document_title: History of paper

question_text: when did the use of paper start in india

text: History of paper

text: Precursors: papyrus and amate

text: The word "paper" is etymologically derived from papyrus, Ancient Greek for the Cyperus papyrus plant. Papyrus is a thick, paper-like material produced from the pith of the Cyperus papyrus plant which was used in ancient Egypt and other Mediterranean societies for writing long before paper was used in China.[2] Papyrus however are plants pressed and dried, while paper is made from fibers whose properties have been changed by maceration or disintegration.[3]

text: It is lucky chance that the date of CE 105 was recorded, because Cai Lun, the official involved, who seems to have introduced some improvements in paper manufacture, worked at the palace as a eunuch. Yet just because the new technology was not trumpeted at the time does not mean that it had no effect. On the contrary: up to this point China was lagging behind those Mediterranean societies where papyrus was used and where light, inexpensive scrolls could be created. But thereafter the advantage swung the other way, since papyrus, which is composed of organic material not as highly processed as paper, was prone to splitting and deterioration at a much greater rate; this may be why vellum eventually came to dominate, especially in the harsher climate of Northern Europe. Paper, by contrast, gave a good, uniform writing surface that could be smoothly rolled and unrolled without damage, while remaining relatively durable.[4]

text: In the pre-Columbian Americas, a type of early bark paper known as amate was used as a folded writing material for codices. The earliest sample of amate was found at Huitzilapa near the Magdalena Municipality, Jalisco, Mexico, belonging to the shaft tomb culture.[5]

text: Paper in China

text: Archaeological evidence of papermaking predates the traditional attribution given to Cai Lun,[6] an imperial eunuch official of the Han dynasty (202 BC-AD 220), thus the exact date or inventor of paper can not be deduced. The earliest extant paper fragment was unearthed at Fangmatan in Gansu province, and was likely part of a map, dated to 179-41 BC.[7] Fragments of paper have also been found at Dunhuang dated to 65 BC and at Yumen pass, dated to 8 BC.[8]

text: "Cai Lun's" invention, recorded hundreds of years after it took place, is dated to 105 AD. The innovation is a type of paper made of mulberry and other bast fibres along with fishing nets, old rags, and hemp waste which reduced the cost of paper production, which prior to this, and later, in the West, depended solely on rags.[8][9][4]

text: Techniques

text: During the Shang (1600–1050 BC) and Zhou (1050-256 BC) dynasties of ancient China, documents were ordinarily written on bone or bamboo (on tablets or on bamboo strips sewn and rolled together into scrolls), making them very heavy, awkward, and hard to transport. The light material of silk was sometimes used as a recording medium, but was normally too expensive to consider. The Han dynasty Chinese court official Cai Lun (ca. 50–121) is credited as the inventor of a method of papermaking (inspired by wasps and bees) using rags and other plant fibers in 105 CE.[4] However, the discovery of specimens bearing written Chinese characters in 2006 at Fangmatan in north-east China's Gansu Province suggests that paper was in use by the ancient Chinese military more than 100 years before Cai, in 8 BC, and possibly much earlier as the map fragment found at the Fangmatan tomb site dates from the early 2nd century BC.[7] It therefore would appear that "Cai Lun's contribution was to improve this skill systematically and scientifically, fix a recipe for papermaking".[10]

text: The record in the Twenty-Four Histories says[11]

text: The production process may have originated from the practice of pounding and stirring rags in water, after which the matted fibres were collected on a mat. The bark of Paper Mulberry was particularly valued and high quality paper was developed in the late Han period using the bark of tan (檀; sandalwood). In the Eastern Jin period a fine bamboo screen-mould treated with insecticidal dye for permanence was used in papermaking. After printing was popularized during the Song dynasty the demand for paper grew substantially. In the year 1101, 1.5 million sheets of paper were sent to the capital.[11]

text: Uses

text: Open, it stretches; closed, it rolls up. it can be contracted or expanded; hidden away or displayed.[8]

text: Among the earliest known uses of paper was padding and wrapping delicate bronze mirrors according to archaeological evidence dating to the reign of Emperor Wu of Han from the 2nd century BC.[12] Padding doubled as both protection for the object as well as the user in cases where poisonous "medicine" were involved, as mentioned in the official history of the period.[12] Although paper was used for writing by the 3rd century AD,[1] paper continued to be used for wrapping (and other) purposes. Toilet paper was used in China from around the late 6th century.[13] In 589, the Chinese scholar-official Yan Zhitui (531-591) wrote: "Paper on which there are quotations or commentaries from Five Classics or the names of sages, I dare not use for toilet purposes".[13] An Arab traveler who visited China wrote of the curious Chinese tradition of toilet paper in 851, writing: "... [the Chinese] do not wash themselves with water when they have done their necessities; but they only wipe themselves with paper".[13]

text: During the Tang dynasty (618–907) paper was folded and sewn into square bags to preserve the flavor of tea. In the same period, it was written that tea was served from baskets with multi-colored paper cups and paper napkins of different size and shape.[12] During the Song dynasty (960–1279) the government produced the world's first known paper-printed money, or banknote (see Jiaozi and Huizi). Paper money was bestowed as gifts to government officials in special paper envelopes.[13] During the Yuan dynasty (1271-1368), the first well-documented Europeans in Medieval China, the Venetian merchant Marco Polo remarked how the Chinese burned paper effigies shaped as male and female servants, camels, horses, suits of clothing and armor while cremating the dead during funerary rites.[14]

text: Impact of paper

text: According to Timothy Hugh Barrett, paper played a pivotal role in early Chinese written culture, and a "strong reading culture seems to have developed quickly after its introduction, despite political fragmentation."[15] Indeed the introduction of paper had immense consequences for the book world. It meant books would no longer have to be circulated in small sections or bundles, but in their entirety. Books could now be carried by hand rather than transported by cart. As a result individual collections of literary works increased in the following centuries.[16]

text: Textual culture seems to have been more developed in the south by the early 5th century, with individuals owning collections of several thousand scrolls. In the north an entire palace collection might have been only a few thousand scrolls in total.[17] By the early 6th century, scholars in both the north and south were capable of citing upwards of 400 sources in commentaries on older works.[18] A small compilation text from the 7th century included citations to over 1,400 works.[19]

text: The personal nature of texts was remarked upon by a late 6th century imperial librarian. According to him, the possession of and familiarity with a few hundred scrolls was what it took to be socially accepted as an educated man.[20]

text: According to Endymion Wilkinson, one consequence of the rise of paper in China was that "it rapidly began to surpass the Mediterranean empires in book production."[8] During the Tang dynasty, China became the world leader in book production. In addition the gradual spread of woodblock printing from the late Tang and Song further boosted their lead ahead of the rest of the world.[21]

text: From the fourth century CE to about 1500, the biggest library collections in China were three to four times larger than the largest collections in Europe. The imperial government book collections in the Tang numbered about 5,000 to 6,000 titles (89,000 juan) in 721. The Song imperial collections at their height in the early twelfth century may have risen to 4,000 to 5,000 titles. These are indeed impressive numbers, but the imperial libraries were exceptional in China and their use was highly restricted. Only very few libraries in the Tang and Song held more than one or two thousand titles (a size not even matched by the manuscript collections of the grandest of the great cathedral libraries in Europe).[22]

text: However despite the initial advantage afforded to China by the paper medium, by the 9th century its spread and development in the middle east had closed the gap between the two regions. Between the 9th to early 12th centuries, libraries in Cairo, Baghdad, and Cordoba held collections larger than even the ones in China, and dwarfed those in Europe. From about 1500 the maturation of paper making and printing in Southern Europe also had an effect in closing the gap with the Chinese. The Venetian Domenico Grimani's collection numbered 15,000 volumes by the time of his death in 1523. After 1600, European collections completely overtook those in China. The Bibliotheca Augusta numbered 60,000 volumes in 1649 and surged to 120,000 in 1666. In the 1720s the Bibliotheque du Roi numbered 80,000 books and the Cambridge University 40,000 in 1715. After 1700, libraries in North America also began to overtake those of China, and toward the end of the century, Thomas Jefferson's private collection numbered 4,889 titles in 6,487 volumes. The European advantage only increased further into the 19th century as national collections in Europe and America exceeded a million volumes while a few private collections, such as that of Lord Action, reached 70,000.[22]

text: European book production began to catch up with China after the introduction of the mechanical printing press in the mid fifteenth century. Reliable figures of the number of imprints of each edition are as hard to find in Europe as they are in China, but one result of the spread of printing in Europe was that public and private libraries were able to build up their collections and for the first time in over a thousand years they began to match and then overtake the largest libraries in China.[21]

text: Paper became central to the three arts of China - poetry, painting, and calligraphy. In later times paper constituted one of the 'Four Treasures of the Scholar's Studio,' alongside the brush, the ink, and the inkstone.[23]

text: Paper in Asia

text: After its origin in central China, the production and use of paper spread steadily. It is clear that paper was used at Dunhuang by AD 150, in Loulan in the modern-day province of Xinjiang by 200, and in Turpan by 399. Paper was concurrently introduced in Japan sometime between the years 280 and 610.[24]

text: Vietnam

text: Paper spread to Vietnam in the 3rd century.[16]

text: Korea

text: Paper spread to Korea in the 4th century.[16]

text: Japan

text: Paper spread to Japan in the 5th century.[16]

text: India

text: Paper spread to India in the 7th century.[16][25] However, the use of paper was not widespread there until the 12th century.[26]

text: Islamic world

text: After the defeat of the Chinese in the Battle of Talas in 751 (present day Kyrgyzstan), the invention spread to the Middle East.[27]

text: The legend goes,[28] the secret of papermaking was obtained from two Chinese prisoners from the Battle of Talas, which led to the first paper mill in the Islamic world being founded in Samarkand in Sogdia (modern-day Uzbekistan). There was a tradition that Muslims would release their prisoners if they could teach ten Muslims any valuable knowledge.[29] There are records of paper being made at Gilgit in Pakistan by the sixth century, in Samarkand by 751, in Baghdad by 793, in Egypt by 900, and in Fes, Morocco around 1100.[30]

