document_title: Simba

question_text: who did simba's voice in the lion king

question_tokens: who did simba 's voice in the lion king

text: Simba

text: Development[edit]

text: Conception[edit]

text:
Simba was framed for this terrible murder, and on the one hand you can say it wasn’t his fault, but he wasn’t a stand-up guy, so a little bit of the theme of the movie is you have to stand up for yourself if you know you’re right. So that idea of redemption, that idea of that day in your life that you have to take responsibility for yourself, that you’re no longer a child, you’re an adult, all those themes resonated with us when we were making the movie and, thankfully, the audience appreciated them, as well.

— Producer Don Hahn on Simba's role in the film.[1]

tag: div

text: The idea for The Lion King originated from Disney chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg in 1989[2] and was originally conceived under the title King of the Jungle.[3] The story, which has been compared to Bambi (1942),[4] was jokingly referred to as "Bambi in Africa" because of the similarities between the two films and their respective main characters.[5] Co-director Rob Minkoff said that both films are "more true-life adventure than mythical epic."[5] Though considered an original[6][7] coming-of-age[8] story that follows the life of Simba as he grows up and "tak[es] on the responsibility of adulthood," co-directors Roger Allers and Minkoff drew inspiration from other sources. In particular, the biblical figures Moses and Joseph served as creative inspiration for the character.[9] Producer Don Hahn said that, like them, Simba is "born into royalty, is then exiled, and has to return to claim [his] kingdom."[10]

text: Several film and entertainment critics have noted similarities and parallels between the stories of The Lion King and William Shakespeare's tragedy Hamlet, and their protagonists.[11][12][13][14] Allers said that these similarities were not initially intentional and came as a surprise to the filmmakers themselves; they noticed the similarities only after the story was established and they eventually decided to pursue it. According to Hahn, "When we first pitched the revised outline of the movie ... someone in the room announced that its themes and relationships were similar to Hamlet. Everyone responded favorably to the idea that we were doing something Shakespearean, so we continued to look for ways to model our film on that all-time classic."[10]

text: Screenwriter Jonathan Roberts said that, in a musical, songs are used to convey a character's emotions and "I wants." Composer Elton John and lyricist Tim Rice wrote the song "I Just Can't Wait to Be King" in order to give Simba a medium through which he can express his desire to become King of the Pride Lands. Roberts said, "It's a way for storytellers to move the story and deliver the direction of the character."[15]

text: Voice[edit]

text: Matthew Broderick provided the speaking voice of Adult Simba.[16] The first actor to be assigned to The Lion King,[7] Broderick learned of the role while he was on vacation in Ireland, where he received a telephone call from his agent informing him that the directors were interested in casting him as Simba.[17] At the time, Broderick was well known for portraying the title character in Ferris Bueller's Day Off (1986). The directors decided to cast him as Simba because they felt that he was "perfect" for the role; according to producer Don Hahn, Broderick's voice resembled "the kind of character who could be irresponsible and likeable, but you also felt that he could come back in a very heroic way."[18] Jonathan Taylor Thomas, who was starring as Randy Taylor on the television sitcom Home Improvement at the time,[19][20] was cast as the speaking voice of Young Simba.[21] His appearance and personality would later serve as creative inspiration for supervising animator Mark Henn.[6]

text: Though Broderick is a trained Broadway singer, he was not up to the task, and neither was non-singer Thomas, so Toto lead singer Joseph Williams and actor Jason Weaver were hired to dub their respective singing voices. Williams' voice is heard on the song "Can You Feel the Love Tonight".[22] Impressed by Weaver's performance as a young Michael Jackson in the miniseries The Jacksons: An American Dream, songwriters Elton John and Tim Rice recruited him to record "I Just Can't Wait to Be King" and "Hakuna Matata"[23] while the film was still in its early stages of production.[24] As directors, Roger Allers and Rob Minkoff worked closely with the actors in order to ensure credible performances.[25] As is frequently done in animated films, the filmmakers videotaped the actors while they recorded their dialogue, allowing the animators to incorporate their specific mannerisms into the designs of their characters.[26]

text: Characterization and animation[edit]

text: When The Lion King was green-lit, its concept and story were not well received by studio employees. To guarantee the release of at least one successful film, Disney CEO Jeffrey Katzenberg divided the studio into two separate projects: The Lion King and Pocahontas (1995), with Pocahontas expected to be the more successful of the two. Because of this assumption, the majority of the studio's more seasoned animators gravitated towards Pocahontas because The Lion King was deemed a "risk", while less experienced animators were assigned to work on The Lion King.[27] Co-director Rob Minkoff received this positively, saying that this decision "gave a lot of newer animators a chance to step up to leadership roles."[28]

text:
You can't just use your house cat as a model, thinking, "I can just draw him, only bigger." You need to know why a lion is a lion, the difference in movements between a lion, a tiger, a leopard or your house cat. We looked at this film as our Bambi. They had the same approach. Look at the way the deer are drawn in Snow White and the way they drew the deer in Bambi just a few years later. They look like real deer because the artists did their homework.

— Supervising animator Mark Henn on animating Simba.[29]

text: The role of animating Simba was divided between Mark Henn and Ruben A. Aquino. While Henn served as the supervising animator of Simba as a cub, credited as Young Simba,[30][self-published source] Aquino was placed in charge of animating the character as he appears as an adult.[31] The Lion King was Disney's first animated feature film to feature absolutely no humans since Robin Hood (1973). According to Aquino, animating four-legged creatures is difficult because the artists are faced with the task of drawing "twice as many legs ... as you do with human characters" and must also attribute to them both human and animal-like qualities. For assistance, Aquino drew influence from previous animated films that feature four-legged creatures as their main characters, citing Bambi, Lady and the Tramp (1955) and The Jungle Book (1967) as his main sources of inspiration.[32]

text: Before The Lion King, Henn's experience as a supervising animator was limited to predominantly female characters;[4][33] he had just recently completed work on Ariel from The Little Mermaid (1989), Belle from Beauty and the Beast (1991) and Jasmine from Aladdin (1992).[29] When he became involved with The Lion King, Henn initially expressed interest in animating the film's villain, Scar, because he wanted to do "something different."[4] However, producer Don Hahn felt that he was better suited for animating Simba.[34] Henn approaches animating new characters by "put[ting himself] into the character’s situation." Simba proved to be a challenge because Henn was faced with the task of creating an animated character who would both appear and behave like a real lion cub. To achieve this, Henn visited zoos, sketched and studied live lion cubs that were brought into the studio for research, and frequently consulted with wildlife experts.[35]

text: When it came time to animate Simba during the "I Just Can't Wait to Be King" musical sequence, Henn felt it essential that the character remain on all fours at all times, despite the fact that he is meant to be dancing.[33] In terms of personality, Henn aimed to depict Simba as a "cocky, confident character" at the beginning of the film, who must eventually mature and learn to take responsibility.[4] The animators would often observe and document the voice actors while they recorded their dialogue, using their movements and mannerisms as a visual aid. Actor Jonathan Taylor Thomas, who provided the voice of Young Simba, served as inspiration for the design and personality of Simba. Henn said, "I loved watching Jonathan Taylor Thomas when he was a boy on Home Improvement, and getting to meet him and observe him."[36] Although Aquino was responsible for animating the majority of Simba's adult sequences, Henn animated the character's first appearance as an adult that occurs near the end of the "Hakuna Matata" musical number.[37]

text: Appearances[edit]

text: The Lion King[edit]

text: Released in theaters in 1994, The Lion King marks Simba's first appearance. All the animals in the Pride Lands gather at the foot of Pride Rock to commemorate the birth of Simba, who will eventually succeed to the throne and take his father Mufasa's place as king. Furious by the fact that he is no longer next in line, Simba's jealous uncle Scar refuses to attend the ceremony. While Simba grows into a rambunctious lion cub who frequently boasts about the fact that he will someday rule over the Pride Lands, Scar secretly plots against him.

text: Scar plots regicide and familicide against Simba and Mufasa by luring Simba into a vast gorge, where he triggers a wildebeest stampede. Notified by Scar that Simba is in danger, Mufasa rushes to his aid and manages to place him safely on a ledge. Weakened and unable to pull himself up the steep slope to safety, Mufasa asks his brother for assistance. However, Scar's true nature is revealed and he betrays Mufasa, throwing him into the gorge where he is killed by the fall.

text: Convinced by Scar that he is responsible for his father's death, Simba runs away to a distant jungle where he is befriended by Timon and Pumbaa, who teach him to ignore his past and avoid his responsibilities. There, he grows into a handsome young lion, while Scar wreaks havoc on the Pride Lands. When Simba is discovered by his childhood friend named Nala, she confronts him, warning him of Scar's tyranny and begging him to return home. Afraid of facing his past, Simba refuses until a wise mandrill named Rafiki leads him to Mufasa's ghost, who convinces him to return home and reclaim his kingdom from Scar.[38]

text: Simba returns to the Pride Lands and finds them barren because their natural resources have been squandered and abused by Scar. After witnessing Scar strike his mother Sarabi, Simba orders Scar to resign. At first thrown by the fact that he is alive, Scar soon regains composure and forces Simba to reveal that he is responsible for Mufasa's death, while cornering him at the edge of Pride Rock, hoping to subject him to a similar fate as his father. Having grown overconfident, Scar finally reveals to Simba that he killed Mufasa. Furious, Simba tackles Scar and forces him into announcing this to the pride, initiating a battle between Simba's pride of lionesses, Timon, Pumbaa and Scar's army of hyenas. Simba eventually defeats Scar and throws him into a pit, where he is cornered and killed by the hyenas, who overheard Scar blame them for what he'd done. Simba then takes his rightful place as king. When the kingdom returns to its former glory, the animals welcome the birth of King Simba and Queen Nala's first born.[39]

text: The Lion King II: Simba's Pride[edit]

text: A direct-to-video sequel released in 1998, Simba's Pride takes place shortly after the events of the first film, depicting Simba and Nala as king and queen of the Pride Lands. In a ceremony at Pride Rock, the Pride Lands commemorate the birth of Simba and Nala's daughter Kiara, whom Simba is overprotective of. He discovers that Kiara has disobeyed him by visiting the forbidden Outlands, home to an enemy pride of Scar's followers known as the Outsiders, and befriending a young member of the pride named Kovu. After a close confrontation with Kovu's mother Zira, the leader of the Outsiders and Scar's most loyal follower, Simba separates the two and reminds Kiara of her responsibilities as the future queen. Meanwhile, Zira plots to manipulate Kovu to exact revenge on Simba for Scar's death.

