document_title: Macroeconomics

question_text: what are the two broad types of economic policy

text: Macroeconomics

text: Basic macroeconomic concepts[edit]

text: Macroeconomics encompasses a variety of concepts and variables, but there are three central topics for macroeconomic research.[3] Macroeconomic theories usually relate the phenomena of output, unemployment, and inflation. Outside of macroeconomic theory, these topics are also important to all economic agents including workers, consumers, and producers.

text: Output and income[edit]

text: National output is the total amount of everything a country produces in a given period of time. Everything that is produced and sold generates an equal amount of income. Therefore, output and income are usually considered equivalent and the two terms are often used interchangeably. Output can be measured as total income, or it can be viewed from the production side and measured as the total value of final goods and services or the sum of all value added in the economy.[4]

text: Macroeconomic output is usually measured by gross domestic product (GDP) or one of the other national accounts. Economists are interested in long-run increases in output study economic growth. Advances in technology, accumulation of machinery and other capital, and better education and human capital all these factors lead to increased economic output over time. However, output does not always increase consistently. Business cycles can cause short-term drops in output called recessions. Economists look for macroeconomic policies that prevent economies from slipping into recessions and that lead to faster long-term growth.

text: Unemployment[edit]

text: The amount of unemployment in an economy is measured by the unemployment rate, i.e. the percentage of workers without jobs in the labor force. The unemployment rate in the labor force only includes workers actively looking for jobs. People who are retired, pursuing education, or discouraged from seeking work by a lack of job prospects are excluded.

text: Unemployment can be generally broken down into several types that are related to different causes.

text:
Classical unemployment theory suggests that unemployment occurs when wages are too high for employers to be willing to hire more workers.[citation needed] Other more modern economic theories[which?] suggest that increased wages actually decrease unemployment by creating more consumer demand. According to these more recent theories, unemployment results from reduced demand for the goods and services produced through labor and suggest that only in markets where profit margins are very low, and in which the market will not bear a price increase of product or service, will higher wages result in unemployment.
Consistent with classical unemployment theory, frictional unemployment occurs when appropriate job vacancies exist for a worker, but the length of time needed to search for and find the job leads to a period of unemployment.[5]
Structural unemployment covers a variety of possible causes of unemployment including a mismatch between workers' skills and the skills required for open jobs.[6] Large amounts of structural unemployment can occur when an economy is transitioning industries and workers find their previous set of skills are no longer in demand. Structural unemployment is similar to frictional unemployment as both reflect the problem of matching workers with job vacancies, but structural unemployment also covers the time needed to acquire new skills in addition to the short term search process.[7]
While some types of unemployment may occur regardless of the condition of the economy, cyclical unemployment occurs when growth stagnates. Okun's law represents the empirical relationship between unemployment and economic growth.[8] The original version of Okun's law states that a 3% increase in output would lead to a 1% decrease in unemployment.[9]

text: Inflation and deflation[edit]

text: A general price increase across the entire economy is called inflation. When prices decrease, there is deflation. Economists measure these changes in prices with price indexes. Inflation can occur when an economy becomes overheated and grows too quickly. Similarly, a declining economy can lead to deflation.

text: Central bankers, who manage a country's money supply, try to avoid changes in price level by using monetary policy. Raising interest rates or reducing the supply of money in an economy will reduce inflation. Inflation can lead to increased uncertainty and other negative consequences. Deflation can lower economic output. Central bankers try to stabilize prices to protect economies from the negative consequences of price changes.

text: Changes in price level may be the result of several factors. The quantity theory of money holds that changes in price level are directly related to changes in the money supply. Most economists believe that this relationship explains long-run changes in the price level.[10] Short-run fluctuations may also be related to monetary factors, but changes in aggregate demand and aggregate supply can also influence price level. For example, a decrease in demand due to a recession can lead to lower price levels and deflation. A negative supply shock, such as an oil crisis, lowers aggregate supply and can cause inflation.

text: Macroeconomic models[edit]

text: Aggregate demand–aggregate supply[edit]

text: The AD-AS model has become the standard textbook model for explaining the macroeconomy.[11] This model shows the price level and level of real output given the equilibrium in aggregate demand and aggregate supply. The aggregate demand curve's downward slope means that more output is demanded at lower price levels.[12] The downward slope is the result of three effects: the Pigou or real balance effect, which states that as real prices fall, real wealth increases, resulting in higher consumer demand of goods; the Keynes or interest rate effect, which states that as prices fall, the demand for money decreases, causing interest rates to decline and borrowing for investment and consumption to increase; and the net export effect, which states that as prices rise, domestic goods become comparatively more expensive to foreign consumers, leading to a decline in exports.[12]

text: In the conventional Keynesian use of the AS-AD model, the aggregate supply curve is horizontal at low levels of output and becomes inelastic near the point of potential output, which corresponds with full employment.[11] Since the economy cannot produce beyond the potential output, any AD expansion will lead to higher price levels instead of higher output.

text: The AD–AS diagram can model a variety of macroeconomic phenomena, including inflation. Changes in the non-price level factors or determinants cause changes in aggregate demand and shifts of the entire aggregate demand (AD) curve. When demand for goods exceeds supply there is an inflationary gap where demand-pull inflation occurs and the AD curve shifts upward to a higher price level. When the economy faces higher costs, cost-push inflation occurs and the AS curve shifts upward to higher price levels.[13] The AS–AD diagram is also widely used as a pedagogical tool to model the effects of various macroeconomic policies.[14]

text: IS–LM[edit]

text: The IS–LM model represents all the combinations of interest rates and output that ensure the equilibrium in the goods and money markets.[15] The goods market is represented by the equilibrium in investment and saving (IS), and the money market is represented by the equilibrium between the money supply and liquidity preference.[16] The IS curve consists of the points where investment, given the interest rate, is equal to savings, given output.[17]

text: The IS curve is downward sloping because output and interest rate have an inverse relationship in the goods market: as output increases, more money is saved, which means interest rates must be lower to spur enough investment to match savings.[17] The LM curve is upward sloping because interest rate and output have a positive relationship in the money market: as output increases, the demand for money increases, resulting in a rise in interest rate.[18]

text: The IS/LM model is often used to demonstrate the effects of monetary and fiscal policy.[15] Textbooks frequently use the IS/LM model, but it does not feature the complexities of most modern macroeconomic models.[15] Nevertheless, these models still feature similar relationships to those in IS/LM.[15]

text: Growth models[edit]

text: The neoclassical growth model of Robert Solow has become a common textbook model for explaining economic growth in the long-run.[citation needed] The model begins with a production function where national output is the product of two inputs: capital and labor. The Solow model assumes that labor and capital are used at constant rates without the fluctuations in unemployment and capital utilization commonly seen in business cycles.[19]

text: An increase in output, or economic growth, can only occur because of an increase in the capital stock, a larger population, or technological advancements that lead to higher productivity (total factor productivity). An increase in the savings rate leads to a temporary increase as the economy creates more capital, which adds to output. However, eventually the depreciation rate will limit the expansion of capital: savings will be used up replacing depreciated capital, and no savings will remain to pay for an additional expansion in capital. Solow's model suggests that economic growth in terms of output per capita depends solely on technological advances that enhance productivity.[20]

text: In the 1980s and 1990s endogenous growth theory arose to challenge neoclassical growth theory. This group of models explains economic growth through other factors, such as increasing returns to scale for capital and learning-by-doing, that are endogenously determined instead of the exogenous technological improvement used to explain growth in Solow's model.[21]

text: Macroeconomic policy[edit]

text: Macroeconomic policy is usually implemented through two sets of tools: fiscal and monetary policy. Both forms of policy are used to stabilize the economy, which can mean boosting the economy to the level of GDP consistent with full employment.[22] Macroeconomic policy focuses on limiting the effects of the business cycle to achieve the economic goals of price stability, full employment, and growth. [23]

text: Monetary policy[edit]

text: Central banks implement monetary policy by controlling the money supply through several mechanisms. Typically, central banks take action by issuing money to buy bonds (or other assets), which boosts the supply of money and lowers interest rates, or, in the case of contractionary monetary policy, banks sell bonds and take money out of circulation. Usually policy is not implemented by directly targeting the supply of money.

text: Central banks continuously shift the money supply to maintain a targeted fixed interest rate. Some of them allow the interest rate to fluctuate and focus on targeting inflation rates instead. Central banks generally try to achieve high output without letting loose monetary policy that create large amounts of inflation.

text: Conventional monetary policy can be ineffective in situations such as a liquidity trap. When interest rates and inflation are near zero, the central bank cannot loosen monetary policy through conventional means.

text: Central banks can use unconventional monetary policy such as quantitative easing to help increase output. Instead of buying government bonds, central banks can implement quantitative easing by buying not only government bonds, but also other assets such as corporate bonds, stocks, and other securities. This allows lower interest rates for a broader class of assets beyond government bonds. In another example of unconventional monetary policy, the United States Federal Reserve recently made an attempt at such a policy with Operation Twist. Unable to lower current interest rates, the Federal Reserve lowered long-term interest rates by buying long-term bonds and selling short-term bonds to create a flat yield curve.

text: Fiscal policy[edit]

text: Fiscal policy is the use of government's revenue and expenditure as instruments to influence the economy. Examples of such tools are expenditure, taxes, debt.

text: For example, if the economy is producing less than potential output, government spending can be used to employ idle resources and boost output. Government spending does not have to make up for the entire output gap. There is a multiplier effect that boosts the impact of government spending. For instance, when the government pays for a bridge, the project not only adds the value of the bridge to output, but also allows the bridge workers to increase their consumption and investment, which helps to close the output gap.

text: The effects of fiscal policy can be limited by crowding out. When the government takes on spending projects, it limits the amount of resources available for the private sector to use. Crowding out occurs when government spending simply replaces private sector output instead of adding additional output to the economy. Crowding out also occurs when government spending raises interest rates, which limits investment. Defenders of fiscal stimulus argue that crowding out is not a concern when the economy is depressed, plenty of resources are left idle, and interest rates are low.[citation needed]

text: Fiscal policy can be implemented through automatic stabilizers. Automatic stabilizers do not suffer from the policy lags of discretionary fiscal policy. Automatic stabilizers use conventional fiscal mechanisms but take effect as soon as the economy takes a downturn: spending on unemployment benefits automatically increases when unemployment rises and, in a progressive income tax system, the effective tax rate automatically falls when incomes decline.

