document_title: Sugarcane

question_text: sugarcane is one of the important cash crops in india it is grown to obtain

text: Sugarcane

text: Description[edit]

text: Sugarcane is a tropical, perennial grass that forms lateral shoots at the base to produce multiple stems, typically three to four m (10 to 13 ft) high and about 5 cm (2 in) in diameter. The stems grow into cane stalk, which when mature constitutes around 75% of the entire plant. A mature stalk is typically composed of 11–16% fiber, 12–16% soluble sugars, 2–3% nonsugars, and 63–73% water. A sugarcane crop is sensitive to the climate, soil type, irrigation, fertilizers, insects, disease control, varieties, and the harvest period. The average yield of cane stalk is 60–70 tonnes per hectare (24–28 long ton/acre; 27–31 short ton/acre) per year. However, this figure can vary between 30 and 180 tonnes per hectare depending on knowledge and crop management approach used in sugarcane cultivation. Sugarcane is a cash crop, but it is also used as livestock fodder.[6]

text: History[edit]

text: Sugarcane is indigenous to tropical South and Southeast Asia.[8] Different species likely originated in different locations, with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule and S. officinarum in New Guinea.[8] The earliest known production of crystalline sugar began in northern India. The exact date of the first cane sugar production is unclear. The earliest evidence of sugar production comes from ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts.[9]

text: Around the 8th century, Muslim and Arab traders introduced sugar from South Asia to the other parts of the Abbasid Caliphate in the Mediterranean, Mesopotamia, Egypt, North Africa, and Andalusia. By the 10th century, sources state that no village in Mesopotamia did not grow sugarcane.[7] It was among the early crops brought to the Americas by the Spanish, mainly Andalusians, from their fields in the Canary Islands, and the Portuguese from their fields in the Madeira Islands.

text: Christopher Columbus first brought sugarcane to the Caribbean during his second voyage to the Americas; initially to the island of Hispaniola (modern day Haiti and the Dominican Republic). In colonial times, sugar formed one side of the triangle trade of New World raw materials, along with European manufactured goods, and African slaves. Sugar (often in the form of molasses) was shipped from the Caribbean to Europe or New England, where it was used to make rum. The profits from the sale of sugar were then used to purchase manufactured goods, which were then shipped to West Africa, where they were bartered for slaves. The slaves were then brought back to the Caribbean to be sold to sugar planters. The profits from the sale of the slaves were then used to buy more sugar, which was shipped to Europe.

text: France found its sugarcane islands so valuable that it effectively traded its portion of Canada, famously dubbed "a few acres of snow", to Britain for their return of Guadeloupe, Martinique and St. Lucia at the end of the Seven Years' War. The Dutch similarly kept Suriname, a sugar colony in South America, instead of seeking the return of the New Netherlands (New York).

text: Boiling houses in the 17th through 19th centuries converted sugarcane juice into raw sugar. These houses were attached to sugar plantations in the Western colonies. Slaves often ran the boiling process under very poor conditions. Rectangular boxes of brick or stone served as furnaces, with an opening at the bottom to stoke the fire and remove ashes. At the top of each furnace were up to seven copper kettles or boilers, each one smaller and hotter than the previous one. The cane juice began in the largest kettle. The juice was then heated and lime added to remove impurities. The juice was skimmed and then channeled to successively smaller kettles. The last kettle, the "teache", was where the cane juice became syrup. The next step was a cooling trough, where the sugar crystals hardened around a sticky core of molasses. This raw sugar was then shoveled from the cooling trough into hogsheads (wooden barrels), and from there into the curing house.

text: In the British Empire, slaves were liberated after 1833 and many would no longer work on sugarcane plantations when they had a choice. British owners of sugarcane plantations therefore needed new workers, and they found cheap labour in China, Portugal and India.[10][11] The people were subject to indenture, a long-established form of contract which bound them to forced labour for a fixed term; apart from the fixed term of servitude, this resembled slavery.[12] The first ships carrying indentured labourers from India left in 1836.[13] The migrations to serve sugarcane plantations led to a significant number of ethnic Indians, southeast Asians and Chinese settling in various parts of the world.[14] In some islands and countries, the South Asian migrants now constitute between 10 to 50 percent of the population. Sugarcane plantations and Asian ethnic groups continue to thrive in countries such as Fiji, Natal, Burma, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, British Guiana, Jamaica, Trinidad, Martinique, French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Grenada, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, St. Kitts, St. Croix, Suriname, Nevis, and Mauritius.[13][15]

text: The then British colony of Queensland, now a state of Australia, imported between 55,000 and 62,500 (estimates vary) people from the South Pacific Islands to work on sugarcane plantations between 1863 and 1900.[16]

text: Cuban sugar derived from sugarcane was exported to the USSR, where it received price supports and was ensured a guaranteed market. The 1991 dissolution of the Soviet state forced the closure of most of Cuba's sugar industry.

text: Sugarcane remains an important part of the economy of Guyana, Belize, Barbados, and Haiti, along with the Dominican Republic, Guadeloupe, Jamaica, and other islands.

text: About 70% of the sugar produced globally comes from S. officinarum and hybrids using this species.[17]

text: Cultivation[edit]

text: Sugarcane cultivation requires a tropical or temperate climate, with a minimum of 60 cm (24 in) of annual moisture. It is one of the most efficient photosynthesizers in the plant kingdom. It is a C4 plant, able to convert up to 1% of incident solar energy into biomass.[18] In prime growing regions, such as Mauritius, Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, India, Guyana, Indonesia, Pakistan, Peru, Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia, Australia, Ecuador, Cuba, the Philippines, El Salvador, Jamaica, and Hawaii, sugarcane crops can produce over 15 kg/m2 of cane. Once a major crop of the southeastern region of the United States, sugarcane cultivation has declined there in recent decades, and is now primarily confined to Florida and Louisiana.

text: Sugarcane is cultivated in the tropics and subtropics in areas with a plentiful supply of water, for a continuous period of more than 6-7 months each year, either from natural rainfall or through irrigation. The crop does not tolerate severe frosts. Therefore, most of the world's sugarcane is grown between 22°N and 22°S, and some up to 33°N and 33°S.[19] When sugarcane crop is found outside this range, such as the Natal region of South Africa, it is normally due to anomalous climatic conditions in the region, such as warm ocean currents that sweep down the coast. In terms of altitude, sugarcane crop is found up to 1,600 m close to the equator in countries such as Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru.[20]

text: Sugarcane can be grown on many soils ranging from highly fertile well-drained mollisols, through heavy cracking vertisols, infertile acid oxisols, peaty histosols, to rocky andisols. Both plentiful sunshine and water supplies increase cane production. This has made desert countries with good irrigation facilities such as Egypt some of the highest-yielding sugarcane-cultivating regions.

text: Although some sugarcanes produce seeds, modern stem cutting has become the most common reproduction method.[21] Each cutting must contain at least one bud, and the cuttings are sometimes hand-planted. In more technologically advanced countries like the United States and Australia, billet planting is common. Billets harvested from a mechanical harvester are planted by a machine that opens and recloses the ground. Once planted, a stand can be harvested several times; after each harvest, the cane sends up new stalks, called ratoons. Successive harvests give decreasing yields, eventually justifying replanting. Two to 10 harvests are usually made depending on the type of culture. In a country with a mechanical agriculture looking for a high production of large fields, like in North America, sugar canes are replanted after two or three harvests to avoid a lowering in yields. In countries with a more traditional type of agriculture with smaller fields and hand harvesting, like in the French island la Réunion, sugar canes are often harvested up to 10 years before replanting.

text: Sugarcane is harvested by hand and mechanically. Hand harvesting accounts for more than half of production, and is dominant in the developing world. In hand harvesting, the field is first set on fire. The fire burns dry leaves, and chases away or kills any lurking venomous snakes, without harming the stalks and roots. Harvesters then cut the cane just above ground-level using cane knives or machetes. A skilled harvester can cut 500 kg (1,100 lb) of sugarcane per hour.[citation needed]

text: Mechanical harvesting uses a combine, or sugarcane harvester.[22] The Austoft 7000 series, the original modern harvester design, has now been copied by other companies, including Cameco / John Deere.[citation needed] The machine cuts the cane at the base of the stalk, strips the leaves, chops the cane into consistent lengths and deposits it into a transporter following alongside. The harvester then blows the trash back onto the field. Such machines can harvest 100 long tons (100 t) each hour; however, harvested cane must be rapidly processed. Once cut, sugarcane begins to lose its sugar content, and damage to the cane during mechanical harvesting accelerates this decline. This decline is offset because a modern chopper harvester can complete the harvest faster and more efficiently than hand cutting and loading. Austoft also developed a series of hydraulic high-lift infield transporters to work alongside their harvesters to allow even more rapid transfer of cane to, for example, the nearest railway siding. This mechanical harvesting doesn't require the field to be set on fire; the remains left in the field by the machine consist of the top of the sugar cane and the dead leaves, which act as mulch for the next round of planting.

