document_title: The Devil's Advocate (1997 film)

question_text: who plays the devil in the devil's advocate

question_tokens: who plays the devil in the devil 's advocate

text: The Devil's Advocate (1997 film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: Kevin Lomax, a defense attorney from Gainesville, Florida, has never lost a case when he defends a schoolteacher, Lloyd Gettys, against a charge of child molestation. Kevin belatedly realizes his client is guilty, and the local reporter Larry warns him a guilty verdict is inevitable. However, through a harsh cross-examination, Kevin destroys the victim's credibility, securing a not guilty verdict.

text: Subsequently, a representative of a New York City law firm appears and offers Kevin a large sum of money to assist a jury selection. After the jury delivers a not guilty verdict, the head of the firm, John Milton, offers Kevin a large salary and an upscale apartment if he joins the firm. Kevin accepts the job, and he and his wife Mary Ann stay in Manhattan. He is soon spending most of his time at work, leaving Mary Ann feeling isolated. Kevin's fundamentalist mother, Alice, visits New York and suggests they both return home. He refuses.

text: When billionaire Alex Cullen is accused of murdering his wife, her stepson and a maid, Milton assigns the high-profile case to Kevin. This demands more of Kevin's time, further separating him from Mary Ann, as he begins to fantasize about his co-worker Christabella. Mary Ann begins seeing visions of the partners' wives becoming demonic, and has a nightmare about a baby playing with her removed ovaries. After a doctor declares her infertile, she begs Kevin to return to Gainesville. Milton suggests Kevin step down from the trial to tend to his wife, but Kevin claims that if he steps down and his wife recovers, he may resent her.

text: Eddie Barzoon, the firm's managing partner, is convinced that Kevin is competing for his job when he discovers Kevin's name is on the firm's charter. Although a surprised Kevin denies any knowledge of this, Eddie threatens to inform the United States Attorney's office of the law firm's activities. Kevin tells Milton about Eddie's threats, but Milton dismisses them. Meanwhile, Eddie is beaten to death by vagrants, who take on demonic appearances. Mary Ann witnesses this, disturbing her further.

text: While preparing Melissa to testify about Cullen's alibi, Kevin realizes she is lying and tells Milton he believes Cullen is guilty. Despite this, Kevin proceeds with her testimony and the trial. Afterwards, Kevin finds Mary Ann in a nearby church covered with a blanket. She claims Milton raped and brutalized her, but Kevin believes this cannot be true as he was with Milton in court. Mary Ann drops her blanket, revealing her naked body covered with cuts. Alarmed, Kevin assumes Mary Ann injured herself and commits her to a mental institution.

text: Alice, along with Kevin and Pam Garrety, Kevin's case manager from the firm, visit Mary Ann at the institution. After seeing Pam as a demon, Mary Ann hits her with a hand mirror and barricades the room. As Kevin breaks down the door, Mary Ann commits suicide by cutting her throat with a shard of broken glass. Alice reveals that Milton is Kevin's father. Kevin leaves the hospital to confront Milton, who admits to raping Mary Ann. Kevin fires a pistol into Milton's chest, but the bullets are ineffective. Milton reveals himself as Satan. Kevin blames Milton for everything that happened, but Milton explains that he merely "set the stage" and that Kevin could have left at any time. Kevin realizes he always wanted to win, no matter the cost. Milton tells Kevin that he wants Kevin and Christabella, Kevin's half-sister, to conceive a child, the Antichrist. Kevin appears to acquiesce at first, but then abruptly cites free will and shoots himself in the head.

text: Kevin finds himself back in time at the recess of the Gettys trial. Choosing to do the right thing, Kevin announces that he cannot represent his client despite the threat of disbarment. Larry pleads for an interview, promising to make Kevin a celebrity. Encouraged by Mary Ann, Kevin agrees. After they leave, Larry transforms into Milton, relishing the sin of vanity.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Keanu Reeves as Kevin Lomax
Al Pacino as John Milton/Satan
Charlize Theron as Mary Ann Lomax
Jeffrey Jones as Eddie Barzoon
Judith Ivey as Alice Lomax
Connie Nielsen as Christabella Andreoli
Craig T. Nelson as Alexander Cullen
Heather Matarazzo as Barbara
Tamara Tunie as Jackie Heath
Ruben Santiago-Hudson as Leamon Heath
Debra Monk as Pam Garrety
Vyto Ruginis as Mitch Weaver, Justice Dept.
Laura Harrington as Melissa Black
Pamela Gray as Diana Barzoon
George Wyner as Meisel
Neal Jones as Larry, a Florida Reporter
Don King as himself[3]
Roy Jones, Jr as himself (uncredited)[4]
Delroy Lindo as Phillipe Moyez (uncredited)[5]
Chris Bauer as Lloyd Gettys
Alfonse D'Amato as himself (United States Senator)[3]

text: Themes and interpretations[edit]

text: The Devil character's name is a direct homage to John Milton, who wrote Paradise Lost,[6] quoted by Lomax with the line "Better to reign in Hell, than serve in Heav'n".[7] Despite this, the thrust of Milton's epic was to rebuke the devil.[8] As a rebel against God, complaining of being perpetually "underestimated", the Milton character, like Paradise Lost's Satan, is "Heav'n running from Heav'n" with a "sense of injur'd merit".[9]

text: Professor Eric C. Brown judges the climax, in which Milton attempts to persuade Lomax to have sex with his half-sister to conceive the Antichrist, to be the most "Miltonic", as the sculptures become animated in carnal activities evoking Paradise Lost's "Downfall of the Rebel Angels".[7] The tirade Milton gives in this sequence is at times also reminiscent of Satan's lines in Paradise Lost Books I and II.[10] In U.S. literary education, Milton's temptation of Lomax in the climax, in which he rationalizes rebellion against God for a "Look, but don't touch" model, has been compared to Satan urging Eve to eat forbidden fruit in Paradise Lost, Book IX, lines 720–730:[11]

text: In his DVD commentary, Taylor Hackford did not name Paradise Lost as an inspiration, instead citing the legend of Faust.[12] An underlying concept of the story is a "Faustian bargain", offered to a character with free will.[13] Philosopher Peter van Inwagen writes Milton referring to free will as a "bitch", when Lomax contemplates selling his soul, moves away from a legalistic definition of "free will" as "uncoerced", into the philosophical realm of its definition.[14]

text: As with Goethe's Faust, the Devil commonly depicted in cinema is associated with lust and temptation.[15] Milton shows Lomax many seductive women, in order to induce his "fall". Sex or rape is usually also the means by which Satan creates the Antichrist, as in Roman Polanski's 1968 film Rosemary's Baby. In The Devil's Advocate, someone other than Satan will have sex to conceive the Antichrist, though Milton nevertheless brutally ravishes Mary Ann.[15] Incest becomes a way of creating the Antichrist, since the offspring of Satan's son and daughter will inherit much of Satan's genetic makeup.[6]

