document_title: Guess Who's Coming to Dinner

question_text: who played the maid in guess whos coming to dinner

text: Guess Who's Coming to Dinner

text: Plot[edit]

text: Joanna Drayton's (Katharine Houghton) unannounced early return from a Hawaiian vacation causes a stir when she brings her new fiancé to her childhood upper-class home in San Francisco in 1967. He is John Prentice (Sidney Poitier): a widowed, black physician.[7][8] Joanna's parents—newspaper publisher Matt Drayton (Spencer Tracy) and his wife, art gallery owner Christina Drayton (Katharine Hepburn)—are purported liberals who have instilled in her the idea of racial equality. Although they try to hide it, Joanna's parents and in particular her father are initially upset that she is planning to marry a black man. The Draytons' black maid, Tillie (Isabel Sanford), is even more horrified, suspecting that John is trying to "get above himself" by marrying a white woman.

text: Joanna is oblivious to the reactions of her parents. They are unsettled by her engagement with John, since they never thought that her choice would be a black man, and further unsettled by John's decision that if Joanna's parents do not accept the engagement that day, then he will end it.

text: Adding to the situation is that Joanna, at first intending to join John in a few weeks in Geneva for their planned marriage ceremony, has changed her mind to leave after dinner on his flight to New York City and then onward to Europe. She has also invited John's parents (Roy E. Glenn and Beah Richards) to dinner, so they can all become acquainted. Due to this invitation, what was intended to be a sit-down steak dinner for two turns into a meet-the-in-laws dinner party. Furthermore, John is forced to reveal that he had not yet told his parents of his intention to marry a white woman.

text: Matt's golf buddy Monsignor Mike Ryan (Cecil Kellaway), a Catholic priest, stops by after Matt earlier cancelled on playing golf. After learning of John, he shares Joanna's enthusiasm for the pending nuptials and tells her father as much. Matt says he cannot give the couple his blessing, however; he fears that Joanna will be hurt by the prejudice that John and she will surely encounter. Meanwhile, one of Christina's employees at her gallery, Hilary (Virginia Christine), who had briefly met John and Joanna earlier in the day, stops by the Draytons' home to express her disapproval over the relationship, and though Christina herself is still unsure of her own feelings about the matter, she is so offended at Hilary's racism that she fires her on the spot. Later, when dressing for dinner, Christina shares with Matt her support for Joanna, even if it should mean having to fight her husband.

text: Cocktails at the Drayton home resemble a game of musical chairs, as different sets of parental characters share their views about the situation, with the mothers generally expressing more faith in their children than the fathers. Universally, the parents had been expressed that more than a few hours are necessary for a proper decision, but John's mother brings up her idea of what the men are missing about the situation: passion. When the elder Prentice tells John that he is making a huge mistake, John says that his father thinks of himself as a black man, whereas John thinks of himself as a man. Mrs. Prentice tells Matt that her husband and he, in growing old, have forgotten what it is like to feel romantic passion. If they remembered, they would see that in their children as being more important than any racial problem.

text: After thinking about the situation, and his conversation with Mrs. Prentice in particular, Matt calls everyone together to make an announcement. He says that it does not matter what everyone else may think about John and Joanna getting married; all that matters is that they love each other. The film ends with the two families and Monsignor Ryan finally sitting down to dinner.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Spencer Tracy as Matt Drayton
Sidney Poitier as Dr. John Wayde Prentice Jr.
Katharine Hepburn as Christina Drayton
Katharine Houghton as Joanna "Joey" Drayton
Cecil Kellaway as Monsignor Mike Ryan
Beah Richards as Mary Prentice
Roy E. Glenn as John Prentice Sr.
Virginia Christine as Hilary St. George
Alexandra Hay as Carhop
Isabel Sanford as Matilda "Tillie" Binks
Barbara Randolph as Dorothy
D'Urville Martin as Frankie
Skip Martin as the delivery boy

text: Production[edit]

text: Production list[9]

text:
Produced and directed by: Stanley Kramer
Original screenplay by: William Rose
Associate producer: George Glass
Music by: Frank De Vol
Director of photography: Sam Leavitt
Film editor: Robert C. Jones
Production designer: Robert Clatworthy
Set decorator: Frank Tuttle
Assistant director: Ray Gosnell
Special effects: Geza Gaspar
Process photography: Larry Butler
Sound recording: Charles J. Rice, Robert Martin
Costumes: Joe King
Wardrobe supervisor: Jean Louis
Song "Glory of Love" by: Billy Hill, sung by Jacqueline Fontaine

text: According to Kramer, Rose and he intentionally structured the film to debunk ethnic stereotypes. The young doctor, a typical role for the young Sidney Poitier, was purposely created idealistically perfect, so that the only possible objection to his marrying Joanna would be his race, or the fact she had only known him for 10 days; the character has thus graduated from a top school, begun innovative medical initiatives in Africa, refused to have premarital sex with his fiancée despite her willingness, and leaves money in an open container on his future father-in-law's desk in payment for a long-distance phone call he has made. Nothing is made of the 14-year difference in their ages. Kramer and Rose completed the film script in five weeks.[10]

text: Kramer stated later that the principal actors believed so strongly in the premise that they agreed to act in the project even before seeing the script. Production had been set for January 1967 and ended on May 24, 1967.[11] Spencer Tracy was in poor health, and insurance companies refused to cover him. Kramer and Hepburn put their salaries in escrow so that if he died, filming could be completed with another actor. According to Kramer, "You're never examined for insurance until a few weeks before a picture starts. [Even] with all his drinking and ailments, Tracy always qualified for insurance before, so nobody thought it would be a problem in this case. But it was. We couldn't get insurance for Spence. The situation looked desperate. So then we figured out a way of handling it. Kate and I put up our own salaries to compensate for the lack of an insurance company for Spence. And we were allowed to proceed."[12]

text: The filming schedule was altered to accommodate Tracy's failing health.[13] All of Tracy's scenes and shots were filmed between 9:00 am and noon of each day to give him adequate time to rest.[10] For example, most of Tracy's dialogue scenes were filmed in such a way that during close-ups on other characters, a stand-in was substituted for him.[14]

text: Tracy's failing health was more serious than most people are aware of. According to Poitier: "The illness of Spencer dominated everything. I knew his health was very poor and many of the people who knew what the situation was didn't believe we'd finish the film, that is, that Tracy would be able to finish the film. Those of us who were close knew it was worse than they thought. Kate brought him to and from the set. She worked with him on his lines. She made sure with [Stanley] Kramer that his hours were right for what he could do, and what he couldn't do was different each day. There were days when he couldn't do anything. There were days when he was great, and I got the chance to know what it was like working with Tracy."[15]

text: A bust of Tracy sculpted by Hepburn herself was used as a prop, on the bookshelf behind the desk where Sidney Poitier makes his phone call. Tracy died two weeks after he completed his work on the film.[16]

text: Hepburn significantly helped cast her niece, Katharine Houghton, for the role of Joey Drayton. Concerning this, Hepburn stated: "There was a lovely part for Kathy [Houghton], my niece [...] She would play Spencer's and my daughter. I loved that. She's beautiful and she definitely had a family resemblance. It was my idea."[17]

text: According to Hepburn, the role of Joey Drayton would be one of Houghton's first major roles as a young actress. "The part of my daughter," Kate said, "was a difficult one. A young unknown actress needs more opportunity to win the sympathy of the audience. Otherwise, too much has to depend on her youth, innocence, and beauty. She had one good speech to win the audience, but it was cut. Instead she only talks with her father about the differences between the principles he taught her and the way he's behaving."[18]

text: Poitier frequently found himself starstruck and as a result, a bit tongue-tied, in the presence of Hepburn and Tracy, whom he considered to be "giants" as far as acting is concerned.[19] However, Poitier reportedly found a way to overcome his nerves. "When I went to play a scene with Tracy and Hepburn, I couldn't remember a word. Finally, Stanley Kramer said to me, 'What are we going to do?' I said, 'Stanley, send those two people home. I will play the scene against two empty chairs. I don't want them here because I can't handle that kind of company.' He sent them home. I played the scene in close-up against two empty chairs as the dialogue coach read Mr. Tracy's and Miss Hepburn's lines from off camera."[19]

text: Given the tense nature of racism in the United States during the time of the film's production, Poitier felt he was "under close observation" by both Tracy and Hepburn during their first dinner meetings prior to production.[20] However, he managed to swiftly win them over. Due to Tracy and Hepburn's close history with Kramer, Poitier cited that Hepburn and Tracy came to bear on him "the kind of respect they had for Kramer, and they had to say to themselves (and I'm sure they did), this kid has to be pretty okay, because Stanley is nuts about working with him".[21]

text: Release[edit]

text: The film premiered in theaters on January 1, 1968. The film falls into the genre of comedy drama.[22] The film was released on VHS on December 12, 1987,[23] on the 20th anniversary of the original release. The film was released on DVD on May 22, 2001.[24]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Guess Who's Coming to Dinner was a box-office hit in 1968 throughout the United States, including in Southern states where it was traditionally assumed that few white filmgoers would want to see any film with black leads. The success of this film challenged that assumption in film marketing.[25] Despite this success, which included numerous film award nominations, Frank Rich of The New York Times wrote in November 2008 that the film was frequently labeled as dated among liberals. Another main point of contention was the fact that Poitier's character, the golden future son-in-law, had no flaws and a resume of good deeds. Many people felt that the dynamic between the Draytons and Poitier's character would have inevitably resulted in a happily-ever-after film ending because Poitier's character was so perfect, respectable, likable, and proper. Some people went as far as saying Prentice was "too white" not to be accepted by the Draytons.[26]

text: The release of the film in the U.S. gave Poitier his third box-office success in six months in 1967,[24] all of which placed the race of Poitier's character at issue. The film grossed a total of $56.7 million.[2]

text: In a 1986 review of the film by The New York Times, Lawrence Van Gelder wrote: "the suspicion arises that were the film made today its makers would come to grips a good deal more bluntly with the problems of intermarriage. Still, this remains a deft comedy and - most of all - a paean to the power of love."[27]

text: Variant versions[edit]

text: The original version of the film that played in theaters in 1968 contained a moment in which Tillie responds to the question "Guess who's coming to dinner now?" with the sarcastic one-liner: "The Reverend Martin Luther King?" After King's assassination on April 4, 1968, this line was removed from the film, so by August 1968, almost all theaters' showings of this film had this line omitted. As early as 1969, the line was restored to many but not all prints, and the line was preserved in the VHS and DVD versions of the film, as well.

