document_title: Geologic time scale

question_text: which is the first era of earth’s history

question_tokens: which is the first era of earth 's history

text: Geologic time scale

text: Terminology[edit]

text: The primary defined divisions of time are eons, in sequence the Hadean, the Archean, the Proterozoic and the Phanerozoic. The first three of these can be referred to collectively as the Precambrian supereon. Eons are divided into eras, which are in turn divided into periods, epochs and ages.

text: The following four timelines show the geologic time scale. The first shows the entire time from the formation of the Earth to the present, but this gives little space for the most recent eon. Therefore, the second timeline shows an expanded view of the most recent eon. In a similar way, the most recent era is expanded in the third timeline, and the most recent period is expanded in the fourth timeline.

text: Corresponding to eons, eras, periods, epochs and ages, the terms "eonothem", "erathem", "system", "series", "stage" are used to refer to the layers of rock that belong to these stretches of geologic time in Earth's history.

text: Geologists qualify these units as "early", "mid", and "late" when referring to time, and "lower", "middle", and "upper" when referring to the corresponding rocks. For example, the lower Jurassic Series in chronostratigraphy corresponds to the early Jurassic Epoch in geochronology.[2] The adjectives are capitalized when the subdivision is formally recognized, and lower case when not; thus "early Miocene" but "Early Jurassic."

text: Rationale[edit]

text: Evidence from radiometric dating indicates that Earth is about 4.54 billion years old.[3][4] The geology or deep time of Earth's past has been organized into various units according to events which took place. Different spans of time on the GTS are usually marked by corresponding changes in the composition of strata which indicate major geological or paleontological events, such as mass extinctions. For example, the boundary between the Cretaceous period and the Paleogene period is defined by the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which marked the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs and many other groups of life. Older time spans, which predate the reliable fossil record (before the Proterozoic eon), are defined by their absolute age.

text: Geologic units from the same time but different parts of the world often look different and contain different fossils, so the same time-span was historically given different names in different locales. For example, in North America, the Lower Cambrian is called the Waucoban series that is then subdivided into zones based on succession of trilobites. In East Asia and Siberia, the same unit is split into Alexian, Atdabanian, and Botomian stages. A key aspect of the work of the International Commission on Stratigraphy is to reconcile this conflicting terminology and define universal horizons that can be used around the world.[5]

text: Some other planets and moons in the Solar System have sufficiently rigid structures to have preserved records of their own histories, for example, Venus, Mars and the Earth's Moon. Dominantly fluid planets, such as the gas giants, do not preserve their history in a comparable manner. Apart from the Late Heavy Bombardment, events on other planets probably had little direct influence on the Earth, and events on Earth had correspondingly little effect on those planets. Construction of a time scale that links the planets is, therefore, of only limited relevance to the Earth's time scale, except in a Solar System context. The existence, timing, and terrestrial effects of the Late Heavy Bombardment is still debated.[a]

text: History and nomenclature of the time scale[edit]

text: Early history[edit]

text: In Ancient Greece, Aristotle (384-322 BCE) observed that fossils of seashells in rocks resembled those found on beaches – he inferred that the fossils in rocks were formed by living animals, and he reasoned that the positions of land and sea had changed over long periods of time. Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) concurred with Aristotle's interpretation that fossils represented the remains of ancient life.[6]

text: The 11th-century Persian geologist Avicenna (Ibn Sina, died 1037) and the 13th-century Dominican bishop Albertus Magnus (died 1280) extended Aristotle's explanation into a theory of a petrifying fluid.[7] Avicenna also first proposed one of the principles underlying geologic time scales, the law of superposition of strata, while discussing the origins of mountains in The Book of Healing (1027).[8][9] The Chinese naturalist Shen Kuo (1031–1095) also recognized the concept of "deep time".[10]

text: Establishment of primary principles[edit]

text: In the late 17th century Nicholas Steno (1638–1686) pronounced the principles underlying geologic (geological) time scales. Steno argued that rock layers (or strata) were laid down in succession, and that each represents a "slice" of time. He also formulated the law of superposition, which states that any given stratum is probably older than those above it and younger than those below it. While Steno's principles were simple, applying them proved challenging. Over the course of the 18th century geologists realized that:

text:
Sequences of strata often become eroded, distorted, tilted, or even inverted after deposition
Strata laid down at the same time in different areas could have entirely different appearances
The strata of any given area represented only part of Earth's long history

tag: ol

text: The Neptunist theories popular at this time (expounded by Abraham Werner (1749–1817) in the late 18th century) proposed that all rocks had precipitated out of a single enormous flood. A major shift in thinking came when James Hutton presented his Theory of the Earth; or, an Investigation of the Laws Observable in the Composition, Dissolution, and Restoration of Land Upon the Globe[11] before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in March and April 1785. It has been said[by whom?] that "as things appear from the perspective of the 20th century, James Hutton in those readings became the founder of modern geology".[12]:95-100 Hutton proposed that the interior of Earth was hot, and that this heat was the engine which drove the creation of new rock: land was eroded by air and water and deposited as layers in the sea; heat then consolidated the sediment into stone, and uplifted it into new lands. This theory, known as "Plutonism", stood in contrast to the "Neptunist" flood-oriented theory.

text: Formulation of geologic time scale[edit]

text: The first serious attempts to formulate a geologic time scale that could be applied anywhere on Earth were made in the late 18th century. The most influential of those early attempts (championed by Werner, among others) divided the rocks of Earth's crust into four types: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary. Each type of rock, according to the theory, formed during a specific period in Earth history. It was thus possible to speak of a "Tertiary Period" as well as of "Tertiary Rocks." Indeed, "Tertiary" (now Paleogene and Neogene) remained in use as the name of a geological period well into the 20th century and "Quaternary" remains in formal use as the name of the current period.

text: The identification of strata by the fossils they contained, pioneered by William Smith, Georges Cuvier, Jean d'Omalius d'Halloy, and Alexandre Brongniart in the early 19th century, enabled geologists to divide Earth history more precisely. It also enabled them to correlate strata across national (or even continental) boundaries. If two strata (however distant in space or different in composition) contained the same fossils, chances were good that they had been laid down at the same time. Detailed studies between 1820 and 1850 of the strata and fossils of Europe produced the sequence of geologic periods still used today.