text: Dante Alighieri's Inferno raised "visual potential" that informed the film.[16] Dantean scholar Amilcare A. Iannucci argues the plot follows the Divine Comedy model in beginning with selva oscura, in Lomax losing his conscience defending a guilty man, and then entering and exploring deeper circles of hell.[17] Iannucci compares the office building structure to the circles, listing fireplaces where flames are always present; demonic visual phenomena; and water outside Milton's office, analogized to Dante's Satan's icy home, albeit situated at the top of hell as opposed to the bottom.[18] Free will is also a major theme in the Divine Comedy, with the film's musings on the concept being similar to Dante's Purgatorio, 16.82–83 ("if the present world has gone astray, in you is the cause, in you it's to be sought").[19]

text: Other religious references are present. In describing New York City as Babylon, Alice Lomax invokes Revelation 18:[20]

text: Milton tempting Lomax is possibly also inspired by the Biblical Temptation of Christ.[6] Aside from Milton, other character names have been commented on: Author Kelly J. Wyman matches Mary Ann, the virginal figure who falls victim to Milton, to the Virgin Mary, and adds the literal translation of Christabella is "Beautiful Christ",[21] and that the title refers to the Catholic Church's Devil's advocates and lawyers as advocates;[22] Eric C. Brown finds Barzoon's name and character to be reminiscent of the demon prince Beelzebub.[7] Scholars Miguel A. De La Torre and Albert Hernández observe the vision of Satan as CEO, wearing expensive clothing and engaging in business, had appeared in popular culture before, including the 1942 novel The Screwtape Letters.[23]

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: Andrew Neiderman wrote The Devil's Advocate as a novel, and it was published in 1990 by Simon and Schuster.[24] Believing his story could be adapted into a film, Neiderman approached Warner Bros. and claimed to have led his successful sale with the synopsis "It's about a law firm in New York that represents only guilty people, and never loses".[25]

text: Various screenplay adaptations of The Devil's Advocate had been pitched to U.S. cinema studios, with Joel Schumacher planned to direct it with Brad Pitt as the young lawyer.[26] Schumacher planned a sequence in which Pitt would descend into the New York subway system, which would be modeled on the circles of hell in Dante's Divine Comedy.[27] With no actor to play Satan, this project collapsed.[26]

text: The O.J. Simpson murder trial and its controversial outcome gave new impetus to relaunching the project, with a $60 million budget.[26] Warner hired Taylor Hackford to direct the new attempt.[27] The director embraced the legal drama aspect, theorizing, "The courtroom has become the gladiator arena of the late twentieth century. Following the progress of a sensational trial is a spectator sport".[28]

text: Tony Gilroy led much of the rewrite, with supervision by Hackford, who envisioned it as a "a modern-day morality play" and "Faustian tale".[29] As the screenplay developed, free will became a theme, in which Milton does not actually cause events. Hackford wanted suggestions that Milton does not kill Barzoon, as he defied his muggers, or United States Attorney Weaver, who arrogantly did not watch for vehicles before stepping onto the road.[30]

text: The screenwriters added the plot element that Lomax was Milton's son, and that Milton could produce the Antichrist, neither of which are in the novel.[31] Hackford cited the films Rosemary's Baby and The Omen as influences, and both had explored the Antichrist mythology.[12][31] Another change from the novel was converting the book's lesbian client to the male molester Lloyd Gettys, avoiding undertones of homophobia.[32] In an early version of the screenplay, the "Better to reign in Hell than serve in Heaven" quotation is given to Milton rather than Lomax.[8]

text: Casting[edit]

text: Al Pacino had previously been offered the Devil role in attempts at adapting Neiderman's novel, but before final rewrites, rejected it on three occasions,[29] for the cliché nature of the character.[26] Keanu Reeves chose to star in Devil's Advocate over Speed 2, despite a promised $11 million for the sequel to his 1994 hit Speed;[29] according to Reeves' staff, the actor was adverse to performing in two consecutive action films after Chain Reaction (1996).[33] On Devil's Advocate, Reeves agreed to a pay cut worth millions of dollars so that the producers could meet Pacino's salary demands.[34] To prepare for the role, Pacino watched the 1941 film The Devil and Daniel Webster and observed tips from Walter Huston as Mr. Scratch. He also read Dante's Inferno and Paradise Lost.[26]

text: Connie Nielsen, a Danish actress, was selected by Hackford for Christabella, who speaks several languages, with Hackford saying Nielsen already spoke multiple languages.[30] Craig T. Nelson, known for his television work, was cast against type in a villainous role.[30]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Principal photography began in New York in 1996, but struggled by November. Delays were caused by the dismissals of the original cinematographer and assistant directors, while an anonymous source claimed Pacino found Hackford to be conceited and loud.[27] An executive alleged Pacino was typically late to work, though producer Arnold Kopelson said this was not the case.[27] Hackford later said Pacino was professional, even though his status meant he did not need to be.[35]

text: Production designer Bruno Rubeo was tasked to create Milton's apartment, aiming for a "very loose and very sexy" appearance, "so you can't really tell where it goes".[36] Hackford said on this set, he encouraged Reeves and Pacino to "feel the room" and develop some improvisation.[37] Pacino came up with the idea of dancing to "It Happened in Monterey" by Frank Sinatra, and Hackford immediately adopted the idea.[35]

text: When Lomax leaves to meet Milton, he walks through 57th Street in New York, which is abnormally devoid of people or vehicles. It was shot at the actual 57th Street, with the filmmakers having it emptied at 7:30 a.m. on a Sunday.[30] The offices were shot as the Continental Club in Manhattan, and the Continental Plaza, though the water outside Milton's office was added later by computer effects.[36] In constructing the firm sets, Hackford and Rubeo consulted one architect from Japan and one from Italy to craft an "ultra-modern" look, to display Milton's taste.[30] Donald Trump's penthouse in Trump Tower, Fifth Avenue was lent to the production for Alexander Cullen's residence.[36][38]

text: A number of churches and courts hosted production. The interior of New York City's Church of the Heavenly Rest was used, for the scene where Theron's character says Milton raped her.[29][38] The outside of Central Presbyterian Church was photographed for Barzoon's funeral, while Pacino was inside the Manhattan Church of the Most Holy Redeemer for the holy water sequence.[38] For court scenes, New Jersey's Bergen County Court House was employed for production,[39] as were historic courthouses in New York.[40]