text: Pests[edit]

text: The cane beetle (also known as cane grub) can substantially reduce crop yield by eating roots; it can be controlled with imidacloprid (Confidor) or chlorpyrifos (Lorsban). Other important pests are the larvae of some butterfly/moth species, including the turnip moth, the sugarcane borer (Diatraea saccharalis), the Mexican rice borer (Eoreuma loftini); leaf-cutting ants, termites, spittlebugs (especially Mahanarva fimbriolata and Deois flavopicta), and the beetle Migdolus fryanus. The planthopper insect Eumetopina flavipes acts as a virus vector, which causes the sugarcane disease ramu stunt.[23]

text: Pathogens[edit]

text: Numerous pathogens infect sugarcane, such as sugarcane grassy shoot disease caused by Phytoplasma, whiptail disease or sugarcane smut, pokkah boeng caused by Fusarium moniliforme, Xanthomonas axonopodis bacteria causes Gumming Disease, and red rot disease caused by Colletotrichum falcatum. Viral diseases affecting sugarcane include sugarcane mosaic virus, maize streak virus, and sugarcane yellow leaf virus.

text: Nitrogen fixation[edit]

text: Some sugarcane varieties are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen in association with the bacterium Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus.[24] Unlike legumes and other nitrogen-fixing plants that form root nodules in the soil in association with bacteria, G. diazotrophicus lives within the intercellular spaces of the sugarcane's stem.[25][26] Coating seeds with the bacteria is a newly developed technology that can enable every crop species to fix nitrogen for its own use.[27]

text: Conditions for sugarcane workers[edit]

text: At least 20,000 people are estimated to have died of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in Central America in the past two decades – most of them sugar cane workers along the Pacific coast. This may be due to working long hours in the heat without adequate fluid intake.[28]

text: Processing[edit]

text: Traditionally, sugarcane processing requires two stages. Mills extract raw sugar from freshly harvested cane and "mill-white” sugar is sometimes produced immediately after the first stage at sugar-extraction mills, intended for local consumption. Sugar crystals appear naturally white in color during the crystallization process. Sulfur dioxide is added to inhibit the formation of color-inducing molecules as well as to stabilize the sugar juices during evaporation.[29][30] Refineries, often located nearer to consumers in North America, Europe, and Japan, then produce refined white sugar, which is 99 percent sucrose. These two stages are slowly merging. Increasing affluence in the sugar-producing tropics increased demand for refined sugar products, driving a trend toward combined milling and refining.

text: Milling[edit]

text: Sugarcane processing produces cane sugar (sucrose) from sugarcane. Other products of the processing include bagasse, molasses, and filtercake.

text: Bagasse, the residual dry fiber of the cane after cane juice has been extracted, is used for several purposes:[31]

text:
fuel for the boilers and kilns,
production of paper, paperboard products, and reconstituted panelboard,
agricultural mulch, and
as a raw material for production of chemicals.

text: The primary use of bagasse and bagasse residue is as a fuel source for the boilers in the generation of process steam in sugar plants. Dried filtercake is used as an animal feed supplement, fertilizer, and source of sugarcane wax.

text: Molasses is produced in two forms: Blackstrap, which has a characteristic strong flavor, and a purer molasses syrup. Blackstrap molasses is sold as a food and dietary supplement. It is also a common ingredient in animal feed, is used to produce ethanol and rum, and in the manufacturing of citric acid. Purer molasses syrups are sold as molasses, and may also be blended with maple syrup, invert sugars, or corn syrup. Both forms of molasses are used in baking.

text: Refining[edit]

text: Sugar refining further purifies the raw sugar. It is first mixed with heavy syrup and then centrifuged in a process called "affination". Its purpose is to wash away the sugar crystals' outer coating, which is less pure than the crystal interior. The remaining sugar is then dissolved to make a syrup, about 60 percent solids by weight.

text: The sugar solution is clarified by the addition of phosphoric acid and calcium hydroxide, which combine to precipitate calcium phosphate. The calcium phosphate particles entrap some impurities and absorb others, and then float to the top of the tank, where they can be skimmed off. An alternative to this "phosphatation" technique is "carbonatation", which is similar, but uses carbon dioxide and calcium hydroxide to produce a calcium carbonate precipitate.

text: After filtering any remaining solids, the clarified syrup is decolorized by filtration through activated carbon. Bone char or coal-based activated carbon is traditionally used in this role.[32] Some remaining color-forming impurities adsorb to the carbon. The purified syrup is then concentrated to supersaturation and repeatedly crystallized in a vacuum, to produce white refined sugar. As in a sugar mill, the sugar crystals are separated from the molasses by centrifuging.[33] Additional sugar is recovered by blending the remaining syrup with the washings from affination and again crystallizing to produce brown sugar. When no more sugar can be economically recovered, the final molasses still contains 20–30 percent sucrose and 15–25 percent glucose and fructose.

text: To produce granulated sugar, in which individual grains do not clump, sugar must be dried, first by heating in a rotary dryer, and then by blowing cool air through it for several days.

text: Ribbon cane syrup[edit]

text: Ribbon cane is a subtropical type that was once widely grown in the southern United States, as far north as coastal North Carolina. The juice was extracted with horse or mule-powered crushers; the juice was boiled, like maple syrup, in a flat pan, and then used in the syrup form as a food sweetener.[34] It is not currently a commercial crop, but a few growers find ready sales for their product.[citation needed]

text: Pollution from sugarcane processing[edit]

text: Particulate matter, combustion products, and volatile organic compounds are the primary pollutants emitted during the sugarcane processing.[31] Combustion products include nitrogen oxides (NOX), carbon monoxide (CO), CO2, and sulfur oxides (SOX). Potential emission sources include the sugar granulators, sugar conveying and packaging equipment, bulk loadout operations, boilers, granular carbon and char regeneration kilns, regenerated adsorbent transport systems, kilns and handling equipment (at some facilities), carbonation tanks, multi-effect evaporator stations, and vacuum boiling pans. Modern pollution prevention technologies are capable of addressing all of these potential pollutants.[citation needed]

text: Production[edit]

text:
Top ten sugarcane producers — 2015[1]

Country
Production
(thousand metric tons, TMT)

 Brazil
739,267

 India
341,200

 China
*125,536

 Thailand
100,096

 Pakistan
63,750

 Mexico
61,182

 Colombia
34,876

 Indonesia
*33,700

 Philippines
31,874

 United States
27,906

 World
1,877,105

P = official figure, F = FAO estimate, * = Unofficial/Semi-official/mirror data, C = Calculated figure
A = Aggregate (may include official, semi-official or estimates);
Source: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Division

text: Brazil led the world in sugarcane production in 2013 with a 739,267 TMT harvest.[1] India was the second largest producer with 341,200 TMT tons, and China the third largest producer with 125,536 TMT tons harvest.

text: The average worldwide yield of sugarcane crops in 2013 was 70.77 tons per hectare.[1] The most productive farms in the world were in Peru with a nationwide average sugarcane crop yield of 133.71 tons per hectare.

text: The theoretical possible yield for sugar cane, according to 1983 study of Duke, is about 280 metric tons per hectare per year, and small experimental plots in Brazil have demonstrated yields of 236–280 metric tons of fresh cane per hectare.[35][36] The most promising region for high yield sugarcane production were in sun drenched, irrigated farms of northern Africa, and other deserts with plentiful water from river or irrigation canals.

text: In the United States, sugarcane is grown commercially in Florida, Hawaii, Louisiana, and Texas.[37]

text: Brazil uses sugarcane to produce sugar and ethanol for gasoline-ethanol blends (gasohol), a locally popular transportation fuel. In India, sugarcane is used to produce sugar, jaggery and alcoholic beverages.

text: Ethanol[edit]

text: Ethanol is generally available as a byproduct of sugar production. It can be used as a biofuel alternative to gasoline, and is widely used in cars in Brazil. It is an alternative to gasoline, and may become the primary product of sugarcane processing, rather than sugar.

text: In Brazil, gasoline is required to contain at least 22 percent bioethanol.[38] This bioethanol is sourced from Brazil's large sugarcane crop.

text: The production of ethanol from sugar cane is more energy efficient than from corn or sugar beets or palm/vegetable oils, particularly if cane bagasse is used to produce heat and power for the process. Furthermore, if biofuels are used for crop production and transport, the fossil energy input needed for each ethanol energy unit can be very low. EIA estimates that with an integrated sugar cane to ethanol technology, the well-to-wheels CO2 emissions can be 90 percent lower than conventional gasoline.[38]

text: A textbook on renewable energy[39] describes the energy transformation:

text: Presently, 75 tons of raw sugar cane are produced annually per hectare in Brazil. The cane delivered to the processing plant is called burned and cropped (b&c), and represents 77% of the mass of the raw cane. The reason for this reduction is that the stalks are separated from the leaves (which are burned and whose ashes are left in the field as fertilizer), and from the roots that remain in the ground to sprout for the next crop. Average cane production is, therefore, 58 tons of b&c per hectare per year.