text: The laborious process of paper making was refined and machinery was designed for bulk manufacturing of paper. Production began in Baghdad, where a method was invented to make a thicker sheet of paper, which helped transform papermaking from an art into a major industry.[31] The use of water-powered pulp mills for preparing the pulp material used in papermaking, dates back to Samarkand in the 8th century,[32] though this should not be confused with paper mills (see Paper mills section below). The Muslims also introduced the use of trip hammers (human- or animal-powered) in the production of paper, replacing the traditional Chinese mortar and pestle method. In turn, the trip hammer method was later employed by the Chinese.[33] Historically, trip hammers were often powered by a water wheel, and are known to have been used in China as long ago as 40 BC or maybe even as far back as the Zhou Dynasty (1050 BC–221 BC).[34]

text: By the 9th century, Muslims were using paper regularly, although for important works like copies of the revered Qur'an, vellum was still preferred.[35] Advances in book production and bookbinding were introduced.[36][unreliable source] In Muslim countries they made books lighter—sewn with silk and bound with leather-covered paste boards; they had a flap that wrapped the book up when not in use. As paper was less reactive to humidity, the heavy boards were not needed. By the 12th century in Marrakech in Morocco a street was named "Kutubiyyin" or book sellers which contained more than 100 bookshops.[37]

text: The earliest recorded use of paper for packaging dates back to 1035,[contradictory] when a Persian traveler visiting markets in Cairo noted that vegetables, spices and hardware were wrapped in paper for the customers after they were sold.[38] Since the First Crusade in 1096, paper manufacturing in Damascus had been interrupted by wars, but its production continued in two other centres. Egypt continued with the thicker paper, while Iran became the center of the thinner papers. Papermaking was diffused across the Islamic world, from where it was diffused further west into Europe.[39] Paper manufacture was introduced to India in the 13th century by Muslim merchants, where it almost wholly replaced traditional writing materials.[35]

text: Paper in Europe

text: The oldest known paper document in the West is the Mozarab Missal of Silos from the 11th century, probably using paper made in the Islamic part of the Iberian Peninsula. They used hemp and linen rags as a source of fiber. The first recorded paper mill in the Iberian Peninsula was in Xàtiva in 1056.[40][41] Papermaking reached Europe as early as 1085 in Toledo and was firmly established in Xàtiva, Spain by 1150. It is clear that France had a paper mill by 1190, and by 1276 mills were established in Fabriano, Italy and in Treviso and other northern Italian towns by 1340. Papermaking then spread further northwards, with evidence of paper being made in Troyes, France by 1348, in Holland sometime around 1340–1350, in Mainz, Germany in 1320, and in Nuremberg by 1390 in a mill set up by Ulman Stromer.[42] This was just about the time when the woodcut printmaking technique was transferred from fabric to paper in the old master print and popular prints. There was a paper mill in Switzerland by 1432 and the first mill in England was set up by John Tate in 1490 near Stevenage in Hertfordshire,[43] but the first commercially successful paper mill in Britain did not occur before 1588 when John Spilman set up a mill near Dartford in Kent.[44] During this time, paper making spread to Poland by 1491, to Austria by 1498, to Russia by 1576, to the Netherlands by 1586, to Denmark by 1596, and to Sweden by 1612.[30]

text: Arab prisoners who settled in a town called Borgo Saraceno in the Italian Province of Ferrara introduced Fabriano artisans in the Province of Ancona[clarification needed] the technique of making paper by hand. At the time they were renowned for their wool-weaving and manufacture of cloth. Fabriano papermakers considered the process of making paper by hand an art form and were able to refine the process to successfully compete with parchment which was the primary medium for writing at the time. They developed the application of stamping hammers to reduce rags to pulp for making paper, sizing paper by means of animal glue, and creating watermarks in the paper during its forming process. The Fabriano used glue, obtained by boiling scrolls or scraps of animal skin to size the paper; it is suggested that this technique was recommended by the local tanneries. The introduction of the first European watermarks in Fabriano was linked to applying metal wires on a cover laid against the mould which was used for forming the paper.[45]

text: They adapted the waterwheels from the fuller's mills to drive a series of 3 wooden hammers per trough. The hammers were raised by their heads by cams fixed to a waterwheel's axle made from a large tree trunk.[46][47]

text: Americas

text: In the Americas, archaeological evidence indicates that a similar bark-paper writing material was used by the Mayans no later than the 5th century AD.[48] Called amatl, it was in widespread use among Mesoamerican cultures until the Spanish conquest. The paper is created by boiling and pounding the inner bark of trees, until the material becomes suitable for art and writing.

text: These materials made from pounded reeds and bark are technically not true paper, which is made from pulp, rags, and fibers of plants and cellulose.

text: European papermaking spread to the Americas first in Mexico by 1575 and then in Philadelphia by 1690.[30]

text: Paper mills

text: The use of human and animal powered mills was known to Chinese and Muslim papermakers. However, evidence for water-powered paper mills is elusive among both prior to the 11th century.[49][50][51][52] The general absence of the use of water-powered paper mills in Muslim papermaking prior to the 11th century is suggested by the habit of Muslim authors at the time to call a production center not a "mill", but a "paper manufactory".[53]

text: Donald Hill has identified a possible reference to a water-powered paper mill in Samarkand, in the 11th-century work of the Persian scholar Abu Rayhan Biruni, but concludes that the passage is "too brief to enable us to say with certainty" that it refers to a water-powered paper mill.[54] This is seen by Halevi as evidence of Samarkand first harnessing waterpower in the production of paper, but notes that it is not known if waterpower was applied to papermaking elsewhere across the Islamic world at the time.[55] Burns remains sceptical, given the isolated occurrence of the reference and the prevalence of manual labour in Islamic papermaking elsewhere prior to the 13th century.[56]

text: Clear evidence of a water-powered paper mill dates to 1282 in the Spanish Kingdom of Aragon.[57] A decree by the Christian king Peter III addresses the establishment of a royal "molendinum", a proper hydraulic mill, in the paper manufacturing centre of Xàtiva.[57] The crown innovation originates from the Muslim Mudéjar community in the Moorish quarter of Xàtiva, where paper mills were a Muslim Mudejar operated enterprise.[58] However, it appears to be resented by sections of the local Muslim papermakering community; the document guarantees them the right to continue the way of traditional papermaking by beating the pulp manually and grants them the right to be exempted from work in the new mill.[57] Paper making centers began to multiply in the late 13th century in Italy, reducing the price of paper to one sixth of parchment and then falling further; paper making centers reached Germany a century later.[59]

text: The first paper mill north of the Alps was established in Nuremberg by Ulman Stromer in 1390; it is later depicted in the lavishly illustrated Nuremberg Chronicle.[60] From the mid-14th century onwards, European paper milling underwent a rapid improvement of many work processes.[61]

text: Fiber sources

text: Before the industrialisation of the paper production the most common fibre source was recycled fibres from used textiles, called rags. The rags were from hemp, linen and cotton.[62] A process for removing printing inks from recycled paper was invented by German jurist Justus Claproth in 1774.[62] Today this method is called deinking. It was not until the introduction of wood pulp in 1843 that paper production was not dependent on recycled materials from ragpickers.[62]

text: 19th century advances in papermaking

text: Although cheaper than vellum, paper remained expensive, at least in book-sized quantities, through the centuries, until the advent of steam-driven paper making machines in the 19th century, which could make paper with fibres from wood pulp. Although older machines predated it, the Fourdrinier papermaking machine became the basis for most modern papermaking. Nicholas Louis Robert of Essonnes, France, was granted a patent for a continuous paper making machine in 1799. At the time he was working for Leger Didot with whom he quarrelled over the ownership of the invention. Didot sent his brother-in-law, John Gamble, to meet Sealy and Henry Fourdrinier, stationers of London, who agreed to finance the project. Gamble was granted British patent 2487 on 20 October 1801. With the help particularly of Bryan Donkin, a skilled and ingenious mechanic, an improved version of the Robert original was installed at Frogmore, Hertfordshire, in 1803, followed by another in 1804. A third machine was installed at the Fourdriniers' own mill at Two Waters. The Fourdriniers also bought a mill at St Neots intending to install two machines there and the process and machines continued to develop.

text: However, experiments with wood showed no real results in the late 18th century and at the start of the 19th century. By 1800, Matthias Koops (in London, England) further investigated the idea of using wood to make paper, and in 1801 he wrote and published a book titled Historical account of the substances which have been used to describe events, and to convey ideas, from the earliest date, to the invention of paper.[63] His book was printed on paper made from wood shavings (and adhered together). No pages were fabricated using the pulping method (from either rags or wood). He received financial support from the royal family to make his printing machines and acquire the materials and infrastructure needed to start his printing business. But his enterprise was short lived. Only a few years following his first and only printed book (the one he wrote and printed), he went bankrupt. The book was very well done (strong and had a fine appearance), but it was very costly.[64][65][66]

text: Then in the 1830s and 1840s, two men on two different continents took up the challenge, but from a totally new perspective. Both Friedrich Gottlob Keller and Charles Fenerty began experiments with wood but using the same technique used in paper making; instead of pulping rags, they thought about pulping wood. And at about the same time, by mid-1844, they announced their findings. They invented a machine which extracted the fibres from wood (exactly as with rags) and made paper from it. Charles Fenerty also bleached the pulp so that the paper was white. This started a new era for paper making. By the end of the 19th-century almost all printers in the western world were using wood in lieu of rags to make paper.[67]

text: Together with the invention of the practical fountain pen and the mass-produced pencil of the same period, and in conjunction with the advent of the steam driven rotary printing press, wood based paper caused a major transformation of the 19th century economy and society in industrialized countries. With the introduction of cheaper paper, schoolbooks, fiction, non-fiction, and newspapers became gradually available by 1900. Cheap wood based paper also meant that keeping personal diaries or writing letters became possible and so, by 1850, the clerk, or writer, ceased to be a high-status job.

text: The original wood-based paper was acidic due to the use of alum and more prone to disintegrate over time, through processes known as slow fires. Documents written on more expensive rag paper were more stable. Mass-market paperback books still use these cheaper mechanical papers (see below), but book publishers can now use acid-free paper for hardback and trade paperback books.

