document_title: Rules of snooker

question_text: when is a free ball awarded in snooker

question_tokens: when is a free ball awarded in snooker

text: Rules of snooker

text: The table[edit]

text: Snooker is played on a rectangular snooker table with six pockets, one at each corner and one in the middle of each long side. The table usually has a slate base, covered in green baize. At one end of the table (the baulk end) is the baulk line, which is 29 inches (74 cm) from the baulk cushion (the short cushion at the baulk end). A semicircle of radius 11 1⁄2 inches (29 cm), called the D, is drawn behind this line, centred on the middle of the line. The cushion at the other end of the table is known as the top cushion.

text: A regulation (full-size) table is 12 ft × 6 ft (3.7 m × 1.8 m); because of the large size of these tables, smaller tables are common in homes, pubs and other places where space is limited. These are often around 6 feet (1.8 m) in length, with all the dimensions and markings scaled down accordingly. The balls used are sometimes also scaled down, and/or reduced in number (in the case of the reds) by omitting the longest row of balls in the rack.

text: The balls[edit]

text: Snooker balls, like the balls for all cue sports, are typically made of phenolic resin, and are smaller than pool balls. Regulation snooker balls (which are specified in metric units) are nominally 52.5 mm (approximately 2 1⁄15 inches) in diameter, though many sets are actually manufactured at 52.4 mm (about 2 1⁄16 in.) No weight for the balls is specified in the rules, only that the weight of any two balls should not differ by more than 0.5g. Some recreational sets (which are usually not measured metrically) are 2 1⁄8 in. (about 54 mm) up to as large as pool balls, at 2 1⁄4 in. (about 57.2 mm); larger ball size requires wider pocket openings. Miniature sets also exist, for half-size home tables. There are fifteen red balls, six "colour" balls (yellow, green, brown, blue, pink, and black), and one white cue ball. Usually none of the balls are numbered, though the six colour balls often are in the US, where they are easily mistaken at first glance for pool balls (the design is similar, but the numbering does not match pool's scheme).

text: At the beginning of a frame, the balls are set up in the arrangement shown in the illustration. The six colours (a term referring to all balls except the white and the reds) are placed on their own spots. On the baulk line, looking up the table from the baulk end, the green ball is located where the "D" meets the line on the left, the brown ball in the middle of the line, and the yellow ball where the "D" meets the line on the right. This order is often remembered using the mnemonic God Bless You, the first letter of each word being the first letter of the three colours (Green, Brown, Yellow). At the exact centre of the table sits the blue ball. Further up the table is the pink ball, which sits midway between the blue spot and the top cushion, followed by the red balls, arranged in a tightly-packed triangle behind the pink (the apex must be as close as possible to the pink ball without touching it). Finally, the black ball is placed on a spot 32.5 cm (12.8 in) from the top cushion.

text: Objective[edit]

text: The objective of the game of snooker is to strike the white cue ball with a cue in the direction of other object balls and to pot these object balls in one of the six pockets. This must be done according to the rules of the game, described below. By potting object balls points can be scored. The player who scores most points wins the frame, and the player who wins most frames wins the match.

text: Match[edit]

text: A match usually consists of a fixed, odd number of frames. A frame begins with setting up the balls as described above. A frame ends when all balls are potted, or when one of the players concedes defeat because he is too far behind in score to equal or beat the score of the other player.

text: A match ends when one of the players has won the majority of the set number of frames and the other player can therefore not equal this. For example, when a match consists of 19 frames, the match ends when one of the players has reached 10 frames.

text: Gameplay[edit]

text: At the beginning of each frame the balls are set up by the referee as explained. This will be followed by a break-off shot, on which the players take turns. At the break-off, the white cue ball can be placed anywhere inside the D, although it is common for players to start by placing the ball on the line, between the brown ball and either the green or yellow ball.

text: Players take turns in visiting the table. When one player is at the table, the other cannot play. A break is the number of points scored by a player in one single visit to the table. A player's turn and break end when he fails to pot a ball, when he does something against the rules of the game, which is called a foul, or when a frame has ended.

text: The ball or balls that can be hit first by the white are called the ball(s) "on" for that particular stroke. The ball(s) "on" differ from shot to shot: a red ball, if potted, must be followed by a colour, a potted colour must be followed by a red, and so on until a break ends; if a red is not potted, any red ball remains the ball "on". Only a ball or balls "on" may be potted legally by a player. If a ball not "on" is potted, this is a foul.

text: If the cue ball is touching another ball which is on or could be on, the referee shall state that the ball is a "touching ball", whereupon the striker must "play away" from the ball without moving it, and—because the touching ball is deemed to be the object ball—without being required to hit another ball. If the object ball moves, it is considered a "push shot" and a foul shall be called. No penalty is incurred for playing away if (1) the ball is on; (2) the ball could be on and the striker nominates such ball; or (3) the ball could be on and the striker nominates, and first hits, another ball that could be on. If the cue ball is touching another ball which could not be on, it isn't called a touching ball, and the striker must play away from it and hit a legally nominated object ball. Where the cue ball is touching several object balls simultaneously, the referee shall state "Touching ball" for each and every such object ball, and indicate to the player which object balls he is referring to. The rules for each individual touching ball then apply simultaneously.

text: If a ball is potted when a foul is made, depending on the situation, the potted ball will either stay off the table, or be spotted on its initial spot or it will—along with any and all balls that were moved during the foul shot—be repositioned to where it/they lay before the shot. For details on such situations, see Fouls and Miss below.

text: The game of snooker generally consists of two phases. The first phase is the situation in which there are still red balls on the table. In the first phase, at the beginning of a player's turn, the balls "on" are all remaining red balls. The player must therefore attempt to first hit and pot one or more red balls. For every red ball potted, the player will receive 1 point. When a red has been potted, it will stay off the table and the player can continue the break. If no red has been potted or a foul has been made, the other player will come into play.

text: In case one or more red balls have been potted, the player can continue the break. This time one of the six colours (yellow, green, brown, blue, pink and black) is the ball "on". Only one of these can be the ball "on" and the rules of the game state that a player must nominate the desired colour to the referee, although it is usually clear which ball the striker is playing and it is not necessary to nominate.

text: When the nominated colour is potted, the player will be awarded the correct number of points (yellow, 2; green, 3; brown, 4; blue, 5; pink, 6; black, 7). The colour is then taken out of the pocket by the referee and placed on its original spot. If that spot is covered by another ball, the ball is placed on the highest available spot. If there is no available spot, it is placed as close to its own spot as possible in a direct line between that spot and the top cushion, without touching another ball. If there is no room this side of the spot, it will be placed as close to the spot as possible in a straight line towards the bottom cushion, without touching another ball.

text: Because only one of the colours is the ball "on", it is a foul to first hit multiple colours at the same time, or pot more than one colour (unless a free ball has been awarded, see below).

text: After the nominated colour is potted, the red balls are "on" again.

text: If a player fails to pot a ball "on", it being a red or nominated colour, the other player will come into play and the balls "on" are always the reds, as long as there are still reds on the table.

text: The alternation between red balls and colours ends when all reds have been potted and a colour is potted after the last red, or a failed attempt to do so is made. All six colours have then to be potted in ascending order of their points value (yellow, green, brown, blue, pink, black). Each becomes the ball "on" in that order. During this phase, when potted, the colours stay down and are not replaced on the table, unless a foul is made when potting the colour, in which case the colour is respotted.

text: When the colours have been potted, the frame is over and the player who has scored most points has won it (but see below for end-of-frame scenarios).

text: Fouls[edit]

text: A foul is a shot or action by the striker which is against the rules of the game.

text: When a foul is made during a shot, the player's turn is ended and he will receive no points for the foul shot. The other player will receive penalty points.

text: Common fouls are:[2]

text:
failing to hit any other ball with the cue ball
first hitting a ball "not-on" with the cue ball
potting a ball "not-on"
potting the white (in-off)
hitting a ball other than the white with the cue
making a ball land off the table
touching the cue ball with anything other than the tip of the cue (except while positioning the cue ball "in-hand"; while "in-hand" the cue ball may be touched by anything except the tip of the cue)
playing a "push shot" - a shot where the cue ball is in simultaneous contact with the cue tip and another ball (except when playing the cue ball away from a "touching ball"; for this purpose a "touching ball" may refer to any ball, "on" or not.)
playing a "jump shot" - a shot where the cue ball leaves the bed of the table and jumps over a ball before first hitting another ball
playing a shot with both feet off the ground.

text: It is sometimes erroneously believed that if two balls are potted in one shot it is a foul. However, when the reds are "on", multiple reds can be potted and this is not a foul: the player scores 1 point per red.

text: Should a cue ball be touched with the tip while "in-hand", i.e. when breaking-off or playing from the "D" after being potted, a foul is not committed as long as the referee is satisfied that the player was only positioning the ball, and not playing, or preparing to play, a shot.

text: When a foul is made, the non-fouling player will receive penalty points equal to the value of the ball "on", or the value of any of the "foul" balls, or 4 points, whichever is highest. When multiple fouls are made in one shot, only the most highly valued foul is counted. Penalty points are therefore at least 4 points and at most 7.