text: Each ton of b&c yields 740 kg of juice (135 kg of sucrose and 605 kg of water) and 260 kg of moist bagasse (130 kg of dry bagasse). Since the lower heating value of sucrose is 16.5 MJ/kg, and that of the bagasse is 19.2 MJ/kg, the total heating value of a ton of b&c is 4.7 GJ of which 2.2 GJ come from the sucrose and 2.5 from the bagasse.

text: Per hectare per year, the biomass produced corresponds to 0.27 TJ. This is equivalent to 0.86 W per square meter. Assuming an average insolation of 225 W per square meter, the photosynthetic efficiency of sugar cane is 0.38%.

text: The 135 kg of sucrose found in 1 ton of b&c are transformed into 70 litres of ethanol with a combustion energy of 1.7 GJ. The practical sucrose-ethanol conversion efficiency is, therefore, 76% (compare with the theoretical 97%).

text: One hectare of sugar cane yields 4,000 litres of ethanol per year (without any additional energy input, because the bagasse produced exceeds the amount needed to distill the final product). This, however, does not include the energy used in tilling, transportation, and so on. Thus, the solar energy-to-ethanol conversion efficiency is 0.13%.

text: Bagasse applications[edit]

text: Sugarcane is a major crop in many countries. It is one of the plants with the highest bioconversion efficiency. Sugarcane crop is able to efficiently fix solar energy, yielding some 55 tonnes of dry matter per hectare of land annually. After harvest, the crop produces sugar juice and bagasse, the fibrous dry matter. This dry matter is biomass with potential as fuel for energy production. Bagasse can also be used as an alternative source of pulp for paper production.[40]

text: Sugarcane bagasse is a potentially abundant source of energy for large producers of sugarcane, such as Brazil, India and China. According to one report, with use of latest technologies, bagasse produced annually in Brazil has the potential of meeting 20 percent of Brazil’s energy consumption by 2020.[41]

text: Electricity production[edit]

text: A number of countries, in particular those devoid of any fossil fuel, have implemented energy conservation and efficiency measures to minimize energy used in cane processing and furthermore export any excess electricity to the grid. Bagasse is usually burned to produce steam, which in turn creates electricity. Current technologies, such as those in use in Mauritius, produce over 100 kWh of electricity per tonne of bagasse. With a total world harvest of over 1 billion tonnes of sugar cane per year, the global energy potential from bagasse is over 100,000 GWh.[42] Using Mauritius as a reference, an annual potential of 10,000 GWh of additional electricity could be produced throughout Africa.[43] Electrical generation from bagasse could become quite important, particularly to the rural populations of sugarcane producing nations.

text: Recent cogeneration technology plants are being designed to produce from 200 to over 300 kWh of electricity per tonne of bagasse.[44][45] As sugarcane is a seasonal crop, shortly after harvest the supply of bagasse would peak, requiring power generation plants to strategically manage the storage of bagasse.

text: Biogas production[edit]

text: A greener alternative to burning bagasse for the production of electricity is to convert bagasse into biogas. Technologies are being developed to use enzymes to transform bagasse into advanced biofuel and biogas.[41]

text: Sugarcane as food[edit]

text:
Cane juice[46]

Freshly squeezed sugarcane juice.

Nutritional value per 28.35 grams

Energy
111.13 kJ (26.56 kcal)

Carbohydrates

27.51 g

Sugars
26.98 g

Protein

0.27 g

Minerals

Calcium

(1%)
11.23 mg

Iron

(3%)
0.37 mg

Potassium

(1%)
41.96 mg

Sodium

(1%)
17.01 mg

Nutrient Information from ESHA Research

Units
μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
IU = International units

Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database

text: In most countries where sugarcane is cultivated, there are several foods and popular dishes derived directly from it, such as:

text:
Raw sugarcane: chewed to extract the juice
Sayur nganten: an Indonesian soup made with the stem of trubuk (Saccharum edule), a type of sugarcane.
Sugarcane juice: a combination of fresh juice, extracted by hand or small mills, with a touch of lemon and ice to make a popular drink, known variously as air tebu, usacha rass, guarab, guarapa, guarapo, papelón, aseer asab, ganna sharbat, mosto, caldo de cana, nước miá.
Syrup: a traditional sweetener in soft drinks, now largely supplanted in the US by high fructose corn syrup, which is less expensive because of corn subsidies and sugar tariffs.[47]
Molasses: used as a sweetener and a syrup accompanying other foods, such as cheese or cookies
Jaggery: a solidified molasses, known as gur or gud or gul in India, is traditionally produced by evaporating juice to make a thick sludge, and then cooling and molding it in buckets. Modern production partially freeze dries the juice to reduce caramelization and lighten its color. It is used as sweetener in cooking traditional entrees, sweets and desserts.
Falernum: a sweet, and lightly alcoholic drink made from sugarcane juice
Cachaça: the most popular distilled alcoholic beverage in Brazil; a liquor made of the distillation of sugarcane juice.
Rum: is a liquor made from sugarcane products, typically molasses but sometimes also cane juice. It is most commonly produced in the Caribbean and environs.
Basi: is a fermented alcoholic beverage made from sugarcane juice produced in the Philippines and Guyana.
Panela: solid pieces of sucrose and fructose obtained from the boiling and evaporation of sugarcane juice; a food staple in Colombia and other countries in South and Central America
Rapadura: a sweet flour that is one of the simplest refinings of sugarcane juice, common in Latin American countries such as Brazil, Argentina and Venezuela (where it is known as papelón) and the Caribbean.
Rock candy: crystallized cane juice
Gâteau de Sirop


document_title: Atrium (heart)

question_text: where does the left ventricle recieve blood from

root

text: Atrium (heart)

text: Structure[edit]

text: Humans have a four-chambered heart consisting of the right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle, and left ventricle. The atria are the two upper chambers. The right atrium receives and holds deoxygenated blood from the superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, anterior cardiac veins and smallest cardiac veins and the coronary sinus, which it then sends down to the right ventricle (through the tricuspid valve) which in turn sends it to the pulmonary artery for pulmonary circulation.  The left atrium receives the oxygenated blood from the left and right pulmonary veins, which it pumps to the left ventricle  (through the mitral valve) for pumping out through the aorta for systemic circulation.[2][3]

tag: p

text:
The right atrium and right ventricle are often referred to as the right heart and similarly the left atrium and left ventricle are often referred to as the left heart. The atria do not have valves at their inlets [4] and as a result, a venous pulsation is normal and can be detected in the jugular vein as the jugular venous pressure.[5][6]
Internally, there are the rough pectinate muscles and crista terminalis of His, which act as a boundary inside the atrium and the smooth walled part of the right atrium, the sinus venarum derived from the sinus venosus. The sinus venarum is the adult remnant of the sinus venous and it surrounds the openings of the venae cavae and the coronary sinus.
[7] Attached to the right atrium is the right atrial appendage – a pouch-like extension of the pectinate muscles. The interatrial septum separates the right atrium from the left atrium and this is marked by a depression in the right atrium –the fossa ovalis.  The atria are depolarised by calcium.

text: High in the upper part of the left atrium is a muscular ear-shaped pouch – the left atrial appendage. This appears to "function as a decompression chamber during left ventricular systole and during other periods when left atrial pressure is high".[8]

text: Nodes[edit]

text: The sinoatrial (SA) node is located in posterior aspect of the right atrium, next to the superior vena cava. This is a group of pacemaker cells which spontaneously depolarize to create an action potential. The cardiac action potential then spreads across both atria causing them to contract, forcing the blood they hold into their corresponding ventricles.

text: The atrioventricular node (AV node) is another node in the cardiac electrical conduction system. This is located between the atria and the ventricles.

text: Blood supply[edit]

text: The left atrium is supplied mainly by the left circumflex coronary artery, and its small branches.[9]

text: The oblique vein of the left atrium is partly responsible for venous drainage; it derives from the embryonic left superior vena cava.

text: Development[edit]

text: During embryogenesis at about two weeks, a primitive atrium begins to be formed. It begins as one chamber which over the following two weeks becomes divided by the septum primum into the left atrium and the right atrium. The interatrial septum has an opening in the right atrium, the foramen ovale which provides access to the left atrium; this connects the two chambers, which is essential for fetal blood circulation.  At birth, when the first breath is taken fetal blood flow is reversed to travel through the lungs. The foramen ovale is no longer needed and it closes to leave a depression (the fossa ovalis) in the atrial wall.

