document_title: Admission to the bar in the United States

question_text: states where you can be a lawyer without law school

text: Terminology[edit]

text: The use of the term "bar" to mean "the whole body of lawyers, the legal profession" comes ultimately from English custom. In the early 16th century, a railing divided the hall in the Inns of Court, with students occupying the body of the hall and readers or Benchers on the other side. Students who officially became lawyers were "called to the bar", crossing the symbolic physical barrier and thus "admitted to the bar".[1] Later, this was popularly assumed to mean the wooden railing marking off the area around the judge's seat in a courtroom, where prisoners stood for arraignment and where a barrister stood to plead. In modern courtrooms, a railing may still be in place to enclose the space which is occupied by legal counsel as well as the criminal defendants and civil litigants who have business pending before the court.

text: General requirements for admission[edit]

text: The first bar exam in what is now the United States was instituted by Delaware Colony in 1763, as an oral examination before a judge.[2]  The other American colonies soon followed suit.[2]  By the late 19th century, the examinations were administered by committees of attorneys, and they eventually changed from an oral examination to a written one.[2]

text: Today, each state has its own rules which are the ultimate authority concerning admission to its bar. Generally, admission to a bar requires that the candidate do the following:

text:
In most situations, earn a Juris Doctor from a law school approved by that state (often, but not always,[3] this means accredited by the American Bar Association) (indeed, in certain states, e.g., Arizona, one may not actually take the bar exam unless one's law school is ABA accredited, and this requirement has withstood constitutional attack); or, where permitted, participate in an approved Law Clerk program ("reading the law").  The first law school in colonial America was not established until 1773.  Abraham Lincoln is an example of a lawyer who did not attend law school, and did not even read with anyone else, stating in his autobiography that he "studied with nobody".[4]  Another telling example is Levi Woodbury, who was the 30th person appointed to the US Supreme Court, yet the first to have attended law school.
In all United States jurisdictions except Maryland, Puerto Rico, and Wisconsin, pass the Multistate Professional Responsibility Examination (MPRE), an examination covering the professional responsibility rules governing lawyers. This test is not administered at the same time as any U.S. bar exam. Most candidates usually sit for the MPRE while still in law school, right after studying professional responsibility (a required course in all ABA-accredited law schools), while the material is still fresh in their memory. Some states require that a candidate pass the MPRE before being allowed to sit for the bar exam. Connecticut and New Jersey waive the MPRE for candidates who have received a grade of C or better in a law school professional ethics class.
Pass a bar examination, usually administered by the state bar association or under the authority of the supreme court of the particular state.
As of  June 2015[update], 16 jurisdictions have adopted the Uniform Bar Examination (UBE).[5] Missouri and North Dakota were the first two states to administer the UBE, doing so in February 2011.[6] Since then, Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New York, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming have adopted and administered the UBE.[6] According to the National Conference of Bar Examiners (NCBE), which prepares the UBE, it is intended to "test knowledge and skills that every lawyer should be able to demonstrate prior to becoming licensed to practice law", and "is uniformly administered, graded, and scored by user jurisdictions and results in a portable score."[5] UBE jurisdictions are allowed to additionally test candidates' knowledge of state-specific law, through either a test or course.[5] The UBE consists of three parts:[5]
The Multistate Bar Examination (MBE), a standardized test consisting of 200 multiple-choice questions covering seven (7) key areas of law: Constitutional law, Contracts, Criminal law and Procedure, Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, Federal Rules of Evidence, Real Property and Torts. Examinees have three  (3) hours to answer 100 questions in a morning session and the same for an afternoon session. The MBE is administered on the last Wednesday in February and July.
The Multistate Essay Examination (MEE), a uniform though not standardized test that examines a candidate's ability to analyze legal issues and communicate them effectively in writing. The NCBE provides nine possible MEE questions for each bar exam administration; the UBE uses six of these. This exam is administered on the last Tuesday of each February and July. Topics range from the seven MBE topics above, and include Business law (Agency, Corporations, LLC and Partnerships), Commercial law (Commercial paper, Secured Transactions and the Uniformed Commercial Code [UCC]), Conflicts of law, Estates and Probate (Trusts and Wills), and Family Law.
The Multistate Performance Test (MPT), a "closed-universe" test in which each candidate is required to perform a standard lawyering task, such as a memo or brief. The candidate is provided with a case file and a "library" which contains all of the substantive law required to perform the task (plus some non-relevant material). The MPT is administered on the last Tuesday in each February and July. The NCBE provides two MPT questions for each administration; the UBE uses both.
In states that do not use the UBE, the examination usually follows a similar format:
The MBE is currently required in all jurisdictions except Louisiana and Puerto Rico. The most recent state to adopt the MBE was Washington, which began using the MBE when it adopted the UBE in July 2013.[7]
In jurisdictions that do not use the MPRE, candidates must pass a professional responsibility ("ethics") exam included as part of the main bar exam. Some states, such as Michigan, employ the MPRE and include ethics questions in their main exam.
State-specific content is usually included in the examination, such as essays in Washington, Minnesota and Massachusetts. Some states, such as Florida, include both essays and multiple-choice questions in their state-specific sections; Virginia uses full essays and short-answer  questions in its state-specific section.
Be certified (usually by the state bar association) as having the good moral character and fitness to practice law.
Apply to that state's authority responsible for licensing lawyers and pay required fees. Upon approval by that authority, the admittee takes an oath to comply with the rules governing the practice of law in that state, and receives a certificate of admission.
In some jurisdictions, e.g., New Jersey, satisfy additional educational requirements; however, continuing legal education (CLE) is generally a matter of license renewal, not admission.

text: Law schools not accredited by the ABA[edit]

text: Alabama, California,[8] Connecticut, Georgia,[9] Massachusetts, West Virginia and Tennessee allow individuals to take the bar exam upon graduation from law schools approved by state bodies but not accredited by the American Bar Association. The state of New York makes special provision for persons educated to degree-level in common law from overseas, with most LLB degree holders being qualified to take the bar exam and, upon passing, be admitted to the bar.[10] But in certain states (e.g., Arizona), one may not be allowed to actually take the bar exam unless one's law school is accredited by the ABA, and this requirement has withstood constitutional attack: thus, graduates of a law school without ABA accreditation may not sit for the Arizona bar, although they may take the bar in other states.

text: California "registered" law schools[edit]

text: In California, certain law schools are registered with the Committee of Bar Examiners[11] of The State Bar of California. Such schools, though not accredited by either the ABA or the Committee on Bar Examiners, are authorized to grant the Juris Doctor (J.D.) law degree. Students at these schools must take and pass the First-Year Law Students' Examination (commonly referred to as the "Baby Bar") administered by the CBE.[12] Upon successful passing of the "Baby Bar," those students may continue with their law studies to obtain their J.D. degree.[13] Students at law schools accredited by either the ABA or CBE are exempt from having to take and pass the Baby Bar.

text: Admission without law school[edit]

text: In California, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, and Wyoming[14] an applicant who has not attended law school may take the bar exam after study under a judge or practicing attorney for an extended period of time.[15][16]   This method is known as "reading law" or "reading the law".

text: New York requires that applicants who are reading the law have at least one year of law school study (Rule 520.4 for the Admission of Attorneys).[17]

text: Maine allows students with two years of law school to serve an apprenticeship in lieu of completing their third year.

text: Tactical considerations regarding admission in multiple states[edit]

text: Most attorneys seek and obtain admission only to the bar of one state, and then rely upon pro hac vice admissions for the occasional out-of-state matter. However, many new attorneys do seek admission in multiple states, either by taking multiple bar exams or applying for reciprocity. This is common for those living and working in metro areas which sprawl into multiple states, such as Washington, D.C. and New York City. Attorneys based in predominantly rural states or rural areas near state borders frequently seek admission in multiple states in order to enlarge their client base.

text: Note that in states that allow reciprocity, admission on motion may have conditions that do not apply to those admitted by examination. For example, attorneys admitted on motion in Virginia are required to show evidence of the intent to practice full-time in Virginia and are prohibited from maintaining an office in any other jurisdiction. Also, their licenses automatically expire when they no longer maintain an office in Virginia.[18][19]

text: Types of state bar associations[edit]

text: Admission to a state's bar is not necessarily the same as membership in that state's bar association. There are two kinds of state bar associations:

text: Mandatory (integrated) bar[edit]

text: Thirty-two states and the District of Columbia require membership in the state's bar association to practice law there.[20] These states have what is called having a mandatory, unified, or integrated bar.

text: For example, the State Bar of Texas is an agency of the judiciary and is under the administrative control of the Texas Supreme Court,[21] and is composed of those persons licensed to practice law in Texas; each such person is required by law to join the State Bar by registering with the clerk of the Texas Supreme Court.[22]

text: The State Bar of California is another example of an integrated bar as is The Florida Bar.

text: Voluntary and private bar associations[edit]

text: A voluntary bar association is a private organization of lawyers. Each may have social, educational, and lobbying functions, but does not regulate the practice of law or admit lawyers to practice or discipline lawyers. An example of this is the New York State Bar Association.

text: There is a statewide voluntary bar association in each of the eighteen states that have no mandatory or integrated bar association. There are also many voluntary bar associations organized by geographic area (e.g., Chicago Bar Association), interest group or practice area (e.g., Federal Communications Bar Association), or ethnic or identity community (e.g., Hispanic National Bar Association).

text: The American Bar Association (ABA) is a nationwide voluntary bar association with the largest membership in the United States. The National Bar Association was formed in 1925 to focus on the interests of African-American lawyers after they were denied membership by the ABA.[23]

text: Federal courts[edit]

text: Admission to a state bar does not automatically entitle an individual to practice in federal courts, such as the United States district courts or United States court of appeals. In general, an attorney is admitted to the bar of these federal courts upon payment of a fee and taking an oath of admission. An attorney must apply to each district separately. For instance, a Texas attorney who practices in federal courts throughout the state would have to be admitted separately to the Northern District of Texas, the Eastern District, the Southern District, and the Western District. To handle a federal appeal, the attorney would also be required to be admitted separately to the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals for general appeals and to the Federal Circuit for appeals that fall within that court's jurisdiction. As the bankruptcy courts are divisions of the district courts, admission to a particular district court usually includes automatic admission to the corresponding bankruptcy court. The bankruptcy courts require that attorneys attend training sessions on electronic filing before they may file motions.

