document_title: Naruto (season 1)

question_text: when do the chunin exams start in naruto

text: Naruto (season 1)

text:
Naruto (season 1)
Season 1 CoverNo. of episodes
35Season chronology
Next →Season 2
List of Naruto episodes

text: The first season of the Naruto anime series is directed by Hayato Date, and produced by Studio Pierrot and TV Tokyo.[1] Based on Masashi Kishimoto's manga series, the season follows Naruto Uzumaki living in the Hidden Leaf Village, determined to become the next Hokage and gain the respect of the villagers. The first season ran from October 3, 2002 to May 28, 2003 on TV Tokyo.[2] It was also released with the English version from September 10, 2005 to May 27, 2006 on Cartoon Network's Toonami and YTV's Bionix programming blocks.[3][4][5]

text: In Japan, the season released in both VHS and DVD format.[6] A total of twelve volumes were released by Sony Pictures Entertainment between January 1 and December 3, 2003.[7][8] Episodes from this season were later released on nine DVD compilations by Viz Media between March 28, 2006 and February 20, 2007,[9][10] with two compilations of thirteen and twelve episodes released for the first season.[11][12] The first of these compilations was nominated at the American Anime Awards for best package design.[13] In 2009, Viz released another two DVD boxes containing episodes 1-25 and 26-52, respectively.[14][15]

text: Five pieces of theme music are used for the episodes; two opening themes and two closing themes in the Japanese episodes and a single theme for the openings and endings in the English-dubbed version. The two Japanese opening themes are "Rocks" (R★O★C★K★S) by Hound Dog, used for the first twenty-five episodes, with the rest using "Haruka Kanata" (遥か彼方, lit. Far Away) by Asian Kung-Fu Generation.[16][17] The two closing themes are Japanese pop singer Akeboshi's "Wind" and "Harmonia" by Rythem, used for the first twenty-five and remaining episodes respectively.[18][19] The opening and ending theme for the English airing is "Rise" by Jeremy Sweet and Ian Nickus, with an instrumental version played as the closing theme.[20]

text: Episode list[edit]

text:
No.

