1976 – Season 1, Episode 18), and memorably flubbed the opening lyrics.

text: Comic books[edit]

text: DC Comics published ten issues of a Welcome Back, Kotter comic book starting in 1976.[7] Following its cancellation in 1978, a Limited Collectors' Edition was issued, incorporating a 4-page "On the Set" section and photographs from the show.[8]

text: Novels[edit]

text: A series of novels based on characters and dialog of the series was written by William Johnston and published by Tempo Books in the 1970s.

text: Action figures[edit]

text: Mattel produced a series of 9 inch Welcome Back, Kotter action figures in 1977. Figures produced included Barbarino, Horshack, Epstein, Washington, and Mr. Kotter.[9]

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
Season
Episodes
Originally aired

First aired
Last aired

1
22
September 9, 1975
February 26, 1976

2
23
September 23, 1976
March 3, 1977

3
27
September 10, 1977
May 18, 1978

4
23
September 11, 1978
June 8, 1979

text: DVD releases[edit]

text: Warner Home Video released a 6-episode Television Favorites collection on February 28, 2006. Due to the success of this release, Warner released the Complete first Season on DVD in Region 1 on June 12, 2007.

text: On May 7, 2014, it was announced that Shout! Factory had acquired the rights to the series. Ultimately, they released Welcome Back, Kotter: The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1 on August 26, 2014,[10] and have since released the second, third, and fourth seasons as individual sets.[11]

text:
DVD Name
Ep #
Release Date

The Complete First Season
22
June 12, 2007

The Complete Second Season
23
January 20, 2015

The Complete Third Season
27
May 26, 2015

The Complete Fourth Season
23
August 18, 2015

The Complete Series
95
August 26, 2014

text: Nominations[edit]

text: Kotter failed to receive any major awards, though it was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series in 1976 [12] after its first season; it lost to The Mary Tyler Moore Show. The series was also nominated for three technical Emmy Awards: Outstanding Achievement in Videotape Editing for a Series (to Editors Susan Jenkins and Manuel Martinez) in 1976, Outstanding Art Direction for a Comedy Series (to Art Directors Roy Christopher and James Shanahan) in 1978, and Outstanding Individual Achievement – Creative Technical Crafts (to Dick Wilson for sound effects) in 1979.[12]

text: Guest stars[edit]

text: Several noteworthy performers enjoyed guest stints on Kotter either during or prior to their widespread fame. James Woods guest starred in the first season ("The Great Debate") as Alex Welles, a drama teacher who leads the school debate team ("the Turkeys") in a competition against the Sweathogs. Pat Morita appears in the 1976 episode "Career Day" as Mr. Takahashi. Comedian George Carlin was featured, as was John Astin. Other guest stars included Scott Brady, Ellen Travolta, Richard Moll, Della Reese, and Dinah Manoff who would work with John Travolta again in Grease.

text: Groucho Marx was set to have a brief walk-on role in one episode. He arrived on-set, but was deemed to be too sick to appear. Pictures of Marx with the cast were taken, but were never released because of his sickly appearance.[13][14]

text: Spin-offs[edit]

text: At least three spin-offs of Kotter were seriously considered, but only one ever became a series. The short-lived Mr. T and Tina starred Pat Morita as Taro Takahashi (Mr. T for short), a brilliant Japanese inventor whom he portrayed in one episode of Kotter. The show was not received well by critics and lasted for five episodes on ABC. There was also talk of developing a spin-off built around the Horshack character and his family, Rich Man, Poor Man; Horshack!, but it never went beyond the backdoor pilot stage, shown as an episode of Kotter. In the mid-1990s, Hegyes announced on The Jenny Jones Show that plans were in the works to create a spin-off featuring the Sweathogs (minus Travolta's Barbarino) all grown up. The project, however, never got off the ground, and little information about it was ever made public.

text: Broadcast history and Nielsen ratings[edit]

text:
Season
Time slot (ET)
Rank
Rating[15]

1975–1976
Tuesday at 8:30-9:00 PM (Episodes 1-16)
Thursday at 8:00-8:30 PM (Episodes 17-22)
18
22.1

1976–1977
Thursday at 8:00-8:30 PM (Episodes 1-18, 20-23)
Thursday at 8:30-9:00 PM (Episode 19)[16]
13
22.7

1977–1978
Saturday at 8:00-8:30 PM (Episode 1)[17]
Thursday at 8:00-8:30 PM (Episodes 2, 4-27)
Thursday at 8:30-9:00 PM (Episode 3)[18]
26
19.9 (Tied with The Incredible Hulk and Family)

1978–1979
Monday at 8:00-8:30 PM (Episodes 1, 3-6)
Monday at 8:30-9:00 PM (Episode 2)[19]
Saturday at 8:00-8:30 PM (Episodes 7-14)
Saturday at 8:30-9:00 PM (Episodes 15-19)
Friday at 8:00-8:30 PM (Episode 20)[20]
Friday at 8:30-9:00 PM (Episodes 21-23)
N/A

text: International airing[edit]

text:
In Germany, 23 episodes of Welcome Back, Kotter were shown dubbed, but under its original name – first from September 1979 till May 1980 by the ZDF, then again from April to July 1985 by Sat.1.
In the United Kingdom, 26 episodes were shown from December 1981 until July 1983 on ITV.
In Australia, the show was broadcast on The Seven Network from June 1976 and rated very well for the first two seasons
In New Zealand, the show was screened on Television New Zealand's TV ONE. As in Australia, the first two seasons rated highly.
In Italy, the show was aired by the Italian TV second channel RAI 2 in the spring of 1980. Since at the time there were only 2 national TV networks, the rating was high. The show was dubbed, and the title was translated in Italian into I ragazzi del sabato sera (Saturday Night Guys), clearly aiming to build on the success of Saturday Night Fever. As a matter of fact, most viewers believed that the show had been shot after the movie.
In Greece, the show was screened on ANT1 really late, in the summer of 1992, on a morning slot (07.30). It passed unnoticed.

text: After the show[edit]

text: Kaplan welcomed back Hegyes and Jacobs on his short-lived 1981 sitcom Lewis & Clark. Their characters joked that Kaplan seemed familiar and being a smart guy, "should become a teacher."

text: The Simpsons referenced the sitcom in the fourth-season episode "Selma's Choice" (episode 9F11), first aired on January 21, 1993. Marge is impressed to find one of the Sweathogs listed as a donor in the Springfield Sperm Bank’s “101 Frozen Pops” catalog. She is disappointed, however, to learn from Selma that it’s not Horshack.[21]

text: In 1997, Ron Palillo, Robert Hegyes, and Lawrence Hilton-Jacobs reprised their respective roles in a dream sequence in the Mr. Rhodes episode "The Welcome Back Show".

text: In the mid-2000s, WPIX-TV, Channel 11 in New York City, aired the series in its old Saturday night at 8pm timeslot, pulling surprisingly strong ratings.

text: In 2012, both Ron Palillo and Robert Hegyes died.[22] Other members of the cast who have died include Marcia Strassman in 2014, John Sylvester White in 1988, and Debralee Scott in 2005.

text: The show's lunchbox was the subject of the season one finale of the podcast Mystery Show.

text: Reruns[edit]

text: In March 2016, the show aired on Me-TV Sunday mornings at 8:00 am and 8:30 am Eastern Time. In September 2017, Antenna TV began airing the show weekdays at 6:30 pm and 1:30 am Eastern.


document_title: Lobes of the brain

question_text: spatial location and motor control are the responsibility of the blank lobes of the brain

root

text: Lobes of the brain

text: Frontal lobe[edit]

text: The frontal lobe is located at the front of each cerebral hemisphere and positioned in front of the parietal lobe and above and in front of the temporal lobe. It is separated from parietal lobe by a space between tissues called the central sulcus, and from the temporal lobe by a deep fold called the lateral sulcus also called the Sylvian fissure.  The precentral gyrus, forming the posterior border of the frontal lobe, contains the primary motor cortex, which controls voluntary movements of specific body parts.

tag: p

text: The frontal lobe contains most of the dopamine-delicate neurons in the cerebral cortex. The dopamine system is associated with reward, attention, short-term memory tasks, planning, and motivation. Dopamine tends to limit and select sensory information arriving from the thalamus to the forebrain. A report from the National Institute of Mental Health says a gene variant that reduces dopamine activity in the prefrontal cortex is related to poorer performance and inefficient functioning of that brain region during working memory tasks, and to a slightly increased risk for schizophrenia.[2]

text: Parietal lobe[edit]

text: The parietal lobe is positioned above the occipital lobe and behind the frontal lobe and central sulcus.

text: The parietal lobe integrates sensory information among various modalities, including spatial sense and navigation (proprioception), the main sensory receptive area for the sense of touch (mechanoreception) in the somatosensory cortex which is just posterior to the central sulcus in the postcentral gyrus,[3] and the dorsal stream of the visual system. The major sensory inputs from the skin (touch, temperature, and pain receptors), relay through the thalamus to the parietal lobe.