text: Comparison[edit]

text: Economists usually favor monetary over fiscal policy because it has two major advantages. First, monetary policy is generally implemented by independent central banks instead of the political institutions that control fiscal policy. Independent central banks are less likely to make decisions based on political motives.[22] Second, monetary policy suffers shorter inside lags and outside lags than fiscal policy. Central banks can quickly make and implement decisions while discretionary fiscal policy may take time to pass and even longer to carry out.[22]

text: Development[edit]

text: Origins[edit]

text: Macroeconomics descended from the once divided fields of business cycle theory and monetary theory.[24] The quantity theory of money was particularly influential prior to World War II. It took many forms, including the version based on the work of Irving Fisher:

text: In the typical view of the quantity theory, money velocity (V) and the quantity of goods produced (Q) would be constant, so any increase in money supply (M) would lead to a direct increase in price level (P). The quantity theory of money was a central part of the classical theory of the economy that prevailed in the early twentieth century.

text: Austrian School[edit]

text: Ludwig Von Mises's work Theory of Money and Credit, published in 1912, was one of the first books from the Austrian School to deal with macroeconomic topics.

text: Keynes and his followers[edit]

text: Macroeconomics, at least in its modern form,[25] began with the publication of John Maynard Keynes's General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money.[24][26] When the Great Depression struck, classical economists had difficulty explaining how goods could go unsold and workers could be left unemployed. In classical theory, prices and wages would drop until the market cleared, and all goods and labor were sold. Keynes offered a new theory of economics that explained why markets might not clear, which would evolve (later in the 20th century) into a group of macroeconomic schools of thought known as Keynesian economics – also called Keynesianism or Keynesian theory.

text: In Keynes's theory, the quantity theory broke down because people and businesses tend to hold on to their cash in tough economic times – a phenomenon he described in terms of liquidity preferences. Keynes also explained how the multiplier effect would magnify a small decrease in consumption or investment and cause declines throughout the economy. Keynes also noted the role uncertainty and animal spirits can play in the economy.[25]

text: The generation following Keynes combined the macroeconomics of the General Theory with neoclassical microeconomics to create the neoclassical synthesis. By the 1950s, most economists had accepted the synthesis view of the macroeconomy.[25] Economists like Paul Samuelson, Franco Modigliani, James Tobin, and Robert Solow developed formal Keynesian models and contributed formal theories of consumption, investment, and money demand that fleshed out the Keynesian framework.[27]

text: Monetarism[edit]

text: Milton Friedman updated the quantity theory of money to include a role for money demand. He argued that the role of money in the economy was sufficient to explain the Great Depression, and that aggregate demand oriented explanations were not necessary. Friedman also argued that monetary policy was more effective than fiscal policy; however, Friedman doubted the government's ability to "fine-tune" the economy with monetary policy. He generally favored a policy of steady growth in money supply instead of frequent intervention.[28]

text: Friedman also challenged the Phillips curve relationship between inflation and unemployment. Friedman and Edmund Phelps (who was not a monetarist) proposed an "augmented" version of the Phillips curve that excluded the possibility of a stable, long-run tradeoff between inflation and unemployment.[29][citation needed] When the oil shocks of the 1970s created a high unemployment and high inflation, Friedman and Phelps were vindicated. Monetarism was particularly influential in the early 1980s. Monetarism fell out of favor when central banks found it difficult to target money supply instead of interest rates as monetarists recommended. Monetarism also became politically unpopular when the central banks created recessions in order to slow inflation.

text: New classical[edit]

text: New classical macroeconomics further challenged the Keynesian school. A central development in new classical thought came when Robert Lucas introduced rational expectations to macroeconomics. Prior to Lucas, economists had generally used adaptive expectations where agents were assumed to look at the recent past to make expectations about the future. Under rational expectations, agents are assumed to be more sophisticated. A consumer will not simply assume a 2% inflation rate just because that has been the average the past few years; she will look at current monetary policy and economic conditions to make an informed forecast. When new classical economists introduced rational expectations into their models, they showed that monetary policy could only have a limited impact.

text: Lucas also made an influential critique of Keynesian empirical models. He argued that forecasting models based on empirical relationships would keep producing the same predictions even as the underlying model generating the data changed. He advocated models based on fundamental economic theory that would, in principle, be structurally accurate as economies changed. Following Lucas's critique, new classical economists, led by Edward C. Prescott and Finn E. Kydland, created real business cycle (RBC) models of the macroeconomy.[30]

text: RBC models were created by combining fundamental equations from neo-classical microeconomics. In order to generate macroeconomic fluctuations, RBC models explained recessions and unemployment with changes in technology instead of changes in the markets for goods or money. Critics of RBC models argue that money clearly plays an important role in the economy, and the idea that technological regress can explain recent recessions is implausible.[30] However, technological shocks are only the more prominent of a myriad of possible shocks to the system that can be modeled. Despite questions about the theory behind RBC models, they have clearly been influential in economic methodology.[citation needed]

text: New Keynesian response[edit]

text: New Keynesian economists responded to the new classical school by adopting rational expectations and focusing on developing micro-founded models that are immune to the Lucas critique. Stanley Fischer and John B. Taylor produced early work in this area by showing that monetary policy could be effective even in models with rational expectations when contracts locked in wages for workers. Other new Keynesian economists, including Olivier Blanchard, Julio Rotemberg, Greg Mankiw, David Romer, and Michael Woodford, expanded on this work and demonstrated other cases where inflexible prices and wages led to monetary and fiscal policy having real effects.

text: Like classical models, new classical models had assumed that prices would be able to adjust perfectly and monetary policy would only lead to price changes. New Keynesian models investigated sources of sticky prices and wages due to imperfect competition,[31] which would not adjust, allowing monetary policy to impact quantities instead of prices.

text: By the late 1990s economists had reached a rough consensus. The nominal rigidity of new Keynesian theory was combined with rational expectations and the RBC methodology to produce dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (DSGE) models. The fusion of elements from different schools of thought has been dubbed the new neoclassical synthesis. These models are now used by many central banks and are a core part of contemporary macroeconomics.[32]

text: New Keynesian economics, which developed partly in response to new classical economics, strives to provide microeconomic foundations to Keynesian economics by showing how imperfect markets can justify demand management.


document_title: Homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures

question_text: a homogeneous mixture in which all the components are dissolved in the same phase

root

text: Homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures

text: Homogeneous mixture[edit]

text: Solutions[edit]

text: A solution is a special type of homogeneous mixture. Solutions are homogeneous because the ratio of solute to solvent remains the same throughout the solution even if homogenized with multiple sources, and stable because the solute will not settle out after any period of time, and it cannot be removed by a filter or by centrifuge.[2] This type of mixture is very stable, i.e., its particles do not settle, or separate. As a homogeneous mixture, a solution has one phase (liquid) although the solute and solvent can vary: for example, salt water.

tag: p

text: Gaseous[edit]

text: Air can be more specifically described as a gaseous solution (oxygen and other gases dissolved in the major component, nitrogen). Since interactions between molecules play almost no role, dilute gases form rather trivial solutions. In part of the literature, they are not even classified as solutions.

text: Solids[edit]

text: In chemistry, a mixture is a substance containing two or more elements or compounds that are not covalently bound to each other and which retain their own chemical and physical identities; – a substance which has two or more constituent physical substances. Mixtures, in the broader sense, are two or more substances physically in the same place, but these are not chemically combined, and therefore ratios are not necessarily considered.[3]

text: Metrics[edit]

text: Homogeneous mixtures have the same proportions of the various components throughout a given sample (or multiple samples of different proportion), creating a consistent mixture. However, two homogeneous mixtures of the same pair of substances may differ widely from each other and can be homogenized to make a constant. Homogeneous mixtures always have the same composition. Mixtures can be characterized by being separable by mechanical means e.g. heat, filtration, gravitational sorting, etc.[3]

text: During the sampling of heterogeneous mixtures of particles, the variance of the sampling error is generally non-zero. Gy's sampling theory [4] quantitatively defines the heterogeneity of a particle as:

text: Homogenization[edit]


document_title: Suits (season 8)

question_text: when does suits season 8 episode 3 air

question_tokens: when does suits season 8 episode 3 air

text: Suits (season 8)

text: Cast[edit]

text: Regular cast[edit]

text:
Gabriel Macht as Harvey Specter
Rick Hoffman as Louis Litt
Sarah Rafferty as Donna Paulsen
Amanda Schull as Katrina Bennett
Dulé Hill as Alex Williams
Katherine Heigl as Samantha Wheeler

tag: ul

text: Recurring cast[edit]

text:
Wendell Pierce as Robert Zane[5]
Rachael Harris as Sheila Sazs[5]
Aloma Wright as Gretchen Bodinski[5]
Ray Proscia as Dr. Stan Lipschitz[5]
Jake Epstein as Brian Altman[5]