text: After the completion of the New York shoot in March 1997, production moved to Florida in July 1997.[41] In Jacksonville, Florida, the interior of the Mrs. Howard's business in Riverside and Avondale was used for New York scenes. Its co-owner Jim Howard remodeled the store and appeared as an extra.[41] The Gainesville church scenes were shot at an actual Gainesville church, after Hackford persuaded the pastor and his members to participate, and that his story was about combating Satan.[30]

text: Post-production[edit]

text: At the end of the film, John Milton morphs into Lucifer as a fallen angel. The crew created the effect by combining life masks depicting Reeves, Pacino in 1997 and Pacino as he appeared in his 1972 film The Godfather.[42] The Godfather make-up artist Dick Smith supplied the life mask he made in the 1970s to Devil's Advocate artist Rick Baker, Smith's former protégé.[43] Additionally, Baker created images for demonic faces seen on real actresses and actors, with hands also appearing moving to move underneath Tamara Tunie's body, a digital creation with the contributions of Richard Greenberg and Stephanie Powell.[30]

text: Shots of ballerinas moving in water were used as a basis for Milton's animated sculpture.[30] Special effects producer Edward L. Williams said he filmed the people for the statue effect, and that they were naked and placed in a tank next to a blue screen.[44] It took three months to film the people and then add the computer effects, at a cost of $2 million, or 40% of the overall budget for special effects.[44]

text: James Newton Howard, a past collaborator with Hackford, was tasked to write the score.[45] Hackford dubbed over Pacino's performance of "It Happened in Monterey" with Sinatra's voice.[37] "Paint It Black" by The Rolling Stones is also used for the film's conclusion.[46]

text: Release[edit]

text: During early stages of photography, Warner aspired to a release in August 1997.[27] The film had its release on October 17, 1997,[26] on the same day as another horror film, I Know What You Did Last Summer.[47] To promote the release, Warner's website included the warning on hell's gate from Dante's Inferno Canto III ("Abandon every hope, ye who enter here"), with credits presented as circles of hell.[9] The television advertising and poster were upfront as to Milton being Satan, though this is not explicitly revealed in the film itself until its later acts.[48]

text: Around 475,000 copies of the VHS and DVD were produced by February 1998, but their release into the home video market was delayed pending the Hart v. Warner Bros., Inc. lawsuit.[49] The film afterwards went into regular airings on Turner Network Television and the Turner Broadcasting System.[50] A Blu-ray edition was released in Region A in 2012, as an "Unrated Director's Cut" in which the art in the climax previously subject to the lawsuit is digitally redone.[51]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Box office[edit]

text: On its opening weekend in October 1997, The Devil's Advocate earned $12.2 million, finishing second in the U.S. box office to I Know What You Did Last Summer, which made $16.1 million.[52] The Devil's Advocate was largely competing against thriller films aimed at youth in the Halloween season.[52] By December 6, 1997, it grossed $56.1 million.[53]

text: It ended its run on February 12, 1998 with a gross of $61 million in North America and $92 million elsewhere.[2]

text: Critical response[edit]

text: Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a rating of 66% based on 50 reviews. The site's consensus states: "Though it is ultimately somewhat undone by its own lofty ambitions, The Devil's Advocate is a mostly effective blend of supernatural thrills and character exploration."[54] Metacritic gives the film a weighted average score of 60/100 based on reviews from 19 critics.[55]

text: Roger Ebert wrote, "The movie never fully engaged me; my mind raced ahead of the plot, and the John Grisham stuff clashed with the Exorcist stuff".[48] In The New York Times, Janet Maslin complimented the "gratifyingly light touch" of using John Milton's name, and special effects with "gimmicks well tethered to reality".[56] David Denby wrote in New York that Devil's Advocate was "preposterously entertaining" and predicted it would get viewers debating.[57] Entertainment Weekly gave it a B, with Owen Gleiberman declaring it "at once silly, overwrought, and almost embarrassingly entertaining", and crediting Pacino for his performance.[58] Variety's Todd McCarthy declared it "fairly entertaining", displaying "a nearly operatic sense of absurdity and excess".[3] Dave Kehr of New York Daily News also preferred Pacino over Reeves, assessing The Devil's Advocate as Faust moved to Manhattan, though disappointed that a "witty undercurrent becomes an exaggerated moralism".[59] Critic James Berardinelli wrote that it "is a highly enjoyable motion picture that's part character study, part supernatural thriller, and part morality play".[60]

text: In the New York Times, Michiko Kakutani objected to trivializing Satan, reducing the Paradise Lost vision of War in Heaven to "an extended lawyer joke".[61] The Christian Science Monitor's David Sterritt found it unsurprising a cinematic re-imagining of Faust would make Satan a lawyer, and recognized its message of "the need for personal responsibility", albeit with "more lascivious sex and shocking violence than a traditional 'Faust' rendition".[62]

text: The film won the Saturn Award for Best Horror Film.[63] Pacino was also nominated for the MTV Movie Award for Best Villain.[64]

text: In 2014, Yahoo! named The Devil's Advocate as "Pacino's Most Underrated Film", claiming "Pacino's hammy devil never got his due" but "there's something to be said for an actor who can pull off this level of theatrics".[65] In his 2015 Movie Guide, Leonard Maltin gave it three stars, finding Reeves credible and Pacino "delicious".[66] Scott Mendelson wrote in Forbes in 2015 that "I love this trashy, vulgar, unapologetically puritan melodrama more than I care to admit".[47] In 2016, The Huffington Post reported on an online debate over the possible symbolism in the costume design, as Lomax appears in suits that are light in the beginning, becoming increasingly darker as his morality slips away. The counterpoint is that this merely reflecting his increasing social status.[67]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: Lawsuit[edit]

text: The film was the subject of legal action in Hart v. Warner Bros., Inc. in 1997. The claim was that the sculpture featuring human forms in John Milton's apartment closely resembled the Ex nihilo sculpture by Frederick Hart on the facade of the Episcopal National Cathedral in Washington, D.C., and that a scene involving the sculpture infringed Hart's rights under copyright law in the United States.[68] Hart and the National Cathedral jointly initiated the action, with an argument similar to architect Lebbeus Woods's successful lawsuit over imagery in the film 12 Monkeys.[53] Defenses available to Warner were that the effect was designed without knowledge of Ex nihilo, or fair use.[53]

text: After a federal judge ruled that the film's video release would be delayed until the case went to trial unless a settlement was reached, Warner Bros. agreed to edit the scene for future releases and to attach stickers to unedited videotapes to indicate there was no relation between the art in the film and Hart's work.[69] The settlement in February 1998 meant 475,000 copies of the VHS and DVD could go into rental stores and businesses.[49]

text: Adaptations[edit]

text: Andrew Neiderman wrote a prequel novel by 2014, Judgment Day, about John Milton arriving to New York City and obtaining control of a major firm. Neiderman subsequently brought the book to Warner Bros. for a television series adaptation.[70] John Wells and Arnold Kopelson unsuccessfully attempted to adapt Devil's Advocate into a series in 2014.[71] Produced by Warner Bros. TV,[72] Wells and Kopelson took the project to NBC for a television pilot written by Matt Venne.[71]