text: The plot explores similar themes to the 1958 play Hot Summer Night by Ted Willis.

text: Awards and honors[edit]

text: Wins[edit]

text: The film won two Academy Awards and two British Academy Film Awards:[28]

text:
1967: Academy Award for Best Actress (Katharine Hepburn)
1967: Academy Award for Best Writing (Original Screenplay)
1968: BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role (Spencer Tracy)
1968: BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role (Katharine Hepburn)
1968: David di Donatello for Best Foreign Producer (Stanley Kramer)
1968: David di Donatello for Best Foreign Actor (Spencer Tracy)
1968: David di Donatello for Best Foreign Actress (Katharine Hepburn)

text: Nominations[edit]

text:
1967: Academy Award for Best Picture
1967: Academy Award for Best Director
1967: Academy Award for Best Actor (Spencer Tracy)
1967: Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor (Cecil Kellaway)
1967: Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress (Beah Richards)
1967: Academy Award for Best Art Direction (Robert Clatworthy and Frank Tuttle)
1967: Academy Award for Best Film Editing (Robert C. Jones)
1967: Academy Award for Best Original Score (Frank De Vol)

text: American Film Institute recognition[edit]

text:
AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies – #99
AFI's 100 Years...100 Passions – #58
AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes:

"You think of yourself as a colored man. I think of myself as a man." – Nominated [29]

AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers – #35
AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) – Nominated [30]

text: Remakes[edit]

text: Stanley Kramer produced and directed an unsold 30-minute television pilot for ABC-TV with the same title and premise in 1975.[31]

text: In 2003, comedian Daniele Luttazzi published the screenplay Tabù, an almost verbatim parody of the film. In the variation, the engaged lovers are aged 40 (him) and 12 (her), and are brother and sister.[32]

text: The 2005 film Guess Who starring Ashton Kutcher and Bernie Mac is a loose remake styled as a comedy rather than a drama, with the racial roles reversed: black parents are caught off-guard when their daughter brings home the young white man she has chosen to marry. Talking about the film, Bernie Mac told USA Today in 2003, "Interracial dating is not that significant anymore." In the article, the writer cites that during the time at which the original movie was filmed, "interracial marriage was considered risky." Casting for Mac's remake of the film began in November 2003. Mac said of the script, "They want to make it a comedy, but I won't disrespect Spencer, Katharine or Sidney."[33]

text: The Irish writer Roddy Doyle wrote a short story by the same title about an Irish girl who brings home an immigrant from Nigeria, published in 2008 in the collection The Deportees.[34]

text: The plot is very similar to another film, Crossroads, made by the Canadian director Don Haldane a decade earlier in 1957. In this film, a young white woman in Toronto surprises her mother with her black fiancé.[35]

text: The film was referenced in a 1988 episode of the sitcom Designing Women by Suzanne, who mistakenly calls it, "There's Some Black People Comin' Over for Dinner."[36]

text: In the episode Guess Who's Coming to Marry (season 2, episode 6) of the black sitcom Fresh Prince of Bel Air, an aunt of the lead character introduces her fiancé, a white man, to the horror of her family.


document_title: Procedures of the Supreme Court of the United States

question_text: when does a session of the supreme court begin and end

root

text: Terms and sittings[edit]

text: A term of the Supreme Court commences on the first Monday of each October, and continues until June or early July of the following year. Each term consists of alternating periods of approximately two weeks known as "sittings" and "recesses." Justices hear cases and deliver rulings during sittings; they discuss cases and write opinions during recesses.

tag: p

text: The Court's authority to hear cases[edit]

text: Appellate jurisdiction[edit]

text: In nearly all of the cases heard by the Supreme Court, the Court exercises the appellate jurisdiction granted it by Article III of the Constitution. This authority permits the Court to review—and affirm or overturn—decisions made by lower courts and tribunals. Procedures for bringing cases before the Supreme Court have changed significantly over time. Today, cases are brought before the Supreme Court by one of several methods, of which the first two account for the overwhelming majority of cases decided:

text:
By petition for a writ of certiorari, filed by a party to a case that has been decided by one of the United States courts of appeals or by the United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces.
By petition for writ of certiorari with respect to a decision of one of the territorial or state courts, after all state appeals have been exhausted, where an issue of federal constitutional or statutory law is in question. The writ is usually issued to a state supreme court (including high courts of the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, and American Samoa), but is occasionally issued to a state's intermediate appellate court for cases where the state supreme court denied certiorari or review and thereby refused to hear the appeal.
By petition for certiorari before judgment, which permits the Court to expedite a case pending before a United States court of appeals by accepting the case for review before the appellate court has decided it. However, Supreme Court Rule 11 provides that a case may be taken by the Court before judgment in a lower court "only upon a showing that the case is of such imperative public importance as to justify deviation from normal appellate practice and to require immediate determination in this Court."
By appeal from certain decisions of United States district courts in certain cases involving redistricting of congressional or state legislative districts, or when specifically authorized in a particular statute.
By a certified question or proposition of law from one of the United States Courts of Appeals, meaning that the Court of Appeals requests the Supreme Court to instruct it on how to decide the case. This procedure was once common but is now rarely invoked; the last certificate accepted for review was in 1981.
By petition for an "extraordinary writ" such as mandamus, prohibition, or habeas corpus. These writs are rarely granted by the Supreme Court though they are more frequently granted by lower courts.

tag: ul

text: Original jurisdiction[edit]

text: Certain cases that have not been considered by a lower court may be heard by the Supreme Court in the first instance under what is termed original jurisdiction. The Supreme Court's authority in this respect is also derived from Article III of the Constitution, which states that the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction "in all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a state shall be party." The original jurisdiction of the Court is set forth in 28 U.S.C. § 1251. This statute provides further that, in the case of disputes between two or more states, the Supreme Court holds both original and exclusive jurisdiction and no lower court may hear such cases.

text: The number of original jurisdiction cases heard by the court is small; generally only one or two such cases are heard per term. Because the nine-member Supreme Court is not well-suited to conducting pretrial proceedings or trials, original jurisdiction cases accepted by the Court are typically referred to a well-qualified lawyer or lower-court judge to serve as special master, conduct the proceedings, and report recommendations to the Court. The Court then considers whether to accept the special master's report or whether to sustain any exceptions filed to the report.

text: Although jury trials are in theory possible in the Court's original jurisdiction cases, there has not been one since Georgia v. Brailsford in 1794.[1] In 1950, in the case United States v. Louisiana, the state of Louisiana moved for a jury trial, but the Court denied the motion, ruling that the suit was an equity action and not an action at law, and that therefore the Seventh Amendment guarantee of a jury trial did not apply. If a matter involving an action at law did come before the court, however, a jury would likely be empaneled and would hear the case alongside the justices of the Court.[2]

text: Selection of cases[edit]

text: Since the Judiciary Act of 1925 ("The Certiorari Act" in some texts), the majority of the Supreme Court's jurisdiction has been discretionary.[3] Each year, the court receives approximately 9,000–10,000 petitions for certiorari, of which less than 1% (approximately 80–100), are granted plenary review with oral arguments, and an additional 50 to 60 are disposed of without plenary review.[4][5]

text: The Court strictly enforces its requirements for the preparation and timely filing of certiorari petitions, in order to manage such a massive caseload. This occasionally results in harsh consequences, as Justice Thomas acknowledged in a 2007 opinion: "Just a few months ago, the Clerk, pursuant to this Court’s Rule 13.2, refused to accept a petition for certiorari submitted by Ryan Heath Dickson because it had been filed one day late ... Dickson was executed on April 26, 2007, without any Member of this Court having even seen his petition for certiorari. The rejected certiorari petition was Dickson’s first in this Court, and one can only speculate as to whether denial of that petition would have been a foregone conclusion."[6]

text: In theory, each Justice's clerks write a brief for the Justice outlining the questions presented, and offering a recommendation as to whether certiorari should be granted; in practice, most Justices (all of the current court, except Justices Alito and Gorsuch) have their clerks participate in the cert pool.[7][8][9]

text: During the Justices' regular conference, the Justices discuss the petitions, and grant certiorari in less than five percent of the cases filed. (During the 1980s and 1990s, the number of cases accepted and decided each term approached 150 per year; more recently, the number of cases granted has averaged well under 100 annually). Before each conference, the Chief Justice prepares a list of those petitions he believes have sufficient merit to warrant discussion. Any other Justice may also add a case to the "discuss list"; cases not designated for discussion by any Justice are automatically denied review. The Court or a Justice may also decide that a case be "re-listed" for discussion at a later conference; this occurs, for example, where the Court decides to request input from the Solicitor General of the United States on whether a petition should be granted.[10]

text: The votes of four Justices at Conference (see Rule of four) will suffice to grant certiorari and place the case on the court's calendar. If the Supreme Court grants certiorari (or the certified question or other extraordinary writ), then a briefing schedule is arranged for the parties to submit their briefs in favor of or against a particular form of relief. During this time, an individual or group having an interest in a case but not a party to the case may submit a motion to appear before the court as amicus curiae ("friend of the court"). Except for certain specific categories (such as lawyers for state and local governments) or where all parties to the case consent, it is in the Court's discretion whether such motions are granted.