text: Not hitting the ball "on" first is the most common foul. A player can make life difficult for his opponent by making sure he cannot hit a ball "on" directly. This is most commonly called "snookering" one's opponent or alternatively "laying a snooker" or putting the other player "in a snooker".

text: Because players receive points for fouls by their opponents, snookering one's opponent a number of times in a row is a possible way of winning a frame when potting all the balls on the table would be insufficient to ensure a win.

text: If a player commits a foul, and the opponent considers that the position left is unattractive, he may request that the offender play again from the resulting position.

text: Free ball[edit]

text: A free ball is a player-nominated substitute for the ball on when the player is snookered by a foul.[1] This is because the snooker in this case is produced by a foul and thus not considered legitimate. As such the player is allowed to pick any ball as a free ball, which is then effectively treated as the ball on, thereby voiding the illegitimate snooker. Once the free ball shot is taken legally, the game continues normally (although, if the offending player was asked to play the shot again, then the free ball is void, having to resolve the self-inflicted snooker).

text: For example, as illustrated in the provided picture, if the ball on is the final red, but is snookered by the black due to a foul, the player will be able to name the blue as the free ball. He could then pot the blue as if it were a red for one point. The blue will then be respotted, a nominated colour ball will be on, and normal play will resume.

text: Note that, as a natural corollary of the rules, the free ball is always a colour ball. If the ball on is a red, then by definition it cannot be snookered via another red, as it merely provides an alternative clean shot with another ball on. If the ball on is a red, and is snookered by a colour after a foul, then logically the red is either the final one or all reds are snookered by a colour ball, meaning the free ball has to be a colour. If the ball on is a colour ball that is snookered by a red, a previous red must have been successfully potted; the snooker therefore must be self-inflicted and cannot have occurred as the result of a foul. If the ball on is a colour that is snookered by another colour after a foul, all reds must have been already potted; thus the free ball still has to be a colour ball.

text: Interesting situations could occur if somehow both the free ball and the real ball on are potted. If a colour was the ball on (all reds were potted), and both the free ball and the actual ball on are potted, only the ball on is scored. The free ball is respotted while the actual ball on will stay off the table. This is the only time when attempting to pot a colour that two balls can be potted without a foul occurring, because technically speaking both of the potted balls are on.

text: If the ball on is red and both the free ball and a real red are potted, then each ball potted is scored as a red for a total of two points. The colour free ball is then respotted and the red remains off the table. By the same logic, it is allowed to cannon a free ball onto a real red to pot the latter (a plant). Going back to the picture above, the player could nominate the black as the free ball, and proceed to plant the real red using the black free ball; if the player somehow potted them both, two points would be awarded and the black would be respotted.

text: Not potting the free ball incurs no penalty, so the striker may play a snooker using the free ball, gratis. However, if said snooker is achieved by having the free ball obstructing the ball on, then the strike is a foul and a penalty of the value of the ball on is awarded to the opponent. The reason is that the free ball was to be treated as the ball on, and one cannot snooker a ball on by another ball on (following the same logic that a red cannot snooker another red when red is on). The only exception to this is when there are only two balls remaining on the table, namely pink and black. If the opposition somehow fouled trying to pot pink, and illegitimately snookered the striker with the black, then it is fair for the striker to snooker the opposition "back" with the free black ball.

text: A free ball scenario does not occur when the ball gets stuck at the edge of a pocket jaw (commonly referred to as "angled') in such a manner that the player is unable to hit any ball on. This is because according to the official snooker rules a ball is snookered only if its way is obstructed by balls not on. In this scenario, after a foul, the player may choose to either take the shot from the current position or ask the offender to play again, as per the usual rules on fouls.

text: Foul and a Miss[edit]

text: A foul and a miss will be called if a player does not hit the ball "on" first (foul) and is deemed by the referee to have not made the best possible attempt (miss). In this case, the opponent has the option to request that all balls on the table to be returned to their position before the foul, and require the fouling player to take the shot again.

text: The rule was introduced to prevent players from playing professional fouls (i.e., deliberately fouling so as to leave the balls in a safe position, reducing the risk of giving a frame-winning chance to the opponent). Multiple misses often occur because players attempt to hit a shot very softly or thinly in situations where a fuller contact might leave their opponent an easy potting chance. This can lead to an apparently easy escape being attempted several times, as players feel that it is better to concede many points but leave a safe position, than concede none and leave a frame-winning chance.

text: Note that "best attempt" here has a couple of elements. Firstly, the shot selection must be the easiest to be achieved, so deliberately taking a difficult shot to foul tactically will be still liable to be called a miss. Secondly, sufficient strength must be put into the shot such that the cue ball can even reach the ball "on" (it's possible for the referee not to call a miss if a striker would or did overshoot, but undershooting always results in a miss). Finally, the striker must try to hit the ball "on" as best as he can, getting the cue ball as near to the target as possible. All three of these elements must be present for a striker to be considered to have made a "best attempt", and not just the third element.

text: There are three situations where a miss will not be called even if the striker failed to do a "best attempt":

text: 1)If either of the players is in need of penalty points to win the frame, or if either players would be in need of further penalty points to win the frame after the current penalty is applied, then a miss will never be called. This is to prevent the score difference from increasing indefinitely due to misses in worst-case scenarios.

text: 2)If the points on the table are equal to the score difference, either before or after the penalty is applied, then a miss may not be called, should the referee believe that the foul was not on purpose. This can prevent the score difference from decreasing too much, at the discretion of the referee.

text: 3)If it is physically impossible to play a legal shot, then it must be assumed that the striker is trying their best already, though the striker must still put sufficient strength in the stroke such that the cue ball would reach its target were it not due to the obstruction. This can happen if the cue ball was completely snookered - since jump shots are fouls in the first place, there is no other way this scenario could end.

text: A special case occurs after a striker fouls and misses in a non-snookered scenario -- that is, when he fails to hit a ball "on" when there is a clear path to the ball or part of the ball. Should the opposition choose to have the offender play from the position prior to the missing stroke under this situation, then a further failure to provide a best attempt will be called foul and a miss regardless of score difference. A warning is issued, and a third failure will forfeit the frame to the opposition.

text: The end of a frame[edit]

text: A frame normally ends in one of three ways:

text:
A concession, when one player gives up due to being too far behind to have a realistic chance of winning the frame. Concession before the snookers-required stage may be interpreted as ungentlemanly conduct and result in a penalty of a second frame being applied.[1]
The final black is potted legally (including after a respot), and this does not leave the score tied.
When the black is the only object ball remaining, and the striker leads by more than seven points, the striker may claim the win, but may also elect to proceed with potting the black, for example to complete a high-scoring break.

text: There are three less common ways to end a frame:

text:
A foul on the black, when the black is the only ball left. It is sometimes wrongly assumed that play continues after a foul on the black if there are fewer than seven points between the scores. This is not the case: the player who is in the lead following the assessment of a penalty after a foul when only the black remains is the winner.[1]
Failure to hit a ball "on" three times in a row, if the player has a clear sight of the ball. The referee will warn a player after a second such miss that a third miss will mean that the opponent will be awarded the frame. This rule does not apply if the player is snookered. As missing due to avoiding a direct shot on a ball is usually a tactical, rather than skill-related, outcome, this rule is rarely invoked, as a player will simply hit the ball directly on the third shot.[1]
If the referee deems a player is taking too long to take the shot, the player may be warned. If the player continues to hesitate, the frame may be awarded to the other player at the discretion of the referee. In practice, a delay of over two minutes can result in such a forfeiture.

text: If the score is tied after the final black is potted, the black is "respotted" and the cue ball put "in hand". The referee will then toss a coin, with the player winning the toss choosing who will take first strike at the black. Play then continues normally until the black is potted or another frame-ending situation occurs.

text: Maximum break[edit]

text: The highest break that can be made under normal circumstances is 147. To achieve that, the player must pot all 15 reds, with the black after every red, followed by potting the six remaining colours. This "maximum break" of 147 rarely occurs in match play. The fastest maximum break in a tournament was achieved during the World Championships on April 21, 1997, by Ronnie O'Sullivan against Mick Price in 5 minutes and 20 seconds.[3]

text: If an opponent fouls before any balls are potted, and leaves the player a free ball, the player can then nominate a colour and play it as a red ball. Then, black can be nominated as the next colour. This means it is actually possible to score the value of 16 reds and blacks (16 * 8), plus the values of all the colours (27), which equals 155 points scored. Under tournament condition, Jamie Burnett achieved 148 points.[4]

text: The highest possible score, as distinct from the highest possible break, is unlimited and depends on the value of points scored from the opponent's foul shots when added to the player's own scored points (which may not require the highest break). However, the highest possible score from a single visit clearance is 162 (foul on the black, followed by a free ball treated as a red, as above).