text: Several areas of the parietal lobe are important in language processing. The somatosensory cortex can be illustrated as a distorted figure — the homunculus (Latin: "little man"), in which the body parts are rendered according to how much of the somatosensory cortex is devoted to them.[4] The superior parietal lobule and inferior parietal lobule are the primary areas of body or spatial awareness. A lesion commonly in the right superior or inferior parietal lobule leads to hemineglect.

text: Occipital lobe[edit]

text: The occipital lobe is the visual processing center of the mammalian brain containing most of the anatomical region of the visual cortex.[5] The primary visual cortex is Brodmann area 17, commonly called V1 (visual one). Human V1 is located on the medial side of the occipital lobe within the calcarine sulcus; the full extent of V1 often continues onto the posterior pole of the occipital lobe. V1 is often also called striate cortex because it can be identified by a large stripe of myelin, the Stria of Gennari.  Visually driven regions outside V1 are called  extrastriate cortex. There are many extrastriate regions, and these are specialized for different visual tasks, such as visuospatial processing, color differentiation, and motion perception.

text: Temporal lobe[edit]

text: The temporal lobe is located beneath the lateral fissure on both cerebral hemispheres of the mammalian brain.[6]

text: The temporal lobe is involved in processing sensory input into derived meanings for the appropriate retention of visual memories, language comprehension, and emotion association.[7]:21

text: Limbic lobe[edit]

text: The limbic lobe is an arc-shaped region of cortex on the medial surface of each cerebral hemisphere of the mammalian brain, consisting of parts of the frontal, parietal and temporal lobes. The term is ambiguous, with some authors[who?] including the paraterminal gyrus, the subcallosal area, the cingulate gyrus, the parahippocampal gyrus, the dentate gyrus, the hippocampus and the subiculum;[8] while the Terminologia Anatomica includes the cingulate sulcus, the cingulate gyrus, the isthmus of cingulate gyrus, the fasciolar gyrus, the parahippocampal gyrus, the parahippocampal sulcus, the dentate gyrus, the fimbrodentate sulcus, the fimbria of hippocampus, the collateral sulcus, and the rhinal sulcus, and omits the hippocampus.

text: Insular cortex[edit]

text: The insular cortex is a portion of the cerebral cortex folded deep within the lateral sulcus (the fissure separating the temporal lobe from the parietal and frontal lobes).

text: The insulae are believed to be involved in consciousness and play a role in diverse functions usually linked to emotion or the regulation of the body's homeostasis. These functions include perception, motor control, self-awareness, cognitive functioning, and interpersonal experience. In relation to these, it is involved in psychopathology.

text: The insular cortex is divided into two parts: the larger anterior insula and the smaller posterior insula in which more than a dozen field areas have been identified. The cortical area overlying the insula toward the lateral surface of the brain is the operculum (meaning lid). The opercula are formed from parts of the enclosing frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes.

text: Additional images[edit]

text:
Interior view of brain.

  Occipital lobe  Parietal lobe  Frontal lobe  Temporal lobe

Brain lobes. Colorings are same as the left and   Insular lobe

Insular lobe.

Lateral View of the Brain.

Brain Lobes.

tag: ul


document_title: 2014 Commonwealth Games medal table

question_text: no of medals in glasgow commonwealth games 2014

text: 2014 Commonwealth Games medal table

text: Medal table[edit]

text: The ranking in this table is consistent with International Olympic Committee convention in its published medal tables. By default, the table is ordered by the number of gold medals the athletes from a nation have won (in this context, a "nation" is an entity represented by a Commonwealth Games Association). The number of silver medals is taken into consideration next and then the number of bronze medals. If nations are still tied, equal ranking is given and they are listed alphabetically by their three-letter country code.[1][5]

text: Two bronze medals were awarded in boxing, judo and wrestling, except for Women's freestyle 75 kg as only five competitors were entered in the event. Additionally, two bronze medals were awarded in the men's 100 m backstroke and women's pole vault as a result of a tie between two athletes. No bronze medal was awarded in the men's synchronized 10 metre platform as only four teams competed in the event. Therefore, the total number of bronze medals is greater than the total number of gold or silver medals.

text: *   Host nation (Scotland)

text:
2014 Commonwealth Games medal table

Rank
CGA
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total

1
 England (ENG)
58
59
57
174

2
 Australia (AUS)
49
42
46
137

3
 Canada (CAN)
32
16
34
82

4
 Scotland (SCO)*
19
15
19
53

5
 India (IND)
15
30
19
64

6
 New Zealand (NZL)
14
14
17
45

7
 South Africa (RSA)
13
10
17
40

8
 Nigeria (NGR)
11
11
14
36

9
 Kenya (KEN)
10
10
5
25

10
 Jamaica (JAM)
10
4
8
22

11
 Singapore (SIN)
8
5
4
17

12
 Malaysia (MAS)
6
7
6
19

13
 Wales (WAL)
5
11
20
36

14
 Cyprus (CYP)
2
4
2
8

15
 Northern Ireland (NIR)
2
3
7
12

16
 Papua New Guinea (PNG)
2
0
0
2

17
 Cameroon (CMR)
1
3
3
7

18
 Uganda (UGA)
1
0
4
5

19
 Grenada (GRN)
1
0
1
2

20
 Botswana (BOT)
1
0
0
1

 Kiribati (KIR)
1
0
0
1

22
 Trinidad and Tobago (TRI)
0
3
5
8

23
 Pakistan (PAK)
0
3
1
4

24
 Bahamas (BAH)
0
2
1
3

 Samoa (SAM)
0
2
1
3

26
 Namibia (NAM)
0
1
2
3

27
 Mozambique (MOZ)
0
1
1
2

 Mauritius (MRI)
0
1
1
2

29
 Bangladesh (BAN)
0
1
0
1

 Isle of Man (IOM)
0
1
0
1

 Nauru (NRU)
0
1
0
1

 Sri Lanka (SRI)
0
1
0
1

33
 Ghana (GHA)
0
0
2
2

 Zambia (ZAM)
0
0
2
2

35
 Barbados (BAR)
0
0
1
1

 Fiji (FIJ)
0
0
1
1

 Saint Lucia (LCA)
0
0
1
1

Total (37 CGAs)
261
261
302
824

tag: table

text: Changes in medal standings[edit]

text: Weightlifting[edit]

text: The women's 53 kg competition was originally won by 16-year-old Chika Amalaha of Nigeria. Following a failed doping test, Amalaha was stripped of her medal and placement, and the medals were redistributed.[6] Dika Toua of Papua New Guinea was awarded the gold, Santoshi Matsa of India, silver and Swati Singh, also of India, bronze.


document_title: Brett Dier

question_text: who does brett dier play in barbie in the pink shoes

text: Brett Dier

text: Early life[edit]

text: Dier was born on February 14, 1990 in London, Ontario. He studied improv as well as receiving his first dan black belt in Taekwondo.[1] He reached the 6th grade of Conservatory Music in piano, including the Suzuki method since the age of 4. He also plays the guitar.[1] Dier received honors for his work. Brett is a self-taught musician. He also breakdances and practices swimming.[1][2]

text: Career[edit]

text: Dier received his role in a TV movie, Family in Hiding, as Matt Peterson in 2006. In 2007, he appeared in Seventeen and Missing and The Secrets of Comforting House. In 2008, he gained the role of Caden in Every Second Counts and an alternate Clark Kent in Smallville. He appeared in a small role as Derek Edlund in Fear Itself.

text: In 2010, he had a cameo appearance in Diary of a Wimpy Kid as a breakdancer. He made appearances in Made: The Movie and Meteor Storm. He had a recurring role in Mr. Young as Hutch. He was in another TV movie, Mega Cyclone, as Will Newamr. In 2012, he had a role in Space Twister. In another recurring role, he was Brandon Kelly in The L.A. Complex. He also had a guest starring role in an episode of the television show Blackstone.

