document_title: Heavy metals

question_text: where are the heaviest metals located in a periodic table

text: Heavy metals

text: Definitions[edit]

text:
Heat map of heavy metals in the periodic table

1
2
3

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

1
H

He

2
Li
Be

B
C
N
O
F
Ne

3
Na
Mg

Al
Si
P
S
Cl
Ar

4
K
Ca
Sc

Ti
V
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr

5
Rb
Sr
Y

Zr
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
I
Xe

6
Cs
Ba
La

Hf
Ta
W
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn

7
Fr
Ra
Ac

Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg
Cn
Nh
Fl
Mc
Lv
Ts
Og

Ce
Pr
Nd
Pm
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu

Th
Pa
U
Np
Pu
Am
Cm
Bk
Cf
Es
Fm
Md
No
Lr

Number of criteria met:
Number of elements:

10
3

9
5

8
14

6–7
56

4–5
14

1–3
4

0
3

nonmetals
19

This table shows the number of heavy metal criteria met by each metal, out of the ten criteria listed in this section i.e. two based on density, three on atomic weight, two on atomic number, and three on chemical behaviour.[n 1] It illustrates the lack of agreement surrounding the concept, with the possible exception of mercury, lead and bismuth.
Six elements near the end of periods (rows) 4 to 7 sometimes considered metalloids are treated here as metals, including germanium (Ge), arsenic (As), selenium (Se), antimony (Sb), tellurium (Te), and astatine (At).[15][n 2] Oganesson (Og) is treated as a nonmetal.
Metals enclosed by a dashed line have (or, for At and Fm–Ts, are predicted to have) densities of more than 5 g/cm3.

text: There is no widely agreed criterion-based definition of a heavy metal. Different meanings may be attached to the term, depending on the context. In metallurgy, for example, a heavy metal may be defined on the basis of density,[16] whereas in physics the distinguishing criterion might be atomic number,[17] and a chemist would likely be more concerned with chemical behaviour.[9]

text: Density criteria range from above 3.5 g/cm3 to above 7 g/cm3.[2] Atomic weight definitions can range from greater than sodium (atomic weight 22.98);[2] greater than 40 (excluding s- and f-block metals, hence starting with scandium);[3] or more than 200, i.e. from mercury onwards.[4] Atomic numbers of heavy metals are generally given as greater than 20 (calcium);[2] sometimes this is capped at 92 (uranium).[5] Definitions based on atomic number have been criticised for including metals with low densities. For example, rubidium in group (column) 1 of the periodic table has an atomic number of 37 but a density of only 1.532 g/cm3, which is below the threshold figure used by other authors.[18] The same problem may occur with atomic weight based definitions.[19]

text: Criteria based on chemical behaviour or periodic table position have been used or suggested. The United States Pharmacopeia includes a test for heavy metals that involves precipitating metallic impurities as their coloured sulfides."[6][n 3] In 1997, Stephen Hawkes, a chemistry professor writing in the context of fifty years' experience with the term, said it applied to "metals with insoluble sulfides and hydroxides, whose salts produce colored solutions in water and whose complexes are usually colored". On the basis of the metals he had seen referred to as heavy metals, he suggested it would useful to define them as (in general) all the metals in periodic table columns 3 to 16 that are in row 4 or greater, in other words, the transition metals and post-transition metals.[9][n 4] The lanthanides satisfy Hawkes' three-part description; the status of the actinides is not completely settled.[n 5][n 6]

text: In biochemistry, heavy metals are sometimes defined—on the basis of the Lewis acid (electronic pair acceptor) behaviour of their ions in aqueous solution—as class B and borderline metals.[40] In this scheme, class A metal ions prefer oxygen donors; class B ions prefer nitrogen or sulfur donors; and borderline or ambivalent ions show either class A or B characteristics, depending on the circumstances.[n 7] Class A metals, which tend to have low electronegativity and form bonds with large ionic character, are the alkali and alkaline earths, aluminium, the group 3 metals, and the lanthanides and actinides.[n 8] Class B metals, which tend to have higher electronegativity and form bonds with considerable covalent character, are mainly the heavier transition and post-transition metals. Borderline metals largely comprise the lighter transition and post-transition metals (plus arsenic and antimony). The distinction between the class A metals and the other two categories is sharp.[44] A frequently cited proposal[n 9] to use these classification categories instead of the more evocative[10] name heavy metal has not been widely adopted.[46]

text: List of heavy metals based on density[edit]

text: A density of more than 5 g/cm3 is sometimes mentioned as a common heavy metal defining factor[47] and, in the absence of a unanimous definition, is used to populate this list and (unless otherwise stated) guide the remainder of the article. Metalloids meeting the applicable criteria–arsenic and antimony for example—are sometimes counted as heavy metals, particularly in environmental chemistry,[48] as is the case here. Selenium (density 4.8 g/cm3)[49] is also included in the list. It falls marginally short of the density criterion and is less commonly recognised as a metalloid[15] but has a waterborne chemistry similar in some respects to that of arsenic and antimony.[50] Other metals sometimes classified or treated as "heavy" metals, such as beryllium[51] (density 1.8 g/cm3),[52] aluminium[51] (2.7 g/cm3),[53] calcium[54] (1.55 g/cm3),[55] and barium[54] (3.6 g/cm3)[56] are here treated as light metals and, in general, are not further considered.

text:
Produced mainly by commercial mining (informally classified by economic significance)

Strategic (30)

Hydrogen

Helium

Lithium
Beryllium

Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon

Sodium
Magnesium

Aluminium
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Chlorine
Argon

Potassium
Calcium
Scandium

Titanium
Vanadium
Chromium
Manganese
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Copper
Zinc
Gallium
Germanium
Arsenic
Selenium
Bromine
Krypton

Rubidium
Strontium
Yttrium

Zirconium
Niobium
Molybdenum
Technetium
Ruthenium
Rhodium
Palladium
Silver
Cadmium
Indium
Tin
Antimony
Tellurium
Iodine
Xenon

Caesium
Barium
Lanthanum
Cerium
Praseodymium
Neodymium
Promethium
Samarium
Europium
Gadolinium
Terbium
Dysprosium
Holmium
Erbium
Thulium
Ytterbium
Lutetium
Hafnium
Tantalum
Tungsten
Rhenium
Osmium
Iridium
Platinum
Gold
Mercury (element)
Thallium
Lead
Bismuth
Polonium
Astatine
Radon

Francium
Radium
Actinium
Thorium
Protactinium
Uranium
Neptunium
Plutonium
Americium
Curium
Berkelium
Californium
Einsteinium
Fermium
Mendelevium
Nobelium
Lawrencium
Rutherfordium
Dubnium
Seaborgium
Bohrium
Hassium
Meitnerium
Darmstadtium
Roentgenium
Copernicium
Nihonium
Flerovium
Moscovium
Livermorium
Tennessine
Oganesson

Considered vital to multiple nations'
strategic interests[57]

These 30 include 22 listed here and
8 below (6 precious & 2 commodity).

Antimony†
Cerium
Dysprosium
Erbium
Europium
Gadolinium
Gallium
Germanium†
Holmium
Indium
Lanthanum
Lutetium
Neodymium
Niobium
Praseodymium
Samarium
Tantalum
Terbium
Thulium
Tungsten
Uranium
Ytterbium

Precious (8)

Hydrogen

Helium

Lithium
Beryllium

Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon

Sodium
Magnesium

Aluminium
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Chlorine
Argon

Potassium
Calcium
Scandium

Titanium
Vanadium
Chromium
Manganese
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Copper
Zinc
Gallium
Germanium
Arsenic
Selenium
Bromine
Krypton

Rubidium
Strontium
Yttrium

Zirconium
Niobium
Molybdenum
Technetium
Ruthenium
Rhodium
Palladium
Silver
Cadmium
Indium
Tin
Antimony
Tellurium
Iodine
Xenon

Caesium
Barium
Lanthanum
Cerium
Praseodymium
Neodymium
Promethium
Samarium
Europium
Gadolinium
Terbium
Dysprosium
Holmium
Erbium
Thulium
Ytterbium
Lutetium
Hafnium
Tantalum
Tungsten
Rhenium
Osmium
Iridium
Platinum
Gold
Mercury (element)
Thallium
Lead
Bismuth
Polonium
Astatine
Radon

Francium
Radium
Actinium
Thorium
Protactinium
Uranium
Neptunium
Plutonium
Americium
Curium
Berkelium
Californium
Einsteinium
Fermium
Mendelevium
Nobelium
Lawrencium
Rutherfordium
Dubnium
Seaborgium
Bohrium
Hassium
Meitnerium
Darmstadtium
Roentgenium
Copernicium
Nihonium
Flerovium
Moscovium
Livermorium
Tennessine
Oganesson

Rare and costly[58]

Strategic:

Iridium
Osmium
Palladium
Platinum
Rhodium
Ruthenium

Non-strategic:

Gold
Silver

Commodity (9)

Hydrogen

Helium

Lithium
Beryllium

Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon

Sodium
Magnesium

Aluminium
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Chlorine
Argon

Potassium
Calcium
Scandium

Titanium
Vanadium
Chromium
Manganese
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Copper
Zinc
Gallium
Germanium
Arsenic
Selenium
Bromine
Krypton

Rubidium
Strontium
Yttrium

Zirconium
Niobium
Molybdenum
Technetium
Ruthenium
Rhodium
Palladium
Silver
Cadmium
Indium
Tin
Antimony
Tellurium
Iodine
Xenon

Caesium
Barium
Lanthanum
Cerium
Praseodymium
Neodymium
Promethium
Samarium
Europium
Gadolinium
Terbium
Dysprosium
Holmium
Erbium
Thulium
Ytterbium
Lutetium
Hafnium
Tantalum
Tungsten
Rhenium
Osmium
Iridium
Platinum
Gold
Mercury (element)
Thallium
Lead
Bismuth
Polonium
Astatine
Radon

Francium
Radium
Actinium
Thorium
Protactinium
Uranium
Neptunium
Plutonium
Americium
Curium
Berkelium
Californium
Einsteinium
Fermium
Mendelevium
Nobelium
Lawrencium
Rutherfordium
Dubnium
Seaborgium
Bohrium
Hassium
Meitnerium
Darmstadtium
Roentgenium
Copernicium
Nihonium
Flerovium
Moscovium
Livermorium
Tennessine
Oganesson

Traded by the tonne on the LME

Strategic:

Chromium
Cobalt

Non-strategic:

Copper
Iron
Lead
Molybdenum
Nickel
Tin
Zinc

Minor (14)

Hydrogen

Helium

Lithium
Beryllium

Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon

Sodium
Magnesium

Aluminium
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Chlorine
Argon

Potassium
Calcium
Scandium

Titanium
Vanadium
Chromium
Manganese
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Copper
Zinc
Gallium
Germanium
Arsenic
Selenium
Bromine
Krypton

Rubidium
Strontium
Yttrium

Zirconium
Niobium
Molybdenum
Technetium
Ruthenium
Rhodium
Palladium
Silver
Cadmium
Indium
Tin
Antimony
Tellurium
Iodine
Xenon