text: Determining provenance

text: Determining the provenance of paper is a complex process that can be done in a variety of ways. The easiest way is using a known sheet of paper as an exemplar. Using known sheets can produce an exact identification. Next, comparing watermarks with those contained in catalogs or trade listings can yield useful results. Inspecting the surface can also determine age and location by looking for distinct marks from the production process. Chemical and fiber analysis can be used to establish date of creation and perhaps location.[68][page needed]


document_title: Handy Manny

question_text: what is the hammer's name on handy manny

question_tokens: what is the hammer 's name on handy manny

root

text: Handy Manny

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: Handy Manny (a play on the phrase "handy man") is set in the fictional town of Sheetrock Hills where the titular character, Manny, owns a repair shop along with his anthropomorphic talking tools. It is unknown exactly where this town is located, but there are a multitude of Spanish speaking residents within it and the town is surrounded by tropical ocean water (as seen in the introduction). Most 30-minute episodes contain two stories. They typically begin with Manny and the tools interacting in Manny's repair shop. While there, someone, usually needing something repaired or assembled, calls Manny, who answers, "Hola, Handy Manny's Repair Shop. You break it..." and then the Tools shout "We fix it!" After hearing who needs help where, Manny and the Tools sing "Hop Up, Jump In" while the Tools hop into his tool box. In most episodes when Manny and the Tools leave for the repair, they see Mr. Lopart with his pet cat Fluffy in front of his candy store. Mr. Lopart would try to do something on his own without any prior experience. Manny offers him to help but Mr. Lopart says that he doesn't need any help, after Manny and the Tools leave the item Mr. Lopart was building would malfunction and cause a mess. Once Manny and the tools arrive at the repair site, they collaborate on the best way to fix the broken item. Manny then goes to Kelly's hardware store where she always has the item that they need. Once they have the items needed for the repair, they go back to the work-site and sing "We Work Together" while performing the repairs.

tag: p

text: Characters[edit]

text:
Manny (voiced by Wilmer Valderrama),[4] full name Manuel Estevez Garcia III, is a repairman who lives in Sheet Rock Hills. He has brown eyes and brown hair, and carries a pencil behind his ear. He wears a red and white hat, a green shirt, blue jeans, worker boots, a yellow tool belt with a silver buckle. He is Abuelito's grandson and is the younger brother of Lola and Ruben.
Kelly (voiced by Nancy Truman)[5] is a hardware store owner. She lives in Sheet Rock Hills with her friends and family. Kelly has a teenage brother named Elliot. It was said in various episodes that Kelly loves keeping toys behind her desk for Manny and the tools to give to Chico and Pepe as gifts. Her family name is Crenshaw.
Mr. Kumar (voiced by Brian George), is the Manny's friend. He has brown skin, black-blue hair and brown eyes. He also wears a white shirt and blue vest with yellow buttons, purple pants wearing brown shoes.
Mr. Lopart (voiced by Tom Kenny),[6] full name Leonard Francis Lopart, is the owner of a candy store next to Manny's workshop. He is a single middle-aged man who lives happily with his cat Fluffy (also voiced by Tom Kenny). His mother is Mrs. Lopart and he has twin nephews named Lyle and Leland.

tag: ul

text: Main tools[edit]

text:
Felipe (voiced by Carlos Alazraqui)[5] - is a yellow Phillips-head screwdriver (hence his name) who always considers himself a very important tool. He is always overconfident and popular about himself. He sometimes thinks of himself as a super hero. Sometimes, his ideas make a problem worse. He provides a lot of the Spanish language content in the show, translating for the other tools. He also loves to sing but is not very good at it. He usually gets under Turner's skin and his headache, sometimes purposely. He bonds with Flicker and tries to bond with Turner. He also bonds with Pat sometimes.
Turner (voiced by Dee Bradley Baker)[5] - is a purple flat-head screwdriver who appears to be sarcastic and is bossy to Felipe, usually going against Felipe's overconfidence. There are some cases where he shows a genuinely caring relationship with Felipe. In the season one episode "Supremoguy", Felipe needs rescuing and Turner is the first to say "I'll get ya". Also in the episode "Breakfast of Champions", when Felipe feels worn out, he shows genuine concern for him. He appears to have a secret soft spot for babies and animals (including birds, kittens, and butterflies) and for dancing, even crying in "Handy Manny & The 7 Tools", although he loudly denies it. In the episode "Tools for Toys", he is easily liked by Mr. Singh's daughter, Leela. In the same episode, she kisses him at the top of the head and he blushes. Turner loses his patience with Pat due to his lack of intelligence and with Rusty due to his fear of many things.
Pat (voiced by Tom Kenny)[7] - is a blue hammer who is talkative, extremely silly and dumb, an idealistic tool, clumsy and not so intelligent, though he does have flashes of cleverness from time to time. He sometimes finds it hard to control his strength. His catchphrase is "I'm a hammer". He is obsessed with nails. It is hinted that he is Rusty's best friend because he is usually the first to comfort him. His lack of intelligence annoys Turner.
Dusty (voiced by Kath Soucie) - is a red hand saw who is very smart and gives good advice. She acts as the big sister of the group and is very good with detective work by solving mysteries. She also bonds with almost all the other tools. Ironically, Dusty doesn't have eyelashes despite the fact she is a female tool except Dusty appears to have eyelashes when she dresses as a ballerina; which consists of a bow and a tutu. Her talent is ballet.
Squeeze (voiced by Nika Futterman) - is a green pair of pliers. She loves to lend a helping hand, and is sometimes impatient to fix something (usually repairs that involve bolts). She also appears to be giggly, girly, and preppy. Her childlike cuteness makes her a very loveable tool. Before Flicker was introduced, she was considered the baby among the tools.
Stretch (voiced by Nika Futterman)[5] - is a pink tape measure who loves to measure things. He can speak out accurate measurements, has a very mathematical mind, has a good memory, ~He knows everything especially for numbers and measurements and can use his tape as an extendable hand. He bonds with almost every tool. He speaks with a lisp.
Rusty (voiced by Fred Stoller)[5] - is an orange monkey wrench who is not very brave and is a worrier and frightned of everything, generally being frightened of pretty much anything. Most of the time he needs reassurance from his fellow tools and Manny. It is hinted that Pat is his best friend because he is usually the first to comfort him. Sometimes his fear of stuff allows the others to lose patience with him, mainly Turner. He bonds with Pat, Dusty, and Squeeze. He is the second oldest tool but his intense fear of stuff makes him seem younger than he really is. In "Firefighter Manny", Rusty knows how to be not scared to be a firefighter tool.
Flicker (voiced by Grey DeLisle) - Manny's youngest tool (first appearing in season 2) is a golden yellow flashlight who speaks Spanish and is still learning English (In Tagalog version, it speaks English and learning Tagalog), slowly picking up more of the language throughout season 3. He flashes his light whenever he feels excited. In Handy Manny's School for Tools, he seems to be fully bilingual. He is shown to love food. He has freckles and Felipe has to translate what he says sometimes.

text: Recurring tools[edit]

text:
Zip (voiced by Eddie Deezen) Zip is one of the automobic team in "The Tools New Team". He first met Stretch and Felipe. He talks fast, knows it all and works super fast as Spinner and Felipe. Zip is a power socket tool.
Sneeze (voiced by Tom Kenny) Sneeze is a vacuum cleaner and one of the automobic team. He sneezes saw dust and other things. In The Tools New Team, Manny meets Sneeze hiding in one of the boxes. He has a long nose as an elephant and his dream is to become an actor in "Handy Manny & The 7 Tools". He is also friends with Elliot. His first appearance is "The Tools New Team".
Ticks and Totts (voiced by Jesse Corti and Cristobal Parson) Ticks and Totts are socket wrench twin brothers. They each speak English and Spanish. They both meet Dusty and Flicker as they overheard them. They each has six sides like fixing Marcelo's bike. They are one of the automobic team.
Roland (voiced by Bill Fagerbakke) Roland is the biggest, giant, rolling toolbox. He can be clumsy like Pat and he forgets all the time. His snoring is so loud. He also carries the automobic team. His drawers are often seen opened with the automobic team inside the drawers. He is shown to be gluttonous as shown when he ate the chips when serving food and beverages on the plane in "Hank's Birthday". Roland meets Pat and Squeeze. He is one of the automobic team.
Lefty, Lily, & Junior (voiced by Mark Decarlo, Grey DeLisle and Kath Soucie) Lefty, Lily, & Junior are combination wrenches and a happy family. Lefty is orange and he is a father. Lily is yellow and she is a mother. And Junior is their son and he is light blue. They all met Turner and Rusty. Lily can be emotional at times. Lily is overprotective to Junior. Junior can be shy sometimes. Lefty knows that Junior can do his best. He is also shown to have a close father-son relationship with Junior as well. Junior is as cheerful as Squeeze. They are part of the automobic team.
Beamer (voiced by Steve Moreno) Beamer is a wobbly laser level. He first appeared in "Art Show" at Kelly's hardware store. Beamer knows how to straighten things out. Beamer later got adopted by Carmella as her own tool.
Spinner (voiced by Carlos Alazraqui) One of Manny's power tools. He considered a fastest power drill in Concrete Falls. He is best friends with Jack. Also appears in Big Construction Job.
Jack (voiced by Daran Norris) He is a jackhammer and one of Manny's power tools. He can go fast too just like Spinner. Also appears in Big Construction Job.
Pinzas A needle nose pliers who shares his character with Squeeze. Also appears in Big Construction Job.

text: Special guest stars in the series have included Lance Bass, Kurtwood Smith, Shelley Morrison, Fred Willard, Penn Jillette, Jane Lynch, Jon Polito, Ashley Parker Angel, Brian George, Shannon Durig, Marion Ross, Chris Rock, James Belushi, Ice-T, Henry Winkler, Dale Earnhardt, Jr., Freddy Rodriguez, Ed O'Neil, Denzel Whitaker, Zachary Gordon, Lauren Tom, Rosario Dawson, and Bob Glouberman.

text: DVD releases[edit]

text: Seven DVD compilations have been released and one upcoming:

text:
DVD title
Release date
Episodes
Other information

Region 2
Region 1

Handy Manny: Tooling Around
January 25, 2010
August 21, 2007
Squeeze's Day Off
Amigo Grande
A Sticky Fix
Pat the Screwdriver
Supremoguy

Handy Manny: Fixing It Right
TBA
February 19, 2008
Manny to the Rescue
Felipe Strikes Out
Pat's Big Idea
Rusty to the Rescue
Detective Dusty

Handy Manny: Manny's Pet Roundup
July 6, 2009
August 5, 2008
Lyle and Leland Lopart
Blackout on the Block
Squeeze Makes a Promise
Pet Problem
Kitty Sitting
Gopher Help
Renaldo's Pretzel Castle
All the episodes in this DVD are related to animals and pets.

