document_title: Scottish Rite

question_text: how many degrees did the scottish rite confer by name at its founding

text: Scottish Rite

text: History[edit]

text: There are records of lodges conferring the degree of "Scots Master" or "Scotch Master" as early as 1733.[4][5][6] A lodge at Temple Bar in London is the earliest such lodge on record. Other lodges include a lodge at Bath in 1735, and the French lodge, St. George de l'Observance No. 49 at Covent Garden in 1736. The references to these few occasions indicate that these were special meetings held for the purpose of performing unusual ceremonies, probably by visiting Freemasons.[7]:5  The Copiale cipher, dating from the 1740s[8] says, "The rank of a Scottish master is an entirely new invention..."[9]

text: Legend of Jacobite origins[edit]

text: The seed of the myth of Stuart Jacobite influence on the higher degrees may have been a careless and unsubstantiated remark made by John Noorthouk in the 1784 Book of Constitutions of the Premier Grand Lodge of London. It was stated, without support, that King Charles II (older brother and predecessor to James II) was made a Freemason in the Netherlands during the years of his exile (1649–60). However, there were no documented lodges of Freemasons on the continent during those years. The statement may have been made to flatter the fraternity by claiming membership for a previous monarch. This folly was then embellished by John Robison (1739–1805), a professor of Natural Philosophy at the University of Edinburgh, in an anti-Masonic work published in 1797. The lack of scholarship exhibited by Robison in that work caused the Encyclopædia Britannica to denounce it.[10]

text: A German bookseller and Freemason, living in Paris, working under the assumed name of C. Lenning, embellished the story further in a manuscript titled "Encyclopedia of Freemasonry" probably written between 1822 and 1828 at Leipzig. This manuscript was later revised and published by another German Freemason named Friedrich Mossdorf (1757–1830).[11] Lenning stated that King James II of England, after his flight to France in 1688, resided at the Jesuit College of Clermont, where his followers fabricated certain degrees for the purpose of carrying out their political ends.[12]

text: By the mid-19th century, the story had gained currency. The well-known English Masonic writer, Dr. George Oliver (1782–1867), in his Historical Landmarks, 1846, carried the story forward and even claimed that King Charles II was active in his attendance at meetings—an obvious invention, for if it had been true, it would not have escaped the notice of the historians of the time. The story was then repeated by the French writers Jean-Baptiste Ragon (1771–1862) and Emmanuel Rebold, in their Masonic histories. Rebold's claim that the high degrees were created and practiced in Lodge Canongate Kilwinning[13] at Edinburgh are entirely false.[14]

text: James II died in 1701[15][16]at the Palace of St. Germain en Laye, and was succeeded in his claims to the British throne by his son, James Francis Edward Stuart (1699–1766), the Chevalier St. George, better known as "the Old Pretender", but recognized as James III by the French King Louis XIV. He was succeeded in his claim by Charles Edward Stuart ("Bonnie Prince Charles"), also known as "the Young Pretender", whose ultimate defeat at the Battle of Culloden in 1746 effectively put an end to any serious hopes of the Stuarts regaining the British crowns.

text: The natural confusion between the names of the Jesuit College of Clermont, and the short-lived Masonic Chapter of Clermont, a Masonic body that controlled a few high degrees during its brief existence, only served to add fuel to the myth of Stuart Jacobite influence in Freemasonry's high degrees. However, the College and the Chapter had nothing to do with each other. The Jesuit College was located at Clermont, whereas the Masonic Chapter was not. Rather, it was named "Clermont" in honor of the French Grand Master, the Comte de Clermont (Louis de Bourbon, Comte de Clermont) (1709–1771), and not because of any connection with the Jesuit College of Clermont.[17]

text: Estienne Morin and his Rite of 25 degrees[edit]

text: A French trader, by the name of Estienne Morin, had been involved in high-degree Masonry in Bordeaux since 1744 and, in 1747, founded an "Écossais" lodge (Scots Masters Lodge) in the city of Le Cap Français, on the north coast of the French colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti). Over the next decade, high-degree Freemasonry was carried by French men to other cities in the Western hemisphere. The high-degree lodge at Bordeaux warranted or recognized seven Écossais lodges there. In Paris in the year 1761, a patent was issued to Estienne Morin, dated 27 August, creating him "Grand Inspector for all parts of the New World". This Patent was signed by officials of the Grand Lodge at Paris and appears to have originally granted him power over the craft lodges only, and not over the high, or "Écossais", degree lodges. Later copies of this Patent appear to have been embellished, probably by Morin, to improve his position over the high-degree lodges in the West Indies.[7]:31-45

text: Early writers long believed that a "Rite of Perfection" consisting of 25 degrees, the highest being the "Sublime Prince of the Royal Secret", and being the predecessor of the Scottish Rite, had been formed in Paris by a high-degree council calling itself "The Council of Emperors of the East and West". The title "Rite of Perfection" first appeared in the Preface to the "Grand Constitutions of 1786", the authority for which is now known to be faulty.[7]:75–84 It is now generally accepted that this Rite of twenty-five degrees was compiled by Estienne Morin and is more properly called "The Rite of the Royal Secret", or "Morin's Rite".[7]:37 However, it was known as "The Order of Prince of the Royal Secret" by the founders of the Scottish Rite, who mentioned it in their "Circular throughout the two Hemispheres"[18] or "Manifesto", issued on December 4, 1802.[19]

text: Morin returned to the West Indies in 1762 or 1763, to Saint-Domingue. Based on his new Patent, he assumed powers to constitute lodges of all degrees, spreading the high degrees throughout the West Indies and North America. Morin stayed in Saint-Domingue until 1766, when he moved to Jamaica. At Kingston, Jamaica, in 1770, Morin created a "Grand Chapter" of his new Rite (the Grand Council of Jamaica). Morin died in 1771 and was buried in Kingston.[20]:16

text: Henry Andrew Francken and his manuscripts[edit]

text: Henry Andrew Francken, a naturalized French subject of Dutch origin, was most important in assisting Morin in spreading the degrees in the New World. Morin appointed him Deputy Grand Inspector General (DGIG) as one of his first acts after returning to the West Indies. Francken worked closely with Morin and, in 1771, produced a manuscript book giving the rituals for the 15th through the 25th degrees. Francken produced at least four such manuscripts. In addition to the 1771 manuscript, there is a second which can be dated to 1783; a third manuscript, of uncertain date, written in Francken’s handwriting, with the rituals 4–25°, which was found in the archives of the Provincial Grand Lodge of Lancashire in Liverpool in approximately 1984; and a fourth, again of uncertain date, with rituals 4–24°, which was known to have been given by H. J. Whymper to the District Grand Lodge of the Punjab and rediscovered about 2010.[21] Additionally, there is a French manuscript dating from 1790-1800 which contains the 25 degrees of the Order of the Royal Secret with additional detail, as well as three other Hauts Grades rituals; its literary structure suggests it is derived from a common source as the Francken Manuscripts.[22]

text: A Loge de Parfaits d' Écosse was formed on 12 April 1764 at New Orleans, becoming the first high-degree lodge on the North American continent. Its life, however, was short, as the Treaty of Paris (1763) ceded New Orleans to Spain, and the Catholic Spanish crown had been historically hostile to Freemasonry. Documented Masonic activity ceased for a time. It did not return to New Orleans until the late 1790s, when French refugees from the revolution in Saint-Domingue settled in the city.[20]:16

text: Francken traveled to New York in 1767 where he granted a Patent, dated 26 December 1767, for the formation of a Lodge of Perfection at Albany, which was called "Ineffable Lodge of Perfection". This marked the first time the Degrees of Perfection (the 4th through the 14th) were conferred in one of the Thirteen British colonies in North America. This Patent, and the early minutes of the Lodge, are still extant and are in the archives of Supreme Council, Northern Jurisdiction.[20]:16 (The minutes of Ineffable Lodge of Perfection reveal that it ceased activity on December 5, 1774. It was revived by Giles Fonda Yates about 1820 or 1821, and came under authority of the Supreme Council, Southern Jurisdiction until 1827. That year it was transferred to the Supreme Council, Northern Jurisdiction.)