document_title: Wreath

question_text: where did the traditional christmas wreath come from

root

text: Wreath

text: Etymology[edit]

text: The word wreath comes from Middle English wrethe and from Old English writha, band.[1]

tag: p

text: History[edit]

text: Ancient Etruscan wreaths[edit]

text: Wreaths were a design used in ancient times in southern Europe. The most well-known are pieces of Etruscan civilization jewelry, made of gold or other precious metals. Symbols from Greek myths often appear in the designs, embossed in precious metal at the ends of the wreath. Ancient Roman writers referred to Etruscan corona sutilis, which were wreaths with their leaves sewn onto a background.[2] These wreaths resemble a diadem, with thin metal leaves being attached to an ornamental band.[3] Wreaths also appear stamped into Etruscan medallions. The plants shown making the wreaths in Etruscan jewelry include ivy, oak, olive leaves, myrtle, laurel, wheat and vines.

text: Wreaths were worn as crowns by Etruscan rulers. The Etruscan symbolism continued to be used in Ancient Greece and Rome. Roman magistrates also wore golden wreaths as crowns, as a symbolic testament to their lineage back to Rome's early Etruscan rulers. Roman magistrates also used several other prominent Etruscan symbols in addition to a golden wreath crown: fasces, a curule chair, a purple toga, and an ivory rod.[4]

text: Ancient Greece and Rome[edit]

text: In the Greco-Roman world, wreaths were used as an adornment that could represent a person’s occupation, rank, their achievements and status. The wreath that was commonly used was the laurel wreath. The use of this wreath comes from the Greek myth involving Apollo, Zeus’ son and the god of life and light, who fell in love with the nymph Daphne. When he pursued her she fled and asked the river god Peneus to help her. Peneus turned her into a laurel tree. From that day, Apollo wore a wreath of laurel on his head. Laurel wreaths became associated with what Apollo embodied; victory, achievement and status and would later become one of the most commonly used symbols to address achievement throughout Greece and Rome. Laurel wreaths were used to crown victorious athletes at the original Olympic Games[5] and are still worn in Italy by university students who just graduated.[6]

text: Other types of plants used to make wreath crowns also had symbolic meaning. For example, oak leaves symbolized wisdom, and were associated with Zeus, who according to Greek mythology made his decisions while resting in an oak grove. The Twelve Tables, dating to 450 BC, refer to funeral wreaths as a long-standing tradition.[7] Olive wreath was the prize for the winner at the ancient Olympic Games.[8]

text: Modern wreaths[edit]

text: Harvest wreath[edit]

text: Harvest wreaths, a common household decoration today, are a custom with ancient roots in Europe. The creation of harvest wreaths in Europe can be traced back to ancient times, and is associated with animistic spiritual beliefs. In Ancient Greece, the harvest wreath was a sacred amulet, using wheat or other harvested plants, woven together with red and white wool thread. The harvest wreath would be hung by the door year-round.[9]

text: Harvest wreaths were an important symbol to the community in Ancient Greece, not merely to the farmer and his family. The festivals devoted to Dionysus, the Oschophoria and Anthesteria, included a ritual procession called the eiresîonê. A harvest wreath was carried to Pyanopsia and Thargelia by young boys, who would sing during the journey. The laurel or olive wreath would be hung at the door, and then offerings were made to Helios and the Hours. It was hoped that this ritual would bring protection against crop failure and plagues.[10]

text: In Poland, the harvest wreath (wieniec) is a central symbol of the Harvest Festival, Dozynki. Wreaths are made of different shapes and sizes, using harvested grain plants, fruit and nuts. The wreath is then brought to a church for a blessing by a priest. The tradition includes a procession to the family home from the church, with a girl or young woman leading the procession and carrying the wreath. The procession is followed with a celebration and feast.[11] Ukraine, Hungary, and other Eastern Europe cultures also have similar rituals that began as part of pre-Christian culture.

text: Advent and Christmas wreaths[edit]

text: In Christianity, wreaths are used to observe the Advent season, in preparation for Christmastide and Epiphanytide, as well as to celebrate the latter two liturgical seasons.[12] These wreaths, as with other Advent and Christmas decorations, are often set up on the first Sunday of Advent,[13][14] a custom that is sometimes done liturgically, through a hanging of the greens ceremony.[15] The Advent wreath was first used by Lutherans in Germany in the 16th century,[16] and in 1839, Lutheran priest Johann Hinrich Wichern used a wreath made from a cart wheel to educate children about the meaning and purpose of Christmas, as well as to help them count its approach, thus giving rise to the modern version of the Advent wreath. For every Sunday of Advent, starting with the fourth Sunday before Christmas, he would put a white candle in the wreath and for every day in between he would use a red candle.[17][18] The use of the Advent wreath has since spread from the Lutheran Church to many Christian denominations,[19][20] and some of these traditions, such as the Catholic Church and Moravian Church, have introduced unique variations to it.[21] All of the Advent wreaths, however, have four candles, and many of them have a white candle in the centre, the Christ candle, which is lit on Christmas Day.[22] Advent and Christmas wreaths are constructed of evergreens to represent everlasting life brought through Jesus and the circular shape of the wreath represents God, with no beginning and no end.[23][24][25] Advent and Christmas wreaths are now a popular symbol in preparation for and to celebrate the coming of Christ, with the former being used to mark the beginning of the Christian Church’s liturgical year and both serving as décor during Advent and Christmas festivities. While Advent wreaths are erected on stands or placed on tables, Christmas wreaths are often hung on doors or walls.[26] Within Advent, the Church observes Saint Lucy's Day, the memorial of Saint Lucy, who is said to have brought "food and aid to Christians hiding in the catacombs" using a candle-lit wreath to "light her way and leave her hands free to carry as much food as possible";[27][28] as such, on this day, many young Christian girls dress as Saint Lucy, wearing a wreath on their head.[29]

text: Funeral and memorial wreaths[edit]

text: The symbolism of wreaths has been used at funerals since at least the time of Ancient Greece, to represent a circle of eternal life. Evergreen wreaths were laid at the burial place of early Christian virgin martyrs in Europe, the evergreen representing the victory of the eternal spirit over death.[5]

text: In early modern England, a wreath custom existed for the funerals of "young maidens". A young woman of the same age as the one being mourned would lead the funeral procession, carrying a wreath of white flowers to represent the purity of the deceased, and "that eternal crown of glory reserved for her in heaven".[30]

text: By the Victorian era, the symbolism of flowers had grown to become an elaborate language, and the symbolism of funeral wreaths was no exception. Flowers represented life and resurrection. Specific flowers were used in funeral wreaths to represent particular sentiments. Cypress and willow were used for crafting wreath frames, and were associated with mourning by the Victorians.[5]

text: Wreaths are commonly laid at the tombs of soldiers and at memorial cenotaphs during Memorial Day and Remembrance Day ceremonies. Wreaths may also be laid in memory of persons lost at sea, either from an accident or due to navy action. In a memorial service at sea, the wreath is lowered to the water and set adrift.

text: Wreaths worn as crowns[edit]

text: A wreath may be used as a headdress made from leaves, flowers and branches. It is typically worn in festive occasions and on holy days. Wreaths originally were made for use with pagan rituals in Europe, and were associated with the changing seasons and fertility. Christianity accepted the symbolism of the wreath based upon its Roman association with honour and moral virtue.[31] During the Middle Ages, Christian art featured depictions of the Virgin Mary and various saints crowned with wreaths, much as figures from Roman and Greek mythology were depicted wearing wreaths, as well as Roman and Greek rulers and heroes.

text: Maypole wreath[edit]

text: Wreath customs in Europe have survived over many centuries. The observance of May Day in England includes Maypole festivities, culminating in a race by young unmarried men to climb to the top of the Maypole to capture the May Day wreath perched at the top of the pole. The winner of this contest would wear the wreath as his crown, and would be recognized as the May Day King for the rest of the holiday. Plants traditionally used to make Midsummer wreaths and garlands include white lilies, green birch, fennel, St. John's Wort, wormwood,[32] vervain and flax. The flowers used in making the Midsummer wreath had to be picked early in the morning before the dew had dried; the belief was that once the dew dried, the magical properties of the plants evaporated with the dew.[33]

text: Midsummer celebrations are still observed in Germany and Scandinavia as well, with Maypoles and wreaths playing a prominent role, similar to England.