text: Several years later, Simba grants an adolescent Kiara's request to embark on her first hunt, but has Timon and Pumbaa follow her in secret. Realizing this, Kiara rebels and pursue her hunt outside of the Pride Lands, where she nearly falls victim to a wildfire. Kiara is rescued by Kovu, who returns her to the Pride Lands, which is actually part of Zira's plan to overthrow Simba. Saying that he has left the Outsiders, Kovu asks Simba to let him join his pride. Simba reluctantly accepts, but distrusts Kovu because of his similarities to Scar, and continues to treat him ruthlessly. That night, Simba has a nightmare about attempting to save his father Mufasa from falling into the stampede but is stopped by Scar who turns into Kovu and throws Simba off the cliff into the stampede.

text: While Kiara and Kovu's friendship continues to grow, Simba, encouraged by Nala, attempts to show Kovu kindness by spending a day with him. Realizing that Kovu is beginning to side with Simba because of his love for Kiara, Zira ambushes and attacks Simba. Convinced by Zira that Kovu is responsible for the ambush, Simba exiles him and forbids Kiara to see him, but she makes her father realize that he is acting irrationally, before leaving to find Kovu. When a battle ensues between the Pride Landers and the Outsiders, Kiara and Kovu arrive and stop them, with Kiara telling them that they are one. When a furious Zira attacks Simba, she is intercepted by Kiara, causing the two to fall over the edge of a cliff. Having landed safely on a ledge, Kiara offers to help Zira, who is struggling to hang on. However, Zira, consumed by her resentment towards Simba, falls to her death. Simba finally approves of Kiara's love for Kovu and reconciles with his daughter, and accepts the two lions as future king and queen of the Pride Lands.[40]

text: The Lion King 1½[edit]

text: In The Lion King 1½, a direct-to-video followup released in 2004, Simba appears as a less prominent character because the film's primary focus is on Timon and Pumbaa's behind-the-scenes role and involvement in The Lion King,[41][42] in which they appear as supporting characters. Although the two films technically share the same story and timeline, the plot of The Lion King 1½ focuses more on Timon and Pumbaa. The meerkat and warthog unknowingly coexist alongside Simba, and the story fills in the two characters' backstories and events that led up to their long-lasting friendship, coinciding with and often initiating the events that affect Simba's life during the first film. These events include the commemorative bow that occurs during the opening "Circle of Life" musical number and the collapsing of the animal tower that takes place during "I Just Can't Wait to Be King."[43] The film also explores, in further detail, the relationship among the three characters as Timon and Pumbaa struggle to raise Simba as adoptive "parents" and disapprove of his relationship with Nala, portraying Simba as he grows from an energetic young lion cub, into an incorrigible teenager and, finally, an independent young lion.[44]

text: The Lion King (2019)[edit]

text: In mid-February 2017, Donald Glover was cast as adult Simba.[45] On November 1, 2017, J.D. McCrary was cast as young Simba.[46]

text: Timon & Pumbaa and television[edit]

text: The success of The Lion King and popularity of its characters led to the production of Timon & Pumbaa, an animated television series starring Timon and Pumbaa. Simba makes several appearances, including one episode in which Timon drags him out to try to revive Pumbaa's lost memory.

text: In the episode "Congo On Like This," Timon and Pumbaa (especially Timon) suspect that Simba has reverted to his carnivorous nature. The episode "Shake Your Djibouti" again features Simba, when Timon and Pumbaa are forced to train him to protect them from a laboratory monster. Another episode, entitled "Rome Alone," shows Simba being captured by Romans and forced into gladiatorial battle with another lion named Claudius. Simba makes brief appearances in "Once Upon a Timon", "Zazu's Off-By-One Day", and "Beethoven's Whiff". He also appears in a music video of "The Lion Sleeps Tonight".

text: Simba was featured as a guest in the animated series House of Mouse, in which he alternates between cub and adult.

text: The Lion Guard[edit]

text: In January 2016, a new series called The Lion Guard premiered, following a television pilot film The Lion Guard: Return of the Roar in November 2015. Set within the time gap in The Lion King II: Simba's Pride,[47] it features Kion who is the son and youngest child of Simba and Nala, who as the second-born cub, is tasked with assembling a team to protect the Pride Lands.[48]

text: Broadway musical[edit]

text: The success of The Lion King led to the production of a Broadway musical based on the film. Directed by Julie Taymor, with a book by Irene Mecchi and Roger Allers, The Lion King premiered at the New Amsterdam Theatre on November 13, 1997, where it ran for nine years until being moved to the Minskoff Theatre on June 13, 2006.[49] The role of Simba was originated by Scott Irby-Ranniar and Jason Raize, with Irby-Ranniar portraying Young Simba and Raize portraying Adult Simba.[50]

text: Raize auditioned for the role of Adult Simba after hearing that Taymor was looking to cast an actor who was of "unidentifiable ethnicity."[51] Raize revealed in an interview that there was a lot of competition for the role because the musical required "triple-threat work -- singing, dancing and acting -- that you don't get to such an extent in other shows. It was more the sense of who can take the challenge and not be daunted by the task." Raize, who instantly felt that he "had a connection with Simba," eventually won the role with the approval of Taymor and choreographer Garth Fagan,[52] with Fagan admiring the fact that Raize was "willing to try, to fail, and then to try again."[8] Once cast, Raize found it difficult to maintain Taymor's "sense of duality" because Simba is "both man and beast." He said, "The tendency is to sacrifice one for the other, but you can't."[53] Although hundreds of children auditioned for the role of Young Simba,[54] the casting process was far less grueling for Irby-Ranniar who, according to Taymor, simply "walked in and he had the part."[55]

text: Miscellaneous[edit]

text: Books[edit]

text: In 1994, a six-volume book set titled The Lion King: Six New Adventures were released. Set after the events of the first film, they featured a cub named Kopa, who was the son of Simba and Nala.

text: Merchandising and video games[edit]

text: As part of the franchise's merchandising, Simba has appeared in various The Lion King-related products.[56] The character's likeness has been used in and adapted into a variety of items, including plush toys and figurines, clothing, bedding, household decor and appliances.[57] The success of the Broadway musical has also led to its own line of merchandising,[58] including the Simba beanbag doll, based on the character's appearance and costume in the Broadway show.[59][60]

text: Since the film's 1994 debut, Simba has appeared as a playable character in a variety of video game releases, both directly and indirectly associated with the franchise. The character's first appearance as a video game character was in The Lion King, which was released by Virgin Interactive on November 1, 1994, for the video game platforms Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Sega Game Gear, Nintendo Entertainment System and PC.[61] The game follows the plot of the original film and features Simba as both a cub and an adult.[62]

text: On December 28, 2000,[63] Activision released The Lion King: Simba's Mighty Adventure for Game Boy Color and PlayStation.[64] The game encompasses 10 levels and incorporates the plot of both The Lion King and The Lion King II: Simba's Pride as "Simba ... matures from a precocious cub to an adult lion."[65] Simba also appears as a playable character in Disney Interactive Studios' Disney's Extreme Skate Adventure, released on September 3, 2003, for Game Boy Advance, PlayStation 2, GameCube and Xbox,[66] and Disney Friends , released for Nintendo DS on February 26, 2008.[67] Additionally, Simba appears in the Square Enix Kingdom Hearts video game franchise as a friend and ally of the series' main character, Sora.[68][69][70][71][72]

text: Walt Disney Parks and Resorts[edit]

text: Live versions of Simba appear in the Lion King musical and in the parades and shows at the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts.

text: Simba was also the main character in "Legend of the Lion King," a former Fantasyland attraction in Walt Disney World's Magic Kingdom, which retold the story of the film using fully articulated puppets. Other Disney attractions that have featured Simba include the Mickey's PhilharMagic 3D show and the Hong Kong Disneyland version of It's a Small World.

text: He appeared as one of the main characters at Epcot's Land Pavilion 12-minute edutainment film Circle of Life: An Environmental Fable, until its closure in 2018. He currently appears in animatronic form in Festival of the Lion King at Disney's Animal Kingdom.

text: Reception and legacy[edit]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Although The Lion King itself has garnered universal acclaim from film critics,[73] reception towards Simba has been generally mixed. The Christian Science Monitor's David Sterritt hailed Simba as "a superbly realized character," specifically praising the scene in which the character "faces discipline by his dad after his adventure with the hyenas."[74] Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly wrote that Simba "has been given a marvelously expressive face" to the point of which "He seems more human than the Ken and Barbie types featured in Aladdin and The Little Mermaid."[75] Peter Travers of Rolling Stone described "the father-son relationship" shared by Simba and Mufasa as "movingly rendered,"[76] while About.com's David Nusair wrote, "it’s the touching father/son stuff that lies at the heart of the movie that cements The Lion King's place as an utterly timeless piece of work."[77] James Berardinelli of ReelViews enjoyed the fact that the film focuses more on the story of Simba himself as opposed to the romantic relationship developing between the character and Nala. However, Berardinelli criticized Matthew Broderick's vocal performance, describing it as "nondescript."[78] Rob Humanick of Slant Magazine hailed the fact that "it's never laid on [Simba] that his time as king will directly correspond with the eventual passing of his father" as one of the film's "most important facets." However, he criticized The Lion King's characters, describing them as well-designed but "lazy and troublesome."[79] The Austin Chronicle's Robert Faires felt that Simba and the other Lion King characters, though "true", were simply unoriginal retreads of preceding animated characters who were "swiped from other Disney cartoons."[80]

