document_title: Declaration of war by the United States

question_text: when was the last declared war in the us

text: Declaration of war by the United States

text: History[edit]

text: The United States has formally declared war against foreign nations five separate times, each upon prior request by the President of the United States. Four of those five declarations came after hostilities had begun.[2] James Madison reported that in the Federal Convention of 1787, the phrase "make war" was changed to "declare war" in order to leave to the Executive the power to repel sudden attacks but not to commence war without the explicit approval of Congress.[3] Debate continues as to the legal extent of the President's authority in this regard. Public opposition to American involvement in foreign wars, particularly during the 1930s, was expressed as support for a Constitutional Amendment that would require a national referendum on a declaration of war.[4] Several Constitutional Amendments, such as the Ludlow Amendment, have been proposed that would require a national referendum on a declaration of war.

text: After Congress repealed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution in January 1971 and President Richard Nixon continued to wage war in Vietnam, Congress passed the War Powers Resolution (Pub.L. 93–148) over the veto of Nixon in an attempt to rein in some of the president's claimed powers. The War Powers Resolution proscribes the only power of the president to wage war which is recognized by Congress.[5]

text: Declarations of war[edit]

text: Formal[edit]

text: The table below lists the five wars in which the United States has formally declared war against eleven foreign nations.[6] The only country against which the United States has declared war more than once is Germany, against which the United States has declared war twice (though a case could be made for Hungary as a successor state to Austria-Hungary).

text: In World War II, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. Germany and Italy, led respectively by Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini, declared war on the United States, and the U.S. Congress responded in kind.[7][8]

text:
War
Declaration
Opponent(s)
Date of declaration
Votes
President
Result

Senate
House

War of 1812
Declaration of War upon the U.K.
 United Kingdom
June 18, 1812
19–13
79–49
James Madison
Treaty of Ghent (December 24, 1814)

Mexican–American War
"An Act providing for the Prosecution of the existing War between the United States and the Republic of Mexico."[9]
 Mexico
May 13, 1846
40–2
173–14
James K. Polk
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (February 2, 1848)

Spanish–American War
Declaration of War upon Spain
 Spain
April 25, 1898
42–35
310–6
William McKinley
Treaty of Paris (December 10, 1898)

World War I
Declaration of War upon Germany
 Germany
April 6, 1917
82–6
373–50
Woodrow Wilson
Treaty of Berlin (August 25, 1921)

Declaration of War upon Austria-Hungary[10][11]
 Austria-Hungary
December 7, 1917
74–0
365–1
1921 U.S.–Austrian Peace Treaty (August 24, 1921), 1921 U.S.-Hungarian Peace Treaty (August 29, 1921)

World War II
Declaration of War upon Japan
 Japan
December 8, 1941
82–0
388–1
Franklin D. Roosevelt
V-J Day, Japanese Instrument of Surrender (September 2, 1945), Treaty of San Francisco (September 8, 1951)

Declaration of War upon Germany
 Germany
December 11, 1941
88–0
393–0
V-E Day, German Instrument of Surrender (May 8, 1945), Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany (September 12, 1990), Treaty of Vienna with Austria (May 15, 1955)

Declaration of War upon Italy
 Italy
90–0
399–0
Paris Peace Treaty (February 10, 1947)

Declaration of War upon Bulgaria
 Bulgaria
June 5, 1942
73–0
357–0

Declaration of War upon Hungary[10]
 Hungary
360–0

Declaration of War upon Romania[10]
 Romania
361–0

tag: table

text: Undeclared wars[edit]

text: Military engagements authorized by Congress[edit]

text: In other instances, the United States has engaged in extended military combat that was authorized by Congress.

text:
War or conflict
Opponent(s)
Initial authorization
Votes
President
Result

Senate
House

Quasi-War
 France
An Act further to protect the commerce of the United States
July 9, 1798
18–4

John Adams
Treaty of Mortefontaine

First Barbary War
 Morocco
 Tripolitania

February 6, 1802[12]

Thomas Jefferson
War ended 1805

Second Barbary War
 Algiers
May 10, 1815[13]

James Madison
War ended 1816

Enforcing 1808 slave trade ban; naval squadron sent to African waters to apprehend illegal slave traders
 Slave traders and pirates
"Act in addition to the acts prohibiting the Slave Trade" 1819

James Monroe
1822 first African-American settlement founded in Liberia, 1823 U.S. Navy stops anti-trafficking patrols

Redress for attack on U.S. Navy's USS Water Witch
 Paraguay
1858.[14]

James Buchanan

Mexican Revolution

United States occupation of Veracruz

 Mexico
H.J.R. 251, 38 Stat. 770
April 22, 1914

337–37
Woodrow Wilson
Force withdrawn after six months. However, the Joint Resolution was likely used to authorize the Pancho Villa Expedition. In the Senate, "when word reached the Senate that the invasion had gone forward before the use-of-force resolution had been approved, Republicans reacted angrily" saying it was a violation of the Constitution, but eventually after the action had already started, a resolution was passed after the action to "justify" it since Senators did not think it was a declaration of war.[15][16]

Russian Civil War

Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War

 Commune of Estonia
 Far Eastern Republic
 Latvia
 Mongolian People's Party
 Russia
 Ukraine

1918[17]

Woodrow Wilson

Lebanon crisis of 1958
 Lebanese Opposition

 Al-Mourabitoun
 Lebanese Communist Party
 Progressive Socialist Party

H.J. Res. 117, Public Law 85-7, Joint Resolution "To promote peace and stability in the Middle East", March 9, 1957[18]
72–19
355–61
Dwight D. Eisenhower
U.S. forces withdrawn, October 25, 1958

Vietnam War

Laotian Civil War

Cambodian Civil War

 China
National United Front of Kampuchea

 Khmer Rouge
 Khmer Rumdo
 Khmer Việt Minh

 North Korea
 North Vietnam
 Pathet Lao
 South Vietnam

Việt Cộng

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, August 7, 1964
88–2
416–0
Lyndon B. Johnson
U.S. forces withdrawn under terms of the Paris Peace Accords signed January 27, 1973

Multinational Force in Lebanon
Shia and Druze militias; Syria
S.J.Res. 159
Pub.L. 98–119
September 29, 1983
54–46
253–156
Ronald W. Reagan
Forces withdrawn in 1984

Persian Gulf War
 Iraq
H.J.Res. 77
January 12, 1991.
52–47
250–183
George H.W. Bush
The United Nations Security Council drew up terms for the cease-fire, April 3, 1991

War in Afghanistan

Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan
Operation Freedom's Sentinel

al-Qaeda insurgency in Yemen

Yemeni Civil War

Somali Civil War

Operation Enduring Freedom – Horn of Africa

War in North-West Pakistan

Moro conflict

Operation Enduring Freedom – Philippines

Iraqi Civil War

Operation Inherent Resolve

Syrian Civil War

Operation Inherent Resolve

Second Libyan Civil War

 Afghanistan

Quetta Shura

Taliban

Haqqani network
Mullah Dadullah Front

 al-Qaeda

055 Brigade
Al-Nusra Front

Khorasan group

al-Qaeda Emirate in Yemen

Aden-Abyan Islamic Army
Islamic Jihad of Yemen

al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula

Ansar al-Sharia

al-Qaeda in the Indian Subcontinent
Lashkar al-Zil

 Harakat Ahrar al-Sham al-Islamiyya
 Hezb-e Islami Gulbuddin
 Islamic Jihad Union
Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan
Jamaat-ul-Ahrar
Jundallah
Lashkar-e-Islam
 Lashkar-e-Jhangvi
 Tehreek-e-Nafaz-e-Shariat-e-Mohammadi
 Turkistan Islamic Party
 Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan

 High Council of the Islamic Emirate
 Fidai Mahaz

 al-Itihaad al-Islamiya
 Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia
 Harakat al-Shabaab Mujahedeen
 Hizbul Islam
 Islamic Courts Union
 Jabhatul Islamiya
 Mu'askar Anole
 Ras Kamboni Brigades

 Abu Sayyaf
 Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters
 Islamic State
 Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan
 Maute group
 Khalifa Islamiyah Mindanao

S.J. Res. 23
September 14, 2001
98–0
420–1
George W. Bush

Iraq War[19]
 Iraq
H.J. Res. 114,
March 3, 2003
77–23
296–132
George W. Bush
Ba'athist Iraqi government deposed April 2003. U.S. combat operations ended August 31, 2010. War ended December 15, 2011. Destabilization of Iraq and emergence of ISIL in the region 2011–present.[20]

text: Military engagements authorized by United Nations Security Council Resolutions and funded by Congress[edit]

text: In many instances, the United States has engaged in extended military engagements that were authorized by United Nations Security Council Resolutions and funded by appropriations from Congress.

text:
Military engagement
Opponent(s)
Initial authorization
President
Result

Korean War
 China
 North Korea
 Soviet Union

UNSCR 84, 1950
Harry S. Truman
Korean Armistice Agreement,[21] 1953

Multinational Force in Lebanon
Shia militias, Druze militias, Syria
UNSCR 425, 1978
UNSCR 426, 1978

Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan
U.S. forces withdrew in 1984

Persian Gulf War
 Iraq
UNSCR 678, 1990
George H. W. Bush
UNSCR 689, 1991

Bosnian War
 Republika Srpska
UNSCR 770, 1992
UNSCR 776, 1992
UNSCR 836, 1993
Bill Clinton
Reflagged as IFOR in 1995, Reflagged as SFOR in 1996, Completed in 2004

Second Liberian Civil War
Peacekeeping
UNSCR 1497, 2003
George W. Bush
U.S. forces are withdrawn in 2003 after the UNMIL is established.