Title

Original airdate

English airdate

1
"Enter: Naruto Uzumaki!""Sanjō! Uzumaki Naruto!" (参上!うずまきナルト) October 3, 2002September 10, 2005
For the first twelve years of his life, an orphaned boy named Naruto Uzumaki lived a life of enduring the apparent unsolicited hate from a majority of the villagers of the Hidden Leaf Village with a strong ambition to be acknowledged. Caught by Iruka Umino, his teacher, while defacing the Hokage monument, he tells Iruka that he did it for attention and of his dream of becoming a Hokage to win everyone's respect. However, after failing to graduate from the Ninja Academy for the third year in a row for being unable to use the Clone Technique, Naruto is approached by another instructor named Mizuki who tricks him into stealing a scroll of forbidden ninja techniques from the Hokage's residence, with a promise that he would be able to graduate if he was able to learn one of the techniques it contained. After successfully stealing the scroll, Naruto is caught by Iruka, who realises that Naruto had been tricked and protects him from Mizuki, revealed to have been planning to take the scroll for himself. During the ensuing confrontation, Mizuki reveals the fact that Naruto is the host of the Nine-Tails, a fox-like monster that attacked the village twelve years ago and took the life of the Fourth Hokage who managed to seal the Nine-Tails within the newborn Naruto, which he claims is the reason for the hate directed at Naruto. Horrified by this revelation, Naruto runs off and only returns when Iruka, whose parents were killed by the Nine-Tails, refuses to accept Naruto as anything but his student. Touched by his mentor's words, Naruto proceeds to defeat Mizuki using the Multiple Shadow Clone technique he learned from the scroll. Due to the act of saving his life and making an outstanding performance proving him worthy of being a ninja, Iruka allows Naruto to graduate.
2
"My Name is Konohamaru!""Konohamaru da kore!" (木ノ葉丸だ コレ!) October 10, 2002September 10, 2005
During an argument with the Third Hokage over how Naruto wanted to present himself on the photo of Ninja Registration Form, the Hokage is attacked by a small boy, who is revealed to be his grandson Konohamaru Sarutobi. While following Naruto, who is the first person to not see him solely as the Hokage's grandson, Konohamaru asks to be taught the transformation technique that Naruto was using on Hiruzen: the Sexy Technique. In the process, Konohamaru reveals his own reasons for wanting to become Hokage and his desire to be recognised for his own achievements. Eventually, the two are found by Konohamaru's mentor Ebisu, who sees Naruto as a bad influence on Konohamaru, with the resultant confrontation ending after Naruto uses Ebisu's lust against him, by combining his Sexy Technique and the Shadow Clone Technique to produce the overwhelming Harem Technique. Through Naruto's guidance, Konohamaru is able to accept that he cannot follow in his grandfather's footsteps by his name alone.
3
"Sasuke and Sakura: Friends or Foes?""Shukuteki!? Sasuke to Sakura" (宿敵!?サスケとサクラ) October 17, 2002September 17, 2005
Once graduated from the Ninja Academy, having drank some milk before meeting up with his former classmates, Naruto is assigned to be a member of a three-person squad before undergoing a test to obtain the rank of Genin. He is put into Team 7, along with Sasuke Uchiha, his long-time rival, and Sakura Haruno, whom he has feelings for though she instead has feelings for Sasuke. Knowing of Sakura's feelings for Sasuke, Naruto formulated a scheme to dispose of his rival and pose as Sasuke to get close to Sakura. But at the last second, Naruto is forced to go to the bathroom while the real Sasuke somehow escapes and runs into Sakura while searching for Naruto. After expressing disgust toward Sakura when she blames Naruto's stupidity on not having parents, Sasuke finds Naruto after he was forced to ditch a guilt-driven Sakura to go to the bathroom again, with their confrontation short-lived. Meanwhile, Naruto's stomach pains are revealed to be the result of drinking long-expired milk earlier, and Hiruzen briefs an unidentified instructor on Naruto and his teammates.
4
"Pass or Fail: Survival Test""Shiren! Sabaibaru enshū" (試練!サバイバル演習) October 24, 2002September 24, 2005
As their classmates gradually all meet up with their Jonin instructors who will decide whether they are fit to become Genin, Team 7 are forced to wait for theirs. Eventually, after Naruto sets up a juvenile trap, he and his group meet their instructor: Kakashi Hatake. Appearing to be a slacker, Kakashi takes the day to let his students each introduce themselves and tell each other their desires and aims: Naruto states that his dream is to become Hokage, Sakura seems to embarrassed by hers to say them publicly, and Sasuke declares his intent to restore his clan by killing an unnamed person. With the introductions over, Kakashi tells Team 7 that their test will begin tomorrow and that they are not to eat before then. The next day, after forcing Team 7 to wait for him again, Kakashi explains that the test entails the seizure of one of two bells from his person, the catch being that only two of the prospective Genin will be able to pass, while the remaining child will be sent back to the Academy. While Sasuke and Sakura hide themselves away as the test begins, Naruto attempts to face Kakashi head-on with his Shadow Clone Technique, which is easily countered, and then falls for a snare trap. Taking advantage of Kakashi lecturing Naruto about falling for obvious traps, Sasuke seemingly takes out the instructor with shuriken and kunai knives.
5
"You Failed! Kakashi's Final Decision""Shikkaku? Kakashi no Ketsuron" (失格?カカシの結論) October 31, 2002October 1, 2005
After his sneak attack failed, Sasuke attempts to fight Kakashi before being buried up to his neck underground. From there, Kakashi subjects Sakura to a genjutsu of Sasuke bleeding to death before dealing with Naruto when he decides to help himself to everyone's lunches. Once the time limit for the test is reached, Naruto is tied to a pole, and Kakashi deems all members of Team 7 utter failures as he reveals that his test was impossible for them, due to their lack of teamwork during the exercise. From there, Kakashi explains the essential need for ninja groups to work as a unit, as well as stating his own ideal that, while ninja who break the rules are scum, those who abandon their friends are worse than scum. From there, Kakashi offers to give Team 7 one final chance and leaves them with a single order to follow: not to feed Naruto. However, knowing that they need Naruto at full strength for what Kakashi has in store for a make-up test, Sasuke and Sakura feed Naruto. Having watched the entire event, Kakashi dramatically appears before them. As Kakashi apparently prepares to punish them all, Sakura stands up to him, explaining that they gave Naruto food because he's a member of their team. Ultimately, finding a group who actually met his test's standards, Kakashi decides that Team 7 pass his test and accepts them as his students.
6
"A Dangerous Mission! Journey to the Land of Waves!""Jūyō ninmu! Nami no Kuni e chō-shuppatsu!" (重要任務!波の国へ超出発!) November 7, 2002October 8, 2005
After Team 7 completes a few miscellaneous D-ranked missions, Naruto relentlessly asks Hiruzen for a higher level mission, and they are eventually assigned to escort a bridge builder named Tazuna back to the Land of Waves. However, on their way there, Team 7 is ambushed by the Demon Brothers, two Chunin from the Hidden Mist Village in the Land of Water. Though it appeared they killed him as they go after Team 7 and Tazuna, the Demon Brothers learned that Kakashi was aware of their presence and faked his death to catch them off-guard and see his students in action. While applauding Sasuke for holding off the Demon Brothers and Sakura for guarding Tazuna, Kakashi expresses disappointment in how poorly Naruto handled the situation and got himself poisoned. However, Naruto refuses to quit the mission, and with Sasuke's taunting getting to him, uses a kunai to stab his hand to bleed out the poison while making a promise to never back down again. Though Kakashi decides to have Naruto's self-inflicted wound dealt with, he is amazed by the boy's rapid healing and wonders if it is the Nine-Tails's doing. Elsewhere, a man named Gato confronts the Demon Brothers' boss for his subordinates' failure to assassinate Tazuna. Threatening Gato with his large sword, the figure decides to handle the job personally.
7
"The Assassin of the Mist!""Kiri no ansatsusha!" (霧の暗殺者!) November 14, 2002October 15, 2005
On the way to the Land of Waves, with Kakashi threatening to abandon the mission if he does not provide an adequate explanation for lying about the mission's difficulty level, Tazuna reveals his desire to build a bridge to save the impoverished Land of Waves from the wealthy shipping-magnate Gato. Hearing his story, Team 7 agree to go through with the mission regardless for humanitarian reasons. However, once on the bridge, the group is ambushed by Zabuza Momochi, a rogue ninja from the Hidden Mist Village who works for Gato. Refusing to hand Tazuna over, Kakashi is forced to reveal a strange eye. The former confused as to how Kakashi obtained it, Sasuke and Zabuza both recognise the strange eye as the Sharingan. While Team 7 protects Tazuna, Kakashi engages Zabuza, both using clones to distract the other to get them from behind.
8
"The Oath of Pain""Itami ni chikau ketsui" (痛みに誓う決意) November 21, 2002October 22, 2005
Kakashi is eventually caught off-guard and is captured in the Water Prison Technique. With Kakashi immobilised, Zabuza creates a water clone to go after the rest of Team 7 and Tazuna. Though Kakashi tells his students to run, Naruto remembers the promise he made to himself and decides to fight to save Kakashi and keep Tazuna alive. With Naruto using his transformation skills with Sasuke's expertise with a Fuma Shuriken, the two youths succeed in forcing Zabuza to release Kakashi in order to avoid Naruto's kunai.
9
"Kakashi: Sharingan Warrior""Sharingan no Kakashi" (写輪眼のカカシ) November 28, 2002October 29, 2005
Once freed from the Water Prison, Kakashi uses his Sharingan to replicate many of Zabuza's water-based attacks, causing him to become agitated and is easily defeated. At the last second, Zabuza is seemingly killed by a young masked hunter ninja from the Hidden Mist Village. Naruto is angry and jealous that someone so young could easily defeat an opponent that gave Team 7 so much trouble, but Kakashi says that there are many ninja younger than Naruto yet stronger than himself. The hunter-nin leaves with Zabuza's body, and Kakashi then collapses from fatigue as a result of using his Sharingan for too long.
10
"The Forest of Chakra""Chakura no mori" (チャクラの森) December 5, 2002November 5, 2005
Brought to Tazuna's home to recover from his fight with Zabuza, Naruto meets the bridge builder's grandson Inari, while Kakashi awakens realizing that there were numerous inconsistencies between the actions of the masked youth and that of other hunter-nin. Expecting to face Zabuza again, Kakashi decides to take Team 7 to the woods to teach them chakra control by having them walk up a tree by focusing chakra beneath their feet. While Sakura was successful on her first try, both Naruto and Sasuke had to attempt it numerous times. Elsewhere, revealed to be Zabuza's follower, the masked youth known as Haku tends to Zabuza's wounds as the swordsman intends to settle things with Kakashi once fully healed in a week's time.
11
"The Land Where a Hero Once Lived""Eiyū no ita kuni" (英雄のいた国) December 12, 2002November 12, 2005
While Naruto and Sasuke try to outdo each other in their Tree Climbing Practice, Sakura accompanies Tazuna and is astonished by the poverty and fear in the Land of Waves. Following dinner, Sakura asks about Inari staring at the torn family photo on the wall, but the boy runs off with his mother Tsunami chasing after him. Tazuna then explains that the man torn from the picture, named Kaiza, was once a hero in the Land of Waves whom Inari looked up to. When Gato arrived, Kaiza was executed by Gato's men to serve as an example of anyone who opposes Gato, which traumatised Inari greatly. Moved by the story, Naruto resumes his training with the intent to prove to Inari that there are still heroes in the world.
12
"Battle on the Bridge! Zabuza Returns!!""Kyōjō kessen! Zabuza futatabi!!" (橋上決戦!ザブザ再び!!) December 19, 2002November 19, 2005
Taking a nap after training in the woods, Naruto is awoken by someone whom he thought was a girl. Eventually learning that the person is actually a boy, but unaware that he is the masked youth Haku, Naruto gets into an exchange of ideals and morals before the two part ways. Once found by Sasuke, Naruto resumes his Tree Climbing Practice into the evening until he and Sasuke finally make it to the top of their respective trees. Naruto and Sasuke return triumphantly to Tazuna's home, with Naruto cheerful yet completely drained from the effort. Inari is disturbed by the sight of Naruto, thinking about Kaiza and gets into a heated dispute with Naruto, who leaves while calling him a coward. Later that night, Kakashi tells a despondent Inari that Naruto understands the boy's pain from his own hardships. The next morning, deciding to let Naruto sleep in, Kakashi, Sasuke, and Sakura escort Tazuna to work. Upon arriving at the bridge, they find Tazuna's workers unconscious with Zabuza and a masked Haku revealing themselves as the culprits.
13
"Haku's Secret Jutsu: Crystal Ice Mirrors""Haku no hijutsu - Makyō Hyōshō" (白の秘術•魔鏡氷晶) December 26, 2002November 26, 2005
At Tazuna's house, two of Gato's thugs arrive to kidnap Tsunami. Inari musters his courage in an attempt to stop them, but is saved when Naruto defeats them. Before leaving to join the others at the bridge, Naruto apologises to Inari for calling him a coward and acknowledges his bravery. On the bridge, as Kakashi engages Zabuza, Sasuke's newly gained speed gives him an advantage against Haku before the masked ninja traps him in his personal Crystal Ice Mirrors Technique.
14
"The Number One Hyperactive, Knucklehead Ninja Joins the Fight!!""Igaisei nanbā wan, Naruto sansen!" (意外性No. 1, ナルト参戦!) January 9, 2003December 3, 2005
Having arrived, with Kakashi preoccupied with Zabuza, Naruto attempts to help Sasuke by attacking the Crystal Ice Mirrors from the outside while Sasuke attacks from the inside. Unfortunately, ignorant of Haku's technique, Naruto enters the cage of ice as he and Sasuke are forced to work together against Haku, who sees that he must make an exception to his no killing policy.
15
"Zero Visibility: The Sharingan Shatters""Shikai zero no tatakai - Sharingan kuzushi" (視界ゼロの戦い•写輪眼崩し) January 16, 2003December 10, 2005
Naruto and Sasuke both attempt to destroy the ice mirrors, their respective Shadow Clone and Fireball Techniques having no effect. Realizing that Haku's Crystal Ice Mirrors are actually an Ice-Style Bloodline Limit, Kakashi decides to use his Sharingan to quickly end his fight with Zabuza. However, as Haku told him about Kakashi's methods during their last fight, Zabuza has the advantage as he uses his Hidden Mist technique to counter Kakashi's Sharingan and force the ninja to try to anticipate his opponent's next move. Kakashi finally guesses that Zabuza will target Tazuna and Sakura and rushes to intercept, but Zabuza lands a strike on Kakashi from behind with his Kubikiribōchō sword.
16
"The Broken Seal""Kaihōsareta fūin" (解放された封印) January 23, 2003December 17, 2005
Naruto and Sasuke are both injured severely from Haku's Crystal Ice Mirrors before the latter reveals his Uchiha lineage by awakening his clan's own Bloodline Limit: the Sharingan. With Sasuke's Sharingan allowing him to track Haku's incredibly fast movements, he is deemed a bigger threat than Naruto and a volley of senbon (fr) is used to force Sasuke to take a hit meant for his teammate. Believing his teammate had died in his arms, Naruto is enraged and unconsciously taps into chakra of the Nine-Tails to heal his wounds while punching Haku.
17
"White Past: Hidden Ambition""Shiroi Kako - Himeta omoi" (白い過去•秘めた想い) January 30, 2003December 31, 2005
Inari is shown running from door to door throughout the Land of Waves, trying to rally the villagers into defending Tazuna and the bridge. Meanwhile, after using his new power to punch Haku while dispelling his mirrors, Naruto regains control of himself when Haku's mask breaks away, recognising him as the boy he previously conversed with. Asking Naruto to kill him as he had failed Zabuza, a flashback reveals that he had inherited his ability from his mother. It is then shown that he once lived in the Land of Water, where people with Bloodline Limits were forced to conceal their powers out of fear of persecution. When Haku's father learned of his power, he killed Haku's mother, forcing Haku to subconsciously invoke his powers to kill his father and the angry mob. Some time after, Haku was found by Zabuza and trained to hone his skills to be of use to the swordsman. Meanwhile, having sensed Naruto only released a fraction of the Nine-Tails's chakra, Kakashi summons a number of dogs to find and restrain Zabuza. At that time, Haku manages to convince Naruto to kill him before seeing Kakashi about to finish Zabuza off with his Lightning Blade Technique.
