document_title: Glossary of plant morphology

question_text: what is the term for the regions of the plant where leaves are attached to the stem

text: Glossary of plant morphology

text: General plant terms[edit]

text:
Abaxial – located on the side facing away from the axis.
Adaxial – located on the side facing towards the axis.
Dehiscent – opening at maturity
Gall – outgrowth on the surface caused by invasion by other lifeforms, such as parasites
Indehiscent – not opening at maturity
Reticulate – web-like or network-like
Striated – marked by a series of lines, grooves, or ridges
Tesselate – marked by a pattern of polygons, usually rectangles
Wing (plant) – any flat surfaced structure emerging from the side or summit of an organ; seeds, stems.

text: Plant habit[edit]

text: Plant habit refers to the overall shape of a plant. It has a number of components such as stem length and development, branching pattern, and texture. While many plants fit easily into some main categories, such as grasses, vines, shrubs or trees, others can be more difficult to categorise. The habit of a plant provides important information about its ecology, that is how it has adapted to its environment. Each habit indicates a different adaptive ecological strategy. Habit is also associated with the development of the plant and may change as the plant grows, more properly called its growth habit. In addition to shape, habit indicates its structure, for instance whether herbaceous or woody. Each plant commences its growth as a herbaceous plant, while woody plants (such as trees, shrubs and woody vines (lianas) will gradually acquire woody (lignaceous) tissues which provide strength and protection for the vascular system.[4] While woody plants tend to be tall and relatively long lived, herbaceous plants are shorter and seasonal, dying back at the end of their growth season. The formation of woody tissue is an example of secondary growth, a change in existing tissues, in contrast to primary growth that creates new tissues, such as the elongating tip of a plant shoot. The process of wood formation (lignification) is commonest in the Spermatophytes (seed bearing plants) and has evolved independently a number of times. The roots may also lignify, aiding in the role of supporting and anchoring tall plants, and may be part of a descriptor of the plant's habit.

text: Another plant habit refers to whether the plant possesses any specialised systems for the storage of carbohydrates or water, allowing it to renew growth after an unfavourable period. Where the amount of water stored is relatively high, the plant is referred to as a succulent. Such specialised plant parts may arise from the stems or roots. Examples include plants growing in unfavourable climates, very dry climates where storage is intermittent depending on climatic conditions, and those adapted to surviving fires that can regrow from the soil afterwards.

text: Some types of plant habit include:

text: Herbaceous plants (also called Herbs): A plant in which all structures above the surface of the soil, vegetative or reproductive, die back at the end of the annual growing season, and never become woody. While these structures are annual in nature, the plant itself may be annual, biannual, or perennial. Herbaceous plants that survive for more than one season possess underground storage organs, and thus are referred to as geophytes.

text: Terms used in describing plant habit, include:

text:
Acaulescent – the leaves and inflorescence rise from the ground, appearing to have no stem. Some such growth forms are also known as rosette form. One of the many conditions that results from very short internodes (i.e. close distances between nodes on the plant stem. See also radical, where leaves arise apparently without stems.
Acid plant – plants with acid saps, normally due to the production of ammonium salts (malic and oxalic acid)
Acme – the period when the plant or population is at its maximum vigor.
Actinomorphic – parts of plants that are radially symmetrical in arrangement.
Arborescent – growing into a tree-like habit, normally with a single woody stem.
Ascending – growing uprightly, in an upward direction, heading in the direction of the top.
Assurgent – growth ascending.
Branching – dividing into multiple smaller segments.
Caducous – falling away early.
Caulescent – with a well-developed stem above ground.
Cespitose – forming dense tufts, normally applied to small plants typically growing into mats, tufts or clumps.
Creeping – growing along the ground and producing roots at intervals along surface.
Deciduous – falling away after its function is completed.
Decumbent – growth starts off prostrate and the ends become upright.
Deflexed – bending downward.
Determinate growth – Growing for a limited time, floral formation and leaves (see also Indeterminate).
Dimorphic – of two different forms.
Ecad – a plant assumed to be adapted to a specific habitat.
Ecotone – the boundary that separates two plant communities, generally of major rank – trees in woods and grasses in savanna for example.
Ectogenesis – variation in plants due to conditions outside of the plants.
Ectoparasite – a parasitic plant that has most of its mass outside of the host, the body and reproductive organs of the plant lives outside of the host.
Epigeal – living on the surface of the ground. See also terms for seeds.

Epigean – occurring on the ground.
Epigeic – plants with stolons on the surface of the ground.
Epigeous – on the ground. Used for leaf fungus that live on the surface of the leaf.

Epilithic – growing on the surface of rocks.
Epiphloedal – growing on the bark of trees.

Epiphloedic – an organism that grows on the bark of trees.

Epiphyllous – growing on the leaves. For example, Helwingia japonica has epiphyllous flowers (ones that form on the leaves).[5]
Epiphyte – growing on another organism but not parasitic. Not growing on the ground.

Epiphytic – having the nature of an epiphyte.

Equinoctial – a plants that has flowers that open and close at definite times during the day.
Erect – having an essentially upright vertical habit or position.
Escape – plant originally under cultivation that has become wild, garden plant growing in natural areas.
Evergreen – remaining green in the winter or during the normal dormancy period for other plants.
Eupotamous – living in rivers and streams.
Euryhaline – normally living in salt water but tolerant of variable salinity rates.
Eurythermous – tolerant of a wide range of temperature.
Exclusive species – confined to specific location.
Exotic – not native to the area or region.
Exsiccatus – a dried plant, most often used for specimens in a herbarium.
Indeterminate growth – Inflorescence and leaves growing for an indeterminate time, until stopped by other factors such as frost (see also Determinate).
Lax – non upright, growth not strictly upright or hangs down from the point of origin.
Parasitic – using another plant as a source of nourishment.
Precocious – flowering before the leaves emerge.
Procumbent – growing prostrate or trailing but not rooting at the nodes.
Prostrate – lying flat on the ground, stems or even flowers in some species.
Repent – creeping.
Rosette – cluster of leaves with very short internodes that are crowded together, normally on the soil surface but sometimes higher on the stem.

Rostellate – like a rosette (cf. rostellum).
Rosulate – arranged into a rosette.

Runner – an elongated, slender branch that roots at the nodes or tip.
Stolon – A branch that forms near the base of the plant and grows horizontally and roots and produces new plants at the nodes or apex.

Stoloniferous – plants produce stolons.

Semi-erect – Not growing perfectly straight.
Suffrutescent – somewhat shrubby, or shrubby at the base.
Upright – Growing upward.
Virgate – wand-like, slender erect growing stem with many leaves or very short branches.
Woody – forming secondary growth laterally around the plant so as to form wood.

text: Duration[edit]

text: Duration of individual plant lives are described using these terms:

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Annual – plants that live, reproduce and die in one growing season.
Biennial – plants that need two growing seasons to complete their life cycle, normally vegetative growth the first year and flowering the second year.
Herbs – see herbaceous.
Herbaceous – plants with shoot systems that die back to ground each year – both annual and non-woody perennial plants.
Herbaceous perennial – non-woody plants that live for more than two years and the shoot system dies back to the soil level each year.
Woody perennial – true shrubs and trees or some vines with shoot systems that remain alive above the soil surface from one year to the next.
Monocarpic – plants that live for a number of years then after flowering and seed set die.

text: Plant structures[edit]

text: Introduction[edit]

text: Plant structures or organs fulfil specific functions, and those functions determine the structures that perform them. Among terrestrial (land) plants, the vascular and non-vascular plants (Bryophytes) evolved independently in terms of their adaptation to terrestrial life and are treated separately here (see Bryophytes).[6]

text: Life cycle[edit]

text: Their common elements occur in the embryonic part of the life cycle, which is their diploid multicellular phase. The embryo develops into the sporophyte, which at maturity produces haploid spores, which germinate to produce the gametophyte, the haploid multicellular phase. The haploid gametophyte then produces gametes, which may fuse to form a diploid zygote and finally an embryo. This phenomenon of alternating diploid and haploid multicellular phases is common to the embryophytes (land plants) and is referred to as the alternation of generations. A major difference between non vascular and vascular plants is that in the former the haploid gametophyte is the more visible and longer lived stage. In the vascular plants, the diploid sporophyte has evolved as the dominant and visible phase of the life cycle. In seed plants and some other groups of vascular plants the gametophyte phases are strongly reduced in size and contained within the pollen and ovules. The female gametophyte is entirely contained within the sporophyte's tissues, while the male gametophyte in its pollen grain is released and transferred by wind or animal vectors to fertilize the ovules.[1]

text: Morphology[edit]

text: Amongst the vascular plants the structures and functions of the Pteridophyta (ferns) which reproduce seedlessly are also sufficiently different to justify separate treatment, as here (see Pteridophytes). The remainder of the vascular plant sections address the higher plants (Spermatophytes or Seed Plants, i.e. Gymnosperms and Angiosperms or flowering plants). In the higher plants the terrestrial sporophyte has evolved specialised parts. In essence they have an underground component and an upper aerial component. The lower underground part develops roots that seek water and nourishment from the soil, while the upper component or shoot moves towards the light and develops a plant stem, leaves and specialised reproductive structures (sporangia). In angiosperms, the sporangia are located in the stamen anthers (microsporangia) and ovules (megasporangia). The specialised sporangia bearing stem is the flower. In angiosperms, if the female sporangium is fertilised, it becomes the fruit, a mechanism for dispersing the seeds produced from the embryo. [6]

text: Vegetative structures[edit]

text: Thus the terrestrial sporophyte has two growth centres, the stem growing upwards while the roots grow downwards. New growth occurs at the tips (apices) of the shoot and roots where the undifferentiated cells of the meristem divide. Branching occurs to form new apical meristems. Growth of the stem is indeterminate in pattern (not pre-determined to stop at a particular point).[1] The functions of the stem are to raise and support the leaves and reproductive organs above the level of the soil to facilitate absorption of light for photosynthesis, gas exchange, water exchange (transpiration) pollination and seed dispersal. It also serves as a conduit for water and other growth substances between the roots and overhead structures. This occurs in specialised tissues known as vascular bundles, which give the name 'vascular plants' to the angiosperms. The point of insertion on the stem of leaves or buds is a node, and the space between two successive node, an internode.

text: Also emerging from the shoot are the leaves, specialised structures that carry out photosynthesis, and gas (oxygen and carbon dioxide) and water exchange. They are lined by an outer layer or epidermis, coated with a waxy waterproof protective layer, but punctuated by specialised pores, known as stomata, which regulate gas and water exchange. The leaves also possess vascular bundles, which are generally visible as veins, and their pattern is called venation. Leaves tend to have a shorter life span than the stems or branches that bear them, and when they fall, an area at the attachment zone, called an abscission zone leaves a scar on the stem.