Caesium
Barium
Lanthanum
Cerium
Praseodymium
Neodymium
Promethium
Samarium
Europium
Gadolinium
Terbium
Dysprosium
Holmium
Erbium
Thulium
Ytterbium
Lutetium
Hafnium
Tantalum
Tungsten
Rhenium
Osmium
Iridium
Platinum
Gold
Mercury (element)
Thallium
Lead
Bismuth
Polonium
Astatine
Radon

Francium
Radium
Actinium
Thorium
Protactinium
Uranium
Neptunium
Plutonium
Americium
Curium
Berkelium
Californium
Einsteinium
Fermium
Mendelevium
Nobelium
Lawrencium
Rutherfordium
Dubnium
Seaborgium
Bohrium
Hassium
Meitnerium
Darmstadtium
Roentgenium
Copernicium
Nihonium
Flerovium
Moscovium
Livermorium
Tennessine
Oganesson

Neither strategic, precious, nor commodity

Arsenic†
Bismuth
Cadmium
Hafnium
Manganese
Mercury
Protactinium
Rhenium
Selenium†
Tellurium†
Thallium
Thorium
Vanadium
Zirconium

Produced mainly by artificial transmutation (informally classified by stability)

Long-lived (15)

Hydrogen

Helium

Lithium
Beryllium

Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon

Sodium
Magnesium

Aluminium
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Chlorine
Argon

Potassium
Calcium
Scandium

Titanium
Vanadium
Chromium
Manganese
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Copper
Zinc
Gallium
Germanium
Arsenic
Selenium
Bromine
Krypton

Rubidium
Strontium
Yttrium

Zirconium
Niobium
Molybdenum
Technetium
Ruthenium
Rhodium
Palladium
Silver
Cadmium
Indium
Tin
Antimony
Tellurium
Iodine
Xenon

Caesium
Barium
Lanthanum
Cerium
Praseodymium
Neodymium
Promethium
Samarium
Europium
Gadolinium
Terbium
Dysprosium
Holmium
Erbium
Thulium
Ytterbium
Lutetium
Hafnium
Tantalum
Tungsten
Rhenium
Osmium
Iridium
Platinum
Gold
Mercury (element)
Thallium
Lead
Bismuth
Polonium
Astatine
Radon

Francium
Radium
Actinium
Thorium
Protactinium
Uranium
Neptunium
Plutonium
Americium
Curium
Berkelium
Californium
Einsteinium
Fermium
Mendelevium
Nobelium
Lawrencium
Rutherfordium
Dubnium
Seaborgium
Bohrium
Hassium
Meitnerium
Darmstadtium
Roentgenium
Copernicium
Nihonium
Flerovium
Moscovium
Livermorium
Tennessine
Oganesson

Half-life greater than 1 day

Actinium¶
Americium
Berkelium
Californium
Curium
Dubnium
Einsteinium
Fermium
Mendelevium
Neptunium¶
Plutonium¶
Polonium¶
Promethium¶
Radium¶
Technetium¶

Ephemeral (16)

Hydrogen

Helium

Lithium
Beryllium

Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fluorine
Neon

Sodium
Magnesium

Aluminium
Silicon
Phosphorus
Sulfur
Chlorine
Argon

Potassium
Calcium
Scandium

Titanium
Vanadium
Chromium
Manganese
Iron
Cobalt
Nickel
Copper
Zinc
Gallium
Germanium
Arsenic
Selenium
Bromine
Krypton

Rubidium
Strontium
Yttrium

Zirconium
Niobium
Molybdenum
Technetium
Ruthenium
Rhodium
Palladium
Silver
Cadmium
Indium
Tin
Antimony
Tellurium
Iodine
Xenon

Caesium
Barium
Lanthanum
Cerium
Praseodymium
Neodymium
Promethium
Samarium
Europium
Gadolinium
Terbium
Dysprosium
Holmium
Erbium
Thulium
Ytterbium
Lutetium
Hafnium
Tantalum
Tungsten
Rhenium
Osmium
Iridium
Platinum
Gold
Mercury (element)
Thallium
Lead
Bismuth
Polonium
Astatine
Radon

Francium
Radium
Actinium
Thorium
Protactinium
Uranium
Neptunium
Plutonium
Americium
Curium
Berkelium
Californium
Einsteinium
Fermium
Mendelevium
Nobelium
Lawrencium
Rutherfordium
Dubnium
Seaborgium
Bohrium
Hassium
Meitnerium
Darmstadtium
Roentgenium
Copernicium
Nihonium
Flerovium
Moscovium
Livermorium
Tennessine
Oganesson

Half-life less than 1 day

Astatine ‡ ¶
Bohrium
Copernicium
Darmstadtium
Flerovium
Hassium
Lawrencium
Livermorium
Meitnerium
Moscovium
Nihonium
Nobelium
Roentgenium
Rutherfordium
Seaborgium
Tennessine

†
Antimony, arsenic, germanium and tellurium are commonly recognised as metalloids; selenium less commonly so.[15]

‡
Astatine is predicted to be a metal.[59]

All isotopes of these 34 elements are unstable and hence radioactive. While this is also true of bismuth, it is not so marked since its half-life of 19 billion billion years is over a billion times the 13.8 billion year estimated age of the universe.[60][61]

¶
These eight elements do occur naturally but in amounts too small for economically viable extraction.[62]

text: Origins and use of the term[edit]

text: The heaviness of naturally occurring metals such as gold, copper, and iron may have been noticed in prehistory and, in light of their malleability, led to the first attempts to craft metal ornaments, tools, and weapons.[63] All metals discovered from then until 1809 had relatively high densities; their heaviness was regarded as a singularly distinguishing criterion.[64]

text: From 1809 onwards, light metals such as sodium, potassium, and strontium were isolated. Their low densities challenged conventional wisdom and it was proposed to refer to them as metalloids (meaning "resembling metals in form or appearance").[65] This suggestion was ignored; the new elements came to be recognised as metals, and the term metalloid was then used to refer to nonmetallic elements and, later, elements that were hard to describe as either metals or nonmetals.[66]

text: An early use of the term "heavy metal" dates from 1817, when the German chemist Leopold Gmelin divided the elements into nonmetals, light metals, and heavy metals.[67] Light metals had densities of 0.860–5.0 g/cm3; heavy metals 5.308–22.000.[68][n 10] The term later became associated with elements of high atomic weight or high atomic number.[18] It is sometimes used interchangeably with the term heavy element. For example, in discussing the history of nuclear chemistry, Magee[69] notes that the actinides were once thought to represent a new heavy element transition group whereas Seaborg and co-workers, "favoured ... a heavy metal rare-earth like series ...". In astronomy, however, a heavy element is any element heavier than hydrogen and helium.[70]

text: Criticism[edit]

text: In 2002, Scottish toxicologist John Duffus reviewed the definitions used over the previous 60 years and concluded they were so diverse as to effectively render the term meaningless.[71] Along with this finding, the heavy metal status of some metals is occasionally challenged on the grounds that they are too light, or are involved in biological processes, or rarely constitute environmental hazards. Examples include scandium (too light);[18][72] vanadium to zinc (biological processes);[73] and rhodium, indium, and osmium (too rare).[74]

text: Popularity[edit]

text: Despite its questionable meaning, the term heavy metal appears regularly in scientific literature. A 2010 study found that it had been increasingly used and seemed to have become part of the language of science.[75] It is said to be an acceptable term, given its convenience and familiarity, as long as it is accompanied by a strict definition.[40] The counterparts to the heavy metals, the light metals, are alluded to by The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society as including "aluminium, magnesium, beryllium, titanium, lithium, and other reactive metals."[76] The named metals have densities of 0.534 to 4.54 g/cm3.

text: Biological role[edit]

text:
Amount of heavy metals in
an average 70 kg human body

Element
Milligrams[77]

Iron
4000
4000

Zinc
2500
2500

Lead[n 11]
120
120

Copper
70
70

Tin[n 12]
30
30

Vanadium
20
20

Cadmium
20
20

Nickel[n 13]
15
15

Selenium
14
14

Manganese
12
12

Other[n 14]
200
200

Total
7000

text: Trace amounts of some heavy metals, mostly in period 4, are required for certain biological processes. These are iron and copper (oxygen and electron transport); cobalt (complex syntheses and cell metabolism); zinc (hydroxylation);[82] vanadium and manganese (enzyme regulation or functioning); chromium (glucose utilisation); nickel (cell growth); arsenic (metabolic growth in some animals and possibly in humans) and selenium (antioxidant functioning and hormone production).[83] Periods 5 and 6 contain fewer essential heavy metals, consistent with the general pattern that heavier elements tend to be less abundant and that scarcer elements are less likely to be nutritionally essential.[84] In period 5, molybdenum is required for the catalysis of redox reactions; cadmium is used by some marine diatoms for the same purpose; and tin may be required for growth in a few species.[85] In period 6, tungsten is required by some bacteria for metabolic processes.[86] A deficiency of any of these period 4–6 essential heavy metals may increase susceptibility to heavy metal poisoning[87] (conversely, an excess may also have adverse biological effects). An average 70 kg human body is about 0.01% heavy metals (~7 g, equivalent to the weight of two dried peas, with iron at 4 g, zinc at 2.5 g, and lead at 0.12 g comprising the three main constituents), 2% light metals (~1.4 kg, the weight of a bottle of wine) and nearly 98% nonmetals (mostly water).[88][n 15]

text: A few non-essential heavy metals have been observed to have biological effects. Gallium, germanium (a metalloid), indium, and most lanthanides can stimulate metabolism, and titanium promotes growth in plants[89] (though it is not always considered a heavy metal).

text: Toxicity[edit]

text: Heavy metals are often assumed to be highly toxic or damaging to the environment.[90] Some are, while certain others are toxic only if taken in excess or encountered in certain forms.

text: Environmental heavy metals[edit]

text: Chromium, arsenic, cadmium, mercury, and lead have the greatest potential to cause harm on account of their extensive use, the toxicity of some of their combined or elemental forms, and their widespread distribution in the environment.[91] Hexavalent chromium, for example, is highly toxic as are mercury vapour and many mercury compounds.[92] These five elements have a strong affinity for sulfur; in the human body they usually bind, via thiol groups (–SH), to enzymes responsible for controlling the speed of metabolic reactions. The resulting sulfur-metal bonds inhibit the proper functioning of the enzymes involved; human health deteriorates, sometimes fatally.[93] Chromium (in its hexavalent form) and arsenic are carcinogens; cadmium causes a degenerative bone disease; and mercury and lead damage the central nervous system.

