document_title: For Your Eyes Only (film)

question_text: who did the skiing in for your eyes only

text: For Your Eyes Only (film)

text: Plot[edit]

text: The British information gathering vessel St Georges, which holds the Automatic Targeting Attack Communicator (ATAC), the system used by the Ministry of Defence to communicate with and co-ordinate the Royal Navy's fleet of Polaris submarines, is sunk after accidentally trawling an old naval mine in the Ionian Sea. MI6 agent James Bond is ordered by the Minister of Defence, Sir Frederick Gray and MI6 Chief of Staff, Bill Tanner, to retrieve the ATAC before the Soviets, as the transmitter could order attacks by the submarines' Polaris ballistic missiles.

text: The head of the KGB, General Gogol, has also learned of the fate of the St Georges and already notified his contact in Greece. A marine archaeologist, Sir Timothy Havelock, who had been asked by the British to secretly locate the St Georges, is murdered with his wife by a Cuban hitman, Hector Gonzales. Bond goes to Spain to find out who hired Gonzales.

text: While spying on Gonzales' villa, Bond is captured by his men, but manages to escape as Gonzales is killed by a crossbow bolt. Outside, he finds the assassin was Melina Havelock, the daughter of Sir Timothy, and the two escape. With the help of Bond, Q uses computerised technology to identify the man Bond saw paying off Gonzales as Emile Leopold Locque, and then goes to Locque's possible base in Cortina, Italy. There Bond meets his contact, Luigi Ferrara, and a well-connected Greek businessman and intelligence informant, Aris Kristatos, who tells Bond that Locque is employed by Milos Columbo, known as "the Dove" in the Greek underworld, Kristatos' former resistance partner during the Second World War. After Bond goes with Kristatos' protégée, figure skater Bibi Dahl, to a biathlon course, a group of three men, which includes East German biathlete Eric Kriegler, chases Bond, trying to kill him. Bond escapes and then goes with Ferrara to bid Bibi farewell in an ice rink, where he fends off another attempt on his life by men in ice hockey gear. Ferrara is killed in his car, with a dove pin in his hand. Bond then travels to Corfu in pursuit of Columbo.

text: There, at the casino, Bond meets Kristatos and asks how to meet Columbo, not knowing that Columbo's men are secretly recording their conversation. After Columbo and his mistress, Countess Lisl von Schlaf, argue, Bond offers to escort her home with Kristatos' car and driver. The two then spend the night together. In the morning Lisl and Bond are ambushed by Locque and Lisl is killed. Bond is captured by Columbo's men before Locque can kill him; Columbo then tells Bond that Locque was actually hired by Kristatos, who is working for the KGB to retrieve the ATAC. Bond accompanies Columbo and his crew on a raid on one of Kristatos' opium-processing warehouses in Albania, where Bond uncovers naval mines similar to the one that sank the St Georges, suggesting it was not an accident. After the base is destroyed, Bond chases Locque and kills him.

text: Afterwards, Bond meets Melina, and they recover the ATAC from the wreckage of the St Georges, but Kristatos is waiting for them when they surface and he takes the ATAC. After the two escape an assassination attempt, they discover Kristatos' rendezvous point when Melina's parrot repeats the phrase "ATAC to St Cyril's". With the help of Columbo and his men, Bond and Melina break into St Cyril's, an abandoned mountaintop monastery. As Columbo confronts Kristatos, Bond kills the biathlete Kriegler.

text: Bond retrieves the ATAC system and stops Melina from killing Kristatos after he surrenders. Kristatos tries to kill Bond with a hidden flick knife, but is killed by a knife thrown by Columbo; Gogol arrives by helicopter to collect the ATAC, but Bond throws it off the cliff. Bond and Melina later spend a romantic evening aboard her father's yacht when he receives a call from the Prime Minister.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Roger Moore as James Bond: MI6 agent 007, who is sent to retrieve a stolen "ATAC" system that could be misused for controlling British military submarines.
Carole Bouquet as Melina Havelock: The daughter of marine archaeologists who are murdered while tracking down the ATAC's whereabouts. Bouquet had auditioned for the role of Holly Goodhead in Moonraker, but was unsuccessful.[1]
Chaim Topol (credited as "Topol") as Milos Columbo: Kristatos' former smuggling partner who assists Bond in his mission. Named after Gioacchino Colombo, the Ferrari engine designer, specifically Ferrari 125, which Fleming admired.[2] Topol suggested the pistachios as a trademark of the character, which are used in a scene to orient Columbo's men on where to shoot.[3]
Julian Glover as Aristotle Kristatos: Initially shown as an ally, later as the main villain. A smuggler planning to expand his fortune by selling the ATAC to the KGB. Glover had been shortlisted as a possible Bond for Live and Let Die, eventually losing out to Moore.[1]
Lynn-Holly Johnson as Bibi Dahl: An ice-skating prodigy who is training with the financial support of Kristatos. Johnson was an ice skater before turning to acting, and achieved second place at the novice level of the 1974 United States Figure Skating Championships.[4]
Michael Gothard as Emile Leopold Locque: A Belgian hired killer and associate of Kristatos.
Cassandra Harris as Countess Lisl von Schlaf: Columbo's mistress. At the time of filming Harris was married to future Bond actor Pierce Brosnan, and the couple lunched with the film's producer Albert R. Broccoli during filming.[1]
John Wyman as Erich Kriegler: An East German Olympic class biathete and Kristatos' henchman/KGB contact. The academic Jeremy Black said that he resembles Hans of You Only Live Twice and Stamper of Tomorrow Never Dies.[5]
Desmond Llewelyn as Q, the head of MI6's technical department.
Jill Bennett as Jacoba Brink: Bibi's skating coach.
Jack Hedley as Sir Timothy Havelock: A marine archaeologist hired by the British Secret Service to secretly locate the wreck of St. Georges.
Lois Maxwell as Miss Moneypenny, M's secretary.
Geoffrey Keen as Sir Frederick Gray: The British Minister of Defence, a minister in the British government. The role, along with Bill Tanner as Chief of Staff, was used to brief Bond in place of M, following the death of Bernard Lee.[6]
James Villiers as MI6 Chief of Staff Bill Tanner. The role of Tanner first appeared on film in The Man with the Golden Gun, although in an un-credited capacity. Villiers presumed he would play the role of M in subsequent films and was disappointed not to be asked; the producers thought him too young for the role and wanted an actor in his 70s.[7]
John Moreno as Luigi Ferrara: 007's MI6 contact in northern Italy.
Walter Gotell as General Gogol: Head of the KGB.
Toby Robins as Iona Havelock: Melina's mother and wife of Sir Timothy.
Jack Klaff as Apostis: One of Kristatos's henchmen and chauffeur.
Stefan Kalipha as Hector Gonzales: A Cuban hitman hired by Kristatos to kill the Havelocks.
Charles Dance as Claus, an associate of Locque. The role was early in Dance's career;[1] in 1989 he would play Ian Fleming in Anglia Television's Goldeneye: The Secret Life of Ian Fleming, a dramatised portrayal of the life of Ian Fleming.[8]
Eva Reuber-Staier as Rublevich: General Gogol's secretary.
Janet Brown as the British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, who appears in the closing scene alongside John Wells as Denis.
John Hollis as the "bald villain in wheelchair",[9] voiced by Robert Rietti.[10] The character appears in the pre-credits sequence and is both unnamed and uncredited. The character contains a number of characteristics of Ernst Stavro Blofeld,[9] but could not be identified as such because of the legal reasons surrounding the Thunderball controversy with Kevin McClory claiming sole rights to the Blofeld character, a claim disputed by Eon.[11]
Bob Simmons, who previously portrayed Bond in the gun barrel sequences in the first three films and SPECTRE agent Colonel Jacques Bouvar in Thunderball, cameos as another villain as Gonzales' henchman who falls victim to Bond's exploding Lotus.[7]

tag: ul

text: Production[edit]

text:
“
We had gone as far as we could into space. We needed a change of some sort, back to the grass roots of Bond. We wanted to make the new film more of a thriller than a romp, without losing sight of what made Bond famous – its humour.
”

— John Glen[12]

text: For Your Eyes Only marked a change in the make up of the production crew: John Glen was promoted from his duties as a film editor to director, a position he would occupy for four subsequent films.[13] The transition in directors resulted in a harder-edged directorial style, with less emphasis on gadgetry and large action sequences in huge arenas (as was favoured by Lewis Gilbert).[14] Emphasis was placed on tension, plot and character in addition to a return to Bond's more serious roots,[15] whilst For Your Eyes Only "showed a clear attempt to activate some lapsed and inactive parts of the Bond mythology."[16]

text: The film was also a deliberate effort to bring the series more back to reality, following the success of Moonraker in 1979.[17] As co-writer Michael G. Wilson pointed out, "If we went through the path of Moonraker things would just get more outlandish, so we needed to get back to basics".[13] To that end, the story that emerged was simpler, not one in which the world was at risk, but returning the series to that of a Cold War thriller;[13] Bond would also rely more on his wits than gadgets to survive.[18] Glen decided to symbolically represent it with a scene where Bond's Lotus blows itself up and forces 007 to rely on Melina's more humble Citroën 2CV.[13] Since Ken Adam was busy with Pennies from Heaven, Peter Lamont, who had worked in the art department since Goldfinger, was promoted to production designer. Following a suggestion of Glen, Lamont created realistic scenery, instead of the elaborate set pieces for which the series had been known.[13]

text: Writing[edit]

text: Richard Maibaum was once again the scriptwriter for the story, assisted by Michael G. Wilson.[19] According to Wilson, the ideas from stories could have come from anyone as the outlines were worked out in committee that could include Broccoli, Maibaum, Wilson and stunt coordinators.[20] Much of the inspiration for the stories for the film came from two Ian Fleming short stories from the collection For Your Eyes Only: Risico and For Your Eyes Only.[21] Another set-piece from the novel of Live and Let Die – the keelhauling – which was unused in the film of the same name, was also inserted into the plot.[20] Other ideas from Fleming were also used in For Your Eyes Only, such as the Identigraph which comes from the novel Goldfinger, where it was originally called the "Identicast".[22] These elements from Fleming's stories were mixed with a Cold War story centred on the MacGuffin of the ATAC.[19] An initial treatment for “For Your Eyes Only” was submitted by Ronald Hardy, an English novelist and screenwriter in 1979. Hardy’s treatment included the involvement of a character named Julia Havelock whose parents were assassinated by a man named Gonzales.[23]

text: For Your Eyes Only is noted for its pre-title sequence, described variously as either "out-of place and disappointing"[19] or "roaringly enjoyable".[24] The scene was shot to introduce a potential new Bond to audiences, thus linking the new actor to elements from previous Bond films[20] (see casting, below).