Haitian coup d'état
UNSCR 1529, 2004
UNSCR 1542, 2004

2004

First Libyan Civil War

2011 military intervention in Libya

Operation Odyssey Dawn
Operation Unified Protector

 Libya
UNSCR 1973, 2011
Barack Obama
Debellation of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, October 31, 2011

text: Other undeclared wars[edit]

text:
Military engagement
Opponent(s)
President
Result

American Revolutionary War
 Great Britain

Quebec
Loyalists

German auxiliaries

 Hesse-Kassel
 Hesse-Hanau
 Hanover
 Waldeck
 Brunswick
 Ansbach
 Anhalt-Zerbst

Native Americans[22]

 Iroquois Confederacy

None
Peace of Paris

text: On at least 125 occasions, the President has acted without prior express military authorization from Congress.[23] These include instances in which the United States fought in the Philippine–American War from 1898–1903, in Nicaragua in 1927, as well as the NATO bombing campaign of Yugoslavia in 1999, and the 2017 missile strikes on Syria.

text: The United States' longest war was fought between approximately 1840 and 1886 against the Apache Nation. During that entire 46-year period, there was never more than 90 days of peace.[citation needed]

text: The Indian Wars comprise at least 28 conflicts and engagements. These localized conflicts, with Native Americans, began with European colonists coming to North America, long before the establishment of the United States. For the purpose of this discussion, the Indian Wars are defined as conflicts with the United States of America. They begin as one front in the American Revolutionary War in 1775 and had concluded by 1918. The United States Army still maintains a campaign streamer for Pine Ridge 1890–1891 despite opposition from certain Native American groups.[24]

text: The American Civil War was not an international conflict under the laws of war, because the Confederate States of America was not a government that had been granted full diplomatic recognition as a sovereign nation by other sovereign states.[25][26] The CSA was recognized by the United States government as a belligerent power, a different status of recognition that authorized Confederate warships to visit non-U.S. ports. This recognition of the CSA's status as a belligerent power did not impose any duty upon the United States to recognize the sovereignty of the Confederacy, and the United States never did so.

text: The War Powers Resolution[edit]

text: In 1973, following the withdrawal of most American troops from the Vietnam War, a debate emerged about the extent of presidential power in deploying troops without a declaration of war. A compromise in the debate was reached with the War Powers Resolution. This act clearly defined how many soldiers could be deployed by the President of the United States and for how long. It also required formal reports by the President to Congress regarding the status of such deployments, and limited the total amount of time that American forces could be deployed without a formal declaration of war.

text: Although the constitutionality of the act has never been tested, it is usually followed, most notably during the Grenada Conflict, the Panamanian Conflict, the Somalia Conflict, the Persian Gulf War, and the Iraq War[clarification needed]. The only exception was President Clinton's use of U.S. troops in the 78-day NATO air campaign against Yugoslavia during the Kosovo War.[citation needed] In all other cases, the President asserted the constitutional authority to commit troops without the necessity of Congressional approval, but in each case the President received Congressional authorization that satisfied the provisions of the War Powers Act.

text: On March 21, 2011, a number of lawmakers expressed concern that the decision of President Barack Obama to order the U.S. military to join in attacks of Libyan air defenses and government forces exceeded his constitutional authority because the decision to authorize the attack was made without Congressional permission.[27] Obama explained his rationale in a two-page letter, stating that as commander in chief, he had constitutional authority to authorize the strikes, which would be limited in scope and duration, and necessary to prevent a humanitarian disaster in Libya.


document_title: Timeline of events in the Cold War

question_text: what was the last event of the cold war

question_tokens: what was the last event of the cold war

root

text: Timeline of events in the Cold War

text:
February 4-11: The Yalta Conference in Crimea, Russia, with President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Soviet Dictator Joseph Stalin, and their top aides. Main attention is deciding the post-war status of Germany. The Allies of World War II (the USA, the USSR, United Kingdom and also France) divide Germany into four occupation zones. The Allied nations agree that free elections are to be held in Poland and all countries occupied by Nazi Germany. In addition, the new United Nations are to replace the failed League of Nations.[1]
March–April: US and Britain outraged as Stalin excludes them from a role in Poland and turns Poland over to a Communist puppet government he controls.[2]
March–April: Stalin outraged at inaccurate reports about Operation Sunrise that American OSS in Switzerland is negotiating a surrender of German forces; he demands a Russian general be present at all negotiations. Roosevelt vehemently denies the allegation, but closes down the operation in Switzerland. A Russian general is present at the negotiations in Italy that lead to surrender.[3]
April 12: Roosevelt dies; Vice President Harry S. Truman takes over with little knowledge of current diplomatic efforts, no knowledge of the atomic bomb, and a bias against Russia.[4]
July 24: At the Potsdam Conference, Truman informs Stalin that the United States has nuclear weapons.[5]
August 6: Truman follows advice of Secretary of War Henry Stimson and gives permission for the world's first military use of an atomic weapon against the Japanese city of Hiroshima.
August 8: The USSR honors its agreement to declare war on Japan within three months of the victory in Europe, and invades Manchuria.
August 9: With no Japanese response to his ultimatums, Truman gives permission for the world's second and last military use of an atomic weapon against the Japanese city of Nagasaki.
September 2: The Japanese surrender unconditionally to the US. General Douglas MacArthur takes over occupation of Japan, and freezes out Russian and other allied representatives.[6]
September 5: Igor Gouzenko, a Russian working in the Soviet embassy in Canada, defects and provides proof to the Royal Canadian Mounted Police of a Soviet spy ring operating in Canada and the U.S. The revelations helps change perceptions of the Soviet Union from an ally to a foe.[7]

tag: ul

text:
January: Chinese Civil War resumed between Communist and Nationalist forces.
January 7: The Republic of Austria is reconstituted, with its 1937 borders, but divided into four zones of control: American, British, French, and Soviet.
January 11: Enver Hoxha declares the People's Republic of Albania, with himself as Prime Minister.
February 9: Joseph Stalin makes his Election Speech, in which he states that capitalism and imperialism make future wars inevitable.[8]
February 22: George F. Kennan writes his Long Telegram, describing his interpretation of the objectives and intentions of the Soviet leadership.[9]
March: The Greek Civil War reignites between the communists and the Kingdom of Greece.
March 2: British soldiers withdraw from their zone of occupation in southern Iran. Soviet soldiers remain in their northern sector.
March 6: Winston Churchill warns of the descent of an Iron Curtain across Europe.
April 5: Soviet forces evacuate Iran after a crisis.
July 4: The Philippines gains independence from the United States, and begins fighting communist Huk rebels (Hukbalahap Rebellion).
September 6: In a speech known as the Restatement of Policy on Germany in Stuttgart, James F. Byrnes, United States Secretary of State repudiates the Morgenthau Plan. He states the US intention to keep troops in Europe indefinitely and expresses US approval of the territorial annexation of 29% of pre-war Germany, but does not condone further claims.
September 8: In a referendum, Bulgaria votes for the establishment of a People's Republic, deposing King Simeon II. Western countries dismiss the vote as fundamentally flawed.[10]
September 24: Truman is presented with the Clifford-Elsey Report, a document which listed Soviet violations of agreements with the United States.
September 27: Nikolai Vasilevich Novikov writes a response to Kennan's Long Telegram, known as the 'Novikov Telegram', in which he states that the United States are "striving for world supremacy".[11]
December 19: French landings in Indochina begin the First Indochina War. They are resisted by the Viet Minh communists who want national independence.

text:
January 1: The American and British zones of control in Germany are united to form the Bizone also known as Bizonia.
March 12: President Harry Truman announces the Truman Doctrine starting with the giving of aid to Greece and Turkey in order to prevent them from falling into the Soviet sphere.
April 16: Bernard Baruch, in a speech given during the unveiling of his portrait in the South Carolina House of Representatives, coins the term "Cold War" to describe relations between the United States and the Soviet Union.
May 22: US extends $400 million of military aid to Greece and Turkey, signalling its intent to contain communism in the Mediterranean.
June 5: Secretary of State George Marshall outlines plans for a comprehensive program of economic assistance for the war-ravaged countries of Western Europe. It would become known throughout the world as the Marshall Plan.
July 11: The US announces new occupation policies in Germany. The occupation directive JCS 1067, whose economic section had prohibited "steps looking toward the economic rehabilitation of Germany [or] designed to maintain or strengthen the German economy", is replaced by the new US occupation directive JCS 1779 which instead notes that "An orderly, prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a stable and productive Germany."
August 14: India and Pakistan gain independence from the United Kingdom.
September: The Soviet Union forms the Communist Information Bureau (COMINFORM) with which it dictates the actions of leaders and communist parties across its spheres of influence.
November 14: The United Nations passes a resolution calling for the withdrawal of foreign soldiers from Korea, free elections in each of the two administrations, and the creation of a UN commission dedicated to the unification of the peninsula.
December 30: In Romania, King Michael I of Romania is forced to abdicate by Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, the monarchy is abolished and the Popular Republic of Romania is instituted instead. The Communist Party will rule the country until December 1989.

