document_title: The Legend of Bagger Vance

question_text: what golf course was used in the legend of bagger vance

text: The Legend of Bagger Vance

text: Plot[edit]

text: As an old man having his sixth heart attack while playing golf, Hardy Greaves (Jack Lemmon), contemplates how his wife used to ask him (before her passing) why he insisted on playing "a game that seems destined to kill[4]" him. Explaining his love for the game, he begins the story of his childhood idol: Rannulph Junuh (Matt Damon).

text: Junuh is the favorite son of Savannah, Georgia: a noteworthy golfer from a wealthy family, he and his beautiful girlfriend named Adele Invergordon (Charlize Theron) seem to have it all. While serving as a captain in the US Army during World War I, Junuh is traumatized when his entire company is wiped out in battle. Though he earns the Medal of Honor, he disappears after the war, returning to Georgia years later as a broken-down alcoholic.

text: At the start of the Great Depression (circa 1930[5]), Adele is trying to recover her family's lost fortune by holding a four-round, two-day exhibition match between Bobby Jones (Joel Gretsch) and Walter Hagen (Bruce McGill), the best golfers of the era, with a grand prize of $10,000, at a golf resort her father opened as the Depression struck. However, she needs a local participant to generate local interest. The young Greaves (J. Michael Moncrief) speaks up for his hero, Junuh, prompting Adele to ask her estranged lover to play.

text: Junuh is approached by a mysterious traveler carrying a suitcase, who appears while Junuh is trying to hit golf balls into the dark void of night. The man identifies himself as Bagger Vance (Will Smith) and says he will be Junuh's caddie. With Greaves as assistant caddie, Bagger helps Junuh come to grips with his personal demons and play golf again.

text: When the match starts, Jones and Hagen each play well in their distinctive ways, but the disengaged Junuh plays poorly and is far behind after the first round. With Bagger caddying for him and giving advice, Junuh rediscovers his "authentic swing" in the second round and makes up some ground. In the third round, he closes the gap even more, hitting a hole in one in the process. Meanwhile, Junuh and Adele rekindle their romance.

text: Late in the final round, Junuh disregards Bagger's advice at a crucial point and after that plays poorly. He hits a ball into a forest, where he has a traumatic World War I flashback, but Bagger's words help him to focus on the game. Junuh pulls back to a tie with Jones and Hagen, then has a chance to win on the final hole, but has the integrity to call a penalty on himself when his ball moves after he tries to remove a loose impediment.

text: Seeing Junuh has grown and matured, Bagger decides his golfer doesn't need him any more. With the 18th hole left unfinished, Bagger gives the position of caddie to Greaves, and leaves Junuh as mysteriously as he came.

text: Though losing a chance to win because of the penalty, Junuh sinks an improbable putt and the match ends in a gentlemanly three-way tie. The three golfers shake hands with all of Savannah cheering. Junuh and Adele get back together.

text: The old Greaves wakes up and sees an unaged Bagger Vance beckoning him from a distance. Hardy follows, presumably to the afterlife.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Will Smith as Bagger Vance
Matt Damon as Rannulph Junuh
Charlize Theron as Adele Invergordon
Bruce McGill as Walter Hagen
Joel Gretsch as Bobby Jones
J. Michael Moncrief as Hardy Greaves
Lane Smith as Grantland Rice
Peter Gerety as Neskaloosa
Wilbur Fitzgerald as Roy
Jack Lemmon (uncredited) as Narrator / Old Hardy Greaves

tag: ul

text: Production notes [edit]

text: Similarities to the Hindu epic Mahabharata[edit]

text: The plot is loosely based on the Hindu sacred text the Bhagavad Gita, where the Warrior/Hero Arjuna (R. Junuh) refuses to fight. The god Krishna appears as Bhagavan (Bagger Vance) to help him to follow his path as the warrior and hero that he was meant to be. This relationship was fully explained by Steven J. Rosen in his book Gita on the Green, for which Steven Pressfield wrote the foreword.[6]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Portions of the exhibition match were set at the Kiawah Island Golf Resort in South Carolina, United States, considered one of the toughest in the country. The scene in which Greaves has a heart attack was shot on No. 11 of the resort's Cougar Point golf course. The final hole in the film was temporary, so the filming did not interfere with the club activities, and cost US $200,000 to build. However, most of the golf scenes were filmed at Colleton River Plantation,[7] just off Hilton Head Island.[8] Certain segments of this film were also filmed in Savannah and Jekyll Island, Georgia.[9]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Critical response [edit]

text: Reaction from the movie critics was mixed. Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 43% based on 129 reviews, with an average rating of 5.2/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Despite the talent involved in The Legend of Bagger Vance, performances are hindered by an inadequate screenplay full of flat characters and bad dialogue. Also, not much happens, and some critics are offended by how the film glosses over issues of racism."[10] On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 47 out of 100, based on 35 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[11]

text: Film critic Roger Ebert, who gave it 3½ stars, said, "It handles a sports movie the way Billie Holiday handled a trashy song, by finding the love and pain beneath the story. Redford and his writer, Jeremy Leven, starting from a novel by Steven Pressfield, are very clear in their minds about what they want to do. They want to explain why it is possible to devote your life to the love of golf, and they want to hint that golf and life may have a lot in common".[12] The BBC's George Perry called it a "sumptuously photographed film" but added that "in spite of being lovely to look at, it is pretentious piffle, although Will Smith shows skill and subtlety in his ludicrous role".[13]

text: Time called it one of the most "embarrassing" films of recent years for its treatment of African Americans and the use of a "Magical African-American Friend".[3]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The Legend of Bagger Vance opened at #3 at the U.S. box office, grossing $11,516,712 from 2,061 theaters.[14] According to the Internet Movie Database, the film's total gross came to $30,695,227, far short of its estimated $80 million budget.[15]

text: Soundtrack [edit]

text: The now out-of-print soundtrack to The Legend of Bagger Vance was released on November 7, 2000. It was mostly written by Rachel Portman, except for tracks one ("My Best Wishes"), thirteen ("Bluin’ the Blues") and fourteen ("Mood Indigo"), which were written by Fats Waller, Muggsy Spanier and Duke Ellington, respectively.

text:
My Best Wishes (2:27)
The Legend of Bagger Vance (2:11)
Savannah Needs a Hero (4:53)
Bagger Offers to Caddy for Junuh (4:07)
Bagger & Hardy Measure the Course at Night (2:32)
The Day of the Match Dawns (3:07)
Birdie (1:46)
Junuh Sees the Field (5:11)
Hole in One (2:30)
Junuh Comes Out of the Woods (3:55)
Bagger Leaves (3:12)
Old Hardy Joins Bagger by the Sea (5:50)
Bluin' the Blues (2:27)
Mood Indigo (3:07)

text: Total soundtrack time: 47:15

text: In popular culture[edit]

text: The film was referenced as a meta-joke in Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back, when Ben Affleck and Matt Damon are shooting the movie-within-a-movie "Goodwill Hunting 2", and Affleck says to Damon (referencing The Talented Mr. Ripley and All the Pretty Horses as well) "I'm sorry I dragged you away from whatever gay-serial-killers-who-ride-horses and like-to-play-golf touchy-feely picture you were gonna do this week."


document_title: Multiplication

question_text: what is a factor in a multiplication problem

root

text: Multiplication

text: Notation and terminology[edit]

text: In arithmetic, multiplication is often written using the sign "×" between the terms; that is, in infix notation.[3] For example,

tag: p

text: The sign is encoded in Unicode at U+00D7 × MULTIPLICATION SIGN (HTML × · ×).

text: There are other mathematical notations for multiplication:

text: Multiplication is also denoted by dot signs,[4] usually a middle-position dot (rarely period):

text:
In algebra, multiplication involving variables is often written as a juxtaposition (e.g., xy for x times y or 5x for five times x), also called implied multiplication.[5] The notation can also be used for quantities that are surrounded by parentheses (e.g., 5(2) or (5)(2) for five times two). This implicit usage of multiplication can cause ambiguity when the concatenated variables happen to match the name of another variable, when a variable name in front of a parenthesis can be confused with a function name, or in the correct determination of the order of operations.
In matrix multiplication, there is a distinction between the cross and the dot symbols. The cross symbol generally denotes the taking a cross product of two vectors, yielding a vector as the result, while the dot denotes taking the dot product of two vectors, resulting in a scalar.

text: In computer programming, the asterisk (as in 5*2) is still the most common notation. This is due to the fact that most computers historically were limited to small character sets (such as ASCII and EBCDIC) that lacked a multiplication sign (such as ⋅ or ×), while the asterisk appeared on every keyboard. This usage originated in the FORTRAN programming language.

text: The numbers to be multiplied are generally called the "factors". The number to be multiplied is called the "multiplicand", while the number of times the multiplicand is to be multiplied comes from the "multiplier". Usually the multiplier is placed first and the multiplicand is placed second,[1] however sometimes the first factor is the multiplicand and the second the multiplier.[6] Additionally, there are some sources in which the term "multiplicand" is regarded as a synonym for "factor".[7] In algebra, a number that is the multiplier of a variable or expression (e.g., the 3 in 3xy2) is called a coefficient.

text: The result of a multiplication is called a product. A product of integers is a multiple of each factor. For example, 15 is the product of 3 and 5, and is both a multiple of 3 and a multiple of 5.

text: Computation[edit]

text: The common methods for multiplying numbers using pencil and paper require a multiplication table of memorized or consulted products of small numbers (typically any two numbers from 0 to 9), however one method, the peasant multiplication algorithm, does not.

text: Multiplying numbers to more than a couple of decimal places by hand is tedious and error prone. Common logarithms were invented to simplify such calculations. The slide rule allowed numbers to be quickly multiplied to about three places of accuracy. Beginning in the early 20th century, mechanical calculators, such as the Marchant, automated multiplication of up to 10 digit numbers. Modern electronic computers and calculators have greatly reduced the need for multiplication by hand.

text: Historical algorithms[edit]

text: Methods of multiplication were documented in the Egyptian, Greek, Indian and Chinese civilizations.

text: The Ishango bone, dated to about 18,000 to 20,000 BC, hints at a knowledge of multiplication in the Upper Paleolithic era in Central Africa.

text: Egyptians[edit]

text: The Egyptian method of multiplication of integers and fractions, documented in the Ahmes Papyrus, was by successive additions and doubling. For instance, to find the product of 13 and 21 one had to double 21 three times, obtaining 2 × 21 = 42, 4 × 21 = 2 × 42 = 84, 8 × 21 = 2 × 84 = 168. The full product could then be found by adding the appropriate terms found in the doubling sequence:

text: Babylonians[edit]

text: The Babylonians used a sexagesimal positional number system, analogous to the modern day decimal system. Thus, Babylonian multiplication was very similar to modern decimal multiplication. Because of the relative difficulty of remembering 60 × 60 different products, Babylonian mathematicians employed multiplication tables. These tables consisted of a list of the first twenty multiples of a certain principal number n: n, 2n, ..., 20n; followed by the multiples of 10n: 30n 40n, and 50n. Then to compute any sexagesimal product, say 53n, one only needed to add 50n and 3n computed from the table.