text: The grant or denial of certiorari petitions by the Court are usually issued as one-sentence orders without explanation.

text: Cases that fall within the Court's original jurisdiction are initiated by filing a complaint directly with the Supreme Court, and normally are assigned to a special master appointed by the Court for the taking of evidence and making recommendations, after which the Court may accept briefs and hear oral arguments as in an appellate case.

text: Hearing cases[edit]

text: Filing briefs[edit]

text: Before oral arguments, the parties to a case file legal briefs outlining their arguments. An amicus curiae may also submit a brief in support of a particular outcome in the case if the Court grants it permission. Formal rules govern every aspect of these briefs; Chief Justice William Rehnquist described the rules thus:

text: Oral arguments[edit]

text: Thereafter, if the Court chooses to hold a hearing, each side has thirty minutes to present its case orally. In exceptional and controversial cases, however, the time limit may be extended. In the Court's early years, attorneys might argue a single case for hours or even days; but as the judicial workload increased, the time available for argument has been restricted. The late Chief Justice Rehnquist was noted for his especially strict enforcement of the argument time limits.

text: To file pleadings or to argue a case, an attorney must be a member of the bar of the Court. (The primary requirement for admission to the Bar is that the attorney must have been admitted to practice in the highest court of a state or territory for at least the past three years.) Justices are allowed to interrupt the attorney speaking in order to ask him or her questions, and particularly since the arrival of Justice Antonin Scalia in 1986, do so often.[12]

text: The Court began recording Oral Arguments in October 1955.[13] Beginning in October 2010, the Supreme Court began the practice of posting recordings and transcripts of the oral arguments made during the preceding week on Fridays on the Court's website.

text: In an interview for C-SPAN, former Justice Scalia, speaking for himself, noted that by the time the Justices hear oral arguments, having read the submissions by the parties and amici, it is "very rare, though not unheard of", for the discussion during the oral arguments to change his view of a case in which he has already made up his mind based on the submissions and his research about the case. However, he also made the point that it is "quite common" for him to go into Oral Arguments with his mind not made up yet, as the cases are usually very hard and difficult, and that in those situations a persuasive attorney can make the difference for him.[14]

text: Forming opinions[edit]

text: The conference: assignment of opinions[edit]

text: At the end of a week in which the Court has heard oral arguments, the Justices hold a conference to discuss the cases and vote on any new petitions of certiorari. The Justices discuss the points of law at issue in the cases. No clerks are permitted to be present, which would make it exceedingly difficult for a justice without a firm grasp of the matters at hand to participate.[15] At this conference, each justice—in order from most to least senior—states the basis on which he or she would decide the case, and a preliminary vote is taken.

text: Former Justice Scalia professed frustration that there is little substantive discussion,[16] while former Chief Justice Rehnquist wrote that this makes the conference more efficient.[17] The votes are tallied, and the responsibility for writing the opinion in the case is assigned to one of the justices; the most senior Justice voting in the majority (but always the Chief Justice if he is in the majority) makes the assignment, and can assign the responsibility to him- or herself.

text: Circulating draft opinions and changing of views[edit]

text: The justice writing the opinion for the court will produce and circulate a draft opinion to the other justices. Each justice's law clerks may be involved in this phase. In modern Supreme Court history only a few justices, such as former Justice Antonin Scalia, have regularly written their own first drafts.[18] Once the draft opinion has been reviewed, the remaining Justices may recommend changes to the opinion. Whether these changes are accommodated depends on the legal philosophy of the drafters as well as on how strong a majority the opinion garnered at conference. A justice may instead simply join the opinion at that point without comment.

text: Votes at conference are preliminary; while opinions are being circulated, it is not unheard of for a justice to change sides. A justice may be swayed by the persuasiveness (or lack thereof) of the opinion or dissent, or as a result of reflection and discussion on the points of law at issue.

text: The evolution of the justices' views during the circulation of draft opinions can change the outcome of the case; an opinion that begins as a majority opinion can become a dissenting opinion, and vice versa. At the conference for Planned Parenthood v. Casey, Justice Kennedy is said to have initially voted with Chief Justice Rehnquist, but then changed his mind, feeling unable to join Rehnquist's draft opinion.[19] While working for the Justice Department, present-day Chief Justice John Roberts—a former Rehnquist law clerk—wrote an analysis of Wallace v. Jaffree[20] in which he indicated his belief (based on the length and structure) that Rehnquist's dissent had started out as an opinion for the court, but lost its majority; similar speculation is often heard of Justice O'Connor's dissent in Kelo v. New London.[21] Justice Kennedy is known within the Court for changing his mind subsequent to the conference, and Justice Thomas is known for having the tendency to lose a majority.[22] Justices may change sides at any time prior to the handing down of the Court's opinion. Generally, the Court's decision is the opinion which a majority (five or more) of justices have joined. In rare instances, the Court will issue a plurality opinion in which four or fewer Justices agree on one opinion, but the others are so fractured that they cannot agree on a position. In this circumstance, in order to determine what the decision is lawyers and judges will analyze the opinions to determine on which points a majority agrees. An example of a case decided by a plurality opinion is Hamdi v. Rumsfeld.

text: A justice voting with the majority may write a concurring opinion; this is an opinion where the justice agrees with the majority holding itself, but where he or she wishes to express views on the legal elements of the case that are not encompassed in the majority opinion. Justices who do not agree with the decision made by the majority may also submit dissenting opinions, which may give alternative legal viewpoints. Dissenting opinions carry no legal weight or precedent, but they can set the argument for future cases. John Marshall Harlan's dissent in Plessy v. Ferguson set down for the majority opinion later in Brown v. Board of Education.

text: After granting a writ of certiorari and accepting a case for review, the justices may decide against further review of the case. For example, the Court may feel the case presented during oral arguments did not present the constitutional issues in a clear-cut way, and that adjudication of these issues is better deferred until a suitable case comes before the court. In this event the writ of certiorari is "dismissed as improvidently granted" (DIG)—saying, in effect that the Court should not have accepted the case. As with the granting or denial of cert, this dismissal is customarily made using a simple per curiam decision without explanation.[23]

text: Customarily, justices who were not seated at the time oral arguments were heard by the Supreme Court do not participate in the formulation of an opinion. Likewise, a justice leaving the Court prior to the handing down of an opinion does not take part in the Court's opinion. Should the composition of the Court materially affect the outcome of a pending case, the justices will likely elect to reschedule the case for rehearing.

text: Tied votes and lack of quorum[edit]

text: If not all of the nine justices vote on a case, or the Court has a vacancy, then a tied vote is possible. If this occurs, then the decision of the court below is affirmed, but the case is not considered to be binding precedent. The effect is a return to the status quo ante. No opinions (or voting alignments) are issued in such a case, only the one-sentence announcement that "[t]he judgment is affirmed by an equally divided Court." Omega S.A. v. Costco Wholesale Corp. is an example of such a case. The court tries to avoid such rulings when possible: After the retirement of Justice O'Connor in 2006 three cases would have ended with a tie. All cases were reargued to allow the newly appointed Samuel Alito to cast a decisive vote.

text: A quorum of justices to hear and decide a case is six. If, through recusals or vacancies, fewer than six justices can participate in a case, and a majority of qualified justices determines that the case cannot be heard in the next term, then the decision of the court below is affirmed as if the Court had been equally divided on the case. An exception exists when this situation arises in one of the now-rare cases brought directly to the Supreme Court on appeal from a United States District Court; in this situation, the case is referred to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the corresponding circuit for a final decision there by either the Court of Appeals sitting en banc, or a panel consisting of the three most senior active circuit judges.[24]

text: Announcement of opinions[edit]

text: Throughout the term, but mostly during the last months of the term—May, June, and, if necessary, July—the Court announces its opinions. The decision of the Court is subsequently published, first as a slip opinion, and subsequently in the United States Reports. In recent years, opinions have been available on the Supreme Court's website and other legal websites on the morning they are announced. Since recording devices have been banned inside the courtroom, the fastest way for decisions of landmark cases to reach the press is through the Running of the Interns.[25]

text: The opinion of the Court is usually signed by the author; occasionally, the Supreme Court may issue an unsigned opinion per curiam. The practice of issuing a single opinion of the Court was initiated during the tenure of Chief Justice John Marshall during the early 19th century. This custom replaced the previous practice under which each Justice, whether in the majority or the minority, issued a separate opinion. The older practice is still followed by appellate courts in many common law jurisdictions outside the United States.