text:
February 25: The Communist Party takes control in the Czechoslovak coup d'état of 1948.
March 10: Czechoslovakian Foreign Minister Jan Masaryk is reported having committed suicide.
April 3: Truman signs the Marshall Plan into effect. By the end of the programs, the United States has given $12.4 billion in economic assistance to Western European countries.
May 10: A parliamentary vote in southern Korea sees the confirmation of Syngman Rhee as President of the Republic of Korea, after a left-wing boycott.
June 18: A communist insurgency in Malaya begins against British and Commonwealth forces.
June 21: In Germany, the Bizone and the French zone launch a common currency, the Deutsche Mark.
June 24: Stalin orders the Berlin Blockade, closing all land routes from West Germany to Berlin, in an attempt to starve out the French, British, and American forces from the city. In response, the three Western powers launch the Berlin Airlift to supply the citizens of Berlin by air.
June 28: The Soviet Union expels Yugoslavia from the Communist Information Bureau (COMINFORM) for the latter's position on the Greek civil war.
June 28 to May 11, 1949: The Berlin Airlift defeats Russia's attempt to starve West Berlin.
September 9: The Soviet Union declares the Democratic People's Republic of Korea to be the legitimate government of all of Korea, with Kim Il-sung as Prime Minister.
November 20: The American consul and his staff in Mukden, China, are made virtual hostages by communist forces in China. The crisis did not end until a year later, by which time U.S. relations with the new communist government in China had been seriously damaged.

text:
April 4: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is founded by Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States, in order to resist Communist expansion.
May 11: The Soviet blockade of Berlin ends with the re-opening of access routes to Berlin. The airlift continues until September, in case the Soviets re-establish the blockade. Brune argues, "Moscow realized the blockade had nor been successful – it had drawn the Western powers closer together rather than dividing them. Finally, Western countermeasures had inflicted considerable damage on the economic life of East Germany and the other Soviet satellites."[12]
May 23: In Germany, the Bizone merges with the French zone of control to form the Federal Republic of Germany, with Bonn as its capital.
August 29: The Soviet Union tests its first atomic bomb. The test, known to Americans as Joe 1, succeeds, as the Soviet Union becomes the world's second nuclear power.[13]
September 13: The USSR vetoes the United Nations membership of Ceylon, Finland, Iceland, Italy, Jordan, and Portugal.
September 15: Konrad Adenauer becomes the first Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany.[14]
October 1: Mao Zedong declares the foundation of the People's Republic of China - adding a quarter of the world's population to the communist camp.
October 7: The Soviets declare their zone of Germany to be the German Democratic Republic, with its capital at East Berlin.
October 16: Nikos Zachariadis, leader of the Communist Party of Greece, declares an end to the armed uprising. The declaration brings to a close the Greek Civil War, and the first successful containment of communism.
December 27: Sovereignty is handed over to United States of Indonesia from the Netherlands through the Dutch-Indonesian Round Table Conference with Sukarno as the first president of the newly formed federation.[15]

text:
January 5: The UK recognizes the People's Republic of China. The Republic of China severs diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom.
January 19: China officially diplomatically recognizes Vietnam as independent from France.
January 21: The last Kuomintang soldiers surrender on continental China.
February 12: The Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China sign a pact of mutual defense.
March 11: Kuomintang leader Chiang Kai-shek moves his capital to Taipei, Taiwan, establishing a stand-off with the People's Republic of China.
April 7: United States State Department Director of Policy Planning Paul Nitze issues NSC 68, a classified report, arguing for the adoption of containment as the cornerstone of United States foreign policy. It would dictate US policy for the next twenty years.
May 11: Robert Schuman describes his ambition of a united Europe. Known as the Schuman Declaration, it marks the beginning of the creation of the European Community.
June 25: North Korea invades South Korea, beginning the Korean War. The Soviet Union cannot veto, as it is boycotting the Security Council over the admission of People's Republic of China.
July 4: United Nations forces engage North Korean forces for the first time, in Osan. They fail to halt the North Korean advance, and fall southwards, towards what would become the Pusan Perimeter.
September 30: United Nations forces land at Inchon. Defeating the North Korean forces, they press inland and re-capture Seoul.
October 2: United Nations forces cross the 38th parallel, into North Korea.
October 5: Forces from the People's Republic of China mobilize along the Yalu River.
October 22: Pyongyang, the capital of North Korea, falls to United Nations forces.
October 22: China intervenes in Korea with 300,000 soldiers, catching the United Nations by surprise. However, they withdraw after initial engagements.
November 15: United Nations forces approach the Yalu River. In response, China intervenes in Korea again, but with a 500,000 strong army. This offensive forces the United Nations back towards South Korea.

text:
January 4: Chinese soldiers capture Seoul.
March 14: United Nations forces recapture Seoul during Operation Ripper. By the end of March, they have reached the 38th Parallel, and formed a defensive line across the Korean peninsula.
March 29: Julius and Ethel Rosenberg are convicted of espionage for their role in passing atomic secrets to the Soviets during and after World War II; they were executed on June 19, 1953.
April 11: US President Harry S. Truman fires Douglas MacArthur from command of US forces in Korea.
April 18: The European Coal and Steel Community is formed by the Treaty of Paris.
April 23: American journalist William N. Oatis is arrested in Czechoslovakia for alleged espionage.
September 1: Australia, New Zealand, and the United States sign the ANZUS Treaty. This compels the three countries to cooperate on matters of defense and security in the Pacific.
October 10: President Harry S. Truman signs the Mutual Security Act, announcing to the world, and its communist powers in particular, that the U.S. was prepared to provide military aid to "free peoples."
November 14: President Harry Truman asks Congress for U.S. military and economic aid for the communist nation of Yugoslavia.
December 12: The International Authority for the Ruhr lifted part of the remaining restrictions on German industrial production and on production capacity.

text:
April 28: the Treaty of San Francisco, signed by Japan on September 8, 1951, comes into effect, and Japan signs the Treaty of Taipei, formally ending its period of occupation and isolation, and becoming a sovereign state.
June: Strategic Air Command begins Reflex Alert deployments of Convair B-36 and B-47 Stratojet long-range nuclear bombers to overseas bases like purpose-built Nouasseur Air Base in French Morocco, placing them within unrefueled striking range of Moscow.
June 14: The United States lays the keel for the world's first nuclear-powered submarine, USS Nautilus.
June 30: The Marshall Plan ends, with European industrial output now well above that of 1948.
July 23: Gamal Abdel Nasser heads a coup against King Farouk of Egypt.
October 2: The United Kingdom successfully tests its atomic bomb in Operation Hurricane. The test makes the UK the world's third nuclear power.
November 1: The United States tests their first thermonuclear bomb, Ivy Mike.

text:
January 20: Dwight D. Eisenhower becomes President, with John Foster Dulles as Secretary of State.
March 5: Stalin dies, setting off a power struggle to succeed him. NATO debates possibility of a fresh start.[16]
June 17: Uprising of 1953 in East Germany crushed by Soviet troops.[17]
July 27: An armistice agreement ends fighting in the Korean War After Eisenhower threatens the use of nuclear weapons.[18]
August 19: The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the British MI6 assists a royalist coup that restores Mohammad Reza Pahlavi to power as the Shah of Iran and ousts Prime Minister Mohammed Mosaddeq (Operation Ajax). The coup was organized because of Iranian nationalization of the oil industry and fears of Iran joining the Soviet camp.
September 7: Nikita Khrushchev becomes leader of the Soviet Communist Party. His main rival, Lavrentiy Beria, is executed in December.
December 4–8: Eisenhower meets with Churchill and Joseph Laniel of France in Bermuda.

text:
January 21: The United States launches the world's first nuclear submarine, USS Nautilus. The nuclear submarine would become the ultimate nuclear deterrent.
May 7: The Viet Minh defeat the French at Dien Bien Phu. France withdraws from Indochina, leaving four independent states: Cambodia, Laos, and what became North Vietnam and South Vietnam. The Geneva Accords calls for free elections to unite Vietnam, but none of the major Western powers wish this to occur in the likely case that the Viet Minh (nationalist Communists) would win.
May: The Huk revolt in the Philippines is defeated.
June 2: Senator Joseph McCarthy claims that communists have infiltrated the CIA and the atomic weapons industry.
June 18: The elected leftist Guatemalan government is overthrown in a CIA-backed coup. An unstable rightist regime installs itself. Opposition leads to a guerrilla war with Marxist rebels in which major human rights abuses are committed on all sides. Nevertheless, the regime survives until the end of the Cold War.
July 8: Col. Carlos Castillo Armas is elected president of the junta that overthrew the administration of Guatemalan President Jacobo Arbenz Guzman.
August 11: The Taiwan Strait Crisis begins with the Chinese Communist shelling of Taiwanese islands. The US backs Taiwan, and the crisis resolves itself as both sides decline to take action.
September 8: Foundation of the South East Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO) by Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, Thailand, the Philippines, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Like NATO, it is founded to resist Communist expansion, this time in the Philippines and Indochina.