text: Chinese[edit]

text: In the mathematical text Zhoubi Suanjing, dated prior to 300 BC, and the Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, multiplication calculations were written out in words, although the early Chinese mathematicians employed Rod calculus involving place value addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. These place value decimal arithmetic algorithms were introduced by Al Khwarizmi to Arab countries in the early 9th century.

text: Modern methods[edit]

text: The modern method of multiplication based on the Hindu–Arabic numeral system was first described by Brahmagupta. Brahmagupta gave rules for addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Henry Burchard Fine, then professor of Mathematics at Princeton University, wrote the following:

text: Grid Method[edit]

text: Grid method multiplication or the box method, is used in primary schools in England and Wales to help teach an understanding of how multiple digit multiplication works. An example of multiplying 34 by 13 would be to lay the numbers out in a grid like:

text:
30
4

10
300
40

3
90
12

tag: table

text: and then add the entries.

text: Computer algorithms[edit]

text: The classical method of multiplying two n-digit numbers requires n2 simple multiplications. Multiplication algorithms have been designed that reduce the computation time considerably when multiplying large numbers. In particular for very large numbers, methods based on the Discrete Fourier Transform can reduce the number of simple multiplications to the order of n log2(n) log2 log2(n).

text: Products of measurements[edit]

text: One can only meaningfully add or subtract quantities of the same type but can multiply or divide quantities of different types. Four bags with three marbles each can be though of as:[1]

text: When two measurements are multiplied together the product is of a type depending on the types of the measurements. The general theory is given by dimensional analysis. This analysis is routinely applied in physics but has also found applications in finance.

text: A common example is multiplying speed by time gives distance, so

text: Other examples:

text: Products of sequences[edit]

text: Capital Pi notation[edit]

text: The product of a sequence of terms can be written with the product symbol, which derives from the capital letter Π (Pi) in the Greek alphabet. Unicode position U+220F (∏) contains a glyph for denoting such a product, distinct from U+03A0 (Π), the letter. The meaning of this notation is given by:

text: that is

text: The subscript gives the symbol for a dummy variable (i in this case), called the "index of multiplication" together with its lower bound (1), whereas the superscript (here 4) gives its upper bound. The lower and upper bound are expressions denoting integers. The factors of the product are obtained by taking the expression following the product operator, with successive integer values substituted for the index of multiplication, starting from the lower bound and incremented by 1 up to and including the upper bound. So, for example:

text: More generally, the notation is defined as

text: where m and n are integers or expressions that evaluate to integers. In case m = n, the value of the product is the same as that of the single factor xm. If m > n, the product is the empty product, with the value 1.

text: Infinite products[edit]

text: One may also consider products of infinitely many terms; these are called infinite products. Notationally, we would replace n above by the lemniscate ∞. The product of such a series is defined as the limit of the product of the first n terms, as n grows without bound. That is, by definition,

text: One can similarly replace m with negative infinity, and define:

text: provided both limits exist.

text: Properties[edit]

text: For the real and complex numbers, which includes for example natural numbers, integers and fractions, multiplication has certain properties:

text: Other mathematical systems that include a multiplication operation may not have all these properties. For example, multiplication is not, in general, commutative for matrices and quaternions.

text: Axioms[edit]

text: In the book Arithmetices principia, nova methodo exposita, Giuseppe Peano proposed axioms for arithmetic based on his axioms for natural numbers.[9] Peano arithmetic has two axioms for multiplication:

text: Here S(y) represents the successor of y, or the natural number that follows y. The various properties like associativity can be proved from these and the other axioms of Peano arithmetic including induction. For instance S(0), denoted by 1, is a multiplicative identity because

text: The axioms for integers typically define them as equivalence classes of ordered pairs of natural numbers. The model is based on treating (x,y) as equivalent to x − y when x and y are treated as integers. Thus both (0,1) and (1,2) are equivalent to −1. The multiplication axiom for integers defined this way is

text: The rule that −1 × −1 = 1 can then be deduced from

text: Multiplication is extended in a similar way to rational numbers and then to real numbers.

text: Multiplication with set theory[edit]

text: The product of non-negative integers can be defined with set theory using cardinal numbers or the Peano axioms. See below how to extend this to multiplying arbitrary integers, and then arbitrary rational numbers. The product of real numbers is defined in terms of products of rational numbers, see construction of the real numbers.

text: Multiplication in group theory[edit]

text: There are many sets that, under the operation of multiplication, satisfy the axioms that define group structure. These axioms are closure, associativity, and the inclusion of an identity element and inverses.

text: A simple example is the set of non-zero rational numbers. Here we have identity 1, as opposed to groups under addition where the identity is typically 0. Note that with the rationals, we must exclude zero because, under multiplication, it does not have an inverse: there is no rational number that can be multiplied by zero to result in 1. In this example we have an abelian group, but that is not always the case.

text: To see this, look at the set of invertible square matrices of a given dimension, over a given field. Now it is straightforward to verify closure, associativity, and inclusion of identity (the identity matrix) and inverses. However, matrix multiplication is not commutative, therefore this group is nonabelian.

text: Another fact of note is that the integers under multiplication is not a group, even if we exclude zero. This is easily seen by the nonexistence of an inverse for all elements other than 1 and −1.

text:
Multiplication in group theory is typically notated either by a dot, or by juxtaposition (the omission of an operation symbol between elements). So multiplying element a by element b could be notated a

⋅

{\displaystyle \cdot }

 b or ab. When referring to a group via the indication of the set and operation, the dot is used, e.g., our first example could be indicated by

(

Q

∖
{
0
}
,
⋅
)

{\displaystyle \left(\mathbb {Q} \smallsetminus \{0\},\cdot \right)}

text: Multiplication of different kinds of numbers[edit]

text: Numbers can count (3 apples), order (the 3rd apple), or measure (3.5 feet high); as the history of mathematics has progressed from counting on our fingers to modelling quantum mechanics, multiplication has been generalized to more complicated and abstract types of numbers, and to things that are not numbers (such as matrices) or do not look much like numbers (such as quaternions).

text: Exponentiation[edit]

text: When multiplication is repeated, the resulting operation is known as exponentiation. For instance, the product of three factors of two (2×2×2) is "two raised to the third power", and is denoted by 23, a two with a superscript three. In this example, the number two is the base, and three is the exponent. In general, the exponent (or superscript) indicates how many times the base appears in the expression, so that the expression

text: indicates that n copies of the base a are to be multiplied together. This notation can be used whenever multiplication is known to be power associative.


document_title: Come Back When You Grow Up

question_text: who sang come back when you grow up girl

text: Come Back When You Grow Up

text:
"Come Back When You Grow Up"

Single by Bobby Vee and The Strangers

from the album Come Back When You Grow Up

B-side
"Swahili Serenade"

Released
June 9, 1967

Genre
Pop rock

Length
2:15

Label
Liberty Records 55982

Songwriter(s)
Martha Sharp

Producer(s)
Dallas Smith

Bobby Vee and The Strangers singles chronology

"Here Today"
(1966)
"Come Back When You Grow Up"
(1967)
"Beautiful People"
(1967)

"Here Today"
(1966)
"Come Back When You Grow Up"
(1967)
"Beautiful People"
(1967)

text: "Come Back When You Grow Up" is a song written by Martha Sharp and performed by Bobby Vee and The Strangers. The song was a comeback for the 24 year-old Vee, and it reached #3 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1967.[1] The song appeared on his 1967 album, Come Back When You Grow Up.[2]

text: The song was produced by Dallas Smith and arranged by William Hood.[3]

text: The song was ranked #15 on Billboard magazine's Top Hot 100 songs of 1967.[4]

text: A slightly longer version from the album features a brief instrumental introduction before Vee comes in, while on the single version, the song begins with Vee's singing.

text: Other versions[edit]

text:
Johnny Tillotson recorded a version which was included on his 1967 album "Here I am".
Los Freddy's released a version entitled "Cuando Seas Mujer" on their 1968, Mató Mi Corazon.
Leif Garrett released a version as a single in 1976, which did not chart.


document_title: Breast pump

question_text: when was the first electric breast pump invented

text: Breast pump

text: History[edit]

text: On June 20, 1854, the United States Patent Office issued Patent No. 11,135 to O.H. Needham for a breast pump.[1][2] Scientific American (1863) credits L.O. Colbin as the inventor and patent applicant of a breast pump.[3] In 1921-23, engineer and chess master Edward Lasker produced a mechanical breast pump that imitated an infant's sucking action and was regarded by physicians as a marked improvement on existing hand-operated breast pumps, which failed to remove all the milk from the breast.[4] The U.S. Patent Office issued U.S. Patent 1,644,257 for Lasker's breast pump.[5] In 1956 Einar Egnell published his groundbreaking work, "Viewpoints on what happens mechanically in the female breast during various methods of milk collection".[6] This article provided insight into the technical aspects of milk extraction from the breast. Many Egnell SMB breast pumps designed through this research are still in operation over 50 years after publication.

text: Archaeologists working at a glass factory site in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, excavated a 19th-century breast pipe that matches breast pumping instruments in period advertisements.[7]

text: Reasons for use[edit]

text: Breast pumps are used for many reasons.

text: Many parents use them to continue breastfeeding after they return to work. They express their milk at work, which is later bottle-fed to their child by a caregiver. This use of breast milk is widespread in the United States, where paid family leave is one of the shortest in the developed world.  American historian Jill Lepore argues that the need for so-called "lactation rooms" and breast pumps is driven by the corporate desire for parents to return to work immediately rather than mothers' wishes or babies' needs.[8]

text: A breast pump may also be used to stimulate lactation for women with a low milk supply or those who have not just given birth.

text: A breast pump may be also used to address a range of challenges parents may encounter breast feeding, including difficulties latching, separation from an infant in intensive care, to feed an infant who cannot extract sufficient milk itself from the breast, to avoid passing medication through breast milk to the baby, or to relieve engorgement, a painful condition whereby the breasts are overfull.  Pumping may also be desirable to continue lactation and its associated hormones to aid in recovery from pregnancy even if the pumped milk is not used.[9][10]

text:
In a 2012 policy statement, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommended feeding preterm infants human milk, finding "significant short- and long-term beneficial effects," including lower rates of necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC).
[11] When infants are unable to suckle, mothers can pump if they wish their babies to be fed (via naso-gastric tube) with the mothers' own milk.[12]

text: Expressing milk for donation is another use for breast pumps. Donor milk may be available from milk banks for babies who are not able to receive their mothers' milk. [13]

text: Efficiency[edit]

text: The breast pump is not as efficient at removing milk from the breast as most nursing babies.[14]

text: Research done at Stanford University in 2009 showed the correlation of various factors with the volume of milk production in mothers of preterm babies (born before the 31st week of gestation).[15] The research found that breast massage in addition to a breast pump (a technique called "hands-on pumping", or HOP), along with other factors correlated to higher milk production. The study found that mothers who used massage techniques and hand expression more than 5 times a day in the first 3 days after birth increased their milk production 8 weeks later, milk production increased 48%. The authors produced a video showing the technique and states that this technique is good for both mothers of premature infants as well as mothers that return to work or pump for other purposes.[16]

text: A second article on the same study found that the combination of HOP techniques increased the fat content of the milk expressed.[17]

text: Mechanical properties[edit]

text: Mechanically, a breast pump triggers the milk ejection response or "letdown". A misconception is that the breast pump suctions milk out of the breast.  Pumps achieve letdown by using suction to pull the nipple into the tunnel of the breast shield or flange, then release, which counts as one cycle. Thirty to sixty cycles per minute can be expected with better-quality electric breast pumps. This suction-release cycle can also be accomplished with hand pumps, which the nursing parent operates by compressing a handle.