text:
Chromium crystals
and 1 cm3 cube

Arsenic, sealed in a
container to stop tarnishing

Cadmium bar
and 1 cm3 cube

Mercury being
poured into a petri dish

Oxidised lead
nodules and 1 cm3 cube

text:
Lead is the most prevalent heavy metal contaminant.[94] Levels in the aquatic environments of industrialised societies have been estimated to be two to three times those of pre-industrial levels.[95] As a component of tetraethyl lead, (CH
3CH
2)
4Pb, it was used extensively in gasoline during the 1930s–1970s.[96] Although the use of leaded gasoline was largely phased out in North America by 1996, soils next to roads built before this time retain high lead concentrations.[97] Later research demonstrated a statistically significant correlation between the usage rate of leaded gasoline and violent crime in the United States; taking into account a 22-year time lag (for the average age of violent criminals), the violent crime curve virtually tracked the lead exposure curve.[98]

text: Other heavy metals noted for their potentially hazardous nature, usually as toxic environmental pollutants, include manganese (central nervous system damage);[99] cobalt and nickel (carcinogens);[100] copper,[101] zinc,[102] selenium[103] and silver[104] (endocrine disruption, congenital disorders, or general toxic effects in fish, plants, birds, or other aquatic organisms); tin, as organotin (central nervous system damage);[105] antimony (a suspected carcinogen);[106] and thallium (central nervous system damage).[101][n 16][n 17]

text: Nutritionally essential heavy metals[edit]

text:
Heavy metals essential for life can be toxic if taken in excess; some have notably toxic forms. Vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) is carcinogenic in animals and, when inhaled, causes DNA damage.[101] The purple permanganate ion MnO–
4 is a liver and kidney poison.[110] Ingesting more than 0.5 grams of iron can induce cardiac collapse; such overdoses most commonly occur in children and may result in death within 24 hours.[101] Nickel carbonyl (Ni2(CO)4), at 30 parts per million, can cause respiratory failure, brain damage and death.[101] Imbibing a gram or more of copper sulfate (Cu(SO4)2) can be fatal; survivors may be left with major organ damage.[111] More than five milligrams of selenium is highly toxic; this is roughly ten times the 0.45 milligram recommended maximum daily intake;[112] long-term poisoning can have paralytic effects.[101][n 18]

text: Other heavy metals[edit]

text: A few other non-essential heavy metals have one or more toxic forms. Kidney failure and fatalities have been recorded arising from the ingestion of germanium dietary supplements (~15 to 300 g in total consumed over a period of two months to three years).[101] Exposure to osmium tetroxide (OsO4) may cause permanent eye damage and can lead to respiratory failure[114] and death.[115] Indium salts are toxic if more than few milligrams are ingested and will affect the kidneys, liver, and heart.[116] Cisplatin (PtCl2(NH3)2), which is an important drug used to kill cancer cells, is also a kidney and nerve poison.[101] Bismuth compounds can cause liver damage if taken in excess; insoluble uranium compounds, as well as the dangerous radiation they emit, can cause permanent kidney damage.[117]

text: Exposure sources[edit]

text: Heavy metals can degrade air, water, and soil quality, and subsequently cause health issues in plants, animals, and people, when they become concentrated as a result of industrial activities.[118] Common sources of heavy metals in this context include mining and industrial wastes; vehicle emissions; lead-acid batteries; fertilisers; paints; and treated timber;[119] aging water supply infrastructure;[120] and microplastics floating in the world's oceans.[121] Recent examples of heavy metal contamination and health risks include the occurrence of Minamata disease, in Japan (1932–1968; lawsuits ongoing as of 2016);[122] the Bento Rodrigues dam disaster in Brazil,[123] and high levels of lead in drinking water supplied to the residents of Flint, Michigan, in the north-east of the United States.[124]

text: Formation, abundance, occurrence, and extraction[edit]

text:
Heavy metals in the Earth's crust:

abundance and main occurrence or source[n 19]

1
2
3

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

1
H

He

2
Li
Be

B
C
N
O
F
Ne

3
Na
Mg

Al
Si
P
S
Cl
Ar

4
K
Ca
Sc

Ti
V
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr

5
Rb
Sr
Y

Zr
Nb
Mo

Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
 I
Xe

6
Cs
Ba
La

Hf
Ta
W
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi

7

Ce
Pr
Nd

Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu

Th

U

   Most abundant (7004563000000000000♠56300 ppm by weight)

   Rare (0.01–0.99 ppm)

   Abundant (100–7002999000000000000♠999 ppm)

   Very rare (0.0001–0.0099 ppm)

   Uncommon (1–99 ppm)

Heavy metals left of the dividing line occur (or are sourced) mainly as lithophiles; those to the right, as chalcophiles except gold (a siderophile) and tin (a lithophile).

text: Heavy metals up to the vicinity of iron (in the periodic table) are largely made via stellar nucleosynthesis. In this process, lighter elements from hydrogen to silicon undergo successive fusion reactions inside stars, releasing light and heat and forming heavier elements with higher atomic numbers.[128]

text: Heavier heavy metals are not usually formed this way since fusion reactions involving such nuclei would consume rather than release energy.[129] Rather, they are largely synthesised (from elements with a lower atomic number) by neutron capture, with the two main modes of this repetitive capture being the s-process and the r-process. In the s-process ("s" stands for "slow"), singular captures are separated by years or decades, allowing the less stable nuclei to beta decay,[130] while in the r-process ("rapid"), captures happen faster than nuclei can decay. Therefore, the s-process takes a more or less clear path: for example, stable cadmium-110 nuclei are successively bombarded by free neutrons inside a star until they form cadmium-115 nuclei which are unstable and decay to form indium-115 (which is nearly stable, with a half-life 7004300000000000000♠30000 times the age of the universe). These nuclei capture neutrons and form indium-116, which is unstable, and decays to form tin-116, and so on.[128][131][n 20] In contrast, there is no such path in the r-process. The s-process stops at bismuth due to the short half-lives of the next two elements, polonium, and astatine, which decay to bismuth or lead. The r-process is so fast it can skip this zone of instability and go on to create heavier elements such as thorium and uranium.[133]

text: Heavy metals condense in planets as a result of stellar evolution and destruction processes. Stars lose much of their mass when it is ejected late in their lifetimes, and sometimes thereafter as a result of a neutron star merger,[134][n 21] thereby increasing the abundance of elements heavier than helium in the interstellar medium. When gravitational attraction causes this matter to coalesce and collapse new stars and planets are formed.[136]

text: The Earth's crust is made of approximately 5% of heavy metals by weight, with iron comprising 95% of this quantity. Light metals (~20%) and nonmetals (~75%) make up the other 95% of the crust.[125] Despite their overall scarcity, heavy metals can become concentrated in economically extractable quantities as a result of mountain building, erosion, or other geological processes.[137]

text: Heavy metals are primarily found as lithophiles (rock-loving) or chalcophiles (ore-loving). Lithophile heavy metals are mainly f-block elements and the more reactive of the d-block elements. They have a strong affinity for oxygen and mostly exist as relatively low density silicate minerals.[138] Chalcophile heavy metals are mainly the less reactive d-block elements, and period 4–6 p-block metals and metalloids. They are usually found in (insoluble) sulfide minerals. Being denser than the lithophiles, hence sinking lower into the crust at the time of its solidification, the chalcophiles tend to be less abundant than the lithophiles.[139]

text: On the other hand, gold is a siderophile, or iron-loving element. It does not readily form compounds with either oxygen or sulfur.[140] At the time of the Earth's formation, and as the most noble (inert) of metals, gold sank into the core due to its tendency to form high-density metallic alloys. Consequently, it is a relatively rare metal.[141] Some other (less) noble heavy metals—molybdenum, rhenium, the platinum group metals (ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium, and platinum), germanium, and tin—can be counted as siderophiles but only in terms of their primary occurrence in the Earth (core, mantle and crust), rather the crust. These metals otherwise occur in the crust, in small quantities, chiefly as chalcophiles (less so in their native form).[142][n 22]

text: Concentrations of heavy metals below the crust are generally higher, with most being found in the largely iron-silicon-nickel core. Platinum, for example, comprises approximately 1 part per billion of the crust whereas its concentration in the core is thought to be nearly 6,000 times higher.[143][144] Recent speculation suggests that uranium (and thorium) in the core may generate a substantial amount of the heat that drives plate tectonics and (ultimately) sustains the Earth's magnetic field.[145][n 23]

text: The winning of heavy metals from their ores is a complex function of ore type, the chemical properties of the metals involved, and the economics of various extraction methods. Different countries and refineries may use different processes, including those that differ from the brief outlines listed here.

text: Broadly speaking, and with some exceptions, lithophile heavy metals can be extracted from their ores by electrical or chemical treatments, while chalcophile heavy metals are obtained by roasting their sulphide ores to yield the corresponding oxides, and then heating these to obtain the raw metals.[147][n 24] Radium occurs in quantities too small to be economically mined and is instead obtained from spent nuclear fuels.[150] The chalcophile platinum group metals (PGM) mainly occur in small (mixed) quantities with other chalcophile ores. The ores involved need to be smelted, roasted, and then leached with sulfuric acid to produce a residue of PGM. This is chemically refined to obtain the individual metals in their pure forms.[151] Compared to other metals, PGM are expensive due to their scarcity[152] and high production costs.[153]

text: Gold, a siderophile, is most commonly recovered by dissolving the ores in which it is found in a cyanide solution.[154] The gold forms a dicyanoaurate(I), for example: 2 Au + H2O +½ O2 + KCN → 2 K[Au(CN)2] + 2 KOH. Zinc is added to the mix and, being more reactive than gold, displaces the gold: 2[Au(CN)2] + Zn → K2[Zn(CN)4] + 2 Au. The gold precipitates out of solution as a sludge, and is filtered off and melted.[155]

text: Properties compared with light metals[edit]

text: Some general physical and chemical properties of light and heavy metals are summarised in the table. The comparison should be treated with caution since the terms light metal and heavy metal are not always consistently defined. Also the physical properties of hardness and tensile strength can vary widely depending on purity, grain size and pre-treatment.[156]

text:
Properties of light and heavy metals

Physical properties
Light metals
Heavy metals

Density
Usually lower
Usually higher

Hardness[157]
Tend to be soft, easily cut or bent
Most are quite hard

Thermal expansivity[158]
Mostly higher
Mostly lower

Melting point
Mostly low[159]
Low to very high[160]

Tensile strength[161]
Mostly lower
Mostly higher

Chemical properties
Light metals
Heavy metals

Periodic table location
Most found in groups 1 and 2[162]
Nearly all found in groups 3 through 16

Abundance in Earth's crust[125][163]
More abundant
Less abundant

Main occurrence (or source)
Lithophiles[127]
Lithophiles or chalcophiles (Au is a siderophile)

Reactivity[76][163]
More reactive
Less reactive

Sulfides
Soluble to insoluble[n 25]
Extremely insoluble[168]

Hydroxides
Soluble to insoluble[n 26]
Generally insoluble[172]

Salts[165]
Mostly form colourless solutions in water
Mostly form coloured solutions in water

Complexes
Mostly colourless[173]
Mostly coloured[174]

