document_title: The Open Championship

question_text: when do they make the cut at the open

question_tokens: when do they make the cut at the open

text: The Open Championship

text: History[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The Open was first played on 17 October 1860 at Prestwick Golf Club in Scotland.[1] The inaugural tournament was restricted to professionals and attracted a field of eight golfers who played three rounds of Prestwick's twelve-hole course in a single day. Willie Park Sr. won with a score of 174, beating Old Tom Morris, by two strokes. The following year the tournament was opened to amateurs; eight of them joined ten professionals in the field.

text: James Ogilvie Fairlie was the principal organiser of the first Open Championship held at Prestwick in 1860. With the untimely death of Allan Robertson, aged 43 in 1859, Prestwick members decided to conduct a challenge the following year that would determine the land’s greatest golfer. In a proposed competition for a "Challenge Belt", Fairlie sent out a series of letters to Blackheath, Perth, Edinburgh, Musselburgh and St Andrews, inviting a player known as a "respectable caddie" to represent each of the clubs in a tournament to be held on 17 October 1860.[2]

text: Originally, the trophy presented to the event's winner was the Challenge Belt, a red leather belt with a silver buckle. The Challenge Belt was retired in 1870, when Young Tom Morris was allowed to keep it for winning the tournament three consecutive times. Because no trophy was available, the tournament was cancelled in 1871. In 1872, after Young Tom Morris won again for a fourth time in a row, he was awarded a medal. The present trophy, The Golf Champion Trophy, better known by its popular name of the Claret Jug, was then created.

text: Prestwick administered The Open from 1860 to 1870. In 1871, it agreed to organise it jointly with The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews and The Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers. In 1892 the event was doubled in length from 36 to 72 holes, four rounds of what was by then the standard complement of 18 holes. The 1894 Open was the first held outside Scotland, at the Royal St George's Golf Club in England. Because of an increasing number of entrants, a cut was introduced after two rounds in 1898. In 1920 full responsibility for The Open Championship was handed over to The Royal & Ancient Golf Club.

text: The early winners were all Scottish professionals, who in those days worked as greenkeepers, clubmakers, and caddies to supplement their modest winnings from championships and challenge matches. The Open has always been dominated by professionals, with only six victories by amateurs, all of which occurred between 1890 and 1930. The last of these was Bobby Jones' third Open and part of his celebrated Grand Slam. Jones was one of six Americans who won The Open between the First and Second World Wars, the first of whom had been Walter Hagen in 1922. These Americans and the French winner of the 1907 Open, Arnaud Massy, were the only winners from outside Scotland and England up to 1939.

text: The first post-World War II winner was the American Sam Snead, in 1946. In 1947, Northern Ireland's Fred Daly was victorious. While there have been many English and Scottish champions, Daly was the only winner from Ireland until the 2007 victory by Pádraig Harrington. There has never been a Welsh champion. In the early postwar years The Open was dominated by golfers from the Commonwealth, with South African Bobby Locke and Australian Peter Thomson winning the Claret Jug in eight of the 11 championships from 1948 and 1958 between them. During this period, The Open often had a schedule conflict with the match-play PGA Championship, which meant that Ben Hogan, the best American golfer at this time, competed in The Open just once, in 1953 at Carnoustie, a tournament he won.

text: Another South African, Gary Player was Champion in 1959. This was at the beginning of the "Big Three" era in professional golf, the three players in question being Player, Arnold Palmer, and Jack Nicklaus. Palmer first competed in 1960, when he came second to the little-known Australian Kel Nagle, but he won the next two years. While he was far from being the first American to become Open Champion, he was the first that many Americans saw win the tournament on television, and his charismatic success is often credited with persuading leading American golfers to make The Open an integral part of their schedule, rather than an optional extra. The improvement of trans-Atlantic travel also increased American participation.

text: Nicklaus' victories came in 1966, 1970, and 1978. Although his tally of three wins is the least of his majors, it greatly understates how prominent Nicklaus was at the Open throughout the 1960s and 1970s. He finished runner-up seven times, which is the record and had a total of sixteen top-5 finishes, which is tied most in Open history with John Henry Taylor and easily the most in the postwar era. Nicklaus also holds the records for most rounds under par (61) and most aggregates under par (14). At Turnberry in 1977 he was involved in one of the most celebrated contests in golf history, when his duel with Tom Watson went to the final shot before Watson emerged as the champion for the second time with a record score of 268 (12 under par).

text: Watson won five Opens, more than anyone else has since the 1950s, but his final win in 1983 brought down the curtain on an era of U.S. domination. In the next 11 years there was only one American winner, with the others coming from Europe and the Commonwealth. The European winners of this era, Spaniard Seve Ballesteros, Sandy Lyle, who was the first Scottish winner in over half a century, and the Englishman Nick Faldo, were also leading lights among the group of players who began to get the better of the Americans in the Ryder Cup during this period.

text: In 1995, John Daly's playoff win over Italian Costantino Rocca began another era of American domination. Tiger Woods won three Championships, two at St Andrews in 2000 and 2005, and one at Hoylake in 2006. There was a dramatic moment at St Andrews in 2000, as the ageing Jack Nicklaus waved farewell to the crowds, while the young challenger to his crown watched from a nearby tee. Nicklaus later decided to play in The Open for one final time in 2005, when the R&A announced St Andrews as the venue, giving his final farewell to the fans at the Home of Golf.

text: There have also been wins by previously little known golfers, including Paul Lawrie's playoff win after the 72nd-hole collapse of Jean van de Velde in 1999, Ben Curtis in 2003 and Todd Hamilton in 2004.

text: In 2007, the Europeans finally broke an eight-year drought in the majors when Pádraig Harrington of Ireland defeated Sergio García by one stroke in a four-hole playoff at Carnoustie. Harrington retained the Championship in 2008.

text: In 2009, 59-year-old Tom Watson turned in one of the most remarkable performances ever seen at The Open. Leading the tournament through 71 holes and needing just a par on the last hole to become the oldest ever winner of a major championship, Watson bogeyed, setting up a four-hole playoff, which he would lose to Stewart Cink.

text: In 2013, Phil Mickelson won his first Open Championship at Muirfield. His victory meant that he had won 3 of the 4 majors in pursuit of the career grand slam, just needing the U.S. Open, where he has finished runner-up six times.

text: In 2015, Zach Johnson denied Jordan Spieth his chance of winning the Grand Slam by winning an aggregate playoff over Louis Oosthuizen and Marc Leishman at the Old Course at St Andrews.

text: Format[edit]

text: The Open is a 72-hole stroke play tournament contested over four days, Thursday through Sunday. Since 1979 it has been played in the week which includes the 3rd Friday in July. Currently, 156 players are in the field, mostly made up of the world's leading professionals, who are given exemptions, along with winners of the top amateur championships. Further places are given to players, amateurs and professionals, who are successful in a number of qualifying events. There is a cut after 36 holes after which only the leading 70 players (and ties) play in the final 36 holes on the weekend. In the event of a tie after 72 holes, a four-hole aggregate playoff is held; if two or more players are still tied, it continues as sudden-death until there is a winner.

text: Timeline of format changes[edit]

text:
1860: Contested over 36 holes, played on a single day
1892: Extended to 72 holes, played over two days
1898: Cut introduced after 36 holes. Those 20 or more strokes behind the leader were excluded
1904: Extended to a third day with 18 holes on each of the first two days. Cut rule unchanged
1905: Cut rule changed to exclude those 15 or more strokes behind the leader
1907: Qualifying introduced, replacing the 36-hole cut and the contest reduced again to two days
1910: Cut reintroduced instead of qualifying, play being extended to three days again. Top 60 and ties made the cut.
1911: With an increase in the number of entries, the first two rounds were spread over three days, with 36 holes on the fourth day
1912: Qualifying reintroduced to replace the cut. Contest reduced again to two days
1926: Cut reintroduced. First Open with both qualifying and a cut. Extended again to a third day with 18 holes on the first two days. Those 15 or more strokes behind the leader were excluded from the final day. Days standardised as Wednesday to Friday
1929: Cut rule changed to ensure that at least 60 made the cut even if 15 or more strokes behind the leader
1930: Cut rule changed to top 60 and ties
1937: Cut rule changed to top 40 and ties
1938: Cut rule changed to be a maximum of 40 players. Ties for 40th place did not make the cut
1939: Cut rule changed to be a maximum of 44 players. Ties for 44th place did not make the cut
1946: Cut rule changed to be a maximum of 40 players. Ties for 40th place did not make the cut
1951: Cut rule changed to be a maximum of 50 players. Ties for 50th place did not make the cut
1957: Leaders after 36 holes go off last, replacing the random draw
1963: Cut rule changed to top 45 and ties
1964: Playoff reduced from 36 holes to 18, followed by sudden-death if still level
1966: Play extended to four days, 18 holes per day from Wednesday to Saturday. Cut rule changed to top 55 and ties
1968: Cut rule changed to top 70 and ties after 36 holes and then top 45 and ties after 54 holes
1970: Cut rule changed to top 80 and ties after 36 holes and then top 55 and ties after 54 holes
1971: Cut rule changed to top 80 and ties after 36 holes and then top 60 and ties after 54 holes
1973: Play in groups of three introduced for the first two rounds
1974: Use of "bigger ball" (1.68 in, 42.67 mm) made compulsory
1978: "10-shot rule" introduced so that players within 10 shots of the leader make the cut even if outside the top 80/60
1980: Play from Thursday to Sunday
1986: 54-hole cut discontinued. Cut rule changed to top 70 and ties after 36 holes. Four-hole playoff introduced
1996: "10-shot rule" dropped

text: Trophies and medals[edit]

text: There are a number of medals and trophies that are, or have been, given for various achievements during The Open.[3]

text:
The Challenge Belt – awarded to the winner from 1860 until 1870, when Young Tom Morris won the belt outright by winning the Championship for the third year in a row.
The Golf Champion Trophy (commonly known as the Claret Jug) – replaced the Challenge Belt and has been awarded to the winner since 1873 although Young Tom Morris, the winner in 1872, is the first name engraved on it. (The Open was not held in 1871.)
Gold medal – awarded to the winner. First given out in 1872 when the Claret Jug was not yet ready, and since awarded to all champions.
Silver medal – awarded since 1949 to the leading amateur completing the final round.
Bronze medal – awarded since 1972 to all other amateurs completing the final round.