text: In the angle (adaxial) between the leaf and the stem, is the axil. Here can be found buds (axillary buds), which are miniature and often dormant branches with their own apical meristem. They are often covered by leaves.

text: Floral structure[edit]

text: The flower, which is one of the defining features of angiosperms, is essentially a stem, whose leaf primordia become specialised, following which the apical meristem stops growing, a determinate growth pattern, in contrast to vegetative stems.[1][6] The flower stem is known as a pedicel, and those flowers with a stalk are called pedicellate, while those without are called sessile.[7] In the angiosperms, the flowers are arranged on a flower stem as an inflorescence, though these structures are very different in gymnosperms and angiosperms, which are dealt with in more detail here. Just beneath (subtended) the flower there may be a modified and usually reduced leaf, called a bract. A secondary smaller bract is a bracteole (bractlet, prophyll, prophyllum), often on the side of the pedicel, and generally paired. A series of bracts subtending the calyx (see below) is an epicalyx.[7]

text: In angiosperms, the specialised leaves that play a part in reproduction are arranged around the stem in an ordered fashion, from the base to the apex of the flower. The floral parts are arranged at the end of a stem without any internodes, the receptacle (also called the floral axis, or thalamus) which is generally very small. Some flower parts are solitary, while others may form a tight spiral or whorl, around the flower stem. First, at the base, are those non-reproductive structures involved in protecting the flower when it is still a bud, the sepals, then those parts that play a role in attracting pollinators and are typically coloured, the petals, which together with the sepals make up the perianth (perigon, perigonium). If the perianth is not differentiated into sepals and petals, they are collectively known as tepals. If the perianth is differentiated, the outer whorl of sepals forms the calyx, and the inner whorl of petals, the corolla. In some flowers, a tube or cup like hypanthium (floral tube) is formed above or around the ovary and bears the sepals, petals and stamens. There may also be a nectary producing nectar. Nectaries may develop on or in the perianth, receptacle, androecium (stamens), or gynoecium. In some flowers nectar may be produced on nectariferous disks. Disks may arise from the receptable and are doughnut or disk shaped. They may also surround the stamens (extrastaminal), be at their bases (staminal) or be inside the stamina (intrastaminal).[8]

text: Reproductive structures[edit]

text: Finally, the actual reproductive parts form the innermost layers of the flower. These leaf primordia become specialised as sporophylls, leaves that form areas called sporangia, which produce spores, and cavitate internally. The sporangia on the sporophytes of pteridophytes are visible, but those of gymnosperms and angiosperms are not. In the angiosperms there are two types. Some form male organs (stamens), the male (microsporangia), producing microspores. Others form female organs (carpels), the female (megasporangia) which produce a single large megaspore.[8] These in turn produce the male gametophytes and female gametophytes

text: These two components are the androecium and gynoecium respectively. The Androecium (literally, men's house) is a collective term for the male organs (stamens or microsporophylls). While sometimes leaflike (laminar), more commonly they consist of a long thread-like column, the filament, surmounted by a pollen bearing anther. The anther usually consists of two fused thecae. A theca is two microspoorangia. The gynoecium (women's house) is the collective term for the female organs (carpels). A carpel is a modified megasporophyll consisting of two or more ovules, which develops conduplicatively (folded along the line). The carpels may be single of collected together to form an ovary, and contain the ovules. Another term, pistil, refers to the ovary as its expanded base, the style, a column arising from the ovary, and an expanded tip, the stigma.[8]

text: Within the stamen the microsporangium forms grains of pollen, surrounded by the protective microspore, which forms the male gametophyte. Within the carpel the megasporangium form the ovules, with its protective layers (integument) in the megaspore, and the female gametophyte. Unlike the male gametophyte, which is transported in the pollen, the female gametophyte remains within the ovule.[8]

text: Most flowers have both male and female organs, and hence are considered bisexual (perfect), which is thought to be the ancestral state. However others have either one or the other and are therefore unisexual or imperfect. In which case they may be either male (staminate) or female (pistillate). Plants may bear either all bisexual flowers (hermaphroditic), both male and female flowers (monoecious) or only one sex (dioecious), in which case separate plants are either male or female flower bearing. Where both bisexual and unisexual flowers exist on the same plant, it is called polygamous. Polygamous plants may have bisexual and staminate flowers (andromonoecious) or bisexual and pistillate flowers (gynomonoecious), or both (trimonoecious). Other combinations include the presence of bisexual flowers on some individual plants and staminate on others (androdioecious) or bisexual and pistillate (gynodioecious). Finally trioecious plants have bisexual, staminate or pistillate flowers on different individuals. Arrangements other than hermaphroditic help to ensure outcrossing.[9]

text: Fertilisation and embryogenesis[edit]

text: The development of the embryo and gametophytes is called embryology. The study of pollens which persist in soil for many years is called palynology. Reproduction occurs when male and female gametophytes interact. This generally requires an external agent such as wind or insects to carry the pollen from the stamen to the vicinity of the ovule. This process is called pollination. In gymnosperms (literally naked seed) pollen comes into direct contact with the exposed ovule. In angiosperms the ovule is enclosed in the carpel, requiring a specialised structure, the stigma, to receive the pollen. On the surface of the stigma, the pollen germinates, that is the male gametophyte penetrates the pollen wall into the stigma, and a pollen tube, an extension of the pollen grain extends towards the carpel carrying with it the sperm cells (male gametes) till they encounter the ovule, where they gain access through a pore in the integument (micropyle) allowing fertilisation to occur. Once the ovule has been fertilised, a new sporophyte develops, protected and nurtured by the female gametophyte, and becomes an embryo. When development stops, the embryo becomes dormant as a seed. Within the embryo are the primordial shoot and root.

text: In angiosperms, as the seed develops after fertilisation, so does the surrounding carpel, it walls thickening or hardening, developing colours or nutrients that attract animals or birds, often with many layers. This new entity with its dormant seeds is the fruit, whose functions are protecting the seed and dispersing it. In some cases androecium and gynaecium may be fused. The resulting structure is a gynandrium (gynostegium, gynostemium or column) and is supported by an androgynosphore.[8]

text: Vegetative morphology[edit]

text:
Ptyxis – the way in which an individual leaf is folded within an unopened bud.
Vernation – the arrangement of leaves in an unopened bud.

text: Roots[edit]

text: Roots generally do not offer many characters used in plant identification and classification, but are important in determining plant duration. In some groups, however, including the grasses, they are very important for proper identification .

text:
Adventitious – roots that form from other than the hypocotyl or from other roots. Roots forming on the stem are adventitious.
Aerial – roots growing in the air.
(Root) crown – the place where the roots and stem meet, which may or may not be clearly visible.[10]
Fibrous – describes roots that are thread-like and normally tough.
Fleshy – describes roots that are relatively thick and soft, normally made up of storage tissue. Roots are typically long and thick but not thickly rounded in shape.
Haustorial – specialized roots that invade other plants and absorb nutrients from those plants.
Lignotuber – root tissue that allows plants to regenerate after fire or other damage.
Primary – roots that develops from the radicle of the embryo, normally the first root to emerge from the seed as it germinates.
Root Hairs – very small roots, often one cell wide, that do most of the water and nutrient absorption.
Secondary – roots forming off of the primary root, often called branch roots.
Taproot – a primary root that more or less enlarges and grows downward into the soil.
Tuberous – describes roots that are thick and soft, with storage tissue. Typically thick round in shape.

text: Terms on Root structure[edit]

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Epiblema- Outermost (epidermal) layer of rootlets. Normally 1-cell-layer thick (uniseriate). Normally do not have a cuticle, and permit water conduction.
Quiescent centre - a small region inside root apical region with slower division rate.
Root Cap - a cover or cap like structure that protects the tip of root.

Multiple root-caps - several layer of root-caps on the single root-apex. Seen in Pandanus sp.
Root Pocket - a cap-like structure on the root-apex of some aquatic plants, which, unlike root-caps, doesn't reappear if removed somehow.

Root hair - fine cellular appendages from cells of epiblema. They are unicellular* that means one root hair (and corresponding cell of epiblema) is made up of only 1 cell (*not to be confused with unicellular organisms). In contrast, stem and leaf hairs could be unicellular or multicellular. Root hairs of older portion of root get destroyed with time, and only at certain region near growing apex (called root-hair-region) the root hairs could be seen. Although microscopic, root-hairs could be observed in unaided eye in chilli and Brassica seedlings.

text: Terms on Classification of Roots and its modifications[edit]

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Tap-Root-System:

Storage roots:

Conical root - Storage root which is broad at root's base (upper portion) and gradually tapering at the apex (downward portion). e.g. Carrot.
Fusiform Root - Storage root swollen at centre and tapers towards both apex and base. e.g. radish (Raphanus sativus)
Napiform root - Root heavily swollen at upper (root's basal) portion but narrow and tapering at lower (root's apical) portion. e.g. Beet, turnip.
Tuberous or Tubercular tap-root - (narrow sense)- tap-root thick and fleshy (due to storage) but do not conform with the fusiform/ conical/ napiform shape. e.g. Mirabilis jalapa. (Broader sense)- tap-root thick and fleshy (due to storage). i.e. when tuberation take place in tap-root.

Pneumatophores (respiratory roots) - Part of tap-root-system as respiratory roots, found in many mangrove-trees. They arise from the thick, mature branches of tap-root systems, and grow upwards. The inner tissue of respiratory root is full of hollow, airy, tube-like dead cells, giving it a spongy context. The outer surface of pneumatophore contain tiny pores or openings, which are called pneumathodes. e.g. Heritiera fomes, Rhizophora mucronata, etc. Pneumatophores could be unbranched or sparingly branched.
Vivipary - This is also feature of many mangrove trees, where the seed germinates when the seed (and fruit) remain joined with mother plant until The radicle and hypocotyl grows, reaches the ground and establish there [11]

text: . (See also: seeds and germination related sections and articles)

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Adventitious root systems

Fibrous root - They originate from the base of young stem replacing the primary root, (and also from the stem nodes, and sometimes internodes) and released as a parallel cluster or bunch from around the node. The adventitious roots of monocots are usually this type. Replacement of tap root system by fibrous root, is seen in Onion, tuberose (Polyanthes tuberosa), grasses, etc. Fibrous roots from normal-stem's nodes seen in grasses like maize, sugarcane, bamboo, etc. Fibrous roots from nodes also helps in survival of the plant and thus in vegetative reproduction, when the plant's base damaged or a damage or cut take place inside stem axis.

