document_title: Color vision

question_text: who proposed that the eye must have receptors for three colors of light

text: Color vision

text: Wavelength and hue detection[edit]

text: Isaac Newton discovered that white light, after being split into its component colours when passed through a dispersive prism, could, by passing them through a different prism, be recombined to make white light.

text: The characteristic colours are, from long to short wavelengths (and, correspondingly, from low to high frequency), red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. Sufficient differences in wavelength cause a difference in the perceived hue; the just-noticeable difference in wavelength varies from about 1 nm in the blue-green and yellow wavelengths, to 10 nm and more in the longer red and shorter blue wavelengths. Although the human eye can distinguish up to a few hundred hues, when those pure spectral colors are mixed together or diluted with white light, the number of distinguishable chromaticities can be quite high.[ambiguous]

text: In very low light levels, vision is scotopic: light is detected by rod cells of the retina. Rods are maximally sensitive to wavelengths near 500 nm, and play little, if any, role in colour vision. In brighter light, such as daylight, vision is photopic: light is detected by cone cells which are responsible for colour vision. Cones are sensitive to a range of wavelengths, but are most sensitive to wavelengths near 555 nm. Between these regions, mesopic vision comes into play and both rods and cones provide signals to the retinal ganglion cells. The shift in colour perception from dim light to daylight gives rise to differences known as the Purkinje effect

text: The perception of "white" is formed by the entire spectrum of visible light, or by mixing colours of just a few wavelengths in animals with few types of colour receptors. In humans, white light can be perceived by combining wavelengths such as red, green, and blue, or just a pair of complementary colours such as blue and yellow.[1]

text: Physiology of color perception[edit]

text: Perception of color begins with specialized retinal cells containing pigments with different spectral sensitivities, known as cone cells. In humans, there are three types of cones sensitive to three different spectra, resulting in trichromatic color vision.

text: Each individual cone contains pigments composed of opsin apoprotein, which is covalently linked to either 11-cis-hydroretinal or more rarely 11-cis-dehydroretinal.[2]

text: The cones are conventionally labeled according to the ordering of the wavelengths of the peaks of their spectral sensitivities: short (S), medium (M), and long (L) cone types. These three types do not correspond well to particular colors as we know them. Rather, the perception of color is achieved by a complex process that starts with the differential output of these cells in the retina and it will be finalized in the visual cortex and associative areas of the brain.

text: For example, while the L cones have been referred to simply as red receptors, microspectrophotometry has shown that their peak sensitivity is in the greenish-yellow region of the spectrum. Similarly, the S- and M-cones do not directly correspond to blue and green, although they are often described as such. The RGB color model, therefore, is a convenient means for representing color, but is not directly based on the types of cones in the human eye.

text: The peak response of human cone cells varies, even among individuals with so-called normal color vision;[3] in some non-human species this polymorphic variation is even greater, and it may well be adaptive.[4]

text: Theories[edit]

text: Two complementary theories of color vision are the trichromatic theory and the opponent process theory. The trichromatic theory, or Young–Helmholtz theory, proposed in the 19th century by Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz, as mentioned above, states that the retina's three types of cones are preferentially sensitive to blue, green, and red. Ewald Hering proposed the opponent process theory in 1872.[5] It states that the visual system interprets color in an antagonistic way: red vs. green, blue vs. yellow, black vs. white. Both theories are now accepted as valid, describing different stages in visual physiology, visualized in the diagram on the right.[6] Green ←→ Magenta and Blue ←→ Yellow are scales with mutually exclusive boundaries. In the same way that there cannot exist a "slightly negative" positive number, a single eye cannot perceive a bluish-yellow or a reddish-green. (But such impossible colors can be perceived due to binocular rivalry.)

text: Cone cells in the human eye[edit]

text:
Cone type
Name
Range
Peak wavelength[7][8]

S
β
400–500 nm
420–440 nm

M
γ
450–630 nm
534–555 nm

L
ρ
500–700 nm
564–580 nm

text: A range of wavelengths of light stimulates each of these receptor types to varying degrees. Yellowish-green light, for example, stimulates both L and M cones equally strongly, but only stimulates S-cones weakly. Red light, on the other hand, stimulates L cones much more than M cones, and S cones hardly at all; blue-green light stimulates M cones more than L cones, and S cones a bit more strongly, and is also the peak stimulant for rod cells; and blue light stimulates S cones more strongly than red or green light, but L and M cones more weakly. The brain combines the information from each type of receptor to give rise to different perceptions of different wavelengths of light.

text: The opsins (photopigments) present in the L and M cones are encoded on the X chromosome; defective encoding of these leads to the two most common forms of color blindness. The OPN1LW gene, which codes for the opsin present in the L cones, is highly polymorphic (a recent study by Verrelli and Tishkoff found 85 variants in a sample of 236 men).[9] A very small percentage of women may have an extra type of color receptor because they have different alleles for the gene for the L opsin on each X chromosome. X chromosome inactivation means that while only one opsin is expressed in each cone cell, both types occur overall, and some women may therefore show a degree of tetrachromatic color vision.[10] Variations in OPN1MW, which codes the opsin expressed in M cones, appear to be rare, and the observed variants have no effect on spectral sensitivity.

text: Color in the human brain[edit]

text: Color processing begins at a very early level in the visual system (even within the retina) through initial color opponent mechanisms. Both Helmholtz's trichromatic theory, and Hering's opponent process theory are therefore correct, but trichromacy arises at the level of the receptors, and opponent processes arise at the level of retinal ganglion cells and beyond. In Hering's theory opponent mechanisms refer to the opposing color effect of red–green, blue–yellow, and light–dark. However, in the visual system, it is the activity of the different receptor types that are opposed. Some midget retinal ganglion cells oppose L and M cone activity, which corresponds loosely to red–green opponency, but actually runs along an axis from blue-green to magenta. Small bistratified retinal ganglion cells oppose input from the S cones to input from the L and M cones. This is often thought to correspond to blue–yellow opponency, but actually runs along a color axis from yellow-green to violet.

text: Visual information is then sent to the brain from retinal ganglion cells via the optic nerve to the optic chiasma: a point where the two optic nerves meet and information from the temporal (contralateral) visual field crosses to the other side of the brain. After the optic chiasma the visual tracts are referred to as the optic tracts, which enter the thalamus to synapse at the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN).

text: The lateral geniculate nucleus is divided into laminae (zones), of which there are three types: the M-laminae, consisting primarily of M-cells, the P-laminae, consisting primarily of P-cells, and the koniocellular laminae. M- and P-cells receive relatively balanced input from both L- and M-cones throughout most of the retina, although this seems to not be the case at the fovea, with midget cells synapsing in the P-laminae. The koniocellular laminae receive axons from the small bistratified ganglion cells.[11][12]

text: After synapsing at the LGN, the visual tract continues on back to the primary visual cortex (V1) located at the back of the brain within the occipital lobe. Within V1 there is a distinct band (striation). This is also referred to as "striate cortex", with other cortical visual regions referred to collectively as "extrastriate cortex". It is at this stage that color processing becomes much more complicated.