text:
February 24: The Baghdad Pact is founded by Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey, and the United Kingdom. It is committed to resisting Communist expansion in the Middle East.
March: Soviet aid to Syria begins. The Syrians will remain allies of the Soviets until the end of the Cold War.
April: The Non-Aligned Movement is pioneered by Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Sukarno of Indonesia, Tito of Yugoslavia, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt and Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana. This movement was designed to be a bulwark against the 'dangerous polarization' of the world at that time and to restore balance of power with smaller nations. It was an international organization of states considering themselves not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc.
May 5: Allies end military occupation of West Germany.
May 9: West Germany joins NATO and begins rearmament.
May 14: The Warsaw Pact is founded in Eastern Europe and includes East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Albania, Bulgaria, and the Soviet Union. It acts as the Communist military counterpart to NATO.
May 15: Austria is neutralized and allied occupation ends.
July 18: President Dwight D. Eisenhower of the United States, Prime Minister Anthony Eden of the United Kingdom, Premier Nikolai A. Bulganin of the Soviet Union, and Prime Minister Edgar Faure of France, known as the 'Big Four', attend the Geneva Summit. Also in attendance was Nikita Khrushchev of the Soviet Union.

text:
February 25 : Nikita Khrushchev delivers the speech "On the Personality Cult and its Consequences" at the closed session of the Twentieth Party Congress of the CPSU. The speech marks the beginning of the De-Stalinization.
June 28: in Poznań, Poland, anti-communist protests lead to violence.
July 26: Nasser nationalizes the Suez Canal.
October 23: Hungarian Revolution of 1956: Hungarians revolt against the Soviet dominated government. They are crushed by the Soviet military, which reinstates a Communist government.
October 29: Suez Crisis: France, Israel, and the United Kingdom attack Egypt with the goal of removing Nasser from power. International diplomatic pressures force the attackers to withdraw. Canadian Lester B. Pearson encourages the United Nations to send a Peacekeeping force, the first of its kind, to the disputed territory. Lester B. Pearson wins a Nobel Peace Prize for his actions, and soon after becomes Canadian Prime Minister.
December: Communist insurgency begins in South Vietnam, sponsored by North Vietnam.

text:
January 5: The Eisenhower doctrine commits the US to defending Iran, Pakistan, and Afghanistan from Communist influence.
January 22: Israeli forces withdraw from the Sinai, which they had occupied the previous year.
May 2: Senator Joseph McCarthy succumbs to illness exacerbated by alcoholism and dies.
October 1: The Strategic Air Command initiates 24/7 nuclear alert (continuous until termination in 1991) in anticipation of a Soviet ICBM surprise attack capability.
October 4: Sputnik satellite launched. The same day the Avro Arrow is revealed.
November 3: Sputnik 2 was launched, with the first living being on board, Laika.
November 7: The final report from a special committee called by President Dwight D. Eisenhower to review the nation's defense readiness indicates that the United States is falling far behind the Soviets in missile capabilities, and urges a vigorous campaign to build fallout shelters to protect American citizens.
November 15: Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev claims that the Soviet Union has missile superiority over the United States and challenges America to a missile "shooting match" to prove his assertion.

text:
June: A C-118 transport, hauling freight from Turkey to Iran, is shot down. The nine crew members are released by the Russians little more than a week later.[19]
July 14: A coup in Iraq, the 14 July Revolution, removes the pro-British monarch. Iraq begins to receive support from the Soviets. Iraq will maintain close ties with the Soviets throughout the Cold War.
August: Thor IRBM deployed to the UK, within striking distance of Moscow.
August 23: Second Taiwan Strait Crisis begins when China begins to bomb Quemoy.
October 4: The National Aeronautics and Space Administration, or NASA is formed.
November: Start of the second Berlin crisis, Nikita Khrushchev asks the West to leave Berlin.

text:
January 1: Cuban Revolution. Fidel Castro becomes the dictator of Cuba. In the next several years Cuban-inspired guerrilla movements spring up across Latin America.[20]
March 24: New Republic government of Iraq leaves Central Treaty Organization
July 24: During the opening of the American National Exhibition in Moscow US Vice President Richard Nixon and Premier Khrushchev openly debate the capacities of each Superpower. This conversation is known as the Kitchen Debate.
August 7: Explorer 6 is launched into orbit to photograph the Earth.
September: Khrushchev visits U.S. for 13 days, and is denied access to Disneyland. Instead, he visits SeaWorld (then known as Marineland of the Pacific).[21]
December: Formation of the FNL (often called Viet Cong) by North Vietnam. It is a Communist insurgent movement that vows to overthrow the anti-communist South Vietnamese regime. It is supplied extensively by North Vietnam and the USSR eventually.

text:
February 16: France successfully tests its first atomic bomb, Gerboise Bleue, in the middle of the Algerian Sahara Desert.
April: Jupiter IRBM deployment to Italy begins, placing nuclear missiles within striking range of Moscow (as with the Thor IRBMs deployed in the UK).
May 1: American pilot Francis Gary Powers is shot down in his U-2 spy plane while flying at high altitude over the Soviet Union, resulting in the U-2 Incident, an embarrassment for President Eisenhower.
June: Sino-Soviet split: The Chinese leadership, angered at being treated as the "junior partner" to the Soviet Union, declares its version of Communism superior and begin to compete with the Soviets for influence, thus adding a third dimension to the Cold War.
July 31: Communist insurgents in Malaya are defeated.
August 9: The Pathet Lao (communist) revolt in Laos begins.

text:
January 3: President Eisenhower severs diplomatic relations with Cuba.
January 20: John F. Kennedy becomes President of the United States.
February 4: Angolan nationalists, including communists, begin an insurgency against Portuguese rule.
April 12: Yuri Gagarin becomes the first human in space and first to orbit the Earth when the Soviet Union successfully launches Vostok 1.
April 17–19: Bay of Pigs Invasion: A CIA-backed invasion of Cuba by counter-revolutionaries ends in failure.
May 25: John F. Kennedy announces the US intention to put a man on the moon - kickstarting Project Mercury, America's first manned spaceflight program
June 4: Kennedy meets with Khrushchev in Vienna.
June: Jupiter IRBM deployment to Turkey begins, joining the Jupiters deployed to Italy as well as the Thor IRBMs deployed to the UK as nuclear missiles placed within striking distance of Moscow.
August 13: The Berlin Wall is built by the Soviets following the breakdown in talks to decide the future of Germany.
August 17: Alliance for Progress aid to Latin America from the United States begins.
September 1: The Soviet Union resumed testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere.
October 17: 22nd Soviet Party Congress held in USSR
October 27: Beginning of Checkpoint Charlie standoff between US and Soviet tanks
October 31: The Soviet Union detonates the Tsar Bomba, the most powerful thermonuclear weapon ever tested, with an explosive yield of some 50 megatons.
December 2: Fidel Castro openly describes himself as a Marxist–Leninist.

text:
February 10: American pilot Francis Gary Powers is exchanged for senior KGB spy Colonel Rudolf Abel.
July 20: Neutralization of Laos is established by international agreement, but North Vietnam refuses to withdraw its personnel.[22]
September 8: Himalayan War: Chinese forces attack India, making claims on numerous border areas.
October 16: Cuban Missile Crisis: The Soviets have secretly been installing military bases, including nuclear weapons, on Cuba, some 90 miles from the US mainland. Kennedy orders a "quarantine" (a naval blockade) of the island that intensifies the crisis and brings the US and the USSR to the brink of nuclear war. In the end, both sides reach a compromise. The Soviets back down and agree to withdraw their nuclear missiles from Cuba, in exchange for a secret agreement by Kennedy pledging to withdraw similar American missiles from Turkey and Italy, and guaranteeing that the US will not move against the Castro regime.
November 21: End of the Himalayan War. China occupies a small strip of Indian land.

text:
June 20: The United States agrees to set up a hotline with the USSR, thus making direct communication possible.
June 21: France announces that it is withdrawing its navy from the North Atlantic fleet of NATO.
June 26: U.S. President John F. Kennedy delivers his "Ich bin ein Berliner" speech in Berlin.
August 5: The Partial Test Ban Treaty is signed by the US, UK and USSR, prohibiting the testing of nuclear weapons anywhere except underground.
November 2: South Vietnamese Prime Minister Ngo Dinh Diem is assassinated in coup. CIA involvement is suspected.
November 22: John F. Kennedy is shot and killed in Dallas. There has been some speculation over whether communist countries or even CIA were involved in the assassination, but those theories remain controversial. Kennedy's vice-president Lyndon B. Johnson becomes President of the United States.

text:
March 30 / April 1: A military-led coup d'état overthrows president João Goulart in Brazil. Goulart's proposals, such as land reform and bigger control of the state in the economy, were seen as communist.
April 20: US President Lyndon Johnson in New York, and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev in Moscow, announce simultaneously plans to cut back production of materials for making nuclear weapons.
May 27: Jawaharlal Nehru dies.
August 4: US President Lyndon B. Johnson claims that North Vietnamese naval vessels had fired on two American destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin. Although there was a first attack, it was later shown that American vessels had entered North Vietnamese territory first, and that the claim of second attack had been unfounded. The Gulf of Tonkin Incident leads to the open involvement of the United States in the Vietnam War, after the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.
October 14: Leonid Brezhnev succeeds Khrushchev to become General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
October 16: China tests its first atomic bomb. The test makes China the world's fifth nuclear power.