text: Some federal district courts have extra admission requirements. For instance, the Southern District of Texas requires attorneys seeking admission to attend a class on that District's practice and procedures. For some time, the Southern District of Florida administered an entrance exam, but that requirement was eliminated by Court order in February 2012.[24] The District of Rhode Island requires candidates to attend classes and to pass an examination.

text: An attorney wishing to practice before the Supreme Court of the United States must apply to do so, must be admitted to the bar of the highest court of a state for three years, must be sponsored by two attorneys already admitted to the Supreme Court bar, must pay a fee and must take either a spoken or written oath.[25]

text: Various specialized courts with subject-matter jurisdiction, including the United States Tax Court, have separate admission requirements. The Tax Court is unusual in that a non-attorney may be admitted to practice. However, the non-attorney must take and pass an examination administered by the Court to be admitted, while attorneys are not required to take the exam. Most members of the Tax Court bar are attorneys.

text: Admission to the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit is open to any attorney admitted to practice and in good standing with the U.S. Supreme Court, any of the other federal courts of appeal, any federal district court, the highest court of any state, the Court of International Trade, the Court of Federal Claims, the Court of Appeals for Veterans Claims, or the District of Columbia Court of Appeals. An oath and fee are required.[26]

text: Some federal courts also have voluntary bar associations associated with them. For example, the Bar Association of the Fifth Federal Circuit, the Bar Association of the Third Federal Circuit, or the Association of the Bar of the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit all serve attorneys admitted to practice before specific federal courts of appeals.

text: District Court Reciprocity[edit]

text: 56 districts (around 60% of all district courts) require an attorney to be admitted to practice in the state where the district court sits. The other 39 districts (around 40% of all district courts) extend admission to certain lawyers admitted in other states, although conditions vary from court to court. Only 13 districts extend admission to attorneys admitted to any U.S. state bar.[27] This requirement is not necessarily consistent within a state. For example, in Ohio, the Southern District generally requires membership in the Ohio state bar for full admission,[28] while full admission to the Northern District is open to all attorneys in good standing with any U.S. jurisdiction.[29][30][31] The District of Vermont requires membership in the Vermont State Bar or membership in the Bar of a federal district court in the First and Second Circuits.[32] The District of Connecticut, within the Second Circuit, will admit any member of the Connecticut bar or of the bar of any United States District Court.[33]

text: Patent practice[edit]

text: Persons wishing to "prosecute" patent applications (i.e., represent clients in the process of obtaining a patent) must first pass the USPTO registration examination, frequently referred to as the "patent bar." Detailed information about applying for the registration examination is available in the USPTO's General Requirements Bulletin.[34] Although only registered patent attorneys or patent agents can prosecute patent applications in the USPTO, passing the patent bar is not necessary to advise clients on patent infringement, to litigate patent issues in court, or to prosecute trademark applications.

text: A J.D. degree is not required to sit for the patent bar. Lawyers who pass the patent bar exam may refer to themselves as a patent attorney (rules of legal ethics prohibit lawyers from using the title "patent attorney" unless they are admitted to practice before the USPTO). While patent lawyers have a relevant four-year degree and many have graduate technical degrees, patent litigation attorneys do not have to be patent attorneys, although some are. On the other hand, non-lawyers who pass the patent bar are referred to as "patent agents." Patent agents may not hold themselves out as licensed attorneys.

text: Applicants must have U.S. citizenship, permanent residency (a Green Card), or a valid work visa for a patent-related job. An applicant on a work visa, upon passing the exam, is only given "limited recognition" to perform work for the employer listed on the work visa. Only U.S. citizens can maintain their registration in the patent bar while they are working outside the United States. Additionally, the USPTO requires that applicants to the patent bar have earned a bachelor's degree. Applicants are categorized as having earned an accredited "bachelor's degree in a recognized technical subject" (category A), having earned a "bachelor's degree in another subject" with sufficient credits to qualify for the exam (category B), or having "practical engineering or scientific experience" (category C).

text: Applicants in "category A" must have an engineering or "hard science" degree in a field listed in the General Requirements Bulletin. Note that the degree field as shown on the diploma must be exactly as it appears on the list; for example, "aerospace engineering" does not qualify under category A, while "aeronautical engineering" does. A computer science degree is accepted under "category A" as long as it is received from an Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET)-accredited or CSAB-accredited program.

text: Applicants in "category B" must have earned a bachelor's degree, and must have sufficient credits in science and engineering courses to meet the USPTO's requirements; the number of credits depends on the specific discipline. The coursework must include a minimum of eight credit-hours of acceptable classes in either chemistry or physics. Each course being relied upon by the applicant for credit is evaluated by the USPTO's Office of Enrollment and Discipline for suitability;  see the General Requirements Bulletin for the details. Engineering and Computer Science majors whose degree programs do not meet "category A" requirements (typically due to the named field of the degree or, especially in computer science, lack of program accreditation) can apply under "category B."

text: Applicants in "category C" may present evidence of passing the Fundamentals of Engineering exam as proof of technical education. They must also have a bachelor's degree. Although the admission requirements allow applicants to substitute proof of technical experience for technical education, this is rarely done in practice.

text: Military law[edit]

text: Service as a member of a military service's Judge Advocate General's Corps requires graduation from an ABA-accredited law school, a license to practice law in any state or territory of the United States, and training at the specialized law school of one of the three military services (The Judge Advocate General's Legal Center and School for the Army, the Naval Justice School for the Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard, and the Air Force Judge Advocate General School for the Air Force).

text: In a court-martial, the accused is always provided JAG Corps defense counsel at no expense to the accused, but is also entitled to retain private civilian counsel at his or her own expense. Civilian counsel must either be a member of both a federal bar and a state bar, or must be otherwise authorized to practice law by a recognized licensing authority and certified by the military judge as having sufficient familiarity with criminal law as applicable in courts-martial.[35]

text: Apprenticeship issue[edit]

text: The American legal system is unusual in that, with few exceptions, it has no formal apprenticeship or clinical training requirements between the period of academic legal training and the bar exam, or even after the bar exam. Two exceptions are Delaware and Vermont, which require that candidates for admission serve a full-time clerkship of at least five months (Delaware) or three months (Vermont) in the office of a lawyer previously admitted in that state before being eligible to take the oath of admission. New Jersey has a similar requirement, with the addition of training and instruction.

text: On October 12, 2005, the Washington State Supreme Court adopted amendments to Admission to Practice Rule 5 and 18, mandating that, prior to admission, Bar applicants must complete a minimum of four hours of approved pre-admission education.[36][37]

text: Some law schools have tried to rectify this lack of experience by requiring supervised "Public Service Requirements" of all graduates.[38] States that encourage law students to undergo clinical training or perform public service in the form of pro bono representation may allow students to appear and practice in limited court settings under the supervision of an admitted attorney. For example, in New York's Third Appellate Department, "Any officer or agency of the state ... or any legal aid organization ... may make application to the presiding justice of this court for an order authorizing the employment or utilization of law students who have completed at least two semesters of law school and eligible law school graduates as law interns to render and perform legal services ... which the officer, agency or organization making the application is authorized to perform."[39] Similarly, New York's state Department of Labor allows law students to practice in unemployment benefits hearings before the agency.[40]

text: Character and fitness[edit]

text: In addition to the educational and bar examination requirements, most states also require an applicant to demonstrate good moral character. Character Committees look to an applicant's history to determine whether the person will be fit to practice law in the future. This history may include prior criminal arrests or convictions, academic honor code violations, prior bankruptcies or evidence of financial irresponsibility, addictions or psychiatric disorders, sexual misconduct, prior civil lawsuits or driving history.[41] In recent years, such investigations have increasingly focused on the extent of an applicant's financial debt, as increased student loans have prompted concern for whether a new lawyer will honor legal or financial obligations. For example, in early 2009, a person who had passed the New York bar and had over $400,000 in unpaid student loans was denied admission by the New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division due to excessive indebtedness, despite being recommended for admission by the state's character and fitness committee.[42] He moved to void the denial, but the court upheld its original decision in November 2009, by which time his debt had accumulated to nearly $500,000.[43] More recently, the Court of Appeals of Maryland rejected the application of a candidate who displayed a pattern of financial irresponsibility, applied for a car loan with false information, and failed to disclose a recent bankruptcy.[44]

text: When applying to take a state's bar examination, applicants are required to complete extensive questionnaires seeking the disclosure of significant personal, financial and professional information. For example, in Virginia, each applicant must complete a 24-page questionnaire[45] and may appear before a committee for an interview if the committee initially rejects their application.[46] The same is true in the State of Maryland, and in many other jurisdictions, where the state's supreme court has the ultimate authority to determine whether an applicant will be admitted to the bar.[47] In completing the bar application, and at all stages of this process, honesty is paramount. An applicant who fails to disclose material facts, no matter how embarrassing or problematic, will greatly jeopardize the applicant’s chance of practicing law.[48]

text: Admission formalities[edit]

text: Once all prerequisites have been satisfied, an attorney must actually be admitted. The mechanics of this vary widely. For example, in California, the admittee simply takes an oath before any state judge or notary public, who then co-signs the admission form. Upon receiving the signed form, the State Bar of California adds the new admittee to a list of applicants recommended for admission to the bar which is automatically ratified by the Supreme Court of California at its next regular weekly conference; then everyone on the list is added to the official roll of attorneys. The State Bar also holds large-scale formal admission ceremonies in conjunction with the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit and the federal district courts, usually in the same convention centers where new admittees took the bar examination, but these are optional.

text: In other jurisdictions, such as the District of Columbia, new admittees must attend a special session of court in person to take the oath of admission in open court; they cannot take the oath before any available judge or notary public.

text: Incidents of admission[edit]

text: A successful applicant is permitted to practice law after being sworn in as an officer of the Court; in most states, that means they may begin filing pleadings and appearing as counsel of record in any trial or appellate court in the state. Upon admission, a new lawyer is issued a certificate of admission, usually from the state's highest court, and a membership card attesting to admission.