Seminal root -

Many dicots too, release adventitious toots from stem-nodes, especially those can regenerate vegetitively (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Coleus sp etc.) and those have a week stem with creeping habit (Centella asiatica, Bacopa monnieri) etc. and these roots are not called as fibrous root, rather called only as adventitious roots.
Adventitious storage roots - (similar function as storage-taproots)

Tuberous roots or root tubers- (narrow sense)- Those storage roots do-not conform a specific shape such as fasciculated, nodulose moniliform, annulated etc. e.g. Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) edible part is this-type of root. (Broader sense)- adventitious roots swollen due to storage function.
Fasciculated root - When several tubercular roots grow as a parallel bunch or bundle. Seen in Dahlia sp., Ruellia tuberosa, Asparagus racemosus, etc. Orchis maculata have a pair of bulbous storage-roots.
Nodulose root - (Not to be confused with root-nodules, a completely different thing), in nodulose root, the storage pattern is, a root axis swollen near the apical portion, thus forming a bulbous or tuberous structure on or near the tip of root. It is commonly seen associated with rhizomatous stem. It is seen in Costus speciosus,[12]Curcuma amada,[12][13] Curcuma domestica, Asparagus sprengeri, Arrowroot (Maranta), etc.[13] and some (?) species of Calathea.[13]
Moniliform root or Beaded root - When more-than-one swelling (nodule-like structures) occur at certain intervals along the root-axis. Such alternating swollen and constricted pattern is seen in Cyperus sp. , Dioscorea alata,[12] Vitis trifolia, Portulaca sp. , Basella sp., Momordica sp. and some(?) grasses.[13]
Annulated root - Just like moniliform roots, annulated roots also contain alternating swollen and constricted regions. But here the length of constricted regions are so short that the root appears as a stack of discs. It is seen in Cephalis ipecacuanha (Rubiaceae).

Floating root or Aquatic-respiratory root- seen in Jussiaea repens. the upright, spongy structures helps the plant to float.[12][13]
Epiphytic root - This type of root seen in epiphytic orchids. The thick root hangs from the plant's base directly into air. The root is covered with a special, usually 4- to 5 cell layer thick,[12] spongy tissue (called Velamen), which helps the plant to absorb the moisture from atmosphere. (Epiphytic orchid have another sort of root, called clinging roots, that help the orchid plant cling the substratum (host). Since the similar function is seen in many other plant's adventitious roots, it is being mentioned in more general way at the mechanical advancements section.)
Parasitic root or Haustoria -
Assimilatory or Photosynthetic roots -
Mechanical advancements :

Prop-roots - In some dome-shaped (deliquescent) trees, from the mature horizontal boughs (stem-branches) some quite thick (millimeters to centimeters) roots come down. After grow and reach the ground, they establish more elaborate root branches as well show massive secondary thickening. Thus they start to resemble the main trunk. These roots are called prop-roots. Besides carrying the weight of horizontal boughs, when the main trunk get destroyed due to ageing or accident, the established prop-roots support the remaining plant-body, thus help in vegetative reproduction. e.g. Ficus benghalensis. The Great Banyan Tree at IBG Kolkata is an example how prop-root help in vegetative reproduction.
Stilt roots - From upright (erect) trunks, some hard, thick, almost straight roots come-out obliquely and penetrate the ground. Thus they act like a camera-tripod. They increase balance and support as well as when these roots penetrates the ground, they increase grip with soil.
Root-Buttress or Plank Buttress or Buttress-Root -
Climbing roots -
Clinging roots -
Contractile-roots or Pull-roots -
Haptera -

text:
Gallery: Roots specialized for mechanical function.

Prop roots in Ficus benghalensis in Indian Botanic Garden.

Ficus benghalensis prop roots

Stilt roots in Pandanus sp.

Stilt roots in Socratea exorrhiza palm

Stilt-roots in mangrove plants

text:
Protective functions -

Root-thorns -

Reproductive roots - These roots contain root-buds and actively take part in shoot-regeneration, and thus in vegetative reproduction. This is a sort of unusual feature because roots normally do not contain buds.

text: Stems[edit]

text:
Accessory buds – an embryonic shoot occurring above or to the side of an axillary bud;also known as supernumerary bud.
Acrocarpous – produced at the end of a branch.
Acutangular – a stem that has several longitudinally running ridges with sharp edges.
Adventitious buds – a bud that arises at points on the plant other than at the stem apex or a leaf axil.
Alate – Having wing-like structures, usually on the seeds or stems, as in Euonymus alata
Alternate – buds are staggered on opposite sides of the branch
Bark – the outer layers of woody plants; cork, phloem, and vascular cambium.
Branches –
Bud – an immature stem tip, typically an embryonic shoot, ether producing a stem, leaves or flowers.
Bulb – an underground stem normally with a short basal surface and with thick fleshy leaves.
Bundle scar — A small mark on a leaf scar indicating a point where a vein from the leaf was once connected with the stem.
Caudex – the hard base produced by herbaceous perennials used to overwinter the plant.
Caulescent – with a distinctive stem.
Cauliflora – with the flowers and fruit on the stem or trunk as in Saraca cauliflora
Cladode — A flattened stem that performs the function of a leaf; an example is the pad of the opuntia cactus.
Cladophyll – a flattened stem that is leaf-like and green – used for photosynthesis, normally plants have no or greatly reduced leaves.
Climbing – typically long stems, that cling to other objects.
Corm – a compact, upright orientated stem that is bulb-like with hard or fleshy texture and normally covered with papery, thin dry leaves. Most often produced under the soil surface.
Cuticle – a waterproof waxy membrane covering leaves and primary shoots.
Decumbent – stems that lie on the ground but have the ends turning upward.
Dormant – a state of no growth or reduced growth
Earlywood —The portion of the annual ring that is formed during the early part of a tree's growing.
Epidermis – a layer of cells that cover all primary tissue, separating them from the outside environment.
Erect – growing upright.
Flower bud — a bud from which only a flower or flowers develop
Fruticose – woody stemmed with a shrub-like habit. Branching near the soil with woody based stems.
Guard cell — One of the paired epidermal cells that control the opening and closing of a stoma in plant tissue.
Herbaceous – non-woody and dying to the ground at the end of the growing season. Annual plants die, while perennials regrow from parts on the soil surface or below ground the next growing season.
Heartwood —The older, nonliving central wood of a tree or woody plant, usually darker and harder than the younger sapwood. Also called duramen.
Internode – spaces between the nodes.
Latent buds – An axillary bud whose development is inhibited, sometimes for many years, due to the influence of apical and other buds. Also known as a dormant bud.
Late wood – The portion of the annual ring that is formed after formation of earlywood has ceased.
Lateral buds — A bud located on the side of the stem, usually in a leaf axil.
Leaf – the photosynthetic organ of a plant that is attached to a stem, generally at specific intervals.
Leaf axils – the space created between a leaf and its branch. This is especially pronounced on monocots like bromeliads.
Leaf buds – A bud that produces a leafy shoot.
Leaf scar – the mark left on a branch from the previous location of a bud or leaf.
Lenticel – One of the small, corky pores or narrow lines on the surface of the stems of woody plants that allow the interchange of gases between the interior tissue and the surrounding air.
Node – where leaves and buds are attached to the stem.
Orthotropic growth – growth in a vertical direction.
Chambered pith – A form of pith in which the parenchyma collapses or is torn during development, leaving the sclerenchyma plates to alternate with hollow zones
Diaphragmed pith – Pith in which plates or nests of sclerenchyma may be interspersed with the parenchyma.
Spine – an adapted leaf that is usually hard and sharp and is used for protection, and occasionally shading, of the plant
Plagiotropic growth – growth inclined away from the vertical, inclined towards the horizontal
Prickle – an extension of the cortex and epidermis that ends with a sharp point.
Prostrate – growing flat on the soil surface.
Rhizome – A horizontally orientated, prostrate stem with reduced scale-like leaves, normally growing under ground but also at the soil surface. Also produced by some species that grow in trees or water.
Rootstock – the underground part of a plant normally referring to a caudex or rhizome.
Runner – an above-ground stem, usually rooting and producing new plants at the nodes.
Scandent – a stem that climbs.
Pith – the spongy tissue at the center of a stem.
Stem – vascular tissue that provides support for the plant,
Stolon – a horizontally growing stem similar to a rhizome, produced near the base of the plant. They spread out above or along the soil surface. Roots and new plants develop at the nodes or ends.
Stoloniferous – a plant that produces stolons.
Suberose – Having a corky texture.
Tendril – a thigmotropic organ which attaches a climbing plant to a support, a portion of a stem or leaf modified to serve as a holdfast to other objects.
Terminal – at the end of a stalk or stem.
Terminal scale bud scar –
Thorn –
Tiller – a shoot of a grass plant.
Tuber – an enlarged stem or root that stores nutrients.
Turgid – swollen.
Twigs –
Opposite – buds are arranged in pairs on opposite sides of the branch
Pore –
Rhizome – an underground stem, typically horizontal, that sends out roots and shoots.
Sapwood –
Stoma – a small pore on the surface of the leaves used for gas exchange with the environment while preventing water loss.
Vascular bundles – a strand of woody fibers and associated tissues.
Verticillate/Verticil/Verticillatus – leaves or flowers arranged in whorls, as in Sciadopitys verticillata
Whorled – said of a collection of three or more leaves or flowers that arise from the same point.

text: Buds[edit]

text:
Accessory bud – an embryonic shoot occurring above or to the side of an axillary bud; also known as supernumerary bud.
Adventitious bud – a bud that arises at a point on the plant other than at the stem apex or a leaf axil.
Axillary – an embryonic shoot which lies at the junction of the stem and petiole of a plant.
Dormant – see Latent bud
Epicormic – vegetative buds that lie dormant beneath the bark, shooting after crown disturbance[14]
Flower bud –
Lateral –
Latent bud – An axillary bud whose development is inhibited, sometimes for many years, due to the influence of apical and other buds. Also known as a dormant bud.
Leaf bud – A bud that produces a leafy shoot.
Mixed – buds that have both embryonic flowers and leaves.
Naked –
Pseudoterminal –
Reproductive – buds with embryonic flowers.
Scaly –
Terminal – bud at the tip or end of the stem.
Vegetative – buds containing embryonic leaves.

text: Leaves[edit]

text: Leaf Parts: – A complete leaf is composed of a blade, petiole and stipules and in many plants one or more might be lacking or highly modified.

text:
Blade – see lamina
Lamina – the flat and laterally-expanded portion of a leaf blade
Leaflet – a separate blade among others comprising a compound leaf
Ligule – a projection from the top of the sheath on the adaxial side of the sheath-blade joint in grasses
Midrib – the central vein of the leaf blade
Midvein – the central vein of a leaflet
Petiole – a leaf stalk supporting a blade and attaching to a stem at a node
Petiolule - the leaf stalk of a leaflet
Pulvinus – the swollen base of a petiole or petiolule usually involved in leaf movements and leaf orientation
Rachilla – a secondary axis of a multiply compound leaf
Rachis – main axis of a pinnately compound leaf
Sheath – the proximal portion of a grass leaf usually surrounding the stem
Stipules – paired scales, spines, glands, or blade-like structures at the base of a petiole
Stipels – paired scales, spines, glands, or blade-like structures at the base of a petiolule
Stipuloid – resembling stipules.

text: Duration of leaves:

text:
Deciduous – leaves are shed after the growing season
Evergreen – leaves are retained throughout the year, sometimes for several years
Fugacious – lasting for a short time: soon falling away from the parent plant.
Marcescent – dead leaves, calyx or petals are persistent, retained
Persistent – see Marcescence

text: Venation:

text:
Acrodromous – when the veins run parallel to the leaf edge and fuse at the leaf tip.
Actinodromous – when the main veins of a leaf radiate from the tip of the petiole.
Brochidodromous – the veins turn away from the leaf edge to join the next higher vein.
Campylodromous – with secondary veins that diverge at the base of the lamina and rejoin at the tip.
Craspedodromous – secondary veins run straight to the leaf edge and end there.