text: Reporting and citation of cases[edit]

text: Supreme Court decisions are typically cited as in the following example: "Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973)." The court citation consists of the names of the opposing parties; the volume number; "U.S." (signifying United States Reports, the official reporter of Supreme Court decisions); the page number on which the decision begins; and the year in which the case was decided. The names of the opposing parties are listed in the format "Petitioner v. Respondent" or "Appellant v. Appellee." The Reporter of Decisions is responsible for publication of the Court's rulings. Two other widely used citation formats exist: the Supreme Court Reporter and the Lawyers' Edition, corresponding to two privately published collections of decisions. Citations to cases in the Supreme Court Reporter would be structured as follows: Snowden v. Hughes, 64 S. Ct. 397 (1944). Citations to cases in the Lawyers' Edition would be as follows: Snowden v. Hughes, 88 L. Ed. 497 (1944). Judicial opinions often use the citation from all three sources (the United States Reports, Supreme Court Reporter, and Lawyers' Edition), as seen here: Martin v. Texas, 200 U.S. 316, 26 S. Ct. 338, 50 L. Ed. 497 (1906). Since the 1930s, prior to publication of the decisions in these reporters, they are available from the United States Law Week (U.S.L.W.). In more recent years, opinions have been available electronically soon after they appeared on commercial sites such as Lexis or Westlaw, on Internet sites such as FindLaw and on the Court's own website.[26]

text: The Reporter of Decisions is the court official responsible for the publication of the Court's opinions and orders. The current Reporter of Decisions is Christine Luchok Fallon.

text: Decisions of the Supreme Court are precedents that bind all lower courts, both federal and state. The Supreme Court generally respects its own precedents, but has in some cases overturned them.


document_title: S.W.A.T. (1975 TV series)

question_text: who played in the original swat tv show

question_tokens: who played in the original swat tv show

text: S.W.A.T. (1975 TV series)

text: Synopsis[edit]

text: The series is known for its instrumental theme song[1] composed by Barry De Vorzon which became a number-one hit single in 1976 for Rhythm Heritage. The title sequence that used that piece was also familiar with the principal characters responding to a muster signal, grabbing their weapons and running to their specially equipped transport van driven by "Sam", an uncredited, non-speaking role.[2]

text: The show's setting was rarely, if ever, specified and the shoulder patch the team members wore on their uniforms said, "W.C.P.D."[citation needed]  Richard Kelbaugh, a former member of the LAPD's S.W.A.T. team, was the technical advisor for the series.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Steve Forrest as Lt. Dan "Hondo" Harrelson (team leader)
Robert Urich as Officer Jim Street
Rod Perry as Sgt. David "Deacon" Kay
Mark Shera as Officer Dominic Luca
James Coleman as Officer T.J. McCabe (scout/sniper)
Ellen Weston as Betty Harrelson  (recurring role)
Rose Marie as Hilda (recurring role)

text: Episodes[edit]

text:
Season

Episodes

First aired

Last aired

1

12

February 24, 1975 (1975-02-24)

May 26, 1975 (1975-05-26)

2

25

September 13, 1975 (1975-09-13)

April 3, 1976 (1976-04-03)

tag: table

text: Broadcast and syndication[edit]

text: As of October 1, 2011, S.W.A.T. began airing on Antenna TV[3] and in Australia on 7mate in 2012. In May 2016, it began airing on getTV.

text: Home media releases[edit]

text: DVD[edit]

text: The first season of S.W.A.T. was released on DVD on June 3, 2003[4] to tie in with the release of the feature film. Season Two's episode "Time Bomb" was actually produced for Season One and, as such, "Time Bomb" is Episode 8 on the Season One DVD set. The Season One DVD set has a total of 13 episodes.

text: On February 10, 2012, it was announced that Shout! Factory had acquired the rights to the series; they subsequently released the second and final season on DVD on May 22, 2012.[5]

text: On January 16, 2018, Mill Creek Entertainment released S.W.A.T.- The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1.[6]

text: Streaming[edit]

text: As of March 2009, the show can be purchased on iTunes, and can be streamed for free in the United States on Crackle.

text: Reception[edit]

text: The series premiered at a time when violence on television was becoming a subject of controversy, and the actual Los Angeles SWAT team on which the fictional team had been modeled was harshly critical of its depiction of such teams.[citation needed]

text: Film adaptation[edit]

text: A film version of the series, S.W.A.T., was released in 2003 starring Colin Farrell and Samuel L. Jackson.[1] Steve Forrest has a cameo role as a police truck driver[1] and Rod Perry (the original TV series' "Deacon" Kay) plays the father of LL Cool J.[1]

text: In 2011, a direct-to-DVD sequel titled S.W.A.T.: Firefight was released; it bore little connection to either the TV series or the 2003 film.

text: Television series reboot[edit]

text: On May 12, 2017, a rebooted version of S.W.A.T. was ordered to series by CBS.[7] The new series premiered on November 2, 2017.[8]


document_title: Rainforest

question_text: name the major types of animals living in the rainforest

text: Rainforest

text: Tropical

text: Tropical rainforests are characterized by a warm and wet climate with no substantial dry season: typically found within 10 degrees north and south of the equator. Mean monthly temperatures exceed 18 °C (64 °F) during all months of the year.[5] Average annual rainfall is no less than 168 cm (66 in) and can exceed 1,000 cm (390 in) although it typically lies between 175 cm (69 in) and 200 cm (79 in).[6]

text: Many of the world's tropical forests are associated with the location of the monsoon trough, also known as the intertropical convergence zone.[7] The broader category of tropical moist forests are located in the equatorial zone between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. Tropical rainforests exist in Southeast Asia (from Myanmar (Burma) to the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka, Sub-Saharan Africa from Cameroon to the Congo (Congo Rainforest), South America (e.g. the Amazon Rainforest), Central America (e.g. Bosawás, southern Yucatán Peninsula-El Peten-Belize-Calakmul), Australia, and on many of the Pacific Islands (such as Hawaiʻi). Tropical forests have been called the "Earth's lungs", although it is now known that rainforests contribute little net oxygen addition to the atmosphere through photosynthesis.[8][9]

text: Temperate

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Tropical forests cover a large part of the globe, but temperate rainforests only occur in few regions around the world. Temperate rainforests are rainforests in temperate regions. They occur in North America (in the Pacific Northwest in Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, Oregon and California), in Europe (parts of the British Isles such as the coastal areas of Ireland and Scotland, southern Norway, parts of the western Balkans along the Adriatic coast, as well as in Galicia and coastal areas of the eastern Black Sea, including Georgia and coastal Turkey), in East Asia (in southern China, Highlands of Taiwan, much of Japan and Korea, and on Sakhalin Island and the adjacent Russian Far East coast), in South America (southern Chile) and also in Australia and New Zealand.[10]

text: Layers

text: A tropical rainforest typically has a number of layers, each with different plants and animals adapted for life in that particular area. Examples include the emergent, canopy, understorey and forest floor layers.

text: Emergent layer

text: The emergent layer contains a small number of very large trees called emergents, which grow above the general canopy, reaching heights of 45–55 m, although on occasion a few species will grow to 70–80 m tall.[11][12] They need to be able to withstand the hot temperatures and strong winds that occur above the canopy in some areas. Eagles, butterflies, bats and certain monkeys inhabit this layer.

text: Canopy layer

text: The canopy layer contains the majority of the largest trees, typically 30 metres (98 ft) to 45 metres (148 ft) tall. The densest areas of biodiversity are found in the forest canopy, a more or less continuous cover of foliage formed by adjacent treetops. The canopy, by some estimates, is home to 50 percent of all plant species. Epiphytic plants attach to trunks and branches, and obtain water and minerals from rain and debris that collects on the supporting plants. The fauna is similar to that found in the emergent layer, but more diverse. A quarter of all insect species are believed to exist in the rainforest canopy. Scientists have long suspected the richness of the canopy as a habitat, but have only recently developed practical methods of exploring it. As long ago as 1917, naturalist William Beebe declared that "another continent of life remains to be discovered, not upon the Earth, but one to two hundred feet above it, extending over thousands of square miles." True exploration of this habitat only began in the 1980s, when scientists developed methods to reach the canopy, such as firing ropes into the trees using crossbows. Exploration of the canopy is still in its infancy, but other methods include the use of balloons and airships to float above the highest branches and the building of cranes and walkways planted on the forest floor. The science of accessing tropical forest canopy using airships or similar aerial platforms is called dendronautics.[13]

text: Understory layer

text: The understory or understorey layer lies between the canopy and the forest floor. It is home to a number of birds, snakes and lizards, as well as predators such as jaguars, boa constrictors and leopards. The leaves are much larger at this level and insect life is abundant. Many seedlings that will grow to the canopy level are present in the understory. Only about 5% of the sunlight shining on the rainforest canopy reaches the understory. This layer can be called a shrub layer, although the shrub layer may also be considered a separate layer.

text: Forest floor

text: The forest floor, the bottom-most layer, receives only 2% of the sunlight. Only plants adapted to low light can grow in this region. Away from riverbanks, swamps and clearings, where dense undergrowth is found, the forest floor is relatively clear of vegetation because of the low sunlight penetration. It also contains decaying plant and animal matter, which disappears quickly, because the warm, humid conditions promote rapid decay. Many forms of fungi growing here help decay the animal and plant waste.

text: Flora and fauna

text: More than half of the world's species of plants and animals are found in the rainforest.[14] Rainforests support a very broad array of fauna, including mammals, reptiles, birds and invertebrates. Mammals may include primates, felids and other families. Reptiles include snakes, turtles, chameleons and other families; while birds include such families as vangidae and Cuculidae. Dozens of families of invertebrates are found in rainforests. Fungi are also very common in rainforest areas as they can feed on the decomposing remains of plants and animals. Many rainforest species are rapidly disappearing due to deforestation, habitat loss and pollution of the atmosphere.[15]

text: Soils

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2017)

text: Despite the growth of vegetation in a tropical rainforest, soil quality is often quite poor. Rapid bacterial decay prevents the accumulation of humus. The concentration of iron and aluminium oxides by the laterization process gives the oxisols a bright red colour and sometimes produces mineral deposits such as bauxite. Most trees have roots near the surface, because there are insufficient nutrients below the surface; most of the trees' minerals come from the top layer of decomposing leaves and animals. On younger substrates, especially of volcanic origin, tropical soils may be quite fertile. If rainforest trees are cleared, rain can accumulate on the exposed soil surfaces, creating run-off and beginning a process of soil erosion. Eventually streams and rivers form and flooding becomes possible. In the Amazon rainforest, the trees are being cut down at a terrible rate and the soil which holds the trees isn't capable of doing anything but holding the trees. Brazilian farmers have tried to farm with the soil with bad results.