18
"The Weapons Known as Shinobi""Shinobi to iu na no dōgu" (忍という名の道具) February 6, 2003January 7, 2006
Though he agrees to kill Haku, Naruto instead witnesses Haku sacrificing himself to protect Zabuza from Kakashi's Lightning Blade. Unfazed by his apprentice's sacrifice, Zabuza continues attacking Kakashi while Tazuna accompanies Sakura to Sasuke's body. Eventually, Kakashi manages to disable Zabuza's arms. However, before their battle can be resolved, Gato arrives with his men, intending to kill everyone present, Zabuza included. Meanwhile, disappointed in his attempts to rally the villagers support for the bridge, Inari sets out alone but finds a crowd waiting for him outside.
19
"The Demon in the Snow""Zabuza yuki ni chiru..." (ザブザ雪に散る...) February 13, 2003January 14, 2006
Now fired by Gato, Zabuza no longer sees a reason to fight Kakashi, and is unfazed when his former employer kicks Haku's corpse. Though Zabuza sees Haku as nothing more than a tool, he is moved by Naruto's words as he tearfully acknowledges Haku's sacrifice. With Kakashi telling Naruto not to interfere out of respect, Zabuza is allowed to redeem himself as a ninja. With only a kunai in his mouth, enduring multiple stabs and beatings, Zabuza manages to break through Gato's men and kills the businessman before collapsing as Gato's forces retreat when the villagers arrive. Soon after, Team 7 are relieved to discover that Sasuke is still alive, having been spared any lethal injuries. Honouring Zabuza's dying wish to place him beside Haku, Kakashi assures his former enemy that he and Haku will go to the same place. Soon after, he and Team 7 give the two rogue ninjas a burial with Zabuza's Kubikiribōchō as a grave marker, and Naruto express his disdain for the notion that ninjas should strive to become merely tools and declares that he will find his own Ninja Way. As Team 7 leave for the Hidden Leaf, Tazuna proclaims to the village that the bridge will be called the Great Naruto Bridge to signify the strength that Naruto gave Inari, who in turn gave it to the whole town.
20
"A New Chapter Begins: The Chunin Exam!""Shinshō totsunyū! Chūnin Shiken dattebayo" (新章突入!中忍試験だってばよ) February 20, 2003January 21, 2006
After their adventure in the Land of Waves, Team 7 has returned to doing miscellaneous missions, with Naruto's rivalry with Sasuke making matters worse to the point that Kakashi decides to call it a day and sends his students home. After Sasuke takes his leave, Naruto and Sakura meet up with Konohamaru and his friends Udon and Moegi. As antics ensue with him making Sakura mad, Konohamaru accidentally bumps into two foreign ninja. Despite advice from his older sister Temari (one of the two mystery ninja), Kankuro (the other) threatens to kill Konohamaru. After somehow tripping Naruto, Kankuro was about to hit Konohamaru when Sasuke hits the ninja with a stone. Just as Kankuro is about to attack Sasuke, he is stopped by his younger brother Gaara as Temari explains that they are ninja from the Hidden Sand Village in the Land of Wind who have arrived for the Chunin Exams.
21
"Identify Yourself: Powerful New Rivals""Nanore! Arawareta kyōteki tachi!!" (名乗れ!現れた強敵たち!!) February 27, 2003January 28, 2006
Encountering the Sand Siblings, Team 7 learns that the three are ninja who have come from the Hidden Sand Village to participate in the Chunin Exams to be promoted to Chunin-level ninja. Elsewhere, meeting with Hiruzen on the matter, Kakashi, the Third Hokage's son Asuma Sarutobi, and Kurenai Yuhi all nominate their students for the Chunin Exams to Iruka's disbelief. Iruka challenges their decision as he believes Naruto and the others are not ready for the exam, but Kakashi explains to Iruka that they are no longer his students. The next morning, Kakashi gives Team 7 the application forms for the Chunin Exams with Sasuke and Naruto more than willing, while Sakura is uncertain. Later, each member of Team 7 is attacked by a mysterious ninja that they defeated in a one-on-one fight. The figure is revealed to be Iruka, who reports to Kakashi of approving his choice. Later, while making their way to site of the Chunin Exam, Team 7 meets Rock Lee and his teammates Neji Hyuga and Tenten. Though they leave to make their way to where the exams are, Team 7 is followed by Lee who intends to issue a challenge to Sasuke.
22
"Chunin Challenge: Rock Lee vs. Sasuke!""Kiai hyaku-nijū pāsento Nau de rokku na chōsenjō!" (気合い120% ナウでロックな挑戦状!) March 6, 2003February 4, 2006
Following Team 7, and revealed to have a crush on Sakura, Lee challenges Sasuke to a battle. Feeling neglected in his teammates' shadows, Naruto's attempt to fight Lee himself only ended with him being quickly knocked out. Now interested to face an opponent calling himself the strongest Genin, Sasuke accepts his challenge but finds himself powerless against an opponent who uses taijutsu. Lee was about to finish the fight with his Dancing Leaf Shadow attack when a large turtle named Ningame appears. Soon after, as Naruto thinks Ningame is his mentor, Lee's actual mentor Might Guy appears on top of Ningame with Team 7 a bit taken back by Guy's tough love and motivational speech for Lee. Upon noticing them, Guy reveals himself to be a rival of Kakashi's before taking his leave after giving Lee a punishment task to complete. Before leaving, Lee confesses that he is not actually the strongest Genin, who is in fact someone else on his team, and that he only fought Sasuke to train himself. After Naruto pressures Sasuke over this turn of events, Team 7 reaches the room where the Exams are to take place.
23
"Genin Takedown! All Nine Rookies Face Off!""Kechirase raibaru! Rūkī nain zen'in shūgō" (蹴散らせライバル!新人9人全員集合) March 13, 2003February 11, 2006
Before entering the Chunin Exam hall, Team 7 are greeted by Kakashi, who informs them that all three of them had been required to consent to taking the exams before they would have been allowed in, and wished them luck. Once inside, Team 7 meet up with their classmates: Ino Yamanaka, Shikamaru Nara, and Choji Akimichi of Asuma's Team 10 and Shino Aburame, Hinata Hyuga, and Kiba Inuzuka of Kurenai's Team 8. The Rookie Nine have a spirited discussion before they meet an exam veteran named Kabuto Yakushi who informs them about each of the villages represented while also giving Sasuke information on Gaara and Lee. Though Kabuto intimidated the other Rookie Nine members by telling them that there were only elite Genin among the individuals taking the exams, Naruto loudly proclaims that he will beat every ninja in the room, to his friends' annoyance of being targeted by association. At that time, Kabuto is attacked by Team Dosu from the Hidden Sound Village for his earlier remark about their village. Although it appears that Kabuto dodged the attack, his glasses suddenly break and he becomes nauseated. Before the confrontation escalates any further, the examiner Ibiki Morino and his team enter to commence the Chunin Exams.
24
"Start Your Engines: The Chunin Exam Begins!""Ikinari shikkaku? Chō-nankan no daiichi shiken" (いきなり失格?超難関の第一試験) March 20, 2003February 18, 2006
As everyone takes their seats, Ibiki explains that the first phase of the exam will be a written test where the teams with higher points continue to the next phase. Ibiki's assistants line the sides of the room to observe the Genin to ensure they do not cheat, with teams removed from the room if any member is caught cheating five times. With the exception of Naruto and Sakura, Sasuke and everyone else realise that the real test is to subtly cheat using their unique skills. While Sakura is able to answer the questions, Naruto is the opposite as he feels he must place all his faith in the final question, which will be given fifteen minutes before the test's end.
25
"The Tenth Question: All or Nothing!""Detatoko shōbu! Funbaridokoro no jū monme" (出たとこ勝負!踏ん張りどころの10問目) March 27, 2003February 25, 2006
Forty-five minutes into the written portion of the Chūnin Exams, Ibiki announces that it is time for the tenth and final question. But he ominously states that while their team would fail the exam if they do not take it, failure to answer it correctly would result in the participant being barred from any future Chunin Exams. Fretting over the unpredicted turn of events, Naruto refuses to give in to fear with his outburst putting the minds of those remaining at ease. Seeing that no one else would be leaving, Ibiki reveals that the first nine questions were to test their skills in intelligence gathering while the final question was to test their resolve. Passing Ibiki's test, the proctor was amused to find that Naruto passed without answering any of the questions, while the remaining Genin meet their next examiner Anko Mitarashi the next day at the site of the second phase of the exam: the Forest of Death.
26[21]
"Special Report: Live from the Forest of Death!""Zettai hikken! Shi no Mori chokusen rupo! Konoha no gakkyū shinbun da kore!" (絶対必見!死の森直前ルポ!木ノ葉の学級新聞だコレ!) April 2, 2003March 4, 2006
The episode is an anime-exclusive episode for Konohamaru and his classmates' news report starring the Chunin-in-training. Before the second exam can begin, Konohamaru and his friends pull the members of Team 7 aside for interviews, where they retell the story up until this point. They discuss the Hokages, the rogue ninja etc.
27[21]
"The Chunin Exam Stage 2: The Forest of Death""Daini shiken sutāto! Mawari wa minna teki darake!" (第二試験スタート!周りはみんな敵だらけ!) April 2, 2003April 15, 2006
Anko briefs the candidates on their goal for the second portion of the exam. Each team is given one of two scrolls: a Heaven Scroll or an Earth Scroll. Once in the Forest, they must take the other scroll from an opposing team, and reach the tower in the centre of the forest with both to continue. After receiving their scroll, each team enters the Forest of Death simultaneously.
28
"Eat or be Eaten: Panic in the Forest""Kū ka kuwareru ka! Esa ni natta Naruto" (喰うか喰われるか!エサになったナルト) April 9, 2003April 15, 2006
A few minutes after entering the Forest of Death, Naruto leaves the team to relieve himself, but he is knocked out by a Genin from the Hidden Rain Village who mimics his appearance to infiltrate Team 7. Luckily, seeing through the disguise, Sasuke drives away the attacking Rain Genin. While he and his team mates go over a password to identify themselves in such a situation, Naruto is separated from the others by a powerful gust of wind before being swallowed by a giant snake. In the meantime, Sasuke and Sakura are disabled by a Grass ninja named Shiore. Before they even fight, Sasuke and Sakura have visions of their own deaths upon looking into Shiore's eyes, paralysing them with fear. Regaining his composure, Sasuke flees with Sakura as Shiore pursues. Luckily, having managed to kill the snake, Naruto arrives in time to save them both.
29
"Naruto's Counterattack: Never Give In!""Naruto hangeki! Nigenēndattebayo!" (ナルト反撃!逃げねーんだってばよ!) April 16, 2003April 15, 2006
Despite Naruto's timely appearance, Sasuke offers Shiore the scroll in exchange for their lives. Sasuke then throws the scroll to Shiore but Naruto intercepts it.  Naruto punches Sasuke during his attempt to convince Naruto to give the scroll up, causing Naruto to accuse Sasuke of being an impostor as the Sasuke he knew would never be so weak and cowardly. Shiore summons a giant snake and engages Naruto, who uses the Nine-Tails chakra to fight. Eventually, upon learning that his opponent is the host of the Nine-Tails, Shiore seals Naruto's ability to access the monster's power. As Naruto's unconscious body is saved by Sakura pinning it to a tree with a kunai in mid-air, Sasuke manages to muster the courage from Naruto's words to fight. Meanwhile, Anko learns of three faceless corpses found near the exams, one of them revealed to be Shiore, and recognizes the technique used to remove their faces.
30
"The Sharingan Revived: Dragon-Flame Jutsu!""Yomigaere Sharingan! Hissatsu: Katon Ryūka no Jutsu!" (蘇れ写輪眼!必殺•火遁龍火の術!) April 23, 2003April 22, 2006
After a protracted battle with the mysterious ninja posing as Shiore, Sasuke traps Shiore and uses the Dragon Flame technique to incinerate his attacker. However, Shiore is still alive with his face partially melted off, revealing part of Shiore's true face. After extending his neck to inflict Sasuke with an unidentified mark, the ninja introduces himself as Orochimaru. Burning the scroll he possessed, Orochimaru leaves while promising that Sasuke will look for him in the future. Anko eventually finds Orochimaru, revealed to be her former teacher, and unsuccessfully tries to kill him while learning that his target was Sasuke, and that any interference in the Chunin Exams to remove the youth from the proceedings would end terribly for the Hidden Leaf Village.
31
"Bushy Brow's Pledge: Undying Love and Protection!""Geki mayu puratonikku! Boku wa shinu made anata o mamoru!!" (激まゆプラトニック!僕は死ぬまでアナタを守る!!) April 30, 2003April 29, 2006
After the ordeal with Orochimaru, Sakura managed to move her team mates under a tree to tend to their wounds overnight. During this time, Sakura is unaware that her team are being watched by Team Dosu, and wards off a squirrel that they had placed a paper bomb onto, without knowing that it had been made into an explosive device. Soon after, the Sound Genin make their presence known as they reveal their intent to kill Sasuke while dealing with the numerous traps that Sakura had prepared to defend her teammates. Luckily, having been guided by the squirrel after saving it, Lee arrives to protect Sakura. As the battle ensued, Lee uses the Primary Lotus on Dosu but the impact is cushioned by Zaku Abumi and Lee is knocked out.
32
"Sakura Blossoms!""Sakura saku! Ketsui no ushiro sugata" (サクラ咲く!決意の後ろ姿) May 7, 2003May 6, 2006
With her teammates and Lee all unconscious, Sakura is forced to fight on her own before one of the Sound Genin, Kin Tsuchi, grabs the girl by her hair and proceeds to insult her for her perceived vanity. This causes Sakura to remember her past with her own rival, Ino, and she is reminded of the reasons for growing her hair so long. She then decides to focus on being a strong ninja rather than just attractive, cutting her hair to free herself from Kin's grasp before attacking Zaku. Moved by Sakura's determination, Ino and the rest of Team 10 come to her aid.
33
"Battle Formation: Ino-Shika-Cho!""Muteki no fōmēshon! InoShikaChō!!" (無敵のフォーメーション!いのシカチョウ!!) May 14, 2003May 13, 2006
Team 10 battles Team Dosu, each using their unique techniques to battle. However, though Ino uses her Mind Transfer technique on Kin, the Sound Genin regain the advantage before Sasuke suddenly awakens. Empowered by Orochimaru's curse mark, Sasuke becomes a cruel and sadistic monster as he easily defeats Zaku while breaking his arms. Terrified by Sasuke's extremely cruel brutality, Sakura stops him before he can inflict fatal injuries on either of the remaining Sound Genin. Deciding that they stand no chance, Dosu leaves their scroll behind so that he and his team can retreat without further harm.
34
"Akamaru Trembles: Gaara's Cruel Strength!""Akamaru bikkuri! Gaara, Kyōi no Jitsuryoku" (赤丸ビックリ!我愛羅, 驚異の実力) May 21, 2003May 20, 2006
As Team 7, Team 10, and Team Guy recover, Team 8 witnesses Gaara mercilessly kill a team of Rain Genin. Although Gaara prepares to turn his attention to Team 8, his siblings persuade him to leave them alone. Gaara's team beats the previous record for getting to the tower by a gigantic margin, and none of them are even remotely injured.
35
"The Scroll's Secret: No Peeking Allowed""Nozokimi genkin! Makimono no himitsu" (のぞき見厳禁!巻き物の秘密) May 28, 2003May 27, 2006
Naruto awakens and, upon realising that they need another scroll to pass, decides to forge a new one, but has to open their existing scroll to do so, an action banned by the rules of the exam. However, before he could do so, Kabuto, separated from his team, stops him, stating that those who did would be rendered unconscious until the end of the exam. He then accompanies Team 7 to the tower in the center of the forest. Along the way, the group encounters a genjutsu set by the Rain Genin group whose teammate Sasuke had defeated previously. By the time they realise that they are not getting any closer to the center of the forest, they are attacked by a number of clones.


