document_title: Foreign trade of the United States

question_text: when did the united states surplus in international trade end

root

text: Foreign trade of the United States

text: Introduction[edit]

text: The country has trade relations with many other countries. Within that, the trade with Europe and Asia is predominant. To fulfill the demands of the industrial sector, the country has to import mineral oil and iron ore on a large scale. Machinery, cotton yarn, toys, mineral oil, lubricants, steel, tea, sugar, coffee, and many more items are traded. The country's export list includes food grains like wheat, corn, and soybean. Aeroplane, cars, computers, paper, and machine tools required for different industries. In 2016 United States current account balance was -$469,400,000,000.[3]

tag: p

text: History[edit]

text: The Constitution gives Congress express power over the imposition of tariffs and the regulation of international trade. As a result, Congress can enact laws including those that: establish tariff rates; implement trade agreements; provide remedies against unfairly traded imports; control exports of sensitive technology; and extend tariff preferences to imports from developing countries. Over time, and under carefully prescribed circumstances, Congress has delegated some of its trade authority to the Executive Branch. Congress, however, has, in some cases, kept tight reins on the use of this authority by requiring that certain trade laws and programs be renewed; and by requiring the Executive Branch to issue reports to Congress to monitor the implementation of the trade laws and programs.[4]

text: The authority of Congress to regulate international trade is set out in Article I, Section 8, Paragraph 1 of the United States Constitution:

text: The Congress shall have power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and to promote the general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;

text: The Embargo Act of 1807 was designed to force Britain to rescind its restrictions on American trade, but failed, and was repealed in early 1809.

text: During the Civil War period, leaders of the Confederacy were confident that Britain would come to their aid because of British reliance on Southern cotton.[5] The Union was able to avoid this, through skillful use of diplomacy and threats to other aspects of European-U.S. trade relations.

text: According to Michael Lind, protectionism was America's de facto policy from the passage of the Tariff of 1816 to World War II, "switching to free trade only in 1945".[6] It has been argued that one of the underlying motivations for the American Revolution itself was a desire to industrialize, and reverse the trade deficit with Britain, which had grown by a factor of ten in the space of a few decades, from £67,000 (1721–30) to £739,000 (1761–70).[7]

text: According to Paul Bairoch, since the end of the 18th century, the United States has been "the homeland and bastion of modern protectionism". In fact, the United States never adhered to free trade until 1945. A very protectionist policy was adopted as soon as the presidency of George Washington by Alexander Hamilton, the first US Secretary of the Treasury from 1789 to 1795 and author of the text Report on Manufactures which called for customs barriers to allow American industrial development and to help protect infant industries, including bounties (subsidies) derived in part from those tariffs. This text was one of the references of the German economist Friedrich List (1789–1846). The United States has become the main opposition to free trade and this policy remained throughout the 19th century and the overall level of tariffs was very high (close to 50% in 1830). The victory of the protectionist states of the North over the free trade southern states at the end of the Civil War (1861–1865) perpetuated this trend, even during periods of free trade in Europe (1860–1880).[8]

text: Hamilton explained that despite an initial “increase of price” caused by regulations that control foreign competition, once a “domestic manufacture has attained to perfection… it invariably becomes cheaper.” George Washington signed the Tariff Act of 1789, making it the Republic's second ever piece of legislation. Increasing the domestic supply of manufactured goods, particularly war materials, was seen as an issue of national security. Washington and Hamilton believed that political independence was predicated upon economic independence.[9]

text: In the 19th century, statesmen such as Senator Henry Clay continued Hamilton's themes within the Whig Party under the name "American System." The fledgling Republican Party led by Abraham Lincoln, who called himself a "Henry Clay tariff Whig", strongly opposed free trade, and implemented a 44-percent tariff during the Civil War—in part to pay for railroad subsidies and for the war effort, and to protect favored industries.[10]

text: From 1871 to 1913, “the average U.S. tariff on dutiable imports never fell below 38 percent [and] gross national product (GNP) grew 4.3 percent annually, twice the pace in free trade Britain and well above the U.S. average in the 20th century,” notes Alfred Eckes Jr., chairman of the U.S. International Trade Commission under President Reagan.

text: In 1896, the GOP platform pledged to “renew and emphasize our allegiance to the policy of protection, as the bulwark of American industrial independence, and the foundation of development and prosperity. This true American policy taxes foreign products and encourages home industry. It puts the burden of revenue on foreign goods; it secures the American market for the American producer. It upholds the American standard of wages for the American workingman.”

text: While the United States has always participated in international trade, it did not take a leading role in global trade policy-making until the Great Depression. Congress and The Executive Branch came into conflict in deciding the mix of trade promotion and protectionism. In order to stimulate employment, Congress passed the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act of 1934, allowing the executive branch to negotiate bilateral trade agreements for a fixed period of time.[citation needed] During the 1930s the amount of bilateral negotiation under this act was fairly limited, and consequently did little to expand global trade.

text: Near the end of the Second World War U.S. policy makers began to experiment on a broader level. In the 1940s, working with the British government, the United States developed two innovations to expand and govern trade among nations: the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the International Trade Organization (ITO). GATT was a temporary multilateral agreement designed to provide a framework of rules and a forum to negotiate trade barrier reductions among nations.

text: The growing importance of international trade led to the establishment of the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative in 1963 by Executive Order 11075, originally called The Office of the Special Representative for Trade Negotiations.[11]

text: Trade policy[edit]

text: United States trade policy has varied widely through various American historical and industrial periods. As a major developed nation, the U.S. has relied heavily on the import of raw materials and the export of finished goods. Because of the significance for American economy and industry, much weight has been placed on trade policy by elected officials and business leaders.[12]

text: The 1920s marked a decade of economic growth in the United States following a Classical supply side policy.[13] U.S. President Warren Harding signed the Emergency Tariff of 1921 and the Fordney–McCumber Tariff of 1922. Harding's policies reduced taxes and protected U.S. business and agriculture.[14] Following the Great Depression and World War II, the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference brought the Bretton Woods currency agreement followed by the economy of the 1950s and 1960s. In 1971, President Richard Nixon ended U.S. ties to Bretton Woods, leaving the U.S. with a floating fiat currency. The stagflation of the 1970s saw a U.S. economy characterized by slower GDP growth. In 1988, the United States ranked first in the world in the Economist Intelligence Unit "quality of life index" and third in the Economic Freedom of the World Index.[15]

text: Over the long run, nations with trade surpluses tend also to have a savings surplus. The U.S. generally has developed lower savings rates than its trading partners, which have tended to have trade surpluses. Germany, France, Japan, and Canada have maintained higher savings rates than the U.S. over the long run.[16]

text: Some economists believe that GDP and employment can be dragged down by an over-large deficit over the long run.[17] Others believe that trade deficits are good for the economy.[18] The opportunity cost of a forgone tax base may outweigh perceived gains, especially where artificial currency pegs and manipulations are present to distort trade.[19]

text: In 2006, the primary economic concerns focused on: high national debt ($9 trillion), high non-bank corporate debt ($9 trillion), high mortgage debt ($9 trillion), high financial institution debt ($12 trillion), high unfunded Medicare liability ($30 trillion), high unfunded Social Security liability ($12 trillion), high external debt (amount owed to foreign lenders) and a serious deterioration in the United States net international investment position (NIIP) (−24% of GDP),[2] high trade deficits, and a rise in illegal immigration.[20][21]

text: These issues have raised concerns among economists and unfunded liabilities were mentioned as a serious problem facing the United States in the President's 2006 State of the Union address.[21][22] On June 26, 2009, Jeff Immelt, the CEO of General Electric, called for the U.S. to increase its manufacturing base employment to 20% of the workforce, commenting that the U.S. has outsourced too much in some areas and can no longer rely on the financial sector and consumer spending to drive demand.[23]

text: In 1985, the U.S. had just begun a growing trade deficit with China. During the 1990s, the U.S. trade deficit became a more excessive long-run trade deficit, mostly with Asia. By 2012, the U.S. trade deficit, fiscal budget deficit, and federal debt increased to record or near-record levels following the implementation of broad unconditional or unilateral U.S. free trade policies and formal trade agreements in the preceding decades.[24][25]

text: The US last had a trade surplus in 1975.[26] However, recessions may cause short-run anomalies to rising trade deficits. The balance of trade in the United States has been a concern among economists and business people. Warren Buffett, founder of Berkshire Hathaway, was quoted in the Associated Press (January 20, 2006) as saying "The U.S. trade deficit is a bigger threat to the domestic economy than either the federal budget deficit or consumer debt and could lead to political turmoil... Right now, the rest of the world owns $3 trillion more of us than we own of them."

text: In both a 1987 guest editorial to the Omaha-World Herald and a more detailed 2003 Fortune article, Buffett proposed a tool called Import Certificates as a solution to the United States' problem and ensure balanced trade. "The rest of the world owns a staggering $2.5 trillion more of the U.S. than we own of other countries. Some of this $2.5 trillion is invested in claim checks—U.S. bonds, both governmental and private—and some in such assets as property and equity securities."[27]

text: Today[when?] the United States' largest trading partner is Canada.[28] China has seen substantial economic growth in the past 50 years[when?] and though a nuclear-security summit that took place in early 2010 President Obama hoped to insure another 50 years of growth between the two countries. On April 19, 2010, President Obama met with China's President Hu Jintao to discuss trade policies between the two countries.[29]

text: Though the US trade deficit has been stubborn, and tends to be the largest by dollar volume of any nation, even the most extreme months as measured by percent of GDP there are nations that are far more noteworthy. Case in point, post 2015 Nepal earthquake, Nepal's trade gap (in goods & services) was a shocking 33.3% of GDP[30] although heavy remittances considerably offset that number. According to the US Department of Commerce Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA), January 27, 2017 report, the GDP "increased 4.0 percent, or $185.5 billion, in the fourth quarter of 2016 to a level of $18,860.8 billion."[31]

text: Customs territory[edit]

text: The main customs territory of the United States includes the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and the territory of Puerto Rico, with the exception of over 200 foreign trade zones designated to encourage economic activity. People and goods entering this territory are subject to inspection by U.S. Customs and Border Protection. The remaining insular areas are separate customs territories administered largely by local authorities:

text:
American Samoa
Guam
Northern Mariana Islands
United States Minor Outlying Islands (mostly uninhabited)
United States Virgin Islands

tag: ul

text: Transportation of certain living things or agricultural products may be prohibited even within a customs territory. This is enforced by U.S. Customs and Border Protection, the federal Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, and even state authorities such as the California Department of Food and Agriculture.