Handy Manny: Manny's Green Team
TBA
March 31, 2009
Saving the Turtles
Science Fair
Manny Goes Solar
Light Work
Bloomin' Tools
All the episodes in this DVD are related to recycling and caring for the earth.

Handy Manny: A Very Handy Holiday
November 2, 2009

A Very Handy Holiday
Have a Handy New Year
Language: English
Subtitles: English, French, Italian, German, Spanish, Portuguese and Dutch.

Handy Manny: Motorcycle Adventure
TBA
December 1, 2009
Motorcycle Adventure
A Very Handy Holiday

Handy Manny: Big Race
TBA
April 20, 2010
Big Race
Fast Eddie's Scooter
Bunny in the Basement

Handy Manny: Happy Birthday!
April 26, 2010

Cinco-De-Mayo
Pinata Party
Skateboard Park

Handy Manny: Big Construction Job
November 7, 2010
November 16, 2010
Big Construction Job/Good Fences/Butterfly

tag: table


document_title: 3rd Rock from the Sun (season 1)

question_text: 3rd rock from the sun season 1 cast

question_tokens: 3rd rock from the sun season 1 cast

text: 3rd Rock from the Sun (season 1)

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Main cast[edit]

text:
John Lithgow as Dick Solomon
Kristen Johnston as Sally Solomon
French Stewart as Harry Solomon
Joseph Gordon-Levitt as Tommy Solomon
Jane Curtin as Dr. Mary Albright

text: Recurring cast[edit]

text:
Simbi Khali as Nina Campbell
Elmarie Wendel as Mrs. Mamie Dubcek
Wayne Knight as Officer Don Leslie Orville
David DeLuise as Bug Pollone
Ian Lithgow as Leon
Danielle Nicolet as Caryn
Chris Hogan as Aubrey Pitman
Ileen Getz as Dr. Judith Draper
Shay Astar as August Leffler

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
No. in
series
No. in
season
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original air date
Production
code

1
1
"Brains and Eggs"
James Burrows
Bonnie Turner & Terry Turner
January 9, 1996 (1996-01-09)
101

An alien expedition lands in Rutherford, Ohio, where they take on the form of what they think is a typical human family. Although only intending to stay for a couple of weeks, the aliens rent an apartment from carefree landlady Mrs. Dubcek, Dick acquires a job as a Professor of Physics at the nearby Pendelton State University, and Tommy is sent to school. However, Dick, upon discovering the concept of emotions and acting on his infatuation with Dr. Mary Albright, extends their mission on Earth.

2
2
"Post-Nasal Dick"
James Burrows
Michael Glouberman & Andrew Orenstein
January 16, 1996 (1996-01-16)
105

The aliens become sick for the first time and jump to the conclusion that they are dying. Despite being unwell, Dick accompanies Mary to a wedding, where he tries, in vain, to hide his ill health from her. However, after drinking far too much cough syrup and making a scene both during the service and at the party, Dick is taken home by Mary, where, believing he doesn't have much time left, he tells her he loves her.

3
3
"Dick's First Birthday"
Robert Berlinger
Andy Cowan
January 23, 1996 (1996-01-23)
106

The aliens discover the concept of age and Dick chooses a birthday. However, after Mary gives him a card that jokes about him looking "like a million dollars... old and wrinkled", he becomes offended and struggles to come to terms with his being 'over the hill', and so strives to become young again, by dyeing his hair and wearing ridiculously tight leather trousers.

4
4
"Dick Is from Mars, Sally Is from Venus"
Robert Berlinger
Bill Martin & Mike Schiff
January 30, 1996 (1996-01-30)
103

Sally has her very first date, but becomes upset when he doesn't call her back afterwards, so Dick asks Mary and Nina to take her out and drown her sorrows. Meanwhile, Tommy starts high school, and Dick tries to bond with him in a fatherly way.

5
5
"Dick, Smoker"
Robert Berlinger
Bill Martin & Mike Schiff
February 6, 1996 (1996-02-06)
107

Dick discovers the habit of smoking and becomes addicted. Sally becomes aggravated when he doesn't listen to her complaints, and wishes that he didn't have authority over her. However, while looking for somewhere to light up, Dick accidentally locks himself in a stairwell, and Sally declares herself High Commander.
(Absent: Jane Curtin as Mary)

6
6
"Green Eyed Dick"
Robert Berlinger
Joe Fisch
February 13, 1996 (1996-02-13)
109

When an old boyfriend of Mary's (Ed Begley, Jr.) makes a re-appearance, Dick experiences the human feeling of jealousy. Meanwhile, Harry adopts a stray dog, but Mrs. Dubcek is allergic to dogs and will not allow him to keep it in the house, so he gives his dog to a single mother Kate (Katherine LaNasa). (Ed Begley, Jr., John Lithgow and Jane Curtin all starred in the first two Coneheads films.)

7
7
"Lonely Dick"
Robert Berlinger
Michael Glouberman & Andrew Orenstein
February 20, 1996 (1996-02-20)
110

When Mary goes away on vacation, Dick misses her badly and, in desperation to find contact details for where she is staying, takes Nina out for dinner and plagues her for details; however, when this doesn't work, he breaks into Mary's house. Meanwhile, Sally and Harry become addicted to skin care products that promise them eternal youth, and Tommy meets a girl called August Leffler (Shay Astar), whom he begins to date.

8
8
"Body & Soul & Dick"
Robert Berlinger
Terry Turner & Bonnie Turner
February 27, 1996 (1996-02-27)
113

During a party honoring him, an obnoxious, sexist professor (John Mahoney) dies, and his will reveals that he wants Dick to deliver a "forthright and honest" eulogy about him, despite the fact that he is a universally despised man. Meanwhile, Tommy neglects his girlfriend August in favor of hitting it off with an "easy" cheerleader.

9
9
"Ab-dick-ted"
Robert Berlinger
Bill Martin & Mike Schiff & Andrew Orenstein & Michael Glouberman
March 5, 1996 (1996-03-05)
112

Dick wants the family to get along and stop irritating each other, and thinks that they can learn family values from observing Dr. Albright and her loopy brother Roy (Bronson Pinchot), so he invites them to dinner. However, the Solomons panic when Roy claims to have previously been abducted by aliens. Meanwhile, August is annoyed with Tommy, because Dick made him cancel his date with her to have dinner with Mary and Roy.

10
10
"Truth or Dick"
Terry Hughes
Andrew Orenstein & Michael Glouberman
March 12, 1996 (1996-03-12)
102

Dick discovers the consequences of telling the truth when he repeats some of Dr. Albright's comments about how boring the academic committee are, at an academic committee meeting he attends. Predictably, Mary is annoyed, and enlightens Dick to the concept of 'bending the truth'. Meanwhile, Sally and Harry attempt to get a driver's license, but discover that it is more difficult that they'd expected.

11
11
"The Art of Dick"
Terry Hughes
Joe Fisch
March 19, 1996 (1996-03-19)
111

Harry cannot seem to find anything he is good at, but after painting the side of Mrs. Dubcek's house, decides that he might be good at art, and takes a class in art. However, Dick becomes annoyed when Harry turns out to be much better at art than he is. Meanwhile, Sally, in a strong and dictatorial way, takes over the bake sale at Tommy's high school.

12
12
"Frozen Dick"
Robert Berlinger
Linwood Boomer
March 26, 1996 (1996-03-26)
117

Mary and Dick are going to Chicago to be presented with awards for teaching, but upon getting on the plane, Dick panics and gets the pair thrown off. They begin to drive there but when it snows, Dick panics again, believing the flakes to be alien. He commandeers the car, but promptly crashes it, leaving the pair of them deserted at a truck stop. Meanwhile, Harry gets a job in a video rental store and takes it upon himself to rearrange all the videos according to his preference, while Sally, believing the human race to be dead, attempts to re-start mankind with Dick's student Leon, who arrives to drop off some homework.

13
13
"Angry Dick"
Robert Berlinger
Andy Cowan
April 2, 1996 (1996-04-02)
104

Dick befriends his next door neighbor, while Sally befriends his wife, but when the Solomons drop by to pay a visit in the early hours in the morning, their friends become angry. Dick visits his friend to apologize and offer him a gift, but he becomes angry at trying to be bought, and the pair end up fighting.
(Absent: Jane Curtin as Mary)

14
14
"The Dicks They Are a Changin'"
Robert Berlinger
Michael Glouberman & Andrew Orenstein
April 9, 1996 (1996-04-09)
108

Nina tells Dick that she can't find any graduate records on him, which causes him to panic and act defensively. This leads Mary to note that Dick is often secretive about his past, and, while reminiscing about her rebellious time at Berkeley in the sixties, conclude that Dick is actually Manny Rosenberg, an activist whom she briefly knew, who is in hiding from the FBI. Dick first denies this, but then realizes that his presumed identity may have made him more attractive to her. Meanwhile, Harry joins a CD club, but finds the responsibilities of membership overwhelming.

15
15
"I Enjoy Being a Dick"
Robert Berlinger
Michael Glouberman & Andrew Orenstein
April 21, 1996 (1996-04-21)
116

Dick starts to feel outcast from the others in his office, feeling that because he is male, he is excluded; he becomes especially annoyed when he can't come to Mary and Nina's women-only study group. Meanwhile, Sally and Harry get a job at a pancake house, where Sally becomes irritated at the lack of tips, and Tommy considers telling his girlfriend August the truth about where he and his family really come from.

16
16
"Dick Like Me"
Robert Berlinger
Joe Fisch
April 23, 1996 (1996-04-23)
115

When Nina arrives at work in an ethnic headdress, Dick begins to realize that the Solomons have no ethnic group, and takes it upon himself to research them all and decide which one is the "best". Meanwhile, Sally falls for Tommy's teacher, Mr. Randell, who invites her to attend the school dance with him; however, she becomes nervous when she realizes that she doesn't know how to dance.