text: Two states are exceptions to the general rule of admission by the state's highest court:

text:
In New York, admission is granted by one of the state's four intermediate appellate courts corresponding generally to the Department of residence of the applicant; once admitted, however, the applicant can practice in any (non-federal) court in the state.[49]
In Georgia, each new attorney is admitted to practice by the Superior Court of any county, typically the county in which he or she resides or desires to practice. The new attorney, although licensed to practice in any local trial court in the state, must separately seek admission to the Georgia Court of Appeals as well as the Georgia Supreme Court.[50]

text: In most states, lawyers are also issued a unique bar identification number. In states like California where unauthorized practice of law is a major problem, the state bar number must appear on all documents submitted by a lawyer.[51]


document_title: Vapor pressure

question_text: the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to 1 atm

root

text: Vapor pressure

text: Measurement and units[edit]

text: Vapor pressure is measured in the standard units of pressure. The International System of Units (SI) recognizes pressure as a derived unit with the dimension of force per area and designates the pascal (Pa) as its standard unit. One pascal is one newton per square meter (N·m−2 or kg·m−1·s−2).

tag: p

text: Experimental measurement of vapor pressure is a simple procedure for common pressures between 1 and 200 kPa.[1] Most accurate results are obtained near the boiling point of substances and large errors result for measurements smaller than 1kPa. Procedures often consist of purifying the test substance, isolating it in a container, evacuating any foreign gas, then measuring the equilibrium pressure of the gaseous phase of the substance in the container at different temperatures. Better accuracy is achieved when care is taken to ensure that the entire substance and its vapor are at the prescribed temperature.  This is often done, as with the use of an isoteniscope, by submerging the containment area in a liquid bath.

text: Very low vapor pressures of solids can be measured using the Knudsen effusion cell method.

text: In a medical context, vapor pressure is sometimes expressed in other units, specifically millimeters of mercury (mmHg). This is important for volatile anesthetics, most of which are liquids at body temperature, but with a relatively high vapor pressure. Anesthetics with a higher vapor pressure at body temperature will be excreted more quickly, as they are exhaled from the lungs.

text: Estimating vapor pressures with Antoine equation[edit]

text: The Antoine equation[2][3] is a mathematical expression  of the relation between the vapor pressure and the temperature of pure liquid or solid substances. The basic form of the equation is:

text: and it can be transformed into this temperature-explicit form:

text:
where:

P

{\displaystyle P}

 is the absolute vapor pressure of a substance

text: A simpler form of the equation with only two coefficients is sometimes used:

text: which can be transformed to:

text: Sublimations and vaporizations of the same substance have separate sets of Antoine coefficients, as do components in mixtures.[2] Each parameter set for a specific compound is only applicable over a specified temperature range. Generally, temperature ranges are chosen to maintain the equation's accuracy of a few up to 8–10 percent.  For many volatile substances, several different sets of parameters are available and used for different temperature ranges. The Antoine equation has poor accuracy with any single parameter set when used from a compound's melting point to its critical temperature.  Accuracy is also usually poor when vapor pressure is under 10 Torr because of the limitations of the apparatus used to establish the Antoine parameter values.

text: The Wagner Equation[4] gives "one of the best"[5] fits to experimental data but is quite complex.  It expresses reduced vapor pressure as a function of reduced temperature.

text: Relation to boiling point of liquids[edit]

text: As a general trend, vapor pressures of liquids at ambient temperatures increase with decreasing boiling points. This is illustrated in the vapor pressure chart (see right) that shows graphs of the vapor pressures versus temperatures for a variety of liquids.[6] At the normal boiling point of a liquid, the vapor pressure is equal to the standard atmospheric pressure defined as 1 atmosphere[7] (760 Torr or 101 325 kPa).

text: For example, at any given temperature, methyl chloride has the highest vapor pressure of any of the liquids in the chart. It also has the lowest normal boiling point (−24.2 °C), which is where the vapor pressure curve of methyl chloride (the blue line) intersects the horizontal pressure line of one atmosphere (atm) of absolute vapor pressure.

text: Although the relation between vapor pressure and temperature is non-linear, the chart uses a logarithmic vertical axis to produce slightly curved lines, so one chart can graph many liquids. A nearly straight line is obtained when the logarithm of the vapor pressure is plotted against 1/(T+230)[8] where T is the temperature in degrees Celsius. The vapor pressure of a liquid at its boiling point equals the pressure of its surrounding environment.

text: Liquid mixtures[edit]

text: Raoult's law gives an approximation to the vapor pressure of mixtures of liquids.  It states that the activity (pressure or fugacity) of a single-phase mixture is equal to the mole-fraction-weighted sum of the components' vapor pressures:

text:
where

p

t
o
t

{\displaystyle p_{tot}}

 is the mixture's vapor pressure,

x

i

{\displaystyle x_{i}}

 is the mole fraction of component

i

{\displaystyle i}

 in the liquid phase and

y

i

{\displaystyle y_{i}}

 is the mole fraction of component

i

{\displaystyle i}

 in the vapor phase respectively.

P

i

s
a
t

{\displaystyle P_{i}^{sat}}

 is the vapor pressure of component

i

{\displaystyle i}

. Raoult's law is applicable only to non-electrolytes (uncharged species); it is most appropriate for non-polar molecules with only weak intermolecular attractions (such as London forces).

text: Systems that have vapor pressures higher than indicated by the above formula are said to have positive deviations.  Such a deviation suggests weaker intermolecular attraction than in the pure components, so that the molecules can be thought of as being "held in" the liquid phase less strongly than in the pure liquid.  An example is the azeotrope of approximately 95% ethanol and water.  Because the azeotrope's vapor pressure is higher than predicted by Raoult's law, it boils at a temperature below that of either pure component.

text: There are also systems with negative deviations that have vapor pressures that are lower than expected.  Such a deviation is evidence for stronger intermolecular attraction between the constituents of the mixture than exists in the pure components.  Thus, the molecules are "held in" the liquid more strongly when a second molecule is present.  An example is a mixture of trichloromethane (chloroform) and 2-propanone (acetone), which boils above the boiling point of either pure component.

text: The negative and positive deviations can be used to determine thermodynamic activity coefficients of the components of mixtures.

text: Solids[edit]

text: Equilibrium vapor pressure can be defined as the pressure reached when a condensed phase is in equilibrium with its own vapor. In the case of an equilibrium solid, such as a crystal, this can be defined as the pressure when the rate of sublimation of a solid matches the rate of deposition of its vapor phase. For most solids this pressure is very low, but some notable exceptions are naphthalene, dry ice (the vapor pressure of dry ice is 5.73 MPa (831 psi, 56.5 atm) at 20 °C, which causes most sealed containers to rupture), and ice.  All solid materials have a vapor pressure. However, due to their often extremely low values, measurement can be rather difficult. Typical techniques include the use of thermogravimetry and gas transpiration.

text: There are a number of methods for calculating the sublimation pressure (i.e., the vapor pressure) of a solid. One method is to estimate the sublimation pressure from extrapolated liquid vapor pressures (of the supercooled liquid), if the heat of fusion is known, by using this particular form of the Clausius–Clapeyron relation:[9]

text: where:

text:
P

s

s
u
b

{\displaystyle P_{\rm {s}}^{\rm {sub}}}

 is the sublimation pressure of the solid component at the temperature

T

s
u
b

<

T

f
u
s

{\displaystyle T_{\rm {sub}}<T_{\rm {fus}}}

.

P

l

s
u
b

{\displaystyle P_{\rm {l}}^{\rm {sub}}}

 is the extrapolated vapor pressure of the liquid component at the temperature

T

s
u
b

<

T

f
u
s

{\displaystyle T_{\rm {sub}}<T_{\rm {fus}}}

.

Δ

f
u
s

H

{\displaystyle \Delta _{\rm {fus}}H}

 is the heat of fusion.

R

{\displaystyle R}

 is the gas constant.

T

s
u
b

{\displaystyle T_{\rm {sub}}}

 is the sublimation temperature.

T

f
u
s

{\displaystyle T_{\rm {fus}}}

 is the melting point temperature.

tag: ul

text: This method assumes that the heat of fusion is temperature-independent, ignores additional transition temperatures between different solid phases, and it gives a fair estimation for temperatures not too far from the melting point. It also shows that the sublimation pressure is lower than the extrapolated liquid vapor pressure (ΔfusH > 0) and the difference grows with increased distance from the melting point.

text: Boiling point of water[edit]

text: Like all liquids, water boils when its vapor pressure reaches its surrounding pressure.  In nature, the atmospheric pressure is lower at higher elevations and water boils at a lower temperature.  The boiling temperature of water for atmospheric pressures can be approximated by the Antoine equation:

text: or transformed into this temperature-explicit form:

text:
where the temperature

T

b

{\displaystyle T_{b}}

 is the boiling point in degrees Celsius and the pressure

P

{\displaystyle P_{}}

 is in Torr.

text: Dühring's rule[edit]

text: Dühring's rule states that a linear relationship exists between the temperatures at which two solutions exert the same vapor pressure.

text: Examples[edit]

text: The following table is a list of a variety of substances ordered by increasing vapor pressure (in absolute units).

text:
Substance

Vapor Pressure(SI units)

Vapor Pressure(Bar)

Vapor Pressure(mmHg)

Temperature

Tungsten

100 Pa

0.001

0.75

3203 °C

Ethylene glycol

500 Pa

0.005

3.75

20 °C

Xenon difluoride

600 Pa

0.006

4.50

25 °C

Water (H2O)

2.3 kPa

0.023

17.5

20 °C

Propanol

2.4 kPa

0.024

18.0

20 °C

Methyl isobutyl ketone

2.66 kPa

0.0266

19.95

25 °C

Ethanol

5.83 kPa

0.0583

43.7

20 °C

Freon 113

37.9 kPa

0.379

284

20 °C

Acetaldehyde

98.7 kPa

0.987

740

20 °C

Butane

220 kPa

2.2

1650

20 °C

Formaldehyde

435.7 kPa

4.357

3268

20 °C

Propane[10]

997.8 kPa

9.978

7584

26.85 °C

Carbonyl sulfide

1.255 MPa

12.55

9412

25 °C

Nitrous oxide[11]