text: In V1 the simple three-color segregation begins to break down. Many cells in V1 respond to some parts of the spectrum better than others, but this "color tuning" is often different depending on the adaptation state of the visual system. A given cell that might respond best to long wavelength light if the light is relatively bright might then become responsive to all wavelengths if the stimulus is relatively dim. Because the color tuning of these cells is not stable, some believe that a different, relatively small, population of neurons in V1 is responsible for color vision. These specialized "color cells" often have receptive fields that can compute local cone ratios. Such "double-opponent" cells were initially described in the goldfish retina by Nigel Daw;[13][14] their existence in primates was suggested by David H. Hubel and Torsten Wiesel and subsequently proven by Bevil Conway.[15] As Margaret Livingstone and David Hubel showed, double opponent cells are clustered within localized regions of V1 called blobs, and are thought to come in two flavors, red–green and blue–yellow.[16] Red–green cells compare the relative amounts of red–green in one part of a scene with the amount of red–green in an adjacent part of the scene, responding best to local color contrast (red next to green). Modeling studies have shown that double-opponent cells are ideal candidates for the neural machinery of color constancy explained by Edwin H. Land in his retinex theory.[17]

text: From the V1 blobs, color information is sent to cells in the second visual area, V2. The cells in V2 that are most strongly color tuned are clustered in the "thin stripes" that, like the blobs in V1, stain for the enzyme cytochrome oxidase (separating the thin stripes are interstripes and thick stripes, which seem to be concerned with other visual information like motion and high-resolution form). Neurons in V2 then synapse onto cells in the extended V4. This area includes not only V4, but two other areas in the posterior inferior temporal cortex, anterior to area V3, the dorsal posterior inferior temporal cortex, and posterior TEO.[19][20] Area V4 was initially suggested by Semir Zeki to be exclusively dedicated to color, but this is now thought to be incorrect.[21] In particular, the presence in V4 of orientation-selective cells led to the view that V4 is involved in processing both color and form associated with color.[22] Color processing in the extended V4 occurs in millimeter-sized color modules called globs.[19][20] This is the first part of the brain in which color is processed in terms of the full range of hues found in color space.[19][20]

text: Anatomical studies have shown that neurons in extended V4 provide input to the inferior temporal lobe . "IT" cortex is thought to integrate color information with shape and form, although it has been difficult to define the appropriate criteria for this claim. Despite this murkiness, it has been useful to characterize this pathway (V1 > V2 > V4 > IT) as the ventral stream or the "what pathway", distinguished from the dorsal stream ("where pathway") that is thought to analyze motion, among many other features.

text: Subjectivity of color perception[edit]

text: Nothing categorically distinguishes the visible spectrum of electromagnetic radiation from invisible portions of the broader spectrum. In this sense, color is not a property of electromagnetic radiation, but a feature of visual perception by an observer. Furthermore, there is an arbitrary mapping between wavelengths of light in the visual spectrum and human experiences of color. Although most people are assumed to have the same mapping, the philosopher John Locke recognized that alternatives are possible, and described one such hypothetical case with the "inverted spectrum" thought experiment. For example, someone with an inverted spectrum might experience green while seeing 'red' (700 nm) light, and experience red while seeing 'green' (530 nm) light. Synesthesia (or ideasthesia) provides some atypical but illuminating examples of subjective color experience triggered by input that is not even light, such as sounds or shapes. The possibility of a clean dissociation between color experience from properties of the world reveals that color is a subjective psychological phenomenon.

text: The Himba people have been found to categorize colors differently from most Euro-Americans and are able to easily distinguish close shades of green, barely discernible for most people.[23] The Himba have created a very different color scheme which divides the spectrum to dark shades (zuzu in Himba), very light (vapa), vivid blue and green (buru) and dry colors as an adaptation to their specific way of life.

text: Perception of color depends heavily on the context in which the perceived object is presented. For example, a white page under blue, pink, or purple light will reflect mostly blue, pink, or purple light to the eye, respectively; the brain, however, compensates for the effect of lighting (based on the color shift of surrounding objects) and is more likely to interpret the page as white under all three conditions, a phenomenon known as color constancy

text: In other animal species[edit]

text: Many species can see light with frequencies outside the human "visible spectrum". Bees and many other insects can detect ultraviolet light, which helps them to find nectar in flowers. Plant species that depend on insect pollination may owe reproductive success to ultraviolet "colors" and patterns rather than how colorful they appear to humans. Birds, too, can see into the ultraviolet (300–400 nm), and some have sex-dependent markings on their plumage that are visible only in the ultraviolet range.[24][25] Many animals that can see into the ultraviolet range, however, cannot see red light or any other reddish wavelengths. For example, bees' visible spectrum ends at about 590 nm, just before the orange wavelengths start. Birds, however, can see some red wavelengths, although not as far into the light spectrum as humans.[26] It is an incorrect popular belief that the common goldfish is the only animal that can see both infrared and ultraviolet light,[27] their color vision extends into the ultraviolet but not the infrared.[28]

text: The basis for this variation is the number of cone types that differ between species. Mammals in general have color vision of a limited type, and usually have red-green color blindness, with only two types of cones. Humans, some primates, and some marsupials see an extended range of colors, but only by comparison with other mammals. Most non-mammalian vertebrate species distinguish different colors at least as well as humans, and many species of birds, fish, reptiles and amphibians, and some invertebrates, have more than three cone types and probably superior color vision to humans.

text: In most Catarrhini (Old World monkeys and apes—primates closely related to humans) there are three types of color receptors (known as cone cells), resulting in trichromatic color vision. These primates, like humans, are known as trichromats. Many other primates (including New World monkeys) and other mammals are dichromats, which is the general color vision state for mammals that are active during the day (i.e., felines, canines, ungulates). Nocturnal mammals may have little or no color vision. Trichromat non-primate mammals are rare.[29][30]

text: Many invertebrates have color vision. Honeybees and bumblebees have trichromatic color vision which is insensitive to red but sensitive to ultraviolet. Osmia rufa, for example, possess a trichromatic color system, which they use in foraging for pollen from flowers.[31] In view of the importance of color vision to bees one might expect these receptor sensitivities to reflect their specific visual ecology; for example the types of flowers that they visit. However, the main groups of hymenopteran insects excluding ants (i.e., bees, wasps and sawflies) mostly have three types of photoreceptor, with spectral sensitivities similar to the honeybee's.[32] Papilio butterflies possess six types of photoreceptors and may have pentachromatic vision.[33] The most complex color vision system in the animal kingdom has been found in stomatopods (such as the mantis shrimp) with up to 12 spectral receptor types thought to work as multiple dichromatic units.[34]

text: Vertebrate animals such as tropical fish and birds sometimes have more complex color vision systems than humans; thus the many subtle colors they exhibit generally serve as direct signals for other fish or birds, and not to signal mammals.[35] In bird vision, tetrachromacy is achieved through up to four cone types, depending on species. Each single cone contains one of the four main types of vertebrate cone photopigment (LWS/ MWS, RH2, SWS2 and SWS1) and has a colored oil droplet in its inner segment.[32] Brightly colored oil droplets inside the cones shift or narrow the spectral sensitivity of the cell. It has been suggested that it is likely that pigeons are pentachromats.[36]

text: Reptiles and amphibians also have four cone types (occasionally five), and probably see at least the same number of colors that humans do, or perhaps more. In addition, some nocturnal geckos have the capability of seeing color in dim light.[37]

text: In the evolution of mammals, segments of color vision were lost, then for a few species of primates, regained by gene duplication. Eutherian mammals other than primates (for example, dogs, mammalian farm animals) generally have less-effective two-receptor (dichromatic) color perception systems, which distinguish blue, green, and yellow—but cannot distinguish oranges and reds. There is some evidence that a few mammals, such as cats, have redeveloped the ability to distinguish longer wavelength colors, in at least a limited way, via one-amino-acid mutations in opsin genes.[38] The adaptation to see reds is particularly important for primate mammals, since it leads to identification of fruits, and also newly sprouting reddish leaves, which are particularly nutritious.