text: In 2013, he played a lead role on Ravenswood as Luke Matheson.[3] The series was cancelled after one season.[4]

text:
He received critical acclaim for his role in Bomb Girls as Gene Corbett.[citation needed] He appeared in Exeter which was released in 2015.
Since 2014, he has played the role of Detective Michael Cordero Jr. in Jane the Virgin.[5]

text: On October 3, 2018, it was announced by Deadline that Dier would have a series regular role on the ABC situation comedy Schooled as C.B., a teacher who is both a friend and rival to rookie teacher Lainey Lewis who is also based on series co-creator Adam F. Goldberg’s favorite teacher and friend.[6]

text: Personal life[edit]

text: In March 2018, actress Haley Lu Richardson revealed that she and Dier were engaged, having proposed to him.[7] They have been in a relationship since 2014.[8]

text: Filmography[edit]

text:
Film

Year

Title

Role

Notes

2006

Family in Hiding

Matt Peterson

TV movie

2006

The Secrets of Comfort House

Bradley

TV movie

2007

Seventeen and Missing

Kevin Janzen

TV movie

2007

Battle in Seattle

Protester #2

2008

Every Second Counts

Caden

TV movie

2009

Phantom Racer

Taz

TV movie

2010

Meteor Storm

Jason

TV movie

2010

Dear Mr. Gacy

Marcus

2010

Diary of a Wimpy Kid

80s Breakdancer

2010

Goblin

Matt

TV movie

2010

Made... The Movie

Marshall

TV movie

2011

Goodnight for Justice

Young Clerk

TV movie

2011

Ghost Storm

Rob

TV movie

2011

Mega Cyclone

Will Newmar

TV movie

2013

Barbie in the Pink Shoes

Dillon / Prince Seigfried

Voice

2013

The Wedding Chapel

Young Larry

2013

Mighty Mighty Monsters in Halloween Havoc

Jacob

TV movie

2013

Mighty Mighty Monsters in New Fears Eve

Jacob

TV movie

2014

The Hazing Secret

Brian

TV movie

2014

Grace

Brad

2014

Poker Night

New Detective

2015

Exeter

Brad

2018

Snapshots

Zee

2018

The New Romantic

Jacob

2018

Genèse

Todd

text:
Television

Year

Title

Role

Notes

2007

Kaya

Jake

Episode: "You Can't Always Get What You Want"

2007

Aliens in America

Junior #1

Episode: "Junior Prank"

2008

Smallville

Alternate Clark Kent

Episode: "Apocalypse"

2008

Fear Itself

Derek Edlund

Episode: "Skin and Bones"

2009

The Troop

Richard

Episode: "Forest Grump"

2010

Supernatural

Dylan

Episode: "99 Problems"

2010

V

James May

Episode: "John May"

2011

Shattered

Jonah Simms

Episode: "Key with No Lock"

2011

Endgame

Kitch Huxley

Episode: "The White Queen"

2011

Flashpoint

Jaime Dee

Episode: "Run, Jaime, Run"

2011–2013

Mr. Young

Hutch

7 episodes

2012

Blackstone

Jake

Episode: "Forgiveness"

2012

The Secret Circle

Kyle

Episode: "Sacrifice"

2012

The L.A. Complex

Brandon Kelly

7 episodes

2013

Emily Owens, M.D.

Henry

Episode: "Emily and... The Social Experiment"

2013

Bomb Girls

Gene Corbett

4 episodesNominated – Leo Award for Best Guest Performance by a Male Dramatic Series (2014)[9]

2013

Pretty Little Liars

Luke Matheson

Episode: "Grave New World"

2013–2014

Ravenswood

Luke Matheson

Main cast

2014–present

Jane the Virgin

Det. Michael Cordero Jr.

57 episodes;  Main cast (seasons 1-3), Guest star (season 4)

2015

Backstrom

Archie Danforth

Episode: "Dragon Slayer"

2019

Schooled

C.B.

Series Regular


document_title: List of highest-scoring NBA games

question_text: most points scored by a team in a nba game

text: List of highest-scoring NBA games

text: Summary[edit]

text: The highest-scoring regular season game is the triple-overtime game between the Detroit Pistons and the Denver Nuggets on December 13, 1983. The two teams combined to score 370 points, with the Pistons defeating the Nuggets 186–184. An NBA-record four players scored over 40 points in the game, including the Nuggets' Kiki Vandeweghe with a game-high 51. The two teams also set several other NBA records, including the most points scored by one team (186 points), the most points scored by a losing team (184), the most field goals by two teams (142), most field goals by one team (74) and most assists by two teams (93).[5][6]

text: The highest-scoring regular season game in regulation was between the Golden State Warriors and the Denver Nuggets on November 2, 1990. In that game, Golden State defeated Denver 162–158. The Warriors' Chris Mullin scored a game-high 38 points. The Nuggets were coached by Doug Moe from 1980 to 1990 and Paul Westhead from 1990 to 1992,[7][8] both of whom employed a run and gun offensive strategy, which focuses on attempting a high number of field goals while also conceding a large number of points on defense.[9][10] In fact, Moe's and Westhead's Nuggets were participants in five of the ten highest-scoring regular season games in NBA history. The Warriors were coached by Don Nelson from 1988 to 1995 and 2006 to 2010.[11] He employed Nellie Ball, a style of run and gun that uses smaller, more athletic players to outrun opponents.[12] Another notable high scoring regular season game is a March 2, 1962 game between the Philadelphia Warriors and the New York Knicks. In that game, the Warriors' Wilt Chamberlain scored an NBA-record 100 points.[13]

text: The highest-scoring playoff game is the double-overtime game between the Portland Trail Blazers and the Phoenix Suns on May 11, 1992. The two teams combined to score 304 points, with the Trail Blazers defeating the Suns 153–151. The Suns' Kevin Johnson scored a game-high 35 points, with 12 other players also scoring in double figures. The highest-scoring playoff game in regulation occurred when the San Antonio Spurs defeated the Denver Nuggets with a score of 152–133 for a combined score of 285 points on April 26, 1983. In that game, the Spurs' George Gervin scored a game-high 42 points.

text: Most of the highest-scoring games happened before the 1995–96 season, when the average scoring (points per game) per team was always in the 100s.[2] Since that season, the average has dropped down to the 90s.[14] Only two post-1995 games make the top-ten lists of both the regular season and playoffs: a May 10, 2003 game between the Dallas Mavericks and the Sacramento Kings and a December 7, 2006 game between the Phoenix Suns and New Jersey Nets. Both the Mavericks and the Suns were coached by Nelson and Mike D'Antoni respectively, both of whom also made use of the run and gun style.[15]

text: List[edit]

text:
Key

OT
Overtime (the number indicates the number of overtime periods played, if there were more than one)

*
Indicates a game that was won by the road team

text: Highest-scoring regular season games[edit]

text:
Highest-scoring regular season games

Total
points
Date
Location
Winning
team
Result
OT
Losing
team
Notes
Ref.

1

370

000000001983-12-13-0000December 13, 1983
McNichols Arena
Denver, Colorado
Detroit Pistons*
186–184
3
Denver Nuggets

NBA records

Highest-scoring record[a]
The teams combined for 142 field goals[5]
The teams combined for 93 total assists[5]
4 players scored at least 40 points[5]

Nuggets' Kiki Vandeweghe scored a game-high 51 points, a career high.[5][16]
Leading scorers

Pistons: Isiah Thomas (47), John Long (41), Kelly Tripucka (35)[b]
Nuggets: Vandeweghe (51), Alex English (47), Dan Issel (28)[c]

[17]

2

337

000000001982-03-06-0000March 6, 1982
HemisFair Arena
San Antonio, Texas
San Antonio Spurs
171–166
3
Milwaukee Bucks

Former highest-scoring record[d]
3 players scored 40+ points
Spurs' George Gervin scored a game-high 50 points.
Leading scorers

Spurs: Gervin (50), Mike Mitchell (45)[e]
Bucks: Brian Winters (42), Junior Bridgeman (31), Bob Lanier (29)[f]

[18]

3

320

000000001990-11-02-0000November 2, 1990
McNichols Arena
Denver, Colorado
Golden State Warriors*
162–158
—
Denver Nuggets

Highest-scoring game in regulation
Warriors' Chris Mullin scored a game-high 38 points.
Leading scorers

Warriors: Mullin (38), Tim Hardaway (32), Mitch Richmond (29)[g]
Nuggets: Orlando Woolridge (37), Walter Davis (33)[h]

[19]

4

318

000000001984-01-11-0000January 11, 1984
McNichols Arena
Denver, Colorado
Denver Nuggets
163–155
—
San Antonio Spurs

NBA record

Both teams combined to score 99 points in a quarter[i]

Nuggets' Kiki Vandeweghe scored a game-high 50 points.
Leading scorers

Nuggets: Vandeweghe (50), Alex English (25)[j]
Spurs: George Gervin (38), John Lucas II (23)[k]

[21]

4

318

000000002006-12-07-0000December 7, 2006
Continental Airlines Arena
East Rutherford, New Jersey
Phoenix Suns*
161–157
2
New Jersey Nets

Suns' Steve Nash scored a game-high 42 points.
Nets' Jason Kidd recorded a triple-double[l]
Leading scorers

Suns: Nash (42), Shawn Marion (33), Raja Bell (24), Amare Stoudemire (23)[m]
Nets: Kidd (38), Vince Carter (31), Richard Jefferson (25)[n]

[22]

6

316

000000001962-03-02-0000March 2, 1962
Hershey Sports Arena
Hershey, Pennsylvania
Philadelphia Warriors
169–147
—
New York Knicks

Former highest-scoring record[o]
NBA record

Warriors' Wilt Chamberlain scored a game-high 100 points.[p]

Leading scorers

Warriors: Chamberlain (100)[q]
Knicks: Richie Guerin (39), Willie Naulls (33), Cleveland Buckner (31)[r]

[23]

6

316

000000001970-03-12-0000March 12, 1970
Cincinnati Gardens
Cincinnati
Cincinnati Royals
165–151
—
San Diego Rockets

Former highest-scoring record[s]
Rockets' Elvin Hayes scored a game-high 40 points
Leading scorers

Royals: Tom Van Arsdale (36), Connie Dierking (34), Johnny Green (29), Oscar Robertson (28), Norm Van Lier (22)[t]
Rockets: Hayes (40), Don Kojis (23), John Block (20)[u]

[24]

6

316

000000001990-11-10-0000November 10, 1990
Arizona Veterans Memorial Coliseum
Phoenix, Arizona
Phoenix Suns
173–143
—
Denver Nuggets

NBA record

Both teams combined to score 174 points in a half[v]
The Suns scored 107 points during the first half of the game.