text: Investment in the United States[edit]

text: Gross U.S. assets held by foreigners were $16.3 trillion as of the end of 2006 (over 100% of GDP). The U.S. net international investment position (NIIP)[32] became a negative $2.5 trillion at the end of 2006, or about minus 19% of GDP.[2][33]

text: This figure rises as long as the US maintains an imbalance in trade, when the value of imports substantially outweighs the value of exports. This external debt does not result mostly from loans to Americans or the American government, nor is it consumer debt owed to non-US creditors. It is an accounting entry that largely represents US domestic assets purchased with trade dollars and owned overseas, largely by US trading partners.[34]

text: For countries like the United States, a large net external debt is created when the value of foreign assets (debt and equity) held by domestic residents is less than the value of domestic assets held by foreigners. In simple terms, as foreigners buy property in the US, this adds to the external debt. When this occurs in greater amounts than Americans buying property overseas, nations like the United States are said to be debtor nations, but this is not conventional debt like a loan obtained from a bank.[2][32]

text: If the external debt represents foreign ownership of domestic assets, the result is that rental income, stock dividends, capital gains and other investment income is received by foreign investors, rather than by U.S. residents. On the other hand, when American debt is held by overseas investors, they receive interest and principal repayments. As the trade imbalance puts extra dollars in hands outside of the U.S., these dollars may be used to invest in new assets (foreign direct investment, such as new plants) or be used to buy existing American assets such as stocks, real estate and bonds. With a mounting trade deficit, the income from these assets increasingly transfers overseas.[2][32]

text: Of major concern is the magnitude of the NIIP (or net external debt), which is larger than those of most national economies. Fueled by the sizable trade deficit, the external debt is so large that economists are concerned over whether the current account deficit is unsustainable. A complicating factor is that trading partners such as China, depend for much of their economy on exports, especially to America. There are many controversies about the current trade and external debt situation, and it is arguable whether anyone understands how these dynamics will play out in a historically unprecedented floating exchange rate system. While various aspects of the U.S. economic profile have precedents in the situations of other countries (notably government debt as a percentage of GDP), the sheer size of the U.S., and the integral role of the US economy in the overall global economic environment, create considerable uncertainty about the future.[2][32]

text: According to economists such as Larry Summers and Paul Krugman, the enormous inflow of capital from China is one of the causes of the global financial crisis of 2008–2009. China had been buying huge quantities of dollar assets to keep its currency value low and its export economy humming, which caused American interest rates and saving rates to remain artificially low. These low interest rates, in turn, contributed to the United States housing bubble because when mortgages are cheap, house prices are inflated as people can afford to borrow more.[36][37]

text: Trade agreements[edit]

text: 2008 Exports, Imports[38] 2009 Exports, Imports[39]

text: The United States is a partner to many trade agreements, shown in the chart below and the map to the right.

text: The United States has also negotiated many Trade and Investment Framework Agreements, which are often precursors to free trade agreements. It has also negotiated many bilateral investment treaties, which concern the movement of capital rather than goods.

text: The U.S. is a member of several international trade organizations. The purpose of joining these organizations is to come to agreement with other nations on trade issues, although there is domestic political controversy to whether or not the U.S. government should be making these trade agreements in the first place. These organizations include:

text:
World Trade Organization
Organization of American States
Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America

text:
[show]

v
t
e

United States free-trade agreements

Existing

Bilateral

Australia
Bahrain
Chile
Colombia
Israel
Jordan
Morocco
Oman
Panama
Peru
Singapore
South Korea

Multilateral

Dominican Republic–Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA-DR)
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

Proposed

Bilateral

Ecuador
Ghana
Indonesia
Kenya
Kuwait
Malaysia
Mauritius
Mozambique
New Zealand
Taiwan
United Arab Emirates
Uruguay

Multilateral

Middle East Free Trade Area (MEFTA)
Transatlantic Free Trade Area (TAFTA)
Trade in Services Agreement (TISA)
Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP)

Suspended

Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) (no interest since 2005)
Southern African Customs Union (on hold since 2006)
Thailand (on hold after 2006 coup)
Qatar (on hold since 2006)

Defunct or
expired

Canada (became part of North American Free Trade Agreement)
Canada–United States Automotive Products Agreement
Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP)

tag: table

text: Internal institutions[edit]

text: American foreign trade is regulated internally by:

text:
United States Court of International Trade
United States International Trade Commission

text: Imports and exports[edit]

text:
Proportion of US exports to imports 1960–2004

US exports of goods and services 1960–2004

US imports of goods and services 1960–2004

text:
US exported $1.44 trillion to other countries in 2014

US exports of goods by country in 2004 (does not include exports of services)

US imports of goods by country in 2004 (does not include imports of services)

US imported $2.13 trillion from other countries in 2014


document_title: Randolph Air Force Base

question_text: who is randolph air force base named after

text: Randolph Air Force Base

text: Etymology[edit]

text: Randolph AFB is named after Captain William Millican Randolph, a native of Austin, who was on the base naming committee at the time of his death in a crash. It serves as headquarters of the Air Education and Training Command (AETC) as well as the Air Force Personnel Center (AFPC) and is known as "the Showplace of the Air Force" because of the Spanish Colonial Revival Style architecture in which all structures including hangars were constructed. The symbol of the base is a large water tower atop Building 100, housing the headquarters for Randolph's major flying unit, the 12th Flying Training Wing (12 FTW).  With its distinctive architecture, the wing's headquarters has come to be known throughout the Air Force as "the Taj Mahal," or simply "The Taj".

text: Units[edit]

text: 902d Mission Support Group

text: 12th Flying Training Wing (Tail Code: RA)

text: 359th Medical Group

text: Headquarters Air Education and Training Command

text: Major tenant units of Randolph AFB include the Air Force Personnel Center (AFPC), Air Force Manpower Agency, Air Force Recruiting Service, and the Air Force Office of Special Investigations Field Investigations Region 4.

text: History[edit]

text: The idea for Randolph began soon after passage in the United States Congress of the Air Corps Act of 1926, which changed the name of the Army Air Service to the Army Air Corps, created two new brigadier general positions and provided a five-year expansion program for the under-strength Air Corps. One of the new general officer positions was given to Frank P. Lahm, who was placed in charge of all flying training.

text: General Lahm established the Air Corps Training Center in August 1926 and set up its headquarters at Duncan Field, next to Kelly Field, Texas. He soon learned that the facilities at Kelly and Brooks Fields were not sufficient for proper training. The buildings, erected during World War I with a life expectancy of five years, had no suitable areas for ground training, and the living quarters were inadequate. San Antonio's rapid growth was also beginning to interfere with flying training operations. Maj. Gen. Mason Patrick, Chief of the Air Corps, visited San Antonio in December and recommended that an additional training field be built, and in April 1927 a board of officers appointed by Gen. Lahm approved an unusual circular layout.[3]

text: In 1927, newly assigned to Kelly Field as a dispatch officer in the motor pool, First Lieutenant Harold Clark designed a model four-quadrant airfield having a circular layout of facilities between parallel runways, after learning a new field was to be constructed. Having trained as an architect prior to entering the military during World War I, Clark sketched ideas for a perfect "Air City" on the back of old dispatch sheets, aligning the runways with prevailing winds and placing facilities by function between the runways to keep planes from having to make landing approaches over hangars, as they were forced to do at Kelly. Clark took his drawings to Lahm's executive officer, who immediately brought him before the planning board. On 1 November 1927, Clark submitted a finished plan to Lahm, and impressed with Clark's designs, Lahm detailed him to ACTC Headquarters on 8 December, to revise and develop the plans.[4]

text: The Military Affairs Committee of the San Antonio Chamber of Commerce quickly took the forefront in the search for an airfield location, which had to be suited to the airfield design, rather than the other way around as commonly done. A site east on San Antonio was chosen in May 1927 but rejected for those reasons. A second site near Schertz, Texas, was acquired and offered to the Air Corps on 31 December 1927. The land had to have clear title, be donated to the government, and have no restrictions as to use. Legal processes delayed the acceptance of the donated property until 16 August 1928. In the meantime, after a dispute with a blue ribbon committee of senior Air Corps officers who did not favor the circular design, Clark's layout was approved, also on 16 August, and construction began on 1 November 1927.[5] It was "the largest construction project undertaken by the Army, up to that time, with the exception of the Panama Canal."[6]

text: Clark's design was submitted to and drawn upon by George B. Ford, a city planner and civilian advisor to the Construction Service of the Quartermaster Corps whose approval of all site plans for the Army was required between 1926 and 1930. The 2001 National Park Service nomination for the Randolph Field Historic District as a National Historic Landmark commented on the architectural layout of the field:

text: It appears that Clark’s plan, submitted by the Air Corps Training Center, was one of the new layouts that George B. Ford, in his position as City Planning Adviser to the War Department, chose for extensive revisions. Other than the circular roads at the center of the layout and the location of flight lines at the edges, Lt. Clark’s plan and the final layout for Randolph Field have few major features in common. The "official post layout," signed by George B. Ford, A.I.A., was approved by the Chief of the Air Corps, the Quartermaster General, and the Chief of Staff for the Secretary of War in January 1929. It elegantly combined the Air Corps’ operational and training needs with advanced city planning principles. Key features of Ford’s design (and which do not appear in Lt. Clark’s plan) include the dramatic, impressive entranceway, its termination at Washington Circle (a smaller circle below Main Circle, formerly known as North Circle), and the siting of three notable buildings around Washington Circle on the east, west, and south. The final layout for Randolph Field is clearly the work of a master planner.[7]

text: Once the site for the field was selected, a committee decided to name the base after Captain William Millican Randolph, a native of Austin and graduate of Texas A&M, who was killed on 17 February 1928, in the crash of a Curtiss AT-4 Hawk, 27–220, on takeoff from Gorman Field, Texas. Ironically, Captain Randolph was serving on the committee to select a name for the new field at the time of his death. Captain Randolph is buried at Fort Sam Houston National Cemetery.