text: However, even among primates, full color vision differs between New World and Old World monkeys. Old World primates, including monkeys and all apes, have vision similar to humans. New World monkeys may or may not have color sensitivity at this level: in most species, males are dichromats, and about 60% of females are trichromats, but the owl monkeys are cone monochromats, and both sexes of howler monkeys are trichromats.[39][40][41][42] Visual sensitivity differences between males and females in a single species is due to the gene for yellow-green sensitive opsin protein (which confers ability to differentiate red from green) residing on the X sex chromosome.

text: Several marsupials such as the fat-tailed dunnart (Sminthopsis crassicaudata) have been shown to have trichromatic color vision.[43]

text: Marine mammals, adapted for low-light vision, have only a single cone type and are thus monochromats.[citation needed]

text:
Color vision table

State
Types of cone cells
Approx. number of colors perceived
Carriers

Monochromacy
1
100
marine mammals, owl monkey, Australian sea lion, achromat primates

Dichromacy
2
10,000
most terrestrial non-primate mammals, color blind primates

Trichromacy
3
10 million[44]
most primates, especially great apes (such as humans), marsupials, some insects (such as honeybees)

Tetrachromacy
4
100 million
most reptiles, amphibians, birds and insects, rarely humans

Pentachromacy
5
10 billion
some insects (specific species of butterflies), some birds (pigeons for instance)

text: Evolution[edit]

text: Color perception mechanisms are highly dependent on evolutionary factors, of which the most prominent is thought to be satisfactory recognition of food sources. In herbivorous primates, color perception is essential for finding proper (immature) leaves. In hummingbirds, particular flower types are often recognized by color as well. On the other hand, nocturnal mammals have less-developed color vision, since adequate light is needed for cones to function properly. There is evidence that ultraviolet light plays a part in color perception in many branches of the animal kingdom, especially insects. In general, the optical spectrum encompasses the most common electronic transitions in matter and is therefore the most useful for collecting information about the environment.

text: The evolution of trichromatic color vision in primates occurred as the ancestors of modern monkeys, apes, and humans switched to diurnal (daytime) activity and began consuming fruits and leaves from flowering plants.[45] Color vision, with UV discrimination, is also present in a number of arthropods—the only terrestrial animals besides the vertebrates to possess this trait.[46]

text: Some animals can distinguish colors in the ultraviolet spectrum. The UV spectrum falls outside the human visible range, except for some cataract surgery patients.[47] Birds, turtles, lizards, many fish and some rodents have UV receptors in their retinas.[48] These animals can see the UV patterns found on flowers and other wildlife that are otherwise invisible to the human eye.

text: Ultraviolet vision is an especially important adaptation in birds. It allows birds to spot small prey from a distance, navigate, avoid predators, and forage while flying at high speeds. Birds also utilize their broad spectrum vision to recognize other birds, and in sexual selection.[49][50]

text: Mathematics of color perception[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: A "physical color" is a combination of pure spectral colors (in the visible range). Since there are, in principle, infinitely many distinct spectral colors, the set of all physical colors may be thought of as an infinite-dimensional vector space, in fact a Hilbert space. We call this space Hcolor. More technically, the space of physical colors may be considered to be the (mathematical) cone over the simplex whose vertices are the spectral colors, with white at the centroid of the simplex, black at the apex of the cone, and the monochromatic color associated with any given vertex somewhere along the line from that vertex to the apex depending on its brightness.

text: An element C of Hcolor is a function from the range of visible wavelengths—considered as an interval of real numbers [Wmin,Wmax]—to the real numbers, assigning to each wavelength w in [Wmin,Wmax] its intensity C(w).

text: A humanly perceived color may be modeled as three numbers: the extents to which each of the 3 types of cones is stimulated. Thus a humanly perceived color may be thought of as a point in 3-dimensional Euclidean space. We call this space R3color.

text: Since each wavelength w stimulates each of the 3 types of cone cells to a known extent, these extents may be represented by 3 functions s(w), m(w), l(w) corresponding to the response of the S, M, and L cone cells, respectively.

text: Finally, since a beam of light can be composed of many different wavelengths, to determine the extent to which a physical color C in Hcolor stimulates each cone cell, we must calculate the integral (with respect to w), over the interval [Wmin,Wmax], of C(w)·s(w), of C(w)·m(w), and of C(w)·l(w). The triple of resulting numbers associates with each physical color C (which is an element in Hcolor) a particular perceived color (which is a single point in R3color). This association is easily seen to be linear. It may also easily be seen that many different elements in the "physical" space Hcolor can all result in the same single perceived color in R3color, so a perceived color is not unique to one physical color.

text: Thus human color perception is determined by a specific, non-unique linear mapping from the infinite-dimensional Hilbert space Hcolor to the 3-dimensional Euclidean space R3color.

text: Technically, the image of the (mathematical) cone over the simplex whose vertices are the spectral colors, by this linear mapping, is also a (mathematical) cone in R3color. Moving directly away from the vertex of this cone represents maintaining the same chromaticity while increasing its intensity. Taking a cross-section of this cone yields a 2D chromaticity space. Both the 3D cone and its projection or cross-section are convex sets; that is, any mixture of spectral colors is also a color.

text: In practice, it would be quite difficult to physiologically measure an individual's three cone responses to various physical color stimuli. Instead, a psychophysical approach is taken. Three specific benchmark test lights are typically used; let us call them S, M, and L. To calibrate human perceptual space, scientists allowed human subjects to try to match any physical color by turning dials to create specific combinations of intensities (IS, IM, IL) for the S, M, and L lights, resp., until a match was found. This needed only to be done for physical colors that are spectral, since a linear combination of spectral colors will be matched by the same linear combination of their (IS, IM, IL) matches. Note that in practice, often at least one of S, M, L would have to be added with some intensity to the physical test color, and that combination matched by a linear combination of the remaining 2 lights. Across different individuals (without color blindness), the matchings turned out to be nearly identical.

text: By considering all the resulting combinations of intensities (IS, IM, IL) as a subset of 3-space, a model for human perceptual color space is formed. (Note that when one of S, M, L had to be added to the test color, its intensity was counted as negative.) Again, this turns out to be a (mathematical) cone, not a quadric, but rather all rays through the origin in 3-space passing through a certain convex set. Again, this cone has the property that moving directly away from the origin corresponds to increasing the intensity of the S, M, L lights proportionately. Again, a cross-section of this cone is a planar shape that is (by definition) the space of "chromaticities" (informally: distinct colors); one particular such cross section, corresponding to constant X+Y+Z of the CIE 1931 color space, gives the CIE chromaticity diagram.