text: The sequence begins with Bond laying flowers at the grave of his wife Tracy Bond, before a Universal Exports helicopter picks him up for an emergency. Control of the helicopter is taken over by remote control by a bald man in a grey Nehru jacket with a white cat. This character is unnamed in either the film or the credits, although he looks and sounds like Ernst Stavro Blofeld as played by Donald Pleasence or Telly Savalas.[19] Director John Glen referred to the identity of the villain obliquely: "We just let people use their imaginations and draw their own conclusions ... It's a legal thing".[1] The character is deliberately not named due to copyright restrictions with Kevin McClory, who owned the film rights to Thunderball, which supposedly includes the character Ernst Stavro Blofeld, the organisation SPECTRE, and other material associated with the development of Thunderball.[25] Eon disputed McClory's ownership of the Blofeld character, but decided not to use him again: the scene was "a deliberate statement by Broccoli of his lack of need to use the character."[11]

text: Casting[edit]

text: Roger Moore had originally signed a three-film contract with Eon Productions, which covered his first three appearances up to The Spy Who Loved Me. Subsequent to this, the actor negotiated contracts on a film-by-film basis.[20] Uncertainty surrounding his involvement in For Your Eyes Only considering retire by age, led to other actors being considered to take over, including Lewis Collins, known in the UK for his portrayal of Bodie in The Professionals;[26]; Ian Ogilvy, like Moore very known by his role in Return of the Saint [27]; Michael Billington, who previously appeared in The Spy Who Loved Me as Agent XXX's ill-fated lover, (Billington's screen test for For Your Eyes Only was one of the five occasions he auditioned for the role of Bond)[28] and Michael Jayston, who had appeared as the eponymous spy in the British TV series of Quiller[20] (Jayston eventually played Bond in a BBC Radio production of You Only Live Twice in 1985).[20] Timothy Dalton was strongly considered but Dalton declined, as he disliked the direction the series was taking at the time. [29] [30] [31] [32]Eventually, this came to nothing as Moore agreed to play Bond once again.

text: Bernard Lee died in January 1981, after filming had started on For Your Eyes Only, but before he could film his scenes as M, the head of MI6, as he had done in the previous eleven films of the series. Out of respect, no new actor was hired to assume the role and, instead, the script was re-written so that the character is said to be on leave, letting Chief of Staff Bill Tanner take over the role as acting head of MI6 and briefing Bond alongside the Minister of Defence.[33]

text: Chaim Topol was cast following a suggestion by Broccoli's wife Dana, while Julian Glover joined the cast as the producers felt he was stylish – Glover was even considered to play Bond at some point, but Michael G. Wilson stated that "when we first thought of him he was too young, and by the time of For Your Eyes Only he was too old".[13] Carole Bouquet was a suggestion of United Artists publicist Jerry Juroe, and after Glen and Broccoli saw her in That Obscure Object of Desire, they went to Rome to invite Bouquet for the role of Melina.[34]

text: Filming[edit]

text: Production of For Your Eyes Only began on 2 September 1980 in the North Sea, with three days shooting exterior scenes with the St Georges.[13][35] The interiors were shot later in Pinewood Studios, as well as the ship's explosion, which was done with a miniature in Pinewood's tank on the 007 Stage.[36] On 15 September principal photography started on Corfu at the Villa Sylva at Kanoni, above Corfu Town,[17] which acted as the location of the Spanish villa. Many of the local houses were painted white for scenographic reasons.[37] Glen opted to use the local slopes and olive trees for the chase scene between Melina's Citroën 2CV and Gonzales' men driving Peugeot 504s.[34] The scene was shot across twelve days, with stunt driver Rémy Julienne – who would remain in the series up until GoldenEye – driving the Citroën.[38] Four 2CVs were used, with modifications for the stunts – all had more powerful flat-four engines, and one received a special revolving plate on its roof so it could get turned upside down.[39][40][41]

text: In October filming moved to other Greek locations, including Metéora and the Achilleion.[42] In November, the main unit moved to England, which included interior work in Pinewood, while the second unit shot underwater scenes in The Bahamas. On 1 January 1981, production moved to Cortina d'Ampezzo in Italy, where filming wrapped in February.[13] Since it was not snowing in Cortina d'Ampezzo by the time of filming, the producers had to pay for trucks to bring snow from nearby mountains, which was then dumped in the city's streets.[43]

text: Many of the underwater scenes, especially involving close-ups of Bond and Melina, were faked on a dry soundstage. A combination of lighting effects, slow-motion photography, wind, and bubbles added in post-production, gave the illusion of the actors being underwater.[17] Actress Carole Bouquet reportedly had a pre-existing health condition that prevented her from performing underwater stunt work.[13] Aquatic scenes were done by a team led by Al Giddings, who had previously worked on The Deep, and filmed in either Pinewood's tank on the 007 Stage or an underwater set built in the Bahamas. Production designer Peter Lamont and his team developed two working props for the submarine Neptune, as well as a mock-up with a fake bottom.[44]

text: Roger Moore was reluctant to film the scene of Bond kicking a car, with Locque inside, over the edge of a cliff, saying that it "was Bond-like, but not Roger Moore Bond-like."[13] Michael G. Wilson later said that Moore had to be persuaded to be more ruthless than he felt comfortable.[1] Wilson also added that he and Richard Maibaum, along with John Glen, toyed with other ideas surrounding that scene, but ultimately everyone, even Moore, agreed to do the scene as originally written.[13]

text: For the Meteora shoots, a Greek bishop was paid to allow filming in the monasteries, but the uninformed Eastern Orthodox monks were mostly critical of production rolling in their installations. After a trial in the Greek Supreme Court, it was decided that the monks' only property were the interiors – the exteriors and surrounding landscapes were from the local government. In protest, the monks remained shut inside the monasteries during the shooting,[13][37] and tried to sabotage production as much as possible, hanging their washing out of their windows[7] and covering the principal monastery with plastic bunting and flags to spoil the shots, and placing oil drums to prevent the film crew from landing helicopters. The production team solved the problem with back lighting, matte paintings, and building both a similar scenographic monastery on a nearby unoccupied rock, and a monastery set in Pinewood.[35]

text: Roger Moore said he had a great fear of heights, and to do the climbing in Greece, he resorted to moderate drinking to calm his nerves.[13] Later in that same sequence, Rick Sylvester, a stuntman who had previously performed the pre-credits ski jump in The Spy Who Loved Me, undertook the stunt of Bond falling off the side of the cliff.[45] The stunt was dangerous, since the sudden rope jerk at the bottom could be fatal. Special effects supervisor Derek Meddings developed a system that would dampen the stop, but Sylvester recalled that his nerves nearly got the better of him: "From where we were [shooting], you could see the local cemetery; and the box [to stop my fall] looked like a casket. You didn't need to be an English major to connect the dots." The stunt went off without a problem.[13]

text: Bond veteran cameraman and professional skier Willy Bogner, Jr. was promoted to director of a second unit involving ski footage.[43] Bogner designed the ski chase on the bobsleigh track of Cortina d'Ampezzo hoping to surpass his work in both On Her Majesty's Secret Service and The Spy Who Loved Me.[13] To allow better filming, Bogner developed both a system where he was attached to a bobsleigh, allowing to film the vehicle or behind it,[45] and a set of skis that allowed him to ski forwards and backwards to get the best shots.[17] In February 1981, on the final day of filming the bobsleigh chase, one of the stuntmen driving a sleigh, 23-year-old Paolo Rigon, was killed when he became trapped under the bob.[7]

text: The pre-credits sequence used a church in Stoke Poges as a cemetery, while the helicopter scenes were filmed at the abandoned Beckton Gas Works in London.[42] The gas works were also the location for some of Stanley Kubrick's 1987 film, Full Metal Jacket.[46] Director John Glen got the idea for the remote-controlled helicopter after seeing a child playing with an RC car.[13] Since flying a helicopter through a warehouse was thought to be too dangerous, the scene was shot using forced perspective. A smaller mock-up was built by Derek Meddings' team closer to the camera that the stunt pilot Marc Wolff flew behind and this made it seem as if the helicopter was entering the warehouse. The footage inside the building was shot on location, though with a life-sized helicopter model which stood over a rail. Stuntman Martin Grace stood as Bond when the agent is dangling outside the flying helicopter, while Roger Moore himself was used in the scenes inside the model.[34][47]

text: Music[edit]

text: The score of For Your Eyes Only was written by Bill Conti, who retained a number of John Barry-influenced brass elements in the score, but also added elements of dance and funk music.[48] Whilst one reviewer observed that "Bill Conti's score is a constant source of annoyance",[49] another claimed that "In the end, For Your Eyes Only stands as one of the best James Bond film scores of the 1980s."[48]

text: The title song, written by Conti and Michael Leeson, was sung by Sheena Easton, who holds the distinction of being the first title song artist to appear on screen in a Bond film,[22] as designer Maurice Binder liked Easton's appearance and decided to add her to the opening credits.[50] The producers of the film wanted Blondie to perform the title song: the band wrote a song titled "For Your Eyes Only", but decided to decline the offer when they discovered the producers wanted a recording of Conti's song instead. Blondie's song can be found on their 1982 album, The Hunter.[51]

text: Release and reception[edit]

text: For Your Eyes Only was premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on 24 June 1981,[52] setting an all-time opening-day record for any film at any cinema in the UK with a gross of £14,998[53] (£52,756 in 2016 pounds[54]).[53] The film went on general release in the UK the same day. For Your Eyes Only had its North American premiere in Canada and the US on Friday 26 June, at approximately 1,100 cinemas.[53]

