document_title: Nuclear power in India

question_text: list of nuclear power plants in india 2017

text: Nuclear power in India

text: History[edit]

text: Initial developments[edit]

text: As early as 1901, the Geological Survey of India (GSI) had recognised India as potentially having significant deposits of radioactive ores, including pitchblende, uranium and thorianite. In the ensuing 50 years, however, little to no effort was made to exploit those resources.[10] During the 1920s and 1930s, Indian scientists maintained close links to their counterparts in Europe and the United States, and were well aware of the latest developments in physics. Several Indian physicists, notably Daulat Singh Kothari, Meghnad Saha, Homi J. Bhabha and R. S. Krishnan, conducted pioneering research in nuclear physics in Europe during the 1930s.

text: By 1939, Meghnad Saha, the Palit Professor of Physics at the University of Calcutta, had recognised the significance of the discovery of nuclear fission, and had begun to conduct various experiments in his laboratory related to nuclear physics. In 1940, he incorporated nuclear physics into the university's post-graduate curriculum.[11] In the same year, the Sir Dorabji Tata Trust sanctioned funds for installing a cyclotron at the University of Calcutta, but various difficulties likely related to the war delayed the project.[12] In 1944, Homi J. Bhabha, a distinguished nuclear physicist who had established a research school at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, wrote a letter to his distant cousin J. R. D. Tata, the chairman of the Tata Group. He requested funds to establish a research institute of fundamental physics, "with special reference to cosmic rays and nuclear physics." The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) was inaugurated in Mumbai the following year.[13]

text: Establishment of atomic research[edit]

text: In March 1946, the Board of Scientific and Industrial Research (BSIR), under the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), set up an Atomic Research Committee under Bhabha's leadership to explore India's atomic energy resources and to suggest ways to develop and harness them, along with establishing contacts with similar organisations in other nations.[14] At the same time, the University of Travancore's research council met to discuss Travancore's future industrial development. Among other matters, the council made recommendations for developing the state's resources of monazite, a valuable thorium ore, and ilmenite, with regard to their applications in atomic energy. The council suggested the project could be undertaken by an all-India programme.[14] This was followed by the deputation of Bhabha and Sir Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar, the Director of the CSIR, to Travancore in April 1947 and the establishment of a working relationship with the kingdom's dewan, Sir C. P. Ramaswami Iyer.[15]

text: Early in 1947, plans were made to establish a Uranium Unit under the Geological Survey of India, to focus on identifying and developing resources of uranium-bearing minerals.[16] In June 1947, two months before Indian independence, Chakravarti Rajagopalachari, then Minister for Industry, Supply, Education and Finance in the Interim Government of India, established an Advisory Board for Research in Atomic Energy. Chaired by Bhabha and placed under the CSIR, the Advisory Board included Saha, Bhatnagar and several other distinguished scientists, notably Sir K. S. Krishnan, the co-discoverer of the Raman effect, geologist Darashaw Nosherwan Wadia and Nazir Ahmed, a student of Ernest Rutherford. A Joint Committee comprising the above scientists and three representatives of the Travancore state government was set up to determine how best to utilise Travancore's resources of monazite.[17] Following the independence and partition of India, however, Travancore briefly declared itself independent before acceding to the new Dominion of India in 1949 after a period of intense negotiations.

text: On 23 March 1948, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru introduced the Atomic Energy Bill in the Indian Parliament,[18] and it was subsequently passed as the Indian Atomic Energy Act. Modelled on the British Atomic Energy Act 1946, the Act granted sweeping powers to the central government over nuclear science and research, including surveying for atomic minerals, the development of such mineral resources on an industrial scale, conducting research regarding the scientific and technical problems connected with developing atomic energy for peaceful purposes, the training and education of the necessary personnel and the fostering of fundamental research in the nuclear sciences in Indian laboratories, institutes and universities.[13] Around the same time, the Government of West Bengal sanctioned the construction of a nuclear physics institute under the University of Calcutta; the cornerstone was laid in May 1948,[19] and the institute was inaugurated on 11 January 1950 by Irène Joliot-Curie.[11]

text: With effect from 1 June 1948, the Advisory Board for Research in Atomic Energy, together with its parent organisation the CSIR, was folded into the new Department of Scientific Research and placed directly under the Prime Minister. On 3 August 1948, the Atomic Energy Commission of India (AEC) was established and made separate from the Department of Scientific Research, with Bhabha as its first chairman.[20] In January 1949, the AEC met to formulate a uniform under- and post-graduate university syllabus for theoretical and fundamental physics and chemistry, to guarantee sufficient numbers of nuclear scientists and to ensure they would receive consistent levels of training and education.[21] In the same year, the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research was designated by the CSIR as the hub for all major nuclear science research projects. In 1950, the government announced it would purchase all available stocks of uranium and beryllium minerals and ores, and declared large rewards for any significant discoveries of the same.[22][23] On 3 January 1954, the Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay (AEET) was established by the Atomic Energy Commission to consolidate all nuclear reactor research and technology-related developments; on 3 August, the Atomic Energy Commission and all its subordinate agencies, including the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research and the nuclear research institute at Calcutta University, were transferred to the new Department of Atomic Energy and placed under the direct charge of the Prime Minister's Office.[13]

text: The first reactors[edit]

text: At a meeting of the Atomic Energy Commission on 15 March 1955, the decision was made to construct a small nuclear reactor at Trombay. The reactor would be used for training personnel for the operation of future reactors and for research, including experiments in nuclear physics, studying the effects of irradiation and the production of isotopes for medical, agricultural and industrial research.[24] In October 1955, an agreement was signed by the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority and the Indian Department of Atomic Energy, under which Britain would supply uranium fuel elements for a pool-type reactor to be designed by India.[24] The agreement further ensured the "close cooperation and mutual assistance between the Department and the Authority in the promotion and development of the peaceful uses of atomic energy," and provided for future design and collaboration in the construction of a high flux reactor at a later date.[25] Named Apsara, the reactor was housed in a 100 x 50 x 70 concrete building. India's and Asia's first nuclear reactor, Apsara reached criticality at 3:45 p.m on 4 August 1956 and was inaugurated by Prime Minister Nehru on 20 January 1957.[24][26][27]

text: In April 1955, the Canadian government under Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent offered to assist in building an NRX-type reactor for India under the Colombo Plan, of which both India and Canada were then members. Prime Minister St. Laurent expressed hopes the reactor would serve India well in the development of peaceful atomic research and development. On behalf of the Indian government, Nehru formally accepted the offer that September, stating the reactor would be made available to any accredited foreign scientists, including those from other Colombo Plan member states.[28][29][30] On 28 April 1956, Nehru and the Canadian High Commissioner to India Escott Reid signed an agreement for a "Canada-India Colombo Plan Atomic Reactor Project." Under the terms of the agreement, Canada would provide a 40 MW CIRUS reactor for solely research purposes, including the initial manufacture and engineering of the reactor, and would also provide technical expertise, including training Indian personnel in its operation. India would supply the reactor site and foundation, and would also pay all "internal" costs, including the construction of the reactor complex, the costs of local labour and any shipping and insurance fees.[31] Under Article II of the agreement, India would make the reactor facilities available to other Colombo Plan nations. Article III stipulated that the "reactor and any products resulting from its use will be employed for peaceful purposes only;"[31] at the time, however, there were no effective safeguards to ensure this clause.[29][30] A further agreement was made with the United States government to supply 21 tons of heavy water for the reactor.[32] Construction of the reactor began later in 1956, with Indian technical personnel sent to Chalk River for training.[33] CIRUS was completed in early 1960 and after achieving criticality in July 1960, was inaugurated by Nehru in January 1961.[34] Construction of a third research reactor, ZERLINA (Zero Energy Reactor for Lattice Investigations and New Assemblies) began at Trombay in 1958; ZERLINA was also commissioned in 1961.[35]

text: By February 1960, deliberations had begun to build India's first nuclear power stations; it was decided the first power plant would be erected in Western India, with locations in Rajasthan, near Delhi and near Madras noted for future electricity-generating reactors.[36] On 11 October 1960, the Indian government issued a global tender for India's first nuclear power station near Tarapur, Maharashtra and consisting of two reactors, each generating around 150 MW of electricity and to be commissioned in 1965.[37] In August 1961, the Indian and Canadian governments agreed to conduct a joint study on building a Canada-India nuclear power plant in Rajasthan; the reactor would be based on the CANDU reactor at Douglas Point and would generate 200 MW of energy.[34] The agreement for India's first nuclear power plant at Rajasthan, RAPP-1, was signed in 1963, followed by RAPP-2 in 1966. These reactors contained rigid safeguards to ensure they would not be used for a military programme. RAPP-1 began operation in 1972. Due to technical problems the reactor had to be downrated from 200 MW to 100 MW.[citation needed] The technical and design information were given free of charge by Atomic Energy of Canada Limited to India.[citation needed] The United States and Canada terminated their assistance after the detonation of India's first nuclear explosion in 1974.

text: Nuclear fuel reserves[edit]

text: India's domestic uranium reserves are small and the country is dependent on uranium imports to fuel its nuclear power industry. Since early 1990s, Russia has been a major supplier of nuclear fuel to India.[38] Due to dwindling domestic uranium reserves,[39] electricity generation from nuclear power in India declined by 12.83% from 2006 to 2008.[40] Following a waiver from the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) in September 2008 which allowed it to commence international nuclear trade,[41] India has signed bilateral deals on civilian nuclear energy technology cooperation with several other countries, including France,[42] the United States,[43] the United Kingdom,[44] Canada, [45] and South Korea.[46] India has also uranium supply agreements with Russia,[47][48] Mongolia,[49] Kazakhstan,[50] Argentina[51] and Namibia.[52] An Indian private company won a uranium exploration contract in Niger.[53]

text: Since March 2011, large deposits of uranium, has been discovered in the Tummalapalle belt and in the Bhima basin at Gogi in Karnataka by the Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD) of India. The Tummalapalle belt uranium reserves promises to be one of the top 20 uranium reserves discovery of the world. So far 44,000 tonnes of natural uranium has been discovered in the belt, which is estimated to have three times that amount.[54][55][56] The natural uranium deposits of the Bhima basin has better grade of natural uranium ore, even though it is smaller than the Tummalapalle belt.

text: In recent years, India has shown increased interest in thorium fuels and fuel cycles because of large deposits of thorium (518,000 tonnes) in the form of monazite in beach sands as compared to very modest reserves of low-grade uranium (92,000 tonnes).[57]

text: Nuclear agreements with other nations[edit]

text: As of 2016, India has signed civil nuclear agreements with 14 countries: Argentina, Australia, Canada, Czech Republic, France, Japan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Namibia, Russia, South Korea, the United Kingdom and the United States and Vietnam.[58] The 48-nation NSG granted a waiver to India on 6 September 2008 allowing it to access civilian nuclear technology and fuel from other countries.[59] India the only known country with nuclear weapons which is not a party to the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) but is still allowed to carry out nuclear commerce with the rest of the world.[60]

text: The nuclear agreement with USA led to India issuing a Letter of Intent for purchasing 10,000 MW from the USA. However, liability concerns and a few other issues are preventing further progress on the issue. Experts say that India's nuclear liability law discourages foreign nuclear companies. This law gives accident victims the right to seek damages from plant suppliers in the event of a mishap. It has "deterred foreign players like General Electric and Westinghouse Electric, a US-based unit of Toshiba, with companies asking for further clarification on compensation liability for private operators".[61]

text: Russia has an ongoing agreement of 1988 vintage with India regarding establishing of two VVER 1000 MW reactors (water-cooled water-moderated light water power reactors) at Koodankulam in Tamil Nadu.[62] A 2008 agreement caters for provision of an additional four third generation VVER-1200 reactors of capacity 1170 MW each.[63] Russia has assisted in India’s efforts to design a nuclear plant for its nuclear submarine.[64] In 2009, the Russians stated that Russia would not agree to curbs on export of sensitive technology to India. A new accord signed in Dec 2009 with Russia gives India freedom to proceed with the closed fuel cycle, which includes mining, preparation of the fuel for use in reactors, and reprocessing of spent fuel.[65][66] After successful commissioning of Kudankulam units 1 & 2 with inordinate delay, an agreement was made with Russia in June 2017 for the units 5 & 6 (2 x 1000 MW) with an estimated cost of INR 250 million (3.85 million US$) per MW.[67] Earlier, India had also entered in to an agreement with Russia in October 2016 for the units 3 & 4 (2 x 1000 MW) with an estimated cost of INR 200 million (3.08 million US$) per MW.[67] These prices are 3 to 4 times higher than any other type of power plants in India.