text: Effect on global climate

text: A natural rainforest emits and absorbs vast quantities of carbon dioxide. On a global scale, long-term fluxes are approximately in balance, so that an undisturbed rainforest would have a small net impact on atmospheric carbon dioxide levels,[16] though they may have other climatic effects (on cloud formation, for example, by recycling water vapour). No rainforest today can be considered to be undisturbed.[17] Human-induced deforestation plays a significant role in causing rainforests to release carbon dioxide,[18][19] as do other factors, whether human-induced or natural, which result in tree death, such as burning and drought.[20] Some climate models operating with interactive vegetation predict a large loss of Amazonian rainforest around 2050 due to drought, forest dieback and the subsequent release more carbon dioxide.[21] Five million years from now, the Amazon rainforest may long since have dried and transformed itself into savannah, killing itself in the progress (changes such as this may happen even if all human deforestation activity ceases overnight).[22] The descendants of our known animals may adapt to the dry savannah of the former Amazonian rainforest and thrive in the new, warmer temperatures.[22]

text: Human uses

text: Tropical rainforests provide timber as well as animal products such as meat and hides. Rainforests also have value as tourism destinations and for the ecosystem services provided. Many foods originally came from tropical forests, and are still mostly grown on plantations in regions that were formerly primary forest.[23] Also, plant-derived medicines are commonly used for fever, fungal infections, burns, gastrointestinal problems, pain, respiratory problems, and wound treatment.[24]

text: Native peoples

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2008)

text: On January 18, 2007, FUNAI reported also that it had confirmed the presence of 67 different uncontacted tribes in Brazil, up from 40 in 2005. With this addition, Brazil has now overtaken the island of New Guinea as the country having the largest number of uncontacted tribes.[25] The province of Irian Jaya or West Papua in the island of New Guinea is home to an estimated 44 uncontacted tribal groups.[26] The tribes are in danger because of the deforestation, especially in Brazil.

text: Central African rainforest is home of the Mbuti pygmies, one of the hunter-gatherer peoples living in equatorial rainforests characterised by their short height (below one and a half metres, or 59 inches, on average). They were the subject of a study by Colin Turnbull, The Forest People, in 1962.[27] Pygmies who live in Southeast Asia are, amongst others, referred to as “Negrito”.

text: Deforestation

text: Tropical and temperate rainforests have been subjected to heavy logging and agricultural clearance throughout the 20th century and the area covered by rainforests around the world is shrinking.[28] Biologists have estimated that large numbers of species are being driven to extinction (possibly more than 50,000 a year; at that rate, says E. O. Wilson of Harvard University, a quarter or more of all species on Earth could be exterminated within 50 years)[29] due to the removal of habitat with destruction of the rainforests.

text: Another factor causing the loss of rainforest is expanding urban areas. Littoral rainforest growing along coastal areas of eastern Australia is now rare due to ribbon development to accommodate the demand for seachange lifestyles.[30]

text: The forests are being destroyed at a rapid pace.[31][32][33] Almost 90% of West Africa's rainforest has been destroyed.[34] Since the arrival of humans, Madagascar has lost two thirds of its original rainforest.[35] At present rates, tropical rainforests in Indonesia would be logged out in 10 years and Papua New Guinea in 13 to 16 years.[36] According to Rainforest Rescue, a main reason for the increasing deforestation rate especially in Indonesia is the expansion of oil palm plantations to meet the growing demand for cheap vegetable fats and biofuels. In Indonesia, palm oil is already cultivated on nine million hectares and, together with Malaysia, the island nation produces about 85 percent of the world’s palm oil.[37][unreliable source?]

text: Several countries,[38] notably Brazil, have declared their deforestation a national emergency.[39] Amazon deforestation jumped by 69% in 2008 compared to 2007's twelve months, according to official government data.[40] Deforestation could wipe out or severely damage nearly 60% of the Amazon Rainforest by 2030, says a 2007 report from WWF.[41]

text: However, a January 30, 2009 New York Times article stated, "By one estimate, for every acre of rain forest cut down each year, more than 50 acres of new forest are growing in the tropics..." The new forest includes secondary forest on former farmland and so-called degraded forest.[42]


document_title: Harrison (name)

question_text: what is the origin of the name harrison

question_tokens: what is the origin of the name harrison

text: Harrison (name)

text:
HarrisonPronunciation
/ˈhærɪsən/ HARR-i-sənOriginRegion of origin
EnglandWord/Name
EnglishMeaning
"son of Harris", "son of Harry"Other namesVariant(s)
Harris
Footnotes: Frequency and comparisons:[1]

text: Harrison is a common patronymic surname of English origin.[2] It may also be spelled Harrisson, Harryson or Harrysson. Harrison means "son of Harry". Early records suggest that the surnames Harrison and Harris were used interchangeably by some families. Harrison is the 42nd most common surname in England and 123rd most common in the United States.[1] The surname was first recorded in 1355, in London, England.[3]

text: It is also a masculine given name derived from the surname, of fairly recent origin.[4]

text:
Top
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
W

text:
Given name
Fictional characters
See also
References

text: Surname[edit]

text: Notable people with the surname Harrison include:

text: A[edit]

text:
Ælfric Harrison (1889–1958), English cricketer
Albert Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Albertis Sydney Harrison Jr. (1907–1995), American politician and jurist
Alvin Harrison (born 1974), American athlete
Andrew Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Ann Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Anna Harrison (1775–1864), wife of U.S. President William Henry Harrison
Annie Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Arthur Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Ashley Harrison (born 1981), Australian rugby league player
Audley Harrison (born 1971), British boxer

text: B[edit]

text:
Ben Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Benjamin Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Bret Harrison (born 1982), American actor
Brian Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people

text: C[edit]

text:
Caroline Harrison (1832–1892), wife of U.S. President Benjamin Harrison
Carter Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Catherine Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Charles Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Charlie Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Christopher Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Colin Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Constance Cary Harrison (1843-1920; pen name, "Refugitta"), American writer
Craig Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Cyril Harrison (cricketer) (1915–1998), English cricketer

text: D[edit]

text:
Damon Harrison (born 1988), American football player
D'Angelo Harrison (born 1993), American basketball player
Daniel Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Danny Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
David Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Derrick Harrison (1929–1967), rugby league footballer of the 1950s
Desmond Harrison (American football) (born 1993), American football player
Dhani Harrison (born 1978), English musician; son of George Harrison of Beatles fame

text: E[edit]

text:
Edward Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
E. J. Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Elizabeth Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Ellie Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Ellis Harrison (born 1994), English footballer
Eric Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people

text: F[edit]

text:
Fairfax Harrison (1869–1938), American railroad executive and writer
Francis Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Fred Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people

text: G[edit]

text:
Gabriel Harrison (1818–1902), American photographer and actor
Gary Harrison, American songwriter
Gavin Harrison (born 1963), British drummer
George Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Gilbert Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Glynn Harrison (born 1954), American football player
Gregory Harrison (born 1950), American actor

text: H[edit]

text:
Harry Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
H. C. A. Harrison (1836–1929), Australian football pioneer
Henry Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Herbert C. Harrison (1876–1927), Developer of the modern automobile radiator
Herm Harrison (1939–2013), Canadian football tight end
Hubert Harrison (1883–1927), American writer and activist

text: I[edit]

text: Ian Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people

text: J[edit]

text:
J. Hartwell Harrison (1909–1984), American premier transplant surgeon
Jack Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
James Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Jane Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
James Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Jenilee Harrison (born 1959), American actress
Jerry Harrison (born 1949), American musician
Jessica Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Joan Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Joe Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
John Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Jonotthan Harrison (born 1991), American football player
Joseph Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Josh Harrison (born 1987), American baseball player

text: K[edit]

text:
Kayla Harrison (born 1990), American judoka
Ken Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Kendra Harrison (born 1992), American track and field athlete
Kenny Harrison (born 1965), American track and field athlete
Kevin Harrison (born 1981), American football player

text: L[edit]

text:
Larry Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Lee Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Leigh Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Leo Harrison (1922–2016), English cricketer
Lester Harrison (1904–1997), American basketball player, coach, and team owner
Liam Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Linda Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Lou Harrison (1917–2003), American composer
Lowell H. Harrison (1922–2011), American historian specializing in Kentucky
Lyndon Harrison, Baron Harrison (born 1947), British Labour Party politician

text: M[edit]

text:
Mark Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Martin Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Martez Harrison (born 1993), American basketball player
Marvin Harrison (born 1972), American football player
Maurice Harrison-Gray (1899–1968), British bridge player
Mary Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Matthew Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Michael Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Monte Harrison (born 1995), American football and baseball player
Moses Harrison (1932–2013), American jurist
M. John Harrison (born 1945), British writer
Mark Simon Harrison (born 1960), British footballer

text: N[edit]

text:
Nigel Harrison (born 1951), British guitarist
Noel Harrison (1934–2013), English singer, actor, and Olympic skier

text: O[edit]

text: Olivia Harrison (born 1948), Mexican author and film producer

text: P[edit]

text:
Pat Harrison (1881–1941), American politician
Paul Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Peter Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Phil Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people

text: Q[edit]

text: Queen Harrison (born 1988), American track and field athlete

text: R[edit]

text:
Randy Harrison (born 1977), American actor
Rex Harrison (1908–1990), British actor
Richard Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Rob Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Robert Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Rodney Harrison (born 1972), American football player
Ronnie Harrison (born 1997), American football player
Ross Granville Harrison (1870–1959), American biologist
Russell Benjamin Harrison (1854–1936), American lawyer and politician
Ryan Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people