text: In some cases, the foramen ovale fails to close. This abnormality is present in approximately 25% of the general population.[10] This is known as a patent foramen ovale, an atrial septal defect. It is mostly unproblematic, although it can be associated with paradoxical embolization and stroke.[10]

text:
Within the fetal right atrium, blood from the inferior vena cava and the superior vena cava flow in separate streams to different locations in the heart, and this has been reported to occur through the Coandă effect.[11]
Atriums were previously named 'auricles'

text: Function[edit]

text: In human physiology, the atria facilitate circulation primarily by allowing uninterrupted venous flow to the heart during ventricular systole.[12][13] By being partially empty and distensible, atria prevent the interruption of venous flow to the heart that would occur during ventricular systole if the veins ended at the inlet valves of the heart.  In normal physiologic states, the output of the heart is pulsatile, and the venous inflow to the heart is continuous and non-pulsatile.  But without functioning atria, venous flow becomes pulsatile, and the overall circulation rate decreases significantly.[14][15]

text: Atria have four essential characteristics that cause them to promote continuous venous flow. (1) There are no atrial inlet valves to interrupt blood flow during atrial systole. (2) The atrial systole contractions are incomplete and thus do not contract to the extent that would block flow from the veins through the atria into the ventricles. During atrial systole, blood not only empties from the atria to the ventricles, but blood continues to flow uninterrupted from the veins right through the atria into the ventricles. (3) The atrial contractions must be gentle enough so that the force of contraction does not exert significant back pressure that would impede venous flow. (4) The "let go" of the atria must be timed so that they relax before the start of ventricular contraction, to be able to accept venous flow without interruption.[13][16]

text: By preventing the inertia of interrupted venous flow that would otherwise occur at each ventricular systole, atria allow approximately 75% more cardiac output than would otherwise occur. The fact that atrial contraction is 15% of the amount of the succeeding ventricular ejection has led to a misplaced emphasis on their role in pumping up the ventricles (the so-called "atrial kick"), whereas the key benefit of atria is in preventing circulatory inertia and allowing uninterrupted venous flow to the heart.[13][17]

text: Also, of importance in maintaining the blood flow are the presence of atrial volume receptors. These are low-pressure baroreceptors in the atria, which send signals to the hypothalamus when a drop in atrial pressure (which indicates a drop in blood volume) is detected. This triggers a release of vasopressin.[18]

text: Clinical significance[edit]

text: In an adult, an atrial septal defect would result in the flow of blood in the reverse direction – from the left atrium to the right – which will reduce cardiac output, potentially causing cardiac failure and in severe or untreated cases cardiac arrest and sudden death.

text: In patients with atrial fibrillation, mitral valve disease, and other conditions, blood clots have a tendency to form in the left atrial appendage.[8]  The clots may dislodge (forming emboli), which may lead to ischemic damage to the brain, kidneys, or other organs supplied by the systemic circulation.[19] Left atrial appendage occlusion is an experimental treatment to prevent stroke in atrial fibrillation.[20]

text: The left atrial appendage can serve as an approach for mitral valve surgery.[21] The left atrial appendage can be seen on a standard posteroanterior x-ray, where the lower level of the left hilum becomes concave.[22]

text:
Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome
Atrial flutter
Atrial tachycardia
Sinus tachycardia
Multifocal atrial tachycardia – several types
Premature atrial contraction
Atriomegaly

tag: ul

text: Other animals[edit]

text: Many other animals, including mammals, also have four-chambered hearts, which have a similar function. Some animals (amphibians and reptiles) have a three-chambered heart, in which the blood from each atrium is mixed in the single ventricle before being pumped to the aorta. In these animals, the left atrium still serves the purpose of collecting blood from the pulmonary veins.

text: In some fish, the circulatory system is very simple: a two-chambered heart including one atrium and one ventricle.  Among sharks, the heart consists of four chambers arranged serially (and therefore called a serial heart): blood flows into the most posterior chamber, the sinus venosus, and then to the atrium which moves it to the third chamber, the ventricle, before it reaches the conus anteriosus, which itself is connected to the ventral aorta.  This is considered a primitive arrangement, and many vertebrates have condensed the atrium with the sinus venosus and the ventricle with the conus anteriosus.[23]

text: With the advent of lungs came a partitioning of the atrium into two parts divided by a septum.  Among frogs, the oxygenated and deoxygenated blood are mixed in the ventricle before being pumped out to the body's organs; in turtles, the ventricle is almost entirely divided by a septum, but retains an opening through which some mixing of blood occurs.  In birds, mammals, and some other reptiles (alligators in particular) the partitioning of both chambers is complete.[23]


document_title: East Brunswick, New Jersey

question_text: who is the mayor of east brunswick nj

question_tokens: who is the mayor of east brunswick nj

text: East Brunswick, New Jersey

text: History[edit]

text: The general area of central New Jersey was once occupied by the Lenape Native Americans. According to a 1677 bill of sale now in the New Jersey State Museum in Trenton, New Jersey, Thomas Lawrence, a New York baker, purchased thousands of acres of land from local Native Americans named Querameck, Kesyacs, Isarick, Metapis, Peckawan, and Turantecas. In this document, the area is called Piscopeek, which later become known as Lawrence Brook, after its purchaser. Around the late 17th century, settlers began arriving in the northern part of East Brunswick, and by the mid-19th century, a small village had formed in the southeastern part, known as the Old Bridge section of the town, an area that was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1977.[24][25]

text: The area today known as East Brunswick was incorporated in 1860 from parts of North Brunswick and Monroe townships, including the community of Old Bridge.[21] Originally a farming community, suburban settlement started in the 1930s with improved road access. Large scale housing and road construction, especially after World War II, transformed East Brunswick into a more suburban community. The extension of the New Jersey Turnpike to East Brunswick in 1952 led to a sharp spike in population growth, with the 1950 Census population of 5,699 more than tripling to 19,965 as of the 1960 enumeration.[25]

text: In the early 1970s a citizens group Concerned Citizens of East Brunswick sued the New Jersey Turnpike Authority over a proposed major widening project.  The citizens group effectively won this case gaining concessions in turnpike design, scale and mitigation measures for noise and air quality.  The citizens group presented technical data from their own experts and prevailed in what was one of the earliest technical confrontations regarding urban highway design related to environmental factors in U.S. history.[26]

text: East Brunswick was also the site of the gunfight at Turnpike exit 9 shortly after midnight on May 2, 1973, in which a car being driven by Zayd Malik Shakur (born James F. Costan), with Assata Shakur (formerly JoAnne Chesimard) and Sundiata Acoli (born Clark Squire) as passengers, was stopped on the New Jersey Turnpike State Trooper James Harper, backed up by Trooper Werner Foerster in a second patrol vehicle. After Zayd Shakur was asked to step out of the car to address a discrepancy in his identification, a shootout ensued in which Trooper Foerster was shot twice in the head with his own gun and killed, Zayd Shakur was killed, and both Assata Shakur and Trooper Harper were wounded.[27]

text: Geography[edit]

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the township had a total area of 22.270 square miles (57.679 km2), including 21.699 square miles (56.200 km2) of land and 0.571 square miles (1.479 km2) of water (2.56%).[1][2]

text: The township lies on exit 9 of the New Jersey Turnpike.  Its Municipal Building, named for 1970s Mayor Jean Walling, is located 31 miles (50 km) southwest of New York City's Times Square and 49 miles (79 km) northeast of Center City, Philadelphia.  It takes approximately 45–60 minutes to reach Midtown Manhattan or Center City, Philadelphia, depending on traffic and destination.[28] Route 18 runs through the eastern part of the township.

text: Lawrence Brook, a tributary of the Raritan River, runs along the western border of the township. Farrington Lake and Westons Mill Pond are sections of the Lawrence Brook that have been widened by the presence of man-made dams.

text: Unincorporated communities, localities and place names located partially or completely within the township include Brookview,[citation needed] Dunhams Corner,   East Spotswood, Fairview Knolls,[citation needed] Farrington Lake Heights, Gillilandtown,[citation needed] Halls Corner, Herberts,[citation needed] Herberts Corner, Herbertsville, Jamesburg Park,[citation needed], Lawrence Brook, Lawrence Brook Manor,[citation needed] Newton Heights,[citation needed], Orchard Heights,[citation needed] Patricks Corner, Paulas Corner,[citation needed] Tanners Corner, Washington Heights[citation needed] and Westons Mills.[29], Country Lane

text: The township borders the Middlesex County municipalities of Edison Township, Helmetta, Milltown, Monroe Township, New Brunswick, North Brunswick Township, Old Bridge Township, Sayreville, South River, South Brunswick Township and Spotswood.[30]

text: Climate[edit]

text:
hideClimate data for East Brunswick, 1979-2003

Month

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

Record high °F (°C)

71 (22)

75 (24)

88 (31)

95 (35)

95 (35)

97 (36)

103 (39)

101 (38)

98 (37)

88 (31)

82 (28)

76 (24)

103 (39)