text: The film grossed $54.8 million in the United States,[55] (equivalent to $101.5 million at 2011 ticket prices[56] or $148 million in 2017 dollars,[57] adjusted for general inflation) and $195.3 million worldwide,[58] becoming the second highest grossing Bond film after its predecessor, Moonraker.[55] This was the last James Bond film to be solely released by United Artists. Following the MGM and United Artists merger, the films were released by "MGM/UA Distribution Co".[59]

text: The promotional cinema poster for the film featured a woman holding a crossbow; she was photographed from behind, and her outfit left the bottom half of her buttocks exposed. The effect was achieved by having the model wear a pair of bikini bottoms backwards, so that the part seen on her backside is the front of the suit.[60] The poster caused some furor—largely in the US—with The Boston Globe and the Los Angeles Times considering the poster so unsuitable they edited out everything above the knee,[61] whilst the Pittsburgh Press editors painted a pair of shorts over the legs.[62] There was significant speculation as to the identity of the model before photographer Morgan Kane identified her as Joyce Bartle.[61]

text: A number of items of merchandising were issued to coincide with the film, including a 007 digital watch and a copy of Melina's Citroën 2CV by Corgi Toys.[60] Citroën itself produced a special "007" edition of the 2CV, which even had decorative bullet holes on the door.[63] Marvel Comics also did a comic book adaptation (see section below).[60]

text: Contemporary reviews[edit]

text: Derek Malcolm in The Guardian disliked the film, saying it was "too long ... and pretty boring between the stunts", although he admitted that the stunts were of a high quality.[64] According to Malcolm, Bond "inhabits a fantasy-land of more or less bloodless violence, groinless sex and naivety masked as superior sophistication", with Moore playing him as if in a "nicely lubricated daze".[64] Although Malcolm tipped the film for international box office success, he observed that he "can't quite see why the series has lasted so long and so strong in people's affections."[64] Writing in The Observer, Philip French commented that "not for the first time the pre-credits sequence is the best thing about the film."[65] French was dismissive of Moore's Bond, saying that Bond was "impersonated by Moore" and referred to Moore's advancing years.[65]

text: Ian Christie, writing in the Daily Express, said that it was not "much of a plot, but it has a touch of credibility which is a welcome change from some of its predecessors."[66] Overall, Christie thought, For Your Eyes Only was "one of the better Bonds, with a nice balance between humour and excitement and the usual bevy of beautiful girls."[66] Christie's colleague in the Sunday Express, Richard Barkley praised the film, saying that For Your Eyes Only "is one of the most exciting yet". Barkley describes Moore's Bond as having an "accustomed debonair calm and quiet authority". All told, Barkley thought "this Bond movie is smashing entertainment."[67]

text: David Robinson, writing in The Times bemoaned the fact that the "dramatic bits between the set pieces don't count for much." Like other critics at the time his praise was more directed towards the stunt crews; they were "better than ever in this one."[68] The film critic for the magazine Time Out was brief and pithy: "no plot and poor dialogue, and Moore really is old enough to be the uncle of those girls."[69]

text: For the US press, Gary Arnold in The Washington Post thought the film was "undeniably easy on the eyes", and further added "maybe too easy to prevent the mind from wandering and the lids from drooping."[70] Arnold was also critical of the large set pieces, calling them "more ponderous than sensational" and that there was "no equivalent of the classic action highlights that can be recalled readily from "From Russia, With Love" or "You Only Live Twice" or "The Spy Who Loved Me" or "Moonraker." This is a Bond waiting for something inspired to push it over the top."[70] The New York Times critic Vincent Canby said that "For Your Eyes Only is not the best of the series by a long shot" although he did say that the film is "slick entertainment" with a tone that is "consistently comic even when the material is not."[71]

text: Jack Kroll in Newsweek dismissed the film, saying it was "an anthology of action episodes held together by the thinnest of plot lines", although he did concede that these set pieces are "terrific in their exhilaratingly absurd energy."[72] For Time magazine, Richard Corliss concentrated on the stunts, saying the team "have devised some splendid optional features for For Your Eyes Only" whilst also commenting on Roger Moore, saying that his "mannequin good looks and waxed-fruit insouciance" show him to be "the best-oiled cog in this perpetual motion machine."[73] Jay Scott of The Globe and Mail included it on his list of the year's worst films,[74] calling it "repellant"[75] and "ambitiously bad".[74]

text: French filmmaker Robert Bresson admired the film. "It filled me with wonder because of its cinematographic writing ... if I could have seen it twice in a row and again the next day, I would have done."[76][77] Elsewhere Bresson said he also loved the film's ski chase.[78]

text: Reflective reviews[edit]

text: Opinion on For Your Eyes Only has not changed with the passing of time and the reviews are still mixed: as of October 2015, the film holds a 74% 'fresh' rating from Rotten Tomatoes,[79] being ranked twelfth among the 22 Bond films.[80] Ian Nathan of Empire gives the film only two of a possible five stars, observing that the film "still ranks as one of the most forgettable Bonds on record."[81] In 2006, IGN chose For Your Eyes Only as the sixth best Bond film, claiming it is "a good old-fashioned espionage tale",[82] a placement shared by Norman Wilner of MSN, who considered it "the one Moore film that seems to reach back to Connery's heyday",[83] and Entertainment Weekly chose it as the tenth best in 2008, saying it was a "return to low-tech, low-key Bond [with] ... some of the best stunts since the early days".[84] In October 2008 Time Out re-issued a review of For Your Eyes Only and observed that the film is "admirable in intent" but that it "feels a little spare", largely because the plot has been "divested of the bells and whistles that hallmark the franchise".[49]

text: James Berardinelli wrote that the film was "a solid adventure, although it could have been better",[85] while Danny Peary thought "There are exciting moments, but most of it is standard Bond fare," going on to describe For Your Eyes Only as "an attempt to mix spectacle with [the] tough, believable storylines of early Bond films ... [it] is enjoyable while you're watching it. Afterward, it's one of the most forgettable of the Bond series."[86] Raymond Benson, the author of nine Bond novels, thought For Your Eyes Only was Roger Moore's best Bond film.[87]

text: Although Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly ranks Carole Bouquet playing Melina as the "worst babe" of the seven Roger Moore James Bond films,[88] his colleague, Joshua Rich disagreed, putting her tenth in the overall 10 Best Bond Girls listing from the 21 films released up to that point.[89] Entertainment Weekly also ranked Lynn-Holly Johnson as Bibi Dahl as ninth on their list of the 10 worst Bond girls from the 21 films that had been released.[90] After 20 films had been released, IGN ranked Bouquet as fifth in their 'top 10 Bond Babes' list,[91] and The Times thought she was sixth on their list of the Top 10 most fashionable Bond girls after 21 films had been released.[92]

text: Accolades[edit]

text: The song "For Your Eyes Only" was nominated for a Best Original Song at the 39th Golden Globe Awards[93] and Best Original Song at the 1981 Academy Awards, losing out at both ceremonies to "Arthur's Theme" from the film Arthur.[94] However, the 1981 Academy Awards ceremony did see the presenting of the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award to producer Albert R. Broccoli.[95] The Writers Guild of America nominated the script by Michael G. Wilson and Richard Maibaum for Best Adapted Screenplay – Comedy or Musical Picture.[96] In 2004 the American Film Institute nominated the song "For Your Eyes Only" from the film for AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs.[97]

text: Comic book adaptation[edit]

text: As part of the merchandising of For Your Eyes Only, Marvel Comics published an adaptation of the movie as issue 19 of Marvel Comics Super Special; this was also repackaged as a two-issue comic book adaptation of the film.[60][98] The first issue was released in October 1981 and was soon followed by the second issue in November of the same year. The adaptation was written by Larry Hama, pencilled by Howard Chaykin, inked by Vincent Colletta, and edited by Dennis O'Neil.[99]

text: It was the second film in the series to have a comic book tie-in, following a Dr. No comic in 1962. Marvel Comics would go on to publish an Octopussy comic book adaptation in 1983.


document_title: History of the National Park Service

question_text: when was the us national park system established

question_tokens: when was the us national park system established

root

text: History of the National Park Service

text: Beginnings[edit]

text: National Parks 1864–1891[edit]

text: The national park idea has been credited to the artist George Catlin. In 1832 he traveled the northern Great Plains of the United States, where he became concerned about the destruction of the Indian civilization, wildlife, and wilderness as eastern settlements spread westward. He wrote, “by some great protecting policy of government... in a magnificent park... a nation’s park, containing man and beast, in all the wild[ness] and freshness of their nature’s beauty!” [2]

tag: p

text: Catlin’s vision had no immediate effect. In the east, romantic portrayals of nature by James Fenimore Cooper and Henry David Thoreau and painters Thomas Cole and Frederick Edwin Church began to compete with prevailing view of wilderness as a challenge to overcome. Slowly unspoiled nature and spectacular natural areas of the West became better known, the idea of saving such places became of interest.

text: In California, several state leaders sought to protect Yosemite Valley. In 1864, Sen. John Conness of California sponsored an act to transfer the valley and nearby Mariposa Big Tree Grove to the state so they might “be used and preserved for the benefit of mankind”. President Abraham Lincoln signed this act of Congress on June 30, 1864. California was granted the valley and the grove on condition that They would “be held for public use, resort, and recreation...inalienable for all time.”[2]

text: The Yellowstone country was first "officially" explored by David E. Folsom, Henry D. Washburn, and Ferdinand Hayden in 1869-71. A myth evolved that near the end of the Washburn expedition, discussion around the campfire led several of the members to suggest that the area be set aside for public use and not allow it to be sold to private individuals. This myth was successfully exploited by National Park advocates but eventually was debunked by historians.[3] An early ally in promoting a public reservation was the Northern Pacific Railroad Company. They were seeking major destinations for their route through Montana.[2] In an effort to reduce poaching and other misuse of the park, the U.S. Army established a fort in the area in 1881 and began park protection, establishing a pattern that would be continued by later park rangers.

text: In 1875, Mackinac National Park was created on a resort island in Lake Huron in Michigan, the second national park. As at Yellowstone, the army garrison at Fort Mackinac were in charge of supervising and improving the park. The fort and the national park were turned over to state control in 1895.

text: U.S. cavalry units took up a position in California-controlled Yosemite Park in 1891 and took over some management duties. In 1906 the park was completely taken into federal control.