text: Naming of geologic periods, eras and epochs[edit]

text: Early work on developing the geologic time scale was dominated by British geologists, and the names of the geologic periods reflect that dominance. The "Cambrian", (the classical name for Wales) and the "Ordovician", and "Silurian", named after ancient Welsh tribes, were periods defined using stratigraphic sequences from Wales.[12]:113–114 The "Devonian" was named for the English county of Devon, and the name "Carboniferous" was an adaptation of "the Coal Measures", the old British geologists’ term for the same set of strata. The "Permian" was named after Perm, Russia, because it was defined using strata in that region by Scottish geologist Roderick Murchison. However, some periods were defined by geologists from other countries. The "Triassic" was named in 1834 by a German geologist Friedrich Von Alberti from the three distinct layers (Latin trias meaning triad)—red beds, capped by chalk, followed by black shales—that are found throughout Germany and Northwest Europe, called the ‘Trias’. The "Jurassic" was named by a French geologist Alexandre Brongniart for the extensive marine limestone exposures of the Jura Mountains. The "Cretaceous" (from Latin creta meaning ‘chalk’) as a separate period was first defined by Belgian geologist Jean d'Omalius d'Halloy in 1822, using strata in the Paris basin[13] and named for the extensive beds of chalk (calcium carbonate deposited by the shells of marine invertebrates) found in Western Europe.

text: British geologists were also responsible for the grouping of periods into eras and the subdivision of the Tertiary and Quaternary periods into epochs. In 1841 John Phillips published the first global geologic time scale based on the types of fossils found in each era. Phillips’ scale helped standardize the use of terms like Paleozoic ("old life") which he extended to cover a larger period than it had in previous usage, and Mesozoic ("middle life") which he invented.[14]

text: Dating of time scales[edit]

text: When William Smith and Sir Charles Lyell first recognized that rock strata represented successive time periods, time scales could be estimated only very imprecisely since estimates of rates of change were uncertain. While creationists had been proposing dates of around six or seven thousand years for the age of Earth based on the Bible, early geologists were suggesting millions of years for geologic periods, and some were even suggesting a virtually infinite age for Earth.[citation needed] Geologists and paleontologists constructed the geologic table based on the relative positions of different strata and fossils, and estimated the time scales based on studying rates of various kinds of weathering, erosion, sedimentation, and lithification. Until the discovery of radioactivity in 1896 and the development of its geological applications through radiometric dating during the first half of the 20th century, the ages of various rock strata and the age of Earth were the subject of considerable debate.

text: The first geologic time scale that included absolute dates was published in 1913 by the British geologist Arthur Holmes.[15] He greatly furthered the newly created discipline of geochronology and published the world-renowned book The Age of the Earth in which he estimated Earth's age to be at least 1.6 billion years.[16]

text: In 1977, the Global Commission on Stratigraphy (now the International Commission on Stratigraphy) began to define global references known as GSSP (Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points) for geologic periods and faunal stages. The commission's most recent work is described in the 2004 geologic time scale of Gradstein et al.[17] A UML model for how the timescale is structured, relating it to the GSSP, is also available.[18][19]

text: The Anthropocene[edit]

text: The term "Anthropocene" is used informally by popular culture and a growing number of scientists to describe the current epoch in which we are living. The term was coined by Paul Crutzen and Eugene Stoermer in 2000 to describe the current time, in which humans have had an enormous impact on the environment. It has evolved to describe an "epoch" starting some time in the past and on the whole defined by anthropogenic carbon emissions and production and consumption of plastic goods that are left in the ground.[20]

text: Critics of this term say that the term should not be used because it is difficult, if not nearly impossible, to define a specific time when humans started influencing the rock strata—defining the start of an epoch.[21] Others say that humans have not even started to leave their biggest impact on Earth, and therefore the Anthropocene has not even started yet. Whatever the case, the ICS has not officially approved the term, as of September 2015[update].[22]

text: Table of geologic time[edit]

text: The following table summarizes the major events and characteristics of the periods of time making up the geologic time scale. This table is arranged with the most recent geologic periods at the top, and the most ancient at the bottom. The height of each table entry does not correspond to the duration of each subdivision of time.

text: The content of the table is based on the current official geologic time scale of the International Commission on Stratigraphy,[1] with the epoch names altered to the early/late format from lower/upper as recommended by the ICS when dealing with chronostratigraphy.[2]

text: A service providing a Resource Description Framework/Web Ontology Language representation of the timescale is available through the Commission for the Management and Application of Geoscience Information GeoSciML project as a service[23] and at a SPARQL end-point.[24][25]

text:
[hide]Supereon
Eon
Era
Period[b]
Epoch
Age[c]
Major events
Start, million years ago[c]

n/a[d]
Phanerozoic
Cenozoic[e]
Quaternary
Holocene

chrons: Subatlantic · Subboreal · Atlantic · Boreal · Preboreal

Quaternary Ice Age recedes, and the current interglacial begins. Sahara forms from savannah. Rise of human civilization, beginning of agriculture. Stone Age cultures give way to Bronze Age (3300 BC) and Iron Age (1200 BC), giving rise to many pre-historic cultures throughout the world. Little Ice Age (stadial) causes brief cooling in Northern Hemisphere from 1400 to 1850. Following the Industrial Revolution, atmospheric CO2 levels rise from around 280 parts per million volume (ppmv) to the current level of 400[28] ppmv.[29][f]
0.0117[g]

Pleistocene
Late (locally Tarantian · Tyrrhenian · Eemian · Sangamonian)
Flourishing and then extinction of Pleistocene megafauna. Evolution of anatomically modern humans. Quaternary Ice Age continues with glaciations and interstadials (and the accompanying fluctuations from 100 to 300 ppmv in atmospheric CO2 levels[29][f]), further intensification of Icehouse Earth conditions, roughly 1.6 Ma. Last glacial maximum (30000 years ago), last glacial period (18000–15000 years ago). Dawn of human stone-age cultures, with increasing technical complexity relative to previous ice age cultures, such as engravings and clay statues (e.g. Venus of Lespugue), particularly in the Mediterranean and Europe. Lake Toba supervolcano erupts 75000 years before present, causing a volcanic winter that possibly pushes humanity to the brink of extinction. Pleistocene ends with Oldest Dryas, Older Dryas/Allerød and Younger Dryas climate events, with Younger Dryas forming the boundary with the Holocene.
0.126

Middle (formerly Ionian)
0.781

Calabrian
1.8*

Gelasian
2.58*

Neogene
Pliocene
Piacenzian
Intensification of present Icehouse conditions, present (Quaternary) ice age begins roughly 2.58 Ma; cool and dry climate. Australopithecines, many of the existing genera of mammals, and recent mollusks appear. Homo habilis appears.
3.6*

Zanclean
5.333*

Miocene
Messinian
Moderate Icehouse climate, punctuated by ice ages; Orogeny in Northern Hemisphere. Modern mammal and bird families become recognizable. Horses and mastodons diverse. Grasses become ubiquitous. First apes appear (for reference see the article: "Sahelanthropus tchadensis"). Kaikoura Orogeny forms Southern Alps in New Zealand, continues today. Orogeny of the Alps in Europe slows, but continues to this day. Carpathian orogeny forms Carpathian Mountains in Central and Eastern Europe. Hellenic orogeny in Greece and Aegean Sea slows, but continues to this day. Middle Miocene Disruption occurs. Widespread forests slowly draw in massive amounts of CO2, gradually lowering the level of atmospheric CO2 from 650 ppmv down to around 100 ppmv.[29][f]
7.246*