text: The Professional Golfers' Association (of Great Britain and Ireland) also mark the achievements of their own members in The Open.

text:
Ryle Memorial Medal – awarded since 1901 to the winner if he is a PGA member.[4]
Braid Taylor Memorial Medal – awarded since 1966 to the highest finishing PGA member.[5]
Tooting Bec Cup – awarded since 1924 to the PGA member who records the lowest single round during the championship.[6]

text: The Braid Taylor Memorial Medal and the Tooting Bec Cup are restricted to members born in, or with a parent or parents born in, the UK or Republic of Ireland.

text: Host courses[edit]

text: The common factor in the venues is links courses. The Open has always been played in Scotland, northwest England, and southeast England, along with one course in Northern Ireland which will again stage the competition in 2019.

text: From 1860 to 1870 The Open was organised by and played at Prestwick Golf Club. From its revival in 1872 until 1891 it was played on three courses in rotation: Prestwick, The Old Course at St Andrews, and Musselburgh Links. In 1892 the newly built Muirfield replaced Musselburgh in the rotation. In 1893 two English courses, Royal St George's and Royal Liverpool Golf Club, Hoylake, were invited to join the rotation with Royal St George's being allocated the 1894 Open and Royal Liverpool having the 1897 event.[7] At a meeting in 1907 Royal Cinque Ports Golf Club became the sixth course on the rota, being allocated the 1909 Open. With three courses in both England and Scotland, the meeting also agreed that the Championship was to be played in England and Scotland alternately.[8] The alternation of venues in England and Scotland continued until the Second World War.

text: The rotation of the six courses was reinstated after the First World War with Royal Cinque Ports hosting the first post-war Open in 1920. It had been chosen as the venue for the cancelled 1915 Open.[9] In 1923 Troon was used instead of Muirfield when "some doubts exists as to the Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers being desirous of their course being used for the event".[10] Muirfield returned as the venue in 1929. Serious overcrowding problems at Prestwick in 1925 meant that the course was never again used for the Open and was replaced by Carnoustie as the third Scottish course. While Royal St George's and Royal Liverpool continued to be used at six-year intervals the third English course varied. After Royal Cinque Ports in 1920, Royal Lytham was used in 1926 and then Prince's in 1932. Royal Cinque Ports was intended as the venue in 1938 but in February of that year abnormal high tides caused severe flooding to the course leaving it like "an inland sea several feet deep"[11] and the venue was switched to Royal St George's.[12] Birkdale was chosen as the venue for 1940, although the event was cancelled because of the Second World War.[13]

text: There are ten courses in the current rota, five in Scotland, four in England and one in Northern Ireland. In recent times the Old Course has hosted the Open every five years. The remaining courses host the Open roughly every 10 years but the gaps between hosting Opens may be longer or shorter than this. In 2014, it was announced by The R&A that Royal Portrush was returning to the active rota and in October 2015 Portrush was confirmed as the venue for the 2019 Open.[14][15]

text: The most recent course to be removed from the active rota was Muirfield in May 2016, following The Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers refusal to permit female members to join their club.[16] On 14 March 2017, the members voted to admit females; the R&A subsequently stated that Muirfield would be welcomed back to the Open rota.

text: From 1894 (when it was first played in England) to 2016, it has been played 62 times in Scotland, 49 times in England and once in Northern Ireland. It was not until 2011 and 2012 that England hosted consecutive Opens.

text: Future venues[edit]

text:
Year
Edition
Course
Town
County
Country
Dates
Last hosted
Ref

2018
147th
Carnoustie Golf Links
Carnoustie
Angus
Scotland
19–22 July
2007
[17]

2019
148th
Royal Portrush Golf Club
Portrush
Antrim
Northern Ireland
18–21 July
1951
[18]

2020
149th
Royal St George's Golf Club
Sandwich
Kent
England
16–19 July
2011
[19]

text: Qualification[edit]

text: The field for the Open is 156, and golfers gain a place in a number of ways.[20] Most of the field is made up of leading players who are given exemptions. Further places are given to players who are successful in The Open Qualifying Series and in Final Qualifying.[21] Any remaining places, and places made available because qualified players are not competing, are made available to the highest ranked players in the Official World Golf Ranking.

text: There are currently 28 exemption categories. Among the more significant are:

text:
The top 50 on the Official World Golf Ranking. This category means that no member of the current elite of world golf will be excluded.
The top 30 in the previous season's European Tour Race to Dubai and the 30 qualifiers for Tour Championship. Most of these players will also be in the World top 50.
All previous Open Champions who will be age 60 or under on the final day of the tournament. Each year a number of past champions choose not to compete.
All players who have won one of the other three majors in the previous five years.
The top 10 from the previous year's Open Championship.
The winners of The Amateur Championship and the U.S. Amateur (provided the winners maintain their amateur status prior to the tournament).

text: International qualifying is through the "Open Qualifying Series". Ten tournaments are selected each year. These currently consist of one event from the PGA Tour of Australasia, the Asian Tour, the Sunshine Tour and the Japan Golf Tour and three from the European Tour and the PGA Tour. A pre-allocated number of places are made available at these tournaments (from 1 to 4) which are given to the leading players in those events who are not, at that point, qualified for the Open, provided they finish in a high-enough position. A total of 32 places are available.

text: Local qualifying was the traditional way for non-exempt players to win a place at The Open. In recent years it has comprised a number of "Regional Qualifying" competitions around Britain and Ireland with successful competitors, joined by those players exempt from regional qualifying, playing in 36-hole "Final Qualifying" tournaments. There are 15 places available through Final Qualifying, three at each of the five venues.

text: Timeline of qualification changes[edit]

text: Up to 1920 a variety of qualification systems were used. From 1921 to 1962 (except 1926) local qualifying was used. All those who entered played 18 holes on one of two courses and then played 18 holes on the other course the following day. Qualifying took place immediately before the Championship itself. In 1963 a system of exemptions for the leading players was introduced with local qualifying continuing for the remaining players. Since then a large number of changes have been made to the exemption criteria and to the qualifying system for the remaining players.

text:
1907: Qualifying introduced for the first time. Players play 36 holes on one of two days. Top 30 and ties qualify on each day
1908: Players play on either the first morning and second afternoon or the first afternoon and second morning. Top 30 and ties qualify from each group
1909: Same but each of the two groups has to contain at least 30 professionals
1910: Qualifying dropped
1912: Qualifying reintroduced. Players play 36 holes on one of three days. Top 20 and ties qualify on each day
1914. Qualifying over two days using two courses. Exactly 100 players qualify. 18-hole playoff the following day for those tied for final places. This was the first occasion on which qualifying did not take place on the championship course.
1920: Separate qualifying for amateurs and professionals. Amateurs qualify at the Open venue (total of 8 places with the Amateur Champion receiving automatic entry). Professionals qualified using two courses in Surrey. Top 72 and ties qualify
1921: Local qualifying reintroduced using two courses. Generally the Championship course is used together with a nearby course. Top 80 and ties qualify
1926: Regional qualifying used. Total of 101 and ties qualify at one of three venues (southern, central, northern)
1927: Local qualifying reintroduced. Top 100 and ties qualify
1937: Top 140 and ties qualify
1938: Maximum of 130 players qualify. Ties for 130th place did not qualify
1946: Maximum of 100 players qualify. Ties for 100th place did not qualify
1961: Maximum of 120 players qualify. Ties for 120th place did not qualify
1963: Exemption from qualifying introduced for the leading players including past 10 Open champions. Local qualifying continues for the remainder of the field but now two separate competitions are held with a preallocated number of places available. Two courses near the Open venue are used but not the Open venue itself. Playoff for those tied for final places. Total of 120 qualify
1965: Total of 130 qualify
1968: Exemption extended all previous Open champions
1971: Total of 150 qualify
1984: Exemption for previous Open champions aged under 65
1995: Exemption for previous Open champions extended to those aged 65 or under
2004: International Final Qualifying introduced
2008: Exemption for previous Open champions restricted to those aged 60 or under (with transitional arrangement for those born between 1942 and 1948)
2014: Open Qualifying Series introduced replacing International Final Qualifying

text: Tournament name[edit]

text: In Britain, the tournament is best known by its official title, The Open Championship, or simply the Open.[22] Outside of the United Kingdom, the tournament is often referred to as the "British Open" to disambiguate the tournament from other national open golf tournaments, such as the U.S. Open. Likewise, the Masters and PGA Championship are often referred to as the "U.S. Masters" and "U.S. PGA Championship" outside of the United States, the latter being distinguished in the UK from the European Tour's BMW PGA Championship.[23][24] In recent years, the R&A has worked to discourage media outlets from referring to the event as the British Open; for instance, the tournament's current television deal with U.S. network NBC contractually forbids the broadcaster from doing so. Lead personality Johnny Miller admitted that he had "trouble" with the mandate during NBC's first year, sometimes having to correct himself on-air when accidentally referring to the event as the British Open.[22] The Open's women's counterpart, however, is officially titled the Women's British Open.