Nuggets' Orlando Woolridge scored a game-high 40 points.
Leading scorers

Suns: Cedric Ceballos (32), Kevin Johnson (23), Kenny Battle (23), Dan Majerle (21), Tom Chambers (20)[w]
Nuggets: Woolridge (40), Mahmoud Abdul-Rauf (26), Walter Davis (22)[x]

[25]

9

314

000000001990-11-07-0000November 7, 1990
HemisFair Arena
San Antonio, Texas
San Antonio Spurs
161–153
—
Denver Nuggets

Spurs' David Robinson scored a game-high 43 points.
Leading scorers

Spurs: Robinson (43), Terry Cummings (31), Sean Elliott (29), Reggie Williams (22)[y]
Nuggets: Orlando Woolridge (37), Walter Davis (32), Todd Lichti (29)[z]

[26]

10

312

000000001959-02-27-0000February 27, 1959
Boston Garden
Boston
Boston Celtics
173–139
—
Minneapolis Lakers

Former highest-scoring record[aa]
Celtics' Tom Heinsohn scored a game-high 43 points.
Leading scorers

Celtics: Heinsohn (43), Bob Cousy (31), Bill Sharman (29), Frank Ramsey (20)[ab]
Lakers: Elgin Baylor (28), Vern Mikkelsen (25), Rod Hundley (21)[ac]

[27]

text: Highest-scoring playoff games[edit]

text: Below are the top 10 highest-scoring playoff games. Four of the games happened before the 1979–80 season, the season in which the three-point line was first implemented.

text:
Highest-scoring playoff games

Total
points
Date
Location
Winner
Result
OT
Loser
Notes
Ref.

1

304

000000001992-05-11-0000May 11, 1992
Arizona Veterans Memorial Coliseum
Phoenix, Arizona
Portland Trail Blazers*
153–151
2
Phoenix Suns

NBA highest-scoring record[ad]
Suns' Kevin Johnson scored a game-high 35 points
Leading scorers

Trail Blazers: Clyde Drexler (33), Terry Porter (31), Danny Ainge (25), Jerome Kersey (21)[ae]
Suns: Johnson (35), Tom Chambers (29), Jeff Hornacek (23), Dan Majerle (21)[af]

The Trail Blazers won the conference semifinals series 4–1
Last NBA game at Arizona Veterans Memorial Coliseum

[28]

2

285

000000001983-04-26-0000April 26, 1983
HemisFair Arena
San Antonio, Texas
San Antonio Spurs
152–133
—
Denver Nuggets

Former highest-scoring record[ag]
Spurs' George Gervin scored a game-high 42 points
Leading scorers

Spurs: Gervin (42), Johnny Moore (24), Gene Banks (22), Mike Mitchell (22)[ah]
Nuggets: Dan Issel (28), Alex English (26), Kiki Vandeweghe (22)[ai]

The Spurs won the conference semifinals series 4–1

[29]

2

285

000000001990-04-28-0000April 28, 1990
Boston Garden
Boston
Boston Celtics
157–128
—
New York Knicks

Celtics' Kevin McHale scored a game-high 31 points
Leading scorers

Celtics: McHale (31), Reggie Lewis (21)[aj]
Knicks: Patrick Ewing (28), Gerald Wilkins (24), Johnny Newman (21)[ak]

The Knicks won the first round series 3–2

[30]

4

280

000000001987-04-23-0000April 23, 1987
Reunion Arena
Dallas
Dallas Mavericks
151–129
—
Seattle SuperSonics

SuperSonics' Tom Chambers scored a game-high 35 points
Leading scorers

Mavericks: Mark Aguirre (28), Roy Tarpley (25)[al]
SuperSonics: Chambers (35), Dale Ellis (22)[am]

The SuperSonics won the first round series 3–1

[31]

5

279

000000001967-04-01-0000April 1, 1967
Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum Arena
Oakland, California
San Francisco Warriors
143–136
—
St. Louis Hawks

Former highest-scoring record[an]
Warriors' Rick Barry scored a game-high 47 points
Leading scorers

Warriors: Barry (47), Jeff Mullins (26), Nate Thurmond (22)[ao]
Hawks: Bill Bridges (26), Lou Hudson (24), Richie Guerin (22), Lenny Wilkens (22)[ap]

The Warriors won the division finals series 4–2

[32]

6

278

000000001957-03-25-0000March 25, 1957
Minneapolis Auditorium
Minneapolis
St. Louis Hawks*
143–135
2
Minneapolis Lakers

Former highest-scoring record[aq]
Lakers' Bobby Leonard scored a game-high 42 points
Leading scorers

Hawks: Bob Pettit (35), Slater Martin (26), Cliff Hagan (22)[ar]
Lakers: Leonard (42), Clyde Lovellette (22), Walter Dukes (21)[as]

The Hawks won the division finals series 3–0

[33]

6

278

000000002003-05-10-0000May 10, 2003
ARCO Arena
Sacramento, California
Dallas Mavericks*
141–137
2
Sacramento Kings

Mavericks' Nick Van Exel scored a game-high 40 points
Leading scorers

Mavericks: Van Exel (40), Steve Nash (31), Dirk Nowitzki (25), Michael Finley (20)[at]
Kings: Peja Stojaković (39), Vlade Divac (20)[au]

The Mavericks won the conference semifinals series 4–3

[34]

8

277

000000001985-04-20-0000April 20, 1985
Great Western Forum
Los Angeles
Los Angeles Lakers
147–130
—
Phoenix Suns

Lakers' Kareem Abdul-Jabbar scored a game-high 24 points
Leading scorers

Lakers: Abdul-Jabbar (24), Bob McAdoo (22), Byron Scott (21), Mike McGee (20)[av]
Suns: Alvan Adams (23), Jay Humphries (21), Mike Sanders (20)[aw]

The Lakers won the conference semifinals series 3–0

[35]

9

276

000000001967-04-14-0000April 14, 1967
The Spectrum
Philadelphia
Philadelphia 76ers
141–135
1
San Francisco Warriors

Warriors' Rick Barry scored a game-high 37 points
Leading scorers

76ers: Hal Greer (32), Wali Jones (30), Billy Cunningham (26), Chet Walker (23)[ax]
Warriors: Barry (37), Nate Thurmond (24), Tom Meschery (20)[ay]

The 76ers won the finals series 4–2

[36]

9

276

000000001970-03-30-0000March 30, 1970
The Spectrum
Philadelphia
Milwaukee Bucks*
156–120
—
Philadelphia 76ers

Bucks' Kareem Abdul-Jabbar scored a game-high 33 points
Leading scorers

Bucks: Abdul-Jabbar (33), Jon McGlocklin (24), Flynn Robinson (20)[az]
76ers: Archie Clark (20)[ba]

The Bucks won the conference semifinals series 4–1

[37]

9

276

000000002013-04-27-0000April 27, 2013
United Center
Chicago
Chicago Bulls
142–134
3
Brooklyn Nets

Bulls' Nate Robinson scored a game-high 34 points
Leading scorers

Bulls: Robinson (34), Carlos Boozer (21)[bb]
Nets: Deron Williams (32), Brook Lopez (26), Joe Johnson (22)[bc]