Tortonian
11.63*

Serravallian
13.82*

Langhian
15.97

Burdigalian
20.44

Aquitanian
23.03*

Paleogene
Oligocene
Chattian
Warm but cooling climate, moving towards Icehouse; Rapid evolution and diversification of fauna, especially mammals. Major evolution and dispersal of modern types of flowering plants
28.1

Rupelian
33.9*

Eocene
Priabonian
Moderate, cooling climate. Archaic mammals (e.g. Creodonts, Condylarths, Uintatheres, etc.) flourish and continue to develop during the epoch. Appearance of several "modern" mammal families. Primitive whales diversify. First grasses. Reglaciation of Antarctica and formation of its ice cap; Azolla event triggers ice age, and the Icehouse Earth climate that would follow it to this day, from the settlement and decay of seafloor algae drawing in massive amounts of atmospheric carbon dioxide,[29][f] lowering it from 3800 ppmv down to 650 ppmv. End of Laramide and Sevier Orogenies of the Rocky Mountains in North America. Orogeny of the Alps in Europe begins. Hellenic Orogeny begins in Greece and Aegean Sea.
37.8

Bartonian
41.2

Lutetian
47.8*

Ypresian
56*

Paleocene
Thanetian
Climate tropical. Modern plants appear; Mammals diversify into a number of primitive lineages following the extinction of the dinosaurs. First large mammals (up to bear or small hippo size). Alpine orogeny in Europe and Asia begins. Indian Subcontinent collides with Asia 55 Ma, Himalayan Orogeny starts between 52 and 48 Ma.
59.2*

Selandian
61.6*

Danian
66*

Mesozoic
Cretaceous
Late
Maastrichtian
Flowering plants proliferate, along with new types of insects. More modern teleost fish begin to appear. Ammonoidea, belemnites, rudist bivalves, echinoids and sponges all common. Many new types of dinosaurs (e.g. Tyrannosaurs, Titanosaurs, duck bills, and horned dinosaurs) evolve on land, as do Eusuchia (modern crocodilians); and mosasaurs and modern sharks appear in the sea. Primitive birds gradually replace pterosaurs. Monotremes, marsupials and placental mammals appear. Break up of Gondwana. Beginning of Laramide and Sevier Orogenies of the Rocky Mountains. atmospheric CO2 close to present-day levels.
72.1 ± 0.2*

Campanian
83.6 ± 0.2

Santonian
86.3 ± 0.5*

Coniacian
89.8 ± 0.3

Turonian
93.9*

Cenomanian
100.5*

Early
Albian
~113

Aptian
~125

Barremian
~129.4

Hauterivian
~132.9

Valanginian
~139.8

Berriasian
~145

Jurassic
Late
Tithonian
Gymnosperms (especially conifers, Bennettitales and cycads) and ferns common. Many types of dinosaurs, such as sauropods, carnosaurs, and stegosaurs. Mammals common but small. First birds and lizards. Ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs diverse. Bivalves, Ammonites and belemnites abundant. Sea urchins very common, along with crinoids, starfish, sponges, and terebratulid and rhynchonellid brachiopods. Breakup of Pangaea into Gondwana and Laurasia. Nevadan orogeny in North America. Rangitata and Cimmerian orogenies taper off. Atmospheric CO2 levels 3–4 times the present day levels (1200–1500 ppmv, compared to today's 400 ppmv[29][f]).
152.1 ± 0.9

Kimmeridgian
157.3 ± 1.0

Oxfordian
163.5 ± 1.0

Middle
Callovian
166.1 ± 1.2

Bathonian
168.3 ± 1.3*

Bajocian
170.3 ± 1.4*

Aalenian
174.1 ± 1.0*

Early
Toarcian
182.7 ± 0.7*

Pliensbachian
190.8 ± 1.0*

Sinemurian
199.3 ± 0.3*

Hettangian
201.3 ± 0.2*

Triassic
Late
Rhaetian
Archosaurs dominant on land as dinosaurs, in the oceans as Ichthyosaurs and nothosaurs, and in the air as pterosaurs. Cynodonts become smaller and more mammal-like, while first mammals and crocodilia appear. Dicroidiumflora common on land. Many large aquatic temnospondyl amphibians. Ceratitic ammonoids extremely common. Modern corals and teleost fish appear, as do many modern insect clades. Andean Orogeny in South America. Cimmerian Orogeny in Asia. Rangitata Orogeny begins in New Zealand. Hunter-Bowen Orogeny in Northern Australia, Queensland and New South Wales ends, (c. 260–225 Ma)
~208.5

Norian
~227

Carnian
~237*

Middle
Ladinian
~242*

Anisian
247.2

Early
Olenekian
251.2

Induan
251.902 ± 0.06*

Paleozoic
Permian
Lopingian
Changhsingian
Landmasses unite into supercontinent Pangaea, creating the Appalachians. End of Permo-Carboniferous glaciation. Synapsid reptiles (pelycosaurs and therapsids) become plentiful, while parareptiles and temnospondyl amphibians remain common. In the mid-Permian, coal-age flora are replaced by cone-bearing gymnosperms (the first true seed plants) and by the first true mosses. Beetles and flies evolve. Marine life flourishes in warm shallow reefs; productid and spiriferid brachiopods, bivalves, forams, and ammonoids all abundant. Permian-Triassic extinction event occurs 251 Ma: 95% of life on Earth becomes extinct, including all trilobites, graptolites, and blastoids. Ouachita and Innuitian orogenies in North America. Uralian orogeny in Europe/Asia tapers off. Altaid orogeny in Asia. Hunter-Bowen Orogeny on Australian continent begins (c. 260–225 Ma), forming the MacDonnell Ranges.
254.14 ± 0.07*

Wuchiapingian
259.1 ± 0.4*

Guadalupian
Capitanian
265.1 ± 0.4*

Wordian
268.8 ± 0.5*

Roadian
272.95 ± 0.5*

Cisuralian
Kungurian
283.5 ± 0.6

Artinskian
290.1 ± 0.26

Sakmarian
295 ± 0.18

Asselian
298.9 ± 0.15*

Carbon-
iferous[h]
Pennsylvanian
Gzhelian
Winged insects radiate suddenly; some (esp. Protodonata and Palaeodictyoptera) are quite large. Amphibians common and diverse. First reptiles and coal forests (scale trees, ferns, club trees, giant horsetails, Cordaites, etc.). Highest-ever atmospheric oxygen levels. Goniatites, brachiopods, bryozoa, bivalves, and corals plentiful in the seas and oceans. Testate forams proliferate. Uralian orogeny in Europe and Asia. Variscan orogeny occurs towards middle and late Mississippian Periods.
303.7 ± 0.1