text: Hal Hinson of The Washington Post gave the character a negative review. Labeling Timon and Pumbaa the only interesting characters in The Lion King, Hinson questioned Simba's role as the film's hero.[81] Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times agreed, "A movie's heroes may have their names above the title, but often as not it's the sidekicks who get the real work done." Turan went on to pan Simba, describing him as "irritatingly callow."[82] Chris Hick of the Deseret News complained about the fact that Simba and the other "characters in The Lion King are not as warm and fuzzy as other Disney animated features," crediting this with making "the film a bit tougher to warm [up] to."[83] ComingSoon.net strongly panned Simba as a lead character, writing, "typically for Disney animated fare, it's the hero who is the weak link being both blandly designed and blandly performed."[84] Acknowledging the character's Shakespearean origins, The Baltimore Sun's Stephen Hunter gave Simba a negative review, writing, "Alas ...Simba stands in for Hamlet, but he's a lot less complicated; in fact, he's less complicated than Morris the Cat or Sylvester." Hunter continued, "Simba the Exile is even less interesting than Simba the Prince."[85] Christopher Null of Contactmusic.com was critical of Weaver's performance as the singing voice of Young Simba, writing, "If there's anything annoying about the film, it's the singing. Young Simba sounds like a young Michael Jackson ... You almost don't want him to succeed." However, Null reacted more positively towards Broderick's performance.[86]

text: Despite the character's mixed reception, several critics have awarded specific praise to Broderick for his portrayal of Simba, including the San Francisco Chronicle's Peter Stack and The Washington Post's Desson Howe.[87][88] Annette Basile of Filmink described Broderick's performance as "excellent,"[89] while Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian called it "sumptuous." Digital Spy's Mayer Nissim described Broderick's portrayal of Simba as "wonderful."[90]

text: Impact and popularity[edit]

text: During the film's opening number, "Circle of Life", Rafiki introduces a newborn Simba to the crowd of animals gathered at the foot of Pride Rock by holding him high above their heads while parents Mufasa and Sarabi look on.[9] Since the film's 1994 release, this scene has grown to iconic status.[91] In November 2002, singer Michael Jackson sparked controversy by holding his son over the protective railing of a hotel balcony in Berlin. The event was witnessed by a large crowd of spectators who were watching from below.[92] Some sources have claimed that Jackson was harmlessly attempting to emulate the scene from The Lion King.[93]

text: When Kate Middleton, Duchess of Cambridge went into labor with hers and Prince William's baby in July 2013, the idea that the couple should reenact the famous scene from The Lion King became quite popular among Twitter users.[94][95] Radio journalist Darren Simpson reportedly tweeted, "when your baby arrives please re-enact the scene from the Lion King".[96] Shortly after Middleton gave birth to a boy, England native Tommy Peto initiated a petition asking the couple to welcome their baby by having the Archbishop of Canterbury emulate the scene by holding him over the balcony of Buckingham Palace. Ultimately, the idea was deemed "outside the responsibility of the government" and was declined.[97]

text: The scene has found itself the subject of both reference and parody in various forms of media, such as in the film George of the Jungle (1997).[98] In what is almost an exact replica of the scene, George, portrayed by actor Brendan Fraser, takes the place of both Rafiki and Mufasa by standing at the tip of Pride Rock and presenting his young son to a crowd of onlooking animals, accompanied by wife Ursula, portrayed by Leslie Mann.[99]

text: During the third season finale of Once Upon a Time, the main character Emma Swan asked her parents Snow White and David Nolan if they were going to hold up her yet unnamed baby brother like in The Lion King.[100] Since the release of The Lion King in 1994, the name "Simba" has increased in use and popularity among dog and cat owners. According to Comcast in 2010, the use of Simba as a dog name reemerged in popularity in 2009 after experiencing a noticeable decline in 2001, ranking the name ninth out of 10 on its list of "Top 10 Trendiest Dog Names of the Year."[101] In May 2013, Yahoo! Lifestyle included the name on its list of "Trendiest Dog Names."[102] According to YouPet, Simba is the 17th most popular cat name out of 100 candidates.[103] Care2 included Simba in its article "All-around Cool Cat Names,"[104] while DutchNews.nl reported that Simba ranks among the country's most popular cat names as of July 2013.[105] In its list of "Top Popular Pet Names," BabyNames.com placed Simba at number 64 on its list of most popular dog names out of the 100 that were considered.[106]


document_title: DNA replication

question_text: where does the energy for replication come from

root

text: DNA replication

text: DNA structures[edit]

text: DNA usually exists as a double-stranded structure, with both strands coiled together to form the characteristic double-helix. Each single strand of DNA is a chain of four types of nucleotides. Nucleotides in DNA contain a deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate, and a nucleobase. The four types of nucleotide correspond to the four nucleobases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine, commonly abbreviated as A, C, G and T. Adenine and guanine are purine bases, while cytosine and thymine are pyrimidines. These nucleotides form phosphodiester bonds, creating the phosphate-deoxyribose backbone of the DNA double helix with the nuclei bases pointing inward (i.e., toward the opposing strand). Nucleotides (bases) are matched between strands through hydrogen bonds to form base pairs. Adenine pairs with thymine (two hydrogen bonds), and guanine pairs with cytosine (stronger: three hydrogen bonds).

tag: p

text: DNA strands have a directionality, and the different ends of a single strand are called the "3' (three-prime) end" and the "5' (five-prime) end". By convention, if the base sequence of a single strand of DNA is given, the left end of the sequence is the 5' end, while the right end of the sequence is the 3' end. The strands of the double helix are anti-parallel with one being 5' to 3', and the opposite strand 3' to 5'. These terms refer to the carbon atom in deoxyribose to which the next phosphate in the chain attaches. Directionality has consequences in DNA synthesis, because DNA polymerase can synthesize DNA in only one direction by adding nucleotides to the 3' end of a DNA strand.

text: The pairing of complementary bases in DNA (through hydrogen bonding) means that the information contained within each strand is useless. phosphoodiester (intra-strand) bonds are stronger than hydrogen (inter-strand) bonds. This allows the strands to be separated from one another. The nucleotides on a single strand can therefore be used to reconstruct nucleotides on a newly synthesized partner strand.[4]

text: DNA polymerase[edit]

text: DNA polymerases are a family of enzymes that carry out all forms of DNA replication.[6] DNA polymerases in general cannot initiate synthesis of new strands, but can only extend an existing DNA or RNA strand paired with a template strand. To begin synthesis, a short fragment of RNA, called a primer, must be created and paired with the template DNA strand.

text: DNA polymerase adds a new strand of DNA by extending the 3' end of an existing nucleotide chain, adding new nucleotides matched to the template strand one at a time via the creation of phosphodiester bonds. The energy for this process of DNA polymerization comes from hydrolysis of the high-energy phosphate (phosphoanhydride) bonds between the three phosphates attached to each unincorporated base. Free bases with their attached phosphate groups are called nucleotides; in particular, bases with three attached phosphate groups are called nucleoside triphosphates. When a nucleotide is being added to a growing DNA strand, the formation of a phosphodiester bond between the proximal phosphate of the nucleotide to the growing chain is accompanied by hydrolysis of a high-energy phosphate bond with release of the two distal phosphates as a pyrophosphate. Enzymatic hydrolysis of the resulting pyrophosphate into inorganic phosphate consumes a second high-energy phosphate bond and renders the reaction effectively irreversible.[Note 1]

text: In general, DNA polymerases are highly accurate, with an intrinsic error rate of less than one mistake for every 107 nucleotides added.[7] In addition, some DNA polymerases also have proofreading ability; they can remove nucleotides from the end of a growing strand in order to correct mismatched bases. Finally, post-replication mismatch repair mechanisms monitor the DNA for errors, being capable of distinguishing mismatches in the newly synthesized DNA strand from the original strand sequence. Together, these three discrimination steps enable replication fidelity of less than one mistake for every 109 nucleotides added.[7]

text: The rate of DNA replication in a living cell was first measured as the rate of phage T4 DNA elongation in phage-infected E. coli.[8] During the period of exponential DNA increase at 37 °C, the rate was 749 nucleotides per second. The mutation rate per base pair per replication during phage T4 DNA synthesis is 1.7 per 108.[9]

text: Replication process[edit]

text: DNA replication, like all biological polymerization processes, proceeds in three enzymatically catalyzed and coordinated steps: initiation, elongation and termination.

text: Initiation[edit]

text: For a cell to divide, it must first replicate its DNA.[10] This process is initiated at particular points in the DNA, known as "origins", which are targeted by initiator proteins.[3] In E. coli this protein is DnaA; in yeast, this is the origin recognition complex.[11] Sequences used by initiator proteins tend to be "AT-rich" (rich in adenine and thymine bases), because A-T base pairs have two hydrogen bonds (rather than the three formed in a C-G pair) and thus are easier to strand-separate.[12] Once the origin has been located, these initiators recruit other proteins and form the pre-replication complex, which unwinds the double-stranded DNA.

text: Elongation[edit]

text: DNA polymerase has 5'-3' activity. All known DNA replication systems require a free 3' hydroxyl group before synthesis can be initiated (note: the DNA template is read in 3' to 5' direction whereas a new strand is synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction—this is often confused). Four distinct mechanisms for DNA synthesis are recognized:

text:
All cellular life forms and many DNA viruses, phages and plasmids use a primase to synthesize a short RNA primer with a free 3' OH group which is subsequently elongated by a DNA polymerase.
The retroelements (including retroviruses) employ a transfer RNA that primes DNA replication by providing a free 3′ OH that is used for elongation by the reverse transcriptase.
In the adenoviruses and the φ29 family of bacteriophages, the 3' OH group is provided by the side chain of an amino acid of the genome attached protein (the terminal protein) to which nucleotides are added by the DNA polymerase to form a new strand.
In the single stranded DNA viruses — a group that includes the circoviruses, the geminiviruses, the parvoviruses and others — and also the many phages and plasmids that use the rolling circle replication (RCR) mechanism, the RCR endonuclease creates a nick in the genome strand (single stranded viruses) or one of the DNA strands (plasmids). The 5′ end of the nicked strand is transferred to a tyrosine residue on the nuclease and the free 3′ OH group is then used by the DNA polymerase to synthesize the new strand.