The Bulls won the first round series 4–3

[38]


document_title: World Series ring

question_text: who has the most world series rings as a player

text: World Series ring

text: History[edit]

text: Prior to the 1922 World Series, players on the World Series-winning team were given keepsakes, such as a pin or pocketwatch fob.[3] The first World Series ring was given to the members of the New York Giants following their victory in the 1922 World Series over the New York Yankees.[2] When the Yankees won the 1923 World Series, players were given a commemorative pocketwatch. The Yankees first gave rings to their players following the 1927 World Series.[4] Rings became an annual tradition in the 1930s,[5] as every World Series-winning team has given rings to its players since 1932.[6] In past years, players often requested other items in place of rings, including cufflinks and tie clips. Frankie Crosetti and Tommy Henrich requested shotguns from the Yankees following World Series championships.[7] Grover Cleveland Alexander reportedly pawned his 1926 World Series ring.[6]

text: Members of the 1973 World Series champion Oakland Athletics were upset when team owner Charlie O. Finley, following salary disputes with his players, presented his team with rings that were identical to the ones received after winning the 1972 World Series, except without the one-carat diamond. Reggie Jackson referred to them as "trash rings".[7][8][9] The first ring to contain more than one diamond was the 1977 World Series ring commissioned by the Yankees, which had over a dozen diamonds.[8] Over time, ring designs have become larger and more elaborate, with Yogi Berra saying in 2009, "They're so much bigger now, they're like weapons. You can't even wear them."[7] Whereas older rings were 10 carat and between 20 and 25 pennyweight, modern rings are typically 14 carat and 50 pennyweight.[7][disputed – discuss] The rings commissioned by the Florida Marlins after the 2003 World Series are believed to be among the most expensive World Series rings ever made; made of 14-carat white gold, the 3.5-ounce (99 g) ring featured 229 diamonds, including one teal diamond, and 13 rubies. The rings cost $20,000 apiece due to the quantity of the purchase, though they retailed at $40,000 each.[8][10][11] After breaking their long championship drought in 2016, the Chicago Cubs commissioned rings said to be worth up to $70,000, consisting of 214 diamonds at 5.5 karats, 3 karats of rubies, and 2.5 karats of sapphires.[12][13]

text: Teams have also increasingly added distinctive touches to make their rings unique from previous versions. For their 2007 World Series rings, the Boston Red Sox commissioned a special version for players who were on both the 2004 and 2007 championship teams, and for 2013, they included the Boston Strong logo on the side.[14][15] The St. Louis Cardinals had the Rally Squirrel engraved into their 2011 World Series championship rings.[16] For their 2014 World Series rings, the San Francisco Giants included three diamonds on the top bezel and five on the bottom, representing their three titles in five years, and eight championships overall.[17] The 2016 World Series rings for the Chicago Cubs each contain 108 diamonds around the bezel, one for each year that the team went without a championship, and also include an image of a goat on the inner band.[18][13] Companies that have been commissioned to create World Series rings include Jostens, Tiffany & Co., Dieges & Clust, and the L.G. Balfour Company.[19][20][21]

text: Distribution[edit]

text: Players typically receive their rings in pregame ceremonies early in the next season.[16][19][22][23] Since the rings are commissioned by the team, many non-players affiliated with the team, including front office executives, coaches, scouts, broadcasters,[24] locker room staff, and groundskeepers also receive rings at the team's discretion.[25][3][7][26] After the 2004 World Series, the Red Sox ordered over 500 rings;[27] the Cardinals commissioned 400 rings in 2006;[1] and the Kansas City Royals distributed about 700 rings after their 2015 title.[28] Players who were only briefly on the team's roster during a championship season and those no longer affiliated with the winning team also often receive rings.[29][30][31] Arthur Rhodes, Bengie Molina, and Lonnie Smith played in the World Series against a team they played for earlier in the season, guaranteeing them World Series rings regardless of the series outcome.[32] As both the physical size and number of rings given out has increased, teams have started producing both "A" and "B" versions, and sometimes "C" versions, that are similar in appearance but smaller in size and use cheaper materials.[33] The most expensive "A" rings are typically reserved for full-time players, coaches, and executives, while bit players and other team employees receive the cheaper "B" and "C" rings.[34][28]

text:
I've seen it called "tacky" and it is, but here's the thing about these rings: They're not supposed to be understated. They're always over the top. When they're worn, they're done so obnoxiously. There's nothing humble or particularly beautiful about them. In fact, they're always kind of ugly, no matter the team. They're full of jewels and they're shiny, but it's always too much.

David Brown, Yahoo! Sports[16]

tag: div

text: Rings as trophies[edit]

text: In modern years, the importance of World Series rings to players has increased.[35] Alex Rodriguez said his 2009 World Series ring "means the world" to him, and that he would wear it daily.[36] Sergio Romo of the 2010 World Series champion San Francisco Giants said of his ring: "In all reality, this is why we play right here."[3] Jon Jay said his 2011 World Series ring "...represents last year and all the hard work. Ever since I was a kid I dreamed of something like this."[37] Former player and current Giants broadcaster Duane Kuiper said, "It's not a hug. It's not a handshake. It's not a pat on the back. It's a ring. It's the one thing every professional athlete wants: something they can hold onto, something they can show off."[26] Players' names and uniform numbers are often individually inscribed in their ring.[7] Many players prefer to display their rings as trophies as opposed to wearing them.[7]

text: Memorabilia[edit]

text: World Series rings are considered valuable sports memorabilia. In 2007, Casey Stengel's 1951 World Series ring sold for $180,000.[38] When Lenny Dykstra went through bankruptcy in 2009, his 1986 World Series ring sold for $56,762.50 through Heritage Auctions, three times as much as was expected.[39] Others have sold their rings on eBay. Doug Baker of the 1984 World Series champion Detroit Tigers had a new ring made after his original was stolen, and when he recovered the original ring, he sold it for $12,322.[40] Cucho Rodriguez, a scout for the Red Sox, sold his 2004 World Series ring for over $53,000[41][42] and in 2011, Scott Williamson auctioned off his 2004 ring for $89,000.[29] However, the ring that once belonged to disgraced pitcher Brandon Puffer, when offered for sale on the August 15, 2013, episode of Pawn Stars could not be sold. The shop declined to make an offer, claiming Puffer's off-field problems destroyed the resale value of the ring.[29]

text: The National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum contains an exhibit on World Series rings.[43] The New York Yankees Museum, located in Yankee Stadium, has an exhibit with replicas of all Yankees' World Series rings, including the pocket watch given after the 1923 World Series.[44] Yogi Berra won the most World Series rings with 15, combining his time as a player and as a coach.[6] He often asked for a pendant to be made for his wife instead; he later had the other rings recast to display in the Yogi Berra Museum and Learning Center.[7]


document_title: Enzyme

question_text: what are some examples of enzymes in biology

question_tokens: what are some examples of enzymes in biology

text: Enzyme

text: Etymology and history

text: By the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the digestion of meat by stomach secretions[7] and the conversion of starch to sugars by plant extracts and saliva were known but the mechanisms by which these occurred had not been identified.[8]

text: French chemist Anselme Payen was the first to discover an enzyme, diastase, in 1833.[9] A few decades later, when studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeast, Louis Pasteur concluded that this fermentation was caused by a vital force contained within the yeast cells called "ferments", which were thought to function only within living organisms. He wrote that "alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells."[10]

text: In 1877, German physiologist Wilhelm Kühne (1837–1900) first used the term enzyme, which comes from Greek ἔνζυμον, "leavened" or "in yeast", to describe this process.[11] The word enzyme was used later to refer to nonliving substances such as pepsin, and the word ferment was used to refer to chemical activity produced by living organisms.[12]

text: Eduard Buchner submitted his first paper on the study of yeast extracts in 1897. In a series of experiments at the University of Berlin, he found that sugar was fermented by yeast extracts even when there were no living yeast cells in the mixture.[13] He named the enzyme that brought about the fermentation of sucrose "zymase".[14] In 1907, he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for "his discovery of cell-free fermentation". Following Buchner's example, enzymes are usually named according to the reaction they carry out: the suffix -ase is combined with the name of the substrate (e.g., lactase is the enzyme that cleaves lactose) or to the type of reaction (e.g., DNA polymerase forms DNA polymers).[15]

text: The biochemical identity of enzymes was still unknown in the early 1900s. Many scientists observed that enzymatic activity was associated with proteins, but others (such as Nobel laureate Richard Willstätter) argued that proteins were merely carriers for the true enzymes and that proteins per se were incapable of catalysis.[16] In 1926, James B. Sumner showed that the enzyme urease was a pure protein and crystallized it; he did likewise for the enzyme catalase in 1937. The conclusion that pure proteins can be enzymes was definitively demonstrated by John Howard Northrop and Wendell Meredith Stanley, who worked on the digestive enzymes pepsin (1930), trypsin and chymotrypsin. These three scientists were awarded the 1946 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.[17]

text: The discovery that enzymes could be crystallized eventually allowed their structures to be solved by x-ray crystallography. This was first done for lysozyme, an enzyme found in tears, saliva and egg whites that digests the coating of some bacteria; the structure was solved by a group led by David Chilton Phillips and published in 1965.[18] This high-resolution structure of lysozyme marked the beginning of the field of structural biology and the effort to understand how enzymes work at an atomic level of detail.[19]

text: Naming conventions

text: An enzyme's name is often derived from its substrate or the chemical reaction it catalyzes, with the word ending in -ase.[1]:8.1.3 Examples are lactase, alcohol dehydrogenase and DNA polymerase. Different enzymes that catalyze the same chemical reaction are called isozymes.[1]:10.3

text: The International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology have developed a nomenclature for enzymes, the EC numbers; each enzyme is described by a sequence of four numbers preceded by "EC", which stands for "Enzyme Commission". The first number broadly classifies the enzyme based on its mechanism.[20]

text: The top-level classification is:

text:
EC 1, Oxidoreductases: catalyze oxidation/reduction reactions
EC 2, Transferases: transfer a functional group (e.g. a methyl or phosphate group)
EC 3, Hydrolases: catalyze the hydrolysis of various bonds
EC 4, Lyases: cleave various bonds by means other than hydrolysis and oxidation
EC 5, Isomerases: catalyze isomerization changes within a single molecule
EC 6, Ligases: join two molecules with covalent bonds.