text: S[edit]

text:
Sam Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Samuel Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Sarah Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Scott Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Steve Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people

text: T[edit]

text:
Terry Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Thomas Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Tony Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Tristia Harrison (born 1973), British businesswoman, CEO of TalkTalk Group

text: W[edit]

text:
Wallace Harrison (1895–1981), American architect
Wayne Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
Wilbert Harrison (1929–1994), American singer
William Harrison (disambiguation), multiple people
William Henry Harrison (1773–1841), ninth President of the United States
William Jerome Harrison (1845–1908), British geologist and photographer

text: Given name[edit]

text:
Harrison Afful (born 1986), Ghanaian football player
Harrison Barnes (born 1992), NBA player for the Dallas Mavericks
Harrison Birtwistle (born 1934), British composer
Harrison Butker (born 1995), American football player
Harrison Cady (1877–1970), American illustrator
Harrison Craig (born 1994), Australian singer
Harrison Gray Dyar (1805–1875), American inventor
Harrison Dillard (born 1923), American track athlete
Harrison Ford (born 1942), American actor
Harrison Gray Otis (publisher) (1837–1917), American publisher
Harrison Marks (1926–1997), British photographer
Harrison McCain (1927–2004), Canadian businessman
Harrison Page (born 1941), American actor
Harrison Phillips (born 1996), American football player
Harrison Reed (politician) (1813–1899), American politician
Harrison Salisbury (1908–1993), American journalist
Harrison Schmitt (born 1935), American astronaut and politician
Harrison Smith (disambiguation), multiple people
Harrison Storms (1915–1992), American aeronautical engineer
Harrison H. Wheeler (1839–1896), American politician from Michigan
Harrison White (born 1930), American sociologist
Harrison Young (1930–2005), American actor

text: Fictional characters[edit]

text:
Harrison Bergeron, title character in a short story by Kurt Vonnegut
Harrison Wells, the name of several characters in the CW series The Flash
John Harrison, pseudonym used by Khan Noonien Singh in Star Trek Into Darkness
Jude Harrison, musician in the television series Instant Star
Steve Harrison (character), detective created by Robert E. Howard
Tony Harrison, shaman in the television series The Mighty Boosh


document_title: List of time periods

question_text: what was the period before the enlightenment called

text: List of time periods

text: Human Time Periods[edit]

text: These can be divided broadly into prehistorical (before history began to be recorded) and historical periods (when written records began to be kept).

text: In archaeology and anthropology, prehistory is subdivided around the three-age system. This list includes the use of the three-age system as well as a number of various designation used in reference to sub-ages within the traditional three.

text: The dates for each age can vary by region. On the geologic time scale, the Holocene epoch starts at the end of the last glacial period of the current ice age (c.10,000 BC) and continues to the present. The beginning of Mesolithic is usually considered to correspond to the beginning of the Holocene epoch.

text: General Periods[edit]

text:
Pre-History –  Period between the appearance of Homo ("humans"; first stone tools c. three million years ago) and the invention of writing systems (for the Ancient Near East: c. five thousand years ago).
Stone Age
Paleolithic – is the earliest period of the Stone Age
Lower Paleolithic — time of archaic human species, predates Homo sapiens
Middle Paleolithic — coexistence of archaic and anatomically modern human species
Upper Paleolithic — worldwide expansion of anatomically modern humans, disappearance of archaic humans by extinction or admixture with modern humans; earliest evidence for pictorial art.
Mesolithic (Epipaleolithic) – was a period in the development of human technology between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic periods.
Neolithic – a period of primitive technological and social development, beginning about 10,200 BC in parts of the Middle East, and later in other parts of the world.
Chalcolithic (or "Eneolithic", "Copper Age") – this period was still largely Neolithic in character, where early copper metallurgy appeared alongside the use of stone tools.
Bronze Age – is not part of prehistory for all regions and civilizations who had adopted or developed a writing system.
Iron Age – is not part of prehistory for all civilizations who had introduced written records during the Bronze Age.
Protohistory – Period between prehistory and history, during which a culture or civilization has not yet developed writing but other cultures have already noted its existence in their own writings; the absolute time scale of "protohistory" varies widely depending on the region, from the late 4th millennium BCE in the Ancient Near East to the present in the case of uncontacted peoples.
Ancient History – Aggregate of past events from the beginning of recorded human history and extending as far as the Early Middle Ages or the Postclassical Era. The span of recorded history is roughly less than five thousand years, beginning with the earliest linguistic records in the third millennium BC in Mesopotamia and Egypt.
Classical Antiquity –  Broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, comprising the interlocking civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, collectively known as the Greco-Roman world. It is the period in which Greek and Roman society flourished and wielded great influence throughout Europe, North Africa and the Middle East.
Post-Classical History – Period of time that immediately followed ancient history.  Depending on the continent, the era generally falls between the years CE 200–600 and CE 1200–1500. The major classical civilizations the era follows are Han China (ending in 220), the Western Roman Empire (in 476), the Gupta Empire (in the 550s), and the Sasanian Empire (in 651).
Middle Ages (also called Dark Ages) – Lasted from the 5th to the 14th century. It began with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and is variously demarcated by historians as ending with the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, merging into the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery.
Early Middle Ages
High Middle Ages
Late Middle Ages
Modern History – After the post-classical era
Early Modern Period – The chronological limits of this period are open to debate. It emerges from the Late Middle Ages (c. 1500), demarcated by historians as beginning with the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, in forms such as the Italian Renaissance in the West, the Ming Dynasty in the East, and the rise of the Aztec in the New World. The period ends with the beginning of the Age of Revolutions.
Late Modern Period – Began approximately in the mid-18th century; notable historical milestones included the French Revolution, the American Revolution, the Industrial Revolution and the Great Divergence.
Machine Age (1880–1945)
Age of Oil (1901–present)
World War I (1914–1918)
Interwar Period (1918–1939)
Roaring Twenties (1920–1929)
Great Depression (1929–1939)
World War II (1939–1945)
Contemporary History – History within living memory. It shifts forward with the generations, and today is the span of historic events from approximately 1945 that are immediately relevant to the present time. For example, the Post-Modern movement (Soviet Union and United States, 1973–present)
Socio-Cultural Periods
The Forties (1940–1949)
The Fifties (1950–1959)
The Sixties (1960–1969)
The Seventies (1970–1979)
The Eighties (1980–1989)
The Nineties (1990–1999)
The Two Thousands (2000–2009)
The Tens (2010–2019)
The Twenties (2020-2029)
Technology Periods
Jet Age (1940s)
Atomic Age (1945–present)
The Nuclear Age (1950–present) [2]
Digital Revolution (1950s–present)
Space Age (1957–present)
Information Age (1970–present)
The Multimedia Age (1987–present)
The Social Age (1996–present)
The Big Data age (2001–present)[3]
Contemporary Wars
Post-war era (1946–1962)
Cold War (Soviet Union and United States, and their allies, 1945–1991)
Korean War (1950–1953)
Vietnam War (1955–1975)
Bosnian War (1992–1995)
War on Terrorism (2001–present)
War in Afghanistan (2001–2014)
War in Iraq (2003–2011)

text: American Periods[edit]

text:
Classic and Postclassic eras, Central America (200–1519)
Early Intermediate, Middle Horizon, Late Intermediate, Late Horizon (Peru, 200–1534)
Huari, Chimú, Chincha, Chanka people, Tiwanaku, Inca
Baroque (New World, 1600–1750)
Spanish hegemony (Americas, 16th century – 1820s)
Reconstruction era (United States, 1865–1877)
Gilded Age (United States, 1875–1900)
Progressive Era (United States, 1890s–1920s)
Jazz Age (United States, 1920s–1930s)
Information Age (United States, 1970–present)
Modern age
Postmodern age

text: Southeast Asian Periods[edit]

text:
Srivijaya (Indonesia, 3rd – 14th centuries), Tarumanagara (358–723), Sailendra (8th and 9th centuries), Kingdom of Sunda (669–1579), Kingdom of Mataram (752–1045), Kediri (1045–1221), Singhasari (1222–1292), Majapahit (1293–1500)
Chenla (Cambodia, 630 – 802) and Khmer Empire (Cambodia, 802–1432)
Anterior Lý Dynasty and Triệu Việt Vương, Third Chinese domination, Khúc Family, Dương Đình Nghệ, Kiều Công Tiễn, Ngô Dynasty, The 12 Lords Rebellion, Đinh Dynasty, Prior Lê Dynasty, Lý Dynasty, Trần Dynasty, Hồ Dynasty, Fourth Chinese domination (Vietnam, 544–1427)

text: Filipino Periods[edit]

text:
Neolithic-Iron Age (c.10,000 BC – AD 900)
Archaic period (AD 900–1521)
Spanish Colonial Period (1521–1898)
American Colonial Period (1898–1946)
Third Republic (1946–1972)
Marcos era (1972–1986)
Fifth Republic (1986-present)

text: Chinese Periods[edit]