text: This system implies that for any hue or non-spectral color not on the boundary of the chromaticity diagram, there are infinitely many distinct physical spectra that are all perceived as that hue or color. So, in general there is no such thing as the combination of spectral colors that we perceive as (say) a specific version of tan; instead there are infinitely many possibilities that produce that exact color. The boundary colors that are pure spectral colors can be perceived only in response to light that is purely at the associated wavelength, while the boundary colors on the "line of purples" can each only be generated by a specific ratio of the pure violet and the pure red at the ends of the visible spectral colors.

text: The CIE chromaticity diagram is horseshoe-shaped, with its curved edge corresponding to all spectral colors (the spectral locus), and the remaining straight edge corresponding to the most saturated purples, mixtures of red and violet.

text: Chromatic adaptation[edit]

text: In color science, chromatic adaptation is the estimation of the representation of an object under a different light source from the one in which it was recorded. A common application is to find a chromatic adaptation transform (CAT) that will make the recording of a neutral object appear neutral (color balance), while keeping other colors also looking realistic.[51] For example, chromatic adaptation transforms are used when converting images between ICC profiles with different white points. Adobe Photoshop, for example, uses the Bradford CAT.[52]

text: In color vision, chromatic adaptation refers to color constancy; the ability of the visual system to preserve the appearance of an object under a wide range of light sources.[53]


document_title: Land of the Lost (1974 TV series)

question_text: who played will on land of the lost

question_tokens: who played will on land of the lost

root

text: Land of the Lost (1974 TV series)

text: Overview[edit]

text: Land of the Lost details the adventures of the Marshall family (father Rick, and his children Will and Holly) who are trapped in an alternate universe inhabited by dinosaurs, a primate-type people called Pakuni, and aggressive humanoid/lizard creatures called Sleestak. The episode storylines focus on the family's efforts to survive and find a way back to their own world, but the exploration of the exotic inhabitants of the Land of the Lost is also an ongoing part of the story.[4]

tag: p

text: An article on renewed studio interest in feature film versions of Land of the Lost and H.R. Pufnstuf commented that "decision-makers in Hollywood, and some big-name stars, have personal recollections of plopping down on the family-room wall-to-wall shag sometime between 1969 and 1974 to tune in to multiple reruns of the Kroffts' Saturday morning live-action hits," and quoting Marty Krofft as saying that the head of Universal Studios, Ronald Meyer, and leaders at Sony Pictures all had been fans of Krofft programs.[5]

text: A number of well-respected writers in the science fiction field contributed scripts to the series (mostly in the first and second seasons), including Larry Niven,[6] Theodore Sturgeon,[6][7] Ben Bova,[6] and Norman Spinrad, and a number of people involved with Star Trek, such as D.C. Fontana,[6] Walter Koenig,[6][8][9] and David Gerrold.[6] Gerrold, Niven, and Fontana also contributed commentaries to the DVD of the first season.[3]

text: The prolific Krofft team was influential in live-action children's television, producing many shows that were oddly formatted, highly energetic, and made frequent use of special effects, with most of them following a "stranger in a strange land" storyline.  Most of these shows were comedic in nature, but Land of the Lost was considerably more serious, especially during its first season, though as the series progressed the dramatic tone diminished.[10]

text: Plot and format[edit]

text: The Marshalls are brought to the mysterious world by means of a dimensional portal,[11] a device used frequently throughout the series and a major part of its internal mythology. This portal opens when they are swept down a gigantic 1,000-foot waterfall. We later learn in "Circle", which explains the time paradox, that this portal is actually opened by Rick Marshall himself, while in Enik's cave, as a way for the current Marshalls to return to Earth, resolving the paradox and allowing Enik to also return to his time.

text: Outfitted only for a short camping trip, the resourceful family from California takes shelter in a natural cave and improvises the provisions and tools that they need to survive. Their most common and dangerous encounters are with dinosaurs, particularly a Tyrannosaurus rex they nickname "Grumpy" who frequents the location of their cave. However, many of the dinosaurs are herbivores, posing no threat to the Marshalls, unless unintentionally provoked. One is a particularly tame young Brontosaurus whom Holly nicknames "Dopey", and whom Holly looks upon as a pet.

text: They also encounter the mostly hostile Sleestak (lizard-men), and the primate-like creatures called Pakuni (one of whom, Cha-Ka, they befriend), as well as a variety of dangerous creatures, strange geography and unfamiliar technology.

text: The main goal of the three is to find a way to return home. They are occasionally aided in this by the Altrusian castaway Enik.

text: At the start of the third season it is explained that Rick Marshall (played by Spencer Milligan) has been accidentally returned to Earth alone, leaving his children behind. Rick is immediately replaced by his brother Jack. Rick Marshall abruptly disappeared while trying to use one of the pylons to get home; Jack stumbled upon his niece and nephew after he embarked on a search of his own to find them.

text: Though the term "time doorway" is used throughout the series, Land of the Lost is not meant to portray an era in Earth's history, but rather an enigmatic zone whose place and time are unknown. Indeed, within the first few minutes of the pilot, the Marshall family father tells his children that he spotted three moons in the sky. The original creators of these time portals were thought to be the ancestors of the Sleestak, called Altrusians, though later episodes raised some questions about this.

text: Many aspects of the Land of the Lost, including the time doorways and environmental processes, were controlled by the Pylons, metallic obelisk-shaped booths that were larger on the inside than the outside and housed matrix tables - stone tables studded with a grid of colored crystals. Uncontrolled time doorways result in the arrival of a variety of visitors and castaways in the Land.

text: Production[edit]

text: Land of the Lost is notable for its epic-scale concept, which suggested an expansive world with many fantastic forms of life and mysterious technology, all created on a children's series' limited production budget. To support the internal mythology, linguist Victoria Fromkin was commissioned to create a special language for the Pakuni, which she based on the sounds of West African speech and attempted to build into the show in a gradual way that would allow viewers to learn the language over the course of many episodes.[10][12] The series' intention was to create a realistic fantasy world, albeit relying heavily on children's acceptance of minor inconsistencies.

text: In a 1999 interview, first-season story editor and writer David Gerrold claimed that he largely created the show, based on photographs of various science fiction topoi that were bound together in a book and given him by Sid Krofft and Allan Foshko.[13]

text: It was a marked departure from the Krofft team's previous work, which mostly featured extremely stylized puppets and sets such as those in H.R. Pufnstuf and Lidsville.[10]

text: The series for the first two seasons was shot on a modular indoor soundstage at General Service Studios in Hollywood, and made economical use of a small number of sets and scenic props which were rearranged frequently to suggest the ostensibly vast jungles, ancient cities and cave systems. As is traditional in many effect scenes, miniatures or scale-version settings were used for insertion of live-action scenes.  Additional locations were often rendered using scale miniatures and  chroma key.