text: Most manufacturers make multiple sizes of nipple tunnels ranging from 24mm to 36mm.

text: There are several pump mechanisms. Piston pumps draw a piston through a cylinder to create suction. These tend to operate at low speed, have high reliability, low noise, and long life.  Rotary vane pumps use a cam with retractable vanes to create suction and are no longer widely used. Fast-diaphragm pumps use a diaphragm that is acted on by a lever, and can operate at thousands of cycles per minute.  They tend to be noisy. Slow-diaphragm pumps use a larger diaphragm operated by a cam or lever to generate suction with each stroke.  Pumps have also been designed that use venturi effects powered by a faucet or water stream, wall suction in hospitals, or oral suctioning.

text: Manual breast pumps[edit]

text: Manual breast pumps are operated by squeezing or pulling a handle in a repetitive fashion, allowing the user to directly control the pressure and frequency of milk expression.  Though manual pumps are small and inexpensive, they can require significant effort and can be tiring because the user provides all the power.  These pumps may not provide sufficient stimulation and emptying of the breast. "Bicycle-horn" style manual pumps can damage breast tissue and harbor bacteria in the rubber suction bulb, which is difficult to clean.[18][19][20]

text: Foot-powered breast pumps use the same collection tubing and breast horns as electric breast pumps, but are powered by a foot pedal. This eliminates the work of pumping by hand or the need for finding an electrical outlet with privacy.[21]

text: Electric breast pumps[edit]

text: There are two types of electric breast pumps, hospital-grade and personal-use. Hospital-grade pumps are larger and intended for multiple users. Personal-use pumps are generally intended for one user. Electric breast pumps are powered by a motor which supplies suction through plastic tubing to a horn that fits over the nipple. The portions of the pump that come into direct contact with the expressed milk must be sterilized to prevent contamination. This style provides more suction, making pumping significantly faster, and allows users to pump both their breasts at the same time. Electric breast pumps are larger than manual ones, but portable models are available (e.g. in a backpack or shoulder bag). Some models include battery packs or built-in batteries to enable portable operation of the pump. Some electric pumps allow multi-user operation, but recommend an accessory kit for each user to maintain cleanliness.[22]

text: Rental pumps may be recommended when medical conditions temporarily preclude breastfeeding.[22]

text: Some breast pumps are designed to be part of a "feeding system" so that the milk storage portion of the pump is the baby bottle used to feed the infant. This allows the milk to be collected in the same bottle that will feed the baby eliminating the need to transfer breastmilk. Freezable breastmilk storage bags are available that connect directly to some breast pumps and can then be used with disposable bottle feeding systems.

text: Pressure range and safety[edit]

text: Egnell in 1956 established a 220 mmHg safe maximum for automatic cycling pumps; however, there have been reports of sensitive breasts and nipples at much lower pressures. Hartman P, et al. in the 2008 study[23] showed that the maximum comfortable vacuum enhances milk flow and milk yield.

text: Open collection systems vs. closed collection systems[edit]

text: Pump designs are referred to as either open or closed based on whether there is a barrier between where the tubing connects to the pump and where milk flows into the pump. The plastic tubing and horn of an electric breast pump are commonly referred to as the collection system and typically supply the pump's suction.

text: A closed collection system has a barrier or diaphragm that separates the pump tubing from the horn. In this design, the suction of the pump motor lifts the diaphragm to create a vacuum within the collection system to extract milk.

text: In contrast, an open system does not have a barrier between the tubing and the horn. Bacteria and viral filters may be present to prevent contamination or overflow into pump motor. The pump motor's suction is directly passed to the breast versus indirectly as with closed-diaphragm systems.[24]

text: Open-collection systems can cause milk to overflow into the collection system tubing, and milk particles being drawn into the pump motor. If milk leaks into the pump's tubing, the tubes should be washed, sterilized and air-dried prior to using the pump again. Failure to thoroughly clean collection tubing may lead to mold growth within the tubing. Some models of pumps have bacteria and overflow filters which prevent milk from entering the tubing.[24]

text: A subtype of the open-collection system is the single-user suction source. These pumps have added hygienic benefit in that all the parts that generate the suction and come in contact with breast milk stay with the mother. The parts that generate the suction are external to the pump, and can be removed, preventing cross contamination. These pumps are considered "hospital grade" and virtually eliminate the chance of cross contamination of the pump from user to user.[24]   However, it is important to clean the diaphragm as condensation or milk reaching this part can cause bacterial contamination.

text: A disadvantage of the diaphragm is that it may limit the amount of air/suction available to extract milk from the breast. It may also not be able to compensate for larger shield sizes.

text: There are no studies comparing the open- versus closed-system design. Most information in marketing materials by breast-pump manufacturers is offered without studies to back them up.

text: Milk collection and storage[edit]

text: Most breast pumps direct the pumped milk into a container that can be used for storage and feeding. Some manufacturers offer adapters to fit a variety of types and sizes of bottles, enabling more flexibility to mix and match products of different brands.

text: The expressed breast milk (EBM) may be stored and later fed to a baby by bottle.  Expressed milk may be kept at room temperature for up to six hours (at 66-72 degrees Fahrenheit, around 20 degrees Celsius), refrigerated for up to 8 days, or frozen for 12 months in a deep freeze separate from a refrigerator maintained at a temperature of 0 degrees Fahrenheit or −18 degrees Celsius.  Expressed milk may be donated to milk banks, which provide human breast milk to premature infants and other children whose mothers cannot provide for them.[25]


document_title: List of French Open men's doubles champions

question_text: who won the men's doubles at the french open

question_tokens: who won the men 's doubles at the french open

text: Champions[edit]

text: French Championships[edit]

text:
Year
Champions
Runners-up
Score

1925
 Jean Borotra
 René Lacoste
 Henri Cochet
 Jacques Brugnon
7–5, 4–6, 6–3, 2–6, 6–3

1926
 Vincent Richards
 Howard Kinsey
 Henri Cochet
 Jacques Brugnon
6–4, 6–1, 4–6, 6–4

1927
 Henri Cochet
 Jacques Brugnon
 Jean Borotra
 René Lacoste
2–6, 6–2, 6–0, 1–6, 6–4

1928
 Jean Borotra
 Jacques Brugnon
 Henri Cochet
 René de Buzelet
6–4, 3–6, 6–2, 3–6, 6–4

1929
 René Lacoste
 Jean Borotra
 Henri Cochet
 Jacques Brugnon
6–3, 3–6, 6–3, 3–6, 8–6

1930
 Henri Cochet
 Jacques Brugnon
 Harry Hopman
 Jim Willard
6–3, 9–7, 6–3

1931
 George Lott
 John Van Ryn
 Vernon Kirby
 Norman Farquharson
6–4, 6–3, 6–4

1932
 Henri Cochet
 Jacques Brugnon
 Christian Boussus
 Marcel Bernard
6–4, 3–6, 7–5, 6–3

1933
 Pat Hughes
 Fred Perry
 Vivian McGrath
 Adrian Quist
6–2, 6–4, 2–6, 7–5

1934
 Jean Borotra
 Jacques Brugnon
 Jack Crawford
 Vivian McGrath
11–9, 6–3, 2–6, 4–6, 9–7

1935
 Jack Crawford
 Adrian Quist
 Vivian McGrath
 Don Turnbull
6–1, 6–4, 6–2

1936
 Jean Borotra
 Marcel Bernard
 Pat Hughes
 Raymond Tuckey
6–2, 3–6, 9–7, 6–1

1937
 Gottfried von Cramm
 Henner Henkel
 Norman Farquharson
 Vernon Kirby
6–4, 7–5, 3–6, 6–1

1938
 Bernard Destremau
 Yvon Petra
 Don Budge
 Gene Mako
3–6, 6–3, 9–7, 6–1

1939
 Don McNeill
 Charles Harris
 Jean Borotra
 Jacques Brugnon
4–6, 6–4, 6–0, 2–6, 10–8

1940
No competition (due to World War II)

1941

1942

1943

1944

1945

1946
 Marcel Bernard
 Yvon Petra
 Enrique Morea
 Pancho Segura
7–5, 6–3, 0–6, 1–6, 10–8

1947
 Eustace Fannin
 Eric Sturgess
 Tom Brown
 Bill Sidwell
6–4, 4–6, 6–4, 6–3

1948
 Lennart Bergelin
 Jaroslav Drobný
 Harry Hopman
 Frank Sedgman
8–6, 6–1, 12–10

1949
 Pancho Gonzalez
 Frank Parker
 Eustace Fannin
 Eric Sturgess
6–3, 8–6, 5–7, 6–3

1950
 Bill Talbert
 Tony Trabert
 Jaroslav Drobný
 Eric Sturgess
6–2, 1–6, 10–8, 6–2

1951
 Ken McGregor
 Frank Sedgman
 Gardnar Mulloy
 Dick Savitt
6–2, 2–6, 9–7, 7–5

1952
 Ken McGregor
 Frank Sedgman
 Gardnar Mulloy
 Dick Savitt
6–3, 6–4, 6–4

1953
 Lew Hoad
 Ken Rosewall
 Mervyn Rose
 Clive Wilderspin
6–2, 6–1, 6–1

1954
 Vic Seixas
 Tony Trabert
 Lew Hoad
 Ken Rosewall
6–4, 6–2, 6–1

1955
 Vic Seixas
 Tony Trabert
 Nicola Pietrangeli
 Orlando Sirola
6–1, 4–6, 6–2, 6–4

1956
 Don Candy
 Bob Perry
 Ashley Cooper
 Lew Hoad
7–5, 6–3, 6–3

1957
 Mal Anderson
 Ashley Cooper
 Don Candy
 Mervyn Rose
6–3, 6–0, 6–3

1958
 Ashley Cooper
 Neale Fraser
 Robert Howe
 Abe Segal
3–6, 8–6, 6–3, 7–5

1959
 Nicola Pietrangeli
 Orlando Sirola
 Roy Emerson
 Neale Fraser
6–3, 6–2, 14–12

1960
 Roy Emerson
 Neale Fraser
 José Luis Arilla
 Andrés Gimeno
6–2, 8–10, 7–5, 6–4

1961
 Roy Emerson
 Rod Laver
 Robert Howe
 Bob Mark
3–6, 6–1, 6–1, 6–4

1962
 Roy Emerson
 Neale Fraser
 Wilhelm Bungert
 Christian Kuhnke
6–3, 6–4, 7–5

1963
 Roy Emerson
 Manuel Santana
 Gordon Forbes
 Abe Segal
6–2, 6–4, 6–4

1964
 Roy Emerson
 Ken Fletcher
 John Newcombe
 Tony Roche
7–5, 6–3, 3–6, 7–5

1965
 Roy Emerson
 Fred Stolle
 Ken Fletcher
 Bob Hewitt
6–8, 6–3, 8–6, 6–2

1966
 Clark Graebner
 Dennis Ralston
 Ilie Năstase
 Ion Ţiriac
6–3, 6–3, 6–0

1967
 John Newcombe
 Tony Roche
 Roy Emerson
 Ken Fletcher
6–3, 9–7, 12–10

text: French Open[edit]