Furcate – forked, dividing into two divergent branches.

Reticulate – veins interconnected to form a network. Net-veined.
Vein – the externally visible vascular bundles, found on leaves, petals and other parts.
Veinlet – a small vein.

text: Leaf Arrangement or Phyllotaxy:

text: Whorl – three or more leaves or branches or pedicels arising from the same node.

text: Leaf Type:

text: Abruptly pinnate – a compound leaf without a terminal leaflet.

text: Leaf Blade Shape:

text:
Acicular (acicularis): Slender and pointed, needle-like
Acuminate (acuminata): Tapering to a long point
Aristate (aristata): Ending in a stiff, bristle-like point
Bipinnate (bipinnata): Each leaflet also pinnate
Cordate (cordata): Heart-shaped, stem attaches to cleft
Cuneate (cuneata): Triangular, stem attaches to point
Deltoid (deltoidea): Triangular, stem attaches to side
Digitate (digitata): Divided into finger-like lobes
Elliptic (elliptica): Oval, with a short or no point
Falcate (falcata): sickle-shaped
Flabellate (flabellata): Semi-circular, or fan-like
Hastate (hastata): shaped like a spear point, with flaring pointed lobes at the base
Lance-shaped, lanceolate (lanceolata): Long, wider in the middle
Linear (linearis): Long and very narrow
Lobed (lobata): With several points
Obcordate (obcordata): Heart-shaped, stem attaches to tapering point
Oblanceolate (oblanceolata): Top wider than bottom
Oblong (oblongus): Having an elongated form with slightly parallel sides
Obovate (obovata): Teardrop-shaped, stem attaches to tapering point
Obtuse (obtusus): With a blunt tip
Orbicular (orbicularis): Circular
Ovate (ovata): Oval, egg-shaped, with a tapering point
Palmate (palmata): Divided into many lobes
Pedate (pedata): Palmate, with cleft lobes
Peltate (peltata): Rounded, stem underneath
Perfoliate (perfoliata): Stem through the leaves
Pinnate (pinnata): Two rows of leaflets

odd-pinnate : pinnate with a terminal leaflet
paripinnate, even-pinnate : pinnate lacking a terminal leaflet

Pinnatisect (pinnatifida): Cut, but not to the midrib (it would be pinnate then)
Reniform (reniformis): Kidney-shaped
Rhomboid (rhomboidalis): Diamond-shaped
Round (rotundifolia): Circular
Sagittate (sagittata): Arrowhead-shaped
Spatulate, spathulate (spathulata): Spoon-shaped
Spear-shaped (hastata): Pointed, with barbs
Subulate (subulata): Awl-shaped with a tapering point
Sword-shaped (ensiformis): Long, thin, pointed
Trifoliate, ternate (or trifoliolate) (trifoliata): Divided into three leaflets
Tripinnate (tripinnata): Pinnately compound in which each leaflet is itself bipinnate
Truncate (truncata): With a squared off end
Unifoliate (unifoliata): with a single leaf

text: Leaf Base Shape:

text: Semiamplexicaul – the leaf base wraps around the stem, but not completely.

text: Leaf Blade Apex:

text:
Acuminate – narrowing to a point, used for other structures too.
Acute – with a sharp rather abrupt ending point.

Acutifolius – with acute leaves.

Attenuate – tapering gradually to a narrow end.

text: Leaf Blade Margins:

text: Crenulate – with shallow, small rounded teeth.

text: Leaf Modifications:

text: Epidermis and periderm texture[edit]

text:
Acanceous – being prickly.
Acantha – a prickle or spine.
Acanthocarpus – fruits are spiny.
Acanthocladous – the branches are spiny.
Aculeate – having a covering of prickles or needle-like growth.

Aculeolate – having spine-like processes.

Aden – a gland.

Adenoid – gland like.
Adenophore – a stalk that supports a gland.
Adenophyllous – leaves with glands.

Arachnoid – having a cobwebby appearance with entangled hairs.
Bloom – the waxy coating that covers some plants.
Canescent – with gray pubescence.
Ciliate – with a fringe of marginal hairs.
Coriaceouse – with a tough or leathery texture.
Fimbriate – finely cut into fringes, the edge of a frilly petal or leaf.
Floccose –
Glabrate –
Glabrous – smooth without any pubescences at all.
Glandular –
Glandular-punctate – covered across the surface with glands.
Hirsute – with long shaggy hairs, often stiff or bristly to the touch.
Lanate – with woolly hairs. Thick wool like hairs.
Verrucose – with a wart surface, with low rounded bumps.
Villose – covered with fine long hairs that are not matted.

Villosity – villous indument.

text: Floral morphology[edit]

text:
Accrescent – Growing larger after anthesis, normally used for the calyx.
Anthesis – the period when the flower is fully open and functional, ends when the stigma or stamens wither.

text: Basic flower parts[edit]

text: Androecium[edit]

text:
Androecium – the stamens collectively.

Basifixed – attached by the base.
Connective – the part of the stamen joining the anther cells.
Diadelphous – united by filaments to form two groups
Didynamous – having four stamens in two pairs of unequal length
Epipetalous – born on the corolla, often used in reference to stamens attached to the corolla.
Exserted – sticking out past the corolla, the stamens protrude past the margin of the corolla lip.
Extrose – opening towards the outside of the flower.
Gynandrium – combined male & female structure
Gynostegium – adnation of stamens and the style and stigma (Orchidaceae)
Included –
Introrse – opening on the inside of the corolla, the stamens are contained within the margins of the petals.
Monodelphous – stamen filaments united into a tube.
Poricidal – anthers opening by terminal pores.
Staminode – a sterile stamen.

Staminodial – (1) concerning a sterile stamen (2) flowers with sterile stamens.

Synandrous – the anthers are connected (Araceae)
Syngenesious – the anthers are united into a tube, the filaments are free (Asteraceae).
Tetradynamous – having six stamens four of which are longer than the others
Translator – a structure uniting the pollinia in Asclepiadaceae and Orchidaceae.
Trinucleate – pollen containing three nuclei when shed.
Valvular – anthers opening by valves or small flaps, e.g. Berberis.
Versatile – anthers pivoting freely on the filament.

Pollen –
Stamen –

Anther – the distal end of the stamen where pollen is produced, normally composed of two parts called anther-sacs and pollen-sacs (thecae).
Filament – the stalk of a stamen

text: Gynoecium[edit]

text:
Gynoecium – the whorl of carpels. May comprise one (syncarpous) or more (apocarpous) pistils. Each pistil consists of an ovary, style and stigma (female reproductive organs of the flower).

Apocarpus – the gynoecium comprises more than one pistil.
Cell –
Compound pistil –
Funicle – the stalk that connects the ovule to the placenta.
Funiculus –
Loculus – the cavities located within a carpel, ovary or anther.
Locule –
multicarpellate –
Placenta –
Placentation –

Axile –
Basal –
Free-central –
Pariental –

Septum –
Simple pistil –
Syncarpous – the gynoecium comprises one pistil.
Unicarpellate –

Stigma –

Sessile - absent style

text:
Style – Position is relative to the body of the ovary.[15]

Terminal or apical: arising at the apex of the ovary (commonest)
Subapical: arising from the side of the ovary just below the apex
Lateral: arising from the side of the ovary, lower than subapical
Gynobasic: arising from the base of the ovary

Ovary –
Ovules –
Pistil –

text: Other[edit]

text:
Acephalous – without a head, used for flower styles without a well-developed stigma.
Bract – the leaf-like or scale-like leafy appendages that are located just below a flower, a flower stalk, or an inflorescence; they usually are reduced in size and sometimes showy or brightly colored.

text:
Calyx – the whorl of sepals at the base of a flower, the outer whorl of the perianth.
Carpel – the ovule-producing reproductive organ of a flower, consisting of the stigma, style and ovary.
Claw – a noticeably narrowed and attenuate organ base, typically a petal. Viola.
Connate – when the same parts of a flower are fused to each other, petals in a gamopetalous flower. Petunia.
Corolla – the whorl of petals of a flower.
Corona – an additional structure between the petals and the stamens.
Disk – an enlargement or outgrowth from the receptacle of the flower, located at the center of the flower of various plants. The term is also use as the central area of the head in composites where the tubular flowers are attached.
Epicalyx – a series of bracts below the calyx
Floral axis –
Floral envelope – the perianth[16]
Flower –
Fruit – a structure contain all the seeds produced by a single flower.
Hypanthium –
Nectar – a fluid produce by nectaries high in sugar content, used to attract pollinators.
Nectary – a gland that secrets nectar, most often found in flowers but also produced on other parts of plants too.
Nectar disk – when the floral disk contains nectar secreting glands, often modified as its main function in some flowers.
Pedicel – the stem or stalk that holds a single flower in an inflorescence.
Peduncle – the part of a stem that bears the entire inflorescence, normally having no leaves or the leaves are reduce to bracts. When the flower is solitary, it is the stem or stalk holding the flower.

Peduncular – referring to or having a peduncle.
Pedunculate – having a peduncle.

Perianth –

Achlamydeous – without a perianth.

Petal –
Rachis –
Receptacle – the end of the pedicel that joins to the flower were the different parts of the flower are joined together, also called the torus. In Asteraceae the top of the pedicel upon which the flowers are joined.
Seed –
Sepal –

Antipetalous – when the stamens are the same number as the corolla segments and oppositely arranged the corolla segments. Primula.
Antisepalouse – when the stamens are the same number as the calyx segments and oppositely arranged the calyx segments.
Connective – the part of the stamen joining the anther cells.