tag: ol

text: The first is the best known of these mechanisms and is used by the cellular organisms. In this mechanism, once the two strands are separated, primase adds RNA primers to the template strands. The leading strand receives one RNA primer while the lagging strand receives several. The leading strand is continuously extended from the primer by a DNA polymerase with high processivity, while the lagging strand is extended discontinuously from each primer forming Okazaki fragments. RNase removes the primer RNA fragments, and a low processivity DNA polymerase distinct from the replicative polymerase enters to fill the gaps. When this is complete, a single nick on the leading strand and several nicks on the lagging strand can be found. Ligase works to fill these nicks in, thus completing the newly replicated DNA molecule.

text: The primase used in this process differs significantly between bacteria and archaea/eukaryotes. Bacteria use a primase belonging to the DnaG protein superfamily which contains a catalytic domain of the TOPRIM fold type.[13] The TOPRIM fold contains an α/β core with four conserved strands in a Rossmann-like topology. This structure is also found in the catalytic domains of topoisomerase Ia, topoisomerase II, the OLD-family nucleases and DNA repair proteins related to the RecR protein.

text: The primase used by archaea and eukaryotes, in contrast, contains a highly derived version of the RNA recognition motif (RRM). This primase is structurally similar to many viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerases, reverse transcriptases, cyclic nucleotide generating cyclases and DNA polymerases of the A/B/Y families that are involved in DNA replication and repair. In eukaryotic replication, the primase forms a complex with Pol α.[14]

text: Multiple DNA polymerases take on different roles in the DNA replication process. In E. coli, DNA Pol III is the polymerase enzyme primarily responsible for DNA replication. It assembles into a replication complex at the replication fork that exhibits extremely high processivity, remaining intact for the entire replication cycle. In contrast, DNA Pol I is the enzyme responsible for replacing RNA primers with DNA. DNA Pol I has a 5' to 3' exonuclease activity in addition to its polymerase activity, and uses its exonuclease activity to degrade the RNA primers ahead of it as it extends the DNA strand behind it, in a process called nick translation. Pol I is much less processive than Pol III because its primary function in DNA replication is to create many short DNA regions rather than a few very long regions.

text: In eukaryotes, the low-processivity enzyme, Pol α, helps to initiate replication because it forms a complex with primase.[15] In eukaryotes, leading strand synthesis is thought to be conducted by Pol ε; however, this view has recently been challenged, suggesting a role for Pol δ.[16] Primer removal is completed Pol δ[17] while repair of DNA during replication is completed by Pol ε.

text: As DNA synthesis continues, the original DNA strands continue to unwind on each side of the bubble, forming a replication fork with two prongs. In bacteria, which have a single origin of replication on their circular chromosome, this process creates a "theta structure" (resembling the Greek letter theta: θ). In contrast, eukaryotes have longer linear chromosomes and initiate replication at multiple origins within these.[18]

text: Replication fork[edit]

text: The replication fork is a structure that forms within the nucleus during DNA replication. It is created by helicases, which break the hydrogen bonds holding the two DNA strands together. The resulting structure has two branching "prongs", each one made up of a single strand of DNA. These two strands serve as the template for the leading and lagging strands, which will be created as DNA polymerase matches complementary nucleotides to the templates; the templates may be properly referred to as the leading strand template and the lagging strand template.

text: DNA is always synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction. Since the leading and lagging strand templates are oriented in opposite directions at the replication fork, a major issue is how to achieve synthesis of nascent (new) lagging strand DNA, whose direction of synthesis is opposite to the direction of the growing replication fork.

text: Leading strand[edit]

text: The leading strand is the strand of nascent DNA which is being synthesized in the same direction as the growing replication fork. A polymerase "reads" the leading strand template and adds complementary nucleotides to the nascent leading strand on a continuous basis.

text: Lagging strand[edit]

text: The lagging strand is the strand of nascent DNA whose direction of synthesis is opposite to the direction of the growing replication fork. Because of its orientation, replication of the lagging strand is more complicated as compared to that of the leading strand. As a consequence, the DNA polymerase on this strand is seen to "lag behind" the other strand.

text: The lagging strand is synthesized in short, separated segments. On the lagging strand template, a primase "reads" the template DNA and initiates synthesis of a short complementary RNA primer. A DNA polymerase extends the primed segments, forming Okazaki fragments. The RNA primers are then removed and replaced with DNA, and the fragments of DNA are joined together by DNA ligase.

text: Dynamics at the replication fork[edit]

text: As helicase unwinds DNA at the replication fork, the DNA ahead is forced to rotate. This process results in a build-up of twists in the DNA ahead.[19] This build-up forms a torsional resistance that would eventually halt the progress of the replication fork. Topoisomerases are enzymes that temporarily break the strands of DNA, relieving the tension caused by unwinding the two strands of the DNA helix; topoisomerases (including DNA gyrase) achieve this by adding negative supercoils to the DNA helix.[20]

text: Bare single-stranded DNA tends to fold back on itself forming secondary structures; these structures can interfere with the movement of DNA polymerase. To prevent this, single-strand binding proteins bind to the DNA until a second strand is synthesized, preventing secondary structure formation.[21]

text: Clamp proteins form a sliding clamp around DNA, helping the DNA polymerase maintain contact with its template, thereby assisting with processivity. The inner face of the clamp enables DNA to be threaded through it. Once the polymerase reaches the end of the template or detects double-stranded DNA, the sliding clamp undergoes a conformational change that releases the DNA polymerase. Clamp-loading proteins are used to initially load the clamp, recognizing the junction between template and RNA primers.[2]:274-5

text: DNA replication proteins[edit]

text: At the replication fork, many replication enzymes assemble on the DNA into a complex molecular machine called the replisome. The following is a list of major DNA replication enzymes that participate in the replisome:[22]

text:
Enzyme
Function in DNA replication

DNA Helicase
Also known as helix destabilizing enzyme. Helicase separates the two strands of DNA at the Replication Fork behind the topoisomerase.

DNA Polymerase
The enzyme responsible for catalyzing the addition of nucleotide substrates to DNA in the 5' to 3' direction during DNA replication. Also performs proof-reading and error correction. There exist many different types of DNA Polymerase, each of which perform different functions in different types of cells.

DNA clamp
A protein which prevents elongating DNA polymerases from dissociating from the DNA parent strand.

Single-Strand Binding (SSB) Proteins
Bind to ssDNA and prevent the DNA double helix from re-annealing after DNA helicase unwinds it, thus maintaining the strand separation, and facilitating the synthesis of the nascent strand.

Topoisomerase
Relaxes the DNA from its super-coiled nature.

DNA Gyrase
Relieves strain of unwinding by DNA helicase; this is a specific type of topoisomerase

DNA Ligase
Re-anneals the semi-conservative strands and joins Okazaki Fragments of the lagging strand.

Primase
Provides a starting point of RNA (or DNA) for DNA polymerase to begin synthesis of the new DNA strand.

Telomerase
Lengthens telomeric DNA by adding repetitive nucleotide sequences to the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes. This allows germ cells and stem cells to avoid the Hayflick limit on cell division.[23]

tag: table

text: Replication machinery[edit]

text: Replication machineries consist of factors involved in DNA replication and appearing on template ssDNAs. Replication machineries include primosotors are replication enzymes; DNA polymerase, DNA helicases, DNA clamps and DNA topoisomerases, and replication proteins; e.g. single-stranded DNA binding proteins (SSB). In the replication machineries these components coordinate. In most of the bacteria, all of the factors involved in DNA replication are located on replication forks and the complexes stay on the forks during DNA replication. These replication machineries are called replisomes or DNA replicase systems. These terms are generic terms for proteins located on replication forks. In eukaryotic and some bacterial cells the replisomes are not formed.

text: Since replication machineries do not move relatively to template DNAs such as factories, they are called a replication factory.[24] In an alternative figure, DNA factories are similar to projectors and DNAs are like as cinematic films passing constantly into the projectors. In the replication factory model, after both DNA helicases for leading strands and lagging strands are loaded on the template DNAs, the helicases run along the DNAs into each other. The helicases remain associated for the remainder of replication process. Peter Meister et al. observed directly replication sites in budding yeast by monitoring green fluorescent protein(GFP)-tagged DNA polymerases α. They detected DNA replication of pairs of the tagged loci spaced apart symmetrically from a replication origin and found that the distance between the pairs decreased markedly by time.[25] This finding suggests that the mechanism of DNA replication goes with DNA factories. That is, couples of replication factories are loaded on replication origins and the factories associated with each other. Also, template DNAs move into the factories, which bring extrusion of the template ssDNAs and nascent DNAs. Meister’s finding is the first direct evidence of replication factory model. Subsequent research has shown that DNA helicases form dimers in many eukaryotic cells and bacterial replication machineries stay in single intranuclear location during DNA synthesis.[24]

text: The replication factories perform disentanglement of sister chromatids. The disentanglement is essential for distributing the chromatids into daughter cells after DNA replication. Because sister chromatids after DNA replication hold each other by Cohesin rings, there is the only chance for the disentanglement in DNA replication. Fixing of replication machineries as replication factories can improve the success rate of DNA replication. If replication forks move freely in chromosomes, catenation of nuclei is aggravated and impedes mitotic segregation.[25]

text: Termination[edit]

text: Eukaryotes initiate DNA replication at multiple points in the chromosome, so replication forks meet and terminate at many points in the chromosome. Because eukaryotes have linear chromosomes, DNA replication is unable to reach the very end of the chromosomes. Due to this problem, DNA is lost each replication cycle from the end of the chromosome. Telomeres are regions of repetitive DNA close to the ends and help prevent loss of genes due to this shortening. Shortening of the telomeres is a normal process in somatic cells. This shortens the telomeres of the daughter DNA chromosome. As a result, cells can only divide a certain number of times before the DNA loss prevents further division. (This is known as the Hayflick limit.) Within the germ cell line, which passes DNA to the next generation, telomerase extends the repetitive sequences of the telomere region to prevent degradation. Telomerase can become mistakenly active in somatic cells, sometimes leading to cancer formation. Increased telomerase activity is one of the hallmarks of cancer.

text: Termination requires that the progress of the DNA replication fork must stop or be blocked. Termination at a specific locus, when it occurs, involves the interaction between two components: (1) a termination site sequence in the DNA, and (2) a protein which binds to this sequence to physically stop DNA replication. In various bacterial species, this is named the DNA replication terminus site-binding protein, or Ter protein.