17
17
"Assault With a Deadly Dick"
Terry Hughes
Michael Glouberman & Andrew Orenstein
April 30, 1996 (1996-04-30)
114

After the radio is stolen from the Rambler and Dick gets mugged at an ATM, Sally begins to worry that she is failing in her job as Security Officer for the unit, and the family files a police report with officer Don (first appearance of Wayne Knight).

18
18
"Father Knows Dick"
Terry Hughes
Bonnie and Terry Turner & Michael Glouberman & Andrew Orenstein
May 7, 1996 (1996-05-07)
119

Dick decides that he is now Harry's father, and tries to treat him as a son, but Harry wants to know what his use on the alien's mission is, and Dick and tells him about the radio receiver in his head. Unfortunately, Harry becomes angry and runs away from home. Meanwhile, Sally goes on a date with Mr. Randall and meets his mother (Naomi Judd).
(Absent: Ryan Gosling as Kyle Albright)

19
19
"Selfish Dick"
Terry Hughes
Michael Glouberman & Andrew Orenstein
May 14, 1996 (1996-05-14)
120

Finding out another professor is leaving and a better office is available, Mary is able to get it over an older professor (Harry Morgan); however, Dick misses her and schemes to get her back into the old office with him. Meanwhile, after fainting when Mrs. Dubcek cuts her finger, Sally ends up in the hospital, and the family ends up acting like doctors from every medical drama they have seen, until they are caught.

20
20
"See Dick Run" (Part 1)
Terry Hughes
Bonnie Turner and Terry Turner
May 21, 1996 (1996-05-21)
118

Mary finally agrees to a date with Dick, and eats out with him at a Japanese restaurant, where Dick shows off his skills at chopping up food. The pair then retire to bed and finally have sex for the first time. Bad news arrives, however, after Tommy's report to the Big Giant Head results in him deciding that they've wasted their six months on Earth, and he announces that a replacement for Dick will be sent shortly.


document_title: Student debt

question_text: what is the average college debt in the us

text: Student debt

text: History[edit]

text: Many factors are accountable for student debt. The growing problem of student debt has become more prominent in the future decade, inspiring numerous documentaries that examine the causes and effects. One huge factor is amount of interest on the loans. Another factor is due to the new guidelines developed by the federal government. There are now new rules deciding who can borrow, as well as how much debt they can take on.[3] Colleges and universities have been increasing the costs for students to attend their schools subsequently increasing the amount of debt these students take on as student loans. Reports have shown that borrowers who finished college in the early 1990s were able to maintain managing their student loans without an enormous burden.[3] The average debt has increased 58% since over the past seven years. The debt for students in the United States has risen from $17,233 in 2005 to $27,253 in 2012.[4] Some blame the economy for the debt increases, but in the same 7-year period credit card debt and auto debt have decreased.[4] According to the Student Debt Crisis, within the past three decades the cost of attaining a college degree has drastically increased by more than 1,000 percent.[5] If student debt had stayed constant with inflation since 1992, graduates would not be facing such burdens by student loans.[3]

text: Statistics[edit]

text: United States[edit]

text: There are two types of loans student borrow in the US: Federal loans or Private loans. Federal loans have a fixed interest rate, usually lower than private loans' interest, set annually by the congress. The direct subsidized loan with the maximum amount of $5,500 has an interest rate of 4.45%, while the direct plus loan with the maximum amount of $20,500 has an interest rate of 7%.[6] As for private loans, there are more options like fixed interest rate, variable interest rate, and income based monthly plans whose interest rates vary depending on the lender, credit history and cosigners. The average interest rate for a private loan in 2017 was 9.66%.[7] The Economist reported in June 2014 that U.S. student loan debt exceeded $1.2 trillion with over 7 million debtors in default. In 2014, there was approximately $1.3 trillion of outstanding student loan debt in the U.S. that affected 44 million borrowers who had an average outstanding loan balance of $37,172.[7]

text: The interest rates are a major factor in the alarming debt numbers, however, the booming of prices of college is another major factor for US tremendous student debt. The Public universities increased their fees by a total of 27% over the five years ending in 2012, or 20% adjusted for inflation. Public university students paid an average of almost $8,400 annually for in-state tuition, with out-of-state students paying more than $19,000. For two decades ending in 2012, college costs rose 1.6% more than inflation each year. Government funding per student fell 27% between 2007 and 2012. Student enrollments rose from 15.2 million in 1999 to 20.4 million in 2011, but fell 2% in 2012.[8][9] Bloomberg reported in July 2014 that: "The biggest growth in the program came in the past decade, as student debt rose an average of 14 percent a year, to $966 billion in 2012 from $364 billion in 2004, according to New York Fed data."[10]

text: There were around 37 million student loan borrowers with outstanding student loans in 2013. According to the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, outstanding student loan debt in the United States lies between $902 Billion and $1 Trillion with around $864 Billion in Federal student loan debt.[11] As of Quarter 1 in 2012, the average student loan balance for all age groups is $24,301.[11] About one-quarter of borrowers owe more than $28,000; 10% of borrowers owe more than $54,000; 3% owe more than $100,000; and less than 1%, or 167,000 people, owe more than $200,000.[11] Of the 37 million borrowers who have outstanding student loan balances, 14%, or about 5.4 million borrowers, have at least one past due student loan account.[11] For every student loan borrower who defaults, at least two more borrowers become delinquent without default.[11] In 2010 for the first time ever, student loan debt exceeded credit card debt and in 2011 student debt surpassed auto loans (both of which were decreasing).[12] According to Mark Kantrowitz, publisher of FinAid.org, student loan debt is growing by $3,000 per second.[12] According to a report by The Institute for College Access and Success the average debt from those who graduated in 2013 topped $30,000 in six states and was only below $20,000 in one state.[13] Data released by the Federal Reserve Bank of New York showed that in the fourth quarter of 2014 delinquency rates for students dipped to the point where approximately one in nine student loans is past due.[14] As of 2015 over half of outstanding student loans are in deferral, delinquency or default.[15] Rising student loan debt is exacerbating wealth inequality.[16]

text: Student loan borrowers that attended a for profit, and two year community colleges, in comparison, earn low annual salaries; an average of $22,000 for people withdrawing from schools as of 2010. This means that these people have troubles paying back their loans. The new evidence is reliable with the previous data. For example, the statistics presenting that default rates are essentially lower within the demographic of borrowers with large loans than within borrowers with small loans. However, the new evidence which goes back twenty years, shows how much the scenery of borrowing has changed. Currently, most borrowers are older and attended a for profit or two year community college. About ten years ago, the standard borrower was an established student at a four-year university.[17]

text: In recent years, tuition has been rising due to the cuts of government funding in education. As an example, more specifically, the University of Pittsburgh has had an increase in tuition of 3.9 percent for the academic school year of 2014-15. In recent weeks, the U.S. Department of Education ranked Pitt as the most expensive public university for tuition and fees, just ahead of Penn State University, which this past year totaled $16,240 in the arts and science school.[18]

text: In 2005, the difference in median annual income between those with a bachelor's degree vs. those with a high school diploma was $16,638, though this varies considerably by field of study.[19]

text: Canada[edit]

text: Canada ranks second in the world behind Korea for the percentage of people in the age group of 25-34 with a bachelor's degree.[20] But Canadians are not prone to the rapid accumulation of student loans. As of September 2012, the average debt for a Canadian leaving University was 28,000 Canadian dollars, and that accumulated debt takes an average of 14 years to fully repay based on an average starting salary of $39,523.[21] To temporarily help their low income struggling citizens with student debt, Canada has a program called interest relief. It grants 6 months free of mandatory payments, for a maximum of 30 months. The Canadian government pays for the interest on those loans during the grace period, so the loan amount is the same at the end of the grace period.[22] Also, students are relieved of their debt after 15 years.[23] As a nation, Canadians have accumulated more than $15 billion of student loan debt as they continue to fight tuition rates from further skyrocketing.[24]

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: There is concern about the level of student debt in the United Kingdom. There is also concern about possible changes in government policy forcing graduates to pay back more.[25] Andrew Adonis claims most student loans will never be repaid, Adonis also maintains university leaders have failed to improve teaching standards but rewarded themselves handsomely with high salaries. The Institute for Fiscal Studies maintains three quarters of graduates will never repay all their debts. Andrew McGettigan, loans system expert said, “Until the government removes their right to retrospectively change terms, then you as a borrower appear to be on the hook to future policy changes.[26] Sebastian Burnside NatWest economist, said student debt was rising faster than all other types of debt, he said, “These latest figures show student debt is becoming of greater priority with every passing year. Student debt is the fastest growing type of borrowing and is rapidly becoming economically significant.”[27]

text: Germany[edit]

text: With student debt being one of the most prominent issues in the world, it seems Germany has found a solution to avoid tremendous student debt that many first world countries face. Germany has both private and public universities with the majority being public universities. For undergraduate studies, public universities are free but have an enrollment fee of no more than €250 per year which is roughly 305 USD. [28]Their private universities cost an average of €10,000 a semester which is about 12,000 USD.[28] Private universities account for 7.1% enrollment with the rest attending the public universities.[29] The private universities have a smaller teacher to student ratio and tend to offer more specialized programs which is why Germany is experiencing a boom in private universities enrollment in recent years for majors like law and medicine. [29]However, most students still prefer public universities due to the drastic difference in tuition cost. The only expense students take out loans for in public universities is the living cost which ranges from €3600 to €8,200 a year depending on the university location.[30] However, the repayment of this loan is interest free and no borrower pays more than €10,000 regardless of the borrowed amount. [30]The average debt at graduation is €5,600 which is 6,680 USD.[31] The chance to gain a bachelor's through well respected universities at a reasonable price without interest packed loans attracts many foreign students as seen through increased enrollment of students from all around the world.

text: France[edit]

text: France is another country known for its reasonable price for college. The average tuition for a bachelor’s degree is around 190 euros a year, around 620 euros a year for engineering degrees, around 260 euros a year for a master's degree and around 400 euros a year for a PhD.[32] These prices are similar to its neighboring country, Germany. And, the only expense that’s difficult to pay for is the cost of living which is an average of 500 to 1250 euros a month depending on the city.[33] Students can borrow money to pay for these expenses. Only less than 2% students take out loans as there is financial assistance to pay for the full tuition or half of the tuition for low income families depending on their needs.[34]

text: Pakistan[edit]

text: Student loans are an unknown concept in Pakistan, like most third world countries. Students attend college through the help of their parents who spend majority of their income on their children’s education and some students work to help out with the tuition. The top universities in Pakistan are mostly located in the provinces of Sindh and Punjab. There are 177 universities in the country. [35]To better understand this number, let’s consider the US which is twelve times the size of Pakistan and has 5900 colleges. That means the US has about 477 universities in an area as big as Pakistan.