document_title: Fresh water

question_text: about how much of earth water is freshwater

root

text: Fresh water

text: Systems[edit]

text: Fresh water habitats are divided into lentic systems, which are the stillwaters including ponds, lakes, swamps and mires; lotic, or running-water systems; and groundwater which flows in rocks and aquifers. There is, in addition, a zone which bridges between groundwater and lotic systems, which is the hyporheic zone, which underlies many larger rivers and can contain substantially more water than is seen in the open channel. It may also be in direct contact with the underlying underground water. The majority of fresh water on Earth is in ice caps.

tag: p

text: Sources[edit]

text: The source of almost all fresh water is precipitation from the atmosphere, in the form of mist, rain and snow. Fresh water falling as mist, rain or snow contains materials dissolved from the atmosphere and material from the sea and land over which the rain bearing clouds have traveled. In industrialized areas rain is typically acidic because of dissolved oxides of sulfur and nitrogen formed from burning of fossil fuels in cars, factories, trains and aircraft and from the atmospheric emissions of industry. In some cases this acid rain results in pollution of lakes and rivers.

text: In coastal areas fresh water may contain significant concentrations of salts derived from the sea if windy conditions have lifted drops of seawater into the rain-bearing clouds. This can give rise to elevated concentrations of sodium, chloride, magnesium and sulfate as well as many other compounds in smaller concentrations.

text: In desert areas, or areas with impoverished or dusty soils, rain-bearing winds can pick up sand and dust and this can be deposited elsewhere in precipitation and causing the freshwater flow to be measurably contaminated both by insoluble solids but also by the soluble components of those soils. Significant quantities of iron may be transported in this way including the well-documented transfer of iron-rich rainfall falling in Brazil derived from sand-storms in the Sahara in north Africa.

text: Water distribution[edit]

text: Water is a critical issue for the survival of all living organisms. Some can use salt water but many organisms including the great majority of higher plants and most mammals must have access to fresh water to live. Some terrestrial mammals, especially desert rodents appear to survive without drinking but they do generate water through the metabolism of cereal seeds and they also have mechanisms to conserve water to the maximum degree.

text: Out of all the water on Earth, saline water in oceans, seas and saline groundwater make up about 97% of it. Only 2.5–2.75% is fresh water, including 1.75–2% frozen in glaciers, ice and snow, 0.5–0.75% as fresh groundwater and soil moisture, and less than 0.01% of it as surface water in lakes, swamps and rivers.[2][3] Freshwater lakes contain about 87% of this fresh surface water, including 29% in the African Great Lakes, 22% in Lake Baikal in Russia, 21% in the North American Great Lakes, and 14% in other lakes. Swamps have most of the balance with only a small amount in rivers, most notably the Amazon River. The atmosphere contains 0.04% water.[4] In areas with no fresh water on the ground surface, fresh water derived from precipitation may, because of its lower density, overlie saline ground water in lenses or layers. Most of the world's fresh water is frozen in ice sheets. Many areas suffer from lack of distribution of fresh water, such as deserts.

text: Numerical definition[edit]

text: Fresh water can be defined as water with less than 500 parts per million (ppm) of dissolved salts.[5]

text:
Part of a series on

Water salinity

Salinity levels

Fresh water (< 0.05%)
Brackish water (0.05–3%)
Saline water (3–5%)
Brine (> 5%)

Bodies of water

Seawater • Salt lake • Hypersaline lake • Salt pan • Brine pool • Bodies by salinity

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tag: table

text: Other sources give higher upper salinity limits for fresh water, e.g. 1000 ppm[6] or 3000 ppm.[7]

text: Aquatic organisms[edit]

text: Fresh water creates a hypotonic environment for aquatic organisms. This is problematic for some organisms with pervious skins or with gill membranes, whose cell membranes may burst if excess water is not excreted. Some protists accomplish this using contractile vacuoles, while freshwater fish excrete excess water via the kidney.[8] Although most aquatic organisms have a limited ability to regulate their osmotic balance and therefore can only live within a narrow range of salinity, diadromous fish have the ability to migrate between fresh water and saline water bodies. During these migrations they undergo changes to adapt to the surroundings of the changed salinities; these processes are hormonally controlled. The eel (Anguilla anguilla) uses the hormone prolactin,[9] while in salmon (Salmo salar) the hormone cortisol plays a key role during this process.[10]

text: Many sea birds have special glands at the base of the bill through which excess salt is excreted. Similarly the marine iguanas on the Galápagos Islands excrete excess salt through a nasal gland and they sneeze out a very salty excretion.

text: Fresh water as a resource[edit]

text: An important concern for hydrological ecosystems is securing minimum streamflow, especially preserving and restoring instream water allocations.[11] Fresh water is an important natural resource necessary for the survival of all ecosystems. The use of water by humans for activities such as irrigation and industrial applications can have adverse impacts on down-stream ecosystems. Chemical contamination of fresh water can also seriously damage eco-systems.

text: Pollution from human activity, including oil spills and also presents a problem for freshwater resources. The largest petroleum spill that has ever occurred in fresh water was caused by a Royal Dutch Shell tank ship in Magdalena, Argentina, on 15 January 1999, polluting the environment, drinkable water, plants and animals.[12]

text: Fresh and unpolluted water accounts for 0.003% of total water available globally.[13]

text: Agriculture[edit]

text: Changing landscape for the use of agriculture has a great effect on the flow of fresh water. Changes in landscape by the removal of trees and soils changes the flow of fresh water in the local environment and also affects the cycle of fresh water. As a result, more fresh water is stored in the soil which benefits agriculture. However, since agriculture is the human activity that consumes the most fresh water,[14] this can put a severe strain on local freshwater resources resulting in the destruction of local ecosystems. In Australia, over-abstraction of fresh water for intensive irrigation activities has caused 33% of the land area to be at risk of salination.[14] With regards to agriculture, the World Bank targets food production and water management as an increasingly global issue that will foster debate.[15]

text: Limited resource[edit]

text: Fresh water is a renewable and variable, but finite natural resource. Fresh water can only be replenished through the process of the water cycle, in which water from seas, lakes, forests, land, rivers, and reservoirs evaporates, forms clouds, and returns as precipitation. Locally however, if more fresh water is consumed through human activities than is naturally restored, this may result in reduced fresh water availability from surface and underground sources and can cause serious damage to surrounding and associated environments.

text: Fresh water withdrawal[edit]

text: Fresh water withdrawal is the quantity of water removed from available sources for use in any purpose, excluding evaporation losses. Water drawn off is not necessarily entirely consumed and some portion may be returned for further use downstream.

text: Causes of limited fresh water[edit]

text: The increase in the world population and the increase in per capita water use puts increasing strains on the finite resources avialability of clean fresh water The World Bank adds that the response by freshwater ecosystems to a changing climate can be described in terms of three interrelated components: water quality, water quantity or volume, and water timing. A change in one often leads to shifts in the others as well.[16] Water pollution and subsequent eutrophication also reduces the availability of fresh water.[17]

text: Fresh water in the future[edit]

text: Many areas of the world are already experiencing stress on water availability. Due to the accelerated pace of population growth and an increase in the amount of water a single person uses, it is expected that this situation will continue to get worse. A shortage of water in the future would be detrimental to the human population as it would affect everything from sanitation, to overall health and the production of grain.[18]

text: Choices in the use of fresh water[edit]

text: With one in eight people in the world not having access to safe water[19] it is important to use this resource in a prudent manner. Making the best use of water on a local basis probably provides the best solution. Local communities need to plan their use of fresh water and should be made aware of how certain crops and animals use water.

