document_title: Brahmin

question_text: what is the percentage of brahmans in india

text: Brahmin

text: Vedic sources

text:
Brahmin priests
a brahmin doing ahaman and chantingMyanmarIndonesiaearly 19th century India

text: Purusha Sukta

text: The earliest inferred reference to "Brahmin" as a possible social class is in the Rigveda, occurs once, and the hymn is called Purusha Sukta.[6] According to this hymn in Mandala 10, Brahmins are described as having emerged from the mouth of Purusha, being that part of the body from which words emerge.[7][8][note 1] This Purusha Sukta varna verse is now generally considered to have been inserted at a later date into the Vedic text, possibly as a charter myth.[9] Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton, a professor of Sanskrit and Religious studies, state, "there is no evidence in the Rigveda for an elaborate, much-subdivided and overarching caste system", and "the varna system seems to be embryonic in the Rigveda and, both then and later, a social ideal rather than a social reality".[9]

text: Shrauta Sutras

text: Ancient texts describing community-oriented Vedic yajna rituals mention four to five priests: the hotar, the adhvaryu, the udgatar, the Brahmin and sometimes the ritvij.[10][11] The functions associated with the priests were:

text:
The Hotri recites invocations and litanies drawn from the Rigveda.[12]
The Adhvaryu is the priest's assistant and is in charge of the physical details of the ritual like measuring the ground, building the altar explained in the Yajurveda. The adhvaryu offers oblations.[12]
The Udgatri is the chanter of hymns set to melodies and music (sāman) drawn from the Samaveda. The udgatar, like the hotar, chants the introductory, accompanying and benediction hymns.[12]
The Brahmin recites from the Atharvaveda.[11]
The Ritvij is the chief operating priest.[11]

text: According to Kulkarni, the Grhya-sutras state that Yajna, Adhyayana  (studying the vedas and teaching), dana pratigraha (accepting and giving gifts) are the "peculiar duties and privileges of brahmins".[13]

text: Brahmin and renunciation tradition in Hinduism

text: The term Brahmin in Indian texts has signified someone who is good and virtuous, not just someone of priestly class.[14] Both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, states Patrick Olivelle, repeatedly define "Brahmin"  not in terms of family of birth, but in terms of personal qualities.[14] These virtues and characteristics mirror the values cherished in Hinduism during the Sannyasa stage of life, or the life of renunciation for spiritual pursuits. Brahmins, states Olivelle, were the social class from which most ascetics came.[14]

text: Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras

text: The Dharmasutras and Dharmasatras text of Hinduism describe the expectations, duties and role of Brahmins. The rules and duties in these Dharma texts of Hinduism, are primarily directed at Brahmins. The Gautama's Dharmasutra, the oldest of surviving Hindu Dharmasutras, for example, states in verse 9.54–9.55 that a Brahmin should not participate or perform a ritual unless he is invited to do so, but he may attend. Gautama outlines the following rules of conduct for a Brahmin, in Chapters 8 and 9:[15]

text:
Virtues more important than rituals
A [Brahmin] man who has performed the forty sacramental rites, but lacks eight virtues does not obtain union with or residence in the same world as Brahman. A man who may have performed just some rites, but possesses these eight virtues, on the other hand, does.
—Gautama Dharmasutra 9.24–9.25[16]

tag: div

text:
Be always truthful
Conduct himself as an Aryan
Teach his art only to virtuous men
Follow rules of ritual purification
Study Vedas with delight
Never hurt any living creature
Be gentle but steadfast
Have self-control
Be kind, liberal towards everyone

text: Chapter 8 of the Dharmasutra, states Olivelle, asserts the functions of a Brahmin to be to learn the Vedas, the secular sciences, the Vedic supplements, the dialogues, the epics and the Puranas; to understand the texts and pattern his conduct according to precepts contained in this texts, to undertake Sanskara (rite of passage) and rituals, and lead a virtuous life.[17]

text: The text lists eight virtues that a Brahmin must inculcate: compassion, patience, lack of envy, purification, tranquility, auspicious disposition, generosity and lack of greed, and then asserts in verse 9.24–9.25, that it is more important to lead a virtuous life than perform rites and rituals, because virtue leads to achieving liberation (moksha, a life in the world of Brahman).[17]

text: The later Dharma texts of Hinduism such as Baudhayana Dharmasutra add charity, modesty, refraining from anger and never being arrogant as duties of a Brahmin.[18] The Vasistha Dharmasutra in verse 6.23 lists discipline, austerity, self-control, liberality, truthfulness, purity, Vedic learning, compassion, erudition, intelligence and religious faith as characteristics of a Brahmin.[19] In 13.55, the Vasistha text states that a Brahmin must not accept weapons, poison or liquor as gifts.[20]

text: The Dharmasastras such as Manusmriti, like Dharmsutras, are codes primarily focussed on how a Brahmin must live his life, and their relationship with a king and warrior class.[21] Manusmriti dedicates 1,034 verses, the largest portion, on laws for and expected virtues of Brahmins.[22] It asserts, for example,

text: A well disciplined Brahmin, although he knows just the Savitri verse, is far better than an undisciplined one who eats all types of food and deals in all types of merchandise though he may know all three Vedas.

text: John Bussanich states that the ethical precepts set for Brahmins, in ancient Indian texts, are similar to Greek virtue-ethics, that "Manu's dharmic Brahmin can be compared to Aristotle's man of practical wisdom",[24] and that "the virtuous Brahmin is not unlike the Platonic-Aristotelian philosopher" with the difference that the latter was not sacerdotal.[25]

text: History

text: According to Abraham Eraly, "Brahmin as a varna hardly had any presence in historical records before the Gupta Empire era" (3rd century to 6th century CE), and "no Brahmin, no sacrifice, no ritualistic act of any kind ever, even once, is referred to in any Indian text" dated to be from the first century CE or before.[26] Their role as priests and repository of sacred knowledge, as well as their importance in the practice of Vedic Shrauta rituals grew during the Gupta Empire era and thereafter.[26] However, the knowledge about actual history of Brahmins or other varnas of Hinduism in and after 1st-millennium is fragmentary and preliminary, with little that is from verifiable records or archeological evidence, and much that is constructed from a-historical Sanskrit works and fiction. Michael Witzel writes,

text: Toward a history of the Brahmins: Current research in the area is fragmentary. The state of our knowledge of this fundamental subject is preliminary, at best. Most Sanksrit works are a-historic or, at least, not especially interested in presenting a chronological account of India's history. When we actually encounter history, such as in Rajatarangini or in the Gopalavamsavali of Nepal, the texts do not deal with brahmins in great detail.

text: Normative occupations

text: The Gautama Dharmasutra states in verse 10.3 that it is obligatory on a Brahmin to learn and teach the Vedas.[28] Chapter 10 of the text, according to Olivelle translation, states that he may impart Vedic instructions to a teacher, relative, friend, elder, anyone who offers exchange of knowledge he wants, or anyone who pays for such education.[28] The Chapter 10 adds that a Brahmin may also engage in agriculture, trade, lend money on interest, while Chapter 7 states that a Brahmin may engage in the occupation of a warrior in the times of adversity.[28][29] Typically, asserts Gautama Dharmasutra, a Brahmin should accept any occupation to sustain himself but avoid the occupations of a Shudra, but if his life is at stake a Brahmin may sustain himself by accepting occupations of a Shudra.[29] The text forbids a Brahmin from engaging in the trade of animals for slaughter, meat, medicines and milk products even in the times of adversity.[29]

text: The Apastamba Dharmasutra asserts in verse 1.20.10 that trade is generally not sanctioned for Brahmins, but in the times of adversity he may do so.[30] The chapter 1.20 of Apastamba, states Olivelle, forbids the trade of the following under any circumstances: human beings, meat, skins, weapons, barren cows, sesame seeds, pepper, and merits.[30]

text: The 1st millennium CE Dharmasastras, that followed the Dharmasutras contain similar recommendations on occupations for a Brahmin, both in prosperous or normal times, and in the times of adversity.[31] The widely studied Manusmriti, for example, states:

text: Except during a time of adversity, a Brahmin ought to sustain himself by following a livelihood that causes little or no harm to creatures. He should gather wealth just sufficient for his subsistence through irreproachable activities that are specific to him, without fatiguing his body. – 4.2–4.3

text: He must never follow a worldly occupation for the sake of livelihood, but subsist by means of a pure, upright and honest livelihood proper to a Brahmin. One who seeks happiness should become supremely content and self controlled, for happiness is rooted in contentment and its opposite is the root of unhappiness. – 4.11–4.12

text: The Manusmriti recommends that a Brahmin's occupation must never involve forbidden activities such as producing or trading poison, weapons, meat, trapping birds and others.[33] It also lists six occupations that it deems proper for a Brahmin: teaching, studying, offering yajna, officiating at yajna, giving gifts and accepting gifts.[33] Of these, states Manusmriti, three which provide a Brahmin with a livelihood are teaching, officiating at yajna, and accepting gifts.[34] The text states that teaching is best, and ranks the accepting of gifts as the lowest of the six.[33] In the times of adversity, Manusmriti recommends that a Brahmin may live by engaging in the occupations of the warrior class, or agriculture or cattle herding or trade.[34] Of these, Manusmriti in verses 10.83–10.84 recommends a Brahmin should avoid agriculture if possible because, according to Olivelle translation, agriculture "involves injury to living beings and dependence of others" when the plow digs the ground and injures the creatures that live in the soil.[34][35] However, adds Manusmriti, even in the times of adversity, a Brahmin must never trade or produce poison, weapons, meat, soma, liquor, perfume, milk and milk products, molasses, captured animals or birds, beeswax, sesame seeds or roots.[34]

text: Actual occupations

text: Historical records, state scholars, suggest that Brahmin varna was not limited to a particular status or priest and teaching profession.[3][5][39] Historical records from mid 1st millennium CE and later, suggest Brahmins were agriculturalists and warriors in medieval India, quite often instead of as exception.[3][5] Donkin and other scholars state that Hoysala Empire records frequently mention Brahmin merchants "carried on trade in horses, elephants and pearls" and transported goods throughout medieval India before the 14th-century.[40][41]

text: The Pali Canon depicts Brahmins as the most prestigious and elite non-Buddhist figures.[39] They mention them parading their learning. The Pali Canon and other Buddhist texts such as the Jataka Tales also record the livelihood of Brahmins to have included being farmers, handicraft workers and artisans such as carpentry and architecture.[39][42] Buddhist sources extensively attest, state Greg Bailey and Ian Mabbett, that Brahmins were "supporting themselves not by religious practice, but employment in all manner of secular occupations", in the classical period of India.[39] Some of the Brahmin occupations mentioned in the Buddhist texts such as Jatakas and Sutta Nipata are very lowly.[39] The Dharmasutras too mention Brahmin farmers.[39][43]

text:
According to Haidar and Sardar, in the Islamic sultanates of the Deccan region, and unlike the Mughal Empire, Telugu Niyogi Brahmins served the Muslim sultans in many different roles such as accountants, ministers, revenue administration and in judicial service.[44] The Deccan sultanates also heavily recruited Marathi Brahmins at different levels of their administration[45] During the days of Maratha Empire in the 17th and 18th century, the occupation of Marathi Brahmins ranged from administration, being warriors to being de facto rulers[46][47]
After the collapse of Maratha empire, Brahmins in Maharashtra region were quick to take advantage of opportunities opened up by the new British rulers.They were the first community to take up Western education and therefore dominated lower level of British administration in the 19th century[48]

