document_title: Northeastern United States

question_text: states in the northeast region of the us

text: Northeastern United States

text: Composition[edit]

text: The Census Bureau has defined the Northeast region as comprising nine states: from northeast to southwest, they are New York, New Jersey, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Maine, Connecticut, New Hampshire, and Pennsylvania.[1][a] The region is subdivided into New England (the six states east of New York) and the Mid-Atlantic states (New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania).

text: This definition has been essentially unchanged since 1880 and is widely used as a standard for data tabulation.[7][8][9][10] The Census Bureau has acknowledged the limitations of this definition[11] and the potential merits of a proposal created after the 1950 census that would include changing regional boundaries to include Delaware, Maryland, and Washington, D.C. with the Mid-Atlantic states, but ultimately decided that "the new system did not win enough overall acceptance among data users to warrant adoption as an official new set of general-purpose State groupings. The previous development of many series of statistics, arranged and issued over long periods of time on the basis of the existing State groupings, favored the retention of the summary units of the current regions and divisions."[12] The Census Bureau confirmed in 1994 that it would continue to "review the components of the regions and divisions to ensure that they continue to represent the most useful combinations of States and State equivalents."[12]

text: Many organizations and reference works follow the Census Bureau's definition for the region;[13][14][15] however, other entities define the Northeastern United States in significantly different ways for various purposes. The Association of American Geographers divides the Northeast into two divisions- "New England", which consists of Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut, and the "Middle States", which consists of New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware.[16] Similarly, the Geological Society of America defines the Northeast as these same states but with the addition of Maryland and the District of Columbia.[17] The narrowest definitions include only the states of New England.[18] Other more restrictive definitions include New England and New York as part of the Northeast United States, but exclude Pennsylvania and New Jersey.[19][20] States beyond the Census Bureau definition that other entities include in the Northeast United States are:

text:
Delaware, Maryland, and Washington, D.C.[4][21][22][23][24][25]
Delaware, Maryland, Washington, D.C., and West Virginia[26][27][28]
Delaware, Maryland, Washington, D.C., West Virginia, and Virginia[29]
Delaware, and parts of Maryland, West Virginia, and Virginia (but excluding Washington, D.C. and surrounding area)[30]
Ohio[31]
West Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, and Michigan[32]

tag: ul

text: History[edit]

text: Indigenous peoples[edit]

text: Anthropologists recognize the "Northeastern Woodlands" as one of the cultural regions that existed in the Western Hemisphere at the time of European colonists in the 15th and later centuries. Most did not settle in North America until the 17th century. The cultural area, known as the "Northeastern Woodlands", in addition to covering the entire Northeast U.S., also covered much of what is now Canada and others regions of what is now the eastern United States.[33] Among the many tribes that inhabited this area were those that made up the Iroquois nations and the numerous Algonquian peoples.[34] In the United States of the 21st century, 18 federally recognized tribes reside in the Northeast.[35] For the most part, the people of the Northeastern Woodlands, on whose lands European fishermen began camping to dry their codfish in the early 1600s, lived in villages, especially after being influenced by the agricultural traditions of the Ohio and Mississippi valley societies.[36]

text: Colonial history[edit]

text: All of the states making up the Northeastern region were among the original Thirteen Colonies, though Maine, Vermont, and Delaware were part of other colonies before the United States became independent in the American Revolution. The two cultural and geographic regions that form parts of the Northeastern region have distinct histories.

text: New England[edit]

text: The first Europeans to settle New England were Pilgrims from England, who landed in present-day Massachusetts in 1620.[37] The Pilgrims arrived by the Mayflower ship and founded Plymouth Colony so they could practice religion freely.[37] Ten years later, a larger group of Puritans settled north of Plymouth Colony in Boston to form Massachusetts Bay Colony.[38] In 1636, colonists established Connecticut Colony and Providence Plantations.[39][40] Providence was founded by Roger Williams, who was banished by Massachusetts for his beliefs in freedom of religion, and it was the first colony to guarantee all citizens freedom of worship.[40] Anne Hutchinson, who was also banished by Massachusetts, formed the town of Portsmouth.[40] Providence, Portsmouth, and two other towns (Newport and Warwick) consolidated to form the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations.[40]

text: Although the first settlers of New England were motivated by religion, in more recent history, New England has become one of the least religious parts of the United States. In a 2009 Gallup survey, less than half of residents in Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine, and Massachusetts reported religion as an important part of their daily life.[41] In a 2010 Gallup survey, less than 30% of residents in Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine, and Massachusetts reported attending church weekly, giving them the lowest church attendance among U.S. states.[42]

text: New England played a prominent role in early American education. Starting in the 17th century, the larger towns in New England opened grammar schools, the forerunner of the modern high school.[citation needed] The first public school in the English colonies was the Boston Latin School, founded in 1635.[43] In 1636, the colonial legislature of Massachusetts founded Harvard College, the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States.[44]

text: Mid-Atlantic[edit]

text: The first European explorer known to have explored the Atlantic shoreline of the Northeast since the Norse was Giovanni da Verrazzano in 1524. His ship La Dauphine explored the coast from what is now known as Florida to New Brunswick. Henry Hudson explored the area of present-day New York in 1609 and claimed it for the Netherlands. His journey stimulated Dutch interest, and the area became known as New Netherland. In 1625, the city of New Amsterdam (the location of present-day New York City) was designated the capital of the province.[45] The Dutch New Netherland settlement along the Hudson River and, for a time, the New Sweden settlement along the Delaware River divided the English settlements in the north and the south. In 1664, Charles II of England formally annexed New Netherland and incorporated it into the English colonial empire.[46] The territory became the colonies of New York and New Jersey.[46] New Jersey was originally split into East Jersey and West Jersey until the two were united as a royal colony in 1702.[46]

text: In 1681, William Penn, who wanted to give Quakers a land of religious freedom, founded Pennsylvania and extended freedom of religion to all citizens.[47]

text: Penn strongly desired access to the sea for his Pennsylvania Province and leased what then came to be known as the "Lower Counties on the Delaware"[48] from the Duke.

text: Penn established representative government and briefly combined his two possessions under one General Assembly in 1682. However, by 1704 the Province of Pennsylvania had grown so large that their representatives wanted to make decisions without the assent of the Lower Counties and the two groups of representatives began meeting on their own, one at Philadelphia, and the other at New Castle. Penn and his heirs remained proprietors of both and always appointed the same person Governor for their Province of Pennsylvania and their territory of the Lower Counties. The fact that Delaware and Pennsylvania shared the same governor was not unique. From 1703 to 1738, New York and New Jersey shared a governor.[49] Massachusetts and New Hampshire also shared a governor for some time.[50]

text: Environment[edit]

text: Topography[edit]

text: While most of the Northeastern United States lie in the Appalachian Highlands physiographic region, some are also part of the Atlantic coastal plain which extends south to the southern tip of Florida. The coastal plain areas (including Cape Cod in Massachusetts, Long Island in New York, most of New Jersey, Delaware, and the Chesapeake Bay region of Maryland) are generally low and flat, with sandy soil and marshy land.[4] The highlands, including the Piedmont and the Appalachian Mountains, are generally heavily forested, ranging from rolling hills to summits greater than 5,000 feet (1,500 m), and pocked with many lakes.[4] The highest peak in the Northeast is Mount Washington (New Hampshire), at 6,288 feet (1,917 m).[51]

text: Land use[edit]

text: As of 2007[update], forest-use covered approximately 60% of the Northeastern states (including Delaware, Maryland, and the District of Columbia), about twice the national average. About 12% was cropland and another 4% grassland pasture or range. There is also more urbanized land in the Northeast (11%) than any other region in the U.S.[25]

text: Climate[edit]

text: The climate of the Northeastern United States varies from northernmost New England in Maine to southernmost New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The climate of the region is created by the position of the general west to east flow of weather in the middle latitudes that much of the central and northern USA is controlled by. Summers are normally warm in northern areas to hot in southern areas, while in winter the subtropical high Bermuda High retreats eastward, and the prevailing westerly flow of air masses combines with the polar jet stream to bring cold and frequent storm systems to the region.[52] Annual mean temperatures range from the low 50s F from northern Maryland to southern Connecticut, to the 40s F in most of New York State, New England, and northern Pennsylvania.[52][53][54]

text: Wildlife[edit]

text: The Northeast has 72 National Wildlife Refuges, encompassing more than 500,000 acres (780 sq mi; 2,000 km2) of habitat, and designed to protect some of the 92 different threatened and endangered species living in the region.[35]

text: Demography[edit]

text: As of the July 2013 U.S. Census Bureau estimate, the population of the region totaled 55,943,073.[55] With an average of 345.5 people per square mile, the Northeast is 2.5 times as densely populated as the second-most dense region, the South. Since the last century, the U.S. population has been shifting away from the Northeast (and Midwest) toward the South and West.[56]

text: The two U.S. Census Bureau divisions in the Northeast (New England and Mid-Atlantic) rank #1 and #2 among the 9 divisions in population density according to the 2013 population estimate. The South Atlantic region (233.1) was very close behind New England (233.2). Due to the faster growth of the South Atlantic region, it will take over the #2 division rank in population density in the next estimate, dropping New England to 3rd position. New England is projected to retain the number 3 rank for many, many years, as the only other lower-ranked division with even half the population density of New England is the East North Central division (192.1) and this region's population is projected to grow slowly. [b][57]

text:
Population, area and density

Rank[c]
State
Division/Region
Population
(2015 est.)
Land area
(sq. mi)
Density
(sq.mi)
Geog.
sort