text: School of Aviation Medicine[edit]

text: Although barely half-completed, Randolph Field was dedicated 20 June 1930, with an estimated 15,000 people in attendance and a fly-by of 233 planes. The mayor of San Antonio, C.M. Chambers, formally presented the "West Point of the Air" to the Chief of the Air Corps, Maj. Gen. James Fechet.[8] Early in 1931, the School of Aviation Medicine from Brooks Field and the initial service squadron began relocating to Randolph. On 1 October, the Air Corps Training Center moved its headquarters from Duncan Field to Randolph and the principal movement of personnel followed. The flying school at Brooks Field closed on 20 October, followed by the school at March Field on 25 October, and the Primary Flying School opened at Randolph on 2 November 1931.[9]

text: Between October 1931 and March 1935, more than 2,000 candidates reported for pilot training at Randolph, which began a new class every fourth months.  47% of them graduated as pilots and went on to advanced flying training.  75% of all primary training was conducted at Randolph Field. By May 1932 the field had 251 primary trainers, most the venerable Consolidated PT-3 "Trusty", but gradually supplemented by the Consolidated PT-11D, which became the Air Corps standard in the 1930s. In 1936, the famous Stearman PT-13 Kaydet began to appear in the skies over San Antonio.  Basic training followed primary, at first with Douglas BT-1s and BT-2Bs. The Seversky BT-8 was later introduced as a basic trainer, but was soon deemed too difficult to handle and was replaced by North American BT-9s in 1935.

text: Increased flying hours for cadets and an expanded syllabus resulted in a need for auxiliary fields within a ten-mile radius of Randolph to handle the volume of takeoffs and landings, and in 1932 Randolph was encircled by seven (clockwise from west to southwest): Dodd, Cade, Davenport, Marion, C.A. Krueger, Zuehl, and Martindale. Primary training continued at Randolph until September 1939 when expansion of the Air Corps forced it to contract primary out to civilian schools, and Randolph's mission shifted to basic pilot training only.

text: The Air Corps Act of 1926 mandated that rated pilots comprise 90% of all commissioned officers of the Air Corps. Because of this requirement, nearly all new officers of the Air Corps underwent Randolph's rigorous pilot training program and, in combination with the architectural beauty of the base, Mayor Chamber's term West Point of the Air became the unofficial nickname for Randolph Field. A 1935 Hollywood film, West Point of the Air, was filmed on location at Randolph.

text: 1940s to 1970s[edit]

text: In June 1941, the Air Corps became the Army Air Forces.  Basic flying training at Randolph continued until March 1943, when the Army Air Forces Central Instructors School (CIS) was created. For the next two years, training instructors for ground schools, instructor pilots (including civilian contract instructors) for all three phases of flying training, and officers destined for administrative duties at air training command bases were trained by the CIS. Randolph produced 15,396 instructor graduates from this course before it moved to Waco Field in 1945. When the CIS moved to Waco Field it was replaced by the Army Air Forces pilot school, which specialized in transition training for B-29 bomber pilots, copilots and engineers. Primary pilot training returned to Randolph from Goodfellow Field in December 1945. Class 42-X gave 235 pilots their wings in an experimental course that sent pilot candidates directly to instructor training without first attending primary school, but though the course was considered a success, AAF Flying Training Command rejected its adoption. The Central Instructors School returned to Randolph in November 1945, was redesignated the AAF Pilot Instructors School, and relocated to Barksdale Field, Louisiana, on 12 March 1946.

text: Like many military installations during World War II, Randolph fielded an intercollegiate football team, nicknamed the Randolph Field Ramblers. In 1943, under coach Frank Tritico, the team achieved a 9–1 record and was invited to play in the 1944 Cotton Bowl Classic, where they battled the Texas Longhorns to a 7–7 tie.[10] In the 1944 season, stocked with such stars as former All-American and National Football League Rookie of the Year Bill Dudley and All-American running back Glenn Dobbs, as well as eight other former NFL players,[11] the team went undefeated and untied in 11 games, and was voted #3 in the nation by the Associated Press poll.[12]

text: The Army Air Forces also planned to return basic pilot training to Randolph on 1 February 1946. Even though basic training transferred from Goodfellow Field in February 1946, the Army Air Forces suspended all pilot training when it found itself with a shortfall of maintenance personnel. The U.S. Air Force became a separate service on 18 September 1947, and Randolph Field was officially renamed Randolph Air Force Base on 13 January 1948.

text: When Randolph resumed flying training activities in March 1948, primary pilot training was deleted from its program, and in August 1948 the 3510th Pilot Training Wing (Basic) was activated. On 7 August 1950, during the Korean War, the 3511th Combat Crew Training Group was established as part of the 3510th PTW to train crews for the B-29 Superfortress, and the instructor pilot school was transferred to Craig Air Force Base, Alabama. On 11 June 1952 the pilot training wing was redesignated as the 3510th Flying Training Wing (Medium Bomber), and again in October 1954 (to reflect more accurately its actual mission) to the 3510th Combat Crew Training Wing.

text: On 1 April 1952, the Air Force established the Crew Training Air Force (CTAF) with its headquarters at Randolph to administer nine bases and combat crew training wings, including the 3510th. B-29 training by the 3511th Flying Training Group (Medium Bomber) continued for five years, ultimately producing 21,519 crew members.  In 1954, with the requirements for B-29 crewmen reduced, the CTAF instituted instrument training for four-engine transport crews using the Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcar, and added Martin B-57 Canberra crew training to Randolph's activities, although a shortage of qualified instructors cut short the latter program after two years. The USAF Helicopter School was based at Randolph from June 1956 to July 1958. The 3510th conducted Boeing KC-97 Stratofreighter crew training from June 1957 to July 1958, after which the Strategic Air Command assigned a tenant wing to Randolph, the 4397th Air Refueling Wing, to instruct crews until 15 June 1962.

text: The Crew Training Air Force was discontinued on 1 July 1957,[13] and the headquarters of the Flying Training Air Force relocated to Randolph. Shortly after, between 1 August and 30 September, the headquarters of ATC itself relocated to Randolph from Scott Air Force Base, Illinois. In early 1958 ATC assumed responsibility for all Air Force training activities and all other training commands including the Flying Training Air Force were abolished. The 3510th CCTW was redesignated the 3510th Flying Training Wing on 1 June 1958 with the primary mission of qualifying USAF jet pilots.

text: The Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star was the workhorse trainer during the 1950s and 1960s at Randolph AFB. In 1961 pilot instructor training (PIT) returned to the 3510th Flying Training Wing. Randolph became the Air Force's primary PIT base as the Air Force completely revamped its pilot training program, abolishing the nine independent pilot training squadrons (contract instructors) that had been performing primary training for a decade and gearing up to conduct all undergraduate pilot training (UPT) in jet aircraft.  Class 62-FZ produced 25 pilots who completed their training in the new Northrop T-38 Talon, then undergoing test and evaluation, only the second class of candidates to receive their wings at Randolph (Class 42-X was the first class to do so).  Requirements for new pilots during the Vietnam War saw PIT shifted again, from Randolph to Perrin and Tyndall Air Force Bases, and on 16 May 1967, while retaining its "flying training" designation, Randolph resumed primary training in the Cessna T-37 to become the ninth UPT wing.  1,269 pilots earned their wings at Randolph before UPT was discontinued at Randolph on 2 October 1971. The PIT squadrons at Perrin and Tyndall both returned to Randolph in June 1971 and it became the only source of UPT instructor pilots for the USAF.

text: To preserve the lineage and histories of combat units, the Air Force directed ATC to replace its four-digit flying and pilot training wings with two-digit designations. The 3510th FTW became the 12th Flying Training Wing (12 FTW) on 1 May 1972, taking on the designation of the tactical fighter wing inactivated in Vietnam the previous November.  The 12th FTW remained the host unit at Randolph AFB for nearly 38 years, until 31 January 2010, when the 502d Air Base Wing became the host unit after Randolph became a component of Joint Base San Antonio.

text: Recent history[edit]

text: Today, the 12 FTW provides instructor pilot training and refresher/recurrency training in the T-6A Texan II, T-38C Talon and T-1A Jayhawk.  The wing also operates the T-1A in support of Specialized Undergraduate Navigator Training (SUNT), a mission it assumed following the Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) closure of Mather AFB, California and inactivation of the 323d Flying Training Wing.  SUNT trains prospective USAF Navigators/Combat Systems Officers destined for the B-52 Stratofortress, E-3 Sentry, E-8 Joint STARS, RC-135, non-PACER CRAG KC-135 Stratotanker, and C-130 Hercules variants, as well as prospective Naval Flight Officers en route to fly land-based U.S. Navy P-3C Orion, EP-3 Aries and E-6 Mercury aircraft.

text: The 12 FTW also provides training to numerous NATO/Allied officer students via SUNT, as well as supporting Marine Corps and Coast Guard enlisted navigator training via the Marine Aerial Navigation School (MANS). The Marine Aerial Navigation School remained at Randolph until the school was decommissioned with the graduation of Class 04-01 on 31 July 2004. Advanced Electronic Warfare Officer (EWO) training is also conducted by the 12 FTW for those navigators/CSOs destined for eventual assignment as USAF EWOs.

text: The 12 FTW also operates an additional airfield for practice approaches and touch-and-go landings approximately 12 miles east-northeast of Randolph in Seguin, Texas.  Known as Randolph AFB Auxiliary Field/Seguin Field, this airfield was originally constructed with three runways in 1941.  Normally unattended, the airfield has a single active 8350-ft runway and is supported by a manned runway supervisor unit (RSU) and aircraft rescue and fire fighting (ARFF) vehicles when conducting flight operations.[14]

text: Randolph has also completed major renovations to the Base Commissary as well as completely re-paving Harmon Drive, the main entrance to the base leading to "The Taj".  Additional plans include construction of a new Base Exchange, which is managed by the Army and Air Force Exchange Service (AAFES).