Biological role[175]
Include macronutrients (Na, Mg, K, Ca)
Include micronutrients (V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Mo)

text: These properties make it relatively easy to distinguish a light metal like sodium from a heavy metal like tungsten, but the differences become less clear at the boundaries. Light structural metals like beryllium, scandium, and titanium have some of the characteristics of heavy metals, such as higher melting points;[n 27] post-transition heavy metals like zinc, cadmium, and lead have some of the characteristics of light metals, such as being relatively soft, having lower melting points,[n 28] and forming mainly colourless complexes.[20][22][23]

text: Uses[edit]

text: Heavy metals are present in nearly all aspects of modern life. Iron may be the most common as it accounts for 90% of all refined metals. Platinum may be the most ubiquitous given it is said to be found in, or used to produce, 20% of all consumer goods.[180]

text: Some common uses of heavy metals depend on the general characteristics of metals such as electrical conductivity and reflectivity or the general characteristics of heavy metals such as density, strength, and durability. Other uses depend on the characteristics of the specific element, such as their biological role as nutrients or poisons or some other specific atomic properties. Examples of such atomic properties include: partly filled d- or f- orbitals (in many of the transition, lanthanide, and actinide heavy metals) that enable the formation of coloured compounds;[181] the capacity of most heavy metal ions (such as platinum,[182] cerium[183] or bismuth[184]) to exist in different oxidation states and therefore act as catalysts;[185] poorly overlapping 3d or 4f orbitals (in iron, cobalt, and nickel, or the lanthanide heavy metals from europium through thulium) that give rise to magnetic effects;[186] and high atomic numbers and electron densities that underpin their nuclear science applications.[187] Typical uses of heavy metals can be broadly grouped into the following six categories.[188][n 29]

text: Weight- or density-based[edit]

text: Some uses of heavy metals, including in sport, mechanical engineering, military ordnance, and nuclear science, take advantage of their relatively high densities. In underwater diving, lead is used as a ballast;[190] in handicap horse racing each horse must carry a specified lead weight, based on factors including past performance, so as to equalize the chances of the various competitors.[191] In golf, tungsten, brass, or copper inserts in fairway clubs and irons lower the centre of gravity of the club making it easier to get the ball into the air;[192] and golf balls with tungsten cores are claimed to have better flight characteristics.[193] In fly fishing, sinking fly lines have a PVC coating embedded with tungsten powder, so that they sink at the required rate.[194] In track and field sport, steel balls used in the hammer throw and shot put events are filled with lead in order to attain the minimum weight required under international rules.[195] Tungsten was used in hammer throw balls at least up to 1980; the minimum size of the ball was increased in 1981 to eliminate the need for what was, at that time, an expensive metal (triple the cost of other hammers) not generally available in all countries.[196] Tungsten hammers were so dense that they penetrated too deeply into the turf.[197]

text: In mechanical engineering, heavy metals are used for ballast in boats,[198] aeroplanes,[199] and motor vehicles;[200] or in balance weights on wheels and crankshafts,[201] gyroscopes, and propellers,[202] and centrifugal clutches,[203] in situations requiring maximum weight in minimum space (for example in watch movements).[199]

text:
The higher the projectile density, the more effectively it can penetrate heavy armor plate ... Os, Ir, Pt, and Re ... are expensive ... U offers an appealing combination of high density, reasonable cost and high fracture toughness.

AM Russell and KL Lee
Structure–property relations
in nonferrous metals (2005, p. 16)

tag: div

text: In military ordnance, tungsten or uranium is used in armour plating[204] and armour piercing projectiles,[205] as well as in nuclear weapons to increase efficiency (by reflecting neutrons and momentarily delaying the expansion of reacting materials).[206] In the 1970s, tantalum was found to be more effective than copper in shaped charge and explosively formed anti-armour weapons on account of its higher density, allowing greater force concentration, and better deformability.[207] Less-toxic heavy metals, such as copper, tin, tungsten, and bismuth, and probably manganese (as well as boron, a metalloid), have replaced lead and antimony in the green bullets used by some armies and in some recreational shooting munitions.[208] Doubts have been raised about the safety (or green credentials) of tungsten.[209]

text: Because denser materials absorb more radioactive emissions than lighter ones, heavy metals are useful for radiation shielding and to focus radiation beams in linear accelerators and radiotherapy applications.[210]

text: Strength- or durability-based[edit]

text: The strength or durability of heavy metals such as chromium, iron, nickel, copper, zinc, molybdenum, tin, tungsten, and lead, as well as their alloys, makes them useful for the manufacture of artefacts such as tools, machinery,[213] appliances,[214] utensils,[215] pipes,[214] railroad tracks,[216] buildings[217] and bridges,[218] automobiles,[214] locks,[219] furniture,[220] ships,[198] planes,[221] coinage[222] and jewellery.[223] They are also used as alloying additives for enhancing the properties of other metals.[n 31] Of the two dozen elements that have been used in the world's monetised coinage only two, carbon and aluminium, are not heavy metals.[225][n 32] Gold, silver, and platinum are used in jewellery[n 33] as are (for example) nickel, copper, indium, and cobalt in coloured gold.[228] Low-cost jewellery and children's toys may be made, to a significant degree, of heavy metals such as chromium, nickel, cadmium, or lead.[229]

text: Copper, zinc, tin, and lead are mechanically weaker metals but have useful corrosion prevention properties. While each of them will react with air, the resulting patinas of either various copper salts,[230] zinc carbonate, tin oxide, or a mixture of lead oxide, carbonate, and sulfate, confer valuable protective properties.[231] Copper and lead are therefore used, for example, as roofing materials;[232][n 34] zinc acts as an anti-corrosion agent in galvanised steel;[233] and tin serves a similar purpose on steel cans.[234]

text: The workability and corrosion resistance of iron and chromium are increased by adding gadolinium; the creep resistance of nickel is improved with the addition of thorium. Tellurium is added to copper and steel alloys to improve their machinability; and to lead to make it harder and more acid-resistant.[235]

text: Biological and chemical[edit]

text: The biocidal effects of some heavy metals have been known since antiquity.[237] Platinum, osmium, copper, ruthenium, and other heavy metals, including arsenic, are used in anti-cancer treatments, or have shown potential.[238] Antimony (anti-protozoal), bismuth (anti-ulcer), gold (anti-arthritic), and iron (anti-malarial) are also important in medicine.[239] Copper, zinc, silver, gold, or mercury are used in antiseptic formulations;[240] small amounts of some heavy metals are used to control algal growth in, for example, cooling towers.[241] Depending on their intended use as fertilisers or biocides, agrochemicals may contain heavy metals such as chromium, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, arsenic, cadmium, mercury, or lead.[242]

text: Selected heavy metals are used as catalysts in fuel processing (rhenium, for example), synthetic rubber and fibre production (bismuth), emission control devices (palladium), and in self-cleaning ovens (where cerium(IV) oxide in the walls of such ovens helps oxidise carbon-based cooking residues).[243] In soap chemistry, heavy metals form insoluble soaps that are used in lubricating greases, paint dryers, and fungicides (apart from lithium, the alkali metals and the ammonium ion form soluble soaps).[244]

text: Colouring and optics[edit]

text: The colours of glass, ceramic glazes, paints, pigments, and plastics are commonly produced by the inclusion of heavy metals (or their compounds) such as chromium, manganese, cobalt, copper, zinc, selenium, zirconium, molybdenum, silver, tin, praseodymium, neodymium, erbium, tungsten, iridium, gold, lead, or uranium.[246] Tattoo inks may contain heavy metals, such as chromium, cobalt, nickel, and copper.[247] The high reflectivity of some heavy metals is important in the construction of mirrors, including precision astronomical instruments. Headlight reflectors rely on the excellent reflectivity of a thin film of rhodium.[248]

text: Electronics, magnets, and lighting[edit]

text: Heavy metals or their compounds can be found in electronic components, electrodes, and wiring and solar panels where they may be used as either conductors, semiconductors, or insulators. Molybdenum powder is used in circuit board inks.[249] Ruthenium(IV) oxide coated titanium anodes are used for the industrial production of chlorine.[250] Home electrical systems, for the most part, are wired with copper wire for its good conducting properties.[251] Silver and gold are used in electrical and electronic devices, particularly in contact switches, as a result of their high electrical conductivity and capacity to resist or minimise the formation of impurities on their surfaces.[252] The semiconductors cadmium telluride and gallium arsenide are used to make solar panels. Hafnium oxide, an insulator, is used as a voltage controller in microchips; tantalum oxide, another insulator, is used in capacitors in mobile phones.[253] Heavy metals have been used in batteries for over 200 years, at least since Volta invented his copper and silver voltaic pile in 1800.[254] Promethium, lanthanum, and mercury are further examples found in, respectively, atomic, nickel-metal hydride, and button cell batteries.[255]

text: Magnets are made of heavy metals such as manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, niobium, bismuth, praseodymium, neodymium, gadolinium, and dysprosium. Neodymium magnets are the strongest type of permanent magnet commercially available. They are key components of, for example, car door locks, starter motors, fuel pumps, and power windows.[256]

text: Heavy metals are used in lighting, lasers, and light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Flat panel displays incorporate a thin film of electrically conducting indium tin oxide. Fluorescent lighting relies on mercury vapour for its operation. Ruby lasers generate deep red beams by exciting chromium atoms; the lanthanides are also extensively employed in lasers. Gallium, indium, and arsenic;[257] and copper, iridium, and platinum are used in LEDs (the latter three in organic LEDs).[258]

text: Nuclear[edit]

text: Niche uses of heavy metals with high atomic numbers occur in diagnostic imaging, electron microscopy, and nuclear science. In diagnostic imaging, heavy metals such as cobalt or tungsten make up the anode materials found in x-ray tubes.[262] In electron microscopy, heavy metals such as lead, gold, palladium, platinum, or uranium are used to make conductive coatings and to introduce electron density into biological specimens by staining, negative staining, or vacuum deposition.[263] In nuclear science, nuclei of heavy metals such as chromium, iron, or zinc are sometimes fired at other heavy metal targets to produce superheavy elements;[264] heavy metals are also employed as spallation targets for the production of neutrons[265] or radioisotopes such as astatine (using lead, bismuth, thorium, or uranium in the latter case).[266]

text: Notes[edit]