text: As a guide the following tables provide some indicators.

text: Table 1 Recommended basic water requirements for human needs (per person) [20]

text:
Activity
Minimum, litres / day
Range / day

Drinking Water
5
2–5

Sanitation Services
20
20–75

Bathing
15
5–70

Cooking and Kitchen
10
10–50

text: Table 2. Water Requirements of different classes of livestock [21]

text:
Animal
Average / day
Range / day

Dairy cow
76 L (20 US gal)
57 to 95 L (15 to 25 US gal)

Cow-calf pair
57 L (15 US gal)
8 to 76 L (2 to 20 US gal)

Yearling cattle
38 L (10 US gal)
23 to 53 L (6 to 14 US gal)

Horse
38 L (10 US gal)
30 to 53 L (8 to 14 US gal)

Sheep
8 L (2 US gal)
8 to 11 L (2 to 3 US gal)

text: Table 3 Approximate values of seasonal crop water needs [22]

text:
Crop
Crop water needs mm / total growing period

Banana
1200–2200

Barley/Oats/Wheat
450–650

Cabbage
350–500

Citrus
900–1200

Onions
350–550

Pea
350–500

Potato
500–700

Sugar Cane
1500–2500

Tomato
400–800


document_title: Cardiovascular centre

question_text: where is the major cardiovascular center in the cns

text: Cardiovascular centre

text: This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The cardiovascular centre is a part of the human brain responsible for the regulation of the rate at which the heart beats through the nervous and endocrine systems. It is found in the medulla oblongata. Normally, the heart beats without nervous control, but in some situations (e.g., exercise, body trauma), the cardiovascular centre is responsible for altering the rate at which the heart beats. It also mediates respiratory sinus arrhythmia.

text: When a change of blood pH is detected by central chemoreceptors or by peripheral chemoreceptors in aortic bodies and in carotid bodies, or a change of blood pressure is detected by baroreceptors in the aortic sinuses or carotid sinuses, the cardiovascular centre affects changes to the heart rate by sending a nerve impulse to the cardiac pacemaker (or SA node) via sympathetic fibres (to cause faster and stronger cardiac muscle contraction) and the vagus nerve (to cause slower and less strong cardiac muscle contraction). The cardiovascular centre also increases the stroke volume of the heart (that is, the amount of blood it pumps). These two changes help to regulate the cardiac output, so that a sufficient amount of blood reaches tissue.

text: Hormones like epinephrine and norepinephrine can affect the cardiovascular centre and cause it to increase the rate of impulses sent to the sinoatrial node, or pacemaker, resulting in faster and stronger cardiac muscle contraction and thus increasing the heart rate.

text:
hide

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Physiology of the cardiovascular system

Heart

Cardiac output

Cardiac cycle
Cardiac output

Heart rate
Stroke volume

Stroke volume

End-diastolic volume
End-systolic volume

Afterload
Preload
Frank–Starling law
Cardiac function curve
Venous return curve
Wiggers diagram
Pressure volume diagram

Ultrasound

Fractional shortening = (End-diastolic dimension
End-systolic dimension) / End-diastolic dimension
Aortic valve area calculation
Ejection fraction
Cardiac index

Heart rate

Cardiac pacemaker
Chronotropic (Heart rate)
Dromotropic (Conduction velocity)
Inotropic (Contractility)
Bathmotropic (Excitability)
Lusitropic (Relaxation)

Conduction

Conduction system
Cardiac electrophysiology
Action potential

cardiac
atrial
ventricular

Effective refractory period
Pacemaker potential
Electrocardiography

P wave
PR interval
QRS complex
QT interval
ST segment
T wave
U wave

Hexaxial reference system

Chamber pressure

Central venous
Right

atrial
ventricular

pulmonary artery

wedge

Left

atrial
ventricular

Aortic

Other

Ventricular remodeling

Vascular system/
Hemodynamics

Blood flow

Compliance
Vascular resistance
Pulse
Perfusion

Blood pressure

Pulse pressure

Systolic
Diastolic

Mean arterial pressure
Jugular venous pressure
Portal venous pressure

Regulation of BP

Baroreflex
Kinin–kallikrein system
Renin–angiotensin system
Vasoconstrictors
Vasodilators
Autoregulation

Myogenic mechanism
Tubuloglomerular feedback
Cerebral autoregulation

Paraganglia

Aortic body
Carotid body
Glomus cell

text: Medulla oblongataCardiovascular physiology

tag: ul

text: Articles lacking sources from December 2009All articles lacking sources


document_title: Back in the High Life Again

question_text: who sings back in the high life again

question_tokens: who sings back in the high life again

text: Back in the High Life Again

text:
"Back in the High Life Again"

Cover art for UK and non-US editions

Single by Steve Winwood

from the album Back in the High Life

Released
December 1986

Recorded
Unique Recording Studio
New York, 1985

Genre
R&B, blue-eyed soul, pop

Length
5:50
4:12 (edit)

Label
Island – IS 288

Songwriter(s)
Steve Winwood
Will Jennings

Producer(s)
Russ Titelman

Steve Winwood singles chronology

"Freedom Overspill"
(1986)
"Back in the High Life Again"
(1986)
"The Finer Things"
(1986)

"Freedom Overspill"
(1986)
"Back in the High Life Again"
(1986)
"The Finer Things"
(1986)

text: "Back in the High Life Again" is a 1986 single written by Steve Winwood and Will Jennings and performed by Winwood.[1] The single was included on his album Back in the High Life and included backing vocals by James Taylor as well as a prominent mandolin played by Winwood. "Back in the High Life Again" was Winwood's second number one on the Adult Contemporary chart. The single stayed at number one for three weeks and went to number 13 on the Billboard Hot 100.[2]

text: Personnel[edit]

text:
Steve Winwood – vocals, piano, synthesizer, mandolin, Moog bass, drum machine programming
Jimmy Bralower – additional drum machine programming[3]
Rob Mounsey – additional synthesizer
John Robinson – drums
James Taylor – harmony vocals

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: The song was in closing credits of the CBS Sports coverage of the NBA Finals in 1987,[4] and appeared in the It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia episode "The Gang Buys a Boat". It was also used in a photo montage of the NASCAR on TNN production crew after TNN's final NASCAR race broadcast, the 2000 Checker Auto Parts/Dura Lube 500 at Phoenix International Raceway.[5]

text: Warren Zevon subsequently covered the song on his 2000 album Life'll Kill Ya.


document_title: J. Wellington Wimpy

question_text: what was the name of the hamburger guy in popeye

text: J. Wellington Wimpy

text: Inspiration[edit]

text: The character seems to have been inspired by more than one person whom Segar had encountered. Wimpy's personality was based upon that of William Schuchert, the manager of the Chester Opera House where Segar was first employed. "Windy Bill," as he was known, was a pleasant, friendly man, fond of tall tales and hamburgers.[2]

text: Additional sources suggest that Segar composed the character's name from the names of two other acquaintances. According to fellow cartoonist Bill Mauldin, the name was suggested by that of Wellington J. Reynolds, one of Segar's instructors at the Chicago Art Institute.[3] In a brief 1935 interview in The Daily Oklahoman, H. Hillard Wimpee of Atlanta indicated that he was connected to the character, having worked with Segar at the Chicago Herald-Examiner in 1917. It became a custom in the office that whoever accepted an invitation for a hamburger would pay the bill. According to Wimpee, after seeing the character in the newspaper, he wrote Segar in 1922 about Wimpy, "afraid of being connected with what [Segar] was doing with [the character]." He said Segar replied, "'You haven't seen anything yet.'"[4]

text: Character[edit]

text: Wimpy is Popeye's friend. In the cartoons, he mainly plays the role of the "straight man" to Popeye's outbursts and wild antics. Wimpy is soft-spoken, romantic, very intelligent, and well educated, but also cowardly, very lazy, overly parsimonious and utterly gluttonous. He is also something of a scam artist and, especially in the newspaper strip, can be underhanded. However, his plans always succeed, and he lives off the land through his ill-gotten gains. Although Wimpy is almost a tramp, he pretends to be a member of a high social status. In addition to mooching hamburgers, he picks up discarded cigars from the sidewalk, but is embarrassed to do so. Popeye tries to reform his character, being a good natured soul with a strong set of morals, but Wimpy never reforms. Popeye often becomes "disgustipated" with Wimpy, but puts up with him for the most part and sometimes even tricks Wimpy, although rarely. Wimpy first appeared in the Sunday comic storyline with Tinearo and Battling McGnat in 1929, as a referee, although he was skinnier and his facial features weren't as defined. He was also missing his trademark brown jacket.

text: Hamburgers are Wimpy's all-time favorite food, and he is usually seen carrying or eating one or more at a time – e.g., in Popeye the Sailor Meets Sindbad the Sailor he is seen grinding meat or eating burgers almost the entire time – however, he is usually too cheap to pay for them himself. A recurring joke involves Wimpy's attempts to con other patrons of Rough House's diner into buying his meal for him. His best-known catchphrase started in 1931 as, "Cook me up a hamburger. I'll pay you Thursday." In 1932, this then became the famous, "I'll gladly pay you Tuesday for a hamburger today."[5] Rough House explains why Wimpy is able to get away with this tactic in one strip, stating that "He never comes around on Tuesday". Rough House once suffered a mental breakdown from Wimpy's shenanigans, and demanded that Wimpy be kept out of his hospital room. Wimpy disobeyed this command, resulting in a rare altercation with Popeye. The phrase was also slightly altered in the episode "Spree Lunch" to "I'll have a hamburger, for which I will gladly pay you Tuesday." This phrase is now commonly used to illustrate financial irresponsibility[6][7][8] and still appears in modern comedies such as The Drew Carey Show and The Office. The initial part of the phrase was even the title of Episode 6 of the fourth season of Cheers "I'll Gladly Pay You Tuesday."

text: In Robert Altman's 1980 live-action musical film Popeye, where Wimpy was played by veteran character actor Paul Dooley, one of Harry Nilsson's original songs, "Everything Is Food," featured Dooley singing the catch-phrase, as he took a hamburger, as "I would gladly pay you Tuesday for a hamburger today." The response from the chorus, as they reclaimed the same hamburger from him, uneaten, was "He would gladly pay you Tuesday for a hamburger today."  Later in the film, a sign in a restaurant reads "Positively NO CREDIT. This means YOU, Wimpy."