text: Previous names[edit]

text:
Aviation Field, San Antonio, 18 August 1928
Randolph Field, 27 September 1928
Randolph Air Force Base, 13 January 1948

text: Command assignments[edit]

text:
Air Corps Training Center, 1 January 1931
Gulf Coast Air Corps Training Center, 22 August 1940
Air Corps Flying Training Command, 23 January 1942
AAF Flying Training Command, 15 March 1942

text: AAF Training Command, 31 July 1943

text: Air Training Command, 1 July 1946

text: Air Education and Training Command, 1 June 1992

text: Units assigned[edit]

text:
46th School Squadron, 12 October 1931 – 30 April 1944
Re-designated: 46th Basic Flying Training Squadron, 1 September 1940
47th School Squadron, 2 June 1931 – 30 April 1944
Re-designated: 47th Basic Flying Training Squadron, 1 September 1940
52d School Squadron, 9 October 1931 – 30 April 1944
Re-designated: 52d Basic Flying Training Squadron, 1 September 1940
53d School Squadron, 12 October 1931 – 30 April 1944
Re-designated: 53d Basic Flying Training Squadron, 1 September 1940
Air Corps School of Aviation Medicine, 30 October 1931 – 15 September 1944
43d Basic Flying Training Squadron, 1 September 1940 – 29 February 1944
44th Basic Flying Training Squadron, 1 September 1940 – 30 April 1944
45th Basic Flying Training Squadron, 1 September 1940 – 29 February 1944
734th Basic Flying Training Squadron, 9 May 1942 – 29 February 1944
1052d Basic Flying Training Squadron, 11 September 1942 – 29 February 1944
1053d Basic Flying Training Squadron, 11 September 1942 – 30 April 1944
1054th Basic Flying Training Squadron, 11 September 1942 – 30 April 1944
27th AAF Base Unit (School of Aviation Medicine), 15 September 1944 – 27 August 1948
Demobilizing ATC wings:
31st Flying Training Wing, 2 July 1945 – 13 October 1946
32d Flying Training Wing, 31 October 1945 – 13 October 1946
33d Flying Training Wing, 31 October 1945 – 13 October 1946
30th Flying Training Wing, 31 July 1946 – 13 October 1946
3510th Basic Pilot Training Wing, 26 August 1948 – 1 May 1972
Re-designated: 3510th Pilot Training Wing
Re-designated: 3510th Flying Training Wing
USAF School of Aviation Medicine, 27 August 1948 – 3 August 1959

8601st Basic Pilot Training Wing, 27 June 1949 – 28 February 1951
Re-designated: 8601st Pilot Training Wing
USAF Air Crew School, 7 August 1950 – 8 March 1967
Re-designated: USAF Advanced Flying School
3511th Combat Training Group, 7 August 1950 – 1 July 1971
Re-designated: 3511th Flying Training Group
Re-designated: 3511th Combat Crew Training Group
USAF Helicopter Pilot School, 1 July 1956 – 1 July 1958
HQ Air Training Command, 15 September 1957 – 1 June 1992
3300 Support Squadron
4937th Air Refueling Wing, 1 July 1958 – 15 June 1962
2310th Air Transport Group, 14 December 1959 – 1 October 1962
Re-designated: 4430th Air Transport Group
USAF Basic Pilot Instructor School, 1 September 1960 – 8 March 1967
USAF Instrument Pilot Instructor School, 1 September 1961
Re-designated: USAF Instrument Flight Center 1 June 1992–2008
HQ USAF Recruiting Service, 15 June 1965
Re-designated: Air Force Recruiting Service, 1 September 1994
HQ AF Military Personnel Center, 31 December 1971
Re-designated: Air Force Military Personnel Center, 1 January 1986
Re-designated: Air Force Personnel Center, 1 October 1995 – present
Community College of the Air Force, 1 April 1972 – 15 January 1977
12th Flying Training Wing, 1 May 1972 – present
Nineteenth Air Force, 1 July 1993 – 13 July 2012; 1 October 2014 – present
340th Flying Training Group, 1 April 1998 – present
902d Mission Support Group, 1 October 2010 – present

text: Education[edit]

text: Randolph Air Force Base is served by Randolph Field Independent School District. Randolph Field ISD is one of three school districts in the state whose boundaries are coterminous with a military installation; the other two (also in the San Antonio area) are Fort Sam Houston ISD and Lackland ISD.

text: Historic District[edit]

text: Randolph Field Historic District, located at the center of Randolph Air Force Base, is a National Historic Landmark. The district consists of 350 contributing buildings, 47 non-contributing buildings, and other features, most of which were built between 1929 and 1932, in an area of about 405 acres (1.6 km²).


document_title: Ansoff Matrix

question_text: creating new products for new markets is called

text: Ansoff Matrix

text: Growth strategies[edit]

text: Ansoff, in his 1957 paper, provided a definition for product-market strategy as "a joint statement of a product line and the corresponding set of missions which the products are designed to fulfill".[3] He describes four growth alternatives:

text: Market penetration[edit]

text: In market penetration strategy, the organization tries to grow using its existing offerings (products and services) in existing markets. In other words, it tries to increase its market share in current market scenario.This involves increasing market share within existing market segments. This can be achieved by selling more products or services to established customers or by finding new customers within existing markets. Here, the company seeks increased sales for its present products in its present markets through more aggressive promotion and distribution.

text: This can be accomplished by: (i) Price decrease; (ii) Increase in promotion and distribution support; (iii) Acquisition of a rival in the same market; (iv) Modest product refinements

text: Market development[edit]

text: In market development strategy, a firm tries to expand into new markets (geographies, countries etc.) using its existing offerings.

text: This can be accomplished by (i) Different customer segments (ii) Industrial buyers for a good that was previously sold only to the households; (iii) New areas or regions about of the country (iv) Foreign markets. This strategy is more likely to be successful where:- (i) The firm has a unique product technology it can leverage in the new market; (ii) It benefits from economies of scale if it increases output; (iii) The new market is not too different from the one it has experience of; (iv) The buyers in the market are intrinsically profitable.

text: Product development[edit]

text: In product development strategy, a company tries to create new products and services targeted at its existing markets to achieve growth.

text: This involves extending the product range available to the firm's existing markets. These products may be obtained by: (i) Investment in research and development of additional products; (ii) Acquisition of rights to produce someone else's product; (iii) Buying in the product and "branding" it; (iv) Joint development with ownership of another company who need access to the firm's distribution channels or brands.

text: Diversification[edit]

text: In diversification an organization tries to grow its market share by introducing new offerings in new markets. It is the most risky strategy because both product and market development is required. (i) Related Diversification - Here there is relationship and, therefore, potential synergy, between the firms in existing business and the new product/market space. (a) Concentric diversification, and (b) Vertical integration. (ii) Unrelated Diversification: This is otherwise termed conglomerate growth because the resulting corporation is a conglomerate, i.e. a collection of businesses without any relationship to one another. A strategy for company growth through starting up or acquiring businesses outside the company’s current products and markets.


document_title: Roger Ewing

question_text: who played the role of thad on gunsmoke

question_tokens: who played the role of thad on gunsmoke

text: Roger Ewing

text: Biography[edit]

text: Ewing is best remembered for his characterization of part-time deputy marshal Clayton Thaddeus "Thad" Greenwood in thirty-six episodes (October 2, 1965 - September 25, 1967) of the long-running CBS western television series Gunsmoke with James Arness.

text: In his first episode "Clayton Thaddeus Greenwood", Ewing's character arrives in Dodge City, Kansas, the location of the series, from Oklahoma with a warrant he is unable to execute. Among Ewing's last Gunsmoke appearances were on episodes entitled "The Prodigal", "Nitro" (Parts 1 and 2), "Ladies from St. Louis" and "Mistaken Identity". Before he was cast as Thad, Ewing appeared on Gunsmoke once in the role of Ben Lukens in the episode "Song for Dying", which aired on February 13, 1965.[2]

text: Other roles[edit]

text: Ewing's first television appearance was in 1964 as Marvin Grogan on ABC's sitcom Bewitched in the episode "The Girl Reporter". He also appeared that season as Eddie Fox in the episode "The Christmas Show" of ABC's short-lived The Bing Crosby Show, starring Bing Crosby and Beverly Garland, and in a third sitcom as well in the role of Norman in the episode entitled "Look Who's a Sailor" on CBS's short-lived The Baileys of Balboa.[2]

text: In 1965, Ewing, at twenty-three, appeared as Private Swensholm in the World War II film None but the Brave starring Frank Sinatra and Clint Walker. That same year, he appeared as Billy Wallace in the episode "The Calf Women" of CBS's western Rawhide starring Eric Fleming and Clint Eastwood.[2]

text: After his Gunsmoke role ended, Ewing appeared in two films: as Donald Maxwell in the western production Smith! starring Glenn Ford (1969) and as Nelson in Play It As It Lays, a psychiatric drama starring Tuesday Weld and Anthony Perkins (1972).[2] Also in 1969, Ewing was a celebrity contestant on an episode of The Dating Game in which the eligible bachelorette was future actress Lindsay Wagner.

text: He also made a guest starring appearance on the sitcom The Mothers-in-Law as a wealthy former boyfriend of the character played by Deborah Walley.

text: Ewing's Gunsmoke character was superseded by that of Newly O'Brien, portrayed by Buck Taylor,[3] son of character actor Dub Taylor. After his acting career ended, Ewing returned to his previous work as a photographer.[4]

text:
Los Angeles portal
California portal
Television portal
Film portal
Photography portal

text: Partial filmography[edit]

text:
Ensign Pulver (1964) - Jackson (uncredited)
None but the Brave (1965) - Pvt. Swensholm
Smith! (1969) - Donald Maxwell
Play It As It Lays (1972) - Nelson (final film role)


document_title: Sound barrier

question_text: when did the first plane break the sound barrier

text: Sound barrier

text: History[edit]

text: Some common whips such as the bullwhip or stockwhip are able to move faster than sound: the tip of the whip breaks the sound barrier and causes a sharp crack—literally a sonic boom.[5] Firearms made after the 19th century have generally had a supersonic muzzle velocity.[citation needed]

text: The sound barrier may have been first breached by living beings some 150 million years ago. Some paleobiologists report that, based on computer models of their biomechanical capabilities, certain long-tailed dinosaurs such as Apatosaurus and Diplodocus may have possessed the ability to flick their tails at supersonic speeds, possibly used to generate an intimidating booming sound. This finding is theoretical and disputed by others in the field.[6] Meteorites entering the Earth's atmosphere usually, if not always, descend faster than sound.[citation needed]

text: Early problems[edit]

text: The tip of the propeller on many early aircraft may reach supersonic speeds, producing a noticeable buzz that differentiates such aircraft. This is particularly noticeable on the Stearman (released in 1934), and noticeable on the North American T-6 Texan when it enters a sharp-breaking turn. This is undesirable, as the transonic air movement creates disruptive shock waves and turbulence. It is due to these effects that propellers are known to suffer from dramatically decreased performance as they approach the speed of sound. It is easy to demonstrate that the power needed to improve performance is so great that the weight of the required engine grows faster than the power output of the propeller can compensate. This problem was one that led to early research into jet engines, notably by Frank Whittle in England and Hans von Ohain in Germany, who were led to their research specifically in order to avoid these problems in high-speed flight.