text:
March 10: France withdraws from NATO command structure.
May 8: Communist China detonates a third nuclear device
August 26: South African Border War begins

text:
March 12: General Suharto successfully overthrows Sukarno as president of Indonesia. Indonesia switches sides.
April 25: 33 Latin American and Caribbean countries sign the Treaty of Tlatelolco in Mexico City, which seek the prohibition of nuclear weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean.
May 23: Egypt blocks the Straits of Tiran, then expels UN peacekeepers and moves its army into the Sinai Peninsula in preparation for possible attack on Israel.
May 25: Uprising in Naxalbari, India marking the expansion of Maoism as a violent, anti-US and anti-Soviet, revolutionary movement across a number of developing countries.
June 5: In response to Egypt's aggression, Israel invades the Sinai Peninsula, beginning the Six-Day War.
June 23: U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson meets with Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin in Glassboro, New Jersey for a three-day summit.
August 8: Bangkok Declaration is established to quell the communist threat in Southeast Asia. This creates ASEAN.
November 29: Robert McNamara announces that he will resign as U.S. Secretary of Defense to become President of the World Bank.

text:
January 30: Tet Offensive in South Vietnam begins.
March 30: Johnson suspends bombings over North Vietnam and announces he is not running for reelection.
June 8: Tet Offensive ends; while an American military victory, it raises questions over America's military chances in Vietnam
June 17: The Second Malayan Emergency begins.
July 1: The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) is opened for signature.
August 20: Prague Spring Reforms in Communist Czechoslovakia result in Warsaw Pact for Soviet Red Army to crush Czechoslovakian revolt
December 23: The captain and crew of the USS Pueblo are released by North Korea.

text:
January 20: Richard Nixon becomes President of the United States.
March 2: Border clashes between the Soviet Union and China
March 17: The U.S. begins bombing Communist sanctuaries in Cambodia.
July 20: The U.S. accomplishes the first manned moon landing, Apollo 11. Manned by Neil Armstrong, "Buzz" Aldrin, and Michael Collins.
July 25: "Vietnamization" begins with U.S. troop withdrawals from Vietnam and the burden of combat being placed on the South Vietnamese.
September 1: Muammar al-Gaddafi overthrows the Libyan monarchy and expels British and American personnel. Libya aligns itself with the Soviet Union.

text:
March 5: Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, ratified by the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States, among others, enters into force.
March 18: Lon Nol takes power in Cambodia. Khmer Rouge and Vietnamese Communists attack the new regime, which wants to end North Vietnamese presence in Cambodia.
October 24: Salvador Allende becomes president of Chile after being confirmed by the Chilean congress.
November 18: United States' aid to Cambodia to support the Lon Nol regime begins.

text:
February 8: South Vietnamese forces enter Laos to briefly cut the Ho Chi Minh trail.
March 26: Bangladeshi Declaration of Independence. Bangladesh Liberation War begins.
May 15: Anwar Sadat's Corrective Revolution purges Nasserist members of the government and security forces, and eventually expels Soviet military from Egypt.
September: 105 Soviet officials expelled from Great Britain by Prime Minister Edward Heath in Operation FOOT
September 3: Four-Power Agreement on Berlin is signed by the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, France, and the United States.
September 11: Nikita Khrushchev dies.
October 25 : The United Nations General Assembly passes Resolution 2758, recognizing the People's Republic of China as the sole legitimate government of China, causing Taiwan to lose its membership.
December 3 : India enters the Bangladesh Liberation War after Pakistan launches preemptive air strikes on Indian airfields.
December 16 : Lt. Gen A. A. K. Niazi, CO of the Pakistan Army forces located in East Pakistan surrenders unconditionally by signing the Instrument of Surrender which is accepted by Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Aurora, joint commander of the Bangladesh-India Allied Forces. Bangladesh is officially recognized by the eastern bloc.

text:
February 21: Nixon visits China, the first visit by a U.S. President since the establishment of the People's Republic of China.
March 30: FNL goes to the offensive in South Vietnam, only to be repulsed by the South Vietnamese regime with major American air support.
May 26: Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I) agreement signals the beginning of détente between the U.S. and USSR.
September 1: Bobby Fischer defeats Russian Boris Spassky in a chess match in Reykjavík, Iceland, becoming the first official American chess champion (see Match of the Century).
September 2–28: The Summit Series, an ice hockey tournament between Canada and Soviet Union.
September 21: Philippine president Ferdinand Marcos declares martial law in response to the growing communist threat in the Philippines.
December 18: Richard Nixon announces the beginning of a massive bombing campaign in North Vietnam.

text:
January 27: The Paris Peace Accords end American involvement in the Vietnam War. Congress cuts off funds for the continued bombing of Indochina.
September 11: Chilean coup d'état — The democratically-elected Marxist president of Chile, Salvador Allende, is deposed and commits suicide during a military coup led by General Augusto Pinochet.
October 6: Yom Kippur War — Israel is attacked by Egypt and Syria, the war ends with a ceasefire.
October 22: Egypt defects to the American camp by accepting a U.S. cease-fire proposal during the October 1973 war.
November 11: The Soviet Union announces that, because of its opposition to the recent overthrow of the government of Chilean President Salvador Allende, it will not play a World Cup Soccer match against the Chilean team if the match is held in Santiago.

text:
June: SEATO formally ends after France leaves the organization.
August 9: Gerald Ford becomes President of the United States upon the resignation of Nixon.
September 12: The pro-Western monarch of Ethiopia, Haile Selassie, is ousted by a Marxist military junta known as the Derg.

text:
April 18: The communist Khmer Rouge take power in Cambodia; genocide ensues, later referred to as "The Killing Fields".
April 30: North Vietnam wins the war in South Vietnam. The South Vietnam regime falls with the surrender of Saigon and the two countries are united under a Communist government.
May 12: Mayagüez incident: The Khmer Rouge seize an American naval ship, prompting American intervention to recapture the ship and its crew. In the end, the crew is released from captivity.
June 25: Portugal withdraws from Angola and Mozambique, where Marxist governments are installed, the former with backing from Cuban troops. The Civil war engulfs both nations and involves Angolans, Mozambicans, South Africans, and Cubans, with the superpowers supporting their respective ideologies.
July: The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project takes place. It is the first joint flight of the US and Soviet space programs. The mission is seen as a symbol of détente and an end to the "space race".
August 1: Helsinki Final Act of the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe signed by the United States, Canada, the Soviet Union and Europe
November 29: Pathet Lao takes power in Laos.

text:
January 8: Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai dies of cancer
March 24: Coup d'état in Argentina and launches military action against Argentine-based guerrillas.
July 20: U.S. Military personnel withdraw from Thailand.
September 1: Inception of Safari Club.
September 9: Death of Mao Zedong.

text:
January 1: Charter 77 is signed by Czechoslovakian intellectuals, including Václav Havel.
January 20: Jimmy Carter becomes President of the United States.
June 6: U.S. Secretary of State Cyrus Vance assures skeptics that the Carter administration will hold the Soviet Union accountable for its recent crackdowns on human rights activists.
July 23: The Ogaden War begins when Somalia attacks Ethiopia.

text:
March 15: The Ogaden War ends with a cease-fire.
April 27: President of Afghanistan Sardar Mohammed Daoud's government is overthrown when he is murdered in a coup led by pro-communist rebels.
December 25: A Communist regime is installed in Afghanistan.

text:
January 7: Vietnam deposes the Khmer Rouge and installs a pro-Vietnam, pro-Soviet government.
January 16: The Iranian Revolution ousts the pro-Western Shah, Mohammed Reza Pahlavi and installs a theocracy under Ayatollah Khomeini. CENTO dissolves as a result.
February 17: Sino-Vietnamese War, China launches a punitive attack on North Vietnam to punish it for invading Cambodia.
May 4: Margaret Thatcher is elected prime minister of the United Kingdom: becoming the first female to lead a major Western democracy.
May 9: War breaks out in El Salvador between Marxist-led insurgents and the U.S.-backed government.
June 2: Pope John Paul II begins his first pastoral visit to his native Poland.
June 18: U.S. President Jimmy Carter and Soviet leader, Leonid Brezhnev, sign the SALT II agreement, outlining limitations and guidelines for nuclear weapons.
July 3: President Carter signs the first directive for financial aid to opponents of the pro-Soviet regime in Kabul, Afghanistan.[23]
July 17: Marxist-led Sandinista revolutionaries overthrow the U.S.-backed Somoza dictatorship in Nicaragua. The Contra insurgency begins shortly thereafter.
September: Nur Mohammed Taraki, The Marxist president of Afghanistan, is deposed and murdered. The post of president is taken up by Prime Minister Hafizullah Amin.
November 4: Islamist Iranian students take over the American embassy in support of the Iranian Revolution. The Iran hostage crisis lasts until January 20, 1981.
December 12: NATO Double-Track Decision - NATO offers mutual limitation of ballistic missiles combined with the threat that in case of disagreement NATO would deploy more middle-range nuclear weapons in Western Europe.
December 24: The Soviet Union invades Afghanistan to oust Hafizullah Amin, resulting in the end of Détente.

text:
March 21: The United States and its allies boycott the 1980 Summer Olympics (July 19-August 3) in Moscow.
May 4: Josip Broz Tito, communist leader of Yugoslavia since 1945, dies at the age of 88 in Ljubljana.
August 31: In Poland the Gdańsk Agreement is signed after a wave of strikes which began at the Lenin Shipyards in Gdańsk. The agreement allows greater civil rights, such as the establishment of a trade union independent of communist party control.