text: Spencer Milligan departed the show at the beginning of its third season for financial reasons. In addition to a salary increase, he believed it was only fair that he and the rest of the cast receive compensation for using their image on various merchandise. His character Rick Marshall was replaced by his brother, Jack Marshall, played by actor Ron Harper. Milligan did not return for the brief scene, also shown in the credits of the third season, showing Rick Marshall being transported out of the Land of the Lost. One of the show's crew played the role instead, wearing a wig resembling Milligan's hair and standing with his back to the camera.[14][15][16]

text: Non-human characters were portrayed by actors in latex rubber suits, or with heavy creature make-up. Dinosaurs in the series were created using a combination of stop motion animation miniatures, rear projection film effects and occasional hand puppets for close-ups of dinosaur heads. Wesley Eure points out on a commentary track for Land of the Lost's first season DVD that the Grumpy hand puppet has no hole in the back of its throat, even though it is often seen opening its mouth wide to roar. The series marked a rare example of matting filmed stop-motion sequences with videotape live action, so as to avoid the telltale blue 'fringe' produced in matting with less exacting processes. Though this occasionally worked very well, the difference in lighting between the video and film sequences sometimes brought inadvertent attention to the limitations of the process.

text: Special effects footage was frequently re-used. Additional visual effects were achieved using manual film overlay techniques, the low-tech ancestor to current motion control photography.

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Rick Marshall (Seasons 1 and 2) – Spencer Milligan
Will Marshall – Wesley Eure
Holly Marshall – Kathy Coleman
Uncle Jack Marshall (Season 3) – Ron Harper
Cha-Ka – Phillip Paley (Season 3; recurring, seasons 1-2)

tag: ul

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Sa – Sharon Baird (Seasons 1 and 2)
Ta – Joe Giamalva (Season 1) and Scutter McKay (Season 2)
Enik – Walker Edmiston
The Zarn – Marvin Miller (voice) and Van Snowden (body) (Season 2)
Malak – Richard Kiel (Season 3)
Sleestak Leader – Jon Locke (Season 3)
Sleestaks – Dave Greenwood, Bill Laimbeer, John Lambert, Cleveland Porter, Jack Tingley, Scott Fullerton, Mike Westra, Bill Boyd, David Harris, Clarke Roberts

text: Home media[edit]

text: From 2004 to 2005, Rhino Entertainment owned the rights to the show, and released seasons one through three, and a complete series package, with several bonus features, including commentaries, on all of the releases.  On May 26, 2009, Universal Studios released two complete series releases, one in original packaging, and the other enclosed in a Land of the Lost vintage lunchbox; the only bonus feature was a look at the film starring Will Ferrell. On October 13, 2009, Universal released the three seasons individually; the DVDs are identical to Universal's Complete Series Boxes.  The series is also available in Digital media format.

text: Remakes[edit]

text: Despite a relatively short run, the show continued to be aired extensively through syndication. Based on that success, a remake of the series began in 1991 and ran for two seasons.[17]  The DVDs of the series earned a Saturn nomination for best retro TV series release in 2004.

text: On June 5, 2009 a feature film based on the 1974 TV series opened in U.S. theaters. Unlike the original series, which was a serious take on the story, the film was a comedy/parody (more likely inspired by the unsuccessful 1991 series reboot).  It was directed by Brad Silberling and starred Will Ferrell, with the Krofft brothers serving as co-producers. Although the original series was aimed for children, the film's target audience was adults.

text:
In 2015 it was reported that Sid and Marty Kroft were working on a reboot to Land of the Lost following what they called "that other movie." [18]
In a 2018 podcast interview with both Sid & Marty Krofft, The Kroffts' reconfirmed that they are still working on an updated remake to Land Of The Lost and that this time it will be an hour long series.


document_title: Prayer of Saint Francis

question_text: who wrote the song prayer of st francis

question_tokens: who wrote the song prayer of st francis

text: Prayer of Saint Francis

text: Text[edit]

text: In most of the published versions of the prayer, the text is abridged, paraphrased, and/or copyrighted. Below is the complete original text from its earliest known publication (1912, in French, copyright expired), alongside a line-by-line English translation.

text:
French original:[5]
Seigneur, faites de moi un instrument de votre paix.
Là où il y a de la haine, que je mette l'amour.
Là où il y a l'offense, que je mette le pardon.
Là où il y a la discorde, que je mette l'union.
Là où il y a l'erreur, que je mette la vérité.
Là où il y a le doute, que je mette la foi.
Là où il y a le désespoir, que je mette l'espérance.
Là où il y a les ténèbres, que je mette votre lumière.
Là où il y a la tristesse, que je mette la joie.
Ô Maître, que je ne cherche pas tant
à être consolé qu'à consoler,
à être compris qu'à comprendre,
à être aimé qu'à aimer,
car c'est en donnant qu'on reçoit,
c'est en s'oubliant qu'on trouve,
c'est en pardonnant qu'on est pardonné,
c'est en mourant qu'on ressuscite à l'éternelle vie.

English translation:
Lord, make me an instrument of your peace.
Where there is hatred, let me bring love.
Where there is offense, let me bring pardon.
Where there is discord, let me bring union.
Where there is error, let me bring truth.
Where there is doubt, let me bring faith.
Where there is despair, let me bring hope.
Where there is darkness, let me bring your light.
Where there is sadness, let me bring joy.
O Master, let me not seek as much
to be consoled as to console,
to be understood as to understand,
to be loved as to love,
for it is in giving that one receives,
it is in self-forgetting that one finds,
it is in pardoning that one is pardoned,
it is in dying that one is raised to eternal life.

tag: table

text: Franciscan viewpoints[edit]

text: The Franciscan Order does not include the prayer in its official "Prayers of St. Francis",[6] and a church historian has noted that the phrasing of the first half of the text ("let me...") is atypically self-oriented for Francis:

text: The most painful moment usually comes when [students] discover that Saint Francis did not write the "Peace Prayer of Saint Francis"... Noble as its sentiments are, Francis would not have written such a piece, focused as it is on the self, with its constant repetition of the pronouns "I" and "me", the words "God" and "Jesus" never appearing once.[7]

text: However, the prayer has been recommended by members of the order, while not attributing it to St. Francis.[8]

text: It has been noted that the second half of the prayer has similarities to this saying of Giles of Assisi (c. 1190 – 1262), one of the saint's close companions:

text:
Blessed is he who loves and does not therefore desire to be loved;
Blessed is he who fears and does not therefore desire to be feared;
Blessed is he who serves and does not therefore desire to be served;
Blessed is he who behaves well toward others and does not desire that others behave well toward him;
And because these are great things, the foolish do not rise to them.[9]

text: Musical settings[edit]

text: Sebastian Temple (1967)[edit]

text:
"Prayer of St. Francis" (excerpt)

Composed by Sebastian Temple[10]
Problems playing this file? See media help.