43
39 ! Rhode Island
1,056,298
50 !1,034
04 !1,017.1
01 !NEng

15
21 ! Massachusetts
6,794,422
45 !7,800
06 !858.0
02 !NEng

29
07 ! Connecticut
3,590,886
48 !4,842
09 !742.6
03 !NEng

41
29 ! New Hampshire
1,330,608
44 !8,953
33 !147.8
04 !NEng

49
45 ! Vermont
626,043
43 !9,217
48 !68.0
05 !NEng

42
19 ! Maine
1,329,328
39 !30,843
56 !43.1
06 !NEng

52 !2
55 !       New England
14,727,585
59 !62,688
21 !233.2
07 !NEast

11
30 ! New Jersey
11 !8,899,339
46 !7,354
02 !1,210.1
08 !MdAtl

4
32 ! New York
03 !19,651,127
30 !47,126
07 !420.1
09 !MdAtl

6
38 ! Pennsylvania
06 !12,773,801
32 !44,743
18 !285.5
10 !MdAtl

51 !1
53 !       Mid-Atlantic
54 !41,324,267
58 !99,223
14 !416.5
11 !NEast

60 !1
61 !       Northeast
63 !55,943,073
63 !161,912
16 !345.5
12 !USA

text: Below are the ten most populous metropolitan statistical areas, and the ten largest cities of the Census Bureau-defined region. Several of these cities in a narrow strip along the seaboard comprise the backbone of the Northeast megalopolis, excluding Baltimore and Washington, D.C.[58][59]

text:
Rank
Metropolitan Area
State(s)
Population
(2010 Census)

1
New York City
CT, NJ, NY, PA
18,897,109

2
Philadelphia
DE, MD, NJ, PA
6,051,170

3
Boston
MA, NH, RI
4,552,402

4
Pittsburgh
PA
2,356,285

5
Providence
MA, RI
1,600,852

6
Hartford
CT
1,212,381

7
Buffalo
NY
1,135,509

8
Rochester
NY
1,054,323

9
Bridgeport
CT
933,835

10
Worcester
MA, CT
923,762

text:
Rank
City
State
Population
(2012 est.)
City area (km2)
Population density /km2
(2012 est.)

1
New York
NY
8,336,697
784
10,640

2
Philadelphia
PA
1,537,211
347
4,394

3
Boston
MA
636,479
125
4,980

4
Pittsburgh
PA
306,211
144
2,140

5
Newark
NJ
277,727
63
4,424

6
Buffalo
NY
259,384
105
2,569

7
Jersey City
NJ
254,441
38
6,462

8
Rochester
NY
210,855
93
2,369

9
Yonkers
NY
198,449
18
4,188

10
Worcester
MA
182,669
97
1,808

text: Economy[edit]

text: This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2013)

text: As of 2012[update], the Northeast accounts for approximately 23% of U.S. gross domestic product.[62]

text: The Nuclear Regulatory Commission oversees 34 nuclear reactors, eight for research or testing and 26 for power production in the Northeastern United States.[24]

text: New York City, considered a global financial center, is in the Northeast.

text: The Federal Bureau of Prisons maintains 17 federal prisons and two affiliated private facilities in the region.[31]

text: Transportation[edit]

text: The following table includes all eight airports categorized by the FAA as large hubs[63] located in the Northeastern states[64] (New England and Eastern regions[65]):

text:
Rank
Metro area served
Airport
code
Airport name
Largest airline[66]

1
New York
JFK
John F Kennedy International
JetBlue (37%)

2
New York
EWR
Newark Liberty International
United (49%)

3
Philadelphia
PHL
Philadelphia International
American (80%)

4
Boston
BOS
General Edward Lawrence Logan International
JetBlue (29%)

5
New York
LGA
La Guardia
Delta (21%)

6
Baltimore/Washington
BWI
Baltimore/Washington International Thurgood Marshall
Southwest (65%)

7
Washington
IAD
Washington Dulles International
United (41%)

8
Washington
DCA
Ronald Reagan Washington National
American (50%)

text: Culture[edit]

text: Geographer Wilbur Zelinsky asserts that the Northeast region lacks a unified cultural identity,[3] but has served as a "culture hearth" for the rest of the nation.[67] Several much smaller geographical regions within the Northeast do have distinct cultural identities.[3]

text: Landmarks[edit]

text: Almost half of the National Historic Landmarks maintained by the National Park Service are located in the Northeastern United States.[68]

text: Religion[edit]

text: According to a 2009 Gallup poll, the Northeastern states differ from most of the rest of the U.S. in religious affiliation, generally reflecting the descendants of immigration patterns of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with many Catholics arriving from Ireland, Italy, and eastern Europe. Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey are the only states in the nation where Catholics outnumber Protestants and other Christian denominations. More than 20% of respondents in Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont declared no religious identity.[69] Compared to other U.S. regions, the Northeast has the lowest regular religious service attendance and the fewest number of people for whom religion is an important part of their daily lives.[70]

text: Sports[edit]

text: The Northeast region is home to several professional sports franchises in the "Big Four" leagues (NFL, NBA, NHL and MLB),[71] with more than 100 championships collectively among them.[72]

text:
New York metropolitan area: Giants, Jets (NFL), Yankees, Mets (MLB), Knicks, Nets (NBA), Rangers, Islanders, Devils (NHL)
Philadelphia: Eagles (NFL), Phillies (MLB), 76ers (NBA), Flyers (NHL)
Washington, D.C.: Redskins (NFL), Nationals (MLB), Wizards (NBA), Capitals (NHL)
Boston: Patriots (NFL), Red Sox (MLB), Celtics (NBA), Bruins (NHL)
Baltimore: Ravens (NFL), Orioles (MLB)
Pittsburgh: Steelers (NFL), Pirates (MLB), Penguins (NHL)
Buffalo: Bills (NFL), Sabres (NHL)

text: Major League Soccer features five Northeastern teams: D.C. United, New England Revolution, New York City FC, New York Red Bulls, and Philadelphia Union. The region also has three WNBA teams: Connecticut Sun, New York Liberty and Washington Mystics.

text: Notable golf tournaments in the Northeastern United States include the Deutsche Bank Championship, The Barclays, Quicken Loans National and Atlantic City LPGA Classic. The US Open, held at New York City, is one of the four Grand Slam tennis tournaments, whereas Washington Open is part of the ATP World Tour 500 series.

text: Notable Northeastern motorsports tracks include Watkins Glen International, Dover International Speedway, Pocono Raceway, New Hampshire Motor Speedway and Lime Rock Park, which have hosted Formula One, IndyCar, NASCAR and International Motor Sports Association races. Also, drag strips such as Englishtown, Epping, and Reading have hosted NHRA national events. Pimlico Race Course at Baltimore and Belmont Park at New York host the Preakness Stakes and Belmont Stakes horse races, which are part of the Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing.

text: The region has also been noted for the relative prevalence of the traditionally Northeastern sports of ice hockey and lacrosse.[73]

text: Health[edit]

text: The rate of potentially preventable hospitalizations in the Northeastern United States fell from 2005 to 2011 for overall conditions, acute conditions, and chronic conditions.[74]

text: Politics[edit]

text: The Northeastern United States tended to vote Republican in federal elections through the first half of the 20th century, but the region has since the 1990s shifted to become the most Democratic in the nation.[23] Results from a 2008 Gallup poll indicated that eight of the top ten Democratic states were located in the region, with every Northeastern state having a Democratic party affiliation advantage of at least ten points.[75] The following table demonstrates Democratic support in the Northeast as compared to the remainder of the nation.[76]

text:
Year
% President vote
% Senate seats
% House seats

Northeast
Remainder
Northeast
Remainder
Northeast
Remainder

2000
57.6
47.5
60.0
46.3
59.6
45.7

2002

60.0
45.0
58.3
44.7

2004
57.1
47.3
60.0
40.0
59.5
43.0

2006

75.0
45.0
73.8
48.3

2008
60.7
52.0
80.0
52.5
81.0
52.9

2010

75.0
47.5
67.9
38.5

text: The following table of United States presidential election results since 1900 illustrates that over the past six presidential elections, only three Northeastern states supported a Republican candidate (New Hampshire voted for George W. Bush in 2000; Pennsylvania and Maine's 2nd congressional district voted for Donald Trump in 2016).[77] Bolded entries indicate that party's candidate also won the general election.

text:
State
1900
1904
1908
1912
1916
1920

1924
1928
1932
1936
1940
1944
1948
1952
1956
1960

1964
1968
1972
1976
1980
1984
1988
1992
1996
2000

2004
2008
2012
2016

CT
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

DE
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

DC

D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

ME
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D (R ME-02)

MD
R
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
D
D
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

MA
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

NH
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
R
D
D
D
D

NJ
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

NY
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
D
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

PA
R
R
R
P
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
R

RI
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
R
R
D
D
D
R
D
D
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