text: Wimpy had other frequently used lines in the original comic strip. On some occasions, Wimpy tries to placate someone by saying, "I'd like to invite you over to my house for a duck dinner." He then moves away quickly to a safe distance and yells, "You bring the ducks!" Another such line was, "Jones is my name...I'm one of the Jones boys" – an attempt to defuse a hostile situation with a mistaken identity. To deflect an enemy's wrath, he would sometimes indicate a third party and say, "Let's you and him fight", starting a brawl from which he quickly withdrew. He also said "Shake hands, my friend...I want to start my wristwatch" on occasion, once more a reference to his lazy behavior. Wimpy is especially fond of duck hunting, and goes hunting with Popeye on numerous occasions, but usually gains his ducks in dishonest ways as well.

text: Wimpy's mother made a cameo appearance in the Sunday strips. She is an elderly widower. Popeye and Rough House both try to make Wimpy seem as respectable as possible when she visits, because she doesn't know about her son's disreputable behavior. On one occasion, Popeye almost makes the truth come out by remarking that Wimpy is a loafer, but then relieves Mrs. Wimpy by stating that Wimpy is actually a baker who "makes loaves" and that he was only having a good natured jest. In the daily strips, Wimpy was appointed general of Popeye's country, Popilania, in the daily strips, and injured his head by saluting.

text: Wimpy made two cameo appearances in the Segar universe outside of the Thimble Theater comic strip. He appeared once in the side feature "Popeye's Cartoon Club," as an example of how not to behave, and once in a Sappo strip. The Sappo occurrence came out when Professor O.G. Wotasnozzle invented a machine that would produce synthetic hamburger, only to discover that Wimpy was going to eat it all. This led Sappo to say, "Yeah, break it up... we don't want him around," indicating that they both somehow knew about Wimpy's obsession with hamburgers. Wotasnozzle promptly destroys the device with a hammer. This storyline break was equally as bizarre as the iconic joke with Sappo's nose where Sappo's elongated nose breaks a panel and becomes the swing on which a child (In Popeye's Cartoon Club) is swinging.

text: Wimpy is an annoyance and an irritant to his nemesis, Nazilian shoemaker George W. Geezil, a satirical immigrant character, who goes so far as to poison Wimpy and shoot him. He has a habit of slurping soup. In Geezil's opinion, "He should be killed to death!" This, too, was a repetitive catchphrase. In the Plunder Island storyline, Wimpy disguises himself as Alice the Goon and scares Geezil off the boat. Geezil attempts to commit suicide upon learning that he is in close proximity to Wimpy on board the ship. Wimpy also converts the Sea Hag's five lions into hamburgers through the use of a meat grinder. He refuses to eat a cheese sandwich that Olive Oyl offers him. He tries to make an ape into a hamburger, but the ape refuses to submit. The Plunder Island storyline also contained a creative alteration of one of Wimpy's famous lines. Upon coming to a cannibal island, a cannibal says to Wimpy, "Come on down to the house for a duck dinner...you BE the duck".

text: In one storyline, Popeye, Olive Oyl, Swee'Pea, and Castor Oyl go on a trip to the desert to find gold. After leaving his landlady with an enormous amount of bills, he gets lost in the desert and separated from the rest of the group, in part because he drank Swee'Pea's milk and wasted his own rations. He gets "Desert Madness," a condition which involves long poems and illusions. He eventually reunites with his friends, and finds a cache of gold but admits that he wasn't working hard to look for the gold, he was only trying to kill a snake with his pickaxe. While at home, Wimpy ponders his gold, and a caption states that "he may take unto himself a wife..." Unfortunately, this storyline was either scrapped or forgotten, as Wimpy never becomes married for the rest of the Segar strips.

text: Wimpy does have romance in his soul, however, although usually with ulterior motives. Popeye once found that Rough House had employed a sexy waitress, but Wimpy decided that he was in love with her instead. When Popeye kicks him out to make love, Wimpy betrays Popeye and informs Olive Oyl that Popeye is cheating, resulting in a catfight between Olive and the sexy waitress. In another incident, Wimpy tried to seduce Olive herself by stating that he was, in reality, an eccentric millionaire who hid his money beneath a rock. Olive falls for the ploy, but stops falling for it when Wimpy states that he forgot his hiding place. In yet another notable incident, Wimpy had his own lover, Waneeta, but only loved her because her father owned a herd of beef cows.

text: In popular culture[edit]

text:
During World War II, "Wimpy", in reference to the character, was the nickname given to the Vickers Wellington bomber.
Wimpy is also the namesake of the large chain of Wimpy hamburger restaurants which was founded in Bloomington, Indiana in the 1930s and opened in the UK in 1954; it has maintained operations overseas since 1967. Their UK website states, "The name Wimpy is believed to have come from Popeye's friend J Wellington Wimpy who loved hamburgers as much as Popeye loved spinach."[9]
Wimpy can also be found as the mascot for "Wimpy's Seafood Restaurant and Market" in Osterville, MA on Cape Cod. (Established 1938)[10]
Wimpy made a cameo appearance (as an in-gag to both his facial features; in the context of beef related heart disease and affinity for hamburgers) in the Family Guy episode "McStroke".
Wimpy has appeared in two episodes of the Adult Swim animated series Robot Chicken, often using his "I'll gladly pay you Tuesday" line to buy hamburgers. Often it fails. Voiced by Scott Adsit.
In the Good Eats second season episode "Daily Grind" (aka "A Grind is a Terrible Thing to Waste"), Alton Brown prepares the "perfect burger" (as well as meatloaf & meatballs) for a character named "J. Wellington Whimpy" (misspelled, but looking mostly like the version of Wimpy played by Paul Dooley in the Popeye film) played by then cast regular Steve Rooney.[11]
In the final Pooch the Pup cartoon called She Done Him Right, a dog character looking like Wimpy is seen playing a slot machine.[12]
Wimpy's famous catchphrase gives the name to the hamburger review website A Hamburger Today.[13]
Wimpy is also the focus of an animated Bank of America commercial in which he uses a new smartphone app to finally pay for the food he mooched from his friends.[14]
Season 4 Episode 6 of Cheers is named "I'll Gladly Pay You Tuesday".
In the hit video game World of Warcraft, an NPC can be heard repeating "I'll gladly pay you Tuesday for a hamburger today" in the city of Stormwind.


document_title: Black Death

question_text: when did the black death start to spread

text: Black Death

text: Chronology

text: Origins of the disease

text: The plague disease, caused by Yersinia pestis, is enzootic (commonly present) in populations of fleas carried by ground rodents, including marmots, in various areas including Central Asia, Kurdistan, Western Asia, Northern India and Uganda.[10] Due to climate change in Asia, rodents began to flee the dried out grasslands to more populated areas, spreading the disease.[11] Nestorian graves dating to 1338–1339 near Lake Issyk Kul in Kyrgyzstan have inscriptions referring to plague and are thought by many epidemiologists to mark the outbreak of the epidemic, from which it could easily have spread to China and India.[12] In October 2010, medical geneticists suggested that all three of the great waves of the plague originated in China.[13] In China, the 13th-century Mongol conquest caused a decline in farming and trading. However, economic recovery had been observed at the beginning of the 14th century. In the 1330s, a large number of natural disasters and plagues led to widespread famine, starting in 1331, with a deadly plague arriving soon after.[14] Epidemics that may have included plague killed an estimated 25 million Chinese and other Asians during the 15 years before it reached Constantinople in 1347.[15][16]

text: The disease may have travelled along the Silk Road with Mongol armies and traders or it could have come via ship.[17] By the end of 1346, reports of plague had reached the seaports of Europe: "India was depopulated, Tartary, Mesopotamia, Syria, Armenia were covered with dead bodies".[18]

text: Plague was reportedly first introduced to Europe via Genoese traders at the port city of Kaffa in the Crimea in 1347. After a protracted siege, during which the Mongol army under Jani Beg was suffering from the disease, the army catapulted infected corpses over the city walls of Caffa to infect the inhabitants. The Genoese traders fled, taking the plague by ship into Sicily and the south of Europe, whence it spread north.[19] Whether or not this hypothesis is accurate, it is clear that several existing conditions such as war, famine, and weather contributed to the severity of the Black Death.

text: European outbreak

text:
The seventh year after it began, it came to England and first began in the towns and ports joining on the seacoasts, in Dorsetshire, where, as in other counties, it made the country quite void of inhabitants so that there were almost none left alive.
... But at length it came to Gloucester, yea even to Oxford and to London, and finally it spread over all England and so wasted the people that scarce the tenth person of any sort was left alive.

Geoffrey the Baker, Chronicon Angliae

tag: div

text: There appear to have been several introductions into Europe. The plague reached Sicily in October 1347, carried by twelve Genoese galleys,[20] and rapidly spread all over the island. Galleys from Kaffa reached Genoa and Venice in January 1348, but it was the outbreak in Pisa a few weeks later that was the entry point to northern Italy. Towards the end of January, one of the galleys expelled from Italy arrived in Marseille.[21]

text: From Italy, the disease spread northwest across Europe, striking France, Spain, Portugal and England by June 1348, then turned and spread east through Germany and Scandinavia from 1348 to 1350. It was introduced in Norway in 1349 when a ship landed at Askøy, then spread to Bjørgvin (modern Bergen) and Iceland.[22] Finally it spread to northwestern Russia in 1351. The plague was somewhat less common in parts of Europe that had smaller trade relations with their neighbours, including the majority of the Basque Country, isolated parts of Belgium and the Netherlands, and isolated alpine villages throughout the continent.[23][24]

text: Modern researchers do not think that the plague ever became endemic in Europe or its rat population. The disease repeatedly wiped out the rodent carriers so that the fleas died out until a new outbreak from Central Asia repeated the process. The outbreaks have been shown to occur roughly 15 years after a warmer and wetter period in areas where plague is endemic in other species such as gerbils.[25][26]

text: Middle Eastern outbreak

text: The plague struck various regions in the Middle East during the pandemic, leading to serious depopulation and permanent change in both economic and social structures. As it spread from China with the Mongols to a trading post in Crimea, called Kaffa, controlled by the Republic of Genoa. From there the disease, infected rodents infecting new rodents, entered the region from southern Russia also. By autumn 1347, the plague reached Alexandria in Egypt, through the port's trade with Constantinople, and ports on the Black Sea. During 1347, the disease travelled eastward to Gaza, and north along the eastern coast to cities in Lebanon, Syria and Palestine, including Ashkelon, Acre, Jerusalem, Sidon, Damascus, Homs, and Aleppo. In 1348–1349, the disease reached Antioch. The city's residents fled to the north, However most of them ended up dying during the journey.[27]

text: Mecca became infected in 1349. During the same year, records show the city of Mawsil (Mosul) suffered a massive epidemic, and the city of Baghdad experienced a second round of the disease.