5.660 MPa

56.60

42453

25 °C

Carbon dioxide

5.7 MPa

57

42753

20 °C

tag: table

text: Estimating vapor pressure from molecular structure[edit]

text: Several empirical methods exist to estimate liquid vapor pressure from molecular structure for organic molecules. Some examples are SIMPOL,[12] the method of Moller et al.,[9] and EVAPORATION.[13][14]

text: Meaning in meteorology[edit]

text: In meteorology, the term vapor pressure is used to mean the partial pressure of water vapor in the atmosphere, even if it is not in equilibrium,[15] and the equilibrium vapor pressure is specified otherwise. Meteorologists also use the term saturation vapor pressure to refer to the equilibrium vapor pressure of water or brine above a flat surface, to distinguish it from equilibrium vapor pressure, which takes into account the shape and size of water droplets and particulates in the atmosphere.[16]


document_title: Mother's Day

question_text: when did mother's day become a national holiday

question_tokens: when did mother 's day become a national holiday

text: Mother's Day

text: Establishment of holiday

text: The modern holiday of Mother's Day was first celebrated in 1908, when Anna Jarvis held a memorial for her mother at St Andrew's Methodist Church in Grafton, West Virginia.[9] St Andrew's Methodist Church now holds the International Mother's Day Shrine.[10] Her campaign to make Mother's Day a recognized holiday in the United States began in 1905, the year her mother, Ann Reeves Jarvis, died. Ann Jarvis had been a peace activist who cared for wounded soldiers on both sides of the American Civil War, and created Mother's Day Work Clubs to address public health issues. Anna Jarvis wanted to honor her mother by continuing the work she started and to set aside a day to honor all mothers because she believed a mother is "the person who has done more for you than anyone in the world".[11]

text: In 1908, the U.S. Congress rejected a proposal to make Mother's Day an official holiday, joking that they would also have to proclaim a "Mother-in-law's Day".[12] However, owing to the efforts of Anna Jarvis, by 1911 all U.S. states observed the holiday,[13] with some of them officially recognizing Mother's Day as a local holiday[14] (the first being West Virginia, Jarvis' home state, in 1910). In 1914, Woodrow Wilson signed a proclamation designating Mother's Day, held on the second Sunday in May, as a national holiday to honor mothers.[15]

text: Although Jarvis was successful in founding Mother's Day, she became resentful of the commercialization of the holiday. By the early 1920s, Hallmark Cards and other companies had started selling Mother's Day cards. Jarvis believed that the companies had misinterpreted and exploited the idea of Mother's Day, and that the emphasis of the holiday was on sentiment, not profit. As a result, she organized boycotts of Mother's Day, and threatened to issue lawsuits against the companies involved.[16] Jarvis argued that people should appreciate and honor their mothers through handwritten letters expressing their love and gratitude, instead of buying gifts and pre-made cards.[15] Jarvis protested at a candy makers' convention in Philadelphia in 1923, and at a meeting of American War Mothers in 1925. By this time, carnations had become associated with Mother's Day, and the selling of carnations by the American War Mothers to raise money angered Jarvis, who was arrested for disturbing the peace.[15][16]

text: Spelling

text: In 1912 Anna Jarvis trademarked the phrases "Second Sunday in May" and "Mother's Day", and created the Mother's Day International Association.[17] She specifically noted that "Mother's" should "be a singular possessive, for each family to honor its own mother, not a plural possessive commemorating all mothers in the world."[18] This is also the spelling used by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in his 1914 presidential proclamation, by the U.S. Congress in relevant bills,[19][20] and by various U.S. presidents in their proclamations concerning Mother's Day.[21]

text: Dates around the world

text: While the United States holiday was adopted by some other countries, existing celebrations, held on different dates, honouring motherhood have become described as "Mother's Day", such as Mothering Sunday in the United Kingdom[5] or, in Greece, the Eastern Orthodox celebration of the presentation of Jesus Christ to the temple (2 February of Julian Calendar). Both the secular and religious Mother Day are present in Greece.[citation needed] Mothering Sunday is often referred to as "Mother's Day" even though it is an unrelated celebration.[5]

text: In some countries, the date adopted is one significant to the majority religion, such as Virgin Mary Day in Catholic countries. Other countries selected a date with historical significance. For example, Bolivia's Mother's Day is the date of a battle in which women participated.[22] See the "International history and tradition" section for the complete list.

text: Some ex-communist countries, such as Russia, celebrated International Women's Day instead of Mother's Day[23] or simply celebrate both holidays, which is the custom in Ukraine. Kyrgyzstan has recently introduced Mother's Day, but "year on year [International Women's Day] is certainly increasing in status".[24]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
Gregorian calendar

Occurrence
Dates
Country

Second Sunday of February

Feb 12, 2017
Feb 11, 2018
Feb 10, 2019

 Norway

3 March

 Georgia[25]

8 March (with International Women's Day)

 Afghanistan
 Albania
 Armenia
 Azerbaijan
 Belarus
 Bosnia and Herzegovina
 Bulgaria
 Burundi
 Burkina Faso
 Kazakhstan
 Kosovo
 Laos
 Macedonia
 Moldova
 Montenegro
 Romania
 Russia
 Serbia
 Tajikistan
 Uzbekistan
 Vietnam[26]

Fourth Sunday in Lent (Mothering Sunday)

26 Mar 2017
11 Mar 2018
31 Mar 2019

 Guernsey
 Ireland
 Isle of Man
 Jersey
 Nigeria
 United Kingdom[27]

21 March
(Spring equinox)

 Bahrain[28]
 Comoros
 Djibouti
 Egypt[28]
 Iraq
 Jordan[28]
 Kuwait[28]
 Libya[28]
 Lebanon[29][30]
 Mauritania
 Oman[28]
 Palestine[28][30]
 Qatar[28]
 Saudi Arabia[citation needed]
 Somalia
 Sudan[28]
 Syria[28]
 United Arab Emirates[28]
 Yemen

25 March

 Slovenia

7 April (Annunciation day)

 Armenia (Motherhood and Beauty Day)

First Sunday of May

May 7, 2017
May 6, 2018
May 5, 2019

 Angola
 Cape Verde
 Hungary
 Lithuania
 Mozambique
 Portugal
 Spain

8 May

 South Korea (Parents' Day)

10 May

 El Salvador
 Guatemala
 Mexico

Second Sunday of May

May 14, 2017
May 13, 2018
May 12, 2019
May 10, 2020

 Anguilla
 Antigua and Barbuda
 Aruba
 Australia
 Austria
 Bahamas
 Bangladesh
 Barbados
 Belgium
 Belize
 Bermuda
 Bhutan
 Bonaire
 Botswana
 Brazil
 Brunei
 Canada
 Cambodia
 Cayman Islands
 Central African Republic
 Chad
 Chile[31]
 China[32]
 Colombia
 Congo, Dem. Rep.
 Congo, Rep.
 Cote d'Ivoire
 Croatia
 Cuba[33]
 Curaçao
 Cyprus
 Czech Republic[34]
 Denmark
 Dominica
 Ecuador
 Equatorial Guinea
 Estonia
 Ethiopia
 Faroe Islands
 Fiji
 Finland
 Germany
 Gabon
 Gambia
 Greenland
 Ghana
 Greece
 Grenada
 Guyana
 Honduras
 Hong Kong
 Iceland
 India
 Italy
 Jamaica
 Japan
 Kenya
 Latvia
 Liberia
 Liechtenstein
 Macau
 Malaysia
 Malta
 Myanmar
 Namibia
 Netherlands
 New Zealand
 Pakistan
 Papua New Guinea
 Peru[35]
 Philippines
 Puerto Rico
 Saint Kitts and Nevis
 Saint Lucia
 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
 Samoa
 Singapore
 Sint Maarten
 Slovakia[34]
 South Africa[36]
 Sri Lanka
 Suriname
  Switzerland
 Taiwan
 Tanzania
 Tonga
 Trinidad and Tobago
 Turkey
 Uganda
 Ukraine
 United States
 Uruguay
 Vietnam[26]
 Venezuela
 Zambia
 Zimbabwe

14 May

 Benin

15 May

 Paraguay (same day as Día de la Patria)[37]

19 May

 Kyrgyzstan (Russian: День матери, Kyrgyz: Энэ күнү)

22 May

 Israel (new)[38]

26 May

 Poland (Polish: Dzień Matki)

27 May

 Bolivia[22]

Last Sunday of May (sometimes First Sunday of June if the last Sunday of May is Pentecost)

May 28, 2017
May 27, 2018
May 26, 2019

 Algeria
 Cameroon
 Dominican Republic
 France[27] (First Sunday of June if Pentecost occurs on this day)

French Antilles (First Sunday of June if Pentecost occurs on this day)

 Madagascar
 Mali
 Morocco
 Niger
 Haiti[39]
 Mauritius
 Senegal
 Sweden
 Tunisia

30 May

 Nicaragua[40]

1 June

 Mongolia (together with Children's Day)

Second Sunday of June

Jun 11, 2017
Jun 10, 2018
Jun 9, 2019

 Luxembourg

First Monday of July

Jul 3, 2017
Jul 2, 2018
Jul 1, 2019

 South Sudan

12 August

 Thailand (birthday of Queen Sirikit)

15 August (Assumption of Mary)

 Costa Rica
 Antwerp (Belgium)

14 October

 Belarus (since 1996[41])

15 October

 Malawi (Observed on 15 October or following work day)

Third Sunday of October

Oct 15, 2017
Oct 21, 2018
Oct 20, 2019

 Argentina (Día de la Madre)[42]

3 November

 Timor Leste

16 November

 North Korea[43]

Last Sunday of November

 Russia

8 December (Feast of the Immaculate Conception)

 Panama[44]

22 December

 Indonesia[45]

Hebrew calendars

Occurrence
Equivalent Gregorian dates
Country

Shevat 30

Between 30 January and 1 March- Family Day

 Israel[38]

Hindu calendars

Occurrence
Equivalent Gregorian dates
Country

Baisakh[46] Amavasya (Mata Tirtha Aunsi[47])

Between 19 April and 19 May
6 May 2016 [46]
26 April 2017

   Nepal

Persian calendars

Occurrence
Equivalent Gregorian dates
Country

21 Ordibehesht[n 1]

20 April 2014
10 April 2015
30 March 2016

 Iran[48]

text: International history and tradition

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: In most countries, Mother's Day is an observance derived from the holiday as it has evolved in the United States, promoted by companies who saw benefit in making it popular.[6] As adopted by other countries and cultures, the holiday has different meanings, is associated with different events (religious, historical or legendary), and is celebrated on different dates.

text: In some cases, countries already had existing celebrations honoring motherhood, and their celebrations then adopted several external characteristics from the US holiday, such as giving carnations and other presents to one's mother.