VT
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
R
R
R
R
R
R
D
D
D
D
D
D
D

text: The following table shows the breakdown of party affiliation of governors, state legislative houses, and U.S. congressional delegation for the Northeastern states, as of 2017[update]. (Demographics reflect registration-by-party figures from that state's registered voter statistics.)

text:
State
Governor
Upper House Majority
Lower House Majority
Senior U.S. Senator
Junior U.S. Senator
U.S. House Delegation
Demographics

CT
Democratic
Tied
18-18
Democratic
80-71
Democratic
Democratic
Democratic
5-0
Democratic
36-21

DE
Democratic
Democratic
11-10
Democratic
25-16
Democratic
Democratic
Democratic
1-0
Democratic
48-28

ME
Republican
Republican
18-17
Democratic
76-72-2
Republican
Independent
Tied
1-1
Democratic
32-27

MD
Republican
Democratic
33-14
Democratic
91-50
Democratic
Democratic
Democratic
7-1
Democratic
55-26

MA
Republican
Democratic
34-6
Democratic
125-35
Democratic
Democratic
Democratic
9-0
Democratic
35-11

NH
Republican
Republican
14-10
Republican
226-174
Democratic
Democratic
Democratic
2-0
Republican
30-27

NJ
Republican
Democratic
24-16
Democratic
52-28
Democratic
Democratic
Democratic
7-5
Democratic
33-20

NY
Democratic
Rep. Led Coalition
40-22
Democratic
107-43
Democratic
Democratic
Democratic
18-9
Democratic
49-24

PA
Democratic
Republican
34-16
Republican
121-82
Democratic
Republican
Republican
13-5
Democratic
50-37

RI
Democratic
Democratic
33-5
Democratic
64-10-1
Democratic
Democratic
Democratic
2-0
Democratic
42-11

VT
Republican
Democratic
21-7-2
Democratic
83-53-7-7
Democratic
Independent
Democratic
1-0
Democratic
47-31


document_title: Medicine ball

question_text: where did the name medicine ball come from

root

text: Medicine ball

text: This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: A medicine ball (also known as an exercise ball, a med ball, or a fitness ball) is a weighted ball roughly the diameter of the shoulders (approx. 13.7 inches), often used for rehabilitation and strength training.[1] The medicine ball also serves an important role in the field of sports medicine. However, it should not be confused with the larger, inflated exercise ball.

tag: p

text: Medicine balls are usually sold as 2–25 lb (1–11 kg) balls and are used effectively in plyometric weight training to increase explosive power in athletes in all sports. Some medicine balls are up to 14" wide and up to 14 lbs weight, or in the form of weighted basketballs. Modern exercise balls are larger, up to 36" diameter.

text: A med ball is used for children training as the best way to overcome fear of free weights exercises.

text: Hippocrates is said to have stuffed animal skins for patients to toss for “medicinal” purposes.[2] Persia in 1705 used similar large balls. The term "medicine ball" dates back to at least 1876, in American Gymnasia and Academic Record, by Robert Jenkins Roberts, JR.


document_title: Station wagon

question_text: what do the english call a station wagon

question_tokens: what do the english call a station wagon

text: Station wagon

text: Name[edit]

text: Station wagon and wagon are the common names in American, Canadian, New Zealand, Australian and African English, while estate car and estate are common in the rest of the English-speaking world. Both names recall the car's role as a shuttle, with storage space for baggage, between country estates and train stations.

text: Having shared antecedents with the British shooting-brake (originally a wooden-bodied vehicle used to carry shooting parties with their equipment and game), station wagons have been marketed as breaks, using the French term (which is sometimes given fully as break de chasse, literally "hunting break)." Early U.S. models often had exposed wooden bodies and were therefore called woodies.[4]

text: Manufacturers may designate station wagons across various model lines with a proprietary nameplate. Examples include "Estate" (Mercedes-Benz, Chevrolets with the fake-wood option), "Avant" (Audi), "Touring" (BMW), "Tourer" and "Cross-Tourer" (Citroën), "SW" for Station Wagon or Sports Wagon (Peugeot), Estate (Renault), MCV (Renault/Dacia), "Tourer" (Rover), Kombi or Variant (Volkswagen and Saab) and "Sports Tourer", "SW - Sportswagon" (Kia) or Caravan (Opel).

text: Distinction from hatchbacks[edit]

text: Both station wagons and hatchbacks typically share a two-box design configuration, with one shared, flexible, interior volume for passengers and cargo[5][6] — and a rear door for cargo access.[7][8] Further distinctions are highly variable:

text: Pillars: Both configurations typically feature A, B & C-pillars, station wagons feature a D-pillar and hatchbacks may feature a D-pillar.

text: Cargo Volume: Station wagons prioritize passenger and cargo volume — with windows aside the cargo volume. Of the two body styles, a station wagon roof (viewed in profile) more likely extends to the very rearmost of the vehicle, enclosing a full-height cargo volume[6] — a hatchback roof (especially a liftback roof) might more likely rake down steeply behind the C-Pillar, prioritizing style[1] over interior volume, with shorter rear overhang and with smaller windows (or no windows) aside the cargo volume.

text: Cargo floor contour: Favoring cargo capacity, a station wagon may prioritize a fold-flat floor, where a hatchback would more likely allow a cargo floor with pronounced contour (e.g. the new Mini or the sixth generation Ford Fiesta).

text: Seating: Station wagons may have two or three rows of seats (e.g., the Ford Taurus wagons) while hatchbacks may only have one or two.[5]

text: Rear suspension: A station wagon may include reconfigured rear suspension for additional load capacity[1] and to minimize intrusion in the cargo volume, (e.g., worldwide versions of the first generation Ford Focus).

text: Rear Door: Hatchbacks typically feature a top-hinged liftgate for cargo access, with variations ranging from a two-part liftgate/tailgates (e.g., the 1958 A40 Countryman) to a complex tailgate that can function either as a full tailgate or as a trunk lid (e.g., the 2008 Škoda Superb's TwinDoor). Station wagons have also enjoyed numerous tailgate configurations. Hatchbacks may be called Liftbacks when the opening area is very sloped and the door is lifted up to open.[5]

text: Automotive journalist Dan Neil, in a 2002 New York Times report described verticality of the rear cargo door as the prime distinction between a hatchback and a station wagon: "Where you break the roofline, at what angle, defines the spirit of the vehicle", he said. "You could have a 90-degree break in the back and have a station wagon."[9]

text: A model range may include multiple configurations, as with the 2005–2007 Ford Focus which offered sedan (ZX4), wagon (ZXW) and three and five-door hatchback (ZX3 and ZX5) models.

text: History[edit]

text: Woodies[edit]

text: The first station wagons were a product of the age of train travel. They were originally called "depot hacks" because they worked around train depots as hacks (short for hackney carriage, an old name for taxis). They also came to be known as "carryalls" and "suburbans".[citation needed]

text: Before the 1930s, manufacturers assembled the framing of passenger compartments of passenger vehicles in hardwood. In automobiles, the framing was sheathed in steel and coated with colored lacquer for protection. Eventually, all-steel bodies were adopted because of their strength, cost, and durability.[10]

text: Early station wagons evolved from trucks and were viewed as commercial vehicles (along with vans and pickup trucks), not consumer automobiles—with the framing of the early station wagons left unsheathed because of the commercial nature of the vehicles. This would be reflected on those vehicles registrations--Pennsylvania, for instance, issued special "Suburban" license plates well into the 1960s, long after station wagons became car-based. Early station wagons were fixed roof vehicles, but lacked the glass that would normally enclose the passenger compartment, and had only bench seats.[11] In lieu of glass, side curtains of canvas could be unrolled. More rigid curtains could be snapped in place to protect passengers from the elements outside.

text: In 1922 Essex introduced the first affordable enclosed automobile (sedan), which shifted the auto industry away from open vehicles to meet consumer demand for enclosed automobiles.[12]

text: Initially, manufacture of the wagon's passenger compartments was outsourced to custom body builders because the production of the all-wood bodies was very time consuming. Major producers of wood-bodied station wagons included Mitchell Bentley, Hercules, USB&F, Cantrell, and other custom builders. The roofs of "woodie" wagons were usually made of stretched canvas that was treated with a waterproofing dressing. In 1919, the Stoughton Wagon Company of Stoughton, Wisconsin, had begun putting custom wagon bodies on Model T chassis.[11] By 1929 Ford was by far the biggest seller of station wagons. Since Ford owned its own hardwood forest and mills, at the Ford Iron Mountain Plant in the Michigan Upper Peninsula, it began supplying the wood components for the Model A wagon (although initially some final assembly still took place away from the factory, by Briggs, in Detroit, with wood from the Mengel Company in Louisville, Kentucky).[11] The same year, J. T. Cantrell provided woodie bodies for Chrysler vehicles until 1931.[11]

text: Eventually, the car companies began producing their own station wagons. In 1923 Star (a division of Durant Motors) became the first car company to offer a station wagon assembled on its production line (using a wooden wagon body shipped in from an outside supplier.)[13]

text: By the mid-1930s, wood-bodied station wagons had some prestige. They were priced higher than regular cars and were popular in affluent communities. When it was introduced in 1941 the Chrysler Town & Country was the most expensive car in the company's lineup.