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitle [6]Directed byWritten byOriginal air date [7]U.S. viewers(millions)1091"Right-Hand Man"Christopher MisianoAaron KorshJuly 18, 2018 (2018-07-18)1.27[8]
The newly merged firm has a conflict of interest between two clients, which Harvey and Robert use as a competition to decide which one of them becomes managing partner. Harvey and Robert acquire the help of their right-hand men Alex and Samantha, respectively, to convince one of the clients to drop the overlapping division that cause the conflict. Both Alex and Samantha are invested in order to solidify their claim to become the next name partner, which introduces Specter Litt's lawyers to Samantha's tactics. Donna helps Harvey see that he's tired of the view on top of the mountain, making him concede to Robert. Katrina asks to be tasked with firing the least efficient associates, but it gets complicated when Louis's favorite associate Brian ends up at the bottom of the list.
1102"Pecking Order"Michael SmithGenevieve SparlingJuly 25, 2018 (2018-07-25)1.18[9]
An old friend of Mike's comes knocking for help when 50 million dollars for a new business venture goes missing, meaning he might be accused of embezzlement. Harvey suspects that his business partner made the money disappear, but Robert fears he's too trusting of Mike's friend and secretly puts Samantha on the case as well. While the two lawyers bicker over the right strategy to find the guilty party, Donna enlists the help of Gretchen to find out who exactly Samantha is and whose team she's playing for. Sheila urges Louis to fight for managing partner, which brings to light Louis's concerns about their relationship dynamics. Meanwhile, Alex sets out to prove his worth for name partner by attempting to poach Gavin Andrews, one of Robert's former important clients from Rand Kaldor.
1113"Promises, Promises"Roger KumbleRob LaMorgese & Marshall KnightAugust 1, 2018 (2018-08-01)1.16[10]
Harvey finds out that the firm's cleaning lady does not receive the payments for her overtime, which she need for her mother's medical costs, because of a manager title given to her by Gabriel Fox, the firm's landlord. While the other name partners and Donna tell him not to, he starts a fight with Fox. Alex is successful in signing Gavin Andrews but he is immediately tasked with carrying out a plan set up by Gavin to launder money. Alex pleads with Samantha to help him find a way out without firing him as a client, which would backfire on the new firm's reputation. Later, Samantha informs him that Robert promised her name partner. Meanwhile, Katrina is given the chance to prove her worth for senior partner by showcasing leadership over Brian, but Brian has to step up when stress-induced migraines take her out of the game.
1124"Revenue Per Square Foot"Michael SmithEthan DroginAugust 8, 2018 (2018-08-08)1.09[11]
After opening with the kind of Sheila and Louis interaction, the tone shifts when Louis is mugged on the way to his meeting. And even though Louis is injured from it, the trauma and the blow to his pride are what hurt him the most. That keeps him from telling the truth to Zane about why he misses his meeting. Even when he has his client taken away because of it, he’d rather not appear as a victim. He’d rather appear like he blew something off than for his new boss to see him as weak. Samantha reads Louis pretty quickly after he loses in court and then blows up at her. She doesn’t take it personally because she sees right away that all of this is out of character for him. She takes the matter to Harvey rather than to Zane and when Harvey confronts Louis to find out what’s going up on with him, it’s Harvey that Louis is finally able to open up to. As Donna points out, Zane has some things to learn himself. He can’t lead the way he did at his old firm. He may be good at being managing partner, and he may be more suited for it than Harvey is, but he’s not perfect. He still has room to grow, too. Zane reveals to Louis that he’s been on the other end of a similar traumatic experience. Samantha is softened a bit more in her interactions with Louis, and she can identify with him on this more than he realizes. She’s been through it too, and now she’s offering to be there for Louis and to teach him some basics in self-defense.
1135"Good Mudding"TBATBAAugust 15, 2018 (2018-08-15)TBD
1146"Cats, Ballet, Harvey Specter"TBATBAAugust 22, 2018 (2018-08-22)TBD
1157TBAGabriel Macht[12]TBAAugust 29, 2018 (2018-08-29)TBD

tag: table

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: On May 25, 2018, Entertainment Weekly released an interview with Katherine Heigl in which she described her character Samantha Wheeler as a "fierce and enigmatic lawyer who muscles her way into [the] central law firm, Zane Specter Litt." She also teased an antagonistic relationship between Samantha and the main protagonist Harvey Specter and an "uneasy dynamic" with Donna. The article included several exclusive first-look images from the season premiere and Heigl's character.[2]

text: Series creator Aaron Korsh confirmed that Patrick J. Adams won't be returning for any guest appearances in the first ten episodes of the season. However, he did state that he and Adams had discussed it and are both open to the possibility somewhere in the future. At the same time, he confirmed that Gina Torres won't guest star on the eighth season nor will be there be crossover episodes in order to establish the world from the Chicago-based spin-off series Second City as separate from Suits itself.[5]

text: Ratings[edit]

text:
No.

Title

Air date
Rating(18–49)
Viewers(millions)
DVR(18–49)
DVR viewers(millions)
Total(18–49)
Total viewers(millions)

1

"Right-Hand Man"

July 18, 2018
0.3
1.27[8]
0.3
1.23
0.6
2.50[13]

2

"Pecking Order"

July 25, 2018
0.2
1.18[9]
0.3
1.21
0.5
2.39[14]

3

"Promises, Promises"

August 1, 2018
0.2
1.16[10]
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD

4

"Revenue Per Square Foot"

August 8, 2018
0.3
1.09[11]
TBD
TBD
TBD
TBD


document_title: History of Jerusalem

question_text: when did jerusalem become the capital city of the hebrews

question_tokens: when did jerusalem become the capital city of the hebrews

text: History of Jerusalem

text: Ancient period[edit]

text: Proto-Canaanite period[edit]

text: Archaeological evidence suggests that the first settlement was established near Gihon Spring between 4500–3500 BCE. The first known mention of the city was in c. 2000 BCE in the Middle Kingdom Egyptian Execration Texts in which the city was recorded as Rusalimum.[11][12] The root S-L-M in the name is thought to refer to either "peace" (compare with modern Salam or Shalom in modern Arabic and Hebrew) or Shalim, the god of dusk in the Canaanite religion.

text: Canaanite and New Kingdom Egyptian period[edit]

text: Archaeological evidence suggests that by the 17th century BCE, the Canaanites had built massive walls (4 and 5 ton boulders, 26 feet high) on the eastern side of Jerusalem to protect their ancient water system.[13]

text: By c. 1550–1400 BCE, Jerusalem had become a vassal to Egypt after the Egyptian New Kingdom under Ahmose I and Thutmose I had reunited Egypt and expanded into the Levant. The Amarna letters contain correspondence from Abdi-Heba, headman[14] of Urusalim and his suzerain Amenhotep III.

text: The power of the Egyptians in the region began to decline in the 12th century BCE, during the Bronze Age collapse. The Battle of Djahy (Djahy being the Egyptian name for Canaan) in 1178 BCE between Ramesses III and the Sea Peoples marked the beginning of this decline. The gradual loss of a central power gave rise to independent kingdoms in the region. According to the Bible, Jerusalem at this time was known as Jebus and its independent Canaanite inhabitants at this time were known as Jebusites.

text: Independent Israel and Judah (House of David) period[edit]

text: This article uncritically uses texts from within a religion or faith system without referring to secondary sources that critically analyze them. Please help improve this article by adding references to reliable secondary sources, with multiple points of view. (March 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: According to the Bible, the Israelite history of the city began in c. 1000 BCE, with King David's sack of Jerusalem, following which Jerusalem became the City of David and capital of the United Kingdom of Israel.[11] According to the Books of Samuel, the Jebusites managed to resist attempts by the Israelites to capture the city, and by the time of King David were mocking such attempts, claiming that even the blind and lame could defeat the Israelite army. Nevertheless, the masoretic text for the Books of Samuel states that David managed to capture the city by stealth, sending his forces through a "water shaft" and attacking the city from the inside. Archaeologists now view this as implausible as the Gihon spring – the only known location from which water shafts lead into the city – is now known to have been heavily defended (and hence an attack via this route would have been obvious rather than secretive). The older[citation needed] Septuagint text, however, suggests that rather than by a water shaft, David's forces defeated the Jebusites by using daggers rather than through the water tunnels coming through the Gihon spring. There was another king in Jerusalem, Araunah, during, and possibly before, David's control of the city, according to the biblical narrative,[15] who was probably the Jebusite king of Jerusalem.[16] The city, which at that point stood upon the Ophel, was, according to the biblical account, expanded to the south, and declared by David to be the capital city of the Kingdom of Israel. David also, according to the Books of Samuel, constructed an altar at the location of a threshing floor he had purchased from Araunah; a portion of biblical scholars view this as an attempt by the narrative's author to give an Israelite foundation to a pre-existing sanctuary.[17]

text: Later, according to the biblical narrative, King Solomon built a more substantive temple, the Temple of Solomon, at a location which the Book of Chronicles equates with David's altar. The Temple became a major cultural centre in the region; eventually, particularly after religious reforms such as those of Hezekiah and of Josiah, the Jerusalem temple became the main place of worship, at the expense of other, formerly powerful, ritual centres, such as Shiloh and Bethel. However, according to K. L. Noll, in Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: A Textbook on History and Religion, the Biblical account of the centralization of worship in Jerusalem is a fiction, although by the time of Josiah, the territory he ruled was so small that the Jerusalem temple became de facto the only shrine left.[18] Solomon is also described as having created several other important building works at Jerusalem, including the construction of his palace, and the construction of the Millo (the identity of which is somewhat controversial). Archaeologists are divided over whether the biblical narrative is supported by the evidence from excavations.[19] Eilat Mazar contends that her digging uncovered remains of large stone buildings from the correct time period, while Israel Finkelstein disputes both the interpretation and the dating of the finds.[20][21]

text: When the Kingdom of Judah split from the larger Kingdom of Israel (which the Bible places near the end of the reign of Solomon, c. 930 BCE, though Israel Finkelstein and others dispute the very existence of a unified monarchy to begin with[22]), Jerusalem became the capital of the Kingdom of Judah, while the Kingdom of Israel located its capital at Shechem in Samaria. Thomas L. Thompson argues that it only became a city and capable of acting as a state capital in the middle of the 7th century.[23]

text: Both the Bible and regional archaeological evidence suggest the region was politically unstable during the period 925–732 BCE. In 925 BCE, the region was invaded by Egyptian Pharaoh Sheshonk I of the Third Intermediate Period, who is possibly the same as Shishak, the first Pharaoh mentioned in the Bible who captured and pillaged Jerusalem. Around 75 years later, Jerusalem's forces were likely involved in an indecisive battle against the Neo-Assyrian King Shalmaneser III in the Battle of Qarqar. According to the bible, Jehoshaphat of Judah was allied to Ahab of the Northern Kingdom of Israel at this time.

text: The Bible records that shortly after this battle, Jerusalem was sacked by Philistines, Arabs and Ethiopians, who looted King Jehoram's house, and carried off all of his family except for his youngest son Jehoahaz.

text: Two decades later, most of Canaan including Jerusalem was conquered by Hazael of Aram Damascus. According to the Bible, Jehoash of Judah gave all of Jerusalem's treasures as a tribute, but Hazael proceeded to destroy "all the princes of the people" in the city. And half a century later, the city was sacked by Jehoash of Israel, who destroyed the walls and took Amaziah of Judah prisoner.

text: By the end of the First Temple Period, Jerusalem was the sole acting religious shrine in the kingdom and a centre of regular pilgrimage; a fact which archaeologists generally view as being corroborated by the evidence,[citation needed] though there remained a more personal cult involving Asherah figures, which are found spread throughout the land right up to the end of this era.[22]

text: Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian Empires period[edit]

text: Jerusalem was the capital of the Kingdom of Judah for some 400 years. It had survived an Assyrian siege in 701 BCE by Sennacherib, unlike Samaria, the capital of the northern Kingdom of Israel, that had fallen some twenty years previously. According to the Bible, this was a miraculous event in which an angel killed 185,000 men in Sennacherib's army. According to Sennacherib's own account preserved in the Taylor prism, an inscription contemporary with the event, the king of Judah, Hezekiah, was "shut up in the city like a caged bird" and eventually persuaded Sennacherib to leave by sending him "30 talents of gold and 800 talents of silver, and diverse treasures, a rich and immense booty".