text: The extent of the celebrations varies greatly. In some countries, it is potentially offensive to one's mother not to mark Mother's Day. In others, it is a little-known festival celebrated mainly by immigrants, or covered by the media as a taste of foreign culture.[citation needed]

text: Religion

text: In the Roman Catholic Church, the holiday is strongly associated with revering the Virgin Mary.[49] In some Catholic homes, families have a special shrine devoted to the Blessed Virgin Mary. In many Eastern Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, a special prayer service is held in honor of the Theotokos Virgin Mary.[50][citation needed]

text: In Islam there is no concept of Mother's Day, but the Quran teaches that children should give priority to loving their mother over their father.[51]

text: In Hindu tradition, Mother's Day is called "Mata Tirtha Aunshi" or "Mother Pilgrimage fortnight", and is celebrated in countries with a Hindu population, especially in Nepal. The holiday is observed on the new moon day in the month of Baisakh, i.e., April/May. This celebration is based on Hindu religion and it pre-dates the creation of the US-inspired celebration by at least a few centuries.[citation needed]

text: In Buddhism, the festival of Ullambana is derived from the story of Maudgalyayana and his mother.[52]

text: By country (A–G)

text: Albania

text: Mother's day is celebrated in 8 March . The origin of the 8th of March holiday dates back to 1908 and is associated with a tragic event. A group of workers at a textile factory in New York strikes against extreme working conditions. On 8 March, the factory was shut down and the workers remained trapped inside. Suddenly a fire broke out, where 129 mothers died.

text: Arab world

text: Mother's Day in most Arab countries is celebrated on 21 March. It was introduced in Egypt by journalist Mustafa Amin[53] and was first celebrated in 1956.[54] The practice has since been copied by other Arab countries.[citation needed]

text: Argentina

text: In Argentina, Mother's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of October. The holiday was originally celebrated on 11 October, the old liturgical date for the celebration of the Maternity of the Blessed Virgin Mary but after the Second Vatican Council, which moved the Virgin Mary festivity to 1 January, the Mother's Day started to be celebrated the third Sunday of October because of popular tradition.[42] Argentina is the only country in the world that celebrates Mother's Day on this date.[citation needed]

text: Armenia

text: In Armenia, Mother's Day is celebrated on 8 March, and on 7 April as Maternity and Beauty Day.

text: Australia

text: In Australia, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday in May. The tradition of giving gifts to mothers on Mother's Day in Australia was started by Janet Heyden,[55] a resident of Leichhardt, Sydney, in 1924. She began the tradition during a visit to a patient at the Newington State Home for Women, where she met many lonely and forgotten mothers. To cheer them up, she rounded up support from local school children and businesses to donate and bring gifts to the women. Every year thereafter, Mrs Heyden raised increasing support for the project from local businesses and even the local Mayor. The day has since become commercialised.

text: Belarus

text: Belarus celebrates Mother's Day on 14 October. Like other ex-Communist republics, Belarus used to celebrate only International Women's Day on 8 March. Mother's Day in Belarus was officially established by the Belarusian government, and it was celebrated for the first time in 1996.[41] The celebration of the Virgin Mary (the holiday of Protection of the Holy Mother of God) is celebrated in the same day.[56]

text: Bhutan

text: Mother's Day in Bhutan is celebrated on 8 May. It was introduced in Bhutan by the Tourism Council of Bhutan.[57]

text: Belgium

text: In Belgium, Mother's Day (Moederdag or Moederkesdag in Dutch and Fête des Mères in French) is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. In the week before this holiday children make little presents at primary school, which they give to their mothers in the early morning of Mother's Day. Typically, the father will buy croissants and other sweet breads and pastries and bring these to the mother while she is still in bed – the beginning of a day of pampering for the mother. There are also many people who celebrate Mother's Day on 15 August instead; these are mostly people around Antwerp, who consider that day (Assumption) the classical Mother's Day and the observance in May an invention for commercial reasons. It was originally established on that day as the result of a campaign by Frans Van Kuyck, a painter and Alderman from Antwerp.[citation needed]

text: Bolivia

text: In Bolivia, Mother's Day is celebrated on 27 May. El Día de la Madre Boliviana was passed into law on 8 November 1927, during the presidency of Hernando Siles Reyes. The date commemorates the Battle of La Coronilla, which took place on 27 May 1812, during the Bolivian War of Independence, in what is now the city of Cochabamba. In this battle, women fighting for the country's independence were slaughtered by the Spanish army. It is not a public holiday, but all schools hold activities and festivities throughout the day.[22]

text: Brazil

text: In Brazil, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. The first Mother's Day in Brazil was promoted by Associação Cristã de Moços de Porto Alegre (Young Men's Christian Association of Porto Alegre) on 12 May 1918. In 1932, then President Getúlio Vargas made the second Sunday of May the official date for Mother's Day. In 1947, Archbishop Jaime de Barros Câmara, Cardinal-Archbishop of Rio de Janeiro, decided that this holiday would also be included in the official calendar of the Catholic Church.[citation needed]

text: Mother's Day is not an official holiday (see Public holidays in Brazil), but it is widely observed and typically involves spending time with and giving gifts to one's mother. Because of this, it is considered one of the celebrations most related to consumerism in the country, second only to Christmas Day as the most commercially lucrative holiday.[58]

text: Canada

text: Mother's Day in Canada is celebrated on the second Sunday in May (it is not a public holiday or bank holiday), and typically involves small celebrations and gift-giving to one's mother, grandmother, or other important female figures in one's family.[citation needed] Celebratory practices are very similar to those of other western nations. A Québécois tradition is for Québécois men to offer roses or other flowers to the women.[citation needed]

text: China

text: Mother's Day is becoming more popular in China. Carnations are a very popular Mother's Day gift and the most sold flowers in relation to the day.[59] In 1997 Mother's Day was set as the day to help poor mothers and to remind people of the poor mothers in rural areas such as China's western region.[59] In the People's Daily, the Chinese government's official newspaper, an article explained that "despite originating in the United States, people in China accept the holiday without hesitation because it is in line with the country's traditional ethics – respect for the elderly and filial piety towards parents."[59]

text: In recent years, the Communist Party member Li Hanqiu began to advocate for the official adoption of Mother's Day in memory of Meng Mu, the mother of Mèng Zǐ. He formed a non-governmental organization called Chinese Mothers' Festival Promotion Society, with the support of 100 Confucian scholars and lecturers of ethics.[60][61] Li and the Society want to replace the Western-style gift of carnations with lilies, which, in ancient times, were planted by Chinese mothers when children left home.[61] Mother's Day remains an unofficial festival, except in a small number of cities.[citation needed]

text: Czech Republic

text: In the Czech Republic, Mother's Day is celebrated every second Sunday in May. It started in former Czechoslovakia in 1923.[34] The promoter of this celebration was Alice Masaryková.[34] After World War II communists replaced Mother's Day with International Woman's Day, celebrated on 8 March.[34] The former Czechoslovakia celebrated Women's Day until the Velvet Revolution in 1989.[34] After the split of the country in 1993, the Czech Republic started celebrating Mother's Day again.[34]

text: Egypt

text: Mother's Day in Egypt is celebrated on 21 March, the first day of spring in the northern hemisphere. It was introduced in Egypt by journalist Mustafa Amin[53] in his book Smiling America (1943). The idea was overlooked at the time. Later Amin heard the story of a widowed mother who devoted her whole life to raising her son until he became a doctor. The son then married and left without showing any gratitude to his mother. Hearing this, Amin became motivated to promote "Mother's Day". The idea was first ridiculed by president Gamal Abdel Nasser but he eventually accepted it and Mother's Day was first celebrated on 21 March 1956. The practice has since been copied by other Arab countries.[citation needed]

text: When Mustafa Amin was arrested and imprisoned, there were attempts to change the name of the holiday from "Mother's Day" to "Family Day" as the government wished to prevent the occasion from reminding people of its founder. These attempts were unsuccessful and celebrations continued to be held on that day; classic songs celebrating mothers remain famous to this day.[citation needed]

text: Ethiopia

text: Mother's Day is celebrated for three days in Ethiopia, after the end of rainy season. It comes in mid-fall where people enjoy a three-day feast called "Antrosht".[62]

text: For the feast, ingredients will be brought by the children for a traditional hash recipe. The ingredients are divided along genders, with girls bringing spices, vegetables, cheese and butter, while the boys bring a lamb or bull. The mother hands out to the family the hash.[63]

text: A celebration takes place after the meal. The mothers and daughters anoint themselves using butter on their faces and chests. While honoring their family and heroes, men sing songs.[64]

text: Estonia

text: In Estonia, Mother's Day (emadepäev in Estonian) is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. It is recognized nationally, but is not a public holiday.[65]

text: Finland

text: In Finland, Mother's Day (äitienpäivä in Finnish) is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. It is recognized nationally, and is a public holiday. It is usually celebrated at homes where children or grandchildren bring Mother´s day cards that they have drawn to their mothers and grandmothers. Usually some food, coffee and cakes are served for guests. Grown up children visit their parents homes and bring traditionally Mother´s day roses or other flowers accompanied with a Mother´s day card. The president of Finland honors with medals every year some mothers who have done something exceptional and positive during the year. [66]

text: France

text: In France, amidst alarm at the low birth rate, there were attempts in 1896 and 1904 to create a national celebration honoring the mothers of large families.[67] In 1906 ten mothers who had nine children each were given an award recognising "High Maternal Merit" ("Haut mérite maternel").[68] American World War I soldiers fighting in France popularized the US Mother's Day holiday created by Anna Jarvis. They sent so much mail back to their country for Mother's Day that the Union Franco-Américaine created a postal card for that purpose.[67] In 1918, also inspired by Jarvis, the town of Lyon wanted to celebrate a "journée des Mères", but instead decided to celebrate a "Journée Nationale des Mères de familles nombreuses." The holiday was more inspired by anti-depopulation efforts than by the US holiday, with medals awarded to the mothers of large families.[67] The French government made the day official in 1920 as a day for mothers of large families.[69] Since then the French government awards the Médaille de la Famille française to mothers of large families.[citation needed]

text: In 1941, by initiative of Philippe Pétain, the wartime Vichy government used the celebration in support of their policy to encourage larger families, but all mothers were now honored, even mothers with smaller families.[69]

text: In 1950, after the war, the celebration was reinstated. The law of 24 May 1950 required (in Article 1) that the Republic pay official homage to French Mothers. Article 2 stated it should be celebrated on the last Sunday in May as the "Fête des Mères" (except when Pentecost fell on that day, in which case it was moved to the first Sunday in June). Article 3 stated that all expenditure shall be covered from the budget of the Ministry of Public Health and Population.[70]