text: These sections are subdivided by other features such as the substrate, products, and chemical mechanism. An enzyme is fully specified by four numerical designations. For example, hexokinase (EC 2.7.1.1) is a transferase (EC 2) that adds a phosphate group (EC 2.7) to a hexose sugar, a molecule containing an alcohol group (EC 2.7.1).[21]

text: Structure

text: Enzymes are generally globular proteins, acting alone or in larger complexes. The sequence of the amino acids specifies the structure which in turn determines the catalytic activity of the enzyme.[22] Although structure determines function, a novel enzymatic activity cannot yet be predicted from structure alone.[23] Enzyme structures unfold (denature) when heated or exposed to chemical denaturants and this disruption to the structure typically causes a loss of activity.[24] Enzyme denaturation is normally linked to temperatures above a species' normal level; as a result, enzymes from bacteria living in volcanic environments such as hot springs are prized by industrial users for their ability to function at high temperatures, allowing enzyme-catalysed reactions to be operated at a very high rate.

text: Enzymes are usually much larger than their substrates. Sizes range from just 62 amino acid residues, for the monomer of 4-oxalocrotonate tautomerase,[25] to over 2,500 residues in the animal fatty acid synthase.[26] Only a small portion of their structure (around 2–4 amino acids) is directly involved in catalysis: the catalytic site.[27] This catalytic site is located next to one or more binding sites where residues orient the substrates. The catalytic site and binding site together comprise the enzyme's active site. The remaining majority of the enzyme structure serves to maintain the precise orientation and dynamics of the active site.[28]

text: In some enzymes, no amino acids are directly involved in catalysis; instead, the enzyme contains sites to bind and orient catalytic cofactors.[28] Enzyme structures may also contain allosteric sites where the binding of a small molecule causes a conformational change that increases or decreases activity.[29]

text: A small number of RNA-based biological catalysts called ribozymes exist, which again can act alone or in complex with proteins. The most common of these is the ribosome which is a complex of protein and catalytic RNA components.[1]:2.2

text: Mechanism

text: Substrate binding

text: Enzymes must bind their substrates before they can catalyse any chemical reaction. Enzymes are usually very specific as to what substrates they bind and then the chemical reaction catalysed. Specificity is achieved by binding pockets with complementary shape, charge and hydrophilic/hydrophobic characteristics to the substrates. Enzymes can therefore distinguish between very similar substrate molecules to be chemoselective, regioselective and stereospecific.[30]

text: Some of the enzymes showing the highest specificity and accuracy are involved in the copying and expression of the genome. Some of these enzymes have "proof-reading" mechanisms. Here, an enzyme such as DNA polymerase catalyzes a reaction in a first step and then checks that the product is correct in a second step.[31] This two-step process results in average error rates of less than 1 error in 100 million reactions in high-fidelity mammalian polymerases.[1]:5.3.1 Similar proofreading mechanisms are also found in RNA polymerase,[32] aminoacyl tRNA synthetases[33] and ribosomes.[34]

text: Conversely, some enzymes display enzyme promiscuity, having broad specificity and acting on a range of different physiologically relevant substrates. Many enzymes possess small side activities which arose fortuitously (i.e. neutrally), which may be the starting point for the evolutionary selection of a new function.[35][36]

text: "Lock and key" model

text: To explain the observed specificity of enzymes, in 1894 Emil Fischer proposed that both the enzyme and the substrate possess specific complementary geometric shapes that fit exactly into one another.[37] This is often referred to as "the lock and key" model.[1]:8.3.2 This early model explains enzyme specificity, but fails to explain the stabilization of the transition state that enzymes achieve.[38]

text: Induced fit model

text: In 1958, Daniel Koshland suggested a modification to the lock and key model: since enzymes are rather flexible structures, the active site is continuously reshaped by interactions with the substrate as the substrate interacts with the enzyme.[39] As a result, the substrate does not simply bind to a rigid active site; the amino acid side-chains that make up the active site are molded into the precise positions that enable the enzyme to perform its catalytic function. In some cases, such as glycosidases, the substrate molecule also changes shape slightly as it enters the active site.[40] The active site continues to change until the substrate is completely bound, at which point the final shape and charge distribution is determined.[41] Induced fit may enhance the fidelity of molecular recognition in the presence of competition and noise via the conformational proofreading mechanism.[42]

text: Catalysis

text: Enzymes can accelerate reactions in several ways, all of which lower the activation energy (ΔG‡, Gibbs free energy)[43]

text:
By stabilizing the transition state:

Creating an environment with a charge distribution complementary to that of the transition state to lower its energy.[44]

By providing an alternative reaction pathway:

Temporarily reacting with the substrate, forming a covalent intermediate to provide a lower energy transition state.[45]

By destabilising the substrate ground state:

Distorting bound substrate(s) into their transition state form to reduce the energy required to reach the transition state.[46]
By orienting the substrates into a productive arrangement to reduce the reaction entropy change.[47] The contribution of this mechanism to catalysis is relatively small.[48]

tag: ol

text: Enzymes may use several of these mechanisms simultaneously. For example, proteases such as trypsin perform covalent catalysis using a catalytic triad, stabilise charge build-up on the transition states using an oxyanion hole, complete hydrolysis using an oriented water substrate.

text: Dynamics

text: Enzymes are not rigid, static structures; instead they have complex internal dynamic motions – that is, movements of parts of the enzyme's structure such as individual amino acid residues, groups of residues forming a protein loop or unit of secondary structure, or even an entire protein domain. These motions give rise to a conformational ensemble of slightly different structures that interconvert with one another at equilibrium. Different states within this ensemble may be associated with different aspects of an enzyme's function. For example, different conformations of the enzyme dihydrofolate reductase are associated with the substrate binding, catalysis, cofactor release, and product release steps of the catalytic cycle.[49]

text: Allosteric modulation

text: Allosteric sites are pockets on the enzyme, distinct from the active site, that bind to molecules in the cellular environment. These molecules then cause a change in the conformation or dynamics of the enzyme that is transduced to the active site and thus affects the reaction rate of the enzyme.[50] In this way, allosteric interactions can either inhibit or activate enzymes. Allosteric interactions with metabolites upstream or downstream in an enzyme's metabolic pathway cause feedback regulation, altering the activity of the enzyme according to the flux through the rest of the pathway.[51]

text: Cofactors

text: Some enzymes do not need additional components to show full activity. Others require non-protein molecules called cofactors to be bound for activity.[52] Cofactors can be either inorganic (e.g., metal ions and iron-sulfur clusters) or organic compounds (e.g., flavin and heme). These cofactors serve many purposes; for instance, metal ions can help in stabilizing nucleophilic species within the active site.[53] Organic cofactors can be either coenzymes, which are released from the enzyme's active site during the reaction, or prosthetic groups, which are tightly bound to an enzyme. Organic prosthetic groups can be covalently bound (e.g., biotin in enzymes such as pyruvate carboxylase).[54]

text: An example of an enzyme that contains a cofactor is carbonic anhydrase, which is shown in the ribbon diagram above with a zinc cofactor bound as part of its active site.[55] These tightly bound ions or molecules are usually found in the active site and are involved in catalysis.[1]:8.1.1 For example, flavin and heme cofactors are often involved in redox reactions.[1]:17

text: Enzymes that require a cofactor but do not have one bound are called apoenzymes or apoproteins. An enzyme together with the cofactor(s) required for activity is called a holoenzyme (or haloenzyme). The term holoenzyme can also be applied to enzymes that contain multiple protein subunits, such as the DNA polymerases; here the holoenzyme is the complete complex containing all the subunits needed for activity.[1]:8.1.1