Tepal –

text: Inflorescences[edit]

text:
Capitulum – the flowers are arranged into a head composed of many separate unstalked flowers, the single flowers are called florets and are packed close together. The typical arrangement of flowers in the Asteraceae.
Compound Umbel – is an umbel where each stalk of the main umbel produces another smaller umbel of flowers.
Corymb – a grouping of flowers where all the flowers are at the same level, the flower stalks of different lengths forming a flat-topped flower cluster.
Cyme – is a cluster of flowers were the end of each growing point produces a flower. New growth comes from side shoots and the oldest and first flowers to bloom are at the top.
Single – one flower per stem or the flowers are greatly spread-apart as to appear they do not arise from the same branch.
Spike – when flowers arising from the main stem are without individual flower stalks. The flowers attach directly to the stem.
Solitary – same as single, with one flower per stem.
Raceme – is a flower spike with flowers that have stalks of equal length. The stem tip continues to grow and produce more flowers with the bottom flowers open first and blooming progresses up the stem.
Panicle – is a raceme with branches and each branch having a smaller raceme of flowers. The terminal bud of each branch continues to grow, producing more side shoots and flowers.
Pedicel – stem holding a one flower in an inflorescences.
Peduncle – stem holding an inflorescences, or a single flower.
Umbel – were the flower head has all the flower stalks rising from the same point of the same length, the flower head is rounded like an umbrella or almost circular.
Verticillaster – a whorled collection of flowers around the stem, the flowers produced in rings at intervals up the stem. As the stem tip continues to grow more whorls of flowers are produced. Typical in Lamiaceae.
Verticil – flowers arranged in whorls at the nodes.

text: Insertion of floral parts[edit]

text:
Epigynous –flowers are present above the ovary
Half-inferior –
Hypogynous –flowers are present below the ovary
Inferior –
Insertion –

Stamens –
Ovary –

Perigynous –
Superior –

text: Specialized terms[edit]

text:
Wing – term used for the lateral petals of the flowers on species in Fabaceae and Polygalaceae.
Valvate – meeting along the margins but not overlapping.

text: Union of flower parts[edit]

text: Adelphous – the androecium with the stamen filaments partly or completely fused together.

text: Flower sexuality and presence of floral parts[edit]

text:
Achlamydeous – flower without a perianth.
Apetalous – a flower without petals.
Accrescent – said of the calyx when it is persistent and enlarges as the fruit grows and ripens, applied to other structure sometimes.
Androgynous – used for the inflorescence of Carex when a spike has both staminate and pistillate flowers – the pistillate flowers are normally at the base of the spike.
Bisexual –
Complete – of a flower, having all the possible parts represented, thus sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils.[17]
Gynodioecy – describes a plant species or population that has some plants that are female and some plants that are hermaphrodites.
Homogamous – when the flower anthers and the stigma are ripe at the same time.
Imperfect – of a flower or inflorescence, being unisexual and developing organs of only a single sex.[17]
Naked – uncovered, stripped of leaves or lacking other covering such as sepals or petals.[17]
Perfect – possessing both stamens and ovary (male and female parts)

text: Flower symmetry[edit]

text:
Actinomorphic – having a radial symmetry, as in regular flowers.

Actinomorphy – when the flower parts are arranged with radial symmetry.

Radial – Symmetric when bisected from any angle (circular)
Unisexual –
Zygomorphic – one axis of symmetry running down the middle of the flower so the right and left halves reflect each other.

Zygomorphy – the type of symmetry that most irregular flowers have with the upper half of the flower unlike the lower half. the left and right halves tend to be mirror images of each other.

text: Pollination and fertilization[edit]

text:
Allogamy – cross pollination, when one plant pollinates another plant
Anemophilous – wind pollinated.
Autogamy – self-pollination, when the flowers of the same plant pollinate flowers on the same plant or themselves.
Cantharophilous – beetle pollinated
Chiropterophilous – bat pollinated.
Cleistogamous – self-pollination of a flower that does not open.
Dichogamy – Flowers that cannot pollinate themselves because pollen is produced at a time when the stigmas are not receptive of pollen.
Entomophilous – insect pollinated.
Hydrophilous – Water pollinated, pollen is moved in water from one flower to the next.
Malacophilous – pollinated by snails and slugs.
Ornithophilous – pollinated by birds.
Pollination – the movement of pollen from the anther to the stigma.
Protandrous – when pollen is produced and shed before the carpels are mature.
Progynous – when the carpels mature before the stamens produce pollen.

text: Embryo development[edit]

text:
Antipodal cell –
Chalazal –
Coleoptile – protective sheathe on SAM
Coleorhiza – protecting layer of a seed
Cotyledon – 'Seed leaves' (First leaves sprouted – in a dicot, there are two cotyledons in a seedling)
Diploid
Double fertilization –
Embryo –
Embryo sac –
Endosperm –
Filiform apparatus –
Germination –
Plumule —the part of an embryo that give rise to the shoot system of a plant
Polar nuclei –
Radicle – Initial root-determined cells (Root apical meristem)
Scutellum –
Synergid –
Tegmen –
Testa – the seed coat; develops from the integuments after fertilization.[16]

Sarcotesta – a fleshy seed coat
Sclerotesta – a hard seed coat

Triploid –
Xenia – the effect of pollen on seeds and fruit
Zygote –

text: Fruits and seeds[edit]

text: Fruits are the matured ovary of seed bearing plants and they include the contents of the ovary, which can be floral parts like the receptacle, involucre, calyx and others that are fused to it. Fruits are often used to identify plant taxa and help to place the species in the correct family or differentiate different groups within the same family.

text: Terms for fruits[edit]

text:
Accessory structures – parts of fruits that do not form from the ovary.
Beak – normally the slender elongated end of a fruit, typically a persistent style-base.
Circumscissile – a type of fruit dehiscences were the top of the fruit falls away like a lid or covering.
Dehiscent – the way a fruit openings and releases its contents, normally in a regular and distinctive fashion.
Endocarp – includes the wall of the seed chamber, the inner part of the pericarp.
Exocarp – the pericarp's outer part.
Fleshy – soft and juicy.
Indehiscent – fruits that do not have specialized structures for opening and releasing the seeds, they remain closed after the seeds ripen and are opened by animals, weathering, fire or other external means.
Mesocarp – the middle layer of the pericarp.
Pericarp – the body of the fruit from its outside surface to the chamber were the seeds are, including the outside skin of the fruit and the inside lining of the seed chamber.
Suture – the seam along which the fruit opens, normally in most fruits it is where the carpel or carpels are fused together.
Valve – one of the segments of the capsule.

text: Fruit types[edit]

text: Fruits are divided into different types depending on how they form, were or how they open and what parts they are composed of.

text:
Achaenocarp – see achene.
Achene – dry indehiscent fruit, they have one seed and form from a single carpel, the seed is distinct from the fruit wall.
Caryopsis – the pericarp and seed are fused together, the fruit of many grasses.[18]
Drupe – outer fleshy part surrounds a shell with a seed inside.
Pod (seedpod) – a dry dehiscent fruit containing many seeds.[16] Examples include follicles, dehiscent capsules, and many but not all legumes.
Nut – a fruit formed from a pistil with multiple carpels and having a woody covering. e.g. hickory, pecan, and oak.
Nutlet – A small nut.
Pome – accessory fruit from one or more carpels, specific to the apple and some related genera in the family Rosaceae
Samara – winged achene, e.g. maples.
Utricle – a small inflated fruit with one seed that has thin walls. Fruits are usually one-seeded. Some species of amaranth.

text: Seedless reproduction[edit]

text: Pteridophytes[edit]

text:
Acrostichoid sorus – having several fused sori.
Annulus – outer part of sporangium
Elater –
Indusium –
Marginal –
Peltate –
Reniform –
Sporophyll –
Sorus / Sori – a group or cluster of sporangia borne abaxially on a fern frond.[17]
Strobilus –
Submarginal –

text: Bryophytes[edit]

text: Gametangium[edit]

text:
Acrandrous – used for moss species that have antheridia at the top of the stem.
Acrocarpous – In mosses, bearing the sporophyte at the axis of the main shoot
Acrogynous – In liverworts, the female sex organs terminate the main shoot
Anacrogynous – In liverworts, female sex organs are produced by a lateral cell, thus the growth of the main shoot is indeterminate
Androcyte –
Androecium –male sex organ
Androgynous – Monoicous, and producing both types of sex organs together.
Antheridiophore – A specialised branch that bears the antheridia in the Marchantiales
Antherozoid –
Archegoniophore – A specialised branch that bears the archaegonia in the Marchantiales
Autoicous – Produces male and female sex organs on the same plant but on separate inflorescences
Bract –leaf is present below the flower
Cladautoicous – Male and female inflorescences on separate branches of the same plant
Dioicous – Having two forms of gametophyte, one form bearing antheridia and one form bearing archegonia.
Gonioautoicous – Male is bud-like in the axil of a female branch
Incubous – describing the arrangement of leaves of a liverwort, contrast with succubous
Inflorescence –cluster of flower
Involucre – A tube of thallus tissue that protects the archegonia
Monoicous – Having a single form of gametophyte bearing both antheridia and archegonia, either together or on separate branches.
Paraphyses – Sterile hairs surrounding the archegonia and antheridia
Perianth – A protective tube that surrounds the archegonia, characterises the Jungermannialean liverworts
Perichaetium – The cluster of leaves with the enclosed female sex organs
Perigonium – The cluster of leaves with the enclosed male sex organs
Pseudautoicous – Dwarf male plants growing on living leaves of female plants
Pseudomonoicous –
Pseudoperianth – An involucre that resembles a perianth, but is made of thallus tissue, and usually forms after the sporophyte develops
Rhizautoicous – Male inflorescence attached to the female stem by rhizoids
Succubous – describing the arrangement of leaves of a liverwort, contrast with incubous
Synoicous – Male and female sex organs on the same gametophyte but are not clustered

text: Sporangium[edit]

text:
Amphithecium – The external cell layers of the developing sporangium of a bryophyte. (Note: this term is also used in the mycology of lichens.)
Anisosporous – Anisospore production is a rare condition in dioecious bryophytes; meiosis produces two small spores that develop into male gametophytes and two larger spores that develop into female gametophytes; contrast Isosporous.
Annulus – in mosses, cells with thick walls along the rim of the sporangium and were the peristome teeth are attached.
Apophysis –
Archesporium –
Arthrodontous –
Articulate –
Astomous –
Basal membrane –
Calyptra –
Capsule –
Cleistocarpous –
Columella –
Dehisce –
Diplolepidous –
Divisural line –
Elater – structures derived from the sporangium of liverworts that aid in spore dispersal
Endostome –
Endothecium –
Epiphragm –
Exostome –
Exothecium –
Foot –
Gymnostomous –
Haplolepidous –
Haustorium –
Hypophysis –
Immersed –
Indehiscent –
Inoperculate –
Isosporous – unlike anisosporous species, whether monoecious or dioecious, all spores are the same size.
Nematodontous –
Nurse cells –
Operculate –
Operculum –
Oral –
Peristome –
Pseudoelater – structures derived from the sporangium of hornworts that aid in spore dispersal
Seta –
Stegocarpous –
Stoma –
Suboral –
Tapetum –
Trabecula –
Valve –