text:
While in New York City, Francken also communicated the degrees to Moses Michael Hays, a Jewish businessman, and appointed him as a Deputy Inspector General. In 1781, Hays made eight Deputy Inspectors General, four of whom were later important in the establishment of Scottish Rite Freemasonry in South Carolina:
◊_ Isaac Da Costa, Sr., D.I.G. for South Carolina;
◊_ Abraham Forst, D.I.G. for Virginia;
◊_ Joseph M. Myers, D.I.G. for Maryland;
◊_ and Barend M. Spitzer, D.I.G. for Georgia.
Da Costa returned to Charleston, South Carolina, where he established the "Sublime Grand Lodge of Perfection" in February 1783. After Da Costa's death in November 1783, Hays appointed Myers as Da Costa's successor. Joined by Forst and Spitzer, Myers created additional high-degree bodies in Charleston.[20]:16-17

text: Physician Hyman Isaac Long from the island of Jamaica, who settled in New York City, went to Charleston in 1796 to appoint eight French men; he had received his authority through Spitzer. These men had arrived as refugees from Saint-Domingue, where the slave revolution was underway that would establish Haiti as an independent republic in 1804. They organized a Consistory of the 25th Degree, or "Princes of the Royal Secret," which Masonic historian Brigadier ACF Jackson says became the first Supreme Council of the Scottish Rite.[7]:66-68 According to Fox, by 1801, the Charleston bodies were the only extant bodies of the Rite in North America.[20]:16-17

text: Birth of the Scottish Rite[edit]

text: Although most of the thirty-three degrees of the Scottish Rite existed in parts of previous degree systems,[23] the Scottish Rite did not come into being until the formation of the Mother Supreme Council at Charleston, South Carolina, in May 1801. The Founding Fathers of the Scottish Rite who attended became known as "The Eleven Gentlemen of Charleston".

text:
John Mitchell - Received a patent April 2, 1795, from Barend Moses Spitzer granting him authority as Deputy Inspector General to create a Lodge of Perfection and several Councils and Chapters wherever such Lodges or Chapters were needed.  Born in Ireland in 1741, he came to America at an early age. He served as Deputy Quartermaster General in the Continental Army, and was the first Grand Commander of the Supreme Council.
Frederick Dalcho - A physician, he served in the Revolutionary Army and was stationed at Fort Johnson.  He formed a partnership in 1801 with Dr. Isaac Auld, another of the original members. He was an outstanding orator and author.  In 1807 he published the first edition of Ahiman Rezon. He became an editor of the Charleston Courier, was a lay reader and deacon in the Episcopal Church, and in 1818 was ordained as a priest.
Alexandre Francois Auguste de Grasse, known as Comte de Grasse-Tilly. He was born in France as the eldest legitimate son of François Joseph Paul de Grasse, a French admiral known as a hero of the American Revolution for defeating the British fleet in the Battle of the Chesapeake. He inherited his father's title, and likely had the highest social ranking of the original eleven founders. He was the youngest of the members and was named to become the Grand Commander of the West Indian Islands. After Napoleon came to power, de Grasse returned to France and resumed his military career. He also extended Freemasonry, establishing the Supreme Council of France and councils in other European cities.
Jean-Baptiste Marie de La Hogue - He was a native of Paris who had lived in Saint-Domingue until the revolution there; father-in-law of de Grasse, he was a founding member of La Candeur Lodge in Charleston.
Thomas Bartholemew Bowen - Was the first Grand Master of Ceremonies of the new Supreme Council.  He was a Major in the Continental Army and a printer by trade.
Abraham Alexander - Was one of the first Sovereign Grand Inspectors General. He was born in London in 1743, and immigrated to Charleston in 1771.  He was a prominent Sephardic Jew and had been described as "a Calligraphist of the first order"; he was elected as the first Grand Secretary General.
Emanuel de la Motta - A Sovereign Grand Inspector General. Also a Sephardic Jew, he was by trade a merchant and auctioneer. He was a member of Friendship Lodge and was reported to be devoted to the study of Jewish literature and Masonry.
Isaac Auld - An eminent physician, associated in medical practice with Dr. Dalcho. He was a strong Congregationalist.
Israel de Lieben - A Sovereign Grand Inspector General and the first Grand Treasurer General. He was born in Prague and emigrated to the United States at 21. He was known as "the liberal-headed Jew", who was "tolerant in his religious opinions" and was considered to be intelligent, enterprising, liberal and generous.
Moses Clava Levy - Born in Krakow, Poland, he was a prosperous merchant, was generous and helpful to the unfortunate, and devoted to his adopted city and country.
James Moultrie - the only native South Carolinian among the original members. He was a physician, and according to Albert Pike, "was one of the foremost Citizens of South Carolina".
Isaac Da Costa, another Sephardic Jew, was one of the deputies commissioned to establish Morin's Rite of the Royal Secret in other countries; he formed constituent bodies of the Rite in South Carolina in 1783. These are considered to have become in 1801, The Supreme Council of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, Southern Jurisdiction.  All regular Scottish Rite bodies today derive their heritage from this body.

text: Subsequently, other Supreme Councils were formed in Saint-Domingue (now Haiti) in 1802, in France in 1804, in Italy in 1805, and in Spain in 1811.[24]

text: On May 1, 1813, an officer from the Supreme Council at Charleston initiated several New York Masons into the Thirty-third Degree and organized a Supreme Council for the "Northern Masonic District and Jurisdiction". On May 21, 1814 this Supreme Council reopened and proceeded to "nominate, elect, appoint, install and proclaim in due, legal and ample form" the elected officers "as forming the second Grand and Supreme Council...". Finally, the charter of this organization (written January 7, 1815) added, “We think the Ratification ought to be dated 21st day May 5815."[25]

text: Officially, the Supreme Council, 33°, N.M.J. dates itself from May 15, 1867. This was the date of the "Union of 1867", when it merged with the competing Cerneau "Supreme Council" in New York. The current Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite, Northern Masonic Jurisdiction of the United States, was thus formed.[26]

text: Albert Pike[edit]

text: Born in Boston, Massachusetts on December 29, 1809, Albert Pike is asserted within the Southern Jurisdiction as the man most responsible for the growth and success of the Scottish Rite from an obscure Masonic Rite in the mid-19th century to the international fraternity that it became. Pike received the 4th through the 32nd Degrees in March 1853[27][28] from Albert Mackey, in Charleston, South Carolina, and was appointed Deputy Inspector for Arkansas that same year.

text: At this point, the degrees were in a rudimentary form, and often included only a brief history and legend of each degree, as well as other brief details which usually lacked a workable ritual for their conferral. In 1855, the Supreme Council appointed a committee to prepare and compile rituals for the 4th through the 32nd Degrees. That committee was composed of Albert G. Mackey, John H. Honour, William S. Rockwell, Claude P. Samory, and Albert Pike. Of these five committee members, Pike did all the work of the committee.

text: In 1857 Pike completed his first revision of the 4°-32° ritual, and printed 100 copies. This revision, which Mackey dubbed the "Magnum Opus", was never adopted by the Supreme Council. According to Arturo de Hoyos, 33°, the Scottish Rite's Grand Historian, the Magnum Opus became the basis for future ritual revisions.[29]

text: In March 1858, Pike was elected a member of the Supreme Council for the Southern Jurisdiction of the United States, and in January 1859 he became its Grand Commander. The American Civil War interrupted his work on the Scottish Rite rituals. About 1870 he, and the Supreme Council, moved to Washington, DC. In 1884 his revision of the rituals was complete.

text: Scottish Rite Grand Archivist and Grand Historian de Hoyos[30] created the following chart of Pike's ritual revisions:

text:
Degrees

When Revised

1-3°

1872

4-14°

1861, 1870, 1883

15-16°

1861, 1870, 1882

17-18°

1861, 1870

19-30°

1867, 1879, 1883

31-32°

1867, 1879, 1883

33°

1857, 1867, 1868, 1880
(manuscripts only)

text: Pike also wrote lectures about all the degrees, which were published in 1871 under the title Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry.[31]

text: Revisions after Pike[edit]

text: In 2000 the Southern Jurisdiction revised its ritual.  The current ritual is based upon Pike's, but with some significant differences.

text: Degree structure[edit]

text: The thirty-three degrees of the Scottish Rite are conferred by several controlling bodies. The first of these is the Craft Lodge, which confers the Entered Apprentice, Fellowcraft, and Master Mason degrees. Craft lodges operate under the authority of national Grand Lodges, not the Scottish Rite. Attainment of the third Masonic degree, that of a Master Mason, represents the attainment of the highest rank in all of Masonry.[32][33] Additional degrees such as those of the AASR are sometimes referred to as appendant degrees, even where the degree numbering might imply a hierarchy. They represent a lateral movement in Masonic education rather than an upward movement, and are degrees of instruction rather than rank.[34]

text: The AASR does have its own distinctive versions of the Craft rituals, but most lodges throughout the English-speaking world do not confer them. However, there are a handful of lodges in New Orleans and several other major U.S. cities that have traditionally conferred the Scottish Rite version of these degrees,[35] as do most Lodges under the jurisdiction of the Grande Loge Nationale Française[36]

text: According to Masonic historian Alain Bernheim, Belgian Masonic scholar Pierre Noël demonstrated in a 2002 paper that the AASR Craft degrees derived from the French translation of the Masonic exposé Three Distinct Knocks, issued in London in 1760.[37]

text: In 2000, the Southern Jurisdiction in the United States completed a revision of its ritual scripts. In 2004, the Northern Jurisdiction in the United States rewrote and reorganized its degrees.[38]  Further changes have occurred in 2006.[39] The current titles of the degrees and their arrangement in the Southern Jurisdiction remains substantially unchanged from the beginning.