text: Nevertheless, propeller aircraft were able to approach the speed of sound in a dive. Unfortunately, doing so led to numerous crashes for a variety of reasons. Most infamously, in the Mitsubishi Zero, pilots flew full power into the terrain because the rapidly increasing forces acting on the control surfaces of their aircraft overpowered them.[7] In this case, several attempts to fix it only made the problem worse. Likewise, the flexing caused by the low torsional stiffness of the Supermarine Spitfire's wings caused them, in turn, to counteract aileron control inputs, leading to a condition known as control reversal. This was solved in later models with changes to the wing. Worse still, a particularly dangerous interaction of the airflow between the wings and tail surfaces of diving Lockheed P-38 Lightnings made "pulling out" of dives difficult; however, the problem was later solved by the addition of a "dive flap" that upset the airflow under these circumstances. Flutter due to the formation of shock waves on curved surfaces was another major problem, which led most famously to the breakup of de Havilland Swallow and death of its pilot, Geoffrey de Havilland, Jr. in 1946. A similar problem is thought to have been the cause of the 1943 crash of the BI-1 rocket aircraft in the Soviet Union.

text: All of these effects, although unrelated in most ways, led to the concept of a "barrier" making it difficult for an aircraft to exceed the speed of sound.[8]

text: Early claims[edit]

text: During WWII and immediately thereafter, a number of claims were made that the sound barrier had been broken in a dive. The majority of these purported events can be dismissed as instrumentation errors. The typical airspeed indicator (ASI) uses air pressure differences between two or more points on the aircraft, typically near the nose and at the side of the fuselage, to produce a speed figure. At high speed, the various compression effects that lead to the sound barrier also cause the ASI to go non-linear and produce inaccurately high or low readings, depending on the specifics of the installation. This effect became known as "Mach jump".[9] Before the introduction of Mach meters, accurate measurements of supersonic speeds could only be made externally, normally using ground-based instruments. Many claims of supersonic speeds were found to be far below this speed when measured in this fashion.

text: In 1942, Republic Aviation issued a press release stating that Lts. Harold E. Comstock and Roger Dyar had exceeded the speed of sound during test dives in the P-47 Thunderbolt. It is widely agreed that this was due to inaccurate ASI readings. In similar tests, the North American P-51 Mustang, a higher performance aircraft, demonstrated limits at Mach 0.85, with every flight over M0.84 causing the aircraft to be damaged by vibration.[10]

text: One of the highest recorded instrumented Mach numbers attained for a propeller aircraft is the Mach 0.891 for a Spitfire PR XI, flown during dive tests at the Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough in April 1944. The Spitfire, a photo-reconnaissance variant, the Mark XI, fitted with an extended 'rake type' multiple pitot system, was flown by Squadron Leader J. R. Tobin to this speed, corresponding to a corrected true airspeed (TAS) of 606 mph.[11] In a subsequent flight, Squadron Leader Anthony Martindale achieved Mach 0.92, but it ended in a forced landing after over- revving damaged the engine.[12]

text: In the 1990s, Hans Guido Mutke claimed to have broken the sound barrier on 9 April 1945 in the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet aircraft. He states that his ASI pegged itself at 1,100 kilometres per hour (680 mph). Mutke reported not just transonic buffeting but the resumption of normal control once a certain speed was exceeded, then a resumption of severe buffeting once the Me 262 slowed again. He also reported engine flame out.[13]

text: This claim is widely disputed, even by pilots in his unit.[14] All of the effects he reported are known to occur on the Me 262 at much lower speeds, and the ASI reading is simply not reliable in the transonic. Further, a series of tests made by Karl Doetsch at the behest of Willy Messerschmitt found that the plane became uncontrollable above Mach 0.86, and at Mach 0.9 would nose over into a dive that could not be recovered from. Post-war tests by the RAF confirmed these results, with the slight modification that the maximum speed using new instruments was found to be Mach 0.84, rather than Mach 0.86.[15]

text: In 1999, Mutke enlisted the help of Professor Otto Wagner of the Munich Technical University to run computational tests to determine whether the aircraft could break the sound barrier. These tests do not rule out the possibility, but are lacking accurate data on the coefficient of drag that would be needed to make accurate simulations.[16][17] Wagner stated "I don't want to exclude the possibility, but I can imagine he may also have been just below the speed of sound and felt the buffeting, but did not go above Mach-1."[14]

text: One bit of evidence presented by Mutke is on page 13 of the "Me 262 A-1 Pilot's Handbook" issued by Headquarters Air Materiel Command, Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio as Report No. F-SU-1111-ND on January 10, 1946:

text: Speeds of 950 km/h (590 mph) are reported to have been attained in a shallow dive 20° to 30° from the horizontal. No vertical dives were made. At speeds of 950 to 1,000 km/h (590 to 620 mph) the air flow around the aircraft reaches the speed of sound, and it is reported that the control surfaces no longer affect the direction of flight. The results vary with different airplanes: some wing over and dive while others dive gradually. It is also reported that once the speed of sound is exceeded, this condition disappears and normal control is restored.

text: The comments about restoration of flight control and cessation of buffeting above Mach 1 are very significant in a 1946 document. However, it is not clear where these terms came from, as it does not appear the US pilots carried out such tests.[16]

text: In his 1990 book Me-163, former Messerschmitt Me 163 "Komet" pilot Mano Ziegler claims that his friend, test pilot Heini Dittmar, broke the sound barrier while diving the rocket plane, and that several people on the ground heard the sonic booms. He claims that on 6 July 1944, Dittmar, flying Me 163B V18, bearing the Stammkennzeichen alphabetic code VA+SP, was measured traveling at a speed of 1,130 km/h (702 mph).[18] However, no evidence of such a flight exists in any of the materials from that period, which were captured by Allied forces and extensively studied.[19] Dittmar had been officially recorded at 1,004.5 km/h (623.8 mph) in level flight on 2 October 1941 in the prototype Me 163A V4. He reached this speed at less than full throttle, as he was concerned by the transonic buffeting. Dittmar himself does not make a claim that he broke the sound barrier on that flight, and notes that the speed was recorded only on the AIS. He does, however, take credit for being the first pilot to "knock on the sound barrier."[14]

text: The Luftwaffe test pilot Lothar Sieber (April 7, 1922 – March 1, 1945) may have inadvertently become the first man to break the sound barrier on 1 March 1945. This occurred while he was piloting a Bachem Ba 349 "Natter" for the first manned vertical takeoff of a rocket in history. In 55 seconds, he traveled a total of 14 km (8.7 miles). The aircraft crashed and he perished violently in this endeavor.[20]

text: There are a number of unmanned vehicles that flew at supersonic speeds during this period, but they generally do not meet the definition. In 1933, Soviet designers working on ramjet concepts fired phosphorus-powered engines out of artillery guns to get them to operational speeds. It is possible that this produced supersonic performance as high as Mach 2,[21] but this was not due solely to the engine itself. In contrast, the German V-2 ballistic missile routinely broke the sound barrier in flight, for the first time on 3 October 1942. By September 1944, V-2s routinely achieved Mach 4 (1,200 m/s, or 3044 mph) during terminal descent.

text: Breaking the sound barrier[edit]

text: In 1942, the United Kingdom's Ministry of Aviation began a top-secret project with Miles Aircraft to develop the world's first aircraft capable of breaking the sound barrier. The project resulted in the development of the prototype Miles M.52 turbojet powered aircraft, which was designed to reach 1,000 mph (417 m/s; 1,600 km/h) (over twice the existing speed record) in level flight, and to climb to an altitude of 36,000 ft (11 km) in 1 minute 30 sec.

text: A huge number of advanced features were incorporated into the resulting M.52 design, many of which hint at a detailed knowledge of supersonic aerodynamics. In particular, the design featured a conical nose and sharp wing leading edges, as it was known that round-nosed projectiles could not be stabilised at supersonic speeds. The design used very thin wings of biconvex section proposed by Jakob Ackeret for low drag. The wing tips were "clipped" to keep them clear of the conical shock wave generated by the nose of the aircraft. The fuselage had the minimum cross-section allowable around the centrifugal engine with fuel tanks in a saddle over the top.

text: Another critical addition was the use of a power-operated stabilator, also known as the all-moving tail or flying tail, a key to supersonic flight control which contrasted with traditional hinged tailplanes (horizontal stabilizers) connected mechanically to the pilots control column. Conventional control surfaces became ineffective at the high subsonic speeds then being achieved by fighters in dives, due to the aerodynamic forces caused by the formation of shockwaves at the hinge and the rearward movement of the centre of pressure, which together could override the control forces that could be applied mechanically by the pilot, hindering recovery from the dive.[22][23] A major impediment to early transonic flight was control reversal, the phenomenon which caused flight inputs (stick, rudder) to switch direction at high speed; it was the cause of many accidents and near-accidents. An all-flying tail is considered to be a minimum condition of enabling aircraft to break the transonic barrier safely, without losing pilot control. The Miles M.52 was the first instance of this solution, and has since been universally applied.

text: Initially, the aircraft was to use Frank Whittle's latest engine, the Power Jets W.2/700, which would only reach supersonic speed in a shallow dive. To develop a fully supersonic version of the aircraft, an innovation incorporated was a reheat jetpipe – also known as an afterburner. Extra fuel was to be burned in the tailpipe to avoid overheating the turbine blades, making use of unused oxygen in the exhaust.[24] Finally, the design included another critical element, the use of a shock cone in the nose to slow the incoming air to the subsonic speeds needed by the engine.

text: Although the project was eventually cancelled, the research was used to construct an unmanned missile that went on to achieve a speed of Mach 1.38 in a successful, controlled transonic and supersonic level test flight; this was a unique achievement at that time which validated the aerodynamics of the M.52.