text: After the Nuclear Suppliers Group agreed to allow nuclear exports to India, France was the first country to sign a civilian nuclear agreement with India, on 30 September 2008.[68] During the December 2010 visit of the French President Nicolas Sarkozy to India, framework agreements were signed for the setting up two third-generation EPR reactors of 1650 MW each at Jaitapur, Maharashtra by the French company Areva. The deal caters for the first set of two of six planned reactors and the supply of nuclear fuel for 25 years.[69] The contract and pricing is yet to be finalised. Construction is unlikely to start before 2014 because of regulatory issues and difficulty in sourcing major components from Japan due to India not being a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.[70]

text: India and Mongolia signed a crucial civil nuclear agreement on 15 June 2009 for supply of Uranium to India, during Prime Minister Manmohan Singh's visit to Mongolia making it the fifth nation in the world to seal a civil nuclear pact with India. The MoU on “development of cooperation in the field of peaceful uses of radioactive minerals and nuclear energy” was signed by senior officials in the department of atomic energy of the two countries.[71]

text: On 2 September 2009, India and Namibia signed five agreements, including one on civil nuclear energy which allows for supply of uranium from the African country. This was signed during President Hifikepunye Pohamba's five-day visit to India in May 2009. Namibia is the fifth largest producer of uranium in the world. The Indo-Namibian agreement in peaceful uses of nuclear energy allows for supply of uranium and setting up of nuclear reactors.[72]

text: On 14 October 2009, India and Argentina signed an agreement in New Delhi on civil nuclear cooperation and nine other pacts to establish strategic partnership. According to official sources, the agreement was signed by Vivek Katju, Secretary in the Ministry of External Affairs and Argentine foreign minister Jorge Talana. Taking into consideration their respective capabilities and experience in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, both India and Argentina have agreed to encourage and support scientific, technical and commercial cooperation for mutual benefit in this field.[73][74]

text: The Prime Ministers of India and Canada signed a civil nuclear cooperation agreement in Toronto on 28 June 2010 which when all steps are taken, will provide access for Canada's nuclear industry to India's expanding nuclear market and also fuel for India's reactors. Canada is one of the world's largest exporters of uranium[75] and Canada's heavy water nuclear technology is marketed abroad with CANDU-type units operating in India, Pakistan, Argentina, South Korea, Romania and China. On 6 November 2012, India and Canada finalised their 2010 nuclear export agreement, opening the way for Canada to begin uranium exports to India.[76]

text: On 16 April 2011, India and Kazakhstan signed an inter-governmental agreement for Cooperation in Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, that envisages a legal framework for supply of fuel, construction and operation of atomic power plants, exploration and joint mining of uranium, exchange of scientific and research information, reactor safety mechanisms and use of radiation technologies for healthcare. PM Manmohan Singh visited Astana where a deal was signed. After the talks, the Kazakh President Nazarbaev announced that his country would supply India with 2100 tonnes of uranium and was ready to do more. India and Kazakhstan already have civil nuclear cooperation since January 2009 when Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) and Kazakh nuclear company KazAtomProm signed an MoU during the visit of Nazarbaev to Delhi. Under the contract, KazAtomProm supplies uranium which is used by Indian reactors.[77][78]

text: South Korea became the latest country to sign a nuclear agreement with India after it got the waiver from the Nuclear Suppliers' Group (NSG) in 2008. On 25 July 2011 India and South Korea signed a nuclear agreement, which will allow South Korea with a legal foundation to participate in India’s nuclear expansion programme, and to bid for constructing nuclear power plants in India.[79]

text: In 2014, India and Australia signed a civil nuclear agreement which allows the export of uranium to India. This was signed in New Delhi during Australian Prime Minister Tony Abbott's meeting with the Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 4 September 2014. Australia is the third largest producer of uranium in the world. The agreement allows supply of uranium for peaceful generation of power for civil use in India.[80][81]

text: India's Prime Minister Narendra Modi and UK Prime Minister David Cameron signed Civil Nuclear Agreement on 12 Nov, 2015.[82]

text: In November 2016 Japan signed a nuclear cooperation agreement with India. Japanese nuclear plant builders saw this as potential lifeline given that domestic orders had ended following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, and India is proposing to build about 20 new reactors over the next decade.[83]

text: Nuclear power plans[edit]

text: India now envisages to increase the contribution of nuclear power to overall electricity generation capacity from 2.8% to 9% within 25 years.[84] By 2020, India's installed nuclear power generation capacity will increase to 20 GW.[85] As of 2009[update], India stands 9th in the world in terms of number of operational nuclear power reactors. Indigenous atomic reactors include TAPS-3, and -4, both of which are 540 MW reactors.[86] India's US$717 million fast breeder reactor[87]

text: The Indian nuclear power industry is expected to undergo a significant expansion in the coming years, in part due to the passing of the U.S.-India Civil Nuclear Agreement. This agreement will allow India to carry out trade of nuclear fuel and technologies with other countries and significantly enhance its power generation capacity.[88] When the agreement goes through, India is expected to generate an additional 25,000 MW of nuclear power by 2020, bringing total estimated nuclear power generation to 45,000 MW.[89]

text: Risks related to nuclear power generation and prompted Indian legislators to enact the 2010 Nuclear Liability Act which stipulates that nuclear suppliers, contractors and operators must bear financial responsibility in case of an accident. The legislation addresses key issues such as nuclear radiation and safety regulations, operational control and maintenance management of nuclear power plants, compensation in the event of a radiation-leak accident, disaster clean-up costs, operator responsibility and supplier liability.[90] A nuclear accident like the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster would have dire economic consequences in heavily populated India as did the 1984 Union Carbide Bhopal disaster, the world's worst industrial disaster, covered extensively in Dominique Lapierre's 2009 prize winning book Five Past Midnight in Bhopal.[91]

text: India has already been using imported enriched uranium for light-water reactors that are currently under IAEA safeguards, but it has developed other aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle to support its reactors. Development of select technologies has been strongly affected by limited imports. Use of heavy water reactors has been particularly attractive for the nation because it allows Uranium to be burnt with little to no enrichment capabilities. India has also done a great amount of work in the development of a thorium centred fuel cycle. While uranium deposits in the nation are limited there are much greater reserves of thorium and it could provide hundreds of times the energy with the same mass of fuel. The fact that thorium can theoretically be utilised in heavy water reactors has tied the development of the two. A prototype reactor that would burn Uranium-Plutonium fuel while irradiating a thorium blanket is under construction at Kalpakkam by BHAVINI - another public sector enterprise like NPCIL

text: Uranium used for the weapons programme has been separated from the power programme, using uranium from indigenous reserves. This domestic reserve of 80,000 to 112,000 tons of uranium (approx 1% of global uranium reserves) is large enough to supply all of India's commercial and military reactors as well as supply all the needs of India's nuclear weapons arsenal. Currently, India's nuclear power reactors consume, at most, 478 tonnes of uranium per year.[92] Even if India were quadruple its nuclear power output (and reactor base) to 20 GW by 2020, nuclear power generation would only consume 2000 tonnes of uranium per annum. Based on India's known commercially viable reserves of 80,000 to 112,000 tons of uranium, this represents a 40–50 years uranium supply for India's nuclear power reactors (note with reprocessing and breeder reactor technology, this supply could be stretched out many times over). Furthermore, the uranium requirements of India's Nuclear Arsenal are only a fifteenth (1/15) of that required for power generation (approx. 32 tonnes), meaning that India's domestic fissile material supply is more than enough to meet all needs for it strategic nuclear arsenal. Therefore, India has sufficient uranium resources to meet its strategic and power requirements for the foreseeable future.[92]

text: Former Indian President A. P. J. Abdul Kalam stated while he was in office that "energy independence is India's first and highest priority. India has to go for nuclear power generation in a big way using thorium-based reactors. Thorium, a non fissile material is available in abundance in our country."[93] India has vast thorium reserves and quite limited uranium reserves.[94][95]

text: The long-term goal of India's nuclear program has been to develop an advanced heavy-water thorium cycle. The first stage of this employs the pressurized heavy water reactors (PHWR) fueled by natural uranium, and light water reactors, which produce plutonium incidentally to their prime purpose of electricity generation. The second stage uses fast neutron reactors burning the plutonium with the blanket around the core having uranium as well as thorium, so that further plutonium (ideally high-fissile Pu) is produced as well as U-233. The Atomic and Molecular Data Unit (AMD) has identified almost 12 million tonnes of monazite resources (typically with 6-7% thorium). In stage 3, Advanced Heavy Water Reactors (AHWR) would burn thorium-plutonium fuels in such a manner that breeds U-233 which can eventually be used as a self-sustaining fissile driver for a fleet of breeding AHWRs. An alternative stage 3 is molten salt breeder reactors (MSBR), which are believed to be another possible option for eventual large-scale deployment.[58]

text: In June 2014, Kudankulam-1 became the single largest power generating unit in India (1000 MWe).[96]

text: Nuclear power plants[edit]

text: Currently, twenty-two nuclear power reactors have a total install capacity of 6,780 MW (3.5% of total installed base).[97][98]

text:
Power station
Operator
State
Type
Units
Total capacity (MW)

Tarapur
NPCIL
Maharashtra
BWR
PHWR
160 x 2
540 x 2
1,400

Rawatbhata
NPCIL
Rajasthan
PHWR
100 x 1
200 x 1
220 x 4
1,180

Kudankulam
NPCIL
Tamil Nadu
VVER-1000
1000 x 2
2,000[99]

Kaiga
NPCIL
Karnataka
PHWR
220 x 4
880

Kakrapar
NPCIL
Gujarat
PHWR
220 x 2
440

Kalpakkam
NPCIL
Tamil Nadu
PHWR
220 x 2
440

Narora
NPCIL
Uttar Pradesh
PHWR
220 x 2
440

Total
1000x2, 540x2, 220x14
200x1, 160x2, 100x1
6,780

text: The projects under construction are:[100][101]

text:
Power station
Operator
State
Type
Units
Total capacity (MW)
Expected Commercial Operation

Rajasthan Unit 7 and 8
NPCIL
Rajasthan
PHWR
700 x 2
1,400
Unit 7: June 2016
Unit 8: December 2016

Kakrapar Unit 3 and 4
NPCIL
Gujarat
PHWR
700 x 2
1,400
Unit 3: Late 2016/Early 2017, Unit 4: 2017

Madras (Kalpakkam)
Bhavini
Tamil Nadu
PFBR
500 x 1
500
March 2017

Kudankulam
NPCIL
Tamil Nadu
VVER-1000
1000 x 2
2,000[102]
2022-2023[101]