text:
Year
Champions
Runners-up
Score

1968
 Ken Rosewall
 Fred Stolle
 Roy Emerson
 Rod Laver
6–3, 6–4, 6–3

1969
 John Newcombe
 Tony Roche
 Roy Emerson
 Rod Laver
4–6, 6–1, 3–6, 6–4, 6–4

1970
 Ilie Năstase
 Ion Ţiriac
 Arthur Ashe
 Charlie Pasarell
6–2, 6–4, 6–3

1971
 Arthur Ashe
 Marty Riessen
 Tom Gorman
 Stan Smith
6–8, 4–6, 6–3, 6–4, 11–9

1972
 Bob Hewitt
 Frew McMillan
 Patricio Cornejo
 Jaime Fillol
6–3, 8–6, 3–6, 6–1

1973
 John Newcombe
 Tom Okker
 Jimmy Connors
 Ilie Năstase
6–1, 3–6, 6–3, 5–7, 6–4

1974
 Dick Crealy
 Onny Parun
 Bob Lutz
 Stan Smith
6–3, 6–2, 3–6, 5–7, 6–1

1975
 Brian Gottfried
 Raúl Ramírez
 John Alexander
 Phil Dent
6–2, 2–6, 6–2, 6–4

1976
 Fred McNair
 Sherwood Stewart
 Brian Gottfried
 Raúl Ramírez
7–6(8–6), 6–3, 6–1

1977
 Brian Gottfried
 Raúl Ramírez
 Wojtek Fibak
 Jan Kodeš
7–6, 4–6, 6–3, 6–4

1978
 Gene Mayer
 Hank Pfister
 José Higueras
 Manuel Orantes
6–3, 6–2, 6–2

1979
 Gene Mayer
 Sandy Mayer
 Ross Case
 Phil Dent
6–4, 6–4, 6–4

1980
 Victor Amaya
 Hank Pfister
 Brian Gottfried
 Raúl Ramírez
1–6, 6–4, 6–4, 6–3

1981
 Heinz Günthardt
 Balázs Taróczy
 Terry Moor
 Eliot Teltscher
6–2, 7–6, 6–3

1982
 Sherwood Stewart
 Ferdi Taygan
 Hans Gildemeister
 Belus Prajoux
7–5, 6–3, 1–1, retired

1983
 Anders Järryd
 Hans Simonsson
 Mark Edmondson
 Sherwood Stewart
7–6(7–4), 6–4, 6–2

1984
 Henri Leconte
 Yannick Noah
 Pavel Složil
 Tomáš Šmíd
6–4, 2–6, 3–6, 6–3, 6–2

1985
 Mark Edmondson
 Kim Warwick
 Shlomo Glickstein
 Hans Simonsson
6–3, 6–4, 6–7, 6–3

1986
 John Fitzgerald
 Tomáš Šmíd
 Stefan Edberg
 Anders Järryd
6–3, 4–6, 6–3, 6–7(4–7), 14–12

1987
 Anders Järryd
 Robert Seguso
 Guy Forget
 Yannick Noah
6–7, 6–7, 6–3, 6–4, 6–2

1988
 Andrés Gómez
 Emilio Sánchez
 John Fitzgerald
 Anders Järryd
6–3, 6–7(8–10), 6–4, 6–3

1989
 Jim Grabb
 Patrick McEnroe
 Mansour Bahrami
 Eric Winogradsky
6–4, 2–6, 6–4, 7–6(7–5)

1990
 Sergio Casal
 Emilio Sánchez
 Goran Ivanišević
 Petr Korda
7–5, 6–3

1991
 John Fitzgerald
 Anders Järryd
 Rick Leach
 Jim Pugh
6–0, 7–6(7–2)

1992
 Jakob Hlasek
 Marc Rosset
 David Adams
 Andrei Olhovskiy
7–6(7–4), 6–7(3–7), 7–5

1993
 Luke Jensen
 Murphy Jensen
 Marc-Kevin Goellner
 David Prinosil
6–4, 6–7(4–7), 6–4

1994
 Byron Black
 Jonathan Stark
 Jan Apell
 Jonas Björkman
6–4, 7–6(7–5)

1995
 Jacco Eltingh
 Paul Haarhuis
 Nicklas Kulti
 Magnus Larsson
6–7(3–7), 6–4, 6–1

1996
 Yevgeny Kafelnikov
 Daniel Vacek
 Guy Forget
 Jakob Hlasek
6–2, 6–3

1997
 Yevgeny Kafelnikov
 Daniel Vacek
 Todd Woodbridge
 Mark Woodforde
7–6(14–12), 4–6, 6–3

1998
 Jacco Eltingh
 Paul Haarhuis
 Mark Knowles
 Daniel Nestor
6–3, 3–6, 6–3

1999
 Mahesh Bhupathi
 Leander Paes
 Goran Ivanišević
 Jeff Tarango
6–2, 7–5

2000
 Todd Woodbridge
 Mark Woodforde
 Paul Haarhuis
 Sandon Stolle
7–6, 6–4

2001
 Mahesh Bhupathi
 Leander Paes
 Petr Pála
 Pavel Vízner
7–6, 6–3

2002
 Paul Haarhuis
 Yevgeny Kafelnikov
 Mark Knowles
 Daniel Nestor
7–5, 6–4

2003
 Bob Bryan
 Mike Bryan
 Paul Haarhuis
 Yevgeny Kafelnikov
7–6(7–3), 6–3

2004
 Xavier Malisse
 Olivier Rochus
 Michaël Llodra
 Fabrice Santoro
7–5, 7–5

2005
 Jonas Björkman
 Max Mirnyi
 Bob Bryan
 Mike Bryan
2–6, 6–1, 6–4

2006
 Jonas Björkman
 Max Mirnyi
 Bob Bryan
 Mike Bryan
6–7(5–7), 6–4, 7–5

2007
 Mark Knowles
 Daniel Nestor
 Lukáš Dlouhý
 Pavel Vízner
2–6, 6–3, 6–4

2008
 Pablo Cuevas
 Luis Horna
 Daniel Nestor
 Nenad Zimonjić
6–2, 6–3

2009
 Lukáš Dlouhý
 Leander Paes
 Wesley Moodie
 Dick Norman
3–6, 6–3, 6–2

2010
 Daniel Nestor
 Nenad Zimonjić
 Lukáš Dlouhý
 Leander Paes
7–5, 6–2

2011
 Max Mirnyi
 Daniel Nestor
 Juan Sebastián Cabal
 Eduardo Schwank
7–6(7–3), 3–6, 6–4

2012
 Max Mirnyi
 Daniel Nestor
 Bob Bryan
 Mike Bryan
6–4, 6–4

2013
 Bob Bryan
 Mike Bryan
 Michaël Llodra
 Nicolas Mahut
6–4, 4–6, 7–6(7–4)

2014
 Julien Benneteau
 Édouard Roger-Vasselin
 Marcel Granollers
 Marc López
6–3, 7–6(7–1)

2015
 Ivan Dodig
 Marcelo Melo
 Bob Bryan
 Mike Bryan
6–7(5–7), 7–6(7–5), 7–5

2016
 Feliciano López
 Marc López
 Bob Bryan
 Mike Bryan
6–4, 6–7(6–8), 6–3

2017
 Ryan Harrison
 Michael Venus
 Santiago González
 Donald Young
7–6(7–5), 6–7(4–7), 6–3

text: Statistics[edit]

text: Multiple champions[edit]

text:
Player
Amateur Era
Open Era
All-time
Years

 Emerson, RoyRoy Emerson (AUS)
6
0
6
1960, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1964, 1965

 Borotra, JeanJean Borotra (FRA)
5
0
5
1925, 1928, 1929, 1934, 1936

 Brugnon, JacquesJacques Brugnon (FRA)
5
0
5
1927, 1928, 1930, 1932, 1934

 Mirnyi, MaxMax Mirnyi (BLR)
0
4
4
2005, 2006, 2011, 2012

 Nestor, DanielDaniel Nestor (CAN)
0
4
4
2007, 2010, 2011, 2012

 Trabert, TonyTony Trabert (USA)
3
0
3
1950, 1954, 1955

 Fraser, NealeNeale Fraser (AUS)
3
0
3
1958, 1960, 1962

 Newcombe, JohnJohn Newcombe (AUS)
1
2
3
1967, 1969, 1973

 Järryd, AndersAnders Järryd (SWE)
0
3
3
1983, 1987, 1991

 Haarhuis, PaulPaul Haarhuis (NED)
0
3
3
1995, 1998, 2002

 Kafelnikov, YevgenyYevgeny Kafelnikov (RUS)
0
3
3
1996, 1997, 2002

 Paes, LeanderLeander Paes (IND)
0
3
3
1999, 2001, 2009

 Lacoste, RenéRené Lacoste (FRA)
2
0
2
1925, 1929

 Cochet, HenriHenri Cochet (FRA)
2
0
2
1930, 1932

 Bernard, MarcelMarcel Bernard (FRA)
2
0
2
1936, 1946

 Petra, YvonYvon Petra (FRA)
2
0
2
1938, 1946

 McGregor, KenKen McGregor (AUS)
2
0
2
1951, 1952

 Sedgman, FrankFrank Sedgman (AUS)
2
0
2
1951, 1952

 Rosewall, KenKen Rosewall (AUS)
1
1
2
1953, 1968

 Seixas, VicVic Seixas (USA)
2
0
2
1954, 1955

 Cooper, AshleyAshley Cooper (AUS)
2
0
2
1957, 1958

 Stolle, FredFred Stolle (AUS)
1
1
2
1965, 1968

 Roche, TonyTony Roche (AUS)
1
1
2
1967, 1969

 Ramírez, RaúlRaúl Ramírez (MEX)
0
2
2
1975, 1977

 Gottfried, BrianBrian Gottfried (USA)
0
2
2
1975, 1977

 Stewart, SherwoodSherwood Stewart (USA)
0
2
2
1976, 1982

 Mayer, GeneGene Mayer (USA)
0
2
2
1978, 1979

 Pfister, HankHank Pfister (USA)
0
2
2
1978, 1980

 Fitzgerald, JohnJohn Fitzgerald (AUS)
0
2
2
1986, 1991

 Eltingh, JaccoJacco Eltingh (NED)
0
2
2
1995, 1998

 Vacek, DanielDaniel Vacek (CZE)
0
2
2
1996, 1997

 Bhupathi, MaheshMahesh Bhupathi (IND)
0
2
2
1999, 2001

 Björkman, JonasJonas Björkman (SWE)
0
2
2
2005, 2006

 Bryan, BobBob Bryan (USA)
0
2
2
2003, 2013

 Bryan, MikeMike Bryan (USA)
0
2
2
2003, 2013

text: Champions by country[edit]

text: ¤  Former country

text:
Country
Amateur Era
Open Era
All-time
First title
Last title

 United States (USA)
17
25
42
1926
2017

 Australia (AUS)
26
13
39
1935
2000

 France (FRA)
20
4
24
1925
2014

 Sweden (SWE)
1
6
7
1948
2006

 Spain (ESP)
1
5
6
1963
2016

 Netherlands (NED)
0
6
6
1973
2002

 India (IND)
0
5
5
1999
2009

 South Africa (RSA)
2
2
4
1947
1972

 Belarus (BLR)
0
4
4
2005
2012

 Canada (CAN)
0
4
4
2007
2012

  Switzerland (SUI)
0
3
3
1981
1992

 Russia (RUS)
0
3
3
1996
2002

 Czech Republic (CZE)
0
3
3
1996
2009

 Great Britain (GBR)
2
0
2
1933
1933

 Germany (GER)
2
0
2
1937
1937

 Czechoslovakia (TCH)
1
1
2
1948
1986

 Italy (ITA)
2
0
2
1959
1959

 Romania (ROU)
0
2
2
1970
1970

 Mexico (MEX)
0
2
2
1975
1977

 Belgium (BEL)
0
2
2
2004
2004

 New Zealand (NZL)
0
2
2
1974
2017

 Hungary (HUN)
0
1
1
1981
1981

 Ecuador (ECU)
0
1
1
1988
1988

 Zimbabwe (ZIM)
0
1
1
1994
1994

 Bahamas (BAH)
0
1
1
2007
2007

 Peru (PER)
0
1
1
2008
2008

 Uruguay (URU)
0
1
1
2008
2008

 Serbia (SRB)
0
1
1
2010
2010

 Brazil (BRA)
0
1
1
2015
2015

 Croatia (CRO)
0
1
1
2015
2015

text: Please note that if the doubles partners are from the same country then that country gets two titles instead of one, while if they are from different countries then each country will get one title apiece.