text: Some U.S. critics have argued that the insistence of referring to the tournament as "The Open" expresses an opinion of exceptionalism for the event by the R&A in comparison to other open golf tournaments, albeit one that is justified due to its history.[22][24][23] Alastair Johnston of IMG, who markets the tournament and its media rights internationally, remarked that negotiations in some regions had been complicated by local executives who did not believe it was appropriate to refer to the event as simply "The Open Championship".[22]

text: Tour status[edit]

text: It has been an official event on the PGA Tour since 1995, which means that the prize money won in The Open by PGA Tour members is included on the official money list. In addition, all Open Championships before 1995 have been retroactively classified as PGA Tour wins, and the list of leading winners on the PGA Tour has been adjusted to reflect this. The European Tour has recognised The Open as an official event since its first official season in 1972 and it is also an official money event on the Japan Golf Tour.

text: Prize money[edit]

text: The 2015 edition had a total prize money fund of £6.3 million and a first prize of £1.15 million, which equated to about $9.8 million and $1.8 million, respectively. The other three major championships in 2015 had prize money of $10.0 million and first prizes of $1.8 million, so that all four majors had similar prize money. Prize money is given to all professionals who make the cut and, since the number of professionals making the cut changes from year to year, the total prize money varies somewhat from the advertised number (currently £6.3 million).

text: The prize fund in 2016 was £6.5 million, with a winner's share of £1.175 million; about $8.6 million and $1.55 million. The other majors had prize money of at least $10.0 million and first prizes of at least $1.8 million. The relative decline in prize money, in dollar terms, was attributable to a fall in the £/$ exchange rate.

text: For the first time in 2017, the prize money was denominated in U.S. dollars.[25] With total prize money of $10.25 million (£7.89 million), it was somewhat lower than the $11 million at the Masters and $12 million for the U.S. Open.

text: There was no prize money in the first three Opens. In 1863, a prize fund of ten pounds was introduced, which was shared between the second-, third-, and fourth-placed professionals, with the champion keeping the belt for a year. Old Tom Morris won the first champion's cash prize of six pounds in 1864.

text: Until the late 1990s, The Open prize fund was significantly lower than the other three majors; by 2002, it was the highest.

text: Records[edit]

text:
Oldest winner: Old Tom Morris (7004169030000000000♠46 years, 102 days), 1867.
Youngest winner: Young Tom Morris (7003636600000000000♠17 years, 156 days), 1868.[26]
Most victories: 6, Harry Vardon (1896, 1898, 1899, 1903, 1911, 1914).
Most consecutive victories: 4, Young Tom Morris (1868, 1869, 1870, 1872 – there was no championship in 1871).
Lowest score after 36 holes: 130, Nick Faldo (66-64), 1992; Brandt Snedeker (66-64), 2012
Lowest score after 54 holes: 198, Tom Lehman (67-67-64), 1996
Lowest final score (72 holes): 264, Henrik Stenson (68-65-68-63, 264), 2016.
Lowest final score (72 holes) in relation to par: −20, Henrik Stenson (68-65-68-63, 264), 2016.
Greatest victory margin: 13 strokes, Old Tom Morris, 1862. This remained a record for all majors until 2000, when Woods won the U.S. Open by 15 strokes at Pebble Beach. Old Tom's 13-stroke margin was achieved over just 36 holes.
Lowest round: 62, Branden Grace, 3rd round, 2017; a record for all majors.
Lowest round in relation to par: −9, Paul Broadhurst, 3rd round, 1990; Rory McIlroy, 1st round, 2010.
Wire-to-wire winners (after 72 holes with no ties after rounds): Ted Ray in 1912, Bobby Jones in 1927, Gene Sarazen in 1932, Henry Cotton in 1934, Tom Weiskopf in 1973, Tiger Woods in 2005, and Rory McIlroy in 2014.[27]
Most runner-up finishes: 7, Jack Nicklaus (1964, 1967, 1968, 1972, 1976, 1977, 1979)

text: Champions[edit]

text:
Year
Dates
Champion
Country
Venue
Winning
score
Winning
margin
Runner(s)-up
Winner's
share (£)

2017
20–23 Jul
Jordan Spieth
 United States
Royal Birkdale
268 (−12)
3 strokes
 Matt Kuchar
1,420,000

2016
14–17 Jul
Henrik Stenson
 Sweden
Royal Troon
264 (−20)
3 strokes
 Phil Mickelson
1,175,000

2015
16–20 Jul
Zach Johnson
 United States
St Andrews
273 (−15)
Playoff
 Marc Leishman
 Louis Oosthuizen
1,150,000

2014
17–20 Jul
Rory McIlroy
 Northern Ireland
Royal Liverpool
271 (−17)
2 strokes
 Rickie Fowler
 Sergio García
975,000

2013
18–21 Jul
Phil Mickelson
 United States
Muirfield
281 (−3)
3 strokes
 Henrik Stenson
945,000

2012
19–22 Jul
Ernie Els (2)
 South Africa
Royal Lytham & St Annes
273 (−7)
1 stroke
 Adam Scott
900,000

2011
14–17 Jul
Darren Clarke
 Northern Ireland
Royal St George's
275 (−5)
3 strokes
 Dustin Johnson
 Phil Mickelson
900,000

2010
15–18 Jul
Louis Oosthuizen
 South Africa
St Andrews
272 (−16)
7 strokes
 Lee Westwood
850,000

2009
16–19 Jul
Stewart Cink
 United States
Turnberry
278 (−2)
Playoff
 Tom Watson
750,000

2008
17–20 Jul
Pádraig Harrington (2)
 Ireland
Royal Birkdale
283 (+3)
4 strokes
 Ian Poulter
750,000

2007
19–22 Jul
Pádraig Harrington
 Ireland
Carnoustie
277 (−7)
Playoff
 Sergio García
750,000

2006
20–23 Jul
Tiger Woods (3)
 United States
Royal Liverpool
270 (−18)
2 strokes
 Chris DiMarco
720,000

2005
14–17 Jul
Tiger Woods (2)
 United States
St Andrews
274 (−14)
5 strokes
 Colin Montgomerie
720,000

2004
15–18 Jul
Todd Hamilton
 United States
Royal Troon
274 (−10)
Playoff
 Ernie Els
720,000

2003
17–20 Jul
Ben Curtis
 United States
Royal St George's
283 (−1)
1 stroke
 Thomas Bjørn
 Vijay Singh
700,000

2002
18–21 Jul
Ernie Els
 South Africa
Muirfield
278 (−6)
Playoff
 Stuart Appleby
 Steve Elkington
 Thomas Levet
700,000

2001
19–22 Jul
David Duval
 United States
Royal Lytham & St Annes
274 (−10)
3 strokes
 Niclas Fasth
600,000

2000
20–23 Jul
Tiger Woods
 United States
St Andrews
269 (−19)
8 strokes
 Thomas Bjørn
 Ernie Els
500,000

1999
15–18 Jul
Paul Lawrie
 Scotland
Carnoustie
290 (+6)
Playoff
 Justin Leonard
 Jean van de Velde
350,000

1998
16–19 Jul
Mark O'Meara
 United States
Royal Birkdale
280 (E)
Playoff
 Brian Watts
300,000

1997
17–20 Jul
Justin Leonard
 United States
Royal Troon
272 (−12)
3 strokes
 Darren Clarke
 Jesper Parnevik
250,000

1996
18–21 Jul
Tom Lehman
 United States
Royal Lytham & St Annes
271 (−13)
2 strokes
 Ernie Els
 Mark McCumber
200,000

1995
20–23 Jul
John Daly
 United States
St Andrews
282 (−6)
Playoff
 Costantino Rocca
125,000

1994
14–17 Jul
Nick Price
 Zimbabwe
Turnberry
268 (−12)
1 stroke
 Jesper Parnevik
110,000

1993
15–18 Jul
Greg Norman (2)
 Australia
Royal St George's
267 (−13)
2 strokes
 Nick Faldo
100,000

1992
16–19 Jul
Nick Faldo (3)
 England
Muirfield
272 (−12)
1 stroke
 John Cook
95,000

1991
18–21 Jul
Ian Baker-Finch
 Australia
Royal Birkdale
272 (−8)
2 strokes
 Mike Harwood
90,000

1990
19–22 Jul
Nick Faldo (2)
 England
St Andrews
270 (−18)
5 strokes
 Mark McNulty
 Payne Stewart
85,000

1989
20–23 Jul
Mark Calcavecchia
 United States
Royal Troon
275 (−13)
Playoff
 Wayne Grady
 Greg Norman
80,000

1988
14–18 Jul
Seve Ballesteros (3)
 Spain
Royal Lytham & St Annes
273 (−11)
2 strokes
 Nick Price
80,000

1987
16–19 Jul
Nick Faldo
 England
Muirfield
279 (−5)
1 stroke
 Paul Azinger
 Rodger Davis
75,000

1986
17–20 Jul
Greg Norman
 Australia
Turnberry
280 (E)
5 strokes
 Gordon J. Brand
70,000

1985
18–21 Jul
Sandy Lyle
 Scotland
Royal St George's
282 (+2)
1 stroke
 Payne Stewart
65,000

1984
19–22 Jul
Seve Ballesteros (2)
 Spain
St Andrews
276 (−12)
2 strokes
 Bernhard Langer
 Tom Watson
55,000

1983
14–17 Jul
Tom Watson (5)
 United States
Royal Birkdale
275 (−9)
1 stroke
 Andy Bean
 Hale Irwin
40,000

1982
15–18 Jul
Tom Watson (4)
 United States
Royal Troon
284 (−4)
1 stroke
 Peter Oosterhuis
 Nick Price
32,000

1981
16–19 Jul
Bill Rogers
 United States
Royal St George's
276 (−4)
4 strokes
 Bernhard Langer
25,000

1980
17–20 Jul
Tom Watson (3)
 United States
Muirfield
271 (−13)
4 strokes
 Lee Trevino
25,000