Kasimovian
307 ± 0.1

Moscovian
315.2 ± 0.2

Bashkirian
323.2 ± 0.4*

Mississippian
Serpukhovian
Large primitive trees, first land vertebrates, and amphibious sea-scorpions live amid coal-forming coastal swamps. Lobe-finned rhizodonts are dominant big fresh-water predators. In the oceans, early sharks are common and quite diverse; echinoderms (especially crinoids and blastoids) abundant. Corals, bryozoa, goniatites and brachiopods (Productida, Spiriferida, etc.) very common, but trilobites and nautiloids decline. Glaciation in East Gondwana. Tuhua Orogeny in New Zealand tapers off.
330.9 ± 0.2

Viséan
346.7 ± 0.4*

Tournaisian
358.9 ± 0.4*

Devonian
Late
Famennian
First clubmosses, horsetails and ferns appear, as do the first seed-bearing plants (progymnosperms), first trees (the progymnosperm Archaeopteris), and first (wingless) insects. Strophomenid and atrypid brachiopods, rugose and tabulate corals, and crinoids are all abundant in the oceans. Goniatite ammonoids are plentiful, while squid-like coleoids arise. Trilobites and armoured agnaths decline, while jawed fishes (placoderms, lobe-finned and ray-finned fish, and early sharks) rule the seas. First amphibians still aquatic. "Old Red Continent" of Euramerica. Beginning of Acadian Orogeny for Anti-Atlas Mountains of North Africa, and Appalachian Mountains of North America, also the Antler, Variscan, and Tuhua Orogeny in New Zealand.
372.2 ± 1.6*

Frasnian
382.7 ± 1.6*

Middle
Givetian
387.7 ± 0.8*

Eifelian
393.3 ± 1.2*

Early
Emsian
407.6 ± 2.6*

Pragian
410.8 ± 2.8*

Lochkovian
419.2 ± 3.2*

Silurian
Pridoli
First vascular plants (the rhyniophytes and their relatives), first millipedes and arthropleurids on land. First jawed fishes, as well as many armoured jawless fish, populate the seas. Sea-scorpions reach large size. Tabulate and rugose corals, brachiopods (Pentamerida, Rhynchonellida, etc.), and crinoids all abundant. Trilobites and mollusks diverse; graptolites not as varied. Beginning of Caledonian Orogeny for hills in England, Ireland, Wales, Scotland, and the Scandinavian Mountains. Also continued into Devonian period as the Acadian Orogeny, above. Taconic Orogeny tapers off. Lachlan Orogeny on Australian continent tapers off.
423 ± 2.3*

Ludlow
Ludfordian
425.6 ± 0.9*

Gorstian
427.4 ± 0.5*

Wenlock
Homerian
430.5 ± 0.7*

Sheinwoodian
433.4 ± 0.8*

Llandovery
Telychian
438.5 ± 1.1*

Aeronian
440.8 ± 1.2*

Rhuddanian
443.8 ± 1.5*

Ordovician
Late
Hirnantian
Invertebrates diversify into many new types (e.g., long straight-shelled cephalopods). Early corals, articulate brachiopods (Orthida, Strophomenida, etc.), bivalves, nautiloids, trilobites, ostracods, bryozoa, many types of echinoderms (crinoids, cystoids, starfish, etc.), branched graptolites, and other taxa all common. Conodonts (early planktonic vertebrates) appear. First green plants and fungi on land. Ice age at end of period.
445.2 ± 1.4*

Katian
453 ± 0.7*

Sandbian
458.4 ± 0.9*

Middle
Darriwilian
467.3 ± 1.1*

Dapingian
470 ± 1.4*

Early
Floian
(formerly Arenig)
477.7 ± 1.4*

Tremadocian
485.4 ± 1.9*

Cambrian
Furongian
Stage 10
Major diversification of life in the Cambrian Explosion. Numerous fossils; most modern animal phyla appear. First chordates appear, along with a number of extinct, problematic phyla. Reef-building Archaeocyatha abundant; then vanish. Trilobites, priapulid worms, sponges, inarticulate brachiopods (unhinged lampshells), and numerous other animals. Anomalocarids are giant predators, while many Ediacaran fauna die out. Prokaryotes, protists (e.g., forams), fungi and algae continue to present day. Gondwana emerges. Petermann Orogeny on the Australian continent tapers off (550–535 Ma). Ross Orogeny in Antarctica. Adelaide Geosyncline (Delamerian Orogeny), majority of orogenic activity from 514–500 Ma. Lachlan Orogeny on Australian continent, c. 540–440 Ma. Atmospheric CO2 content roughly 15 times present-day (Holocene) levels (6000 ppmv compared to today's 400 ppmv)[29][f]
~489.5

Jiangshanian
~494*

Paibian
~497*

Series 3
Guzhangian
~500.5*

Drumian
~504.5*

Stage 5
~509

Series 2
Stage 4
~514

Stage 3
~521

Terreneuvian
Stage 2
~529

Fortunian
~541 ± 1.0*

Precambrian[i]
Proterozoic[j]
Neoproterozoic[j]
Ediacaran
Good fossils of the first multi-celled animals. Ediacaran biota flourish worldwide in seas. Simple trace fossils of possible worm-like Trichophycus, etc. First sponges and trilobitomorphs. Enigmatic forms include many soft-jellied creatures shaped like bags, disks, or quilts (like Dickinsonia). Taconic Orogeny in North America. Aravalli Range orogeny in Indian Subcontinent. Beginning of Petermann Orogeny on Australian continent. Beardmore Orogeny in Antarctica, 633–620 Ma.
~635*

Cryogenian
Possible "Snowball Earth" period. Fossils still rare. Rodinia landmass begins to break up. Late Ruker / Nimrod Orogeny in Antarctica tapers off.
~720[k]

Tonian
Rodinia supercontinent persists. Sveconorwegian orogeny ends. Trace fossils of simple multi-celled eukaryotes. First radiation of dinoflagellate-like acritarchs. Grenville Orogeny tapers off in North America. Pan-African orogeny in Africa. Lake Ruker / Nimrod Orogeny in Antarctica, 1,000 ± 150 Ma. Edmundian Orogeny (c. 920 – 850 Ma), Gascoyne Complex, Western Australia. Adelaide Geosyncline laid down on Australian continent, beginning of Adelaide Geosyncline (Delamerian Orogeny) in Australia.
1000[k]

Mesoproterozoic[j]
Stenian
Narrow highly metamorphic belts due to orogeny as Rodinia forms. Sveconorwegian orogeny starts. Late Ruker / Nimrod Orogeny in Antarctica possibly begins. Musgrave Orogeny (c. 1,080 Ma), Musgrave Block, Central Australia.
1200[k]

Ectasian
Platform covers continue to expand. Green algae colonies in the seas. Grenville Orogeny in North America.
1400[k]