text:
Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors (2852–2070 BCE)
Xia dynasty (2070–1600 BCE)
Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BCE)
Zhou dynasty (1046–221 BCE)
Western Zhou (1046–771 BCE)
Eastern Zhou (771–221 BCE)
Spring and Autumn period (771–476 BCE)
Warring States period (476–221 BCE)
Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE)
Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE)
Western Han (206 BCE – 2 CE)
Xin dynasty (9–23 CE)
Eastern Han (25–220 CE)
Six Dynasties (220–580)
Three Kingdoms (220–265)
Jin Dynasty (265–420)
Southern and Northern Dynasties (420–580)
Sui Dynasty (580–618)
Tang Dynasty (623–907)
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960)
Song Dynasty (960–1279)
Northern Song (960–1127), Liao Dynasty (907–1115)
Western Xia dynasty (1038–1227)
Southern Song (1127–1279), Jin dynasty (1115–1234)
Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368)
Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)
Qing Dynasty (1644–1911)
Republic of China (1912–1949)
Xinhai Revolution (1911–1912)
Warlord Era (1918–1927)
Chinese Civil War (1927-1936/1946-1950)
Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945)
People's Republic of China (1949–present)

text: Central Asian Periods[edit]

text:
Xiongnu (Mongolia, 220 BC – AD 200)
Rouran Khaganate (Mongolia, Manchuria, Xianbei, AD 330 – 555)
Sixteen Kingdoms (Xianbei, Turkic peoples, 304 – 439)
Uyghur Khaganate (Mongolia, Manchuria, Tibet, 744 – 848)
Liao Dynasty (Khitan people, 907 – 1125)
Mongol Empire (Mongolia, 1206 – 1380)
Qing dynasty (Manchu China, 1692 – 1911)

text: Egyptian Periods[edit]

text:
Old Kingdom (3000 BC – 2000 BC)
Middle Kingdom (2000 BC – 1300 BC)
New Kingdom (1550 BC – 1070 BC)
Ptolemaic Kingdom (305 BC – 30 BC)
Aegyptus (30 BC – 390 AD)
Coptic period (300 AD – 900 AD)
Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171)
Ayyubid Dynasty (1171–1250)
Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517)
Ottoman Eyalet (1517–1867)
Khedivate (1867–1914)

text: European Periods[edit]

text:
Bronze Age (c.3000 BC – c.1050 BC)
Early Aegean Civilisation (Crete, Greece and Near East; c.3000 BC – c.1050 BC)[4]
Iron Age (c.1050 BC – c.500 AD)
Greek expansion and colonisation (c.1050 BC – 776 BC)
Archaic Greece (776 BC – 480 BC) – begins with the First Olympiad, traditionally dated 776 BC
Archaic period (776 BC – 612 BC) – establishment of city states in Greece
Pre-classical period (612 BC – 480 BC) – the fall of Nineveh to the second Persian invasion of Greece
Classical antiquity (480 BC – 476 AD)
Classical Greece (480 BC – 399 BC)
Macedonian era (399 BC – 323 BC)
Hellenistic Greece (323 BC – 146 BC)
Late Roman Republic (147 BC – 27 BC)
Principate of the Roman Empire (27 BC – 284 AD)
Late Antiquity (284 AD – 500 AD)
Migration Period (Europe, 300 AD – 700 AD)
Middle Ages (Europe, 476 – 1453)
Byzantine era (330–1453)
Early Middle Ages (Europe, 476 – 1066)
Dark Ages (Europe, 476 – 800)
Viking Age (Scandinavia, Europe, 793 – 1066)
High Middle Ages (Europe, 1066 – c.1300)
Late Middle Ages (Europe, c.1300 – 1453)
The Renaissance (Europe, c.1300 – c.1600)
Early modern period (Europe, 1453 – 1789)
Age of Discovery (or Exploration) (Europe, c.1400 – 1770)
Polish Golden Age (Poland, 1507 – 1572)
Golden Age of Piracy 1650 – 1730
Elizabethan era (United Kingdom, 1558 – 1603)
Protestant Reformation (Europe, 16th century)
Classicism (Europe, 16th – 18th centuries)
Industrious Revolution, (Europe, 16th – 18th centuries)
Jacobean era (United Kingdom, 1603 – 1625)
Petrine Era (Russia, 1689 – 1725)
Age of Enlightenment (or Reason) (Europe, 18th century)
Long nineteenth century (1789–1914)
Georgian era (United Kingdom, 1714 – 1830)
Industrial Revolution (Europe, United States, elsewhere 18th and 19th centuries)
Age of European colonialism and imperialism
Romantic era (1770–1850)
Napoleonic era (1799–1815)
Victorian era (United Kingdom, 1837 – 1901); British hegemony (1815-1914) much of world, around the same time period.
Edwardian era (United Kingdom, 1901 – 1914)
First and Second World Wars (1914–1945)
Cold War (1945–1991)
Post-Cold War / Postmodernity (1991 – present)

text: Indian Periods[edit]

text:
Indus Valley Civilization (3300 BC – 1300 BC)
Vedic period (1500 BC – 500 BC)
Mahajanapada kingdoms
Maurya Empire (321 BC – 185 BC)
Kushan Empire (185 BC – 220 AD), Satavahana Empire (230 BC – 220 AD),
Gupta Empire (320 AD – 535 AD)
Vakatak Empire (300AD −650 AD)
Middle kingdoms of India (1 AD – 1279 AD)
Pala Empire (750–1174)
Rashtrakuta Dynasty
Sena Empire (1070–1230)
Hoysala Empire (1026 –1343), Kakatiya Empire (1083–1323)
Medieval India (1206–1526)
Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646), Gajapati Kingdom (1434–1541), Reddy dynasty (1325–1448)
Mughal Empire (1526–1857)
Maratha Empire (1674–1818)
British Raj (1858–1947)
Independence (1947–present)

text: Japanese Periods[edit]

text:
Jōmon period (10,501 BC – 400 BC)
Yayoi period (450 BC – 250 AD)
Kofun period (250–600)
Asuka period (643–710)
Nara period (743–794)
Heian period (795–1185)
Kamakura period (1185–1333)
Muromachi period (1333–1573)[5]
Azuchi–Momoyama period (1573–1603)
Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1868)
Meiji period (1868–1912)
Taishō period (1912–1926)
Shōwa period (1945–1989)
Post-occupation era (1952 – present)
Heisei period (1989–present)

text: Middle Eastern Periods[edit]

text:
Ancient Near East (Sumer, 3100 BC – 500 BC)
Jemdet Nasr period (3100 BC – 2900 BC)
Early Dynastic Period (2900 BC – 2270 BC)
Akkadian Empire (2270 BC – 2083 BC)
Gutian Dynasty (2083 BC – 2050 BC)
Sumerian renaissance (2050 BC – 1940 BC)
First Babylonian Dynasty (1830 BC – 1531 BC), Hittites (1800 BC – 1178 BC)
Kassites (1531 BC – 1135 BC), Mitanni (1500 BC – 1300 BC)
Neo-Assyrian Empire (934 BC – 609 BC)
Neo-Babylonian Empire (626 BC – 539 BC), Medes (678 BC – 549 BC)
Persian Empires (550 BC – 651 AD)
Achaemenid Empire (550 BC – 330 BC)
Conquered by Macedonian Empire (330 BC – 312 BC)
Seleucid Empire (312 BC – 63 BC)
Parthian Empire (247 BC – 224 AD)
Sasanian Empire (224 AD – 651 AD)
Islamicate periods[6] (7th – 21st centuries[citation needed])
High Caliphate (685–945)[7]
Earlier Middle Period (945–1250)[6]
Later Middle Period (1250–1500)[6]
Islamic Golden Age (c. 8th–13th century)
Rashidun Caliphate (632–661)
Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)
Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258), Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171)
Buyid dynasty (934–1055)
Seljuq dynasty (1055–1171)
Ayyubid dynasty (1171–1341)
Ottoman Empire (1300–1923), Safavid Empire (1501–1736)

text: Mythological and Astrological Time Periods[edit]

text:
Astrological Ages
Age of Taurus
Age of Aries
Age of Aquarius
Greek Mythology (See also: Ages of Man)
Golden Age (self-sufficient)
Silver Age (self-indulgent)
Bronze Age (warlike)
Heroic Age (nobly aspirant)
Iron Age (violent)
Aztec Mythology
Nahui-Ocelotl, Destroyed by Jaguars
Nahui-Ehécatl, Destroyed by Hurricane
Nahuiquiahuitl, Destroyed by Flaming Rain
Nahui-Atl, Destroyed by Flood
Nahui-Ollin, the one we are in now, Destroyed by Earthquakes (the end was said to be in 2012, but that did not occur)

text: Marxian Stages of History[edit]

text: The Marxian theory of history identifies five major distinct periods of history:[8][9][10][11][12]

text: Primitive Communism[edit]

text: The First Stage: is usually called primitive communism. It has the following characteristics.

text:
Shared Property: there is no concept of ownership beyond individual possessions. All is shared by the tribe to ensure its survival.[citation needed]
Hunter / Gatherer: tribal societies have yet to develop large scale agriculture and so their survival is a daily struggle.[citation needed]
Proto-Democracy: there is usually no concept of "leadership" yet. So tribes are led by the best warrior if there is war, the best diplomat if they have steady contact with other tribes and so forth.

text: Slave Society[edit]

text: The Second Stage: may be called slave society, considered to be the beginning of "class society" where private property appears.

text:
Class: here the idea of class appears. There is always a slave-owning ruling class and the slaves themselves.
Statism: the state develops during this stage as a tool for the slave-owners to use and control the slaves.
Agriculture: people learn to cultivate plants and animals on a large enough scale to support large populations.
Democracy & Authoritarianism: these opposites develop at the same stage. Democracy arises first with the development of the republican city-state, followed by the totalitarian empire.
Private Property: citizens now own more than personal property. Land ownership is especially important during a time of agricultural development.

text: Feudalism[edit]

text: The Third Stage: may be called feudalism; it appears after slave society collapses. This was most obvious during the European Middle Ages when society went from slavery to feudalism.