document_title: Orpheum Theatre (San Francisco)

question_text: how many seats in the orpheum theatre san francisco

text: Orpheum Theatre (San Francisco)

text:
Orpheum Theatre

Pantages Theatre
New Orpheum Theatre

(2017)

Orpheum Theatre

Address
1192 Market
San Francisco, California

Coordinates
37°46′45″N 122°24′53″W / 37.779081°N 122.414708°W / 37.779081; -122.414708Coordinates: 37°46′45″N 122°24′53″W / 37.779081°N 122.414708°W / 37.779081; -122.414708

Public transit
Civic Center / UN Plaza Station

Owner
SHN

Operator
SHN

Designation
San Francisco Landmark

Capacity
2,203

Production
Matilda the Musical

Construction

Opened
1926

Architect
B. Marcus Priteca

Website

www.shnsf.com/

San Francisco Designated Landmark

Designated
1977[1]

Reference no.
94

text: The SHN Orpheum Theatre, originally the Pantages Theatre, is located at 1192 Market at Hyde, Grove and 8th Streets in the Civic Center district of San Francisco, California. The theatre first opened in 1926 as one of the many designed by architect B. Marcus Priteca for theater-circuit owner Alexander Pantages. The interior features a vaulted ceiling, while the facade was patterned after a 12th-century French cathedral. The Orpheum seats 2,203 patrons.[2] In 1998, after a previous renovation in the 1970s, a $20 million renovation was completed to make the Orpheum more suitable for Broadway shows. The theatre is a locally designated San Francisco landmark as determined by the San Francisco Landmarks Preservation Advisory Board.[3]

text: The Orpheum, as well as the Golden Gate Theatre and Curran Theatre in San Francisco, are owned by SHN, a theatrical producing company owned by Carole Shorenstein Hays and partner Robert Nederlander.

text: History[edit]

text: In April 1998 the Kern/Hammerstein musical "Show Boat" was the first production staged in the reconstructed and expanded theater.

text: The theater has hosted numerous Broadway shows, including a two-year sit-down production of the musical Wicked from January 27, 2009 through September 2010.[4] The Grateful Dead gave six performances here on Ju[y 12-18, 1976. From April 30 to May 4, 2007 the theatre hosted Late Night with Conan O'Brien.[5]

text: Productions that were staged at the Orpheum prior to opening on Broadway have included Bring It On: The Musical (2011-2012)[1], Evita (1979)[2], Mama Mia! (2000-2001), and The Act (1977)[3].


document_title: Tractor

question_text: when were tractors first manufactured on a large scale

question_tokens: when were tractors first manufactured on a large scale

text: Tractor

text: National variations

text: In the UK, the Republic of Ireland, Australia, India, Spain, Argentina, Slovenia, Serbia, Croatia, and Germany, the word "tractor" usually means "farm tractor", and the use of the word "tractor" to mean other types of vehicles is familiar to the vehicle trade, but unfamiliar to much of the general public. In Canada and the US, the word may also refer to the road tractor portion of a tractor trailer truck, but also usually refers to the piece of farm equipment.

text: History

text: Traction engines

text: The first powered farm implements in the early 19th century were portable engines – steam engines on wheels that could be used to drive mechanical farm machinery by way of a flexible belt. Richard Trevithick designed the first 'semi-portable' stationary steam engine for agricultural use, known as a "barn engine" in 1812, and it was used to drive a corn threshing machine.[4] The truly portable engine was invented in 1839 by William Tuxford of Boston, Lincolnshire who started manufacture of an engine built around a locomotive-style boiler with horizontal smoke tubes. A large flywheel was mounted on the crankshaft, and a stout leather belt was used to transfer the drive to the equipment being driven. In the 1850s, John Fowler used a Clayton & Shuttleworth portable engine to drive apparatus in the first public demonstrations of the application of cable haulage to cultivation.

text: In parallel with the early portable engine development, many engineers attempted to make them self-propelled – the fore-runners of the traction engine. In most cases this was achieved by fitting a sprocket on the end of the crankshaft, and running a chain from this to a larger sprocket on the rear axle. These experiments met with mixed success.[5] The first proper traction engine, in the form recognisable today, was developed in 1859 when British engineer Thomas Aveling modified a Clayton & Shuttleworth portable engine, which had to be hauled from job to job by horses, into a self-propelled one. The alteration was made by fitting a long driving chain between the crankshaft and the rear axle.[6]

text: The first half of the 1860s was a period of great experimentation but by the end of the decade the standard form of the traction engine had evolved and would change little over the next sixty years. It was widely adopted for agricultural use. The first tractors were steam-powered plowing engines. They were used in pairs, placed on either side of a field to haul a plow back and forth between them using a wire cable. In Britain Mann's and Garrett developed steam tractors for direct ploughing, but the heavy, wet soil of England meant that these designs were less economical than a team of horses. In the United States, where soil conditions permitted, steam tractors were used to direct-haul plows. Steam-powered agricultural engines remained in use well into the 20th century until reliable internal combustion engines had been developed.[7]

text: Gasoline-powered tractor

text: In 1892, John Froelich invented and built the first gasoline/petrol-powered tractor in Clayton County, Iowa, US.[8][9][10] A Van Duzen single-cylinder gasoline engine was mounted on a Robinson engine chassis, which could be controlled and propelled by Froelich's gear box.[11] After receiving a patent, Froelich started up the Waterloo Gasoline Engine Company and invested all of his assets. However, the venture was very unsuccessful, and by 1895 all was lost and he went out of business.[12][13][14][15]

text: Richard Hornsby & Sons are credited with producing and selling the first oil-engined tractor in Britain invented by Herbert Akroyd Stuart. The Hornsby-Akroyd Patent Safety Oil Traction Engine was made in 1896 with a 20 hp engine. In 1897, it was bought by Mr. Locke-King, and this is the first recorded sale of a tractor in Britain. Also in that year, the tractor won a Silver Medal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. That tractor would later be returned to the factory and fitted with a caterpillar track.

text: The first commercially successful light-weight petrol-powered general purpose tractor was built by Dan Albone, a British inventor in 1901.[16][17] He filed for a patent on 15 February 1902 for his tractor design and then formed Ivel Agricultural Motors Limited. The other directors were Selwyn Edge, Charles Jarrott, John Hewitt and Lord Willoughby. He called his machine the Ivel Agricultural Motor; the word "tractor" did not come into common use until later. The Ivel Agricultural Motor was light, powerful and compact. It had one front wheel, with solid rubber tyre, and two large rear wheels like a modern tractor. The engine used water cooling, by evaporation. It had one forward and one reverse gear. A pulley wheel on the left hand side allowed it to be used as a stationary engine, driving a wide range of agricultural machinery. The 1903 sale price was £300. His tractor won a medal at the Royal Agricultural Show, in 1903 and 1904. About 500 were built, and many were exported all over the world.[18] The original engine was made by Payne & Co. of Coventry. After 1906, French Aster engines were used.

text: The first successful American tractor was built by Charles W. Hart and Charles H. Parr. They developed a two-cylinder gasoline engine and set up their business in Charles City, Iowa. In 1903, the firm built 15 "tractors", a term with Latin roots coined by Hart and Parr, and a combination of the words traction and power. Their 14,000-pound #3 is the oldest surviving internal combustion engine tractor in the United States, and is on display at the Smithsonian National Museum of American History in Washington, D.C. The two-cylinder engine has a unique hit-and-miss firing cycle that produced 30 horsepower at the belt and 18 at the drawbar.[19]

text: In 1908, the Saunderson Tractor and Implement Co. of Bedford introduced a four-wheel design, and went on to become the largest tractor manufacturer in Britain at the time. While the earlier, heavier tractors were initially very successful, it became increasingly apparent at this time that the weight of a large supporting frame was less-efficient than lighter designs. Henry Ford introduced a light-weight, mass-produced design which largely displaced the heavier designs. Some companies halfheartedly followed suit with mediocre designs, as if to disprove the concept, but they were largely unsuccessful in that endeavor.[20]

text: While unpopular at first, these gasoline-powered machines began to catch on in the 1910s, when they became smaller and more affordable.[21] Henry Ford introduced the Fordson, a wildly popular mass-produced tractor, in 1917. They were built in the U.S., Ireland, England and Russia, and by 1923, Fordson had 77% of the U.S. market. The Fordson dispensed with a frame, using the strength of the engine block to hold the machine together. By the 1920s, tractors with gasoline-powered internal combustion engines had become the norm.

text: Harry Ferguson applied for a British patent for his three-point hitch in 1926, a three-point attachment of the implement to the tractor and the simplest and the only statically determinate way of joining two bodies in engineering. The Ferguson-Brown Company produced the Model A Ferguson-Brown tractor with a Ferguson-designed hydraulic hitch. In 1938 Ferguson entered into a collaboration with Henry Ford to produce the Ford-Ferguson 9N tractor. The three-point hitch soon became the favorite hitch attachment system among farmers around the world. This tractor model also included a rear Power Take Off (PTO) shaft that could be used to power three point hitch mounted implements such as sickle-bar mowers. This PTO location set the standard for future tractor developments.

text: Farm tractor design, power and transmission

text: Tractor configurations

text: Tractors can be generally classified by number of axles or wheels, with main categories of two-wheel tractors (single-axle tractors) and four-wheel tractors (two-axle tractors); more axles are possible but uncommon. Among four-wheel tractors (two-axle tractors), most are two-wheel drive (usually at the rear); but many are two-wheel drive with front wheel assist, four-wheel drive (often with articulated steering), or track tractors (with steel or rubber tracks).