text: Because bacteria have circular chromosomes, termination of replication occurs when the two replication forks meet each other on the opposite end of the parental chromosome. E. coli regulates this process through the use of termination sequences that, when bound by the Tus protein, enable only one direction of replication fork to pass through. As a result, the replication forks are constrained to always meet within the termination region of the chromosome.[26]

text: Regulation[edit]

text: Eukaryotes[edit]

text: Within eukaryotes, DNA replication is controlled within the context of the cell cycle. As the cell grows and divides, it progresses through stages in the cell cycle; DNA replication takes place during the S phase (synthesis phase). The progress of the eukaryotic cell through the cycle is controlled by cell cycle checkpoints. Progression through checkpoints is controlled through complex interactions between various proteins, including cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases.[27] Unlike bacteria, eukaryotic DNA replicates in the confines of the nucleus.[28]

text: The G1/S checkpoint (or restriction checkpoint) regulates whether eukaryotic cells enter the process of DNA replication and subsequent division. Cells that do not proceed through this checkpoint remain in the G0 stage and do not replicate their DNA.

text: Replication of chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes occurs independently of the cell cycle, through the process of D-loop replication.

text: Replication focus[edit]

text: In vertebrate cells, replication sites concentrate into positions called replication foci.[25] Replication sites can be detected by immunostaining daughter strands and replication enzymes and monitoring GFP-tagged replication factors. By these methods it is found that replication foci of varying size and positions appear in S phase of cell division and their number per nucleus is far smaller than the number of genomic replication forks.

text: P. Heun et al.(2001) tracked GFP-tagged replication foci in budding yeast cells and revealed that replication origins move constantly in G1 and S phase and the dynamics decreased significantly in S phase.[25] Traditionally, replication sites were fixed on spatial structure of chromosomes by nuclear matrix or lamins. The Heun’s results denied the traditional concepts, budding yeasts don't have lamins, and support that replication origins self-assemble and form replication foci.

text: By firing of replication origins, controlled spatially and temporally, the formation of replication foci is regulated. D. A. Jackson et al.(1998) revealed that neighboring origins fire simultaneously in mammalian cells.[25] Spatial juxtaposition of replication sites brings clustering of replication forks. The clustering do rescue of stalled replication forks and favors normal progress of replication forks. Progress of replication forks is inhibited by many factors; collision with proteins or with complexes binding strongly on DNA, deficiency of dNTPs, nicks on template DNAs and so on. If replication forks stall and the remaining sequences from the stalled forks are not replicated, the daughter strands have nick obtained un-replicated sites. The un-replicated sites on one parent's strand hold the other strand together but not daughter strands. Therefore, the resulting sister chromatids cannot separate from each other and cannot divide into 2 daughter cells. When neighboring origins fire and a fork from one origin is stalled, fork from other origin access on an opposite direction of the stalled fork and duplicate the un-replicated sites. As other mechanism of the rescue there is application of dormant replication origins that excess origins don't fire in normal DNA replication.

text: Bacteria[edit]

text: Most bacteria do not go through a well-defined cell cycle but instead continuously copy their DNA; during rapid growth, this can result in the concurrent occurrence of multiple rounds of replication.[29] In E. coli, the best-characterized bacteria, DNA replication is regulated through several mechanisms, including: the hemimethylation and sequestering of the origin sequence, the ratio of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and the levels of protein DnaA. All these control the binding of initiator proteins to the origin sequences.

text: Because E. coli methylates GATC DNA sequences, DNA synthesis results in hemimethylated sequences. This hemimethylated DNA is recognized by the protein SeqA, which binds and sequesters the origin sequence; in addition, DnaA (required for initiation of replication) binds less well to hemimethylated DNA. As a result, newly replicated origins are prevented from immediately initiating another round of DNA replication.[30]

text: ATP builds up when the cell is in a rich medium, triggering DNA replication once the cell has reached a specific size. ATP competes with ADP to bind to DnaA, and the DnaA-ATP complex is able to initiate replication. A certain number of DnaA proteins are also required for DNA replication — each time the origin is copied, the number of binding sites for DnaA doubles, requiring the synthesis of more DnaA to enable another initiation of replication.

text: Polymerase chain reaction[edit]

text: Researchers commonly replicate DNA in vitro using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR uses a pair of primers to span a target region in template DNA, and then polymerizes partner strands in each direction from these primers using a thermostable DNA polymerase. Repeating this process through multiple cycles amplifies the targeted DNA region. At the start of each cycle, the mixture of template and primers is heated, separating the newly synthesized molecule and template. Then, as the mixture cools, both of these become templates for annealing of new primers, and the polymerase extends from these. As a result, the number of copies of the target region doubles each round, increasing exponentially.[31]


document_title: Types of marriages

question_text: the practice of marrying only one person and getting married only once during a lifetime is called

text: Types of marriages

text: Americas and Europe[edit]

text: In the Americas and Europe, in the 21st century, legally recognized marriages are formally presumed to be monogamous (although some pockets of society accept polygamy socially, if not legally, and some couples choose to enter into open marriages). In these countries, divorce is relatively simple and socially accepted. In the West, the prevailing view toward marriage today is that it is based on a legal covenant recognizing emotional attachment between the partners and entered into voluntarily.

text: In the West, marriage has evolved from a life-time covenant that can only be broken by fault or death to a contract that can be broken by either party at will. Other shifts in Western marriage since World War I include:

text:
There emerged a preference for maternal custody of children after divorce, as custody was more often settled based on the best interests of the child, rather than strictly awarding custody to the parent of greater financial means.
Both spouses have a formal duty of spousal support in the event of divorce (no longer just the husband)[clarification needed]
Out of wedlock children have the same rights of support as legitimate children
In most countries, rape within marriage is illegal and can be punished
Spouses may no longer physically abuse their partners and women retain their legal rights upon marriage.
In some jurisdictions, property acquired since marriage is not owned by the title-holder. This property is considered marital and to be divided among the spouses by community property law or equitable distribution via the courts.
Marriages are more likely to be a product of mutual love, rather than economic necessity or a formal arrangement among families.
Remaining single by choice is increasingly viewed as socially acceptable and there is less pressure on young couples to marry. Marriage is no longer obligatory.
Interracial marriage is no longer forbidden.

tag: ul

text: Asia and Africa[edit]

text: Key facts concerning the marriage law in Africa and Asia:

text:
Marital rape is legal in most parts Africa and Asia alike.
Child marriage is legal in most parts of Africa and Asia alike.
Arranged marriage is prevalent in many parts of Africa and Asia alike, especially in rural regions.
Same-sex marriage is illegal in most parts of Africa and Asia alike.
Polygamy is legal in many parts of Africa and Asia, but tends to be illegal in most Communist countries and legal in most Muslim countries
Divorce is legal in all parts in Africa and Asia, but wives seeking divorce have fewer legal rights than husbands in Muslim countries than in Communist countries.
Dowries are a traditional aspect of marriage customs in most rural regions of Africa and Asia alike.

text: Some societies permit polygamy, in which a man could have multiple wives; even in such societies however, most men have only one. In such societies, having multiple wives is generally considered a sign of wealth and power. The status of multiple wives has varied from one society to another.

text: In Imperial China, formal marriage was sanctioned only between a man and a woman, although among the upper classes, the primary wife was an arranged marriage with an elaborate formal ceremony while concubines could be taken on later with minimal ceremony. After the rise of Communism, only strictly monogamous marital relationships are permitted, although divorce is a relatively simple process.

text: Monogamy, polyandry, and polygyny[edit]

text: Polyandry (a woman having multiple husbands) occurs very rarely in a few isolated tribal societies. These societies include some bands of the Canadian Inuit,[citation needed] although the practice has declined sharply in the 20th century due to their conversion from tribal religion to Christianity by Moravian missionaries. Additionally, the Spartans were notable for practicing polyandry.[1]

text: Societies which permit group marriage are extremely rare, but have existed in Utopian societies such as the Oneida Community.[citation needed]

text: Today, many married people practice various forms of consensual nonmonogamy, including polyamory and Swinging. These people have agreements with their spouses that permit other intimate relationships or sexual partners. Therefore, the concept of marriage need not necessarily hinge on sexual or emotional monogamy.

text: Christian acceptance of monogamy[edit]

text: In the Christian society, a "one man one woman" model for the Christian marriage was advocated by Saint Augustine (354-439 AD) with his published letter The Good of Marriage. To discourage polygamy, he wrote it "was lawful among the ancient fathers: whether it be lawful now also, I would not hastily pronounce. For there is not now necessity of begetting children, as there then was, when, even when wives bear children, it was allowed, in order to a more numerous posterity, to marry other wives in addition, which now is certainly not lawful." (chapter 15, paragraph 17) Sermons from St. Augustine's letters were popular and influential. In 534 AD Roman Emperor Justinian criminalized all but monogamous man/woman sex within the confines of marriage. The Codex Justinianus was the basis of European law for 1,000 years.

text: Several exceptions have existed for various Biblical figures, incestuous relationships such as Abraham and Sarah,[2] Nachor and Melcha,[3] Lot and his Daughters,[4] Amram and Jochabed[5] and more.[6][7][8]

text: Christianity for the past several years has continued to insist on monogamy as an essential of marriage.

text: Contemporary Western societies[edit]

text: In 21st century Western societies, bigamy is illegal and sexual relations outside marriage are generally frowned-upon, though there is a minority view accepting (or even advocating) open marriage.

text: However, divorce and remarriage are relatively easy to undertake in these societies. This has led to a practice called serial monogamy, which involves entering into successive marriages over time. Serial monogamy is also sometimes used to refer to cases where the couples cohabitate without getting married.