text: Wreath symbolism in England[edit]

text: By the Renaissance period, wreaths became symbols of political and religious alliances in England. Protestant reformers such as the Puritans saw wreaths and the holidays they were associated with, such as May Day, as being pagan corrupting influences that destroyed healthy Christian morality. Soldiers confiscated wreaths in Oxford on May Day of 1648.[34] During the Interregnum following the overthrow of Charles I of England, wreaths symbolized Royalist sympathies. In Bath, Somerset, the coronation of Charles II of England was marked with a procession of 400 maidens in white and green, carrying "gilded crowns, crowns made of flowers, and wreaths made of laurel mixed with tulips", and led by the mayor's wife.[34]

text: Saint Lucy's Day crown[edit]

text: Saint Lucy is traditionally depicted in Christian artwork wearing a wreath as a crown, and on the wreath stand lit candles symbolizing the light of the world represented by Christ. Sweden in particular has a long history of observing Saint Lucy's Day (St. Lucia's Day). "St. Lucia's crowns", made of a brass wreath holding candles, are part of the customs associated with this holiday.[35]


document_title: Donna Pinciotti

question_text: who does donna end up with on that 70s show

text: Donna Pinciotti

text: Storylines[edit]

text: Donna's relationship with next-door neighbor Eric Forman is often the main focus of the series. However, it is tumultuous at times, having suffered two break-ups during the show's run. Despite this, Eric and Donna often act as the "parents" of the group, being mature and responsible when their friends are not, for example in episodes like "Dine and Dash". Another episode that illustrates their parenthood of the group is when they have just broken up and Eric takes them all out and returns late. He and Donna engage in an argument because Eric gives Fez ice cream and Donna is angry because he wouldn't be hungry for dinner. When Fez is going to be deported, she and Eric become upset because "their" Fez is leaving. Eric is sometimes threatened by his feeling inferior to her, especially during the third season, when she gets a job as a disc jockey.

text: Donna and Eric lose their virginity to each other in the beginning of season two, after many failed attempts to "do it". Their sexual activity was revealed once in a very humiliating manner, when a policeman catches them having sex in the back of Eric's car and takes them back to his parents home, where Red forces Donna to tell her parents or else he would tell them. This further cements Kitty's subconscious view of Donna as a rival for the role of being the primary woman in Eric's life.

text: In the beginning of the series, Hyde is also interested in Donna along with Eric. Donna makes her choice clear, however, when she blows off her "study date" with Hyde to hang out with Eric. Even after the relationship between Eric and Donna is established, for a short time Donna usually goes to Hyde when she feels unsure about her relationship and needs to talk about it. In such circumstances, Hyde usually referred to her as the "hot neighbor girl" and Eric as the "scrawny little neighbor boy", or some variation of these. Though a romantic relationship between Donna and Hyde is never established, Hyde initially liked Donna and would have been interested in her if Eric had not kissed her first (as stated in the episode "It's a Wonderful Life"). Hyde still tries to win Donna in the beginning when she and Eric weren't together. There are even some comments by Fez during that season that mock Hyde over these failed attempts. When the group goes to Jackie's father's cabin for a ski trip, Hyde decides to kiss Donna and is slapped for his efforts, ending his infatuation but not their close friendship. Hyde never shows any significant interest in Donna again.

text: Toward the end of season three, Donna's job as a disc jockey is taking priority over her relationship with Eric, causing her to cancel their dates. While Donna genuinely felt that she was right to do this and was simply following her goals through to their logical conclusion with wanting to be a writer and a newswoman, her actions provoked a bad response in the normally even-keeled Eric, who feels that Donna is not taking him and/or their relationship seriously. Unable to resolve the conflict, Eric breaks up with her in the third season finale "The Promise Ring". Throughout season four, much awkwardness ensues over rights to the basement and trying to find new relationships. Donna is a bit annoyed at just how many girls are interested in Eric and happily mocks him when his attempts at finding a new girlfriend backfires. When she finds out he dated another while they were apart (he kept it a secret), she is absolutely furious, believing he cheated on her.

text: During the fourth season, Donna begins dating Casey Kelso (Luke Wilson), Michael Kelso's older brother. Even though he is flaky, a few years older than she is and against Donna's feminist beliefs, Donna thinks Casey is the perfect boyfriend, for he seems to be sensitive, good-natured, laid-back and easy-going. Eric sees Casey for what he is: an oversexed frat boy who just wants to sleep with Donna and move on to the next girl. Eric tries to warn Donna but she ignores him and he then threatens to hurt Casey if he hurts Donna.

text: Donna ends up skipping school to get drunk with Casey. When Eric and Kitty witness this, they (along with Red and Bob) decide to intervene, and in an animated discussion in the Formans' living room, Casey dumps Donna, deciding that his relationship with her is not worth the hassle, also admits that he never loved her. The realization of her own overconfidence, poor judgment and being dumped in front of the people who meant the most to her came as a shock to Donna, who regarded herself as an ideal feminist, but who'd fallen for the type of man she always swore she would never be with.

text: Hurt, humiliated and heartbroken, Donna turns to Eric, who offers his sympathy. When a shaken-up, crying Donna tells him she wants to be with him again, he refuses, believing that she did not really want him for who he was but simply wanted a way to feel better about herself and would most likely dump him when someone better came along. A tearful Donna pleads with him to take her back but he refuses to be her "second choice". Eric is unwavering in his decision, until his father and mother pointed out to him that he was being an idiot. Even Kitty, who normally doted over him, called him a "dumbass".

text: Unable to handle being rejected by her first love, an emotionally wrecked Donna flees Point Place for California, where she lives with her mother and tries to sort out her feelings. She decides she truly does love Eric and tries to call him but couldn't get hold of him; she suspects he no longer wants her and has moved on to another girl, leaving her rather depressed. But then, to her delight, Eric shows up in California looking for her, and the two very romantically reunite and return to Point Place. When Donna comes home from California, the normally easy-going Bob sends her to a Catholic school as punishment, an act that Donna deeply resents and hates for the remainder of the school year. This occasion also gave the writers/creators an opportunity to change Donna's common "lumberjack" attire as she now wore, for a few episodes, the school's uniform consisting of a plaid skirt, a white shirt and long white knee-high socks. Her new looks also provided openings for jokes from the boys about Donna's sexiness, which underlies their views of her throughout the series, no matter what type of attire she is wearing.

text: In season five, Eric ignores the objections of their friends and proposes to her at the water tower, which Donna accepts. Once Red and Kitty find out about the engagement, they are shocked. Kitty in particular, reacted badly, claiming that Donna is trying to snatch her "baby" away from her. Despite enduring a great deal of flak (mostly from Red), Eric stays loyal to Donna and their marriage plans, to where finally Red accepts that his son has become a man and gives them his blessing. Donna and Eric prepare to leave Point Place together and go to college in Madison. However, just as they are packing their stuff in the Vista Cruiser, Fez and Laurie announce their marriage so Fez can stay in the country after graduation. Red is so shocked at this, he has a heart attack. As a result, Eric decides to stay in Point Place and help support the family. Donna ends up putting off going to college in Madison so that she can stay with Eric. Eventually though, their wedding falls through at the end of season six when Eric, worried that marrying Donna would hold her back, fails to show up for their rehearsal.

text: Season 8[edit]

text: After Eric's departure from the show before season eight, it is assumed that they still keep the relationship intact. However, Donna tells her friends that Eric has broken up with her in the eighth-season episode "Long Away", when Fez and Jackie suspect that she is cheating on Eric with the new cast character, Randy (Josh Meyers). Donna tells them that Eric did this three weeks earlier. There were hints leading up to the breakup when Eric calls Kitty but not Donna, even though she is awake at 4AM waiting for him to call her. Also, when Donna is at the Foremans' for Red and Kitty's 25th anniversary, Eric calls his parents and Kitty gives the phone to Donna, but Eric spoke to her only briefly before hanging up, claiming he had to "go to class".

text: Donna then begins dating Randy, seemingly not caring about her long-standing relationship having deteriorated. Donna finally ends it when she believes that things are moving too fast, and that she is substituting Randy for Eric. This was further evidenced when Kitty catches Randy and Donna kissing in Eric's bedroom, and she accuses Donna of replacing Eric with Randy, departing from her usual rivalry with Donna over being the main woman in Eric's life.

text: In the final episode, Eric returns to Point Place for the New Year and he and Donna kiss. It is presumed that they end up together again at the end of the series and the end of the 1970s.

text: Character and personality[edit]

text: This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (November 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: Donna resides in the fictional Wisconsin town of Point Place, where she lives with her parents, Midge and Bob Pinciotti. Early in the series, her younger sister, 14-year-old Tina (played by Amanda Fuller), appears in the episode "Eric's Burger Job"[1] but is never seen again, nor do other characters mention her after the first season. At the end of the season 2 episode "Vanstock", this is made fun of when a narrator asks "Whatever happened to Midge's other daughter, Tina?" Donna also has an older sister, Valerie Pinciotti ("Eric's Birthday"). She is apparently in college as revealed by Midge. As Eric is turning 17, Midge shows Kitty a book of poems that helped her "when Valerie went off to school". These are examples of "Chuck Cunningham Syndrome" (see Happy Days).

text: An intelligent, witty teenager with feminist ideals, Donna is outwardly confident and strong, at times to the point of coming across as arrogant, self-righteous, and overconfident. She calls upon these personal qualities to deal with her personal issues, such as her parents' shaky relationship and the revelation that they conceived her while in high school. She believes that she's had it the hardest out of the group until Hyde is revealed to have faced most of these problems and not once complained. The characteristics and physical appearance of Donna Pinciotti were actually based on a girl who grew up in the same neighborhood as Mark Brazil in Dunkirk, NY. Donna actually dated Hyde and never was with Eric, AKA Mark Brazil.