text: The siege of Jerusalem in 597 BCE led to the city being overcome by the Babylonians, who then took the young King Jehoiachin into Babylonian captivity, together with most of the aristocracy. Zedekiah, who had been placed on the throne by Nebuchadnezzar (the Babylonian king), rebelled, and Nebuchadnezzar, who at the time (587/586 BCE) was ruler of a most powerful empire, recaptured the city, killed Zedekiah's descendants in front of him, and plucked out Zedekiah's eyes so that that would be the last thing he ever saw. The Babylonians then took Zedekiah into captivity, along with prominent members of Judah. The Babylonians then burnt the temple, destroyed the city's walls, and appointed Gedaliah son of Achikam as governor of Judah. After 52 days of rule, Yishmael, son of Netaniah, a surviving descendant of Zedekiah, assassinated Gedaliah after encouragement by Baalis, the king of Ammon. Some of the remaining population of Judah, fearing the vengeance of Nebuchadnezzar, fled to Egypt.

text: Persian (Achaemenid) Empire period[edit]

text: This article uncritically uses texts from within a religion or faith system without referring to secondary sources that critically analyze them. Please help improve this article by adding references to reliable secondary sources, with multiple points of view. (April 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: According to the Bible, and perhaps corroborated by the Cyrus Cylinder, after several decades of captivity in Babylon and the Achaemenid conquest of Babylonia, Cyrus II of Persia allowed the Jews to return to Judah and rebuild the Temple. The books of Ezra-Nehemiah record that the construction of the Second Temple was finished in the sixth year of Darius the Great (516 BCE), following which Artaxerxes I sent Ezra and then Nehemiah to rebuild the city's walls and to govern the Yehud province within the Eber-Nari satrapy. These events represent the final chapter in the historical narrative of the Hebrew Bible.[24]

text: During this period, Aramaic-inscribed "Yehud coinage" were produced – these are believed to have been minted in or near Jerusalem, although none of the coins bear a mint mark.

text: Classical antiquity[edit]

text: Hellenistic Kingdoms (Ptolemaic/Seleucid) period[edit]

text: When Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire, Jerusalem and Judea fell under Greek control and Hellenistic influence. After the Wars of the Diadochoi following Alexander's death, Jerusalem and Judea fell under Ptolemaic control under Ptolemy I and continued minting Yehud coinage. In 198 BCE, as a result of the Battle of Panium, Ptolemy V lost Jerusalem and Judea to the Seleucids under Antiochus the Great.

text: Under the Seleucids many Jews had become Hellenized and with their assistance tried to Hellenize Jerusalem, eventually culminating in a rebellion by the High Priest Matityahu ben Yoḥanan and his five sons: Simon, Yochanan, Eleazar, Jonathan and Yehuda ha-Makabi, also known as the Maccabees. As a result of the rebellion, Jerusalem became the capital of the independent Hasmonean Kingdom.

text: Hasmonean Period[edit]

text: The Hasmonean Kingdom lasted for 103 years. It was ruled by Simon Maccabaeus, the son of Matityahu; then by his son Yochanan, known as John Hyrcanus, who started minting his own Hasmonean coins; then by his son Yehuda Aristobulus; then by his wife Salome Alexandra; then by his brother Alexander Yannai; then by his sons Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II. When the brothers Hyrcanus and Aristobulus each asked for Rome to intervene on their behalf, Judea fell under the greater rule of Rome as an autonomous province but still with a significant amount of independence. The last Hasmonean king was Aristobulus' son Antigonus II Matityahu.

text: Roman Jerusalem[edit]

text: In 37 BCE, Herod the Great captured Jerusalem after forty-day siege, ending Hasmonean rule. Herod ruled the Province of Judea as a client-king of the Romans, rebuilt the Second Temple, upgraded the surrounding complex, and expanded the minting of coins to many denominations. Pliny the Elder, writing of Herod's achievements, called Jerusalem "the most famous by far of the Eastern cities and not only the cities of Judea." The Talmud comments that "He who has not seen the Temple of Herod has never seen a beautiful building in his life." And Tacitus wrote that "Jerusalem is the capital of the Jews. In it was a Temple possessing enormous riches."[25] Herod also built Caesarea Maritima which replaced Jerusalem as the capital of the Roman province.[Note 5] In 6 CE, following Herod's death in 4 BCE, Judea and the city of Jerusalem came under direct Roman rule through Roman prefects, procurators, and legates (see List of Hasmonean and Herodian rulers). Nevertheless, Herod's descendants remained nominal kings of Iudaea Province as Agrippa I (41–44) and Agrippa II (48–100).

text: In 66 CE, the Jewish population rebelled against the Roman Empire in what is now known as the First Jewish–Roman War or Great Revolt. Roman legions under future emperor Titus reconquered and subsequently destroyed much of Jerusalem in 70 CE. Also the Second Temple was burnt and all that remained was the great external (retaining) walls supporting the esplanade on which the Temple had stood, a portion of which has become known as the Western Wall. Titus' victory is commemorated by the Arch of Titus in Rome. Agrippa II died c. 94 CE, which brought the Herodian dynasty to an end almost thirty years after the destruction of the Second Temple. After the end of this revolt, Jews continued to live in Jerusalem in significant numbers,[citation needed] and were allowed to practice their religion, only if they paid the Jewish Tax.

text: In the 1st century CE, Jerusalem became the birthplace of Early Christianity. According to the New Testament, it is the location of the crucifixion, resurrection and Ascension of Jesus Christ (see also Jerusalem in Christianity). It was in Jerusalem that, according to the Acts of the Apostles, the Apostles of Christ received the Holy Spirit at Pentecost and first began preaching the Gospel and proclaiming his resurrection. Jerusalem eventually became an early centers of Christianity and home to one of the five Patriarchates of the Christian Church. After the Great Schism, it remained a part of the Eastern Orthodox Church.

text: Roman Aelia Capitolina period[edit]

text: What is today known as the "Old City" was laid out by the Roman Emperor Hadrian in the 2nd century, when he began to rebuild Jerusalem as a pagan city. In 130, Hadrian visited the ruins of Jerusalem remaining after the First Jewish-Roman War of 66–73. He rebuilt the city, renaming it Aelia Capitolina in 135 CE. Hadrian placed the city's main Roman Forum at the junction of the main Cardo and Decumanus, now the location of the (smaller) Muristan. Hadrian built a large temple to Jupiter Capitolinus, which later became the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.[27] He placed restrictions on some Jewish practices, which caused a revolt by the Judeans, led by Simon Bar Kokhba. Hadrian responded with overwhelming force, putting down the rebellion, killing as many as a half million Jews, and resettling the city as a Roman colonia. Jews were forbidden to enter the city but for a single day of the year, Tisha B'Av, (the Ninth of Av), the fast day on which Jews mourn the destruction of both Temples. For the next 150 years, the city remained a relatively unimportant pagan Roman town.

text: Post-Crisis Roman and Early Byzantine Empire period[edit]

text: The Emperor Constantine, however, rebuilt Jerusalem as a Christian center of worship, building the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in 335. Jerusalem had received special recognition in Canon VII of the First Council of Nicaea in 325. Constantine's mother, Helena, made a pilgrimage to the city and claimed to have recovered the cross of Christ. Jews were still banned from the city throughout the remainder of its time as a Roman province, except during a brief period of Persian rule from 614 to 629.

text: Middle Ages[edit]

text: Rashidun, Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates period[edit]

text: Although the Qur'an does not mention the name "Jerusalem", the hadith assert that it was from Jerusalem that Muhammad ascended to heaven in the Night Journey, or Isra and Miraj.[citation needed] The city was one of the Arab Caliphate's first conquests in 638 CE; according to Arab historians of the time, the Rashidun Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab personally went to the city to receive its submission, cleaning out and praying at the Temple Mount in the process. Sixty years later the Dome of the Rock was built, a structure enshrining a stone from which Muhammad is said to have ascended to heaven during the Isra. (The octagonal and gold-sheeted Dome is not the Al-Aqsa Mosque to the south, the latest version of which was built more than three centuries later). Umar ibn al-Khattab also allowed the Jews back into the city and freedom to live and worship after four hundred years.

text: Under the early centuries of Muslim rule, especially during the Umayyad (650–750) and Abbasid (750–969) dynasties, the city prospered; geographers Ibn Hawqal and al-Istakhri (10th century) describe it as "the most fertile province of Palestine",[citation needed] while its native son, the geographer al-Muqaddasi (born 946) devoted many pages to its praises in his most famous work, The Best Divisions in the Knowledge of the Climes. Under Muslim rule Jerusalem did not achieve the political or cultural status enjoyed by the capitals Damascus, Baghdad, Cairo etc. Interestingly, al-Muqaddasi derives his name from the Arabic name for Jerusalem, Bayt al-Muqaddas, which is linguistically equivalent to the Hebrew Beit Ha-Mikdash, the Holy House.

text: Fatimid Caliphate period[edit]

text: The early Arab period was also one of religious tolerance.[citation needed] However, in the early 11th century, the Egyptian Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ordered the destruction of all churches. In 1033, there was another earthquake, severely damaging the Al-Aqsa Mosque. The Fatimid caliph Ali az-Zahir rebuilt and completely renovated the mosque between 1034 and 1036. The number of naves was drastically reduced from fifteen to seven.[28] Az-Zahir built the four arcades of the central hall and aisle, which presently serve as the foundation of the mosque. The central aisle was double the width of the other aisles and had a large gable roof upon which the dome—made of wood—was constructed.[29] Persian geographer, Nasir Khusraw describes the Aqsa Mosque during a visit in 1047:

text: The Haram Area (Noble Sanctuary) lies in the eastern part of the city; and through the bazaar of this (quarter) you enter the Area by a great and beautiful gateway (Dargah)... After passing this gateway, you have on the right two great colonnades (Riwaq), each of which has nine-and-twenty marble pillars, whose capitals and bases are of colored marbles, and the joints are set in lead. Above the pillars rise arches, that are constructed, of masonry, without mortar or cement, and each arch is constructed of no more than five or six blocks of stone. These colonnades lead down to near the Maqsurah.[30]

text: Kingdom of Jerusalem (Crusaders) period[edit]

text: Fatimid control of Jerusalem ended when it was captured by Crusaders in July 1099. The capture was accompanied by a massacre of almost all of the Muslim and Jewish inhabitants. Jerusalem became the capital of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Godfrey of Bouillon, was elected Lord of Jerusalem on 22 July 1099, but did not assume the royal crown and died a year later.[31] Barons offered the lordship of Jerusalem to Godfrey's brother Baldwin, Count of Edessa, who had himself crowned by the Patriarch Daimbert on Christmas Day 1100 in the basilica of Bethlehem.[31]

text: Christian settlers from the West set about rebuilding the principal shrines associated with the life of Christ. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre was ambitiously rebuilt as a great Romanesque church, and Muslim shrines on the Temple Mount (the Dome of the Rock and the al-Aqsa Mosque) were converted for Christian purposes. It is during this period of Frankish occupation that the Military Orders of the Knights Hospitaller and the Knights Templar have their beginnings. Both grew out of the need to protect and care for the great influx of pilgrims travelling to Jerusalem in the 12th century.

