document_title: List of Manchester United F.C. managers

question_text: who replaced alex ferguson as manager of manchester united

text: List of Manchester United F.C. managers

text: Managerial history[edit]

text: From 1878 to 1914, the team was selected by a committee whose secretary had the same powers and role as a manager has today. There were four secretaries during this period, A. H. Albut, James West, Ernest Mangnall and John Bentley.

text: Ernest Mangnall was the first man to bring any major silverware to the club, winning the club's first ever Football League title in 1908. This was followed by the FA Cup the following season, and another league title in 1911. Despite this success, though, he left the club a year later to join local rivals Manchester City. Coincidentally, Mangnall's last match in charge of United was the Old Trafford derby of 7 September 1912.[1] John Bentley took over as club secretary, but was replaced two years later by Jack Robson, who became the club's first full-time manager. He remained in the post for seven years, but resigned in December 1921 after succumbing to a bout of pneumonia.[2]

text: Robson was followed soon after by John Chapman. However, in Chapman's first season at the club, they were relegated to the Second Division for the first time since 1906. Three years in the Second Division followed, before promotion back to the First Division. After guiding the club to 9th place in the league and the FA Cup semi-finals in 1925–26, Chapman received a telegram from the Football Association on 8 October 1926 informing him of his suspension from management for the rest of the season; no reason was given. Half-back Lal Hilditch took over for the remainder of the season, before Herbert Bamlett took permanent control.

text: Bamlett was manager for four years, but was unable to muster any success, the club's highest position during his reign being 12th.[3] The club was relegated to the Second Division again in 1931, and Bamlett was replaced by club secretary Walter Crickmer. This was Crickmer's first of two spells as manager of the club, retaining his position as secretary all the while. It lasted only a season, though, as he failed to return the club to the First Division. In June 1932, Scott Duncan was appointed as manager, but in his second season in charge he led the club to what remains a club record lowest League position; 20th in the Second Division. The club held faith in Duncan though, and he managed to get the club back into the First Division by 1936. However, the club was relegated again the following year, and Walter Crickmer resumed control until the end of the Second World War.

text: Before the end of the war, the club approached Matt Busby, who had just turned down the opportunity to join the coaching staff at Liverpool, on the grounds that he wanted more responsibility over the playing side of the club than merely the selection of the team.[3] United allowed Busby the responsibilities he requested, and in his first five seasons in charge he guided the team to four second-place finishes in the league, before finally winning his first title in 1952. He soon set about replacing many of the more experienced players with a group of youths who came to be known as the "Busby Babes". This team went on to win two league titles in 1955–56 and 1956–57, as well as reaching two FA Cup finals. Unfortunately, the careers of many of the players were cut short by the Munich air disaster, which also left Busby fighting for his life.[4]

text: While Busby was in hospital recovering from the injuries he sustained in the air crash, his managerial duties were left to his assistant, Jimmy Murphy. After Busby recovered, he set about rebuilding his side, and within five years, in 1963, he had won the FA Cup for the first time in 15 years. This was followed up by two league titles in three years, and then the greatest prize in European club football, the European Cup. He continued as manager for one more year after this success, leaving his managerial duties to club trainer Wilf McGuinness. McGuinness struggled in his new post, however, and Busby was convinced to return for the second half of the 1970–71 season.[4] However, he retired from football permanently that summer, and was succeeded that summer by Frank O'Farrell. O'Farrell's stay was short-lived, though, as his inability to control George Best's extravagances forced the board to sack him with three years still to run on his contract.

text: O'Farrell's replacement was to be Scotland coach, Tommy Docherty. Docherty left the Scotland job and his first task at United was to keep the club in the top flight. He managed it once, but he was unable to pull it off again and the club was relegated in 1973–74. They bounced straight back up the following season, though, and in their first season back in the top flight, the team cruised to a third-place finish and yet another FA Cup final. The next year, they went one better, beating Liverpool in the final to claim his first and only trophy at Old Trafford. It was soon discovered, however, that Docherty was having an affair with the wife of the club's physiotherapist, and he was immediately fired,[5] replaced by Queens Park Rangers' manager Dave Sexton.

text: Sexton remained in the United job for four years, but was unable to produce any silverware, and was replaced in 1981 by Ron Atkinson. Atkinson was able to rekindle the club's cup success, leading his side to two FA Cups in his five-year tenure. He also oversaw a series of respectable finishes in the league, but after his disastrous start to the 1986–87 season, he was sacked.[6] His replacement, Alex Ferguson, had, in recent years, become the first manager to break the dominance of Rangers and Celtic in the Scottish league for over 15 years, winning the Scottish Premier Division title with Aberdeen three times in six years, as well as finishing as runner-up twice and winning the European Cup-Winners Cup.

text: During his tenure, Ferguson was credited with the distinction of making some of the most shrewd purchases in the club's history, including the signings of Peter Schmeichel and Eric Cantona, each for less than £1.5 million.[7] With these signings, combined with the club's many experienced players, Ferguson brought the league title back to Old Trafford for the first time in 26 years. In the following decade, he won the Premier League title another six times, including a hat-trick of titles from 1999 to 2001, a feat that no other manager has yet achieved with the same club.[8] In 1999, he also led the club to an unprecedented Treble of Premier League, FA Cup and UEFA Champions League. Subsequently, he added another three league titles to his trophy haul, despite a number of promises of retirement.[9] Ferguson won his 10th Premier League title in the 2007–08 season, and followed this up with his second Champions League title 10 days later. In 2008–09, Ferguson guided United to another Premier League title, making Manchester United the only club and him the only manager to have won the English league title three times in a row twice. His 12th title, in the 2010–11 season, was United's 19th overall, overtaking Liverpool's record of 18. Ferguson won his 13th and final league title in the 2012–13 season, making 20 titles overall for United. At the end of the season, Ferguson announced his retirement, and he was replaced by Everton manager David Moyes.[10]

text: In his first match, Moyes gave United their 20th Community Shield and his first trophy as United manager; however, after failing to lead the club to Champions League qualification, he was sacked before the end of his first season, with Ryan Giggs taking temporary charge for the final four games of the 2013–14 season where the club finished seventh, their lowest league finish since the establishment of the Premier League.[11] Netherlands manager Louis van Gaal was appointed as Moyes' permanent replacement on 19 May 2014, taking charge after the end of the 2014 FIFA World Cup.[12] In his inaugural season, United signed many prominent players and returned to the Champions League with a 4th-place finish. In his second season, United finished in 5th place behind Manchester City, out of Champions League position, but won the 2016 FA Cup, the club's first in a dozen years. The board, however, decided that not enough progress had been made from the previous season and Van Gaal was sacked on 23 May 2016, just days after lifting the cup. He was replaced by two-time European champion and former Chelsea boss José Mourinho on 27 May 2016. Mourinho became United's fourth manager (including Giggs) in as many years since Ferguson's retirement.

text: Statistics[edit]

text: Information correct as of 24 October 2017. Only competitive matches are counted.

text:
Nationality – If the manager played international football as a player, the country/countries he played for are shown. Otherwise, the manager's nationality is given as their country of birth.
From – The year of the manager's first game for Manchester United.
To – The year of the manager's last game for Manchester United.
P – The number of games managed for Manchester United.
W – The number of games won as a manager.
D – The number of games draw as a manager.
L – The number of games lost as a manager.
GF – The number of goals scored under his management.
GA – The number of goals conceded under his management.
Win% – The total winning percentage under his management.
Honours – The trophies won while managing Manchester United.

text:
(n/a) = Information not available
p = Player-manager

text:
List of Manchester United F.C. managers

Name
Nationality
From
To
P
W
D
L
GF
GA
Win%[nb 1]
Honours
Notes

Albut, A. H.A. H. Albut
 England
000000001892-01-01-00001892
000000001900-01-01-00001900
5000000000000000000♠(n/a)
5000000000000000000♠(n/a)
5000000000000000000♠(n/a)
5000000000000000000♠(n/a)
5000000000000000000♠(n/a)
5000000000000000000♠(n/a)
5000000000000000000♠(n/a)

[nb 2][nb 3]

West, JamesJames West
 England
000000001900-01-01-00001900
000000001903-09-01-0000September 1903
7002113000000000000♠113
7001460000000000000♠46
7001200000000000000♠20
7001470000000000000♠47
7002159000000000000♠159
7002147000000000000♠147
07001407100000000000♠40.71

[nb 2][13]

Mangnall, ErnestErnest Mangnall
 England
000000001903-10-10-000010 October 1903
000000001912-09-09-00009 September 1912
7002373000000000000♠373
7002202000000000000♠202
7001760000000000000♠76
7001950000000000000♠95
7002700000000000000♠700
7002476000000000000♠476
07001541600000099999♠54.16
99972 First Division titles
1 FA Cup
2 Charity Shields
[nb 2][14]

Wallworth, T. J.T. J. Wallworth
0(n/a)
000000001912-09-09-00009 September 1912
000000001912-10-20-000020 October 1912
7000600000000000000♠6
7000300000000000000♠3
7000200000000000000♠2
7000100000000000000♠1
7001110000000000000♠11
7000700000000000000♠7
07001500000000000000♠50.00

[nb 4]

Bentley, JohnJohn Bentley
 England
000000001912-10-28-000028 October 1912
000000001914-12-28-000028 December 1914
7001820000000000000♠82
7001360000000000000♠36
7001160000000000000♠16
7001300000000000000♠30
7002127000000000000♠127
7002110000000000000♠110
07001439000000000000♠43.90

[nb 2][15]

Robson, JackJack Robson
 England
000000001914-12-28-000028 December 1914
000000001921-10-31-000031 October 1921
7002139000000000000♠139
7001410000000000000♠41
7001420000000000000♠42
7001560000000000000♠56
7002183000000000000♠183
7002207000000000000♠207
07001295000000000000♠29.50

[16]

Chapman, JohnJohn Chapman
 Scotland
000000001921-10-31-000031 October 1921
000000001926-10-08-00008 October 1926
7002221000000000000♠221
7001860000000000000♠86
7001580000000000000♠58
7001770000000000000♠77
7002287000000000000♠287
7002274000000000000♠274
07001389109999999999♠38.91

[17]

Hilditch, LalLal Hilditchp
 England
000000001926-10-08-00008 October 1926
000000001927-04-13-000013 April 1927
7001330000000000000♠33
7001100000000000000♠10
7001100000000000000♠10
7001130000000000000♠13
7001380000000000000♠38
7001470000000000000♠47
07001303000000000000♠30.30

[18]

Bamlett, HerbertHerbert Bamlett
 England
000000001927-04-13-000013 April 1927
000000001931-11-09-00009 November 1931
7002183000000000000♠183
7001570000000000000♠57
7001420000000000000♠42
7001840000000000000♠84
7002280000000000000♠280
7002374000000000000♠374
07001311500000000000♠31.15

[19]

Crickmer, WalterWalter Crickmer
 England
000000001931-11-09-00009 November 1931
000000001932-07-13-000013 July 1932
7001430000000000000♠43
7001170000000000000♠17
7000800000000000000♠8
7001180000000000000♠18
7001720000000000000♠72
7001760000000000000♠76
07001395300000000000♠39.53

[20]

Duncan, ScottScott Duncan
 Scotland
000000001932-07-13-000013 July 1932
000000001937-11-07-00007 November 1937
7002235000000000000♠235
7001920000000000000♠92
7001530000000000000♠53
7001900000000000000♠90
7002371000000000000♠371
7002362000000000000♠362
07001391500000000000♠39.15
99951 Second Division title
[21]

Crickmer, WalterWalter Crickmer
 England
000000001937-11-09-00009 November 1937
000000001945-02-15-000015 February 1945
7001760000000000000♠76
7001300000000000000♠30
7001240000000000000♠24
7001220000000000000♠22
7002131000000000000♠131
7002112000000000000♠112
07001394700000000000♠39.47

[20]