text: Coenzymes

text: Coenzymes are small organic molecules that can be loosely or tightly bound to an enzyme. Coenzymes transport chemical groups from one enzyme to another.[56] Examples include NADH, NADPH and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Some coenzymes, such as flavin mononucleotide (FMN), flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), and tetrahydrofolate (THF), are derived from vitamins. These coenzymes cannot be synthesized by the body de novo and closely related compounds (vitamins) must be acquired from the diet. The chemical groups carried include the hydride ion (H−) carried by NAD or NADP+, the phosphate group carried by adenosine triphosphate, the acetyl group carried by coenzyme A, formyl, methenyl or methyl groups carried by folic acid and the methyl group carried by S-adenosylmethionine.[56]

text: Since coenzymes are chemically changed as a consequence of enzyme action, it is useful to consider coenzymes to be a special class of substrates, or second substrates, which are common to many different enzymes. For example, about 1000 enzymes are known to use the coenzyme NADH.[57]

text: Coenzymes are usually continuously regenerated and their concentrations maintained at a steady level inside the cell. For example, NADPH is regenerated through the pentose phosphate pathway and S-adenosylmethionine by methionine adenosyltransferase. This continuous regeneration means that small amounts of coenzymes can be used very intensively. For example, the human body turns over its own weight in ATP each day.[58]

text: Thermodynamics

text: As with all catalysts, enzymes do not alter the position of the chemical equilibrium of the reaction. In the presence of an enzyme, the reaction runs in the same direction as it would without the enzyme, just more quickly.[1]:8.2.3 For example, carbonic anhydrase catalyzes its reaction in either direction depending on the concentration of its reactants:[59]

text:
CO

2

+

H

2

O

→

Carbonic

anhydrase

H

2

CO

3

{\displaystyle {\begin{matrix}{}\\{\ce {{CO2}+H2O->[{\ce {Carbonic\ anhydrase}}]H2CO3}}\\{}\end{matrix}}}

 (in tissues; high CO2 concentration)

(1)

text:
CO

2

+

H

2

O

←

Carbonic

anhydrase

H

2

CO

3

{\displaystyle {\begin{matrix}{}\\{\ce {{CO2}+H2O<-[{\ce {Carbonic\ anhydrase}}]H2CO3}}\\{}\end{matrix}}}

 (in lungs; low CO2 concentration)

(2)

text: The rate of a reaction is dependent on the activation energy needed to form the transition state which then decays into products. Enzymes increase reaction rates by lowering the energy of the transition state. First, binding forms a low energy enzyme-substrate complex (ES). Secondly the enzyme stabilises the transition state such that it requires less energy to achieve compared to the uncatalyzed reaction (ES‡). Finally the enzyme-product complex (EP) dissociates to release the products.[1]:8.3

text: Enzymes can couple two or more reactions, so that a thermodynamically favorable reaction can be used to "drive" a thermodynamically unfavourable one so that the combined energy of the products is lower than the substrates. For example, the hydrolysis of ATP is often used to drive other chemical reactions.[60]

text: Kinetics

text: Enzyme kinetics is the investigation of how enzymes bind substrates and turn them into products. The rate data used in kinetic analyses are commonly obtained from enzyme assays. In 1913 Leonor Michaelis and Maud Leonora Menten proposed a quantitative theory of enzyme kinetics, which is referred to as Michaelis–Menten kinetics.[61] The major contribution of Michaelis and Menten was to think of enzyme reactions in two stages. In the first, the substrate binds reversibly to the enzyme, forming the enzyme-substrate complex. This is sometimes called the Michaelis-Menten complex in their honor. The enzyme then catalyzes the chemical step in the reaction and releases the product. This work was further developed by G. E. Briggs and J. B. S. Haldane, who derived kinetic equations that are still widely used today.[62]

text: Enzyme rates depend on solution conditions and substrate concentration. To find the maximum speed of an enzymatic reaction, the substrate concentration is increased until a constant rate of product formation is seen. This is shown in the saturation curve on the right. Saturation happens because, as substrate concentration increases, more and more of the free enzyme is converted into the substrate-bound ES complex. At the maximum reaction rate (Vmax) of the enzyme, all the enzyme active sites are bound to substrate, and the amount of ES complex is the same as the total amount of enzyme.[1]:8.4

text: Vmax is only one of several important kinetic parameters. The amount of substrate needed to achieve a given rate of reaction is also important. This is given by the Michaelis-Menten constant (Km), which is the substrate concentration required for an enzyme to reach one-half its maximum reaction rate; generally, each enzyme has a characteristic Km for a given substrate. Another useful constant is kcat, also called the turnover number, which is the number of substrate molecules handled by one active site per second.[1]:8.4

text: The efficiency of an enzyme can be expressed in terms of kcat/Km. This is also called the specificity constant and incorporates the rate constants for all steps in the reaction up to and including the first irreversible step. Because the specificity constant reflects both affinity and catalytic ability, it is useful for comparing different enzymes against each other, or the same enzyme with different substrates. The theoretical maximum for the specificity constant is called the diffusion limit and is about 108 to 109 (M−1 s−1). At this point every collision of the enzyme with its substrate will result in catalysis, and the rate of product formation is not limited by the reaction rate but by the diffusion rate. Enzymes with this property are called catalytically perfect or kinetically perfect. Example of such enzymes are triose-phosphate isomerase, carbonic anhydrase, acetylcholinesterase, catalase, fumarase, β-lactamase, and superoxide dismutase.[1]:8.4.2 The turnover of such enzymes can reach several million reactions per second.[1]:9.2

text: Michaelis–Menten kinetics relies on the law of mass action, which is derived from the assumptions of free diffusion and thermodynamically driven random collision. Many biochemical or cellular processes deviate significantly from these conditions, because of macromolecular crowding and constrained molecular movement.[63] More recent, complex extensions of the model attempt to correct for these effects.[64]

text: Inhibition

text: Enzyme reaction rates can be decreased by various types of enzyme inhibitors.[65]:73–74

text: Types of inhibition

text: Competitive

text: A competitive inhibitor and substrate cannot bind to the enzyme at the same time.[66] Often competitive inhibitors strongly resemble the real substrate of the enzyme. For example, the drug methotrexate is a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme dihydrofolate reductase, which catalyzes the reduction of dihydrofolate to tetrahydrofolate. The similarity between the structures of dihydrofolate and this drug are shown in the accompanying figure. This type of inhibition can be overcome with high substrate concentration. In some cases, the inhibitor can bind to a site other than the binding-site of the usual substrate and exert an allosteric effect to change the shape of the usual binding-site.

text: Non-competitive

text: A non-competitive inhibitor binds to a site other than where the substrate binds. The substrate still binds with its usual affinity and hence Km remains the same. However the inhibitor reduces the catalytic efficiency of the enzyme so that Vmax is reduced. In contrast to competitive inhibition, non-competitive inhibition cannot be overcome with high substrate concentration.[65]:76–78

text: Uncompetitive

text: An uncompetitive inhibitor cannot bind to the free enzyme, only to the enzyme-substrate complex; hence, these types of inhibitors are most effective at high substrate concentration. In the presence of the inhibitor, the enzyme-substrate complex is inactive.[65]:78 This type of inhibition is rare.[67]

text: Mixed

text: A mixed inhibitor binds to an allosteric site and the binding of the substrate and the inhibitor affect each other. The enzyme's function is reduced but not eliminated when bound to the inhibitor. This type of inhibitor does not follow the Michaelis-Menten equation.[65]:76–78

text: Irreversible

text: An irreversible inhibitor permanently inactivates the enzyme, usually by forming a covalent bond to the protein. Penicillin[68] and aspirin[69] are common drugs that act in this manner.