text: A musical play based on The Devil's Advocate opened on West End theatre in 2014 with music by David Yazbek and lyrics by Neiderman.[25] Julian Woolford also launched a stage adaptation Advocaat van de Duivel in the Netherlands, in 2015.[73]


document_title: Lists of nicknames in association football

question_text: nickname of the fans of canada's soccer teams

question_tokens: nickname of the fans of canada 's soccer teams

root

text: Club nicknames[edit]

text:
List of football club nicknames in the United Kingdom
List of mainland European football club nicknames
List of football club nicknames in the Americas

tag: ul

text: National team nicknames[edit]

text: Incidental/historical squad nicknames[edit]

text:
A Academia (The Academy), Palmeiras's team in the seventies
Az Aranycsapat (The Golden Team), legendary Hungarian national football team of the 1950s.
Craiova Maxima, Universitatea Craiova of the late 1970s and early 1980s
Fergie's Fledglings, generation of home-grown Manchester United players led by Gary Neville, Paul Scholes and Ryan Giggs, who won multiple junior trophies before winning between six and thirteen Premier League titles each, as well as the UEFA Champions League in 1999 and 2008.
Gaşca nebună (The Crazy Gang), Sportul Studenţesc of the 1980s and early 2000s
Golden Generation, group of Portuguese footballers, Luís Figo and co, that won several Football World Youth Championships in 1989 and 1991. Several also led Portugal to their second best performance at a European Championship - runners-up at Euro 2004.
Gothenburg Greats, Aberdeen FC team which played under Alex Ferguson during the club's most successful era in the 1980s and won many trophies, the most notable being the UEFA Cup Winner's Cup vs Real Madrid in Gothenburg, 1983.
Il Grande Torino, Torino side of the 1940s.
Iron Curtain, Rangers' defensive line in the 1940s and early 1950s
KK Eleven, Zambian national football team of the 1980s.
La Grande Inter (The Great Inter), Internazionale team that won back-to-back European Cup wins in 1964 and 1965.
La Máquina (The Machine), River Plate team in the early 1940s.
La Quinta del Buitre (Vulture's Quint), generation of club grown Real Madrid players that dominated Spanish football in the 1980s
Lisbon Lions, Celtic's home-grown European Cup winning team of 1967
Os Magriços, Portugal national football team which reached 3rd place in the 1966 World Cup in England
Quality Street Gang, used to describe the Celtic reserve team of the late 1960s. Several of the group eventually replaced members of the Lisbon Lions team.
Rolo Compressor (Steamroller), Sport Club Internacional's team in the 40's
Spartanii (The Spartans), Dinamo team, that dominated Divizia A in 2007
The Black Sea Storm, Trabzonspor team who dominated the Turkish league in the 70's
The Busby Babes, group of home-grown Manchester United players trained by Matt Busby and co during the 1950s
The Crazy Gang, Wimbledon F.C. in the 1980s/90s
The Dream Team, name was given for FC Barcelona's team that, led by Johan Cruijff, won the European Cup in 1992 and 4 consecutive La Liga titles (1990–1994).
The Entertainers, Newcastle United team under the first spell of management by Kevin Keegan
The Famous Five, Hibernian's forward line of Smith, Johnstone, Reilly, Turnbull and Ormond
The Ice Kings, name given to the Leicester City side of the 1962-63 season who chased the double thanks to a sensational run of form on icy and frozen pitches during the coldest winter in England of the 20th century.
The Invincibles/The Untouchables, Arsenal team who went 49 consecutive league games unbeaten during the 2002-03 to the 2004-05 seasons
The Spice Boys, group of Liverpool F.C. footballers in the mid-late 1990s, most famous for their decision to wear coordinated cream suits to the 1996 FA Cup Final. The group was seen typically as being composed of Jamie Redknapp, David James, Steve McManaman, Robbie Fowler and Jason McAteer.
The Total Footballers, any team coached by Rinus Michels and involving Johan Cruijff and Johan Neeskens.
Viteziştii (The Speedsters), Steaua Bucureşti of the 1980s
Wembley Wizards, Scottish national team which defeated England at Wembley Stadium in 1928
Wunderteam (Wonder Team), Austria national football team that had an unbeaten streak of 14 games between April 1931 and December 1932
Ye-yé, generation of all-Spanish Real Madrid players that dominated Spanish football in the 1960s

text: Nicknames of fans[edit]

text: Club[edit]

text:
A Massa (The Masses), supporters of Clube Atlético Mineiro
Arabs supporters of Dundee United FC
Bando de Loucos (Madmen Band), supporters of Sport Club Corinthians Paulista
Bultras, supporters of Botev Plovdiv
Cainii rosii, supporters of Dinamo Bucharest
China Azul (Blue China), supporters of Cruzeiro Esporte Clube
CVUCS, supporters of FC Timişoara
Gasheads, supporters of Bristol Rovers
Gate 13, supporters of Panathinaikos
Kopites, supporters of Liverpool Football Club
North Terrace/ Blue & White Brigade (BWB), supporters of Melbourne Victory FC
Red Patch Boys, supporters of Toronto FC
Somerset Ragazzi, radical supporters of Ayr United FC
Sons of Ben, supporters of Philadelphia Union
Super White Army, supporters of Tranmere Rovers F.C.
The Black & Amber Army, supporters of Livingston
The Black and White Army, supporters of Fulham FC
The Bushwacker, supporting of Millwall
The Cider Army, supporters of Bristol City
The Cityzens, supporters of Manchester City
The Cove, supporters of Sydney FC
The Empire Supporters Club, supporters of New York Red Bulls
The Falcons, supporters of Spartak Varna
The Garden State Ultras, radical supporters of New York Red Bulls
The Gooners, supporters of Arsenal
The Green Army, supporters of Plymouth Argyle
The Green Brigade, radical supporters of Glasgow Celtic
The Jack Army, supporters of Swansea City
The Lardy Army, supporters of Horsham F.C.
The Southsiders, supporters of Vancouver Whitecaps FC
The Third Rail, supporters of New York City FC
The Timbers Army, supporters of the Portland Timbers
The Toon Army, supporters of Newcastle United
The Tractor Boys, supporters of Ipswich Town
The Viking Army, supporters of New York Red Bulls
The Yarraside Gang, supporters of Melbourne Heart FC
The Yid Army, supporters of Tottenham Hotspur
Ultras, various supporter groups
Viies Sektor, supporters of FC Flora Tallinn
Villains, supporters of Aston Villa
Wednesdayites, the supporters of Sheffield Wednesday
Yarraside, supporters of Melbourne Heart FC