text: Ayyubid, Bahri Mamluk and Burji Mamluk period[edit]

text: The Kingdom of Jerusalem lasted until 1291; however, Jerusalem itself was recaptured by Saladin in 1187 (see Siege of Jerusalem (1187)), who permitted worship of all religions. According to Rabbi Elijah of Chelm, German Jews lived in Jerusalem during the 11th century. The story is told that a German-speaking Jew saved the life of a young German man surnamed Dolberger. Thus when the knights of the First Crusade came to besiege Jerusalem, one of Dolberger's family members rescued Jews in Palestine and carried them back to the German city of Worms to repay the favor.[32] Further evidence of German communities in the holy city comes in the form of halakic questions sent from Germany to Jerusalem during the second half of the 11th century.[33]

text: In 1173 Benjamin of Tudela visited Jerusalem. He described it as a small city full of Jacobites, Armenians, Greeks, and Georgians. Two hundred Jews dwelt in a corner of the city under the Tower of David. In 1219 the walls of the city were razed by order of al-Mu'azzam, the Ayyubid sultan of Damascus. This rendered Jerusalem defenseless and dealt a heavy blow to the city's status. The Ayyubids destroyed the walls in expectation of ceding the city to the Crusaders as part of a peace treaty. In 1229, by treaty with Egypt's ruler al-Kamil, Jerusalem came into the hands of Frederick II of Germany. In 1239, after a ten-year truce expired, he began to rebuild the walls; these were again demolished by an-Nasir Da'ud, the emir of Kerak, in the same year.

text: In 1243 Jerusalem came again into the power of the Christians, and the walls were repaired. The Khwarezmian Empire took the city in 1244 and were in turn driven out by the Ayyubids in 1247. In 1260 the Mongols under Hulagu Khan engaged in raids into Palestine. It is unclear if the Mongols were ever in Jerusalem, as it was not seen as a settlement of strategic importance at the time. However, there are reports that some of the Jews that were in Jerusalem temporarily fled to neighboring villages.[citation needed]

text: In 1267 the Jewish Catalan sage Nahmanides travelled to Jerusalem. In the Old City he established the Ramban Synagogue, the second oldest active synagogue in Jerusalem, after that of the Karaite Jews built about 300 years earlier. In the middle of the 13th century, Jerusalem was captured by the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate.

text: Early modern period[edit]

text: The first provincial or superior of the Franciscan religious order, founded by Francis of Assisi, was Brother Elia from Assisi. In the year 1219 the founder himself visited the region in order to preach the Gospel to the Muslims, seen as brothers and not enemies. The mission resulted in a meeting with the sultan of Egypt, Malik al-Kamil, who was surprised by his unusual behaviour. The Franciscan Province of the East extended to Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, and the Holy Land. Before the taking over of Acre (on 18 May 1291), Franciscan friaries were present at Acre, Sidon, Antioch, Tripoli, Jaffa, and Jerusalem.[34]

text: From Cyprus, where they took refuge at the end of the Latin Kingdom, the Franciscans started planning a return to Jerusalem, given the good political relations between the Christian governments and the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt. Around the year 1333 the French friar Roger Guerin succeeded in buying the Cenacle[35] (the room where the Last Supper took place) on Mount Zion and some land to build a monastery nearby for the friars, using funds provided by the king and queen of Naples. With two papal bullae, Gratias Agimus and Nuper Carissimae, dated in Avignon, 21 November 1342, Pope Clement VI approved and created the new entity which would be known as the Franciscan Custody of the Holy Land (Custodia Terrae Sanctae).[34][36]

text: The friars, coming from any of the Order's provinces, under the jurisdiction of the father guardian (superior) of the monastery on Mount Zion, were present in Jerusalem, in the Cenacle, in the church of the Holy Sepulcher, and in the Basilica of the Nativity at Bethlehem. Their principal activity was to ensure liturgical life in these Christian sanctuaries and to give spiritual assistance to the pilgrims coming from the West, to European merchants resident or passing through the main cities of Egypt, Syria, and Lebanon, and to have a direct and authorized relation with the Eastern Christianity Oriental communities.[34]

text: The monastery on Mount Zion was used by Brother Alberto da Sarteano for his papal mission for the union of the Oriental Christians (Greeks, Copts, and Ethiopians) with Rome during the Council of Florence (1440). For the same reason the party guided by Brother Giovanni di Calabria halted in Jerusalem on his way to meet the Christian Negus of Ethiopia (1482).[34]

text: In 1482, the visiting Dominican priest Felix Fabri described Jerusalem as "a dwelling place of diverse nations of the world, and is, as it were, a collection of all manner of abominations". As "abominations" he listed Saracens, Greeks, Syrians, Jacobites, Abyssinians, Nestorians, Armenians, Gregorians, Maronites, Turcomans, Bedouins, Assassins, a possible Druze sect and Mamluks. Christians and Jews alike in Jerusalem lived in great poverty and in conditions of great deprivation, there are not many Christians but there are many Jews, and these the Muslims persecute in various ways."[37] Only the Latin Christians "long with all their hearts for Christian princes to come and subject all the country to the authority of the Church of Rome".[38]

text: In 1551 the Friars were expelled by the Turks[39] from the Cenacle and from their adjoining monastery. However, they were granted permission to purchase a Georgian monastery of nuns in the northwest quarter of the city, which became the new center of the Custody in Jerusalem and developed into the Latin Convent of Saint Saviour [40] (known as Dayr al Ātīn دير الاتين دير اللاتين Arabic)[41])[34]

text:
Old Yishuv

Jewish life in the Land of Israel under Ottoman rule

Key events

Aliya of Nachmanides (1267)
Alhambra (1492)
Manuel I decree (1496)
Hebron and Safed massacres (1517)
Revival of Tiberias (1563)
Sack of Tiberias (1660)
Hebron massacre (1834)
Safed attack (1838)
Jerusalem expansion
Moshavot establishment

Key figures

Ishtori Haparchi (d. 1313)
Joseph Saragossi (d. 1507)
Obadiah MiBartenura (d. 1515)
Levi ibn Habib (d. 1545)
Jacob Berab (d. 1546)
Joseph Nasi (d. 1579)
Moses Galante (d. 1689)
Moses ibn Habib (d. 1696)
Yehuda he-Hasid (d. 1700)
Haim Abulafia (d. 1744)
Menachem Mendel (d. 1788)
Haim Farhi (d. 1820)
Jacob Saphir (d. 1886)
Haim Aharon Valero (d. 1923)

Economy

Etrog cultivation
Winemaking
Banking
Printing
Soap production
Textiles

Philanthropy

Kollel
Halukka

Montefiore
Judah Touro

Communities

Musta'arabim
Sephardim
Perushim
Hasidim

Jerusalem

Mea Shearim
Mishkenot Sha'ananim

Hebron
Safed
Tiberias
Jaffa
Haifa
Peki'in
Acco
Shechem
Gaza
Kafr Yasif
Shefa-'Amr
Petah Tikva

Synagogues

Great Academy of Paris (1258)
Ramban (1267)
Abuhav (1490s)
Abraham Avinu (1540)
Ari (1570s)
Johanan ben Zakai (1600s)
Hurva (1700)
Tifereth Israel (1872)

Related articles

History of the Jews and Judaism
in the Land of Israel

Four Holy Cities
Applicability of religious laws

History of Zionism

Timeline
Pre-Modern Aliyah
Return to Zion
Three Oaths
Haredim and Zionism

Edah HaChareidis
ShaDaR

v
t
e

text: Early Ottoman period[edit]

text: In 1517, Jerusalem was taken over by the Ottoman Empire and enjoyed a period of renewal and peace under Suleiman the Magnificent, including the construction of the walls of what is now known as the Old City of Jerusalem (although some foundations were remains of genuine antique walls). The rule of Suleiman and subsequent Ottoman Sultans brought an age of "religious peace"; Jew, Christian and Muslim enjoyed freedom of religion and it was possible to find a synagogue, a church and a mosque on the same street. The city remained open to all religions, although the empire's faulty management after Suleiman the Magnificent meant economical stagnation.[citation needed]

text: In 1700, Judah HeHasid led the largest organized group of Jewish immigrants to the Land of Israel in centuries. His disciples built the Hurva Synagogue, which served as the main synagogue in Jerusalem from the 16th century until 1948, when it was destroyed by the Arab Legion.[Note 6] The synagogue was rebuilt in 2010.

text: Between 1703 and 1705, Jerusalem's Muslim religious leadership and the majority of its inhabitants revolted against the Ottoman governor of the district, Mehmed Pasha Kurd-Bayram in what became known as the Naqib al-Ashraf Revolt. During the course of the revolt, Jerusalem's residents administered their own affairs, engaging in virtual self-rule, until the central Ottoman authorities restored their control over the city.[citation needed]

text: Modern era[edit]

text: Decline of the Ottoman Empire[edit]

text: In the mid-19th century, with the decline of the Ottoman Empire, the city was a backwater, with a population that did not exceed 8,000. Nevertheless, it was, even then, an extremely heterogeneous city because of its significance to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The population was divided into four major communities – Jewish, Christian, Muslim, and Armenian – and the first three of these could be further divided into countless subgroups, based on precise religious affiliation or country of origin. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre was meticulously partitioned between the Greek Orthodox, Catholic, Armenian, Coptic, and Ethiopian churches. Tensions between the groups ran so deep that the keys to the shrine and its doors were safeguarded by a pair of 'neutral' Muslim families.

text: At the time, the communities were located mainly around their primary shrines. The Muslim community surrounded the Haram ash-Sharif or Temple Mount (northeast), the Christians lived mainly in the vicinity of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (northwest), the Jews lived mostly on the slope above the Western Wall (southeast), and the Armenians lived near the Zion Gate (southwest). In no way was this division exclusive, though it did form the basis of the four quarters during the British Mandate (1917–1948).