Busby, MattMatt Busby
 Scotland
000000001945-10-01-00001 October 1945
000000001969-06-04-00004 June 1969
7003112000000000000♠1,120
7002565000000000000♠565
7002263000000000000♠263
7002292000000000000♠292
7003228600000000000♠2,286
7003153600000000000♠1,536
07001504500000000000♠50.45
99985 First Division titles
2 FA Cups
5 Charity Shields (inc. 2 shared)
1 European Cup
[22]

Murphy, JimmyJimmy Murphy (caretaker)
 Wales
000000001958-02-01-0000February 1958
000000001958-06-01-0000June 1958
7001220000000000000♠22
7000500000000000000♠5
7000700000000000000♠7
7001100000000000000♠10
7001270000000000000♠27
7001420000000000000♠42
07001227300000000000♠22.73

[nb 5][23]

McGuinness, WilfWilf McGuinness
 England
000000001969-06-04-00004 June 1969
000000001970-12-29-000029 December 1970
7001870000000000000♠87
7001320000000000000♠32
7001320000000000000♠32
7001230000000000000♠23
7002127000000000000♠127
7002111000000000000♠111
07001367800000000000♠36.78

[24]

Busby, MattMatt Busby
 Scotland
000000001970-12-29-000029 December 1970
000000001971-06-08-00008 June 1971
7001210000000000000♠21
7001110000000000000♠11
7000300000000000000♠3
7000700000000000000♠7
7001380000000000000♠38
7001300000000000000♠30
07001523800000000000♠52.38

[22]

OFarrell, FrankFrank O'Farrell
 Ireland
000000001971-06-08-00008 June 1971
000000001972-12-19-000019 December 1972
7001810000000000000♠81
7001300000000000000♠30
7001240000000000000♠24
7001270000000000000♠27
7002115000000000000♠115
7002111000000000000♠111
07001370400000000000♠37.04

[25]

Docherty, TommyTommy Docherty
 Scotland
000000001972-12-22-000022 December 1972
000000001977-07-04-00004 July 1977
7002228000000000000♠228
7002107000000000000♠107
7001560000000000000♠56
7001650000000000000♠65
7002333000000000000♠333
7002252000000000000♠252
07001469300000000000♠46.93
99951 FA Cup
1 Second Division title
[26]

Sexton, DaveDave Sexton
 England
000000001977-07-14-000014 July 1977
000000001981-04-30-000030 April 1981
7002201000000000000♠201
7001810000000000000♠81
7001640000000000000♠64
7001560000000000000♠56
7002290000000000000♠290
7002240000000000000♠240
07001403009999900000♠40.30
99941 Charity Shield (shared)
[27]

Atkinson, RonRon Atkinson
 England
000000001981-06-09-00009 June 1981
000000001986-11-06-00006 November 1986
7002292000000000000♠292
7002146000000000000♠146
7001790000000000000♠79
7001670000000000000♠67
7002461000000000000♠461
7002266000000000000♠266
07001500000000000000♠50.00
99962 FA Cups
1 Charity Shield
[28]

Ferguson, AlexAlex Ferguson
 Scotland
000000001986-11-06-00006 November 1986
000000002013-05-19-000019 May 2013
7003150000000000000♠1,500
7002895000000000000♠895
7002338000000000000♠338
7002267000000000000♠267
7003276900000000000♠2,769
7003136500000000000♠1,365
07001596700000000000♠59.67
999913 Premier League titles
5 FA Cups
4 League Cups
10 Community Shields (inc. 1 shared)[nb 6]
2 UEFA Champions Leagues
1 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup
1 UEFA Super Cup
1 Intercontinental Cup
1 FIFA Club World Cup
[29]

Moyes, DavidDavid Moyes
 Scotland
000000002013-07-01-00001 July 2013
000000002014-04-22-000022 April 2014
7001510000000000000♠51
7001270000000000000♠27
7000900000000000000♠9
7001150000000000000♠15
7001860000000000000♠86
7001540000000000000♠54
07001529400000000000♠52.94
1 Community Shield
[30]

Giggs, RyanRyan Giggsp (caretaker)
 Wales
000000002014-04-22-000022 April 2014
000000002014-05-11-000011 May 2014
7000400000000000000♠4
7000200000000000000♠2
7000100000000000000♠1
7000100000000000000♠1
7000800000000000000♠8
7000300000000000000♠3
07001500000000000000♠50.00

[31]

Gaal, Louis vanLouis van Gaal
 Netherlands
000000002014-07-16-000016 July 2014
000000002016-05-23-000023 May 2016
7002103000000000000♠103
7001540000000000000♠54
7001250000000000000♠25
7001240000000000000♠24
7002158000000000000♠158
7001980000000000000♠98
07001524300000000000♠52.43
1 FA Cup
[32]

Mourinho, JoséJosé Mourinho
 Portugal
000000002016-05-27-000027 May 2016
Present
7001790000000000000♠79
7001480000000000000♠48
7001200000000000000♠20
7001110000000000000♠11
7002142000000000000♠142
7001540000000000000♠54
07001607600000000000♠60.76
1 Europa League
1 League Cup
1 Community Shield
[33]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Win% is rounded to two decimal places
^ Jump up to: a b c d Secretary of the committee that chose the team
Jump up ^ Information regarding A. H. Albut's managerial record is unavailable due to his exact date of appointment being unknown.
Jump up ^ Wallworth was only the club's acting secretary, and, as such, he is not included in any official lists of the club's managers.
Jump up ^ Murphy was installed as the club's caretaker manager while Busby was in hospital recovering from the Munich air disaster.
Jump up ^ Five of Ferguson's Community Shields were won while the competition was still known as the FA Charity Shield.


document_title: Cell theory

question_text: who were the scientists who developed the cell theory

root

text: Cell theory

text: Microscopes

text: The discovery of the cell was made possible through the invention of the microscope. In the first century BC, Romans were able to make glass, discovering that objects appeared to be larger under the glass. In Italy during the 12th century, Salvino D’Armate made a piece of glass fit over one eye, allowing for a magnification effect to that eye. The expanded use of lenses in eyeglasses in the 13th century probably led to wider spread use of simple microscopes (magnifying glasses) with limited magnification.[3] Compound microscope, which combine an objective lens with an eyepiece to view a real image achieving much higher magnification, first appeared in Europe around 1620[4][5] In 1665, Robert Hooke used a microscope about six inches long with two convex lenses inside and examined specimens under reflected light for the observations in his book Micrographia. Hooke also used a simpler microscope with a single lens for examining specimens with directly transmitted light, because this allowed for a clearer image.[6]

tag: p

text: Extensive microscopic study was done by Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a draper who took the interest in microscopes after seeing one while on an apprenticeship in Amsterdam in 1648. At some point in his life before 1668, he was able to learn how to grind lenses.  This eventually led to Leeuwenhoek making his own unique microscope. His were a single lens simple microscope, rather than a compound microscope. This was because he was able to use a single lens that was a small glass sphere but allowed for a magnification of 270x. This was a large progression since the magnification before was only a maximum of 50x. After Leeuwenhoek, there was not much progress for the microscopes until the 1850s, two hundred years later. Carl Zeiss, a German engineer who manufactured microscopes, began to make changes to the lenses used. But the optical quality did not improve until the 1880s when he hired Otto Schott and eventually Ernst Abbe.[7]

text: Optical microscopes can focus on objects the size of a wavelength or larger, giving restrictions still to advancement in discoveries with objects smaller than the wavelengths of visible light. Later in the 1920s, the electron microscope was developed, making it possible to view objects that are smaller than optical wavelengths, once again, changing the possibilities in science.[7]

text: Discovery of cells

text:
The cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, which can be found to be described in his book Micrographia. In this book, he gave 60 ‘observations’ in detail of various objects under a coarse, compound microscope.[6] One observation was from very thin slices of bottle cork. Hooke discovered a multitude of tiny pores that he named "cells". This came from the Latin word Cella, meaning ‘a small room’ like monks lived in and also Cellulae, which meant the six sided cell of a honeycomb. However, Hooke did not know their real structure or function.[8]
What Hooke had thought were cells, were actually empty cell walls of plant tissues. With microscopes during this time having a low magnification, Hooke was unable to see that there were other internal components to the cells he was observing. Therefore, he did not think the "cellulae" were alive.[9] His cell observations gave no indication of the nucleus and other organelles found in most living cells. In Micrographia, Hooke also observed mould, bluish in color, found on leather. After studying it under his microscope, he was unable to observe “seeds” that would have indicated how the mould was multiplying in quantity. This led to Hooke suggesting that spontaneous generation, from either natural or artificial heat, was the cause. Since this was an old Aristotelian theory still accepted at the time, others did not reject it and was not disproved until Leeuwenhoek later discovers generation is achieved otherwise.[6]

text: Anton van Leeuwenhoek is another scientist who saw these cells soon after Hooke did. He made use of a microscope containing improved lenses that could magnify objects almost 300-fold, or 270x.[9] Under these microscopes, Leeuwenhoek found motile objects. In a letter to The Royal Society on October 9, 1676, he states that motility is a quality of life therefore these were living organisms. Over time, he wrote many more papers in which described many specific forms of microorganisms. Leeuwenhoek named these “animalcules,” which included protozoa and other unicellular organisms, like bacteria.[7] Though he did not have much formal education, he was able to identify the first accurate description of red blood cells and discovered bacteria after gaining interest in the sense of taste that resulted in Leeuwenhoek to observe the tongue of an ox, then leading him to study "pepper water" in 1676. He also found for the first time the sperm cells of animals and humans. Once discovering these types of cells, Leeuwenhoek saw that the fertilization process requires the sperm cell to enter the egg cell. This put an end to the previous theory of spontaneous generation. After reading letters by Leeuwenhoek, Hooke was the first to confirm his observations that were thought to be unlikely by other contemporaries.[6]

text: The cells in animal tissues were observed after plants were because the tissues were so fragile and susceptible to tearing, it was difficult for such thin slices to be prepared for studying. Biologists believed that there was a fundamental unit to life, but were unsure what this was. It would not be until over a hundred years later that this fundamental unit was connected to cellular structure and existence of cells in animals or plants.[10]  This conclusion was not made until Henri Dutrochet. Besides stating “the cell is the fundamental element of organization”,[11] Dutrochet also claimed that cells were not just a structural unit, but also a physiological unit.

text: In 1804, Karl Rudolphi and J.H.F. Link were awarded the prize for "solving the problem of the nature of cells", meaning they were the first to prove that cells had independent cell walls by the Königliche Societät der Wissenschaft (Royal Society of Science), Göttingen.[12] Before, it had been thought that cells shared walls and the fluid passed between them this way.

text: Cell theory

text: Credit for developing cell theory is usually given to two scientists: Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden.[13] While Rudolf Virchow contributed to the theory, he is not as credited for his attributions toward it. In 1839, Schleiden suggested that every structural part of a plant was made up of cells or the result of cells. He also suggested that cells were made by a crystallization process either within other cells or from the outside.[14] However, this was not an original idea of Schleiden. He claimed this theory as his own, though Barthelemy Dumortier had stated it years before him. This crystallization process is no longer accepted with modern cell theory. In 1839, Theodor Schwann states that along with plants, animals are composed of cells or the product of cells in their structures.[15] This was a major advancement in the field of biology since little was known about animal structure up to this point compared to plants. From these conclusions about plants and animals, two of the three tenets of cell theory were postulated.[10]

text: 1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells

text: 2. The cell is the most basic unit of life

text: Schleiden's theory of free cell formation through crystallization was refuted in the 1850s by Robert Remak, Rudolf Virchow, and Albert Kolliker.[7] In 1855, Rudolf Virchow added the third tenet to cell theory. In Latin, this tenet states Omnis cellula e cellula.[10]  This translated to:

text: 3. All cells arise only from pre-existing cells

text: However, the idea that all cells come from pre-existing cells had in fact already been proposed by Robert Remak; it has been suggested that Virchow plagiarized Remak and did not give him credit.[16] Remak published observations in 1852 on cell division, claiming Schleiden and Schawnn were incorrect about generation schemes. He instead said that binary fission, which was first introduced by Dumortier, was how reproduction of new animal cells were made. Once this tenet was added, the classical cell theory was complete.