text: National team[edit]

text:
Green and Gold Army, supporters of Australia national football team
"The blue pilgrims", supporters of Indian national football team
Green and White Army, supporters of Northern Ireland national football team
Jalgpallihaigla, supporters of the Estonia national football team
Oljeberget, supporters of the Norwegian national football team
Red Devil, supporters of the South Korea national football team
Roligans, supporters of the Denmark national football team
Tartan Army, travelling supporters of the Scotland national football team
The American Outlaws, supporters of the USA national football team
The Voyageurs, supporters of the Canada men's and women's national football teams


document_title: History of Jainism

question_text: who according to jains was the founder of jainism

text: History of Jainism

text: Origins[edit]

text: The origins of Jainism are obscure.[18][19] The Jains claim their religion to be eternal, and consider Rishabhanatha to be the founder in the present time-cycle, and someone who lived for 8,400,000 purva years.[20] Rishabhanatha is among the first 22 of 24 Jain Tirthankaras who are considered to be mythical figure by historians.[21][20]

tag: p

text: Different scholars have had different views on the origin. Some artifacts found in the Indus Valley civilization have been suggested as a link to ancient Jain culture, but this is highly speculative.[22][23][24] According to a 1925 proposal of Glasenapp, Jainism's origin can be traced to the 23rd Tirthankara Parshvanatha, and he considers the first twenty-two tirthankaras as legendary mythical figures.[25] According to another proposal by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, the first vice president of India, Jainism was in existence long before the Vedas were composed.[26]

text: Tirthankaras and lineage[edit]

text: The mythology in the Kalpa-Sutra mentions the four Tirthankaras; Rishabhanatha, Neminatha, Parshvanatha and Mahavira. They were revered in Jain artworks by about the start of the common era. In Buddhist sources, Mahavira is not mentioned as a founder of new tradition, but as part of an ascetic Nirgranthas (without knot) tradition. This has led scholars to conclude that Mahavira was not the founder, but a reformer of tradition already established by his predecessor Parsvanatha.[27] While Jain texts and tradition believes in 24 Tirthankaras, only the last two are generally acknowledged by historians to be based on real human beings who lived in the 1st millennium BCE.[28][7][29]

text: Mahavira[edit]

text: During the 6th century BCE, Mahāvīra became one of the most influential teachers of Jainism. Jains revere him as the twenty-fourth and last tirthankara of present cosmic age.[30] Though, Mahavira is sometimes mistakenly regarded as the founder, he appears in the tradition as one who, from the beginning, had followed a religion established long ago.[31]

text: Parshvanatha[edit]

text: There is reasonable historical evidence that the 23rd Tirthankara, Parshvanatha, the predecessor of Mahavira, lived somewhere in the 9th–7th century BCE.[5][32][33][34]

text: Neminatha[edit]

text: Neminatha was the predecessor of Parshvanatha, 84,000 years earlier, and 22nd Tirthankara of the Jain tradition. In the texts of Jainism, the Hindu god Krishna is stated to be a cousin of Neminatha,[10] and that Neminatha taught Krishna all the wisdom that he later gave to Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita. According to Jeffery D. Long, a professor of Religion known for his publications on Jainism, this connection between Krishna and Neminatha has been a historic reason for Jains to accept, read and cite the Bhagavad Gita as a spiritually important text, celebrate Krishna related festivals and intermingle with Hindus as spiritual cousins.[35]

text: Rishabhanatha[edit]

text: The Vedas mention the name Rishabha.[36] However, the context in the Rigveda, Atharvaveda and the Upanishads suggests that it means the bull, sometimes "any male animal" or "most excellent of any kind", or "a kind of medicinal plant".[37][note 1] Elsewhere it is an epithet for the Hindu god Shiva (Rudra).[40] Later Hindu mythical texts such as the Bhagavata Purana include Rishabha Jina as an avatar of Vishnu.[41]

text: Lineage[edit]

text: After the death of Parshvanatha, his disciple Subhadatta became the head of the monks. Subhadatta was succeeded by Haridatta, Aryasamudra, Prabha and lastly Kesi.[42] Uttaradhyayana, a Svetambara text have records of a dialogue between Mahavira's disciple and Kesi; Kesi along with his community accepted Mahavira as a tirthankara and merged with him as a result.[43]

text: The Tirthankaras are believed in the Jain tradition to have attained omniscience, known as kevala jnana. After Mahavira, one of his disciples Sudharma Svami is said to have taken over the leadership.[44] He was the head of Jain community till 515 BCE.[45] After his death, Jambuswami, a disciple of Sudharma Svami became the head of the monks. He was the head till 463 BCE.[46] Sudharma Svami and Jambu Svami are also traditionally said to have attained keval jnana. It is said that no one after Jambu Svami has attained it till now.

text: After Sudharma svami, there followed five sutrakevalis, i.e. those who were well versed in the scriptures, who headed the monks of the Jain community. Bhadrabahu was the last sutrakevali.[47] After Bhadrabahu, there were seven (or eleven) leaders.[46] Knowledge of the scriptures was progressively being lost with each in turn.

text: Schism[edit]

text: During Chandragupta Maurya's reign, Acharya Bhadrabahu moved to Karnataka to survive a twelve-year-long famine. Sthulabhadra, a pupil of Acharya Bhadrabahu, stayed in Magadha. When followers of Acharya Bhadrabahu returned, there was a dispute between them regarding the authenticity of the Angas. Also, those who stayed at magadha started wearing white clothes, which was unacceptable to the others who remained naked. This is how the Digambara and Śvētāmbara sects arose, the Digambara being naked whereas the Svetambara were white clothed.[48] Digambara found this as being opposed to the Jain tenets which, according to them, required complete nudity for the monks. The presence of gymnosophists ("naked philosophers") in Greek records has been interpreted to be referring to Digambaras Jain Śramaṇa practice.[49]

text: Vallabhi council was formed at 454 CE.[50] At this council, Svetambara accepted their texts as the scriptures of Jainism. The Digambara sect completely rejects these scriptures as not being authentic. This 5th century event solidified the schism between these major traditions within Jainism.[12][13]

text: Ajivika[edit]

text: Jainism is related to an extinct Indian religious tradition named Ājīvika. The later is mentioned in ancient texts of Buddhism and Jainism, and it is attributed to Makkhali Gosala, a contemporary of the Buddha and Mahavira.[51]

text: The Jain Bhagavati Sutra refers to the Ajivika founded as Gosala Mankhaliputta ("son of Mankhali"). The text depicts Gosala as having been a disciple of Mahavira's for a period of six years, after which the two had a falling out and parted ways.[51] The Bhagavati Sutra mentions a debate, disagreement and then "coming to blows" between factions led by Mahavira and by Gosala.[51] Jainism also flourished under the Nanda Empire (424–321 BCE).[52] Both Ajivika and Jainism championed asceticism. This is earliest documented schism between Mahavira and a likely disciple of his.[53]