text: National Monument line I, 1906–1916[edit]

text: While early emphasis had been on the creation of National Parks, there was another movement seeking to preserve the cliff dwellings, pueblo ruins, and early missions throughout the west and southwest. Often local ranchers would try to protect these ruins from plunder, but pot-hunters vandalized many sites. The effort began in Boston and spread to Washington, New York, Denver, and Santa Fe, during the 1880s and 1890s. Rep. John Fletcher Lacey of Iowa and Senator Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachusetts, created the Antiquities Act of 1906.[1]

text: The Antiquities Act of 1906 was designed to protect antiquities and objects of scientific interest on the public domain. It authorized the President, "to declare by public proclamation historic landmarks, historic and prehistoric structures, and other objects of historic or scientific interest" that existed on public lands in the United States. The Act declared these sites to be National Monuments. It prohibited the excavation or removal of objects on Federal land unless a permit had been issued by the appropriate department.[1] Between 1906 and 1933 three Federal agencies, the Departments of Interior, Agriculture and War, initiated and administered separate groups of National Monuments.

text: President Theodore Roosevelt signed the Antiquities Act on June 8, 1906. As early as 1889 Congress authorized the President to reserve the land on which the well known Casa Grande Ruin was located. In 1904, Dr. Edgar Lee Hewett made a review of all the Indian ruins on Federal lands in Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah. He recommended many sites for protection. Based on Hewett’s report and many individual request and reports from throughout the west, between 1906 and 1916 the Interior Department recommended and Presidents Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and Woodrow Wilson proclaimed twenty National Monuments.[1]

text: On September 24, 1906, President Theodore Roosevelt proclaimed Devils Tower as the first National Monument. Devils Tower is a Wyoming landmark, a 600-foot (180 m) high tower of rock, visible for nearly 100 miles (160 km). It has been a guidepost and a religious site. In December of that year, three more National Monuments were created. El Morro, New Mexico, is a wayside in the rugged desert lands used by Indians settlers and travelers for centuries as a watering hole and a place to leave their marks. The site includes prehistoric petroglyphs and hundreds of inscriptions from 17th century Spanish explorers and 19th century American emigrants and settlers. Montezuma Castle, Arizona, is one of the best preserved cliff dwellings. Petrified Forest, Arizona, is world-renowned for its petrified wood, Indian ruins and petroglyphs. Three of these original National Monuments later became the core of National Parks. Mukuntuweap became Zion, Sieur de Monts grew into Acadia, and Petrified Forest which was expanded by Congress to become a National Park of the same name. Three of the smaller areas were later abolished, those being Lewis and Clark Caverns, Shoshone Cavern, and Papago Saguaro.[1]

text: Mineral Springs line, 1832–1916[edit]

text: Mineral springs have been used for their medicinal properties since ancient times. By 1800, places like Saratoga Springs, New York, Berkeley Springs and White Sulphur Springs, West Virginia, and French Lick, Indiana, were becoming popular American resorts. In 1832 Hot Springs, Arkansas, was set aside as a Federal reservation to protect 47 hot springs. In 1870 the area was protected by Congress as the Hot Springs Reservation and in 1921 it was made a National Park. Hot Springs National Park is a health resort and spa rather than a scenic area.

text: In 1902 the Federal Government purchased 32 mineral springs near Sulphur, Oklahoma, from the Choctaw and Chickasaw Indians. The Sulphur Springs Reservation was placed under the jurisdiction of the Secretary of the Interior who shortly acquired some additional land. In 1906 Congress created Platt National Park which included the Sulphur Springs Reservation.[1]

text: Establishment, 1916[edit]

text: Forty-four years after the establishment of Yellowstone, President Woodrow Wilson created the National Park Service on August 25, 1916. For years J. Horace McFarland, President of the American Civic Association; Secretaries of the Interior Walter Fisher and Franklin K. Lane; Presidents William Howard Taft and Woodrow Wilson; Frederick Law Olmsted Jr..; Representatives William Kent and John E. Raker of California; Senator Reed Smoot of Utah; Stephen T. Mather and Horace M. Albright had been seeking the creation of separate agency to manage the National Parks and Monuments.[1]

text: Reorganization of 1933[edit]

text: On June 10, 1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 6166 which consolidated all National Parks and National Monuments, National Military Parks, the eleven National Cemeteries, National Memorials, and the National Capital Parks into a single National Park System. The National Park Service was directed to oversee all of these areas.[4] There were three significant results of this action:

text:
it made the National Park Service the sole Federal agency responsible for all Federally owned public parks, monuments, and memorials;
it enlarged the National Park System idea to include at least four types of areas not clearly included in the System concept before 1933 — National Memorials, like the Washington Monument and the Statue of Liberty; National Military Parks, like Gettysburg and Antietam with their adjoining National Cemeteries; National Capital Parks, a great urban park system as old as the nation itself; and the first recreational area — George Washington Memorial Parkway;
the reorganization substantially increased the number of areas in the System by adding 12 natural areas in 9 western states and Alaska and 57 historical areas located in 17 predominantly eastern states and the District of Columbia.[1]

tag: ol

text: National Capital Parks line, 1790–1933[edit]

text: National Capital Parks are the oldest parks in the National Park System. These parks began with the founding of the District of Columbia in 1790. The President appointed three Federal Commissioners to design a district ten miles (16 km) square on the Potomac River for the permanent seat of the Federal Government. The current National Capital Parks office is a direct lineal descendant of the original office established by the first commissioners of the District of Columbia in 1791.[5]

text: President George Washington engaged Major Pierre Charles L'Enfant to design the new capital city. The L'Enfant Plan proposed a city of beauty. The plan was designed around a series of boulevards, parks and The Mall. Additionally, L'Enfant envisaged a Congress Garden and a President's Park; embellished with statues, columns, or obelisks; grand fountains; an equestrian statue of Washington; a Naval Column; and a zero milestone.

text: Rock Creek Park was authorized on September 27, 1890, two days after Sequoia and three days before Yosemite. Congress carried over some of the language of the Yellowstone Act into all three acts. Like Yellowstone, Rock Creek Park was "dedicated and set apart as a public park or pleasure ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people of the United States," where all timber, animals, and curiosities were to be retained "in their natural condition, as nearly as possible." Though not a ‘National Park’, Rock Creek Park is a major urban park of the nation.[1]

text: National Memorials line, 1776–1933[edit]

text: The first memorial was authorized by the Continental Congress on January 25, 1776, to honor General Richard Montgomery, killed during an assault on the heights of Quebec in the midst of a snowstorm on the night of December 31, 1775. Montgomery commanded New York troops sent a few months before on an expedition designed to win Canada to the Revolutionary cause. It failed before Quebec, and Montgomery, became one of the first Revolutionary generals to lose his life on the field of battle. The Montgomery Memorial is not a part of the National Park System. But the chapel where it is located, St. Paul's Chapel, is a National Historic Landmark.

text: The Continental Congress climaxed its commemorative actions in August 1783 by resolving "that an equestrian statue of General Washington be erected where the residence of Congress shall be established." The equestrian statue of Washington is executed by Clark Mills, placed in Washington Circle on Pennsylvania Avenue, and dedicated in 1859.

text: When the centennial of Washington's birth came in 1832 with no satisfactory monument to in the National Capital, George Watterston, Librarian of Congress, and other civic leaders organized the Washington Monument Society, to erect an appropriate monument from private subscriptions. In 1848 Congress transferred a site on the Mall to the Society, and the cornerstone of the Washington Monument was laid on July 4. Slow progress was made worse by the Civil War. When the nation's first centennial came around in 1876 the Washington Monument was only a third completed. The United States Congress passed legislation authorizing the transfer of the Monument and site to the United States for completion and maintenance as a National Memorial. The Washington Monument was dedicated on February 21, 1885.

text: In 1933 these National Memorials were added to the National Park System and the National Memorial function assigned to the National Park Service, except Perry's Victory Memorial, which was administered by a commission until it was added to the System in 1936. Also, the fiscal functions of the Mount Rushmore National Memorial Commission were assigned to the National Park Service in 1933 and the Memorial itself in 1938.[1]

text: National Military Parks line, 1781–1933[edit]

text: The National Military Park line, including early battlefield monuments, began in 1781. Between 1890 and 1933 the War Department developed it into a National Military Park System. In 1933, there were twenty areas, 11 National Military Parks and 9 National Battlefield Sites.

text: The line started on October 29, 1781, when the Continental Congress authorized the first official on-site battlefield monument. It resolved: "That the United States in Congress assembled, will cause to be erected at York, in Virginia, a marble column, adorned with emblems of the alliance between the United States and His Most Christian Majesty; and inscribed with a succinct narrative of the surrender...."

text: In 1823 in Boston; Daniel Webster, Edward Everett, and other prominent citizens formed the Bunker Hill Battle Monument Association to save part of the historic field and erect on it a great commemorative monument. The cornerstone was laid on June 17, 1825. During the Revolutionary Centennial years, 1876–83, Congress appropriated federal funds to match local funds for Revolutionary battle monuments, and through this means imposing monuments were erected at Bennington Battlefield, Vermont; Saratoga, Newburgh, and Oriskany, New York; Cowpens, South Carolina; Monmouth, New Jersey; and Groton, Connecticut. Of these, Cowpens is now a unit in the National Park System, and Bunker Hill, Bennington, Oriskany, and Monmouth are National Historic Landmarks.

text: April 30, 1864, in the midst of the Civil War, Pennsylvania chartered the Gettysburg Battlefield Memorial Association to commemorate "the great deeds of valor... and the signal events which render these battlegrounds illustrious." This association was among the earliest historic preservation organizations in the country. By 1890 it had acquired several hundred acres of land on the battlefield including areas in the vicinity of Spangler's Spring, the Wheatfield, Little Round Top, and the Peach Orchard as well as the small white frame house General Meade had used as headquarters.

text: With interest and support from both North and South Congress decided to go beyond the former battlefield monument concept to authorize the first four National Military Parks — Chickamauga & Chattanooga in 1890, Shiloh in 1894, Gettysburg in 1895, and Vicksburg in 1899. These areas were not selected at random but constituted, almost from the beginning, a rational system, designed to preserve major battlefields for historical and professional study and as lasting memorials to the great armies of both sides.