text: Modern interpretation

text: The generally accepted parts of modern cell theory include:

text:
All known living things are made up of one or more cells[17]
All living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division.
The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms.[18]
The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells.[citation needed]
Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells.[19]
Cells contain DNA which is found specifically in the chromosome and RNA found in the cell nucleus and cytoplasm.[20]
All cells are basically the same in chemical composition in organisms of similar species.[19]

tag: ol

text: Modern version

text: The modern version of the cell theory includes the ideas that:

text:
Energy flow occurs within cells.[19]
Heredity information (DNA) is passed on from cell to cell.[19]
All cells have the same basic chemical composition.[19]

tag: ul

text: Opposing concepts in cell theory: history and background

text:
The cell was  first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 using a microscope. The first cell theory is credited to the work of Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden in the 1830s. In this theory the internal contents of cells were called protoplasm and described as a jelly-like substance, sometimes called living jelly. At about the same time, colloidal chemistry began its development, and the concepts of bound water emerged. A colloid being something between a solution and a suspension, where Brownian motion is sufficient to prevent sedimentation.
The idea of a semipermeable membrane, a barrier that is permeable to solvent but impermeable to solute molecules was developed at about the same time. The term osmosis originated in 1827 and its importance to physiological phenomena realized, but it wasn’t until 1877, when the botanist Pfeffer proposed the membrane theory of cell physiology. In this view, the cell was seen to be enclosed by a thin surface, the plasma membrane, and cell water and solutes such as a potassium ion existed in a physical state like that of a dilute solution. In 1889 Hamburger used hemolysis of erythrocytes to determine the permeability of various solutes. By measuring the time required for the cells to swell past their elastic limit, the rate at which solutes entered the cells could be estimated by the accompanying change in cell volume. He also found that there was an apparent nonsolvent volume of about 50% in red blood cells and later showed that this includes water of hydration in addition to the protein and other nonsolvent components of the cells.

text: Evolution of the membrane and bulk phase theories

text:
Two opposing concepts developed within the context of studies on osmosis, permeability, and electrical properties of cells.[21] The first held that these properties all belonged to the plasma membrane whereas the other predominant view was that the protoplasm was responsible for these properties.
The membrane theory developed as a succession of ad-hoc additions and changes to the theory to overcome experimental hurdles. Overton (a distant cousin of Charles Darwin) first proposed the concept of a lipid (oil) plasma membrane in 1899. The major weakness of the lipid membrane was the lack of an explanation of the high permeability to water, so Nathansohn (1904) proposed the mosaic theory. In this view, the membrane is not a pure lipid layer, but a mosaic of areas with lipid and areas with semipermeable gel. Ruhland refined the mosaic theory to include pores to allow additional passage of small molecules. Since membranes are generally less permeable to anions, Leonor Michaelis concluded that ions are adsorbed to the walls of the pores, changing the permeability of the pores to ions by electrostatic repulsion. Michaelis demonstrated the membrane potential (1926) and proposed that it was related to the distribution of ions across the membrane.[22] Harvey and Danielli (1939) proposed a lipid bilayer membrane covered on each side with a layer of protein to account for measurements of surface tension. In 1941 Boyle & Conway showed that the membrane of frog muscle was permeable to both K+ and Cl−, but apparently not to Na+, so the idea of electrical charges in the pores was unnecessary since a single critical pore size would explain the permeability to K+, H+, and Cl− as well as the impermeability to Na+, Ca+, and Mg2+.
Over the same time period, it was shown (Procter & Wilson, 1916) that gels, which do not have a semipermeable membrane, would swell in dilute solutions. Loeb (1920) also studied gelatin extensively, with and without a membrane, showing that more of the properties attributed to the plasma membrane could be duplicated in gels without a membrane. In particular, he found that an electrical potential difference between the gelatin and the outside medium could be developed, based on the H+ concentration. Some criticisms of the membrane theory developed in the 1930s, based on observations such as the ability of some cells to swell and increase their surface area by a factor of 1000. A lipid layer cannot stretch to that extent without becoming a patchwork (thereby losing its barrier properties. Such criticisms stimulated continued studies on protoplasm as the principal agent determining cell permeability properties. In 1938, Fischer and Suer proposed that water in the protoplasm is not free but in a chemically combined form—the protoplasm represents a combination of protein, salt and water—and demonstrated the basic similarity between swelling in living tissues and the swelling of gelatin and fibrin gels. Dimitri Nasonov (1944) viewed proteins as the central components responsible for many properties of the cell, including electrical properties.
By the 1940s, the bulk phase theories were not as well developed as the membrane theories. In 1941, Brooks & Brooks published a monograph, "The Permeability of Living Cells", which rejects the bulk phase theories.

text: Emergence of the steady-state membrane pump concept

text:
With the development of radioactive tracers, it was shown that cells are not impermeable to Na+. This was difficult to explain with the membrane barrier theory, so the sodium pump was proposed to continually remove Na+ as it permeates cells. This drove the concept that cells are in a state of dynamic equilibrium, constantly using energy to maintain ion gradients. In 1935, Karl Lohmann discovered ATP and its role as a source of energy for cells, so the concept of a metabolically-driven sodium pump was proposed.
The tremendous success of Hodgkin, Huxley, and Katz in the development of the membrane theory of cellular membrane potentials, with differential equations that modeled the phenomena correctly, provided even more support for the membrane pump hypothesis.

text:
The modern view of the plasma membrane is of a fluid lipid bilayer that has protein components embedded within it. The structure of the membrane is now known in great detail, including 3D models of many of the hundreds of different proteins that are bound to the membrane.
These major developments in cell physiology placed the membrane theory in a position of dominance and stimulated the imagination of most physiologists, who now apparently accept the theory as fact—there are, however, a few dissenters.[citation needed]

text: The reemergence of the bulk phase theories

text: In 1956, Afanasy S. Troshin published a book, The Problems of Cell Permeability, in Russian (1958 in German, 1961 in Chinese, 1966 in English) in which he found that permeability was of secondary importance in determination of the patterns of equilibrium between the cell and its environment. Troshin showed that cell water decreased in solutions of galactose or urea although these compounds did slowly permeate cells. Since the membrane theory requires an impermanent solute to sustain cell shrinkage, these experiments cast doubt on the theory. Others questioned whether the cell has enough energy to sustain the sodium/potassium pump. Such questions became even more urgent as dozens of new metabolic pumps were added as new chemical gradients were discovered.

text: In 1962, Gilbert Ling became the champion of the bulk phase theories and proposed his association-induction hypothesis of living cells.

text: Types of cells

text: Cells can be subdivided into the following subcategories:

text:
Prokaryotes: Prokaryotes are relatively small cells surrounded by the plasma membrane, with a characteristic cell wall that may differ in composition depending on the particular organism.[23] Prokaryotes lack a nucleus (although they do have circular or linear DNA) and other membrane-bound organelles (though they do contain ribosomes). The protoplasm of a prokaryote contains the chromosomal region that appears as fibrous deposits under the microscope, and the cytoplasm.[23] Bacteria and Archaea are the  two domains of prokaryotes.
Eukaryotes: Eukaryotic cells are also surrounded by the plasma membrane, but  on the other hand, they  have distinct nuclei bound by a nuclear membrane or envelope. Eukaryotic cells also contain membrane-bound organelles, such as  (mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles).[24] In addition, they possess organized chromosomes which store genetic material.[citation needed]

text:
Animals have evolved a greater diversity of cell types in a multicellular body (100–150 different cell types), compared
with 10–20 in plants, fungi, and protoctista.[25]


document_title: Petrichor

question_text: what is the name of the smell after it rains

text: Petrichor

text: Petrichor (/ˈpɛtrɪkɔər/) is the earthy scent produced when rain falls on dry soil. The word is constructed from Greek πέτρα petra, meaning "stone", and ἰχώρ īchōr, the fluid that flows in the veins of the gods in Greek mythology.

text: The term was coined in 1964 by two Australian CSIRO researchers, Isabel Joy Bear and Richard G. Thomas, for an article in the journal Nature.[1][2] In the article, the authors describe how the smell derives from an oil exuded by certain plants during dry periods, whereupon it is absorbed by clay-based soils and rocks. During rain, the oil is released into the air along with another compound, geosmin, a metabolic by-product of certain actinobacteria, which is emitted by wet soil, producing the distinctive scent; ozone may also be present if there is lightning.[3] In a follow-up paper, Bear and Thomas (1965) showed that the oil retards seed germination and early plant growth.[4]

text: In 2015, MIT scientists used high-speed cameras to record how the scent moves into the air.[5] The tests involved approximately 600 experiments on 28 different surfaces, including engineered materials and soil samples.[6] When a raindrop lands on a porous surface, air from the pores forms small bubbles, which float to the surface and release aerosols.[5] Such aerosols carry the scent, as well as bacteria and viruses from the soil.[5] Raindrops that move at a slower rate tend to produce more aerosols; this serves as an explanation for why the petrichor is more common after light rains.[5]

text: Some scientists believe that humans appreciate the rain scent because ancestors may have relied on rainy weather for survival.[7]


document_title: Strike zone

question_text: who calls the pitches in major league baseball

text: Strike zone

text: Definition[edit]

text: There is more than one set of rules that govern baseball and softball. It depends on the level and league as to which set of rules are being used. The governing bodies for the different sets of rules may have slightly different definitions.

text: The top of the strike zone is defined in the Major League Official Rules as a horizontal line at the midpoint between the top of the batter's shoulders and the top of the uniform pants. The bottom of the strike zone is a line at the hollow beneath the kneecap, both determined from the batter's stance as the batter is prepared to swing at the pitched ball. The right and left boundaries of the strike zone correspond to the edges of home plate. A pitch that touches the outer boundary of the zone is as much a strike as a pitch that is thrown right down the center. A pitch at which the batter does not swing and which does not pass through the strike zone is called a ball (short for "no ball"). The active tally of strikes and balls during a player's turn batting is called the count.

text: In practice, the strike zone is treated as a volume of space delimited by vertical planes extending up from the pentagonal boundaries of the home plate and limited at the top and bottom by upper and lower horizontal planes passing through the horizontal lines of the definition above. This volume thus takes the form of a vertical right pentagonal prism located above home plate. A pitch passing outside the front of the defined volume of the strike zone but curving so as to enter this volume farther back (without being hit) is described as a "back-door strike".

text: Major League Baseball has occasionally increased or reduced the size of the strike zone in an attempt to control the balance of power between pitchers and hitters.[1] After the record home run year by Roger Maris in 1961, the major leagues increased the size of the strike zone from the top of the batter's shoulders to the bottom of his knees.[2] In 1968, pitchers such as Denny McLain and Bob Gibson among others dominated hitters, producing 339 shutouts.[1] Carl Yastrzemski would be the only American League hitter to finish the season with a batting average higher than .300.[1] In the National League, Gibson posted a 1.12 earned run average, the lowest in 54 years, while Los Angeles Dodgers pitcher Don Drysdale threw a record 58 and two-thirds consecutive scoreless innings during the 1968 season.[1] As a result of the dropping offensive statistics, Major League Baseball took steps to reduce the advantage held by pitchers by lowering the height of the pitcher's mound from 15 inches to 10 inches, and by reducing the size of the strike zone for the 1969 season.[3]

text: Although the de facto enforced strike zone can vary, the official rules (Rule 2.00, A STRIKE (b)) define a pitch as a strike "if any part of the ball passes through any part of the strike zone."