1979
18–21 Jul
Seve Ballesteros
 Spain
Royal Lytham & St Annes
283 (−1)
3 strokes
 Ben Crenshaw
 Jack Nicklaus
15,000

1978
12–15 Jul
Jack Nicklaus (3)
 United States
St Andrews
281 (−7)
2 strokes
 Ben Crenshaw
 Raymond Floyd
 Tom Kite
 Simon Owen
12,500

1977
6–9 Jul
Tom Watson (2)
 United States
Turnberry
268 (−12)
1 stroke
 Jack Nicklaus
10,000

1976
7–10 Jul
Johnny Miller
 United States
Royal Birkdale
279 (−9)
6 strokes
 Seve Ballesteros
 Jack Nicklaus
7,500

1975
9–13 Jul
Tom Watson
 United States
Carnoustie
279 (−9)
Playoff
 Jack Newton
7,500

1974
10–13 Jul
Gary Player (3)
 South Africa
Royal Lytham & St Annes
282 (−2)
4 strokes
 Peter Oosterhuis
5,500

1973
11–14 Jul
Tom Weiskopf
 United States
Troon
276 (−12)
3 strokes
 Neil Coles
 Johnny Miller
5,500

1972
12–15 Jul
Lee Trevino (2)
 United States
Muirfield
278 (−6)
1 stroke
 Jack Nicklaus
5,500

1971
7–10 Jul
Lee Trevino
 United States
Royal Birkdale
278 (−14)
1 stroke
 Lu Liang-Huan
5,500

1970
8–12 Jul
Jack Nicklaus (2)
 United States
St Andrews
283 (−5)
Playoff
 Doug Sanders
5,250

1969
9–12 Jul
Tony Jacklin
 England
Royal Lytham & St Annes
280 (−4)
2 strokes
 Bob Charles
4,250

1968
10–13 Jul
Gary Player (2)
 South Africa
Carnoustie
289 (+1)
2 strokes
 Bob Charles
 Jack Nicklaus
3,000

1967
12–15 Jul
Roberto De Vicenzo
 Argentina
Royal Liverpool
278 (−10)
2 strokes
 Jack Nicklaus
2,100

1966
6–9 Jul
Jack Nicklaus
 United States
Muirfield
282 (−2)
1 stroke
 Doug Sanders
 Dave Thomas
2,100

1965
7–9 Jul
Peter Thomson (5)
 Australia
Royal Birkdale
285 (−3)
2 strokes
 Brian Huggett
 Christy O'Connor Snr
1,750

1964
8–10 Jul
Tony Lema
 United States
St Andrews
279 (−9)
5 strokes
 Jack Nicklaus
1,500

1963
10–13 Jul
Bob Charles
 New Zealand
Royal Lytham & St Annes
277 (−3)
Playoff
 Phil Rodgers
1,500

1962
11–13 Jul
Arnold Palmer (2)
 United States
Troon
276 (−12)
6 strokes
 Kel Nagle
1,400

1961
12–15 Jul
Arnold Palmer
 United States
Royal Birkdale
284 (−4)
1 stroke
 Dai Rees
1,400

1960
6–9 Jul
Kel Nagle
 Australia
St Andrews
278 (−10)
1 stroke
 Arnold Palmer
1,250

1959
1–3 Jul
Gary Player
 South Africa
Muirfield
284 (E)
2 strokes
 Fred Bullock
 Flory Van Donck
1,000

1958
2–5 Jul
Peter Thomson (4)
 Australia
Royal Lytham & St Annes
278 (−6)
Playoff
 Dave Thomas
1,000

1957
3–5 Jul
Bobby Locke (4)
 South Africa
St Andrews
279 (−9)
3 strokes
 Peter Thomson
1,000

1956
4–6 Jul
Peter Thomson (3)
 Australia
Royal Liverpool
286 (+2)
3 strokes
 Flory Van Donck
1,000

1955
6–8 Jul
Peter Thomson (2)
 Australia
St Andrews
281 (−7)
2 strokes
 John Fallon
1,000

1954
7–9 Jul
Peter Thomson
 Australia
Royal Birkdale
283 (−5)
1 stroke
 Bobby Locke
 Dai Rees
 Syd Scott
750

1953
8–10 Jul
Ben Hogan
 United States
Carnoustie
282 (−6)
4 strokes
 Antonio Cerdá
 Dai Rees
 Frank Stranahan (a)
 Peter Thomson
500

1952
9–11 Jul
Bobby Locke (3)
 South Africa
Royal Lytham & St Annes
287 (−1)
1 stroke
 Peter Thomson
300

1951
4–6 Jul
Max Faulkner
 England
Royal Portrush
285 (−3)
2 strokes
 Antonio Cerdá
300

1950
5–7 Jul
Bobby Locke (2)
 South Africa
Troon
279 (−9)
2 strokes
 Roberto de Vicenzo
300

1949
6–9 Jul
Bobby Locke
 South Africa
Royal St George's
283 (−5)
Playoff
 Harry Bradshaw
300

1948
30 Jun – 2 Jul
Henry Cotton (3)
 England
Muirfield
284 (E)
5 strokes
 Fred Daly
150

1947
2–4 Jul
Fred Daly
 Northern Ireland
Royal Liverpool
293 (+5)
1 stroke
 Reg Horne
 Frank Stranahan (a)
150

1946
3–5 Jul
Sam Snead
 United States
St Andrews
290 (+2)
4 strokes
 Johnny Bulla
 Bobby Locke
150

1940–45: No Championships because of World War II

1939
5–7 Jul
Dick Burton
 England
St Andrews
290 (−2)
2 strokes
 Johnny Bulla
100

1938
6–8 Jul
Reg Whitcombe
 England
Royal St George's
295 (+15)
2 strokes
 Jimmy Adams
100

1937
7–9 Jul
Henry Cotton (2)
 England
Carnoustie
290
2 strokes
 Reg Whitcombe
100

1936
25–27 Jun
Alf Padgham
 England
Royal Liverpool
287
1 stroke
 Jimmy Adams
100

1935
26–28 Jun
Alf Perry
 England
Muirfield
283
4 strokes
 Alf Padgham
100

1934
27–29 Jun
Henry Cotton
 England
Royal St George's
283
5 strokes
 Sid Brews
100

1933
5–8 Jul
Denny Shute
 United States
St Andrews
292
Playoff
 Craig Wood
100

1932
8–10 Jun
Gene Sarazen
 United States
Prince's
283
5 strokes
 Macdonald Smith
100

1931
3–5 Jun
Tommy Armour
 United States
Carnoustie
296
1 stroke
 José Jurado
100

1930
18–20 Jun
Bobby Jones (a) (3)
 United States
Royal Liverpool
291
2 strokes
 Leo Diegel
 Macdonald Smith
100

1929
8–10 May
Walter Hagen (4)
 United States
Muirfield
292
6 strokes
 Johnny Farrell
75

1928
9–11 May
Walter Hagen (3)
 United States
Royal St George's
292
2 strokes
 Gene Sarazen
75

1927
13–15 Jul
Bobby Jones (a) (2)
 United States
St Andrews
285
6 strokes
 Aubrey Boomer
 Fred Robson
75

1926
23–25 Jun
Bobby Jones (a)
 United States
Royal Lytham & St Annes
291
2 strokes
 Al Watrous
75

1925
25–26 Jun
Jim Barnes
 United States
Prestwick
300
1 stroke
 Archie Compston
 Ted Ray
75

1924
26–27 Jun
Walter Hagen (2)
 United States
Royal Liverpool
301
1 stroke
 Ernest Whitcombe
75

1923
14–15 Jun
Arthur Havers
 England
Troon
295
1 stroke
 Walter Hagen
75

1922
22–23 Jun
Walter Hagen
 United States
Royal St George's
300
1 stroke
 Jim Barnes
 George Duncan
75

1921
23–25 Jun
Jock Hutchison
 United States
St Andrews
296
Playoff
 Roger Wethered (a)
75

1920
30 Jun – 1 Jul
George Duncan
 Scotland
Royal Cinque Ports
303
2 strokes
 Sandy Herd
75

1915–19: No Championships because of World War I

1914
18–19 Jun
Harry Vardon (6)
 Jersey
Prestwick
306
3 strokes
 J.H. Taylor
50

1913
23–24 Jun
J.H. Taylor (5)
 England
Royal Liverpool
304
8 strokes
 Ted Ray
50

1912
24–25 Jun
Ted Ray
 Jersey
Muirfield
295
4 strokes
 Harry Vardon
50

1911
26–30 Jun
Harry Vardon (5)
 Jersey
Royal St George's
303
Playoff
 Arnaud Massy
50

1910
21–24 Jun
James Braid (5)
 Scotland
St Andrews
299
4 strokes
 Sandy Herd
50

1909
10–11 Jun
J.H. Taylor (4)
 England
Royal Cinque Ports
291
6 strokes
 Tom Ball
 James Braid
50

1908
18–19 Jun
James Braid (4)
 Scotland
Prestwick
291
8 strokes
 Tom Ball
50

1907
20–21 Jun
Arnaud Massy
 France
Royal Liverpool
312
2 strokes
 J.H. Taylor
50

1906
13–15 Jun
James Braid (3)
 Scotland
Muirfield
300
4 strokes
 J.H. Taylor
50

1905
7–9 Jun
James Braid (2)
 Scotland
St Andrews
318
5 strokes
 Rowland Jones
 J.H. Taylor
50

1904
8–10 Jun
Jack White
 Scotland
Royal St George's
296
1 stroke
 James Braid
 J.H. Taylor
50

1903
10–11 Jun
Harry Vardon (4)
 Jersey
Prestwick
300
6 strokes
 Tom Vardon
50

1902
4–5 Jun
Sandy Herd
 Scotland
Royal Liverpool
307
1 stroke
 James Braid
 Harry Vardon
50