text: Though despite her overly confident attitude, she herself has her own insecurities such as her big feet, her parents' screwed up marriage and her trust in her relationship with Eric. A prime example of this is in the episode "Eric's Panties". Eric has an attractive girl as his lab partner who has a reputation of being a slut. At first, Donna doesn't really care but she finds panties in his car and genuinely believes that Eric cheated on her. She shows a completely insecure side of herself and is more than prepared to hurt him. They are later revealed to be Midge's panties from when she and Bob had sex in Eric's car.

text: She has some difficulty expressing her feminine side, because she views traditional feminine traits as restraining and outdated. She dislikes skirts, makeup, and dresses, and insists on wearing jeans at all times, but she will dress nice for special occasions and tried "being pretty" for her prom and for a trip to a nightclub, where the bouncer judged her "foxy". As another exception, after her wedding with Eric was called off, she decides to change her looks and dyes her hair blonde. Jackie Burkhart repeatedly calls Donna a "lumberjack" and a "giant", due to her penchant for plaid shirts and her tall stature. She even described Donna by saying "She's nice and all, but she kinda dresses like a trucker". She also teases Donna for her gargantuan feet, calling her "bigfoot" and saying things like Donna's shoes are big enough for Jackie to fit her own shoes into.

text: Nonetheless, Donna still considers herself feminine, at times becoming insulted when people overlook it. When Kitty Forman needed two people with a "feminine touch" to decorate for Hyde's birthday party, she chose Jackie and Fez. An angry Donna wanted to "kick her ass" for that, insisting "What the hell? I'm feminine! Damn it, why can't anybody freakin' see that?!" This suggests that while Donna takes pride in her feminist beliefs, she still considers herself feminine, and simply doesn't want to restrict herself to "girly" activities. In several episodes, she is flattered at being perceived as an object of desire, especially when she becomes "Hot Donna" at a radio station.

text: Jackie appoints herself as Donna's best friend in the early seasons, often giving her advice that sounds superficial and useless, but often turns out to be unnervingly true. For example, in the "Battle of the Sexists" episode, Jackie states to Donna that, "Eric would never want her (Donna) to be his girlfriend if she kept beating him at everything, especially sports". Jackie genuinely thinks that she's better looking than Donna, ever since their first meeting in junior high and that Donna is generally not attractive or interesting, yet still thinks Donna could do better than Eric. When angry or annoyed at Donna, Jackie will often refer to her as a "giant" or "Amazon"; when Donna goes blonde, she calls her "blonde tardo". Despite their differences, Donna eventually accepts Jackie and decides to keep an eye on her and keep her out of trouble, since Jackie doesn't always show the best common sense, and on more than one occasion, Donna has ridiculed Jackie for her stupidity and small stature, calling her a "midget" or "mosquito".

text: All five of the boys have harbored sexual feelings toward Donna. In addition to Eric, three of the others attempted to sleep with her (Kelso attempts to seduce her after going to roller disco, Hyde at Jackie's ski cabin and Fez impersonating Eric in a Storm Trooper outfit; none of these attempts are successful) and four have romantic interest in her (Eric, Hyde, Casey and Randy).

text: Despite many of the guys' obvious attraction to her, she only dated two of the main characters, with Jackie having the most boyfriends within the main cast. Donna is with Eric for six seasons, and she is hoping they could have been together, but as she says herself: "It was all Eric's fault for taking that stupid job."

text: In Season 1, Episode 2 it is revealed that Donna is one month older than Eric. In the episode "Good Company", it is revealed through context that Donna's birthday is sometime in January.

text: Other appearances[edit]

text: Actress Rosie Marcel portrayed the character in the British version Days Like These.

tag: ul


document_title: Lost in Space (2018 TV series)

question_text: who plays dr smith on lost in space 2018

text: Lost in Space (2018 TV series)

text: Premise[edit]

text: In the year 2048 the Robinson family is selected for the 24th mission of the Resolute, an interstellar spacecraft which will carry selected families to colonize a new world. The Resolute was built after a celestial object, dubbed "The Christmas Star" by the media, crashed into Earth a few years earlier, threatening humanity's survival on Earth. Before they reach their destination, an alien robot breaches the Resolute's hull. Some of the families are forced to evacuate the mothership in their short-range Jupiter spacecraft. The Robinsons and other colonists crash-land on a nearby habitable planet, where they battle the strange new environment and their own personal demons as they attempt to find a way back to the Resolute.[1]

text: Cast[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text:
Molly Parker as Maureen Robinson, a fearless and brilliant aerospace engineer taking her family on the mission to colonize Alpha Centauri for a new life on a better world. She is a mission commander. She is married to John Robinson and is the biological mother of all three children.[3]
Toby Stephens as John Robinson, a former U.S. Navy SEAL, and husband to Maureen. He is the biological father of Maureen's two youngest children.[4]
Maxwell Jenkins as Will Robinson, the 11-year-old son and youngest child of Maureen and John Robinson. He forms a tight bond with the Robot, whom he saves from destruction during a forest fire.[5]
Taylor Russell as Judy Robinson, Maureen's 18-year-old biracial daughter and eldest child. She is a mission doctor, having received accelerated medical training.[6][7]
Mina Sundwall as Penny Robinson, the 15-year-old daughter and middle Robinson child.[7][8]
Ignacio Serricchio as Don West, a mechanic who also smuggles luxury goods. He has a chicken named Debbie, which he claims to be lucky.[9]
Parker Posey as Dr. Smith. She is a criminal and a psychopath who uses other people's identities to claim their belongings. Dr. Smith, whose real name is June Harris, stole her sister Jessica's identity and place on the colony ship. There she impersonates a Dr. Zachary Smith, to take his seat on an evacuating Jupiter ship. After landing on the planet, Dr. Smith attempts to sabotage the Jupiters' chances of being rescued by the Resolute while manipulating and gaslighting the survivors to avoid prosecution for her crimes.[10] The theft of the doctor's identity is a reference to the corresponding Dr. Smith character of the original TV series.[11]
Brian Steele as the Robot,[12] an alien mechanoid being that Will encounters on the planet that his family crash lands on. The robot has a different form from the ones on the previous series and movie.[13]

text: Recurring[edit]

text: Introduced in Season 1[edit]

text:
Raza Jaffrey as Victor Dhar, an educated and officious man with a sense of entitlement. Victor has been a career-builder and politician from a young age. His arrogance and impatience masks an underlying fear that it will be discovered that he is not quite good enough.[14]
Ajay Friese as Vijay Dhar, Victor’s son and Penny’s love interest.
Cary-Hiroyuki Tagawa as Hiroki Watanabe, a scientist and friend of Maureen.
Kiki Sukezane as Aiko Watanabe, Hiroki’s daughter.
Yukari Komatsu as Naoko Watanabe, Hiroki’s wife.
Veenu Sandhu as Prisha Dhar, Victor's wife.
Sibongile Mlambo as Angela Goddard, a survivor struggling from post tramatic stress syndrome following her husband’s death during the Resolute attack.
Adam Greydon Reid as Peter Beckert, a survivor.
Amelia Burstyn as Diane, a survivor.
Iain Belcher as Evan, a survivor.
Shaun Parkes as Captain Radic, commander of the Resolute.

text: Guest[edit]

text:
Selma Blair as Jessica Harris, June's wealthy younger sister.
Bill Mumy as Dr. Zachary Smith, the real Dr. Smith, whose identity June steals.

text: Episodes[edit]

text: This section's plot summaries may be too long or excessively detailed. Please help improve them by removing unnecessary details and making them more concise. (May 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text:
No.
Title
Directed by
Written by
Original release date

1
"Impact"
Neil Marshall
Matt Sazama & Burk Sharpless
April 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)

The spacecraft Resolute, a large ferris wheel style ship, is carrying colonists, including the Robinson family, to Alpha Centauri. The Resolute is attacked and colonists escape in their “family home” Jupiter landing crafts but are hurled into a wormhole, crash-landing on an Earth-like planet. The Robinsons' craft, Jupiter 2, crashes into a glacial bed. The family evacuates with some supplies before their craft sinks in rapidly freezing water. Eldest Robinson child, Judy, a doctor, dives to the ship to retrieve power equipment. She becomes encased in ice, and with five hours of oxygen left in Judy's suit, John and son, Will, set out to collect magnesium that will melt the ice. Judy guides her sister, Penny, through a medical procedure to treat their injured mother, Maureen. Inside a cave, Will falls down a chasm, landing at the edge of a forest. John radios Will, saying he will return after saving Judy. Alone, Will finds a crashed alien ship and a dismembered robot that he helps to self-repair. In return, it saves Will as a forest fire nearly engulfs them. The family attempt to free Judy, but a sudden rainstorm hinders their progress. Will and the Robot arrive, and the Robot rescues Judy. In a flashback scene, a woman steals the identity of Dr. Zachary Smith and boards a Jupiter landing craft, along with Don West and Tam Roughneck.