Average high °F (°C)

38 (3)

41 (5)

50 (10)

61 (16)

72 (22)

80 (27)

85 (29)

84 (29)

77 (25)

65 (18)

54 (12)

43 (6)

63 (17)

Daily mean °F (°C)

30 (−1)

32 (0)

41 (5)

50 (10)

61 (16)

70 (21)

75 (24)

73 (23)

66 (19)

54 (12)

45 (7)

35 (2)

53 (12)

Average low °F (°C)

21 (−6)

23 (−5)

31 (−1)

40 (4)

50 (10)

59 (15)

64 (18)

63 (17)

55 (13)

43 (6)

35 (2)

27 (−3)

43 (6)

Record low °F (°C)

−13 (−25)

−7 (−22)

6 (−14)

16 (−9)

30 (−1)

40 (4)

45 (7)

40 (4)

35 (2)

25 (−4)

13 (−11)

−7 (−22)

−13 (−25)

Average precipitation inches (mm)

4.10 (104.1)

2.98 (75.7)

4.11 (104.4)

4.08 (103.6)

4.57 (116.1)

3.86 (98)

4.97 (126.2)

4.46 (113.3)

4.38 (111.3)

3.39 (86.1)

3.95 (100.3)

3.93 (99.8)

48.78 (1,238.9)

[citation needed]

tag: table

text: Demographics[edit]

text:
Historical population

Census
Pop.

%±
18602,436—18702,86117.4%18803,27214.4%18902,642*−19.3%19002,423*−8.3%19101,602*−33.9%19201,85715.9%19302,71146.0%19403,70636.7%19505,69953.8%196019,965250.3%197034,16671.1%198037,71110.4%199043,54815.5%200046,7567.4%201047,5121.6%Est. 201648,630[11][31]2.4%Population sources: 1860-1920[32]1860-1870[33] 1870[34] 1880-1890[35]1890-1910[36] 1910-1930[37]1930-1990[38] 2000[39][40] 2010[8][9][10]* = Lost territory in previous decade.[21]

text: 2010 Census[edit]

text: As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 47,512 people, 16,810 households, and 13,179 families residing in the township. The population density was 2,189.6 per square mile (845.4/km2). There were 17,367 housing units at an average density of 800.4 per square mile (309.0/km2). The racial makeup of the township was 69.36% (32,954) White, 3.98% (1,890) Black or African American, 0.10% (48) Native American, 22.80% (10,835) Asian, 0.01% (6) Pacific Islander, 1.68% (798) from other races, and 2.06% (981) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 6.70% (3,184) of the population.[8]

text: There were 16,810 households out of which 37.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 65.8% were married couples living together, 9.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 21.6% were non-families. 19.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.81 and the average family size was 3.23.[8]

text: In the township, the population was spread out with 24.1% under the age of 18, 7.3% from 18 to 24, 23.0% from 25 to 44, 32.1% from 45 to 64, and 13.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42.5 years. For every 100 females there were 93.6 males.  For every 100 females ages 18 and older there were 90.4 males.[8]

text: The Census Bureau's 2006-2010 American Community Survey showed that (in 2010 inflation-adjusted dollars) median household income was $100,655 (with a margin of error of +/- $3,929) and the median family income was $110,948 (+/- $3,838). Males had a median income of $80,527 (+/- $3,109) versus $54,162 (+/- $2,066) for females. The per capita income for the township was $41,518 (+/- $1,366). About 3.0% of families and 3.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.4% of those under age 18 and 6.4% of those age 65 or over.[41]

text: 2000 Census[edit]

text: As of the 2000 United States Census, there were 46,756 people, 16,372 households, and 13,081 families residing in the township.  The population density was 2,129.7/mi2 (822.4/km2). There were 16,640 housing units at an average density of 758.0/mi2 (292.7/km2). The racial makeup of the township was 77.56% White, 2.83% African American, 0.09% Native American, 16.27% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 1.12% from other races, and 2.12% from two or more races.  4.19% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.[39][40]

text: Of the 16,372 households, 40.5% included children under the age of 18, 68.6% were married couples living together, 8.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 20.1% were non-families. 17.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.84 and the average family size was 3.23.[39][40]

text: In the township the population was spread out with 26.0% under the age of 18, 6.2% from 18 to 24, 29.3% from 25 to 44, 26.9% from 45 to 64, and 11.6% who were 65 years of age or older.  The median age was 39 years.  For every 100 females, there were 94.3 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.1 males.[39][40]

text: The median income for a household in the township was $75,956, and the median income for a family was $86,863. Males had a median income of $60,790 versus $38,534 for females. The per capita income for the township was $33,286.  2.8% of the population and 2.1% of families were below the poverty line.  Out of the total population, 3.1% of those under the age of 18 and 5.4% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.[39][40]

text: Ancestries included Italian (15.0%), Irish (13.8%), Polish (11.5%), German (10.6%), Russian (7.8%), United States (4.2%).[42]

text: Law and Government[edit]

text: Local government[edit]

text: The Township of East Brunswick was established in 1860. Since January 1, 1965, the Township has operated under the Mayor-Council Plan E form of government pursuant to the Faulkner Act, Chapter 69A of Title 40 of the New Jersey Statutes.[6][43]

text: The governing body consists of a mayor and a five-member Township Council, with all members elected at-large as part of the November general election in even-numbered years. The mayor and two council seats are up for vote together during Presidential election years, with the other seats up for vote two years later. Serving on a part-time basis as the chief executive of the community, the Mayor votes only in the case of a tie on a vote by the Township Council and can veto ordinances, but vetoes can be overridden by a two-thirds vote of the Council. The Township Council adopts ordinances; adopts a budget after review and revisions; makes appropriations; sets taxes and bond issues; creates and abolishes jobs via ordinance; sets salaries and establishes municipal policy. The Council has the authority to initiate hearings for the purposes of gathering information for ordinance making, airing public problems and supervising the spending of its appropriations.

text: As of  2017[update], the mayor of East Brunswick is Democrat Dr. Brad J. Cohen.[3] Members of the Township Council are Council President Michael Hughes (R, 2018), Council Vice President James Wendell (D, 2018), Camille Ferraro Clark (R, 2018), Michael Spadafino (D, 2020) and Sterley Stanley (D, 2020).[44][45][46][47][48]

text: Elected as a Republican, James Wendell announced in July 2017 that he was switching parties, giving Democrats control of the Township Council.[49]

text: In February 2014, the Township Council appointed Michael Spadafino to fill the seat expiring in December 2016 that had been held by Nancy Pinkin, until she stepped down the previous month to take office in the New Jersey General Assembly.[50] In the November 2014 general election, Spadafino was elected to serve the balance of the term of office.[48]

text: David Stahl served as mayor from his election in 2012 until his resignation on January 14, 2016, when he left office to take on a judge position in nearby Woodbridge Township.[51] The Township Council appointed Kevin McEvoy, a former history teacher at East Brunswick High School and trustee of the East Brunswick Public Schools, to serve the balance of Stahl's term as mayor that expires in December 2016; McEvoy has stated that he will not run to serve a full term as mayor.[52]

text: Republicans took control of the Township Council for the first time in 14 years in 2010, as Camille Ferraro, Mike Hughes and James Wendell swept the three seats that were up for election, with voter sentiment focused on controversy over a redevelopment plan for a parcel of land known as the "Golden Triangle".[53] Hughes, the youngest council member ever elected, said the stalled project was keeping property taxes disproportionately high on residents and called for revitalization of business.[54]

text: Federal, state and county representation[edit]

text: East Brunswick Township is located in the 12th Congressional District[55] and is part of New Jersey's 18th state legislative district.[9][56][57]

text: New Jersey's Twelfth Congressional District is represented by Bonnie Watson Coleman (D, Ewing Township).[58] New Jersey is represented in the United States Senate by Democrats Cory Booker (Newark, term ends 2021)[59] and Bob Menendez (Paramus, 2019).[60][61]

text: For the 2018–2019 session (Senate, General Assembly), the 18th Legislative District of the New Jersey Legislature is represented in the State Senate by Patrick J. Diegnan (D, South Plainfield) and in the General Assembly by Robert Karabinchak (D, Edison) and Nancy Pinkin (D, East Brunswick).[62][63] The Governor of New Jersey is Phil Murphy (D, Middletown Township).[64]  The Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey is Sheila Oliver (D, East Orange).[65]

text:
Middlesex County is governed by a Board of Chosen Freeholders, whose seven members are elected at-large on a partisan basis to serve three-year terms of office on a staggered basis, with either two or three seats coming up for election each year as part of the November general election. At an annual reorganization meeting held in January, the board selects from among its members a Freeholder Director and Deputy Director. As of  2015[update], Middlesex County's Freeholders (with party affiliation, term-end year, residence and committee chairmanship listed in parentheses) are
Freeholder Director Ronald G. Rios (D, term ends December 31, 2015, Carteret; Ex-officio on all committees),[66]
Freeholder Deputy Director Carol Barrett Bellante (D, 2017; Monmouth Junction, South Brunswick Township; County Administration),[67]
Kenneth Armwood (D, 2016, Piscataway; Business Development and Education),[68]
Charles Kenny ( D, 2016, Woodbridge Township; Finance),[69]
H. James Polos (D, 2015, Highland Park; Public Safety and Health),[70]
Charles E. Tomaro (D, 2017, Edison; Infrastructure Management)[71] and
Blanquita B. Valenti (D, 2016, New Brunswick; Community Services).[72][73] Constitutional officers are
County Clerk Elaine M. Flynn (D, Old Bridge Township),[74]
Sheriff Mildred S. Scott (D, 2016, Piscataway)[75] and Surrogate
Kevin J. Hoagland (D, 2017; New Brunswick).[73][76]

text: Politics[edit]

text: As of March 23, 2011, there were a total of 31,297 registered voters in East Brunswick Township, of which 9,957 (31.8%) were registered as Democrats, 5,298 (16.9%) were registered as Republicans and 16,024 (51.2%) were registered as Unaffiliated. There were 18 voters registered to other parties.[77]

text:
Presidential Elections Results

Year

Republican

Democratic

Third Parties

2016[78]