text: Meanwhile, test pilots achieved high velocities in the tailless, swept-wing de Havilland DH 108. One of them was Geoffrey de Havilland, Jr. who was killed on 27 September 1946 when his DH 108 broke up at about Mach 0.9.[25] John Derry has been called "Britain's first supersonic pilot"[26] because of a dive he made in a DH 108 on 6 September 1948.

text: Sound barrier officially broken in aircraft[edit]

text: The British Air Ministry signed an agreement with the United States to exchange all its high-speed research, data and designs and Bell Aircraft company was given access to the drawings and research on the M.52,[27] but the U.S. reneged on the agreement and no data was forthcoming in return.[28] Bell's supersonic design was still using a conventional tail and they were battling the problem of control.[29]

text: They utilized the information to initiate work on the Bell X-1. The final version of the Bell X-1 was very similar in design to the original Miles M.52 version. Also featuring the all-moving tail, the XS-1 was later known as the X-1. It was in the X-1 that Chuck Yeager was credited with being the first person to break the sound barrier in level flight on October 14, 1947, flying at an altitude of 45,000 ft (13.7 km). George Welch made a plausible but officially unverified claim to have broken the sound barrier on 1 October 1947, while flying an XP-86 Sabre. He also claimed to have repeated his supersonic flight on October 14, 1947, 30 minutes before Yeager broke the sound barrier in the Bell X-1. Although evidence from witnesses and instruments strongly imply that Welch achieved supersonic speed, the flights were not properly monitored and are not officially recognized. The XP-86 officially achieved supersonic speed on April 26, 1948.[30]

text: On 14 October 1947, just under a month after the United States Air Force had been created as a separate service, the tests culminated in the first manned supersonic flight, piloted by Air Force Captain Charles "Chuck" Yeager in aircraft #46-062, which he had christened Glamorous Glennis. The rocket-powered aircraft was launched from the bomb bay of a specially modified B-29 and glided to a landing on a runway. XS-1 flight number 50 is the first one where the X-1 recorded supersonic flight, at Mach 1.06 (361 m/s, 1,299 km/h, 807.2 mph) peak speed; however, Yeager and many other personnel believe Flight #49 (also with Yeager piloting), which reached a top recorded speed of Mach 0.997 (339 m/s, 1,221 km/h), may have, in fact, exceeded Mach 1.[citation needed] (The measurements were not accurate to three significant figures and no sonic boom was recorded for that flight.)

text: As a result of the X-1's initial supersonic flight, the National Aeronautics Association voted its 1948 Collier Trophy to be shared by the three main participants in the program. Honored at the White House by President Harry S. Truman were Larry Bell for Bell Aircraft, Captain Yeager for piloting the flights, and John Stack for the NACA contributions.

text: Jackie Cochran was the first woman to break the sound barrier on May 18, 1953, in a Canadair Sabre, with Yeager as her wingman.

text: On August 21, 1961, a Douglas DC-8-43 (registration N9604Z) exceeded Mach one in a controlled dive during a test flight at Edwards Air Force Base. The crew were William Magruder (pilot), Paul Patten (copilot), Joseph Tomich (flight engineer), and Richard H. Edwards (flight test engineer).[31] This is the first and only supersonic flight by a civilian airliner, other than Concorde or the Tu-144.[31]

text: The sound barrier understood[edit]

text: As the science of high-speed flight became more widely understood, a number of changes led to the eventual understanding that the "sound barrier" is easily penetrated, with the right conditions. Among these changes were the introduction of swept wings, the area rule, and engines of ever-increasing performance. By the 1950s, many combat aircraft could routinely break the sound barrier in level flight, although they often suffered from control problems when doing so, such as Mach tuck. Modern aircraft can transit the "barrier" without control problems.[32]

text: By the late 1950s, the issue was so well understood that many companies started investing in the development of supersonic airliners, or SSTs, believing that to be the next "natural" step in airliner evolution. However, this has not yet happened. Although the Concorde and the Tupolev Tu-144 entered service in the 1970s, both were later retired without being replaced by similar designs. The last flight of a Concorde in service was in 2003.

text: Although Concorde and the Tu-144 were the first aircraft to carry commercial passengers at supersonic speeds, they were not the first or only commercial airliners to break the sound barrier. On 21 August 1961, a Douglas DC-8 broke the sound barrier at Mach 1.012 or 1,240 km/h (776.2 mph) while in a controlled dive through 41,088 feet (12,510 m). The purpose of the flight was to collect data on a new leading-edge design for the wing.[33] A China Airlines 747 may have broken the sound barrier in an unplanned descent from 41,000 ft (12,500 m) to 9,500 ft (2,900 m) after an in-flight upset on 19 February 1985.[citation needed] It also reached over 5g.[34]

text: Breaking the sound barrier in a land vehicle[edit]

text: On January 12, 1948, a Northrop unmanned rocket sled became the first land vehicle to break the sound barrier. At a military test facility at Muroc Air Force Base (now Edwards AFB), California, it reached a peak speed of 1,019 mph (1,640 km/h) before jumping the rails.[35][36]

text: On October 15, 1997, in a vehicle designed and built by a team led by Richard Noble, Royal Air Force pilot Andy Green became the first person to break the sound barrier in a land vehicle in compliance with Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile rules. The vehicle, called the ThrustSSC ("Super Sonic Car"), captured the record 50 years and one day after Yeager's first supersonic flight.

text: Breaking the sound barrier as a human projectile[edit]

text: Felix Baumgartner[edit]

text: In October 2012 Felix Baumgartner, with a team of scientists and sponsor Red Bull, attempted the highest sky-dive on record. The project would see Baumgartner attempt to jump 120,000 ft (36,580 m) from a helium balloon and become the first parachutist to break the sound barrier. The launch was scheduled for October 9, 2012, but was aborted due to adverse weather; subsequently the capsule was launched instead on October 14. Baumgartner's feat also marked the 65th anniversary of U.S. test pilot Chuck Yeager's successful attempt to break the sound barrier in an aircraft.[37]

text: Baumgartner landed in eastern New Mexico after jumping from a world record 128,100 feet (39,045 m), or 24.26 miles, and broke the sound barrier as he traveled at speeds up to 833.9 mph (1342 km/h or Mach 1.26). In the press conference after his jump, it was announced he was in freefall for 4 minutes, 18 seconds, the second longest freefall after the 1960 jump of Joseph Kittinger for 4 minutes, 36 seconds.[37]

text: Alan Eustace[edit]

text: In October 2014, Alan Eustace, a senior vice president at Google, broke Baumgartner's record for highest sky-dive and also broke the sound barrier in the process.[38]

text: Legacy[edit]

text: David Lean directed The Sound Barrier, a fictionalized retelling of the de Havilland DH 108 test flights.


document_title: List of languages by first written accounts

question_text: which is most old language in the world

question_tokens: which is most old language in the world

text: Before 1000 BC

text: Writing first appeared in the Near East at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. A very limited number of languages are attested in the area from before the Bronze Age collapse and the rise of alphabetic writing:

text:
the Sumerian, Hurrian, Hattic and Elamite language isolates,
Afro-Asiatic in the form of the Egyptian and Semitic languages and
Indo-European (Anatolian languages and Mycenaean Greek).

text: In East Asia towards the end of the second millennium BC, the Sino-Tibetan family was represented by Old Chinese. There are also a number of undeciphered Bronze Age records:

text:
Proto-Elamite script and Linear Elamite
the Indus script (claimed to record a "Harappan language")
Cretan hieroglyphs and Linear A (encoding a possible "Minoan language")[3][4]
the Cypro-Minoan syllabary[5]

text:
Date
Language
Attestation
Notes

c. 2690 BC
Egyptian
Egyptian hieroglyphs in the tomb of Seth-Peribsen (2nd Dynasty), Umm el-Qa'ab[6]
"proto-hieroglyphic" inscriptions from about 3300 BC (Naqada III; see Abydos, Egypt, Narmer Palette)

26th century BC
Sumerian
Instructions of Shuruppak, the Kesh temple hymn and other cuneiform texts from Shuruppak and Abu Salabikh (Fara period)[7][8]
"proto-literate" period from about 3500 BC (see Kish tablet); administrative records at Uruk and Ur from c. 2900 BC.

c. 2400 BC
Akkadian
A few dozen pre-Sargonic texts from Mari and other sites in northern Babylonia[9]
Some proper names attested in Sumerian texts at Tell Harmal from about 2800 BC.[10] Fragments of the Legend of Etana at Tell Harmal c. 2600 BC.[11]

c. 2400 BC
Eblaite
Ebla tablets[12]

c. 2250 BC
Elamite
Awan dynasty peace treaty with Naram-Sin[13][14]

21st century BC
Hurrian
Temple inscription of Tish-atal in Urkesh[15]

c. 1700 BC
Hittite
Anitta text in Hittite cuneiform[16]
Isolated Hittite words and names occur in Assyrian texts found at Kültepe, from the 19th century BC.