text: Eric Bellman states that during the Islamic Mughal Empire era Brahmins served as advisers to the Mughals, later to the British Raj.[49] The East India Company recruited from the Brahmin communities of the present day Uttar pradesh and Bihar regions for the Bengal army[50] Many Brahmins, in other parts of South Asia lived like other varna, engaged in all sorts of professions. Among Nepalese Hindus, for example, Niels Gutschow and Axel Michaels report the actual observed professions of Brahmins from 18th- to early 20th-century included being temple priests, minister, merchants, farmers, potters, masons, carpenters, coppersmiths, stone workers, barbers, gardeners among others.[51]

text: Other 20th-century surveys, such as in the state of Uttar Pradesh, recorded that the primary occupation of almost all Brahmin families surveyed was neither priestly nor Vedas-related, but like other varnas, ranged from crop farming (80 per cent of Brahmins), dairy, service, labour such as cooking, and other occupations.[52][53] The survey reported that the Brahmin families involved in agriculture as their primary occupation in modern times plough the land themselves, many supplementing their income by selling their labor services to other farmers.[52][54]

text: Brahmins, bhakti movement and social reform movements

text: Many of the prominent thinkers and earliest champions of the Bhakti movement were Brahmins, a movement that encouraged a direct relationship of an individual with a personal god.[55][56] Among the many Brahmins who nurtured the Bhakti movement were Ramanuja, Nimbarka, Vallabha and Madhvacharya of Vaishnavism,[56] Ramananda, another devotional poet sant.[57][58] Born in a Brahmin family,[57][59] Ramananda welcomed everyone to spiritual pursuits without discriminating anyone by gender, class, caste or religion (such as Muslims).[59][60][61] He composed his spiritual message in poems, using widely spoken vernacular language rather than Sanskrit, to make it widely accessible. His ideas also influenced the founders of Sikhism in 15th century, and his verses and he are mentioned in the Sikh scripture Adi Granth.[62] The Hindu tradition recognises him as the founder of the Hindu Ramanandi Sampradaya,[63] the largest monastic renunciant community in Asia in modern times.[64][65]

text: Other medieval era Brahmins who led spiritual movement without social or gender discrimination included Andal (9th-century female poet), Basava (12th-century Lingayatism), Dnyaneshwar (13th-century Bhakti poet), Vallabha Acharya (16th-century Vaishnava poet), among others.[66][67][68]

text: Many 18th and 19th century Brahmins are credited with religious movements that criticised idolatry. For example, the Brahmins Raja Ram Mohan Roy led Brahmo Samaj and Dayananda Saraswati led the Arya Samaj.[69][70]

text: Modern demographics and economic condition

text: According to 2007 reports, Brahmins in India are about five percent of its total population.[49][71] The Himalayan states of Uttarakhand (20%) and Himachal Pradesh (14%) have the highest percentage of Brahmin population relative to respective state's total Hindus.[71] Also, the participation of Brahmins in present government is very high.

text: According to a Wall Street Journal report, an estimated 65 percent of the Brahmin households in India, with about 40 million people, lived on less than $100 a month in 2004; this number dropped to about 50% in 2007.[49] Brahmins have also included wealthier and politically successful members.[72]

text: In Buddhist and Jaina texts

text: The term Brahmin appears extensively in ancient and medieval Sutras and commentary texts of Buddhism and Jainism. In Buddhist Pali Canon, such as the Majjhima Nikaya and Devadaha Sutta, first written down about 1st century BCE,[73] the Buddha is attributed to be mentioning Jain Brahmins and ascetics, as he describes their karma doctrine and ascetic practices:[74]

text:
The Blessed One [Buddha] said,
"There are, o monks, some ascetics and Brahmins who speak thus and are of such opinion: 'Whatever a particular person experiences, whether pleasant or painful, or neither pleasant nor painful, all this has (...) Thus say, o monks, those free of bonds [Jainas].
"O Niganthas, you ...

text: Modern scholars state that such usage of the term Brahmin in ancient texts does not imply a caste, but simply "masters" (experts), guardian, recluse, preacher or guide of any tradition.[76][77][78] An alternate synonym for Brahmin in the Buddhist and other non-Hindu tradition is Mahano.[76]

text: Outside South Asia: Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and Indonesia

text: Some Brahmins formed an influential group in Burmese Buddhist kingdoms in 18th- and 19th-century. The court Brahmins were locally called Punna.[81] During the Konbaung dynasty, Buddhist kings relied on their court Brahmins to consecrate them to kingship in elaborate ceremonies, and to help resolve political questions.[81] This role of Hindu Brahmins in a Buddhist kingdom, states Leider, may have been because Hindu texts provide guidelines for such social rituals and political ceremonies, while Buddhist texts don't.[81]

text: The Brahmins were also consulted in the transmission, development and maintenance of law and justice system outside India.[81] Hindu Dharmasastras, particularly Manusmriti written by the Brahmin Manu, states Anthony Reid,[82] were "greatly honored in Burma (Myanmar), Siam (Thailand), Cambodia and Java-Bali (Indonesia) as the defining documents of law and order, which kings were obliged to uphold. They were copied, translated and incorporated into local law code, with strict adherence to the original text in Burma and Siam, and a stronger tendency to adapt to local needs in Java (Indonesia)".[82][83][84]

text: The mythical origins of Cambodia are credited to a Brahmin prince named Kaundinya, who arrived by sea, married a Naga princess living in the flooded lands.[85][86] Kaudinya founded Kambuja-desa, or Kambuja (transliterated to Kampuchea or Cambodia). Kaundinya introduced Hinduism, particularly Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva and Harihara (half Vishnu, half Shiva), and these ideas grew in southeast Asia in the 1st millennium CE.[85]

text: Brahmins have been part of the Royal tradition of Thailand, particularly for the consecration and to mark annual land fertility rituals of Buddhist kings. A small Brahmanical temple Devasathan, established in 1784 by King Rama I of Thailand, has been managed by ethnically Thai Brahmins ever since.[87] The temple hosts Phra Phikhanesuan (Ganesha), Phra Narai (Narayana, Vishnu), Phra Itsuan (Shiva), Uma, Brahma, Indra (Sakka) and other Hindu deities.[87] The tradition asserts that the Thai Brahmins have roots in Hindu holy city of Varanasi and southern state of Tamil Nadu, go by the title Pandita, and the various annual rites and state ceremonies they conduct has been a blend of Buddhist and Hindu rituals. The coronation ceremony of the Thai king is almost entirely conducted by the royal Brahmins.[87][88]


document_title: St. Croix River (Wisconsin–Minnesota)

question_text: where does the st croix river meet the mississippi

root

text: St. Croix River (Wisconsin–Minnesota)

text: Geography and hydrography[edit]

text: The St. Croix River rises in the northwestern corner of Wisconsin, out of Upper St. Croix Lake in Douglas County, near Solon Springs, approximately 20 miles (32 km) south of Lake Superior. It flows south to Gordon, then southwest. It is joined by the Namekagon River in northern Burnett County, where it becomes significantly wider. A few miles downstream the St. Croix meets the boundary between Minnesota and Wisconsin, which it demarcates for another 130 miles (209 km) until its confluence with the Mississippi River.

tag: p

text: Other major tributaries include the Kettle River, Snake River, and Sunrise River joining from the west, and the Apple River, Willow River, and Kinnickinnic River joining from the east. Just below Stillwater, Minnesota the river widens into Lake St. Croix, and eventually joins the Mississippi River at Prescott, Wisconsin, approximately 20 miles (32 km) southeast of St. Paul, Minnesota.

text: Conservation efforts[edit]

text: The St. Croix River was one of the original eight rivers to have significant portions placed under protection by the National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968. The upper reaches of the river in Wisconsin below the St. Croix Flowage, 15 miles (24 km) downstream from its source, as well as the Namekagon River, are protected as the St. Croix National Scenic Riverway. The free-flowing nature of the river is interrupted only by a hydroelectric dam operated by the Northern States Power Company at St. Croix Falls, Wisconsin.

text: The lower 27 miles (43 km) below the dam, including both sides of the river along the Minnesota-Wisconsin border, were protected as part of the Lower St. Croix National Scenic Riverway. This area includes the Dalles of the St. Croix River, a scenic gorge located near Interstate Park, south of St. Croix Falls, Wisconsin.

text: Although the addition of an interstate bridge connected to MN Highway 36 was objected to by residents, nearby communities, conservation groups, and the National Park Service, construction of the bridge was authorized by amending the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968.[2] Light and noise pollution are concerns of those opposed to the bridge, who cites the original act that kept such activity to the south along the Interstate 94 corridor.  The St. Croix Crossing bridge was ultimately completed in August 2017.[3]

text: The St. Croix River Association (SCRA) is a watershed-wide non-profit advocating for conservation throughout the watershed. Founded in 1911 as an all-volunteer citizens group, it has evolved into a staffed, mature nonprofit organization and official "friends group" of the St. Croix National Scenic Riverway. Its mission is to protect, restore and celebrate the St. Croix River and its watershed.[4]

text: Naming[edit]

text: Father Louis Hennepin wrote in 1683, from information probably provided by Daniel Greysolon, Sieur du Lhut: "There is another River which falls ... into the Meschasipi ... We named it The River of the Grave, or Mausoleum, because the Savages buried there one of their Men ... who was bitten by a Rattlesnake." In the original French, this is translated as "Rivière Tombeaux".[5]

text: Jean-Baptiste-Louis Franquelin's 1688 map recorded a "Fort St. Croix" on the upper reaches of the river.[6][7] The name "Rivière de Sainte-Croix" was applied to the river sometime in 1688 or 1689,[5]:28 and this more auspicious name supplanted Father Hennepin's earlier designation.

text: On Carte de la Louisiane et du Cours du Mississipi (1718) by Guillaume Delisle and on A Map of North America  (1768) by John Blair, the St. Croix River—more specifically what was then known as the east branch of the St. Croix River (known today as the Namekagon River)—is shown as the Ouasisacadeba, a French representation of the Dakota name for the St. Croix River. On the 1778 Mitchell Map, the river is simply titled "Ouadeba", which represents the Dakota watpá meaning "river".

text: The upper portion of river—originally called the north branch of the St. Croix River—was known to the Ojibwa as Manoominikeshiinh-ziibi (Ricing-Rail River).[8][9] Downstream of its confluence with the Namekagon, the Ojibwa renamed the river as Gichi-ziibi (Big River)[9][10] or Okijii-ziibi (Pipestem River)[11]

text: At the time of European settlement of the valley, Dakota and Ojibwe were engaged in a long and deadly war with each other.  Consequently, the portion of the river below the confluence with Trade River is called Jiibayaatig-ziibi (Grave-marker River) in the Ojibwe language,[9] reinforcing the earlier "Rivière Tombeaux" name in their language.

text: On Map of the Territories of Michigan and Ouisconsin (1830) by John Farmer, the St. Croix River is shown as the "Chippewa River".  However, by 1843, Joseph Nicollet's Hydrographical Basin of the Upper Mississippi River reinforced the name provided by Franquelin's 1688 map.

text: History[edit]

text: The river is the result of geologic forces going back 1.1 billion years. At that time, the Mid-Continent Rift rendered the middle of North America apart, creating a volcanic zone. The lava spewed forth cooled into hard basalt. That basalt is what today creates the dramatic cliffs around the Interstate State Parks. About 500 million years ago, a shallow sea covered the area, laying down layers of sand and minerals that make up much of the sandstone bluffs now seen along the river. In the last 20,000 years, glaciers have scraped the landscape and released torrents of meltwater, which carved the St. Croix River's course.