text: Several changes with long-lasting effects on the city occurred in the mid-19th century: their implications can be felt today and lie at the root of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict over Jerusalem. The first of these was a trickle of Jewish immigrants from the Middle East and Eastern Europe. The first such immigrants were Orthodox Jews: some were elderly individuals, who came to die in Jerusalem and be buried on the Mount of Olives; others were students, who came with their families to await the coming of the Messiah, adding new life to the local population. At the same time, European colonial powers began seeking toeholds in the city, hoping to expand their influence pending the imminent collapse of the Ottoman Empire. This was also an age of Christian religious revival, and many churches sent missionaries to proselytize among the Muslim and especially the Jewish populations, believing that this would speed the Second Coming of Christ. Finally, the combination of European colonialism and religious zeal was expressed in a new scientific interest in the biblical lands in general and Jerusalem in particular. Archeological and other expeditions made some spectacular finds, which increased interest in Jerusalem even more.[citation needed]

text: By the 1860s, the city, with an area of only one square kilometer, was already overcrowded. Thus began the construction of the New City, the part of Jerusalem outside of the city walls. Seeking new areas to stake their claims, the Russian Orthodox Church began constructing a complex, now known as the Russian Compound, a few hundred meters from Jaffa Gate. The first attempt at residential settlement outside the walls of Jerusalem was undertaken by Jews, who built a small complex on the hill overlooking Zion Gate, across the Valley of Hinnom. This settlement, known as Mishkenot Sha'ananim, eventually flourished and set the precedent for other new communities to spring up to the west and north of the Old City. In time, as the communities grew and connected geographically, this became known as the New City.

text: In 1882, around 150 Jewish families arrived in Jerusalem from Yemen. Initially they were not accepted by the Jews of Jerusalem and lived in destitute conditions supported by the Christians of the Swedish-American colony, who called them Gadites.[43] In 1884, the Yemenites moved into Silwan.

text: British Mandate period[edit]

text: The British were victorious over the Ottomans in the Middle East during World War I and victory in Palestine was a step towards dismemberment of that empire. General Sir Edmund Allenby, commander-in-chief of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, entered Jerusalem on foot out of respect for the Holy City, on 11 December 1917.[44]

text: By the time General Allenby took Jerusalem from the Ottomans in 1917, the new city was a patchwork of neighborhoods and communities, each with a distinct ethnic character. This continued under British rule, as the New City of Jerusalem grew outside the old city walls and the Old City of Jerusalem gradually emerged as little more than an impoverished older neighborhood. Sir Ronald Storrs, the first British military governor of the city, issued a town planning order requiring new buildings in the city to be faced with sandstone and thus preserving some of the overall look of the city even as it grew.[45] During the 1930s, two important new institutions, the Hadassah Medical Center and Hebrew University were founded on Jerusalem's Mount Scopus.

text: British rule marked, however, a period of growing unrest. Arab resentment at British rule and the influx of Jewish immigrants (by 1948 one in six Jews in Palestine lived in Jerusalem) boiled over in anti-Jewish riots in Jerusalem in 1920, 1929, and the 1930s that caused significant damage and several deaths. The Jewish community organized self-defense forces in response to the Jerusalem pogrom of April 1920 and later disturbances; while other Jewish groups carried out bombings and attacks against the British, especially in response to suspected complicity with the Arabs and restrictions on immigration during World War II imposed by the White Paper of 1939.[citation needed] The level of violence continued to escalate throughout the 1930s and 1940s. In July 1946 members of the underground Zionist group Irgun blew up a part of the King David Hotel, where the British forces were temporarily located, an act which led to the death of 91 civilians.

text: On 29 November 1947, the United Nations General Assembly approved a plan which would partition the British Mandate of Palestine into two states: one Jewish and one Arab. Each state would be composed of three major sections, linked by extraterritorial crossroads, plus an Arab enclave at Jaffa. Expanded Jerusalem would fall under international control as a Corpus Separatum.

text:
Jewish Legion soldiers at the Western Wall after taking part in 1917 British conquest of Jerusalem

Jaffa Gate in Jerusalem during 1944 British demolition of recent construction obscuring the historic city walls

Main residential areas of Jerusalem in 1947

The Jerusalem boundary in 1947 and the proposed boundary of a Corpus Separatum.

text: Partition between Israel and Jordan[edit]

text: After partition, the fight for Jerusalem escalated, with heavy casualties among both fighters and civilians on the British, Jewish, and Arab sides. By the end of March 1948, just before the British withdrawal, and with the British increasingly reluctant to intervene, the roads to Jerusalem were cut off by Arab irregulars, placing the Jewish population of the city under siege. The siege was eventually broken, though massacres of civilians occurred on both sides,[citation needed] before the 1948 Arab–Israeli War began with the end of the British Mandate in May 1948.

text: The 1948 Arab–Israeli War led to massive displacement of Arab and Jewish populations. According to Benny Morris, due to mob and militia violence on both sides, 1,500 of the 3,500 (mostly ultra-Orthodox) Jews in the Old City evacuated to west Jerusalem as a unit.[46] See also Jewish Quarter. The comparatively populous Arab village of Lifta (today within the bounds of Jerusalem) was captured by Israeli troops in 1948, and its residents were loaded on trucks and taken to East Jerusalem.[46][47][48] The villages of Deir Yassin, Ein Karem and Malcha, as well as neighborhoods to the west of Jerusalem's Old City such as Talbiya, Katamon, Baka, Mamilla and Abu Tor, also came under Israeli control, and their residents were forcibly displaced;[citation needed] in some cases, as documented by Israeli historian Benny Morris and Palestinian historian Walid Khalidi, among others, expulsions and massacres occurred.[46][49]

text: In May 1948 the US Consul, Thomas C. Wasson, was assassinated outside the YMCA building. Four months later the UN mediator, Count Bernadotte, was also shot dead in the Katamon district of Jerusalem by the Jewish Stern Group.[citation needed]

text: Division between Jordan and Israel (1948–1967)[edit]

text: The United Nations proposed, in its 1947 plan for the partition of Palestine, for Jerusalem to be a city under international administration. The city was to be completely surrounded by the Arab state, with only a highway to connect international Jerusalem to the Jewish state.

text: Following the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, Jerusalem was divided. The Western half of the New City became part of the newly formed state of Israel, while the eastern half, along with the Old City, was occupied by Jordan. According to David Guinn,

text: Concerning Jewish holy sites, Jordan breached its commitment to appoint a committee to discuss, among other topics, free access of Jews to the holy sites under its jurisdiction, mainly in the Western Wall and the important Jewish cemetery on the Mount of Olives, as provided in the Article 8.2 of the Cease Fire Agreement between it and Israel dated April 3, 1949. Jordan permitted the paving of new roads in the cemetery, and tombstones were used for paving in Jordanian army camps. The Cave of Shimon the Just became a stable.[50]

text: According to Gerald M. Steinberg, Jordan ransacked 57 ancient synagogues, libraries and centers of religious study in the Old City Of Jerusalem, 12 were totally and deliberately destroyed. Those that remained standing were defaced, used for housing of both people and animals. Appeals were made to the United Nations and in the international community to declare the Old City to be an 'open city' and stop this destruction, but there was no response.[51] (See also Hurva Synagogue)

text: On 23 January 1950, the Knesset passed a resolution that stated Jerusalem was the capital of Israel.[52] It is also the largest city in the country.

text: State of Israel[edit]

text: East Jerusalem was captured by the Israel Defense Forces during the 1967 Six Day War. The Moroccan Quarter containing several hundred homes was demolished and its inhabitants expelled; thereafter a public plaza was built in its place adjoining the Western Wall. However, the Waqf (Islamic trust) was granted administration of the Temple Mount and thereafter Jewish prayer on the site was prohibited by both Israeli and Waqf authorities.

text: Most Jews celebrated the event as a liberation of the city; a new Israeli holiday was created, Jerusalem Day (Yom Yerushalayim), and the most popular secular Hebrew song, "Jerusalem of Gold" (Yerushalayim shel zahav), became popular in celebration. Many large state gatherings of the State of Israel take place at the Western Wall today, including the swearing-in of various Israel army officers units, national ceremonies such as memorial services for fallen Israeli soldiers on Yom Hazikaron, huge celebrations on Yom Ha'atzmaut (Israel Independence Day), huge gatherings of tens of thousands on Jewish religious holidays, and ongoing daily prayers by regular attendees. The Western Wall has become a major tourist destination spot.

text: Under Israeli control, members of all religions are largely granted access to their holy sites. The major exceptions being security limitations placed on some Arabs from the West Bank and Gaza Strip from accessing holy sites due to their inadmissibility to Jerusalem, as well as limitations on Jews from visiting the Temple Mount due to both politically motivated restrictions (where they are allowed to walk on the Mount in small groups, but are forbidden to pray or study while there) and religious edicts that forbid Jews from trespassing on what may be the site of the Holy of the Holies. Concerns have been raised about possible attacks on the al-Aqsa Mosque after a serious fire broke in the mosque in 1969 (started by Denis Michael Rohan, an Australian fundamentalist Christian found by the court to be insane). Riots broke out following the opening of an exit in the Arab Quarter for the Western Wall Tunnel on the instructions of the Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, which prior Prime Minister Shimon Peres had instructed to be put on hold for the sake of peace (stating "it has waited for over 1000 years, it could wait a few more").

text: Conversely, Israeli and other Jews have showed concerns over excavations being done by the Waqf on the Temple Mount that could harm Temple Relics, particularly excavations to the north of Solomon's Stables that were designed to create an emergency exit for them (having been pressured to do so by Israeli authorities).[53] Some Jewish sources allege that the Waqf's excavations in Solomon's Stables also seriously harmed the Southern Wall; however an earthquake in 2004 that damaged the eastern wall could also be to blame.

text: The status of East Jerusalem remains a highly controversial issue. The international community does not recognize the annexation of the eastern part of the city, and most countries, including the US, maintain their embassies in Tel Aviv. The United States Congress has pledged to move its embassy to Jerusalem, subject to Presidential approval, which has not been forthcoming as the peace process continues. The United Nations Security Council Resolution 478 declared that the Knesset's 1980 "Jerusalem Law" declaring Jerusalem as Israel's "eternal and indivisible" capital was "null and void and must be rescinded forthwith". This resolution advised member states to withdraw their diplomatic representation from the city as a punitive measure. The council has also condemned Israeli settlement in territories captured in 1967, including East Jerusalem (see UNSCR 452, 465 and 741).