text: Signs and symptoms

text: Contemporary accounts of the plague are often varied or imprecise. The most commonly noted symptom was the appearance of buboes (or gavocciolos) in the groin, the neck and armpits, which oozed pus and bled when opened.[28] Boccaccio's description:

text: In men and women alike it first betrayed itself by the emergence of certain tumours in the groin or armpits, some of which grew as large as a common apple, others as an egg...From the two said parts of the body this deadly gavocciolo soon began to propagate and spread itself in all directions indifferently; after which the form of the malady began to change, black spots or livid making their appearance in many cases on the arm or the thigh or elsewhere, now few and large, now minute and numerous. As the gavocciolo had been and still was an infallible token of approaching death, such also were these spots on whomsoever they showed themselves.[29]

text: The only medical detail that is questionable in Boccaccio's description is that the gavocciolo was an 'infallible token of approaching death', as, if the bubo discharges, recovery is possible.[30]

text: This was followed by acute fever and vomiting of blood. Most victims died two to seven days after initial infection. Freckle-like spots and rashes,[31] which could have been caused by flea-bites, were identified as another potential sign of the plague.

text: Some accounts, like that of Lodewijk Heyligen, whose master the Cardinal Colonna died of the plague in 1348, noted a distinct form of the disease that infected the lungs and led to respiratory problems[28] and is identified with pneumonic plague.

text: It is said that the plague takes three forms. In the first people suffer an infection of the lungs, which leads to breathing difficulties. Whoever has this corruption or contamination to any extent cannot escape but will die within two days. Another form...in which boils erupt under the armpits,...a third form in which people of both sexes are attacked in the groin.[32]

text: Causes

text: Medical knowledge had stagnated during the Middle Ages. The most authoritative account at the time came from the medical faculty in Paris in a report to the king of France that blamed the heavens, in the form of a conjunction of three planets in 1345 that caused a "great pestilence in the air".[34] This report became the first and most widely circulated of a series of plague tracts that sought to give advice to sufferers. That the plague was caused by bad air became the most widely accepted theory. Today, this is known as the miasma theory. The word plague had no special significance at this time, and only the recurrence of outbreaks during the Middle Ages gave it the name that has become the medical term.

text: The importance of hygiene was recognised only in the nineteenth century; until then it was common that the streets were filthy, with live animals of all sorts around and human parasites abounding. A transmissible disease will spread easily in such conditions. One development as a result of the Black Death was the establishment of the idea of quarantine in Dubrovnik in 1377 after continuing outbreaks.[35]

text: The dominant explanation for the Black Death is the plague theory, which attributes the outbreak to Yersinia pestis, also responsible for an epidemic that began in southern China in 1865, eventually spreading to India. The investigation of the pathogen that caused the 19th-century plague was begun by teams of scientists who visited Hong Kong in 1894, among whom was the French-Swiss bacteriologist Alexandre Yersin, after whom the pathogen was named Yersinia pestis.[36] The mechanism by which Y. pestis was usually transmitted was established in 1898 by Paul-Louis Simond and was found to involve the bites of fleas whose midguts had become obstructed by replicating Y. pestis several days after feeding on an infected host. This blockage results in starvation and aggressive feeding behaviour by the fleas, which repeatedly attempt to clear their blockage by regurgitation, resulting in thousands of plague bacteria being flushed into the feeding site, infecting the host. The bubonic plague mechanism was also dependent on two populations of rodents: one resistant to the disease, which act as hosts, keeping the disease endemic, and a second that lack resistance. When the second population dies, the fleas move on to other hosts, including people, thus creating a human epidemic.[36]

text: The historian Francis Aidan Gasquet wrote about the Great Pestilence in 1893[37] and suggested that "it would appear to be some form of the ordinary Eastern or bubonic plague". He was able to adopt the epidemiology of the bubonic plague for the Black Death for the second edition in 1908, implicating rats and fleas in the process, and his interpretation was widely accepted for other ancient and medieval epidemics, such as the Justinian plague that was prevalent in the Eastern Roman Empire from 541 to 700 CE.[36]

text: An estimate of the mortality rate for the modern bubonic plague, following the introduction of antibiotics, is 11%, although it may be higher in underdeveloped regions.[38] Symptoms of the disease include fever of 38–41 °C (100–106 °F), headaches, painful aching joints, nausea and vomiting, and a general feeling of malaise. Left untreated, of those that contract the bubonic plague, 80 per cent die within eight days.[39] Pneumonic plague has a mortality rate of 90 to 95 per cent. Symptoms include fever, cough, and blood-tinged sputum. As the disease progresses, sputum becomes free-flowing and bright red. Septicemic plague is the least common of the three forms, with a mortality rate near 100%. Symptoms are high fevers and purple skin patches (purpura due to disseminated intravascular coagulation). In cases of pneumonic and particularly septicemic plague, the progress of the disease is so rapid that there would often be no time for the development of the enlarged lymph nodes that were noted as buboes.[40]

text: A number of alternative theories – implicating other diseases in the Black Death pandemic – have also been proposed by some modern scientists (see below – "Alternative Explanations").

text: DNA evidence

text: In October 2010, the open-access scientific journal PLoS Pathogens published a paper by a multinational team who undertook a new investigation into the role of Yersinia pestis in the Black Death following the disputed identification by Drancourt and Raoult in 1998. They assessed the presence of DNA/RNA with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques for Y. pestis from the tooth sockets in human skeletons from mass graves in northern, central and southern Europe that were associated archaeologically with the Black Death and subsequent resurgences. The authors concluded that this new research, together with prior analyses from the south of France and Germany,[41] "ends the debate about the cause of the Black Death, and unambiguously demonstrates that Y. pestis was the causative agent of the epidemic plague that devastated Europe during the Middle Ages".[42]

text: The study also found that there were two previously unknown but related clades (genetic branches) of the Y. pestis genome associated with medieval mass graves. These clades (which are thought to be extinct) were found to be ancestral to modern isolates of the modern Y. pestis strains Y. p. orientalis and Y. p. medievalis, suggesting the plague may have entered Europe in two waves. Surveys of plague pit remains in France and England indicate the first variant entered Europe through the port of Marseille around November 1347 and spread through France over the next two years, eventually reaching England in the spring of 1349, where it spread through the country in three epidemics. Surveys of plague pit remains from the Dutch town of Bergen op Zoom showed the Y. pestis genotype responsible for the pandemic that spread through the Low Countries from 1350 differed from that found in Britain and France, implying Bergen op Zoom (and possibly other parts of the southern Netherlands) was not directly infected from England or France in 1349 and suggesting a second wave of plague, different from those in Britain and France, may have been carried to the Low Countries from Norway, the Hanseatic cities or another site.[42]

text: The results of the Haensch study have since been confirmed and amended. Based on genetic evidence derived from Black Death victims in the East Smithfield burial site in England, Schuenemann et al. concluded in 2011 "that the Black Death in medieval Europe was caused by a variant of Y. pestis that may no longer exist."[43] A study published in Nature in October 2011 sequenced the genome of Y. pestis from plague victims and indicated that the strain that caused the Black Death is ancestral to most modern strains of the disease.[44]

text: DNA taken from 25 skeletons from the 14th century found in London have shown the plague is a strain of Y. pestis that is almost identical to that which hit Madagascar in 2013.[45][46]

text: Alternative explanations

text: The plague theory was first significantly challenged by the work of British bacteriologist J. F. D. Shrewsbury in 1970, who noted that the reported rates of mortality in rural areas during the 14th-century pandemic were inconsistent with the modern bubonic plague, leading him to conclude that contemporary accounts were exaggerations.[36] In 1984 zoologist Graham Twigg produced the first major work to challenge the bubonic plague theory directly, and his doubts about the identity of the Black Death have been taken up by a number of authors, including Samuel K. Cohn, Jr. (2002 and 2013), David Herlihy (1997), and Susan Scott and Christopher Duncan (2001).[36]

text: It is recognised that an epidemiological account of the plague is as important as an identification of symptoms, but researchers are hampered by the lack of reliable statistics from this period. Most work has been done on the spread of the plague in England, and even estimates of overall population at the start vary by over 100% as no census was undertaken between the time of publication of the Domesday Book and the year 1377.[47] Estimates of plague victims are usually extrapolated from figures from the clergy.

text: In addition to arguing that the rat population was insufficient to account for a bubonic plague pandemic, sceptics of the bubonic plague theory point out that the symptoms of the Black Death are not unique (and arguably in some accounts may differ from bubonic plague); that transference via fleas in goods was likely to be of marginal significance; and that the DNA results may be flawed and might not have been repeated elsewhere, despite extensive samples from other mass graves.[36] Other arguments include the lack of accounts of the death of rats before outbreaks of plague between the 14th and 17th centuries; temperatures that are too cold in northern Europe for the survival of fleas; that, despite primitive transport systems, the spread of the Black Death was much faster than that of modern bubonic plague; that mortality rates of the Black Death appear to be very high; that, while modern bubonic plague is largely endemic as a rural disease, the Black Death indiscriminately struck urban and rural areas; and that the pattern of the Black Death, with major outbreaks in the same areas separated by 5 to 15 years, differs from modern bubonic plague—which often becomes endemic for decades with annual flare-ups.[36]

text: McCormick has suggested that earlier archaeologists were simply not interested in the "laborious" processes needed to discover rat remains.[48] Walløe complains that all of these authors "take it for granted that Simond's infection model, black rat → rat flea → human, which was developed to explain the spread of plague in India, is the only way an epidemic of Yersinia pestis infection could spread", whilst pointing to several other possibilities.[49] Similarly, Green has argued that greater attention is needed to the range of (especially non-commensal) animals that might be involved in the transmission of plague.[50]

text: A variety of alternatives to the Y. pestis have been put forward. Twigg suggested that the cause was a form of anthrax, and Norman Cantor thought it may have been a combination of anthrax and other pandemics. Scott and Duncan have argued that the pandemic was a form of infectious disease that they characterise as hemorrhagic plague similar to Ebola. Archaeologist Barney Sloane has argued that there is insufficient evidence of the extinction of a large number of rats in the archaeological record of the medieval waterfront in London and that the plague spread too quickly to support the thesis that the Y. pestis was spread from fleas on rats; he argues that transmission must have been person to person.[51][52] This theory is supported by research in 2018 which suggested transmission was more likely by body lice and human fleas during the Second Pandemic.[53]