text: The river has been home to people for thousands of years. A bison kill site in May Township, Washington County, Minnesota is believed to be about 4,000 years old.[citation needed] An Oneota village from about 1200 A.D. has been studied by archaeologists.

text: At the time of European arrival in the region, the river valley and the surrounding area was occupied by the semi-nomadic Ojibwe, Dakota and nine other American Indian tribes. The Indians lived mainly on wild rice, fish, and game. By the 18th century, the Ojibwe and Dakota were the two primary tribes that inhabited the area, until around 1745, when the Dakota have driven out from the St. Croix Valley as a result of the Battle of Kathio.[5]

text: Fur trade[edit]

text: The first Europeans to arrive in the area were Sieur du Lhut and his men in the fall and winter of 1679-1680. For the next eighty years the area was primarily under French influence, and the fur trade grew throughout the first half of the 18th century, with beaver pelts as the prize trade good.  French trade in the upper valley was dominated by the Ojibwe and tied to Lake Superior traders, whereas in the lower valley the Dakota assisted in trading with merchants based out of St. Louis downstream.[12] After the end of the French and Indian War in 1763, British traders entered the area, and grew in numbers and influence with the help of the powerful North West Company.[5]:32–35

text: Logging[edit]

text: The 1837 Treaty of St. Peters with the Ojibwe was signed at St. Peters (now Mendota) which ceded to the United States government a vast tract of land in what today is north central Wisconsin and central Minnesota, roughly bounded by the Prairie du Chien Line in the south, Mississippi River in the west, St. Croix and Chippewa River watersheds in the north, and a 25-mile parallel east of the Wisconsin River in the east. This opened the region to logging. The river was important to the transportation of lumber downstream, from the areas where it was being cut to the sawmills that processed it. During the 1840s, important sawmills were located at St. Croix Falls and Marine on St. Croix, but as the 1850s progressed Stillwater became the primary lumber destination. During this time the population of Stillwater boomed, several additional sawmills were opened, and the town saw an influx of capital, primarily from lumber companies based downriver in St. Louis, Missouri. In 1856 construction began on a booming site two miles north of Stillwater, which was used to store and sort the lumber floating downstream and remained in operation for over fifty years.[5]:102 The St. Croix Boom Site is now a wayside rest and National Historic Landmark along Minnesota State Highway 95.

text: The vast white pine forests in the upper valley provided the forest products that built the towns along Lake St. Croix, Minneapolis and St. Paul; the St. Croix along with the forest reserves in the river valleys of the nearby Red Cedar, Chippewa, and Rum provided supplies for the building of Winona, Minnesota, Davenport, Iowa, Rock Island, Illinois, and St. Louis.[12]

text: The lumber industry continued to grow throughout the latter half of the 19th century, with progressively larger spring drives and consequent dangers to navigation on the river above Stillwater. Logs were frequently caught in log jams at the narrow Dalles of the St. Croix River, and in 1883 the blockade was so severe it took almost two months before the flow of logs was re-established.[5]:76 At its peak in 1890, logging in the St. Croix River valley produced 450,000,000 board feet (1,100,000 m3) of lumber and logs.[12] The lumber industry continued until the last major log drive in 1912 marked the end of the rich white pine forests of the area.

text: It was along the banks of the St. Croix, in the milltown of Stillwater, that the state of Minnesota was first proposed in 1848.

text: Cities and towns[edit]

text:
Afton, Minnesota
Bayport, Minnesota
Danbury, Wisconsin
Gordon, Wisconsin
Hudson, Wisconsin
Lake St. Croix Beach, Minnesota
Lakeland, Minnesota
Lakeland Shores, Minnesota
Marine on St. Croix, Minnesota
North Hudson, Wisconsin

Oak Park Heights, Minnesota
Osceola, Wisconsin
Pine City, Minnesota
Point Douglas, Minnesota
Prescott, Wisconsin
St. Croix Falls, Wisconsin
St. Marys Point, Minnesota
Scandia, Minnesota
Solon Springs, Wisconsin
Stillwater, Minnesota
Taylors Falls, Minnesota

tag: table

text: Bridge crossings[edit]

text: Significant bridge crossings of the St. Croix River are listed below, ordered from source to mouth.[13][14]

text:
Scott Bridge in Douglas County, Wisconsin.
County Road T bridge in Douglas County, Wisconsin.
C.C.C. Bridge in Burnett County, Wisconsin.
Wisconsin State Highway 35 bridge near Danbury, Wisconsin.
Minnesota State Highway 48 to Wisconsin State Highway 77 bridge near Danbury, Wisconsin.
Minnesota State Highway 70 to Wisconsin State Highway 70 bridge near Grantsburg, Wisconsin.
U.S. Highway 8 bridge between Taylors Falls, Minnesota and St. Croix Falls, Wisconsin.
Minnesota State Highway 243 bridge at Osceola, Wisconsin.
Soo Line High Bridge north of Stillwater, Minnesota. This private, rail-only bridge is 2,682 feet (817 m) long and 184 feet (56 m) above the river. It roughly marks the northern limit of zebra mussel infestation in the St. Croix.[15]
The Stillwater lift bridge, built 1931, between Stillwater, Minnesota and Houlton, Wisconsin.
St. Croix Crossing bridge near Stillwater, Minnesota and Houlton, Wisconsin.
Union Pacific Railroad swing bridge at Hudson, Wisconsin
Interstate 94 bridge at Hudson, Wisconsin.
U.S. Highway 10 drawbridge at Prescott, Wisconsin.
BNSF Railway lift bridge at Prescott, Wisconsin.

tag: ul

text: Commerce and recreation[edit]

text: The St. Croix is a popular recreational river. Common uses include boating, fishing, camping and canoeing. Highways along both sides of the river offer scenic drives punctuated by small towns offering restaurants, shopping (especially antiques, books and gifts), bed and breakfasts, historical tours and other common tourist activities.

text: Public lands along the St. Croix River include:

text:
Governor Knowles State Forest (Wisconsin)
Saint Croix State Forest (Minnesota)
Saint Croix State Park (Minnesota)
Chengwatana State Forest (Minnesota)
Wild River State Park (Minnesota)
Interstate Park (Minnesota and Wisconsin)
William O'Brien State Park (Minnesota)
Afton State Park (Minnesota)
St. Croix Boom Site (Minnesota)

text: The St. Croix River is mentioned in the band Rocket Club's song "North Country" as a symbol for the singer's desire to "head up North."

text: Further reading[edit]

text:
Dunn, James Taylor.  The St. Croix:  Midwest Border River.  (New York:  Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965, 309 pp. ISBN 978-0-873-51141-4
McMahon, Eileen M., and Theodore J. Karamanski. North Woods River: The St. Croix River in Upper Midwest History. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2009. xii, 338 pp. ISBN 978-0-299-23424-9


document_title: Attributes of God in Christianity

question_text: which attribute of god refers to his all-knowing nature

text: Attributes of God in Christianity

text: Classification[edit]

text: Many Reformed theologians distinguish between the communicable attributes (those that human beings can also have) and the incommunicable attributes (those that belong to God alone).[1] Donald Macleod, however, argues that "All the suggested classifications are artificial and misleading, not least that which has been most favoured by Reformed theologians – the division into communicable and incommunicable attributes."[2]

text: Many of these attributes only say what God is not – for example, saying he is immutable is saying that he does not change.

text: The attributes of God may be classified under two main categories:

text:
His infinite powers.
His personality attributes, like holiness and love.

tag: ol

text: Millard Erickson calls these categories God's greatness and goodness respectively.[3]

text: Enumeration[edit]

text: The Westminster Shorter Catechism's definition of God is merely an enumeration of his attributes: "God is a Spirit, infinite, eternal, and unchangeable in his being, wisdom, power, holiness, justice, goodness, and truth."[4] The Westminster Larger Catechism adds certain attributes to this description, such as "all-sufficient," "incomprehensible," "every where present" and "knowing all things".[5] This answer has been criticised, however, as having "nothing specifically Christian about it."[6]

text: Aseity[edit]

text: The aseity of God means "God is so independent that he does not need us."[7] It is based on Acts 17:25, where it says that God "is not served by human hands, as if he needed anything" (NIV). This is often related to God's self-existence and his self-sufficiency.

text: Eternity[edit]

text: The eternity of God concerns his existence beyond time. Drawing on verses such as Psalm 90:2, Wayne Grudem states that, "God has no beginning, end, or succession of moments in his own being, and he sees all time equally vividly, yet God sees events in time and acts in time."[8] The expression "Alpha and Omega" also used as title of God in Book of Revelation. God's eternity may be seen as an aspect of his infinity, discussed below.

text: Goodness[edit]

text: The goodness of God means that "God is the final standard of good, and all that God is and does is worthy of approval."[9] Romans 11:22 in the King James Version says "Behold therefore the goodness and severity of God". Many theologians consider the goodness of God as an overarching attribute - Louis Berkhof, for example, sees it as including kindness, love, grace, mercy and longsuffering.[10] The idea that God is "all good" is called his omnibenevolence.

text: Graciousness[edit]

text: The graciousness of God is a key tenet of Christianity. In Exodus 34:5-6, it is part of the Name of God, "Yahweh, Yahweh, the compassionate and gracious God". The description of God in this text is, in Jewish tradition, called the "Thirteen Attributes of Mercy".[11]

text: The word "gracious" is not used often in the New Testament to describe God, although the noun "grace" is used more than 100 times. 1 Peter 2:2-3 in the King James Version says "the Lord is gracious", but the New International Version has "the Lord is good".

text: Holiness[edit]

text: The holiness of God is that he is separate from sin and incorruptible. Noting the refrain of "Holy, holy, holy" in Isaiah 6:3 and Revelation 4:8, R. C. Sproul points out that "only once in sacred Scripture is an attribute of God elevated to the third degree... The Bible never says that God is love, love, love."[12]

text: Immanence[edit]

text: The immanence of God refers to him being in the world. It is thus contrasted with his transcendence, but Christian theologians usually emphasise that the two attributes are not contradictory. To hold to transcendence but not immanence is deism, while to hold to immanence but not transcendence is pantheism. According to Wayne Grudem, "the God of the Bible is no abstract deity removed from, and uninterested in his creation".[13] Grudem goes on to say that the whole Bible "is the story of God's involvement with his creation", but highlights verses such as Acts 17:28, "in him we live and move and have our being".[13]

text: Immutability[edit]

text: Immutability means God cannot change. James 1:17 refers to the "Father of the heavenly lights, who does not change like shifting shadows" (NIV). Herman Bavinck notes that although the Bible talks about God repenting, changing his purpose, and becoming angry, "Scripture testifies that in all these various relations and experiences God remains ever the same."[14] Millard Erickson calls this attribute God's constancy, arguing that "some interpretations of the doctrine of divine constancy, expressed as immutability, have actually drawn heavily upon the Greek idea of immobility and sterility."[15]

text: The immutability of God is being increasingly criticized by advocates of open theism,[16] which argues that God is open to influence through the prayers, decisions, and actions of people. Prominent adherents of open theism include Clark Pinnock, John E. Sanders and Gregory Boyd.