text: Woodie wagons required constant maintenance: bodies were finished in varnishes that required recoating; bolts and screws required periodic tightening as wood expanded and contracted through the seasons.

text: The popularity of woodies was to a limited extent renewed, in the surfing culture, during the 1950s and 1960s.

text: All-steel wagons[edit]

text: In 1935, General Motors introduced an eight-seat Chevrolet Suburban with an all-steel station-wagon body, based on the commercial Chevrolet truck-chassis.[11]

text: After World War II, automobile production resumed, with prewar tooling. New advances in production techniques made all-steel station wagon bodies more practical, eliminating the cost, noise, and maintenance associated with wood bodies.[14]

text: The first factory-built all-steel station wagon in North America was the 1946 Willys Station Wagon, based on the Jeep produced by Willys-Overland during World War II.[15][16] Willys offered a trim level, evoking earlier wood bodywork, rendered instead in paint and trim work. In 1947, Crosley also introduced an all-steel wagon version of their 1946 model CC car.

text: In 1949, Plymouth introduced the first all-steel station wagon in the U.S., the two-door Suburban, based on an automobile platform. In 1950 Plymouth discontinued the woodie station wagon, converting to all steel bodywork. Buick discontinued production of the last North American wood bodywork after the 1953 model year. Morris of England continued to market its Morris Minor Traveller until the late 1960s.

text: During the mid-1950s real wood accents replaced all wood sides, and by the late 1950s, the accents had been reduced to being simulated wood as durable, automotive-grade vinyl graphic appliqués were introduced in the mid-1950.[17] For example, only the very first Ford Country Squire had real wood accents, most were built with simulated woodgrain paneling.[18] By 1955, only Ford and Mercury offered a woodie model,[19] accomplishing the simulation of wood with other materials, e.g., steel, plastics and DI-NOC (a vinyl product).[20]

text: The Ford Country Sedan was actually a station wagon, they called it a sedan to highlight it was for personal ownership rather than taxi or other commercial use,as historically station wagons were for taxi style or hire car, hotel convenience vehicle, etc. services.

text: Ford was undoubtedly the most known for the use of woodgrain appliques on its vehicles. In addition to the well-known Country Squire, the "Squire" trim level was an available option in a few different model ranges. These include the Falcon Squire, Fairlane Squire, and in the 1970s the Pinto Squire. Surviving examples of these smaller "Squire" wagons are much rarer than the more popular full-size Country Squire, which was ordered and produced in much higher quantities. The Squire was always the highest trim level of any Ford Wagon and included the signature woodgrain applique, and usually additional exterior chrome, nicer interior trim, special emblems, etc. Other manufacturers marketed wagons and minivans with simulated wood from the mid-1950s through the early 1990s. The most notable of these are the Chrysler Town & Country, Buick Estate, Oldsmobile Custom Cruiser, Chevrolet Kingswood Estate, and Mercury Colony Park. The full-sized Jeep Grand Wagoneer also became recognized by its signature wood grained trim.[21][22] Simulated wood appliqués became less common in the 1980s. With the introduction of the retro-styled Chrysler PT Cruiser wagon-like model, aftermarket firms began selling simulated woodgrain kits.

text: Station wagons experienced highest production levels in the United States from the 1950s through the 1970s. The late 1950s through the mid-1960s was also the period of greatest variation in body styles, with pillared two- and four-door models marketed alongside hardtop (no B-pillar) four-door models (e.g., American Motors' Rambler Cross-Country wagons).[23] Rambler offered a four-door of this body style in 1956, followed by Mercury, Oldsmobile, and Buick in 1957; Chrysler entered the market in 1960. The pillarless designs could be expensive to produce, added wind noise, and created structural issues with body torque.[24] GM eliminated the hardtop wagon from its lineup in 1959, and AMC and Ford exited the field beginning with their 1960 and 1961 vehicles, leaving Chrysler and Dodge with the body style through the 1964 model year.

text: Full-size wagons[edit]

text: Traditionally, full-sized American station wagons were configured for six or nine passengers. The basic arrangement for seating six was three passengers in the front and three passengers in the rear, all on bench-type seats; to accommodate nine, a third bench seat was installed in the rear cargo area, over the rear axle. Through 1956, all wagons had the third row facing forward, but Chrysler's 1957 models had a roof too low to permit a forward-facing seat installed over the axle, so it was turned around and placed behind the axle. GM wagons would adopt the rear-facing third row with 1959 models until 1971, and again in 1977.

text: In full-size Ford and Mercury wagons built after 1964, the configuration was two seats facing each other, placed behind the rear axle. According to Ford, each seat would accommodate two people, raising the total seating capacity to ten passengers; however, these seats were quite narrow in later models and could accommodate only one passenger, limiting the total capacity to eight passengers.

text: The 1964–1972 Oldsmobile Vista Cruiser and 1964–1969 Buick Sport Wagon featured raised rooflines beginning above the second-row seat and continuing all the way to the rear tailgate. Above the second seat were acrylic glass skylights in which passengers could view the outside from overhead. On the three-seat models of these wagons, the third seat faced forward as did the first and second seats. Later, the 1971–1976 full-size "clamshell" wagons used a similar raised roof to provide adequate headroom for a forward-facing third row, but without the skylights.

text: Recent models of station wagons are usually built on smaller platforms and accommodate five or six passengers (depending on whether bucket or bench seats are fitted in front) in two rows of seating. The Mercedes-Benz E-Class Estate, a mid-sized station wagon, has an optional rear-facing jump seat for two passengers in the cargo area.[1]

text: Full-size station wagons have been replaced by medium or full-size SUVs (both light truck and crossover types) with three-row seating such as the Chevrolet Suburban, Ford Expedition, and Mercedes-Benz GL-Class.[2]

text: Two-door wagons[edit]

text: The first two-door station wagon was the 1946 Willys Jeep Station Wagon.[25]

text: In 1951, the compact 100-inch (2,540 mm) wheelbase Nash Rambler line included a two-door station wagon design whose production continued through 1955.[26]

text: In 1954 and 1955 the Studebaker Conestoga available only as a two-door station wagon.[27] In 1956, Studebaker introduced three new two-door wagons in Pelham, Parkview, and Pinehurst trims.[28]

text: The 1955–1957 Chevrolet Nomad and the larger, heavier, as well as more the powerful and expensive Pontiac Safari were two-door station wagons.[29]

text: For the 1957 and 1958 model years, Ford produced the Del Rio two-door wagon.[30] Mercury marketed a two-door hardtop (no "B-pillar") station wagon from 1957 to 1960, in the Commuter and Voyager trims.[31] The 1958 Edsel Roundup was a base model two-door wagon.[32]

text: After the merger of Nash and Hudson, the new company, American Motors (AMC) reintroduced the two-door wagon in the "new" Rambler American line in 1958.[33] It was "recycling" with only a few modifications from the original version and targeted buyers looking for "no-frills" economy.[34] American Motors' strategy of reintroducing an old design made for two distinct model runs, a successful business decision that is almost unheard of in automobile history.[35]

text: Starting in 1959, the Studebaker Lark was offered in a two-door station wagon body style.[36]

text: In 1961 Volkswagen introduced the Type 3 (also known in various markets as the Variant and the Volkswagen 1500 - later the Volkswagen 1600), available as a two-door sedan and as a two-door station wagon, which was commonly called the Squareback. VW's then-typical rear-engine layout was retained for the Type 3, but the engine profile was flattened, resulting in a small car offering interior room, as well as trunk space in the front. The model was offered through the 1973 model year.

text: Chevrolet produced the 1964–1965 Chevelle 300 series two-door station wagon.

text: The 1970s were a high point for two-door wagons in the U.S. as GM, Ford, and AMC fielded examples in their subcompact car lines.

text: The Chevrolet Vega Kammback, introduced in September 1970, was the first U.S.-made four-passenger wagon and the first two-door wagon from GM in six years. It shared its wheelbase and length with Vega coupe versions and was produced in the 1971–1977 model years. The Pontiac Astre Safari wagon is a Pontiac rebadged Vega that was introduced in the U.S for the 1975 model year. The Chevrolet Monza and Pontiac Sunbird Safari wagons replaced the Vega and Astre respectively. Retaining the Vega wagon body, they were produced for the 1978 and 1979 models years with Pontiac and Buick engines.

text: Ford Pinto and Mercury Bobcat 2-door wagons were produced between 1972 and 1980.

text: American Motors also offered a two-door wagon version of the AMC Pacer coupe from 1977 to 1980.[37][38]

text: The last two-door wagon available in America, the Volkswagen Fox, was discontinued in 1991.

text: In the United Kingdom, estate car versions of small and middle sized models were more common. The estate ("Traveller") versions of the Morris 1000 ("Minor") and Mini, with external ash wood frames (structural on the 1000); had two vertically divided van-type rear doors in the style of older shooting-brakes (see "station wagons around the world", below). The Hillman Husky estate version of the Hillman Imp was unusual in being a rear-engined estate. Other two-door station wagons in Europe included the Ford Escort, Morris 1100, Vauxhall Viva, Vauxhall Chevette, Fiat 127, and Saab 95.