text: A batter who accumulates three strikes in a single batting appearance has struck out and is ruled out (with the exception of an uncaught third strike); a batter who accumulates four balls in a single appearance has drawn a base on balls (or walk) and is awarded advancement to first base. In very early iterations of the rules during the 19th century, it took up to 9 balls for a batter to earn a walk; however, to make up for this, the batter could request the ball to be pitched high, low, or medium.[citation needed]

text: Enforcement[edit]

text: While baseball rules provide a precise definition for the strike zone, in practice, it is up to the judgement of the umpire to decide whether the pitch passed through the zone.

text: Rule 9.02 of the Official Baseball Rules states that objections to judgment calls on the field, including balls and strikes, shall not be tolerated, and that any manager, coach, or player who leaves his dugout or field position to contest a judgement call will first be warned, and then ejected.[4]

text: Many umpires, players and analysts, including the authors of a University of Nebraska study on the subject,[5] believe that due to the QuesTec pitch-tracking system, the enforced strike zone in 2002–2006 was larger compared to the zone in 1996–2000 and thus closer to the rulebook definition. Some commentators, such as Tim Roberts of covers.com, believe that the zone has changed so much that some pitchers, such as Tom Glavine, have had to radically adjust their approach to pitching for strikes.[6] In 2003, a frustrated Curt Schilling took a baseball bat to a QuesTec camera and destroyed it after a loss, saying the umpires shouldn't be changing the strike zone to match the machines.[7]

text: In 2009, a new system called Zone Evaluation was implemented in all 30 Major League ballparks, replacing the QuesTec system; the new system records the ball's position in flight more than 20 times before it reaches home plate.[8] Much of the early resistance from Major League umpires to QuesTec had diminished and the implementation of the new Zone Evaluation system in all the parks went largely unnoticed. Like the old system, the new system will be used to grade umpires on accuracy and used to determine which umpires receive postseason assignments.[9]


document_title: Jnanpith Award

question_text: who has been selected for the prestigious 2016 jnanpith award

text: Jnanpith Award

text: Background[edit]

text: The Bharatiya Jnanpith, a research and cultural institute founded in 1944 by industrialist Sahu Shanti Prasad Jain of the Sahu Jain family, conceived an idea in May 1961 to start a scheme "commanding national prestige and of international standard" to "select the best book out of the publications in Indian languages".[3][7] Later in November, Rama Jain, the Founder President of the Bharatiya Jnanpith, invited a few literary experts to discuss various aspects of the scheme. Jain along with Kaka Kalelkar, Harivansh Rai Bachchan, Ramdhari Singh Dinkar, Jainendra Kumar, Jagdish Chandra Mathur, Prabhakar Machwe, Akshaya Kumar Jain, and Lakshmi Chandra Jain presented the initial draft to the then President of India Rajendra Prasad who had shown interest in the scheme's implementation. The idea was also discussed at the 1962 annual sessions of the All India Gujarati Sahitya Parishad and the Bharatiya Bhasha Parishad.[3]

text: On 2 April 1962, around 300 writers of various Indian languages were invited to Delhi for the two sessions conducted by Dharamvir Bharati in which the draft was finalised and later presented to Prasad. The first award selection committee meeting was scheduled on 16 March 1963 and Prasad was appointed as its president.[3] However, Prasad died on 28 February 1963 and thus the scheduled meeting was chaired by Kalelkar and Sampurnanand acted as president of the committee.[3][9]

text: The first Selection Board consisted of Kalelkar, Niharranjan Ray, Karan Singh, R. R. Diwakar, V. Raghavan, B. Gopal Reddy, Harekrushna Mahatab, Rama Jain, and Lakshmi Chandra Jain and was headed by Sampurnanand. Works that were published between 1921 and 1951 were considered for the first award. The nine language committees that were formed were to submit to the board nominations along with translations of the work into Hindi or English. The final round had four authors; Kazi Nazrul Islam (Bengali), D. V. Gundappa (Kannada), Viswanatha Satyanarayana (Telugu), and G. Sankara Kurup (Malayalam). On 19 November 1966, Kurup was presented with the citation, statue of Saraswati, and a cheque for prize of ₹1 lakh (US$1,600) at a ceremony held at Vigyan Bhavan, Delhi.[c] In his acceptance speech, Kurup appreciated the concept of the new award and thanked it for bringing "integration of the diverse people of this land on a spiritual plane".[10]

text: Rules and selection process[edit]

text: The nominations for the award are received from various literary experts, teachers, critics, universities, and numerous literary and language associations. Every three years, an advisory committee is constituted for each of the languages.[3] The language of the most recent recipient's work is not eligible for consideration for the next two years.[2] Each committee consists of three literary critics and scholars of their respective languages. All the nominations are scrutinised by the committee and their recommendations are submitted to the Jnanpith Award Selection Board (Pravara Parishad).[2][3]

text: The Selection Board consists of between seven and eleven members of "high repute and integrity". Each member is part of the committee for a term of three years which can also be extended further for two more terms.[3] The recommendations of all language advisory committees are evaluated by the board based on complete or partial translations of the selected writings of the proposed writers into Hindi or English. The recipient for a particular year is announced by the Selection Board, which has final authority in selection.[2]

text: List of recipients[edit]

text:
Key

†
Indicates a joint award for the given year

tag: table

text:
List of award recipients, showing the year, and language(s)[11]

Year
Recipient(s)
Language(s)
Refs./Notes

1965
(1st)
Kurup, G. SankaraG. Sankara Kurup
Malayalam !Malayalam
[d][12]

1966
(2nd)
Bandyopadhyay, TarasankarTarasankar Bandyopadhyay
Bengali !Bengali
[e][12]

1967
(3rd) †
Joshi, UmashankarUmashankar Joshi
Gujarati !Gujarati
[f][12]

1967
(3rd) †
Puttappa 'Kuvempu', Kuppali VenkatappaKuppali Venkatappa Puttappa 'Kuvempu'
Kannada !Kannada
[g][12]

1968
(4th)
Pant, SumitranandanSumitranandan Pant
Hindi !Hindi
[h][12]

1969
(5th)
Gorakhpuri, FiraqFiraq Gorakhpuri
Urdu !Urdu
[i][12]

1970
(6th)
Satyanarayana, ViswanathaViswanatha Satyanarayana
Telugu !Telugu
[j][12]

1971
(7th)
Dey, BishnuBishnu Dey
Bengali !Bengali
[k][12]

1972
(8th)
Singh 'Dinkar', RamdhariRamdhari Singh 'Dinkar'
Hindi !Hindi
[l][12]

1973
(9th) †
Bendre, D. R.D. R. Bendre
Kannada !Kannada
[m][12]

1973
(9th) †
Mohanty, GopinathGopinath Mohanty
Odia !Odia
[n][12]

1974
(10th)
Khandekar, Vishnu SakharamVishnu Sakharam Khandekar
Marathi !Marathi
[o][12]

1975
(11th)
, AkilanAkilan
Tamil !Tamil
[p][12]

1976
(12th)
Devi, AshapoornaAshapoorna Devi
Bengali !Bengali
[q][12]

1977
(13rd)
Karanth, K. ShivaramK. Shivaram Karanth
Kannada !Kannada
[r][12]

1978
(14th)
Vatsyayan, SachchidanandaSachchidananda Vatsyayan
Hindi !Hindi
[s][12]

1979
(15th)
Bhattacharya, Birendra KumarBirendra Kumar Bhattacharya
Assamese !Assamese
[t][12]

1980
(16th)
Pottekkatt, S. K.S. K. Pottekkatt
Malayalam !Malayalam
[u][12]

1981
(17th)
Pritam, AmritaAmrita Pritam
Punjabi !Punjabi
[v][12]

1982
(18th)
Varma, MahadeviMahadevi Varma
Hindi !Hindi
[13]

1983
(19th)
Iyengar, Masti VenkateshaMasti Venkatesha Iyengar
Kannada !Kannada
[14]

1984
(20th)
Pillai, Thakazhi SivasankaraThakazhi Sivasankara Pillai
Malayalam !Malayalam
[15]

1985
(21st)
Patel, PannalalPannalal Patel
Gujarati !Gujarati
[16]

1986
(22nd)
Routray, SachidanandaSachidananda Routray
Odia !Odia
[17]

1987
(23rd)
Shirwadkar 'Kusumagraj', Vishnu VamanVishnu Vaman Shirwadkar 'Kusumagraj'
Marathi !Marathi
[18]

1988
(24th)
Reddy, C. NarayanaC. Narayana Reddy
Telugu !Telugu
[19]

1989
(25th)
Hyder, QurratulainQurratulain Hyder
Urdu !Urdu
[20]

1990
(26th)
Gokak, Vinayaka KrishnaVinayaka Krishna Gokak
Kannada !Kannada
[21]

1991
(27th)
Mukhopadhyay, SubhashSubhash Mukhopadhyay
Bengali !Bengali
[22]

1992
(28th)
Mehta, NareshNaresh Mehta
Hindi !Hindi
[23]

1993
(29th)
Mahapatra, SitakantSitakant Mahapatra
Odia !Odia
[24]

1994
(30th)
Ananthamurthy, U. R.U. R. Ananthamurthy
Kannada !Kannada
[25]

1995
(31st)
Nair, M. T. VasudevanM. T. Vasudevan Nair
Malayalam !Malayalam
[26]

1996
(32nd)
Devi, MahaswetaMahasweta Devi
Bengali !Bengali
[27]

1997
(33rd)
Jafri, Ali SardarAli Sardar Jafri
Urdu !Urdu
[28]

1998
(34th)
Karnad, GirishGirish Karnad
Kannada !Kannada
[29]

1999
(35th) †
Verma, NirmalNirmal Verma
Hindi !Hindi
[30]

1999
(35th) †
Singh, GurdialGurdial Singh
Punjabi !Punjabi
[30]

2000
(36th)
Goswami, Mamoni RaisomMamoni Raisom Goswami
Assamese !Assamese
[31]

2001
(37th)
Shah, RajendraRajendra Shah
Gujarati !Gujarati
[32]

2002
(38th)
Jayakanthan, Jayakanthan
Tamil !Tamil
[33]

2003
(39th)
Karandikar, VindaVinda Karandikar
Marathi !Marathi
[34]

2004
(40th)
Rahi, RehmanRehman Rahi
Kashmiri !Kashmiri
[35]

2005
(41st)
Narayan, KunwarKunwar Narayan
Hindi !Hindi
[36]

2006
(42nd) †
Kelekar, RavindraRavindra Kelekar
Konkani !Konkani
[36]

2006
(42nd) †
Shastri, Satya VratSatya Vrat Shastri
Sanskrit !Sanskrit
[36]

2007
(43rd)
Kurup, O. N. V.O. N. V. Kurup
Malayalam !Malayalam
[37]

2008
(44th)
Khan 'Shahryar', Akhlaq MohammedAkhlaq Mohammed Khan 'Shahryar'
Urdu !Urdu
[38]

2009
(45th) †
Amarkant, Amarkant
Hindi !Hindi
[39]

2009
(45th) †
Sukla, Sri LalSri Lal Sukla
Hindi !Hindi
[39]

2010
(46th)
Kambara, ChandrashekharaChandrashekhara Kambara
Kannada !Kannada
[40]

2011
(47th)
Ray, PratibhaPratibha Ray
Odia !Odia
[41]

2012
(48th)
Bharadhwaja, RavuriRavuri Bharadhwaja
Telugu !Telugu
[42]

2013
(49th)
Singh, KedarnathKedarnath Singh
Hindi !Hindi
[43]

2014
(50th)
Nemade, BhalchandraBhalchandra Nemade
Marathi !Marathi
[44]

2015
(51st)
Chaudhari, RaghuveerRaghuveer Chaudhari
Gujarati !Gujarati
[45]

2016
(52nd)
Ghosh, ShankhaShankha Ghosh
Bengali !Bengali
[46]