text: Impassibility[edit]

text: The doctrine of the impassibility of God is a controversial one.[17] It is usually defined as the inability of God to suffer, while recognising that Jesus, who is believed to be God, suffered in his human nature. The Westminster Confession of Faith says that God is "without body, parts, or passions". Although some take this to mean that God is "without emotions whether of joy, sorrow, pain or grief", most interpret this as meaning that God is free from all attitudes "which reflect instability or lack of control."[18] Robert Reymond says that "it should be understood to mean that God has no bodily passions such as hunger or the human drive for sexual fulfillment."[19]

text: D. A. Carson argues that "although Aristotle may exercise more than a little scarcely recognized influence upon those who uphold impassibility, at its best impassibility is trying to avoid a picture of God who is changeable, given over to mood swings, dependent on his creatures."[20] In this way, impassibility is connected to the immutability of God, which says that God does not change, and to the aseity of God, which says that God does not need anything. Carson affirms that God is able to suffer, but argues that if he does so "it is because he chooses to suffer".[21]

text: Impeccability[edit]

text: The impeccability of God is closely related to his holiness. It means that God is unable to sin, which is a stronger statement than merely saying that God does not sin.[22] Hebrews 6:18 says that "it is impossible for God to lie". Robert Morey argues that God does not have the "absolute freedom" found in Greek philosophy. Whereas "the Greeks assumed the gods were 'free' to become demons if they so chose," the God of the Bible "is 'free' to act only in conformity to His nature."[23]

text: Incomprehensibility[edit]

text: The incomprehensibility of God means that he is not able to be fully known. Isaiah 40:28 says "his understanding no one can fathom". Louis Berkhof states that "the consensus of opinion" through most of church history has been that God is the "Incomprehensible One". Berkhof, however, argues that, "in so far as God reveals Himself in His attributes, we also have some knowledge of His Divine Being, though even so our knowledge is subject to human limitations."[24]

text: Incorporeality[edit]

text: The incorporeality or spirituality of God refers to him being a spirit. This is derived from Jesus' statement in John 4:24, "God is spirit." Robert Reymond suggests that it is the fact of his spiritual essence that underlies the second commandment, which prohibits every attempt to fashion an image of him."[25]

text: Infinity[edit]

text: The infinity of God includes both his eternity and his immensity. Isaiah 40:28 says that "Yahweh is the everlasting God," while Solomon acknowledges in 1 Kings 8:27 that "the heavens, even the highest heaven, cannot contain you". Infinity permeates all other attributes of God: his goodness, love, power, etc. are all considered to be infinite.

text: The relationship between the infinity of God and mathematical infinity has often been discussed.[26] Georg Cantor's work on infinity in mathematics was accused of undermining God's infinity, but Cantor argued that God's infinity is the Absolute Infinite, which transcends other forms of infinity.[27]

text: Jealousy[edit]

text: Exodus 20:5-6, of the Decalogue says, "You shall not bow down to them or worship them; for I, the LORD your God, am a jealous God, punishing the children for the sin of the parents to the third and fourth generation of those who hate me, but showing love to a thousand generations of those who love me and keep my commandments" (NIV). J. I. Packer sees God's jealousy as "zeal to protect a love relationship or to avenge it when broken," thus making it "an aspect of his covenant love for his own people."[28]

text: Love[edit]

text: 1 John 4:16 says "God is Love." D. A. Carson speaks of the "difficult doctrine of the love of God," since "when informed Christians talk about the love of God they mean something very different from what is meant in the surrounding culture."[29] Carson distinguishes between the love the Father has for the Son, God's general love for his creation, God's "salvific stance towards his fallen world," his "particular, effectual, selecting love toward his elect," and love that is conditioned on obedience.

text: The love of God is particularly emphasised by adherents of the social Trinitarian school of theology. Kevin Bidwell argues that this school, which includes Jürgen Moltmann and Miroslav Volf, "deliberately advocates self-giving love and freedom at the expense of Lordship and a whole array of other divine attributes."[30]

text: Mission[edit]

text: While the mission of God is not traditionally included in this list, David Bosch has argued that "mission is not primarily an activity of the church, but an attribute of God."[31] Christopher J. H. Wright argues for a biblical basis for Mission that goes beyond the Great Commission, and suggests that "missionary texts" may sparkle like gems, but that "simply laying out such gems on a string is not yet what one could call a missiological hermeneutic of the whole Bible itself."[32]

text: Mystery[edit]

text: Many theologians see mystery as God’s primary attribute because He only reveals certain knowledge to the human race. Karl Barth said “God is ultimate mystery.”[33] Karl Rahner views “God” as “mystery” and theology as “the ‘science’ of mystery.”[34] Nikolai Berdyaev deems “inexplicable Mystery” as God’s “most profound definition.”[35] Ian Ramsey defines God as “permanent mystery,”[36]

text: Omnipotence[edit]

text: The omnipotence of God refers to him being "all powerful". This is often conveyed with the phrase "Almighty", as in the Old Testament title "God Almighty" (the conventional translation of the Hebrew title El Shaddai) and the title "God the Father Almighty" in the Apostles' Creed.

text: Jesus says in Matthew 19:26, "with God all things are possible". C. S. Lewis clarifies this concept: "His Omnipotence means power to do all that is intrinsically possible, not to do the intrinsically impossible. You may attribute miracles to him, but not nonsense. This is no limit to his power."[37]

text: Omnipresence[edit]

text: The omnipresence of God refers to him being present everywhere. Berkhof distinguishes between God's immensity and his omnipresence, saying that the former "points to the fact that God transcends all space and is not subject to its limitations," emphasising his transcendence, while the latter denotes that God "fills every part of space with His entire Being," emphasising his immanence.[38] In Psalm 139, David says, "If I go up to the heavens, you are there; if I make my bed in the depths, you are there" (Psalm 139:8, NIV).

text: Omniscience[edit]

text: The omniscience of God refers to him being "all knowing". Berkhof regards the wisdom of God as a "particular aspect of his knowledge."[39] Romans 16:27 speaks about the "only wise God".

text: Oneness[edit]

text: The oneness, or unity of God refers to his being one and only. This means that Christianity is monotheistic, although the doctrine of the Trinity says that God is three persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. The Athanasian Creed says "we worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity."

text: The most notable biblical affirmation of the unity of God is found in Deuteronomy 6:4. The statement, known as the Shema Yisrael, after its first two words in Hebrew, says "Hear, O Israel: Yahweh our God, Yahweh is one." In the New Testament, Jesus upholds the oneness of God by quoting these words in Mark 12:29. The Apostle Paul also affirms the oneness of God in verses like Ephesians 4:6.[40]

text: The oneness of God is also related to his simplicity.

text: Providence[edit]

text: While the providence of God usually refers to his activity in the world, it also implies his care for the universe, and is thus an attribute.[41] Although the word is not used in the Bible to refer to God, the concept is found in verses such as Acts 17:25, which says that God "gives all men life and breath and everything else" (NIV).

text: A distinction is usually made between "general providence," which refers to God's continuous upholding the existence and natural order of the universe, and "special providence," which refers to God's extraordinary intervention in the life of people.[42]

text: Righteousness[edit]

text: The righteousness of God may refer to his holiness, to his justice, or to his saving activity. A notable occurrence of the word is in Romans 1:17 - "for in the gospel the righteousness of God is revealed" (NIV). Martin Luther grew up believing that this referred to an attribute of God - namely, his distributive justice. Luther's change of mind and subsequent interpretation of the phrase as referring to the righteousness which God imputes to the believer was a major factor in the Protestant Reformation. More recently, however, scholars such as N. T. Wright have argued that the verse refers to an attribute of God after all - this time, his covenant faithfulness.[43]

text: Simplicity[edit]

text: The simplicity of God means he is not partly this and partly that, but that whatever he is, he is so entirely. It is thus related to the unity of God. Grudem notes that this is a less common use of the word "simple" - that is, "not composed of parts". Grudem distinguishes between God's "unity of singularity" (in that God is one God) and his "unity of simplicity".[44]

text: Sovereignty[edit]

text: The sovereignty of God is related to his omnipotence, providence, and kingship, yet it also encompasses his freedom, and is in keeping with his goodness, righteousness, holiness, and impeccability. It refers to God being in complete control as he directs all things — no person, organization, government or any other force can stop God from executing his purpose. This attribute has been particularly emphasized in Calvinism. The Calvinist writer A. W. Pink appeals to Isaiah 46:10 ("My purpose will stand, and I will do all that I please") and argues, "Subject to none, influenced by none, absolutely independent; God does as He pleases, only as He pleases always as He pleases."[45]

text: Transcendence[edit]

text: God's transcendence means that he is outside space and time, and therefore eternal and unable to be changed by forces within the universe.[46] It is thus closely related to God's immutability, and is contrasted with his immanence. A significant verse which balances God's transcendence and his immanence is Isaiah 57:15:

text: For this is what the high and exalted One says — he who lives forever, whose name is holy: "I live in a high and holy place, but also with the one who is contrite and lowly in spirit, to revive the spirit of the lowly and to revive the heart of the contrite."

text: Trinity[edit]

text: The Trinity of God refers to him being three in one. God is understood to be a unity of Father, Son, and the Holy Spirit.[47] Support for the doctrine of the Trinity comes from such places as the New Testament's trinitarian formulae, such as the Great Commission of Matthew 28:19, "Therefore go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit". First John 5:7 (of the KJV) reads "...there are three that bear record in heaven, the Father, the Word, and the Holy Ghost, and these three are one", but this Comma Johanneum is almost universally rejected as a Latin corruption.[48]

text: Veracity[edit]

text: The veracity of God means his truth-telling. Titus 1:2 refers to "God, who does not lie." Among evangelicals, God's veracity is often regarded as the basis of the doctrine of biblical inerrancy. Greg Bahnsen says,

text: Only with an inerrant autograph can we avoid attributing error to the God of truth. An error in the original would be attributable to God Himself, because He, in the pages of Scripture, takes responsibility for the very words of the biblical authors. Errors in copies, however, are the sole responsibility of the scribes involved, in which case God’s veracity is not impugned.[49]

text: Wrath[edit]

text: Moses praises the wrath of God in Exodus 15:7. Later in Deuteronomy 9, after the incident of The Golden Calf, Moses describes how: "I feared the furious anger of the LORD, which turned him against you, would drive him to destroy you. But again he listened to me." (9:19). In Psalm 69:24, the psalmist begs God to "consume" his enemies "with your burning anger".

text: In the New Testament, Jesus says in John 3:36, "Whoever believes in the Son has eternal life; whoever does not obey the Son shall not see life, but the wrath of God remains on him."

text: Wayne Grudem suggests that "if God loves all that is right and good, and all that conforms to his moral character, then it should not be surprising that he would hate everything that is opposed to his moral character."[50]


document_title: Indian Airlines

question_text: when was air india and indian airlines merged

text: Indian Airlines

text: History[edit]

text: Merger of regional airlines[edit]

text: The airline was set up under the Air Corporations Act, 1953 with an initial capital of  32 million and started operations on 1 August 1953. It was established after legislation came into force to nationalise the entire airline industry in India. Two new national airlines were to be formed along the same lines as happened in the United Kingdom with British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) and British European Airways (BEA). Air India took over international routes and Indian Airlines Corporation (IAC) took over the domestic and regional routes. Eight pre-Independence domestic airlines, Deccan Airways, Airways India, Bharat Airways, Himalayan Aviation, Kalinga Airlines, Indian National Airways and Air Services of India and the Domestic wing of Air India, were merged to form the new domestic national carrier Indian Airlines Corporation. International operations of Air India Ltd. was taken over by the newly formed Air India International. Indian Airlines Corporation inherited a fleet of 99 aircraft including 74 Douglas DC-3 Dakotas, 12 Vickers Vikings, 3 Douglas DC-4s and various smaller types from the seven airlines that made it up.