text: The National Military Park System was approaching maturity under the War Department in 1933 when all these battlefields were transferred to the National Park Service to become a significant and unique element in the National Park System.[1] All of the exhibits are permanent, and will always be shown in the museum.

text: National Cemetery line, 1867–1933[edit]

text: The National Cemeteries in the National Park System are closely related to the National Military Parks. The battle of Gettysburg was scarcely over when Governor Andrew Y. Curtin (Pennsylvania) hastened to the field to assist local residents in caring for the dead or dying. More than 6,000 soldiers had been killed in action, and among 21,000 wounded hundreds more died each day. Initially interred in improvised graves on the battlefield, Curtin approved plans for a Soldier's National Cemetery.

text: William Saunders planned Gettysburg National Cemetery. He enclosed it with a massive stone wall, the lawns were framed by trees and shrubs. The graves were laid out in a great semicircle, state by state, around the site for a sculptured central feature, a Soldier's National Monument. The Soldier's National Cemetery, as it was then called, was dedicated by President Abraham Lincoln on November 19, 1863. The speaker's platform occupied the site set aside for the Soldier's National Monument, then awaiting future design. The immortal words of Lincoln's Gettysburg Address gave this spot a historical and patriotic association. Gettysburg National Cemetery became the honored property of the nation on May 1, 1872, now a century ago.

text: Congress recognized the importance of honoring and caring for the remains of the war dead by enacting general legislation in 1867 which provided for a system of National Cemeteries developed by the War Department. Eleven of the National Cemeteries established under that authority were added to the National Park System in 1933. The act of 1867 also provided authority for preserving an important battlefield of the Indian wars when, on January 29, 1879, the Secretary of War designated "The National Cemetery of Custer's Battlefield Reservation."[1]

text: National Monument line II, 1910–1933; War Department[edit]

text: The Antiquities Act of 1906 authorized the President to proclaim National Monuments not only on western public lands but on any lands owned or controlled by the United States. Between 1906 and 1933 successive Presidents proclaimed ten National Monuments on military reservations;

text:
Year

Monument

1910
June 23
Big Hole Battlefield, MT

1913
Oct. 14
Cabrillo, CA

1923
March 2
Mound City, OH (now Hopewell Culture National Historical Park)

Fort Marion, FL (now Castillo de San Marcos National Monument)

1924
Oct. 15
Fort Matanzas, FL

Fort Pulaski, GA

Castle Pinckney, SC (abolished 3/29/56)

Statue of Liberty, NY

1925
Feb. 6
Meriwether Lewis, TN (now part of Natchez Trace Parkway)

1925
Sept. 5
Father Millet Cross, NY (abolished March 29, 1956)

tag: table

text: The authority to proclaim National Monuments on military reservations is still valid, no others have been proclaimed. Instead, historic but obsolete fortifications are declared surplus by the United States Department of Defense and transferred to the National Park Service, the States, or other political subdivisions following Congressional authorization.[1]

text: National Monument line III, 1907–1933; Department of Agriculture[edit]

text: Between 1907 and 1933, six presidents proclaimed 21 National Monuments on National Forest lands administered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture:

text:
Lassen Peak, Calif. included in Lassen Volcanic National Park
Cinder Cone, Calif.
Gila Cliff Dwellings, N. Mex.
Tonto, Ariz.
Grand Canyon, Ariz.
Pinnacles, Calif. (trans. to Interior Dept. Dec. 12, 1910)
Jewel Cave, S. Dak.
Wheeler, Colo. (abolished Aug. 3, 1950)
Mount Olympus, Wash. included in Olympic National Park
Oregon Caves, Ore.
Devils Postpile, Calif.
Walnut Canyon, Ariz.
Bandelier, N. Mex. (trans. to N.P.S. Feb. 25, 1932)
Old Kassan, Alaska (abolished July 26, 1955)
Lehman Caves, Nev. became the nucleus of Great Basin National Park in 1986.
Timpanogos Cave, Utah
Bryce Canyon, Utah
Chiricahua, Ariz.
Holy Cross, Colo. (abolished Aug. 3, 1950)
Sunset Crater, Ariz.
Saguaro, Ariz.

text: The first two National Monuments in the Department of Agriculture were Lassen Peak and Cinder Cone, created within Lassen Peak National Forest, California, on May 6, 1907, to preserve evidence of what was then the most recent volcanic activity in the United States south of Alaska. In 1916 these two monuments formed the nucleus for Lassen Volcanic National Park.

text: Fourteen of the other Department of Agriculture National Monuments were established to preserve "scientific objects". Moved by a report of plans to build an electric railway along its rim, President Theodore Roosevelt proclaimed Grand Canyon National Monument on lands within the Grand Canyon National Forest, Arizona, on January 11, 1908. In 1919 the National Monument became the nucleus of Grand Canyon National Park.

text: Two days before leaving office, on March 2, 1909, Roosevelt proclaimed Mount Olympus National Monument, from lands in the Olympic National Forest, Washington. It was established to protect the Olympic elk and important stands of Sitka spruce, western hemlock, Douglas-fir, and Alaska cedar and redcedar. It formed the nucleus for Olympic National Park in 1938.

text: The authority to proclaim National Monuments on National Forest lands is still valid, only two others have been created between the Reorganization of 1933 and 1974. Both were placed under the jurisdiction of the National Park Service, Cedar Breaks, Utah (August 22, 1933), and Jackson Hole, Wyoming (March 13, 1943).[1]

text: National Park System areas by category following the reorganization of 1933[edit]

text:
Date
Natural Areas
Historical Areas
Recreation Areas
National Cap. Parks
Others
Total Areas in N.P. System

1916

27

9

1

37

1933 before Reorg.

47

20

67

After Reorg.

58

77

1

1

137

text: Growth, 1933–1966[edit]

text: The long period between 1933 and 1964, began with the need to assimilate 71 diverse areas into the System. Among many other measures in 1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt instituted a broad program of natural resource conservation implemented in large part through the newly created Civilian Conservation Corps. At the program's peak in 1935, the Service had 600 CCC camps, 118 of them assigned to National Park System areas and 482 to State Parks, employing approximately 120,000 enrollees and 6,000 professionally trained supervisors.

text: By mid-century, a great and growing backlog of deferred park maintenance and development projects, posed vast new problems for the Service and System. It was an era marked by the dramatic inauguration and prosecution of Mission 66, the emergence of a national "crisis in outdoor recreation," creation of the Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission and the Bureau of Outdoor Recreation, and mounting national concern for better preservation of America's vanishing wilderness.

text: Between the Reorganization of 1933 and the Reorganization of 1964, 102 areas were added to the System as defined today, increasing the total number from 137 to 239 The distribution of the new areas among categories is significant. Of the new additions, 11 were "Natural Areas", increasing their number from 58 to 69 or 19%. Seventy-five were "Historical Areas", increasing their number from 77 to 152 or 96%. Fifteen were "Recreation Areas", increasing their number from one to 16, or 1500%. It is clear that during this period the growth rate for Natural Areas noticeably diminished from previous levels and by comparison with the rate for other categories, even though very important additions of natural lands were still being made. On the other hand, the growth rates for Historical and Recreation Areas accelerated sharply. It took the Service a generation, from 1933 to 1964, to assimilate these 102 diverse new areas and the 71 areas added by the Reorganization of 1933 and incorporate them securely into one National Park System.

text: Natural areas, 1933–1966[edit]

text:
Date
Park[1]

1933, Aug 22
Cedar Breaks N.M., Utah

1934, May 30
Everglades N.P., Florida

1935, June 20
Big Bend N.P., Texas

1936, Aug 16
Joshua Tree N.M., Calif

1937, April 13
Organ Pipe Cactus N.M., Ariz

1937, Aug 2
Capitol Reef N.M., Utah

1938, April 26
Channel Islands N.M., Calif.

1938, June 29
Olympic N.P., Washington

1940, March 4
Kings Canyon N.P., Calif.

1943, March 15
Jackson Hole N.M., Wyoming

1950, Sept 14
Grand Teton N.P., Wyoming

1956, Aug 2
Virgin Islands N.P., V.I.

1958, March 28
Petrified Forest N.P., Arizona

1960, Sept 13
Haleakala N.P., Hawaii

1961, Dec 28
Buck Island Reef N.M., V.I.

text: Jackson Hole, had been talked of as a possible addition to Yellowstone as early as 1892, and from 1916 onward the Service and Department of the Interior actively sought its preservation in the National Park System. It was John D. Rockefeller Jr., however, who rescued Jackson Hole. In 1926 he visited the area and discovered the cheap commercial development, on private lands, in the midst of superlative natural beauty. There were dance halls, hot dog stands, filling stations, rodeo grand stands, and billboards, blocking the view of the Teton Range.

text: Rockefeller began a land acquisition program. In a few years he held over 33,000 acres (130 km2) in Jackson Hole. He offered these lands as a gift to the United States. Meanwhile, opposition developed among cattlemen, dude ranchers, packers, hunters, timber interests, and local Forest Service officials. By 1943, there was still no park legislation. Rockefeller indicated he might dispose of the property if no action was pending. On March 15, 1943, President Franklin D. Roosevelt proclaimed the Jackson Hole National Monument, consolidating 33,000 acres (130 km2) donated by Rockefeller with 179,000 acres (720 km2) withdrawn from Teton National Forest. Thus, Grand Teton National Park was created.

text: President Roosevelt's proclamation unleashed a storm of criticism which had been brewing for years among western members of Congress. Rep. Frank A. Barrett of Wyoming and others introduced bills to abolish the monument and to repeal Section 2 of the Antiquities Act containing the President's authority to proclaim National Monuments. A bill to abolish the monument passed Congress in 1944 but was vetoed by President Roosevelt. The President noted in his veto that Presidents of both political parties, beginning with Theodore Roosevelt, had established ample precedents by proclaiming 82 National Monuments, seven of which were larger than Jackson Hole. The proclamation was nevertheless also contested in court, where it was strongly defended by the Departments of Justice and Interior and upheld. A compromise was worked out and embodied in legislation approved by President Harry S Truman on September 14, 1950. It combined Jackson Hole National Monument and the old Grand Teton National Park in a "new Grand Teton National Park" containing some 298,000 acres (1,210 km2), with special provisions regarding taxes and hunting. It also prohibited establishing or enlarging National Parks or Monuments in Wyoming in the future except by express authorization of Congress.[1]

text: Historical areas, 1933–1966[edit]

text: Seventy-five Historical Areas were added to the National Park System between 1933 and 1964, including nine National Historic Sites and one International Park in non-federal ownership. Areas represented nine historic themes: I. The Original Inhabitants (6); II. European Exploration & Settlement (12): III. Development of the English Colonies, 1700-1775 (2); IV. Major American Wars (10): V. Political and Military Affairs (16); VI. Westward Expansion 1763-1898 (15); VII America At Work (9): VIII The Contemplative Society (0); IX Society and Social Conscience (5).