2017
(53rd)
Sobti, Krishna Krishna Sobti
Hindi !Hindi
[47]

text: Explanatory notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ The Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India consists of twenty-two languages viz. Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, Dogri, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Odia, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Santhali, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, and Urdu.[1]
Jump up ^ The trilogy consists of Pratham Pratisruti, Subarnalata, and Bakul Katha.
Jump up ^ The Malayalam language committee headed by N. V. Krishna Warrier submitted an undisputed nomination of Kurup's work Odakkuzhal although the Kerala Sahitya Akademi opined that no work in Malayalam language was worthy of the inaugural prize.[10]
Jump up ^ Awarded for Odakkuzhal.
Jump up ^ Awarded for Ganadevta.
Jump up ^ Awarded for Nishitha.
Jump up ^ Awarded for Sri Ramayana Darshanam.
Jump up ^ Awarded for Chidambara.
Jump up ^ Awarded for Gul-e-Naghma.
Jump up ^ Awarded for Ramayana Kalpavrukshamu.
Jump up ^ Awarded for Smriti Satta Bhavishyat.
Jump up ^ Awarded for Urvashi.
Jump up ^ Awarded for Nakutanti.
Jump up ^ Awarded for Matimatal.
Jump up ^ Awarded for Yayati.
Jump up ^ Awarded for Chitttrappavai.
Jump up ^ Awarded for Pratham Pratisruti.
Jump up ^ Awarded for Mookajjiya Kanasugalu.
Jump up ^ Awarded for Kitni Navon Men Kitni Bar.
Jump up ^ Awarded for Mrityunjay.
Jump up ^ Awarded for Oru Desathinte Katha.
Jump up ^ Awarded for Kagaj te Canvas.


document_title: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

question_text: where was the st louis world fair held

question_tokens: where was the st louis world fair held

text: Louisiana Purchase Exposition

text: Background[edit]

text: In 1904, St. Louis hosted a World's Fair to celebrate the centennial of the 1803 Louisiana Purchase. The idea for such a commemorative event seems to have emerged early in 1898, with Kansas City and St. Louis initially presented as potential hosts for a fair based on their central location within the territory encompassed by the 1803 land annexation.[4]

text: The exhibition was grand in scale and lengthy in preparation, with an initial $5 million committed by the city of St. Louis through the sale of city bonds was authorized by the Missouri state legislature in April 1899.[5] An additional $5 million was generated through private donations by interested citizens and businesses from around Missouri, a fundraising target reached in January 1901.[6] The final installment of $5 million of the exposition's $15 million capitalization came in the form of earmarked funds that were part of a congressional appropriations bill passed at the end of May 1900.[7] The fundraising mission was aided by the active support of President of the United States William McKinley, which was won by organizers in a February 1899 White House visit.[8]

text: While initially conceived as a centennial celebration to be held in 1903, the actual opening of the St. Louis exposition was delayed until April 30, 1904, to allow for full-scale participation by more states and foreign countries. The exposition remained in operation from its opening until December 1, 1904. During the year of the fair, the Louisiana Purchase Exposition supplanted the annual St. Louis Exposition of agricultural, trade, and scientific exhibitions which had been held in the city since the 1880s.

text: The fair's 1,200-acre (4.9 km2) site, designed by George Kessler,[9] was located at the present-day grounds of Forest Park and on the campus of Washington University, and was the largest fair (in area) to date. There were over 1,500 buildings, connected by some 75 miles (121 km) of roads and walkways. It was said to be impossible to give even a hurried glance at everything in less than a week. The Palace of Agriculture alone covered some 20 acres (81,000 m2).

text: Exhibits were staged by approximately 50 foreign nations, the United States government, and 43 of the then-45 U.S. states. These featured industries, cities, private organizations and corporations, theater troupes, and music schools. There were also over 50 concession-type amusements found on "The Pike"; they provided educational and scientific displays, exhibits and imaginary 'travel' to distant lands, history and local boosterism (including Louis Wollbrinck's "Old St. Louis") and pure entertainment.

text: Over 19 million (19,694,855, to be precise[10]) individuals were in attendance at the fair.

text: Postage stamps[edit]

text: In conjunction with the Exposition the U.S. Post Office issued a series of five commemorative stamps celebrating the 100th anniversary of the Louisiana Purchase. The 1-cent value portrayed Robert Livingston, the ambassador who negotiated the purchase with France, the 2-cent value depicts Thomas Jefferson, who executed the purchase, the 3-cent honors James Monroe, who participated in negotiations with the French, the 5-cent memorializes William McKinley, who was involved with early plans for the Exposition and the 10-cent presents a map of the Louisiana Purchase.

text:
Louisiana Purchase Commemoratives

Robert Livingston

Thomas Jefferson

James Monroe

William McKinley

Map of Louisiana

text: Architects[edit]

text: Kessler, who designed many urban parks in Texas and the Midwest, created the master design for the Fair.

text: A popular myth says that Frederick Law Olmsted, who had died the year before the Fair, designed the park and fair grounds. There are several reasons for this confusion. First, Kessler in his twenties had worked briefly for Olmsted as a Central Park gardener. Second, Olmsted was involved with Forest Park in Queens, New York. Third, Olmsted had planned the renovations in 1897 to the Missouri Botanical Garden several blocks to the southeast of the park.[11] Finally, Olmsted's sons advised Washington University on integrating the campus with the park across the street.

text: In 1901 the Louisiana Purchase Exposition Corporation selected prominent St. Louis architect Isaac S. Taylor as the Chairman of the Architectural Commission and Director of Works for the fair, supervising the overall design and construction. Taylor quickly appointed Emmanuel Louis Masqueray to be his Chief of Design. In the position for three years, Masqueray designed the following Fair buildings: Palace of Agriculture, the Cascades and Colonnades, Palace of Forestry, Fish, and Game, Palace of Horticulture and Palace of Transportation, all of which were widely emulated in civic projects across the United States as part of the City Beautiful movement. Masqueray resigned shortly after the Fair opened in 1904, having been invited by Archbishop John Ireland of St. Paul, Minnesota to design a new cathedral for the city.[4]

text: Paul J. Pelz was architect for the Palace of Machinery.[12]

text: According to a claim in a 1923 edition of The Colored Citizen of Pensacola, Florida, the majority of work in building the fair was done by African Americans, including all the engineering calculations for the layout of the park. Many African Americans contributed to architecture design, but were not credited.[13]

text: Board of Commissioners[edit]

text: Florence Hayward, a successful freelance writer in St. Louis in the 1900s was determined to play a role in the World's Fair. She negotiated a position on the otherwise all-male Board of Commissioners. Hayward learned that one of the potential contractors for the fair was not reputable and warned the Louisiana Purchase Exposition Company (LPEC). In exchange for this information, she requested an appointment as roving commissioner to Europe.

text: Former Mayor of St. Louis and Governor of Missouri David R. Francis, LPEC president, made the appointment and allowed Hayward to travel overseas to promote the fair, especially to women. The fair also had a Board of Lady Managers (BLM) who felt they had jurisdiction over women's activities at the fair and objected to Hayward's appointment without their knowledge. Despite this, Hayward set out for England in 1902. Hayward's most notable contribution to the fair was acquiring gifts Queen Victoria received for her Golden Jubilee and other historical items, including manuscripts from the Vatican. These items were all to be shown in exhibits at the fair.

text: Pleased with her success in Europe, Francis put her in charge of historical exhibits in the anthropology division, which had originally been assigned to Pierre Chouteau III. Despite being the only woman on the Board of Commissioners, creating successful anthropological exhibits, publicizing the fair, and acquiring significant exhibit items, Hayward's role in the fair was not acknowledged. When Francis published a history of the fair in 1913, he did not mention Hayward's contributions and she never forgave the slight.[14]

text: Scientific Contributions[edit]

text: Expositions are the timekeepers of progress. They record the world's advancement. They stimulate the energy, enterprise, and intellect of the people; and quicken human genius. They go into the home. They broaden and brighten the daily life of the people. They open mighty storehouses of information to the student. -President William McKinley at the 1901 World's Fair

text: The World Fairs are known for bringing new technology, innovation, and scientific discoveries to the average person. At the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition, many of the inventions displayed were precursors to items which have become an integral part of today's culture. Novel applications of electricity and light waves for communication and medical use were displayed in the Palace of Electricity.[15] According to an article he wrote for Harper's Weekly, W.E. Goldsborough, the Chief of the Department of Electricity for the Fair, wished to educate the public and dispel the misconceptions about electricity which many common people believed.[16] New and updated methods of transportation also showcased at the World's Fair in the Palace of Transportation would come to revolutionize transportation for the modern day.[15][17]

text: Communication Contributions[edit]

text: Wireless Telephone – The "wireless telephony" unit or "radiophone" installed at the St. Louis World Fair was a thing of wonder to the crowds.[15][16] Music or spoken messages were transmitted from an apparatus within the Palace of Electricity to a telephone receiver out in the courtyard. The receiver, which was attached to nothing, when placed to the ear allowed a visitor to hear the transmission. This radiophone, invented by Alexander Graham Bell, consisted of a transmitter which transformed sound waves into light waves and a receiver which converted the light waves back into sound waves.[18] This technology has since developed into the radio and early mobile phones.[19]

text: Early Fax Machine – The telautograph, the precursor to the modern day fax machine, was invented in 1888 by the American scientist, Elisha Gray who at one point in time contested Alexander Graham Bell's invention of the telephone.[20] The telautograph was a device which could send electrical impulses to the receiving pen of the device, in order to be able to recreate drawings to a piece of paper while a person simultaneously wrote them longhand on the other end of the device. In 1900 Gray's assistant, Foster Ritchie, improved upon the original design and it was this device which was displayed at the 1904 World's Fair and marketed for the next thirty years.[21]

text: Medical Contributions[edit]

text: Finsen Light – The Finsen light, a phototherapy unit invented by Niels Ryberg Finsen, utilized ultraviolet light to treat a form of lupus caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Finsen was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine and Physiology in 1903 for his contributions and his invention pioneered the way which led to many other forms of radiation therapy in the treatment of disease.[22]

text: X-Ray Machine – The X-ray machine was an invention which had its public debut at the 1904 World's Fair. X-rays were first discovered in November 1895 by a German scientist, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, who at the time was studying the phenomena accompanying the passage of an electric current through a gas of extremely low pressure.[23] After Rontgen's discovery, he took an x-ray of his wife's hand, showing the bones and her fingers along with her wedding ring, and sent it to several of his scientist colleagues. One of the scientists that learned of the discovery was Thomas Edison and he soon began to experiment with his own x-ray machine with his assistant Clarence Dally. In 1901, Dally brought a test version of the x-ray machine to the 1901 World's Fair, but failed to test the machine when President McKinley was assassinated.[24] For the 1904 World's Fair, the x-ray machine was perfected and successfully shown to the public. X-rays are now commonplace in hospitals and airports.[25]

text: Infant Incubator – Although infant incubators were invented in the year 1888 by Drs. Alan M. Thomas and William Champion, these devices were not immediately widely used. To increase awareness of the benefits these units provided, infant incubators containing premature babies were displayed at the 1897, 1898, 1901, and 1904 World Fairs.[26] This piece of medical equipment helped neonates with compromised immune systems by providing a sanitary environment to reduce the likelihood of acquiring an infection. Each incubator was an air-tight glass box with a metal frame. Hot air was pumped into the container to keep a constant temperature. Newspapers advertised the incubators with "lives are being preserved by this wonderful method."[27] During the World Fair in 1904, E. M. Bayliss brought these devices for exhibition on The Pike where approximately ten nurses cared for twenty-four neo-natal babies while in the infant incubators.[25][27] The exhibit required an entrance fee of twenty-five cents and visitors could also purchase souvenirs and refreshments from the adjoining shop and café. These proceeds, totaling $181,632, helped to fund Bayliss's project.[25] There were some setbacks with the infant incubator display as the sanitary conditions were not always consistent and some babies died of illness. The incubator area was then modified by installing glass walls to separate the babies from visitors, thus decreasing the exposure of the infants.[28] The science and technology behind the incubators has since been expanded upon. Now known as "isolettes," these units are a vital component to caring for neonates in modern neonatal intensive care units.