text: Pakistan has universities ranking in the top 250 and top 700 in the world.[36] The average tuition cost for these universities is around 402,000 Pakistani Rupees ($3500). But this is not the only expense citizens have to pay for; most people pay for books, food, bus or van to get to their university and a tuition center for help with the tough curriculum which adds up to about 130,000 Rupees ($1147).[36] Even though this seems like a small total to someone from the first world, this is very expensive for Pakistanis as the average salary is about $7,800 a year.[37] The majority of parents cannot afford college education for their children which is why only 12% of all 18-24 years olds are attending college.[38]

text: Even though students in Pakistan do not carry the burden of student loans, Pakistan has their own problem of making college education more accessible and affordable for their citizens.

text: Social and political reactions[edit]

text: The growing problem of student debt has caused many reactions from young people throughout the United States. As a result, the Occupy Colleges and Occupy Student Debt movements merged in 2012 in an effort to gain support from students around the country.[39] There have been significant efforts made via social media for the Occupy Student Debt campaign. In particular, students all over the United States have posted their personal student debt testimonies.[40] While some success stories of students eliminating debt have been reported on,[41] they are met with heavy skepticism. Since last October, Occupy Student Debt has provided a platform for over 800 students to share their horror stories.[39] Because of this, other organizations such as, Rebuild the Dream, Education Trust, and the Young Invincibles, have joined in the effort and started similar platforms. The Occupy College movement itself has staged over 10 direct actions.[39][42] They have also gathered over 31,000 signatures on the White House’s petition site, “We the People”. As a result, President Obama announced the Pay as you Earn initiative. Another petition, titled 'Support the Student Loan Forgiveness Act of 2012' on MoveOn.org, which seeks similar relief for student borrowers, has gotten over one million signatures.[43][44][45] HR 4170: “The Student Loan Forgiveness Act of 2012” would give relief to borrowers with both federal and private student loans.[46] HR 4170 also includes the “10-10” programs, which allows borrowers to pay 10% of their discretionary income for ten years with the remaining balance forgiven afterwards.[46]

text: In April 2012, student loan debt reached US$1 trillion.[47] Severity of the student debt burden represents such a threat to the middle class that some have demanded a general bailout.[48][49] Anthropologist David Graeber, author of Debt: The First 5000 Years, argues that student debt is "destroying the imagination of youth":

text: If there’s a way of a society committing mass suicide, what better way than to take all the youngest, most energetic, creative, joyous people in your society and saddle them with, like $50,000 of debt so they have to be slaves? There goes your music. There goes your culture. There goes everything new that would pop out. And in a way, this is what’s happened to our society. We’re a society that has lost any ability to incorporate the interesting, creative and eccentric people.[50]

text: In 2014, a Chilean activist, artist Francisco Tapia, known as "Papas Fritas" (French Fries) "burned $500 million worth of debt papers" from Viña del Mar University, and displayed the ashes in a van as an art project. "The University was being shut down due to financial irregularities. 'It is a concrete fact that the papers were burned. They are gone, burned completely, and there’s no debt,' said Papas Fritas in his first U.S. broadcast interview. 'Since these papers don’t exist anymore, there’s no way to charge the students.'[51]

text: On November 12, 2015, students organized rallies at more than 100 college campuses across the United States to protest crippling student loan debt and to advocate for tuition-free higher education at public colleges and universities. The demonstrations took place just days after fast food workers went on strike for a minimum wage of $15 an hour and union rights.[52]

text: In 2015, Central Saint Martins student Brooke Purvis announced that he would burn his student loan as a form of protest art, raising awareness about student debt. It is argued the art work addresses the subject matter of the materialism of money and brings to light the political issues of the U.K student loan system.[53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60]

text: Leon Botstein, president of Bard College in Annandale-on-Hudson, N.Y., contends that the next president elected in 2016 should push for all outstanding student loan debt to be forgiven.[61]

text: A February 2018 research paper from the Levy Economics Institute of Bard College argues that government cancellation student debt in the United States would result in rising consumer demand, along with economic growth and increased employment. Over the following decade, the GDP would increase by between $86 billion and $108 billion annually, which would result in an increase of between 1.2 and 1.5 million jobs and a decreased unemployment rate of 0.22 to 0.36 percent.[62]


document_title: Supraorbital ridge

question_text: what is the purpose of the brow ridge

question_tokens: what is the purpose of the brow ridge

text: Supraorbital ridge

text: Structure[edit]

text: The supraorbital ridge is a nodule or crest of bone situated on the frontal bone of the skull. It forms the separation between the forehead portion itself (the squama frontalis) and the roof of the eye sockets (the pars orbitalis). Normally, in humans, the ridges arch over each eye, offering mechanical protection. In other primates, the ridge is usually continuous and often straight rather than arched. The ridges are separated from the frontal eminences by a shallow groove. The ridges are most prominent medially, and are joined to one another by a smooth elevation named the glabella.

text: Typically, the arches are more prominent in men than in women, and vary between different ethnic groups. Behind the ridges, deeper in the bone, are the frontal sinuses.

text: Terminology[edit]

text: The supraorbital ridges, being a prominent part of the face in some ethnic groups and a trait linked to both atavism and sexual dimorphism, have a number of names in different disciplines. In vernacular English, the terms eyebrow bone or eyebrow ridge are common. The more technical terms frontal or supraorbital arch, ridge or torus (or tori to refer to the plural, as the ridge is usually seen as a pair) are often found in anthropological or archaeological studies. In medicine, the term arcus superciliaris (Latin) or the English translation superciliary arch. This feature is different from the supraorbital margin and the margin of the orbit.

text: Some paleoanthropologists distinguish between frontal torus and supraorbital ridge. In anatomy, a torus is a projecting shelf of bone that unlike a ridge is rectilinear, unbroken and goes through glabella.[1] Some fossil hominins, in this use of the word, have the frontal torus,[2] but modern humans can only have the ridge.[3]

text: Development[edit]

text: Spatial model[edit]

text: The Spatial model proposes that supraorbital torus development can be best explained in terms of the disparity between the anterior position of the orbital component relative the neurocranium.

text: Much of the groundwork for the spatial model was laid down by Schultz (1940). He was the first to document that at later stages of development (after age 4) the growth of the orbit would outpace that of the eye. Consequently, he proposed that facial size is the most influential factor in orbital development, with orbital growth being only secondarily affected by size and ocular position.

text: Weindenreich (1941) and Biegert (1957, 1963) argued that the supraorbital region can best be understood as a product of the orientation of its two components, the face and the neurocranium.

text: The most composed articulation of the spatial model was presented by Moss and Young (1960), who stated that "the presence… of supraorbital ridges is only the reflection of the spatial relationship between two functionally unrelated cephalic components, the orbit and the brain" (Moss and Young, 1960, p282). They proposed (as first articulated by Biegert in 1957) that during infancy the neurocranium extensively overlaps the orbit, a condition that prohibits brow ridge development. As the splanchocranium grows, however, the orbits begin to advance, thus causing the anterior displacement of the face relative to the brain. Brow ridges then form as a result of this separation.

text: Bio-mechanical model[edit]

text: The bio-mechanical model predicts that morphological variation in torus size is the direct product of differential tension caused by mastication, as indicated by an increase in load/lever ratio and broad craniofacial angle.[4]

text: Research done on this model has largely been based on earlier work of Endo.[5][6][7][8] By applying pressure similar to the type associated with chewing, he carried out an analysis of the structural function of the supraorbital region on dry human and gorilla skulls. His findings indicated that the face acts as a pillar that carries and disperses tension caused by the forces produced during mastication. Russell[9][10] and Oyen et al.[11] elaborated on this idea, suggesting that amplified facial projection necessitates the application of enhanced force to the anterior dentition in order to generate the same bite power that individuals with a dorsal deflection of the facial skull exert. In more prognathic individuals, this increased pressure triggers bone deposition to reinforce the brow ridges, until equilibrium is reached.

text: Oyen et al. conducted[12] a cross-section study of Papio anubis in order to ascertain the relationship between palate length, incisor load and Masseter lever efficiency, relative to torus enlargement. Indications found of osteoblastic deposition in the glabella were used as evidence for supraorbital enlargement. Oyen et al.’s data suggested that more prognathic individuals experienced a decrease in load/lever efficiency. This transmits tension via the frontal process of the maxilla to the supraorbital region, resulting in a contemporary reinforcement of this structure. This was also correlated to periods of tooth eruption.

text: In a later series of papers, Russell[9][13] developed aspects of this mode further. Employing an adult Australian sample, she tested the association between brow ridge formation and anterior dental loading, via the craniofacial angle (prosthion-nasion-metopion), maxilla breadth, and discontinuities in food preparation such as those observed between different age groups. Finding strong support for the first two criteria, she concluded that the supraorbital complex is formed as a result of increased tension due to the widening of the maxilla, thought to be positively correlated with the size of the masseter muscle, as well as with the improper orientation of bone in the superior orbital region.

text: Function[edit]

text: The brow ridge functions to reinforce the weaker bones of the face in much the same way that the chin of modern humans reinforces their comparatively thin mandibles. This was necessary in pongids and early hominids because of the tremendous strain put on the cranium by their powerful chewing apparatuses, which is best demonstrated by any of the members of the genus Paranthropus. The brow ridge was one of the last traits to be lost in the path to anatomically modern humans, and only disappeared in a majority of modern humans with the development of the modern pronounced frontal lobe. This is one of the most salient differences between Homo sapiens and other species like the Homo neanderthalensis.

text: Other animals[edit]

text: The size of these ridges varies also between different species of primates, either living or fossil. The closest living relatives of humans, the great apes, have a relatively pronounced supraorbital ridge, which has also been called a frontal torus[2] while in modern humans it is relatively reduced. The fossil record indicates that the supraorbital ridge in early hominins was reduced as the cranial vault grew; the frontal portion of the brain became positioned above rather than behind the eyes, giving a more vertical forehead.