2
"Diamonds in the Sky"
Neil Marshall
Matt Sazama & Burk Sharpless
April 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)

Don West, Smith, and Debbie the chicken survive the Jupiter 18 landing. While looking for other survivors, they find Angela Goddard, who is barely alive. When a storm approaches, Don and Angela take cover while Smith heads out. Meanwhile, the robot melts more ice to allow the Robinsons to start the process of recovering the Jupiter 2. Maureen, John, Will and the robot hike to another Jupiter crash site and then later to the robot's ship. They leave Penny and Judy behind, instructing them how to carefully raise the ship out of the ice. Inside the alien ship, a holographic map of the planet is activated, showing John and Maureen they are in an unidentified galaxy. Outside, the robot touches the ship's hull, creating a mental connection to Will who learns what really happened on the Resolute. He decides to say nothing to his parents about the vision. When Penny sees the storm approaching and is unable to reach her parents to warn them, she raises the Jupiter 2 enough that the garage can be opened. She drives the ship's Chariot all-terrain vehicle to reach her family just in front of the storm. As they head back to Jupiter 2, they pass Don who sees them only to discover his flare gun is missing. The Robinsons see a flare and find Smith, who claims to be alone, returning with her to the Jupiter 2.

3
"Infestation"
Tim Southam
Zack Estrin
April 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)

In a flashback, Dr. Smith is revealed to be June Harris, the older, ex-con sister of Jess Harris, a successful businesswoman. Jess offers June her entire estate as she is leaving Earth, but June drugs Jess and assumes her sister's identity. Aboard the Resolute, she bumps into her sister's lover and there is a struggle ending in him getting blown out an airlock. June is arrested but escapes during the robot's attack. In the present, Maureen explains they are trillions of light years from Earth. At night, the ice layer over Jupiter 2 cracks, endangering the ship. They rush to complete repairs, but the engines are losing fuel. When Will and the robot discover large eel-like creatures in the conduits, the robot locks Will, along with Smith, in the storeroom for safety. The glacier shifts, which forces the crew to make an emergency take-off after flushing the eels from the engines. They escape with just enough fuel to land near a forest region. Comms pick up radio communication from other Jupiter survivors and also from Resolute, who are searching for survivors. Somebody hacks the onboard 3D printer to make a gun. Will finds it, and hides the gun under his mattress, unaware Smith is watching.

4
"The Robinsons Were Here"
Alice Troughton
Katherine Collins
April 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)

Stuck without fuel, the family initiates Jupiter 2’s colonization expansion protocol. Smith and Will discuss the robot, who does Will's bidding. Don West and Angela are rescued by the Watanabe family; Hiroki Watanabe reunites with John and Maureen at Jupiter 11 where Judy treats Angela. She tells Judy about the attack on Resolute. The Robinsons learn none of the other surviving families can fly due to the giant eels consuming fuel. John notices that one crash site is not a Jupiter ship. Maureen, John, and Don go there and discover the Resolute's comm dish. They realize the Resolute cannot hear them. Maureen also discovers contraband whiskey that Don smuggled aboard. Judy confronts Will about the robot, and he reveals he knew it attacked the Resolute. They decide to hide the robot in a nearby cave, unaware Smith is following them. On the way, they are spotted by Vijay Dhar, the son of another survivor group. Penny blackmails him to say nothing about the robot, having found and keeping an item he dropped. While away, Maureen and John discuss their marital problems. The next morning, the kids return to Jupiter 2 before their parents arrive. Smith talks to the robot inside the cave, attempting to instill distrust in it about Will. When John and Maureen return home, the kids tell them that the robot wandered away.

5
"Transmission"
Deborah Chow
Kari Drake
April 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)

The surviving colonists build a light tower to try to signal the Resolute. Maureen, noticing strange weather phenomena, conducts an experiment using a weather balloon. She discovers the sun is paired with a deadly black hole, and that the disturbances will only get worse until the planet is entirely unhabitable. Will ignores Penny and Judy's advice to tell their father about the Robot. Penny develops a crush on Vijay, flirting with him as they move supplies. Don confronts Dr. Smith about the stolen flare gun, though she claims she took it by mistake. In a flashback, Maureen and the kids discuss pros versus cons of going to Alpha Centauri. Judy and Don discuss his smuggling activities. He also reveals his suspicions about Dr. Smith's identity. Judy confronts Dr. Smith about this, but she lies and instead casts doubt on Don. When the colonists activate the light signal, Dr. Smith sneaks away and shuts off the perimeter fence, allowing a large reptilian creature to enter the camp and destroy the light tower. Smith tells John about the kids hiding the robot. When another creature shows up, Dr. Smith tells Will to call the robot. It does save the survivors, but only after Will tells it to defend itself against the creatures. It assumes its original multi-limb form to do this. The colonists witness all of this and recognize the robot from the attack on the Resolute.

6
"Eulogy"
Vincenzo Natali
Ed McCardie
April 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)

Maureen tells her family about the black hole but is afraid the other colonists might panic. John has a heated argument with the other survivors about the robot. In the end, despite an enraged Angela claiming it killed her husband, John convinces the community to allow the robot to stay and takes Will on a hike to discuss Will's responsibility for the robot's actions. He has Will fetch 27 large stones to build a memorial to the casualties. Don takes the community leader and Vijay's father, Victor Dhar, to his Jupiter which crashed in the desert where there are none of the eel-like creatures, and wants money for its fuel. Don also retrieves identification of the real Dr. Smith, later showing Judy. Maureen learns that Hiroki also knows the planet is dying. Penny tells Vijay about the black hole but swears him to secrecy, and they share a kiss. Back at camp, Dr. Smith makes the distraught Angela recount the horrifying details of the robot attack. The emotional Angela enters the hub with the gun Dr. Smith has taken from Will's bunk and arranged for her to find. When she shoots at the robot it goes into attack mode and accidentally injures John before Will gets it to stop. Distraught, Will takes the robot to a cliff and orders it to walk off. He then places a stone on the memorial for the robot.

7
"Pressurized"
Tim Southam
Vivian Lee
April 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)

While driving back to Jupiter 2, Judy is about to tell Dr. Smith she knows the truth about her when Don stops her. When Will is confronted by his mother, he confirms the robot 3D-printed the gun and that he hid it. Anyone could have taken the gun, though. Dr. Smith refuses blame for Angela's attack, and suggests Victor Dhar might have taken the gun. John and Maureen's rover gets stuck in a tar pit. As they sink to the bottom, Maureen admits to doctoring Will's test results. To escape the vehicle, Maureen uses the helium weather balloon to create a shielded path to the surface. Meanwhile, Smith locates the destroyed robot, but cannot get it to reassemble. Don's group speeds through a dangerous geyser field but a tube shakes loose and when Evan fixes the problem, a geyser blast flips the tanker on top of him. Victor realizes that a rock has punctured the tanker and if they move it they'll lose most of the fuel. Despite this Don reluctantly sides with Judy and lifts the tanker, spilling the fuel, but Evan dies anyway. Back on Jupiter 2, Dr. Smith finally manages to reactivate the robot. When Victor returns home, Vijay tells him about the planet's coming demise. Victor decides to use what fuel they did retrieve to launch their own Jupiter 4.

8
"Trajectory"
Stephen Surjik
Katherine Collins & Kari Drake
April 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)

Maureen cannot talk Victor out of launching, but John sneaks aboard the Dhar's Jupiter 4 and triggers the emergency shut down. Later, he explains to the gathered colonists how the planet is about to become uninhabitable. Penny breaks off with Vijay for him telling his father. Maureen has a plan on how to launch despite the limited fuel, stripping out non-essential modules, and relying on old-school manual piloting. Judy tells Maureen the truth about the real Dr. Smith aboard Don's Jupiter. Returning to Jupiter 2, Maureen confines Dr. Smith to a holding cell. Dr. Smith now claims she is really Jessica Harris, a physicist. Maureen tells John about Smith, and he tells her that Don believes the Jupiter 4 is still too heavy to take off. With life support also removed, the pilot now needs a spacesuit and will need to withstand extreme G-forces. They select John, but not even he can regain consciousness fast enough to make all the maneuvers alone. When the Resolute sends a message that due to Hawking radiation they must leave the planet's orbit within 24 hours, Don reluctantly agrees to help pilot the ship. With his assistance the test run is a success. As John and Don launch in the Jupiter 4, Dr. Smith tricks Will and escapes to knock out Maureen right when John needs her instructions. With everyone watching, the ship explodes mid-air and John and Don are presumed dead.

9
"Resurrection"
Tim Southam
Story by : Daniel McLellan
Teleplay by : Kari Drake
April 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)

Will tries to signal his father using his radio, convinced he survived the explosion. Dr. Smith drives Maureen to the alien wreck, where she tells Maureen she did not know Maureen was needed for the ship launch, and when she knocked her out, the ship exploded. She does promise to help Maureen get her children off the planet, if she in return helps Dr. Smith with the alien ship. Will discovers that the rocks he collected in the cave are petrified biomass that can fuel the Jupiter ships to reach the Resolute. While the colonists gather to harvest the biomass, Judy leaves to find Maureen. The colonists find enough biomass to power all the Jupiters, but they must sneak it out quietly so as to not wake winged predators roosting in the cave. When John manages to send a signal, Penny and others are trapped inside the cave after the creatures wake up. Throughout the episode, flashbacks reveal the Christmas Star not to be a meteor but an alien craft, and that its engine was used to build The Resolute. The robot's attack was an attempt to retrieve the stolen engine. The group trapped in the cave manage to narrowly escape. Judy tracks Smith and Maureen. She manages to disable Dr. Smith, but the robot reactivates and is revealed to obey the Doctor's commands.