text:
Jump up ^ Criteria used were density:[2] (1) above 3.5 g/cm3; (2) above 7 g/cm3; atomic weight: (3) > 22.98;[2] (4) > 40 (excluding s- and f-block metals);[3] (5) > 200;[4] atomic number: (6) > 20; (7) 21–92;[5] chemical behaviour: (8) United States Pharmacopeia;[6][7][8] (9) Hawkes' periodic table-based definition (excluding the lanthanides and actinides);[9] and (10) Nieboer and Richardson's biochemical classifications.[10] Densities of the elements are mainly from Emsley.[11] Predicted densities have been used for At, Fr and Fm–Ts.[12] Indicative densities were derived for Fm, Md, No and Lr based on their atomic weights, estimated metallic radii,[13] and predicted close-packed crystalline structures.[14] Atomic weights are from Emsley,[11] inside back cover
Jump up ^ Metalloids were, however, excluded from Hawkes' periodic table-based definition given he noted it was "not necessary to decide whether semimetals [i.e. metalloids] should be included as heavy metals."[9]
Jump up ^ The test is not specific for any particular metals but is said to be capable of at least detecting Mo, Cu, Ag, Cd, Hg, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, and Bi.[7] In any event, when the test uses hydrogen sulfide as the reagent cannot detect Th, Ti, Zr, Nb, Ta, or Cr.[8]
Jump up ^ Transition and post-transition metals that do not usually form coloured complexes are Sc and Y in group 3;[20] Ag in group 11;[21] Zn and Cd in group 12;[20][22] and the metals of groups 13–16.[23]
Jump up ^ Lanthanide (Ln) sulfides and hydroxides are insoluble;[24] the latter can be obtained from aqueous solutions of Ln salts as coloured gelatinous precipitates;[25] and Ln complexes have much the same colour as their aqua ions (the majority of which are coloured).[26] Actinide (An) sulfides may or may not be insoluble, depending on the author. Divalent uranium monosulfide is not attacked by boiling water.[27] Trivalent actinide ions behave similarly to the trivalent lanthanide ions hence the sulfides in question may be insoluble but this is not explicitly stated.[28] Tervalent An sulfides decompose[29] but Edelstein et al. say they are soluble[30] whereas Haynes says thorium(IV) sulfide is insoluble.[31] Early in the history of nuclear fission it had been noted that precipitation with hydrogen sulfide was a "remarkably" effective way of isolating and detecting transuranium elements in solution.[32] In a similar vein, Deschlag writes that the elements after uranium were expected to have insoluble sulfides by analogy with third row transition metals. But he goes on to note that the elements after actinium were found to have properties different from those of the transition metals and claims they do not form insoluble sulfides.[33] The An hydroxides are, however, insoluble[30] and can be precipitated from aqueous solutions of their salts.[34] Finally, many An complexes have "deep and vivid" colours.[35]
Jump up ^ The heavier elements commonly to less commonly recognised as metalloids—Ge; As, Sb; Se, Te, Po; At—satisfy some of the three parts of Hawkes' definition. All of them have insoluble sulfides[34][36] but only Ge, Te, and Po apparently have effectively insoluble hydroxides.[37] All bar At can be obtained as coloured (sulfide) precipitates from aqueous solutions of their salts;[34] astatine is likewise precipitated from solution by hydrogen sulfide but, since visible quantities of At have never been synthesised, the colour of the precipitate is not known.[36][38] As p-block elements, their complexes are usually colourless.[39]
Jump up ^ The class A and class B terminology is analogous to the "hard acid" and "soft base" terminology sometimes used to refer to the behaviour of metal ions in inorganic systems.[41]
Jump up ^ Be and Al are exceptions to this general trend. They have somewhat higher electronegativity values.[42] Being relatively small their +2 or +3 ions have high charge densities, thereby polarising nearby electron clouds. The net result is that Be and Al compounds have considerable covalent character.[43]
Jump up ^ Google Scholar has recorded more than 900 citations for the paper in question.[45]
Jump up ^ If Gmelin had been working with the imperial system of weights and measures he may have chosen 300 lb/ft3 as his light/heavy metal cutoff in which case selenium (density 300.27 lb/ft3 ) would have made the grade, whereas 5 g/cm3 = 312.14lb/ft3.
Jump up ^ Lead, which is a cumulative poison, has a relatively high abundance due to its extensive historical use and human-caused discharge into the environment.[78]
Jump up ^ Haynes shows an amount of < 17 mg for tin[79]
Jump up ^ Iyengar records a figure of 5 mg for nickel;[80] Haynes shows an amount of 10 mg[79]
Jump up ^ Encompassing 45 heavy metals occurring in quantities of less than 10 mg each, including As (7 mg), Mo (5), Co (1.5), and Cr (1.4)[81]
Jump up ^ Of the elements commonly recognised as metalloids, B and Si were counted as nonmetals; Ge, As, Sb, and Te as heavy metals.
Jump up ^ Ni, Cu, Zn, Se, Ag and Sb appear in the United States Government's Toxic Pollutant List;[107] Mn, Co, and Sn are listed in the Australian Government's National Pollutant Inventory.[108]
Jump up ^ Tungsten could be another such toxic heavy metal.[109]
Jump up ^ Selenium is the most toxic of the heavy metals that are essential for mammals.[113]
Jump up ^ Trace elements having an abundance equalling or much less than one part per trillion (namely Tc, Pm, Po, At, Ra, Ac, Pa, Np, and Pu) are not shown. Abundances are from Lide[125] and Emsley;[126] occurrence types are from McQueen.[127]
Jump up ^ In some cases, for example in the presence of high energy gamma rays or in a very high temperature hydrogen rich environment, the subject nuclei may experience neutron loss or proton gain resulting in the production of (comparatively rare) neutron deficient isotopes.[132]
Jump up ^ The ejection of matter when two neutron stars collide is attributed to the interaction of their tidal forces, possible crustal disruption, and shock heating (which is what happens if you floor the accelerator in car when the engine is cold).[135]
Jump up ^ Iron, cobalt, nickel, germanium and tin are also siderophiles from a whole of Earth perspective.[127]
Jump up ^ Heat escaping from the inner solid core is believed to generate motion in the outer core, which is made of liquid iron alloys. The motion of this liquid generates electrical currents which give rise to a magnetic field.[146]
Jump up ^ Heavy metals that occur naturally in quantities too small to be economically mined (Tc, Pm, Po, At, Ac, Np and Pu) are instead produced by artificial transmutation.[148] The latter method is also used to produce heavy metals from americium onwards.[149]
Jump up ^ Sulfides of the Group 1 and 2 metals, and aluminium, are hydrolysed by water;[164] scandium,[165] yttrium[166] and titanium sulfides[167] are insoluble.
Jump up ^ For example, the hydroxides of potassium, rubidium, and caesium have solubilities exceeding 100 grams per 100 grams of water[169] whereas those of aluminium (0.0001)[170] and scandium (<0.000 000 15 grams)[171] are regarded as being insoluble.
Jump up ^ Beryllium has what is described as a "high" melting point of 1560 K; scandium and titanium melt at 1814 and 1941 K.[176]
Jump up ^ Zinc is a soft metal with a Moh's hardness of 2.5;[177] cadmium and lead have lower hardness ratings of 2.0 and 1.5.[178] Zinc has a "low" melting point of 693 K; cadmium and lead melt at 595 and 601 K.[179]
Jump up ^ Some violence and abstraction of detail was applied to the sorting scheme in order to keep the number of categories to a manageable level.
Jump up ^ The skin has largely turned green due to the formation of a protective patina composed of antlerite Cu3(OH)4SO4, atacamite Cu4(OH)6Cl2, brochantite Cu4(OH)6SO4, cuprous oxide Cu2O, and tenorite CuO.[212]
Jump up ^ For the lanthanides, this is their only structural use as they are otherwise too reactive, relatively expensive, and moderately strong at best.[224]
Jump up ^ Weller[226] classifies coinage metals as precious metals (e.g., silver, gold, platinum); heavy metals of very high durability (nickel); heavy metals of low durability (copper, iron, zinc, tin, and lead); and light metals (aluminium).
Jump up ^ Emsley[227] estimates a global loss of six tonnes of gold a year due to 18-carat wedding rings slowly wearing away.
Jump up ^ Sheet lead exposed to the rigours of industrial and coastal climates will last for centuries[190]
Jump up ^ Electrons impacting the tungsten anode generate X-rays;[260] rhenium gives tungsten better resistance to thermal shock;[261] molybdenum and graphite act as heat sinks. Molybdenum also has a density nearly half that of tungsten thereby reducing the weight of the anode.[259]

text: Sources[edit]


document_title: Trivium (band)

question_text: when does trivium's new album come out

question_tokens: when does trivium 's new album come out

root

text: Trivium (band)

text: History[edit]

text: Formation and Ember to Inferno (1999–2004)[edit]

text: The band formed in 1999. At his Lake Brantley High School talent show, Matt Heafy performed a cover version of "No Leaf Clover" by Metallica. Singer Brad Lewter noticed Heafy and asked him to try out for his band as lead guitarist. The pair went over to drummer Travis Smith's house where they played a rendition of Metallica's "For Whom the Bell Tolls". Impressed with Heafy's performance, they accepted him into the band known as "Trivium", which is a Latin three-way intersection they used to explain their music as combining metalcore, melodic death metal and thrash metal.[3] Two weeks after Matt joined the band, Brad had left the band before performing. In mid-2001 Trivium parted ways with its bassist. Trivium asked Richie Brown from local black metal band Mindscar to fill in on bass duties until a full-time member could be brought in. A string of successful shows followed and then a search was conducted for a permanent bassist.[4]

tag: p

text: In late 2002, Trivium went into the recording studio to record its first high-quality demo disc.[5] A copy of the demo was heard by German label Lifeforce which signed Trivium, and the band entered a studio to record its debut album, Ember to Inferno.,[6] Lead guitarist Corey Beaulieu joined after the recording of the album. In 2004, Paolo Gregoletto joined as the band's bassist, replacing Brent Young, before a tour with Machine Head.[7] The album Ember to Inferno managed to garner the interest of Roadrunner Records representatives, who later signed Trivium to the label. The band then began writing songs for their major label debut.[6]

text: Ascendancy (2004–2006)[edit]

text: In 2004, Trivium recorded its second album, Ascendancy, in Audiohammer Studios and Morrisound Recording in Florida.[8] Produced by Heafy and Jason Suecof, the album was released in March 2005. The album debuted at No. 151 on the Billboard 200 and at No. 4 on the Top Heatseekers chart.[9] Allmusic reviewer Johnny Loftus stated on Ascendancy, Trivium are a "ridiculously tight quartet, unleashing thrilling dual guitar passages and pummeling kick drum gallops as surely as they do melodic breaks and vicious throat screams."[10] and Rod Smith of Decibel magazine praised "Smith’s impeccably articulated beats, bassist Paolo Gregoletto’s contained thunder, and, especially, Heafy and guitarist Corey Beaulieu’s liquid twin leads."[11] The album was also recognized as the "Album of the Year" by Kerrang! magazine. Later in 2007 the band received their first Gold Record in the UK for more than 100,000 Sales.[12]

text:
"Pull Harder on the Strings of your Martyr"

"Pull Harder on the Strings of your Martyr" from Ascendancy, 2005.