text: Transportation Contributions[edit]

text: Electric Streetcar – Although street railways had been in use in North America since the early 1800s, electric street railcars were still novel at the time of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. Outside of the Palace of Electricity, an exhibit including a working electric street car and 1400 feet of track demonstrated the speed, acceleration, and braking capacities of this new-powered model.[15] Electric railways for inner-city transport are still used in many cities today.[17]

text: Personal automobile – One of the most popular attractions of the Exposition was contained in the Palace of Transportation: automobiles and motor cars.[15] The automobile display contained 140 models including ones powered by gasoline, steam, and electricity.[17] The private automobile first made its public debut at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition.[25] Four years after the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, the Ford Motor Company began producing the Ford Model T making the personal automobile more affordable. Since that time, the automobile has increased in popularity, advanced in technology, and expanded the mobility of humanity.

text: Airplane – The 1904 World's Fair hosted the first ever "Airship Contest" as aerial navigation was still in its infancy at this time. The Exposition offered a grand prize of $100,000 to the airship or other flying machine with the best time through a course marked out by stationary air balloons while travelling at least 15 miles per hour.[17] Although none were able to earn the grand prize, the contest did witness the first public dirigible flight in America as well as numerous other flights made by various airships. This was the first major event in a history of aviation in St. Louis leading to the city's nickname, Flight City.[29] The science of aerial navigation continued to develop and has been mastered since the 1904 Exposition. Air travel has become a vital component in today's global society.[30][31]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: As many people were curious about this up and coming city, many reporters and photographers attended the World Fair to document and understand the city. What they found was nothing like anyone else could have imagined. Still as a relatively new city, the streets were buzzing with activity, with many of its citizens constantly on the "go" and the streets "crowded with activity". One observer remarked that, at this time, St. Louis had more energy in its streets than any other Northern Street did.[32]

text: Buildings[edit]

text: With more and more people interested in the city, St. Louis government and architects were primarily concerned with their ports and access to the city. Though transportation by water had always been important to the city (St. Louis had originated as a trading post), it was becoming even more important that the port be open, but efficient for all visitors. It also needed to show off some of the city's flair and excitement, which is why in many photographs one sees photos of St. Louis' skyscrapers in the background. In addition to a functioning port, the Eads bridge was constructed, which was considered one of St. Louis' "sights". 1627 feet long, it connected Missouri and Illinois.[32]

text: As with the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893, all but one of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition's grand, neo-Classical exhibition palaces were temporary structures, designed to last but a year or two. They were built with a material called "staff," a mixture of plaster of Paris and hemp fibers, on a wood frame. As at the Chicago world's fair, buildings and statues deteriorated during the months of the Fair, and had to be patched.

text: The Palace of Fine Art, designed by architect Cass Gilbert, featured a grand interior sculpture court based on the Roman Baths of Caracalla. Standing at the top of Art Hill, it now serves as the home of the St. Louis Art Museum.

text: The Administration Building, designed by Cope & Stewardson, is now Brookings Hall, the defining landmark on the campus of Washington University. A similar building was erected at Northwest Missouri State University founded in 1905 in Maryville, Missouri. The grounds' layout was also recreated in Maryville and now is designated as the official Missouri State Arboretum.

text: Some mansions from the Exposition's era survive along Lindell Boulevard at the north border of Forest Park.

text: The huge bird cage at the Saint Louis Zoological Park, dates to the fair. A Jain temple carved out of teak stood within the Indian Pavilion near the Ferris Wheel. It was dismantled after the exhibition and was reconstructed in Las Vegas at the Castaways hotel. It has recently been reassembled and is now on display at the Jain Center of Southern California at Los Angeles. Birmingham, Alabama's iconic cast iron Vulcan statue was first exhibited at the Fair in the Palace of Mines and Metallurgy.

text: The Missouri State building was the largest of the state buildings, as Missouri was the host state. Though it had sections with marble floors and heating and air conditioning, it was planned to be a temporary structure. However, it burned the night of November 18–19, just eleven days before the Fair was to end. Most of the interior was destroyed, but some contents were rescued without damage, including some furniture and much of the contents of the fair's Model Library. Since the fair was almost over, the building was not rebuilt. After the fair, the current World's Fair Pavilion in Forest Park was built on the site of the Missouri building with profits from the fair in 1909–10.

text: Festival Hall, designed by Cass Gilbert and used for large-scale musical pageants, contained the largest organ in the world at the time, built by the Los Angeles Art Organ Company. After the fair, it was placed into storage, and eventually purchased by John Wanamaker for his new Wanamaker's store in Philadelphia where it became known as the Wanamaker Organ. The famous Bronze Eagle in the Wanamaker Store also came from the Fair. It features hundreds of hand-forged bronze feathers and was the centerpiece of one of the many German exhibits at the fair. Wanamaker's became a Lord & Taylor store and more recently, a Macy's store.

text: Completed in 1913, the Jefferson Memorial building was built near the main entrance to the Exposition, at Lindell and DeBalivere. It was built with proceeds from the fair, to commemorate Thomas Jefferson, who initiated the Louisiana Purchase, as was the first memorial to the third President. It became the headquarters of the Missouri History Museum, and stored the Exposition's records and archives when the Louisiana Purchase Exposition company completed its mission. The building is now home to the Missouri History Museum, and the museum was significantly expanded in 2002–3.

text: The State of Maine Building, which was a rustic cabin, was transported to Point Lookout, Missouri where it overlooked the White River by sportsmen who formed the Maine Hunting and Fishing Club. In 1915, when the main building at the College of the Ozarks in Forsyth, Missouri burned, the school relocated to Point Lookout, where the Maine building was renamed the Dobyns Building in honor of a school president. The Dobyns Building burned in 1930 and the college's signature church was built in its place. In 2004, a replica of the Maine building was built on the campus. The Keeter Center is named for another school president.[34][35]

text: The observation tower erected by the American DeForest Wireless Telegraph Company was purchased by Charles N. Rix, a banker from Hot Springs, Arkansas, who moved it to the summit of Hot Springs Mountain. Renamed the Rix Tower, it reopened to the public on its new location in 1906. Dismantling and reassembling the tower, however, proved to be its worst enemy (it had previously been moved once before, to St. Louis from Buffalo, New York); it was eventually demolished in 1975 due to instability almost certainly caused by being relocated twice. A more modern tower would later be built on the site in 1983.[citation needed]

text: Westinghouse Electric sponsored the Westinghouse Auditorium, where they showed films of Westinghouse factories and products.[36]

text: Introduction of new foods[edit]

text: A number of foods are claimed to have been invented at the fair. The most popular claim is that the waffle-style ice cream cone was invented and first sold during the fair. However, it is widely believed that it was not invented at the Fair, but instead, it was popularized at the Fair.[37][38] Other claims are more dubious, including the hamburger and hot dog (both traditional American foods), peanut butter, iced tea,[39] and cotton candy. It is more likely, however, that these food items were first introduced to mass audiences and popularized by the fair. Dr Pepper and Puffed Wheat cereal were first introduced to a national audience at the fair. Daughter of slaves, Annie Fisher, brought her beaten biscuits, which were already famous in her hometown of Columbia, Missouri. The exposition awarded Fisher's biscuits a gold medal.[40] They would later be enjoyed by President William Howard Taft on his 1911 visit to Missouri.

text: Influence on popular music[edit]

text: The fair inspired the song "Meet Me in St. Louis, Louis", which was recorded by many artists, including Billy Murray. Both the fair and the song are focal points of the 1944 feature film Meet Me in St. Louis starring Judy Garland, which also inspired a Broadway musical version. Scott Joplin wrote the rag "Cascades" in honor of the elaborate waterfalls in front of Festival Hall.

text: People on display[edit]

text: Following the Spanish–American War, the United States acquired new territories such as Guam, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico. Some natives from these areas were brought to be on "display" at the fair. Such displays included the Apache of the American Southwest and the Igorot of the Philippines, both of which peoples were dubbed as "primitive".[41] Similarly, members of the Southeast Alaskan Tlingit tribe accompanied fourteen totem poles, two Native houses, and a canoe displayed at the Alaska Exhibit.[42]

text: In contrast, the Japan pavilion advanced the idea of a modern yet exotic culture unfamiliar to the turn-of-the-century Western world,[41] much as it had during the earlier Chicago World's Fair.[43]

text: Ota Benga, a Congolese Pygmy, was featured at the fair. Later he was given the run of the grounds at the Bronx Zoo in New York, then featured in an exhibit on evolution alongside an orangutan in 1906, but public protest ended that.

text: One exhibit of note was Beautiful Jim Key, the "educated" Arabian-Hambletonian cross horse in his Silver Horseshoe Pavilion. He was owned by Dr. William Key, an African-American/Native American former slave, who became a respected self-taught veterinarian, and promoted by Albert R. Rogers, who had Jim and Dr. Key on tour for years around the US, helping to establish a humane movement that encouraged people to think of animals as having feelings and thoughts, and not just "brutes." Jim and Dr. Key became national celebrities along the way. Rogers invented highly successful marketing strategies still in use today. Jim Key could add, subtract, use a cash register, spell with blocks, tell time and give opinions on the politics of the day by shaking his head yes or no. Jim thoroughly enjoyed his "act"—he performed more than just tricks and appeared to clearly understand what was going on. Dr. Key's motto was that Jim "was taught by kindness" instead of the whip, which he was indeed.[44]

text: Exhibits[edit]

text: After the fair was completed, many of the international exhibits were not returned to their country of origin, but were dispersed to museums in the United States. For example, the Philippine exhibits were acquired by the Museum of Natural History at the University of Iowa. The Vulcan statue is today a prominent feature of the Vulcan Park and Museum in Birmingham, Alabama, where it was originally cast.

text: The Smithsonian Institution coordinated the U.S. government exhibits. It featured a blue whale, the first full-cast of a blue whale ever created.[45]

text: The Fair also featured the original "Floatopia". Visitors floated on rafts of all sorts in the tiny Forest Park Lake. Many Floatopias have occurred since, including the infamous San Diego Floatopia of '83 and the Santa Barbara Floatopia that has been happening for years.

text: Daisy E. Nirdlinger's book, Althea, or, the children of Rosemont plantation (illustrated by Egbert Cadmus (1868-1939)) was adopted by the Commissioners of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition as the official souvenir for young people.[46]

text: 1904 Summer Olympics[edit]

text: The Fair hosted the 1904 Summer Olympic Games, the first Olympics held in the United States. These games had originally been awarded to Chicago, but when St. Louis threatened to hold a rival international competition,[47] the games were relocated. Nonetheless, the sporting events, spread out over several months, were overshadowed by the Fair. With travel expenses high, many European athletes did not come, nor did modern Olympics founder Baron Pierre de Coubertin.

text: Bullfight riot[edit]

text: On June 5, 1904, a bullfight scheduled for an arena just north of the fairgrounds, in conjunction with the fair, turned violent when Missouri governor Alexander Monroe Dockery ordered police to halt the fight in light of Missouri's anti-bullfighting laws. Disgruntled spectators demanded refunds, and when they were turned away, they began throwing stones through the windows of the arena office. While police protected the office, they did not have sufficient numbers to protect the arena, which was burned to the ground by the mob. The exposition fire department responded to the fire, but disruption to the fair was minimal, as the riot took place on a Sunday, when the fair was closed.

text: Anglo-Boer War Concession[edit]

text: Frank Fillis produced what was supposedly "the greatest and most realistic military spectacle known in the history of the world". Different portions of the concession featured a British Army encampment, several South African native villages (including Zulu, San, Swazi, and Ndebele) and a 15-acre (61,000 m2) arena in which soldiers paraded, sporting events and horse races were held and major battles from the Second Boer War were re-enacted twice a day. Battle recreations took 2–3 hours and included several Generals and 600 veteran soldiers from both sides of the war. At the conclusion of the show, the Boer General Christiaan de Wet would escape on horseback by leaping from a height of 35 feet (11 m) into a pool of water.