text: The classic farm tractor is a simple open vehicle, with two very large driving wheels on an axle below and slightly behind a single seat (the seat and steering wheel consequently are in the center), and the engine in front of the driver, with two steerable wheels below the engine compartment. This basic design has remained unchanged for a number of years, but enclosed cabs are fitted on almost all modern models, for reasons of operator safety and comfort. In some localities with heavy or wet soils, notably in the Central Valley of California, the "Caterpillar" or "crawler" type of tracked tractor became popular in the 1930s, due to superior traction and flotation. These were usually maneuvered through the use of turning brake pedals and separate track clutches operated by levers rather than a steering wheel.

text: Four-wheel drive tractors began to appear in the 1960s. Some four-wheel drive tractors have the standard "two large, two small" configuration typical of smaller tractors, while some have four large, powered wheels. The larger tractors are typically an articulated, center-hinged design steered by hydraulic cylinders that move the forward power unit while the trailing unit is not steered separately.

text: In the early 21st century, articulated or nonarticulated, steerable multitrack tractors have largely supplanted the Caterpillar type for farm use. Larger types of modern farm tractors include articulated four-wheel or eight-wheel drive units with one or two power units which are hinged in the middle and steered by hydraulic clutches or pumps. A relatively recent development is the replacement of wheels or steel crawler-type tracks with flexible, steel-reinforced rubber tracks, usually powered by hydrostatic or completely hydraulic driving mechanisms. The configuration of these tractors bears little resemblance to the classic farm tractor design.

text: Engine and fuels

text: The predecessors of modern tractors, traction engines, used steam engines for power.

text: Gasoline and kerosene

text: Since the turn of the 20th century, internal combustion engines have been the power source of choice. Between 1900 and 1960, gasoline was the predominant fuel, with kerosene (the Rumely Oil Pull was the most notable of this kind) and ethanol being common alternatives. Generally, one engine could burn any of those, although cold starting was easiest on gasoline. Often, a small auxiliary fuel tank was available to hold gasoline for cold starting and warm-up, while the main fuel tank held whatever fuel was most convenient or least expensive for the particular farmer. In the United Kingdom, a gasoline-kerosene engine is known as a petrol-paraffin engine.

text: Diesel

text: Dieselisation gained momentum starting in the 1960s, and modern farm tractors usually employ diesel engines, which range in power output from 18 to 575 horsepower (15 to 480 kW). Size and output are dependent on application, with smaller tractors used for lawn mowing, landscaping, orchard work, and truck farming, and larger tractors for vast fields of wheat, maize, soy, and other bulk crops.

text: Liquified petroleum gas

text: Liquified petroleum gas (LPG) or propane also have been used as tractor fuels, but require special pressurized fuel tanks and filling equipment, so are less prevalent in most markets.

text: Biodiesel

text: In some countries such as Germany, biodiesel is often used.[22][23] Some other biofuels such as straight vegetable oil are also being used by some farmers.[24][25]

text: Transmission

text: Most older farm tractors use a manual transmission with several gear ratios, typically three to six, sometimes multiplied into two or three ranges. This arrangement provides a set of discrete ratios that, combined with the varying of the throttle, allow final-drive speeds from less than one up to about 25 miles per hour (40 km/h), with the lower speeds used for working the land and the highest speed used on the road.

text: Slow, controllable speeds are necessary for most of the operations performed with a tractor. They help give the farmer a larger degree of control in certain situations, such as field work. However, when travelling on public roads, the slow operating speeds can cause problems, such as long queues or tailbacks, which can delay or annoy motorists in cars and trucks. These motorists are responsible for being duly careful around farm tractors and sharing the road with them, but many shirk this responsibility, so various ways to minimize the interaction or minimize the speed differential are employed where feasible. Some countries (for example the Netherlands) employ a road sign on some roads that means "no farm tractors". Some modern tractors, such as the JCB Fastrac, are now capable of much higher road speeds of around 50 mph (80 km/h).

text: Older tractors usually have unsynchronized transmission designs, which often require the operator stop the tractor to shift between gears. This mode of use is inherently unsuited to some of the work tractors do, and has been circumvented in various ways over the years. For existing unsynchronized tractors, the methods of circumvention are double clutching or power-shifting, both of which require the operator to rely on skill to speed-match the gears while shifting, and are undesirable from a risk-mitigation standpoint because of what can go wrong if the operator makes a mistake – transmission damage is possible, and loss of vehicle control can occur if the tractor is towing a heavy load either uphill or downhill – something that tractors often do. Therefore, operator's manuals for most of these tractors state one must always stop the tractor before shifting, and they do not even mention the alternatives. As already said, that mode of use is inherently unsuited to some of the work tractors do, so better options were pursued for newer tractor designs.

text: In these, unsynchronized transmission designs were replaced with synchronization or with continuously variable transmissions (CVTs). Either a synchronized manual transmission with enough available gear ratios (often achieved with dual ranges, high and low) or a CVT allow the engine speed to be matched to the desired final-drive speed, while keeping engine speed within the appropriate speed (as measured in rotations per minute or rpm) range for power generation (the working range) (whereas throttling back to achieve the desired final-drive speed is a trade-off that leaves the working range). The problems, solutions, and developments described here also describe the history of transmission evolution in semi-trailer trucks. The biggest difference is fleet turnover; whereas most of the old road tractors have long since been scrapped, many of the old farm tractors are still in use. Therefore, old transmission design and operation is primarily just of historical interest in trucking, whereas in farming it still often affects daily life.

text: Hitches and power applications

text: The power produced by the engine must be transmitted to the implement or equipment to do the actual work intended for the equipment. This may be accomplished via a drawbar or hitch system if the implement is to be towed or otherwise pulled through the tractive power of the engine, or via a pulley or power takeoff system if the implement is stationary, or a combination of the two.

text: Drawbars

text: Until the 1940s, plows and other tillage equipment usually were connected to the tractor via a drawbar. The classic drawbar is simply a steel bar attached to the tractor (or in some cases, as in the early Fordsons, cast as part of the rear transmission housing) to which the hitch of the implement was attached with a pin or by a loop and clevis. The implement could be readily attached and removed, allowing the tractor to be used for other purposes on a daily basis. If the tractor was equipped with a swinging drawbar, then it could be set at the center or offset from center to allow the tractor to run outside the path of the implement.

text: The drawbar system necessitated the implement having its own running gear (usually wheels) and in the case of a plow, chisel cultivator or harrow, some sort of lift mechanism to raise it out of the ground at turns or for transport. Drawbars necessarily posed a rollover risk depending on how the tractive torque was applied. The Fordson tractors (of which more units were produced and placed in service than any other farm tractor) was extremely prone to roll over backwards due to an excessively short wheelbase. The linkage between the implement and the tractor usually had some slack which could lead to jerky starts and greater wear and tear on the tractor and the equipment.

text: Drawbars were appropriate to the dawn of mechanization, because they were very simple in concept and because as the tractor replaced the horse, existing horse-drawn implements usually already had running gear. As the history of mechanization progressed, however, the advantages of other hitching systems became apparent, leading to new developments (see below). Depending on the function for which a tractor is used, though, the drawbar is still one of the usual means of attaching an implement to a tractor (see photo at left).

text: Fixed mounts

text: Some tractor manufacturers produced matching equipment that could be directly mounted on the tractor. Examples included front-end loaders, belly mowers, row crop cultivators, corn pickers and corn planters. In most cases, these fixed mounts were proprietary and unique to each make of tractor, so an implement produced by John Deere, for example, could not be attached to a Minneapolis Moline tractor. Another disadvantage was mounting usually required some time and labor, resulting in the implement being semipermanently attached with bolts or other mounting hardware. Usually, it was impractical to remove the implement and reinstall it on a day-to-day basis. As a result, the tractor was unavailable for other uses and dedicated to a single use for an appreciable period of time. An implement generally would be mounted at the beginning of its season of use (such as tillage, planting or harvesting) and removed only when the likely use season had ended.

text: Three-point hitches and quick hitches

text: The drawbar system was virtually the exclusive method of attaching implements (other than direct attachment to the tractor) before Harry Ferguson developed the three-point hitch. Equipment attached to the three-point hitch can be raised or lowered hydraulically with a control lever. The equipment attached to the three-point hitch is usually completely supported by the tractor. Another way to attach an implement is via a quick hitch, which is attached to the three-point hitch. This enables a single person to attach an implement quicker and put the person in less danger when attaching the implement.

text: The three-point hitch revolutionized farm tractors and their implements. While the Ferguson system was still under patent, other manufacturers developed new hitching systems to try to fend off some of Ferguson's competitive advantage. For example, International Harvestor's Farmall tractors gained a two-point "Fast Hitch", and John Deere had a power lift that was similar to, but not as flexible as, the Ferguson invention. Once the patent protection expired on the three-point hitch, it became an industry standard.

text: Almost every tractor today features Ferguson's three-point linkage or a derivative of it. This hitch allows for easy attachment and detachment of implements while allowing the implement to function as a part of the tractor, almost as if it were attached by a fixed mount. Previously, when the implement hit an obstacle, the towing link would break or the tractor could flip over. Ferguson's genius was to combine a connection via two lower and one upper lift arms that were connected to a hydraulic lifting ram. The ram was, in turn, connected to the upper of the three links so the increased drag (as when a plough hits a rock) caused the hydraulics to lift the implement until the obstacle was passed.

text: Recently, Bobcat's patent on its front loader connection (inspired by these earlier systems) has expired, and compact tractors are now being outfitted with quick-connect attachments for their front-end loaders.

text: Power take-off systems and hydraulics

text: In addition to towing an implement or supplying tractive power through the wheels, most tractors have a means to transfer power to another machine such as a baler, swather, or mower. Unless it functions solely by pulling it through or over the ground, a towed implement needs its own power source (such as a baler or combine with a separate engine) or else a means of transmitting power from the tractor to the mechanical operations of the equipment.

text: Early tractors used belts or cables wrapped around the flywheel or a separate belt pulley to power stationary equipment, such as a threshing machine, buzz saw, silage blower, or stationary baler. In most cases, it was not practical for the tractor and equipment to move with a flexible belt or cable between them, so this system required the tractor to remain in one location, with the work brought to the equipment, or the tractor to be relocated at each turn and the power set-up reapplied (as in cable-drawn plowing systems used in early steam tractor operations).

text: Modern tractors use a power take-off (PTO) shaft to provide rotary power to machinery that may be stationary or pulled. The PTO shaft generally is at the rear of the tractor, and can be connected to an implement that is either towed by a drawbar or a three-point hitch. This eliminates the need for a separate, implement-mounted power source, which is almost never seen in modern farm equipment.

text: Virtually all modern tractors can also provide external hydraulic fluid and electrical power to the equipment they are towing, either by hoses or wires.

text: Operation

text: Modern tractors have many electrical switches and levers in the cab for controlling the multitude of different functions available on the tractor.

text: Pedals

text: Modern farm tractors usually have four or five foot-pedals for the operator on the floor of the tractor.

text: The pedal on the left is the clutch. The operator presses on this pedal to disengage the transmission for either shifting gears or stopping the tractor. Some modern tractors have (or as optional equipment) a button on the gear stick for controlling the clutch, in addition to the standard pedal.

text: Two of the pedals on the right are the brakes. The left brake pedal stops the left rear wheel and the right brake pedal does the same with the right side. This independent left and right wheel-braking augments the steering of the tractor when only the two rear wheels are driven. This is usually done when it is necessary to make a sharp turn. The split brake pedal is also used in mud or soft soil to control a tire spinning due to loss of traction. The operator presses both pedals together to stop the tractor. Usually a swinging or sliding bolt is provided to lock the two together when desired.