text: In modern humans[edit]

text: Early modern people like the finds from Jebel Irhoud and Skhul and Qafzeh had thick, large brow ridges, and also some living people, have quite pronounced brow ridges, but they differ from those of archaic humans like Neanderthals by having a supraorbital foramen or notch, forming a groove through the ridge above each eye.[14] This splits the ridge into central parts and distal parts. In current humans, almost always only the central sections of the ridge are preserved (if preserved at all). This contrasts with many archaic and early modern modern humans, where the brow ridge is pronounced and unbroken (sometimes called frontal torus).[15]

text: Prominent supraorbital ridges among modern humans are most common among Australian Aborigines and Papuans.


document_title: Federal Assault Weapons Ban

question_text: when was the last time assault weapons were banned

text: Federal Assault Weapons Ban

text: Background[edit]

text: Efforts to create restrictions on assault weapons at the federal government level intensified in 1989 after 34 children and a teacher were shot and five children killed in Stockton, Calif. with a semi-automatic AK-47 rifle.[4][5][6] The Luby's shooting in October 1991, which left 23 people dead and 27 wounded, was another factor.[7] The July 1993 101 California Street shooting also contributed to passage of the ban. The shooter killed eight people and wounded six. Two of the three firearms he used were TEC-9 semi-automatic handguns with Hellfire triggers.[8] The ban tried to address public concerns about mass shootings by restricting firearms that met the criteria for what it defined as a "semiautomatic assault weapon", as well as magazines that met the criteria for what it defined as a "large capacity ammunition feeding device".[9]:1–2

text: In November 1993, the proposed legislation passed the U.S. Senate. The bill's author, Dianne Feinstein (D-CA) and other advocates said that it was a weakened version of the original proposal.[10] In May 1994, former presidents Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, and Ronald Reagan, wrote to the U.S. House of Representatives in support of banning "semi-automatic assault guns". They cited a 1993 CNN/USA Today/Gallup Poll that found 77 percent of Americans supported a ban on the manufacture, sale, and possession of such weapons.[11]

text: Rep. Jack Brooks (D-TX), then chair of the House Judiciary Committee, tried unsuccessfully to remove the assault weapons ban section from the crime bill.[12] The National Rifle Association (NRA) opposed the ban. In November 1993, NRA spokesman Bill McIntyre said that assault weapons "are used in only 1 percent of all crimes".[13] The low usage statistic was supported in a 1999 Department of Justice brief.[9] The legislation passed in September 1994 with the assault weapon ban section expiring in 2004 due to its sunset provision.

text: Provisions of the 1994 ban[edit]

text: The Public Safety and Recreational Firearms Act (the Federal Assault Weapons Ban) was enacted as part of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994.[14] The prohibitions expired on September 13, 2004.[14]

text: The Act prohibited the manufacture, transfer, or possession of "semiautomatic assault weapons" as defined by the Act. "Weapons banned were identified either by specific make or model (including copies or duplicates thereof, in any caliber), or by specific characteristics that slightly varied according to whether the weapon was a pistol, rifle, or shotgun" (see below).[14] The Act also prohibited the transfer and possession of "large capacity ammunition feeding devices" (LCAFDs). An LCAFD was defined as "any magazine, belt, drum, feed strip, or similar device manufactured after the date [of the act] that has the capacity of, or that can be readily restored or converted to accept, more than 10 rounds of ammunition".[14]

text: The Act included a number of exemptions and exclusions from its prohibitions:

text:
The Act included a "grandfather clause" that allowed for the possession and transfer of weapons and ammunition that "were otherwise lawfully possessed on the date of enactment".[14]
The Act exempted some 650 firearm types or models, including various types of Browning, Remington, and Beretta guns, as these were viewed as primarily "suitable for target practice, match competition, hunting, and similar sporting purposes. This list was not exhaustive and the act provided that the absence of a firearm from the exempted list did not mean it was banned unless it met the definition of 'semiautomatic assault weapon.'"[14]
The Act "also exempted any firearm that (1) is manually operated by bolt, pump, lever, or slide action; (2) has been rendered permanently inoperable; or (3) is an antique firearm".[14]
The Act "also did not apply to any semiautomatic rifle that cannot accept a detachable magazine that holds more than five rounds of ammunition nor any semiautomatic shotgun that cannot hold more than five rounds of ammunition in a fixed or detachable magazine".[14]
The Act provided an exemption for the use of "semiautomatic assault weapons and LCAFDs to be manufactured for, transferred to, and possessed by law enforcement and for authorized testing or experimentation purposes", as well as transfers for federal-security purposes under the Atomic Energy Act and "possession by retired law enforcement officers who are not otherwise a prohibited possessor under law".[14]

text: In 1989, prior to the enactment of the 1994 legislation, the George H. W. Bush administration had banned the importation of foreign-made, semiautomatic rifles deemed not to have "a legitimate sporting use". It did not affect similar but domestically manufactured rifles.[15] (The Gun Control Act of 1968 gives discretion to the Attorney General of the United States to choose whether to "authorize a firearm or ammunition to be imported or brought into the United States" under what is known as "the sporting purposes test".[14]) Following the enactment of the Federal Assault Weapons Ban, the ATF determined that "certain semiautomatic assault rifles could no longer be imported even though they were permitted to be imported under the 1989 'sporting purposes test' because they had been modified to remove all of their military features other than the ability to accept a detachable magazine", and so in April 1998 "prohibited the importation of 56 such rifles, determining that they did not meet the 'sporting purposes test'".[14]

text: Criteria of an assault weapon[edit]

text: Under the Assault Weapons Ban of 1994 the definition of "semiautomatic assault weapon" included specific semi-automatic firearm models by name, and other semi-automatic firearms that possessed two or more from a set certain features:[16]

text:
Folding or telescoping stock
Pistol grip
Bayonet mount
Flash suppressor, or threaded barrel designed to accommodate one
Grenade launcher

text:
Magazine that attaches outside the pistol grip
Threaded barrel to attach barrel extender, flash suppressor, handgrip, or suppressor
Barrel shroud safety feature that prevents burns to the operator
Unloaded weight of 50 oz (1.4 kg) or more
A semi-automatic version of a fully automatic firearm.

text:
Folding or telescoping stock
Pistol grip
Detachable magazine.

text: The ban defined the following semi-automatic firearms, as well as any copies or duplicates of them in any caliber, as assault weapons:

text:
Name of firearm
Preban federal legal status

Norinco, Mitchell, and Poly Technologies Avtomat Kalashnikovs (AKs) (all models)
Imports banned in 1989*

Action Arms Israeli Military Industries UZI and Galil
Imports banned in 1989*

Beretta AR-70 (SC-70)
Imports banned in 1989*

Colt AR-15
Legal

Fabrique National FN/FAL, FN-LAR, FNC
Imports banned in 1989*

SWD (MAC type) M-10, M-11, M11/9, M12
Legal

Steyr AUG
Imports banned in 1989*

INTRATEC TEC-9, TEC-DC9, TEC-22
Legal

Revolving cylinder shotguns such as (or similar to) the Street Sweeper and Striker 12
Legal

text: Cosmetic features[edit]

text: Gun control advocates and gun rights advocates have referred to at least some of the features outlined in the federal Assault Weapon Ban of 1994 as cosmetic. The NRA Institute for Legislative Action and the Violence Policy Center both used the term in publications they released in September 2004 when the ban expired.[17][18] In May 2012, the Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence said, "the inclusion in the list of features that were purely cosmetic in nature created a loophole that allowed manufacturers to successfully circumvent the law by making minor modifications to the weapons they already produced".[19] The term was repeated in several stories after the 2012 Aurora shooting and Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting.[20][21] Senator Marco Rubio cited this issue during a town hall forum, responding to questions from survivors of the 2018 Stoneman-Douglas High School shooting in Parkland, Florida.[22]

text: Legal challenges[edit]

text: A February 2013 Congressional Research Service (CRS) report to Congress said that the "Assault Weapons Ban of 1994 was unsuccessfully challenged as violating several constitutional provisions". The report said that challenges to three constitutional provisions were easily dismissed.[23]:7 The ban did not make up an impermissible Bill of Attainder.[24]:31 It was not unconstitutionally vague.[25] And it was ruled not incompatible with the Ninth Amendment by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals.[26]

text: Challenges to two other provisions took more time to decide.[23]:7

text: In evaluating challenges to the ban under the Commerce Clause, the court first evaluated Congress' authority to regulate under the clause, and second analyzed the ban's prohibitions on manufacture, transfer, and possession. The court held that "it is not even arguable that the manufacture and transfer of 'semiautomatic assault weapons' for a national market cannot be regulated as activity substantially affecting interstate commerce".[23]:8–9[24]:12 It also held that the "purpose of the ban on possession has an 'evident commercial nexus'".[23]:9[24]:14

text: The law was also challenged under the Equal Protection Clause. It was argued that it banned some semi-automatic weapons that were functional equivalents of exempted semi-automatic weapons and that to do so based upon a mix of other characteristics served no legitimate governmental interest. The reviewing court held that it was "entirely rational for Congress ... to choose to ban those weapons commonly used for criminal purposes and to exempt those weapons commonly used for recreational purposes".[23]:10[27] It also found that each characteristic served to make the weapon "potentially more dangerous", and were not "commonly used on weapons designed solely for hunting".[23]:10–11[28]

text: The federal assault weapons ban was never directly challenged under the Second Amendment. Since its expiration in 2004 there has been debate on how it would fare in light of cases decided in following years, especially District of Columbia v. Heller (2008).[29]

text: Studies on effectiveness of the legislation[edit]

text: A 2002 study by Koper and Roth found that around the time when the ban became law, assault weapon prices increased significantly, but this increase was reversed in the several months afterward due to a surge in assault weapons production that occurred just before the ban took effect.[2]

text: In 2003, the Task Force on Community Preventive Services, an independent, non-federal task force, examined an assortment of firearms laws, including the AWB, and found "insufficient evidence to determine the effectiveness of any of the firearms laws reviewed for preventing violence".[30] A 2004 critical review of firearms research by a National Research Council committee said that an academic study of the assault weapon ban "did not reveal any clear impacts on gun violence outcomes". The committee noted that the study's authors said the guns were used criminally with relative rarity before the ban and that its maximum potential effect on gun violence outcomes would be very small.[1]