text: Admission ranged from 25 cents for bleacher seats to one dollar for box seats, and admission to the villages was another 25 cents. The concession cost $48,000 to construct, grossed over $630,000, and netted about $113,000 to the fair—the highest-grossing military concession of the fair.

text: Notable attendees[edit]

text: The Louisiana World fair was opened by US president, Theodore Roosevelt, by telegraph, but he did not attend personally until after the federal election in November 1904, as he stated he did not wish to use the fair for political purposes. Attendees included John Philip Sousa, a musician, composer and conductor whose band performed on opening day and several times during the fair. Thomas Edison is claimed to have attended.

text: Ragtime music was popularly featured at the Fair. Scott Joplin wrote "The Cascades" specifically for the fair, inspired by the waterfalls at the Grand Basin, and presumably attended the fair.

text: Helen Keller, who was 24 and graduated from Radcliffe College, gave a lecture in the main auditorium.[48]

text: J.T. Stinson, a well-regarded fruit specialist, introduced the phrase, "An apple a day keeps the doctor away" (at a lecture during the exhibition).[49]

text: The French organist Alexandre Guilmant played a series of 40 recitals, from memory, on the great organ in Festival Hall, then the largest pipe organ in the world.

text: Geronimo, the former war chief of the Apache, was "on display" in a teepee in the Ethnology Exhibit.

text: Henri Poincaré gave a keynote address on mathematical physics, including an outline for what would eventually become known as special relativity.[50][51]

text: Jelly Roll Morton did not visit, stating in his later Library of Congress interview and recordings that he expected jazz pianist Tony Jackson would attend and win a jazz piano competition at the Exposition. Morton said he was "quite disgusted" to later learn that Jackson hadn't gone either, and that the competition had been won instead by Alfred Wilson; Morton considered himself a better pianist than Wilson.

text: The poet T. S. Eliot, who was born and raised in St. Louis, Missouri, visited the Igorot Village held in the Philippine Exposition section of the St. Louis World's Fair. Several months after the closing of the World's Fair, he published a short story entitled "The Man Who Was King" in the school magazine of Smith Academy, St. Louis, Missouri that he was attending. Inspired by the ganza dance which the Igorot people presented regularly in the Village and their reaction to civilization, the poet explored the interaction of a white man with an island culture. Interestingly, all this predates the poet's delving into the anthropological studies during his Harvard graduate years.[52][53]

text: Max Weber visited upon first coming to the United States in hopes of using some of his findings for a case study on capitalism.[54]

text: Jack Daniel, the American distiller and the founder of Jack Daniel's Tennessee whiskey distillery, entered his Tennessee whiskey into the World's Fair whiskey competition. After four hours of deliberation, the eight judges awarded Jack Daniel's Tennessee Whiskey the Gold Medal for the finest whiskey in the world. The award was a boon for the Jack Daniel's distillery.[55][56]

text: Novelist Kate Chopin lived nearby and purchased a season ticket to the fair. After her visit on the hot day of August 20, she suffered a brain hemorrhage and died two days later, on August 22, 1904.[57]

text: Philadelphia mercantilist, John Wanamaker, visited the exposition in November 1904 and purchased an entire collection of German furniture which included the giant jugenstil brass sculpture of an eagle that he would display in the rotunda of his Wanamaker's department store in Philadelphia. He also purchased the organ from the fair, which at the time was the biggest concert organ in the world.

text: Benedictine monk, artist and museum founder, Fr. Gregory Gerrer, OSB exhibited his recent portrait of Pope Pius X at the fair. Following the fair, Gerrer brought the painting to Shawnee, Oklahoma, where it is now on display at the Mabee-Gerrer Museum of Art.[58]

text: John McCormack, Irish tenor, was brought to the fair by James A. Reardon, who was in charge of the Irish Exhibit.September issue 1999 of the Yellow Jacket http://gr-gs.org/


document_title: Please Let Me Wonder

question_text: who sings lead on please let me wonder

question_tokens: who sings lead on please let me wonder

text: Please Let Me Wonder

text: Personnel[edit]

text: Per Craig Slowinski.[4]

text:
Al Jardine – harmony and backing vocals
Brian Wilson – lead, harmony and backing vocals, grand piano
Carl Wilson – harmony and backing vocals, lead guitar
Dennis Wilson – harmony and backing vocals, percussion
Mike Love – harmony and backing vocals

text:
Glen Campbell – guitar
Steve Douglas – saxophone
Plas Johnson – saxophone
Carol Kaye – bass guitar
Barney Kessel – guitar
Jack Nimitz – saxophone
Earl Palmer – drums, timbales
Don Randi – piano, organ
Billy Lee Riley – harmonica
Billy Strange – guitar
Jerry Williams – vibraphone, timpani

text: Live version[edit]

text: A live version recorded during The 50th Reunion Tour in 2012 appears on Live – The 50th Anniversary Tour (2013).[citation needed]

text: Cover versions[edit]

text: 1984 – Tatsuro Yamashita, Big Wave


document_title: List of Arrested Development episodes

question_text: what are the new episodes of arrested development

text: List of Arrested Development episodes

text: Series overview[edit]

text: SeasonEpisodesOriginally airedFirst airedLast airedNetwork122November 2, 2003 (2003-11-02)June 6, 2004 (2004-06-06)Fox218November 7, 2004 (2004-11-07)April 17, 2005 (2005-04-17)313September 19, 2005 (2005-09-19)February 10, 2006 (2006-02-10)415 (original)  22 (recut)May 26, 2013 (2013-05-26) (original)  May 3, 2018 (2018-05-03) (recut)Netflix516[13]8May 29, 2018 (2018-05-29)82018 (2018)[13]

text: Episodes[edit]

text: Season 1 (2003–04)[edit]

text: The first season of Arrested Development consists of 22 episodes, which are listed below as ordered on the DVD collection and not in their original broadcast/production order.

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateProd.code [14]US viewers(millions)11"Pilot"Anthony Russo & Joe RussoMitchell HurwitzNovember 2, 2003 (2003-11-02)1AJD797.98[15]
22"Top Banana"Anthony RussoMitchell Hurwitz & John LevensteinNovember 9, 2003 (2003-11-09)1AJD016.70[16]
33"Bringing Up Buster"Joe RussoMitchell Hurwitz & Richard RosenstockNovember 16, 2003 (2003-11-16)1AJD025.78[17]
44"Key Decisions"Anthony RussoBrad CopelandNovember 23, 2003 (2003-11-23)1AJD046.26[18]
55"Charity Drive"Greg MottolaBarbie Feldman AdlerNovember 30, 2003 (2003-11-30)1AJD056.77[19]
66"Visiting Ours"Greg MottolaJohn Levenstein & Richard RosenstockDecember 7, 2003 (2003-12-07)1AJD036.31[20]
77"My Mother, the Car"Jay ChandrasekharChuck MartinDecember 21, 2003 (2003-12-21)1AJD076.42[21]
88"In God We Trust"Joe RussoAbraham HigginbothamDecember 14, 2003 (2003-12-14)1AJD066.11[22]
99"Storming the Castle"Greg MottolaBrad CopelandJanuary 4, 2004 (2004-01-04)1AJD085.72[23]
1010"Pier Pressure"Joe RussoMitchell Hurwitz & Jim VallelyJanuary 11, 2004 (2004-01-11)1AJD097.21[24]
1111"Public Relations"Lee Shallat-ChemelCourtney LillyJanuary 25, 2004 (2004-01-25)1AJD106.37[25]
1212"Marta Complex"Joe RussoJohn Levenstein & Jim VallelyFebruary 8, 2004 (2004-02-08)1AJD114.89[26]
1313"Beef Consommé"Jay ChandrasekharChuck Martin & Richard RosenstockFebruary 15, 2004 (2004-02-15)1AJD125.21[27]
1414"Shock and Aww"Joe RussoChuck Martin & Jim VallelyMarch 7, 2004 (2004-03-07)1AJD136.42[28]
1515"Staff Infection"John FortenberryBrad CopelandMarch 14, 2004 (2004-03-14)1AJD145.37[29]
1616"Missing Kitty"Joe RussoMitchell Hurwitz & John LevensteinMarch 28, 2004 (2004-03-28)1AJD155.51[30]
1717"Altar Egos"Jay ChandrasekharBarbie Feldman AdlerMarch 17, 2004 (2004-03-17)1AJD169.62[31]
1818"Justice Is Blind"Jay ChandrasekharAbraham HigginbothamMarch 21, 2004 (2004-03-21)1AJD177.02[31]
1919"Best Man for the Gob"Lee Shallat-ChemelMitchell Hurwitz & Richard RosenstockApril 4, 2004 (2004-04-04)1AJD185.51[32]
2020"Whistler's Mother"Paul FeigJohn Levenstein & Jim VallelyApril 11, 2004 (2004-04-11)1AJD195.39[33]
2121"Not Without My Daughter"Lee Shallat-ChemelMitchell Hurwitz & Richard RosenstockApril 25, 2004 (2004-04-25)1AJD205.66[34]
2222"Let 'Em Eat Cake"Paul FeigMitchell Hurwitz & Jim VallelyJune 6, 2004 (2004-06-06)1AJD215.08[35]

text: Season 2 (2004–05)[edit]

text: The second season of Arrested Development consists of 18 episodes, which are listed below as ordered on the DVD collection and not in their original production order.

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateProd.code [14]US viewers(millions)231"The One Where Michael Leaves"Lee Shallat-ChemelMitchell Hurwitz & Richard RosenstockNovember 7, 2004 (2004-11-07)2AJD016.61[36]
242"The One Where They Build a House"Patty JenkinsMitchell Hurwitz & Jim VallelyNovember 14, 2004 (2004-11-14)2AJD027.22[37]
253"¡Amigos!"Lee Shallat-ChemelBrad CopelandNovember 21, 2004 (2004-11-21)2AJD035.89[38]
264"Good Grief"Jeff MelmanJohn LevensteinDecember 5, 2004 (2004-12-05)2AJD046.66[39]
275"Sad Sack"Peter LauerBarbie AdlerDecember 12, 2004 (2004-12-12)2AJD056.28[40]
286"Afternoon Delight"Jason BatemanAbraham Higginbotham & Chuck MartinDecember 19, 2004 (2004-12-19)2AJD065.62[41]
297"Switch Hitter"Paul FeigStory by : Courtney Lilly Teleplay by : Barbie AdlerJanuary 16, 2005 (2005-01-16)2AJD075.78[42]
308"Queen for a Day"Andrew FlemingBrad CopelandJanuary 23, 2005 (2005-01-23)2AJD085.20[43]
319"Burning Love"Paul FeigChuck Martin & Lisa ParsonsJanuary 30, 2005 (2005-01-30)2AJD096.96[44]
3210"Ready, Aim, Marry Me"Paul FeigJim Vallely & Mitchell HurwitzFebruary 13, 2005 (2005-02-13)2AJD105.61[45]
3311"Out on a Limb"Danny LeinerChuck Martin & Jim VallelyMarch 6, 2005 (2005-03-06)2AJD116.34[46]
3412"Hand to God"Joe RussoMitchell Hurwitz & Chuck MartinMarch 6, 2005 (2005-03-06)2AJD125.75[46]
3513"Motherboy XXX"Joe RussoMitchell Hurwitz & Jim VallelyMarch 13, 2005 (2005-03-13)2AJD136.08[47]
3614"The Immaculate Election"Anthony RussoBarbie Adler & Abraham HigginbothamMarch 20, 2005 (2005-03-20)2AJD145.73[48]
3715"Sword of Destiny"Peter LauerBrad CopelandMarch 27, 2005 (2005-03-27)2AJD174.72[49]
3816"Meat the Veals"Joe RussoBarbie Adler & Richard RosenstockApril 3, 2005 (2005-04-03)2AJD155.33[50]
3917"Spring Breakout"Anthony RussoBarbie Adler & Abraham HigginbothamApril 10, 2005 (2005-04-10)2AJD165.19[51]
4018"Righteous Brothers"Chuck MartinMitchell Hurwitz & Jim VallelyApril 17, 2005 (2005-04-17)2AJD185.99[52]

text: Season 3 (2005–06)[edit]

text: The third season of Arrested Development consists of 13 episodes, which are listed below as ordered on the DVD collection and not in their original production order.