text: The list of degrees for the Supreme Councils of Australia, England and Wales, and most other jurisdictions largely agrees with that of the Southern Jurisdiction of the U.S.  However, the list of degrees for the Northern Jurisdiction of the United States is now somewhat different and is given in the table below.  The list of degrees of the Supreme Council of Canada reflects a mixture of the two, with some unique titles as well:

text:
Degree

Southern Jurisdiction[40]

Northern Jurisdiction[41]

Canada[42]

England and Wales[43]

4°

Secret Master

Master Traveler

Secret Master

5°

Perfect Master

6°

Intimate Secretary

Master of the Brazen Serpent

Intimate Secretary

7°

Provost and Judge

8°

Intendant of the Building

9°

Elu of the Nine

Master of the Temple

Elect of the Nine

Elect of Nine

10°

Elu of the Fifteen

Master Elect[44]

Elect of the Fifteen

Elect of Fifteen

11°

Elu of the Twelve

Sublime Master Elected

Elect of the Twelve

Sublime Elect

12°

Master Architect

Master of Mercy

Grand Master Architect

13°

Royal Arch of Solomon

Master of the Ninth Arch

Royal Arch of Solomon

Royal Arch of Enoch

14°

Perfect Elu

Grand Elect Mason

Grand Elect Perfect and Sublime Mason

Grand Elect Perfect and Sublime Master

15°

Knight of the East,  or Knight of the Sword,  or Knight of the Eagle

Knight of the East, orKnight of the Sword

Knight of the Sword,  or Knight of the East

16°

Prince of Jerusalem

17°

Knight of the East and West

18°

Knight Rose Croix

Knight of the Rose Croix de Heredom

Knight Rose Croix

Sovereign Prince Rose Croix,  or Knight of the Pelican and Eagle

19°

Grand Pontiff

Brother of the Trail

Grand Pontiff

20°

Master of the Symbolic Lodge

Master ad Vitam

Venerable Grand Master

21°

Noachite, orPrussian Knight

Patriarch Noachite

22°

Knight of the Royal Axe, orPrince of Libanus

Prince of Libanus

23°

Chief of the Tabernacle

Knight of Valor

Chief of the Tabernacle

24°

Prince of the Tabernacle

Brother of the Forest

Prince of the Tabernacle

25°

Knight of the Brazen Serpent

Master of Achievement

Knight of the Brazen Serpent

26°

Prince of Mercy, orScottish Trinitarian

Friend and Brother Eternal[45]

Prince of Mercy

27°

Knight of the Sun, orPrince Adept

Knight of Jerusalem

Commander of the Temple

28°

Knight Commander of the Temple

Knight of the Sun, orPrince Adept

Knight of the Sun

29°

Scottish Knight of Saint Andrew

Knight of Saint Andrew

30°

Knight Kadosh, orKnight of the White and Black Eagle

Grand Inspector

Knight Kadosh

Grand Elected Knight Kadosh,  or Knight of the White and Black Eagle

31°

Inspector Inquisitor

Knight Aspirant

Inspector Inquisitor Commander

Grand Inspector Inquisitor Commander

32°

Master of the Royal Secret

Sublime Prince of the Royal Secret

33°

Inspector General

Sovereign Grand Inspector General

text: Organization[edit]

text: The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite in each country is governed by a Supreme Council.[46] There is no international governing body; each Supreme Council in each country is sovereign unto itself in its own jurisdiction.

text: Canada[edit]

text: In Canada, whose Supreme Council was warranted in 1874 by that of England and Wales, the Rite is known as Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite.  The council is called "Supreme Council 33° Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry of Canada". Canada's Supreme Council office is located at 4 Queen Street South in Hamilton, Ontario. There are 45 local units or "Valleys" across Canada.[47]

text: France[edit]

text: When Comte de Grasse-Tilly returned to France in 1804, he worked to establish the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite there. He founded the first Supreme Council in France[48] that same year.

text: The Grand Orient of France signed a treaty of union in December 1804 with the Supreme Council of the 33rd Degree in France; the treaty declared that "the Grand Orient united to itself"[49] the Supreme Council in France. This accord was applied until 1814. Thanks to this treaty, the Grand Orient of France took ownership, as it were, of the Scottish Rite.

text: From 1805 to 1814, the Grand Orient of France administered the first 18 degrees of the Rite, leaving the Supreme Council of France to administer the last 15. In 1815, five of the leaders of the Supreme Council founded the Suprême Conseil des Rites within the Grand Orient of France. The original Supreme Council of France fell dormant from 1815 to 1821.[50]

text: The Suprême Conseil des Isles d'Amérique (founded in 1802 by Grasse-Tilly and revived around 1810 by his father-in-law Delahogue, who had also returned from the United States) breathed new life into the Supreme Council for the 33rd Degree in France. They merged into a single organization: the Supreme Council of France. This developed as an independent and sovereign Masonic power. It created symbolic lodges (those composed of the first three degrees, which otherwise would be federated around a Grand Lodge or a Grand Orient).

text: In 1894, the Supreme Council of France created the Grand Lodge of France. It became fully independent in 1904, when the Supreme Council of France ceased chartering new lodges.[51] The Supreme Council of France still considers itself the overseer of all 33 degrees of the Rite. Relations between the two structures remain close, as shown by their organizing two joint meetings a year.

text: In 1964, the Sovereign Grand Commander Charles Riandey, along with 400 to 500 members,[52] left the jurisdiction of the Supreme Council of France and joined the Grande Loge Nationale Française. Because of his resignation and withdrawal of hundreds of members, there was no longer a Supreme Council of France. Riandey then reinitiated the 33 degrees of the rite in Amsterdam.[53] With the support of the Supreme Council of the Southern Jurisdiction of the United States, he founded a new Supreme Council in France, called the Suprême Conseil pour la France. This was the only one to be recognized by the Supreme Councils of the United States after it was designated in 1970 as the sole authority of the Scottish Rite for France by the Supreme Council of the Southern Jurisdiction (the oldest Supreme Council in the world) at the Barranquilla conference.

text: France has three different and arguably legitimate Supreme Councils:

text:
The Suprême Conseil Grand Collège du Rite écossais ancien accepté (emerging from the Supreme Council of 1804 and constituted in 1815), affiliated with the Grand Orient de France.
The Suprême Conseil de France (emerging from the Supreme Council of 1804 and restored in 1821 by the Supreme Council of the Isles d'Amérique founded in 1802 in Saint-Domingue, the modern Haiti), affiliated with the Grand Lodge of France.
The Suprême Conseil pour la France (emerging from the Supreme Council of the Netherlands, constituted in 1965), affiliated with the Grande Loge Nationale Française

text: Romania[edit]

text: The Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite was established in Romania in 1881, a year after the National Grand Lodge of Romania was founded.  On 27 December 1922, the Supreme Council of Scottish Rite of Romania, received the recognition of the Supreme Council of France in 1922, and recognition from the Supreme Council, Southern Jurisdiction of the United States in 1925.

text: Between 1948 – 1989 all of Romanian Freemasonry, including the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Romania, was banned by the Communist regime.

text: The Supreme Council of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Romania was reconsecrated in 1993.[54]

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: In England and Wales, whose Supreme Council was warranted by that of the Northern Jurisdiction of the USA (in 1845),[55] the Rite is known colloquially as the "Rose Croix" or more formally as "The Ancient and Accepted Rite for England and Wales and its Districts and Chapters Overseas" (continental European jurisdictions retain the "Écossais"). England and Wales are divided into Districts, which administer the Rose Croix Chapters within their District; many degrees are conferred in name only, and degrees beyond the 18° are conferred only by the Supreme Council itself.

text: All candidates for membership must profess the Trinitarian Christian faith and have been Master masons for at least one year.[56]

text: In England and Wales, the candidate is perfected in the 18th degree with the preceding degrees awarded in name only.  Continuing to the 30th degree is restricted to those who have served in the chair of the Chapter.  Elevation beyond the 30th degree is as in Scotland.

text: In Scotland, candidates are perfected in the 18th degree, with the preceding degrees awarded in name only. A minimum of a two-year interval is required before continuing to the 30th degree, again with the intervening degrees awarded by name only.  Elevation beyond that is by invitation only, and numbers are severely restricted.[57]

text: United States[edit]

text: In the United States of America there are two Supreme Councils: one in Washington, D.C. (which controls the Southern Jurisdiction), and one in Lexington, Massachusetts (which controls the Northern Masonic Jurisdiction).[58] They each have particular characteristics that make them different.

text:
US states in the Southern Jurisdiction

 US states in the Northern Jurisdiction

text: In the United States, members of the Scottish Rite can be elected to receive the 33° by the Supreme Council.[59] It is conferred on members who have made major contributions to society or to Masonry in general.