1901
5–6 Jun
James Braid
 Scotland
Muirfield
309
3 strokes
 Harry Vardon
50

1900
6–7 Jun
J.H. Taylor (3)
 England
St Andrews
309
8 strokes
 Harry Vardon
50

1899
7–8 Jun
Harry Vardon (3)
 Jersey
St George's
310
5 strokes
 Jack White
30

1898
8–9 Jun
Harry Vardon (2)
 Jersey
Prestwick
307
1 stroke
 Willie Park, Jnr
30

1897
19–20 May
Harold Hilton (a) (2)
 England
Royal Liverpool
314
1 stroke
 James Braid
30

1896
10–11,13 Jun
Harry Vardon
 Jersey
Muirfield
316
Playoff
 J.H. Taylor
30

1895
12–13 Jun
J.H. Taylor (2)
 England
St Andrews
322
4 strokes
 Sandy Herd
30

1894
11–12 Jun
J.H. Taylor
 England
St George's
326
5 strokes
 Douglas Rolland
30

1893
31 Aug – 1 Sep
William Auchterlonie
 Scotland
Prestwick
322
2 strokes
 Johnny Laidlay (a)
30

1892
22–23 Sep
Harold Hilton (a)
 England
Muirfield
305
3 strokes
 John Ball (a)
 Sandy Herd
 Hugh Kirkaldy
35

1891
6–7 Oct
Hugh Kirkaldy
 Scotland
St Andrews
166
2 strokes
 Willie Fernie
 Andrew Kirkaldy
10

1890
11 Sep
John Ball (a)
 England
Prestwick
164
3 strokes
 Willie Fernie
 Archie Simpson
13

1889
8,11 Nov
Willie Park, Jnr (2)
 Scotland
Musselburgh
155
Playoff
 Andrew Kirkaldy
8

1888
6,8 Oct
Jack Burns
 Scotland
St Andrews
171
1 stroke
 David Anderson Jr.
 Ben Sayers
8

1887
16 Sep
Willie Park, Jnr
 Scotland
Prestwick
161
1 stroke
 Bob Martin
8

1886
5 Nov
David Brown
 Scotland
Musselburgh
157
2 strokes
 Willie Campbell
8

1885
3 Oct
Bob Martin (2)
 Scotland
St Andrews
171
1 stroke
 Archie Simpson
10

1884
3 Oct
Jack Simpson
 Scotland
Prestwick
160
4 strokes
 Willie Fernie
 Douglas Rolland
8

1883
16–17 Nov
Willie Fernie
 Scotland
Musselburgh
159
Playoff
 Bob Ferguson
8

1882
30 Sep
Bob Ferguson (3)
 Scotland
St Andrews
171
3 strokes
 Willie Fernie
12

1881
14 Oct
Bob Ferguson (2)
 Scotland
Prestwick
170
3 strokes
 Jamie Anderson
8

1880
9 Apr
Bob Ferguson
 Scotland
Musselburgh
162
5 strokes
 Peter Paxton
8

1879
27,29 Sep
Jamie Anderson (3)
 Scotland
St Andrews
169
3 strokes
 Jamie Allan
 Andrew Kirkaldy
10

1878
4 Oct
Jamie Anderson (2)
 Scotland
Prestwick
157
2 strokes
 Bob Kirk
8

1877
6 Apr
Jamie Anderson
 Scotland
Musselburgh
160
2 strokes
 Bob Pringle
8

1876
30 Sep, 2 Oct
Bob Martin
 Scotland
St Andrews
176
Playoff
 Davie Strath
10

1875
10 Sep
Willie Park, Snr (4)
 Scotland
Prestwick
166
2 strokes
 Bob Martin
8

1874
10 Apr
Mungo Park
 Scotland
Musselburgh
159
2 strokes
 Tom Morris, Jnr
8

1873
4 Oct
Tom Kidd
 Scotland
St Andrews
179
1 stroke
 Jamie Anderson
11

1872
13 Sep
Tom Morris, Jnr (4)
 Scotland
Prestwick
166
3 strokes
 Davie Strath
8

1871
Championship cancelled as no trophy available

1870
15 Sep
Tom Morris, Jnr (3)
 Scotland
Prestwick
149
12 strokes
 Bob Kirk
 Davie Strath
6

1869
16 Sep
Tom Morris, Jnr (2)
 Scotland
Prestwick
157
11 strokes
 Bob Kirk
6

1868
23 Sep
Tom Morris, Jnr
 Scotland
Prestwick
154
3 strokes
 Tom Morris, Snr
6

1867
26 Sep
Tom Morris, Snr (4)
 Scotland
Prestwick
170
2 strokes
 Willie Park, Snr
7

1866
13 Sep
Willie Park, Snr (3)
 Scotland
Prestwick
169
2 strokes
 Davie Park
6

1865
14 Sep
Andrew Strath
 Scotland
Prestwick
162
2 strokes
 Willie Park, Snr
8

1864
16 Sep
Tom Morris, Snr (3)
 Scotland
Prestwick
167
2 strokes
 Andrew Strath
6

1863
18 Sep
Willie Park, Snr (2)
 Scotland
Prestwick
168
2 strokes
 Tom Morris, Snr
-

1862
11 Sep
Tom Morris, Snr (2)
 Scotland
Prestwick
163
13 strokes
 Willie Park, Snr
-

1861
26 Sep
Tom Morris, Snr
 Scotland
Prestwick
163
4 strokes
 Willie Park, Snr
-

1860
17 Oct
Willie Park, Snr
 Scotland
Prestwick
174
2 strokes
 Tom Morris, Snr
-

text:
(a) denotes amateur
"Dates" column includes all days on which play took place or was planned to take place, including any playoffs

text: The Open began paying in U.S. dollars in 2017,[25] subsequent figures in pounds are rounded estimates.[28]

text: Silver Medal winners[edit]

text: Since 1949, the Silver Medal is awarded to the leading amateur, provided that the player completes all 72 holes.[3] In the 69 Championships from 1949 to 2017, it has been won by 44 players on 50 occasions. Frank Stranahan won it four times in the first five years (and was also the low amateur in 1947), while Joe Carr, Michael Bonallack and Peter McEvoy each won it twice. The medal has gone unawarded 19 times.

text:
1949 – Frank Stranahan
1950 – Frank Stranahan (2)
1951 – Frank Stranahan (3)
1952 – Jackie Jones
1953 – Frank Stranahan (4)
1954 – Peter Toogood
1955 – Joe Conrad
1956 – Joe Carr
1957 – Dickson Smith
1958 – Joe Carr (2)
1959 – Reid Jack
1960 – Guy Wolstenholme
1961 – Ronnie White
1962 – Charlie Green
1963 – none
1964 – none
1965 – Michael Burgess
1966 – Ronnie Shade
1967 – none
1968 – Michael Bonallack
1969 – Peter Tupling
1970 – Steve Melnyk
1971 – Michael Bonallack (2)
1972 – none
1973 – Danny Edwards
1974 – none
1975 – none
1976 – none
1977 – none
1978 – Peter McEvoy
1979 – Peter McEvoy (2)
1980 – Jay Sigel
1981 – Hal Sutton
1982 – Malcolm Lewis
1983 – none
1984 – none
1985 – José María Olazábal
1986 – none
1987 – Paul Mayo
1988 – Paul Broadhurst
1989 – Russell Claydon
1990 – none
1991 – Jim Payne
1992 – Daren Lee
1993 – Iain Pyman
1994 – Warren Bennett
1995 – Steve Webster
1996 – Tiger Woods
1997 – Barclay Howard
1998 – Justin Rose
1999 – none
2000 – none
2001 – David Dixon
2002 – none
2003 – none
2004 – Stuart Wilson
2005 – Lloyd Saltman
2006 – Marius Thorp
2007 – Rory McIlroy
2008 – Chris Wood
2009 – Matteo Manassero
2010 – Jin Jeong
2011 – Tom Lewis
2012 – none
2013 – Matthew Fitzpatrick
2014 – none
2015 – Jordan Niebrugge
2016 – none
2017 – Alfie Plant

text: Broadcasting[edit]

text: As of 2016, European Tour Productions serves as the host broadcaster for the Open Championship. The host broadcaster, as well as British and American broadcasters Sky Sports and NBC Sports, utilized a total of 175 cameras during the 2016 tournament.[29][30]

text: United Kingdom[edit]

text: In the United Kingdom, the Open Championship was historically broadcast by the BBC—a relationship which lasted from 1955 to 2015. The BBC's rights to the Open had been threatened by the event's removal from Category A of Ofcom's "listed" events, a status which legally mandated that the Open be broadcast in its entirety by a terrestrial broadcaster. It had since been moved to Category B, meaning that television rights to the tournament could now be acquired by a pay television outlet, such as BT Sport or Sky Sports, as long as rights to broadcast a highlights programme are given to one of the main terrestrial broadcasters.[31][32][33]

text: Former R&A chief executive Peter Dawson had been critical of the quality of the BBC's television coverage in recent years, stating alongside its final renewal in 2010 that "They know we've got our eye on them. You have to stay in practice and keep up with advances in technology." The Guardian felt that the R&A was being "pressured" to negotiate a more lucrative broadcast deal, as the other three majors have in the United States, but also argued that viewer interest in golf could face further declines in the UK without widely available coverage.[33][32]

text: On 3 February 2015, the R&A announced that Sky Sports had acquired broadcast rights to the Open beginning in 2017, under a five-year contract valued at £15 million per-year, doubling the value of the previous BBC contract. As required by broadcasting regulations, rights to broadcast a nightly highlights programme were also sold: the BBC acquired this highlights package. Dawson praised Sky Sports' past involvement with televised golf, explaining that "the way people consume live sport is changing significantly and this new agreement ensures fans have a range of options for enjoying the championship on television and through digital channels".[34][35] The BBC chose to opt out of the final year of its existing contract, making Sky Sports' broadcast rights begin one year early, in 2016.[36]