Problems playing this file? See media help.

tag: table

text: In 2005, Trivium played the first Saturday set on the main stage at Download Festival in Castle Donington, England, credited by Matt Heafy as the gig that really launched Trivium on the world stage. Singles and music videos were released for "Like Light to the Flies", "Pull Harder on the Strings of Your Martyr", "A Gunshot to the Head of Trepidation", and "Dying in Your Arms". The videos for these songs gained rotation on MTV2's Headbangers Ball and "Pull Harder on The Strings of Your Martyr" has become one of the band's most well known songs and is the song that they usually close their sets with.[13] In support of the album, Trivium played on numerous tours with well-known artists. The band opened for Killswitch Engage, Iced Earth, Fear Factory, and Machine Head, who were one of Heafy's largest influences.[14] Trivium also played at Road Rage 2005 [15] and Ozzfest.[16]

text: Ascendancy was re-released in 2006 with four bonus tracks and a DVD containing all of the band's music videos and live footage.[17]

text: The Crusade (2006–2007)[edit]

text: In April 2006, after a headlining tour with Mendeed and God Forbid as openers, Trivium entered the studio with Suecof and Heafy producing again.[18] The band played the Download Festival for a second time, again on the main stage, with Korn and Metallica. Trivium released The Crusade in October 2006. Debuting at number 25 on the Billboard 200, the album sold over 32,000 copies in its first week of sales.[9][19] Heafy's vocals had changed from the metalcore scream of the previous albums to actual singing. This new singing style, along with the band's thrash metal music, were criticised as sounding too much like Metallica, who was a major influence on the band.[20]

text: The band supported the album by touring with Iron Maiden and Metallica, appearing on the Black Crusade tour with Machine Head, Arch Enemy, DragonForce and Shadows Fall, as well as headlining a European tour with supporting acts Annihilator and Sanctity and acquiring an opening slot on the Family Values Tour with Korn.[21][22][23] Trivium was named the best live band of 2006 at the Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards.[24]

text: Shogun and departure of Travis Smith (2008–2009)[edit]

text:
"Kirisute Gomen"

The first song from Shogun (2008)

Problems playing this file? See media help.

text: Trivium started working on a new album with producer Nick Raskulinecz in October 2007.[25] Heafy stated he wanted to bring back the screaming that was found on Ascendancy, and the band said they chose not to work with Suecof again because they already recorded three albums with him and wanted to explore new ideas.[26] Recording ended June 2008.[27] In an interview with the UK's Metal Hammer magazine in May 2008, Heafy said that their new album was to have "more thrash influences, more screaming."[28] He told Revolver magazine, "For the first time, we can't look at our songs and say who the riffs sound like. We're really making our own stuff and our own kind of music and art form, and that's exciting."[29] In September 2008, Trivium released their fourth full-length album, Shogun. The album sold 24,000 copies in the United States in its first week of release, debuting at #23 on the Billboard 200 chart as well as #1 in the UK Rock Album Charts.[30]

text: Trivium toured extensively throughout 2009 in support of Shogun, with two headline legs of the US, a headline slot on the Mayhem Festival second stage, an Australia/Japan leg, as well as a conclusive UK run in March 2010. Throughout their headline runs they have been supported by Chimaira, Darkest Hour, Dirge Within, Whitechapel, Rise to Remain and Black Tide. They were also booked as a co-headliner for Australia's Soundwave Festival in February 2010.

text: Travis Smith unofficially left the band on the second leg of the "Into the Mouth of Hell We Tour" tour. On February 4, 2010, the band announced that Travis had indeed officially left the band and fill-in drummer, ex-drum tech, Nick Augusto, was replacing him. Augusto is a former member of Maruta and Metal Militia, in which he played with Gregoletto. The band has not yet stated the reason of his departure.[31] While Trivium's relationship with Smith had deteriorated over the years, the band had no immediate plans to replace him when he announced in late October 2009 that he would be sitting out the 'Into the Mouth of Hell We March' tour to take care of "some personal business."

text: Trivium contributed to the God of War III soundtrack by recording the song, "Shattering the Skies Above". It is exclusively included on God of War: Blood & Metal, a digital EP that comes with the Ultimate Edition of the game and is available from the iTunes Store.[32] The band has also recorded a cover of the song "Slave New World" by Sepultura. "Shattering the Skies Above" was also released exclusively to their fanclub (TriviumWorld) on February 12, 2010 and was released widely on February 15.[33] The next day their Sepultura cover "Slave New World" was released as a free download for members of the UK via Metal Hammer UK. Both of aforementioned songs re-issued on their deluxe version of the album "In Waves".[34]

text: In Waves (2010–2012)[edit]

text: In an interview with Guitar World, it was stated that for their fifth studio album, Trivium will move forward by looking back. The group will forgo the complex epic compositions, tricked-out leads and seven-string guitars that characterized its past two albums. Trivium will take an approach similar to that of its second album Ascendancy (2005) by using uncluttered riffs, Drop C# tuning, and more straightforward solos. "When we did Ascendancy, we were writing specifically for the songs, not to show how well we could play," says frontman and guitarist Matt Heafy. "That wasn't exactly the case with our next two records."[35]

text: In the bonus content for the November 2011 issue of Guitar World, Matt Heafy talked about why the band decided to record this album in Drop D♭ as opposed to Drop D. "For the whole record of 'In Waves' we're in Drop D♭, so it's kind of like (Ascendency), just a half step lower, and everything that we do from all of the albums is half a step flat. It's mainly for the vocals. (It's) not that I can't sing higher, it's just easier with the amount of shows we do."[36]

text: On June 6, Metal Hammer revealed that the band have decided to entitle their upcoming album In Waves and that it would be released on August 9, 2011.[37] On June 19, Trivium debuted two new songs live in Birmingham entitled "Dusk Dismantled" and "Black". On the June 28 "Dusk Dismantled" was released to TriviumWorld users only; it was released to general public on the 29th. On July 13, the premiere of "Inception of the End" was released to the general public on the website Hot Topic.[38]

text: In Waves was released in August 2011 worldwide, and received generally positive reviews. Kerrang! described the album as "draws from the band's entire repertoire and shapes what it finds into a defining and definitive set". A special edition was released featuring the tracks: "Ensnare the Sun", "A Grey So Dark", "Drowning in Slow Motion", "Slave New World" cover and the single from the God of War III soundtrack "Shattering the Skies Above".

text: Trivium participated in a co-headlining trek with Swedish melodic death metal band In Flames in both Europe and North America. European support came from Ghost, Rise to Remain and Insense. North American support came from Veil of Maya and Kyng. Additionally, Miss May I and The Ghost Inside joined Trivium during the In Waves 2011 European tour. They also performed at the Metaltown Festival and Download Festival in June 2012. From July 13 to August 28, 2012, Trivium took part in Metal Hammer's "Trespass America Festival" headlined by Five Finger Death Punch with additional support from Battlecross, God Forbid, Pop Evil, Emmure and Killswitch Engage.[39] On October 15, 2012, Trivium commenced a European headlining tour, supported by Caliban, As I Lay Dying and Upon A Burning Body.

text: Vengeance Falls and departure of Nick Augusto (2013–2015)[edit]

text: The band toured for In Waves until the end of the year. Matt Heafy also stated that they will start recording a new album in February 2013 and they already have around 13 demos made.[40]

text: On January 14, 2013, Matt Heafy announced via Twitter that the band had entered the studio. It was later revealed that they hired David Draiman of the heavy metal bands Device and Disturbed as a producer. In an interview, David Draiman revealed to Thrash Hits that the title of Trivium's forthcoming sixth album is Vengeance Falls.[41]

text: Vengeance Falls was produced at a studio in Austin, Texas and was mixed by Colin Richardson, who has previously worked with Fear Factory, Cannibal Corpse, Machine Head, Napalm Death, Slipknot and Bullet for My Valentine.[42]

text: On July 23, 2013, Trivium announced a United States headlining tour, co-headlining with DevilDriver, with supporting acts After the Burial and Sylosis, which would reveal the first information of the new album.[43] Vengeance Falls was released on October 15, 2013.[44]

text: On July 31, 2013, the new song "Brave This Storm" was released for streaming and made available to download for free.[45] On August 23, 2013, it was announced that Trivium would be playing at Australia's Soundwave Festival in late February and early March 2014.[46] Trivium recorded a music video for the single "Strife" with director Ramon Boutviseth (All That Remains, For Today, Fear Factory)[47] which was made available for free download to anyone who pre-ordered "Vengeance Falls".[44]

text: On October 8, 2013, the album was made available for streaming on Trivium.org.[48]

text: On May 7, 2014, it was announced that drummer Nick Augusto had departed from the band.[49] He was replaced by Mat Madiro.

text: Silence in the Snow and departure of Mat Madiro (2015–2016)[edit]

text: In fall of 2014, guitarist Corey Beaulieu announced that the band would be working on the follow-up of Vengeance Falls in 2015, and that he hoped that the album would be released in Fall of the same year.[50] Their song 'Strife' is featured in the video game Guitar Hero: Live.

text: On July 17, 2015, the band launched a website "snow.trivium.org" teasing the new album. They also changed their Facebook profile to the same picture as on the website, hinting at the release of the new album.[51]

text: On July 24, the band posted a six-day countdown on their website.[51] An unofficial picture surfaced online on July 29, suggesting the new album title to be Silence in the Snow and revealing three new featured songs: "Silence in the Snow", "Dead and Gone" and "Until the World Goes Cold". This picture also suggested the release date October 2, 2015.[52] This information was confirmed on July 30 when the band premiered the music video for the title track once the countdown ended.[53] On July 31, 2015, the band revealed the track list and the album artwork, and Silence in the Snow was made available for pre-order.[54] On August 7, the band premiered two new songs, "Silence in the Snow" and "Blind Leading the Blind" during their performance at Bloodstock Open Air.

text: On August 27, Trivium premiered the music video for their third single "Until the World Goes Cold".[55]

text: On December 5, the band performed at Knotfest Mexico, where it was revealed that drummer Mat Madiro has been replaced by Paul Wandtke. The band didn't make an official announcement until three days later, on their Facebook page.[56] Paul Wandtke joined the band after Matt asked Dream Theater's John Petrucci for suggestions; John then asked Mike Mangini who recommended Paul.[57][58]

text: The Sin and the Sentence (2016–present)[edit]

text: In late 2016, guitarist Corey Beaulieu stated that the band would take most of the 2017 working on the new album.[59] In an interview, bassist Paolo Gregoletto stated that new material will be more 'extreme' and that the band will return to featuring screaming vocals on the new album.[60] The band was announced as one of the acts on the 2017 edition of Wacken Open Air.[61] In early 2017, the band parted ways with drummer Paul Wandtke, which led to discussions in the Trivium fan community. Corey Beaulieu defended the band's decision regarding changing drummers in an interview.[62] The replacement Alex Bent, formerly of Battlecross, was announced on January 23rd. In April 2017 Corey Beaulieu stated that there obviously will be a new album, but didn't mention any schedule for recording, as the band is going through a process of discussion what the game plan is.[63]

text: On July 26, 2017, the band began teasing on their web page with the message "VIII. I.", indicating the date "August 1".[64] On August 1, 2017, the band released the new single "The Sin and the Sentence", accompanied with a music video for their forthcoming new album, which aimed to be released later that year.[65] To promote the album, the band announced a co-headlining North American tour with Arch Enemy in fall 2017 with While She Sleeps and Fit for an Autopsy as support acts.[66] On August 24, the band released the second single "The Heart From Your Hate" and revealed the tracklisting and release date of The Sin and the Sentence, to be released on October 20, 2017.