text: Southern Jurisdiction[edit]

text: Based in Washington, D.C., the Southern Jurisdiction (often referred to as the "Mother Supreme Council of the World") was founded in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1801. It oversees the Scottish Rite in 35 states, which are referred to as Orients, and local bodies, which are called Valleys.[60][61][62]

text: In the Southern Jurisdiction of the United States, the Supreme Council consists of no more than 33 members and is presided over by a Grand Commander. Other members of the Supreme Council are called "Sovereign Grand Inspectors General" (S.G.I.G.), and each is the head of the Rite in his respective Orient (or state). Other heads of the various Orients who are not members of the Supreme Council are called "Deputies of the Supreme Council". The Supreme Council of the Southern Jurisdiction meets every odd year during the month of August at the House of the Temple, Scottish Rite of Freemasonry Southern Jurisdiction Headquarters, in Washington, D.C. During this conference, closed meetings between the Grand Commander and the S.G.I.G.'s are held, and many members of the fraternity from all over the world attend the open ceremony on the 5th of 6 council meeting days.

text: In the Southern Jurisdiction, a member who has been a 32° Scottish Rite Mason for 46 months or more is eligible to be elected to receive the "rank and decoration" of Knight Commander of the Court of Honour (K.C.C.H.) in recognition of outstanding service. After 46 months as a K.C.C.H. he is then eligible to be elected to the 33rd degree, upon approval of the Supreme Council and Grand Commander.[63]

text: Northern Jurisdiction[edit]

text: The Lexington, Massachusetts-based Northern Masonic Jurisdiction, formed in 1813, oversees the bodies in fifteen states: Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Jersey, New Hampshire, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Wisconsin and Vermont.  The Northern Jurisdiction is only divided into Valleys, not Orients.[64]  Each Valley has up to four Scottish Rite bodies, and each body confers a set of degrees.

text:
In the Northern Jurisdiction, the Supreme Council consists of no more than 66 members. Those who are elected to membership on the Supreme Council are then designated "Active." In the Northern Jurisdiction
all recipients of the 33rd Degree are honorary members of the Supreme Council, and all members are referred to as a "Sovereign Grand Inspectors General."  The head of the Rite in each State of the Northern Jurisdiction is called a "Deputy of the Supreme Council."  Thus the highest ranking Scottish Rite officer in Ohio, is titled, "Deputy for Ohio",  and so forth for each state. Additionally, each Deputy has one or more "Actives" to assist him in the administration of the state. Active members of the Supreme Council who have served faithfully for ten years, or reach the age of 75, may be designated "Active, Emeritus". The Northern Jurisdiction Supreme Council meets yearly, in the even years by an executive session, and in the odd years, with the full membership invited.  The 33rd Degree is conferred on the odd years at the Annual Meeting.

text: In the Northern Jurisdiction, there is a 46-month requirement for eligibility to receive the 33rd degree, and while there is a Meritorious Service Award (as well as a Distinguished Service Award), they are not required intermediate steps towards the 33°.


document_title: Sunil Lahri

question_text: who played the role of laxman in ramayan

root

text: Sunil Lahri

text:
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Find sources: "Sunil Lahri" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

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tag: table

text:
Sunil Lahri

Born
Damoh,MP, India

Occupation
Actor

Years active
1985 – present

Known for
Lakshman in Ramayan

text: Sunil Lahri (also called Sunil Lahiri or Sunil Lehri) is an Indian actor. He is most famous for appearing in the television works of Ramanand Sagar, beginning with his most famous role as Lakshman in Ramayan. Before Ramayan, he appeared in some stories of Vikram aur Betaal and Dada-Dadi Ki Kahaniyan.

tag: p

text: He has also done a major role in the 1991 musical Baharon Ke Manzil.[1] He portrayed 2nd Lieutenant Rama Raghoba Rane in 1990 TV series Param Vir Chakra.

text: In 2012 Sunil donated his dad's deceased body to the department of forensics of JK Medical college in Bhopal.[2] His father Dr Shikar Chandra Lahiri was a doctor and also a professor in a medical college so he understood the issues students face in their studies because of absence of accessibility of human anatomy so he wrote in his will that after his passing his body ought to be given to the medical students in order to help them in their studies.


document_title: Constitution of the Roman Republic

question_text: what was the most powerful lawmaking body in the roman republic

text: Constitution of the Roman Republic

text: Development of the constitution[edit]

text: The early republican constitution was dominated by the patricians, who monopolised all control of the magistracies, the Senate, and the voting blocs of the assemblies. Generally, it slowly developed with a tendency towards greater popular representation at the expense of the patrician class.[13] The main historical sources for the origins of the Roman political system, Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, relied heavily on the Roman annalists, who supplemented what little written history existed with oral history. This lack of evidence poses problems for the reliability of the traditional account of the republic's origins.[14]

text: According to this traditional account, Rome had been ruled by a succession of kings. The Romans believed that this era, that of the Roman kingdom, began in 753 BC and ended in 510 BC. After the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the Republic, the people of Rome began electing two consuls each year.[15] According to the consular fasti, a list of the consuls going back to the foundation of the Republic, the first consuls were chosen in 509 BC.[16]

text: Some scholars doubt this traditional account, arguing instead that the monarchy evolved into a government led by elected magistrates.[17] Remnants of the monarchy, however, were reflected in republican institutions, such as the religious office of rex sacrorum ("king of the sacred") and the interregnum (a period of time presided over by an interrex when the offices of consul, praetor, and dictator were all vacant).[18] There, is, however, certainly evidence that the early Republic was a time of violent change, with the word rex carrying the same connotations as tyrant and laws which declared forfeit the life and property of any man who plotted to install himself as a king or tyrant.[17]

text: The first assemblies of the Republic emerged during the Kingdom, with their use to ratify regal elections and the repurposing of the comitia centuriata to elect the first consuls.[17] This regime was dominated by the patricians, and the sources on the early Republic overwhelmingly focus on the conflicts between the patricians and the plebs, in what is known as the Conflict of the Orders.[19]

text: The early years of the Republic were a time of external strife and periodic popular unrest. In 494 BC, under harsh measures from patrician creditors, during a military campaign, the plebeians under arms seceded to the Mons Sacer outside the city and refused to fight in the campaign without political concessions. With the pressure of an external threat, the patricians were forced to create the office of plebeian tribune (Latin: tribuni plebis) who were declared sacrosanct,[19] i.e. that they were declared inviolable and that anyone could be summarily executed for violation of the sanctity of his person.[20] This was the basis of the tribune's ability to veto (literally translated as "I forbid") any political act or to protect any individual from an injustice committed by a magistrate, known as intercessio and auxilium, respectively.[21] The people gave the tribunes, whose number is unclear,[19] two assistants known as plebeian aediles.[22]

text: Later, again under pressure from the plebs, a political compromise was reached in which the consuls and tribunes would give place to a commission of ten men, the decemviri, who would be empowered to publish a code of laws for all Rome.[23] According to Livy, it codified all public and private law, but however, its promulgation did not grant further political rights to the plebs, as it enshired into the tables a law banning intermarriage between plebeians and patricians.[24] With a short attempt to establish a tyranny by the decemviri, they were overthrown by the second secession of the army, restoring the old republic and preventing the creation of a new constitution based on the ten-man commission.[25]

text: In 446 BC, quaestors, administrators with wide terms of reference, were first elected; and the office of censor was created to administer the census in 443 BC.[25][26] However, the creation of the censors also was concurrent with the practice of electing military tribunes with consular authority, which, while open to the plebs, stalled efforts to reform the consulate itself.[27]

text: In 367 BC, plebeians were allowed to stand for the consulship, and this implicitly opened both the censorship as well as the dictatorship to plebeians.[28] Around this time, the practice of electing military tribunes with consular authority was dropped. In 366 BC, in an effort by the patricians to reassert their influence over the magisterial offices, two new offices were created. These two offices, the praetorship and the curule aedileship (so-called because its holder, like consuls and praetors, had the right to sit in a curule seat),[29] were at first open only to patricians, but within a generation they were open to plebeians as well.[22]

text: Beginning around the year 350 BC, the senators and the plebeian tribunes began to grow closer.[10] The Senate began giving tribunes more power, and the tribunes began to feel indebted to the Senate.[10] As the tribunes and the senators grew closer, plebeian senators began to routinely secure the office of tribune for members of their own families.[30] Also, this period saw the enacting of the plebiscitum Ovinium, which transferred the power to appoint new senators from the consuls to the censors. This law also required the censors to appoint any newly elected magistrate to the Senate,[31] which probably resulted in a significant increase in the number of plebeian senators.[32]

text: As the privileged status of the old patrician elite eroded over time, a plebeian aristocracy developed whose status was theoretically based on merit and popular election rather than birth.[32][33] Because patricians were ineligible to run for plebeian offices, the new plebeian aristocracy actually had more opportunities for advancement than their patrician counterparts.[34] Over time distinctions between patricians and plebeian aristocrats became less important, giving rise to a new "patricio-plebeian aristocracy" termed the nobilitas.[32]

text: In 287 BC, the plebeians again seceded. To end the secession, the lex Hortensia was passed, which required that plebiscites, laws passed by the Plebeian Council, be binding on the whole Roman people.[13] The Hortensian law resolved the last great political question of the earlier era; the electoral and legislative sovereignty of the assemblies was confirmed and would remain part of the constitution until the demise of the Republic.[13] As a whole, the outcome of the political struggles of the early republic was to eliminate the privileged status of patricians in the constitution and grant the plebs recognition of their own officers.[33] The institution of the Senate was also now arguably stronger, as it became a repository of former magistrates rather than a body of hereditary nobles.[33]

text: The Assemblies[edit]

text: In Roman constitutional law, the assemblies are a sovereign authority, with the power to enact or reject any law, confer any magistracies, and make any decision.[4] In fact, with a single law, they held the authority to override the norms and precedents of the Republic as well as ancient laws long unchanged.[35] There are two necessary components to any assembly: (1) the convening magistrate and (2) the citizens in the assembly itself. Assemblies did not participate or discuss matters laid before them, they heard the speakers put forth by the presiding officer. And after such discussion, the presiding officer could call for a direct up or down vote.[36] Without a magistrate, there would be nobody to legally call upon the assembly; and without the citizens, there is naught but a magistrate.