text: Early fleet[edit]

text: Vickers Viscounts were introduced in 1957 with Fokker F27 Friendships being delivered from 1961. The 1960s also saw Hawker Siddeley HS 748s, manufactured in India by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, join the fleet. The jet age began for IAC with the introduction of the pure-jet Sud Aviation Caravelle airliner in 1964, followed by Boeing 737-200s in the early 1970s. April 1976 saw the first three Airbus A300 wide-body jets being introduced. The regional airline, Vayudoot, which had been established in 1981, was later reintegrated. By 1990, Airbus A320-200s were introduced. The economic liberalisation process initiated by the Government of India in the early 1990s ended Indian Airlines' dominance of India's domestic air transport industry.

text: Post liberalisation[edit]

text: The Indian Government liberalised the private sector in mid 80's and with the emergence of new competitors, Indian Airlines faced tough competition from Jet Airways, Air Sahara (now JetKonnect), East-West Airlines, Skyline NEPC, and ModiLuft. Yet till 2005, Indian Airlines was the second largest airline in India after Jet Airways while Air Sahara controlled 17% of the Indian aviation industry.During that time few other domestic carriers like East-West Airlines, Skyline NEPC and ModiLuft discontinued their flight operations.

text: Also during 1993 another Government established regional feeder airline called Vayudoot was merged with Indian Airlines but still operated as a standalone division until 1997 after which its entire flight operations were transferred to Indian Airlines and its employees absorbed into Indian Airlines and Air India.

text: Post Low-Cost Carrier era[edit]

text: Since 2003 with the entry of several low-cost airlines in India, such as Air Deccan, SpiceJet, IndiGo, GoAir and others like Kingfisher Airlines along with its low cost arm Kingfisher Red continued to give competition in its market, forcing Indian to cut down air-fares. However, as of 2006, Indian Airlines was still a profit making airline; in fact during 2004-2005 it made a record profit of Rs656.1 million.[4] Indian Airlines Limited was partly owned by the Government of India (51% of share capital ) through a holding company and has 19,300 employees as of March 2007.[5] Its annual turn-over, together with that of its subsidiary Alliance Air, was well over  40 billions (around US$1 billion). Together with its subsidiary, Alliance Air, Indian Airlines carried a total of over 7.5 million passengers annually.[citation needed]

text: Air India merger[edit]

text: On 26 February 2011, Indian airlines ceased operating under its own brand and codes with the merger with Air India being complete.[6]

text: Destinations[edit]

text: Codeshare agreements[edit]

text: Indian had codeshare agreements with the following airlines:[7]

text:
Alliance Air
GMG Airlines
Gulf Air
Uzbekistan Airways

text: Fleet[edit]

text: Indian operated an all-Airbus fleet consisting of the A320 family.

text:
Indian Airlines Fleet

Aircraft
In Service
Passengers
Notes

J
Y
Total

Airbus A319-100
24
14
106
120

8
114
122

0
144
144

Airbus A320-200
28
20
126
146

Airbus A321-200
20
20
152
172
In Air India livery

Total
72

text: Livery[edit]

text: The aircraft livery used while the company was called Indian Airlines was one of the longest in continuous use in the airline industry. The logo (IA) and the livery, designed by National Institute of Design Ahmedabad {cn}, which was one of the best in India for its high level of recall value, will be remembered for a long time. Its aircraft were mainly white, with the belly painted in light metallic grey. Above the windows, "Indian Airlines" was written in English on starboard side and in Hindi on port side. The tail was bright orange, with its logo in white. In most of the aircraft, the logo was also painted on the engines over its bare metal colour. Also, when the company was under the title of Indian Airlines, to celebrate its 50th year of service the airline put the slogan "50 years of flying" in gold on many of their aircraft.

text: After the name change to Indian, the company's aircraft sported a new look inspired by the Sun Temple at Konark in Odisha. The tail of their aircraft had a partial blue wheel since practically 3/4 of the remainder is cut off. The wheel is over an orange background with the carrier's name "Indian" written in English on one side of the fuselage, and in Hindi on the other. On 15 May 2007, the Government of India released the new merger livery, which was sent to Boeing in Seattle to repaint all the new fleet coming into the new Air India. Most of the old fleets of Air India and Indian Airlines have also been painted in the new livery.

text: Service[edit]

text: Indian operated short-haul Airbus A320 family aircraft. It offered 2 classes on most sectors - Economy Class and Executive class. Economy class had a typical 3-3 seating on the Airbus aircraft. Passengers were offered complimentary meals. The Executive class seat configuration was 2-2 with a generous recline. Meals served were more lavish.

text: Incidents and accidents[edit]

text:
On 15 November 1961, Vickers Viscount VT-DIH was damaged beyond economic repair when the co-pilot retracted the undercarriage during landing at Ratmalana Airport, Colombo, Ceylon.[8]
On 11 September 1963, Vickers Viscount VT-DIO crashed 51 kilometres (32 mi) south of Agra, killing all 18 people on board.[9]
On 18 February 1969, Douglas DC-3 VT-CJH crashed on take-off from Jaipur – Sanganer Airport on a scheduled passenger flight. The aircraft was overloaded and take-off was either downwind or with a crosswind. All 30 people on board survived.[10]

text:
On 29 August 1970, a Fokker F27 flew into high terrain near Silchar shortly after takeoff, killing the five crew members and 34 passengers.
On 30 January 1971, a Fokker F27 on a scheduled flight from Srinagar to Jammu was hijacked to Lahore by Ashraf and Hashim Qureshi, two Kashmiri terrorists. Passengers were returned to India on 2 February, but the hijackers destroyed the aircraft. India and Pakistan, blaming each other's intelligence services, each ban the other country's overflights and India-Pakistan flights until 1976.
On 9 August 1971, Vickers Viscount VT-DIX was damaged beyond economic repair when it overran the runway at Jaipur Airport. The aircraft was landed with a tailwind on a wet runway.[11]
On 9 December 1971, a Hawker Siddeley HS 748, near Chinnamanur was descending into Madurai when it flew into high terrain about 50 mi (80 km) from the airport, killing the four crew members and all 17 passengers. The accident occurred in reduced visibility during daylight hours.[12][13][14]
On 11 August 1972, a Fokker F27, at New Delhi lost altitude and crashed after aborting a landing. The four crew members and the 14 passengers were killed.
On 31 May 1973, Flight 440, a Boeing 737 (registered VT-EAM), crashed and burned during landing at New Delhi, killing five of the seven crew and 43 of the 58 passengers.
On 12 October 1976, Flight 171, a Sud Aviation SE 210 Caravelle, had its right engine catch fire shortly after takeoff from Bombay. The crew attempted to return, but fuel flow to the engine was not stopped. When the fire spread through the fuselage and the hydraulic system failed, the aircraft controls failed before landing. All six crew members and their 89 passengers were killed.
On 4 August 1979, a Hawker Siddeley HS 748 aircraft was approaching Bombay airport at night and in poor weather when it flew into high terrain approximately 6 mi (9.7 km) from the airport, killing the four crew and their 41 passengers.

text:
On 10 May 1980, a Boeing 737-2A8, en route near Rampurhat experienced severe turbulence that killed two of the 132 passengers.
On 19 August 1981, Flight 557, a HAL 748 VT-DXF overshot the 5,783 feet (1,763 m) runway at Mangalore International Airport in wet weather. The aircraft came to a halt just beyond the runway edge. While there were no fatalities, the aircraft was damaged beyond repair and was written off. One of the passengers on board was Veerappa Moily, the then Finance Minister of Karnataka.[15]
On 29 September 1986, an Airbus A300B2-1C (registered VT-ELV) overrun the runway at Chennai International Airport airport during aborted takeoff caused by bird strike. None of 196 people on board were injured but the aircraft was damaged beyond repair.[16]
On 19 October 1988, Flight 113, a Boeing 737 (registered VT-EAH) hit an electric mast 5 mi (8.0 km) out on approach to Ahmedabad in poor visibility, killing the six crew members and all but one of the 129 passengers.

text:
On 14 February 1990, Flight 605, an Airbus A320, crashed on final approach at HAL Airport, Bangalore. 92 people on board were killed and 54 survived.[17]
On 16 August 1991, Flight 257, Boeing 737 (registered VT-EFL) crashed on its descent into Imphal, killing all 69 occupants. The flight operating on the Calcutta-Imphal sector crashed into Thangjing hills, about 20 nautical miles (40 km) south-west of the Imphal airport. The aircraft had taken off from Calcutta and began a descent into Imphal airport with the visibility at that time being seven kilometers. However, the aircraft lost contact with Imphal airport on the Instrument Landing System. The search and rescue efforts were hampered by bad weather conditions and a slushy terrain. The probable cause of accident was attributed to an "error on the part of the Pilot-in-Command in not adhering to the operational flight.
On 26 April 1993, Flight 491, Boeing 737 (registered VT-ECQ) started its takeoff from Aurangabad's runway 09 in hot and humid temperatures. After lifting off almost at the end of the runway, it impacted heavily with a lorry on a highway at the end of runway. The left main landing gear, left engine bottom cowling and thrust reverser impacted the left side of the truck at a height of nearly seven feet from the level of the road. Thereafter the aircraft hit the high tension electric wires nearly 3 km North-East of the runway and hit the ground, causing 63 Injuries and 55 fatalities.
On 15 November 1993, Indian Airlines Flight 440, an Airbus A300 (registered VT-EDV)executed a missed approach at Hyderabad's Begumpet Airport due to poor visibility, but the flaps failed to retract. After trying to solve the problem while flying in the vicinity of Hyderabad, the crew eventually diverted the aircraft to Chennai. The delay in diverting, and the need to fly slower due to the extended flaps, resulted in the aircraft running out of fuel on the way. The aircraft force-landed in a paddy field and was damaged beyond repair. All 262 people on board survived. Telugu actors Chiranjeevi and Venkatesh survived this crash attracting widespread attention.[18]
On 24 December 1999, Flight 814, an Airbus A300B2-101 (registered VT-EDW) was hijacked just after taking off from Kathmandu, Nepal to Delhi. The plane flew around different points in the subcontinent and finally landed in Kandahar, Afghanistan, as officials of the government of India and the Taliban negotiated. One passenger was killed and some were released. On 31 December 1999, the rest of the hostages were freed in exchange for the release of Mushtaq Ahmed Zargar, Ahmed Omar Saeed Sheikh and Maulana Masood Azhar.

text: Financials[edit]

text: Given below is a chart of trend of profitability of Indian Airlines as published in the 2004 annual report by Ministry of Civil Aviation with figures in millions of Indian Rupees.[19]

text:
Year
Operating Revenues
Operating Profit(Loss)

2002
41,015
(1,347)

2003
46,498
1,251


document_title: Vikram Aur Betaal

question_text: who played the role of betal in vikram betal

text: Vikram Aur Betaal

text: Background[edit]

text: Vikram Aur Betaal is based on Betaal Pacchisi, written nearly 2,500 years ago by Mahakavi Somdev Bhatt. These are spellbinding stories told to the wise King Vikramaditya by the wily ghost Betaal.

text: At the beginning of the frame story, Vikramaditya king of Ujjain receives, among other visitors, a mendicant who presents the king a fruit on every visit. In the fruits are later discovered orbs of ruby. Upon this discovery, the king resolves to visit the mendicant, who arranges a meeting under a banyan tree in a cremation ground beyond the city, at night, on the 14th day of the dark half of the month. At the meeting, the mendicant requests that Vikramaditya bring him a corpse suspended from another tree, with which the mendicant might achieve occult power.