Calymmian
Platform covers expand. Barramundi Orogeny, McArthur Basin, Northern Australia, and Isan Orogeny, c.1,600 Ma, Mount Isa Block, Queensland
1600[k]

Paleoproterozoic[j]
Statherian
First complex single-celled life: protists with nuclei. Columbia is the primordial supercontinent. Kimban Orogeny in Australian continent ends. Yapungku Orogeny on Yilgarn craton, in Western Australia. Mangaroon Orogeny, 1,680–1,620 Ma, on the Gascoyne Complex in Western Australia. Kararan Orogeny (1,650 Ma), Gawler Craton, South Australia.
1800[k]

Orosirian
The atmosphere becomes oxygenic. Vredefort and Sudbury Basin asteroid impacts. Much orogeny. Penokean and Trans-Hudsonian Orogenies in North America. Early Ruker Orogeny in Antarctica, 2,000–1,700 Ma. Glenburgh Orogeny, Glenburgh Terrane, Australian continent c. 2,005–1,920 Ma. Kimban Orogeny, Gawler craton in Australian continent begins.
2050[k]

Rhyacian
Bushveld Igneous Complex forms. Huronian glaciation.
2300[k]

Siderian
Oxygen catastrophe: banded iron formations forms. Sleaford Orogeny on Australian continent, Gawler Craton 2,440–2,420 Ma.
2500[k]

Archean[j]
Neoarchean[j]
Stabilization of most modern cratons; possible mantle overturn event. Insell Orogeny, 2,650 ± 150 Ma. Abitibi greenstone belt in present-day Ontario and Quebec begins to form, stabilizes by 2,600 Ma.
2800[k]

Mesoarchean[j]
First stromatolites (probably colonial cyanobacteria). Oldest macrofossils. Humboldt Orogeny in Antarctica. Blake River Megacaldera Complex begins to form in present-day Ontario and Quebec, ends by roughly 2,696 Ma.
3200[k]

Paleoarchean[j]
First known oxygen-producing bacteria. Oldest definitive microfossils. Oldest cratons on Earth (such as the Canadian Shield and the Pilbara Craton) may have formed during this period.[l] Rayner Orogeny in Antarctica.
3600[k]

Eoarchean[j]
Simple single-celled life (probably bacteria and archaea). Oldest probable microfossils. The first life forms and self-replicating RNA molecules evolve around 4,000 Ma, after the Late Heavy Bombardment ends on Earth. Napier Orogeny in Antarctica, 4,000 ± 200 Ma.
~4000

Hadean[j][m]
Early Imbrian (Neohadean) (unofficial)[j][n]
Indirect photosynthetic evidence (e.g., kerogen) of primordial life. This era overlaps the beginning of the Late Heavy Bombardment of the Inner Solar System, produced possibly by the planetary migration of Neptune into the Kuiper belt as a result of orbital resonances between Jupiter and Saturn. Oldest known rock (4,031 to 3,580 Ma).[30]
4130[31]

Nectarian (Mesohadean) (unofficial)[j][n]
Possible first appearance of plate tectonics. This unit gets its name from the lunar geologic timescale when the Nectaris Basin and other greater lunar basins form by big impact events. Earliest evidence for life based on unusually high amounts of light isotopes of carbon, a common sign of life.
4280[31]

Basin Groups (Paleohadean) (unofficial)[j][n]
End of the Early Bombardment Phase. Oldest known mineral (Zircon, 4,404 ± 8 Ma). Asteroids and comets bring water to Earth.[32]
4533[31]

Cryptic (Eohadean) (unofficial)[j][n]
Formation of Moon (4,533 to 4,527 Ma), probably from giant impact, since the end of this era. Formation of Earth (4,570 to 4,567.17 Ma), Early Bombardment Phase begins. Formation of Sun (4,680 to 4,630 Ma) .
4600

text: Proposed Precambrian timeline[edit]

text: The ICS's Geologic Time Scale 2012 book which includes the new approved time scale also displays a proposal to substantially revise the Precambrian time scale to reflect important events such as the formation of the Earth or the Great Oxidation Event, among others, while at the same time maintaining most of the previous chronostratigraphic nomenclature for the pertinent time span.[33] (See also Period (geology)#Structure.)

text:
Hadean Eon – 4600–4031 MYA[contradictory]

Chaotian Era – 4600–4404 MYA – the name alluding both to the mythological Chaos and the chaotic phase of planet formation[33][34][35][contradictory]
Jack Hillsian or Zirconian Era – 4404–4031 MYA – both names allude to the Jack Hills Greenstone Belt which provided the oldest mineral grains on Earth, zircons[33][34]

Archean Eon – 4031–2420 MYA

Paleoarchean Era – 4031–3490 MYA

Acastan Period – 4031–3810 MYA – named after the Acasta Gneiss[33][34]
Isuan Period – 3810–3490 MYA – named after the Isua Greenstone Belt[33]

Mesoarchean Era – 3490–2780 MYA

Vaalbaran Period – 3490–3020 MYA – a portmanteau based on the names of the Kapvaal (Southern Africa) and Pilbara (Western Australia) cratons[33]
Pongolan Period – 3020–2780 MYA – named after the Pongola Supergroup[33]

Neoarchean Era – 2780–2420 MYA

Methanian Period – 2780–2630 MYA – named for the inferred predominance of methanotrophic prokaryotes[33]
Siderian Period – 2630–2420 MYA – named for the voluminous banded iron formations formed within its duration[33]

Proterozoic Eon – 2420–541 MYA

Paleoproterozoic Era – 2420–1780 MYA

Oxygenian Period – 2420–2250 MYA – named for displaying the first evidence for a global oxidizing atmosphere[33]
Jatulian or Eukaryian Period – 2250–2060 MYA – names are respectively for the Lomagundi–Jatuli δ13C isotopic excursion event spanning its duration, and for the (proposed)[36][37] first fossil appearance of eukaryotes[33]
Columbian Period – 2060–1780 MYA – named after the supercontinent Columbia[33]

Mesoproterozoic Era – 1780–850 MYA

Rodinian Period – 1780–850 MYA – named after the supercontinent Rodinia, stable environment[33]

Neoproterozoic Era – 850–541 MYA

Cryogenian Period – 850–630 MYA – named for the occurrence of several glaciations[33]
Ediacaran Period – 630–541 MYA

text: Shown to scale:

text: Compare with the current official timeline, not shown to scale:


document_title: Meet Me in St. Louis

question_text: meet me in st louis color or black and white

root

text: Meet Me in St. Louis

text: Plot[edit]

text: The backdrop for Meet Me in St. Louis is St. Louis, Missouri in the year leading up to the 1904 World's Fair.