text: Functions of inhibitors

text: In many organisms, inhibitors may act as part of a feedback mechanism. If an enzyme produces too much of one substance in the organism, that substance may act as an inhibitor for the enzyme at the beginning of the pathway that produces it, causing production of the substance to slow down or stop when there is sufficient amount. This is a form of negative feedback. Major metabolic pathways such as the citric acid cycle make use of this mechanism.[1]:17.2.2

text: Since inhibitors modulate the function of enzymes they are often used as drugs. Many such drugs are reversible competitive inhibitors that resemble the enzyme's native substrate, similar to methotrexate above; other well-known examples include statins used to treat high cholesterol,[70] and protease inhibitors used to treat retroviral infections such as HIV.[71] A common example of an irreversible inhibitor that is used as a drug is aspirin, which inhibits the COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes that produce the inflammation messenger prostaglandin.[69] Other enzyme inhibitors are poisons. For example, the poison cyanide is an irreversible enzyme inhibitor that combines with the copper and iron in the active site of the enzyme cytochrome c oxidase and blocks cellular respiration.[72]

text: Biological function

text: Enzymes serve a wide variety of functions inside living organisms. They are indispensable for signal transduction and cell regulation, often via kinases and phosphatases.[73] They also generate movement, with myosin hydrolyzing ATP to generate muscle contraction, and also transport cargo around the cell as part of the cytoskeleton.[74] Other ATPases in the cell membrane are ion pumps involved in active transport. Enzymes are also involved in more exotic functions, such as luciferase generating light in fireflies.[75] Viruses can also contain enzymes for infecting cells, such as the HIV integrase and reverse transcriptase, or for viral release from cells, like the influenza virus neuraminidase.[76]

text: An important function of enzymes is in the digestive systems of animals. Enzymes such as amylases and proteases break down large molecules (starch or proteins, respectively) into smaller ones, so they can be absorbed by the intestines. Starch molecules, for example, are too large to be absorbed from the intestine, but enzymes hydrolyze the starch chains into smaller molecules such as maltose and eventually glucose, which can then be absorbed. Different enzymes digest different food substances. In ruminants, which have herbivorous diets, microorganisms in the gut produce another enzyme, cellulase, to break down the cellulose cell walls of plant fiber.[77]

text: Metabolism

text: Several enzymes can work together in a specific order, creating metabolic pathways.[1]:30.1 In a metabolic pathway, one enzyme takes the product of another enzyme as a substrate. After the catalytic reaction, the product is then passed on to another enzyme. Sometimes more than one enzyme can catalyze the same reaction in parallel; this can allow more complex regulation: with, for example, a low constant activity provided by one enzyme but an inducible high activity from a second enzyme.[78]

text: Enzymes determine what steps occur in these pathways. Without enzymes, metabolism would neither progress through the same steps and could not be regulated to serve the needs of the cell. Most central metabolic pathways are regulated at a few key steps, typically through enzymes whose activity involves the hydrolysis of ATP. Because this reaction releases so much energy, other reactions that are thermodynamically unfavorable can be coupled to ATP hydrolysis, driving the overall series of linked metabolic reactions.[1]:30.1

text: Control of activity

text: There are five main ways that enzyme activity is controlled in the cell.[1]:30.1.1

text: Regulation

text: Enzymes can be either activated or inhibited by other molecules. For example, the end product(s) of a metabolic pathway are often inhibitors for one of the first enzymes of the pathway (usually the first irreversible step, called committed step), thus regulating the amount of end product made by the pathways. Such a regulatory mechanism is called a negative feedback mechanism, because the amount of the end product produced is regulated by its own concentration.[79]:141–48 Negative feedback mechanism can effectively adjust the rate of synthesis of intermediate metabolites according to the demands of the cells. This helps with effective allocations of materials and energy economy, and it prevents the excess manufacture of end products. Like other homeostatic devices, the control of enzymatic action helps to maintain a stable internal environment in living organisms.[79]:141

text: Post-translational modification

text: Examples of post-translational modification include phosphorylation, myristoylation and glycosylation.[79]:149–69 For example, in the response to insulin, the phosphorylation of multiple enzymes, including glycogen synthase, helps control the synthesis or degradation of glycogen and allows the cell to respond to changes in blood sugar.[80] Another example of post-translational modification is the cleavage of the polypeptide chain. Chymotrypsin, a digestive protease, is produced in inactive form as chymotrypsinogen in the pancreas and transported in this form to the stomach where it is activated. This stops the enzyme from digesting the pancreas or other tissues before it enters the gut. This type of inactive precursor to an enzyme is known as a zymogen[79]:149–53 or proenzyme.

text: Quantity

text: Enzyme production (transcription and translation of enzyme genes) can be enhanced or diminished by a cell in response to changes in the cell's environment. This form of gene regulation is called enzyme induction. For example, bacteria may become resistant to antibiotics such as penicillin because enzymes called beta-lactamases are induced that hydrolyse the crucial beta-lactam ring within the penicillin molecule.[81] Another example comes from enzymes in the liver called cytochrome P450 oxidases, which are important in drug metabolism. Induction or inhibition of these enzymes can cause drug interactions.[82] Enzyme levels can also be regulated by changing the rate of enzyme degradation.[1]:30.1.1

text: Subcellular distribution

text: Enzymes can be compartmentalized, with different metabolic pathways occurring in different cellular compartments. For example, fatty acids are synthesized by one set of enzymes in the cytosol, endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi and used by a different set of enzymes as a source of energy in the mitochondrion, through β-oxidation.[83] In addition, trafficking of the enzyme to different compartments may change the degree of protonation (cytoplasm neutral and lysosome acidic) or oxidative state [e.g., oxidized (periplasm) or reduced (cytoplasm)] which in turn affects enzyme activity.[84]

text: Organ specialization

text: In multicellular eukaryotes, cells in different organs and tissues have different patterns of gene expression and therefore have different sets of enzymes (known as isozymes) available for metabolic reactions. This provides a mechanism for regulating the overall metabolism of the organism. For example, hexokinase, the first enzyme in the glycolysis pathway, has a specialized form called glucokinase expressed in the liver and pancreas that has a lower affinity for glucose yet is more sensitive to glucose concentration.[85] This enzyme is involved in sensing blood sugar and regulating insulin production.[86]

text: Involvement in disease

text: Since the tight control of enzyme activity is essential for homeostasis, any malfunction (mutation, overproduction, underproduction or deletion) of a single critical enzyme can lead to a genetic disease. The malfunction of just one type of enzyme out of the thousands of types present in the human body can be fatal. An example of a fatal genetic disease due to enzyme insufficiency is Tay-Sachs disease, in which patients lack the enzyme hexosaminidase.[87][88]

text: One example of enzyme deficiency is the most common type of phenylketonuria. Many different single amino acid mutations in the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase, which catalyzes the first step in the degradation of phenylalanine, result in build-up of phenylalanine and related products. Some mutations are in the active site, directly disrupting binding and catalysis, but many are far from the active site and reduce activity by destabilising the protein structure, or affecting correct oligomerisation.[89][90] This can lead to intellectual disability if the disease is untreated.[91] Another example is pseudocholinesterase deficiency, in which the body's ability to break down choline ester drugs is impaired.[92] Oral administration of enzymes can be used to treat some functional enzyme deficiencies, such as pancreatic insufficiency[93] and lactose intolerance.[94]

text: Another way enzyme malfunctions can cause disease comes from germline mutations in genes coding for DNA repair enzymes. Defects in these enzymes cause cancer because cells are less able to repair mutations in their genomes. This causes a slow accumulation of mutations and results in the development of cancers. An example of such a hereditary cancer syndrome is xeroderma pigmentosum, which causes the development of skin cancers in response to even minimal exposure to ultraviolet light.[95][96]

text: Industrial applications

text: Enzymes are used in the chemical industry and other industrial applications when extremely specific catalysts are required. Enzymes in general are limited in the number of reactions they have evolved to catalyze and also by their lack of stability in organic solvents and at high temperatures. As a consequence, protein engineering is an active area of research and involves attempts to create new enzymes with novel properties, either through rational design or in vitro evolution.[97][98] These efforts have begun to be successful, and a few enzymes have now been designed "from scratch" to catalyze reactions that do not occur in nature.[99]

text:
Application
Enzymes used
Uses

Biofuel industry
Cellulases
Break down cellulose into sugars that can be fermented to produce cellulosic ethanol.[100]

Ligninases
Pretreatment of biomass for biofuel production.[100]

Biological detergent
Proteases, amylases, lipases
Remove protein, starch, and fat or oil stains from laundry and dishware.[101]

Mannanases
Remove food stains from the common food additive guar gum.[101]

Brewing industry
Amylase, glucanases, proteases
Split polysaccharides and proteins in the malt.[102]:150–9

Betaglucanases
Improve the wort and beer filtration characteristics.[102]:545

Amyloglucosidase and pullulanases
Make low-calorie beer and adjust fermentability.[102]:575

Acetolactate decarboxylase (ALDC)
Increase fermentation efficiency by reducing diacetyl formation.[103]

Culinary uses
Papain
Tenderize meat for cooking.[104]

Dairy industry
Rennin
Hydrolyze protein in the manufacture of cheese.[105]

Lipases
Produce Camembert cheese and blue cheeses such as Roquefort.[106]

Food processing
Amylases
Produce sugars from starch, such as in making high-fructose corn syrup.[107]

Proteases
Lower the protein level of flour, as in biscuit-making.[108]

Trypsin
Manufacture hypoallergenic baby foods.[108]

Cellulases, pectinases
Clarify fruit juices.[109]

Molecular biology
Nucleases, DNA ligase and polymerases
Use restriction digestion and the polymerase chain reaction to create recombinant DNA.[1]:6.2

Paper industry
Xylanases, hemicellulases and lignin peroxidases
Remove lignin from kraft pulp.[110]

Personal care
Proteases
Remove proteins on contact lenses to prevent infections.[111]

Starch industry
Amylases
Convert starch into glucose and various syrups.[112]