text: In 2004, a research report commissioned by the National Institute of Justice found that should the ban be renewed, its effects on gun violence would likely be small, and perhaps too small for reliable measurement, because rifles in general, including rifles referred to as "assault rifles" or "assault weapons", are rarely used in gun crimes. That study by Christopher S. Koper, Daniel J. Woods, and Jeffrey A. Roth of the Jerry Lee Center of Criminology, University of Pennsylvania found no statistically significant evidence that either the assault weapons ban or the ban on magazines holding more than 10 rounds had reduced gun murders. The authors also report that "there has been no discernible reduction in the lethality and injuriousness of gun violence, based on indicators like the percentage of gun crimes resulting in death or the share of gunfire incidents resulting in injury." [31]

text: In 2004, the Brady Center to Prevent Gun Violence examined the impact of the Assault Weapons Ban, On Target: The Impact of the 1994 Federal Assault Weapon Act. Examining 1.4 million guns involved in crime, "in the five-year period before enactment of the Federal Assault Weapons Act (1990–1994), assault weapons named in the Act constituted 4.82% of the crime gun traces ATF conducted nationwide. Since the law's enactment, however, these assault weapons have made up only 1.61% of the guns ATF has traced to crime. Page 10 of the Brady report, however, adds that "an evaluation of copycat weapons is necessary". Including "copycat weapons", the report concluded that "in the post-ban period, the same group of guns has constituted 3.1% of ATF traces, a decline of 45%."[32] A spokesman for the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) stated that he "can in no way vouch for the validity" of the report.[33]

text: A study conducted by Dube in 2013, showed that the passing of the FAWB in 1994 had an insignificant impact on violent crime in Mexico, while the expiration of the FAWB in 2004 combined with political instability was correlated with an increase in gun-related homicides among Mexican municipalities near the border.[34] Also in 2013, Koper reviewed the literature on the ban's effects and concluded that its effects on crimes committed with assault weapons were mixed due to its various loopholes. He also concluded that the ban did not seem to affect gun crime rates, but may have been able to reduce shootings if it had been renewed in 2004.[35]

text: Research by gun advocate John Lott found no impact of these bans on violent crime rates,[36] but provided evidence that the bans may have reduced the number of gun shows by over 20 percent.[37] Koper, Woods, and Roth studies focus on gun murders, while Lott's look at murder, rape, robbery, and aggravated assaults. Unlike their work, Lott's research accounted for state assault weapon bans and 12 other different types of gun control laws.

text: In a 2013 report Samantha Bricknell from the Australian Institute of Criminology, Frederic Lemieux and Tim Prenzler compared mass shootings between America and Australia and found the "1996 NFA coincided within the cessation of mass shooting events" in Australia, and that there were reductions in America that were evident during the 1994–2004 US Federal Assault Weapon Ban.[3]

text: Efforts to renew the ban[edit]

text: The assault weapons ban expired on September 13, 2004. Legislation to renew or replace the ban was proposed numerous times unsuccessfully.

text: Between May 2003 and June 2008, U.S. Senator Dianne Feinstein, D-CA, and Representatives Michael Castle, R-DE, Alcee Hastings, D-FL, and Mark Kirk, R-IL, introduced bills to reauthorize the ban.[38] During the same time, Senator Frank Lautenberg, D-NJ, and Representative Carolyn McCarthy, D-NY, introduced similar bills to create a new ban with a revised definition for assault weapons. None of the bills left committee.[39]

text: After the November 2008 election, the website of President-elect Barack Obama listed a detailed agenda for the forthcoming administration. The stated positions included "making the expired federal Assault Weapons Ban permanent."[40] Three months later, newly sworn-in Attorney General Eric Holder reiterated the Obama administration's desire to reinstate the ban.[41] The mention came in response to a question during a joint press conference with DEA Acting Administrator Michele Leonhart, discussing efforts to crack down on Mexican drug cartels. Attorney General Holder said: "... there are just a few gun-related changes that we would like to make, and among them would be to reinstitute the ban on the sale of assault weapons."[42]

text: Efforts to pass a new federal assault weapons ban were made in December 2012 after the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting in Newtown, Connecticut.[43][44][45] On January 24, 2013, Senator Feinstein introduced S. 150, the Assault Weapons Ban of 2013 (AWB 2013).[46] The bill was similar to the 1994 ban, but differed in that it would not expire after 10 years,[45] and it used a one-feature test for a firearm to qualify as an assault weapon rather than the two-feature test of the defunct ban.[47] The GOP Congressional delegation from Texas, and the NRA, condemned Feinstein's bill.[48] On March 14, 2013, the Senate Judiciary Committee approved a version of the bill along party lines.[49] On April 17, 2013, AWB 2013 failed on a Senate vote of 40 to 60.[50]


document_title: Carter Country

question_text: who used to say handle it handle it

question_tokens: who used to say handle it handle it

text: Carter Country

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: Carter Country is set in the fictional small town of Clinton Corners in Georgia (presumably near the part of the state from which U.S. President Jimmy Carter hailed, thus the title) and features Victor French as police chief Roy Mobey and Kene Holliday as city-bred, college-educated, black Sergeant Curtis Baker.

text: It also features Richard Paul as Mayor Teddy Burnside, Harvey Vernon as racist officer Jasper DeWitt, and Barbara Cason as town employee Cloris Phebus. DeWitt was shown to be a member of the local branch of the Ku Klux Klan and he often made disparaging comments against minorities, but was still a loyal and honest law enforcement officer. In several episodes it is hinted that his racist attitude is an act and that he joined the KKK in order to keep an eye on their activities. Additional comic support was provided by Texas-born actor Guich Koock who played the part of goofy deputy Harley. Vernee Watson rounded out the cast as the mayor's educated secretary and a love interest for Baker. The plot centered around the stereotypical racism of the Deep South, and was often characterized as being an irreverent, comedic version of the movie In the Heat of the Night, especially with the aspect of an educated, African American man coming to the small town South to work as a police officer.[1]

text: The character of Mayor Burnside coined a minor catchphrase with his manic "Handle it, Roy, handle it!", used when delegating various details to Chief Mobey such as fixing a parking ticket. If Mobey protested or asked any further questions, Burnside would stifle further discussion with a dismissive hand gesture and a further "Handle it, handle it, handle it!"

text: Burnside often introduced himself to members of the public as "Teddy Burnside, your mayor by a landslide."

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1: 1977–78[edit]

text:
Nº
Ep
Title
Original air date

1
1
"Hail to the Chief"
September 15, 1977 (1977-09-15)

2
2
"Beating the Pounds"
September 22, 1977 (1977-09-22)

3
3
"Out of the Closet"
September 29, 1977 (1977-09-29)

4
4
"The Fireside Burnside Budget Chat"
October 6, 1977 (1977-10-06)

5
5
"Baker Buys a House: Part 1"
October 20, 1977 (1977-10-20)

6
6
"Baker Buys a House: Part 2"
October 27, 1977 (1977-10-27)

7
7
"Bye, Bye Baker"
November 3, 1977 (1977-11-03)

8
8
"Senior Citizen Siege"
November 17, 1977 (1977-11-17)

9
9
"Chicks and Turkeys"
November 24, 1977 (1977-11-24)

10
10
"Chief to Chief"
December 1, 1977 (1977-12-01)

11
11
"Union vs. the Confederacy"
December 8, 1977 (1977-12-08)

12
12
"A-Hunting We Will Go"
December 15, 1977 (1977-12-15)

13
13
"By the Light of the Moonlight"
December 22, 1977 (1977-12-22)

14
14
"The Physical"
January 5, 1978 (1978-01-05)

15
15
"Roy's Separation"
January 12, 1978 (1978-01-12)

16
16
"Red Armstrong, Goodbye"
January 19, 1978 (1978-01-19)

17
17
"Ballots for Burnside"
January 26, 1978 (1978-01-26)

18
18
"The Chief's Dressing Down"
February 2, 1978 (1978-02-02)

19
19
"All About Floyd"
February 9, 1978 (1978-02-09)

20
20
"Roy Pays His Taxes"
February 23, 1978 (1978-02-23)

21
21
"Roy's Encounter"
May 9, 1978 (1978-05-09)

22
22
"Baker Saves a Life"
May 16, 1978 (1978-05-16)

text: Season 2: 1978–79[edit]

text:
Nº
Ep
Title
Original air date

23
1
"One of Our Chiefs Is Missing"
September 23, 1978 (1978-09-23)

24
2
"The Tracy Report"
September 30, 1978 (1978-09-30)

25
3
"The Selling of the Mayor: Part 1"
October 21, 1978 (1978-10-21)

26
4
"The Selling of the Mayor: Part 2"
October 28, 1978 (1978-10-28)

27
5
"Poor Butterfly"
November 11, 1978 (1978-11-11)

28
6
"Gambler's Unanimous"
November 25, 1978 (1978-11-25)

29
7
"Roy Makes the Grade"
December 2, 1978 (1978-12-02)

30
8
"Hurricane Jasper"
December 16, 1978 (1978-12-16)

31
9
"Firing of a Harley"
December 23, 1978 (1978-12-23)

32
10
"Owed to Billy Joe"
January 6, 1979 (1979-01-06)

33
11
"The Russians Are Coming"
January 13, 1979 (1979-01-13)

34
12
"Happy Anniversary"
March 29, 1979 (1979-03-29)

35
13
"Teddy the Tiger"
April 5, 1979 (1979-04-05)

36
14
"New Kid in Town"
April 12, 1979 (1979-04-12)

37
15
"Baker's First Day"
April 19, 1979 (1979-04-19)

38
16
"The Last Dinosaur"
April 26, 1979 (1979-04-26)

39
17
"The Big Move: Part 1"
May 10, 1979 (1979-05-10)

40
18
"The Big Move: Part 2"
May 17, 1979 (1979-05-17)

41
19
"The Big Move: Part 3"
May 24, 1979 (1979-05-24)

42
20
"Teddy's Folly"
May 31, 1979 (1979-05-31)

43
21
"The Prisoner of Clinton Corners"
June 7, 1979 (1979-06-07)

44
22
"The Abominable Showman"
June 21, 1979 (1979-06-21)