text: A former East German car fleet made uniformly of Trabants and Wartburgs had a distinct luxurious version of a 2-door "estate coupe" Trabant 601 Estate with a C-column far back to extend the rear compartment of the car. This version had a full scale liftgate allowing to access the entire rear room of nearly 1000 l with rear seats folded.

text: Popularity in North America[edit]

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text: Since the 1970s, sales of station wagons in the United States and Canada dropped for several reasons. The 1973 oil crisis was a turning point against the "traditional classic American station wagon—with its acres of fake woodgrain siding, sticky vinyl bench seats and lazy-revving V-8 engine", which have been described as "wallowing land arks".[39] The 1983 film National Lampoon's Vacation parodied the styling cues of 1970s station wagons with its garish Wagon Queen Family Truckster.

text: In 1984 Chrysler introduced the Chrysler minivans derived from the K platform. While the K platform was also used for the Plymouth Reliant and Dodge Aries station wagon models, the minivan would soon eclipse them in popularity. Since minivans and SUVs are classified as light trucks under US CAFE standards, manufacturers had a strong incentive to market those vehicles over station wagons, which are classified as cars. Station wagons have remained popular in Europe[40] and other locations whose emissions and efficiency regulations do not distinguish between cars and light trucks.[41]

text: The emergence and popularity of sport utility vehicles which closely approximate the traditional wagon bodystyle was a further blow. After struggling sales, the Chevrolet Caprice and the Buick Roadmaster, the last American full size wagons, were discontinued in 1996. The Ford Taurus wagon was discontinued after the 2005 model year. The Dodge Magnum was marketed during the 2005–2008 model years.

text: Since then, smaller wagons have been sold in the U.S. as less expensive alternatives to SUVs and minivans. Domestic wagons also remained in the Ford, Mercury, and Saturn lines until 2004 when the bodies began a phase-out, replaced by car-based crossover SUVs and minivans designed to look like station wagons.[citation needed]

text: Subaru has been a notable exception to the rule, offering full-size Legacy and Outback station wagon models in the United States and worldwide consistently from 1989 to the present. These models continue to be produced at the Subaru of Indiana plant in Lafayette.

text: The last subcompact station wagon produced in the United States and Canada was the 1992 Toyota Corolla. Compact station wagons have been declining since the 2000s. Ford dropped the Ford Focus ZXW wagon after its 2007 model year, and Subaru replaced the Subaru Impreza wagon with a 5-door hatchback model. Volvo announced that they will withdraw their compact station wagon, the Volvo V50, from the U.S market in 2012 due to poor sales figures. In Europe the V50 remains popular.[42] The VW Golf Sportwagen is Volkswagen's mid-2015 attempt to rectify the absence of a subcompact wagon from any manufacturer in the North American market.

text: European luxury carmakers such as Audi, BMW, and Mercedes-Benz continued to offer wagons in their North American lineup, using the labels "Avant", "Touring", and "Estate" instead of wagon. However, these wagons had fewer trim and powertrain levels than their sedan counterparts,[39] for instance the wagon styles of high-performance trims such as the BMW M5 and Audi RS6 were never imported to North America. The Mercedes-Benz E63 AMG in Estate trim is the sole performance wagon offered in the U.S. market. The Mercedes-Benz W204 wagon was not offered in the United States and Canada unlike the previous generation. The BMW 5 Series Touring was dropped from BMW's North American lineup after the conclusion of the E60 generation, due to slow sales in the United States with only 400 wagons sold in 2009.[43] Due to the popularity of SUVs in North America, these European manufacturers have been supplanting their wagons with car-based crossovers such as the BMW Sports Activity Series, the Audi Q5, and Mercedes-Benz M-Class, with these models offering a wider range of options and engines than wagons.

text: However, the Cadillac CTS gave rise to its wagon counterpart, the 2010 CTS Sportwagon. Unlike European luxury wagons sold in North America, the CTS Sportwagon has almost as many trim levels as its sedan counterpart.[39] The CTS wagon was discontinued in 2014. Volvo reintroduced a large wagon to the US market with the 2016 V90, but only by special order [44]

text: Around the world[edit]

text: European manufacturers often built two-door station wagons in the post-war period for the compact class, a practice that continued at Ford (amongst others) with its Escort Mark III well into the 1980s. By that time, manufacturers developed four-door models. In Europe, these vehicles remain popular and in volume production, although minivans (known in Europe as MPVs—multi-purpose vehicles) and the like have expanded into this market segment. As in North America, early station wagons were aftermarket conversions and had their new bodywork built with a wooden frame, sometimes with wooden panels, sometimes steel. Station wagons were the originators of fold down seats to accommodate passengers or cargo.

text: Station wagons are generally called estate cars or simply estates in the United Kingdom. The term shooting-brake, a term for an original hunting vehicle, came to be known synonymously with station wagon and were also custom built as modified luxury coupés with an estate car-like back. They generally retain two side doors. Until the early 1960s many of them were built with structural wooden rear frames, making them some of the most expensive and luxurious "woodies" ever built.

text: Most small cars produced in the UK from the 1950s until the 1980s had Estate versions, some of which were also used as small delivery vans minus the rear windows. By the mid-1950s most British car manufacturers offered at least one estate model. Manufacturers often chose a specific model name to apply to all their estate cars as a marketing exercise – for example Austin used the Countryman name and Morris estates were called Travellers. The famous wood-framed Morris Minor Traveller was produced from 1952 to 1971 and larger Morris Oxford Travellers were produced during the same time, initially also with wood-framed bodies but in five-door all-steel form from 1957. Some British estate cars were closely derived from existing commercial van models – such as the Austin A30/35 Countryman and the Hillman Husky while the Morris Travellers, the Austin Cambridge Countryman and the Standard Ten Companion were bespoke. One of the smallest estate cars ever made was the two-door Countryman/Traveller version of the Mini, initially available with or without (purely cosmetic) wood framing for the rear body – an option that was dropped in 1970 when the model was revised to become the more upmarket Mini Clubman Estate, which stayed in production until 1980.

text: Despite the popularity of station wagons in America, the two U.S.-owned manufacturers present in the UK (Ford and Vauxhall) were both relative latecomers to the estate car market, but the Ford Consul and Vauxhall Cresta were available as estates via factory-approved conversions from specialist coachbuilders such as Friary and Farnham.

text: Rover and Austin produced 4×4 canvas-topped utility vehicles in the 1950s that were available in estate car body styles that were sold as "Station Wagons". They incorporated better seating and trim than standard editions with options such as heaters. Early advertising for the Land Rover version took the name literally, showing the vehicle collecting people and goods from a railway station.

text: Germany is the largest market for station wagons in the world. Some 600 to 700,000 vehicles are sold each year, amounting to some 20% of all car sales.[45] The German language generally describes station wagons as Kombinationskraftwagen ("combination motor vehicle") or Kombi for short. During the 1980s Volkswagen Polo crossed car categories by offering a two-door station wagon shape (not named as a wagon) as the main model in its range in some markets.

text: In France almost all station wagon models are called the Break (with a different spelling from the English shooting brake). French breaks from Peugeot and Citroën were available in seven- or eight-seater "family" versions long before MPVs became known in Europe. The break version of the Citroën ID, introduced in 1958, was the first European model to offer the same size, style and luxury as an American full-size station wagon (prior to this breaks had been basic semi-commercial vehicles more like the American 'suburban'). The ID Break (known as the Safari in English-speaking countries) had the same eight-passenger seating arrangement as many American station wagons with two front-facing bench seats and two folding inward-facing seats in the load bed. The 'Familiale' version had a front bench seat, a forward-facing three-space bench seat in the middle and a folding forward-facing three-seat bench in the rear, providing a versatile nine-seater car. The Citroën also boasted an American-style two-part tailgate while its unique hydropneumatic suspension provided both self-levelling and automatic brake biasing regardless of the load carried. The car could also 'kneel' to the ground for easy loading of heavy or large items. The successors to the ID, the CX and XM, continued the tradition of offering some of the largest estate cars in Europe but the XM's replacement, the C6 was only produced as a saloon. The Peugeot 404, introduced in 1960, offered a conventional alternative to the innovative Citroëns for buyers wanting a large estate car. Its replacement, the 505 was available in both five-seat and seven-seat 'Familiale' versions. As with the Citroëns, changing demands in the French car market led to the end of the large Peugeot estate models in the mid-1990s, with the smaller and less versatile Peugeot 406 becoming the largest estate model in the range from 1995.

text: Volvo built a mid-sized station wagons such as the V70, but this model was dropped from the company's U.S. lineup for the 2011 model year.

text: Japanese manufacturers did not build station wagons in large volume until recently.[citation needed] Models marketed as passenger station wagons in export markets were often sold as utilitarian "van" models in the home market. Some were not updated for consecutive generations in a model's life in Japan: for example, while a sedan might have a model life of four years, the wagon served for eight years, such as the 1979 Toyota Corolla (built until 1987) and the 1987 Mazda Capella (built until 1996). The Nissan Avenir is an example of a model that began its life as a utility vehicle and became a passenger car in the 1990s. Toyota no longer builds a wagon version of the Camry, but has wagon versions of Corolla or Auris, as well as Avensis. Station wagons remain popular in Japan with the likes of Subaru Levorg and Toyota Corolla Fielder, although they are in slow decline as the SUVs and minivans have taken over a large portion of this market.