text: Assemblies did not consist of the whole Roman people (Latin: populus Romanus), not only were there restrictions on the vote in that only adult male citizens were permitted to participate. Until the Social War around 90 BC, foreigners were prohibited from voting as well.[37] It can be argued, however, that the Assembly was more a representative group of Romans rather than a simple direct democracy.[38]

text: Procedure[edit]

text: There were three types of gatherings, the comitia, the concilium, and the contio or conventio. The first two were formal gatherings where legal decisions were made. The first, the comitia (or comitiatus), was an assembly of all Roman citizens convened to take a legal action, such as enacting laws, electing magistrates, and trying judicial cases.[38][39] The second type of legislative meeting was the council (Latin: concilium), which was a gathering of a specific group of citizens. For example, the concilium Plebis, or Plebeian council, was for meetings of plebeians only.[40]

text: The third type of gathering, the convention (Latin: contio or conventio), was an unofficial forum for communication where citizens gathered to hear public announcements and arguments debated in speeches as well to witness the examination or execution of criminals. In contrast to the formal assembly or council, no legal decisions were made by the convention.[40] Voters met in conventions to deliberate prior to meeting in assemblies or councils to vote.[41]

text: Assemblies and councils operated according to established procedures overseen by the augurs. They could only be convened by magistrates, and citizens only voted on matters proposed by the presiding magistrate.[4][40] Over the years, laws were passed which mandated a written ballot, attempted to reduce voter intimidation, and established procedures to watch over voting and prevent voter fraud.[42] For elections, it was not a matter of who received the most votes, but rather who could first be approved by a majority of the voting blocs.[43] All votes had to be completed within a single day and had to be done again if interrupted or abandoned.[44]

text: Assembly types[edit]

text: Roman citizens were organized into three types of voting units: curiae, centuria, and tribus or tribes. These corresponded to three different kinds of assemblies: the Curiate Assembly, the Centuriate Assembly, and the Tribal Assembly. Each unit (curia, century or tribe) cast one vote before their assembly.[43] The majority of individual votes in any century, tribe, or curia decided how that unit voted.[43]

text: The Curiate assembly (Latin: comitia curiata) traditionally dates to the early monarchy, from 30 divisions of the city made by Romulus.[44] By the middle Republic, it served only a symbolic purpose. At some point, the 30 curiae ceased to actually meet and were instead represented by 30 lictors. This assembly had authority over some elements of family law and ratified the imperium of elected magistrates and promagistrates through a lex curiata de imperio.[44] In the realm of family law, it was presided over by the pontifex maximus.[45] However, there was considerable debate in the late Republic on whether or not a magistrate's election actually required ratification by the curiae,[46] and by 212 BC, the Senate refrained from enforcing this quirk of precedent.[47]

text: The Centuriate assembly (Latin: comitia centuriata) was formed under the monarchy, and widely seen by the ancients as a means of allotting voting privileges in proportion to military duties demanded of the citizenry,[48] disproportionately granting voting power to the richest in society, as at the time of its formation, the wealthiest were also expected to contribute the most to the military.[48] By the middle Republic, the connection between voting power and military service had long ceased, turning into a system to suppress the voting power of the poor.[49] Because of its military roots, it could only be called into session by a magistrate holding imperium,.[45] Originally divided into 193 voting blocs, these blocs were further subdivided into five classes and a class of equites by wealth, each further subdivided by age into a junior and senior bloc. The first class and the equites held 98 of the 193 voting blocs, an absolute majority.[50] This was later reformed around 241 BC, into an assembly of 373 voting blocs with each class having the same number of votes, though the wealth requirements necessarily meant that the wealthier classes were composed of fewer people.[51] The body was primarily called for the election of consuls, praetors, and censors;[52] while it could hear legislation, trials, and only it could declare an offensive war,[53] these were increasingly rare by the second century BC.[52]

text: The Tribal assembly (Latin: comitia tributa) dates from time immemorial, as no ancient historian mentions its establishment.[54] In the early Republic, there were four urban tribes and 17 rural tribes.[52] In 241 BC fourteen rural tribes were added, bringing the total to thirty-five.[52] The 'tribes' were not ethnic or kinship groups, but rather a district to which people were assigned.[55] A citizen's tribe was inherited from his father, and only changed upon adoption or reallocation in the census;[56] over time, this meant that tribal affiliation had little relationship to a citizen's home or even place of birth.[57] The vast majority of legislation was enacted in the comitia tributa,[48] which also elected quaestors, curule aediles, and military tribunes.[58][59]

text: The Plebeian council (Latin: concilium plebis) was identical to the Tribal assembly with one key exception: only plebeians had the power to vote in it.[60] It elected the plebeian tribunes and aediles, and later, various other minor posts.[61] It also had the ability to enact laws called plebiscites, which in the early Republic, only applied to plebs, but after the passage of lex Hortensia, applied to all Romans.[13] In the early Republic, the council also had some judicial functions, but by the middle Republic, much of these functions were transferred to permanent courts.[62]

text: Senate[edit]

text: The Senate was the predominant political institution in the Roman Republic. The Senate's authority derived primarily from custom and tradition.[5] It was also one of the few places in which free political discussion could take place.[63] The Senate's principal role was as an advisory council to the consuls on matters of foreign and military policy, and it exercised a great deal of influence over consular decision-making.[64]

text: During the Kingdom, the Senate consisted of persons selected to the position by the King, a power which the consuls inherited after the end of the monarchy.[65] In the very early republic, senators were primarily chosen due to their birth,[66] but by the late Republic, and especially after Sulla, membership in the Senate became predicated on having previously held a magistracy.[67] In the late 4th century BC, the consul's power to control Senate membership was transferred to the censor,[65] exercised with considerable discretion, until laws passed in the late Republic formalised some kind of hearing before censorial decisions.[68] In line with the censor's duty to protect morals, senators were required to be of good character, not have been found guilty of a criminal offence, and not be a person tainted with ignominy (e.g. bankrupts, former gladiators, prostitutes, or deserters).[69] Before the time of Augustus, there is no evidence of any kind of property qualification.[70] The Senate consisted of around 300 prior to the dictatorship of Sulla, but after his dictatorship, it consisted of somewhere over 500 men.[66]

text: A decree from the Senate was called senatus consultum (plural senatus consulta). While this was formally "advice" from the Senate to a magistrate, stating the senate's position on some topic, the senatus consulta were usually obeyed by the magistrates.[71] If a senatus consultum conflicted with a law that was passed by a popular assembly, the law overrode the senatus consultum.[72]

text: Meetings could take place either inside or outside of the formal boundary of the city (the pomerium), though the official meeting place, or curia was at the centre of the Roman forum. The president of the Senate was normally one of the consuls, but it could be called to meet by any of the praetors or tribunes, both of whom had the authority to call the Senate, though praetors rarely did so unless the consuls were away and the tribunes almost never did so.[73] Meetings were suffused in religious ritual. Temples were a preferred meeting site and auspices would be taken before the meeting could commence.[68]

text: The presiding consul began each meeting with a speech on an issue,[74] and then referred the issue to the senators, who discussed the matter by order of seniority.[74] Unimportant matters could be voted on by a voice vote or by a show of hands, while important votes resulted in a physical division of the house,[75] with senators voting by taking a place on either side of the chamber. Any vote was always between a proposal and its negative.[76]

text: Since all meetings had to end by nightfall, a senator could talk a proposal to death (a filibuster) if he could keep the debate going until nightfall.[74] Any proposed motion could be vetoed by a tribune,[34] and if it was not vetoed, it was then turned into a final senatus consultum. Each senatus consultum was transcribed into a document by the presiding magistrate, and then deposited into the aerarium.[77]

text: Executive magistrates[edit]

text: Magistrates were elected officials, serving as representatives of the people for the conduct of public business.[79] There are two broad categories of magistrates, the ordinary magistrates such as the consuls, products of the republican constitution, and the extraordinary magistrates such as the dictators, remnants of the monarchial constitution and reserved primarily for emergencies.[79] Each magistrate held potestas, the authority to exercise the office's powers conferred by custom or statute.[80] The most powerful magistrates, such as the extraordinary magistrates, consuls, and praetors, held a kind of authority known as imperium, the authority to command in a military or judicial sense.[81]

text: Ordinary magistrates[edit]

text: Of the ordinary magistrates, there are two further divisions: the higher magistrates, composed of consuls, praetors, their prorogued equivalents, and the censors; and the lower magistrates, composed of the tribunes, aediles, quaestors, and other minor positions.[3] All higher magistrates were elected by the Centuriate Assembly.