text: The most-prominent hymn version of the prayer is "Make Me a Channel of Your Peace", or simply "Prayer of St. Francis", adapted and set to a chant-like melody in 1967 by South African songwriter Sebastian Temple (Johann Sebastian von Tempelhoff, 1928–1997), who had become a third order Franciscan. The hymn is an anthem of the Royal British Legion and is usually sung at its annual Festival of Remembrance. In 1997 it was part of the Funeral of Diana, Princess of Wales, and was performed by the Irish singer Sinéad O'Connor on the Princess Diana tribute album.[11][12] The hymn was also sung for the religious wedding ceremony of Prince Albert II of Monaco to South African Charlene Wittstock in 2011.[13]

text: Others[edit]

text: Additional settings of the prayer by notable musicians include those by:

text:
Arthur Bliss[14]
Maire Brennan[15]
The Burns Sisters[16]
F.R.C. Clarke[17]
René Clausen[18]
Bing Crosby – recorded November 4, 1954 for the cause of Father Junípero Serra.[19]
Donovan[20]
Dream Theater[21]
John Foley[22]
Marc Jordan[23]
Singh Kaur[24]
Snatam Kaur[25]
Matt Maher[26]
Mary McDonald[27]
Sarah McLachlan[28]
A Ragamuffin Band[29]
John Rutter[30]
John Michael Talbot[31]

text: History[edit]

text: Christian Renoux, a history professor at the University of Orléans, published in French in 2001 a book-length study of the prayer and its origins, clearing up much of the confusion that had accumulated previously.[32] The Franciscan journal Frate Francesco and the Vatican newspaper L'Osservatore Romano published articles in Italian summarizing the book's findings,[4][33] and Renoux published an online abstract in English at The Franciscan Archive.[1]

text: La Clochette (1912)[edit]

text: The earliest known record of the prayer[34] is its appearance, as a "beautiful prayer to say during Mass", in the December 1912 issue of the small devotional French Catholic publication La Clochette, "the bulletin of the League of the Holy Mass".[5] Although the prayer was published anonymously, Renoux concluded that, with few exceptions, the texts in La Clochette were generally written by its founding editor, Father Esther Bouquerel (1855–1923).[35]

text: Mistaken attribution (1916) to 11th-century William the Conqueror[edit]

text: In 1915, Marquis Stanislas de La Rochethulon (1862–1945), founding president of the Anglo-French association Souvenir Normand (Norman Remembrance), which called itself "a work of peace and justice inspired by the testament of William the Conqueror, who is considered to be the ancestor of all the royal families of Europe", sent this prayer to Pope Benedict XV in the midst of World War I.[1] The Pope had an Italian translation published on the front page of L'Osservatore Romano on 20 January 1916. It appeared under the heading, "The prayers of 'Souvenir Normand' for peace", with a jumbled explanation: "'Souvenir Normand' has sent the Holy Father the text of some prayers for peace. We have pleasure in presenting in particular the prayer addressed to the Sacred Heart, inspired by the testament of William the Conqueror."[36] On 28 January 1916, the newspaper La Croix reprinted, in French, the article from L'Osservatore Romano, with exactly the same heading and explanation.[37] La Rochethulon wrote to La Croix to clarify that it was not a prayer of Souvenir Normand; but he failed to mention La Clochette, the first publication in which it had appeared.[4] Because of its appearance in L'Osservatore Romano and La Croix as a simple prayer for peace during World War I, the prayer became widely known.[1]

text: Mistaken attribution (c.1927) to 13th-century Saint Francis[edit]

text: Around 1918, Franciscan Father Étienne Benoît reprinted the "Prayer for Peace" in French, without attribution, on the back of a mass-produced holy card depicting his Order's founder, the inspirational peacemaker from the Crusades era, Saint Francis of Assisi.[1] The prayer was circulating in the United States by January 1927, when its first known English version (slightly abridged from the 1912 French original) appeared in the Quaker magazine Friends' Intelligencer, under the misattributed and misspelled title "A prayer of St. Francis of Assissi".[38][39] The saint's namesake American archbishop and military vicar Francis Spellman distributed millions of copies of the "Prayer of St. Francis" during World War II, and the next year it was read into the Congressional Record by Senator Albert W. Hawkes. As a friar later summarized the relationship between the prayer and St. Francis: "One can safely say that although he is not the author, it resembles him and would not have displeased him."[40]

text: Other notable invocations[edit]

text: The Prayer of St. Francis has often been cited with national or international significance, in the spirit of service to others.

text: By religious leaders[edit]

text: In 1986, Pope John Paul II recited the prayer in bidding farewell to the global religious leaders he hosted for the first "World Day of Prayer for Peace", in Assisi at the Basilica of St. Francis.[41] Indeed, the prayer "over the years has gained a worldwide popularity with people of all faiths";[1] and in 2013, Pope Francis chose his papal name as a tribute to St. Francis, "the man who gives us this spirit of peace".[42]

text: Mother Teresa of Calcutta (Kolkata, India) made it part of the morning prayers of the Roman Catholic religious institute she founded, the Missionaries of Charity. She attributed importance to the prayer when receiving the Nobel Peace Prize in Oslo in 1979 and asked that it be recited. It became the anthem of many Christian schools in Kolkata.[4][43] South Africa's Anglican archbishop Desmond Tutu, winner of the 1984 Nobel Peace Prize for his non-violent leadership against apartheid, declared that the prayer was "an integral part" of his devotions.[4]

text: By political leaders[edit]

text: Margaret Thatcher, after winning the 1979 United Kingdom general election, paraphrased the prayer on the doorstep of 10 Downing Street, surrounded by a throng of reporters, having "kissed hands" with Queen Elizabeth II and become Prime Minister.[44][45] In 1995, U.S. President Bill Clinton quoted it in his welcoming remarks to John Paul II, starting the papal visit to address the United Nations in New York City.[4] Nancy Pelosi quoted the prayer when she became Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives in 2007,[46] as did her successor John Boehner when he resigned in 2015.[47]

text: By others[edit]

text: The prayer is referenced in the Alcoholics Anonymous book Twelve Steps and Twelve Traditions (1953), and is often known to AA members as the "Step Eleven Prayer".[48] An abbreviated version of the prayer was sung in Franco Zeffirelli's 1972 film about St. Francis, Brother Sun, Sister Moon.[20] A modified version of the prayer appears in the song Prayer in the musical Come From Away.[49]


document_title: The Maze Runner

question_text: where does the maze runner book take place

text: The Maze Runner

text: Plot[edit]

text: Thomas wakes up in a metal elevator that brings him to a place called the Glade. He has no memory of who he is or how he got there. He gradually discovers that the Glade is run by two boys: Alby, the leader, and Newt, the second-in-charge, who both maintain order by enforcing simple but effective rules. The elevator box surfaces from under the ground every month supplying new food, tools, and sometimes weapons. Every month a new boy with no memory of anything but his first name, finds himself in that elevator box. The Glade is surrounded by a square of 4 mile-high walls made of concrete. Outside the walls is the Maze, a labyrinth of high concrete walls covered in ivy that changes every day. The Maze houses strange, lethal creatures known as Grievers. Grievers are described as amorphous monsters of metal and flesh. The Gladers are trying to stay alive as well as "solve" the Maze by running through it as fast as they can while tracking movements of the walls and trying to find an exit to escape.