16th century BC
Palaic
Hittite texts CTH 751–754[17]

c. 1450 BC
Mycenaean Greek
Linear B tablet archive from Knossos[18][19][20]
These are mostly administrative lists, with some complete sentences.[21]

c. 1400 BC
Luwian
Hieroglyphic Luwian monumental inscriptions, Cuneiform Luwian tablets in the Hattusa archives[22]
Isolated hieroglyphs appear on seals from the 18th century BC.[22]

c. 1400 BC
Hattic
Hittite texts CTH 725–745

c. 1300 BC
Ugaritic
Tablets from Ugarit[23]
see Ugaritic alphabet

c. 1200 BC
Old Chinese
Oracle bone and bronze inscriptions from the reign of Wu Ding[24][25][26]

text:
Seal impression from the tomb of Seth-Peribsen, containing the oldest known complete sentence in Egyptian, c. 2690 BC

Letter in Sumerian cuneiform sent by the high-priest Lu'enna, informing him the king of Lagash of his son's death in battle, c. 2400 BC

Greek Linear B tablet from Pylos, recording the distribution of hides, c. 1200 BC

Ox scapula inscribed with three records of divinations in the reign of Wu Ding of the Chinese Shang dynasty, c. 1200 BC

text: First millennium BC

text: The earliest known alphabetic inscriptions, at Serabit el-Khadim (c. 1500 BC), appear to record a Northwest Semitic language, though only one or two words have been deciphered. In the Early Iron Age, alphabetic writing spread across the Near East and southern Europe. With the emergence of the Brahmic family of scripts, languages of India are attested from after about 300 BC.

text: There is only fragmentary evidence for languages such as Iberian, Tartessian, Galatian, Thracian and Messapian.[27] The North Picene language of the Novilara Stele from c. 600 BC has not been deciphered.[28] The earliest examples of the Central American Isthmian script date from c. 500 BC, but a proposed decipherment remains controversial.[29]

text:
Date
Language
Attestation
Notes

c. 1000 BC
Phoenician
Ahiram epitaph[30]

10th century BC
Aramaic
royal inscriptions from Aramean city-states[31]

10th century BC
Hebrew or Phoenician
Gezer calendar[32]
Paleo-Hebrew employed a slightly modified Phoenician alphabet, hence the uncertainty between which is attested to here.

c. 850 BC
Ammonite
Amman Citadel Inscription[33]

c. 840 BC
Moabite
Mesha Stele

c. 800 BC
Phrygian
Paleo-Phrygian inscriptions at Gordion

8th century BC
Sabaean (Old South Arabian)
mainly boustrophedon inscriptions from Yemen[34]

8th century BC
Old North Arabian
inscriptions from north and central Arabia[35]

c. 700 BC
Etruscan
proto-Corinthian vase found at Tarquinia[36]

7th century BC
Latin
Vetusia Inscription and Fibula Praenestina[37]

c. 600 BC
Umbrian

c. 600 BC
Lydian
inscriptions from Sardis[22]

c. 600 BC
Carian
inscriptions from Caria and Egypt[22]

c. 600 BC
Faliscan
Ceres inscription found at Falerii[38]

c. 550 BC
South Picene
Warrior of Capestrano[39]

late 6th century BC
Venetic
inscriptions at Este

c. 500 BC
Old Persian
Behistun inscription

c. 500 BC
Lepontic
inscriptions CO-48 from Pristino (Como) and VA-6 from Vergiate (Varese)[40][41]
Inscriptions from the early 6th century consist of isolated names.

c. 500 BC
Gaulish

c. 400 BC
Oscan

3rd century BC
Volscian
Tabula Veliterna[42]

c. 260 BC
Middle Indo-Aryan (Prakrit)
Edicts of Ashoka[43][44]
Pottery inscriptions from Anuradhapura have been dated c. 400 BC.[45][46]

c. 200 BC
Tamil
cave inscriptions and potsherds in Tamil Nadu[47][48]

2nd century BC
Meroitic
graffiti on the temple of Amun at Dukki Gel, near Kerma[49]

c. 100 BC
Celtiberian
Botorrita plaques

1st century BC
Parthian
ostraca at Nisa and Qumis[50]

1st century BC
Sanskrit
stone inscriptions from Ayodhyā and from Hāthībādā and Ghosuṇḍī (both near Chittorgarh)[51]
The Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman I (shortly after 150 AD) is the oldest long text.[52]

text: First millennium AD

text: From Late Antiquity, we have for the first time languages with earliest records in manuscript tradition (as opposed to epigraphy). Thus, Old Armenian is first attested in the Armenian Bible translation.

text: The Vimose inscriptions (2nd and 3rd centuries) in the Elder Futhark runic alphabet appear to record Proto-Norse names. Some scholars interpret the Negau helmet inscription (c. 100 BC) as a Germanic fragment.

text:
Date
Language
Attestation
Notes

c. 150
Bactrian
Rabatak inscription

c. 292
Mayan
Stela 29 from Tikal[53]
A brief undeciphered inscription at San Bartolo is dated to the 3rd century BC.[54]

c. 312–313
Sogdian
Ancient Letters, found near Dunhuang[55]

c. 328
Arabic
Namara inscription

c. 350
Ge'ez
inscriptions of Ezana of Aksum[56]

c. 350
Cham
Đông Yên Châu inscription found near Tra Kiêu[57]

4th century
Gothic
Gothic Bible, translated by Wulfila[58]
A few problematic Gothic runic inscriptions may date to the early 4th century.

c. 430
Georgian
Bir El Qutt inscriptions[59]

c. 450
Kannada
Halmidi inscription[60]
Kavirajamarga (c. 850) is the oldest literary work.[60]

c. 500
Armenian
Inscription at the Tekor Basilica[61]
Saint Mesrob Mashtots is traditionally held to have translated an Armenian Bible in 434.

c. 510
Old Dutch
Formula for freeing a serf in the Malbergse Glossen on the Salic law[62]
A word in the mid-5th century Bergakker inscription yields the oldest evidence of Dutch morphology, but there is no consensus on the interpretation of the rest of the text.[62]

6th century
Tocharian
manuscripts from Kucha, Karasahr and Dunhuang[63]
Some Tocharian names and words have been found in Prakrit documents from Krorän dated c. 300 AD.

second half of 6th century
Old High German
Pforzen buckle[64]

c. 575
Telugu
Erragudipadu inscription[60]
Telugu place names are found in Prakrit inscriptions from the 2nd century AD.[60]

c. 591
Korean
Sinseong (新城) Stele in Namsan (Gyeongju)[65][66]

c. 611
Khmer
Angkor Borei inscription

c. 650
Tibetan
Tibetan Annals

c. 650–700
Old Udi
Sinai palimpsest M13

c. 683
Old Malay
Kedukan Bukit Inscription

7th century
Tumshuqese and Khotanese Saka
manuscripts mainly from Dunhuang[67]
Some fragments of Khotanese Saka have been dated to the 5th and 6th centuries

7th century
Beja
ostracon from Saqqara[68][69]

late 7th century
Pyu
Hpayahtaung funeral urn inscription of kings of Sri Ksetra

c. 700
Old English
runic inscription on the Franks Casket
The Undley bracteate (5th century) and West Heslerton brooch (c. 650) have fragmentary runic inscriptions.

c. 711–712
Japanese
poems in the Kojiki

c. 732
Old Turkic
Orkhon inscriptions

c. 750
Old Irish
Würzburg glosses[70]
Primitive Irish Ogham inscriptions from the 4th century consist of personal names, patronymics and/or clan names.[71][72]

c. 750
Persian

c. 750–900
Old Frisian
Westeremden yew-stick

c. 769
Old Hindi
Dohakosh by Saraha

late 8th century
Breton
Praecepta medica (Leyden, Codex Vossianus Lat. F. 96 A)[73]
A botanical manuscript in Latin and Breton

c. 800
Old Norse
runic inscriptions

c. 804
Javanese
initial part of the Sukabumi inscription[74]

9th century
Malayalam
Rajasekhara inscription at Vazhappally Maha Siva Temple[48]
Ramacaritam (12th century) is the oldest literary work.[48]

9th century
Old Welsh
Cadfan Stone (Tywyn 2)[75]

c. 842
Old French
Oaths of Strasbourg

c. 862
Old Church Slavonic
religious literature translated by Cyril and Methodius
Developed in the Preslav Literary School and Ohrid Literary School, the two major cultural centres of the Bulgarian Empire.

c. 882
Balinese
dated royal inscription[76]

c. 900
Old Occitan
Tomida femina

c. 959–974
Leonese
Nodicia de Kesos

c. 960–963
Italian
Placiti Cassinesi[77]
The Veronese Riddle (c. 800) is considered a mixture of Italian and Latin.[78]

c. 986
Khitan
Memorial for Yelü Yanning

late 10th century
Konkani/Marathi
inscription on Bahubali statue at Shravanabelagola[79]
inscription on Bahubali statue at Shravanabelagola are in Devanagari script, but the language has been in dispute between Marathi and Konkani scholars.[80][81]

text: 1000–1500 AD

text:
Date
Language
Attestation
Notes

c. 972–1093
Slovene
Freising manuscripts

c. 1000
Old East Slavic
Novgorod Codex[82]

c. 1000
Basque, Aragonese and Spanish
Glosas Emilianenses

c. 1028
Catalan
Jurament Feudal[83]

c. 1050
Middle High German

by convention

c. 1066
Middle English

by convention

11th century
Mozarabic
kharjas appended to Arabic and Hebrew poems[84]
Isolated words are found in glossaries from the 8th century.[85]

c. 1100
Croatian
Baška tablet

c. 1100
Danish

by convention

c. 1100
Ossetian
Zelančuk inscription[86]

c. 1100
Swedish

by convention; the Rök Stone (c. 9th century) is often cited as the beginning of Swedish literature

c. 1106
Irish
Lebor na hUidre ("Book of the Dun Cow")

c. 1113
Burmese
Myazedi inscription

c. 1114
Newari
palm-leaf manuscript from Uku Bahah[87]

c. 1160–1170
Middle Dutch
Het Leven van Sint Servaes ("Life of Saint Servatius") by Heinrich von Veldeke[88]

c. 1175
Galician-Portuguese
Notícia de Fiadores[89]
The Notícia de Torto and the will of Afonso II of Portugal, dated 1214, are often cited as the first documents written in Galician-Portuguese.[90] A date prior to 1175 has been proposed for the Pacto dos Irmãos Pais.[91]

c. 1186–1190
Serbian
Miroslav Gospel

c. 1189
Bosnian
Charter of Ban Kulin

c. 1192
Old Hungarian
Funeral Sermon and Prayer
There are isolated fragments in earlier charters such as the charter of Veszprém (c. 1000) and the charter of Tihany (1055).

c. 1200
Finnic
Birch bark letter no. 292
Finnish proper: 1543, Abckiria.

c. 1200–1230
Czech
founding charter of the Litoměřice chapter

c. 1224–1225
Mongolian
Genghis stone

early 13th century
Punjabi
poetry of Fariduddin Ganjshakar

early 13th century
Cornish
prophesy in the cartulary of Glasney College[92]
A 9th century gloss in De Consolatione Philosophiae by Boethius: ud rocashaas is controversially interpreted.[93][94]

c. 1250
Kashmiri
Mahanayakaprakash ("Light of the supreme lord") by Shitikantha[95]

c. 1270
Old Polish
Book of Henryków

c. 1272
Yiddish
blessing in the Worms mahzor

c. 1274
Western Lombard
Libro de le tre scritture, by Bonvesin de la Riva

c. 1292
Thai
Ramkhamhaeng stele
Some scholars argue that the stele is a forgery.