text:
Aristocracy: the state is ruled by monarchs who inherit their positions, or at times marry or conquer their ways into leadership.
Theocracy: this is a time of largely religious rule. When there is only one religion in the land and its organizations affect all parts of daily life.
Hereditary Classes: castes can sometimes form and one's class is determined at birth with no form of advancement. This was the case with India.
Nation-state: nations are formed from the remnants of the fallen empires. Sometimes, they rebuild themselves into empires once more; this was the case with England's transition from a province to an empire.

text: Capitalism[edit]

text: Capitalism may be considered The Fourth Stage in the sequence. Marx pays special attention to this stage in human development. The bulk of his work is devoted to analysing the mechanisms of capitalism, which in western society classically arose "red in tooth and claw" from feudal society in a revolutionary movement. In capitalism, the profit motive rules and people, freed from serfdom, work for the capitalists for wages. The capitalist class are free to spread their laissez faire practices around the world. In the capitalist-controlled parliament, laws are made to protect wealth.

text: Capitalism appears after the bourgeois revolution when the capitalists (or their merchant predecessors) overthrow the feudal system, and it is categorized by the following:

text:
Market Economy: In capitalism, the entire economy is guided by market forces. Supporters of laissez-faire economics argue that there should be little or no intervention from the government under capitalism. Marxists, however, such as Lenin in his Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism, argue that the capitalist government is a powerful instrument for the furtherance of capitalism and the capitalist nation-state, particularly in the conquest of markets abroad.
Private Property: The means of production are no longer in the hands of the monarchy and its nobles, but rather they are controlled by the capitalists. The capitalists control the means of production through commercial enterprises (such as corporations) which aim to maximise profit.
Parliamentary Democracy: The capitalists tend to govern through an elected centralised parliament or congress, rather than under an autocracy. Capitalist (bourgeois) democracy, although it may be extended to the whole population, does not necessarily lead to universal suffrage. Historically it has excluded (by force, segregation, legislation or other means) sections of the population such as women, slaves, ex-slaves, people of colour or those on low income. The government acts on behalf of, and is controlled by, the capitalists through various methods.
Wages: In capitalism, workers are rewarded according to their contract with their employer. Power elites propagate the illusion that market forces mean wages converge to an equilibrium at which workers are paid for precisely the value of their services.  In reality workers are paid less than the value of their productivity — the difference forming profit for the employer.  In this sense all paid employment is exploitation and the worker is "alienated" from their work.  Insofar as the profit-motive drives the market, it is impossible for workers to be paid for the full value of their labour, as all employers will act in the same manner.
Imperialism: Wealthy countries seek to dominate poorer countries in order to gain access to raw materials and to provide captive markets for finished products. This is done directly through war, the threat of war, or the export of capital. The capitalist's control over the state can play an essential part in the development of capitalism, to the extent the state directs warfare and other foreign intervention.
Financial Institutions: Banks and capital markets such as stock exchanges direct unused capital to where it is needed.  They reduce barriers to entry in all markets, especially to the poor; it is in this way that banks dramatically improve class mobility.
Monopolistic Tendencies: The natural, unrestrained market forces will create monopolies from the most successful commercial entities.

text: But according to Marx, capitalism, like slave society and feudalism, also has critical failings — inner contradictions which will lead to its downfall. The working class, to which the capitalist class gave birth in order to produce commodities and profits, is the "grave digger" of capitalism. The worker is not paid the full value of what he or she produces. The rest is surplus value — the capitalist's profit, which Marx calls the "unpaid labour of the working class."  The capitalists are forced by competition to attempt to drive down the wages of the working class to increase their profits, and this creates conflict between the classes, and gives rise to the development of class consciousness in the working class. The working class, through trade union and other struggles, becomes conscious of itself as an exploited class. In the view of classical Marxism, the struggles of the working class against the attacks of the capitalist class will eventually lead the working class to establish its own collective control over production

text: Socialism[edit]

text: After the working class gains class consciousness and mounts a revolution against the capitalists, socialism, which may be considered The Fifth Stage, will be attained, if the workers are successful. Marxist Socialism may be characterised as follows:

text:
Common Property: the means of production are taken from the hands of a few capitalists and put in the hands of the workers. This translates into the democratic communes controlling the means of production.
Council Democracy: Marx, basing himself on a thorough study of Paris Commune, believed that the workers would govern themselves through system of communes. He called this the dictatorship of the proletariat, which, overthrowing the dictatorship (governance) of capital, would democratically plan production and the resources of the planet.

text: Marx explained that, since socialism, the first stage of communism, would be "in every respect, economically, morally, and intellectually, still stamped with the birthmarks of the old society from whose womb it emerges", each worker would naturally expect to be awarded according to the amount of labor he contributes, despite the fact that each worker's ability and family circumstances would differ, so that the results would still be unequal at this stage, although fully supported by social provision.

text: Geologic Time Periods[edit]

text: The geologic time scale covers the extent of the existence of Earth, from about 4600 million years ago to the present day. It is marked by Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points. Geologic time units are (in order of descending specificity) eons, eras, periods, epochs, and ages; and the corresponding chronostratigraphic units, which measure "rock-time", are eonothems, erathems, systems, series, and stages.

text: The second and third timelines are each subsections of their preceding timeline as indicated by asterisks. The Cenozoic is sometimes divided into the Quaternary and Tertiary periods, although the latter is no longer used officially.

text: Cosmological Time Periods[edit]

text: 13.8 billion years ago: The Big Bang Theory[edit]

text:
Time Period
Duration
Description

Planck Epoch
From the start to 10−43 seconds after the Big Bang
Very little concrete information is known about this epoch. Different theories propose different views on this particular time.

Grand Unification Epoch
Between 10−43 to 10−36 seconds after the Big Bang
The result of the universe expanding and cooling down during the Planck epoch. All fundamental forces except gravity are unified.

Electroweak Epoch
Between 10−36 seconds to 10−12 seconds after the Big Bang
The universe cools down to 1028 kelvin. The fundamental forces are split into the strong force and the electroweak force.

Inflationary Epoch
Between 10−36 seconds to 10−32 seconds after the Big Bang
The shape of the universe flattens due to cosmic inflation.

Quark Epoch
Between 10−12 seconds to 10−6 seconds after the Big Bang
Cosmic inflation has ended. Quarks are present in the universe at this point. The electroweak force is divided again into the weak force and electromagnetic force.

Hadron Epoch
Between 10−6 seconds to 1 second after the Big Bang
The universe has cooled enough for quarks to form hadrons, protons, neutrons.

Lepton Epoch
Between 1 second to 10 seconds after the Big Bang
Most hadrons and anti-hadrons annihilate each other, leaving behind leptons and anti-leptons.

Photon Epoch
Between 10 seconds to 370,000 years after the Big Bang
Most leptons and anti-leptons annihilate each other. The universe is dominated by photons.

Nucleosynthesis
Between 3 minutes to 20 minutes after the Big Bang
The temperature of the universe has cooled down enough to allow atomic nuclei to form via nuclear fusion.

Recombination
About 377,000 years after the Big Bang
Hydrogen and helium atoms form.

Reionization
Between 150 million and 1 billion years after the Big Bang
The first stars and quasars form due to gravitational collapse.


document_title: Adhesive bandage

question_text: what is the sticky stuff on band aids

question_tokens: what is the sticky stuff on band aids

text: Adhesive bandage

text: Function[edit]

text: The adhesive bandage protects the wound and scab from friction, bacteria, damage, and dirt. Thus, the healing process of the body is less disturbed. Some of the dressings have antiseptic properties. An additional function is to hold the two cut ends of the skin together to make the healing process faster.[1]

text: Design[edit]

text: An adhesive bandage is a small, flexible sheet of material which is sticky on one side, with a smaller, non-sticky, absorbent pad stuck to the sticky side. The pad is placed against the wound, and overlapping edges of the sticky material are smoothed down so they stick to the surrounding skin. Adhesive bandages are generally packaged in a sealed, sterile bag, with a backing covering the sticky side; the backing is removed as the bandage is applied. They come in a variety of sizes and shapes.

text: Materials[edit]

text: The backing and bag are often made of coated paper, but may be made of plastic.

text: The adhesive sheet is usually a woven fabric, plastic (PVC, polyethylene or polyurethane), or latex strip. It may or may not be waterproof; if it is airtight, the bandaid is an occlusive dressing. The adhesive is commonly an acrylate, including methacrylates and epoxy diacrylates (which are also known as vinyl resins).[2]

text: The absorbent pad is often made of cotton, and there is sometimes a thin, porous-polymer coating over the pad, to keep it from sticking to the wound. The pad may also be medicated with an antiseptic solution. In some bandages, the pad is made of a water-absorbing hydrogel. This is especially common in dressings used on blisters, as the gel acts as a cushion.[medical citation needed]

text: Many people have allergies to some of these materials, particularly latex and some adhesives.[3]

text: Variants[edit]

text: Special bandages are used by food preparation workers. These are waterproof, have strong adhesive so they are less likely to fall off, and are usually blue so that they are more clearly visible in food. Some include a metal strip detectable by machines used in food manufacturing to ensure that food is free from foreign objects.[4]

text: Transdermal patches are adhesive bandages with the function to distribute medication through the skin, rather than protecting a wound.[5]

text: Butterfly closures, also known as butterfly stitches, are generally thin adhesive strips which can be used to close small wounds. They are applied across the laceration in a manner which pulls the skin on either side of the wound together. They are not true sutures, but can often be used in addition to, or in place of real sutures for small wounds. Butterfly stitches can be advantageous in that they do not need a medical professional to be placed or removed, and are thus a common item in first aid kits.[6]

text: Notable brands[edit]

text:
Band-Aid
Curad
Elastoplast
Nexcare