10
"Danger, Will Robinson"
David Nutter
Matt Sazama & Burk Sharpless
April 13, 2018 (2018-04-13)

John and Don survived the explosion and are clinging to ship wreckage in orbit, with only a few hours of oxygen left. Will is upset to learn the robot now serves Dr. Smith. John responds to Will, confirming that he and Don are still alive. Will tries to bond with the robot again but is rejected. Victor Dhar hails them from the Resolute, telling them it will leave in just over an hour. Maureen traps Dr Smith and the robot in order to search for John and Don. Just as they are about to retrieve them, Dr Smith and the robot escape. Maureen leads the robot into the garage, as an alien ship arrives to retrieve the engine. When the alien robot is about to kill Will, his robot remembers him and attacks the alien robot, saving Will. In the fight, both robots are flung out into space and the garage ramp is damaged. Will goes outside the hull to manually close the hatch. Afterwards, he loses his grip but is saved by his father, who was rescued by Dr. Smith. With everyone safely back on the Jupiter, Maureen is grateful to Dr. Smith, but still locks her up. Before they can dock with the Resolute, the alien engine aboard the Jupiter 2 sends it and the Robinsons to a different galaxy. Will recognizes its shape from the robot's sand drawing: Danger.

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: In October 2014, it was announced that Legendary Television and Synthesis Entertainment were developing a new reboot of Lost in Space and had hired screenwriting duo Matt Sazama and Burk Sharpless to pen the pilot episodes.[15] In November 2015, Netflix landed the project.[16][17] On June 29, 2016, Netflix ordered a full 10 episode season of Lost in Space, with Zack Estrin as executive producer and showrunner. Sazama, Sharpless, Kevin Burns, Jon Jashni, Neil Marshall, and Marc Helwig also serve as executive producers.[18]

text: Toby Stephens, speaking about the distinction between the original series and the new show:

text: "It's a very clever, modern reworking of a great story. Lost in Space is Swiss Family Robinson in space, so it was a story that existed before Lost in Space. The fundamental story is that it's a family that is lost in a difficult, life-threatening situation and how it challenges them and brings them closer together. That is essentially what the story of this is, it's just the context is a lot more modern. It's a more modern take on the '60s version. If you look at it now, it's charming, but it seems so innocent. Whereas this is a version that is for our time. I'm hoping it will still have humour and humanity in it, but it has obviously gotta be for a modern audience."[19]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Production on the first season began in February 2017, in Vancouver, British Columbia, and concluded in July 2017.[20][21]

text: Release[edit]

text: The series was released on April 13, 2018, on Netflix.[1] On March 31, 2018, the pilot of the series was screened at Awesome Con in Washington, D.C., followed by a Q&A session with series executive producers and writers Matt Sazama and Burk Sharpless.[22]

text: Reception[edit]

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 69% approval rating with an average rating of 6.21/10, based on 65 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "Lost in Space's production values are ambitious enough to attract sci-fi adventure fans, while the story's large heart adds an emotional anchor to all the deep space derring-do."[23] Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a normalized score of 58 out of 100 based on 27 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[24]

text: David Griffin of IGN gave the first season a rating of 8.5/10 calling it "an excellent sci-fi adventure with a slight villain problem," giving particular praise to the Robinson family, while criticizing Parker Posey's Dr. Smith as an unsophisticated and one-dimensional character that lacks redeeming qualities.[25] In contrast, Jen Chaney of Vulture characterized Posey's performance as providing "understated, sly comedic touches".[26]


document_title: Blood bank

question_text: who started the system of blood bank and plasma bank

text: Blood bank

text: Types of blood transfused[edit]

text: Whole blood or blood with RBC, is transfused to patients with anaemia/iron deficiency. It also helps to improve the oxygen saturation in blood. It can be stored at 1.0 °C-6.0 °C for 35–45 days. Platelet transfusion, is transfused to those who suffer from low platelet count. This can be stored at room temperature for 5–7 days. Plasma transfusion is indicated to patients with liver failure, severe infections or serious burns. Fresh frozen plasma can be stored at a very low temperature of -25 °C for up to 12 months.

text: History[edit]

text: While the first blood transfusions were made directly from donor to receiver before coagulation, it was discovered that by adding anticoagulant and refrigerating the blood it was possible to store it for some days, thus opening the way for the development of blood banks. John Braxton Hicks was the first to experiment with chemical methods to prevent the coagulation of blood at St Mary's Hospital, London in the late 19th century. His attempts, using phosphate of soda, however, were unsuccessful.

text: The first non-direct transfusion was performed on March 27, 1914 by the Belgian doctor Albert Hustin, though this was a diluted solution of blood. The Argentine doctor Luis Agote used a much less diluted solution in November of the same year. Both used sodium citrate as an anticoagulant.[1]

text: First World War[edit]

text: The First World War acted as a catalyst for the rapid development of blood banks and transfusion techniques. Canadian Lieutenant Lawrence Bruce Robertson was instrumental in persuading the Royal Army Medical Corps to adopt the use of blood transfusion at the Casualty Clearing Stations for the wounded. In October 1915, Robertson performed his first wartime transfusion with a syringe to a patient suffering from multiple shrapnel wounds. He followed this up with four subsequent transfusions in the following months and his success was reported to Sir Walter Morley Fletcher, director of the Medical Research Committee.

text: Robertson published his findings in the British Medical Journal in 1916 and, with the help of a few like minded individuals (including the eminent physician Edward William Archibald who introduced the citrate anticoagulant method), was able to persuade the British authorities of the merits of blood transfusion. Robertson went on to establish the first blood transfusion apparatus at a Casualty Clearing Station on the Western Front in the spring of 1917.[2]

text: Oswald Hope Robertson, a medical researcher and U.S. Army officer was attached to the RAMC in 1917, where he was instrumental in establishing the first blood banks, in preparation for the anticipated Third Battle of Ypres.[3] He used sodium citrate as the anticoagulant and the blood was extracted from punctures in the vein and was stored in bottles at British and American Casualty Clearing Stations along the Front. He also experimented with preserving separated red blood cells in iced bottles.[2] Geoffrey Keynes, a British surgeon, developed a portable machine that could store blood to enable transfusions to be carried out more easily.

text: Expansion[edit]

text: The world's first blood donor service was established in 1921 by the secretary of the British Red Cross, Percy Oliver.[4] Volunteers were subjected to a series of physical tests to establish their blood group. The London Blood Transfusion Service was free of charge and expanded rapidly. By 1925, it was providing services for almost 500 patients and it was incorporated into the structure of the British Red Cross in 1926. Similar systems were established in other cities including Sheffield, Manchester and Norwich, and the service's work began to attract international attention. Similar services were established in France, Germany, Austria, Belgium, Australia and Japan.[5]

text: Vladimir Shamov and Sergei Yudin in the USSR pioneered the transfusion of cadaveric blood from recently deceased donors. Yudin performed such a transfusion successfully for the first time on March 23, 1930 and reported his first seven clinical transfusions with cadaveric blood at the Fourth Congress of Ukrainian Surgeons at Kharkiv in September. Also in 1930, Yudin organized the world's first blood bank at the Nikolay Sklifosovsky Institute, which set an example for the establishment of further blood banks in different regions of the Soviet Union and in other countries. By the mid-1930s the Soviet Union had set up a system of at least 65 large blood centers and more than 500 subsidiary ones, all storing "canned" blood and shipping it to all corners of the country.

text: One of the earliest blood banks was established by Frederic Durán-Jordà during the Spanish Civil War in 1936. Duran joined the Transfusion Service at the Barcelona Hospital at the start of the conflict, but the hospital was soon overwhelmed by the demand for blood and the paucity of available donors. With support from the Department of Health of the Spanish Republican Army, Duran established a blood bank for the use of wounded soldiers and civilians. The 300–400 ml of extracted blood was mixed with 10% citrate solution in a modified Duran Erlenmeyer flask. The blood was stored in a sterile glass enclosed under pressure at 2 °C. During 30 months of work, the Transfusion Service of Barcelona registered almost 30,000 donors, and processed 9,000 liters of blood. [6]

text: In 1937 Bernard Fantus, director of therapeutics at the Cook County Hospital in Chicago, established the first hospital blood bank in the United States.[7] In creating a hospital laboratory that preserved, refrigerated and stored donor blood, Fantus originated the term "blood bank". Within a few years, hospital and community blood banks were established across the United States.[8]

text: Frederic Durán-Jordà fled to Britain in 1938, and worked with Dr Janet Vaughan at the Royal Postgraduate Medical School at Hammersmith Hospital to create a system of national blood banks in London.[9] With the outbreak of war looking imminent in 1938, the War Office created the Army Blood Supply Depot (ABSD) in Bristol headed by Lionel Whitby and in control of four large blood depots around the country. British policy through the war was to supply military personnel with blood from centralized depots, in contrast to the approach taken by the Americans and Germans where troops at the front were bled to provide required blood. The British method proved to be more successful at adequately meeting all requirements and over 700,000 donors were bled over the course of the war. This system evolved into the National Blood Transfusion Service established in 1946, the first national service to be implemented. [10]

text: Medical advances[edit]

text: A blood collection program was initiated in the US in 1940 and Edwin Cohn pioneered the process of blood fractionation. He worked out the techniques for isolating the serum albumin fraction of blood plasma, which is essential for maintaining the osmotic pressure in the blood vessels, preventing their collapse.