text: Upon Vikramaditya's doing so, the corpse is identified as Betaal, the ghost, who narrates a story to the king, concluding that Vikramaditya must answer a moral question pertaining to the story's characters, on pain of his own death; and upon his answering the question, Betaal returns to his tree.

text: The stories[edit]

text: The name Betaal Pachisi suggests the Betaal told the king 25 stories (pacchisi - पच्चीसी is derived from pacchis - पच्चीस in Hindi, which means 25), each narrated while Vikramaditya is carrying Betaal to the mendicant, where of each ended with a moral

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Arun Govil - as King Vikramaditya.
Sajjan - as Betaal.
Arvind Trivedi - as the mendicant.
Deepika Chikhalia - in many roles.
Vijay Arora - in many roles.
Ramesh Bhatkar - in many roles.
Mulraj Rajda - in many roles.
Rajni Bala - in many roles.
Sunil Lahiri - in many roles.
Lilliput - in many roles.
Rama Vij - in many roles.
Satish Kaul - in many roles.

text: List of episodes[edit]

text:
hide#

Title

Other Cast

1
"King Vikramaditya and the Yogi / Suryamal and His Bride's Dilemma"
Balwant Bansal as MantriRamesh Bhatkar as the bride's fatherGagan Gupta as soldierSatish Kaul as Suryamal

Short Summary: The first episode shows the story of how Raja Vikramaditya and Betaal meet. Beetal tells him a story of Suryamal, who falls in love with a woman and marries her with her parents' consent. En route to home, dacoits attack and behead Suryamal and his friend. Suryamal's bride, a devout worshipper of goddess Durga, tries to commit suicide after seeing her husband dead. Goddess answers her prayers and decides to bring them both alive. Excited with joy, bride puts Suryamal's head on his friend's body and vice versa.Question: Betaal asks, who should the bride now consider as her husband; the man who has Suryamal's head or Suryamal's body?Answer: Vikram answers, as brain controls whole man, the man with Suryamal's head is the bride's husband.

2
"King Rupsen and His Bodyguard Virvar"
Dara Singh as VirvarMadhu Kapoor as Raj Laxmi

Short Summary: Virvar with his mighty physical strength gains the position of being bodyguard to King Rupsen. But he charges him a hefty sum of 9 tolas of gold daily. One day the goddess of wealth (Raj Laxmi) tells Virvar that a demon who sleeps in a cave will soon wake up and eat the king to satisfy his hunger. Being king's bodyguard, Virvar along with his family decide to sacrifice their lives and hence enter the cave. After knowing what Virvar did to save his life, King Rupsen feels ashamed of not doing his duty of protecting his masses and he too enters the cave. The goddess of wealth comes and tells them all of how it was all her plan to test Virvar if he really was loyal as he charged a huge amount.Question: Betaal asks, who amongst King Rupsen and Virvar is great by doing his duty?Answer: Vikram answers, as it was Virvar's duty to protect king and he did so, he was not as great as the King Rupsen himself, who for sake of his masses was ready to sacrifice his own life.

3
"Love Story of King Yashodhan"
Vijay Arora as YashodhanRajni Bala as Girl's motherRamesh Bhatkar as Girl's fatherMohan Choti as DarbariSatish Kaul as SenapatiKaajal Kiran as Rich man's daughterChandrakant Pandya as DarbariMulraj Rajda as Kausal Sen

Short Summary: King Yashodhan is a just and kind king of his Kingdom. He is well trusted by his army, commanders and courtiers.But, Yashodhan is also well skilled in punishing the culprits. He does so by punishing a businessman who had brought the nautch girls for his luxury. In his kingdom, there lived a rich couple who plans to marry their beautiful and able daughter off to king. They send an invitation to the King, in return the king sends his darbaris to inspect about the girl whether she is qualified enough to be the Queen. The Darbaris does so and think positively about her. But on their return way to the palace, the evil businessman convinced the Darbaris that the girl can't be queen as if the girl is beautiful then king will not pay attention to his duties. So, the Darbaris lies to the king about the girl. In result, the king brokes the proposal of marriage with the girl. After some time, the same rich man arranges his daughter marriage with the King's Commander. He engages his daughter with the commander and they fall in love with each other. One day, the girl's beauty caught the king's eye. He sends his ministers and commander to search the girl and ask her hand for the king. This puts a dilemma situation to the commander as his loyalty to king is tested. As a result, he broke off with the girl and sacrifices her and tells the king that she is ready for marriage with the king. In the wedding day, the darbaris advises the king to reward the commander after being asked why so, the darbaris put the whole truth to the king.As the king was just he arranges the marriage of commander and the very girl. Thus, sacrificing her.
Question: Whose sacrifice is bigger and greater the king's or the commander's?
Answer:The commander's sacrifice is bigger and greater as he sacrificed his love and fiancée for sake of loyalty and kingdom whereas the king sacrifices only a girl he wished to marry by simply catching her glimpse.

4
"Three Suitors and Somprabha"
Vijay Arora as AnuragiRamesh Bhatkar as Somprabha's FatherSatish Kaul as ShilpiKaajal Kiran as SomprabhaSunil Lahri as Vir SinghMulraj Rajda as the GiantDharmesh Tiwari as Somprabha's Brother

Short Summary: Somprabha is a beautiful and multi talented girl ready age to get married. Her father, mother and brother were happy for her and wanted to get her married. But, a giant demon has also vowed and promised them that he will take her away. This tensed the whole family. After some days, Somprabha's Father was travelling when group of bandits attacked his group then, a handsome and brave warrior, Vir Singh saved them with his weaponry and physical strength. Father gets impressed and offers him to get married to his daughter which he accepts. Somprabha's mother also meets a poet who had written about her charm, mother also offers him the same and he also accepted. At the same time, brother also offers the same to an engineer who had built a Viman, who also accepts. At the time of the official matchmaking ceremony, all 3 suitors arrive and the bride is given the choice of choosing her betrothed. Alas, the giant demon arrives and abducts Somprabha, much to the dismay of her family and 3 suitors. The suitors then decide to go after the demon, as the poet knows the place where the demon lives. Using the engineer's Viman, all 3 arrive at the demon's place and the warrior manages to defeat the demon. With Somprabha in tow, all of them go back safely to her home. Somprabha now faces a dilemma on who to pick as her husband.
Question:Who should Somprabha marry? The warrior, the poet or the engineer?
Answer:As a husband should be able to protect his wife from all forms of danger, the warrior is most worthy among the 3 as he alone was able to defeat and save Somprabha from the demon.

5
"The Story of Padmavati and Prince Vajramukti"
Rajni Bala as Dai MaRamesh Bhatkar as Diwan's sonSatish Kaul as Prince VajramuktiRama Vij as Padmavati

Short Summary:Prince Vajramukti is a handsome Prince of a Kingdom.He is in friendship with his Diwan(Minister)'s Son.One day, both wandered around the forest where the Prince sees a beautiful girl and is smitten by her beauty. He asked her about her name, address and her father's occupation by which she replied by pointing herself with a lotus, touching her ear and acting as if uprooting the tooth. This puzzles Vajramukti and he asks his friend about it who easily solves the puzzles and knowns her whereabouts in Karnapur as Dentist's Daughter and named Padmavati. Then he finds out her and propose for marry which she positively answers. But, the King of Karnapur is also smitten by her and intends to marry her. Vajramukti is angered by it but his friend advised a peaceful way of solving the problem. The Diwan's son disguised as a thief steals Padmavati's Jewelry and then again disguised as a sage goes to king and says that the girl with the particular jewelry has enticed him sexually. This enraged the king and he immediately exiles padmavati who is then happily married to Vajramukti.
Question:Who is more sinful and culprit among the three Prince, Diwan's Son or the King?
Answer:The king is more sinful as Prince has loved the girl and Diwan's son is only helping his friend but the King had exiled an innocent girl without any proof or evidence.

6
"Rich Girl Accepts Thief as Husband  "
Vijay Arora as King VeerketuPuneet Issar as ThiefMulraj Rajda as RatnasenRama Vij as the Rich Girl

Short Summary:King Veerketu is king of Ayodhya. He is tensed as his kingdom is rampaged by an unknown thief. He decides to nab the thief himself by disguising as thief himself. Meanwhile, a rich girl Manna meets a young man. The man impress her by his unique acrobatic and physical skills and talent. Manna begins to like him and vice versa. Manna has a record of rejecting several qualified men as her suitor. Then the very night, the king(disguised) meets the thief (same young man) and befriends him. Then the thief reveals that he wanted to be a soldier but the corruption of ministers has kept him far from his aim. Then king reveals himself and nabs him. He is put on trial. Then, Manna's father vows to protect the thief as her daughter loved him and Manna wanted to marry him. This declaration makes the thief cry and laugh simultaneously. After learning all the truth and sake of friendship with the thief, Veerkutu released the thief and appoints him his Commander.
Question: Why the thief cries and laughs simultaneously after hearing the declaration of the Rich Man?AnswerThe thief cries because as he knew he can't repay the deeds of the Manna and her father as he is going to die, and he laughed because he couldn't believe in his fate as Manna liked him over other qualified suitor.

7
"King Chandrasen and His Servant Satvasheel"
Vijay Arora as King ChandrasenSatish Kaul as SatvasheelRama Vij as the Sea Princess

Short Summary:

8
"Three Sensitive Brothers "
Rajni Bala as the Court SingerSunil Lahri as the First BrotherSamir Rajda as Second BrotherBabloo Mukherjee ...  Third BrotherMulraj Rajda ...  the King

Short Summary:

9
"The Husband, the Thief, and the Lover "
Vijay Arora as the HusbandRamesh Bhatkar as the ThiefSatish Kaul as the LoverSangeeta Naik as Madan SenaMulraj Rajda  as Father-in-Law

Short Summary:

10
"The Prince and the Three Sensitive Sisters"
Bijaya Jena (Dolly Jena) as the most sensitive princess Mrigank,Rajni Bala  as IndulekhaMohan Choti as MunimVijay Kavish  as PrabandhakSunil Lahri as the PrinceLilliput as the ServantRama Vij  as Indulekha

Short Summary:

11
"Whom Will the Princess Marry?"
Vijay Arora as the BirdmanPuneet Issar as the Brave ManSatish Kaul as the VaidVijay Kavish as the WeaverMulraj Rajda as the KingRama Vij as the Princess

Short Summary: Once the princess decides to leave her palace and go around and visit places in her kingdom. On her way she meets a Birdman who understands and talks with birds. Impressed by his unique skill she asks him to come to the palace and teach her too. She then meets a Weaver whose woven cloth is very fine and has good export demand. She wishes that she could weave with such ability. On her journey ahead she falls ill and is hence treated by a Vaid (Doctor in Hindi language). Looking at the philanthropic work he does, she expresses that she too wishes to leave her palace and help poor people just like he does. On her way back home, she is attacked by dacoits and a Brave Man saves her. Back in her palace, the King decides that she should now get married and announces that all suitable Grooms can present themselves.Question: Of the Birdman, Weaver, Doctor and the Brave Man who will the Princess marry?Answer: Vikram replies that the Princess will marry the Brave Man as with him she would always be secure. Other attractions she had for other men would not last long enough.