text: United States[edit]

text: In the United States, ABC had historically held rights to the Open.[37] Beginning in 2010 under an eight-year agreement, the Open moved exclusively to ABC's sister pay television channel ESPN, with only tape-delayed highlights shown on ABC.[38] In June 2015, it was announced that NBC Sports would acquire rights to the Open Championship under a 12-year deal beginning in 2017; early round coverage airs on Golf Channel, with the main NBC network broadcasting live weekend coverage. The R&A cited NBC's successful broadcasts of Premier League football, which also primarily airs on weekend mornings in U.S. time zones, as an advantage of NBC's acquisition of The Open.[39] Similarly to the BBC, ESPN chose to opt out of its final year of Open rights, causing NBC's rights to begin in 2016 instead.[36]

text:
The 2017 edition of the Open Championship will have a total of 49.5 hours of coverage in the United States, with 29 hours being on Thursday and Friday, and 20.5 hours being on Saturday and Sunday; the Golf Channel cable network will have a total of 34.5 hours of coverage, with 29 hours on Thursday and Friday, and 5.5 hours on Saturday and Sunday. The NBC broadcast network will have a total of 15 hours of coverage on the weekend, with 8 hours Saturday, and 7 hours Sunday.
The 49.5 total hours of coverage on Golf Channel and NBC remains unchanged from 2016, with the difference being that Golf Channel's total coverage goes down thirty minutes from 35 hours to 34.5 hours, and NBC's total coverage goes up thirty minutes from 14.5 hours to 15 hours.


document_title: Screwdriver

question_text: when did phillips head screws come into use

root

text: Screwdriver

text: History[edit]

text: The earliest documented screwdrivers were used in Europe in the late Middle Ages. They were probably invented in the late 15th century, either in  Germany or France. The tool's original names in German and French were Schraubendreher (screwturner) and tournevis (turnscrew), respectively. The first documentation of the tool is in the medieval Housebook of Wolfegg Castle, a manuscript written sometime between 1475 and 1490.[2] These earliest screwdrivers had pear-shaped handles and were made for slotted screws (diversification of the many types of screwdrivers did not emerge until the Gilded Age). The screwdriver remained inconspicuous, however, as evidence of its existence throughout the next 300 years is based primarily on the presence of screws.

tag: p

text: Screws were used in the 15th century to construct screw-cutting lathes, for securing breastplates, backplates, and helmets on medieval jousting armor—and eventually for multiple parts of the emerging firearms, particularly the matchlock.  Screws, hence screwdrivers, were not used in full combat armor, most likely to give the wearer freedom of movement.[further explanation needed]

text: The jaws that hold the pyrites inside medieval guns were secured with screws, and the need to constantly replace the pyrites resulted in considerable refinement of the screwdriver. The tool is more documented in France, and took on many shapes and sizes, though all for slotted screws.  There were large, heavy-duty screwdrivers for building and repairing large machines, and smaller screwdrivers for refined cabinet work.

text: The screwdriver depended entirely on the screw, and it took several advances to make the screw easy enough to produce to become popular and widespread. The most popular door hinge at the time was the butt-hinge, but it was considered a luxury.  The butt-hinge was handmade, and its constant motion required the security of a screw.

text: Screws were very hard to produce before the First Industrial Revolution, requiring manufacture of a conical helix. The brothers Job and William Wyatt found a way to produce a screw on a novel machine that first cut the slotted head, and then cut the helix. Though their business ultimately failed, their contribution to low-cost manufacturing of the screw ultimately led to a vast increase in the screw and the screwdriver's popularity. The increase in popularity gradually led to refinement and eventually diversification of the screwdriver. Refinement of the precision of screws also significantly contributed to the boom in production, mostly by increasing its efficiency and standardizing sizes, important precursors to industrial manufacture.

text: Canadian P.L. Robertson, though he was not the first person to patent the idea of socket-head screws, was the first to successfully commercialize them, starting in 1908. Socket screws rapidly grew in popularity, and are still a favorite of mechanics today for their resistance to wear and tear, compatibility with hex keys, and ability to stop a power tool when set. Though immensely popular, Robertson had trouble marketing his invention to the newly booming auto industry, for he was unwilling to relinquish his patents.

text: Meanwhile, in Portland, Oregon, Henry F. Phillips patented his own invention, an improved version of a deep socket with a cruciform slot, today known as the Phillips Screw. Phillips offered his screw to the American Screw Company, and after a successful trial on the 1936 Cadillac, it quickly swept through the American auto industry.  With the Industrial Revival at the end of the Great Depression and the upheaval of World War II, the Phillips screw quickly became, and remains, the most popular screw in the world.  A main attraction for the screw was that conventional slotted screwdrivers could also be used on them, which was not possible with the Robertson Screw.

text: Gunsmiths still call a screwdriver a turnscrew, under which name it is an important part of a set of pistols.  The name was common in earlier centuries, used by cabinetmakers, shipwrights, and perhaps other trades. The cabinetmaker's screwdriver is one of the longest-established handle forms, somewhat oval or ellipsoid in cross section.  This is variously attributed to improving grip or preventing the tool rolling off the bench. The shape has been popular for a couple of hundred years. It is usually associated with a plain head for slotted screws, but has been used with many head forms.  Modern plastic screwdrivers use a handle with a roughly hexagonal cross section to achieve these same two goals, a far cry from the pear-shaped handle of the original 15th-century screwdriver.

text: Handle[edit]

text: The handle and shaft of screwdrivers have changed considerably over time. The design is influenced by both purpose and manufacturing requirements.  The "Perfect Pattern Handle"[further explanation needed] screwdriver was first manufactured by HD Smith & Company, which operated from 1850 to 1900. Many manufacturers adopted this handle design. The "flat bladed" screwdriver was another design composed of drop-forged steel with riveted wood handles.

text: The shape and material of many modern screwdriver handles are designed to fit comfortably in the user's hand, for user comfort and to facilitate maximum control and torque. Designs include indentations for the user's fingers, and surfaces of a soft material such as thermoplastic elastomer to increase comfort and grip. Composite handles of rigid plastic and rubber are also common. Many screwdriver handles are not smooth and often not round, but have flats or other irregularities to improve grip and to prevent the tool from rolling when on a flat surface.

text: Some screwdrivers have a short hexagonal section at the top of the blade, adjacent to the handle, so that a ring spanner or open wrench can be used to increase the applied torque. The offset screwdriver has a handle set at right angles to the small blade, providing access to narrow spaces and giving extra torque.

text: Drive Tip[edit]

text: Screwdrivers come in a large range of sizes to accommodate various screws—from tiny jeweler's screwdrivers up. A screwdriver that is not the right size and type for the screw may damage the screw in the process of tightening it.

text: Some screwdriver tips are magnetic, so that the screw (unless non-magnetic) remains attached to the screwdriver without requiring external force. This is particularly useful in small screws, which are otherwise difficult to handle. Many screwdriver designs have a handle with detachable tip (the part of the screwdriver that engages the screw), called bits as with drill bits. This provides a set of one handle and several bits that can drive a variety of screw sizes and types.

text: Drive Types[edit]

text: The tool used to drive a slotted screw head is called a standard, common blade, flat-blade, slot-head, straight, flat, flat-tip,[3] or "flat-head"[4] screwdriver. This last usage can be confusing, because the term flat-head also describes a screw with a flat top, designed to install in a countersunk hole. Furthermore, the term implies that a screwdriver has a "head"; it does not. Such a flat-headed screw may have a slotted, cross, square recessed, or combination head. Before the development of the newer bit types, the flat-blade was called the "Common-Blade", because it was the most common one. Depending on the application, the name of this screwdriver may differ. Within the automotive/heavy electric industries, it is known as a "flat head screwdriver";[citation needed] within the avionics and mining industries, it is known as a "standard screwdriver".[citation needed] Though there are many names, the original device from 1908 was known as a "flat-head screw turner".[citation needed]

text: Among slotted screwdrivers, variations at the blade or bit end involve the profile of the blade as viewed face-on (from the side of the tool).  The more common type is sometimes called keystone, where the blade profile is slightly flared before tapering off at the end, which provides extra stiffness to the workface and makes it capable of withstanding more torque.  To maximize access in space-restricted applications, the cabinet variant screwdriver blade sides are straight and parallel, reaching the end of the blade at a right angle. This design is also frequently used in jeweler's screwdrivers.

text: Many textbooks and vocational schools instruct mechanics to grind down the tip of the blade, which, due to the taper, increases its thickness and consequently allows more precise engagement with the slot in the screw. This approach creates a set of graduated slotted screwdrivers that fit a particular screw for a tighter engagement and reduce screw head deformation.  However, many better-quality screwdriver blades are already induction-hardened (surface heat-treated), and tip grinding after manufacture compromises their durability. Thus, it is best to select a tip made to fit precisely to begin with, and avoid weakening the factory heat-treatment.

text: Phillips screwdrivers come in several standard sizes, ranging from tiny "jeweler's" to those used for automobile frame assembly—or #000 to #4 respectively. This size number is usually stamped onto the shank (shaft) or handle for identification.  Each bit size fits a range of screw sizes, more or less well. Each Phillips screwdriver size also has a related shank diameter.  The driver has a 57° point and tapered, unsharp (rounded) flutes.  The #1 and smaller bits come to a blunt point, but the #2 and above have no point, but rather a nearly squared-off tip, making each size incompatible with the other.

text: The design is often criticized for its tendency to cam out at lower torque levels than other "cross head" designs. There has long been a popular belief that this was actually a deliberate feature of the design. Evidence is lacking for this specific narrative and the feature is not mentioned in the original patents.[5] However, a subsequent refinement to the original design described in US Patent #2,474,994[6][7][8] describes this feature.