text: The earliest archeological evidence is in the form of a naked headless torso discovered in 1937 near Patna (Bihar), which is called the "Lohanipur Torso". This has been dated by modern scholarship to about 2nd-century BCE. It is a highly polished stone artwork of precise human form, but it is unclear if it belongs to Jainism, Ajivikas or some other Indian religious ascetic tradition.[54][note 2] While it is not Buddhist, and is naked like the Jinas, it may also not be a Jain statue because it lacks the Jain iconography, and because similar high quality Jain artworks are missing for many centuries. Further, Jain artworks that have been found from the same period in north India show quite different forms and symbols. It may belong to Ajivikas or another ancient Indian naked ascetic tradition, but ruling out that it may indeed reflect Jainism arts in 2nd-century BCE is also not possible.[54][56] Ancient naked terracotta statues discovered in 1970s near Ayodhya are similar to the Lohanipur Torso, but terracotta arts are also missing in Jaina tradition and the Ayodhya terracotta statues too lack Jain iconography.[54][56]

text: Political history[edit]

text: Information regarding the political history of Jainism is uncertain and fragmentary. Jains consider the king Bimbisara (c. 558–491 BCE), Ajatashatru (c. 492–460 BCE), and Udayin (c. 460-440 BCE) of the Haryanka dynasty as a patron of Jainism.[52]

text: Mauryan Empire[edit]

text: Tradition says that Chandragupta Maurya (322–298 BCE), the founder of Mauryan Empire, became disciple of Jain ascetic Bhadrabahu during later part of his life.[58] According to historians, Chandragupta story appears in various versions in Buddhist, Jain and Hindu texts.[59] Broadly, Chandragupta was born in a humble family, abandoned, raised as a son by another family, then with the training and counsel of Chanakya of Arthashastra fame, Chandragupta either first gained power in the Nanda Empire then conquered the Punjab region, or vice versa, but ultimately built one of the largest empires in ancient India.[60][61][62] According to Jain history, late in his life, Chandragupta adopted Jainism, renounced the empire he built and handed over his power to his son, became a Jaina monk, and headed to meditate and pursue spirituality in the Deccan region, under the Jaina teacher Bhadrabahu at Shravanabelagola. There state Jain texts, he died by fasting, a Jaina ascetic method of ending one's life by choice (Sallenkana-Vrata).[60][63][61] Jaina legends state that there was a twelve-year famine that triggered him to perform the fast, but this legend is only found in the Jain textual tradition.[64][65]

text: The Maurya dynasty started by Chandragupta has had a historic role on Indian religions. Ashoka (273–232 BCE), the grandson of Chandragupta was inspired by Buddhist ideologies. There is a reference to Jains in the edicts of Ashoka where the duties of dhammamahatma (law-authorities) are dealt with.[67] The inscription reads:[67]

text: Piyadasi, who is loved by the gods spoke thus: My supervisors of law are dealing with many connected with mercy, also with those which concern the ascetics and those which concern the house holders. They deal with the religious brotherhoods as well. I have made arrangements so that they will deal with the matter of Sangha (of the Buddhist community); similarly, I have made arrangements so they will deal with the Brahmans and also with the Ajivikas; I have also made arrangements that they deal with the Niganthas (Jainas); I have made arrangements so that they will deal with (all) the religious brotherhoods.

text: Ashoka's grandson Samprati (c. 224–215 BCE), is said to have converted into Jainism by a Jain monk named Suhasti according to the tradition. He lived in a place called Ujjain.[68] It is believed that he erected many Jain temples, and the temples whose origins are forgotten were often ascribed to him in later times.[68]

text: Emperor Kharavela of Mahameghavahana dynasty, was religiously tolerant, while being a patron of Jainism. Inscriptions found in Udayagiri mentions that he erected a statue of the Rishabhanatha, the first tirthankara and made cave-dwellings for monks.[69] In first century CE, Acharya Bhutabali lead a group of Jain monks to the caves surrounding Madurai for spreading Jainism.[70]

text: Indo-Scythians[edit]

text: According to von Glasenapp there is a story, whose historical accuracy is doubtful.[71] The story states that Gardabhilla (c. 1st century BCE), the king of Ujjain, abducted a nun who was the sister of a Jain monk named Kalaka. The brother sought the help of the Indo-Scythian ruler Saka Sahi. The Saka went to war with Gardabhilla, defeated him, and expelled the king of Ujjain.[72] The Sakas settled in the new lands, and "danced like bees" around the foot of monk Kalaka.[72] The story continues to the son of the vanquished king Gardabhilla who was Vikramaditya. He is claimed to have defeated the Sakas, expelled them, himself followed Jainism and gave ancient India the Vikrami calendar with the zero date of 57 or 58 BCE.[73] The story is unlikely to be true because the expulsion of Sakas by Vikramaditya has no historical basis, Jains have not followed the Vikrami zero year and instead used Mahavira's moksha date as their zero year, and the use of the Vikrami calendar has been widespread in Hinduism.[74] According to Heinrich von Stietencron, Vikramaditya and Saka interaction occurred many centuries later.[75]

text: According to another Jain legend, king Salivahana of late 1st century CE was a patron of Jainism, as were many others in the early centuries of the 1st millennium CE. But, states von Glasenapp, the historicity of these stories are difficult to establish.[73]

text: Hindu kings[edit]

text: Archeological evidence suggests that Mathura was an important Jain centre between 2nd century BCE and the 5th century CE. Inscriptions from the 1st and 2nd century CE shows that the schism of Digambara/Svetambara had already happened.[76]

text: King Harshavardhana of 7th century, grew up in Shaivism following family, but he championed Jainism, Buddhism and all traditions of Hinduism.[77] King Ama of 8th-century converted to Jainism, and Jaina pilgrimage tradition was well established in his era.[78] Mularaja, the founder of Chalukya dynasty constructed a Jain temple, even though he was not a Jain.[79]

text: In the second half of the 1st century CE, Hindu kings sponsored and helped build major Jaina caves temples. For example, the Hindu Rashtrakuta dynasty started the early group of Jain temples,[15] and Yadava dynasty built many of the middle and later Jain group of temples at the Ellora Caves between 700 and 1000 CE.[80][81][16]

text: During the reign of king Bhima (1022–1064 CE), a Jain layman Vimala built many temples above Mount Abu. A famous Jain monk Hemacandra (born c. 1088 CE) was initiated at the age of eight by monk Devacandra. He was a prime figure; responsible for propagation of Jainism in Gujarat.[82]

text: Interaction with other religions[edit]