text:
January 17: Martial law was lifted by Ferdinand Marcos in preparation for the visit of Pope John Paul II.
January 20: Ronald Reagan inaugurated 40th President of the United States. Reagan is elected on a platform opposed to the concessions of détente.
January 20: Iran hostage crisis ends.
August 19: Gulf of Sidra Incident: Libyan planes attack U.S. jets in the Gulf of Sidra, which Libya has illegally annexed. Two Libyan jets are shot down; no American losses are suffered.
October 27: A Soviet submarine, the U137, runs aground not far from the Swedish naval base at Karlskrona.
November 23: The U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) begins to support anti-Sandinista Contras.
December 13: Communist Gen. Jaruzelski introduces martial law in Poland, which drastically restricts normal life, in an attempt to crush the Solidarity trade union and the political opposition against communist rule.

text:
February 24: President Ronald Reagan announces the "Caribbean Basin Initiative" to prevent the overthrow of governments in the region by the forces of communism.
March 22: President Ronald Reagan signs P.L. 97-157 denouncing the government of the Soviet Union that it should cease its abuses of the basic human rights of its citizens.[24][25]
April 2: Argentina invades the Falkland Islands, starting the Falklands War.
May 30: Spain joins NATO.
June 6: Israel invades Lebanon to end raids and clashes with Syrian troops based there.
June 14: Falkland Islands liberated by British task force. End of the Falklands War.
November 10: Death and state funeral of Leonid Brezhnev
November 14: Yuri Andropov becomes General Secretary of the Soviet Union.

text:
January: Soviet spy Dieter Gerhardt is arrested in New York.
March 8: In speech to the National Association of Evangelicals, Reagan labels the Soviet Union an "evil empire".
March 23: Ronald Reagan proposes the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI, or "Star Wars").
July 7: Ten-year-old Samantha Smith accepts the invitation of Soviet premiere Yuri Andropov and visits the Soviet Union with her parents. Smith had written to Andropov to ask if he would "vote to have a war or not?" Smith's letter, published in the Soviet newspaper Pravda, prompted Andropov to reply and invite the girl to the U.S.S.R. The widely publicized event leads to other Soviet-American cultural exchanges.
August 21: The late senator Benigno "Ninoy" S. Aquino was assassinated at the Manila International Airport (now Ninoy Aquino International Airport).
September 1: Civilian Korean Air Lines Flight 007, with 269 passengers, including U.S. Congressman Larry McDonald, is shot down by Soviet interceptor aircraft.
September 26: The U.S.S.R. nuclear early warning system reports launch of multiple U.S. intercontinental ballistic missiles. Stanislav Yevgrafovich Petrov, an officer of the Soviet Air Defence Forces, correctly identifies them as false alarms. This decision is seen as having prevented a retaliatory nuclear attack based on erroneous data on the United States and its NATO allies, which likely would have resulted in nuclear war and the deaths of hundreds of millions of people.
October 25: U.S. forces invade the Caribbean island of Grenada in an attempt to overthrow the Marxist military government, expel Cuban troops, and abort the construction of a Soviet-funded airstrip.
November 2: Exercise Able Archer 83 — Soviet anti-aircraft misinterpret a test of NATO's nuclear warfare procedures as a fake cover for an actual NATO attack; in response, Soviet nuclear forces are put on high alert.

text:
January: US President Ronald Reagan outlines foreign policy which reinforces his previous statements.
February 13: Konstantin Chernenko is named General Secretary of the Soviet Communist Party.
July 28: Various allies of the Soviet Union boycott the 1984 Summer Olympics (July 28 - August 12) in Los Angeles.
August 11: During a microphone sound check for his weekly radio address, President Ronald Reagan jokes about bombing the Soviet Union. "My fellow Americans," Reagan says. "I'm pleased to tell you today that I've signed legislation that will outlaw Russia forever. We begin bombing in five minutes." The quip is not aired but is leaked to the press. The Soviet Union temporarily puts its defense forces on high alert.
October 31: Indira Gandhi assassinated.
December 16: Margaret Thatcher and the UK government, in a plan to open new channels of dialog with Soviet leadership candidates, meet with Mikhail Gorbachev at Chequers.

text:
March 11: Mikhail Gorbachev becomes leader of the Soviet Union.
August 6: Coinciding with the 40th anniversary of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the Soviet Union begins what it has announced is a 5-month unilateral moratorium on the testing of nuclear weapons. The Reagan administration dismisses the dramatic move as nothing more than propaganda and refuses to follow suit. Gorbachev declares several extensions, but the United States fails to reciprocate, and the moratorium comes to an end on February 5, 1987.
November 21: Reagan and Gorbachev meet for the first time at a summit in Geneva, Switzerland, where they agree to two (later three) more summits.

text:
February 13: France launches Operation Epervier (Sparrowhawk) in an effort to repulse the Libyan invasion of Chad.
February 25: The People Power Revolution takes place in the Philippines, overthrowing the late president Ferdinand Marcos. The Philippines' first female president, Corazon Aquino was installed as president.
April 15: U.S. planes bomb Libya in Operation El Dorado Canyon.
April 26: Chernobyl disaster: A Soviet nuclear power plant in the Ukraine explodes, resulting in the worst nuclear power plant accident in history.
October 11–12: Reykjavik Summit: A breakthrough in nuclear arms control.
November 3: Iran-Contra affair: The Reagan administration publicly announces that it has been selling arms to Iran in exchange for hostages and illegally transferring the profits to the Contra rebels in Nicaragua.

text:
January 16: Natives within the Party who oppose his policies of economic redevelopment (Perestroika). It is Gorbachev's hope that through initiatives of openness, debate and participation, that the Soviet people will support Perestroika.
February 25: Phosphorite War breaks out in Estonia.
June 12: During a visit to Berlin, Germany, U.S. President Ronald Reagan famously challenges Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev in a speech: "Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!" (The Berlin Wall).
September 10: The Battle of Cuito Cuanavale, Angola begins and further intensifies the South African Border War.
December 8: The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty is signed in Washington, D.C. by U.S. President Ronald Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. Some later claim this was the official end of the Cold War. Gorbachev agrees to START I treaty.

text:
February 22: Incident: U.S.S. Yorktown (CG-48) and USS Caron (DD-970) are rammed off the Crimean Peninsula after entering Soviet territorial waters.
May 11: Kim Philby (Harold Adrian Russell Philby), the high-ranking U.K. intelligence officer who defected to the Soviet Union, dies in Moscow.
May 15: The Soviets begin withdrawing from Afghanistan.
May 29-June 1: Reagan and Gorbachev meet in Moscow. INF Treaty ratified. When asked if he still believes that the Soviet Union is still an evil empire, Reagan replies he was talking about "another time, another era."
November 6: Soviet scientist and well-known human rights activist Andrei Sakharov begins a two-week visit to the United States.
December 7: Gorbachev announces in a speech to the United Nations General Assembly that the Soviet Union will no longer militarily interfere with Eastern Europe.
December 22: South Africa withdraws from South West Africa (Namibia).

text:
January 4: Gulf of Sidra incident between America and Libya, similar to the 1981 Gulf of Sidra incident.
January 20: George H. W. Bush is inaugurated as 41st President of the United States.
February 2: Soviet troops withdraw from Afghanistan.
June 4: Tiananmen Square Massacre: Beijing protests are crushed by the communist Chinese government, resulting in an unknown number of deaths.
June 4: Elections in Poland show complete lack of backing for the Communist Party; Solidarity trade union wins all available seats in the Parliament and 99% in the Senate.
August: Parliament in Poland elects Tadeusz Mazowiecki as leader of the first non-communist government in the Eastern Bloc.
October 18: The Hungarian constitution is amended to allow a multi-party political system and elections. The nearly 20-year term of communist leader Erich Honecker comes to an end in East Germany.
November 9: Revolutions of Eastern Europe: Soviet reforms have allowed Eastern Europe to change the Communist governments there. The Berlin Wall is breached when Politburo spokesman, Günter Schabowski, not fully informed of the technicalities or procedures of the newly agreed lifting of travel restrictions, mistakenly announces at a news conference in East Berlin that the borders have been opened.
December 2: End of the Second Malayan Emergency with the Peace Agreement of Hat Yai 1989.
December 3: At the end of the Malta Summit, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev and US President George H. W. Bush declare that a long-lasting era of peace has begun. Many observers regard this summit as the official beginning of the end of the Cold War.
December 14: Democracy is restored in Chile.
December 16–25: Romanian Revolution: Rioters overthrow the Communist government of Nicolae Ceauşescu, executing him and his wife, Elena. Romania was the only Eastern Bloc country to violently overthrow its Communist government or to execute its leaders.
December 20: United States invades Panama.
December 29: Václav Havel becomes President of the now free Czechoslovakia.

text:
January 31: US Operation Just Cause ends, and Operation Promote Liberty begins in Panama.
March 11: Lithuania re-declares independence from the Soviet Union.
May 29: Boris Yeltsin elected as president of Russia.
August 2: Iraq invades Kuwait, beginning Gulf War.
September 9: George H.W. Bush and Mikhail Gorbachev meet in Helsinki, Finland and issue a joint declaration condemning the invasion of Kuwait.
October 3: Germany is reunified.