text: The pedal furthest to the right is the foot throttle. Unlike in automobiles, it can also be controlled from a hand-operated lever ("hand throttle"). This helps provide a constant speed in field work. It also helps provide continuous power for stationary tractors that are operating an implement by shaft or belt. The foot throttle gives the operator more automobile-like control over the speed of the tractor for road work. This is a feature of more recent tractors; older tractors often did not have it. In the UK, foot pedal use to control engine speed while travelling on the road is mandatory. Some tractors, especially those designed for row-crop work, have a 'de-accelerator' pedal, which operates in the reverse fashion to an automobile throttle, in that the pedal is pushed down to slow the engine. This allows fine control over the speed of the tractor when maneuvering at the end of crop rows in fields- the operating speed of the engine is set using the hand throttle, and to slow the tractor to turn, the operator simply has to press the pedal, and turn and release it once the turn is completed, rather than having to alter the setting of the hand throttle twice during the maneuver.

text: A fifth pedal is traditionally included just in front of the driver's seat (often pressed with the operator's heel) to operate the rear differential lock (diff-lock), which prevents wheel slip. The differential normally allows the outside wheel to travel faster than the inside wheel during a turn. However, in low-traction conditions on a soft surface, the same mechanism could allow one wheel to slip, further reducing traction. The diff-lock overrides this, forcing both wheels to turn at the same speed, reducing wheel slip and improving traction. Care must be taken to unlock the differential before turning, usually by hitting the pedal a second time, since the tractor with good traction cannot perform a turn with the diff-lock engaged. In modern tractors, this pedal is replaced with an electrical switch.

text: Levers and switches

text: Many functions once controlled with levers have been replaced with some model of electrical switch with the rise of indirect computer controlling of functions in modern tractors.

text: Until the beginning of the 1960s, tractors had a single register of gears, hence one gear stick, often with three to five forward gears and 1 reverse. Then, group gears were introduced, and another gear stick was added. Later, control of the forward-reverse direction was moved to a special stick attached at the side of the steering wheel, which allowed forward or reverse travel in any gear. Nowadays, with CVTs or other clutch-free gear types, fewer sticks control the transmission, and some are replaced with electrical switches or are totally computer-controlled.

text: The three-point hitch was controlled with a lever for adjusting the position, or as with the earliest ones, just the function for raising or lowering the hitch. With modern electrical systems, it is often replaced with a potentiometer for the lower bound position and another one for the upper bound, and a switch allowing automatic adjustment of the hitch between these settings.

text: The external hydraulics also originally had levers, but now are often replaced with some form of electrical switch; the same is true for the power take-off shaft.

text: Safety

text: Agriculture in the United States is one of the most hazardous industries, only surpassed by mining and construction. No other farm machine is so identified with the hazards of production agriculture as the tractor.[26] Tractor-related injuries account for approximately 32% of the fatalities and 6% of the nonfatal injuries in agriculture. Over 50% is attributed to tractor overturns.[27]

text: The roll-over protection structure (ROPS) and seat belt, when worn, are the most important safety devices to protect operators from death during tractor overturns.[28][29]

text: Modern tractors have a ROPS to prevent an operator from being crushed if the tractor turns over. The ROPS does not prevent tractor overturns; rather, it prevents the operator from being crushed during an overturn. This is especially important in open-air tractors, where the ROPS is a steel beam that extends above the operator's seat. For tractors with operator cabs, the ROPS is part of the frame of the cab. A ROPS with enclosed cab further reduces the likelihood of serious injury because the operator is protected by the sides and windows of the cab.

text: These structures were first required by legislation in Sweden in 1959. Before they were required, some farmers died when their tractors rolled on top of them. Row-crop tractors, before ROPS, were particularly dangerous because of their 'tricycle' design with the two front wheels spaced close together and angled inward toward the ground. Some farmers were killed by rollovers while operating tractors along steep slopes. Others have been killed while attempting to tow or pull an excessive load from above axle height, or when cold weather caused the tires to freeze to the ground, in both cases causing the tractor to pivot around the rear axle.[citation needed] ROPS were first required in the United States in 1986, but this requirement did not retroactively apply to tractors produced before this year; therefore, adoption of ROPS has been incomplete in the farming community. To combat this problem, CROPS (cost-effective roll-over protection structures) have been developed to encourage farmers to retrofit older tractors.[29]

text: For the ROPS to work as designed, the operator must stay within its protective frame. This means the operator must wear the seat belt; not wearing it may defeat the primary purpose of the ROPS.

text: Applications and variations

text: Farm tractor applications

text: The most common use of the term "tractor" is for the vehicles used on farms. The farm tractor is used for pulling or pushing agricultural machinery or trailers, for plowing, tilling, disking, harrowing, planting, and similar tasks.

text: A variety of specialty farm tractors have been developed for particular uses. These include "row crop" tractors with adjustable tread width to allow the tractor to pass down rows of corn, tomatoes or other crops without crushing the plants, "wheatland" or "standard" tractors with fixed wheels and a lower center of gravity for plowing and other heavy field work for broadcast crops, and "high crop" tractors with adjustable tread and increased ground clearance, often used in the cultivation of cotton and other high-growing row crop plant operations, and "utility tractors", typically smaller tractors with a low center of gravity and short turning radius, used for general purposes around the farmstead. Many utility tractors are used for nonfarm grading, landscape maintenance and excavation purposes, particularly with loaders, backhoes, pallet forks and similar devices. Small garden or lawn tractors designed for suburban and semirural gardening and landscape maintenance also exist in a variety of configurations.

text: Some farm-type tractors are found elsewhere than on farms: with large universities' gardening departments, in public parks, or for highway workman use with blowtorch cylinders strapped to the sides and a pneumatic drill air compressor permanently fastened over the power take-off. These are often fitted with grass (turf) tyres which are less damaging to soft surfaces than agricultural tires.

text: Precision agriculture

text: Space technology has been incorporated into agriculture in the form of GPS devices, and robust on-board computers installed as optional features on farm tractors. These technologies are used in modern, precision farming techniques. The spin-offs from the space race have actually facilitated automation in plowing and the use of autosteer systems (drone on tractors that are manned but only steered at the end of a row), the idea being to neither overlap and use more fuel nor leave streaks when performing jobs such as cultivating. Several tractor companies have also been working on producing a driverless tractor.

text: Engineering tractors

text: The durability and engine power of tractors made them very suitable for engineering tasks. Tractors can be fitted with engineering tools such as dozer blades, buckets, hoes, rippers, etc. The most common attachments for the front of a tractor are dozer blades or buckets. When attached to engineering tools, the tractor is called an engineering vehicle.

text: A bulldozer is a track-type tractor with a blade attached in the front and a rope-winch behind. Bulldozers are very powerful tractors and have excellent ground-hold, as their main tasks are to push or drag.

text: Bulldozers have been further modified over time to evolve into new machines which are capable of working in ways that the original bulldozer can not. One example is that loader tractors were created by removing the blade and substituting a large volume bucket and hydraulic arms which can raise and lower the bucket, thus making it useful for scooping up earth, rock and similar loose material to load it into trucks.

text: A front-loader or loader is a tractor with an engineering tool which consists of two hydraulic powered arms on either side of the front engine compartment and a tilting implement. This is usually a wide-open box called a bucket, but other common attachments are a pallet fork and a bale grappler.

text: Other modifications to the original bulldozer include making the machine smaller to let it operate in small work areas where movement is limited. Also, tiny wheeled loaders, officially called skid-steer loaders, but nicknamed "Bobcat" after the original manufacturer, are particularly suited for small excavation projects in confined areas.

text: Backhoe loader

text: The most common variation of the classic farm tractor is the hoe, also called a hoe-loader. As the name implies, it has a loader assembly on the front and a backhoe on the back. Backhoes attach to a three-point hitch on farm or industrial tractors. Industrial tractors are often heavier in construction, particularly with regards to the use of steel grill for protection from rocks and the use of construction tires. When the backhoe is permanently attached, the machine usually has a seat that can swivel to the rear to face the hoe controls. Removable backhoe attachments almost always have a separate seat on the attachment.

text: Backhoe-loaders are very common and can be used for a wide variety of tasks: construction, small demolitions, light transportation of building materials, powering building equipment, digging holes, loading trucks, breaking asphalt and paving roads. Some buckets have retractable bottoms, enabling them to empty their loads more quickly and efficiently. Buckets with retractable bottoms are also often used for grading and scratching off sand. The front assembly may be a removable attachment or permanently mounted. Often the bucket can be replaced with other devices or tools.

text: Their relatively small frames and precise controls make backhoe-loaders very useful and common in urban engineering projects, such as construction and repairs in areas too small for larger equipment. Their versatility and compact size makes them one of the most popular urban construction vehicles.

text: In the UK, the word "JCB" is sometimes used colloquially as a genericized trademark for any such type of engineering vehicle. The term JCB now appears in the Oxford English Dictionary, although it is still legally a trademark of J. C. Bamford Ltd. The term "digger" is also commonly used.

text: Compact utility tractor

text: A compact utility tractor (CUT) is a smaller version of an agricultural tractor, but designed primarily for landscaping and estate management tasks rather than for planting and harvesting on a commercial scale. Typical CUTs range from 20 to 50 horsepower (15-37 kW) with available power take-off (PTO) horsepower ranging from 15 to 45 hp (11-34 kW). CUTs are often equipped with both a mid-mounted and a standard rear PTO, especially those below 40 horsepower (30 kW). The mid-mount PTO shaft typically rotates at/near 2000 rpm and is typically used to power mid-mount finish mowers, front-mounted snow blowers or front-mounted rotary brooms. The rear PTO is standardized at 540 rpms for the North American markets, but in some parts of the world, a dual 540/1000 rpm PTO is standard, and implements are available for either standard in those markets.

text: One of the most common attachment for a CUT is the front-end loader or FEL. Like the larger agricultural tractors, a CUT will have an adjustable, hydraulically controlled three-point hitch. Typically, a CUT will have four-wheel drive, or more correctly four-wheel assist. Modern CUTs often feature hydrostatic transmissions, but many variants of gear-drive transmissions are also offered from low priced, simple gear transmissions to synchronized transmissions to advanced glide-shift transmissions. All modern CUTs feature government-mandated roll over protection structures just like agricultural tractors. The most well-known brands in North America include Kubota, John Deere Tractor, New Holland Ag, Case-Farmall and Massey-Ferguson. Although less common, compact backhoes are often attached to compact utility tractors.

text: Compact utility tractors require special, smaller implements than full-sized agricultural tractors. Very common implements include the box blade, the grader blade, the landscape rake, the post hole digger (or post hole auger), the rotary cutter (slasher or a brush hog), a mid- or rear-mount finish mower, a broadcast seeder, a subsoiler and the rototiller (rotary tiller). In northern climates, a rear-mounted snow blower is very common; some smaller CUT models are available with front-mounted snow blowers powered by mid-PTO shafts. Implement brands outnumbere tractor brands, so CUT owners have a wide selection of implements.