Total
1000x2, 700x4, 500x1
5,300

text: The planned projects are:[102][103][104]

text:
Power station
Operator
State
Type
Units
Total capacity (MW)

Jaitapur

Maharashtra
EPR
1650 x 6
9,900[105]

Kovvada

Andhra Pradesh
AP1000
1100 x 6
6,600[106][107]

t.b.d. (was Mithi Virdi (Viradi))

Gujarat
AP1000
1100 x 6
6,600

t.b.d. (was Haripur)

West Bengal
VVER-1000
1000 x 6
6,000

Gorakhpur
NPCIL
Haryana
PHWR
700 x 4
2,800[108][109]

Bhimpur
NPCIL
Madhya Pradesh
PHWR
700 x 4
2,800[110][105]

Mahi Banswara
NPCIL
Rajasthan
PHWR
700 x 4
2,800[105]

Kaiga
NPCIL
Karnataka
PHWR
700 x 2
1,400

Chutka
NPCIL
Madhya Pradesh
PHWR
700 x 2
1,400

Madras
BHAVINI
Tamil Nadu
FBR
600 x 2
1,200[105]

Tarapur

AHWR
300 x 1
300

Total
1650x6, 1100x12
1000x6, 700x16, 600x2, 300x1
41,200

text: Note: Some sites may be abandoned if not found technically feasible or due to strategic, geopolitical, international and domestic issues.

text: The details of the nuclear power generation capacity in the country are given below :[111]

text:
Fiscal Year
Total nuclear
electricity generation
Capacity factor

2008–09
14,921 GW·h
50%

2009–10
18,798 GW·h
61%

2010–11
26,472 GW·h
71%

2011–12
32,455 GW·h
79%

2012–13
32,863 GW·h
80%

2013-14
35,333 GW·h[112]
83%

text: Anti-nuclear protests[edit]

text: Following the March 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan, populations around proposed Indian NPP sites have launched protests that had found resonance around the country.[6] There have been mass protests against the French-backed 9,900 MW Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project in Maharashtra and the Russian-backed 2,000 MW Koodankulam Nuclear Power Plant in Tamil Nadu. The Government of West Bengal initially refused permission to a proposed 6,000 MW facility near the town of Haripur that intended to host 6 Russian reactors.[6][113] But now it's possible for Bengal to have its first nuclear power plant at Haripur despite resistance.[114]

text: A Public-interest litigation (PIL) has also been filed against the government’s civil nuclear program at the Supreme Court. The PIL specifically asks for the "staying of all proposed nuclear power plants till satisfactory safety measures and cost-benefit analyses are completed by independent agencies".[7][115] But the Supreme Court said it was not an expert in the nuclear field to issue a direction to the government on the nuclear liability issue.[116]


document_title: Zumbo's Just Desserts

question_text: who won season 1 of zumbos just desserts

root

text: Zumbo's Just Desserts

text: Background[edit]

text: In January 2016, it was reported that the Seven Network was preparing to launch a then unnamed baking program, very similar to The Great Australian Bake Off.[3] The following month, the title of the program was revealed along with naming Zumbo as host.[4] Khoo was named as co-host in April 2016.[5][6] In June 2016, Falanga was announced as joining the program as assistant and timekeeper[2] and promos were released, advising the show would air after the 2016 Summer Olympics.[7]

tag: p

text: Contestants[edit]

text:
Name
Age
Occupation
Competition Status

Kate
37
“No-Nonsense” Mum
Winner

Ali
28
Insurance Broker
Runner-Up

Brogen
22
Stay-At-Home Mum
Eliminated (Episode 11)

Daniel
25
Bouncer
Eliminated (Episode 9)

Irene
34
Financial Analyst
Eliminated (Episode 8)

Amie
24
Admin Assistant
Eliminated (Episode 7)

Ashley
28
Airline Crewing Officer
Eliminated (Episode 6)

Michael
51
Bricklayer
Eliminated (Episode 5)

Vicki
44
Technical Writer
Eliminated (Episode 4)

Patricia
33
Social Media Manager
Eliminated (Episode 3)

Peter
57
Car Salesman
Eliminated (Episode 2)

Wendy
39
Recruitment Consultant
Eliminated (Episode 1)

tag: table

text: Elimination Chart[edit]

text:
Name
Week 1
Week 2
Week 3
Week 4
Week 5
Week 6

Kate
DOTD
(Safe)
SS
(Safe)
ZT
(14)
HIGH
(Safe)
ZT
(11)
LOW
(Safe)
HIGH
(Safe)
DOTD
(Safe)
ZT
(17)
ZT
(14)
SS/ZT
(32)
Winner (33)

Ali
SS
(Safe)
LOW
(Safe)
DOTD
(Safe)
HIGH
(Safe)
DOTD
(Safe)
ZT
(14)
ZT
(17)
HIGH
(Safe)
DOTD
(Safe)
ZT
(16)
GT
'Runner-Up’ (32)

Brogen
LOW
(Safe)
SS
(Safe)
SS
(Safe)
LOW
(Safe)
HIGH
(Safe)
HIGH
(Safe)
SS
(Safe)
ZT
(16)
LOW
(Safe)
SS
(SF)
SS/ZT
(28)
Eliminated (Episode 11)

Daniel
LOW
(Safe)
SS
(Safe)
HIGH
(Safe)
SS
(Safe)
SS
(Safe)
SS
(Safe)
LOW
(Safe)
LOW
(Safe)
ZT
(13)
Eliminated (Episode 9)

Irene
HIGH
(Safe)
HIGH
(Safe)
SS
(Safe)
SS
(Safe)
SS
(Safe)
SS
(Safe)
DOTD
(Safe)
ZT
(14)
Eliminated (Episode 8)

Amie
SS
(Safe)
SS
(Safe)
SS
(Safe)
DOTD
(Safe)
HIGH
(Safe)
DOTD
(Safe)
ZT
(12)
Eliminated (Episode 7)

Ashley
SS
(Safe)
DOTD
(Safe)
LOW
(Safe)
ZT
(14)
LOW
(Safe)
ZT
(12)
Eliminated (Episode 6)

Michael
SS
(Safe)
LOW
(Safe)
SS
(Safe)
SS
(Safe)
ZT
(9)
Eliminated (Episode 5)

Vicki
SS
(Safe)
SS
(Safe)
LOW
(Safe)
ZT
(10)
Eliminated (Episode 4)

Patricia
SS
(Safe)
ZT
(12)
ZT
(10)
Eliminated (Episode 3)

Peter
ZT
(11)
ZT
(10)
Eliminated (Episode 2)

Wendy
ZT
(6)
Eliminated (Episode 1)

text: Series Details[edit]

text: Week One[edit]

text: Reflective Dessert[edit]

text:
Episode 1
Airdate — 22 August 2016
Sweet Sensations — The Dessert Makers had to create a dessert that reflected themselves.
Zumbo Test — The bottom two contestants had to recreate Zumbo's dessert dome. The lower scoring contestant is then eliminated.

tag: ul

text:
Sweet Sensations Details

Contestant
Dessert
Result

Kate
Apple Pie Mille-Feuille
Safe (DOTD)

Ali
Chocolate Orange Sphere
Safe

Amie
Deconstructed Lemon Meringue

Ashley
Whimsical Pavlova

Brogen
Raspberry Mousse with Chocolate Layered Rose

Daniel
Red Skin Crème with Fruit Loop Ice-Cream and Lychee Gels

Irene
Caramel Passion Mousse and Coffee Soil

Michael
Choux Pastry with Lemon Cheesecake

Patricia
Chocolate Chilli Tart

Vicki
Plum and Chocolate Mousse

Peter
Layered Fruit Sponge Cake with Passionfruit Ice-Cream
Bottom Two
(Zumbo Test)

Wendy
Salted Caramel Apple Pie with Vanilla Cinnamon Ice-Cream

text:
Zumbo Test Details

Contestant
Dessert
Scores
(out of 10)
Total
(out of 20)
Result

Zumbo
Rachel

Peter
Zumbo's Reflective Dessert Dome
(Layered of Mandarin Gel, Salted Caramel,
Yuzu Cream, Mirror Glaze & Hazelnut Sable
5
6
11
Safe

Wendy
3
3
6
Eliminated

text: Franken-Dessert[edit]

text:
Episode 2
Airdate — 23 August 2016
Sweet Sensations — The Dessert Makers had to create a franken-dessert, a combination of two desserts in one.
Zumbo Test — The bottom two had to recreate the FrankenZumbo, made from five different desserts. The lower scoring contestant would be eliminated.

text:
Sweet Sensations Details

Contestant
Dessert
Result

Ashley
Wagon Wheel Lamington
Safe
(DOTD)

Ali
Rices Rhubarb Tart
Safe

Amie
Black Forest Trifle

Brogen
Creme Bru-Piklets

Daniel
Noir Tart A Ron

Irene
Apple Pumble

Kate
Lemon Meringue Croquembouche

Michael
Black Forest Custard Tart

Vicki
Pavana Split

Patricia
Red Velvet Brownie
Bottom Two
(Zumbo Test)

Peter
Tartartart

text:
Zumbo Test Details

Contestant
Dessert
Scores
(out of 10)
Total
(out of 20)
Result

Zumbo
Rachel

Patricia
FrankenZumbo
(Layered with Pavlova, Macarons,
Ricotta Pancake, Brownie & Lemon Tart)
6
6
12
Safe

Peter
5
5
10
Eliminated

text: Love & Chocolate Dessert[edit]

text:
Episode 3
Airdate — 24 August 2016
Sweet Sensations — The Dessert Makers had to make a romantic dessert with chocolate as the main ingredient.
Zumbo Test — The bottom two had to recreate Zumbo's love themed Croquembouche, the Lovenbouche. The lower scoring contestant would be eliminated.

text:
Sweet Sensations Details

Contestant
Dessert
Result

Ali
Textures of White Chocolate
Safe (DOTD)

Ashley
White Chocolate Mousse with White Chocolate Dome
Safe

Amie
Red Velvet Cake with White Chocolate Mousse

Brogen
Layered Chocolate and Orange Mousse Cake

Daniel
White Chocolate, Berry And Rose Petit Gateaux

Irene
White Chocolate Bark And Rhubarb Chocolate Mousse

Michael
Chocolate Custard Tart With Strawberry Velvet Ice

Vicki
Pink Peppercorn and Dark Chocolate Mousse

Kate
White Chocolate Panna Cotta
Bottom Two (Zumbo Test)

Patricia
Triple Chocolate Mousse

text:
Zumbo Test Details

Contestant
Dessert
Scores
(out of 10)
Total
(out of 20)
Result

Zumbo
Rachel

Kate
Lovenbouche
(made with profiteroles, chocolate custard,
amber caramel, almond nougatine &
decorated with red isomalt hearts)
7
7
14
Safe

Patricia
5
5
10
Eliminated

text: Week Two[edit]

text: Kids Party Cake[edit]

text:
Episode 4
Airdate — 29 August 2016
Sweet Sensations — Each Dessert Maker had to create a cake suited for a kids party, with little Zumbinos (kids) to taste the cakes
Zumbo Test — The bottom two had to recreate Zumbo's school desk inspired cake named "back-to-school". The lower scoring team was eliminated

text:
Sweet Sensations Details

Contestant
Dessert
Result

Amie
"Under The Sea" Cake
Safe
(DOTD)

Ali
"Magic Toadstool" Cake
Safe

Brogen
"Ice Dream Sundae" Cake

Daniel
"Banana Lolly Lego" Cake

Irene
"Buttercream Princess Fairy" Cake

Kate
"Monster" cake

Michael
"Red Velvet" Layer cake

Ashley
"Candy Lane" Cake
Bottom Two
(Zumbo Test)