text: The use of blood plasma as a substitute for whole blood and for transfusion purposes was proposed as early as 1918, in the correspondence columns of the British Medical Journal, by Gordon R. Ward. At the onset of World War II, liquid plasma was used in Britain. A large project, known as 'Blood for Britain' began in August 1940 to collect blood in New York City hospitals for the export of plasma to Britain. A dried plasma package was developed, which reduced breakage and made the transportation, packaging, and storage much simpler.[11]

text: The resulting dried plasma package came in two tin cans containing 400 cc bottles. One bottle contained enough distilled water to reconstitute the dried plasma contained within the other bottle. In about three minutes, the plasma would be ready to use and could stay fresh for around four hours.[12] Charles R. Drew was appointed medical supervisor, and he was able to transform the test tube methods into the first successful mass production technique.

text: Another important breakthrough came in 1939–40 when Karl Landsteiner, Alex Wiener, Philip Levine, and R.E. Stetson discovered the Rhesus blood group system, which was found to be the cause of the majority of transfusion reactions up to that time. Three years later, the introduction by J.F. Loutit and Patrick L. Mollison of acid-citrate-dextrose (ACD) solution, which reduced the volume of anticoagulant, permitted transfusions of greater volumes of blood and allowed longer term storage.

text: Carl Walter and W.P. Murphy, Jr. introduced the plastic bag for blood collection in 1950. Replacing breakable glass bottles with durable plastic bags allowed for the evolution of a collection system capable of safe and easy preparation of multiple blood components from a single unit of whole blood.

text: Further extending the shelf life of stored blood was an anticoagulant preservative, CPDA-1, introduced in 1979, which increased the blood supply and facilitated resource-sharing among blood banks.

text: Collection and processing[edit]

text: In the U.S., certain standards are set for the collection and processing of each blood product. "Whole blood" (WB) is the proper name for one defined product, specifically unseparated venous blood with an approved preservative added. Most blood for transfusion is collected as whole blood. Autologous donations are sometimes transfused without further modification, however whole blood is typically separated (via centrifugation) into its components, with red blood cells (RBC) in solution being the most commonly used product. Units of WB and RBC are both kept refrigerated at 33.8 to 42.8 °F (1.0 to 6.0 °C), with maximum permitted storage periods (shelf lives) of 35 and 42 days respectively. RBC units can also be frozen when buffered with glycerol, but this is an expensive and time-consuming process, and is rarely done. Frozen red cells are given an expiration date of up to ten years and are stored at −85 °F (−65 °C).

text: The less-dense blood plasma is made into a variety of frozen components, and is labeled differently based on when it was frozen and what the intended use of the product is. If the plasma is frozen promptly and is intended for transfusion, it is typically labeled as fresh frozen plasma. If it is intended to be made into other products, it is typically labeled as recovered plasma or plasma for fractionation. Cryoprecipitate can be made from other plasma components. These components must be stored at 0 °F (−18 °C) or colder, but are typically stored at −22 °F (−30 °C). The layer between the red cells and the plasma is referred to as the buffy coat and is sometimes removed to make platelets for transfusion. Platelets are typically pooled before transfusion and have a shelf life of 5 to 7 days, or 3 days once the facility that collected them has completed their tests. Platelets are stored at room temperature (72 °F or 22 °C) and must be rocked/agitated. Since they are stored at room temperature in nutritive solutions, they are at relatively high risk for growing bacteria.

text: Some blood banks also collect products by apheresis. The most common component collected is plasma via plasmapheresis, but red blood cells and platelets can be collected by similar methods. These products generally have the same shelf life and storage conditions as their conventionally-produced counterparts.

text: Donors are sometimes paid; in the U.S. and Europe, most blood for transfusion is collected from volunteers while plasma for other purposes may be from paid donors.

text: Most collection facilities as well as hospital blood banks also perform testing to determine the blood type of patients and to identify compatible blood products, along with a battery of tests (e.g. disease) and treatments (e.g. leukocyte filtration) to ensure or enhance quality. The increasingly recognized problem of inadequate efficacy of transfusion[13] is also raising the profile of RBC viability and quality. Notably, U.S. hospitals spend more on dealing with the consequences of transfusion-related complications than on the combined costs of buying, testing/treating, and transfusing their blood.[14]

text: Storage and management[edit]

text: Routine blood storage is 42 days or 6 weeks for stored packed red blood cells (also called "StRBC" or "pRBC"), by far the most commonly transfused blood product, and involves refrigeration but usually not freezing. There has been increasing controversy about whether a given product unit's age is a factor in transfusion efficacy, specifically on whether "older" blood directly or indirectly increases risks of complications.[15][16] Studies have not been consistent on answering this question,[17] with some showing that older blood is indeed less effective but with others showing no such difference; nevertheless, as storage time remains the only available way to estimate quality status or loss, a first-in-first-out inventory management approach is standard presently.[18] It is also important to consider that there is large variability in storage results for different donors, which combined with limited available quality testing, poses challenges to clinicians and regulators seeking reliable indicators of quality for blood products and storage systems.[19]

text: Transfusions of platelets are comparatively far less numerous, but they present unique storage/management issues. Platelets may only be stored for 7 days,[20] due largely to their greater potential for contamination, which is in turn due largely to a higher storage temperature.

text: RBC storage lesion[edit]

text: Insufficient transfusion efficacy can result from red blood cell (RBC) blood product units damaged by so-called storage lesion—a set of biochemical and biomechanical changes which occur during storage. With red cells, this can decrease viability and ability for tissue oxygenation.[21] Although some of the biochemical changes are reversible after the blood is transfused,[22] the biomechanical changes are less so,[23] and rejuvenation products are not yet able to adequately reverse this phenomenon.[24]

text: Current regulatory measures are in place to minimize RBC storage lesion—including a maximum shelf life (currently 42 days), a maximum auto-hemolysis threshold (currently 1% in the US), and a minimum level of post-transfusion RBC survival in vivo (currently 75% after 24 hours).[25] However, all of these criteria are applied in a universal manner that does not account for differences among units of product;[19] for example, testing for the post-transfusion RBC survival in vivo is done on a sample of healthy volunteers, and then compliance is presumed for all RBC units based on universal (GMP) processing standards. RBC survival does not guarantee efficacy, but it is a necessary prerequisite for cell function, and hence serves as a regulatory proxy. Opinions vary as to the best way to determine transfusion efficacy in a patient in vivo.[26] In general, there are not yet any in vitro tests to assess quality deterioration or preservation for specific units of RBC blood product prior to their transfusion, though there is exploration of potentially relevant tests based on RBC membrane properties such as erythrocyte deformability[27] and erythrocyte fragility (mechanical).[28]

text: Many physicians have adopted a so-called "restrictive protocol"—whereby transfusion is held to a minimum—due in part to the noted uncertainties surrounding storage lesion, in addition to the very high direct and indirect costs of transfusions,[14] along with the increasing view that many transfusions are inappropriate or use too many RBC units.[29][30]

text: Platelet storage lesion[edit]

text: Platelet storage lesion is a very different phenomenon from RBC storage lesion, due largely to the different functions of the products and purposes of the respective transfusions, along with different processing issues and inventory management considerations.[31]

text: Alternative inventory and release practices[edit]

text: Although as noted the primary inventory-management approach is first in, first out (FIFO) to minimize product expiration, there are some deviations from this policy—both in current practice as well as under research. For example, exchange transfusion of RBC in neonates calls for use of blood product that is five days old or less, to "ensure" optimal cell function.[32] Also, some hospital blood banks will attempt to accommodate physicians' requests to provide low-aged RBC product for certain kinds of patients (e.g. cardiac surgery).[33]

text: More recently, novel approaches are being explored to complement or replace FIFO. One is to balance the desire to reduce average product age (at transfusion) with the need to maintain sufficient availability of non-outdated product, leading to a strategic blend of FIFO with last in, first out (LIFO).[34]

text: Long-term storage[edit]

text: "Long-term" storage for all blood products is relatively uncommon, compared to routine/short-term storage. Cryopreservation of red blood cells is done to store rare units for up to ten years.[35] The cells are incubated in a glycerol solution which acts as a cryoprotectant ("antifreeze") within the cells. The units are then placed in special sterile containers in a freezer at very low temperatures. The exact temperature depends on the glycerol concentration.