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal air dateProd.code [14]US viewers(millions)411"The Cabin Show"Paul FeigMitchell Hurwitz & Jim VallelySeptember 19, 2005 (2005-09-19)3AJD014.62[53]
422"For British Eyes Only"John FortenberryMitchell Hurwitz & Richard DaySeptember 26, 2005 (2005-09-26)3AJD024.02[54]
433"Forget-Me-Now"John AmodeoTom SaundersOctober 3, 2005 (2005-10-03)3AJD034.47[55]
444"Notapusy"Lev L. SpiroRon WeinerNovember 7, 2005 (2005-11-07)3AJD044.19[56]
455"Mr. F"Arlene SanfordRichard Day & Jim VallelyNovember 7, 2005 (2005-11-07)3AJD053.94[56]
466"The Ocean Walker"Paul FeigJake Farrow & Sam LaybourneDecember 5, 2005 (2005-12-05)3AJD064.09[57]
477"Prison Break-In"Robert BerlingerKarey DornettoDecember 12, 2005 (2005-12-12)3AJD083.91[58]
488"Making a Stand"Peter LauerMitchell Hurwitz & Chuck TathamDecember 19, 2005 (2005-12-19)3AJD074.14[59]
499"S.O.B.s"Robert BerlingerRichard Day & Jim VallelyJanuary 2, 2006 (2006-01-02)3AJD094.16[60]
5010"Fakin' It"Lev L. SpiroDean Lorey & Chuck TathamFebruary 10, 2006 (2006-02-10)3AJD103.14[61]
5111"Family Ties"Robert BerlingerRon WeinerFebruary 10, 2006 (2006-02-10)3AJD113.18[61]
5212"Exit Strategy"Rebecca E. AsherMitchell Hurwitz & Jim VallelyFebruary 10, 2006 (2006-02-10)3AJD123.47[61]
5313"Development Arrested"John FortenberryStory by : Mitchell Hurwitz & Richard Day Teleplay by : Chuck Tatham & Jim VallelyFebruary 10, 2006 (2006-02-10)3AJD133.43[61]

text: Season 4 (2013)[edit]

text: Six years after the show had been canceled by Fox, filming for a revived fourth season began on August 7, 2012.[10] The season consists of 15 new episodes, which debuted at the same time on Netflix on May 26, 2013 in North and South America, UK, Ireland, and the Nordics. A 22-episode recut titled Arrested Development Season 4 Remix: Fateful Consequences was released on May 3, 2018.[62]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleFeaturedcharacterDirected byWritten byOriginal release dateProd.code541"Flight of the Phoenix"MichaelMitchell Hurwitz & Troy MillerMitchell HurwitzMay 26, 2013 (2013-05-26)4AJD01
552"Borderline Personalities"George, Sr.Mitchell Hurwitz & Troy MillerJim Vallely & Richard RosenstockMay 26, 2013 (2013-05-26)4AJD03
563"Indian Takers"LindsayMitchell Hurwitz & Troy MillerCaroline Williams & Dean LoreyMay 26, 2013 (2013-05-26)4AJD05
574"The B. Team"MichaelTroy Miller & Mitchell HurwitzMitchell Hurwitz & Jim VallelyMay 26, 2013 (2013-05-26)4AJD02
585"A New Start"TobiasMitchell Hurwitz & Troy MillerDean Lorey & Jim VallelyMay 26, 2013 (2013-05-26)4AJD07
596"Double Crossers"George, Sr.Troy Miller & Mitchell HurwitzDean Lorey & Richard RosenstockMay 26, 2013 (2013-05-26)4AJD04
607"Colony Collapse"GobMitchell Hurwitz & Troy MillerMitchell Hurwitz & Jim VallelyMay 26, 2013 (2013-05-26)4AJD08
618"Red Hairing"LindsayTroy Miller & Mitchell HurwitzCaroline Williams & Richard RosenstockMay 26, 2013 (2013-05-26)4AJD06
629"Smashed"TobiasMitchell Hurwitz & Troy MillerDean Lorey & Richard RosenstockMay 26, 2013 (2013-05-26)4AJD15
6310"Queen B."LucilleTroy Miller & Mitchell HurwitzRichard Rosenstock & Dean LoreyMay 26, 2013 (2013-05-26)4AJD10
6411"A New Attitude"GobMitchell Hurwitz & Troy MillerMitchell Hurwitz & Jim VallelyMay 26, 2013 (2013-05-26)4AJD14
6512"Señoritis"MaebyMitchell Hurwitz & Troy MillerJim Brandon & Brian SingletonMay 26, 2013 (2013-05-26)4AJD09
6613"It Gets Better"George-MichaelTroy Miller & Mitchell HurwitzDean Lorey & Richard RosenstockMay 26, 2013 (2013-05-26)4AJD12
6714"Off the Hook"BusterMitchell Hurwitz & Troy MillerJim Vallely & Mitchell HurwitzMay 26, 2013 (2013-05-26)4AJD11
6815"Blockheads"George-MichaelMitchell Hurwitz & Troy MillerMitchell Hurwitz & Jim VallelyMay 26, 2013 (2013-05-26)4AJD13

text: Season 4 Remix: Fateful Consequences (2018)[edit]

text:
No.TitleDirected byWritten byOriginal release dateProd.code1"Re Cap'n Bluth"Mitchell Hurwitz and Troy MillerMitchell Hurwitz, Dean Lorey, Richard Rosenstock, Jim Vallely, Caroline WilliamsMay 3, 2018 (2018-05-03)RAJD01
2"Three Half Men"Troy Miller and Mitchell HurwitzMitchell Hurwitz, Richard Rosenstock, Jim VallelyMay 3, 2018 (2018-05-03)RAJD02
3"A Couple-A New Starts"Mitchell Hurwitz and Troy MillerMitchell Hurwitz, Dean Lorey, Jim Vallely, Caroline WilliamsMay 3, 2018 (2018-05-03)RAJD03
4"Just Deserters"Troy Miller and Mitchell HurwitzMitchell Hurwitz, Dean Lorey, Richard Rosenstock, Jim VallelyMay 3, 2018 (2018-05-03)RAJD04
5"A Trial Run"Mitchell Hurwitz and Troy MillerMitchell Hurwitz, Dean Lorey, Richard Rosenstock, Jim Vallely, Caroline WilliamsMay 3, 2018 (2018-05-03)RAJD05
6"The Parent Traps"Troy Miller and Mitchell HurwitzMitchell Hurwitz, Dean Lorey, Richard Rosenstock, Jim VallelyMay 3, 2018 (2018-05-03)RAJD06
7"One Degree of Separation"Mitchell Hurwitz and Troy MillerJim Brandon, Dean Lorey, Richard Rosenstock, Brian Singleton, Jim Vallely, Caroline WilliamsMay 3, 2018 (2018-05-03)RAJD07
8"The Weak Become the Strong"Troy Miller and Mitchell HurwitzJim Brandon, Mitchell Hurwitz, Richard Rosenstock, Brian Singleton, Jim Vallely, Caroline WilliamsMay 3, 2018 (2018-05-03)RAJD08
9"Modern Marvels"Mitchell Hurwitz and Troy MillerMitchell Hurwitz, Dean Lorey, Jim Vallely, Caroline WilliamsMay 3, 2018 (2018-05-03)RAJD09
10"Recurring Dreams"Troy Miller and Mitchell HurwitzJim Brandon, Mitchell Hurwitz, Dean Lorey, Richard Rosenstock, Brian Singleton, Jim VallelyMay 3, 2018 (2018-05-03)RAJD10
11"Fun Night"Mitchell Hurwitz and Troy MillerJim Brandon, Mitchell Hurwitz, Dean Lorey, Richard Rosenstock, Brian Singleton, Jim Vallely, Caroline WilliamsMay 3, 2018 (2018-05-03)RAJD11
12"Moving Pictures"Troy Miller and Mitchell HurwitzMitchell Hurwitz, Dean Lorey, Richard Rosenstock, Jim Vallely, Caroline WilliamsMay 3, 2018 (2018-05-03)RAJD12
13"Get on Up"Mitchell Hurwitz and Troy MillerMitchell Hurwitz, Dean Lorey, Richard Rosenstock, Jim VallelyMay 3, 2018 (2018-05-03)RAJD13
14"What Goes Around"Troy Miller and Mitchell HurwitzMitchell Hurwitz, Dean Lorey, Richard Rosenstock, Jim VallelyMay 3, 2018 (2018-05-03)RAJD14
15"Locked and Loaded"Mitchell Hurwitz and Troy MillerJim Brandon, Mitchell Hurwitz, Dean Lorey, Richard Rosenstock, Brian Singleton, Caroline WilliamsMay 3, 2018 (2018-05-03)RAJD15
16"Mixed Messages"Troy Miller and Mitchell HurwitzMitchell Hurwitz, Dean Lorey, Richard Rosenstock, Jim VallelyMay 3, 2018 (2018-05-03)RAJD16
17"Dire Straights"Mitchell Hurwitz and Troy MillerJim Brandon, Mitchell Hurwitz, Dean Lorey, Richard Rosenstock, Brian Singleton, Caroline WilliamsMay 3, 2018 (2018-05-03)RAJD17
18"Turning on Each Other"Troy Miller and Mitchell HurwitzMitchell Hurwitz, Dean Lorey, Richard Rosenstock, Jim Vallely, Caroline WilliamsMay 3, 2018 (2018-05-03)RAJD18
19"Fast Company"Mitchell Hurwitz and Troy MillerJim Brandon, Mitchell Hurwitz, Dean Lorey, Richard Rosenstock, Brian SingletonMay 3, 2018 (2018-05-03)RAJD19
20"Cinco de Cuatro I"Troy Miller and Mitchell HurwitzJim Brandon, Mitchell Hurwitz, Dean Lorey, Richard Rosenstock, Brian Singleton, Jim Vallely, Caroline WilliamsMay 3, 2018 (2018-05-03)RAJD20
21"Cinco de Cuatro II"Mitchell Hurwitz and Troy MillerMitchell Hurwitz, Dean Lorey, Richard Rosenstock, Jim VallelyMay 3, 2018 (2018-05-03)RAJD21
22"Cinco de Cuatro III"Troy Miller and Mitchell HurwitzMitchell Hurwitz, Dean Lorey, Richard Rosenstock, Jim Vallely, Caroline WilliamsMay 3, 2018 (2018-05-03)RAJD22

text: Season 5 (2018)[edit]

text:
No.overallNo. inseasonTitleDirected byWritten byOriginal release dateProd.codePart 1
691"Family Leave"Troy MillerMitchell Hurwitz & Jim VallelyMay 29, 2018 (2018-05-29)5AJD01
702"Self-Deportation"Troy MillerRichard DayMay 29, 2018 (2018-05-29)5AJD02
713"Everyone Gets Atrophy"Troy MillerMitchell HurwitzMay 29, 2018 (2018-05-29)5AJD03
724"An Old Start"Troy MillerJim VallelyMay 29, 2018 (2018-05-29)5AJD04
735"Sinking Feelings"Troy MillerJim Vallely & Mitchell HurwitzMay 29, 2018 (2018-05-29)5AJD05
746"Emotional Baggage"Troy MillerEvan Mann & Gareth ReynoldsMay 29, 2018 (2018-05-29)5AJD06
757"Rom-Traum"Troy MillerMaggie RoweMay 29, 2018 (2018-05-29)5ADJ07
768"Premature Independence"Troy MillerMitchell Hurwitz & Jim VallelyMay 29, 2018 (2018-05-29)5ADJ08