text: Musical style, influences, and lyrical themes[edit]

text: Musical style[edit]

text: Trivium has been described as metalcore,[67][68][69] thrash metal,[70] and groove metal.[71]

text: Their style has evolved over the years from their earliest work on Ember to Inferno right through to In Waves, there is a clear thrash influence from Metallica and Machine Head, as well as some early In Flames.[72]

text: Upon the release of their second album Ascendancy,[73] Trivium were identified as melodic metalcore with strong elements of thrash metal, with the third track on the album “Pull Harder on the Strings of Your Martyr” becoming a permanent fixture in the band's set lists and the rest of the album selling itself to gold status.[73] Ascendancy was even featured as one of Metal Hammer’s Albums of the Decade.[72] Later releases have marked changes in the band. The Crusade was seen as a major shift in musical direction due to the change in vocal style, namely the absence of screaming, and some of the melodies featured.[74]

text: The Crusade is a much more thrash-oriented album and lyrical content was also different in direction, citing current affairs, such as the famous killings. In Autumn 2008, Trivium released Shogun, which has a heavy Japanese influence on its title track as well as the first single release "Kirisute Gomen", which translates to "authorization to cut and leave". Acknowledging Matt Heafy’s Japanese heritage,[75] the album also was described more favorably as more their own style, as previous references to Trivium sounding like Metallica had been made on the back of The Crusade.[76] The Crusade made sparing use of seven-string guitars, which were featured heavily on Shogun.[77] Seven-string guitars once again returned on Silence in the Snow.[78]

text: On In Waves, the band featured a sound closer to Ascendancy than The Crusade and Shogun and features their more melodic metalcore sound than thrash metal. The guitar tuning instead of being in Drop D, they went half a step lower to drop C#. The album has several songs, such as 'Built to Fall' or 'Dusk Dismantled', featuring solely clean vocals or screamed vocals from Matt Heafy. In Waves is their only album to feature blast beats.[citation needed]

text: Trivium's music mixes "soaring" and "crushing" riffs, dual guitar harmonies, double bass drum patterns and occasional blast beats and breakdowns that one can expect from the metalcore genre. Vocally Trivium combines both singing along with heavy screaming and growls.[citation needed] Trivium is one of the notable New Wave of American Heavy Metal acts.[79]

text: Influences[edit]

text: Trivium, and notably Matt Heafy, has stated that in general they are influenced by musical groups such as Opeth, Nevermore, Dream Theater, King Diamond, Emperor, In Flames, Arch Enemy, Machine Head, Guns N' Roses,[80] Metallica, Iron Maiden, Megadeth, Avenged Sevenfold, Ozzy Osbourne, Mercyful Fate, Hellhammer, Celtic Frost, Slayer, Pantera, Dio, Black Sabbath, Manowar, Armored Saint, Judas Priest, Testament, Cannibal Corpse, Obituary, Killswitch Engage, Skid Row,[81] Angra, Underoath, Martyr and Death.[82][83]

text: In an interview with Roadrunner Records, Heafy stated he was influenced by a whole range of music genres. Through each stage in his life, he's listened to all different types of music. As a child, he listened to pop punk bands like Blink-182, and Reel Big Fish. From there the list is endless naming bands like Pantera, Slayer, Children of Bodom, Dark Tranquillity, Mercenary, Krisiun, Dimmu Borgir, Dark Funeral, Anorexia Nervosa, Poison the Well, Hatebreed, Yngwie Malmsteen, Queen, Dashboard Confessional, Further Seems Forever, Depeche Mode, The Beatles, and more.[84]

text: Matt Heafy asserted that "without Iron Maiden, Trivium surely wouldn't exist."[85]

text: Lyrical themes[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Lyrical themes on the album The Crusade includes famous killings. "Entrance of the Conflagration" is about Andrea Yates's murder of her five children, "Unrepentant" is about Nazir Ahmad's murder of his three daughters and stepdaughter, "Contempt Breeds Contamination" is about the death of Amadou Diallo, and "And Sadness Will Sear" is based upon the murder of Matthew Shepard. Another common theme on this album is unity or "being united" with songs like "Anthem (We Are the Fire)" and "The Rising". Another lyrical theme that is noticed is in the song "Becoming the Dragon," which is based on the Japanese mythology story of a fish (or known as Koi in the song) climbing to Dragon Gate and transforms into a dragon and becomes kings over the nation.

text: Many of the songs on Shogun draw lyrical inspiration from Greek mythology. "Into the Mouth of Hell We March" and "Torn Between Scylla and Charybdis" detail the story of Odysseus choosing whether to face the giant whirlpool Charybdis or the six-headed monster Scylla. "He Who Spawned the Furies" is about the Titan Cronos devouring his children and castrating his father Uranus, creating Aphrodite and the Erinýes (the Furies). "Of Prometheus and the Crucifix" references the daily torment of Prometheus and alludes to crucifixion of Jesus, serving as a metaphor for enduring torment by the public for daring to contribute something new to society. "Like Callisto to a Star in Heaven" is written from the perspective of the nymph Callisto, detailing her rape and impregnation by Zeus and her transformations into a bear and into Ursa Major. "Down from the Sky" features a contemporary theme, chastising those who spark wars for profit or religion, and warning of nuclear holocaust.

text: Songs on In Waves appear to deal more with depressive themes, with Vengeance Falls and Silence in the Snow taking a similar route with themes about struggle and the evils of the world.

text: Band members[edit]

text:
Matt Heafy – lead vocals, rhythm guitar (1999–present), lead guitar (1999-2003)
Corey Beaulieu – lead guitar, unclean backing vocals (2003–present)
Paolo Gregoletto – bass, clean backing vocals (2004–present)
Alex Bent – drums, percussion (2016–present)

tag: ul

text: Discography[edit]

text:
Ember to Inferno (2003)
Ascendancy (2005)
The Crusade (2006)
Shogun (2008)
In Waves (2011)
Vengeance Falls (2013)
Silence in the Snow (2015)
The Sin and the Sentence (2017)

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: Kerrang! Magazine

text:
Year
Nominee/work
Award
Result

2005
Ascendancy
Album of the Year
Won

text: Kerrang! Awards

text:
Year
Nominee/work
Award
Result

2005
Trivium
Best International Newcomer
Won

2005
Ascendancy
Best Album
Nominated

2006
Trivium
Best Band on the Planet
Nominated

2006
Trivium
Best Live Band
Nominated

2006
Dying in Your Arms
Best Single
Nominated

text: Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards

text:
Year
Nominee/work
Award
Result

2006
Matt Heafy
The Golden God
Won

text: World Music Awards

text:
Year
Nominee/work
Award
Result

2014
Trivium
World’s Best Group
Nominated

2014
Trivium
World’s Best Live Act
Nominated

2014
Vengeance Falls
World’s Best Album
Nominated

text: Underground Interviews Awards

text:
Year
Nominee/work
Award
Result

2016
Trivium
Band of the year
Nominated


document_title: Eagle (Middle-earth)

question_text: who sends the eagles in lord of the rings

text: Eagle (Middle-earth)

text: Appearances[edit]

text: The difference between "common" eagles and Great Eagles is prominently described in The Hobbit:

text: Eagles are not kindly birds. Some are cowardly and cruel. But the ancient race of the northern mountains were the greatest of all birds; they were proud and strong and noble-hearted.[4]

text: First Age[edit]

text: Throughout The Silmarillion, the Eagles are particularly associated with Manwë, the ruler of the sky and Lord of the Valar. It is stated that "spirits in the shape of hawks and eagles" brought news from Middle-earth to his halls upon Taniquetil, the highest mountain in Valinor,[5] although later in the book the same is said of birds in general,[3] and in the Valaquenta of "all swift birds, strong of wing".[6] (On the different conceptions implied by these and similar passages, see Nature below.)

text: Upon their first appearance in the main narrative, it is stated that the Eagles had been "sent forth" to Middle-earth by Manwë, to live in the mountains north of the land of Beleriand, in order to "watch upon" Morgoth,[3] and to help the exiled Noldorin Elves "in extreme cases".[7] The Eagles were ruled by Thorondor, who dwelt (apparently with the majority of his folk) in the Encircling Mountains to the west of Dorthonion.[8][9]

text: When the Hidden City of Gondolin was built by Turgon, the eagles of Thorondor became his allies, bringing him news and keeping spies off the borders. Therefore the Orcs of Morgoth were unable to approach either the nearby mountains,[10] or the important ford of Brithiach to the south;[11] the eagles' watch had been redoubled after the coming of Tuor,[2] enabling Gondolin to remain undiscovered the longest of all Elven realms. When the city fell at last, the eagles of Thorondor protected the fugitives, from the orcs that ambushed them at Cirith Thoronath north of Gondolin.[10]

text: The Eagles fought alongside the army of the Valar, Elves, and Men during the War of Wrath at the end of the First Age, when Morgoth was overthrown. In The Silmarillion it is recounted that after the appearance of winged dragons, "all the great birds of heaven" gathered under the leadership of Thorondor to Eärendil, and destroyed the majority of the dragons during a battle in the air.[12]

text: Second Age[edit]

text: Tolkien mentioned the eagles in his accounts of the island of Númenor during the Second Age. He stated that three eagles guarded the summit of Meneltarma, appearing whenever one approached the hallow and staying in the sky during the Three Prayers. The Númenóreans called them "the Witnesses of Manwë" and believed that these eagles had been "sent by him from Aman to keep watch upon the Holy Mountain and upon all the land".[13]

text: There was another eyrie upon the tower of the King's House in the capital Armenelos, always inhabited by a pair of eagles, until the days of Tar-Ancalimon and the coming of Shadow to Númenor.[13] In addition, it is stated that many eagles lived upon the hills around Sorontil in the north of the island,[13] although in the last case it is unclear whether these were "great" or "common" eagles.

text: When the Númenóreans had finally forsaken their former beliefs and began to speak openly against the Ban of the Valar, it was in the way of eagle-shaped storm clouds, called the "Eagles of the Lords of the West", that Manwë tried to reason or threaten them.[14]

text: Third Age[edit]

text: By the end of the Third Age, a colony of Eagles lived in the northern parts of the Misty Mountains, as described in The Hobbit, upon the eastward slopes not far from the High Pass leading from Rivendell, and thus in the direct vicinity of the Goblin-town beneath the Mountains. It is stated that these Eagles often afflicted the goblins and "stopped whatever wickedness they were doing"; however, their relationship with the local Woodmen was only cool, as the eagles often hunted their sheep.[4]

text: During the events of the book, eagles of this colony rescued Thorin's company from a band of goblins and wargs,[4] ultimately carrying the dwarves to the Carrock.[15] Later, having espied the mustering of goblins all over the Mountains, a great flock of Eagles participated in the Battle of the Five Armies.[16]

text: In The Lord of the Rings it is stated that the Eagles of the Misty Mountains helped the Elves of Rivendell and the Wizard Radagast in gathering news about the Orcs.[1][17] In addition, a prominent (though behind-the-scene) role is played by Gwaihir, and the Eagles appear in great numbers towards the end of the book. In a parallel to The Hobbit, they arrived at the Battle of the Morannon, helping the Host of the West against the Nazgûl. Several of them rescued Frodo Baggins and Samwise Gamgee from Mount Doom after the One Ring had been destroyed.[18]

text: The idea of the Eagles transporting the Ring to Mount Doom, or at least part of the way, is not discussed in The Lord of the Rings and Tolkien himself apparently never specifically addressed it, except in an oblique manner. In The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien, he stated: "The Eagles are a dangerous 'machine'. I have used them sparingly, and that is the absolute limit of their credibility or usefulness. The alighting of a Great Eagle of the Misty Mountains in the Shire is absurd; it also makes the later capture of G. [Gandalf] by Saruman incredible, and spoils the account of his escape" (Letter 210).