text: The most powerful ordinary magistrate was the consul, of which there were two,[a] who served for the period of one year.[83] These consuls had the authority to call assemblies of the people.[84] In the early Republic, they held judicial duties until these responsibilities were moved to the praetors and later to permanent courts; similarly, they held financial responsibilities until these duties were transferred to the quaestors.[85] The consuls also held vague religious duties inherited from the kings,[86] along with their more important military functions, serving as the commander-in-chief of Rome's armies.

text: The next magistrate was the praetor, who increased in number over the course of the Republic,[b] and were primarily judges.[88] In the later Republic, praetors were increasingly sent out to the provinces to serve as provincial governors, especially as prorogued magistrates.[88] In Rome, there were primarily two kinds of praetor, the praetor urbanus and the praetor peregrinus, in charge of suits involving citizens and foreigners, respectively.[89] They were also assigned, in the late Republic, to various permanent courts with specific criminal jurisdiction.[c][90] When the consuls were away, the praetors were empowered to command armies and serve in the place of the consuls, and thus also held authority to call assemblies and introduce legislation[91]

text: Over time, as Rome's empire grew, the two annual consuls ceased to be enough to command its many armies in the field or administer its many provinces. To solve this problem, it became normal to prorogue the authority of current consuls and praetors beyond their normal terms so they could continue to command in the field.[92] Over time, however, with increasing need for competent generals and administrators, prorogation of magistrates became the norm;[93] and the device was used, increasingly by the assemblies, to grant imperium to popular politicians.[93]

text: The censor was appointed specifically to conduct the census. This involved counting the Roman people, assessing their property, and assigning them to their appropriate centuria and tribus.[93] They were elected around every four or five years.[94] After the passage of lex Ovinia, the censors were also transferred the power from the consuls to control membership in the Senate.[66] Along with the main responsibility of dealing with the census, the censors also dealt with property disputes, public contracts, and the management of public lands.[95]

text: The lower magistrates included the tribune of the plebs, who was elected by the Plebeian Council, and the aediles and quaestors, elected by the Tribal Assembly. The tribune was sacrosanct, i.e. declared inviolable, with summary execution for violators of his sanctity.[20] It was on this basis that the tribune could veto any political act or to protect any individual from an injustice committed by a magistrate, known as intercessio and auxilium, respectively.[21] This power was used increasingly to block public business in the later republic, and was only limited in that a tribune could not oppose the will of the people as a whole.[d][97]

text: The aediles were in charge of various municipal tasks, e.g. the upkeep of temples, streets, and the water-supply.[98] They were also responsible for public games,[98] and some aspects of police work in the city.[99] The quaestors were elected administrators, which could be put in charge of the treasury, the granaries, or various administrative postings in Italy, with the consuls, or in the provinces.[100] In the late Republic, election to the quaestorship became the basis for a life appointment to the Senate.[101]

text: Extraordinary magistrates[edit]

text: There were two extraordinary magistrates: the dictator and the magister equitum (literally: master of horse).[102] Dictators were selected by the consuls[103] to resolve some crisis threatening the republic, for a term of around six months, before they were expected to resign and return their powers to the ordinary magistrates.[104] The magister equitum, was then appointed by the dictator as his lieutenant.[e][105] The dictatorship was only used in the early and middle Republic, before falling out of fashion after the end of the Second Punic War, before being revived during the time of Sulla as an extraconstitutional measure, not to defeat some foe or quell unrest, but rather, to bring stability to the political order.[f][104][92]

text: The dictator had maius imperium and total authority to command the state,[103] however, since the dictator generally tried to maintain order, this did not conflict with the responsibilities of the other magistrates, who continued to function during a dictatorship.[103][107] The magister equitum had similar plenary authority, with parallel and somewhat subordinate authority to the dictator.[105]

text: In the middle and later Republic, with the office of dictator falling out of fashion, the need for dictatorial authority was not granted to some extraordinary magistrate, but rather, to the consuls, through a senatus consultum ultimum, or final decree.[92] This decree took the form of a recommendation from the Senate to the consuls to take whatever actions were necessary to defend the republic.[g][109][108] Due to its general vagueness, however, its use was hotly contested in the late Republic and is still debated among scholars today, as in a strict legal sense, the final decree did not grant legal authority to the consuls, but rather, served as an urging from the Senate to ignore the laws to protect the state.[110]

text: Constitutional instability[edit]

text: After the Second Punic War, there was a great increase in income inequality. While the middle class was drafted to serve in increasingly long campaigns, their farms and homesteads fell into bankruptcy.[113] And with Rome's great military victories, vast numbers of slaves were imported into Italy.[113] In the middle of the second century BC, the tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus led to a breakup of the long-standing norms of the republican constitution.[114] Graccus' legislation effectively established a parallel administration challenging the socio-political power of the old aristocracy and establishing a precedent that the popular assemblies could vote themselves whatever they wanted.[114] His younger brother, Gaius Gracchus, further challenged the Senate's political preeminence, by threatening it with new judicial procedures.[114] The Senate's violent reaction against both the Gracchi, which led to their deaths, also served to legitimise the use of violence for political ends.[115]

text: Later populist attempts to introduce similarly broad-reaching redistributive legislation enlisted the support of Gaius Marius, a great general, which was then elected to a string of unprecedented consecutive consulships,[116] which also violated Roman law, which mandated a decade between consulships, further weakening the primarily norms-based constitution. The attempts to recall the general Sulla led to his marching on Rome in 88 BC, installing two new consuls and forcing major reforms of the constitution at sword-point,[116] before leaving a campaign in the East.[117] This further strengthened the precedent that the Republic's constitution was malleable.

text: When Sulla returned in 82 BC, he was made dictator for the purpose of bringing order to the Republic's politics.[92] Sulla attempted to concentrate political power into the Senate and the aristocratic assemblies, whilst trying to reduce the obstructive and legislative powers of the tribune and Plebeian council.[118] However, his changes were not to last. With significant popular unrest, the tribunate's powers were quickly restored by 70 BC.[11] Sulla passed legislation to make it illegal to march on Rome as he had,[119] but having just shown that doing so would bring no personal harm so long as one was victorious, this had little effect.[11]

text: Over the course of the late Republic, formerly authoritative institutions lost their credibility and authority.[12] For example, the Sullan reforms to the Senate strongly split the aristocratic class between those who stayed in the city and those who rose to high office abroad, further increasing class divides between Romans, even at the highest levels.[120] Furthermore, the dominance of the military in the late Republic, along with stronger ties between a general and his troops, caused by their longer terms of service together and the troops' reliance on that general to provide for their retirements,[115] along with an obstructionist central government, meant a huge number of malcontent soldiers willing to take up arms against the state. Adding in the institutionalisation of violence as a means to obstruct or force political change (e.g. the deaths of the Gracchi and Sulla's dictatorship, respectively),[115] the Republic was caught in an ever more violent and anarchic struggle between the Senate, assemblies at Rome, and the promagistrates. It would only be resolved by civil war,[12] a war which the promagistrate governors and their troops would win, and in doing so, collapse the Republic.


document_title: Kilo-

question_text: if kilogram means 1 000 grams which does kilometer mean

text: Kilo-

text: Examples[edit]

text:
one kiloliter is 1000 litres
one kilogram is 1000 grams
one kilometre is 1000 metres
one kilojoule is 1000 joules
one kilobaud is 1000 baud
one kilohertz is 1000 hertz
one kilobit is 1000 bits
one kilobyte (kB) is 1000 bytes
one kΩ is 1000 ohms

tag: ul

text: kilobyte[edit]

text: For the kilobyte, a second definition has been in common use in some fields of computer science and information technology. It uses kilobyte to mean 210 bytes (= 1024 bytes), because of the mathematical coincidence that 210 is approximately 103. The reason for this application is that digital hardware and architectures natively use base 2 exponentiation, and not decimal systems. JEDEC memory standards still permit this definition, but acknowledge the correct SI usage.

text: NIST comments on the confusion caused by these contrasting definitions: "Faced with this reality, the IEEE Standards Board decided that IEEE standards will use the conventional, internationally adopted, definitions of the SI prefixes", instead of kilo for 1024.[3] To address this conflict, a new set of binary prefixes has been introduced, which is based on powers of 2. Therefore, 1024 bytes are defined as one kibibyte (1 KiB).