text: Robertson, also known as a square,[9] or Scrulox[10]  screw drive has a square-shaped socket in the screw head and a square protrusion on the tool. Both the tool and the socket have a taper, which makes inserting the tool easier, and also tends to help keep the screw on the tool tip without the user needing to hold it there. (The taper's earliest reason for being was to make the manufacture of the screws practical using cold forming of the heads,[11] but its other advantages helped popularize the drive.) Robertson screws are commonplace in Canada, though they have been used elsewhere [12] and have become much more common in other countries in recent decades. Robertson screwdrivers are easy to use one-handed, because the tapered socket tends to retain the screw, even if it is shaken.[12] They also allow for the use of angled screw drivers and trim head screws. The socket-headed Robertson screws are self-centering, reduce cam out, stop a power tool when set, and can be removed if painted-over or old and rusty.[12] In industry, they speed up production and reduce product damage.  One of their first major industrial uses was the Ford Motor Company's Model A & Model T production.  Henry Ford found them highly reliable and saved considerable production time, but when he couldn't secure licensing for them in the United States, limited their production use to his Canadian division. Robertson-head screwdrivers are available in a standard range of tip-sizes, from 1.77mm to 4.85mm.

text: Reed and Prince, also called Frearson, is another historic cross-head screw configuration.  The cross in the screw head is sharper and less rounded than a Phillips, and the bit has 45° flukes and a sharper, pointed end.  Also, the Phillips screw slot is not as deep as the Reed and Prince  slot.[13][14][15] In theory, different size R&P screws fit any R&P bit size.[16]

text: Pozidriv and the related Supadriv are widely used in Europe and most of the Far East.[17]  While Pozidriv screws have cross heads like Phillips and are sometimes thought effectively the same, the Pozidriv design allows higher torque application than Phillips.  It is often claimed that they can apply more torque than any of the other commonly used cross-head screwdriver systems, due to a complex fluting (mating) configuration.

text: Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS) cross-head screwdrivers are still another standard, often inaccurately called Japanese Phillips.  Compatible screw heads are usually identifiable by a single depressed dot or an "X" to one side of the cross slot. This is a screw standard throughout the Asia market and Japanese imports. The driver has a 57° point with a flat tip.[18]

text: Many modern electrical appliances, if they contain screws, use screws with heads other than the typical slotted or Phillips styles.  Torx is one such pattern that has become widespread. It is a spline tip with a corresponding recess in the screw head.  The main cause of this trend is manufacturing efficiency: Torx screwdriver tips do not slip out of the fastener as easily as would a Phillips or slotted driver. (Slotted screws are rarely used in mass-produced devices, since the driver is not inherently centered on the fastener.)

text: Non-typical fasteners are commonplace in consumer devices for their ability to make disassembly more difficult, which is seen as a benefit for manufacturers but is considered a disadvantage by users than if more-common head types were used. In microwave ovens, such screws deny casual access to the high-power kilovolt electrical components, which are very dangerous.

text: However, Torx and other drivers have become widely available to the consumer due to their increasing use in the industry. Some other styles fit a three-pointed star recess, and a five-lobed spline with rounded edges instead of the square edges of the Torx™. This is called a Pentalobe.

text: Specialized patterns of security screws are also used, such as the Line Head (LH) style by OSG System Products, Japan, as used in many Nintendo consoles, though drivers for the more common security heads are, again, readily available. Another type of security head has smooth curved surfaces instead of the slot edges that would permit loosening the screw; it is found in public rest room privacy partitions, and cannot be removed by conventional screwdrivers.

text: Variations[edit]

text: Torque screwdrivers[edit]

text: Screwdrivers are available—manual, electric, and pneumatic—with a clutch that slips at a preset torque. This helps the user tighten screws to a specified torque without damage or over-tightening. Cordless drills designed to use as screwdrivers often have such a clutch.

text: Powered screwdrivers[edit]

text: Interchangeable bits allow the use of powered screwdrivers, commonly using an electric or air motor to rotate the bit.  Cordless drills with speed and torque control are commonly used as power screwdrivers.

text: Ratcheting screwdrivers[edit]

text: Some manual screwdrivers have a ratchet action whereby the screwdriver blade locks to the handle for clockwise rotation, but uncouples for counterclockwise rotation when set for tightening screws—and vice versa for loosening.

text: Spiral ratchet screw drivers, often colloquially called Yankee screwdrivers (a brand name), provide a special mechanism that transforms linear motion into rotational motion. Originally the "Yankee" name was used on all tools sold by the North Brothers Manufacturing Company but later, after Stanley purchased the company, it became synonymous with only this type of screwdriver. The user pushes the handle toward the workpiece, causing a pawl in a spiral groove to rotate the shank and the removable bit. The ratchet can be set to rotate left or right with each push, or can be locked so that the tool can be used like a conventional screwdriver. One disadvantage of this design is that if the bit slips out of the screw, the resultant sudden extension of the spring may cause the bit to scratch or otherwise damage the workpiece.

text: Once very popular, versions of these spiral ratchet drivers using proprietary bits have been largely discontinued by manufacturers such as Stanley. Some companies now offer a modernized version that uses standard 1/4-inch hex shank power tool bits. Since a wide variety of drill bits are available in this format, the tool can do double duty as a "push drill" or Persian drill.

text: Misuse[edit]

text: Manual straight screwdrivers are commonly abused as improvised substitutes for other tools, such as crow bars or chisels. Screwdrivers are not designed for these purposes, and such use can damage the tip, bend the shaft, or injure the user if the screwdriver slips or breaks.[19]

text: Screwdrivers have also been used as stabbing weapons,[20][21] and are usually tightly restricted in prisons.


document_title: List of female Indian governors

question_text: who is the first woman governor in india

text: List of female Indian governors

text: In India, a governor is the constitutional head of each of the twenty-nine states. The governor is appointed by the President of India for a term of five years, and holds office at the President's pleasure. The governor is de jure head of the state government; all its executive actions are taken in the governor's name. However, the governor must act on the advice of the popularly elected council of ministers, headed by the chief minister, who thus hold de facto executive authority at the state-level. The Constitution of India also empowers the governor to act upon his or her own discretion, such as the ability to appoint or dismiss a ministry, recommend President's rule, or reserve bills for the President's assent. Over the years, the exercise of these discretionary powers have given rise to conflict between the elected chief minister and the central government–appointed governor.[1] The union territories of Andaman and Nicobar, Delhi and Puducherry are headed by lieutenant-governors.

text: Sarojini Naidu was the first female to become the governor of an Indian state.[2] She governed Uttar Pradesh from 15 August 1947 to 2 March 1949. Her daughter, Padmaja Naidu, is the longest-serving governor with 11-year tenure in West Bengal.[3] Draupadi Murmu was recently appointed as the first woman governor of Jharkhand.[4]

text:
Name
From
To
Term length
State
Reference

Sarojini Naidu
15 August 1947
2 March 1949
7002565000000000000♠1 year, 199 days
Uttar Pradesh
[5]

Padmaja Naidu
3 November 1956
31 May 1967
7003386100000000000♠10 years, 209 days
West Bengal
[6]

Vijayalakshmi Pandit
28 November 1962
18 October 1964
7002690000000000000♠1 year, 325 days
Maharashtra
[7]

Sharda Mukherjee
5 May 1977
14 August 1978
7002466000000000000♠1 year, 101 days
Andhra Pradesh
[8]

Jyothi Venkatachalam
14 October 1977
27 October 1982
7003183900000000000♠5 years, 13 days
Kerala
[9]

Sharda Mukherjee
14 August 1978
5 August 1983
7003181700000000000♠4 years, 356 days
Gujarat
[10]

Kumudben Manishankar Joshi
26 November 1985
2 February 1990
7003152900000000000♠4 years, 68 days
Andhra Pradesh
[11]

Ram Dulari Sinha
23 February 1988
12 February 1990
7002720000000000000♠1 year, 354 days
Kerala
[9]

Sarla Grewal
31 March 1989
5 February 1990
7002311000000000000♠311 days
Madhya Pradesh
[12]

Chandrawati
19 February 1990
18 December 1990
7002302000000000000♠302 days
Puducherry
[13]

Rajendra Kumari Bajpai
2 May 1995
22 April 1998
7003108600000000000♠2 years, 355 days
Puducherry
[13]

Sheila Kaul
17 November 1995
23 April 1996
7002158000000000000♠158 days
Himachal Pradesh
[14]

Fathima Beevi
25 January 1997
1 July 2001
7003161800000000000♠4 years, 157 days
Tamil Nadu
[15]

V. S. Ramadevi
26 July 1997
1 December 1999
7002858000000000000♠2 years, 128 days
Himachal Pradesh
[14]

Rajani Rai
23 April 1998
29 July 2002
7003155800000000000♠4 years, 97 days
Puducherry
[13]

V. S. Ramadevi
2 December 1999
20 August 2002
7002992000000000000♠2 years, 261 days
Karnataka
[16]

Pratibha Patil
8 November 2004
23 June 2007
7002957000000000000♠2 years, 227 days
Rajasthan
[17]

Prabha Rau
19 July 2008
24 January 2010
7002554000000000000♠1 year, 189 days
Himachal Pradesh
[14]

Margaret Alva
6 August 2009
14 May 2012
7002992000000000000♠2 years, 262 days
Uttarakhand
[18]

Kamla Beniwal
27 November 2009
6 July 2014
7003168200000000000♠4 years, 221 days
Gujarat
[19]

Prabha Rau
25 January 2010
26 April 2010
7001910000000000000♠91 days
Rajasthan
[20]

Urmila Singh
25 January 2010
27 January 2015
7003182800000000000♠5 years, 2 days
Himachal Pradesh
[21]