41.0% 9,255

55.6% 12,545

3.5% 779

2012[79]

42.8% 9,064

55.9% 11,848

1.3% 275

2008[80]

43.0% 9,967

55.3% 12,817

1.0% 238

2004[81]

45.1% 10,069

53.8% 12,016

0.5% 163

text: In the 2012 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 55.9% of the vote (11,848 cast), ahead of Republican Mitt Romney with 42.8% (9,064 votes), and other candidates with 1.3% (275 votes), among the 21,332 ballots cast by the township's 31,870 registered voters (145 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 66.9%.[82][83] In the 2008 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 55.3% of the vote (12,817 cast), ahead of Republican John McCain with 43.0% (9,967 votes) and other candidates with 1.0% (238 votes), among the 23,187 ballots cast by the township's 32,144 registered voters, for a turnout of 72.1%.[84] In the 2004 presidential election, Democrat John Kerry received 53.8% of the vote (12,016 ballots cast), outpolling Republican George W. Bush with 45.1% (10,069 votes) and other candidates with 0.5% (163 votes), among the 22,348 ballots cast by the township's 30,364 registered voters, for a turnout percentage of 73.6.[85]

text:
Gubernatorial Elections Results

Year

Republican

Democratic

Third Parties

2017[86]

42.8% 5,137

54.4% 6,532

2.8% 341

2013[87]

62.3% 7,849

36.4%  4,589

1.6% 164

2009[88]

52.7% 7,805

39.1%  5,799

7.7% 1,135

2005[89]

43.3% 5,958

51.7% 7,109

3.9% 535

text: In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie received 62.3% of the vote (7,849 cast), ahead of Democrat Barbara Buono with 36.4% (4,589 votes), and other candidates with 1.3% (164 votes), among the 12,731 ballots cast by the township's 31,870 registered voters (129 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 39.9%.[90] In the 2009 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie received 52.7% of the vote (7,805 ballots cast), ahead of Democrat Jon Corzine with 39.1% (5,799 votes), Independent Chris Daggett with 6.8% (1,007 votes) and other candidates with 0.9% (128 votes), among the 14,824 ballots cast by the township's 31,116 registered voters, yielding a 47.6% turnout.[91]

text: Education[edit]

text:
The East Brunswick Public Schools serve students in kindergarten through twelfth grade. All students in kindergarten through grade 5 attend the elementary school closest to them. Schools in the district (with 2013-14 enrollment data from the National Center for Education Statistics[92]) are
Bowne-Munro Elementary School[93] (grades K-5; 212 students),
Central Elementary School[94] (PreK-5; 426),
Murray A. Chittick Elementary School[95] (K-5; 453),
Robert A. Frost Elementary School[96] (K-5; 423),
Irwin Elementary School[97] (K-5; 459),
Lawrence Brook Elementary School[98] (PreK-5; 426),
Memorial Elementary School[99] (PreK-5; 499),
Warnsdorfer Elementary School[100] (PreK-5; 440),
Hammarskjold Middle School[101] for grades 6 and 7 (1,353),
Churchill Junior High School[102] for grades eight and nine (1,317) and
East Brunswick High School[103] for grades 10-12 (2,238).[104][105] In the 2012 "Ranking America's High Schools" issue by The Washington Post, the district's high school was ranked 45th in New Jersey, after being ranked 48th statewide in 2011.[106]

text: Hatikvah International Academy Charter School, a Hebrew language charter school that offers an International Baccalaureate program opened in September 2010 for grades K-7, with plans to add a new grade each year until an eighth grade is offered. A lottery is held each year, with separate draws for residents of East Brunswick Township and non-residents, to allocate the limited number of positions available for each class.[107] The school plans to build a permanent structure as part of the Campus for Jewish Life (formerly known as the YM-YWHA of Raritan Valley) to replace its current facility the school has rented located near Trinity Presbyterian Church.[108] Concerns have been raised regarding the funding for the school, which will come from the East Brunswick Board of Education budget, including $1.34 million for the 2010-11 school year, and that the district will not be able to reduce expenses by the amount that will be paid to the charter school. Hatikvah school officials emphasize that charter schools can often educate students at a lower cost than traditional public schools and that "taxpayers do not pay an extra penny for having a charter school in town, period".[109] The school received $75,000 in grants from foundations to cover the costs of applying for a charter and for getting the school operational.[110] Hatikvah budgeted $11,033 per student for the 2010-11 school year,[111] while the East Brunswick Public Schools budgeted $12,782 per pupil for that same year.[112]

text: Solomon Schechter Day School of Raritan Valley, a Conservative Jewish day school, closed its doors before the start of the 2013-14 school year in the wake of sharply lower enrollment and financial difficulties.[113] During the 2009-10 school year, the school was awarded the Blue Ribbon School Award of Excellence by the United States Department of Education, the highest award an American school can receive.[114]

text: Saint Bartholomew's School is a Catholic elementary school serving 349 students in Pre-K through eighth grade as of the 2013-14 school year.[115] The school operates under the supervision of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Metuchen.[116]

text: Transportation[edit]

text: Roads and highways[edit]

text: As of  May 2010[update], the township had a total of 205.94 miles (331.43 km) of roadways, of which 176.11 miles (283.42 km) were maintained by the municipality, 19.65 miles (31.62 km) by Middlesex County, 5.48 miles (8.82 km) by the New Jersey Department of Transportation and 4.70 miles (7.56 km) by the New Jersey Turnpike Authority.[117]

text: Route 18 passes through East Brunswick, and is an important artery connecting New Brunswick, U.S. Route 1, the Jersey Shore, and the New Jersey Turnpike, Interstate 95 (which also passes through the township). Route 18 connects with exit 9 of the Turnpike around mile marker 83.43. Currently, there are 15 lanes at the Exit 9 toll gate. The Turnpike's Joyce Kilmer service area is located between interchanges 8A and 9 northbound at milepost 78.7.[118] Major county roads that pass through include CR 527 and CR 535. Other limited access roads are accessible outside the township, such as the Garden State Parkway in neighboring Sayreville and Old Bridge, and Interstate 287 in neighboring Edison Township.

text: The Turnpike's "dual-dual" configuration (car-only and truck lanes) was extended from exit 10 in Edison Township to just south of exit 9 in 1973, then to exit 8A in 1990, and finally to exit 6 in 2014.[119][120]

text: Public transportation[edit]

text: NJ Transit bus service is provided on the 138 route to the Port Authority Bus Terminal in Midtown Manhattan, on the 68 to Jersey City, and on the 811, 815 and 818 local routes.[121] The MCAT shuttle system provides local service on the M2 route serving The Brunswick Square Mall, Monroe and Jamesburg.[122][123]

text: Suburban Transit operates bus routes to New York City every 10–15 minutes from both the Transportation Center and Tower Center; it takes about 30–50 minutes depending on traffic. Service to the Port Authority Bus Terminal is available on Line 100 from Princeton and on Line 400 from the Transportation Center, to 59th Street and Madison Avenue on Line 300, to the United Nations on Line 500, and to Wall Street on Line 600.[124]

text: East Brunswick is 22 miles (35 km) from Newark Liberty International Airport in Newark / Elizabeth, via the New Jersey Turnpike. John F. Kennedy International Airport in Queens is 33.7 miles (54.2 km) away, traveling via the Belt Parkway after crossing through Staten Island. LaGuardia Airport is 34.3 miles (55.2 km) away.

text: The former Raritan River Railroad, now part of Conrail, runs through the town, where two businesses still receive weekly freight shipments of plastic. There have been proposals to turn the line into a light rail corridor.