Vicki
"Swan" cake

text:
Zumbo Test Details

Contestant
Dessert
Scores
(out of 10)
Total
(out of 20)
Result

Zumbo
Rachel

Ashley
Zumbo's Back-to-school cake
(made with chocolate, rice paper,
puff pastry, cinnamon crunch, mascarpone, vanilla sponge & apple tartine)
7
7
14
Safe

Vicki
5
5
10
Eliminated

text: Defies Gravity[edit]

text:
Episode 5
Airdate — 30 August 2016
Sweet Sensations — The Dessert Makers had to create a dessert that defies gravity
Zumbo Test — The bottom two had to recreate Zumbo's Willy Wonka inspired dessert named "Hat Trick". The lower scoring contestant was elimininated.

text:
Sweet Sensations Details

Contestant
Dessert
Result

Ali
Chocolate Spheres with Peanut Caramel and Passionfruit Cream
Safe (DOTD)

Amie
Chocolate Irish Cream Pavlova
Safe

Ashley
Levitating Strawberry Shortcake

Brogen
Peppermint Mocha Gateaux

Daniel
Passionfruit and Banana, Dark Chocolate Mousse Cake

Irene
Blueberry Mousse and White Chocolate Lavender Cream

Kate
Chai Tea With Spiced Profiteroles
Bottom Two (Zumbo Test)

Michael
Flying Fruit Flan

text:
Zumbo Test Details

Contestant
Dessert
Scores
(out of 10)
Total
(out of 20)
Result

Zumbo
Rachel

Kate
Hat Trick
(made with chocolate, soft cheese filling, tomato jelly,
sweet corn custard, chocolate chipotle ganache, avocado,
sour cream mousse & taco corn chip coating)
5
6
11
Safe

Michael
4
5
9
Eliminated

text: Week Three[edit]

text: Arnott's Biscuits[edit]

text:
Episode 6
Airdate — 5 September 2016
Sweet Sensations — The dessert makers had to make Australia's favourite biscuit, Arnott's biscuit, into a delicious dessert.
Zumbo Test — The bottom two had to recreate six out of 12 (three each) Zumbo created biscuits named "Epic Biscuit Time". The contestant who scored lowest was eliminated.

text:
Sweet Sensations Details

Contestant
Dessert
Result

Amie
Lemon Crisp Baked Cheesecake
Safe (DOTD)

Brogen
Monte Carlo Cheesecake
Safe

Daniel
Raspberry And Coconut Iced Vovo Verrine

Irene
Monte Carlo Macaron Ice Cream Sandwich

Kate
Deconstructed Venetian

Ali
Chocolate And Berry Royal Marshmallow Crown
Bottom Two (Zumbo Test)

Ashley
Kingston Tart With Golden Syrup Ice Cream

text:
Zumbo Test Details

Contestant
Dessert
Scores
(out of 10)
Total
(out of 20)
Result

Zumbo
Rachel

Ali
Epic Biscuit Time - Three Biscuits
(Apple Crumble Khoo Hoots, Gianduja, Lamington Runway)
7
7
14
Safe

Ashley
Epic Biscuit Time - Three Biscuits
(Cinnamon Donut, Finger Bun Zumbotron, Salted Caramel Bell)
6
6
12
Eliminated

text: Flaming Dessert[edit]

text:
Episode 7
Airdate — 6 September 2016
Sweet Sensations — The dessert makers had to create a dessert inspired by fire
Zumbo Test — The bottom two had to recreate Zumbo's "Ice" Dessert. The lower scoring contestant was eliminated

text:
Sweet Sensations Details

Contestant
Dessert
Result

Irene
Chilli Chocolate Ganache and Raspberry Sorbet
Safe (DOTD)

Brogen
Toasted Marshmallow Slice
Safe

Daniel
Chocolate and Marshmallow Petit Gateau

Kate
Flaming Alaska

Ali
Anise and Poached Pear Bombe Alaska
Bottom Two (Zumbo Test)

Amie
Sticky Date Pudding With Spiced Figs

text:
Zumbo Test Details

Contestant
Dessert
Scores
(out of 10)
Total
(out of 20)
Result

Zumbo
Rachel

Ali
Zumbo's "Ice" Dessert
(made with ginger & thyme icecream, thyme & ginger crumble, milk mousse, chocolate, white chocolate,
lime swiss meringue)
8
9
17
Safe

Amie
6
6
12
Eliminated

text: Week Four[edit]

text: Classic Aussie Dessert[edit]

text:
Episode 8
Airdate — 12 September 2016
Sweet Sensations — The dessert makers had to create a reimagining of a classic aussie dessert
Zumbo Test — The bottom two had to recreate Zumbo's Frosty Fruit iceblock inspired dessert named "Frosty Fruit Tart". The lower scoring contestant was eliminated.

text:
Sweet Sensations Details

Contestant
Dessert
Result

Kate
Caramel Mousse Slice
Safe (DOTD)

Daniel
Pavlova Nest with Strawberry Crème and Passionfruit Curd
Safe

Ali
Layered Lamington Gateau

Brogen
Vanilla and Passionfruit Slice
Bottom Two (Zumbo Test)

Irene
Pavlova with Kiwi Sorbet and Pineapple Chantilly Cream

text:
Zumbo Test Details

Contestant
Dessert
Scores
(out of 10)
Total
(out of 20)
Result

Zumbo
Rachel

Brogen
Frosty Fruit Tart
(made with Shortbread Tart Shell, Tropical Compote, Orange & Passionfruit Gels, Seabreeze Mousse, Yellow Glaze, Frosty Fruit Sorbet & Saltwater Foam)
8
8
16
Safe

Irene
7
7
14
Eliminated

text: Fruit Dessert[edit]

text:
Episode 9
Airdate — 13 September 2016
Sweet Sensations — The dessert makers had to create a dessert inspired by fruit
Zumbo Test — The bottom two had to recreate Zumbo's flower inspired dessert named "Nancy's Garden", named after Zumbo's mum. The lower scoring contestant was eliminated.

text:
Sweet Sensations Details

Contestant
Dessert
Result

Ali
Lemon Yoghurt Mousse with Pineapple Crème & Banana Ice-cream
Safe (DOTD)

Brogen
Watermelon & Red Berry Cake
Safe

Kate
Pear Green Apple & Lime Tart
Bottom Two (Zumbo Test)

Daniel
Mango, Mandarin & Orange Sphere

text:
Zumbo Test Details

Contestant
Dessert
Scores
(out of 10)
Total
(out of 20)
Result

Zumbo
Rachel

Kate
Nancy's Garden
(made with grapefruit curd, panna cotta, cheesecake, yoghurt, geranium foam, leaves made of filo, shortbread, isomalt and chocolate, watermelon,
grapefruit segments & watermelon sorbet)
8
9
17
Safe

Daniel
6
7
13
Eliminated

text: Week Five[edit]

text: High Tea[edit]

text:
Episode 10
Airdate — 19 September 2016
Sweet Sensations — The dessert makers had to create the most luxurious high tea, three portions of three different lavish and extravagant desserts. The top two contestants were sent to the Zumbo Test with the bottom contestant sent to the Semi-final
Zumbo Test — The top two had to recreate Zumbo's dessert in form of a bathtub called Golden Duckie. The higher scoring contestant was given a golden ticket, sending them straight to the Grand Final. The lower scoring contestants were sent to the Semi-final

text:
Sweet Sensations Details

Contestant
Dessert
Result

Ali
Pistachio Cream Craquelin
Safe
(Zumbo Test)

Earl Grey & Raspberry Almond Cake

Caramel & Apple Petit Gateux

Kate
Pistachio & Raspberry Cake

Passionfruit & Lime Meringue Tart

Opera Cake

Brogen
Lavender & Honey Macarons
Sent to Semi-final

Coconut Panna Cotta Tarts

Chocolate & Hazelnut Petit Gateux

text:
Zumbo Test Details

Contestant
Dessert
Scores
(out of 10)
Total
(out of 20)
Result

Zumbo
Rachel

Ali
Golden Duckie
(Layered with steamed gingerbread pudding, passionfruit jelly, aerated honeycomb, chocolate, cocoa butter mousse, passionfruit ice cream, honeycomb, freeze dry passionfruit, salted butter, 24-carat chocolate duck & gingerbread bubbles)
8
8
16
Sent to Grand Final

Kate
7
7
14
Sent to Semi-final

text: Semi-final[edit]

text:
Episode 11
Airdate — 20 September 2016
Sweet Sensations — The dessert makers had to create a dessert that measured at least 30cm high without any inedible structure included.
Zumbo Test — The dessert makers had to recreat Zumbo's eight vanilla layered cake the size of a matchbox named "V8 Vanilla Cake". The higher scoring contestant was sent to the Grand Final, the lower scoring contestant was eliminated.

text:
Sweet Sensations Details

Contestant
Dessert
Scores
(out of 10)
Total
(out of 20)

Zumbo
Rachel

Kate
Donut Tower
9
8
17

Brogen
Orange Chocolate and Espresso Caramel Entremet
7
7
14

text:
Zumbo Test Details

Contestant
Dessert
Scores
(out of 10)
Total
(out of 20)
Total Score
(out of 40)
Result

Zumbo
Rachel

Kate
V8 Vanilla Cake
(layered with Vanilla Dacqouise, Vanilla Almond Crunch, Vanilla Ganache, Vanilla Chiffon,
Vanilla Syrup, Vanilla Brulee, Vanilla Macaron,
Vanilla Water Jelly, Vanilla Chantilly & Vanilla Glaze)
7
8
15
32
Sent to Grand Final

Brogen
7
7
14
28
Eliminated

text: Week Six[edit]

text: Grand Finale[edit]

text:
Episode 12
Airdate — 27 September 2016
Detail — Unlike former episodes, the final two took part in the Zumbo Test first and the Sweet Sensations last.
Final Zumbo Test — The final two contestants had to recreate Zumbo's dessert named "Sugar & Spice"
Final Sweet Sensations — The final two had to create a dessert inspired by their favourite fairytale. The higher scoring contestant would be announced Winner of Zumbo's Just Desserts.

text:
Zumbo Test Details

Contestant
Dessert
Scores
(out of 10)
Total
(out of 20)

Zumbo
Rachel

Ali
Sugar & Spice
(made with Chocolate, Spiced Crunch, Honey Nougat, Brown Sugar Sponge, Pear Compote,
Burnt Butter & Pear Mousse)
9
9
18

Kate
7
8
15

text:
Sweet Sensations Details

Contestant
Dessert
Scores
(out of 10)
Total
(out of 20)
Total Score
(out of 40)
Result

Zumbo
Rachel

Kate
"Snow White"
Layered Ice-Cream Apple with Sponge Log
9
9
18
33
Winner

Ali
"Jack And The Beanstalk"
Three Bean Entremet with Mandarin Egg Yolk
7
7
14
32
Runner-up

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: The series aired after the Seven Network's coverage of the 2016 Olympic Games[7] on 22 August 2016.[8]

text: Ratings[edit]

text: Ratings data is from OzTAM and represents the average viewership from the 5 largest Australian metropolitan centres (Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide).

text:
Wk
Episode
Airdate
Overnight ratings
Timeshift ratings
Source

Viewers
Rank
Timeshift Viewers
Total Viewers
Rank

1
1
22 August 2016 (2016-08-22)
1,081,000
#3
153,000
1,235,000
#3
[9][10]

2
23 August 2016 (2016-08-23)
830,000
#8
105,000
935,000
#8
[11][12]