tag: p

text: It is summer 1903. The Smith family leads a comfortable upper-middle class life. Alonzo Smith (Leon Ames) and his wife Anna (Mary Astor) have four daughters: Rose (Lucille Bremer), Esther (Judy Garland), Agnes (Joan Carroll), and Tootie (Margaret O'Brien); and a son, Lon Jr. (Henry H. Daniels, Jr.). Esther, the second eldest daughter, is in love with the boy next door, John Truett (Tom Drake), although he does not notice her at first. Rose is expecting a phone call during which she hopes to be proposed to by Warren Sheffield (Robert Sully), and is embarassed when not only does Warren fail to propose, but the entire family is present as she takes the call during dinner.

text: Esther finally gets to meet John properly when he is a guest at the Smiths' house party, although her chances of romancing him don't go as planned when, after all the guests are gone and he is helping her turn off the gas lamps throughout the house, he tells her she uses the same perfume as his grandmother and that she has "a mighty strong grip for a girl."

text: Esther hopes to meet John again the following Friday on a trolley ride from the city to the construction site of the World Fair. Esther is sad when the trolley sets off without any sign of him, but cheers up when she sees him running to catch the trolley mid journey.

text: On Halloween, Tootie returns home injured, claiming that John Truett attacked her. Without bothering to investigate, Esther confronts John, physically attacking him and scolding him for being a "bully." When Esther returns home, Tootie confesses that what really happened was that John was trying to protect Tootie and Agnes from the police after a dangerous prank they pulled went wrong. Upon learning the truth, Esther immediately dashes to John's house next door to apologize, and they share their first kiss.

text: Mr. Smith announces to the family that he is to be sent to New York City on business and they will all move after Christmas. The family is devastated and upset at the news of the move, especially Rose and Esther whose romances, friendships, and educational plans are threatened. Esther is also aghast because they will miss the World's Fair.

text: An elegant ball takes place on Christmas Eve. Esther is devastated when John cannot take her as his date, due to his leaving his tuxedo at the tailor's and being unable to get it back. She is relieved, however, when her grandfather (Harry Davenport) offers to take her to the ball instead. At the ball, Esther and Rose plot to ruin the evening of Warren's date and Rose's rival Lucille Ballard (played by June Lockhart) by filling up her dance card with losers. But when Lucille turns out to be interested in Lon, leaving Rose and Warren together, Esther switches her dance card with Lucille's and instead dances in Lucille's place with the clumsy and awkward partners. After being rescued by Grandpa, Esther is overjoyed when John unexpectedly turns up after somehow managing to obtain a tuxedo, and the pair dance together for the rest of the evening. Later on, John proposes to Esther and she accepts, but their future is uncertain because she must still move to New York.

text: Esther returns home to an upset Tootie. She is soothed by the poignant "Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas". Tootie, however, becomes more upset at the prospect of the family's move and runs downstairs, out into the cold to destroy the snowmen they have made. Mr. Smith sees his daughter's upsetting outburst from an upstairs window.

text: Mr. Smith later announces that the family will not leave St. Louis after all when he realizes how much the move will affect his family. Warren boldly declares his love for Rose, stating that they will marry at the first possible opportunity.

text: On or after April 30, 1904, the family take two horse drawn buggies to the World's Fair. The film ends that night with the entire family (including John, Lucille, and Warren)  overlooking the Grand Lagoon at the center of the World's Fair just as thousands of lights illuminate the grand pavilions.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Judy Garland as Esther Smith
Margaret O'Brien as "Tootie" Smith
Mary Astor as Mrs. Anna Smith
Leon Ames as Mr. Alonzo Smith
Lucille Bremer as Rose Smith
Tom Drake as John Truett
Marjorie Main as Katie the maid
Harry Davenport as Grandpa
Henry H. Daniels Jr. as Alonzo "Lon" Smith Jr.
Joan Carroll as Agnes Smith
June Lockhart as Lucille Ballard
Robert Sully as Warren Sheffield
Hugh Marlowe as Colonel Darly
Chill Wills as Mr. Neely the iceman

tag: ul

text: Music[edit]

text: The musical score for the film was adapted by Roger Edens, who also served as an uncredited associate producer. Georgie Stoll conducted the orchestrations of Conrad Salinger. Some of the songs in the film are from around the time of the St Louis Exposition. Others were written for the movie.

text:
"Meet Me in St. Louis, Louis" Kerry Mills and Andrew B. Sterling, 1904
"The Boy Next Door", Hugh Martin and Ralph Blane, 1944, performed by Judy Garland.
"Skip to My Lou", Traditional, with section sung to the tunes of "Kingdom Coming" and "Yankee Doodle" arranged by Hugh Martin and Ralph Blane, 1944
"I Was Drunk Last Night," performed by Margaret O'Brien.
"Under the Bamboo Tree," Words and music by Robert Cole and The Johnson Bros., 1902, performed by Judy Garland and Margaret O'Brien.
"Over the Banister," 19th-century melody adapted by Conrad Salinger, lyrics from the 1888 poem "Over the Banisters" by Ella Wheeler Wilcox, adapted by Roger Edens (1944), performed by Judy Garland.
"The Trolley Song", Hugh Martin and Ralph Blane, 1944, performed by Chorus and Judy Garland.
"You and I," Nacio Herb Brown and Arthur Freed, sung by Arthur Freed and D. Markas, dubbing for Leon Ames and Mary Astor.
"Goodbye, My Lady Love", (Instrumental), Joseph E. Howard, 1904.
"Little Brown Jug", (Instrumental), Joseph Winner, 1869.
"Down at the Old Bull and Bush," (Instrumental), Harry von Tilzer, 1903.
"Home! Sweet Home!", (Instrumental), Henry Bishop, 1823/1852.
"Auld Lang Syne", (Instrumental)
"The First Noel", (Instrumental)
"Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas", Hugh Martin and Ralph Blane, 1944, performed by Judy Garland. The lyrics for "Have Yourself A Merry Little Christmas" were originally different. The lyricist, Hugh Martin, wrote opening lyrics which were deemed too depressing by Judy Garland, Tom Drake, and Vincente Minnelli (They were: "Have yourself a merry little Christmas / It may be your last/ Next year we may all be living in the past"), so Martin changed the lyrics.