text: Tourism[edit]

text:
The Tower Center complex includes two 23-story office towers, a 15-story Hilton Hotel and a Holiday Inn Express hotel, located near the intersection of the New Jersey Turnpike and Route 18. The two towers are among the tallest structures in Central Jersey, and can be seen for several miles.[125]
Playhouse 22, East Brunswick's Community Theatre and Performing Arts Center, resides in the multi-purpose Community Arts Center at Heavenly Park. Recognized in 2000 as Community Theatre of the Year in New Jersey, Playhouse 22 has staged many hit musicals, dramas, comedies and original works.[126]
Farrington Lake and Westons Mill Pond, two segments of Lawrence Brook, are available to canoeists, kayakers and nature lovers.
The town also has a public golf course (Tamarack), operated by the Middlesex County Improvement Authority;[127] as well as the Giamarese Farm. The County Fair Grounds, located on Cranbury Road (County Route 535), is where the Middlesex County Fair is held every August for seven days, providing festivities and food for families throughout Central Jersey and surrounding regions.[128]

text: Notable people[edit]

text: People who were born in, residents of, or otherwise closely associated with East Brunswick include:

text:
Robert Asaro-Angelo, labor leader and nominee to lead the New Jersey Department of Labor and Workforce Development.[129]
Jeanie Bryson (born 1958), singer.[130]
Catch 22, ska punk band.[131]
Chris Cimino, WNBC weatherman.[132]
Wally Dallenbach Sr. (born 1936), professional car racer.[133]
Steve Dildarian (born 1969), creator, writer, producer, and the voice of HBO's The Life & Times of Tim.[134]
Marc Ecko (born 1972), clothing designer.[135]
Hallie Eisenberg (born 1992), actress.[136]
Jesse Eisenberg (born 1983), actor who has starred in The Squid and the Whale, Zombieland, Adventureland, The Social Network and Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice.[137]
Kathleen Elle (born 1997), stage name of singer-songwriter Kathleen Lonski, winner of the Seventeen magazine and Secret 'Mean Stinks' anti-bullying contest.[138]
Skott Freedman (born 1979), award-winning independent singer/songwriter.[139]
Irving Freese (born 1903), mayor of Norwalk, Connecticut, and the third Socialist mayor elected in the United States.[140]
Margaret Kemble Gage (1734–1824), who allegedly spied on her husband General Thomas Gage in order to supply military intelligence to the American Revolutionary Army.[141]
God Forbid, heavy metal quintet.[142]
Steven Goldman (born 1970), author, columnist for YES Network and Baseball Prospectus.[143]
Scott Gottlieb Current commissioner of the Food & Drug Administration.
Greg T The Frat Boy, radio personality on Z100.[144]
Peter I. Haskell, radio broadcaster on WCBS 880 radio.[145]
Dulé Hill (born 1975), actor who has appeared on The West Wing and the USA Network series Psych.[146]
Sabah Homasi (born 1988), mixed martial artist who competes in the welterweight division.[147]
Jax (born 1996), singer who finished third on the 14th season of American Idol.[148]
Tomas Kalnoky (born 1980), singer and guitarist of Streetlight Manifesto and formerly Catch 22.[149]
Mindy Kleinberg, one of the "Jersey Widows" who were vocal in demanding an official investigation into the intelligence failures which led to the September 11 terrorist attacks.[150]
Mr. Lawrence (born 1969), voice actor and comedian, known for voicing SpongeBob SquarePants character Plankton.[151]
Coleman Mellett (1974–2009), jazz guitarist.[152]
Anne Milgram, New Jersey Attorney General from June 2007 to January 2010.[153]
Josh Miller (born 1970), NFL Super Bowl-winning punter.[154][155]
Ari Ne'eman (born 1987), autism rights activist.[156][157]
Heather O'Reilly (born 1985), three time Olympic games gold medalist as a member of the United States women's national soccer team.[158]
Jack Petruzzelli, guitarist and singer with The Fab Faux, a Beatles tribute band.[159]
Matt Pinfield (born 1962), MTV VJ and writer for Rolling Stone.[160]
Badal Roy (born 1945), tabla player.[161]
April Saul (born 1955), winner of the Pulitzer Prize for a series of articles written for The Philadelphia Inquirer.[162]
Brian Selznick (born 1966), author and illustrator of children's literature.[163]
Jack Sinagra (born 1950), former mayor of East Brunswick and New Jersey State Senator.[164]
Philip Streczyk (1918-1958), World War II hero.[165][166]
Streetlight Manifesto, ska punk band.[167]
J. C. Thom (1835–1898), artist.[168]
Cenk Uygur (born 1970), host of The Young Turks on Current TV.[169]
Jim Vallely (born 1954), Emmy Award-winning writer from Arrested Development.[170]
Lorie Van Auken, one of the "Jersey Widows" who were vocal in demanding an official investigation into the intelligence failures which led to the September 11 terrorist attacks.[171]
Lenny Veltman (born 1967), contestant on The Apprentice.[172]
Stefan Weisman (born 1970), composer.[173]
Dave Wohl (born 1949), Assistant General Manager of the Boston Celtics.[174]
Henrietta Christian Wright (1854–1899), writer.[175]
Aaron Yoo (born 1979), actor who starred in the film 21.[176]


document_title: Fiat money

question_text: when did the us dollar become part of a total fiat system

text: Fiat money

text: Treatment in economics[edit]

text: In monetary economics, fiat money is an intrinsically valueless object or record that is widely accepted as a means of payment.[3][not in citation given] In some micro-founded models of money, fiat money is created internally in a community making feasible trades that would not otherwise be possible, either because producers and consumers may not anonymously write IOUs, or because of physical constraints.[10][11]

text: Precious metals[edit]

text: Circulating silver coins in the 1960s ceased to be produced containing the precious metal when the face value of the coin was below the cost of the elemental metal. The Coinage Act of 1965 eliminated silver from the circulating dimes and quarter dollars of the United States, and most other countries did the same with their coins.

text: The Canadian penny was mostly copper until 1996 and was removed from circulation in the fall of 2012 due to the cost of production relative to face value.[12]

text: In 2007 the Royal Canadian Mint produced a million dollar gold bullion coin and sold five of them. In 2015, the gold in the coins was worth more than 3.5 times the face value.[13]

text: History[edit]

text: China[edit]

text: Fiat money originated in 11th century China,[14] and its use became widespread during the Yuan and Ming dynasties.[15]

text: The Song Dynasty in China was the first to issue paper money, jiaozi, around the 10th century AD. Although the notes were valued at a certain exchange rate for gold, silver, or silk, conversion was never allowed in practice. The notes were initially to be redeemed after three years' service, to be replaced by new notes for a 3% service charge, but, as more of them were printed without notes being retired, inflation became evident. The government made several attempts to support the paper by demanding taxes partly in currency and making other laws, but the damage had been done, and the notes fell out of favor.[16]

text: The successive Yuan Dynasty was the first dynasty in China to use paper currency as the predominant circulating medium. The founder of the Yuan Dynasty, Kublai Khan, issued paper money known as Chao in his reign. The original notes during the Yuan Dynasty were restricted in area and duration as in the Song Dynasty.

text: During the 13th century, Marco Polo described the fiat money of the Yuan Dynasty in his book The Travels of Marco Polo.[17][18]

text: All these pieces of paper are issued with as much solemnity and authority as if they were of pure gold or silver... and indeed everybody takes them readily, for wheresoever a person may go throughout the Great Kaan's dominions he shall find these pieces of paper current, and shall be able to transact all sales and purchases of goods by means of them just as well as if they were coins of pure gold.

text: Europe[edit]

text: Washington Irving records an emergency use of paper money by the Spanish in a siege during the Conquest of Granada (1482–1492). In 1661, Johan Palmstruch issued the first regular paper money in the West, under royal charter from the Kingdom of Sweden, through a new institution, the Bank of Stockholm. While this private paper currency was largely a failure, the Swedish parliament eventually took over the issue of paper money in the country.  By 1745, its paper money was inconvertible to specie, but acceptance was mandated by the government.[19] This fiat currency depreciated so rapidly that by 1776 it returned to a silver standard. Fiat money also has other roots in 17th-century Europe, having been introduced by the Bank of Amsterdam in 1683.[20]

text: New France 1685–1770[edit]

text: In 17th century New France, now part of Canada, the universally accepted medium of exchange was the beaver pelt. As the colony expanded, coins from France came to be widely used, but there was usually a shortage of French coins. In 1685, the colonial authorities in New France found themselves seriously short of money. A military expedition against the Iroquois had gone badly and tax revenues were down, reducing government money reserves. Typically, when short of funds, the government would simply delay paying merchants for purchases, but it was not safe to delay payment to soldiers due to the risk of mutiny.