3
24 August 2016 (2016-08-24)
734,000
#12
104,000
838,000
#13
[13][14]

2
4
29 August 2016 (2016-08-29)
769,000
#13
91,000
860,000
#10
[15][16]

5
30 August 2016 (2016-08-30)
880,000
#5
82,000
963,000
#5
[17][18]

3
6
5 September 2016 (2016-09-05)
657,000
#18
71,000
728,000
#15
[19][20]

7
6 September 2016 (2016-09-06)
794,000
#10
65,000
859,000
#8
[21][22]

4
8
12 September 2016 (2016-09-12)
681,000
#14
57,000
738,000
#15
[23][24]

9
13 September 2016 (2016-09-13)
646,000
#13
60,000
706,000
#12
[25][26]

5
10
19 September 2016 (2016-09-19)
647,000
#14
59,000
706,000
#14
[27][28]

11
20 September 2016 (2016-09-20)
688,000
#11
64,000
751,000
#12
[29][30]

6
12
27 September 2016 (2016-09-27)
762,000
#9
83,000
845,000
#8
[31][32]


document_title: List of Dragon Ball Z episodes (season 4)

question_text: when does goku come back in season 4

question_tokens: when does goku come back in season 4

text: Episode list[edit]

text:
Orig. ep#

Initial dub ep#

Translated title/Funimation's dub titleOriginal Japanese title

Original airdate

English airdate
10893"Terrible Happenings in Heaven!! Garlic Jr. to Become Kami!?" / "The Heavens Tremble""Tenkai ga Taihen da!! Gārikku Junia ga Kami ni Naru!?" (天界が大変だ!!ガーリックJrが神になる!?)September 18, 1991April 8, 2000
Even with Goku not back yet, the Earth has been very peaceful as Gohan fishes and Krillin dates a young girl named Maron. However, the peace will be disturbed because an old enemy has escaped from his dark prison- Garlic Jr!
10994"Black Mist of Terror...!! Everyone Turns Demonic" / "Black Fog of Terror""Kyōfu no Kuroi Kiri...!! Minna Mazoku ni Natchatta" (恐怖の黒い霧…!!みんな魔族になっちゃった)September 25, 1991April 15, 2000
Garlic Jr. and his henchmen, the Spice Boys, have infiltrated Kami's Lookout and have captured Kami and Mr. Popo. With Garlic Jr. in control, he releases his father's Black Water Mist- a vapor that unlocks any evil within a person, becoming a demon. Can anyone withstand the mist's power?
11095"The Heavenly Realm is the Battlefield!! Piccolo Becomes Devilish Again..." / "Battle in Kami's Lookout""Tenkai ga Senjō da!! Pikkoro ga Mazoku ni Gyaku Modori..." (天界が戦場だ!!ピッコロが魔族に逆戻り…)October 2, 1991April 22, 2000
With their friends infected by the Black Water Mist and the knowledge of Garlic Jr.'s return, Gohan and Krillin head towards the Lookout to get the Sacred Water, but it's going to be tricky with Garlic Jr. beating them to the punch. Meanwhile, Piccolo handles the Spice Boys and the others, but will he too be infected by the mist?
11196"Direct Confrontation with Piccolo!! An Angry Masenko in the Heavenly Realm" / "Fight with Piccolo""Pikkoro to Kyokusetsu Taiketsu!! Tenkai ni Ikari no Masenkō" (ピッコロと直接対決!!天界に怒りの魔せん光)October 9, 1991April 29, 2000
Piccolo-- the brave Namekian has been infected by the Black Water Mist too, as he now follows Garlic Jr. As the immortal demon relaxes, Mustard and Salt have their fun with Earth's last heroes. Gohan gets beaten up by Salt and is about to be finished off when Krillin steps in and takes the blast, badly injuring him. Furious, Gohan easily kills both Salt and Mustard with his powerful Masenko. But as the young Saiyan then turns to confront Garlic Jr. and the last remaining Spice Boys, Piccolo attacked Gohan.
11297"Retrieve Everyone's Minds!! The Ultra Holy Water Resting in the Temple" / "Call for Restoration""Minna no Kokoro o Torimodose!! Shinden ni Nemuru Chō Shinsui" (みんなの心を取り戻せ!!神殿に眠る超神水)October 16, 1991May 6, 2000
Gohan is powerless against the infected Piccolo. As Piccolo closes in for the kill: despite his attempts to free Kami and Mr. Popo from Garlic Jr.'s glass bottles, Krillin jumps in front of him (pushing Gohan out of the way to save him), and gets bitten (into unconsciousness and later turn into a demon) by Piccolo. Now, Gohan seems to be the only hero left against his now infected friends, and it seems that the battle was over, as he gets almost beatened to death...or is it?
11398"Can't Wait Until Morning!! Kami-sama Determines a Suicidal Course of Action" / "Suicidal Course""Asa made Matenai!! Kamisama no Kakugo o Kimeta Kesshikō" (朝まで待てない!!神様の覚悟をきめた決死行)October 23, 1991May 13, 2000
To Gohan's surprise, Piccolo and Krillin fooled Garlic Jr., for they were not infected by the Black Water Mist, and they freed Kami and Mr. Popo. Kami heads towards the seven air currents to spread the Sacred Water, but he could lose his life. Will he make it time, and will the others handle Garlic Jr.'s power increase with the Makyo Star?
11499"A Battle of Extreme Measures!! Kami-sama Breaks the Covenant" / "Extreme Measures""Chō Kageki ni Shōbu da!! Okite Yaburi no Kamisama" (超過激に勝負だ!!掟やぶりの神様)October 30, 1991May 20, 2000
Gohan, Krillin and Piccolo do their best against Garlic Jr and the remaining Spice Boys, with the Makyo Star powering them up, but is it enough? Meanwhile, Kami and Mr. Popo try to get to pour the Sacred Water, but the former guardians won't allow it, and they drain Kami's lifeforce... as well as Piccolo's.
115100"The Ultra Holy Water Worked!! The World Awakens from Its Nightmare" / "The World Awakens""Kiita ze Chō Shinsui!! Sekai ga Akumu kara Sameta" (効いたぜ超神水!!世界が悪夢からさめた)November 6, 1991May 27, 2000
With Piccolo down, Gohan fights the powered up Garlic Jr., but can he really defeat an immortal demon? Kami distracts the former guardians by using himself as bait so Mr. Popo can spread the Sacred Water, but will it work in time?
116101"Gohan's Brief Chance for Victory!! Blast the Makyo World..." / "Brief Chance for Victory""Gohan ni Isshun no Shōki!! Ano Makyōsei o Ute..." (悟飯に一瞬の勝機!!あの魔凶星を撃て…)November 13, 1991May 27, 2000
With his plan in ruins, an enraged Garlic Jr. opens up the Dead Zone to finish off the others once and for all. With Kami and Mr. Popo spared, Piccolo is back with a plan: destroy the Makyo Star. But can Gohan do it even if it puts his friends at risk?
117102"You're My Guy... Kuririn — A 101st Proposal" / "Krillin's Proposal""Otoko da nē...Kuririn Hyakuikkaime no Puropōzu" (男だねェ…クリリン101回目のプロポーズ)November 20, 1991September 1, 2000
With the Earth at peace once again, Krillin and Maron do a little shopping, but then Maron looks at a wedding dress and a house. Krillin thinks they might get married, but is he right?
118103"That There is Earth, Papa... The Counter-Attack of Freeza, Father and Son" / "Frieza's Counterattack""Are ga Chikyū dayo Papa... Furīza Oyako no Gyakushū" (あれが地球だよパパ…フリーザ親子の逆襲)November 27, 1991September 4, 2000
With Mr. Shu as his tutor, Gohan's studies become more intense as he still waits for Goku to come back. However, it looks he won't be the only one coming to Earth, for somehow, Frieza is coming to Earth as well.
119104"I Will Defeat Freeza... The Mysterious Youth Awaiting Goku" / "The Mysterious Youth""Furīza wa Boku ga Taosu... Gokū o Matsu Nazo no Shōnen" (フリーザはボクが倒す…悟空を待つ謎の少年)December 4, 1991September 5, 2000
Thanks to his father, King Cold, Frieza has survived Namek's explosion and has been repaired. These two tyrants are headed to Earth to exact revenge against Goku. It looks like all hope seems lost as no one can stop these two powerful warriors... or is there?
120105"Freeza Halved by a Single Stroke!! Another Super Saiyan" / "Another Super Saiyan?""Furīza o Ittō Ryōdan!! Mō Hitori no Sūpā Saiyajin" (フリーザを一刃両断!!もう一人の超サイヤ人)December 11, 1991September 6, 2000
As Frieza and King Cold prepare to strike, a mysterious purple haired boy armed with a sword comes out of nowhere and challenges them to fight. It looks like this boy has made a grave mistake, or maybe ...it's the other way around.
121106"Heya!! It's Been a While... Son Goku Returns" / "Welcome Back Goku""Ossu!! Hisashiburi... Kaettekita Son Gokū" (オッス!!ひさしぶり…帰って来た孫悟空)December 18, 1991September 7, 2000
The Z Fighters finally arrive to face Frieza only to see the mysterious swordsman becoming a Super Saiyan and defeating Frieza and King Cold with ease. With the threat over, he tells the others Goku will be coming soon, but can he be trusted? What connection does he have with the Saiyan?
122107"My Dad is Vegeta... Admissions of the Mysterious Youth" / "Mystery Revealed""Boku no Chichi wa Bejīta desu... Nazo no Shōnen no Kokuhaku" (ボクの父はベジータです…謎の少年の告白)January 8, 1992September 8, 2000
Goku finally arrives to Earth, but wonders who the mysterious boy really is. The young swordsman asks Goku to speak to him privately. Once he and Goku are out of nearly everyone's earshot, his identity is finally revealed, his name is Trunks, the son of Vegeta and Bulma and he is from the future. He tells Goku of a new threat - in three years, Goku will die of a heart disease, and without Goku, the Z Fighters will be powerless to stop two Androids from bringing the Earth under their tyrannical rule. He has come to inform them in order to change the future, and gives Goku a special medicine to take when the heart disease strikes him.
123108"Goku's New Finishing Technique!? Watch My Instantaneous Movement" / "Goku's Special Technique""Gokū no Shin Hissatsu Waza!? Mitekure, Ora no Shunkan Idō" (悟空の新必殺技!?見てくれ、オラの瞬間移動)January 15, 1992September 11, 2000
Goku explains to the others on how he survived Namek's explosion. He also reveals his new instant transmission technique that he learned from the friendly inhabitants of the planet Yardrat.
124109"I Will Overcome Goku!! The King of the Saiyan Warrior Race" / "Z Warriors Prepare""Koeteyaru...Gokū o!! Sentō Minzoku Saiyajin no Ō" (こえてやる…悟空を!!戦闘民族サイヤ人の王)January 22, 1992September 12, 2000
As Goku and Piccolo train with Gohan, Vegeta trains under very high gravity levels in an effort to become a Super Saiyan, but can he survive it?
125110"License Mastery? Goku's Newest Trial" / "Goku's Ordeal""Menkyo Kaiden? Gokū no Aratanaru Shiren" (免許皆伝？悟空の新たなる試練)January 29, 1992September 13, 2000
Goku and Piccolo stop their training to learn how to drive so Chi-Chi can get a car. They may be powerful fighters, but can they get their licences in time to continue their training and keep Chi-Chi happy?
126111"Murderers Who Leave No Trace — Which Ones Are the Artificial Humans!?" / "The Androids Appear""Kehai o Motanu Satsujinki Doitsu ga Jinzō Ningen da!?" (気配を持たぬ殺人鬼どいつが人造人間だ!?)February 5, 1992September 14, 2000
Three years have passed and Goku and the others arrive on Amembo Island, where the Androids are going to attack as Trunks predicted. Will their training be enough to stop these monsters?
127112"The Cold-Blooded  No. 20's Hideous Atrocities!! Goku's Super Transformation of Anger" / "A Handy Trick""Reiketsu Nijūgō no Akugyaku Hidō!! Gokū - Ikari no Chōhenshin" (冷血20号の悪逆非道!!悟空・怒りの超変身)February 12, 1992September 15, 2000
Yamcha has found Androids 19 and 20, but is hanging on by a thread as Goku and the others come to his aid. Krillin brings Yamcha to Bulma with the Senzu Beans while Goku leads the Androids away from the city, but the Androids have a secret ability that only Yamcha knows.
128113"Goku's Double-Shock!! Caught Between Illness and Adversary" / "Double Trouble for Goku""Gokū, Daburu Shokku!! Yamai to Teki no Hasamiuchi" (悟空、ダブルショック!!病と敵のはさみ撃ち)February 19, 1992September 18, 2000
The fight begins as Goku turns Super Saiyan and fights Android 19. Meanwhile, at Kame House, Maron appears wanting Krillin back. Master Roshi then explains to her the relationship between the Red Ribbon Army and Goku. It looks like Goku has the situation handled, but he discovers 19's absorption technique after firing a Kamehameha. To make matters worse, it looks like something else is weakening him while 19's ready to fight.
129114"The Might of Vegeta!! The Blood of a Super Saiyan Awakens" / "Upgrade to Super Saiyan""Bejīta Tsuyoshi!! Mezameru Sūpā Saiyajin no Chi" (ベジータ強し!!目覚める超サイヤ人の血)February 26, 1992September 19, 2000
It looks like the heart virus Trunks warned about came true after all, but at a bad time for Goku as he is in the clutches of Android 19. Suddenly, Vegeta saves Goku and prepares to fight the Androids and he's got a surprise for everyone.
130115"No. 20's Defiant Smile... The Secret of Doctor Gero" / "The Secret of Dr. Gero""Nijūgō no Futeki na Warai... Dokutā Gero no Himitsu" (20号の不敵な笑い…ドクターゲロの秘密)March 4, 1992September 20, 2000
Finally becoming a Super Saiyan, Vegeta easily defeats Android 19, but 20 has escaped to come up with a new plan. Vegeta and the others look for the diabolical Android, but it won't be easy.
131116"A Reality More Terrifying than the Future!? Trunks' Suspicions" / "More Androids?!""Jijitsu wa Mirai yori Osoroshii!? Torankusu no Giwaku" (事実は未来より恐ろしい!?トランクスの疑惑)March 11, 1992September 21, 2000
Android 20 grabs Piccolo from behind in order to steal his energy so he can defeat the Z fighters, but Gohan comes to Piccolo's rescue just in time. After eating a Senzu Bean to restore the energy Android 20 stole, Piccolo begins to fight with the Android. Meanwhile, Trunks has returned to the past and has discovered something different about these Androids- he's never seen them before! So where are the Androids he warned Goku about?
132117"Give Chase!! The Search for Doctor Gero's Mysterious Laboratory" / "Follow Dr. Gero""Tsuigeki!! Dokutā Gero Nazo no Kenkyūjo o Sagashidase" (追撃!!ドクターゲロ謎の研究所を探し出せ)March 18, 1992September 22, 2000
Bulma arrives on the scene to discover that Android 20 is Dr. Gero himself. The insane scientist fires an energy blast as a smokescreen so he can escape to activate Androids 17 and 18 which sends Bulma flying. After saving his young mother and younger self, Trunks follows Vegeta to stop him from facing the Androids head-on as the others try to find Gero's laboratory before he does, but will they make it?
133118"And the Terror Becomes Reality... No. 17 and No. 18 Awaken!!" / "Nightmare Comes True""Soshite Kyōfu ga Genjitsu ni... Mezameru Jūnanagō to Jūhachigō!!" (そして恐怖が現実に…目覚める17号と18号!!)March 25, 1992September 25, 2000
Dr. Gero hides on the ground as the Z Warriors are close to finding his secret laboratory, thanks to Bulma, but the mad doctor won't give up so easily. Meanwhile, Goku's condition is starting to get better, but will he recover quickly enough to help his friends?
134119"Too Late to Do Anything!? The Ultimate Weapons to Kill Goku" / "Goku's Assassin""Subete ga Teokure ka!? Gokū o Korosu Saishū Heiki" (すべてが手遅れか!?悟空を殺す最終兵器)April 1, 1992September 26, 2000
Androids 17 and 18, the ones responsible for the future destruction of Earth, have finally awakened. It seems the Androids will not follow Dr. Gero's orders as they try to activate another Android - 16. Can the creator control his creations?
135120"Good Looks and Super Power!? No Blind Spot on No. 18" / "Deadly Beauty""Kawaii Kao de Chōpawā!? Jūhachigō ni Shikaku Nashi" (カワイイ顔で超パワー!?18号に死角なし)April 15, 1992September 27, 2000
After destroying Dr. Gero, the androids head to Goku's place to complete their mission, but Vegeta arrives to face them head-on. The first to fight is the beautiful Android 18. Is Vegeta's Super Saiyan strength enough to defeat the Android?
136121"Nobody Is Able to Stop Them... Is This the End of the Z Warriors!?" / "No Match for the Androids""Dare nimo Yatsura o Tomerarenai... Zetto Senshi Zenmetsu ka!?" (誰にも奴らを止められない…Ｚ戦士全滅か!?)April 22, 1992September 28, 2000
Vegeta fights with everything he's got, but he can't beat Android 18. To save his father, Trunks steps in to help, but gets beaten easily by 17, as do Piccolo and Tien. As 16 just stands there, 17 and 18 have easily beat Earth's heroes and head off to complete their mission, but can Goku recover in time to help and protect himself?
137122"Piccolo's Resolution!! The Last Measure in His Reserve" / "Last Ditch Effort""Pikkoro no Ketsui!! Totteoki no Saigo no Shudan" (ピッコロの決意!!とっておきの最後の手段)April 29, 1992September 29, 2000
As the Androids try to find a car for some fun, the Z-Fighters try to think of a way to get stronger quickly as Piccolo heads to Kami's Lookout for the one thing he needs to beat the Androids- fuse with Kami.
138123"Walking Weapons of Mass Destruction!! The Artificial Humans Draw Near Goku" / "Closing In""Aruku Chōhakai Heiki!! Jinzō Ningen ga Gokū ni Semaru" (歩く超破壊兵器!!人造人間が悟空に迫る)May 6, 1992October 2, 2000
The Androids find a car to find Goku, but have to deal with the authorities. Meanwhile, Kami looks over the Earth for some time to decide to fuse with Piccolo, as Krillin and Trunks head to Goku's house to take him somewhere else, but how long can Goku be hidden until he's better?
139124"An Ominous Foreboding! Bulma Unveils a Mystery" / "Unwelcome Discovery""Fukitsu na Yokan! Buruma ga Shiraseta Misuterī" (不吉な予感！ブルマが知らせたミステリー)May 13, 1992October 3, 2000
The Androids are still driving a van to Gokus house. Goku is being taken to another place to be safe from androids. He is ill and sees nightmares. Bulma gets news about a time machine made by Capsule Corp. Where has it come from? And who does it belong to?