text: Unique practices[edit]

text: Some parts of India follow a custom in which the groom is required to marry with an auspicious plant called Tulsi before a second marriage to overcome inauspicious predictions about the health of the husband. This also applies if the prospective wife is considered to be 'bad luck' or a 'bad omen' astrologically. However, the relationship is not consummated and does not affect their ability to remarry later.[citation needed]

text: In the state of Kerala, India, the Nambudiri Brahmin caste traditionally practiced henogamy, in which only the eldest son in each family was permitted to marry. The younger children could have sambandha (temporary relationship) with Kshatriya or Nair women. This is no longer practiced, and in general the Nambudiri Brahmin men marry only from the Nambudiri caste and Nair women prefer to be married to Nair men. Tibetan fraternal polyandry (see Polyandry in Tibet) follows a similar pattern, in which multiple sons in a family all marry the same wife, so the family property is preserved; leftover daughters either become celibate Buddhist nuns or independent households. It was formerly practiced in Tibet and nearby Himalayan areas, and while it was discouraged by the Chinese after their conquest of the region, it is becoming more common again.[9]

text: In Mormonism, a couple may seal their marriage "for time and for all eternity" through a "sealing" ceremony conducted within LDS Temples. The couple is then believed to be bound to each other in marriage throughout eternity if they live according to their covenants made in the ceremony. Mormonism also allows living persons to act as proxies in the sealing ceremony to "seal" a marriage between ancestors who have been dead for at least one year and who were married during their lifetime. According to LDS theology, it is then up to the deceased individuals to accept or reject this sealing in the spirit world before their eventual resurrection. A living person can also be sealed to his or her deceased spouse, with another person (of the same sex as the deceased) acting as proxy for that deceased individual.[citation needed]

text: One society that traditionally did without marriage entirely was that of the Na of Yunnan province in southern China. According to anthropologist Cia Hua, sexual liaisons among the Na took place in the form of "visits" initiated by either men or women, each of whom might have two or three partners each at any given time (and as many as two hundred throughout a lifetime). The nonexistence of fathers in the Na family unit was consistent with their practice of matrilineality and matrilocality, in which siblings and their offspring lived with their maternal relatives. In recent years, the Chinese state has encouraged the Na to acculturate to the monogamous marriage norms of greater China. Such programs have included land grants to monogamous Na families, conscription (in the 1970s, couples were rounded up in villages ten or twenty at a time and issued marriage licenses), legislation declaring frequent sexual partners married and outlawing "visits", and the withholding of food rations from children who could not identify their fathers.[citation needed] Many of these measures were relaxed in favor of educational approaches after Deng Xiaoping came into power in 1981. See also the Mosuo ethnic minority of China and their practice of walking marriage.

text: Types of marriages[edit]

text:
Arranged marriage – A marriage that is at some level arranged by someone other than those being married. Cf Matchmaking.

Heqin – An arranged marriage for political alliance during Medieval China.
Shim-pua marriage – A Taiwanese tradition of arranged marriage, in which a poor family (burdened by too many children) would sell a young daughter to a richer family for labour, and in exchange, the poorer family would be married into the richer family, through the daughter.

Avunculate marriage – Marrying one's own uncle or aunt. Cf. inbreeding and incest.
Beena marriage – A form of marriage used in pre-Islamic Arabia, in which a wife would own a tent of her own, within which she retained complete independence from her husband, a form of matriarchy.
Boston marriage – A marriage-like relationship between two women, not necessarily sexual; also historic lesbian relationships.
Celestial marriage – A marriage performed in a Latter Day Saint (Mormon) temple.
Child marriage – A practice in which the one or both spouses are prepubescents, while not necessarily below the legal marriageable age. Cf. teen marriage.
Civil marriage – A marriage performed, recorded, and recognized by a government official; such a marriage may be performed by a religious body and recognized by the state, or entirely secular.
Common-law marriage – A form of interpersonal status that is legally recognized in some jurisdictions as a marriage even though no legally recognized marriage ceremony is performed, no contract is explicitly entered into, and no registry is made of the union. Cf customary law.
Cousin marriage – Marriage between first cousins. Cf. inbreeding and incest.
Covenant marriage – A marriage in which the couple agrees to obtain pre-marital counseling before marrying, and accept more limited grounds for divorce.
Customary marriage – A marriage according to the customary law of a particular social group, which may or may not be recognised by the state. Cf Common-law marriage.
Endogamy – A marriage within the boundaries of the domestic group, between members of the same group.
Exchange marriage – Two (or more) brothers and an equal number of sisters marry. An element of alliance theory much studied by anthropologists such as Claude Lévi-Strauss. Also known as sister exchange, bride exchange, etc. Cf Sororate marriage.

Watta satta – A form of marriage exchange in Pakistan and Afghanistan, involving two simultaneous marriages of a brother-sister pair from two households.

Exogamy or Intermarriage – Marriage between people belonging to different groups or backgrounds.

Inter-caste marriage – Marriage between persons from different castes. Cf Hypergamy.
Interracial marriage – Marriage between two people of differing races.
Interreligious marriage – Marriage (either religious or civil) between partners professing different religions.
Royal intermarriage – Marriage between members of different royal families, dynasties, or houses.
Transnational marriage – Marriage to persons from different countries.

Female husband marriage – A marriage in which a female takes a wife; see e.g. the Nandi people; also known in the anthropological literature as woman-to-woman or female-to-female marriage.
Female-led marriage – A monogamous, heterosexual marriage in which both partners agree that the woman will act as the leader, principal partner and ultimate authority of the relationship, commonly referred to as an FLR.
Flash marriage – the English translation of a recent Chinese expression, denoting a speedy marriage between couples who don't really know one another. Cf. Las Vegas wedding and Nikah 'urfi.
Fleet Marriage – The best-known example of an irregular or a clandestine marriage taking place in England before the Marriage Act 1753.
Forced marriage – A marriage in which one or more of the parties is married without his/her consent or against his/her will.

Marriage by abduction – Also known as marriage by capture or bride kidnapping. A form of forced marriage in which a woman who is kidnapped and raped by a man is thereafter regarded as his wife.
Raptio is a Latin term referring to the large scale abduction of women, usually in warfare, either for marriage or for rape

Group marriage – A form of polygamous marriage in which more than one man and more than one woman form a family unit, and all members of the marriage share parental responsibility for any children arising from the marriage.

Line marriage – A form of group marriage in which the family unit continues to add new spouses of both sexes over time so that the marriage does not end.

Handfasting – A traditional European ceremony of marriage or betrothal, commonly practiced by Neopagans today, which may or may not result in a legally recognized marriage. Cf Jumping the broom.
Hollywood marriage – A marriage between Hollywood celebrities or a marriage that is of short duration and quickly ends in separation or divorce.
Human-animal marriage – A marriage between a human and a non-human animal. A trope in fiction and mythology.
Hypergamy – Marriage for the purpose of upward mobility.
Lavender marriage – A marriage between a man and a woman in which one, or both, parties are, or are assumed to be, homosexual.
Love marriage – A marriage where the basis for the marriage is love. Cf. sham marriage and forced marriage.
Marriage of convenience – A marriage intended to serve some pragmatic purpose, not a love marriage. Cf. sham marriage.
Marry-your-rapist law, a marriage between a rapist and his victim, usually to avoid punishment and loss of honour
Mixed-orientation marriage – A marriage where one spouse has a different sexual orientation than the other spouse.
Monogamy – Marriage with one spouse exclusively for life or for a period of time. Cf. serial monogamy
Morganatic marriage – A marriage which can be contracted in certain countries, usually between persons of unequal social rank, which prevents the passage of the husband's titles and privileges to the wife and any children born of the marriage.
Muslim marriage – One of several types. See Islamic marital jurisprudence
Naked marriage – the English translation of a recent Chinese slang term, denoting a marriage begun without many possessions or wealth.
Nikah 'urfi –a type of informal marriage in some Islamic traditions, see Islamic marital jurisprudence. Cf. Las Vegas wedding.
Open marriage – A marriage in which the partners agree that each is free to engage in extramarital sexual relationships, without regarding this as sexual infidelity.
Plaçage – A recognized extralegal system in which white French and Spanish and later Creole men entered into the equivalent of common-law marriages with women of African, Indian and white (European) Creole descent. Cf. concubinage
Polygamy – Plural marriage:

Bigamy – One person having two spouses. In English, the word usually denotes a crime, i.e. a sham marriage.
Polyandry – The marriage of one wife to several husbands. Fraternal polyandry is a variant in which the husbands are brothers (see Polyandry in Tibet.)
Polygyny – The marriage of one husband to several wives.

Posthumous marriage – A marriage which occurs after one or both parties is deceased.

Ghost marriage in Sudan – The marriage of a woman to a man who died before he could marry, using the man's brother as a stand-in. Cf Proxy marriage
Ghost marriage in China

Proxy marriage – Marriage ceremony during which the wedding couple is not in the same physical location.
Putative marriage – An apparently valid marriage, entered into in good faith on part of at least one of the partners, which is invalid because of an impediment. Cf. void marriage.
Remarriage – Entering into a new marriage, after the end of the previous one, e.g. by death or divorce. Cf. serial monogamy.
Same-sex marriage – A marriage between spouses of the same sex.
Self-marriage – A marriage by a person to himself or herself.
Self-uniting marriage – A marriage in which the two partners dispense with the presence of a third-party officiant.
Sexless marriage or mariage blanc – A marriage in which there is no sex (and, in the latter case, perhaps never was) between the two partners. Cf. marriage of convenience.
Sham marriage – Marriage as a pretext to commit fraud. Cf. green card marriage and voidable marriage.
Shared Earning/Shared Parenting Marriage – A type of marriage popular in various countries where the partners choose at the outset of the marriage to share the work of childraising, earning money, housework and recreation time in nearly equal fashion across all four domains. Also known as peer marriage.
Shotgun marriage – A marriage hastily arranged, often with the implication of the bride's unintended pregnancy.
Sororate marriage – A marriage in which a man marries his wife's sister, usually after the wife is dead or has proved infertile.
Teen marriage – A practice in which the one or both spouses are teenagers below age of majority, while not necessarily below the legal marriageable age. Cf. child marriage.
Trial marriage – A situation were the couples agree to stay together without formalising or legalising the relationship as they wait to see whether it is going to work out.
Walking marriage – A practice of a matrifocal group in which the husband spends the nights with his wife, but he departs in the morning to work in his mother's household.
Widow inheritance – Also known as bride inheritance. A cultural and social practice whereby a widow is required to marry a male relative of her late husband, often his brother.