text: Jacques de Meulles, the Intendant of Finance, came up with an ingenious ad-hoc solution – the temporary issuance of paper money to pay the soldiers, in the form of playing cards. He confiscated all the playing cards in the colony, cut them up into pieces, wrote denominations on the pieces, signed them, and issued them to the soldiers as pay in lieu of gold and silver. Because of the chronic shortages of money of all types in the colonies, these cards were readily accepted by merchants and the public and circulated freely at face value. It was intended to be purely a temporary expedient, and it was not until years later that its role as a medium of exchange was recognized. The first issue of playing card money occurred in June 1685 and was redeemed three months later. However, the shortages of coinage reoccurred and more issues of card money were made in subsequent years.  Because of their wide acceptance as money and the general shortage of money in the colony, many of the playing cards were not redeemed but continued to circulate, acting as a useful substitute for scarce gold and silver coins from France. Eventually, the Governor of New France acknowledged their useful role as a circulating medium of exchange.[21]

text: As the finances of the French government deteriorated because of European wars, it reduced its financial support for its colonies, so the colonial authorities in Canada relied more and more on card money. By 1757, the government had discontinued all payments in coin and payments were made in paper instead. In an application of Gresham’s Law – bad money drives out good – people hoarded gold and silver, and used paper money instead. The costs of the war with the British led to rapid inflation in New France. Following the British conquest in 1760, the paper money became almost worthless, but business did not come to a halt because gold and silver that had been hoarded came back into circulation. Under the Treaty of Paris (1763), the French government agreed to convert the outstanding card money into debentures, but with the French government essentially bankrupt, these bonds fell into default and by 1771 they were worthless.

text: The Royal Canadian Mint still issues Playing Card Money in commemoration of its history, but now in 92.5% silver form with gold plate on the edge. It therefore has an intrinsic value which considerably exceeds its fiat value.[22] The Bank of Canada and Canadian economists often use this early form of paper currency to illustrate the true nature of money for Canadians.[21]

text: 18th and 19th century[edit]

text:
Adoption of 'Gold Standard'
(Paper currency convertible into gold)[23]

Country

Year

United Kingdom
1821

Germany
1871

Sweden
1873

United States (de facto)
1873

France
1874

Belgium
1874

Italy
1874

Switzerland
1874

Netherlands
1875

Austria-Hungary
1892

Japan
1897

Russia
1898

United States (de jure)
1900

text:
An early form of fiat currency in the American Colonies were "bills of credit."[24] Provincial governments produced notes which were fiat currency, with the promise to allow holders to pay taxes in those notes. The notes were issued to pay current obligations and could be called by levying taxes at a later time.[24]
Since the notes were denominated in the local unit of account, they were circulated from person to person in non-tax transactions. These types of notes were issued particularly in Pennsylvania, Virginia and Massachusetts. Such money was sold at a discount of silver, which the government would then spend, and would expire at a fixed point in time later.[24]

text: Bills of credit have generated some controversy from their inception. Those who have wanted to highlight the dangers of inflation have focused on the colonies where the bills of credit depreciated most dramatically – New England and the Carolinas.[24] Those who have wanted to defend the use of bills of credit in the colonies have focused on the middle colonies, where inflation was practically nonexistent.[24]

text: Colonial powers consciously introduced fiat currencies backed by taxes, e.g. hut taxes or poll taxes, to mobilise economic resources in their new possessions, at least as a transitional arrangement. The purpose of such taxes was later served by property tax. The repeated cycle of deflationary hard money, followed by inflationary paper money continued through much of the 18th and 19th centuries. Often nations would have dual currencies, with paper trading at some discount to specie-backed money.

text: Examples include the “Continental” issued by the U.S. Congress before the Constitution; paper versus gold ducats in Napoleonic era Vienna, where paper often traded at 100:1 against gold; the South Sea Bubble, which produced bank notes not backed by sufficient reserves; and the Mississippi Company scheme of John Law.

text: During the American Civil War, the Federal Government issued United States Notes, a form of paper fiat currency popularly known as 'greenbacks'. Their issue was limited by Congress just slightly over $340 million. During the 1870s, withdrawal of the notes from circulation was opposed by the United States Greenback Party. It was termed as 'fiat money' in an 1878 party convention.[25]

text: 20th century[edit]

text: After World War I, governments and banks generally still promised to convert notes and coins into their underlying nominal commodity (redemption in specie, typically gold) on demand. However, the costs of the war and the required repairs and economic growth based on government borrowing afterward made governments suspend redemption in specie. Some governments were careful of avoiding sovereign default but not wary of the consequences of paying debts by consigning newly printed cash which had no metal-backed standard to their creditors, which led to hyperinflation – for example the hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic.

text: From 1944 to 1971, the Bretton Woods agreement fixed the value of 35 United States dollars to one troy ounce of gold.[26]  Other currencies were pegged to the U.S. dollar at fixed rates. The U.S. promised to redeem dollars in gold to other central banks. Trade imbalances were corrected by gold reserve exchanges or by loans from the International Monetary Fund.

text: The Bretton Woods system collapsed in what became known as the Nixon Shock.  This was a series of economic measures taken by United States President Richard Nixon in 1971, including unilaterally canceling the direct convertibility of the United States dollar to gold.  Since then, a system of national fiat monies has been used globally, with freely floating exchange rates between the major currencies.[27]

text: Money creation and regulation[edit]

text: A central bank introduces new money into the economy by purchasing financial assets or lending money to financial institutions. Commercial banks then redeploy or repurpose this base money by credit creation through fractional reserve banking, which expands the total supply of broad money (cash plus demand deposits).[citation needed]

text: In modern economies, relatively little of the supply of broad money is in physical currency. For example, in December 2010 in the U.S., of the $8,853.4 billion in broad money supply (M2), only $915.7 billion (about 10%) consisted of physical coins and paper money.[28]  The manufacturing of new physical money is usually the responsibility of the central bank, or sometimes, the government's treasury.

text: The Bank for International Settlements, published a detailed review of payment system developments in the G10 countries in 1985 in the first of a series that has become known as "red books". Currently the red books cover the participating countries on Committee on Payments and Market Infrastructures (CPMI).[29] A red book summary of the value of banknotes and coins in circulation is shown in the table below where the local currency is converted to US dollars using the end of the year rates.[30] The value of this physical currency as a percentage of GDP ranges from a high of 19.4% in Japan to a low of 1.7% in Sweden with the overall average for all countries in the table being 8.9% (7.9% for the US).

text:
Banknotes and coins in circulation (12/31/2015)

Country

Billions of dollars

Per capita

United States
$1,425
$4,433

Eurozone
$1,210
$3,571

Japan
$857
$6,739

India
$251
$195

Russia
$117
$799

United Kingdom
$103
$1,583

Switzerland
$76
$9,213

Korea
$74
$1,460

Mexico
$72
$599

Canada
$59
$1,641

Brazil
$58
$282

Australia
$55
$2,320

Saudi Arabia
$53
$1,708

Hong Kong SAR
$48
$6,550

Turkey
$36
$458

Singapore
$27
$4,911

Sweden
$9
$872

South Africa
$6
$113

Total/Average
$4,536
$1,558

text: The most notable currency not included in this table is the Chinese yuan, for which the statistics are listed as "not available".

text: Inflation[edit]

text: The adoption of fiat currency by many countries, from the 18th century onwards, made much larger variations in the supply of money possible. Since then, huge increases in the supply of paper money have taken place in a number of countries, producing hyperinflations – episodes of extreme inflation rates much higher than those observed in earlier periods of commodity money. The hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic of Germany is a notable example.

text: Economists generally believe that high rates of inflation and hyperinflation are caused by an excessive growth of the money supply.[31] Today, most economists favor a low and steady rate of inflation.[32] Low (as opposed to zero or negative) inflation reduces the severity of economic recessions by enabling the labor market to adjust more quickly in a downturn, and reduces the risk that a liquidity trap prevents monetary policy from stabilizing the economy.[33] However, money supply growth does not always cause nominal price increases. Money supply growth may instead lead to stable prices at a time in which they would otherwise be falling. Some economists maintain that under the conditions of a liquidity trap, large monetary injections are like "pushing on a string."[34][35]

text: The task of keeping the rate of inflation low and stable is usually given to monetary authorities. Generally, these monetary authorities are the central banks that control monetary policy through the setting of interest rates, through open market operations, and through the setting of banking reserve requirements.[36]

text: Loss of backing[edit]

text: A fiat-money currency greatly loses its value should the issuing government or central bank either lose the ability to, or refuse to, further guarantee its value. The usual consequence is hyperinflation. Some examples where this has occurred are the Zimbabwean dollar, China in 1945 and the mark in the Weimar Republic in 1923.

text: But this need not necessarily occur; for example, the so-called Swiss dinar continued to retain value in Kurdish Iraq even after its legal tender status was withdrawn by the Iraqi central government which issued the notes.[37][38]