document_title: Maria Bolkonskaya

question_text: who does marya marry in war and peace

question_tokens: who does marya marry in war and peace

text: Maria Bolkonskaya

text:
Maria Bolkonskaya

War and Peace character

Created by
Leo Tolstoy

Portrayed by
Anna Maria Ferrero
Antonina Shuranova
Angela Down
Jessie Buckley
Gelsey Bell
Courtney Bassett

Information

Full name
Maria Nikolaevna Bolkonskaya

Nickname(s)
Marie, Masha

Gender
Female

Title
Princess

Family
Nikolai Bolkonsky I (father)
Andrei Bolkonsky (brother)
Nikolai Bolkonsky II (nephew)

Spouse(s)
Nikolai Rostov

Children
Andrei, Mitya, and Natalia

Nationality
Russian

text: Princess Maria (or Marya, in some translations) Nikolaevna Bolkonskaya (Russian: Марья Болконская, Mar'ia Bolkonskaia) is a fictional character in Leo Tolstoy's novel War and Peace.

text: Princess Maria, the sister of Prince Andrei Bolkonsky, is a deeply religious young woman who has resigned herself to an unmarried life to be with her domineering father, Prince Nikolai Bolkonsky. Princess Maria is a plain woman, whose lack of beauty is offset by her large, caring eyes. Kevin Corrigan sees Maria as an example of how "a face can be ugly and yet transfigured by beautiful eyes".[1] She is overshadowed by her beautiful French companion, Mademoiselle Bourienne. An attempt to marry her off to the profligate Prince Anatole Kuragin fails.

text: Princess Maria's father dies during the days leading to the battle of Borodino. The peasants on her estate threaten to become violent and Maria is rescued by Nikolai Rostov. They fall in love, but several situations keep them apart and eventually they both forgo any hope of marriage. Maria's brother, Prince Andrei Bolkonsky, is seriously wounded in battle and chances to fall under the care of Natasha Rostova, with whom Princess Maria becomes close friends after witnessing Andrei Bolkonsky's death together. Maria marries the impoverished Nikolai Rostov in the winter of 1813, and eventually the couple have four children. Nikolai Rostov relies on his work and her moral support, not financial, to become a wealthy and content estate owner.

text: Stephen Vizinczey suggests that Tolstoy created Maria out of his longing for his mother, Princess Maria Nikolayevna Volkonskaya, who died before Tolstoy's second birthday.[2]


document_title: Dominance (genetics)

question_text: who came up with dominant and recessive traits

text: Dominance (genetics)

text: Background[edit]

text: The concept of dominance was introduced by Gregor Johann Mendel. Though Mendel, "The Father of Genetics", first used the term in the 1860s, it was not widely known until the early twentieth century. Mendel observed that, for a variety of traits of garden peas having to do with the appearance of seeds, seed pods, and plants, there were two discrete phenotypes, such as round versus wrinkled seeds, yellow versus green seeds, red versus white flowers or tall versus short plants. When bred separately, the plants always produced the same phenotypes, generation after generation. However, when lines with different phenotypes were crossed (interbred), one and only one of the parental phenotypes showed up in the offspring (green, or round, or red, or tall). However, when these hybrid plants were crossed, the offspring plants showed the two original phenotypes, in a characteristic 3:1 ratio, the more common phenotype being that of the parental hybrid plants. Mendel reasoned that each parent in the first cross was a homozygote for different alleles (one parent AA and the other parent aa), that each contributed one allele to the offspring, with the result that all of these hybrids were heterozygotes (Aa), and that one of the two alleles in the hybrid cross dominated expression of the other: A masked a. The final cross between two heterozygotes (Aa X Aa) would produce AA, Aa, and aa offspring in a 1:2:1 genotype ratio with the first two classes showing the (A) phenotype, and the last showing the (a) phenotype, thereby producing the 3:1 phenotype ratio.

text: Mendel did not use the terms gene, allele, phenotype, genotype, homozygote, and heterozygote, all of which were introduced later. He did introduce the notation of capital and lowercase letters for dominant and recessive alleles, respectively, still in use today.

text: Chromosomes, genes, and alleles[edit]

text: Most animals and some plants have paired chromosomes, and are described as diploid. They have two versions of each chromosome, one contributed by the mother's ovum, and the other by the father's sperm, known as gametes, described as haploid, and created through meiosis. These gametes then fuse during fertilization during sexual reproduction, into a new single cell zygote, which divides multiple times, resulting in a new organism with the same number of pairs of chromosomes in each (non-gamete) cell as its parents.