12
"Who Is the Real Father"
Rajni Bala as BhagwatiRamesh Bhatkar as the Greedy ManPuneet Issar as the ThiefBabloo Mukherjee as Dhanwati's SonSangeeta Naik as DhanwatiMulraj Rajda as the King

Short Summary:

13
"The Giant and the Brave Boy"
Vijay Arora as the KingRajni Bala as the Boy's MotherDeepika as the QueenLilliput as the Boy's FatherSameer Rajda as the Brave BoyShamsuddin as the Giant

Short Summary:

14
"Love Is Eternal "
Vijay Arora as HaridattSatish Kaul as MadhusudanKaajal Kiran as MadhumaltiSunil Lahri as VamanMulraj Rajda as Pandit

Short Summary:

15
"The Lover of Princess Chandraprabha"
Ramesh Bhatkar as Mantri PutraDeepika as Princess ChandraprabhaVijay Kavish as the Magician's SonLilliput as the MagicianBabloo Mukherjee as Manu Kumar / Manu KumariMulraj Rajda  as the King

Short Summary:

16
"The Dilemma of Mahamantri and King Vallabh"
Vijay Arora as King VallabhRajni Bala  ...  Mahamantri's WifeRamesh Bhatkar  ...  MahamantriLilliput as the PainterShamsuddin as Rakshas
amrita ghosh
as the gandharv kanyya

Short Summary:

17
"The Unsuccessful Penance of Gunkar"
Rajni Bala  as Gunkar's MotherRamesh Bhatkar as The SaintVijayendra Ghatge as GunkarLilliput as the GamblerMulraj Rajda as Gunkar's Father
amrita ghose as the apsara

Short Summary: Gunkar loses his poor father's all hard earned money in gambling. He is hence kicked out of the home. Wandering, he meets a saint who with his yogic powers can bring forth anything that one wants. Gunkar asks the saint to teach him power. Saint agrees and asks him to follow the two-fold way of attaining the power. Midway after completing first step Gunkar decides to go home and meet his family. He asks saint to bring in some clothes to take to his home as gifts. After returning, Gunkar finishes his second step. But he is not able to get the power.Question: Betaal ask for what reason Gunkar could not attain the power although he did just as he was instructed by the saint?Answer: Vikram answers that Gunkar failed as he did not follow the way properly as he was distracted and cut it into two and went home.

18
"The Story of Rajkumar and the Bird"
Sunil Lahri as Rajkumar JimutvahanLilliput as The Chief

Short Summary:

19
"The Gambling Temptation of Gopu"
Ramesh Bhatkar as GopuDeepika as RatnaLilliput as the GamblerMulraj Rajda as Ratna's Father

Short Summary:

20
"The Realization of Prince Anandsen"
Ramesh Bhatkar as HaribabaDeepika as Princess RoopvatiSatish Kaul as Yuvraj AnandsenMulraj Rajda as Raja Dharamveer

Short Summary:

21
"The Legendary Love of Sukesh and Legendary Duty of King Dharamveer"
Vijay Arora  ...  King DharamveerRajni Bala  as PariSuraj Chaddha as SukeshAnil Chaudhary as MantriDeepika as NandiniVijay Kavish as Divya AtmaLilliput as Jadoogar AbhijeetVilas Raj as Pradhan MantriMulraj Rajda as Yashwant DubeyVikram Sahu as Nagar Seth

Short Summary:

22
"The Love Story of Four Princes"
Vijay Arora as Prince GovindRamesh Bhatkar as Prince AmarDeepika  as RajkumariSatish Kaul as Prince AjayVijay Kavish as Chamatkari YogiSunil Lahri as Prince VijayLilliput as RakshasVilas Raj as VaidyaMulraj Rajda as Rajah

Short Summary:

23
"The Justice of King Satyadev"
Vijay Arora as Kavi HaribhatRamesh Bhatkar as KaliyaBandini Mishra as Rajkumari PriyavandaMulraj Rajda as Raja SatyadevHari Shukla as Raja Dharamdev

Short Summary:

24
"The Dreams of Dagdoo "
Rajni Bala as  Dagdoo's MotherPaintal as  DagdooMulraj Rajda as Maharaja

Short Summary:

25
"The Story of Greedy Apurva "
Vijay Arora as Rajkumar AmbrishRamesh Bhatkar as  ApurvaAnil Chaudhary as VyapariDeepika as AnjaliSunil Lahri  as SatyakamMulraj Rajda as Avinash

Short Summary:

26
"The Revenge of Nagin "
Vijay Arora as Yuvraj ShaktinathRajni Bala as Princess ArundhatiAnil Chaudhary as Arundhati's BrotherDeepika as NageshwariMulraj Rajda as Raja Hargovind Das

Short Summary:


document_title: History of firefighting

question_text: who founded the first fire fighting team in america

text: History of firefighting

text: Rome[edit]

text: The first ever Roman fire brigade of which we have any substantial history was created by Marcus Licinius Crassus. Marcus Licinius Crassus was born into a wealthy Roman family around the year 115 BC, and acquired an enormous fortune through (in the words of Plutarch) "fire and rapine." One of his most lucrative schemes took advantage of the fact that Rome had no fire department. Crassus filled this void by creating his own brigade—500 men strong—which rushed to burning buildings at the first cry of alarm. Upon arriving at the scene, however, the fire fighters did nothing while their employer bargained over the price of their services with the distressed property owner. If Crassus could not negotiate a satisfactory price, his men simply let the structure burn to the ground, after which he offered to purchase it for a fraction of its value. Emperor Nero took the basic idea from Crassus and then built on it to form the Vigiles in AD 60 to combat fires using bucket brigades and pumps, as well as poles, hooks and even ballistae to tear down buildings in advance of the flames. The Vigiles patrolled the streets of Rome to watch for fires and served as a police force. The later brigades consisted of hundreds of men, all ready for action. When there was a fire, the men would line up to the nearest water source and pass buckets hand in hand to the fire.

text: Rome suffered a number of serious fires, most notably the fire on 19 July AD 64 which eventually destroyed two thirds of Rome.

text: Europe[edit]

text: In Europe, firefighting was quite rudimentary until the 17th century. In 1254, a royal decree of King Saint Louis of France created the so-called guet bourgeois ("burgess watch"), allowing the residents of Paris to establish their own night watches, separate from the king's night watches, to prevent and stop crimes and fires. After the Hundred Years' War, the population of Paris expanded again, and the city, much larger than any other city in Europe at the time, was the scene of several great fires in the 16th century. As a consequence, King Charles IX disbanded the residents' night watches and left the king's watches as the only one responsible for checking crimes and fires.

text: London suffered great fires in 798, 982, 989, 1212 and above all in 1666 (the Great Fire of London). The Great Fire of 1666 started in a baker's shop on Pudding Lane, consumed about two square miles (5 km²) of the city, leaving tens of thousands homeless. Prior to this fire, London had no organized fire protection system. Afterwards, insurance companies formed private fire brigades to protect their clients’ property. Insurance brigades would only fight fires at buildings the company insured. These buildings were identified by fire insurance marks. The key breakthrough in firefighting arrived in the 17th century with the first fire engines. Manual pumps, rediscovered in Europe after 1500 (allegedly used in Augsburg in 1518 and in Nuremberg in 1657), were only force pumps and had a very short range due to the lack of hoses. German inventor Hans Hautsch improved the manual pump by creating the first suction and force pump and adding some flexible hoses to the pump. In 1672, Dutch artist and inventor Jan Van der Heyden's workshop developed the fire hose. Constructed of flexible leather and coupled every 50 feet (15 m) with brass fittings. The length remains the standard to this day in mainland Europe whilst in the UK the standard length is either 23m or 25m. The fire engine was further developed by the Dutch inventor, merchant and manufacturer, John Lofting (1659–1742) who had worked with Jan Van der Heyden in Amsterdam. Lofting moved to London in or about 1688, became an English citizen and patented (patent number 263/1690) the "Sucking Worm Engine" in 1690. There was a glowing description of the firefighting ability of his device in The London Gazette of 17 March 1691, after the issue of the patent. The British Museum has a print showing Lofting's fire engine at work in London, the engine being pumped by a team of men. In the print three fire plaques of early insurance companies are shown, no doubt indicating that Lofting collaborated with them in firefighting. A later version of what is believed to be one of his fire engines has been lovingly restored by a retired firefighter, and is on show in Marlow Buckinghamshire where John Lofting moved in 1700. Patents only lasted for fourteen years and so the field was open for his competitors after 1704.

text: Richard Newsham of Bray in Berkshire (just 8 miles from Lofting) produced and patented an improved engine in 1721 (Royal Patent Office 1721 patent #439 and 1725 patent #479) and soon dominated the fire engine market in England. Pulled as a cart to the fire, these manual pumps were manned by teams of 4 to 12 men and could deliver up to 160 gallons per minute (12 L/s) at up to 120 feet (36 m). Newsham himself died in 1743 but his company continued making fire engines under other managers and names into the 1770s. The next major development in fire engine design in England was made by Hadley, Simpkin & Lott co. in 1792 with a larger and much improved style of hand pumped engine which could be pulled to a fire by horses.

text: United States[edit]

text: In 1631, Boston's governor John Winthrop outlawed wooden chimneys and thatched roofs.[3] In 1648, the New Amsterdam governor Peter Stuyvesant appointed four men to act as fire wardens.[3] They were empowered to inspect all chimneys and to fine any violators of the rules. The city burghers later appointed eight prominent citizens to the "Rattle Watch" - these men volunteered to patrol the streets at night carrying large wooden rattles.[3] If a fire was seen, the men spun the rattles, then directed the responding citizens to form bucket brigades. On January 27, 1678 the first fire engine company went into service with its captain (foreman) Thomas Atkins.[3] In 1736 Benjamin Franklin established the Union Fire Company in Philadelphia.[3]

text: The United States did not have government-run fire departments until around the time of the American Civil War. Prior to this time, private fire brigades competed with one another to be the first to respond to a fire because insurance companies paid brigades to save buildings.[4] Underwriters also employed their own Salvage Corps in some cities. The first known female firefighter Molly Williams took her place with the men on the dragropes during the blizzard of 1818 and pulled the pumper to the fire through the deep snow.

text: On April 1 of 1853, Cincinnati, Ohio featured the first professional fire department made up of 100% full-time employees.

text: In 2015, 70 percent of firefighters in the United States were volunteer. Only 4% of calls were actual fires. 64% were medical aid. 8% were false alarms.[5]

text: Modern development[edit]

text: The first fire brigades in the modern sense were created in France in the early 18th century. In 1699, a man with bold commercial ideas, François du Mouriez du Périer (grandfather of French Revolution general Charles François Dumouriez), solicited an audience with King Louis XIV. Greatly interested in Jan Van der Heyden's invention, he successfully demonstrated the new pumps and managed to convince the king to grant him the monopoly of making and selling "fire-preventing portable pumps" throughout the kingdom of France. François du Mouriez du Périer offered 12 pumps to the City of Paris, and the first Paris Fire Brigade, known as the Compagnie des gardes-pompes (literally the "Company of Pump Guards"), was created in 1716. François du Mouriez du Périer was appointed directeur des pompes de la Ville de Paris ("director of the City of Paris's pumps"), i.e. chief of the Paris Fire Brigade, and the position stayed in his family until 1760. In the following years, other fire brigades were created in the large French cities. Around that time appeared the current French word pompier ("firefighter"), whose literal meaning is "pumper." On March 11, 1733 the French government decided that the interventions of the fire brigades would be free of charge. This was decided because people always waited until the last moment to call the fire brigades to avoid paying the fee, and it was often too late to stop fires. From 1750 on, the French fire brigades became para-military units and received uniforms. In 1756 the use of a protective helmet for firefighters was recommended by King Louis XV, but it took many more years before the measure was actually enforced on the ground.