text: One day after Thomas' arrival, a girl named Teresa is delivered through the elevator into the Glade with a note saying "She's the last one. Ever." It implies that there will be no more children sent into the Glade. The girl subsequently lapses into a coma. When Thomas comes to visit her, he recognizes her, but can't remember her name until he hears her voice telepathically in his mind telling him her name. Teresa wakes up and tells Thomas that they knew each other before they were sent into the Glade, and reveals that they could communicate telepathically.

text: Her arrival triggers a series of changes to life in the Glade: People start acting weird, the sun disappears, the weekly deliveries of supplies stop coming, and the doors of the Maze stay open at night, which allows the Grievers to enter the Glade and hunt the children, as well as Thomas and Minho being the first people in the Glade to survive the night in the maze.

text: Thomas proposes that the walls of the Maze aren't random, but that their movements are actually a code, leading to the discovery that the Maze is spelling out words. Thomas also discovers that the cliff that they all thought was just a cliff turns out to be where the Grievers leave the Maze or "The Griever Hole" as he and Minho call it. If they can come and go over the edge of the Cliff, then maybe so can the Gladers. This drives Thomas to think they need memories to get out, so he intentionally gets stung by a Griever so he can go through the Changing – the process that people go through after getting the Grief Serum, a syringe of medicine that arrives in the Box along with the other supplies and is administered to people who have been stung by Grievers. The Changing can trigger memories and most often does.

text: Thomas and the Gladers find out what the pattern is, which causes most of the Gladers to decide to make a run for the exit, knowing that it could be suicidal trying to take on the Grievers, but figuring that nothing could be worse than being stuck in the Glade waiting to be hunted by the Grievers. They succeed, only to find out that they were test subjects in an experiment conducted by an organization called World In Catastrophe: Killzone Experiment Department (WICKED). Gally, one of the Gladers who always knew something was different about Thomas and hated him for it, appears at the laboratory to which the teenagers escape. He hadn't originally escaped with them, and he is acting as though he is being controlled. He moves to throw a knife at Thomas, but Chuck, the youngest Glader and Thomas' friend, jumps in front of him.

text: After briefly mourning the death of Chuck, all 20 Gladers are rescued by a group of people and brought to a safe haven while being told about catastrophic solar flares that caused an apocalyptic event, followed by a disease called the Flare, that killed millions. The rescuers reveal that orphaned children are being tested to find a cure for the virus.

text: The epilogue is written in the voice of Chancellor Ava Paige – a feature of all the novels in the trilogy. She reveals that the group who rescued the Gladers may just be another variable in the experiment, and that the Gladers weren't the only group being evaluated.

text: Characters[edit]

text:
Thomas: The protagonist. Thomas is the last boy, but not the last person to enter the Glade. The only thing remembered when he came into the glade was his name. Chuck described him as about 16 years old, of average height, and brown haired. He was called "Greenie" as he is a new arrival. He becomes a Runner with Minho after being the first person to spend a whole night in the Maze and saves Alby when he was about to die. He has a telepathic connection with Teresa.
Teresa: The first girl and last person to enter the Glade. She has a telepathic connection with Thomas. She also calls Thomas "Tom". She is also known to help Thomas out of the maze and fight the grievers in the griever hole. She is thin, has black hair and blue eyes.
Alby: The eldest and the leader of the Gladers. "The dark-skinned boy with short cropped hair, his face clean shaven", tries to keep order within the group by having all the boys follow the rules they've set down to survive. He has a very close relationship with Newt, his second-in-command. He was in the group of 30 people who first arrived in the Glade. Alby commits suicide by walking into a group of Grievers, thinking that it was better that he die there than outside the Maze.
Newt: A tall, strong, smart boy with medium-length blond hair who speaks with an odd accent. He used to be a Runner, but is no longer able-footed. He is very kind, friendly, and welcoming to Thomas. He is Alby's closest friend and second-in-command and takes over as leader when Alby no longer feels capable.
Minho: The Keeper of the Runners is in charge of navigating and mapping out the Maze. As a Runner, he's in very good shape and is described as "an Asian kid with strong, heavily-muscled arms and short black hair." He and Thomas quickly become good friends.
Chuck: A young and chubby boy with curly hair who was the newest Glader until Thomas arrived. He immediately becomes friends with Thomas, and acts like a little brother towards him. Chuck was a "slopper". He is around 12 or 13 years old. He is killed by Gally after the maze.
Gally: A Glader who lives by the rules Alby put in place. He does not trust Thomas and shows an immense dislike for him. He is also the Keeper of the Builders. He runs away from the Glade in a fit of rage after exclaiming that he thought "Thomas was not to be trusted" in the Gathering. At the end of the book, he kills Chuck with a knife.
Ben: A Builder. After undergoing the Changing and attempting to kill Thomas. Ben is banished to the Maze while still induced with the serum and still psycho, and dies overnight.
Ava Paige: The Chancellor of WICKED and the person responsible for sending teenagers into the Maze. She appears in the Epilogue as the writer of a revealing e-mail.
Grievers: Mechanical creatures that haunt and kill the Gladers in the maze. In "the Ending" they are let free onto the Glade to kill one person every day.

text: Development[edit]

text: In late 2005, Dashner had published four books to complete The Jimmy Fincher Saga, which had been with a small regional publisher. His publisher wanted him to write another book, but he decided he would try for a national book market instead. In November of that year he had an idea when going to be "about a bunch of teenagers living inside an unsolvable Maze full of hideous creatures, in the future, in a dark, dystopian world. It would be an experiment, to study their minds. Terrible things would be done to them – awful things; completely hopeless – until the victims turn everything on its head." The book was later published in 2009.[4] Dashner wrote the book from December 2005 to March 2006.[4]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Kirkus Reviews wrote: "Hard to put down, this is clearly just a first installment, and it will leave readers dying to find out what comes next."[5]

text: Jessica Harrison of the Deseret Morning News labeled The Maze Runner as "a thrilling adventurous book for kids ages 13+ that will get readers' hearts pumping and leave them asking for more." She noted that it "starts out a bit slow" but as it matched Thomas's confusion and picked up pace as he became more accustomed, she wrote that "it's almost as if Dashner is easing the reader into what becomes a fast-paced, nonstop action." However, she thought the "only drawback" was the "fictionalized slang", saying, "While it feels realistic and fits with his characters, it gets old pretty fast. On the plus side, however, it's used so often that the reader almost becomes desensitized and learns to ignore it."[6]

text: Film adaptation[edit]

text: Fox released a film adaptation of the book, titled The Maze Runner, on 19 September 2014. Wes Ball signed on as director and T.S. Nowlin wrote the screenplay.[7] Dylan O'Brien played the lead role of Thomas,[8] Thomas Brodie-Sangster portrayed Newt[9] and Kaya Scodelario Teresa,.[10] Ki Hong Lee, Blake Cooper, Will Poulter and Aml Ameen were added to the cast as Minho, Chuck, Gally and Alby, respectively. Patricia Clarkson played the role of the main antagonist Ava Paige. Dexter Darden portrayed Frypan, Alexander Flores portrayed Winston, Jacob Latimore played Jeff, Randal Cunningham portrayed Clint, Chris Sheffield portrayed Ben, and Joe Adler played Zart.