text: Each chromosome of a matching (homologous) pair is structurally similar to the other, and has a very similar DNA sequence (loci, singular locus). The DNA in each chromosome functions as a series of discrete genes that influence various traits. Thus, each gene also has a corresponding homologue, which may exist in different versions called alleles. The alleles at the same locus on the two homologous chromosomes may be identical or different.

text: The blood type of a human is determined by a gene that creates an A, B, AB or O blood type and is located in the long arm of chromosome nine. There are three different alleles that could be present at this locus, but only two can be present in any individual, one inherited from their mother and one from their father.[4]

text: If two alleles of a given gene are identical, the organism is called a homozygote and is said to be homozygous with respect to that gene; if instead the two alleles are different, the organism is a heterozygote and is heterozygous. The genetic makeup of an organism, either at a single locus or over all its genes collectively, is called its genotype. The genotype of an organism directly and indirectly affects its molecular, physical, and other traits, which individually or collectively are called its phenotype. At heterozygous gene loci, the two alleles interact to produce the phenotype.

text: Dominance[edit]

text: Complete dominance[edit]

text: In complete dominance, the effect of one allele in a heterozygous genotype completely masks the effect of the other.  The allele that masks the other is said to be dominant to the latter, and the allele that is masked is said to be recessive to the former.[5] Complete dominance, therefore, means that the phenotype of the heterozygote is indistinguishable from that of the dominant homozygote.

text: A classic example of dominance is the inheritance of seed shape (pea shape) in peas.  Peas may be round (associated with allele R) or wrinkled (associated with allele r). In this case, three combinations of alleles (genotypes) are possible: RR and rr are homozygous and Rr is heterozygous.  The RR individuals have round peas and the rr individuals have wrinkled peas.  In Rr individuals the R allele masks the presence of the r allele, so these individuals also have round peas. Thus, allele R is completely dominant to allele r, and allele r is recessive to allele R.

text: Incomplete dominance[edit]

text: Incomplete dominance (also called partial dominance, semi-dominance or intermediate inheritance) occurs when the phenotype of the heterozygous genotype is distinct from and often intermediate to the phenotypes of the homozygous genotypes. For example, the snapdragon flower color is homozygous for either red or white. When the red homozygous flower is paired with the white homozygous flower, the result yields a pink snapdragon flower. The pink snapdragon is the result of incomplete dominance. A similar type of incomplete dominance is found in the four o'clock plant wherein pink color is produced when true-bred parents of white and red flowers are crossed.  In quantitative genetics, where phenotypes are measured and treated numerically, if a heterozygote's phenotype is exactly between (numerically) that of the two homozygotes, the phenotype is said to exhibit no dominance at all, i.e. dominance exists only when the heterozygote's phenotype measure lies closer to one homozygote than the other.

text: When plants of the F1 generation are self-pollinated, the phenotypic and genotypic ratio of the F2 generation will be 1:2:1 (Red:Pink:White).[6]

text: See partial dominance hypothesis.

text: Co-dominance[edit]

text: Co-dominance occurs when the contributions of both alleles are visible in the phenotype.

text: For example, in the ABO blood group system, chemical modifications to a glycoprotein (the  H antigen) on the surfaces of blood cells are controlled by three alleles, two of which are co-dominant to each other (IA, IB) and dominant over the recessive i at the ABO locus.  The IA and IB alleles produce different modifications. The enzyme coded for by IA adds an N-acetylgalactosamine to the membrane-bound H antigen. The IB enzyme adds a galactose. The i allele produces no modification.  Thus IA and IB alleles are each dominant to i (IAIA and IAi individuals both have type A blood, and IBIB and IBi individuals both have type B blood, but IAIB individuals have both modifications on their blood cells and thus have type AB blood, so the IA and IB alleles are said to be co-dominant).

text: Another example occurs at the locus for the Beta-globin component of hemoglobin, where the three molecular phenotypes of HbA/HbA, HbA/HbS, and HbS/HbS are all distinguishable by protein electrophoresis. (The medical condition produced by the heterozygous genotype is called sickle-cell trait and is a milder condition distinguishable from sickle-cell anemia, thus the alleles show incomplete dominance with respect to anemia, see above). For most gene loci at the molecular level, both alleles are expressed co-dominantly, because both are transcribed into RNA.

text: Co-dominance, where allelic products co-exist in the phenotype, is different from incomplete dominance, where the quantitative interaction of allele products produces an intermediate phenotype. For example, in co-dominance, a red homozygous flower and a white homozygous flower will produce offspring that have red and white spots. When plants of the F1 generation are self-pollinated, the phenotypic and genotypic ratio of the F2 generation will be 1:2:1 (Red:Spotted:White). These ratios are the same as those for incomplete dominance. Again, note that this classical terminology is inappropriate – in reality such cases should not be said to exhibit dominance at all.

text: Addressing common misconceptions[edit]

text: While it is often convenient to talk about a recessive allele or a dominant trait, dominance is not inherent to either an allele or its phenotype.  Dominance is a relationship between two alleles of a gene and their associated phenotypes.  A "dominant" allele is dominant to a particular allele of the same gene that can be inferred from the context, but it may be recessive to a third allele, and codominant to a fourth.  Similarly, a "recessive" trait is a trait associated with a particular recessive allele implied by the context, but that same trait may occur in a different context where it is due to some other gene and a dominant allele.

text: Dominance is unrelated to the nature of the phenotype itself, that is, whether it is regarded as "normal" or "abnormal," "standard" or "nonstandard," "healthy" or "diseased," "stronger" or "weaker," or more or less extreme. A dominant or recessive allele may account for any of these trait types.

text: Dominance does not determine whether an allele is deleterious, neutral or advantageous. However, selection must operate on genes indirectly through phenotypes, and dominance affects the exposure of alleles in phenotypes, and hence the rate of change in allele frequencies under selection. Deleterious recessive alleles may persist in a population at low frequencies, with most copies carried in heterozygotes, at no cost to those individuals. These rare recessives are the basis for many hereditary genetic disorders.

text: Dominance is also unrelated to the distribution of alleles in the population. Some dominant alleles are extremely common, while others are extremely rare. The most common allele in a population may be recessive when combined with some rare variants.

text: Nomenclature[edit]

text: In genetics, symbols began as algebraic placeholders. When one allele is dominant to another, the oldest convention is to symbolize the dominant allele with a capital letter. The recessive allele is assigned the same letter in lower case. In the pea example, once the dominance relationship between the two alleles is known, it is possible to designate the dominant allele that produces a round shape by a capital-letter symbol R, and the recessive allele that produces a wrinkled shape by a lower-case symbol r. The homozygous dominant, heterozygous, and homozygous recessive genotypes are then written RR, Rr, and rr, respectively. It would also be possible to designate the two alleles as W and w, and the three genotypes WW, Ww, and ww, the first two of which produced round peas and the third wrinkled peas. Note that the choice of "R" or "W" as the symbol for the dominant allele does not pre-judge whether the allele causing the "round" or "wrinkled" phenotype when homozygous is the dominant one.

text: A gene may have several alleles. Each allele is symbolized by the locus symbol followed by a unique superscript. In many species, the most common allele in the wild population is designated the wild type allele. It is symbolized with a + character as a superscript. Other alleles are dominant or recessive to the wild type allele. For recessive alleles, the locus symbol is in lower case letters. For alleles with any degree of dominance to the wild type allele, the first letter of the locus symbol is in upper case. For example, here are some of the alleles at the a locus of the laboratory mouse, Mus musculus: Ay, dominant yellow; a+, wild type; and abt, black and tan. The abt allele is recessive to the wild type allele, and the Ay allele is codominant to the wild type allele. The Ay allele is also codominant to the abt allele, but showing that relationship is beyond the limits of the rules for mouse genetic nomenclature.

text: Rules of genetic nomenclature have evolved as genetics has become more complex. Committees have standardized the rules for some species, but not for all. Rules for one species may differ somewhat from the rules for a different species.[7][8]

text: Relationship to other genetic concepts[edit]

text: Multiple alleles[edit]

text: Although any individual of a diploid organism has at most two different alleles at any one locus (barring aneuploidies), most genes exist in a large number of allelic versions in the population as a whole. If the alleles have different effects on the phenotype, sometimes their dominance interactions with each other can be described as a series.

text:
For example, coat color in domestic cats is affected by a series of alleles of the TYR gene (which encodes the enzyme tyrosinase).  The alleles C, cb, cs, and ca (full colour, Burmese, Siamese, and albino, respectively) produce different levels of pigment and hence different levels of colour dilution.  The C allele (full colour) is completely dominant over the last three and the ca allele (albino) is completely recessive to the first three.
[9]
[10]
[11]

text: Autosomal versus sex-linked dominance[edit]

text: In humans and other mammal species, sex is determined by two sex chromosomes called the X chromosome and the Y chromosome. Human females are typically XX; males are typically XY. The remaining pairs of chromosome are found in both sexes and are called autosomes; genetic traits due to loci on these chromosomes are described as autosomal, and may be dominant or recessive. Genetic traits on the X and Y chromosomes are called sex-linked, because they are linked to sex chromosomes, not because they are characteristic of one sex or the other. In practice, the term almost always refers to X-linked traits and a great many such traits (such as red-green colour vision deficiency) are not affected by sex. Females have two copies of every gene locus found on the X chromosome, just as for the autosomes, and the same dominance relationships apply. Males however have only one copy of each X chromosome gene locus, and are described as hemizygous for these genes. The Y chromosome is much smaller than the X, and contains a much smaller set of genes, including, but not limited to, those that influence 'maleness', such as the SRY gene for testis determining factor. Dominance rules for sex-linked gene loci are determined by their behavior in the female: because the male has only one allele (except in the case of certain types of Y chromosome aneuploidy), that allele is always expressed regardless of whether it is dominant or recessive.

text: Epistasis[edit]

text: Epistasis ["epi + stasis = to sit on top"] is an interaction between alleles at two different gene loci that affect a single trait, which may sometimes resemble a dominance interaction between two different alleles at the same locus. Epistasis modifies the characteristic 9:3:3:1 ratio expected for two non-epistatic genes. For two loci, 14 classes of epistatic interactions are recognized. As an example of recessive epistasis, one gene locus may determine whether a flower pigment is yellow (AA or Aa) or green (aa), while another locus determines whether the pigment is produced (BB or Bb) or not (bb). In a bb plant, the flowers will be white, irrespective of the genotype of the other locus as AA, Aa, or aa. The bb combination is not dominant to the A allele: rather, the B gene shows recessive epistasis to the A gene, because the B locus when homozygous for the recessive allele (bb) suppresses phenotypic expression of the A locus. In a cross between two AaBb plants, this produces a characteristic 9:3:4 ratio, in this case of yellow : green : white flowers.

text: In dominant epistasis, one gene locus may determine yellow or green pigment as in the previous example: AA and Aa are yellow, and aa are green. A second locus determines whether a pigment precursor is produced (dd) or not (DD or Dd). Here, in a DD or Dd plant, the flowers will be colorless irrespective of the genotype at the A locus, because of the epistatic effect of the dominant D allele. Thus, in a cross between two AaDd plants, 3/4 of the plants will be colorless, and the yellow and green phenotypes are expressed only in dd plants. This produces a characteristic 12:3:1 ratio of white : yellow : green plants.