text: In Australia and New Zealand the most popular station wagons were the large Ford Falcon and Holden Commodore models, although the Falcon wagon ceased production in 2010 due to wagons being replaced by SUVs in the Australian marketplace. The Commodore is slated for discontinuation in 2017.[46] These are usually built on a longer wheelbase than their sedan counterparts, though they share the same door skins, leading to a slightly unusual appearance with the rear door not reaching all the way to the rear wheel arch. Traditional station wagons in Australia have seen a major market share decline since the early 2000s as they are replaced by medium and large SUVs.

text: The Mercedes-Benz E-Class and Volvo V70 are examples of seven-seater estates not manufactured by the French manufacturers.

text: South Korean manufacturers do not have a strong tradition in producing estate cars.

text: In China, both foreign and local manufacturers have started to introduce wagons to the market as the trend started to rise.

text: Tailgate evolution[edit]

text: Many modern station wagons have an upward-swinging, full-width, full-height rear door supported on gas springs — often where the rear window can swing up independently. Historically, wagons have employed numerous designs:

text:
Split gate: The earliest[citation needed] common style was an upward-swinging window combined with a downward swinging tailgate. Both were manually operated. This configuration generally prevailed from the earliest origins of the wagon bodystyle in the 1920s through the 1940s. It remained in use through 1960 on several models offered by Ford, including the 1957-58 Del Rio two-door wagon. This style was later adopted on aftermarket camper shells for pickup trucks, seeing that pickup trucks already had a bottom half tailgate as an OEM feature.
Retractable window: In the early 1950s, tailgates with hand-cranked roll-down rear windows began to appear. Later in the decade, electric power was applied to the tailgate window—it could be operated from the driver's seat, as well as by the keyhole in the rear door. By the early 1960s, this arrangement was common on both full-size and compact wagons.
Side hinge: A side hinged tailgate that opened like a door was offered on three-seat wagons to make it easier for the back row passengers to enter and exit their rear-facing seats. This was later supplanted by the dual-hinged tailgate.

text:
Retractable roof: The Studebaker Wagonaire station wagon had a retractable rear roof section as well as a conventional rear tailgate which folded down. This allowed it to carry tall objects that would not fit otherwise. Water leaks, body flex and noise prevented the innovation from being adopted by other manufacturers. The concept was reintroduced in 2003 on GMC's mid-size Envoy XUV SUV.
Dual and tri-operating gates: Ford's full-size wagons for 1966 introduced a system marketed as "Magic Doorgate" — a conventional tailgate with retracting rear glass, where the tailgate could either fold down or pivot open on a side hinge — with the rear window retracted in either case. Competitors marketed their versions as a Drop and Swing or Dual Action Tailgate.[3] For 1969, Ford incorporated a design that allowed the rear glass to remain up or down when the door pivoted open on its side hinge, marketing the system, which had been engineered by Donald N. Frey[47] as the "Three-Way Magic Doorgate". Similar configurations became the standard on full-size and intermediate wagons from GM, Ford, and Chrysler. GM added a notch in the rear bumper that acted as a step plate; to fill the gap, a small portion of bumper was attached to the doorgate. When opened as a swinging door, this part of the bumper moved away, allowing the depression in the bumper to provide a "step" to ease entry; when the gate was opened by being lowered or raised to a closed position, the chrome section remained in place making the bumper "whole".

text:
Clamshell: Full-size General Motors 1971–1976 wagons — the Chevrolet Kingswood, Belair and Caprice Estates; Pontiac Safari and Grand Safari; Oldsmobile Custom Cruiser, and the Buick Estate models — featured a 'clamshell' design marketed as the Glide-away tailgate, also called a "disappearing" tailgate because when open, the tailgate was completely out of view. On the clamshell design, the rear power-operated glass slid up into the roof and the lower tailgate (with either manual or optional power operation), lowered completely below the load floor. The manual lower tailgate was counterbalanced by a torque rod similar to the torque rods used in holding a trunk lid open, requiring a 35 lb push to fully lower the gate. Raising the manual gate required a 5 lb pull via a handhold integral to the top edge of the retractable gate.[48] The power operation of both upper glass and lower tailgate became standard equipment in later model years. Wagons with the design featured an optional third row of forward-facing seats accessed by the rear side doors and a folding second-row seat — and could accommodate a 4 x 8' sheet of plywood with rear seats folded. The clamshell design required no increased footprint or operational area to open, allowing a user to stand at the cargo opening without impediment of a door — for example, in a closed garage. Subsequent GM full-size wagons reverted to the doorgate style for its full-size wagons.
Liftgate: A simplified, one-piece liftgate on smaller wagons. Subsequent generation of GM's full-size wagons returned to the upward-lifting rear window as had been used in the 1940s.
Swing-up window: An upward-lifting, full-height, full-width rear door, where the window on the rear door can be opened independently from the rear door itself. The window is also opened upwards and is held on gas struts. The Renault Laguna II estate featured this arrangement.
Fold-up license plate: Wagons (including the Volvo Amazon wagon, early models of the Range-Rover, and the Subaru Baja) had an upward folding hinged plate attached to the lower tailgate of the split rear door. When the tailgate was folded down, the plate hung down and remained readable. The wagon versions of the Citroen DS, variously called the Break, Familiale or Safari, had a different solution- two number plates were fitted to the tailgate at right angles to each other so one would be visible in either position.

text: Safety equipment[edit]

text: Some station wagons are fitted with additional front-facing or rear-facing seats, along with safety belts, to enable passengers to be carried safely in the cargo area.

text: Cargo barriers may be used to prevent unsecured cargo from causing injuries in the event of sudden deceleration, collision, or a rollover.[49]


document_title: Earth's rotation

question_text: who discovered that the earth rotates on an axis

text: Earth's rotation

text: History[edit]

text: Among the ancient Greeks, several of the Pythagorean school believed in the rotation of the earth rather than the apparent diurnal rotation of the heavens. Perhaps the first was Philolaus (470–385 BCE), though his system was complicated, including a counter-earth rotating daily about a central fire.[3]

text: A more conventional picture was that supported by Hicetas, Heraclides and Ecphantus in the fourth century BCE who assumed that the earth rotated but did not suggest that the earth revolved about the sun. In the third century BCE, Aristarchus of Samos suggested the sun's central place.

text: However, Aristotle in the fourth century BCE criticized the ideas of Philolaus as being based on theory rather than observation. He established the idea of a sphere of fixed stars that rotated about the earth.[4] This was accepted by most of those who came after, in particular Claudius Ptolemy (2nd century CE), who thought the earth would be devastated by gales if it rotated.[5]

text: In 499 CE, the Indian astronomer Aryabhata wrote that the spherical earth rotates about its axis daily, and that the apparent movement of the stars is a relative motion caused by the rotation of the Earth. He provided the following analogy: "Just as a man in a boat going in one direction sees the stationary things on the bank as moving in the opposite direction, in the same way to a man at Lanka the ﬁxed stars appear to be going westward."[6][7]

text: In the 10th century, some Muslim astronomers accepted that the Earth rotates around its axis.[8] According to al-Biruni, Abu Sa'id al-Sijzi (d. circa 1020) invented an astrolabe called al-zūraqī based on the idea believed by some of his contemporaries "that the motion we see is due to the Earth's movement and not to that of the sky."[9][10] The prevalence of this view is further confirmed by a reference from the 13th century which states: "According to the geometers [or engineers] (muhandisīn), the earth is in constant circular motion, and what appears to be the motion of the heavens is actually due to the motion of the earth and not the stars."[9] Treatises were written to discuss its possibility, either as refutations or expressing doubts about Ptolemy's arguments against it.[11] At the Maragha and Samarkand observatories, the Earth's rotation was discussed by Tusi (b. 1201) and Qushji (b. 1403); the arguments and evidence they used resemble those used by Copernicus.[12]

text: In medieval Europe, Thomas Aquinas accepted Aristotle's view[13] and so, reluctantly, did John Buridan[14] and Nicole Oresme[15] in the fourteenth century. Not until Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543 adopted a heliocentric world system did the contemporary understanding of earth's rotation begin to be established. Copernicus pointed out that if the movement of the earth is violent, then the movement of the stars must be very much more so. He acknowledged the contribution of the Pythagoreans and pointed to examples of relative motion. For Copernicus this was the first step in establishing the simpler pattern of planets circling a central sun.[16]

text: Tycho Brahe, who produced accurate observations on which Kepler based his laws, used Copernicus's work as the basis of a system assuming a stationary earth. In 1600, William Gilbert strongly supported the earth's rotation in his treatise on the earth's magnetism[17] and thereby influenced many of his contemporaries.[18] Those like Gilbert who did not openly support or reject the motion of the earth about the sun are often called "semi-Copernicans".[19] A century after Copernicus, Riccioli disputed the model of a rotating earth due to the lack of then-observable eastward deflections in falling bodies;[20] such deflections would later be called the Coriolis effect. However, the contributions of Kepler, Galileo and Newton gathered support for the theory of the rotation of the Earth.