text: Much of this would not have happened without the Historic Sites Act of 1935, a logical follow-up to the Reorganization of 1933. On November 10, 1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt invited his friend and neighbor, Major Gist Blair, to give consideration "to some kind of plan which would coordinate the broad relationship of the Federal Government to State and local interest in the maintenance of historic sources and places throughout the country.

text: The Act declared "that it is a national policy to preserve for public use historic sites, buildings and objects of national significance for the inspiration and benefit of the people of the United States'." This new and greatly broadened national policy has been the cornerstone of the Federal Government's historic preservation program ever since 1935, reaffirmed both in the Act of October 26, 1949, which created the National Trust for Historic Preservation, and in the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966. To carry out the policy, the Act assigned broad powers, duties and functions to the Secretary of the Interior to be exercised through the National Park Service, among them:

text:
make a national survey of historic and archaeological sites, buildings, and objects to determine which have "exceptional value as commemorating or illustrating the history of the United States;"
acquire real or personal property for the purpose of the Act;
contract or make cooperative agreements with states, municipal subdivisions, corporations, associations, or individuals to preserve historic properties.

text: The Act established an Advisory Board on National Parks, Historic Sites, Buildings and Monuments.

text: Some of the most important historical additions to the system between 1933 and 1964 are almost lost to sight in this long thematic list. Jefferson National Expansion Memorial was the first National Historic Site established under authority of the Historic Sites Act. More importantly, its 37 square blocks embraced a key urban area on the historic St. Louis waterfront — the first major effort of the NPS, after National Capital Parks, to conserve and develop a large and important urban historic site. Some architectural monuments, including the Old St. Louis Post Office and the Cathedral, have been carefully preserved, but the main feature of the area is the only major national memorial of modern design in the United States, and one of a small number in the world — Eero Saarinen's stainless steel Arch.

text: In 1948 Congress authorized another major urban project, the Independence National Historical Park in Philadelphia, the most important historical area in the United States, embracing Independence Hall and Square, Congress Hall, Carpenters Hall, and many other sites and buildings associated with independence and the establishment of a government under the Constitution. The method of analyzing complex urban problems was used in Boston, where it led to authorization of Minute Man National Historical Park in 1959 and other sites, including the Bunker Hill Monument, Faneuil Hall, and the Old Boston State House. A commission was established for New York City, where a complex of urban monuments were added, including Federal Hall National Memorial, Castle Clinton, Grant Memorial, Hamilton Grange, Theodore Roosevelt's Birthplace, and Sagamore Hill, to the previously authorized Statue of Liberty National Monument, whose boundaries were extended to include Ellis Island.

text: The Historic American Buildings Survey was organized in 1933 upon the initiative of Charles E. Peterson of the National Park Service in cooperation with officials of the Library of Congress and the American Institute of Architects. Since 1933 the HABS has gathered more than 30,000 measured drawings, 40,000 photographs, and 13,000 pages of documentation for more than 13,000 of the Nation's historic buildings.

text: . The National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings was organized after passage of the Historic Sites Act in 1935. Beginning in 1960, the responsibilities of this Survey staff were extended to include recommendation of an important series of National Historic Landmarks, officially designated by the Secretary of the Interior. On October 9, 1960 Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton announced the first official list of 92 historic sites and buildings eligible for designation as National Historic Landmarks.

text: The Inter-Agency Archaeological Salvage Program was organized by the National Park Service in 1946 at the request of the Committee for Recovery of Archaeological Remains to coordinate the salvage of irreplaceable pre-historic and historic Indian artifacts from projected reservoir sites in river valleys throughout the United States, before flooding. This program, which has been conducted for a quarter of a century in cooperation with the Smithsonian Institution and universities, museums, and research institutions throughout the country, has enormously deepened knowledge of American prehistory.[1]

text: Recreation areas, 1933–1966[edit]

text: The Service responded to the emerging social and economic forces of the New Deal era, by expanding its cooperative relationships with the States, securing enactment of the comprehensive Park, Parkway and Recreation Area Study Act of 1936, and initiating four new types of Federal park areas — National Parkways, National Recreation Areas, National Seashores and Recreational Demonstration Areas. By the end of this period, fifteen of the over 50 such areas remained under the administration of the National Park Service. Because they had much in common, they were collectively designated Recreation Areas in the Reorganization of 1964.[1]

text:
National Parkways

1933 Blue Ridge, VA-NC
1934 Natchez Trace, MS-AL-TN
1949 Suitland, DC-MD

National Seashores

1937 Cape Hatteras, NC
1961 Cape Cod, MA
1962 Point Reyes, CA
1962 Padre Island, TX
1965 Assateague Island, MD-VA

Recreational Demonstration Areas

1936 Catoctin Mountain Park, MD
1936 Prince William Forest Park, VA

Reservoir-related Recreation Areas

1936 Lake Mead, AZ-NV
1946 Coulee Dam, WA
1952 Shadow Mountain, CO
1958 Glen Canyon, AZ-UT
1962 Whiskeytown-Shasta-Trinity, CA

text: The origin of Recreation Areas as a category in the National Park System stemmed in important part from widened responsibilities assigned to the Service beginning in the 1930s. A central feature of these new responsibilities was administration of hundreds of Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camps located in State Parks. The National Park Service had actively encouraged the state park movement ever since Stephen Tyng Mather helped organize the National Conference on State Parks at Des Moines, Iowa, in 1921. It was natural for the Service to be asked to assume national direction of Emergency Conservation Work in state parks when that program was launched in 1933. Fortunately for the Service an exceptional administrator, Conrad L. Wirth, was available to lead this complex nationwide program. It was a large and dynamic undertaking, at its peak involving administration of 482 CCC camps allotted to state parks employing almost 100,000 enrollees on work projects guided by a technical and professional staff numbering several thousand.

text: As this program got under way it became painfully evident that in the 1930s most states lacked any kind of comprehensive plans for state park systems. In 1941 the Service published its first comprehensive report, A Study of the Park and Recreation Problem in the United States, a careful review of the whole problem of recreation and of national, state, county, and municipal parks in the United States. Interrupted by World War II, Director Wirth arranged for these studies to be resumed with the inception of Mission 66, and a second comprehensive report was published in 1964 entitled Parks for America, A Survey of Park and Related Resources in the Fifty States and a Preliminary Plan. Numerous land planning studies of individual areas, river basins, and regions accompanied and supported these comprehensive reports. The four new types of Federal Recreation Areas added to the System between 1933 and 1964 were generally consistent with recommendations in these studies.[1]

text: National Parkways[edit]

text: The modern parkway, fruit of the automobile age, appears to have its origins in the Westchester County Parkways, New York, built between 1913 and 1930. At first, Congress also applied the idea locally — in the District of Columbia — but later undertook projects more clearly national in scope. Congress authorized its first parkway project in 1913, the four-mile (6 km) Rock Creek and Potomac Parkway, to connect Potomac Park with Rock Creek Park and the National Zoological Park. In 1928, Congress authorized the Mount Vernon Memorial Highway to link the District of Columbia with Mount Vernon in commemoration of the bicentennial of Washington's birth. In 1930 this highway was renamed the George Washington Memorial Parkway, and enlarged in concept to extend from Mount Vernon all the way to Great Falls in Virginia, and from Fort Washington to Great Falls in Maryland (Alexandria and the District of Columbia excepted).[1]

text: During World War II Congress extended the National Capital parkway network by authorizing the Suitland Parkway to provide an access road to Andrews Air Force Base, and the Baltimore-Washington Parkway, whose initial unit provided access to Fort George G. Meade.

text: The Colonial Parkway in Virginia was the first authorized by Congress beyond the District of Columbia vicinity. It provided a landscaped 23-mile (37 km) roadway link between Jamestown Island, Colonial Williamsburg, and Yorktown Battlefield as part of Colonial National Monument, authorized in 1930.

text: A new era for National Parkways began with authorization of the Blue Ridge and Natchez Trace Parkways during the 1930s. These were not fairly short county or metropolitan parkways serving a variety of local and national traffic but protected recreational roadways traversing hundreds of miles of scenic and historic rural landscape. These different National Parkways started out as public works projects during the New Deal and were transformed into units of the National Park System.

text: The Skyline Drive in Shenandoah National Park served as a prototype for the Blue Ridge Parkway. President Herbert Hoover conceived the idea of the Skyline Drive during vacations at his Rapidan Camp. It was planned in 1931 and begun as a relief project in 1932.

text: Following President Roosevelt's election Congress quickly enacted the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 to stimulate the economy. Among other provisions it authorized the Public Works Administrator, Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes, to prepare a comprehensive program of public works. Senator Harry F. Byrd of Virginia, aided by others, seized the opportunity to propose the construction of a scenic roadway linking Shenandoah and Great Smoky Mountains National Park as a public works project.[1]

text: The Blue Ridge Parkway is considered by many to be a Service triumph in parkway design, providing the motorist with a serene environment conducive to leisurely travel and enjoyment while affording him many insights into the beauty, history, and culture of the Southern Highlands. The 469-mile (755 km) parkway, sometimes called a grand balcony, alternates sweeping views of mountain and valley with intimate glimpses of the fauna and flora of the Blue Ridge and close-up views of typical mountain structures, like Mabry's Mill, built of logs by pioneers and still operating.