text: During the 1950s, the celebration lost all its patriotic and natalist ideologies, and became heavily commercialized.[67]

text: In 1956, the celebration was given a budget and integrated into the new Code de l'action Sociale et des familles. In 2004 responsibility for the holiday was transferred to the Minister responsible for families.[citation needed]

text: Georgia

text: Georgia celebrates Mother's Day on 3 March. It was declared by the first President of Georgia Zviad Gamsakhurdia in order to replace the International Women Day, and it was officially approved by the Supreme Council in 1991. Nowadays Georgia celebrates both Mother's Day on 3 March and International Women's Day on 8 March.[25]

text: Germany

text: In the 1920s, Germany had the lowest birthrate in Europe, and the declining trend was continuing. This was attributed to women's participation in the labor market. At the same time, influential groups in society (politicians of left and right, churchwomen, and feminists) believed that mothers should be honored but could not agree on how to do so. However, all groups strongly agreed on the promotion of the values of motherhood. In 1923, this resulted in the unanimous adoption of Muttertag, the Mother's Day holiday as imported from America[citation needed] and Norway. The head of the Association of German Florists cited "the inner conflict of our Volk and the loosening of the family" as his reason for introducing the holiday. He expected that the holiday would unite the divided country. In 1925, the Mother's Day Committee joined the task force for the recovery of the volk, and the holiday stopped depending on commercial interests and began emphasizing the need to increase the population in Germany by promoting motherhood.[71]

text: The holiday was then seen as a means to encourage women to bear more children, which nationalists saw as a way to rejuvenate the nation. The holiday did not celebrate individual women, but an idealized standard of motherhood. The progressive forces resisted the implementation of the holiday because it was backed by so many conservatives, and because they saw it as a way to eliminate the rights of working women. Die Frau, the newspaper of the Federation of German Women's Associations, refused to recognize the holiday. Many local authorities adopted their own interpretation of the holiday: it would be a day to support economically larger families or single-mother families. The guidelines for the subsidies had eugenics criteria, but there is no indication that social workers ever implemented them in practice, and subsidies were given preferentially to families in economic need rather than to families with more children or "healthier" children.[71]

text: With the Nazi party in power during 1933–1945, the situation changed radically. The promotion of Mother's Day increased in many European countries, including the UK and France. From the position of the German Nazi government, the role of mothers was to give healthy children to the German nation. The Nazi party's intention was to create a pure "Aryan race" according to nazi eugenics. Among other Mother's Day ideas, the government promoted the death of a mother's sons in battle as the highest embodiment of patriotic motherhood.[71][72]

text: The Nazis quickly declared Mother's Day an official holiday and put it under the control of the NSV (National Socialist People's Welfare Association) and the NSF (National Socialist Women Organization). This created conflicts with other organizations that resented Nazi control of the holiday, including Catholic and Protestant churches and local women's organizations. Local authorities resisted the guidelines from the Nazi government and continued assigning resources to families who were in economic need, much to the dismay of the Nazi officials.[71]

text: In 1938, the government began issuing an award called Mother's Cross (Mutterkreuz), according to categories that depended on the number of children a mother had. The medal was awarded on Mother's Day and also on other holidays due to the large number of recipients. The Cross was an effort to encourage women to have more children, and recipients were required to have at least four.[71][72]

text: By country (H–M)

text: Hungary

text: In Hungary, Mother's Day is celebrated on the first Sunday of May. It was first celebrated in 1925 by the Hungarian Red Cross Youth.[citation needed]

text: India

text: The modern Mother's Day has been assimilated into Indian culture,[73] and it is celebrated every year on the second Sunday of May.[74] Indians do not celebrate the occasion as a religious event, and it is celebrated primarily in urban centers.

text: Indonesia

text: Indonesian Mother's Day (Indonesian: Hari Ibu) is celebrated nationally on 22 December. The date was made an official holiday by President Soekarno under Presidential Decree (Indonesian: Dekrit Presiden) no. 316 in 1953, on the 25th anniversary of the 1928 Indonesian Women Congress. The day originally sought to celebrate the spirit of Indonesian women and to improve the condition of the nation. Today, the meaning of Mother's Day has changed, and it is celebrated by expressing love and gratitude to mothers. People present gifts to mothers (such as flowers) and hold surprise parties and competitions, which include cooking and kebaya wearing. People also allow mothers a day off from domestic chores.[75]

text: The holiday is celebrated on the anniversary of the opening day of the first Indonesian Women Congress (Indonesian: Kongres Perempuan Indonesia), which was held from 22 to 25 December 1928.[45][76] The Congress took place in a building called Dalem Jayadipuran, which now serves as the office of the Center of History and Traditional Values Preservation (Indonesian: Balai Pelestarian Sejarah dan Nilai Tradisional) in Brigjen Katamso Street, Yogyakarta. The Congress was attended by 30 feminist organizations from 12 cities in Java and Sumatra. In Indonesia, feminist organizations have existed since 1912, inspired by Indonesian heroines of the 19th century, e.g., Kartini, Martha Christina Tiahahu, Cut Nyak Meutia, Maria Walanda Maramis, Dewi Sartika, Nyai Ahmad Dahlan, Rasuna Said, etc.[45] The Congress intended to improve women's rights in education and marriage.[77]

text: Indonesia also celebrates the Kartini Day (Indonesian: Hari Kartini) on 21 April, in memory of activist Raden Ajeng Kartini. This is a celebration of the emancipation of women.[76] The observance was instituted at the 1938 Indonesian Women Congress.[77]

text: During President Suharto's New Order (1965–1998), government propaganda used Mother's Day and Kartini Day to inculcate into women the idea that they should be docile and stay at home.[77]

text: Iran

text: In Iran, Mother's Day is celebrated on 20 Jumada al-thani. This is the sixth month in the Islamic calendar (a lunar calendar) and every year the holiday falls on a different day of the Gregorian calendar. This is the birthday anniversary of Fatimah, Prophet Muhammad's only daughter according to Shia Islam.[48][78] On this day, banners reading "Ya Fatemeah (O! Fatemeh)" are displayed on "government buildings, private buildings, public streets and car windows."[48] Mother's Day was originally observed on 16 December but the date was changed after the Iranian Revolution in 1979. The celebration is both Women's Day (replacing International Women's Day) and Mother's Day.[48][79]

text: In 1960, the Institute for Women Protection adopted the Western holiday and established it on 25 Azar (16 December), the date the Institute was founded. The Institute's action had the support of Queen Farah Pahlavi, the wife of the last Shah of Persia, who promoted the construction of maternity clinics in remote parts of the country to commemorate the day.[80] Pahlavi regime used the holiday to promote "gender ideologies" of the regime.[48] The Shah's government honored and gave awards to women who represented the idealized view of the regime, including mothers who had many healthy children.[80]

text: According to Shahla Haeri, the Islamic Republic government has used the holiday to "control and channel women's movements" and to promote role models for the traditional concept of family.[81] Fatimah is seen by these critics as the chosen model of a woman completely dedicated to certain traditionally sanctioned feminine roles.[82] However, supporters of the choice contend that there is much more to her life story than simply such "traditional" roles.[83]

text: Israel

text: The Jewish population of Israel used to celebrate Mother's Day on Shevat 30 of the Jewish calendar, which falls between 30 January and 1 March. The celebration was set as the same date that Henrietta Szold died (13 February 1945). Henrietta had no biological children, but her organization Youth Aliyah rescued many Jewish children from Nazi Germany and provided for them. She also championed children's rights. Szold is considered the "mother" of all those children, and that is why her annual remembrance day (יום השנה) was set as Mother's Day (יוֹם הָאֵם, yom ha'em). The holiday has evolved over time, becoming a celebration of mutual love inside the family, called Family Day (יוֹם הַמִשְּפָּחָה, yom hamishpacha). This holiday is mainly celebrated in preschools with an activity to which parents are invited. Mother's Day is mainly celebrated by children at kindergartens. There are no longer mutual gifts among members of the family, and there is no longer any commercialization of the celebration. It is not an official holiday.[38]

text: Italy

text: Mother's Day in Italy was celebrated for the first time on 24 December 1933 as the "Day of the mother and the child" (Giornata della madre e del fanciullo). It was instituted by the Opera nazionale maternità e infanzia in order to publicly reward the most prolific Italian women every year.[84]

text: After World War II, Mother's Day was first celebrated on 12 May 1957 in Assisi, at the initiative of Reverend Otello Migliosi, the parish priest of the Tordibetto church.[85] This celebration was so popular that in the following year Mother's Day was adopted throughout Italy. On 18 December 1958, a proposal was presented to the Italian Senate to make the holiday official.[86]

text: Japan

text: In Japan, Mother's Day (母の日, Haha no Hi) was initially commemorated during the Shōwa period as the birthday of Empress Kōjun (mother of Emperor Akihito) on 6 March. This was established in 1931 when the Imperial Women's Union was organized. In 1937, the first meeting of "Praise Mothers" was held on 8 May, and in 1949 Japanese society adopted the second Sunday of May as the official date for Mother's Day in Japan. Today, people typically give their mothers gifts of flowers such as red carnations and roses.[citation needed]Japan is most known for giving carnations on Mother's Day.

text: Kyrgyzstan

text: In Kyrgyzstan, Mother's Day is celebrated on 19 May every year. The holiday was first celebrated in 2012.[87] Mothers are also honored on International Women's Day[88]

text: Latvia

text: Mother's Day in Latvia was celebrated for the first time in 1922. Since 1934, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May.[89] After the end of the soviet occupation of Baltic states celebration was resumed in 1992.[90] Mothers are also honored on International Women's Day.[citation needed]

text: Lithuania

text: Mother's Day in Lithuania was celebrated for the first time in 1928. In Lithuania, Mother's Day is celebrated on the first Sunday of May.

text: Malawi

text: In Malawi. Mother's Day is a public holiday. The day is observed on 15 October or the following workday. It is celebrated on the UN's World Rural Women’s Day.