text: Empirical tests[edit]

text: The earth's rotation implies that the equator bulges and the poles are flattened. In his Principia, Newton predicted this flattening would occur in the ratio of 1:230, and pointed to the 1673 pendulum measurements by Richer as corroboration of the change in gravity,[21] but initial measurements of meridian lengths by Picard and Cassini at the end of the 17th century suggested the opposite. However measurements by Maupertuis and the French Geodesic Mission in the 1730s established the flattening, thus confirming both Newton and the Copernican position.[22]

text: In the Earth's rotating frame of reference, a freely moving body follows an apparent path that deviates from the one it would follow in a fixed frame of reference. Because of the Coriolis effect, falling bodies veer slightly eastward from the vertical plumb line below their point of release, and projectiles veer right in the northern hemisphere (and left in the southern) from the direction in which they are shot. The Coriolis effect is mainly observable at a meteorological scale, where it is responsible for the differing rotation direction of cyclones in the northern and southern hemispheres.

text: Hooke, following a 1679 suggestion from Newton, tried unsuccessfully to verify the predicted eastward deviation of a body dropped from a height of 8.2 meters, but definitive results were only obtained later, in the late 18th and early 19th century, by Giovanni Battista Guglielmini in Bologna, Johann Friedrich Benzenberg in Hamburg and Ferdinand Reich in Freiberg, using taller towers and carefully released weights.[n 1] A ball dropped from a height of 158.5 m (520 ft) departed by 27.4 mm (1.08 in) from the vertical compared with a calculated value of 28.1 mm (1.11 in).

text: The most celebrated test of Earth's rotation is the Foucault pendulum first built by physicist Léon Foucault in 1851, which consisted of a lead-filled brass sphere suspended 67 m from the top of the Panthéon in Paris. Because of the Earth's rotation under the swinging pendulum, the pendulum's plane of oscillation appears to rotate at a rate depending on latitude. At the latitude of Paris the predicted and observed shift was about 11 degrees clockwise per hour. Foucault pendulums now swing in museums around the world.

text: Rotation period [edit]

text: True solar day[edit]

text: Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun (solar noon to solar noon) is its true solar day or apparent solar day. It depends on the Earth's orbital motion and is thus affected by changes in the eccentricity and inclination of Earth's orbit. Both vary over thousands of years, so the annual variation of the true solar day also varies. Generally, it is longer than the mean solar day during two periods of the year and shorter during another two.[n 2] The true solar day tends to be longer near perihelion when the Sun apparently moves along the ecliptic through a greater angle than usual, taking about 10 seconds longer to do so. Conversely, it is about 10 seconds shorter near aphelion. It is about 20 seconds longer near a solstice when the projection of the Sun's apparent motion along the ecliptic onto the celestial equator causes the Sun to move through a greater angle than usual. Conversely, near an equinox the projection onto the equator is shorter by about 20 seconds. Currently, the perihelion and solstice effects combine to lengthen the true solar day near 22 December by 30 mean solar seconds, but the solstice effect is partially cancelled by the aphelion effect near 19 June when it is only 13 seconds longer. The effects of the equinoxes shorten it near 26 March and 16 September by 18 seconds and 21 seconds, respectively.[24][25][26]

text: Mean solar day[edit]

text: The average of the true solar day during the course of an entire year is the mean solar day, which contains 86,400 mean solar seconds. Currently, each of these seconds is slightly longer than an SI second because Earth's mean solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to tidal friction. The average length of the mean solar day since the introduction of the leap second in 1972 has been about 0 to 2 ms longer than 86,400 SI seconds.[27][28][29] Random fluctuations due to core-mantle coupling have an amplitude of about 5 ms.[30][31] The mean solar second between 1750 and 1892 was chosen in 1895 by Simon Newcomb as the independent unit of time in his Tables of the Sun. These tables were used to calculate the world's ephemerides between 1900 and 1983, so this second became known as the ephemeris second. In 1967 the SI second was made equal to the ephemeris second.[32]

text: The apparent solar time is a measure of the Earth's rotation and the difference between it and the mean solar time is known as the equation of time.

text: Stellar and sidereal day[edit]

text: Earth's rotation period relative to the fixed stars, called its stellar day by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS), is 86,164.098 903 691 seconds of mean solar time (UT1) (23h 56m 4.098 903 691s, 0.997 269 663 237 16 mean solar days).[33][n 3] Earth's rotation period relative to the precessing or moving mean vernal equinox, named sidereal day, is 86,164.090 530 832 88 seconds of mean solar time (UT1) (23h 56m 4.090 530 832 88s, 0.997 269 566 329 08 mean solar days).[33] Thus the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4 ms.[35]

text: Both the stellar day and the sidereal day are shorter than the mean solar day by about 3 minutes 56 seconds. The mean solar day in SI seconds is available from the IERS for the periods 1623–2005[36] and 1962–2005.[37]

text: Recently (1999–2010) the average annual length of the mean solar day in excess of 86,400 SI seconds has varied between 0.25 ms and 1 ms, which must be added to both the stellar and sidereal days given in mean solar time above to obtain their lengths in SI seconds (see Fluctuations in the length of day).

text: Angular speed[edit]

text: The angular speed of Earth's rotation in inertial space is (7.2921150 ± 0.0000001) ×10−5 radians per SI second (mean solar second).[33] Multiplying by (180°/π radians)×(86,400 seconds/mean solar day) yields 360.9856°/mean solar day, indicating that Earth rotates more than 360° relative to the fixed stars in one solar day. Earth's movement along its nearly circular orbit while it is rotating once around its axis requires that Earth rotate slightly more than once relative to the fixed stars before the mean Sun can pass overhead again, even though it rotates only once (360°) relative to the mean Sun.[n 4] Multiplying the value in rad/s by Earth's equatorial radius of 6,378,137 m (WGS84 ellipsoid) (factors of 2π radians needed by both cancel) yields an equatorial speed of 465.1 m/s (1,526 ft/s), or 1,674.4 km/h (1,040.4 mph).[38] Some sources state that Earth's equatorial speed is slightly less, or 1,669.8 km/h.[39] This is obtained by dividing Earth's equatorial circumference by 24 hours. However, the use of only one circumference unwittingly implies only one rotation in inertial space, so the corresponding time unit must be a sidereal hour. This is confirmed by multiplying by the number of sidereal days in one mean solar day, 1.002 737 909 350 795,[33] which yields the equatorial speed in mean solar hours given above of 1,674.4 km/h.

text: The tangential speed of Earth's rotation at a point on Earth can be approximated by multiplying the speed at the equator by the cosine of the latitude.[40] For example, the Kennedy Space Center is located at latitude 28.59° N, which yields a speed of: cos 28.59° × 1,674.4 km/h (1,040.4 mph; 465.1 m/s) = 1,470.23 km/h (913.56 mph; 408.40 m/s)

text: Changes in rotation[edit]

text: Change in rotational axis[edit]

text: The Earth's rotation axis moves with respect to the fixed stars (inertial space); the components of this motion are precession and nutation. It also moves with respect to the Earth's crust; this is called polar motion.

text: Precession is a rotation of the Earth's rotation axis, caused primarily by external torques from the gravity of the Sun, Moon and other bodies. The polar motion is primarily due to free core nutation and the Chandler wobble.

text: Change in rotational velocity[edit]

text: Tidal interactions[edit]

text:
Over millions of years, the Earth's rotation slowed significantly by tidal acceleration through gravitational interactions with the Moon. In this process, angular momentum is slowly transferred to the Moon at a rate proportional to

r

−
6

{\displaystyle r^{-6}}

, where

r

{\displaystyle r}

 is the orbital radius of the Moon. This process gradually increased the length of day to its current value and resulted in the Moon being tidally locked with the Earth.

text: This gradual rotational deceleration is empirically documented with estimates of day lengths obtained from observations of tidal rhythmites and stromatolites; a compilation of these measurements[41] found the length of day to increase steadily from about 21 hours at 600Myr ago[42] to the current 24 hour value. By counting the microscopic lamina that form at higher tides, tidal frequencies (and thus day lengths) can be estimated, much like counting tree rings, though these estimates can be increasingly unreliable at older ages.[43]

text: Resonant stabilization[edit]

text: The current rate of tidal deceleration is anomalously high, implying the Earth's rotational velocity must have decreased more slowly in the past. Empirical data[41] tentatively shows a sharp increase in rotational deceleration about 600Myr ago. Some models suggest that the Earth maintained a constant day length of 21 hours throughout much of the Precambrian.[42] This day length corresponds to the semidiurnal resonant period of the thermally-driven atmospheric tide; at this day length, the decelerative lunar torque could have been canceled by an accelerative torque from the atmospheric tide, resulting in no net torque and a constant rotational period. This stabilizing effect could have been broken by a sudden change in global temperature. Recent computational simulations support this hypothesis and suggest the Marinoan or Sturtian glaciations broke this stable configuration about 600Myr ago, citing the resemblance of simulated results and existing paleorotational data.[44]

text: Global events[edit]

text: Additionally, some large scale events, such as the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, have caused the rotation to speed up by around 3 microseconds by affecting the Earth's moment of inertia.[45] Post-glacial rebound, ongoing since the last Ice age, is also changing the distribution of the Earth's mass thus affecting the moment of inertia of the Earth and, by the conservation of angular momentum, the Earth's rotation period.[46]

text: Measurement[edit]