document_title: Shine On You Crazy Diamond

question_text: who played saxophone on shine on you crazy diamond

root

text: Shine On You Crazy Diamond

text: Background[edit]

text: The song was conceived and written as a tribute and remembrance to their former band member Syd Barrett; the title of the song itself can also be seen as a reference to Barrett (Shine On You Crazy Diamond). The work was first performed on their 1974 French tour and recorded for their 1975 concept album Wish You Were Here. It was intended to be a side-long composition (like "Atom Heart Mother" and "Echoes") but was ultimately split into two sections and used to bookend the album, with new material composed that was more relevant to the album and to the situation in which the band found themselves.[3]

tag: p

text: Recording[edit]

text: Bassist Roger Waters commented, as the sessions were underway, that "at times the group was there only physically. Our bodies were there, but our minds and feelings somewhere else."[4] Eventually an idea was raised to split the epic in two, Parts I–V and Parts VI–IX.[4]

text: According to guitarist David Gilmour and drummer Nick Mason on the Wish You Were Here episode of In the Studio with Redbeard, Pink Floyd recorded a satisfactory take of "Shine On You Crazy Diamond", but because of a new mixing console which was installed at Abbey Road Studios, it needed to be re-recorded because excessive 'bleed' from other instruments could be heard on the drum tracks,[5] as explained by Gilmour:

text: We originally did the backing track over the course of several days, but we came to the conclusion that it just wasn't good enough. So we did it again in one day flat and got it a lot better. Unfortunately nobody understood the desk properly and when we played it back we found that someone had switched the echo returns from monitors to tracks one and two. That affected the tom-toms and guitars and keyboards which were playing along at the time. There was no way of saving it, so we just had to do it yet again.[5]

text: On part 3, a piano part seems to have been added "live" to the final mix, making it absent from multitrack masters. That part was re-recorded at British Grove Studios by pianist Richard Wright during the multi-channel mix used for the album Immersion Edition and the SACD release.[6]

text: Nick Mason said:

text: With the invention of 16-track and 2-inch tape there was the belief for quite a while that there would be something wrong with editing tape that big. Consequently whenever we played these pieces, they had to be played from beginning to end. Particularly for Roger [Waters] and myself being the rhythm section, which would be laid down first, this was [chuckling] a fairly tough business because the whole thing had to be sort of right.[7]

text: Barrett incident[edit]

text: One day during recording, Barrett (now heavyset, with a completely shaved head and eyebrows) wandered into the studio (although Mason has since stated that he is not entirely certain whether "Shine On You Crazy Diamond" was the particular work being recorded when Barrett was there). Because of his drastically changed appearance, the band did not recognize him for some time. When they eventually determined the withdrawn man in the corner was Barrett, Roger Waters allegedly became so distressed about his appearance he was reduced to tears.[3] Someone asked to play the suite again for Barrett and he said a second playback was not needed when they had just heard it.  When asked what he thought of the song, Barrett said it sounded a "bit old". He subsequently slipped away during celebrations for Gilmour's wedding to Ginger Hasenbein, which took place later that day.[8] Gilmour confirmed this story, although he could not recall which composition they were working on when Barrett showed up.[9][10]

text: The episode is resumed by Wright as follows:

text: Roger was there, and he was sitting at the desk, and I came in and I saw this guy sitting behind him – huge, bald, fat guy. I thought, "He looks a bit... strange..." Anyway, so I sat down with Roger at the desk and we worked for about ten minutes, and this guy kept on getting up and brushing his teeth and then sitting – doing really weird things, but keeping quiet. And I said to Roger, "Who is he?" and Roger said "I don't know." and I said "Well, I assumed he was a friend of yours," and he said "No, I don't know who he is." Anyway, it took me a long time, and then suddenly I realised it was Syd, after maybe 45 minutes. He came in as we were doing the vocals for "Shine On You Crazy Diamond", which was basically about Syd. He just, for some incredible reason picked the very day that we were doing a song which was about him. And we hadn't seen him, I don't think, for two years before. That's what's so incredibly... weird about this guy. And a bit disturbing, as well, I mean, particularly when you see a guy, that you don't, you couldn't recognize him. And then, for him to pick the very day we want to start putting vocals on, which is a song about him. Very strange.[11]

text: Composition[edit]

text: This section  possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (April 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: As neither the original 1975 vinyl release nor the CD re-release actually delineate the various parts precisely, the make-up of the parts below is based on a comparison of the recorded timings with the identifications in the published sheet music. Without benefit of the publication, it is easy to mistake Parts I and II as Part I, Part III as Part II, and so on, with the extensive postlude of Part V (at 11:10) as the beginning of the fifth section.

text: Parts I–V[edit]

text: Part I (Wright, Waters, Gilmour; from 0:00 to 3:54) There are no lyrics in Part I. The instrumental begins with a fade-in of a G minor chord created with an EMS VCS 3, ARP Solina, a Hammond organ, and a wine glass harp (recycled from an earlier project known as Household Objects). This is followed by Wright's Minimoog passages leading into a lengthy, bluesy guitar solo played by Gilmour on a Fender Stratocaster (neck pickup) using a heavily compressed sound and reverb. Part I ends with the synthesizer chord fading into the background. During the fade-out some very faint conversation in the studio can be heard on the left channel.

text:
Four Note Theme

The main four note guitar theme that sets the tempo for the next section of the epic.
Problems playing this file? See media help.

text: Part II (Gilmour, Waters, Wright; from 3:54 to 6:27)[12] begins with a four-note theme (B♭, F, G [below the B♭], E) (known informally as "Syd's theme") repeated throughout much of the entire section. This theme leads the harmony to C major (in comparison to the use of C minor in Part I). Mason starts his drumming and Waters his bass playing after the fourth playing of the four-note theme, which is the point where the riffs get into a fixed tempo, in 6/8 time. The chord leads back to G minor (as from Part I), followed by E♭ major and D major back to a coda from G minor. This part includes another solo by Gilmour.

text: Part III (Waters, Gilmour, Wright; from 6:27 to 8:42) begins with a Minimoog solo by Wright accompanied by a less complex variation of Mason's drums from Part II. This part includes Gilmour's third guitar solo, in the G natural minor scale, and ends with a fade into Part IV. When performed on the Animals tour, Gilmour added distortion to the guitar for this solo. This solo is often dropped in live performances while the rest of part III is still played—notably on Delicate Sound of Thunder and Pulse.

text: Part IV (Gilmour, Wright, Waters; from 8:42 to 11:10) Waters sings his lyrics, with Gilmour, Wright and female backing vocalists Venetta Fields and Carlena Williams on harmonies.

text: Part V (Waters, Gilmour, Wright; from 11:10 to 13:32) Part IV is followed by two guitars repeating an arpeggio variation on the main theme for about a minute with the theme of Part II. A baritone saxophone overlays the sounds, played by Dick Parry. The saxophone changes from a baritone to a tenor saxophone, as a time signature switch from 6/8 to 12/8 creates the feeling that the tempo doubles up. The sax solo is accompanied by a Solina string synthesizer keyboard sound. A machine-like hum fades in with musique concrète and segues into "Welcome to the Machine".

text: Parts VI–IX[edit]

text: Part VI (Wright, Waters, Gilmour; from 0:00 to 4:59) begins with a howling wind from the preceding song "Wish You Were Here".[13] As the wind fades away, Gilmour comes in on the bass guitar. Waters adds another bass with a continuing riff pattern. Then Wright comes in playing a Solina String Ensemble Synthesizer and after a few measures, several rhythm guitar parts (Gilmour played the power chord rhythm part using his black Fender Stratocaster before switching to lap steel guitar for the solo in live performances from 1974–77. Snowy White did the rhythm guitar parts on this track on the band's 1977 "In the Flesh" tour) and drums come in, as well as a Minimoog synthesizer to play the opening solo. At the two-minute mark, Wright's Minimoog and Gilmour's lap steel guitar play notes in unison before Gilmour does a lap steel guitar solo (the lap steel had open G tuning with the high D string tuned to E) with some counterpointing from Wright's synthesizers. It lasts for about three minutes (four when played on the band's "In the Flesh" tour) and Gilmour played each section an octave higher than the previous one. The highest note he hit on the lap steel/slide solo was a B♭6, followed by a reprise of the guitar solo from Part IV (which was played by White live on Pink Floyd's 1977 tour so Gilmour could switch back to his Fender Stratocaster). The song then switches time signatures to 6/8 (found in Parts II–V), giving the appearance of a slower tempo and reintroducing the vocals.

text: Part VII (Waters, Gilmour, Wright; from 4:59 to 6:09) contains the vocals, in a similar vein to Part IV though half the length, before segueing into Part VIII. Waters again sings the lead vocals with Gilmour, Wright, Venetta Fields and Carlena Williams providing backing vocals.

text: Part VIII (Gilmour, Wright, Waters; from 6:09 to 9:07) brings in Waters to play a second electric guitar for a high-noted sound riff while Gilmour plays the arpeggio riff that bridges Parts VII and VIII. A solid progression of funk in 4/4 plays for about two minutes before very slowly fading out as a single sustained keyboard note fades in around the nine-minute mark. Throughout this section, Wright's keyboards dominate, with the use of a Minimoog synthesizer, and a Hohner Clavinet. Originally the section clocked in at 8 minutes before it was edited down to three minutes on the final version (the unedited Part 8 without the electric piano and Minimoog overdubs surfaced on a bootleg called The Extraction Tapes). When performed on the "In the Flesh" tour in 1977, the section would be extended to between 5 and 10 minutes as it would feature guitar solos from Gilmour (which would vary from funky power chords to a proper solo as the Animals tour progressed) and Snowy White. In addition to their guitar solos, there was also occasional trading of leads from Gilmour and White instead of the keyboard sounds as heard on record.