text: Exponentiation[edit]

text: When units occur in exponentiation, such as in square and cubic forms, any multiplier prefix is considered part of the unit, and thus included in the exponentiation.

text:
1 km2 means one square kilometre or the area of a square that measures 1000 m on each side or 106 m2 (as opposed to 1000 square meters, which is the area of a square that measures 31.6 m on each side).
1 km3 means one cubic kilometre or the volume of a cube that measures 1000 m on each side or 109 m3 (as opposed to 1000 cubic meters, which is the volume of a cube that measures 10 m on each side).


document_title: Extensible Authentication Protocol

question_text: what is the acronym for the protocol suite to which eap belongs

text: Extensible Authentication Protocol

text: Methods[edit]

text: EAP is an authentication framework, not a specific authentication mechanism. It provides some common functions and negotiation of authentication methods called EAP methods. There are currently about 40 different methods defined. Methods defined in IETF RFCs include EAP-MD5, EAP-POTP, EAP-GTC, EAP-TLS, EAP-IKEv2, EAP-SIM, EAP-AKA and EAP-AKA'. Additionally a number of vendor-specific methods and new proposals exist. Commonly used modern methods capable of operating in wireless networks include EAP-TLS, EAP-SIM, EAP-AKA, LEAP and EAP-TTLS. Requirements for EAP methods used in wireless LAN authentication are described in RFC 4017. The list of type and packets codes used in EAP is available from the IANA EAP Registry.

text: The standard also describes the conditions under which the AAA key management requirements described in RFC 4962 can be satisfied.

text: Lightweight Extensible Authentication Protocol (LEAP)[edit]

text: The Lightweight Extensible Authentication Protocol (LEAP) method was developed by Cisco Systems prior to the IEEE ratification of the 802.11i security standard. Cisco distributed the protocol through the CCX (Cisco Certified Extensions) as part of getting 802.1X and dynamic WEP adoption into the industry in the absence of a standard. There is no native support for LEAP in any Windows operating system, but it is widely supported by third party client software most commonly included with WLAN (wireless LAN) devices. LEAP support for Microsoft Windows 7 and Microsoft Windows Vista can be added by downloading a client add in from Cisco that provides support for both LEAP and EAP-FAST. Due to the wide adoption of LEAP in the networking industry many other WLAN vendors claim support for LEAP.

text: LEAP uses a modified version of MS-CHAP, an authentication protocol in which user credentials are not strongly protected and easily compromised; an exploit tool called ASLEAP was released in early 2004 by Joshua Wright. Cisco recommends that customers who absolutely must use LEAP do so only with sufficiently complex passwords, though complex passwords are difficult to administer and enforce. Cisco's current recommendation is to use newer and stronger EAP protocols such as EAP-FAST, PEAP, or EAP-TLS.

text: EAP Transport Layer Security (EAP-TLS)[edit]

text: EAP Transport Layer Security (EAP-TLS), defined in RFC 5216, is an IETF open standard that uses the Transport Layer Security (TLS) protocol, and is well-supported among wireless vendors. EAP-TLS is the original, standard wireless LAN EAP authentication protocol.

text: EAP-TLS is still considered one of the most secure EAP standards available, although TLS provides strong security only as long as the user understands potential warnings about false credentials, and is universally supported by all manufacturers of wireless LAN hardware and software. Until April 2005, EAP-TLS was the only EAP type vendors needed to certify for a WPA or WPA2 logo. There are client and server implementations of EAP-TLS in 3Com, Apple, Avaya, Brocade Communications, Cisco, Enterasys Networks, Foundry, Hirschmann, HP, Juniper, Microsoft, and open source operating systems. EAP-TLS is natively supported in Mac OS X 10.3 and above, wpa_supplicant, Windows 2000 SP4, Windows XP and above, Windows Mobile 2003 and above, Windows CE 4.2, and Apple's iOS mobile operating system.

text: Unlike most TLS implementations of HTTPS, such as on the World Wide Web, the majority of implementations of EAP-TLS require client-side X.509 certificates without giving the option to disable the requirement, even though the standard does not mandate their use. Some have identified this as having the potential to dramatically reduce adoption of EAP-TLS and prevent "open" but encrypted access points. On 22 August 2012 hostapd (and wpa_supplicant) added support in its Git repository for an UNAUTH-TLS vendor-specific EAP type (using the hostapd/wpa_supplicant project RFC 5612 Private Enterprise Number), and on 25 February 2014 added support for the WFA-UNAUTH-TLS vendor-specific EAP type (using the Wi-Fi Alliance Private Enterprise Number), which only do server authentication. This would allow for situations much like HTTPS, where a wireless hotspot allows free access and does not authenticate station clients but station clients wish to use encryption (IEEE 802.11i-2004 i.e. WPA2) and potentially authenticate the wireless hotspot. There have also been proposals to use IEEE 802.11u for access points to signal that they allow EAP-TLS using only server-side authentication, using the standard EAP-TLS IETF type instead of a vendor-specific EAP type.

text: The requirement for a client-side certificate, however unpopular it may be, is what gives EAP-TLS its authentication strength and illustrates the classic convenience vs. security trade-off. With a client-side certificate, a compromised password is not enough to break into EAP-TLS enabled systems because the intruder still needs to have the client-side certificate; indeed, a password is not even needed, as it is only used to encrypt the client-side certificate for storage. The highest security available is when the "private keys" of client-side certificate are housed in smart cards. This is because there is no way to steal a client-side certificate's corresponding private key from a smart card without stealing the card itself. It is more likely that the physical theft of a smart card would be noticed (and the smart card immediately revoked) than a (typical) password theft would be noticed. In addition, the private key on a smart card is typically encrypted using a PIN that only the owner of the smart card knows, minimizing its utility for a thief even before the card has been reported stolen and revoked.

text: EAP-MD5 was the only IETF Standards Track based EAP method when it was first defined in the original RFC for EAP, RFC 2284. It offers minimal security; the MD5 hash function is vulnerable to dictionary attacks, and does not support key generation, which makes it unsuitable for use with dynamic WEP, or WPA/WPA2 enterprise. EAP-MD5 differs from other EAP methods in that it only provides authentication of the EAP peer to the EAP server but not mutual authentication. By not providing EAP server authentication, this EAP method is vulnerable to man-in-the-middle attacks. EAP-MD5 support was first included in Windows 2000 and deprecated in Windows Vista.

text: EAP Protected One-Time Password (EAP-POTP)[edit]

text: EAP Protected One-Time Password (EAP-POTP), which is described in RFC 4793, is an EAP method developed by RSA Laboratories that uses one-time password (OTP) tokens, such as a handheld hardware device or a hardware or software module running on a personal computer, to generate authentication keys. EAP-POTP can be used to provide unilateral or mutual authentication and key material in protocols that use EAP.￼￼SAO-GTC

text: The EAP-POTP method provides two-factor user authentication, meaning that a user needs both physical access to a token and knowledge of a personal identification number (PIN) to perform authentication.

text: EAP Pre-Shared Key (EAP-PSK)[edit]

text: EAP Pre-shared key (EAP-PSK), defined in RFC 4764, is an EAP method for mutual authentication and session key derivation using a pre-shared key (PSK). It provides a protected communication channel, when mutual authentication is successful, for both parties to communicate and is designed for authentication over insecure networks such as IEEE 802.11.

text: EAP-PSK is documented in an experimental RFC that provides a lightweight and extensible EAP method that does not require any public-key cryptography. The EAP method protocol exchange is done in a minimum of four messages.

text: EAP Password (EAP-PWD)[edit]

text: EAP Password (EAP-PWD), defined in RFC 5931, is an EAP method which uses a shared password for authentication. The password may be a low-entropy one and may be drawn from some set of possible passwords, like a dictionary, which is available to an attacker. The underlying key exchange is resistant to active attack, passive attack, and dictionary attack.

text: EAP-PWD is in the base of Android 4.0 (ICS), it is in FreeRADIUS and Radiator RADIUS servers, it is in hostapd and wpa_supplicant.

text: EAP Tunneled Transport Layer Security (EAP-TTLS)[edit]

text: EAP Tunneled Transport Layer Security (EAP-TTLS) is an EAP protocol that extends TLS. It was co-developed by Funk Software and Certicom and is widely supported across platforms. Microsoft did not incorporate native support for the EAP-TTLS protocol in Windows XP, Vista, or 7. Supporting TTLS on these platforms requires third-party Encryption Control Protocol (ECP) certified software. Microsoft Windows started EAP-TTLS support with Windows 8, however, Windows Phone 8 does not support EAP-TTLS while version 8.1 supports it.

text: The client can, but does not have to be authenticated via a CA-signed PKI certificate to the server. This greatly simplifies the setup procedure since a certificate is not needed on every client.