text:
February 28: Gulf War ends.
July: Warsaw Pact is formally dissolved.
August 19: Soviet coup attempt of 1991. The August coup occurs in response to a new union treaty to be signed on August 20.
December 25: US President George H. W. Bush, after receiving a phone call from Boris Yeltsin, delivers a Christmas Day speech acknowledging the end of the Cold War.
December 25: Mikhail Gorbachev resigns as President of the USSR. The hammer and sickle is lowered for the last time over the Kremlin.
December 26: The Council of Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR recognizes the dissolution of the Soviet Union and decides to dissolve itself.
December 31: On New Year's Eve all Soviet institutions cease operations and the Cold War ends with the collapse of the Soviet Union.

text:
April 27: Breakup of Yugoslavia.
April 28: Collapse of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan.
December 31: Dissolution of Czechoslovakia.


document_title: Buffalo nickel

question_text: when did the buffalo nickel stop being made

text: Buffalo nickel

text: Background[edit]

text: In 1883, the Liberty Head nickel was issued, featuring designs by Mint Engraver Charles E. Barber. After the coin was released, it was modified to add the word "CENTS" to the reverse because the similarity in size with the half eagle allowed criminals to gild the new nickels and pass them as five dollar coins.[1] An Act of Congress, passed into law on September 26, 1890 required that coinage designs not be changed until they had been in use 25 years, unless Congress authorized the change.[2] The act made the current five-cent piece and silver dollar exceptions to the twenty-five year rule; they were made eligible for immediate redesign.[3] However, the Mint continued to strike the Liberty Head nickel in large numbers through the first decade of the 20th century.[4]

tag: p

text: President Theodore Roosevelt in 1904 expressed his dissatisfaction with the artistic state of the American coinage,[5] and hoped to hire sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens to redesign all the coins. Constrained by the 1890 act, the Mint only hired Saint-Gaudens to redesign the cent and the four gold pieces. Saint-Gaudens, before his 1907 death, designed the eagle and double eagle, which entered circulation that year; the cent, quarter eagle, and half eagle were designed by other artists and released into circulation by 1909. By that time, the Liberty Head nickel had been in circulation for more than 25 years, and was eligible for redesign regardless of the special provision. In 1909, Mint Director Frank Leach instructed Barber to make pattern coins for new nickels. Most of these coins featured the first president, George Washington. The press found out about the pieces, and speculated they would be released into circulation by the end of the year. The Mint received orders from banks in anticipation of the "Washington nickel".[6] However, the project was discontinued when Leach left office on November 1, 1909, to be replaced by Abram Andrew.[6]

text: Andrew was dissatisfied with the just-issued Lincoln cent, and considered seeking congressional authorization to replace the cent with a design by sculptor James Earle Fraser. While the change in the cent did not occur, according to numismatic historian Roger Burdette, "Fraser's enthusiasm eventually led to adoption of the Buffalo nickel in December 1912".[7]

text: Inception[edit]

text: New design[edit]

text: On May 4, 1911, Eames MacVeagh, son of Treasury Secretary Franklin MacVeagh wrote to his father:

text: A little matter that seems to have been overlooked by all of you is the opportunity to beautify the design of the nickel or five cent piece during your administration, and it seems to me that it would be a permanent souvenir of a most attractive sort. As possibly you are aware, it is the only coin the design of which you can change during your administration, as I believe there is a law to the effect that the designs must not be changed oftener than every twenty-five years. I should think also it might be the coin of which the greatest numbers are in circulation.[8]

text: Soon after the MacVeagh letter, Andrew announced that the Mint would be soliciting new designs for the nickel. Fraser, who had been an assistant to Saint-Gaudens, approached the Mint, and rapidly produced concepts and designs. The new Mint director, George Roberts, who had replaced Andrew, initially favored a design featuring assassinated President Abraham Lincoln, but Fraser soon developed a design featuring a Native American on one side and a bison on the other. Andrew and Roberts recommended Fraser to MacVeagh, and in July 1911, the Secretary approved hiring Fraser to design a new nickel. Official approval was slow in coming; it was not until January 1912 that MacVeagh asked Roberts to inform Fraser that he had been commissioned.[9] MacVeagh wrote, "Tell him that of the three sketches which he submitted we would like to use the sketch of the head of the Indian and the sketch of the buffalo."[10] Roberts transmitted the news, then followed up with a long list of instructions to the sculptor, in which he noted, "The motto, 'In God We Trust', is not required upon this coin and I presume we are agreed that nothing should be upon it that is not required."[11] Fraser completed the models by June 1912, and prepared coin-size electrotypes. He brought the models and electrotypes to Washington on July 10, where they met with the enthusiastic agreement of Secretary MacVeagh.[12]

text: Hobbs affair[edit]

text: In July 1912, word of the new design became publicly known, and coin-operated machine manufacturers sought information. Replying to the inquiries, MacVeagh wrote that there would be no change in the diameter, thickness, or weight of the nickel. This satisfied most firms. However, Clarence Hobbs of the Hobbs Manufacturing Company, of Worcester, Massachusetts requested further information. According to Hobbs, his firm was the manufacturer of a device which would detect counterfeit nickels inserted into vending machines with complete accuracy.[13] Discussions continued for most of the rest of 1912, with Hobbs demanding various changes to the design, to which the artist was reluctant to agree. When in December 1912, the Hobbs Company submitted a modified design for the nickel, MacVeagh strongly opposed it. On December 18, Roberts officially approved Fraser's design, and the sculptor was authorized to complete and perfect the design, after which he would be paid $2,500 (US$63,400 with inflation[14]) for his work.[15]

text: On January 7, 1913, Fraser's approved design was used to strike experimental pieces; the sculptor later wrote that he remembered several of the workmen commenting that the new piece struck more easily than the old. Afterwards, Roberts asked Fraser if the Hobbs Company was content with the design. The sculptor told the Mint director that the firm wanted changes made, and Fraser agreed to meet with them further. Over the following two weeks, Fraser worked with George Reith, the Hobbs Company's mechanic who had invented the anti-slug device, in an attempt to satisfy the firm's concerns. On January 20, Fraser wired the Mint from his studio in New York, announcing that he was submitting a modified design, and explained that the delay was "caused by working with inventor until he was satisfied".[16] The next day, Philadelphia Mint Superintendent John Landis sent Roberts a sample striking of the revised design, stating, "the only change is in the border, which has been made round and true".[17]

text: Despite the apparent agreement, the Hobbs Company continued to interpose objections. Engraver Barber was asked for his view; he stated that Reith, who had attended the trial striking, had been given all the time and facilities he had asked for in testing the new pieces, and the mechanic had pronounced himself satisfied.[18] Hobbs Company agent C. U. Carpenter suggested that Reith had been intimidated by the preparations that had already gone into the issue of the modified nickel, "and, instead of pointing out clearly just what the situation demanded, agreed to adapt our device to the coin more readily that  [sic] he was warranted in doing".[19] On February 3, Hobbs sent Roberts a lengthy list of changes that he wanted in the coin, and the sculptor was required to attend a conference with Hobbs and Reith.[20] On the fifth, following the conference, which ended with no agreement, Fraser sent MacVeagh a ten-page letter, complaining that his time was being wasted by the Hobbs Company, and appealing to the Secretary to bring the situation to a close.[21] MacVeagh agreed to hold a meeting at his office in Washington on February 14. When the Hobbs Company requested permission to bring a lawyer, Fraser announced he would be doing the same. The Hobbs Company sought letters of support from the business community, with little success; Fraser's efforts to secure support from artists for his position were more fruitful.[22] Barber prepared patterns showing what the nickel would look like if the changes demanded by Hobbs were made. MacVeagh conducted the meeting much like a legal hearing, and issued a letter the following day.[23]

text: The Secretary noted that no other firm had complained, that the Hobbs mechanism had not been widely sold, and that the changes demanded—a clear space around the rim and the flattening of the Indian's cheekbone—would affect the artistic merit of the piece.

text: It is of course true that only the most serious business considerations should stand in the way of the improvement of the coinage, and this particular coin has great claims of its own, because of its special quality. If we should stop new coinage—which is always allowed every twenty-five years—for any commercial obstacles less than imperative, we should have to abandon a worthy coinage altogether. This would be a most serious handicap to the art of the Nation, for scarcely any form of art is more influential than an artistic coin, where the coin is widely circulated.