text: For small-scale farming or large-scale gardening, some planting and harvesting implements are sized for CUTs. One- and two-row planting units are commonly available, as are cultivators, sprayers and different types of seeders (slit, rotary and drop). One of the first CUTs offered for small farms of three to 30 acres and for small jobs on larger farms was a three-wheeled unit, with the rear wheel being the drive wheel, offered by Sears & Roebuck in 1954 and priced at $598 for the basic model.[30]

text: Standard tractor

text: The earliest tractors were called "standard" tractors, and were intended almost solely for plowing and harrowing before planting, which were difficult tasks for humans and draft animals. They were characterized by a low, rearward seating position, fixed-width tread, and low ground clearance. These early tractors were cumbersome, and were not well-suited to getting into a field of already-planted row crops to do weed control. The "standard" tractor definition is no longer in current use.

text: Row-crop tractor

text: A general-purpose or row-crop tractor is tailored specifically to the growing of crops grown in rows, and most especially to cultivating these crops. These tractors are universal machines, capable of both primary tillage and cultivation of a crop. The "row-crop" or "general-purpose" designation is no longer in current use.

text: Row-crop tractor history

text: The row-crop tractor category evolved rather than appearing overnight, but the International Harvester (IH) Farmall is often considered the "first" tractor of the category. Some earlier tractors of the 1910s and 1920s approached the form factor from the heavier side, as did motorized cultivators from the lighter side, but the Farmall brought all of the salient features together into one package, with a capable distribution network to ensure its commercial success. In the new form factor that the Farmall popularized, the cultivator was mounted in the front so it was easily visible. Additionally, the tractor had a narrow front end; the front tires were spaced very closely and angled in towards the bottom. The back wheels straddled two rows, and the unit could cultivate four rows at once.

text: From 1924 until 1963, Farmalls were the largest selling row-crop tractors.

text: To compete, John Deere designed the Model C, which had a wide front and could cultivate three rows at once. Only 112 prototypes were made, as Deere realized sales would be lost to Farmall if their model did less. In 1928, Deere released the Model C anyway, only as the Model GP (General Purpose) to avoid confusion with the Model D when ordered over the then unclear telephone.[31]

text: Oliver refined its "Row Crop" model early in 1930.[32] Until 1935, the 18-27 was Oliver–Hart-Parr's only row-crop tractor.[33] Many Oliver row-crop models are referred to as "Oliver Row Crop 77", "Oliver Row Crop 88", etc.

text: Row-crop tractor safety

text: Many early row-crop tractors had a tricycle design with two closely spaced front tires, and some even had a single front tire. This made it dangerous to operate on the side of a steep hill; as a result, many farmers died from tractor rollovers. Also, early row-crop tractors had no rollover protection system (ROPS), meaning if the tractor flipped back, the operator could be crushed. Sweden was the first country which passed legislation requiring ROPS, in 1959.

text: Over 50% of tractor related injuries and deaths are attributed to tractor rollover.[27]

text: Modern row-crop tractors

text: Canadian agricultural equipment manufacturer Versatile makes row-crop tractors that are 250 and 280 horsepower (190 and 210 kW); powered by an 8.3 liter Cummins Diesel engine.[34]

text: Modern row crop tractors have rollover protection systems in the form of a reinforced cab or a roll bar.

text: Garden tractors

text: Garden tractors (mini tractors) are small, light tractors designed for use in domestic gardens and small estates. Garden tractors are designed for cutting grass, snow removal, and small property cultivation. In the U.S., the term riding lawn mower today often is used to refer to mid- or rear-engined machines. Front-engined tractor layout machines designed primarily for cutting grass and light towing are called lawn tractors; heavier-duty tractors of similar size are garden tractors. Garden tractors are capable of mounting a wider array of attachments than lawn tractors. Unlike lawn tractors and rear-engined riding mowers, garden tractors are powered by horizontal-crankshaft engines with a belt-drive to transaxle-type transmissions (usually of four- or five-speeds, although some may also have two-speed reduction gearboxes, drive-shafts, or hydrostatic or hydraulic drives). Garden tractors from Wheel Horse, Cub Cadet, Economy (Power King), John Deere, Massey Ferguson and Case Ingersoll are built in this manner. The engines are generally a one- or two-cylinder petrol (gasoline) engines, although diesel engine models are also available, especially in Europe. Typically, diesel-powered garden tractors are larger and heavier-duty than gasoline-powered units and compare more similarly to compact utility tractors.

text: Visually, the distinction between a garden tractor and a lawn tractor is often hard to make - generally, garden tractors are more sturdily built, with stronger frames, 12-inch or larger wheels mounted with multiple lugs (most lawn tractors have a single bolt or clip on the hub), heavier transaxles, and ability to accommodate a wide range of front, belly, and rear mounted attachments.

text: Two-wheel tractors

text: Although most people think first of four-wheel vehicles when they think of tractors, a tractor may have one or more axles. The key benefit is the power itself, which only takes one axle to provide. Single-axle tractors, more often called two-wheel tractors or walk-behind tractors, have had many users since the beginning of internal combustion engine tractors. They tend to be small and affordable. This was especially true before the 1960s, when a walk-behind tractor could often be more affordable than a two-axle tractor of comparable power. Today's compact utility tractors and advanced garden tractors may negate most of that market advantage, but two-wheel tractors still enjoy a loyal following, especially where an already-paid-for two-wheel tractor is financially superior to a compact or garden tractor that would have to be purchased. Countries where two-wheel tractors are especially prevalent today include, Thailand, China, Bangladesh, India, and other Southeast Asia countries.

text: Orchard tractors

text: Tractors tailored to use in fruit orchards typically have features suited to passing under tree branches with impunity. These include a lower overall profile; reduced tree-branch-snagging risk (via underslung exhaust pipes rather than smoke-stack-style exhaust, and large sheetmetal cowlings and fairings that allow branches to deflect and slide off rather than catch); spark arrestors on the exhaust tips; and often wire cages to protect the operator from snags.

text: Automobile-conversion tractors and other homemade versions

text: The ingenuity of farm mechanics, coupled in some cases with OEM or aftermarket assistance, has often resulted in the conversion of automobiles for use as farm tractors. In the United States, this trend was especially strong from the 1910s through 1950s. It began early in the development of vehicles powered by internal combustion engines, with blacksmiths and amateur mechanics tinkering in their shops. Especially during the interwar period, dozens of manufacturers (Montgomery Ward among them) marketed aftermarket kits for converting Ford Model Ts for use as tractors.[35] (These were sometimes called 'Hoover wagons' during the Great Depression, although this term was usually reserved for automobiles converted to horse-drawn buggy use when gasoline was unavailable or unaffordable. During the same period, another common name was "Doodlebug"). Ford even considered producing an "official" optional kit.[36] Many Model A Fords also were converted for this purpose. In later years, some farm mechanics have been known to convert more modern trucks or cars for use as tractors, more often as curiosities or for recreational purposes (rather than out of the earlier motives of pure necessity or frugality).

text: During World War II, a shortage of tractors in Sweden led to the development of the so-called "EPA" tractor (EPA was a chain of discount stores and it was often used to signify something lacking in quality). An EPA tractor was simply an automobile, truck or lorry, with the passenger space cut off behind the front seats, equipped with two gearboxes in a row. When done to an older car with a ladder frame, the result was not dissimilar to a tractor and could be used as one. After the war it remained popular, now not as a farm vehicle, but as a way for young people without a driver's license to own something similar to a car. Since it was legally seen as a tractor, it could be driven from 16 years of age and only required a tractor license. Eventually, the legal loophole was closed and no new EPA tractors were allowed to be made, but the remaining ones were still legal, which led to inflated prices and many protests from people who preferred EPA tractors to ordinary cars.

text: The German occupation of Italy during World War II resulted in a severe shortage of mechanized farm equipment. The destruction of tractors was a sort of scorched-earth strategy used to reduce the independence of the conquered. The shortage of tractors in that area of Europe was the origin of Lamborghini. The war was also the inspiration for dual-purpose vehicles such as the Land Rover. Based on the Jeep, the company made a vehicle that combined PTO, tillage, and transportation.

text: In March 1975, a similar type of vehicle was introduced in Sweden, the A tractor [from arbetstraktor (work tractor)]; the main difference is an A tractor has a top speed of 30 km/h. This is usually done by fitting two gearboxes in a row and not using one of them. The Volvo Duett was, for a long time, the primary choice for conversion to an EPA or A tractor, but since supplies have dried up, other cars have been used, in most cases another Volvo.

text: Another type of homemade tractors are ones that are fabricated from scratch. The "from scratch" description is relative, as often individual components will be repurposed from earlier vehicles or machinery (e.g., engines, gearboxes, axle housings), but the tractor's overall chassis is essentially designed and built by the owner (e.g., a frame is welded from bar stock—channel stock, angle stock, flat stock, etc.). As with automobile conversions, the heyday of this type of tractor, at least in developed economies, lies in the past, when there were large populations of blue-collar workers for whom metalworking and farming were prevalent parts of their lives. (For example, many 19th- and 20th-century New England and Midwestern machinists and factory workers had grown up on farms.) Backyard fabrication was a natural activity to them (whereas it might seem daunting to most people today).

text: Alternative machine types called tractors

text: The term "tractor" (US and Canada) or "tractor unit" (UK) is also applied to:

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Road tractors, tractor units or traction heads, familiar as the front end of an articulated lorry / semi-trailer truck. They are heavy-duty vehicles with large engines and several axles.

The majority of these tractors are designed to pull long semi-trailers, most often to transport freight over a significant distance, and is connected to the trailer with a fifth wheel coupling. In England, this type of "tractor" is often called an "artic cab" (short for "articulated" cab).
A minority is the ballast tractor, whose load is hauled from a drawbar.

Pushback tractors are used on airports to move aircraft on the ground, most commonly pushing aircraft away from their parking stands.
Locomotive tractors (engines) or Rail car movers - the amalgamation of machines, electrical generators, controls and devices that comprise the traction component of railway vehicles
Artillery tractors - vehicles used to tow artillery pieces of varying weights.
NASA and other space agencies use very large tractors to move large launch vehicles and space shuttles between their hangars and launch pads.
A pipe-tractor is a device used for conveying advanced instruments into pipes for measurement and data logging, and the purging of well holes, sewer pipes and other inaccessible tubes.

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Diesel-electric locomotive at work

A Trackmobile 4150

Aircraft Pushback tractor

text: Glossary of tractor-related terms not explained elsewhere

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Nebraska tractor tests: Tests, mandated by a Nebraska law and administered by the University of Nebraska, that objectively tested the performance of all brands sold in Nebraska. In the 1920s and 1930s, an era of snake oil sales and advertising tactics, the Nebraska tests helped farmers throughout North America to see through marketing claims and make informed buying decisions. The tests continue today, making sure the snake oil, which has mostly been vanquished, stays that way.
 Tractor war(s), Great tractor war(s): A period of ruinous competition and price warring between tractor manufacturers in the 1920s, which led to a consolidation in the industry.

text: Gallery

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An unusual application - road roller powered by a tractor-drive

The First Tractor, a painting by Vladimir Krikhatsky.

A single tractor in Brazil

Tractor that is used for self-sufficiency purposes in Germany

text: Manufacturers

text: In addition to commercial manufacturers, the Open Source Ecology group has developed several working prototypes of an open source hardware tractor called the LifeTrac as part of its Global Village Construction Set.