text: Supplementary epistasis occurs when two loci affect the same phenotype. For example, if pigment color is produced by CC or Cc but not cc, and by DD or Dd but not dd, then pigment is not produced in any genotypic combination with either cc or dd. That is, both loci must have at least one dominant allele to produce the phenotype. This produces a characteristic 9:7 ratio of pigmented to unpigmented plants. Complementary epistasis in contrast produces an unpigmented plant if and only if the genotype is cc and dd, and the characteristic ratio is 15:1 between pigmented and unpigmented plants.[12]

text: Classical genetics considered epistatic interactions between two genes at a time. It is now evident from molecular genetics that all gene loci are involved in complex interactions with many other genes (e.g., metabolic pathways may involve scores of genes), and that this creates epistatic interactions that are much more complex than the classic two-locus models.

text: Hardy-Weinberg principle (estimation of carrier frequency)[edit]

text:
The frequency of the heterozygous state (which is the carrier state for a recessive trait) can be estimated using the Hardy-Weinberg formula:

p

2

+
2
p
q
+

q

2

=
1

{\displaystyle p^{2}+2pq+q^{2}=1}

text: This formula applies to a gene with exactly two alleles and relates the frequencies of those alleles in a large population to the frequencies of their three genotypes in that population.

text: For example, if p is the frequency of allele A, and q is the frequency of allele a then the terms p2, 2pq, and q2 are the frequencies of the genotypes AA, Aa and aa respectively.  Since the gene has only two alleles, all alleles must be either A or a and p + q = 1.  Now, if A is completely dominant to a then the frequency of the carrier genotype Aa cannot be directly observed (since it has the same traits as the homozygous genotype AA), however it can be estimated from the frequency of the recessive trait in the population, since this is the same as that of the homozygous genotype aa.  i.e. the individual allele frequencies can be estimated: q = √f(aa), p = 1 − q, and from those the frequency of the carrier genotype can be derived: f(Aa) = 2pq.

text: This formula relies on a number of assumptions and an accurate estimate of the frequency of the recessive trait.  In general, any real-world situation will deviate from these assumptions to some degree, introducing corresponding inaccuracies into the estimate.  If the recessive trait is rare, then it will be hard to estimate its frequency accurately, as a very large sample size will be needed.

text: Dominant versus advantageous[edit]

text: The property of "dominant" is sometimes confused with the concept of advantageous and the property of "recessive" is sometimes confused with the concept of deleterious, but the phenomena are distinct. Dominance describes the phenotype of heterozygotes with regard to the phenotypes of the homozygotes and without respect to the degree to which different phenotypes may be beneficial or deleterious. Since many genetic disease alleles are recessive and because the word dominance has a positive connotation, the assumption that the dominant phenotype is superior with respect to fitness is often made. This is not assured however; as discussed below while most genetic disease alleles are deleterious and recessive, not all genetic diseases are recessive.

text: Nevertheless, this confusion has been pervasive throughout the history of genetics and persists to this day. Addressing this confusion was one of the prime motivations for the publication of the Hardy-Weinberg principle.

text: Molecular mechanisms[edit]

text: The molecular basis of dominance was unknown to Mendel. It is now understood that a gene locus includes a long series (hundreds to thousands) of bases or nucleotides of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) at a particular point on a chromosome. The central dogma of molecular biology states that "DNA makes RNA makes protein", that is, that DNA is transcribed to make an RNA copy, and RNA is translated to make a protein. In this process, different alleles at a locus may or may not be transcribed, and if transcribed may be translated to slightly different versions of the same protein (called isoforms). Proteins often function as enzymes that catalyze chemical reactions in the cell, which directly or indirectly produce phenotypes. In any diploid organism, the DNA sequences of the two alleles present at any gene locus may be identical (homozygous) or different (heterozygous). Even if the gene locus is heterozygous at the level of the DNA sequence, the proteins made by each allele may be identical. In the absence of any difference between the protein products, neither allele can be said to be dominant (see co-dominance, above). Even if the two protein products are slightly different (allozymes), it is likely that they produce the same phenotype with respect to enzyme action, and again neither allele can be said to be dominant.

text: Loss of function and haplosufficiency[edit]

text: Dominance typically occurs when one of the two alleles is non-functional at the molecular level, that is, it is not transcribed or else does not produce a functional protein product. This can be the result of a mutation that alters the DNA sequence of the allele.[citation needed] An organism homozygous for the non-functional allele will generally show a distinctive phenotype, due to the absence of the protein product. For example, in humans and other organisms, the unpigmented skin of the albino phenotype[13] results when an individual is homozygous for an allele that encodes a non-functional version of an enzyme needed to produce the skin pigment melanin. It is important to understand that it is not the lack of function that allows the allele to be described as recessive: this is the interaction with the alternative allele in the heterozygote. Three general types of interaction are possible:

text:
In the typical case, the single functional allele makes sufficient protein to produce a phenotype identical to that of the homozygote: this is called haplosufficiency. For example, suppose the standard amount of enzyme produced in the functional homozygote is 100%, with the two functional alleles contributing 50% each. The single functional allele in the heterozygote produces 50% of the standard amount of enzyme, which is sufficient to produce the standard phenotype. If the heterozygote and the functional-allele homozygote have identical phenotypes, the functional allele is dominant to the non-functional allele. This occurs at the albino gene locus: the heterozygote produces sufficient enzyme to convert the pigment precursor to melanin, and the individual has standard pigmentation.
Less commonly, the presence of a single functional allele gives a phenotype that is not normal but less severe than that of the non-functional homozygote.  This occurs when the functional allele is not haplo-sufficient.  The terms haplo-insufficiency and incomplete dominance are typically applied to these cases. The intermediate interaction occurs where the heterozygous genotype produces a phenotype intermediate between the two homozygotes. Depending on which of the two homozygotes the heterozygote most resembles, one allele is said to show incomplete dominance over the other. For example, in humans the Hb gene locus is responsible for the Beta-chain protein (HBB) that is one of the two globin proteins that make up the blood pigment hemoglobin[13]. Many people are homozygous for an allele called HbA; some persons carry an alternative allele called HbS, either as homozygotes or heterozygotes. The hemoglobin molecules of HbS/HbS homozygotes undergo a change in shape that distorts the morphology of the red blood cells, and causes a severe, life-threatening form of anemia called sickle-cell anemia. Persons heterozygous HbA/HbS for this allele have a much less severe form of anemia called sickle-cell trait. Because the disease phenotype of HbA/HbS heterozygotes is more similar to but not identical to the HbA/HbA homozygote, the HbA allele is said to be incompletely dominant to the HbS allele.
Rarely, a single functional allele in the heterozygote may produce insufficient gene product for any function of the gene, and the phenotype resembles that of the homozygote for the non-functional allele. This complete haploinsufficiency is very unusual. In these cases the non-functional allele would be said to be dominant to the functional allele.  This situation may occur when the non-functional allele produces a defective protein that interferes with the proper function of the protein produced by the standard allele. The presence of the defective protein "dominates" the standard protein, and the disease phenotype of the heterozygote more closely resembles that of the homozygote for two defective alleles.  Note that the term dominant is often incorrectly applied to defective alleles whose homozygous phenotype has not been examined, but which cause a distinct phenotype when heterozygous with the normal allele. This phenomenon occurs in a number of trinucleotide repeat diseases, one example being Huntington's disease.[14]

tag: ol

text: Dominant-negative mutations[edit]

text: Many proteins are normally active in the form of a multimer, an aggregate of multiple copies of the same protein, otherwise known as a homomultimeric protein or homooligomeric protein.  In fact, a majority of the 83,000 different enzymes from 9800 different organisms in the BRENDA Enzyme Database[15] represent homooligomers.[16] When the wild-type version of the protein is present along with a mutant version, a mixed multimer can be formed.  A mutation that leads to a mutant protein that disrupts the activity of the wild-type protein in the multimer is a dominant-negative mutation.

text: A dominant-negative mutation may arise in a human somatic cell and provide a proliferative advantage to the mutant cell, leading to its clonal expansion.  For instance, a dominant-negative mutation in a gene necessary for the normal process of programmed cell death (Apoptosis) in response to DNA damage can make the cell resistant to apoptosis.  This will allow proliferation of the clone even when excessive DNA damage is present.  Such dominant-negative mutations occur in the tumor suppressor gene p53.[17][18] The P53 wild-type protein is normally present as a four-protein multimer (oligotetramer).  Dominant-negative p53 mutations occur in a number of different types of cancer and pre-cancerous lesions (e.g. brain tumors, breast cancer, oral pre-cancerous lesions and oral cancer).[17]

text: Dominant-negative mutations also occur in other tumor suppressor genes.  For instance two dominant-negative germ line mutations were identified in the Ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) gene which increases susceptibility to breast cancer.[19] Dominant negative mutations of the transcription factor C/EBPα can cause acute myeloid leukemia.[20]  Inherited dominant negative mutations can also increase the risk of diseases other than cancer.  Dominant-negative mutations in Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) are associated with severe insulin resistance, diabetes mellitus and hypertension.[21]

text: Dominant-negative mutations have also been described in organisms other than humans.  In fact, the first study reporting a mutant protein inhibiting the normal function of a wild-type protein in a mixed multimer was with the bacteriophage T4 tail fiber protein GP37.[22]  Mutations that produce a truncated protein rather than a full-length mutant protein seem to have the strongest dominant-negative effect in the studies of P53, ATM, C/EBPα, and bacteriophage T4 GP37.

text: Dominant and recessive genetic diseases in humans[edit]

text: In humans, many genetic traits or diseases are classified simply as "dominant" or "recessive". Especially with so-called recessive diseases, which are indeed a factor of recessive genes, but can oversimplify the underlying molecular basis and lead to misunderstanding of the nature of dominance. For example, the recessive genetic disease phenylketonuria (PKU)[23] results from any of a large number (>60) of alleles at the gene locus for the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH).[24] Many of these alleles produce little or no PAH, as a result of which the substrate phenylalanine (Phe) and its metabolic byproducts accumulate in the central nervous system and can cause severe intellectual disability if untreated.

text: The genotypes and phenotypic consequences of interactions among three alleles are shown in the following table:[25]

text:
Genotype

PAH activity

[Phe] conc

PKU ?

AA

100%

60 uM

No

AB

30%

120 uM

No

CC

5%

200 ~ 300 uM

Hyperphenylalaninemia

BB

0.3%

600 ~ 2400 uM

Yes

text: In unaffected persons homozygous for a standard functional allele (AA), PAH activity is standard (100%), and the concentration of phenylalanine in the blood [Phe] is about 60 uM. In untreated persons homozygous for one of the PKU alleles (BB), PAH activity is close to zero, [Phe] ten to forty times standard, and the individual manifests PKU.

text: In the AB heterozygote, PAH activity is only 30% (not 50%) of standard, blood [Phe] is elevated two-fold, and the person does not manifest PKU. Thus, the A allele is dominant to the B allele with respect to PKU, but the B allele is incompletely dominant to the A allele with respect to its molecular effect, determination of PAH activity level (0.3% < 30% << 100%). Finally, the A allele is an incomplete dominant to B with respect to [Phe], as 60 uM < 120 uM << 600 uM. Note once more that it is irrelevant to the question of dominance that the recessive allele produces a more extreme [Phe] phenotype.

text: For a third allele C, a CC homozygote produces a very small amount of PAH enzyme, which results in a somewhat elevated level of [Phe] in the blood, a condition called hyperphenylalaninemia, which does not result in intellectual disability.

text: That is, the dominance relationships of any two alleles may vary according to which aspect of the phenotype is under consideration. It is typically more useful to talk about the phenotypic consequences of the allelic interactions involved in any genotype, rather than to try to force them into dominant and recessive categories.