text: After the server is securely authenticated to the client via its CA certificate and optionally the client to the server, the server can then use the established secure connection ("tunnel") to authenticate the client. It can use an existing and widely deployed authentication protocol and infrastructure, incorporating legacy password mechanisms and authentication databases, while the secure tunnel provides protection from eavesdropping and man-in-the-middle attack. Note that the user's name is never transmitted in unencrypted clear text, improving privacy.

text: Two distinct versions of EAP-TTLS exist: original EAP-TTLS (a.k.a. EAP-TTLSv0) and EAP-TTLSv1. EAP-TTLSv0 is described in RFC 5281, EAP-TTLSv1 is available as an Internet draft.

text: EAP Internet Key Exchange v. 2 (EAP-IKEv2)[edit]

text: EAP Internet Key Exchange v. 2 (EAP-IKEv2) is an EAP method based on the Internet Key Exchange protocol version 2 (IKEv2). It provides mutual authentication and session key establishment between an EAP peer and an EAP server. It supports authentication techniques that are based on the following types of credentials:

text: It is possible to use a different authentication credential (and thereby technique) in each direction. For example, the EAP server authenticates itself using public/private key pair and the EAP peer using symmetric key. In particular, the following combinations are expected to be used in practice:

text:
EAP server
EAP peer

Asymmetric key pair
Asymmetric key pair

Symmetric key

Password

Symmetric key
Symmetric key

text: EAP-IKEv2 is described in RFC 5106, and a prototype implementation exists.

text: EAP Flexible Authentication via Secure Tunneling (EAP-FAST)[edit]

text: Flexible Authentication via Secure Tunneling (EAP-FAST; RFC 4851) is a protocol proposal by Cisco Systems as a replacement for LEAP. The protocol was designed to address the weaknesses of LEAP while preserving the "lightweight" implementation. Use of server certificates is optional in EAP-FAST. EAP-FAST uses a Protected Access Credential (PAC) to establish a TLS tunnel in which client credentials are verified.

text: EAP-FAST has three phases:

text:
Phase
Function
Description
Purpose

0
In-band provisioning—provide the peer with a shared secret to be used in secure phase 1 conversation
Uses Authenticated Diffie-Hellman Protocol (ADHP). This phase is independent of other phases; hence, any other scheme (in-band or out-of-band) can be used in the future.
Eliminate the requirement in the client to establish a master secret every time a client requires network access

1
Tunnel establishment
Authenticates using the PAC and establishes a tunnel key
Key establishment to provide confidentiality and integrity during the authentication process in phase 2

2
Authentication
Authenticates the peer
Multiple tunneled, secure authentication mechanisms (credentials exchanged)

text: When automatic PAC provisioning is enabled, EAP-FAST has a slight vulnerability where an attacker can intercept the PAC and use that to compromise user credentials. This vulnerability is mitigated by manual PAC provisioning or by using server certificates for the PAC provisioning phase.

text: It is worth noting that the PAC file is issued on a per-user basis. This is a requirement in RFC 4851 sec 7.4.4 so if a new user logs on the network from a device, a new PAC file must be provisioned first. This is one reason why it is difficult not to run EAP-FAST in insecure anonymous provisioning mode. The alternative is to use device passwords instead, but then the device is validated on the network not the user.

text: EAP-FAST can be used without PAC files, falling back to normal TLS.

text: EAP-FAST is natively supported in Apple OS X 10.4.8 and newer. Cisco supplies an EAP-FAST module for Windows Vista and later operating systems which have an extensible EAPHost architecture for new authentication methods and supplicants.

text: EAP Subscriber Identity Module (EAP-SIM)[edit]

text: EAP Subscriber Identity Module (EAP-SIM) is used for authentication and session key distribution using the subscriber identity module (SIM) from the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM).

text: GSM cellular networks use a subscriber identity module card to carry out user authentication. EAP-SIM use a SIM authentication algorithm between the client and an Authentication, Authorization and Accounting (AAA) server providing mutual authentication between the client and the network.

text: In EAP-SIM the communication between the SIM card and the Authentication Centre (AuC) replaces the need for a pre-established password between the client and the AAA server.

text: The A3/A8 algorithms are being run a few times, with different 128 bit challenges, so there will be more 64 bit Kc-s which will be combined/mixed to create stronger keys (Kc-s won't be used directly). The lack of mutual authentication in GSM has also been overcome.

text: EAP-SIM is described in RFC 4186.

text: EAP Authentication and Key Agreement (EAP-AKA)[edit]

text: Extensible Authentication Protocol Method for Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) Authentication and Key Agreement (EAP-AKA), is an EAP mechanism for authentication and session key distribution using the UMTS Subscriber Identity Module (USIM). EAP-AKA is defined in RFC 4187.

text: EAP Authentication and Key Agreement prime (EAP-AKA')[edit]

text: The EAP-AKA' variant of EAP-AKA, defined in RFC 5448, and is used for non-3GPP access to a 3GPP core network. For example, via EVDO, WiFi, or WiMax.

text: EAP Generic Token Card (EAP-GTC)[edit]

text: EAP Generic Token Card, or EAP-GTC, is an EAP method created by Cisco as an alternative to PEAPv0/EAP-MSCHAPV2 and defined in RFC 2284 and RFC 3748. EAP-GTC carries a text challenge from the authentication server, and a reply generated by a security token. The PEAP-GTC authentication mechanism allows generic authentication to a number of databases such as Novell Directory Service (NDS) and Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP), as well as the use of a one-time password.

text: EAP Encrypted Key Exchange (EAP-EKE)[edit]

text: EAP with the encrypted key exchange, or EAP-EKE, is one of the few EAP methods that provide secure mutual authentication using short passwords and no need for public key certificates. It is a three-round exchange, based on the Diffie-Hellman variant of the well-known EKE protocol.

text: EAP-EKE is specified in RFC 6124.

text: Encapsulation[edit]

text: EAP is not a wire protocol; instead it only defines message formats. Each protocol that uses EAP defines a way to encapsulate EAP messages within that protocol's messages.

text: IEEE 802.1X[edit]

text: The encapsulation of EAP over IEEE 802 is defined in IEEE 802.1X and known as "EAP over LANs" or EAPOL. EAPOL was originally designed for IEEE 802.3 ethernet in 802.1X-2001, but was clarified to suit other IEEE 802 LAN technologies such as IEEE 802.11 wireless and Fiber Distributed Data Interface (ISO 9314-2) in 802.1X-2004. The EAPOL protocol was also modified for use with IEEE 802.1AE (MACsec) and IEEE 802.1AR (Initial Device Identity, IDevID) in 802.1X-2010.

text: When EAP is invoked by an 802.1X enabled Network Access Server (NAS) device such as an IEEE 802.11i-2004 Wireless Access Point (WAP), modern EAP methods can provide a secure authentication mechanism and negotiate a secure private key (Pair-wise Master Key, PMK) between the client and NAS which can then be used for a wireless encryption session utilizing TKIP or CCMP (based on AES) encryption.

text: PEAP[edit]

text: The Protected Extensible Authentication Protocol, also known as Protected EAP or simply PEAP, is a protocol that encapsulates EAP within a potentially encrypted and authenticated Transport Layer Security (TLS) tunnel. The purpose was to correct deficiencies in EAP; EAP assumed a protected communication channel, such as that provided by physical security, so facilities for protection of the EAP conversation were not provided.

text: PEAP was jointly developed by Cisco Systems, Microsoft, and RSA Security. PEAPv0 was the version included with Microsoft Windows XP and was nominally defined in draft-kamath-pppext-peapv0-00. PEAPv1 and PEAPv2 were defined in different versions of draft-josefsson-pppext-eap-tls-eap. PEAPv1 was defined in draft-josefsson-pppext-eap-tls-eap-00 through draft-josefsson-pppext-eap-tls-eap-05, and PEAPv2 was defined in versions beginning with draft-josefsson-pppext-eap-tls-eap-06.

text: The protocol only specifies chaining multiple EAP mechanisms and not any specific method. Use of the EAP-MSCHAPv2 and EAP-GTC methods are the most commonly supported.

text: RADIUS and Diameter[edit]

text: Both the RADIUS and Diameter AAA protocols can encapsulate EAP messages. They are often used by Network Access Server (NAS) devices to forward EAP packets between IEEE 802.1X endpoints and AAA servers to facilitate IEEE 802.1X.

text: PANA[edit]

text: The Protocol for Carrying Authentication for Network Access (PANA) is an IP-based protocol that allows a device to authenticate itself with a network to be granted access. PANA will not define any new authentication protocol, key distribution, key agreement or key derivation protocols; for these purposes, EAP will be used, and PANA will carry the EAP payload. PANA allows dynamic service provider selection, supports various authentication methods, is suitable for roaming users, and is independent from the link layer mechanisms.

text: PPP[edit]

text: EAP was originally an authentication extension for the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP). PPP has supported EAP since EAP was created as an alternative to the Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP) and the Password Authentication Protocol (PAP), which were eventually incorporated into EAP. The EAP extension to PPP was first defined in RFC 2284, now obsoleted by RFC 3748.