text: However, no single alternative solution has achieved widespread acceptance.[36] Many scholars arguing for the Y. pestis as the major agent of the pandemic suggest that its extent and symptoms can be explained by a combination of bubonic plague with other diseases, including typhus, smallpox and respiratory infections. In addition to the bubonic infection, others point to additional septicemic (a type of "blood poisoning") and pneumonic (an airborne plague that attacks the lungs before the rest of the body) forms of the plague, which lengthen the duration of outbreaks throughout the seasons and help account for its high mortality rate and additional recorded symptoms.[28] In 2014, scientists with Public Health England announced the results of an examination of 25 bodies exhumed from the Clerkenwell area of London, as well as of wills registered in London during the period, which supported the pneumonic hypothesis.[45]

text: Consequences

text: Death toll

text: There are no exact figures for the death toll; the rate varied widely by locality. In urban centres, the greater the population before the outbreak, the longer the duration of the period of abnormal mortality.[54] It killed some 75 to 200 million people in Eurasia.[1][2][3] According to medieval historian Philip Daileader in 2007:

text: The trend of recent research is pointing to a figure more like 45–50% of the European population dying during a four-year period. There is a fair amount of geographic variation. In Mediterranean Europe, areas such as Italy, the south of France and Spain, where plague ran for about four years consecutively, it was probably closer to 75–80% of the population. In Germany and England ... it was probably closer to 20%.[55]

text: A death rate as high as 60% in Europe has been suggested by Norwegian historian Ole Benedictow:

text: Detailed study of the mortality data available points to two conspicuous features in relation to the mortality caused by the Black Death: namely the extreme level of mortality caused by the Black Death, and the remarkable similarity or consistency of the level of mortality, from Spain in southern Europe to England in north-western Europe. The data is sufficiently widespread and numerous to make it likely that the Black Death swept away around 60 per cent of Europe's population. It is generally assumed that the size of Europe's population at the time was around 80 million. This implies that around 50 million people died in the Black Death.[56]

text: The most widely accepted estimate for the Middle East, including Iraq, Iran and Syria, during this time, is for a death rate of about a third.[57] The Black Death killed about 40% of Egypt's population.[58] Half of Paris's population of 100,000 people died. In Italy, the population of Florence was reduced from 110,000–120,000 inhabitants in 1338 down to 50,000 in 1351. At least 60% of the population of Hamburg and Bremen perished,[59] and a similar percentage of Londoners may have died from the disease as well.[45] In London approximately 62,000 people died between the years between 1346 and 1353.[11] While contemporary reports account of mass burial pits being created in response to the large numbers of dead, recent scientific investigations of a burial pit in Central London found well-preserved individuals to be buried in isolated, evenly spaced graves, suggesting at least some pre-planning and Christian burials at this time.[60] Before 1350, there were about 170,000 settlements in Germany, and this was reduced by nearly 40,000 by 1450.[61] In 1348, the plague spread so rapidly that before any physicians or government authorities had time to reflect upon its origins, about a third of the European population had already perished. In crowded cities, it was not uncommon for as much as 50% of the population to die.[36] The disease bypassed some areas, and the most isolated areas were less vulnerable to contagion. Monks and priests were especially hard-hit since they cared for victims of the Black Death.[62]

text: Persecutions

text: Renewed religious fervour and fanaticism bloomed in the wake of the Black Death. Some Europeans targeted "various groups such as Jews, friars, foreigners, beggars, pilgrims",[63] lepers,[63][64] and Romani, thinking that they were to blame for the crisis. Lepers, and other individuals with skin diseases such as acne or psoriasis, were singled out and exterminated throughout Europe.

text: Because 14th-century healers were at a loss to explain the cause, Europeans turned to astrological forces, earthquakes, and the poisoning of wells by Jews as possible reasons for the plague's emergence.[65] The governments of Europe had no apparent response to the crisis because no one knew its cause or how it spread. The mechanism of infection and transmission of diseases was little understood in the 14th century; many people believed the epidemic was a punishment by God for their sins. This belief led to the idea that the cure to the disease was to win God's forgiveness[66]

text: There were many attacks against Jewish communities.[67] In February 1349, the citizens of Strasbourg murdered 2,000 Jews.[67] In August 1349, the Jewish communities in Mainz and Cologne were annihilated. By 1351, 60 major and 150 smaller Jewish communities had been destroyed.[68] These massacres eventually died out in Western Europe, only to continue on in Eastern Europe. During this period many Jews relocated to Poland and Russia, receiving a warm welcome from King Casimir.[69]

text: Recurrence

text: The plague repeatedly returned to haunt Europe and the Mediterranean throughout the 14th to 17th centuries.[70] According to Biraben, the plague was present somewhere in Europe in every year between 1346 and 1671.[71] The Second Pandemic was particularly widespread in the following years: 1360–1363; 1374; 1400; 1438–1439; 1456–1457; 1464–1466; 1481–1485; 1500–1503; 1518–1531; 1544–1548; 1563–1566; 1573–1588; 1596–1599; 1602–1611; 1623–1640; 1644–1654; and 1664–1667. Subsequent outbreaks, though severe, marked the retreat from most of Europe (18th century) and northern Africa (19th century).[72] According to Geoffrey Parker, "France alone lost almost a million people to the plague in the epidemic of 1628–31."[73]

text: In England, in the absence of census figures, historians propose a range of preincident population figures from as high as 7 million to as low as 4 million in 1300,[74] and a postincident population figure as low as 2 million.[75] By the end of 1350, the Black Death subsided, but it never really died out in England. Over the next few hundred years, further outbreaks occurred in 1361–1362, 1369, 1379–1383, 1389–1393, and throughout the first half of the 15th century.[76] An outbreak in 1471 took as much as 10–15% of the population, while the death rate of the plague of 1479–1480 could have been as high as 20%.[77] The most general outbreaks in Tudor and Stuart England seem to have begun in 1498, 1535, 1543, 1563, 1589, 1603, 1625, and 1636, and ended with the Great Plague of London in 1665.[78]

text: In 1466, perhaps 40,000 people died of the plague in Paris.[79] During the 16th and 17th centuries, the plague was present in Paris around 30 per cent of the time.[80] The Black Death ravaged Europe for three years before it continued on into Russia, where the disease was present somewhere in the country 25 times between 1350 and 1490.[81] Plague epidemics ravaged London in 1563, 1593, 1603, 1625, 1636, and 1665,[82] reducing its population by 10 to 30% during those years.[83] Over 10% of Amsterdam's population died in 1623–1625, and again in 1635–1636, 1655, and 1664.[84] Plague occurred in Venice 22 times between 1361 and 1528.[85] The plague of 1576–1577 killed 50,000 in Venice, almost a third of the population.[86] Late outbreaks in central Europe included the Italian Plague of 1629–1631, which is associated with troop movements during the Thirty Years' War, and the Great Plague of Vienna in 1679. Over 60% of Norway's population died in 1348–1350.[87] The last plague outbreak ravaged Oslo in 1654.[88]

text: In the first half of the 17th century, a plague claimed some 1.7 million victims in Italy, or about 14% of the population.[89] In 1656, the plague killed about half of Naples' 300,000 inhabitants.[90] More than 1.25 million deaths resulted from the extreme incidence of plague in 17th-century Spain.[91] The plague of 1649 probably reduced the population of Seville by half.[92] In 1709–1713, a plague epidemic that followed the Great Northern War (1700–1721, Sweden v. Russia and allies)[93] killed about 100,000 in Sweden,[94] and 300,000 in Prussia.[92] The plague killed two-thirds of the inhabitants of Helsinki,[95] and claimed a third of Stockholm's population.[96] Europe's last major epidemic occurred in 1720 in Marseille.[87]

text: The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world.[97] Plague was present in at least one location in the Islamic world virtually every year between 1500 and 1850.[98] Plague repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa. Algiers lost 30,000–50,000 inhabitants to it in 1620–1621, and again in 1654–1657, 1665, 1691, and 1740–1742.[99] Plague remained a major event in Ottoman society until the second quarter of the 19th century. Between 1701 and 1750, thirty-seven larger and smaller epidemics were recorded in Constantinople, and an additional thirty-one between 1751 and 1800.[100] Baghdad has suffered severely from visitations of the plague, and sometimes two-thirds of its population has been wiped out.[101]

text: Third plague pandemic

text: The third plague pandemic (1855–1859) started in China in the mid-19th century, spreading to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone.[102] Twelve plague outbreaks in Australia between 1900 and 1925 resulted in well over 1,000 deaths, chiefly in Sydney. This led to the establishment of a Public Health Department there which undertook some leading-edge research on plague transmission from rat fleas to humans via the bacillus Yersinia pestis.[103]

text: The first North American plague epidemic was the San Francisco plague of 1900–1904, followed by another outbreak in 1907–1908.[104][105][106]

text: Modern treatment methods include insecticides, the use of antibiotics, and a plague vaccine. The plague bacterium could develop drug resistance and again become a major health threat. One case of a drug-resistant form of the bacterium was found in Madagascar in 1995.[107] A further outbreak in Madagascar was reported in November 2014.[108] In October 2017 the deadliest outbreak of the plague in modern times hit Madagascar, killing 170 people and infecting thousands.[109]

text: Names

text: The phrase "black death" (mors nigra) was used in 1350 by Simon de Covino or Couvin, a Belgian astronomer, who wrote the poem "On the Judgment of the Sun at a Feast of Saturn" (De judicio Solis in convivio Saturni), which attributes the plague to a conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn.[110] In 1908, Gasquet claimed that use of the name atra mors for the 14th-century epidemic first appeared in a 1631 book on Danish history by J. I. Pontanus: "Commonly and from its effects, they called it the black death" (Vulgo & ab effectu atram mortem vocatibant).[111] The name spread through Scandinavia and then Germany, gradually becoming attached to the mid 14th-century epidemic as a proper name.[112] However, atra mors is used to refer to a pestilential fever (febris pestilentialis) already in the 12th-century On the Signs and Symptoms of Diseases (Latin: De signis et sinthomatibus egritudinum) by French physician Gilles de Corbeil.[113] In England, the phrase "Black Death" is first used to refer to the 14th-century epidemic in 1823.[114] Writers contemporary with the plague described the event as "great plague"[65] or "great pestilence".[115]