text: Thorondor[edit]

text: The Lord of Eagles in the First Age, said in The Silmarillion to be the "mightiest of all birds that have ever been", with a wingspan of thirty fathoms (54.9 meters, or 180 feet) and a beak of gold.[3][19] His name translates from Sindarin, an Elven language devised by Tolkien, as 'King of Eagles';[20] its cognate form in Quenya, another Elven language, is Sorontar.[20][21] He led the eagles during most of their appearances in The Silmarillion, and has a significant role of his own.

text: Thorondor first enters the narrative when he helped the Elven-prince Fingon rescue his kinsman Maedhros from imprisonment upon Thangorodrim.[3] After the Dagor Bragollach, he saved Fingolfin's body from defilement by his slayer Morgoth, giving the Dark Lord a scar on his face and carrying the Elven-king's corpse to the Encircling Mountains north of Gondolin, where it was buried by Turgon.[9] Shortly afterwards, Thorondor espied Húrin and Huor at the feet of the Mountains, and sent two of his servants to fetch them and bear them to Gondolin, fulfilling thus the intentions of the Vala Ulmo.[9] Thorondor and two other eagles rescued Lúthien and the wounded Beren from the doors of Angband during their Quest of the Silmaril, taking them to Doriath.[22]

text: Lord of the Eagles[edit]

text: While in The Silmarillion the title "Lord of the Eagles" applies to Thorondor, in The Hobbit it evidently has another significance. No eagles are identified by name in this book, and titles "the Lord of the Eagles" or "the Great Eagle" distinguish their leader from others. It is stated that once he had been healed from an arrow-wound by Gandalf, and that it was in the memory of this service that his eagles helped the dwarves.[4] After his participation in the Battle of Five Armies, he was given the title King of All Birds and wore a golden crown.[15]

text: Many readers assume that it was Gwaihir that led the eagles in this story; but in The Return of the King Gandalf said that Gwaihir had carried him twice before the Battle of the Morannon,[18] while the proper count would have been three or four times if Gwaihir and the Lord of the Eagles had been the same individual.

text: Gwaihir[edit]

text: An eagle from the Misty Mountains that helped Gandalf before and during the War of the Ring; his name means Windlord in Sindarin,[23] and he is said to have been a descendant of Thorondor and the greatest and the swiftest of the Eagles of the North by the end of the Third Age.[1][18] When the Eagles heard about Gollum's escape from Mirkwood, they sent Gwaihir to bear the news to Isengard, as they had been told by Radagast; the eagle espied Gandalf imprisoned upon the top of the tower and carried him to Edoras.[1] Next time, Gwaihir was sent to seek for Gandalf by Galadriel; he found the wizard, who had recently defeated the Balrog, upon the summit of Celebdil and took him to Lothlórien.[24] Upon Gandalf's orders, Gwaihir watched the river Anduin and brought him news about the Company of the Ring.[24][25] The eagle participated in the Battle of the Morannon, and when Mount Doom erupted, he carried Gandalf to it, in order to save Frodo and Sam.[18]

text: Eagles named "Gwaihir" and "Landroval" (or, in even earlier texts, "Gwaewar" and "Lhandroval") also appear in J. R. R. Tolkien's manuscripts of The Silmarillion, where they are stated to have been the two vassals of Thorondor who helped to bear Beren and Lúthien from Angband, several thousand years before the War of the Ring.[26][27] The passage was removed from the published Silmarillion by Christopher Tolkien to escape the seeming discrepancy with The Lord of the Rings, although later he admitted that he was unable to interpret his father's intentions and regretted the suppression.[26]

text: Landroval[edit]

text: An eagle who helped to carry Frodo and Sam from Mount Doom, said in The Lord of the Rings to have been the brother of Gwaihir and descendant of Thorondor.[18] His name means 'wide-wing' in Sindarin,[28] and it was also used for an eagle of the First Age, either the same as that of the Third or not (see above).

text: Meneldor[edit]

text: The third companion of Gwaihir and Landroval in the rescue of Frodo and Sam. His name means 'Sky-king' in Sindarin,[29][30] and he is given a sobriquet "young and swift".[18]

text: Concept and creation[edit]

text: The Great Eagles ruled by "Thorondor" [sic] already appeared in the first tale about Middle-earth that Tolkien wrote in late 1910s, The Fall of Gondolin, published in The Book of Lost Tales. The role of Thorondor was expanded in stages, with the successive introduction of the relevant plot elements; and after the conception of Númenor entered in 1930s, the notion that the eagles were the messengers of Manwë was further elaborated. Soon after, Tolkien introduced the eagles into The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, repeating in the latter some plot elements and names present in older writings.

text: In several early texts Tolkien wrote that, before moving to Crissaegrim after the death of Fingolfin, the eagles of Thorondor nested upon the peaks of Thangorodrim above Morgoth's fortress of Angband;[11][31] Christopher Tolkien assumes that this idea was later abandoned.[11] Another rejected proposal was that after Beren's death Lúthien would not pass of grief, but would be carried to Valinor by Thorondor who would have been "summoned" by Melian the Maia.[26]

text: The eagles possessed a notable characteristic that distinguished them from other birds in early writings. Tolkien originally described that Eä, the World, was bounded by the Walls of Night, and that the space above the surface of the Earth up to the Walls was divided into three regions;[32] common birds could keep aloft only within the lower layer,[33] while the Eagles of Manwë could fly "beyond the lights of heaven to the edge of darkness".[34] The conception of the limited world and of the layers of the firmament was rejected during the writing of The Lord of the Rings.[35]

text: The eagle-shaped clouds that appeared in Númenor were one of Tolkien's recurring associations with the downfall of the island, just like the images of a sloping mountain and of an overwhelming wave;[36] they were also introduced by him into two abandoned time-travel stories, The Lost Road and The Notion Club Papers. In a sketch for the former, Tolkien projected that it would be "Sorontur" (Thorondor) himself that appeared in Númenor to the protagonist of the story.[37]

text: Tolkien's painting of an eagle on a crag appears in some editions of The Hobbit. According to Christopher Tolkien, the author based this picture on a painting by Archibald Thorburn[38] of an immature golden eagle, which Christopher found for him in The Birds of the British Isles by Thomas Coward.[39] However, Tolkien's use of this model does not necessarily mean that his birds were ordinary golden eagles.

text: Nature of the Eagles[edit]

text: The question of the Great Eagles' nature was faced by Tolkien with apparent hesitation. In early writings there was no need to define it precisely, since he imagined that, beside the Valar, "many lesser spirits... both great and small" had entered the Eä upon its creation;[40] and such sapient creatures as the Eagles or Huan the Hound, in Tolkien's own words, "have been rather lightly adopted from less 'serious' mythologies".[21] The phrase "spirits in the shape of hawks and eagles" in The Silmarillion derives from that stage of writing.[34]

text: After the completion of The Lord of the Rings, Tolkien introduced a strict "system" of living creatures:

text:
Incarnates or the "Children of Ilúvatar": Elves, Men, Dwarves, and Orcs, — those who possessed fëar or souls, with the defining characteristic of being able to speak;[41]
Self-incarnates or the Valar and Maiar — "angelic" spirits that "arrayed" themselves in bodily forms of the Incarnates or of animals,[35][42] able to communicate both by thought and speech;[41]
Animals, unable to speak.

text: For some time Tolkien considered the Eagles as bird-shaped Maiar;[7] however, later he realised that the statement about Gwaihir and Landroval's descent from Thorondor had already appeared in print in The Lord of the Rings,[21] while the notion of the "Children" of the Valar and Maiar had been rejected by him long before.[43] In the last of his notes on this topic, dated by his son to late 1950s, Tolkien decided that the Great Eagles were common animals that had been "taught language by the Valar, and raised to a higher level — but they still had no fëar."[21]

text: A different conception may be present in a yet later essay on the origin of the Ents which, according to Christopher Tolkien, is likely to derive from 1963 and was included into the published Silmarillion.[44] Contemporary J. R. R. Tolkien's notes define the Ents as "either souls sent to inhabit trees, or else that slowly took to the likeness of trees";[45] the essay agrees in this, adding that the Ents appeared shortly after the Awakening of the Elves, when "the thought of Yavanna ... [summoned] spirits from afar". Apparently the same origin for the Great Eagles is implied by the speech of Manwë within the essay: "... before the Children awake there shall go forth with wings like the wind the Eagles of the Lords of the West. ... In the mountains the Eagles shall house, and hear the voices of those who call upon [the Valar]."[46]

text: However, the spirits summoned by Yavanna come to Arda only after the Awakening of the Elves; nevertheless the eagles, according to Manwë, already would exist "before the Children awake”. Given this, the eagles would not have been among the spirits summoned by Yavanna in that paragraph, suggesting that Tolkien didn’t change from the view that the eagles are animals, and have no fëar. They would be like dragons: they have inside themselves a "part" of their creator, which defines their conduct, or their “programming”.

text: Adaptations and influences[edit]

text: Different adaptations of Tolkien's books treated both the nature of the Eagles and their role in the plots with varying level of faithfulness to originals. The first scenario for an animated motion-picture of The Lord of the Rings proposed to Tolkien in 1957 was turned down because of several cardinal deviations, among which Humphrey Carpenter recorded that "virtually all walking was dispensed with in the story and the Company of the Ring were transported everywhere on the backs of eagles".[47]

text: The Rankin-Bass animated version of The Hobbit portrayed the eagles as similar in physique and appearance to harpy, crowned or monkey-eating eagles of the tropics (subfamilies Circaetinae and Harpiinae), while Jackson's trilogy provided a more traditional interpretation, with birds similar to the golden eagle.

text: In The Lord of the Rings film trilogy directed by Peter Jackson, these creatures are 6 m (20 ft) tall with a maximum wingspan of 23 m (75 ft).[citation needed] A notable deviation from the book is that Gandalf summons Gwaihir to Orthanc with the aid of a by-passing moth (the role of Radagast was not included in the film). The same moth also appears to him before the Eagles arrive at the Battle of the Morannon, and a similar sequences of events (though with a different moth) is played out in Jackson's first installment of The Hobbit. According to fantasy artist Larry Dixon, the digitally animated eagles in the trilogy were based on a stuffed golden eagle he had offered to Weta Workshop for use in the project.[48]

text: Although giant birds of prey appear in legends of many cultures, Tolkien's Great Eagles may have been the direct inspiration for similar creatures in various modern fantasy genres, such as the Giant eagles in the role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons.

text: A genus of Diapriidae wasps in Australia was named Gwaihiria in 1982.[49]

text: In The Lord of the Rings: War in the North, an eagle named Beleram acts as a supporting character, aiding the players in battle by attacking random, often powerful enemies such as trolls, giants or Uruk-hai, and carrying the heroes across areas of Middle-Earth. In the final battle against Agandaur, the game's antagonist and final boss, the player can decide whether to attack Agandaur with Beleram. If Beleram is summoned, he inflicts tremendous damage to Agandaur, but Agandaur will kill him. Preventing Beleram from attacking Agandaur allows him to live to the game's conclusion.[50]