13th century
Tigrinya
a text of laws found in Logosarda

c. 1300
Old Norwegian

c. 1300
Batak

c. 1350
Oghuz Turkic (including Azeri and Ottoman Turkish)
Imadaddin Nasimi

c. 1369
Old Prussian
Basel Epigram[96]

c. 1372
Komi
Abur inscriptions

early 15th century
Bengali
poems of Chandidas and Vidyapati[97]
The 10th-century Charyapada are written in a language ancestral to Bengali, Assamese and Oriya.[97]

c. 1440
Vietnamese
Quốc âm thi tập[98]
Isolated names in Chữ nôm date from the early 13th century.

c. 1462
Albanian
Formula e Pagëzimit, a baptismal formula in a letter of Archbishop Pal Engjëll
Some scholars interpret a few lines in the Bellifortis text (1405) as Albanian.[99]

c. 1470
Maltese
Il Cantilena

c. 1470s
Early Modern English

by convention

c. 1485
Yi
bronze bell inscription in Dafang County, Guizhou[100]

15th century
Tulu
inscriptions in an adaptation of Malayam script[101]

text: After 1500

text:
Date
Language
Attestation
Notes

c. 1503
Lithuanian
Hand-written Lord's Prayer, Hail Mary and Creed[102]
Katekizmas (1547) by Martynas Mažvydas was the first printed book in Lithuanian.

c. 1517
Old Belarusian
Psalter of Francysk Skaryna

c. 1521
Romanian
Neacșu's Letter
The Cyrillic orthographic manual of Constantin Kostentschi from 1420 documents earlier written usage.[103] Four 16th century documents, namely Codicele Voronetean, Psaltirea Scheiana, Psaltirea Hurmuzachi and Psaltirea Voroneteana, are arguably copies of 15th century originals.[104]

c. 1530
Latvian
Nicholas Ramm's translation of a hymn

c. 1535
Estonian
Wanradt-Koell catechism

c. 1536
Modern Portuguese
Grammatica da lingoagem portuguesa by Fernão de Oliveira.
by convention.[105]

c. 1543
Modern Finnish
Abckiria by Mikael Agricola.

c. 1550
Classical Nahuatl
Doctrina cristiana en lengua española y mexicana[106]
The Breve y mas compendiosa doctrina cristiana en lengua mexicana y castellana (1539) was possibly the first printed book in the New World. No copies are known to exist today.[106]

c. 1550
Standard Dutch
Statenbijbel
The Statenbijbel is commonly accepted to be the start of Standard Dutch, but various experiments were performed around 1550 in Flanders and Brabant. Although none proved to be lasting they did create a semi-standard and many formed the base for the Statenbijbel.

c. 1554
Wastek
A grammar by Andrés de Olmos

c. 1557
Kikongo
A catechism[107]

c. 1561
Old Ukrainian
Peresopnytsia Gospel

c. 1593
Tagalog
Doctrina Cristiana

c. 1600
Buginese

c. 1610
Manx
Book of Common Prayer[108]

c. 1619
Old Swedish Sami
A primer
Early literary works were mainly based on dialects underlying modern Ume Sami and Pite Sami. First grammar and dictionary in 1738.

c. 1639
Guarani
Tesoro de la lengua guaraní by Antonio Ruíz de Montoya

c. 1650
Ubykh, Abkhaz, Adyghe and Mingrelian
Travel Book of Evliya Çelebi[109]

c. 1651
Pashto
copy of Xayru 'l-bayān in the library of the University of Tübingen[110]
The Pata Khazana, purporting to date from the 8th century, is considered by most scholars to be a forgery.[110]

c. 1693
Tunisian Arabic
Copy of a Tunisian poem written by Sheykh Hassan el-Karray [111]
Before 1700, lyrics of songs were not written in Tunisian Arabic but in Classical Arabic. Even though Tunisian Arabic existed before, it was only used orally.[111]

c. 1695
Seri
Grammar and vocabulary compiled by Adamo Gilg
No longer known to exist.[112]

c. 1728
Northern Sami
Catechism
An early wordlist was published in 1589 by Richard Hakluyt. First grammar in 1743

c. 1728
Swahili
Utendi wa Tambuka

c. 1736
Greenlandic
Grönländische Grammatica by Paul Egede[113]
A poor-quality wordlist was recorded by John Davis in 1586.[114]

c. 1743
Chinese Pidgin English
sentence recorded in Macau by George Anson[115]

c. 1800
Inuktitut
"Eskimo Grammar" by Moravian missionaries[113]
A list of 17 words was recorded in 1576 by Christopher Hall, an assistant to Martin Frobisher.[113][114]

c. 1806
Tswana
Heinrich Lictenstein – Upon the Language of the Beetjuana
First complete Bible translation in 1857 by Robert Moffat

c. 1819
Cherokee

Sequoyah's Cherokee syllabary

c. 1820
Maori
Grammar by Thomas Kendall and Samuel Lee
Kendal began compiling wordlists in 1814.

c. 1820
Aleut
Description by Rasmus Rask
A short word list was collected by James King in 1778.

c. 1823
Xhosa
John Bennie's Xhosa reading sheet
Complete Bible translation 1859

c. 1833
Vai

Vai syllabary created by Momolu Duwalu Bukele.

c. 1833
Sotho
Reduced to writing by French missionaries Casalis and Arbousset
First grammar book 1841 and complete Bible translation 1881

c. 1837
Zulu
First written publication Incwadi Yokuqala Yabafundayo
First grammar book 1859 and complete Bible translation 1883

c. 1839
Lule Sami
Pamphlet by Lars Levi Laestadius
Dictionary and grammar by Karl Bernhard Wiklund in 1890-1891

c. 1844
Afrikaans
Letters by Louis Henri Meurant (published in Eastern Cape newspaper – South Africa)
Followed by Muslim texts written in Afrikaans using Arabic alphabet in 1856. Spelling rules published in 1874. Complete Bible published 1933.

c. 1851
Sakha (Yakut)
Über die Sprache der Jakuten, a grammar by Otto von Böhtlingk
Wordlists were included in Noord en Oost Tartarije (1692) by Nicolaas Witsen and Das Nord-und Ostliche Theil von Europa und Asia (1730) by Philip Johan von Strahlenberg.

c. 1854
Inari Sami
Grammar by Elias Lönnrot
Primer and catechism published in 1859.

c. 1856
Gamilaraay
Articles by William Ridley[116]
Basic vocabulary collected by Thomas Mitchell in 1832.

c. 1872
Venda
Reduced to writing by the Berlin Missionaries
First complete Bible translation 1936

c. 1878
Kildin Sami
Gospel of Matthew

c. 1882
Mirandese
O dialecto mirandez by José Leite de Vasconcelos[117]
The same author also published the first book written in Mirandese: Flores mirandezas (1884)[118]

c. 1884
Skolt Sami
Gospel of Matthew
In Cyrillic.

c. 1885
Carrier
Barkerville Jail Text, written in pencil on a board in the then recently created Carrier syllabics
Although the first known text by native speakers dates to 1885, the first record of the language is a list of words recorded in 1793 by Alexander MacKenzie.

c. 1885
Motu
Grammar by W.G. Lawes

c. 1891
Galela
grammatical sketch by M.J. van Baarda[119]

c. 1893
Oromo
Translation of the New Testament by Onesimos Nesib, assisted by Aster Ganno

c. 1901
Guugu Yimithirr
Description by Walter Roth
Several words were recorded by James Cook's crew in 1770.

c. 1903
Lingala

c. 1940
Kamoro
materials by Peter Drabbe[119]
A Kamoro wordlist recorded in 1828 by Modera and Müller, passengers on a Dutch ship, is the oldest record of any of the Papuan languages.[119][120]

c. 1968
Southern Ndebele
Small booklet published with praises of their kings and a little history
Translation of the New Testament of the Bible completed in 1986 – translation of Old Testament ongoing

c. 1982
Gooniyandi
survey by William McGregor[121]

text: By family

text: Attestation by major language family:

text:
Afro-Asiatic: since about the 27th century BC

27th century BC: Egyptian
24th century BC: Semitic (Eblaite, Akkadian)
7th century AD: Cushitic (Beja)

Hurro-Urartian: c. 21st century BC
Indo-European: since about the 17th century BC

17th century BC: Anatolian: Hittite
15th–14th century BC: Greek
7th century BC: Italic
6th century BC: Celtic
6th century BC: Indo-Iranian
4th century AD: Germanic
9th century AD: Balto-Slavic

Sino-Tibetan: c. 1200 BC

roughly 1200 BC: Old Chinese
7th century AD: Tibeto-Burman (Tibetan)

Dravidian: c. 200 BC
Mayan: 3rd century AD
Austronesian: 4th century AD
South Caucasian: 5th century (Georgian)
Northeast Caucasian: 7th century (Udi)
Austroasiatic: 7th century (Khmer)
Turkic: 8th century (Old Turkic)
Japonic: 8th century
Nilo-Saharan: 8th century (Old Nubian)
Basque: 10th century
Uralic: 11th century

12th century: Hungarian
13th century: Finnic
14th century: Permic (Komi)

Mongolic: 13th century (apparently related Khitan language: 10th century)
Tai–Kadai: 13th century
Uto-Aztecan: 16th century
Quechuan: 16th century
Niger–Congo (Bantu): 16th century
Northwest Caucasian: 17th century (Abkhaz, Adyghe, Ubykh)
Indigenous Australian languages: 19th century
Iroquoian: 19th century
Hmong-Mien: 20th century
Papuan languages: 20th century

text: Constructed languages

text:
Date
Language
Attestation
Notes

1879
Volapük

created by Johann Martin Schleyer

1887
Esperanto
Unua Libro
created by L. L. Zamenhof

1907
Ido

based on Esperanto

1917
Quenya

created by J. R. R. Tolkien

1928
Novial

created by Otto Jespersen

1935
Sona
Sona, an auxiliary neutral language
created by Kenneth Searight

1943
Interglossa
Later became Glosa
created by Lancelot Hogben

1951
Interlingua
Interlingua-English Dictionary
created by the International Auxiliary Language Association

1955
Loglan

created by James Cooke Brown

1985
Klingon

created by Marc Okrand

1987
Lojban

based on Loglan, created by the Logical Language Group

2005–6
Na'vi

created by Dr. Paul Frommer and James Cameron

2009
Dothraki

created by George R. R. Martin and David J. Peterson for Game of Thrones