Levirate marriage – is a type of marriage in which the brother of a deceased man is obliged to marry his brother's widow, and the widow is obliged to marry her deceased husband's brother.
Sudanese ghost marriage
Yibbum, according to Jewish Torah law, the brother of a man who died without children has an obligation to marry the widow.
Widow conservation – an obsolete form of marriage in early Protestant Europe, when the widow of a parish vicar was remarried to her husband's successor to ensure her economic support.

Wedlease/Temporary marriage – A contract entailing a brief, fixed-term marital status:

Nikah mut‘ah
Nikah Misyar

Yogic marriage – A tradition of Hindu marriage done within Shavite Sadhus and Sadhvis, to enable them to get positive energy


document_title: Hell and High Water (song)

question_text: who sings the song come hell or high water

text: Hell and High Water (song)

text:
"Hell and High Water"

Single by T. Graham Brown

from the album I Tell It Like It Used to Be

B-side
"Don't Make a Liar Out of Me"

Released
September 6, 1986

Format
7" single

Genre
Country

Length
2:41

Label
Capitol

Songwriter(s)
T. Graham Brown, Alex Harvey

Producer(s)
Bud Logan

T. Graham Brown singles chronology

"I Wish That I Could Hurt That Way Again"
(1986)
"Hell and High Water"
(1986)
"Don't Go to Strangers"
(1987)

"I Wish That I Could Hurt That Way Again"
(1986)
"Hell and High Water"
(1986)
"Don't Go to Strangers"
(1987)

text: Hell and High Water" is a song written by Alex Harvey and co-written and recorded by American country music artist T. Graham Brown. It was released in September 1986 as the third single from the album I Tell It Like It Used to Be. "Hell and High Water" was T. Graham Brown's third country hit and the first of three number ones on the country chart. The single went to number one for one week and spent a total of fifteen weeks on the country chart.[1]

text: Charts[edit]

text:
Chart (1986)
Peak
position

US Hot Country Songs (Billboard)[2]
1

Canadian RPM Country Tracks
1


document_title: A Wrinkle in Time (2018 film)

question_text: who plays calvin in a wrinkle in time movie 2018

text: A Wrinkle in Time (2018 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Thirteen-year-old Meg Murry struggles to adjust to school and home life ever since her father Alex, a well-renowned scientist, mysteriously disappeared while he was studying astrophysics. Both Meg and her mother Kate believe he solved the question of humanity's existence and theorize he was teleported to another world.

text: During the night, Meg's younger brother Charles Wallace welcomes a stranger in a large white dress named Mrs. Whatsit into the Murry family house. She mentions the tesseract, a type of space-travel Alex was working on, is real, and leaves soon after. The next day, one of Meg's classmates, Calvin O'Keefe, joins them to go to the house of Mrs. Who, another strange woman who speaks only in quotations and seems to know Charles Wallace.

text: When Calvin joins Meg and Charles Wallace in their backyard, Mrs. Whatsit appears with Mrs. Who and another woman, Mrs. Which, who is the oldest and appears as a giant. The three reveal themselves as astral travelers, and lead Meg, Calvin, and Charles Wallace through a tesseract taking them to a distant planet named Uriel.

text: Mrs. Whatsit transforms into a beautiful green creature, and takes the children up into the atmosphere, where they see a dark shadow known as The IT. Mrs. Which tells Meg her father's experiments resulted in his being captured by The IT, a malevolent entity plotting to take over the universe. Gaining the women's trust, Meg and the others tesser to another planet where a seer known as the Happy Medium resides.

text: The Happy Medium shows them Meg's father is trapped on a planet called Camazotz, The IT's homeworld. Mrs. Which also explains The IT represents all of the greed, anger, pride, selfishness, and low self-esteem in the world. Showing them examples of these characteristics, Meg learns that while Calvin is popular at school, he is neglected and bullied by his father and her school enemy Veronica Kiley is extremely self-conscious. The three Mrs. propose they travel back to Earth to regroup, but Meg's strong will to find her father overrides the tesseract, and she accidentally redirects them to Camazotz instead.

text: Upon arriving on Camazotz, Mrs. Which, Mrs. Whatsit, and Mrs. Who are unable to stay because Camazotz's evil is stronger than their light. Before they depart, they bestow gifts upon Meg; these include Mrs. Who's glasses, the knowledge of Meg's faults, and the command to never separate.

text: The trio treks through Camazotz's hazardous traps before reaching a crowded beach where they meet the IT's bodyguard, Red. He offers the starving children food and tells them Alex is safe and happy. He reveals to them there is nothing to worry about here, but Calvin and Meg realize something is wrong when Charles Wallace proclaims all of the food tastes like sand. When Red starts repeating the times tables, Charles Wallace is hypnotized by the rhythm, allowing the IT to take full control of his mind.

text: When Meg and Calvin pursue Charles Wallace, they find themselves in a seemingly empty room. Using Mrs. Who's glasses, Meg finds an invisible staircase leading to the room where her father is being kept prisoner. After bringing him out of captivity, the IT's power allows Charles Wallace to forcefully drag them to finally meet his master. As Calvin and Meg fall under the IT's power, Alex opens another tesser and prepares to leave with the children, abandoning Charles Wallace. Meg refuses and projects out of the tesser herself, leaving her alone. When she confronts Charles Wallace in corruption, she realizes the IT uses deception and hatred for power. Using her love for her brother and the knowledge she is imperfect, Meg frees Charles Wallace from the control of the IT and releases the control of Camazotz from the evil entity. The three Mrs. return and tell Meg her time is here to tesser for herself.

text: Returning home, Meg thanks the women for their help and for rescuing her father and they part ways, while Veronica becomes nice to her. The film ends with the Murry family celebrating a joyful reunion and Calvin going home to confront his father.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Oprah Winfrey as Mrs. Which
Reese Witherspoon as Mrs. Whatsit
Mindy Kaling as Mrs. Who
Storm Reid as Meg Murry, a gifted young girl
Levi Miller as Calvin O'Keefe, Meg's classmate and friend
Deric McCabe as Charles Wallace Murry, Meg's prodigious adoptive 6-year-old brother
Chris Pine as Dr. Alexander Murry, Meg and Charles Wallace's long-lost father
Gugu Mbatha-Raw as Dr. Kate Murry, Meg and Charles Wallace's mother
Zach Galifianakis as The Happy Medium
Michael Peña as Red[10]

David Oyelowo as the IT, Red's true diabolical form[10]

André Holland as Principal James Jenkins[10]
Rowan Blanchard as Veronica Kiley[10]
Bellamy Young as Camazotz Woman[10]
Conrad Roberts as Elegant Man[10]
Yvette Cason as a teacher[10]
Will McCormack as another teacher[10]
Daniel MacPherson as Calvin's father[10]

text: Production[edit]

text: In October 2010, it was announced that Walt Disney Pictures had retained the film rights for the 1962 novel A Wrinkle in Time, by Madeleine L'Engle, which had previously been made as a 2003 television film. Following the financial success of Tim Burton's Alice in Wonderland (2010), Disney announced that they had hired Jeff Stockwell to write the screenplay for Cary Granat and his new Bedrock Studios. Granat had previously worked with Disney on the Chronicles of Narnia and Bridge to Terabithia films.[11] The project's budget was slated to be $35 million, which the company compared to District 9 and Bridge to Terabithia, both of which were made for less than $30 million.[12] On August 5, 2014, Jennifer Lee was announced as the screenwriter, taking over from Stockwell, who wrote the first draft.[13][14] On February 8, 2016, it was reported that Ava DuVernay had been offered the job of directing the film, and she was confirmed to direct later that same month.[15][16] She became the first woman of color to direct a live-action film with a production budget over $100 million.[17]

text: On July 26, 2016, Variety reported that Oprah Winfrey had began final negotiations to join the film, to play Mrs. Which, the eldest of the three Mrs. Ws, celestial beings who help guide the children along their journey.[18] On September 7, 2016, Reese Witherspoon and Mindy Kaling were reported as being in talks to join the film, with Witherspoon to play Mrs. Whatsit, who presents as a chatty, grandmotherly hobo, and Kaling set for the quotation-reciting Mrs. Who.[19] On September 13, 2016, Storm Reid was cast in the lead role of Meg Murry, a young girl traumatized by the disappearance of her scientist father years before.[20] In October 2016, Gugu Mbatha-Raw and Chris Pine were cast as the parents of Meg, Dr. Kate Murry and Dr. Alex Murry, respectively.[21][22] On November 1, 2016, more cast were announced, including Zach Galifianakis as the Happy Medium, André Holland as Principal Jenkins, Levi Miller as Calvin, and Deric McCabe as Charles Wallace, along with Bellamy Young, Rowan Blanchard and Will McCormack.[23] Michael Peña later also joined the cast to play the character Red.[24] The producers on the film are James Whitaker and Catherine Hand.[23]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Principal photography on the film began on November 2, 2016, in Los Angeles, California.[23][25][26] After Los Angeles, production moved to New Zealand for two weeks.[23] Tobias A. Schliessler was the film's cinematographer, Naomi Shohan its production designer, Paco Delgado its costume designer, and Rich McBride its visual effects supervisor.[23][27] During production, DuVernay asked McBride to be as flexible as possible on visual effects sequences to allow her to make changes and incorporate new ideas during shooting.[28]

text: Filming for A Wrinkle in Time took place in multiple locations including Eureka, California, in Humboldt County, starting on November 29, 2016.[29] Filming also took place at Eureka's Sequoia Park, located next to Sequoia Park Zoo. None of the film's major actors were present in Eureka.[30] In mid-December, Pine was spotted during filming in Los Angeles.[31]

text: During the last two weeks of February 2017, filming locations for A Wrinkle in Time were established to be in Central Otago, New Zealand.[32] Actors and crew involved were in New Zealand for the two weeks to shoot scenes in the Southern Alps, including at Hunter Valley Station near Lake Hāwea, with cast and crew treated to a traditional Māori powhiri and karakia.[33] Filming wrapped in New Zealand's South Island after two weeks, and DuVernay declared the cast and crew's love for New Zealand in an Instagram post.[34]

text: Music[edit]