text: In North America, Jamestown, Virginia was virtually destroyed in a fire in January, 1608. There were no full-time paid firefighters in America until 1850. Even after the formation of paid fire companies in the United States, there were disagreements and often fights over territory. New York City companies were famous for sending runners out to fires with a large barrel to cover the hydrant closest to the fire in advance of the engines.[6] Often fights would break out between the runners and even the responding fire companies for the right to fight the fire and receive the insurance money that would be paid to the company that fought it.[6] During the 19th century and early 20th century volunteer fire companies served not only as fire protection but as political machines. The most famous volunteer firefighter politician is Boss Tweed, head of the notorious Tammany Hall political machine, who got his start in politics as a member of the Americus Engine Company Number 6 ("The Big Six") in New York City.

text: Napoleon Bonaparte, drawing from the century-old experience of the gardes-pompes, is generally attributed as creating the first "professional" firefighters, known as Sapeurs-Pompiers ("Sappers-Firefighters"), from the French Army. Created under the Commandant of Engineers in 1810, the company was organized after a fire at the ballroom in the Austrian Embassy in Paris which injured several dignitaries.

text: In the UK, the Great Fire of London in 1666 set in motion changes which laid the foundations for organised firefighting in the future. In the wake of the Great Fire, the City Council established the first fire insurance company, "The Fire Office", in 1667, which employed small teams of Thames watermen as firefighters and provided them with uniforms and arm badges showing the company to which they belonged.

text: However, the first organised municipal fire brigade in the world was established in Edinburgh, Scotland, when the Edinburgh Fire Engine Establishment was formed in 1824, led by James Braidwood. London followed in 1832 with the London Fire Engine Establishment.

text: On April 1, 1853, the Cincinnati Fire Department became the first full-time paid professional fire department in the United States, and the first in the world to use steam fire engines. [1]

text: The first horse-drawn steam engine for fighting fires was invented in 1829, but not accepted in structural firefighting until 1860, and ignored for another two years afterwards. Internal combustion engine fire engines arrived in 1907, built in the United States, leading to the decline and disappearance of steam engines by 1925.

text: Firefighting today[edit]

text: Today, fire and rescue remains a mix of full-time paid, paid-on-call, and volunteer responders.


document_title: Kill the Lights Tour

question_text: who is opening for luke bryan kill the lights tour

text: Kill the Lights Tour

text: Background[edit]

text: The tour was first announced on October 20, 2015 though Bryan's website.[3] In November 2016, Bryan announced the tour would continue into 2017.[4]

text: Opening acts[edit]

text:
Little Big Town
Dustin Lynch
Brett Eldredge[1]

text: Setlist[edit]

text:
"Rain Is a Good Thing"
"Kick the Dust Up
"Kiss Tomorrow Goodbye"
"Move"
"I See You"
"Crash My Party"
"Roller Coaster"
"Play It Again"
"Strip It Down"
"Home Alone Tonight" (With Karen Farchild of Little Big Town)
"Thinkin Out Loud"/"Lets Get It On" (Marvin Gaye cover) (With Little Big Town)
"Play Something Country (Brooks & Dunn cover) (With Dustin Lynch)
"Huntin', Fishin' and Lovin' Every Day"
"Drink a Beer"
"Drunk on You"
"All My Friends Say"/"Country Man"
"That's My Kind of Night"

text:
"Country Girl (Shake It for Me)"
"I Don't Want This Night to End"/"Can't Feel My Face" (The Weeknd cover)

text: Tour dates[edit]

text:
Date
City
Country
Venue
Opening acts
Attendance
Revenue

North America Leg 1

February 18, 2016
Evansville
United States
Ford Center
Little Big Town
Dustin Lynch
8,500 / 8,500
$586,740

February 19, 2016
Peoria
Peoria Civic Center
9,350 / 9,759
$623,741

February 20, 2016
Cedar Falls
UNI-Dome
19,157 / 19,608
$1,025,207

February 25, 2016
Montreal
Canada
Bell Centre
15,985 / 15,985
$871,055

February 26, 2016
Uncasville
United States
Mohegan Sun Arena
13,449 / 13,449
$1,722,277

February 27, 2016

March 8, 2016
Las Cruces
Pan American Center
Dustin Lynch
10,295 / 10,514
$675,389

March 10, 2016
Houston
Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo
N/A
N/A
N/A

March 11, 2016
North Little Rock
Verizon Arena
Little Big Town
Dustin Lynch
12,972 / 14,182
$752,385

March 12, 2016
Bossier City
CenturyLink Center
N/A
N/A

April 7, 2016
Charleston
Charleston Civic Center
N/A
N/A

April 8, 2016
Baltimore
Royal Farms Arena
12,268 / 12,268
$823,319

April 9, 2016
Syracuse
Carrier Dome
36,141 / 36,141
$1,846,421

April 14, 2016
Toledo
Huntington Center
N/A
N/A

April 15, 2016
University Park
Bryce Jordan Center
12,515 / 12,515
$824,466

April 16, 2016
Charlottesville
John Paul Jones Arena
11,822 / 11,822
$824,176

April 20, 2016
Missoula
Adams Center
N/A
N/A

April 21, 2016

April 22, 2016
Bozeman
Brick Breeden Fieldhouse
15,872 / 15,872
$1,128,090

April 23, 2016

April 29, 2016
Concord
Concord Pavilion
N/A
N/A

April 30, 2016
Fresno
Save Mart Center
11,945 / 11,945
$801,719

May 12, 2016
Omaha
CenturyLink Center Omaha
15,079 / 15,079
$1,028,782

May 13, 2016
Wichita
Intrust Bank Arena
11,357 / 11,894
$873,075

May 14, 2016
Oklahoma City
Chesapeake Energy Arena
13,060 / 13,060
$899,435

May 20, 2016
Atlanta
Aaron's Amphitheatre
32,221 / 37,720
$1,472,814

May 21, 2016

May 27, 2016
Baton Rouge
LSU Tiger Stadium
N/A
N/A
N/A

May 29, 2016
Daytona Beach
Daytona International Speedway
N/A
N/A

June 2, 2016
Holmdel
PNC Bank Arts Center
Little Big Town
Dustin Lynch
16,950 / 16,950
$871,177

June 3, 2016
Atlantic City
Boardwalk Hall
11,639 / 11,639
$893,650

June 4, 2016
Hershey
Hersheypark Stadium
25,564 / 27,060
$1,375,679

June 9, 2016
Virginia Beach
Veterans United Home Loans Amphitheater
19,805 / 19,805
$873,466

June 10, 2016
Bristow
Jiffy Lube Live
37,771 / 45,274
$1,780,548

June 11, 2016

June 19, 2016
Columbus
Ohio Stadium
N/A
N/A
N/A

June 24, 2016
Toronto
Canada
Molson Canadian Amphitheatre
Little Big Town
Dustin Lynch
31,678 / 31,678
$1,334,690

June 25, 2016

July 7, 2016 [A]
Milwaukee
United States
Marcus Amphitheater
Frankie Ballard
21,758 / 22,861
$1,169,830

July 8, 2016
Noblesville
Klipsch Music Center
Little Big Town
Dustin Lynch
43,837 / 48,765
$1,499,243

July 9, 2016

July 15, 2016
Foxborough
Gillette Stadium
Little Big Town
Chris Stapleton
Dustin Lynch
76,450 / 87,871
$7,511,536

July 16, 2016

July 17, 2016
Bangor
Darling's Waterfront Pavilion
Little Big Town
Dustin Lynch
N/A
N/A

July 21, 2016
Scranton
The Pavilion at Montage Mountain
N/A
N/A

July 22, 2016
Burgettstown
First Niagara Pavilion
42,160 / 46,086
$1,724,225

July 23, 2016

July 28, 2016
Hopewell
CMAC
N/A
N/A

July 29, 2016
Camden
BB&T Pavilion
50,046 / 50,046
$2,086,357

July 30, 2016

July 31, 2016
Saratoga Springs
Saratoga Performing Arts Center
25,091 / 25,091
$1,087,914

August 11, 2016
Cuyahoga Falls
Blossom Music Center
35,919 / 41,724
$1,776,354

August 12, 2016

August 13, 2016
Cincinnati
Riverbend Music Center
36,023 / 40,709
$1,545,846

August 14, 2016

August 19, 2016
Minneapolis
U.S. Bank Stadium
Little Big Town
Dustin Lynch
47,219 / 47,219
$4,565,264

August 21, 2016
Calgary
Canada
Prairie Winds Park
N/A
N/A
N/A

August 25, 2016
Bonner Springs
United States
Providence Medical Center Amphitheater
Little Big Town
Frankie Ballard
N/A
N/A

August 26, 2016
Maryland Heights
Hollywood Casino Amphitheatre
Little Big Town
Dustin Lynch
20,000 / 20,000
$890,556

August 27, 2016
Chicago
Wrigley Field
41,819 / 41,819
$4,457,358

September 1, 2016
Charlotte
PNC Music Pavilion
N/A
N/A

September 2, 2016
Raleigh
Coastal Credit Union Music Park
31,965 / 34,554
$1,403,186

September 3, 2016

September 9, 2016
Denver
Dick's Sporting Goods Park
33,792 / 40,000
$2,926,618

September 10, 2016

September 15, 2016
Wheatland
Toyota Amphitheatre
18,500 / 18,500
$891,170

September 16, 2016
Mountain View
Shoreline Amphitheatre
22,019 / 22,019
$924,835

September 17, 2016
Chula Vista
Sleep Train Amphihtheatre
18,797 / 19,702
$927,941

September 22, 2016
Phoenix
Ak-Chin Pavilion
19,273 / 19,273
$933,121

September 24, 2016
Irvine
Irvine Meadows Amphitheatre
14,914 / 14,914
$901,779

September 30, 2016
West Valley City
USANA Amphitheatre
16,751 / 19,376
$802,265

October 1, 2016

October 22, 2016
Arlington
AT&T Stadium
Little Big Town
Chris Stapleton
Dustin Lynch
N/A
N/A

October 29, 2016
Detroit
Ford Field

North America Leg 2

February 16, 2017
Huntington
United States
Big Sandy Superstore Arena
Brett Eldredge
6,816 / 6,816
$475,526

February 17, 2017
Bloomington
Assembly Hall
10,136 / 11,835
$671,311

February 18, 2017
Jonesboro
ASU Convocation Center
7,065 / 7,065
$509,655

February 23, 2017
Columbia
Colonial Life Arena
10,125 / 11,642
$649,626

February 25, 2017
Jacksonville
Jacksonville Veterans Memorial Arena
12,027 / 12,027
$790,564

March 1, 2017
New York City
Madison Square Garden
14,981 / 14,981
$1,086,993

March 3, 2017
Manchester
SNHU Arena
8,863 / 8,863
$607,912

March 4, 2017
Providence
Dunkin' Donuts Center
10,548 / 10,548
$697,518

March 9, 2017
Richmond
Richmond Coliseum
N/A
N/A

March 10, 2017
Fayetteville
Crown Coliseum
7,595 / 7,595
$483,124

March 11, 2017
Greenville
Bon Secours Wellness Arena
11,696 / 11,696
$731,407

March 17, 2017
Orange Beach
Amphitheater at the Warf
19,412 / 19,412
$1,203,301

March 18, 2017

Total
1,140,992 / 1,205,728
$69,840,333

text: Personnel[edit]

text:
Michael Carter – band leader, electric guitar
Jason Faussett – acoustic guitar, piano
James Cook – bass guitar
Kent Slucher – drums
Kevin Arrowsmith – fiddle, electric guitar
Dave Ristrum – banjo