text: Part IX (Wright, from 9:07 to 12:28) is played in 4/4 time. Gilmour described Part IX in an interview[which?] as "a slow 4/4 funeral march... the parting musical eulogy to Syd".[14] Again, Wright's keyboards dominate, with little guitar input from Gilmour. Mason's drums play for much of this part, and the keyboards play for the final minute before fading out. On the fade-out, a short keyboard part of the melody of "See Emily Play" (at 12:12), one of Barrett's signature Pink Floyd songs, can be heard. Part IX, and the album, ends in G major, a Picardy third. When performed early on the Animals tour, the part begins with the piano (as heard on record) then the synth solo is played (as on record) by Dick Parry with some slide guitar accompaniment by Snowy White would then change to half synthesizer/half harmony lead guitar solo for the remainder of European leg and first US leg. For the final US leg, after the piano began it was a bluesy guitar solo from Gilmour then harmony guitars from Gilmour and White (Gilmour playing the highest parts) and then ending like on record. This was the final solo writing credit Wright would receive in Pink Floyd during his lifetime, as well as his last writing credit of any kind until The Division Bell in 1994.

text: Live performances[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The song series was first performed as "Shine On",[15] during the band's French tour in June 1974. It was introduced as "Shine On You Crazy Diamond" on the British tour in November 1974. The set was originally performed as one whole suite with some of the parts differing from the album versions, and samplings of Barrett's solo song "Dark Globe" during the opening of the performance. The version from the British tour was included on the 2011 Experience and Immersion editions of Wish You Were Here. The multi-part version of "Shine On You Crazy Diamond" was first performed on the band's 1975 North American tour with "Have a Cigar" thrown into the middle of the piece. The 1975 versions were close to the final versions, except parts one and nine were still not refined yet. The band performed the whole nine-part "Shine On You Crazy Diamond" as part of the Wish You Were Here portion of their 1977 In the Flesh Tour, with extra musicians White on guitar and backing vocals and Parry on saxophones.

text: Parts I–V became a staple of Floyd's performances from 1987–94. The track opened shows for most of the A Momentary Lapse of Reason tour of 1987–89 and the tour closing performance at Knebworth in 1990 with Candy Dulfer on saxophone.[16] The first eleven performances had "Echoes" as the show opener before the band proceeded to play all of A Momentary Lapse of Reason in the rest of the first half in a slightly different sequence to the album. A condensed edition of the track (without the Gilmour solo in Part III) would then open the second half of the shows on the group's 1994 The Division Bell tour (documented on Pulse) except on shows where all of The Dark Side of the Moon was performed when "Shine On You Crazy Diamond" opened the first half and in the last month and a half of the tour the band added part VII to Parts I–V. A similar version was also played during David Gilmour's Rattle That Lock Tour in 2015 with the according screen film on display.

text: Gilmour performed almost the whole suite (save part IX) at his 2001 and 2002 semi-unplugged concerts (documented on his 2002 David Gilmour in Concert DVD). "There was," he said, "a moment of thinking, 'Shall I attempt an acoustic guitar version of the long, synthesised opening?' It came to me one day how I could do it, and it worked out not too badly."[17]

text: Gilmour performed parts I–II and IV–V (in a new arrangement) on his 2006 On an Island solo tour. Part III was omitted and Parts I and II were simplified and more guitar-focused. Gilmour performed Parts I–V on his Live in Gdańsk album on disc two and on the DVD in the four-disc edition of the album. The five-disc edition and the online downloads available in the three and four-disc editions include Parts I–V recorded in Venice and Vienne in 2006. In many of his performances, solo and with Pink Floyd, Gilmour alters the vocal melody to avoid the higher notes that were originally sung by Waters.

text: Waters has also performed the epic on his 1999 and 2000 tours documented on his In the Flesh – Live album and DVD which was a condensed parts I, II, IV, VI, VII, and IX. Part VI on these performances had a lap steel solo from Jon Carin then guitar solos from Doyle Bramhall II and White. Then on Waters' 2002 tour, he played all nine parts like on record (although part VIII was shortened). An abridged version of parts I–V was performed on Waters' 2006–07 The Dark Side of the Moon Live tour.

text: Personnel[edit]

text:
Roger Waters – bass guitar, lead vocals, additional electric guitar on Part VIII, glass harp
David Gilmour – electric guitars, backing vocals, lap steel guitar, additional bass guitar on Part VI, EMS Synthi AKS, glass harp
Richard Wright – Hammond organ, ARP String Ensemble, Minimoog, quadruple-tracked EMS VCS 3, clavinet and electric piano on Part VIII, Steinway piano on Parts III and IX, glass harp, backing vocals, Bösendorfer piano on the multi-channel re-release (recorded in 2008).[6]
Nick Mason – drums, percussion

tag: ul

text: with:

text:
Dick Parry – baritone and tenor saxophones
Carlena Williams – backing vocals
Venetta Fields – backing vocals

text: Edited versions[edit]

text: Three different edited versions of the composition have appeared on compilation albums:

text: The version on this compilation album was cut significantly. Parts III, V, VI, VIII and IX were dropped completely. Parts IV and VII are linked by the guitar solo from earlier in Part IV. Lastly, the riff that links Parts VII and VIII is repeated several times as the song segues into the introductory radio passage from "Wish You Were Here".

text: The version on this compilation album was also cut, but less significantly. The guitar solo on Part III was dropped. Part VI was shortened. Parts VIII and IX were dropped completely. Linking Parts V and VI is the sound of wind. These are the same wind effects used to bridge "Wish You Were Here" to Part VI of "Diamond" on the original LP. Finally, the riff that links Parts VII and VIII is repeated several times as the song segues into the introductory passage of clocks of "Time".

text: This version was also cut. Parts VI–IX were dropped completely. Part I was shortened. The guitar solo on Part III was dropped. The saxophone on Part V has an early fade-out. Finally, the machine-like hum that segues into "Welcome to the Machine" in the original album was dropped, the song simply stops and "Brain Damage" begins.

text: Releases[edit]

text: "Shine On You Crazy Diamond" features on all the below releases:

text:
Wish You Were Here (Original release) – Pink Floyd, 1975
A Collection of Great Dance Songs (Edited version) – Pink Floyd, 1981[18]
Delicate Sound of Thunder (Live version, Parts I–V) – Pink Floyd, 1988
PULSE (Live version, Parts I–V and VII) – Pink Floyd, 1995
In the Flesh – Live (Live version, Parts I–VIII) – Roger Waters, 2000
Echoes: The Best of Pink Floyd (Edited version) – Pink Floyd, 2001[19]
Live in Gdańsk (Live version, Parts I–II, IV–V) – David Gilmour, 2008
Wish You Were Here 2011 remastered "Experience" and "Immersion" sets (early live version recorded in November 1974) – Pink Floyd, 2011
A Foot in the Door – The Best of Pink Floyd (Edited version, Parts I–V) – Pink Floyd, 2011
Live at Pompeii (Live version, Parts I–II, IV–V) – David Gilmour, 2017

text:
Delicate Sound of Thunder (VHS, Part I only) – Pink Floyd, 1988
PULSE (VHS and DVD, Parts I–V and VII) – Pink Floyd, 1995 (VHS) 2006 (DVD)
In the Flesh – Live (DVD, Parts I–VIII) – Roger Waters, 2000
David Gilmour in Concert (DVD, Parts I–II, IV–V and VI–VII, reprise of Part V) – David Gilmour, 2002
Remember That Night (DVD and BD, Parts I–II and IV–V) – David Gilmour, 2007
Live in Gdańsk 3-disc, 4-disc and deluxe editions (Parts I–II, IV–V) – David Gilmour, 2008
Live at Pompeii (DVD, BD and deluxe edition, Parts I–II, IV–V) – David Gilmour, 2017

text: Use in films[edit]

text: The extended instrumental introduction (from the Wish You Were Here record) was used in the last scenes of Good Morning, Night, an Italian movie about the 1978 Aldo Moro kidnapping and assassination.

text: Cover versions[edit]

text: Jack Irons included a cover of "Shine On You Crazy Diamond" on his first solo album, Attention Dimension (2004); it is 5:12 in length.[20]

text: Transatlantic has a cover of "Shine On You Crazy Diamond" on a limited edition bonus disk with their album Bridge Across Forever (2001); it is 15:27 in length.

text: Steve Lukather of Toto performed a cover of the song on the tribute album The Everlasting Songs.


document_title: Forgetting Sarah Marshall

question_text: who does peter end up with in forgetting sarah marshall

text: Forgetting Sarah Marshall

text: Plot[edit]

text: Composer Peter Bretter (Jason Segel) is in a five-year relationship with actress Sarah Marshall (Kristen Bell), who stars in a CSI-like television show titled Crime Scene: Scene of the Crime. One day, as Peter stands stark naked in their apartment, Sarah announces that she is breaking up with him. Devastated, and unable to banish his grief through one-night stands, Peter takes a trip to Hawaii. However, the vacation is ruined when he learns that Sarah and her new rock star boyfriend Aldous Snow (Russell Brand) are also guests of the resort. Taking pity on him, hotel concierge Rachel (Mila Kunis) offers him an expensive suite for free in exchange for cleaning up the room himself.

text: Peter begins spending time with Rachel and starts to develop feelings for her. Meanwhile, the relationship between Sarah and Aldous begins to falter. Much of the discord is triggered by the news that Sarah's TV show has been canceled and that Aldous is about to embark on a world tour with his group, Infant Sorrow, for 18 months. During a day of surf and sand Aldous and Peter run into each other and begin talking. Inadvertently, Aldous informs Peter that he and Sarah began having sex a full year before she broke up with Peter. When Peter confronts Sarah, she tells him she began feeling disconnected emotionally from him and she couldn't do anything to make their relationship work. Further exacerbating the situation is Sarah's obvious jealousy of the budding relationship between Peter and Rachel, while Peter (through observing Sarah's relationship with Aldous) begins to realize that his relationship with her wasn't as great as he remembered.

text: Sarah, Aldous, Peter, and Rachel later share an awkward dinner together. After the dinner, Peter takes Rachel back to his hotel room and they begin to have sex. Sarah hears them through the wall and initiates sex with Aldous, moaning loudly for the benefit of the couple next door, and Rachel and Peter turn the situation into a competition and become even louder. When Aldous realizes Sarah is clearly putting on a performance to provoke a reaction from Peter, he stops the sex and tells her the trip was a mistake as she's clearly not over Peter. They bicker furiously, prompting Aldous to announce that the relationship is over. The next day Peter encounters Aldous, and learns that he and Sarah have broken up and that he is flying back to England. Peter goes to Sarah's room to console her where she admits she still loves him and tries to rekindle their romance. The two start to engage in sexual activity, but Peter abruptly cuts it off because of his feelings for Rachel, and his now ambivalent feelings towards Sarah. Peter immediately goes to Rachel to confess what happened, but she is hurt and demands that he leave and never contact her again. Before leaving, Peter takes down a naked picture of Rachel from a local bar despite enduring a beat-down from the owner.