text: The Natchez Trace Parkway is the second major National Parkway, a projected 450-mile (720 km) roadway through a protected zone of forest, meadow, and field which generally follows the route of the historic Natchez Trace from Nashville, Tennessee, to Natchez, Mississippi. The Old Natchez Trace was once an Indian path, then a wilderness road, and finally from 1800 to 1830 a highway binding the old Southwest to the Union. The parkway was completed in 2003 with the final link south of Nashville, Tennessee. The parkway links historic and natural features including Mount Locust, the earliest inn on the Trace, Emerald Mound, one of the largest Indian ceremonial structures in the United States, Chickasaw Village and Bynum Mounds in Mississippi, and Colbert's Ferry and Metal Ford in Tennessee.[1]

text: Recreational demonstration areas[edit]

text: Like the Blue Ridge Parkway, two other Recreation Areas in today's National Park System trace their origin back to the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 — Catoctin Mountain Park, Maryland, and Prince William Forest Park, Virginia.

text: Among many other features, the National Industrial Recovery Act authorized federal purchases of land considered submarginal for farming but valuable for recreation purposes. By 1936, 46 projects containing 397,000 acres (1,610 km2) had been set up in 24 different states, mostly near metropolitan centers, to provide outdoor recreation for people from crowded cities. It was intended from the beginning that most of these projects would be turned over to states and cities for operation and in 1942 Congress provided the necessary authority. By 1946 most of the conveyances had been completed. The National Park Service retained Catoctin Mountain Park, site of Camp David, but 4,500 of its acres were transferred to Maryland. Prince William Forest Park (formerly Chopawamsic) was retained as a unit administrated by National Capital Parks.

text: Some recreational demonstration lands were also added to Acadia, Shenandoah, White Sands, and Hopewell Village. Now largely forgotten, recreational demonstration projects left several permanent marks on the National Park System and illustrated again the ability of the Service to help meet changing social and economic conditions in the nation.[1]

text: Reservoir-related Recreation Areas[edit]

text: Five National Recreation Areas were added to the System between 1933 and 1964. This new type of federal park area grew out of large scale reclamation projects like Hoover Dam and multi purpose river basin development programs like the Tennessee Valley Authority which began in the 1930s and spread to river valleys in all parts of the country after World War II.

text: Lake Mead was the first National Recreation Area. The Boulder Canyon Project Act, passed in 1928, authorized the Bureau of Reclamation to construct Hoover Dam on the Colorado River. Work began in 1931 and the dam, highest in the Western Hemisphere, was completed in 1935. The next year, under provisions of an agreement with the Bureau of Reclamation, the National Park Service assumed responsibility for all recreational activities at Lake Mead.

text: Coulee Dam National Recreation Area (now called Lake Roosevelt National Recreation Area) was established in 1946, under an agreement with the Bureau of Reclamation patterned after Lake Mead. Construction of Grand Coulee Dam began in 1933 and the dam went into operation in 1941. It impounds a huge body of water named Franklin D. Roosevelt Lake, 151 miles (243 km) long with 660 miles (1,060 km) of shoreline.

text: Although Millerton Lake, California, Lake Texoma, Oklahoma-Texas, and the north unit of Flaming Gorge, Utah-Wyoming were administered by the Service for a time, the first was subsequently turned over to the State of California, the second to the Army Corps of Engineers, and the last to the Forest Service.

text: Three more National Recreation Areas established during the 1950s are still in the National Park System today. Shadow Mountain, adjoining the west entrance to Rocky Mountain National Park, embraces the recreational features of Lake Granby and Shadow Mountain Lake, two units of the Colorado-Big Thompson Project. Glen Canyon was established in 1958 to provide for recreational activities on Lake Powell formed behind Glen Canyon Dam on the Colorado River, one of the highest dams in the world. The Whiskeytown-Shasta-Trinity National Recreation Area, California, was established by Act of Congress in 1962. The National Park Service, however, administers the recreational facilities only at Whiskeytown Reservoir, while the Forest Service takes care of similar, more extensive facilities at Shasta and Trinity.

text: By 1964, application of the National Recreation Area concept to major impoundments behind Federal dams, whether constructed by the Bureau of Reclamation or the Corps of Engineers, appeared to be well accepted by Congress. Eight more reservations of this type were authorized as additions to the National Park System between 1964 and 1972.

text: National Seashores[edit]

text: The first seashore recreation survey in the mid-1930s resulted in a recommendation that 12 major stretches of unspoiled Atlantic and Gulf Coast shoreline, with 437 miles (703 km) of beach, be preserved. World War II intervened and no action occurred before 1954. Then only one of the proposed areas was created: Cape Hatteras National Seashore, North Carolina. All but one — Cape Cod — had become commercial developments. A new shoreline surveys resulted in several major reports including Our Vanishing Shoreline (1955); A Report on the Seashore Recreation Survey of the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts (1955); Our Fourth Shore, Great Lakes Shoreline Recreation Area Survey (1959); and Pacific Coast Recreation Area Survey (1959). By 1972 fruits of this program included eight National Seashores and four National Lakeshores of which the first four were authorized before 1964.

text: The National Seashore concept reached the Pacific Coast in 1962 with authorization of Point Reyes, California, embracing more than forty miles of shoreline including historic Drakes Bay, Tomales Point, and Point Reyes itself. The National Seashore concept reached the Gulf Coast in 1962 also with authorization of Padre Island, Texas. This great shore island stretches for 113 miles (182 km) along the Texas coast from Corpus Christi on the north almost to Mexico on the south, and varies in width from a few hundred yards to about three miles (4.8 km). There is some private development at each end of the island.

text: The second 50 years; 1966–2016[edit]

text: The 1960s brought about public awareness of America's natural and historical wealth. The Johnson Administration became the start of a 'park's for people' mindset.[6] Director Hartzog has been the superintendent of the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial in St. Louis and was a supporter of public involvement and publicly accessible parks. It was the second 50 years that saw a significant increase in parks accessible to the general populations.[6]

text: Redwood amendment[edit]

text: During the 1960s numerous legal challenges arose over the mission of the National Park Service. Using the court decisions, Congress supplemented and clarified the Organic Act of 1916 through the General Authorities Act of 1970. Additional challenges during the 1970s required that Congress again clarify the mission of the National Park Service. The 1979 amendment to the General Authorities Act of 1970 has been come known as the “Redwood amendment”, as it also contained language expanding Redwood National Park. The key part of that act, as amended, is:

text: ‘Congress declares that the national park system, which began with establishment of Yellowstone National Park in 1872, has since grown to include superlative natural, historic, and recreation areas in every major region of the United States, its territories and island possessions; that these areas, though distinct in character, are united through their inter-related purposes and resources into one national park system as cumulative expressions of a single national heritage; that, individually and collectively, these areas derive increased national dignity and recognition of their superlative environmental quality through their inclusion jointly with each other in one national park system preserved and managed for the benefit and inspiration of all the people of the United States; and that it is the purpose of this Act to include all such areas in the System and to clarify the authorities applicable to the system. Congress further reaffirms, declares and directs that the promotion and regulation of the various areas of the National Park system, as defined in section Ic of this title, shall be consistent with and founded in the purpose established by section I of this title (the Organic Act provisions), to the common benefit of all the people of the United States. The authorization of activities shall be construed and the protection, management, and administration of these areas shall be conducted in light of the high public value and integrity of the National Park System and shall not be exercised in derogation of the values and purposes for which these various areas have been established, except as may have been or shall be directly and specifically provided by Congress.’ (16 USC Ia-I)

text: National Lakeshores[edit]

text: The first national lakeshores were created in 1966 from some of the remaining unspoiled or unique coastlines of the Great Lakes. The first lakeshores were Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore in the Upper Penninsla of Michigan and the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore in Indiana as a part of the Chicago area.[6] In 1970, two additional lakeshores were added. Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore on Michigans western shore of Lake Michigan, and Apostle Islands National Lakeshore on Wisconsins Lake Superior shore.[6]

text: National Heritage Area[edit]

text: Heritage areas were first established to identify regions having a common cultural impact on the development of the United States. The Potomac Heritage National Scenic Trail in the Virginia, Maryland and District of Columbia was established on March 28, 1983. Fourteen areas exited by November 12, 1996.[6] Initially, all the heritage areas were in the east and northeast. Today, they exist from coast to coast. The entire State of Tennessee has been designated as the Tennessee Civil War Heritage Area[8]

text: Urban recreation areas[edit]

text: During the Richard Nixon presidency, public parks expanded with the creation of the two gateway parks. Golden Gate National Recreation Area in San Francisco became the western book end to Gateway National Recreation Area in New York City. Both were specifically created to serve these two major urban areas and create open space, rather than to preserve a specific scenic or cultural value.[6]

text: On August 15, 1978, President Jimmy Carter signed into law the creation of the Chattahoochee River National Recreation Area, comprising 15 park units, ranging over 5,000 acres, and included 48 miles of the Chattahoochee River, in the Atlanta metropolitan area.

text: The Alaska expansion[edit]

text: In 1977, President Jimmy Carter created a dozen national monuments, in Alaska. The controversy that ensued lead to the passage of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA). Through this act, Congress affirmed the Executive Order, adding to it. The act set aside 47 million acres (190,000 km2) to the National Park System and 54 acres (220,000 m2) to the National Wildlife Refuge System.[6] The act provided for the creation or expansion of Denali National Park, Wrangell–St. Elias National Park and Preserve, Gates Of The Arctic National Park and Preserve, Lake Clark National Park and Preserve, Kobuk Valley National Park, Katmai National Park and Preserve, Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, Kenai Fjords National Park, Kenai National Wildlife Refuge, Cape Krusenstern National Monument, Admiralty Island National Monument, Misty Fjords National Monument, Aniakchak National Monument and Preserve, Bering Land Bridge National Preserve, Noatak National Preserve, Yukon-Charley Rivers National Preserve, Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge, Yukon Flats National Wildlife Refuge, and made significant changes to the notable Arctic National Wildlife Refuge.