text: Maldives

text: In the Maldives, Mother's Day is celebrated on 13 May. The day is celebrated in different ways. Children give gifts and spend time with their mothers. Daughters give their mothers cards and handmade gifts and sons give their mothers gifts and flowers. Maldivians love to celebrate Mother's day, and they have it specially written on their calendar.[citation needed]

text: Malta

text: The first mention of Mother's Day in Malta occurred during the Radio Children's Programmes run by Frans H. Said in May 1961. Within a few years, Mother's Day became one of the most popular dates in the Maltese calendar. In Malta, this day is commemorated on the second Sunday in May. Mothers are invariably given gifts and invited for lunch, usually at a good quality restaurant.[citation needed]

text: Mexico

text: In Mexico, the government of Álvaro Obregón imported the Mother's Day holiday from the US in 1922, and the newspaper Excélsior held a massive promotional campaign for the holiday that year.[91] The conservative government tried to use the holiday to promote a more conservative role for mothers in families, but that perspective was criticized by the socialists as promoting an unrealistic image of a woman who was not good for much more than breeding.[91]

text: In the mid-1930s, the leftist government of Lázaro Cárdenas promoted the holiday as a "patriotic festival". The Cárdenas government tried to use the holiday as a vehicle for various efforts: to stress the importance of families as the basis for national development; to benefit from the loyalty that Mexicans felt towards their mothers; to introduce new morals to Mexican women; and to reduce the influence that the church and the Catholic right exerted over women.[92] The government sponsored the holiday in the schools.[92] However, ignoring the strict guidelines from the government, theatre plays were filled with religious icons and themes. Consequently, the "national celebrations" became "religious fiestas" despite the efforts of the government.[92]

text: Soledad Orozco García, the wife of President Manuel Ávila Camacho, promoted the holiday during the 1940s, resulting in an important state-sponsored celebration.[93] The 1942 celebration lasted a full week and included an announcement that all women could reclaim their pawned sewing machines from the Monte de Piedad at no cost.[93]

text: Due to Orozco's promotion, the Catholic National Synarchist Union (UNS) took heed of the holiday around 1941.[94] Shop-owner members of the Party of the Mexican Revolution (now the Institutional Revolutionary Party) observed a custom allowing women from humble classes to pick a free Mother's Day gift from a shop to bring home to their families. The Synarchists worried that this promoted both materialism and the idleness of lower classes, and in turn, reinforced the systemic social problems of the country.[95] Currently this holiday practice is viewed as very conservative, but the 1940s' UNS saw Mother's Day as part of the larger debate on the modernization that was happening at the time.[96] This economic modernization was inspired by US models and was sponsored by the state. The fact that the holiday was originally imported from the US was seen as evidence of an attempt at imposing capitalism and materialism in Mexican society.[96]

text: The UNS and the clergy of the city of León interpreted the government's actions as an effort to secularize the holiday and to promote a more active role for women in society. They concluded that the government's long-term goal was to cause women to abandon their traditional roles at home in order to spiritually weaken men.[96] They also saw the holiday as an attempt to secularize the cult to the Virgin Mary, inside a larger effort to dechristianize several holidays. The government sought to counter these claims by organizing widespread masses and asking religious women to assist with the state-sponsored events in order to "depaganize" them.[97] The clergy preferred to promote 2 July celebration of the Santísima Virgen de la Luz, the patron of León, Guanajuato, in replacement of Mother's Day.[94] In 1942, at the same time as Soledad's greatest celebration of Mother's Day, the clergy organized the 210th celebration of the Virgin Mary with a large parade in León.[97]

text: There is a consensus among scholars that the Mexican government abandoned its revolutionary initiatives during the 1940s, including its efforts to influence Mother's Day.[94]

text: Today the "Día de las Madres" is an unofficial holiday in Mexico held each year on 10 May,[98] the day on which it was first celebrated in Mexico.[99]

text: In Mexico, to show affection and appreciation to the mother, it is traditional to start the celebration with the famous song "Las Mañanitas", either a cappella, with the help of a mariachi or a contracted trio. Many families usually gather to celebrate this special day trying to spend as much time as possible with mothers to honor them on their day. They are organized to bring some dishes and eat all together or maybe to visit any restaurant.[citation needed]

text: By country (N–S)

text: Nepal

text: In Nepal, there is a festival equivalent to Mother's Day, called Mata Tirtha Aunsi ("Mother Pilgrimage New Moon"), or Mata Tirtha Puja ("Mother Pilgrimage Worship"). It is celebrated according to the lunar calendar. It falls on the last day of the dark fortnight in the month of Baishakh which falls in April–May (in 2015, it will occur on 18 April). The dark fortnight lasts for 15 days from the full moon to the new moon. This festival is observed to commemorate and honor mothers, and it is celebrated by giving gifts to mothers and remembering mothers who are no more.[citation needed]

text: To honor mothers who have died, it is the tradition to go on a pilgrimage to the Mata Tirtha ponds, located 6 km to the southwest of downtown Kathmandu. The nearby Mata Tirtha village is named after these ponds. Previously, the tradition was observed primarily by the Newar community and other people living in the Kathmandu Valley. Now this festival is widely celebrated across the country.[citation needed]

text: Many tragic folklore legends have been created, suggesting different reasons why this pond became a pilgrimage site. The most popular version says that, in ancient times, the mother of a shepherd died, and he made offerings to a nearby pond. There he saw the face of his mother in the water, with her hand taking the offerings. Since then, many people visited the pond, hoping to see their deceased mother's face. Pilgrims believe that they will bring peace to their mothers' souls by visiting the sacred place. There are two ponds. The larger one is for ritual bathing. The smaller one is used to "look upon mother's face", and is fenced by iron bars to prevent people from bathing in it.[citation needed]

text: Traditionally, in the Kathmandu valley the South-Western corner is reserved for women and women-related rituals, and the North-Eastern is for men and men-related rituals. The worship place for Mata Tirtha Aunsi is located in Mata Tirtha in the South-Western half of the valley, while the worship place for Gokarna Aunsi, the equivalent celebration for deceased fathers, is located in Gokarna, Nepal, in the North-Eastern half. This division is reflected in many aspects of the life in Kathmandu valley.[100]

text: Mother's Day is known as Aama ko Mukh Herne Din in Nepali, which literally means "day to see mother's face". In Nepal Bhasa, the festival is known as Mām yā Khwā Swayegu, which can be translated as "to look upon mother's face".[citation needed]

text: Netherlands

text: In the Netherlands, Mother's Day was introduced as early as 1910 by the Dutch branch of the Salvation Army.[101] The Royal Dutch Society for Horticulture and Botany, a group protecting the interest of Dutch florists, worked to promote the holiday; they hoped to emulate the commercial success achieved by American florists.[102] They were imitating the campaign already underway by florists in Germany and Austria, but they were aware that the traditions had originated in the US.[102]

text: Florists launched a major promotional effort in 1925. This included the publication of a book of articles written by famous intellectuals, radio broadcasts, newspapers ads, and the collaboration of priests and teachers who wanted to promote the celebration for their own reasons.[102] In 1931 the second Sunday of May was adopted as the official celebration date. In the mid-1930s the slogan Moederdag – Bloemendag (Mother's Day – Flowers' Day) was coined, and the phrase was popular for many years.[103] In the 1930s and 1940's "Mother's Day cakes" were given as gifts in hospitals and to the Dutch Queen, who is known as the "mother of the country".[103] Other trade groups tried to cash in on the holiday and to give new meaning to the holiday in order to promote their own wares as gifts.[103]

text: Roman Catholic priests complained that the holiday interfered with the honoring of the Virgin Mary, the divine mother, which took place during the whole month of May. In 1926 Mother's Day was celebrated on 7 July in order to address these complaints.[104] Catholic organizations and priests tried to Christianize the holiday, but those attempts were rendered futile around the 1960s when the church lost influence and the holiday was completely secularized.[104]

text: In later years, the initial resistance disappeared, and even leftist newspapers stopped their criticism and endorsed Mother's Day.[105]

text: In the 1980s, the American origin of the holiday was still not widely known, so feminist groups who opposed the perpetuation of gender roles sometimes claimed that Mother's Day was invented by Nazis and celebrated on the birthday of Klara Hitler, Hitler's mother.[106]

text: New Zealand

text: In New Zealand, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday in May. Mother's Day is not a public holiday. The New Zealand tradition is to give cards and gifts and to serve mothers breakfast in bed.[citation needed]

text: Nicaragua

text: In Nicaragua, the Día de la Madre has been celebrated on 30 May since the early 1940s. The date was chosen by President Anastasio Somoza García because it was the birthday of Casimira Sacasa, his wife's mother.[40]

text: North Korea

text: Mother's Day is celebrated on 16 November as a public holiday in North Korea. The date takes its significance from the First National Meeting of Mothers held in 1961, for which Kim Il-sung, the leader of the country, published a work called The Duty of Mothers in the Education of Children. The date was designated as Mother's Day in May 2012 by the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly but only became a public holiday and appeared on the North Korean calendar starting in 2015.[43]

text: Norway

text: Mother's Day was first celebrated on 9 February 1919 and was initially organized by religious institutions. Later it has become a family day, and the mother is often treated to breakfast in bed, flowers and cake.[107][better source needed]

text: It has gradually become a major commercial event, with special pastries, flowers and other presents offered by retailers. Day-cares and primary schools often encourage children to make cards and other gifts.[citation needed]

text: Pakistan

text: In Pakistan, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. Media channels celebrate with special shows. Individuals honor their mothers by giving gifts and commemorative articles. Individuals who have lost their mothers pray and pay their respects to their loved ones lost. Schools hold special programs in order to acknowledge the efforts of their mothers.[108]

text: Panama

text: In Panama, Mother's Day is celebrated on 8 December, the same day as the Feast of the Immaculate Conception. This date was suggested in 1930 by the wife of Panama's President Florencio Harmodio Arosemena. 8 December was adopted as Mother's Day under Law 69, which was passed the same year.[44]

text: According to another account, in 1924 the Rotary Club of Panama asked that Mother's Day be celebrated on 11 May. Politician Aníbal D. Ríos changed the proposal so that the celebration would be held on 8 December. He then established Mother's Day as a national holiday on that date.[109]

text: Paraguay

text: In Paraguay, Mother's Day is celebrated on 15 May, the same day as the Dia de la Patria, which celebrates the independence of Paraguay.[37] This date was chosen to honor the role played by Juana María de Lara in the events of 14 May 1811 that led to Paraguay's independence.[110]

text: In 2008, the Paraguayan Minister of Culture, Bruno Barrios, lamented this coincidence because, in Paraguay, Mother's Day is much more popular than independence day and the independence celebration goes unnoticed. As a result, Barrios asked that the celebration be moved to the end of the month.[111] A group of young people attempted to gather 20,000 signatures to ask the Parliament to move Mother's Day.[111] In 2008, the Comisión de festejos (Celebration Committee) of the city of Asunción asked that Mother's Day be moved to the second Sunday of May.[112]

text: Philippines

text: In the Philippines, Mother's Day is officially celebrated on the second Sunday of May, but it is not a public holiday.[113] Although not a traditional Filipino holiday, the occasion owes its popularity to American Colonial Period influence.