text: Since Israel gained control over East Jerusalem in 1967, Jewish settler organizations have sought to establish a Jewish presence in neighborhoods such as Silwan.[54][55] In the 1980s, Haaretz reports, the Housing Ministry "then under Ariel Sharon, worked hard to seize control of property in the Old City and in the adjacent neighborhood of Silwan by declaring them absentee property. The suspicion arose that some of the transactions were not legal; an examination committee ... found numerous flaws." In particular, affidavits claiming that Arab homes in the area were absentee properties, filed by Jewish organizations, were accepted by the Custodian without any site visits or other follow-up on the claims.[56] ElAd, a settlement organization[57][58][59][60] which Haaretz says promotes the "Judaization" of East Jerusalem,[61] and the Ateret Cohanim organization, are working to increase Jewish settlement in Silwan in cooperation with the Committee for the Renewal of the Yemenite Village in Shiloah.[62]

text: See Jewish Quarter (Jerusalem).

text: Graphical overview of Jerusalem's historical periods[edit]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ "No city in the world, not even Athens or Rome, ever played as great a role in the life of a nation for so long a time, as Jerusalem has done in the life of the Jewish people."[5]
Jump up ^ "For three thousand years, Jerusalem has been the center of Jewish hope and longing. No other city has played such a dominant role in the history, culture, religion and consciousness of a people as has Jerusalem in the life of Jewry and Judaism. Throughout centuries of exile, Jerusalem remained alive in the hearts of Jews everywhere as the focal point of Jewish history, the symbol of ancient glory, spiritual fulfillment and modern renewal. This heart and soul of the Jewish people engenders the thought that if you want one simple word to symbolize all of Jewish history, that word would be 'Jerusalem.'"[6]
Jump up ^ "Throughout history a great diversity of peoples has moved into the region and made Palestine their homeland: Canaanites, Jebusites, Philistines from Crete, Anatolian and Lydian Greeks, Hebrews, Amorites, Edomites, Nabateans, Arameans, Romans, Arabs, and European crusaders, to name a few. Each of them appropriated different regions that overlapped in time and competed for sovereignty and land. Others, such as Ancient Egyptians, Hittites, Persians, Babylonians, and Mongols, were historical 'events' whose successive occupations were as ravaging as the effects of major earthquakes ... Like shooting stars, the various cultures shine for a brief moment before they fade out of official historical and cultural records of Palestine. The people, however, survive. In their customs and manners, fossils of these ancient civilizations survived until modernity – albeit modernity camouflaged under the veneer of Islam and Arabic culture."[7]
Jump up ^ "(With reference to Palestinians in Ottoman times) Although proud of their Arab heritage and ancestry, the Palestinians considered themselves to be descended not only from Arab conquerors of the 7th century but also from indigenous peoples who had lived in the country since time immemorial, including the ancient Hebrews and the Canaanites before them. Acutely aware of the distinctiveness of Palestinian history, the Palestinians saw themselves as the heirs of its rich associations."[8]
Jump up ^ "When Judea was converted into a Roman province in 6 CE, Jerusalem ceased to be the administrative capital of the country. The Romans moved the governmental residence and military headquarters to Caesarea. The centre of government was thus removed from Jerusalem, and the administration became increasingly based on inhabitants of the Hellenistic cities (Sebaste, Caesarea and others)."[26]
Jump up ^ "This was not done in the heat of battle, but by official order. Explosives were placed carefully and thoughtfully under the springing points of the domes, of the great Hurva synagogue."[42]

tag: ol


document_title: Bed size

question_text: what is the size of a queen bed in meters

text: Bed size

text: Table of common sizes[edit]

text: Modern manufacturing conventions have produced many standard mattress and box spring sizes. Beds vary by country of origin as per the table below. These dimensions are for the mattress – actual bed frames are a little larger to accommodate the mattress. Mattress thickness varies considerably.

text:
North America

South America

Europe

Oceania

Asia

US and Canada

Brazil

Continental Europe

Scandinavia

UK and Ireland

Australia

New Zealand

China

Japan

Singapore

Thailand

Small singleor Cot

76 cm × 191 cm(30 in × 75 in)

80 cm × 190 cm(31 in × 75 in)

60 cm × 190 cm(24 in × 75 in)

91 cm × 188 cm(36 in × 74 in)

85 cm × 195 cm(33 in × 77 in)

Single, Twin,or Bunk

97 cm × 191 cm(38 in × 75 in)[1]

88 cm × 188 cm(35 in × 74 in)

90 cm × 200 cm(35 in × 79 in)

90 cm × 200 cm(35 in × 79 in)

90 cm × 190 cm(35 in × 75 in)

92 cm × 188 cm(36 in × 74 in)

91 cm × 188 cm(36 in × 74 in)

106 cm × 188 cm(42 in × 74 in)

97 cm × 195 cm(38 in × 77 in)

91 cm × 191 cm(36 in × 75 in)

107 cm × 198 cm(42 in × 78 in)

Twin extra long

97 cm × 203 cm(38 in × 80 in)[1]

90 cm × 210 cm(35 in × 83 in)

91 cm × 203 cm(36 in × 80 in)

97 cm × 205 cm(38 in × 81 in)

King singleor Super single

96 cm × 203 cm(38 in × 80 in)

120 cm × 200 cm(47 in × 79 in)

107 cm × 203 cm(42 in × 80 in)

107 cm × 203 cm(42 in × 80 in)

110 cm × 195 cm(43 in × 77 in)

107 cm × 191 cm(42 in × 75 in)

Small doubleor Three-quarter

120 cm × 190 cm(48 in × 75 in)

140 cm × 200 cm(55 in × 79 in)

120 cm × 190 cm(47 in × 75 in)

122 cm × 195 cm(48 in × 77 in)

Full or Double

130 cm × 190 cm(53 in × 75 in)

138 cm × 188 cm(54 in × 74 in)

140 cm × 200 cm(55 in × 79 in)

180 cm × 200 cm(71 in × 79 in)

135 cm × 190 cm(53 in × 75 in)

138 cm × 188 cm(54 in × 74 in)

137 cm × 188 cm(54 in × 74 in)

152 cm × 188 cm(60 in × 74 in)

140 cm × 195 cm(55 in × 77 in)

122 cm × 198 cm(48 in × 78 in)

Double extra long

130 cm × 200 cm(53 in × 80 in)

140 cm × 205 cm(55 in × 81 in)

Queen

150 cm × 200 cm(60 in × 80 in)

158 cm × 198 cm(62 in × 78 in)

152 cm × 203 cm(60 in × 80 in)

152 cm × 203 cm(60 in × 80 in)

182 cm × 188 cm(72 in × 74 in)

154 cm × 195 cm(61 in × 77 in)

152 cm × 191 cm(60 in × 75 in)

152 cm × 198 cm(60 in × 78 in)

Expanded, Super,or Olympic queen

170 cm × 200 cm(66 in × 80 in)

King or Eastern King

190 cm × 200 cm(76 in × 80 in) or500 cm2 (78 in2)

193 cm × 203 cm(76 in × 80 in)

160 cm × 200 cm(63 in × 79 in)

152 cm × 198 cm(60 in × 78 in)

183 cm × 203 cm(72 in × 80 in)

167 cm × 203 cm(66 in × 80 in)

182 cm × 212 cm(72 in × 83 in)

170 cm × 195 cm(67 in × 77 in)

183 cm × 191 cm(72 in × 75 in)

183 cm × 198 cm(72 in × 78 in)

California King,Western King, or King long

180 cm × 210 cm(72 in × 84 in)

180 cm × 210 cm(72 in × 84 in)

200 cm × 200 cm(80 in × 80 in)

170 cm × 205 cm(67 in × 81 in)

Grand King Super King,Athletic King, or Texas King

200 cm × 250 cm(80 in × 98 in)

180 cm × 200 cm(71 in × 79 in)

180 cm × 200 cm(71 in × 79 in)

203 cm × 203 cm(80 in × 80 in)

183 cm × 203 cm(72 in × 80 in)

194 cm × 205 cm(76 in × 81 in)

Large Emperor

213 cm × 213 cm(84 in × 84 in)

Caesor

245 cm × 200 cm(96 in × 79 in)

text: Canada and United States[edit]

text: Standard sizes[edit]

text: Standard bed sizes in the US and Canada are:

text: Other sizes[edit]

text: Europe[edit]

text: UK and Ireland[edit]

text:
Most modern beds/mattresses available in the UK and Ireland are sold using metric dimensions,[5]  as required by law.[which?][citation needed]
The names of standard mattress sizes were, however, originally attributed to specific imperial dimensions which remain in common use as a point of reference.

text:
Size

Dimensions

Notes

Small Single

75 cm × 190 cm (30 in × 75 in)[5]

Common UK size for hospitality (zip & link) twin beds as beds can be combined to make a short king bed.[6] Equivalent to previous 2'6" x 6'3"

Single

90 cm × 190 cm (35 in × 75 in)[5]

Also a standard hospitality sized twin bed in Ireland,[citation needed] two mattresses can be zip linked to make a short Superking bed. Equivalent to previous 3' x 6'3"

European single

90 cm × 200 cm (35 in × 79 in)[7]

Small Double

120 cm × 190 cm (47 in × 75 in)[5]

Equivalent to previous 4' x 6'3"

Double

135 cm × 190 cm (53 in × 75 in)[5]

Equivalent to previous 4'6" x 6'3"

European Double

140 cm × 200 cm (55 in × 79 in)[7]

King

150 cm × 200 cm (59 in × 79 in)[5]

Equivalent to previous 5' x 6'6"

European King

160 cm × 200 cm (63 in × 79 in)[7]

Superking

180 cm × 200 cm (71 in × 79 in)[5]

Equivalent to previous 6' x 6'6"

Emperor

200 cm × 202 cm (79 in × 80 in)[5]

Equivalent to previous 6'6 x 6'8"

Large Emperor

215 cm × 217 cm (85 in × 85 in)[5]

Equivalent to previous 7' x 7'

text: It is worth noting that "bed size" in the UK generally refers to mattress size. This is because mattresses have a standard size grading, whereas bed frames do not. While many companies in the UK do offer bespoke bed making services, most mass-produced bed linens,[5] bed frames and mattresses fit only the standard bed sizes above. A Queen size mattress in the UK is often misunderstood to be one of the larger sizes as is the case in many other parts of the world. At 120cm in width, however, it is smaller than a UK double. Another common mistake is to use a mattress size as the required space for the full dimensions of the bed and mattress.

text: France[edit]

text: Single size beds are usually 90 centimetres (35 in) wide by 190 centimetres (75 in) long.