text: Deleted song[edit]

text: Judy Garland pre-recording of "Boys and Girls Like You and Me" for this film survives today, but the film footage has been lost.[7]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Upon its 1944 release, Meet Me in St. Louis was a massive critical and commercial success. During its initial theatrical release, it earned a then-massive $5,016,000 in the US and Canada and $1,550,000 elsewhere resulting in a profit of $2,359,000.[2]

text: Time called it "one of the year's prettiest pictures"; "Technicolor has seldom been more affectionately used than in its registrations of the sober mahoganies and tender muslins and benign gaslights of the period. Now & then, too, the film gets well beyond the charm of mere tableau for short flights in the empyrean of genuine domestic poetry. These triumphs are creditable mainly to the intensity and grace of Margaret O'Brien and to the ability of director Minnelli & Co. to get the best out of her."[8] O'Brien drew further praise from Time; " [her] song and her cakewalk done in a nightgown at a grown-up party, are entrancing acts. Her self-terrified Halloween adventures richly set against firelight, dark streets, and the rusty confabulations of fallen leaves, bring this section of the film very near the first-rate."  The film is a New York Times Critics' Pick: after seeing it at the Astor Theatre, Bosley Crowther called it "a warm and beguiling picturization based on Sally Benson's memoirs of her folks."[9] Crowther concludes: "As a comparable screen companion to Life With Father, we would confidently predict that Meet Me in St. Louis has a future that is equally bright. In the words of one of the gentlemen, it is a ginger-peachy show." Writing in The New Yorker, Wolcott Gibbs praised the film as "extremely attractive" and called the dialogue "funny in a sense rather rare in the movies," although he thought it was too long.[10]

text: In 2005, Richard Schickel included the film on Time.com's ALL-TIME 100 best films, saying "It had wonderful songs [and] a sweetly unneurotic performance by Judy Garland....Despite its nostalgic charm, Minnelli infused the piece with a dreamy, occasionally surreal, darkness and it remains, for some of us, the greatest of American movie musicals."[11]

text: Arthur Freed: "Meet Me in St. Louis is my personal favourite. I got along wonderfully with Judy, but the only time we were ever on the outs was when we did this film. She didn't want to do the picture. Even her mother came to me about it. We bumped into some trouble with some opinions – Eddie Mannix, the studio manager, thought the Halloween sequence was wrong, but it was left in. There was a song that Rodgers and Hammerstein had written, called Boys and Girls Like You and Me, that Judy did wonderfully, but it slowed up the picture and it was cut out. After the preview of the completed film, Judy came over to me and said, "Arthur remind me not to tell you what kind of pictures to make. "  [It] was the biggest grosser Metro had up to that time, except for Gone With the Wind."[12]

text: The film currently holds a 100% "Fresh" rating on the review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 30 critical reviews with an average score of 8.7/10.[13]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: The film was nominated for four Academy Awards: Best Writing, Adapted Screenplay, Best Cinematography, Color, Best Music, Scoring of a Musical Picture, and Best Music, Song (Ralph Blane and Hugh Martin for "The Trolley Song"). Margaret O'Brien received an Academy Juvenile Award for her work that year, in which she appeared in several movies along with Meet Me in St. Louis.

text: In 1994, the film has been deemed "culturally significant" by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.

text: The American Film Institute ranked the film 10th on AFI's Greatest Movie Musicals; two songs from the film made AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs ("The Trolley Song" at #26 and "Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas" at #76).

text: Gerald Kaufman wrote a study of the film, with the same title, which was published by the British Film Institute in 1994.

text: Adaptations[edit]

text:
Meet Me in St. Louis was remade in 1959 for television, starring Jane Powell, Jeanne Crain, Patty Duke, Walter Pidgeon, Ed Wynn, Tab Hunter and Myrna Loy. It was directed by George Schaefer from the original Brecher and Finklehoffe screenplay.
Meet Me in St. Louis was remade again for television in 1966. This was a non-musical version starring Shelley Fabares, Celeste Holm, Larry Merrill, Judy Land, Reta Shaw, Tammy Locke and Morgan Brittany. It was directed by Alan D. Courtney from a script written by Sally Benson herself. This was to be a pilot for a TV series, but no network picked it up. It was later included as a special feature on the 2 disc DVD set released in 2004.
A Broadway musical based on the film was produced in 1989, with additional songs.

text: The late-19th century vintage carousel in this movie could be found at Bob-Lo Amusement Park in Amherstburg, Ontario until the park closed in September 1993. It was dismantled and sold to private collectors.

text: Movie references[edit]

text:
The Family Stone (2005) shows two partial scenes from the movie; one where Esther and John dance, and another where Esther sings "Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas" to Tootie.
Deck the Halls (2006) shows Steve (Matthew Broderick) watching the scene where Esther sings "Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas" to Tootie and she bashes the snowmen. Steve is depressed that his family left him and watching this scene in the film makes him only more upset.
Sex and the City (2008) shows Carrie's (Sarah Jessica Parker) assistant, Louise from St. Louis, give her a DVD of the film as a Christmas gift, and later shows Carrie watching a bit of "The Trolley Song". The film is also divided into a series of seasonal vignettes following the same format as Meet Me in St. Louis.


document_title: Connecticut General Assembly

question_text: what are the three powers of the general court of connecticut

text: Connecticut General Assembly

text: History[edit]

text: The three settlements that would become Connecticut (Hartford, Wethersfield, and Windsor) were established in 1633, and were originally governed by the Massachusetts Bay Company under terms of a commission for settlement. When the commission expired in 1636 and the Connecticut Colony was established, the legislature was established as the "General Corte", consisting of six magistrates along with three-member committees representing each of the three towns. In 1639, the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut were adopted, which changed the spelling to "General Court;" formalized its executive, judicial, and legislative authority; and changed its membership to consist of the governor and six magistrates (each elected for one year terms) and three or four deputies per town (elected for six-month terms). Although the magistrates and deputies sat together, they voted separately and in 1645 it was decreed that a measure had to have the approval of both groups in order to pass. The Charter of 1662 changed the name to the General Assembly, while replacing the six magistrates with twelve assistants and reducing the number of deputies per town to no more than two. In 1698, the General Assembly divided itself into its current bicameral form, with the twelve assistants as the Council and the deputies as the House of Representatives. The modern form of the General Assembly (divided into the upper Senate and lower House and devoid of all executive and judicial authority) was incorporated in the 1818 constitution.[1]

text: Membership[edit]

text: Members of the General Assembly, regardless of chamber, serve two-year terms; there are no term limits imposed on them. The 2017–18 House is made up of 72 Republicans and 79 Democrats, while the 2017–18 Senate has 17 Republicans and 17 Democrats and two vacant seats.[2] Special elections are scheduled for February 28, 2017, to fill the two vacant seats.[3] Although the Senate is evenly split between Democrats and Republicans, the Democratic Caucus maintains effective control of the Senate with Lieutenant Governor Nancy Wyman casting the tie-breaking vote in the event of a tie.

text: Political scientists[who?] consider the General Assembly to be a part-time, professionally run state legislature. Most legislators have jobs aside from their political positions, and aside from leadership, few are present at the Capitol Monday through Friday. Legislators with more time to offer are generally placed on "A" committees, which meet Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, while others are assigned to "B" committees that meet only on Tuesdays and Thursdays. All legislators are expected to be present for "session," or days when their chambers are in session, regardless of committee assignments.

text: Although it is a part-time body, the legislature is known for having some of the best support services among state legislatures[citation needed], including its large staff, Legislative Commissioners' Office (which helps with the writing of bills), Office of Legislative Research, Office of Fiscal Analysis, and other services available.