text: According to a 2008 article by the Philippine News Agency, in 1921 the Ilocos Norte Federation of Women's Clubs asked to declare the first Monday of December as Mother's Day "to honor these fabulous women who brought forth God's children into this world." In response, Governor-General Charles Yeater issued Circular No. 33 declaring the celebration. In 1937 President Manuel L. Quezon issued Presidential Proclamation No. 213, changing the name of the occasion from "Mother's Day" to "Parent's Day" to address the complaints that there wasn't a "Father's Day". In 1980 President Ferdinand Marcos issued Presidential Proclamation No. 2037 proclaiming the date as both Mother's Day and Father's Day. In 1988 President Corazon Aquino issued Presidential Proclamation No. 266, changing Mother's Day to the second Sunday of May, and Father's Day to the third Sunday of June, discontinuing the traditional date.[114] In 1998 President Joseph Estrada returned both celebrations to the first Monday of December.[113]

text: Portugal

text: In Portugal, the "Dia da Mãe" ("Mother's Day") is an unofficial holiday held each year on the first Sunday of May (sometimes coinciding with Labour Day). The weeks leading up to this Sunday, school children spend a few hours a day to prepare a gift for their mothers, aided by their school teachers. In general, mothers receive gifts by their family members and this day is meant to be celebrated with the whole family. It used to be celebrated on the 8th December, the same date of the Conception of the Virgin celebration.[citation needed]

text: Romania

text: In Romania, Mother's Day has been celebrated on the first Sunday of May since 2010. Law 319/2009 made both Mother's Day and Father's Day official holidays in Romania. The measure was passed thanks to campaign efforts from the Alliance Fighting Discrimination Against Fathers (TATA).[115] Previously, Mother's Day was celebrated on 8 March, as part of International Women's Day (a tradition dating back to when Romania was part of the Eastern bloc). Today, Mother's Day and International Women's Day are two separate holidays, with International Women's Day being held on its original date of 8 March.[citation needed]

text: Russia

text: Traditionally Russia had celebrated International Women's Day and Mother's Day on 8 March, an inheritance from the Soviet Union, and a public holiday.[116]

text: Women's Day was first celebrated on the last Sunday in February in 1913 in Russia.[117]

text: In 1917, demonstrations marking International Women's Day in Saint Petersburg on the last Sunday in February (which fell on 8 March on the Gregorian calendar) initiated the February Revolution. Following the October Revolution later that year, the Bolshevik Alexandra Kollontai persuaded Vladimir Lenin to make it an official holiday in the Soviet Union, and it was established, but was a working day until 1965.[citation needed]

text: On 8 May 1965, by the decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, International Women's Day was declared a non-working day in the Soviet Union "in commemoration of the outstanding merits of Soviet women in communistic construction, in the defense of their Fatherland during the Great Patriotic War, in their heroism and selflessness at the front and in the rear, and also marking the great contribution of women to strengthening friendship between peoples, and the struggle for peace. But still, women's day must be celebrated as are other holidays."[118]

text: Samoa

text: In Samoa, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday in May, and as a recognised national holiday on the Monday following.

text: Singapore

text: In Singapore, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. It is not recognized as a holiday by the government.

text: Slovakia

text: Czechoslovakia celebrated only Women's Day until the Velvet Revolution in 1989. After the country split in 1993, Slovakia started celebrating both Women's Day and Mother's Day. The politicization of Women's Day has affected the official status of Mother's Day. Center-right parties want Mother's Day to replace Women's Day, and social-democrats want to make Women's Day an official holiday. Currently, both days are festive, but they are not "state holidays". In the Slovak Republic, Mother's Day is celebrated every second Sunday in May.[34]

text: South Africa

text: In South Africa, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. It is not recognized as a holiday by the government. The tradition is to give cards and gifts and to serve mothers breakfast in bed or to go out to lunch together as a family.

text: South Sudan

text: In South Sudan, Mother's Day is celebrated on the first Monday in July. The president Salva Kiir Mayardit proclaimed Mother's Day as the first Monday in July after handing over from Sudan. Children in South Sudan are presenting mothers with gifts and flowers. The first Mother's Day was held in that country on 2 July 2012.[citation needed]

text: Spain

text: In Spain, Mother's Day or Día de la Madre is celebrated on the first Sunday of May. The weeks leading up to this Sunday, school children spend a few hours a day to prepare a gift for their mothers, aided by their school teachers. In general, mothers receive gifts by their family members & this day is meant to be celebrated with the whole family. It is also said to be celebrated in May, as May is the month dedicated to the Virgin Mary (mother of Jesus) according to Catholicism.The idea of a month dedicated specifically to Mary can be traced back to baroque times. Although it wasn’t always held during May, Mary Month included thirty daily spiritual exercises honoring Mary.[119][citation needed]

text: Sri Lanka

text: In Sri Lanka, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May.

text: Sweden

text: In Sweden, Mother's Day was first celebrated in 1919, by initiative of the author Cecilia Bååth-Holmberg. It took several decades for the day to be widely recognized. Swedes born in the early nineteen hundreds typically did not celebrate the day because of the common belief that the holiday was invented strictly for commercial purposes. This was in contrast to Father's Day, which has been widely celebrated in Sweden since the late 1970s. Mother's Day in Sweden is celebrated on the last Sunday in May. A later date was chosen to allow everyone to go outside and pick flowers.[citation needed]

text: Switzerland

text: In Switzerland, the "règle de Pentecôte" law allows Mother's Day to be celebrated a week late if the holiday falls on the same day as Pentecost. In 2008, merchants declined to move the date.[120]

text: By country (T–Z)

text: Taiwan

text: In Taiwan, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of the month of May, coinciding with Buddha's birthday and the traditional ceremony of "washing the Buddha". In 1999 the Taiwanese government established the second Sunday of May as Buddha's birthday, so they would be celebrated in the same day.[121][122]

text: Since 2006,[123] the Tzu Chi, the largest charity organization in Taiwan, celebrates the Tzu Chi Day, Mother's Day and Buddha's birthday all together, as part of a unified celebration and religious observance.[124][125][126]

text: Thailand

text: Mother's day in Thailand is celebrated on the birthday of the Queen of Thailand, Queen Sirikit (12 August).[127] The holiday was first celebrated around the 1980s as part of the campaign by the Prime Minister of Thailand Prem Tinsulanonda to promote Thailand's Royal family.[128] Father's Day is celebrated on the late King Bhumibol Adulyadej's birthday.[128]

text: Ukraine

text: Ukraine celebrates Mother's Day (Ukrainian: День Матері) on the second Sunday of May. In Ukraine, Mother's Day officially became a holiday only in 1999[129] and is celebrated since 2000. Since then Ukrainian society struggles to transition the main holiday that recognizes woman from the International Women's Day, a holiday adopted under the Soviet Union that remained as a legacy in Ukraine after its collapse, to Mother's Day.[citation needed]

text: United Kingdom

text: The United Kingdom celebrates Mothering Sunday, which falls on the fourth Sunday of Lent (26 March in 2017). This holiday has its roots in the church and was originally unrelated to the American holiday.[5][130] Most historians believe that Mothering Sunday evolved from the 16th-century Christian practice of visiting one's mother church annually on Laetare Sunday.[131] As a result of this tradition, most mothers were reunited with their children on this day when young apprentices and young women in service were released by their masters for that weekend. As a result of the influence of the American Mother's Day, Mothering Sunday transformed into the tradition of showing appreciation to one's mother. The holiday is still recognized in the original historical sense by many churches, with attention paid to Mary the mother of Jesus Christ and the concept of the Mother Church.[citation needed]

text: The custom was still popular by the start of the 19th century, but with the Industrial Revolution, traditions changed and the Mothering Day customs declined.[130] By 1935, Mothering Sunday was less celebrated in Europe.[citation needed] Constance Penswick-Smith worked unsuccessfully to revive the festival in the 1910s–1920s. However, US World War II soldiers brought the US Mother's Day celebration to the UK,[132] and the holiday was merged with the Mothering Sunday traditions still celebrated in the Church of England.[133] By the 1950s, the celebration became popular again in the whole of the UK, thanks to the efforts of UK merchants, who saw in the festival a great commercial opportunity.[133] People from UK started celebrating Mother's Day on the fourth Sunday of Lent, the same day on which Mothering Sunday had been celebrated for centuries. Some Mothering Sunday traditions were revived, such as the tradition of eating cake on that day, although celebrants now eat simnel cake[27] instead of the cakes that were traditionally prepared at that time.[citation needed] The traditions of the two holidays are now mixed together and celebrated on the same day, although many people are not aware that the festivities have quite separate origins.[134]

text: Mothering Sunday occurs 3 weeks prior to Easter Sunday or the fourth Sunday of Lent, meaning it can fall at the earliest on 1 March (in years when Easter Day falls on 22 March) and at the latest on 4 April (when Easter Day falls on 25 April).[135]

text: United States

text: The United States celebrates Mother's Day on the second Sunday in May. In 1872 Julia Ward Howe called for women to join in support of disarmament and asked for 2 June 1872, to be established as a "Mother's Day for Peace". Her 1870 "Appeal to womanhood throughout the world" is sometimes referred to as Mother's Day Proclamation. But Howe's day was not for honouring mothers but for organizing pacifist mothers against war. In the 1880s and 1890s there were several further attempts to establish an American "Mother's Day", but these did not succeed beyond the local level.[136]

text: In the United States, Mother's Day remains one of the biggest days for sales of flowers, greeting cards, and the like; Mother's Day is also the biggest holiday for long-distance telephone calls.[137] Moreover, churchgoing is also popular on Mother's Day, yielding the highest church attendance after Christmas Eve and Easter. Many worshippers celebrate the day with carnations, coloured if the mother is living and white if she is dead.[9][138]

text: Mother's Day continues to be one of the most commercially successful U.S. occasions.[139]

text: It is possible that the holiday would have withered over time without the support and continuous promotion of the florist industries and other commercial industries. Other Protestant holidays from the same time, such as Children's Day and Temperance Sunday, do not have the same level of popularity.[140]