text: Wayne Haag served as an artist on the film, and Ellen Goldsmith-Vein, Lindsay Williams with Lee Stollman as producers.[11]

text: Creature designer Ken Barthelmey designed the Grievers for the film.[12]

text: Filming started on 13 May 2013,[13] and ended 12 July 2013.[14]


document_title: The Wild One (roller coaster)

question_text: where did the paragon park roller coaster go

text: The Wild One (roller coaster)

text: History[edit]

text: When the roller coaster first opened in 1917, it was a double out and back side friction coaster called "The Giant Coaster" at Paragon Park in Nantasket Beach, Massachusetts, just under 25 miles (40 km) south of Boston. Then, in 1932, Herbert Paul Schmeck redesigned much of the ride after it was partially destroyed by fire. In April 1963, another fire destroyed the station, trains, double helix finale and part of the lift hill. The park wanted John C. Allen to rebuild the coaster as it was, but his estimate proved too high for the traditional park. Instead he left out two bunny hops and the helix finale in order to create an angled approach into the brake run. Although nowhere near as exciting as Miller's finish, Allen gave the park an affordable option to tearing down the coaster. On July 19, 1963, Forest Park Highlands burned but the Comet was still standing. The Comet was torn down in 1968. Paragon Park bought the used trains from Forest Park Highland's Comet because they were much cheaper than buying new ones from Philadelphia Toboggan Company. For the remaining years the park was open, the Giant Coaster's trains ran with the name "Comet" emblazoned across the front of the car. "The Giant Coaster" suddenly closed with Paragon Park in 1984 and was sold to Wild World (now Six Flags America.) It acquired the ride in a last minute bid at auction. In 1986, Wild One opened in its current location, restored to its original condition, reincorporating the original helix at the end of the ride. Some of this retracking was completed by Martin & Vleminckx.[1] Wild One did not open for the 1991 season since the park was having financial difficulties. It reopened for the 1992 season and has been operational ever since.

text: The ride kept its name even though its themed area Southwest Territory was replaced with a Mardi Gras section in 2014.[2]

text: Records[edit]

text: When "The Giant Coaster" opened in 1917, at 98 feet tall, it was the tallest roller coaster in the world. Its record was not surpassed until 1925 when the 100' tall Revere Beach Cyclone opened.


document_title: Minister of Railways (India)

question_text: who is the first rail minister of india

question_tokens: who is the first rail minister of india

text: Minister of Railways (India)

text:
Minister of Railways
Emblem of India
IncumbentPiyush Goyalsince 3 September 2017
Ministry of RailwaysMember of
Cabinet of IndiaAppointer
Presidenton the advice of the Prime MinisterInaugural holder
John MathaiFormation
15 August 1947

text: The Minister of Railways is the head of the Ministry of Railways of the Government of India. The railway minister is usually accorded a cabinet rank, and is responsible for Indian Railways, one of the largest employers in the world. An important responsibility of the railway minister is to present in Parliament the Railway Budget, the Annual Financial Statement of Indian Railways. Piyush Goyal of the Bharatiya Janata Party is the current Minister of Railways, serving since 3 September 2017.Railways Minister (India)

text: List of railway ministers[edit]

text:
№

Name

Portrait

Term of office

Political party(Alliance)

Prime Minister

-

Asaf Ali

2 September 1946

14 August 1947

Indian National Congress

None(Interim govt)

1

John Mathai

15 August 1947

22 September 1948

Jawaharlal Nehru

2

N. Gopalaswami Ayyangar

22 September 1948

13 May 1952

3

Lal Bahadur Shastri

13 May 1952

7 December 1956

4

Jagjivan Ram

7 December 1956

10 April 1962

5

Swaran Singh

10 April 1962

21 September 1963

6

H. C. Dasappa

21 September 1963

8 June 1964

7

S. K. Patil

9 June 1964

12 March 1967

Lal Bahadur ShastriIndira Gandhi

8

C. M. Poonacha

13 March 1967 and

14 February 1969

Indira Gandhi

9

Ram Subhag Singh

14 February 1969

4 November 1969

10

Panampilli Govinda Menon

4 November 1969

18 February 1970

11

Gulzarilal Nanda

18 February 1970

17 March 1971

12

K. Hanumanthaiya

18 March 1971

22 July 1972

13

T. A. Pai

23 July 1972

4 February 1973

14

Lalit Narayan Mishra

5 February 1973

2 January 1975

15

Kamalapati Tripathi

11 February 1975

23 March 1977

16

Madhu Dandavate

26 March 1977

28 July 1979

Janata Party

Morarji Desai

(13)

T. A. Pai

30 July 1979

13 January 1980

Janata Party (Secular)

Charan Singh

17

Kamalapati Tripathi

14 January 1980

12 November 1980

Indian National Congress

Indira Gandhi

18

Kedar Pandey

12 November 1980

14 January 1982

19

Prakash Chandra Sethi

15 January 1982

2 September 1982

20

A. B. A. Ghani Khan Choudhury

2 September 1982

31 December 1984

Indira GandhiRajiv Gandhi

21

Bansi Lal

31 December 1984

4 June 1986

Rajiv Gandhi

22

Mohsina Kidwai

24 June 1986

21 October 1986

23

Madhavrao Scindia

22 October 1986

1 December 1989

24

George Fernandes

5 December 1989

10 November 1990

Janata Dal

V. P. Singh

25

Janeshwar Mishra

21 November 1990

21 June 1991

Samajwadi Janata Party

Chandra Shekhar

26

C. K. Jaffer Sharief

21 June 1991

16 October 1995

Indian National Congress

P. V. Narasimha Rao

27

Ram Vilas Paswan

1 June 1996

19 March 1998

Janata Dal(United Front)

H. D. Deve GowdaI. K. Gujral

28

Nitish Kumar

19 March 1998

5 August 1999

Samata Party(NDA)

Atal Bihari Vajpayee

29

Ram Naik

6 August 1999

12 October 1999

Bharatiya Janata Party(NDA)

30

Mamata Banerjee

13 October 1999

15 March 2001

All India Trinamool Congress(NDA)

(28)

Nitish Kumar

20 March 2001

22 May 2004

Janata Dal (United)(NDA)

31

Lalu Prasad Yadav

23 May 2004

25 May 2009

Rashtriya Janata Dal(UPA)

Manmohan Singh

(30)

Mamata Banerjee

26 May 2009

19 May 2011

All India Trinamool Congress (UPA)

32

Dinesh Trivedi

12 July 2011

14 March 2012

33

Mukul Roy

20 March 2012

21 September 2012

34

C. P. Joshi

22 September 2012

28 October 2012

Indian National Congress (UPA)

35

Pawan Kumar Bansal

28 October 2012

10 May 2013

(34)

C. P. Joshi

11 May 2013

16 June 2013

36

Mallikarjun Kharge

17 June 2013

25 May 2014

37

D. V. Sadananda Gowda

26 May 2014

9 November 2014

Bharatiya Janata Party(NDA)

Narendra Modi

38

Suresh Prabhu

10 November 2014

3 September 2017

39

Piyush Goyal

3 September 2017

Incumbent

If the office of Minister of Railways is vacant for any length of time, it automatically comes under the charge of the Prime Minister.