text: Leadership[edit]

text: The Speaker of the House is Democrat Rep. Joe Aresimowicz of Berlin and the President Pro Tempore is Sen. Martin M. Looney of Hamden. The Speaker or one of his Deputies officiates over all House proceedings, while the Lieutenant Governor, currently Democrat Nancy Wyman of Tolland, is President of the Senate.

text: Legislation is introduced before each chamber by the majority or minority leader. Traditionally, the majority and minority leaders represent urban or large suburban areas, just as the Speaker of the House is usually from a city. In the current House, the majority leader is Democrat Rep. Matthew Ritter of Hartford; the minority leader is Republican Themis Klarides of Derby. In the Senate, the majority leader is Democrat Bob Duff of Norwalk and the minority leader is Len Fasano of North Haven.

text: Facilities[edit]

text: Most of the General Assembly's committee and caucus meetings are held in the modern Legislative Office Building (or LOB), while the House and Senate sessions are held in the State Capitol. The two buildings are connected via an underground tunnel known as the "Concourse," which stretches underneath an off-ramp of Interstate 84. Most offices for legislators and their aides are also housed in the LOB, though some legislative leaders choose to be based in the State Capitol itself.

text: Each committee has its own office space, with most being located in the LOB. A few committees, particularly select committees, have their offices in the Capitol. Committee chairs and ranking members normally choose to have their personal offices near their committee offices, rather than staying in their caucus areas.

text: The General Assembly is also provided with facilities such as a cafeteria, private dining room, newsstand, and library.

text: Committee system[edit]

text: The General Assembly has 27 committees, all of which are joint committees; that is, their membership includes House and Senate members alike. Several committees have subcommittees, each with their own chair and special focus.

text: Before most bills are considered in either the House or Senate, they must first go through the committee system. The primary exception to this rule is the emergency certification bill, or "e-cert," which can be passed on the floor without going through committee first. The e-cert is generally reserved for use during times of crisis, such as natural disasters or when deadlines are approaching too quickly to delay action.

text: Permanent committees[edit]

text: Most are permanent committees, which are authorized and required by state statute to be continued each session.

text: The twenty-five permanent committees of the General Assembly are:

text:
Aging Committee
Appropriations Committee
Banks Committee
Children Committee
Commerce Committee
Education Committee (K-12)
Energy and Technology Committee
Environment Committee
Executive and Legislative Nominations Committee
Finance, Revenue, and Bonding Committee
General Law Committee
Government Administration and Elections Committee
Higher Education and Employment Advancement Committee
Housing Committee
Human Services Committee
Insurance and Real Estate Committee
Internship Committee
Judiciary Committee
Labor and Public Employees Committee
Joint Committee on Legislative Management
Planning and Development Committee
Program Review and Investigations Committee
Public Health Committee
Public Safety and Security Committee
Regulation Review Committee
Transportation Committee
Veterans' Affairs Committee

text: Of those, the Executive and Legislative Nominations Committee, Internship Committee, Joint Committee on Legislative Management, Program Review and Investigations Committee, and Regulation Review Committee are considered bi-partisan and feature leadership from each party.

text: Select committees[edit]

text: Some committees are select committees, authorized to only function for a set number of years before being brought up for review. Most select committees deal with issues of major importance during a particular time period and are created in response to specific problems facing the state. As of the 2013 legislative session, there are no active select committees.

text: Leadership and staff[edit]

text: Most committee chair positions are held by the ruling party, but committees considered officially bi-partisan have chairs from both the Republican and Democratic caucuses. Bi-partisan committees are ones that are mostly administrative in nature, such as the Legislative Internship Committee. Most committees have ranking members, or leaders from the minority party who serve as the leaders of their party on each committee.

text: All committees have their own staff members. The four largest committees (Appropriations, Finance, Judiciary, and Public Health) are led by non-partisan senior committee administrators. The rest are led by a committee clerk appointed by the majority party. The majority and minority party appoint assistant clerks.

text: Each committee is assigned additional non-partisan staffers from the Office of Legislative Research, the Office of Fiscal Analysis, and the Legislative Commissioners' Office who, respectively, research legislation and issues, assess fiscal impacts, and draft legislation.

text: Subpoena power[edit]

text: The General Assembly has subpoena power under Connecticut General Statutes §2-46. Recent decisions by the Connecticut Supreme Court, the state supreme court, have clarified and limited this power.

text: §2-46 vests the Connecticut General Assembly with broad subpoena power. The power to compel documents and testimony is vested in the President of the Senate, Speaker of the House of Representatives, or either of the chairman of any committee (Connecticut has joint Committees, with a chairman from each house of the General Assembly). Once subpoenaed, a person refusing to comply may be fined between $100 and $1000, and imprisoned for between one month and one year.

text: The legislature has the power to subpoena the sitting governor of Connecticut in limited circumstances. The Connecticut Supreme Court clarified these circumstances, during the John G. Rowland impeachment, in Office of the Legislature v. The Select Committee On Inquiry, 271 Conn. 540 (2004), holding that the legislature can issue subpoenas only in conjunction with its mandate under the state constitution. Impeachment is a constitutional power of the legislature under Article IX of the Connecticut Constitution, and therefore the legislature can compel the testimony of the governor in conjunction with impeachment proceedings.

text: The ability of the legislature to subpoena judges of the state court has also been clarified in court. During the controversy surrounding the retirement of the chief justice of the Connecticut Supreme Court, William "Taco" Sullivan, the Connecticut General Assembly subpoenaed the testimony of Sullivan, who was still sitting on the Court. Sullivan challenged the subpoena in Connecticut Superior Court. The court ruled, in Sullivan v. McDonald (WL 2054052 2006), that the legislature could only subpoena a sitting Justice in an impeachment proceeding. On appeal, the entire Connecticut Supreme Court recused itself, and the argument was made before the judges of the Connecticut Appellate Court sitting as the Supreme Court. The Judiciary Committee, who issued the subpoenas, argued that they could also issue subpoenas in conjunction with their constitutional confirmation power. Sullivan voluntarily testified before a ruling was issued.

text: Public participation[edit]

text: The majority of General Assembly proceedings are open to members of the public. Public hearings are held regularly during the session for residents to be given a chance to testify on pending legislation. Viewing areas are offered in both chambers for people who would like to observe, though the floor of each chamber is generally restricted to legislators, staff members, interns, and certain members of the media collectively known as the Capitol Press Corps. Additionally, the Connecticut Network, or CT-N, broadcasts the majority of each session for viewing on television.

text: Members of the public are often recognized during legislative proceedings, particularly sessions of the House. Representatives and Senators can call for a "point of personal privilege" when there is no business pending on the floor, which allows them to introduce family members or residents of their districts to the rest of the membership. The entire chamber often recognizes civic and youth groups, particularly championship-winning sports teams. Some residents receive special citations from the membership as well.