text: You will please, therefore, proceed with the coinage of the new nickel.[24]

text: After he issued his decision, MacVeagh learned that the Hudson & Manhattan Railroad Company, which Hobbs claimed had enthusiastically received his device, was actually removing it from service as unsatisfactory. The Secretary's decision did not end the Hobbs Company efforts, as the firm appealed to President Taft. With only two weeks remaining in his term, the President was not minded to stop the new nickel (production of which had started on February 18) and MacVeagh wrote to Taft's secretary, Charles D. Hilles, "Certainly Hobbs got all the time and attention out of this administration that any administration could afford to give to one manufacturing corporation."[25] Numismatic historian and coin dealer Q. David Bowers describes the Hobbs matter as "much ado about nothing from a company whose devices did not work well even with the Liberty Head nickels".[26]

text: Release and production[edit]

text: The first coins to be distributed were given out on February 22, 1913, when Taft presided at groundbreaking ceremonies for the National American Indian Memorial at Fort Wadsworth, Staten Island, New York. The memorial, a project of department store magnate Rodman Wanamaker, was never built, and today the site is occupied by an abutment for the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge. Forty nickels were sent by the Mint for the ceremony; most were distributed to the Native American chiefs who participated.[27] Payment for Fraser's work was approved on March 3, 1913, the final full day of the Taft administration. In addition to the $2,500 agreed upon, Fraser received $666.15 (US$16,500 with inflation[14]) for extra work and expenses through February 14.[28]

text: The coins were officially released to circulation on March 4, 1913, and quickly gained positive comments as depicting truly American themes.[29] However, The New York Times stated in an editorial that "The new 'nickel' is a striking example of what a coin intended for wide circulation should not be ...[it] is not pleasing to look at when new and shiny, and will be an abomination when old and dull."[30] The Numismatist, in March and May 1913 editorials, gave the new coin a lukewarm review, suggesting that the Indian's head be reduced in size and the bison be eliminated from the reverse.[31]

text: With the coin now in production, Barber monitored the rate at which dies were expended, as it was the responsibility of his Engraver's Department to supply all three mints with working dies. On March 11, 1913, he wrote to Landis that the dies were being used up three times faster than with the Liberty Head nickel. His department was straining to produce enough new dies to meet production. In addition, the date and denomination were the points on the coin most subject to wear, and Landis feared the value on the coin would be worn away.[32] Barber made proposed revisions, which Fraser approved after being sent samples.[33] These changes enlarged the legend "FIVE CENTS" and changed the ground on which the bison stands from a hill to flat ground.[34] According to data compiled by numismatic historian David Lange from the National Archives, the changes to what are known as Type II nickels (with the originals Type I) actually decreased the die life.[35] The new Treasury Secretary, William G. McAdoo, wanted further changes in the coin, but Fraser had moved on to other projects and was uninterested in revisiting the nickel.[36] The thickness of the numerals in the date was gradually increased, making them more durable; however the problem was never addressed with complete success, and even many later-date Buffalo nickels have the date worn away.[29]

text: The Buffalo nickel saw minor changes to the design in 1916.[37] The word "LIBERTY" was given more emphasis and moved slightly; however many Denver and San Francisco issues of the 1920s exhibit weak striking of the word, the Denver issue of 1926 especially; Bowers questions whether any change was made to the portrait of the Indian,[38] though Walter Breen in his reference work on United States coins states that Barber made the Indian's nose slightly longer. According to Breen, however, none of these modifications helped, with the coin rarely found well-struck and with the design subject to considerable wear throughout the remainder of its run.[39] The bison's horn and tail also posed striking problems, again with the Denver and San Francisco issues of the 1920s in general, and 1926-D in particular, showing the greatest propensity for these deficiencies.

text: The piece was struck by the tens of millions, at all three mints (Philadelphia, Denver and San Francisco), through the remainder of the 1910s. In 1921, a recession began, and no nickels at all were struck the following year.[40] The low mintage for the series was the 1926-S, at 970,000 — the only date-mint combination with a mintage of less than 1 million. The second lowest mintage for the series came with the 1931 nickel struck at the San Francisco Mint. The 1931-S was minted in a quantity of 194,000 early in the year. There was no need for more to be struck, but Acting Mint Director Mary Margaret O'Reilly asked the San Francisco Mint to strike more so that the pieces would not be hoarded. Using materials on hand, including the melting down of worn-out nickels, San Francisco found enough metal to strike 1,000,000 more pieces. Large quantities were saved in the hope they would become valuable, and the coin is not particularly rare today despite the low mintage.[41]

text: A well-known variety in the series is the 1937–D "three-legged" nickel, on which one of the buffalo's legs is missing. Breen relates that this variety was caused by a pressman, Mr. Young, at the Denver Mint, who in seeking to remove marks from a reverse die (caused by the dies making contact with each other), accidentally removed or greatly weakened one of the animal's legs. By the time Mint inspectors discovered and condemned the die, thousands of pieces had been struck and mixed with other coins.[39]

text: Another variety is the 1938-D/S, caused by dies bearing an "S" mintmark being repunched with a "D" and used to strike coins at Denver. While the actual course of events is uncertain, Bowers is convinced that the variety was created because Buffalo nickel dies intended for the San Francisco mint were repunched with the "D" and sent to Denver so they would not be wasted—no San Francisco Buffalo nickels were struck in 1938, but they were produced at Denver, and it was already known that a new design would be introduced. The 1938-D/S was the first repunched mintmark of any US coin to be discovered, causing great excitement among numismatists when the variety came to light in 1962.[42]

text: When the Buffalo nickel had been in circulation for the minimum 25 years, it was replaced with little discussion or protest. The problems of die life and weak striking had never been solved, and Mint officials advocated its replacement. In January 1938, the Mint announced an open competition for a new nickel design, to feature early President Thomas Jefferson on the obverse, and Jefferson's home, Monticello on the reverse.[43] In April, Felix Schlag was announced as the winner.[44] The last Buffalo nickels were struck in April 1938, at the Denver Mint, the only mint to strike them that year. On October 3, 1938, production of the Jefferson nickel began, and they were released into circulation on November 15.[45]

text: Design, models, and name controversy[edit]

text: In a 1947 radio interview, Fraser discussed his design:

text: Well, when I was asked to do a nickel, I felt I wanted to do something totally American—a coin that could not be mistaken for any other country's coin. It occurred to me that the buffalo, as part of our western background, was 100% American, and that our North American Indian fitted into the picture perfectly.[46]

text: The visage of the Indian which dominates Fraser's obverse design was a composite of several Native Americans. Breen noted (before the advent of the Sacagawea dollar) that Fraser's design was the second and last US coin design to feature a realistic portrait of an Indian, after Bela Pratt's 1908 design for the half eagle and quarter eagle.[47]

text: The identity of the Indians whom Fraser used as models is somewhat uncertain, as Fraser told various and not always consistent stories during the forty years he lived after designing the nickel. In December 1913, he wrote to Mint Director Roberts that "[b]efore the nickel was made I had done several portraits of Indians, among them Iron Tail, Two Moons, and one or two others, and probably got characteristics from those men in the head on the coins, but my purpose was not to make a portrait but a type."[48]

text: By 1931, Two Guns White Calf, son of the last Blackfoot tribal chief, was capitalizing off his claim to be the model for the coin. To try to put an end to the claim, Fraser wrote that he had used three Indians for the piece, including "Iron Tail, the best Indian head I can remember. The other one was Two Moons, the other I cannot recall."[49] In 1938, Fraser stated that the three Indians had been "Iron Tail, a Sioux, Big Tree, a Kiowa, and Two Moons, a Cheyenne".[49] Despite the sculptor's efforts, he (and the Mint) continued to receive inquiries about the identity of the Indian model until his 1953 death.[50]

text: Nevertheless, John Big Tree, a Seneca, claimed to be a model for Fraser's coin, and made many public appearances as the "nickel Indian" until his 1967 death at the age of 90 (though he sometimes alleged he was over 100 years of age). Big Tree was identified as the model for the nickel in wire service reports about his death,[51] and he had appeared in that capacity at the Texas Numismatic Association convention in 1966.[49] After Big Tree's death, the Mint stated that he most likely was not one of the models for the nickel. There have been other claimants: in 1964, Montana Senator Mike Mansfield wrote to Mint Director Eva B. Adams, enquiring if Sam Resurrection, a Choctaw was a model for the nickel. Adams wrote in reply, "According to our records, the portrait is a composite. There have been many claimants for this honor, all of whom are undoubtedly sincere in the belief that theirs is the one that adorns the nickel."[51]

text: According to Fraser, the animal that appears on the reverse is the American bison Black Diamond. In an interview published in the New York Herald on January 27, 1913, Fraser was quoted as saying that the animal, which he did not name, was a "typical and shaggy specimen" which he found at the Bronx Zoo.[52] Fraser later wrote that the model "was not a plains buffalo, but none other than Black Diamond, the contrariest animal in the Bronx Zoo. I stood for hours ... He refused point blank to permit me to get side views of him, and stubbornly showed his front face most of the time."[52] However, Black Diamond was never at the Bronx Zoo, but instead lived at the Central Park Zoo until he was sold and slaughtered in 1915. Black Diamond's mounted head is still extant, and has been exhibited at coin conventions.[26] The placement of Black Diamond's horns differs considerably from that of the animal on the nickel, leading to doubts that Black Diamond was Fraser's model. One candidate cited by Bowers is Bronx, a bison who was for many years the herd leader of the bison at the Bronx Zoo.[53]

text: From its inception, the coin was referred to as the "Buffalo nickel", reflecting the American colloquialism for the North American bison. As the piece is 75% copper and 25% nickel, prominent numismatist Stuart Mosher objected to the nomenclature in the 1940s, writing that he was "uncertain why it is called a 'Buffalo nickel' although the name is preferable to 'Bison copper'". The numismatic publication with the greatest circulation, Coin World, calls it an Indian head nickel, while R.S. Yeoman's Red Book refers to it as an "Indian Head or Buffalo type".[54]

text: In 2001, the design was adopted for use on a commemorative silver dollar.[55] In 2006, the Mint began striking American Buffalo gold bullion pieces, using a modification of Fraser's Type I design.[56]