Margaret Alva
12 May 2012
7 August 2014
7002817000000000000♠2 years, 87 days
Rajasthan
[22]

Sheila Dikshit
11 March 2014
25 August 2014
7002167000000000000♠167 days
Kerala
[23]

Kamla Beniwal
6 July 2014
6 August 2014
7001310000000000000♠31 days
Mizoram

Mridula Sinha
31 August 2014
Incumbent
7003110300000000000♠3 years, 7 days
Goa
[24]

Draupadi Murmu
18 May 2015
Incumbent
7002843000000000000♠2 years, 112 days
Jharkhand
[25]

Kiran Bedi
29 May 2016
Incumbent
7002466000000000000♠1 year, 101 days
Puducherry

Najma Heptulla
21 August 2016
Incumbent
7002382000000000000♠1 year, 17 days
Manipur
[26]

tag: table


document_title: Three-Fifths Compromise

question_text: where is the 3/5 clause in the constitution

text: Three-Fifths Compromise

text: Enactment[edit]

text:
Part of a series on
Slavery

Contemporary[show]

Child labour
Child soldiers
Conscription
Debt
Forced marriage

Bride buying
Wife selling

Forced prostitution
Human trafficking
Peonage
Penal labour
Sexual slavery
Wage slavery

Historical[show]

Antiquity

Ancient Rome
Babylonia
Ancient Greece

Topics and practices

Atlantic slave trade

Middle Passage

Arab slave trade

Ghilman
Mamluk
Saqaliba

Aztec
Blackbirding
Byzantine Empire
Coolie
Corvée labor
Field slaves in the United States
House slaves
Kholop
Medieval Europe
Panyarring
Thrall
Serfs

History
Russia

Slave market
Slave raiding
Child soldiers

Naval

Galley slave
Impressment
Pirates
Shanghaiing
Slave ship

By country or region[show]

Sub-Saharan Africa

Contemporary Africa
Slavery on the Barbary Coast
Barbary slave trade
Slave Coast
Angola
Chad
Ethiopia
Mali
Mauritania
Niger
Somalia
South Africa
Sudan
Seychelles

North and South America

Americas indigenous

U.S. Natives

Brazil

Lei Áurea

Canada
Caribbean

Barbados
Code Noir

Cuba
Haiti

revolt
Restavek

Latin America
Puerto Rico
Trinidad
United States

colonial
maps
female
partus
penal labor
Slave codes
interregional
Human trafficking

Virgin Islands

Central, East, and South Asia

Human trafficking in Southeast Asia
Bhutan
China

Booi Aha
Laogai

India

Debt bondage
Chukri System

Japan

comfort women

South Korea

Yankee princess

North Korea
Vietnam

Australia and Oceania

Blackbirding in Australia
Human trafficking in Australia
Slave raiding in Easter Island
Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea
Blackbirding in Polynesia

Europe and North Asia

Sex trafficking in Europe
Britain
Denmark
Dutch Republic
Germany in World War II
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russia
Spain

colonies

Sweden

North Africa and West Asia

Iran
Libya
Human trafficking in the Middle East
Ottoman Empire
Yemen

Religion[show]

Bible
Christianity

Catholicism
Mormonism

Islam

21st century

Judaism
Bahá'í Faith

Opposition and resistance[show]

Timeline
Abolitionism

U.K.
U.S.

Anti-Slavery International
Blockade of Africa

U.K.
U.S.

Compensated emancipation
Freedman

manumission

Freedom suit
Abolitionists
Slave Power
Underground Railroad

songs

Slave rebellion
Slave Trade Acts
International law
13th Amendment to the United States Constitution

Related[show]

Common law
Indentured servitude
Unfree labour
Fugitive slaves

laws
Great Dismal Swamp maroons

List of slaves

owners

Slave narrative

films
songs

Slave name
Slave catcher
Slave patrol
Slave Route Project
Treatment in U.S.

breeding
court cases
Washington
Jefferson
Adams
Lincoln
40 acres
Freedmen's Bureau
bit

Emancipation Day

v
t
e

text: The Convention had unanimously accepted the principle that representation in the House of Representatives would be in proportion to the relative state populations. However, since slaves could not vote, leaders in slave states would thus have the benefit of increased representation in the House and the Electoral College. Delegates opposed to slavery proposed that only free inhabitants of each state be counted for apportionment purposes, while delegates supportive of slavery, on the other hand, opposed the proposal, wanting slaves to count in their actual numbers. The compromise that was finally agreed upon—of counting "all other persons" as only three-fifths of their actual numbers—reduced the representation of the slave states relative to the original proposals, but improved it over the Northern position.[2] An inducement for slave states to accept the Compromise was its tie to taxation in the same ratio, so that the burden of taxation on the slave states was also reduced.

text: The Three-Fifths Compromise is found in Article 1, Section 2, Clause 3 of the United States Constitution, which reads:

text: Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons.

text: The three-fifths ratio originated with a 1783 amendment proposed to the Articles of Confederation. The amendment was to have changed the basis for determining the wealth of each state, and hence its tax obligations, from real estate to population, as a measure of ability to produce wealth. The proposal by a committee of the Congress had suggested that taxes "shall be supplied by the several colonies in proportion to the number of inhabitants of every age, sex, and quality, except Indians not paying taxes".[3][4] The South immediately objected to this formula since it would include slaves, who were viewed primarily as property, in calculating the amount of taxes to be paid. As Thomas Jefferson wrote in his notes on the debates, the southern states would be taxed "according to their numbers and their wealth conjunctly, while the northern would be taxed on numbers only".[5]

text: After proposed compromises of one-half by Benjamin Harrison of Virginia and three-fourths by several New Englanders failed to gain sufficient support, Congress finally settled on the three-fifths ratio proposed by James Madison.[6] But this amendment ultimately failed, falling two states short of the unanimous approval required for amending the Articles of Confederation (only New Hampshire and New York were opposed).

text: A contentious issue at the 1787 Constitutional Convention was whether slaves would be counted as part of the population in determining representation of the states in the Congress or would instead be considered property and, as such, not be considered for purposes of representation. Delegates from states with a large population of slaves argued that slaves should be considered persons in determining representation, but as property if the new government were to levy taxes on the states on the basis of population. Delegates from states where slavery had become rare argued that slaves should be included in taxation, but not in determining representation.

text: The proposed ratio was, however, a ready solution to the impasse that arose during the Constitutional Convention. In that situation, the alignment of the contending forces was the reverse of what had obtained under the Articles of Confederation. In amending the Articles, the North wanted slaves to count for more than the South did because the objective was to determine taxes paid by the states to the federal government. In the Constitutional Convention, the more important issue was representation in Congress, so the South wanted slaves to count for more than the North did.[citation needed]

text: Much has been said of the impropriety of representing men who have no will of their own.... They are men, though degraded to the condition of slavery. They are persons known to the municipal laws of the states which they inhabit, as well as to the laws of nature. But representation and taxation go together.... Would it be just to impose a singular burden, without conferring some adequate advantage?

text: Impact before the Civil War[edit]

text: The Three-Fifths Compromise gave a disproportionate representation of slave states in the House of Representatives relative to the voters in free states until the American Civil War. In 1793, for example, Southern slave states had 47 of the 105 members but would have had 33, had seats been assigned based on free populations. In 1812, slave states had 76 out of 143 instead of the 59 they would have had; in 1833, 98 out of 240 instead of 73. As a result, Southern states had disproportionate influence on the presidency, the speakership of the House, and the Supreme Court in the period prior to the Civil War.[8] Along with this must be considered the number of slave and free states, which remained mostly equal until 1850, safeguarding the Southern bloc in the Senate as well as Electoral College votes.

text: Historian Garry Wills has postulated that without the additional slave state votes, Jefferson would have lost the presidential election of 1800. Also, "slavery would have been excluded from Missouri ... Jackson's Indian removal policy would have failed ... the Wilmot Proviso would have banned slavery in territories won from Mexico ... the Kansas-Nebraska bill would have failed."[8] While the Three-Fifths Compromise could be seen to favor Southern states because of their large slave populations, for example, the Connecticut Compromise tended to favor the Northern states (which were generally smaller). Support for the new Constitution rested on the balance of these sectional interests.[9]

text: After the Civil War[edit]

text: Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment (1868) later superseded Article 1, Section 2, Clause 3 and explicitly repealed the compromise. It provides that "representatives shall be apportioned ... counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed." A later provision of the same clause reduced the Congressional representation of states who denied the right to vote to adult male citizens, but this provision was never effectively enforced.[10] (The Thirteenth Amendment, passed in 1865, had already eliminated almost all persons from the original clause's jurisdiction by banning slavery; the only remaining persons subject to it were those sentenced for a crime to penal servitude, which the amendment excluded from the ban.)

text: After the Reconstruction Era came to an end in 1877, however, the former slave states subverted the objective of these changes by using various strategies to disenfranchise their black citizens, while obtaining the benefit of apportionment of representatives on the basis of the total populations. These measures effectively gave white Southerners even greater voting power than they had in the antebellum era, inflating the number of Southern Democrats in the House of Representatives as well as the number of votes they could exercise in the Electoral College in the election of the president.

text: The disenfranchisement of black citizens eventually attracted the attention of Congress, and in 1900 some members proposed stripping the South of seats, related to the number of people who were barred from voting.[11] In the end, Congress did not act to change apportionment, largely because of the power of the Southern bloc. The Southern bloc comprised Southern Democrats voted into office by white voters and constituted a powerful voting bloc in Congress until the 1960s. Their representatives, re-elected repeatedly by one-party states, controlled numerous chairmanships of important committees in both houses on the basis of seniority, giving them control over rules, budgets and important patronage projects, among other issues. Their power allowed them to defeat federal legislation against racial violence and abuses in the South.[12][not in citation given]