text: On September 28, 2017, Ramin Djawadi was announced as the composer for the film, replacing Jonny Greenwood, who was initially chosen to compose, and scored the film.[35] On February 20, 2018, it was announced that the soundtrack would feature appearances from Sade, Sia, Kehlani, Chloe x Halle, Freestyle Fellowship, DJ Khaled, and Demi Lovato.[36]

text: Release[edit]

text: The film was released in the United States on March 9, 2018.[37] It was previously set for an April 6, 2018 release.[38]

text: Marketing[edit]

text: DuVernay announced a teaser trailer for the film would debut at the 2017 D23 expo; it was released on July 15, 2017.[39]

text: Home media[edit]

text: A Wrinkle in Time is scheduled to be released on 4K UHD Blu-Ray, Blu-Ray & DVD on June 5, 2018.[40]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: As of May 27, 2018[update], A Wrinkle in Time grossed $97.7 million in the United States and Canada, and $31.7 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $129.4 million.[5] With a combined $250 million spent on production and advertisement, the film needed to gross at least $400 million worldwide to turn a profit.[41][8][9] Following Disney's Q2 earnings report in May 2018, Yahoo! Finance deduced the film would lose the studio anywhere from $86–186 million.[42]

text: In the United States and Canada, A Wrinkle in Time was released alongside The Hurricane Heist, Gringo and The Strangers: Prey at Night, and was projected to gross $30–38 million from 3,980 theaters in its opening weekend.[43] It made $10.2 million on its first day, including $1.3 million from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $33.3 million, finishing second behind Disney's own Black Panther ($41.1 million in its fourth weekend).[4] In its second weekend the film made $16.6 million, dropping 50% to 4th place.[44]

text: Internationally the film opened in six countries alongside the United States and grossed $6.3 million in its opening weekend, Russia being the largest market with $4.1 million.[45]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 39%, based on 244 reviews, and an average rating of 5.2/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "A Wrinkle in Time is visually gorgeous, big-hearted, and occasionally quite moving; unfortunately, it's also wildly ambitious to a fault, and often less than the sum of its classic parts."[46] On Metacritic, which assigns normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 53 out of 100, based on 50 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[47] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it a 75% overall positive score; audience members under the age of 18 gave it a respective average grade of "A–" and positive score of 89%.[4]

text: Alonso Duralde of TheWrap praised the film's visuals and performances, writing, "Awash in bold colors, bright patterns and ebullient kids, director Ava DuVernay's new take on A Wrinkle in Time dazzles its way across time and space even if it doesn't quite stick the landing."[48] David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film a "C+" and praised what he described as its ambition, saying: "It almost doesn't matter that the movie is too emotionally prescriptive to have any real power, or too high on imagination to leave any room for wonder; DuVernay evinces such faith in who she is and what she's doing that A Wrinkle in Time remains true to itself even when everything on screen reads false."[49]

text: Alex Hudson of Exclaim! gave the film a 5 out of 10, saying that it felt "like a missed opportunity. Rather than a family classic, all we get is a perfectly fine kids movie."[50] Vince Mancini of Uproxx gave the film a negative review, saying, "...if anything, the trouble with Wrinkle is that you never really get a sense of DuVernay's personal touch. In fact, it feels a lot like Brad Bird's big budget, equally smarmy 2015 Disney film, Tomorrowland. Both attempt to be so broad and universal that they feel disconnected from anything human. But universality doesn't work that way, no matter how much you tell everyone to think like a kid."[51]


question_text: who sings what condition my condition is in

text:
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text:
"Just Dropped In (To See What Condition My Condition Was In)"

Single by Mickey Newbury

from the album Harlequin Melodies

Genre
Psychedelic pop[1]

Songwriter(s)
Mickey Newbury

text: "Just Dropped In (To See What Condition My Condition Was In)" is a counterculture era song written by Mickey Newbury & first a chart hit for Kenny Rogers and the First Edition in 1968. Said to reflect the LSD experience, the song was intended to be a warning against the danger of using LSD. First recorded on October 10, 1967 by Teddy Hill & the Southern Soul as a single on Rice Records (Rice 5028 b/w "Stagger Lee") and produced by Norro Wilson, Jerry Lee Lewis soon covered the song for his album Soul My Way.

text: In 1968, "Just Dropped In ..." was a hit for Kenny Rogers and the First Edition (with Kenny Rogers on lead vocals). It was Rogers' first top ten hit on the Billboard charts, where it peaked at number five.[2] The song captures the short-lived psychedelic era of the late 1960s, and stands apart from the country folk harmonies that characterized most of the First Edition's catalog,[3] and got the group their first national TV audience on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour.

text: The song features Rogers on lead vocals and was the group's second single from the band's eponymous album The First Edition. Producer Mike Post reversed a few riffs to create the intro, and the solo played by Glen Campbell was heavily compressed and used a tremolo effect to achieve its sound. Another studio guitarist, Mike Deasy, provided the acoustic lead guitar parts.

text: When Rogers signed to United Artists Records in the mid-1970s after the group split, he re-recorded the track for his Ten Years of Gold album.

text: Covers[edit]

text:
Bettye LaVette, Karen Records (KA 1544), 1968, flip side to "Get Away". On that release it is called "What Condition My Condition Is In"
Styvar Manor, British group, 1970, issued as single on Polydor.
Jim Turner of comedy troupe Duck's Breath Mystery Theatre performed (as his character Randee of the Redwoods) a surprisingly faithful version on the Ducks' 1986 album Born To Be Tiled.
Die Haut, 1988, with Nick Cave as guest singer.
Supergrass as a B-Side to their 1995 single Alright/Time
The Raymen, Death-Country/Goth-Americana-Billy band, 1998
Willie Nelson, on his 2001 album "Rainbow Connection" and his 2002 album The Great Divide
Mojo Nixon, 2001
Children of Bodom, melodic death metal band, on the Japanese release of their "Blooddrunk" album as a bonus track and on their 2009 cover album "Skeletons in the Closet"
Tom Jones, on the Deluxe Edition of "Spirit in the Room" in 2012
Murder by Death, Americana band, 2012
the Launderettes, Norwegian rock group, 2013, [4]
The Fantastics, Donegal-based band, 2014.
Sinister Dexter, San Francisco soul/funk group, 2014
White Denim exclusively for the black comedy–crime drama television series Fargo, which played over the credits of the "Did you do this? No, you did it!" episode of the second season in 2015.[5]
Abe Diddy and The Krautboys on the album Follow in 2016
Sharon Jones & The Dap-Kings, on the original motion picture soundtrack for the film Soul Men
Reef for their compilation album Together.[6]
Jeff Walker Und Die Fluffers (former lead singer of Carcass), on album Welcome to Carcass Cuntry

text: In popular culture (First Edition version)[edit]

text: The song is featured in a dream sequence from the Coen Brothers' 1998 film The Big Lebowski. Additionally, it plays during the end credits of the 2000 video game Driver 2; the title screen and end credits of the 2013 video game Stick It To The Man and is featured in the 2010 action movie Faster. It is also used is season 3, episode 1 of Chuck: "Chuck Versus the Pink Slip". A short clip is heard in the 2015 HBO documentary Going Clear: Scientology and the Prison of Belief. It is also on the TV series Fargo, season 2 episode 7.


document_title: Reflex hammer

question_text: where do you hit to test your reflexes

question_tokens: where do you hit to test your reflexes

text: Reflex hammer

text: Models of reflex hammer[edit]

text: Prior to the development of specialized reflex hammers, hammers specific for percussion of the chest were used to elicit reflexes.[2]  However, this proved to be cumbersome, as the weight of the chest percussion hammer was insufficient to generate an adequate stimulus for a reflex.

text: Starting in the late 19th century, several models of specific reflex hammers were created:

text:
The Taylor or tomahawk reflex hammer was designed by John Madison Taylor in 1888 [3] and is the most well known reflex hammer in the USA.  It consists of a triangular rubber component which is attached to a flat metallic handle. The traditional Taylor hammer is significantly lighter in weight when compared to the heavier European hammers.
The Queen Square reflex hammer was designed for use at the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases (now the National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery) in Queen Square, London.  It was originally made with a bamboo or cane handle of varying length, of average 10 to 16 inches (25 to 40 centimetres), attached to a 2-inch (5 centimetre) metal disk with a plastic bumper.[4]  The Queen Square hammer is also now made with plastic molds, and often has a sharp tapered end to allow for testing of plantar reflexes though this is no longer recommended due to tightened infection control. It is the reflex hammer of choice of the UK neurologist.
The Babinski reflex hammer was designed by Joseph Babiński in 1912[2] and is similar to the Queen Square hammer, except that it has a metallic handle that is often detachable.[5]  Babinski hammers can also be telescoping, allowing for compact storage.  Babinski's hammer was popularized in clinical use in America by the neurologist Abraham Rabiner, who was given the instrument as a peace offering by Babinski after the two brawled at a black tie affair in Vienna.[2]
The Trömner reflex hammer was designed by Ernst Trömner. This model is shaped like a two-headed mallet. The larger mallet is used to elicit tendon stretch reflexes, and the smaller mallet is used to elicit percussion myotonia.
Other reflex hammer types include the Buck, Berliner and Stookey reflex hammers.[2]

text: There are numerous models available from various commercial sources.

text: Method of use[edit]

text: The strength of a reflex is used to gauge central and peripheral nervous system disorders, with the former resulting in hyperreflexia, or exaggerated reflexes, and the latter resulting in hyporeflexia or diminished reflexes.  However, the strength of the stimulus used to extract the reflex also affects the magnitude of the reflex.  Attempts have been made to determine the force required to elicit a reflex,[6] but vary depending on the hammer used, and are difficult to quantify.

text: The Taylor hammer is usually held at the end by the physician, and the entire device is swung in an arc-like motion onto the tendon in question.  The Queen Square and Babinski hammers are usually held perpendicular to the tendon in question, and are passively swung with gravity assistance onto the tendon.[1]

text: The Jendrassik maneuver, which entails interlocking of flexed fingers to distract a patient and prime the reflex response, can also be used to accentuate reflexes.[7]  In cases of hyperreflexia, the physician may place his finger on top of the tendon, and tap the finger with the hammer.  Sometimes a reflex hammer may not be necessary to elicit hyperreflexia, with finger tapping over the tendon being sufficient as a stimulus.[1]