text: Reagan years (1981–1989)[edit]

text: President Ronald Reagan added eighteen new units to the National Park System during his eight years in the White House.[9]

text:
Date
Authority
Park Unit
Action

12/26/1988

P.L 100-534

Gauley River National Recreation Area, WV
new unit

10/26/1988

P.L 100-534

Bluestone National Scenic River, WV
new unit

11/18/1988

P.L. 100-696

Hagerman Fossil Beds National Monument, ID
new unit

11/18/1988

P.L. 100-696

City of Rocks National Reserve, ID
new unit

11/18/1988

P.L. 100-696

Mississippi National River and Recreation Area, MN
new unit

10/31/1988

P.L. 100-560

Poverty Point National Monument, LA
new unit

10/31/1988

P.L. 100-571

National Park of American Samoa, AS
new unit

10/7/1988

P.L. 100-479

Natchez National Historical Park, MS
new unit

9/8/1988

P.L. 100-421

Charles Pinckney National Historic Site, SC
new unit

6/27/1988

P.L. 100-348

San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park, CA
new unit

2/16/1988

P.L. 100-249

Timucuan Ecological and Historic Preserve, FL
new unit

12/31/1987

P.L. 100-225

El Malpais National Monument, NM
new unit

12/23/1987

P.L. 100-206

Jimmy Carter National Historic Site, GA
new unit

9/30/1987

Pennsylvania Avenue National Historic Site, DC
new unit

10/30/1986

P.L. 99-591

Steamtown National Historic Site, PA
new unit

5/23/1983

P.L. 98-32

Harry S Truman National Historic Site, MO
new unit

3/28/1983

P.L. 98-11

Natchez Trace National Scenic Trail, MS
new unit

3/28/1983

P.L. 98-11

Potomac Heritage National Scenic Trail, MD, DC, VA, & PA
new unit

text: Bush years (1989–1993)[edit]

text: President George H. W. Bush added fourteen new units to the National Park System during his four years in the White House.[9]

text:
Date
Authority
Park Unit
Action

10/27/1992

P.L. 102-543

Keweenaw National Historical Park, MI
new unit

10/27/1992

P.L. 102-536

Great Egg Harbor Scenic and Recreational River, NJ
new unit

10/26/1992

P.L. 102-525

Dry Tortugas National Park, FL
incorporated Fort Jefferson National Monument

10/26/1992

P.L. 102-525

Brown v. Board of Education National Historic Site, KS
new unit

10/21/1992

P.L. 102-427

Little River Canyon National Preserve, AL
new unit

10/16/1992

P.L. 102-419

Dayton Aviation Heritage National Historical Park, OH
new unit

08/26/1992

P.L. 102-350

Marsh-Billings National Historical Park, VT
new unit

03/03/1992

P.L. 102-248

Manzanar National Historic Site, CA
new unit

02/24/1992

P.L. 102-247

Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve, VI
new unit

12/11/1991

P.L. 102-211

Mary McLeod Bethune Council House National Historic Site, DC
new unit

05/24/1991

P.L. 102-50

Niobrara National Scenic River, NE
new unit

10/31/1990

P.L. 101-485

Weir Farm National Historic Site, CT
new unit

06/27/1990

P.L. 101-313

Petroglyph National Monument, NM
new unit

06/27/1990

P.L. 101-313

Pecos National Historical Park, NM
incorporated Pecos National Monument

10/02/1989

P.L 101-106

Ulysses S. Grant National Historic Site, MO
new unit

text: Clinton years (1993–2000)[edit]

text: President Bill Clinton added nineteen new units to the National Park System, and de-authorized one during his eight years in the White House.[9]

text:
Date
Authority
Park Unit
Action

01/20/2001

Proclamation 7402

Governors Island National Monument, NY
new unit

01/17/2001

Proclamation 7399

Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument, VI
new unit

01/17/2001

Proclamation 7395

Minidoka Internment National Monument, ID
new unit

11/22/2000

P.L. 106-530

Great Sand Dunes National Preserve, CO
new unit

10/24/2000

P.L. 106-352

Rosie the Riveter / World War II Home Front National Historical Park, CA
new unit

10/11/2000

P.L. 106-291

Cuyahoga Valley National Park, OH
redesignated from a National Recreation Area

10/11/2000

P.L. 106-291

First Ladies National Historic Site, OH
new unit

11/29/1999

P.L. 106-115

Minuteman Missile National Historic Site, SD
new unit

10/21/1999

P.L. 106-076

Black Canyon of the Gunnison National Park, CO
Redesignated from a National Monument

11/06/1998

P.L. 105-355

Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site, AL
new unit

11/06/1998

P.L. 105-356

Little Rock Central High School National Historic Site, AR
new unit

11/02/1998

P.L. 105-342

Adams National Historic Park, MA
Redesignated from Adams National Historical Site

10/21/1998

P.L. 105-277

Marsh-Billings-Rockefeller National Historical Park, VT
Redesignated from Marsh-Billings National Historical Park

10/09/1997

P.L. 105-058

Oklahoma City National Memorial, OK
new unit

05/02/1997

P.L. 84-372

Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial, DC
new unit

01/01/1997

Lake Roosevelt National Recreation Area, WA
renamed from Coulee Dam National Recreation Area

11/12/1996

P.L. 104-333

Washita Battlefield National Historic Site, OK
new unit

11/12/1996

P.L. 104-333

Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve, KS
new unit

11/12/1996

P.L. 104-333

Nicodemus National Historic Site, KS
new unit

11/12/1996

P.L. 104-333

New Bedford Whaling National Historical Park, MA
new unit

11/12/1996

P.L. 104-033

Boston Harbor Islands National Recreation Area, MA
new unit

10/01/1995

P.L. 103-279

John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, DC
De-authorized as a park

07/27/1995

P.L. 99-572

Korean War Veterans Memorial, DC
new unit

11/02/1994

P.L. 103-449

Cane River Creole National Historical Park, LA
new unit

10/31/1994

P.L. 103-433

New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park, LA
new unit

10/31/1994

P.L. 103-433

Mojave National Preserve, CA
new unit

10/31/1994

P.L. 103-433

Joshua Tree National Park, CA
Incorporated Joshua Tree National Monument

10/31/1994

P.L. 103-433

Death Valley National Park, CA
incorporated Death Valley National Monument

10/14/1994

P.L. 103-364

Saguaro National Park, AZ
incorporated Saguaro National Monument

text: Bush years (2001–2008)[edit]

text: President George W. Bush approved/created seven new units of the national park service during his eight years. In that period he also approved the deauthorization of the Oklahoma City National Memorial in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.[9]

text:
Date
Authority
Park Unit
Action

12/05/2008

Proclamation 8327

World War II Valor in the Pacific National Monument
incorporated USS Arizona Memorial

05/08/2008

P.L. 110-229

Minidoka National Historic Site, ID
Re-designated from Minidoka Internment National Monument

04/27/2007

P.L. 106-464

Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site, CO
new unit

02/27/2006

Proclamation 7984

African Burial Ground National Monument, NY
new unit

02/27/2006

P.L. 108-192

Carter G. Woodson Home National Historic Site, DC
new unit

10/30/2004

P.L. 108-387

Lewis & Clark National Historical Park, OR
incorporates Fort Clatsop National Monument

09/24/2004

P.L. 106-530

Great Sand Dunes National Park, CO
redesignated from a National Monument

05/29/2004

P.L. 107- 011

National World War II Memorial, DC
new unit

01/23/2004

P.L. 108-199

Oklahoma City National Memorial, OK
deauthorized as a park

11/10/2003

P.L. 108-108

Congaree National Park, SC
incorporated Congaree Swamp National Monument

12/19/2002

P.L. 107-373

Cedar Creek and Belle Grove National Historical Park, VA
new unit

09/24/2002

P.L. 107-226

Flight 93 National Memorial, PA
new unit

08/21/2002

P.L. 107-219

Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts, VA
name change

08/21/2002

P.L. 107-213

Craters of the Moon National Preserve, ID
new unit

text: Obama years (2009–date)[edit]

text: President Barack Obama has approved nineteen new National Park Units since taking office in January 2009 (through February 2016). As of January, 2011, five parks have been authorized by Congress with the intention of adding them to the National Park system upon land acquisition or monument completion.[9] The National Park Service will end furloughs, known as sequestration, for US Park Police on June 1, 2013.[10]

text:
Date
Authority
Park Unit
Action

2/12/2016

Castle Mountains National Monument, CA
new unit

11/10/2015

P.L. 113-291

Manhattan Project National Historical Park, TN, NM, WA
new unit

7/10/2015

Waco Mammoth National Monument, TX
new unit

2/24/2015

Proclamation 9234

Honouliuli National Monument, HI
new unit

2/19/2015

Proclamation 9233

Pullman National Monument, IL
new unit

12/19/2014

P.L. 113-291

Blackstone River Valley National Historical Park, MA, RI
new unit

12/19/2014

P.L 113-291

Valles Caldera National Preserve, NM
new unit

12/19/2014

P.L. 113-291

World War I Memorial, DC
new unit

12/19/2014

P.L. 113-291

Tule Springs Fossil Beds National Monument, NV
new unit

12/19/2014

P.L. 113-291

First State National Historical Park, DE
redesignated from First State National Monument

12/19/2014

P.L. 113-291

Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Historical Park, MD
redesignated from Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Monument

12/19/2014

P.L. 113-291

Oregon Caves National Monument and Preserve, OR
redesignated from Oregon Caves National Monument

03/25/2013

Proclamation 8945

Charles Young Buffalo Soldiers National Monument, OH
new unit

03/25/2013

Proclamation 8944

First State National Monument, DE
new unit

03/25/2013

Proclamation 8943

Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Monument, MD
new unit

01/10/2013

Proclamation 7266

Pinnacles National Park, CA
redesignated from National Monument

10/08/2012

Proclamation 8884

Cesar E. Chavez National Monument, CA
new unit

11/07/2011

P.L. 111- 11

Paterson Great Falls National Historical Park, NJ
new unit

11/01/2011

Proclamation 8750

Fort Monroe National Monument, VA
new unit

08/28/2011

P.L. 104-333

Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial, DC
new unit

12/22/10

P.L 111-333

Longfellow House-Washington's Headquarters National Historic Site, MA
renamed from Longfellow National Historic Site

12/14/2010

P.L. 111- 11

President William Jefferson Clinton Birthplace Home National Historic Site, AR
new unit

10/22/2010

P.L. 111- 11

River Raisin National Battlefield Park, MI
new unit

10/28/2009

P.L. 111- 84

Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial, CA
new unit

03/30/09

P.L. 111-11

Thomas Edison National Historical Park, NJ
Re-designated from a national historic site with name change

03/30/09

P.L. 111-11

Palo Alto Battlefield National Historical Park, TX
Re-designated from a national historic site

03/30/09

P.L. 111-11

Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historical Park, KY
Re-designated from a national historic site