text:
Most common sizes for double beds are:
140 centimetres (55 in) wide by 190 centimetres (75 in) long
160 centimetres (63 in) wide by 200 centimetres (79 in) long
180 centimetres (71 in) wide by 200 centimetres (79 in) long (less common, but increasing popularity).

text: Due to the popularity of imported beds (especially from IKEA), the 200 centimetres (79 in) length is becoming more common.[citation needed]

text: Italy[edit]

text: In Italy, beds are classified by name and use the term Piazza as in "one place" Standard sizes are:[8]

text: Less common:[citation needed]

text: Northern Europe[edit]

text: These sizes are for Germany, Poland, Netherlands, Belgium, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Iceland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. There are some variations between the Nordic countries and the Baltic nations, but these are the most common sizes:

text: Single:

text:
80 cm × 190 cm (31 in × 75 in), traditional standard for bunk beds in Germany
90 cm × 190 cm (35 in × 75 in), traditional standard in Germany
75 cm × 200 cm (30 in × 79 in), standard in Norway[citation needed]
80 cm × 200 cm (31 in × 79 in), common variant in Finland[citation needed]
90 cm × 200 cm (35 in × 79 in), standard single bed in Denmark, Norway, Sweden and Germany.
90 cm × 210 cm (35 in × 83 in)
90 cm × 200 cm (35 in × 79 in), common variant in The Netherlands
90 cm × 220 cm (35 in × 87 in), extra large variant in The Netherlands
100 cm × 200 cm (39 in × 79 in), now very common in Germany
105 cm × 200 cm (41 in × 79 in)
120 cm × 200 cm (47 in × 79 in)[citation needed]

text: Three-Quarter:

text:
120 cm × 200 cm (47 in × 79 in), less common in Scandinavia
140 cm × 200 cm (55 in × 79 in), very common three-quarters in Scandinavia

text: Double:

text:
120 cm × 200 cm (47 in × 79 in), referred to as a "doubter" in the Netherlands, somewhat common for younger people
140 cm × 200 cm (55 in × 79 in)
150 cm × 200 cm (59 in × 79 in), common
160 cm × 200 cm (63 in × 79 in), very common[citation needed], common variant in Finland[citation needed]
180 cm × 200 cm (71 in × 79 in), very common double bed in current Danish, Swedish and Norwegian standards[citation needed]
180 cm × 210 cm (71 in × 83 in)
200 cm × 200 cm (79 in × 79 in) (very wide)

text: Most beds are 200 cm (79 in) cm long. Extra long beds are usually 220 cm (87 in), but they are rare.

text: Portugal[edit]

text: In Portugal the most common sizes for beds are:

text:
Solteiro (single)
80 centimetres (31 in) wide by 190 centimetres (75 in) long (can go up to 105 cm wide by 200 cm long)

text:
Casal (double)
140 centimetres (55 in) wide by 190 centimetres (75 in), 195 or 200 cm long

text:
Queen Size
160 centimetres (63 in) or 180 centimetres (71 in) wide by 190, 195 or 200 cm long

text:
King Size
180 centimetres (71 in) wide by 190, 195 or 200 cm long

text:
Super King Size
200 centimetres (79 in) wide by 200 cm long

text: Spain[edit]

text: In Spain the most common sizes are:

text: 180/190/200 cm long

text: 80/90/105/120/135/150 cm wide, the most common:

text: "Individual" (single) = 90 cm wide

text: "Matrimonio" (marital) = 135/150 cm wide

text: Switzerland[edit]

text: Single:

text:
70 cm × 200 cm (28 in × 79 in), only used for double beds with two separate mattresses
80 cm × 200 cm (31 in × 79 in), only used for double beds with two separate mattresses
90 cm × 200 cm (35 in × 79 in), common single bed
120 cm × 200 cm (47 in × 79 in), uncommon, mainly available as European-style futon beds that are sold with mattress, slats and frame
140 cm × 200 cm (55 in × 79 in), common, especially among young people

text: Double:

text:
160 cm × 200 cm (63 in × 79 in), common
180 cm × 200 cm (71 in × 79 in), common
200 cm × 200 cm (79 in × 79 in), proposed when enough space is available

text: Oceania[edit]

text: Australia[edit]

text: The following bed sizes are available in Australia

text: New Zealand[edit]

text: The following bed sizes are available in New Zealand

text: Africa[edit]

text: South Africa[edit]

text: Comprehensive list of bed sizes in South Africa:

text: XL mattress sizes vary only in length but not in width.

text: Asia[edit]

text: China[edit]

text: In China, the regulation standard has following sizes available:[10]

text:
Length: 1900 mm, 1950 mm, 2000 mm, 2100 mm;
Width: Single: 800 mm, 900 mm, 1000 mm, 1100 mm, 1200 mm;
Width: Double: 1350 mm, 1400 mm, 1500 mm, 1800 mm.

text: In practice, bed sizes are usually categorized by the width. The length is typically two metres, but may vary. The most common sizes are:

text: There are also extra size beds available, but they are less common.

text: Indonesia, Singapore, and Malaysia[edit]

text: The following bed sizes are available in Indonesia, Singapore, and Malaysia:


document_title: She'll Be Coming 'Round the Mountain

question_text: who is she in coming round the mountain

question_tokens: who is she in coming round the mountain

text: She'll Be Coming 'Round the Mountain

text: Old spiritual[edit]

text: Although the first printed version of the song appeared in Carl Sandburg's The American Songbag in 1927, it is believed to have originated during the late 1800s, based on an old spiritual titled "When the Chariot Comes" sung to the same melody, which during the 19th century spread through Appalachia, where the lyrics were changed into their current form, which is often heard today with responses that add on to the previous verse.

text: The song ostensibly refers to the Second Coming of Christ and subsequent Rapture, with the she referring to the chariot that the returning Christ is imagined as driving. Like most[citation needed] spirituals originating in the African-American community, however, this was probably a coded anthem for the Underground Railroad.

text: Children's song[edit]

text: The secularized version was sung by railroad work gangs in the Midwestern United States in the 1890s. Currently the song is usually sung in collections of children's music. The song has been recorded by musicians ranging from Tommy Tucker Time (78'inch)[clarification needed] to Pete Seeger or Barney the Dinosaur.

text: Harking back to the original lyrics of "When the Chariot Comes", the song is sometimes referenced in relation to the end of the world, most notably in The Illuminatus! Trilogy and the comic book Promethea.

text: Variations[edit]

text:
The Danish song "Du må få min sofacykel" has the same melody, but the lyrics of the song are about someone giving away their "sofa bike", a bike with a back rest. The original of this song was a drinking song written by the Danish poet, songwriter and artist Mogens Lorentzen around the beginning of the 20th century.
A Famous Studios Screen Song, "Comin' Round the Mountain" was released based on this song, and is the featured sing-along song of the cartoon.
Alvin and the Chipmunks covered the song for their 1960 album Sing Again with The Chipmunks.
The 1962 Folkways Records album of anti-Polaris songs, Ding Dong Dollar, uses the tune for the eponymous opening track.
In 1967 Bob Dylan and The Band recorded the song, released on their album The Bootleg Series Vol. 11: The Basement Tapes Complete.
A funk version of the song appears on the 1976 album Hardcore Jollies from Funkadelic.
The Peanuts cast performed the song in the 1977 film Race for Your Life, Charlie Brown. It was performed by The Winans in This is America, Charlie Brown in its episode "Building of the Transcontinental Railroad".
In Scotland, there is a variant to the song called 'Ye Cannae Shove Yer Granny Aff a Bus', written by The Singing Kettle.
Raffi changed the song's lyrics to "He'll be Comin' Down the Chimney" (a reference to Santa Claus) on his 1977 album More Singable Songs. He also included an instrumental polka rendition of the song entitled "Mountain Polka" on his Everything Grows album.
A song titled "Supergrass" (and a number of variant titles) is attested with a similar tune, though it has a lyrical structure with verses and a chorus.[2] The song is a political satire on the Troubles; its narrator is a cowardly informant who is fleeing from the men he allegedly betrayed. It has been recorded by bands including The Irish Brigade and Athenrye.
In the Reader's Digest Children's Songbook published in 1985, the song is adapted with new words by Dan Fox and his son Paul and tells of the things that "she" will do in increasing number up to ten (e.g.: "She'll be ridin' on a camel," "She'll be tuggin' on two turtles," "She'll be carvin' three thick thistles," "She'll be pluckin' four fat pheasants," etc.).[3]
The American death metal band Macabre used the melody on the song "Coming to Chicago" on their 2000 album Dahmer themed on the life of Jeffrey Dahmer.
Ned Flanders of The Simpsons sang his own variation in "The Bart of War" which declares that "poison gas injectors" could threaten his safety.
Jibjab created a satire about George W. Bush's re-election called "Second Term" to the tune of "She'll Be Coming 'Round the Mountain".
In Wizards of Waverly Place episode "Monster Hunter" first broadcast in 2009, Harper Finkle creates a "spell song" for Alex Russo to remember the spells.
In 2012 Neil Young together with Crazy Horse recorded an almost six minutes long version on their album Americana with the title "Jesus Chariot".
At least two soccer chants are sung to the tune of this song: English fans chant "Ten German Bombers" when their team is playing Germany. And Newcastle United fans chant "Ten Mackem Bastards" – celebrating Shola Ameobi's excellent record against their local rivals Sunderland.[citation needed]
The German song "Von den blauen Bergen kommen wir" shares the same melody, as does the song "Tante aus Marokko" and its Dutch equivalent, "Tante uit Marokko". These last two songs use similar themes from the original but personify the main character more literally as a cowgirl from the Wild West.
A similar song is found in Norway (derived from Lorentzen's Danish version): "Du skal få min gamle sykkel når jeg dør (hvis jeg dør)." The verses list all the "old" (gamle) things that "you" (du) can have "when/if I die" (når/hvis jeg dør). The things on offer range from the lightly humorous to the scatological and pornographic, with many also playing on religion ("you can have my old bike / when I die, / 'cause the last onehundred meters / I can hitch-hike with St. Peter"). For a good selection of verses, click here. Back in the 1960's, the Norwegian children's songwriter Thorbjørn Egner wrote a completely different text to the same melody instructing children about how to move safely in urban traffic ("Trafikkvisa").
The Malaysian Scout song, "Lai Chi Kan", uses the tune.
The Italian Boy Scouts used to sing the song with very approximate English lyrics or unrelated Italian ones up until the 'Eighties. It was called "Singhingaia" from the refrain.
Some sports fans at the University of Cambridge use this tune to sing "we would rather be at Oxford than St John's".[4]