text: Buddhism[edit]

text: Mahavira and Buddha are generally accepted as contemporaries (circa 5th century BCE).[83][84] The interaction between Jainism and Buddhism began with the Buddha. Buddhist texts refer to Mahavira as Nigantha Nataputta.[85]

text: Buddhist scriptures record that during Prince Siddhartha's ascetic life (before he attained enlightenment and became Buddha) he undertook many fasts, penances and austerities, mentioned in the Jain tradition. In Majjhima Nikaya, Buddha shares his experience:[86]

text:
“
Thus far, SariPutta, did I go in my penance? I went without clothes. I licked my food from my hands. I took no food that was brought or meant especially for me. I accepted no invitation to a meal.
”

tag: table

text: The Buddha tried ascetic methods found in Jainism, abandoned that path and taught the Middle Way instead.[87] Many suttas of Buddhism acknowledge the Jain influence. The Samaññaphala Sutta (D i.47), for example states:

text:
“
Nigantha Nataputta answered with fourfold restraint. Just as if a person, when asked about a mango, were to answer with a breadfruit; or, when asked about a breadfruit, were to answer with a mango: In the same way, when asked about a fruit of the contemplative life, visible here and now, Nigantha Nataputta answered with fourfold restraint. The thought occurred to me: 'How can anyone like me think of disparaging a brahman or contemplative living in his realm?' Yet I [Buddha] neither delighted in Nigantha Nataputta's words nor did I protest against them. Neither delighting nor protesting, I was dissatisfied. Without expressing dissatisfaction, without accepting his teaching, without adopting it, I got up from my seat and left."[88]
”

text: The Buddha disagreed with the Mahavira's concept of soul or self (jiva). Similarly, he found the Jain theory of karma and rebirths to be incompatible and inflexible to his own ideas for these.[89]

text: Beyond the times of the Mahavira and the Buddha, the two ascetic sramana religions competed for followers, as well merchant trade networks that sustained them.[90][91] Their mutual interaction, along with those of Hindu traditions have been significant, and in some cases the titles of the Buddhist and Jaina texts are same or similar but present different doctrines.[92] Jainism had a tradition of itinerant mendicants with less emphasis on a monastery style living for monks. Buddhism, in contrast, emphasized sangha or monasteries. According to Akira Hirakawa, the monasteries were easier targets for destruction and elimination, and Buddhism almost vanished from the Indian subcontinent after the Muslim invasions. In contrast, the roaming mendicants and the Jain tradition survived during this period of religious violence and turmoil.[90]

text: Hinduism[edit]

text: Jainism and Hinduism influenced each other. Jain texts declare some of the Hindu gods as blood relatives of legendary Tirthankaras. Neminatha, the 22nd Tirthankara for example is presented as a cousin of Krishna in Jain Puranas and other texts.[93][94] However, Jain scholars such as Haribhadra also wrote satires against Hindu gods, mocking them with novel outrageous stories where the gods misbehave and act unethically.[95][96] The Hindu gods are presented by some Jain writers as persecuting or tempting or afraid of or serving a legendary Jina before he gains omniscience. In other stories, one or more Jinas easily defeat the Hindu deities such as Vishnu, or Rama and Sita come to pay respect to a Jina at a major Jain pilgrimage site such as Mount Satrunjaya.[97] The medieval Jain scholars rewrote the Hindu mythologies into Jain versions. According to Paul Dundas, these satires were aimed at the Jain lay householder community, were means to inculcate piety and subvert the religious teachings offered by their Hindu neighbors.[95] Such literary freedoms were not limited to Jain scholars. Buddhist and Hindu scholars engaged in creating similar satire, mythology and parody-filled fiction targeting the Jains and each other.[98]

text: Emergence of major philosophical ideas within Hinduism impacted Jainism. According to a 1925 publication by von Glasenapp, around the 8th century CE, Śaṅkarācārya brought forward the doctrine of Advaita. The Vaishnavism and Shaivism also began to rise. This, states von Glasenapp, contributed to a decline of "Jaina church", particularly in South India.[99]

text: Shaivism[edit]

text: Shaivite poets like Sambandar, Appar (c. 7th century CE), Sundaramurti and Manikkavacakar introduced Jains to Shaivism. Under these influences, Jaina kings became Shaivite.[100] The rulers of Chola dynasty also supported Shaivism.

text: According to a Shaivite legend, an alleged massacre of 8,000 Jain monks happened in the 7th-century which is claimed for the first time in an 11th-century Tamil language text of Nambiyandar Nambi on Sampantar.[101] According to this text, a 7th-century Shaivite saint defeated the Jain monks in a series of debates and contests on philosophy, and thereby converted a Jain Pandyan king, variously called "Koon Pandiyan" or "Sundara Pandyan" in the legend, to Shaivism. Subsequently, the king allegedly ordered the impalement of 8,000 Jains. This event is not mentioned in texts of Campantar, nor any other Hindu or Jain texts for four centuries.[102][103][104] After Nampi Antar's work, the story appears in many inconsistent versions. Scholars question whether this story is a fiction created in the 11th-century, or reflects an actual massacre.[105][106][107] K. A. Nilakanta Sastri states that the story is "little more than an unpleasant legend and cannot be treated as history".[108]

text: Lingayatism[edit]

text: During the 11th century, Basava, a minister to the Jaina king Bijjala II, succeeded in converting numerous Jains to Lingayatism which was hostile to Jains. They destroyed various temples belonging to Jains and adapted them to their use.[100] A saint named Ekdanta Ramaya further propagated Lingayatism. He convinced Bijjala II to grant a land near Abdlur for a temple of Shiva.[109] Lingayatism gradually expanded. It was the state religion of Telugu and Kannada speaking territories like Wodeyar of Mysore and Ummatur (1399–1610), Nayaks of Keladi (1550–1763).[109] They were hostile to Jains. In 1683, they stamped linga symbol in the main basati of Jains in Halebid. Jains were forced to perform Shiva rites.[110]

text: Vaishnavism[edit]

text: According to von Glasenapp, it is said Hoysala King Bittideva (c. 1108–1152 CE) converted from Jainism and became a follower of Ramanuja, then ordered the Jains to be thrown in an oil mill and crushed if they did not convert.[111] According to T. K. Tukol, the rule of Bittideva did not persecute or force convert Jains. He converted, but his queen Shantaladevi remained a Jaina. She was the patron of art and built Jain temples.[112] Bittideva’s general and prime minister Gangaraja, states Tukol, was "a Jaina who under the guidance of his Guru Subhachandra did many acts of piety and religion to advance the cause of Jainism".[112] Bittideva employed a female general who was a Jaina lady named Jakkiyabbe. His era saw temples being installed for all 24 Tirthankaras.[112]