text: He flies back to Los Angeles and after a period of sadness and self-loathing, he begins working on his Dracula puppet comedy-rock opera, A Taste for Love. He sends an invitation to Rachel for the opening night performance. Although extremely hesitant at first, Rachel eventually decides to attend. After the performance Rachel congratulates Peter and tells him she's looking into attending school in the area. She leaves so Peter can bask in the success of his show, but quickly returns to Peter's dressing room to tell him she misses him. Peter tells her that he has missed her, too. The film ends as they embrace and kiss.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Jason Segel as Peter Bretter: A slobbish but well-meaning composer for the TV show Crime Scene: Scene of the Crime. On the side, he is working on a Dracula-based rock opera involving puppets called A Taste for Love in which he performs as Count Dracula.
Kristen Bell as Sarah Marshall: A famous working actress for the TV show Crime Scene: Scene of the Crime who dated Peter before leaving him for rock star Aldous Snow.
Mila Kunis as Rachel Jansen: A receptionist for the Hawaiian resort Turtle Bay with whom Peter forms a relationship during his stay at the hotel.
Russell Brand as Aldous Snow: Sarah Marshall's rock star boyfriend. The same character is later seen in Get Him to the Greek.
Bill Hader as Brian Bretter: Peter's stepbrother and best friend who usually criticizes him for the better. He helped out in his stepbrother's A Taste for Love opera where he performed Van Helsing.
Jonah Hill as Matthew Van Der Wyk: A waiter at Turtle Bay and obsessive fan of Aldous.
Liz Cackowski as Liz Bretter: Brian's wife who was his one and only girlfriend and who usually sneaks in on Brian's computer conversations.
Da'Vone McDonald as Dwayne: A bartender at Turtle Bay. Dwayne was originally from South-Central Los Angeles, and hated it there, until he moved to Oahu, where he learned to name over two hundred different kinds of fish.
Jack McBrayer as Darald Braden: A guest at the resort who does not like certain aspects of sexual intercourse and is having trouble satisfying his new wife.
Maria Thayer as Wyoma Braden: The sex-hungry wife of Darald.
Paul Rudd as Chuck / Kunu:[3] An air-headed surfing instructor who is 44 years of age by his own estimate.
Jason Bateman as Animal Instincts Detective: A character on Sarah Marshall's latest show, Animal Instincts.
William Baldwin as Himself / Det. Hunter Rush: In the film's universe, Baldwin is the "hard-to-love" co-star on Sarah's show. He is referred to as "Billy Baldwin" and Peter briefly suspects him of having an affair with Sarah.
Teila Tuli as Kimo: A cook at Turtle Bay.
Branscombe Richmond as Keoki: The bartender who beats up Peter when he takes down Rachel's picture from the bar.
Kristen Wiig (unrated version) as Prana: A yoga instructor.

text: Puppeteers[edit]

text: The puppets seen in the film were created by Jim Henson's Creature Shop. The following have performed the puppets in this film:[4]

text:
Carol Binion
Tim Blaney
Julianne Buescher - Angel
Kevin Carlson
Leslie Carrara-Rudolph - One of Dracula's Brides
BJ Guyer
Sean Johnson - Five Dancing Mummies
Scott Land
Drew Massey - Right Hand of Count Dracula
Michael Oosterom
Michelan Sisti
Victor Yerrid - Right Hand of Van Helsing

text: Production[edit]

text: Stoller stated that Judd Apatow was very involved in the casting process and the development of the script. Regarding the nudity in the film, he added that the first draft of the script called for the (Peter Bretter) character to get dressed after the breakup, but he thought it would be funnier if the character stayed naked the entire time. However, he confirmed the picture of Mila Kunis used in the film was created on a computer and not real.[5]

text: Filming[edit]

text: All filming locations were in the state of Hawaii and in Los Angeles. While filming, lead actor Jason Segel told a New York Times interviewer that the naked breakup scenes were based on a real-life experience he had.[6] The film features a great deal of improvised dialogue; according to director Nicholas Stoller, it's "60 or 70 percent scripted and then 30 or 40 percent improv".[7]

text: Music[edit]

text: Segel and Lyle Workman wrote music for the film, which includes music by Infant Sorrow and a song from the Dracula musical. Eric Carmen, Blondie, and Kenny Loggins were also used in previews for the film.

text: Soundtrack[edit]

text:
Forgetting Sarah Marshall: Original Soundtrack

Soundtrack album by Various Artists

Released
April 22, 2008

Genre
Soundtrack

Label
Verve Forecast/Capitol

text: The soundtrack of Forgetting Sarah Marshall was released on April 22, 2008.

text:
No.
Title
Length

1.
"Love You Madly" (Cake)
3:58

2.
"We've Got to Do Something" (Infant Sorrow)
3:33

3.
"You Can't Break a Heart and Have It" (Black Francis)
2:37

4.
"Get Me Away From Here, I'm Dying" (Belle & Sebastian)
3:25

5.
"More Than Words" (Aloha Sex Juice)
3:12

6.
"Dracula's Lament" (Jason Segel)
1:23

7.
"Inside of You" (Infant Sorrow)
2:50

8.
"Fucking Boyfriend" (The Bird and the Bee)
3:14

9.
"Intensified '68 (Music Like Dirt)" (Desmond Dekker)
2:43

10.
"Nothing Compares 2 U" (The Coconutz, a cover version translated into Hawaiian)
5:58

11.
"Baby" (Os Mutantes)
3:37

12.
"These Boots Are Made for Walkin'" (The Coconutz)
2:52

13.
"A Taste for Love" (Forgetting Sarah Marshall Cast)
2:04

14.
"The Secret Sun" (Jesse Harris)
3:45

15.
"Everybody Hurts" (The Coconutz)
6:03

16.
"Animal Instincts" (The Transcenders featuring J7 D'Star)
1:14

text: Several songs are featured in the film that were not included on the soundtrack, including "Heaven Knows I'm Miserable Now" by The Smiths and the version of "Nothing Compares 2 U" by Sinéad O'Connor, both of which are heard in the background during the scene in which Peter's brother deletes all of Peter's photos. "Amber" by 311 can be heard in the background during the bar scene after Peter and Rachel's first date, as well as "Playa Azul" from Los Amigos Invisibles. "Move Your Feet" by Junior Senior is briefly played in background in the scene at the beginning when they are showing Access Hollywood clips. Another song not featured on the soundtrack is "Heavy Lifting" from New York band Ambulance Ltd.

text: Release[edit]

text: Critical reception[edit]

text: Forgetting Sarah Marshall has received positive reviews from numerous critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 85% of 178 critics have given the film a positive review, with a rating average of 7 out of 10. The site's consensus is that "With ample laughs and sharp performances, Forgetting Sarah Marshall finds just the right mix of romantic and raunchy comedy." [8] Metacritic reported the film had an average score of 67 out of 100, based on 37 reviews.[9]

text: Matt Pais of the Chicago Tribune said it's "the kind of movie you could watch all day because, like a new flame, you can't get enough of its company and are just glad to see where it takes you."[10] Richard Roeper highly praised the film for its laugh-out-loud moments as well as its worthiness to be an instant classic and went as far as to say he would put it on his list of 50 favorite comedies of all time.[11]

text: Other positive reviews come from Entertainment Weekly who gave the film a B+ and applauded "Jason Segel's riff on varieties of male bewilderment,"[12] and Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle, who wrote "Segel's breakthrough movie, Forgetting Sarah Marshall, deserves to ride the wave of the latest, hottest micro-trend in pictures: the romantic comedy for guys."[13]

text: Box office[edit]

text: The film was promoted with a "teaser" billboard campaign, featuring the text "I hate Sarah Marshall" and the URL for the film's website.

text: In its opening weekend, the film grossed $17.7 million in 2,798 theaters in the United States and Canada, ranking #2 at the box office behind The Forbidden Kingdom, and averaging $6,335 per theater in the US and per theater in Canada.[14] It opened behind other Apatow productions such as Superbad, Knocked Up, The 40-Year-Old Virgin and Talladega Nights,[15] but ahead of contemporary Apatow films Walk Hard[15] and Drillbit Taylor.[16]

text: Forgetting Sarah Marshall grossed $105.2 million worldwide; $63.2 million in North America and $42 million in other territories.[17]

text: Home media[edit]

text: The DVD and Blu-ray editions were released on September 30, 2008. At the DVD sales chart, Forgetting Sarah Marshall opened at #2 and sold 652,000 units, translating to $12,905,492 in revenue. As of (November 2009) 1,785,744 DVD units have been sold, acquiring revenue of $29,145,295. This does not include Blu-ray sales/DVD rentals.[18]

text: It was released in a single-disc DVD edition, a three-disc collector's DVD edition, a two-disc Blu-ray edition, and the Ultimate Unrated Comedy Collection containing the collectors' editions of Forgetting Sarah Marshall, The 40-Year-Old Virgin, and Knocked Up on either DVD or Blu-ray Disc. It was released on DVD in Australia (region 4) on August 20, 2008 in a single and 2-Disc Unforgettable Edition and was also released on Blu-ray in Australia on November 5, 2008.

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: Forgetting Sarah Marshall was nominated for five awards for the 2008 Teen Choice Awards, though it did not win any awards. The nominations were:

text:
Movie, Breakout Female: Kristen Bell
Movie, Breakout Female: Mila Kunis
Movie, Breakout Male: Jason Segel
Movie, Romantic Comedy
Movie, Actress Comedy: Kristen Bell

text: On The Comedy Festival Presents: Funniest Movies of the Year 2008 on TBS, Forgetting Sarah Marshall was voted "The Funniest Film of 2008".

text: Follow-up spin-off[edit]

text: Get Him to the Greek is the spin-off/follow-up to Forgetting Sarah Marshall. The film was released on June 4, 2010, reuniting director Nicholas Stoller and producer Judd Apatow with stars Russell Brand and Jonah Hill. Brand reprises his role of Aldous Snow, while Hill plays an entirely new character. Bell also briefly reprises her role as Sarah Marshall where she appears in a promo for a new NBC drama Blind Medicine where she portrays a visually impaired surgeon.


document_title: Not All Who Wander Are Lost

question_text: who said not all who wonder are lost

question_tokens: who said not all who wonder are lost

text: Not All Who Wander Are Lost

text: Not All Who Wander Are Lost may refer to:

text:
"Not all those who wander are lost", a line from the poem "All that is gold does not glitter", written by J. R. R. Tolkien for The Lord of the Rings
Not All Who Wander Are Lost (album), a 2001 album by Chris Thile
"Not All Who Wander Are Lost", a song on the 2007 album The Last Kind Words by American metal band Devildriver

text:
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