text: The Vijayanagara Empire king Bukkaraya-I, states von Glasenapp, ensured that both Vaishnava and Jaina traditions enjoyed same cultural and religious freedoms, and helped repair Jain temples.[111] Anandatirtha, a Hindu thinker, preached a dualistic theology, which attracted many Jains to convert to Hinduism.[111]

text: Tirthankaras in Hindu temples[edit]

text: The Jain and Hindu communities have often been very close and mutually accepting. Some Hindu temples have included a Jain Tirthankara within its premises in a place of honor.[113][114] Similarly numerous temple complexes feature both Hindu and Jain monuments, with Badami cave temples and Khajuraho among some of the most well known.[115][116]

text: Islam[edit]

text: The Muslim invaders who conquered parts of Northern India, like Mahmud Ghazni (1001 CE) and Mohammad Ghori (1175 CE), oppressed the Jaina community.[117]

text: Jainism faced persecution during and after the Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent.[118] This period witnessed destruction of Jain temples, their pilgrimage centers and other forms of persecution. There were significant exceptions, such as Emperor Akbar (1542–1605) whose legendary religious tolerance, out of respect for Jains, ordered release of caged birds and banned killing of animals on the Jain festival of Paryusan.[119] After Akbar, Jains faced an intense period of Muslim persecution in the 17th-century.[120]

text: Jain scholars of the Mughal era debated religious ideas with Muslim scholars.[121] Hiravijaya, in chapters thirteen and fourteen of Hirasaubhagya for example, presents the interaction and views of the two religions. The text mentions him stating to a Muslim sheikh, that "a creator god (called khuda) is impossible, one who presides over others, allots reward and punishment", instead it is karma that determines man's ultimate destiny. He asserts that the two religions are different, Islam involves violence, while Jainism is based on compassion.[121] Jain scholars were supportive of Akbar and Jain texts praise his religious tolerance.[121]

text: According to Paul Dundas, in and after the 12th century, Muslim destruction caused Jain scholars to revisit their theory of Ahimsa (non-violence). For example, Jinadatta Suri in 12th century, wrote during a time of widespread destruction of Jain temples and blocking of Jaina pilgrimage by Muslim armies, that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody" in self-defense would not lose any merit.[122]

text: Christianity[edit]

text: Colonial era Christian missions wrote about Jainism, but typically stereotyping it as "a coldly austere religion of pure asceticism, with no 'heart', preoccupied only with not harming microorganisms". The discussion emphasized the ascetic extremes, rather than the values. They criticized the Jain theories on non-violence stating that this value is essentially equal to "doing nothing", because it entails not "hurting" other beings, but does not demand the "positive ethic of helping someone suffering".[123] According to Jeffrey Long, these missionary writings were a distortion of Jain theology because Jainism does teach, value and has a historic record of charity, and compassion is an essential value in Jainism for spiritual development.[123]

text: Some Christian writers critiqued Jainism for its cosmology, with extraordinary time scales and cyclic time periods. However, states Long, the genesis theories in Christianity and other religions suffer from equivalent issues and they present the world to have been created few thousand years ago, in a short period of time.[124] Similarly, historic Christian writers critiqued the lack of "saving grace" in Jainism. For example, Sinclair Stevenson wrote in 1915 that the "heart of Jainism was empty because it lacked the saving grace of Jesus".[125]

text: British rule[edit]

text: The British colonial rule era, according to von Glasenapp in 1925, allowed Jains to pursue their religion without persecutions they had faced before.[126] Further, the British government promoted trade, which allowed members of the Jain community to pursue their traditional economic activity. According to von Glasenapp, Jain businessmen and Jainism thrived during this period, and they used their financial success during the British Raj to rebuild Jain temples. For example, the Dharmanatha temple was built in Ahmedabad (Gujarat) in 1848.[126] The British census reported a drop in Jain population between 1891 and 1921, from 1.417 million to 1.179 million. This may be from the Jain conversions to Hinduism and causes such as famines and epidemics.[126][127][128]

text: M. Whitney Kelting in 2001 states, in contrast, that the British merchants actually took over the trades in Gujarat and Maharashtra which Jains traditionally engaged in. This was in part responsible for major Jain community migrations during the British colonial era.[127]

text: The British colonial government in India, as well as Indian princely states, passed laws that made monks roaming naked in streets a crime, one that led to arrest. This law particularly impacted the Digambara tradition monks.[129] The Akhil Bharatiya Jaina Samaj opposed this law, and argued that it interfered with the religious rights of Jains. Acharya Shantisagar entered Bombay (now Mumbai) in 1927, but was forced to cover his body. He then led an India-wide tour as the naked monk with his followers, to various Digambara sacred sites, and he was welcomed by kings of the Maharashtra provinces.[129] Shantisagar fasted to oppose the restrictions imposed on Digambara monks by British Raj and prompted their discontinuance.[130] The colonial era laws that banned naked monks were abolished after India gained independence.[131]

text: Literature[edit]

text: It is unclear when Jain scriptures were written down, with oldest surviving Jain manuscripts dated to the 11th-century CE.[132] Jain literature, like those of Buddhism and Hinduism, is believed to have been transmitted by an oral tradition. The texts were largely lost over time. The Svetambara tradition has a collection of Agamas and texts, which it believes to be ancient.[132] However, the Digambara sect of Jainism rejects the authority of the Jain Aagams in the Svetambara tradition.[133][134] They believe that by the time of Dharasena, the twenty-third teacher after Indrabhuti Gautama, knowledge of only one Anga was there. This was about 683 years after the Nirvana of Mahavira. After Dharasena's pupils Pushpadanta and Bhutabali, even that was lost.[134]

text: In course of time, the canons of svetambara were also getting lost.[135] About 980 to 993 years after the death of Mahavira, a council was held at Vallabhi in Gujarat. This was headed by Devardhi Ksamashramana.[135][136] It was found that the 12th Anga, the Ditthivaya, was lost too. The other Angas were written down.[135] This is a traditional account of schism.[137] According to Svetambara, there were eight schisms (Nihvana).[138]

text: According to Digambara tradition, Ganadhara knew fourteen Purva and eleven Anga. Knowledge of Purva was lost around 436 years after Mahavira and Anga were lost around 683 years after Mahavira.[139] The texts that do not belong to Anga are called Angabahyas. There were fourteen Angabahyas. The first four Angabahayas, Samayika, chaturvimasvika, Vandana and Pratikramana corresponds to sections of second Mulasutra of Svetambara. The only texts of Angabahyas which occurs in Svetambara texts are Dasavaikalika, Uttaradhyayana and Kalpavyavahara.[140]

text: Umaswati's Tattvartha Sutras are accepted as authoritative texts by all Jain traditions.[141][142] Kundakunda's mystical texts are revered in the Digambara tradition.[143]