text: The permanent monitoring of the Earth's rotation is performed with very-long-baseline interferometry coordinated with the Global Positioning System, satellite laser ranging, and other satellite techniques. This provides an absolute reference for the determination of universal time, precession, and nutation.[47]

text: Ancient observations[edit]

text: This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: There are preserved observations of solar and lunar eclipses from Babylonian astronomy and Chinese astronomy beginning from the 8th century BCE. These observations, as well as further astronomical historical records from astronomy in the medieval Islamic world and elsewhere, can be used to determine the actual changes in the rotation of the Earth over the last 27 centuries: The calculation to describe the place and time of eclipse is dependent on the rotation of the Earth. The ancient observations are consistent with the Earth having rotated a significant fraction of a total turn than would result from today's value of the speed of rotation would indicate: The Earth was turning ever faster throughout the past. The cumulative effect of the faster turn, of a magnitude of milliseconds per day per century, 36,525 days per century, shows up in a magnitude of hours and thousands of kilometers in observations. Scholars have combed the ancient records and calculated by modern models the magnitude of the long term historical slowing down of the Earth's rotation.[48][49]

text: Origin[edit]

text: The Earth's original rotation was a vestige of the original angular momentum of the cloud of dust, rocks, and gas that coalesced to form the Solar System. This primordial cloud was composed of hydrogen and helium produced in the Big Bang, as well as heavier elements ejected by supernovas. As this interstellar dust is heterogeneous, any asymmetry during gravitational accretion resulted in the angular momentum of the eventual planet.[50]

text: However, if the giant-impact hypothesis for the origin of the Moon is correct, this primordial rotation rate would have been reset by the Theia impact 4.5 billion years ago. Regardless of the speed and tilt of the Earth's rotation before the impact, it would have experienced a day some five hours long after the impact.[51] Tidal effects would then have slowed this rate to its modern value.


document_title: List of brand name snack foods

question_text: snack foods that start with the letter n

text: List of brand name snack foods

text: This is a list of brand name snack foods. A snack or snack food is a portion of food often smaller than a regular meal, generally eaten between meals.[1] Snacks come in a variety of forms including packaged and processed foods and items made from fresh ingredients at home.

text:
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z

text:
See also
References

text: Brand name snack foods[edit]

text: A[edit]

text: Andy Capp's fries

text: Annie’s Homegrown Cheddar Bunnies

text: B[edit]

text:
Balisto
Bamba
Bambeanos
Barcel
Barny Cakes
Beer Nuts
Bell Brand Snack Foods
Better Made Potato Chips
BiFi
Big D
Bissli
Blue Ox Jerky
BN Biscuit
Brownie Brittle
Bugles
Burry's

text: C[edit]

text:
Casa Sanchez Foods
CC's
Charles Chips
Chee.Toz
Cheetos
Cheez Doodles
Cheez-It
Cheezies
Chex Mix
Chocodile Twinkie
Clif Bar
Combos
Corn Quistos
CornNuts
Cosmic Brownies
Cottage Double
Cracker Jack
Crimpy
Crispers

text: D[edit]

text:
Devil Dogs
Dinamita
Ding Dong
Dolly Madison
Doritos
Drake's
Duyvis

text: E[edit]

text:
E.L. Fudge Cookies
Eagle Snacks

text: F[edit]

text:
Famous Foods of Virginia
Fiddle Faddle
Filipinos
Frazzles
Fritos
Fruit by the Foot
Fruit Gushers
Fruit Roll-Ups
Fudge Rounds
Funyuns

text: H[edit]

text:
Hadji Bey
Handi-Snacks
Haribo Gummy Bears[2]
Herr's Snacks
Ho Hos
Hostess
Hostess CupCake
Hostess Potato Chips
Humpty Dumpty Snack Foods
Hunt's Snack Pack

text: I[edit]

text:
Intersnack
Island Lava
Indie Bay Snacks

text: J[edit]

text:
Jack Link's Beef Jerky
Jaffa Cakes
Jays Foods
Joray Fruit Rolls
Jos Louis
Jumbo King

text: K[edit]

text:
Keebler Company
Kettle Foods
KiMs
KIND Healthy Snacks
Kit-Kat[3]
Koh-Kae
KP Snacks
Kryzpo
Kudos

text: L[edit]

text:
Lay's
Lay's Stax
Lay's WOW chips
LesserEvil
Little Debbie
Lockets
Lolly Gobble Bliss Bombs
Lunchables

text: M[edit]

text:
M&M's
M-Azing
Maarud
May West
McCoy's
Meanie
Mighty Munch
Mike-sell's
Miss Vickie's
Mister Bee Potato Chips
Monster Munch
Mrs. Freshley's
Munchies
Munchos

text: N[edit]

text:
Nagaraya
Nik Naks (British snack)
NikNaks (South African snack)
Nobby's

text: O[edit]

text:
O Hawaii
Old Dutch Foods
Oreos
Otter Pops
Ouma Rusks

text: P[edit]

text:
Parker's
Pantera Rosa
Peperami
Pirate's Booty
Polly
Pop-Tarts
Popchips
Praeventia
Pringles
Proper Snack Foods

text: R[edit]

text:
Red Hot Riplets
Red Mill
Red Sky snacks
Reese's[4]
Riceworks
Rold Gold
Ruffles

text: S[edit]

text:
Sabritas
Salted Nut Roll
San Carlo
Screaming Yellow Zonkers
Sesame Street snacks
Sipahh
Skips
Skittles
Slim Jim
Smartfood
Smoki
Snyder's of Berlin
Snyder's of Hanover
Snalthy
Space Raiders
Starburst[5]
Sterzing's potato chips
Sun Chips
Sunbelt Snacks
Sunkist Fun Fruits

text: T[edit]

text:
Tasty Bite
Tastykake
Tato Skins
Tayto (Northern Ireland)
Tayto (Republic of Ireland)
Tiger's Milk
Tigretón
Tim's Cascade Snacks
Toaster Strudel
Tokyo Banana
Torengos
Tostitos
Tracker
Twiglets
Twinkie
Twistees
Twisties
Twizzlers
Takis

text: U[edit]

text:
Uncle Ray's
Utz Quality Foods

text: W[edit]

text:
Walkers
Wazoo
Wheat Crunchies
Wheatables
Wotsits
Wow! Momo

text: Y[edit]

text:
Yodels
Yazoo (drink)

text: Z[edit]

text:
Zapp's
Zebra cakes
Zingers


document_title: Blood In Blood Out

question_text: who plays magic in blood in blood out

question_tokens: who plays magic in blood in blood out

text: Blood In Blood Out

text: Plot[edit]

text: Miklo is a man of Mexican and White American ethnicity who grew up in El Pico Aliso barrio in east Los Angeles. Upon moving back home from Las Vegas, Nevada, Miklo goes to stay with his two cousins Paco and Cruz. Miklo tells Cruz that he wants to join their gang Vatos Locos. While Paco is initially skeptical, Miklo later proves himself when he performs an attack on a rival gang, Tres Puntos. Afterwards he is made a member of Vatos Locos.

text: However, the Tres Puntos gang soon takes revenge by brutally attacking Cruz who is a budding artist, and damages his back for life. When Vatos Locos learn of the attack, they perform a well-planned counterattack. However, things go wrong when Miklo ends up getting shot by their rival gang's leader, "Spider". Miklo is able to shoot and kill Spider, but has to be rushed to the hospital by Paco while being chased by police. Paco crashes into another car at the El Pino tree and they are both arrested.

text: From here, the trio's paths diverges: Miklo is sent to San Quentin State Prison for murder, Paco volunteers for military service in the United States Marine Corps as an alternative choice to prison, and Cruz continues his passion for art. He also becomes a heroin addict due to the recurring back pain. His addiction leads to him being disowned by his family after his 12-year-old brother, Juanito, dies from injecting air into his veins thinking it's Cruz's heroin supply. Paco becomes an L.A.P.D. narcotics detective after leaving the Marine Corps.

text: Miklo finds trouble adapting to prison life. The prison is run by three prison gangs, all of whom are based on their racial backgrounds. The Black Guerrilla Army (B.G.A.) is led by "Bonafide", the Aryan Vanguard is led by "Red Ryder", and La Onda is led by Montana Segura. La Onda's members do not initially accept Miklo and one of them, Popeye, tries to rape Miklo at knife-point, but is stopped by Montana. After meeting Montana, he is told the only way into La Onda is killing an enemy inmate, in Miklo's case a white inmate named Big Al who runs the gambling in San Quentin. After gaining Big Al's trust, Miklo stabs him to death during a sexual encounter in the prison kitchen. Miklo is initiated into La Onda, is later promoted to its Ruling Council, and is granted parole after serving nine years in prison.

text: On the outside, Miklo is disgusted by his menial job on which his supervisor is extorting money from him, so he joins in an armed robbery. The heist goes poorly and Miklo is intercepted by Paco, now a decorated cop. Miklo tries to run away, but Paco shoots him in the leg, which later has to be amputated. Miklo is sent back to prison where he notices the cocaine addictions of several inmates. Onda Council Member Carlos has entered the cocaine trade and is competing with the B.G.A. for customers. The Aryan Vanguard want to partner with Carlos in the cocaine business by becoming his new supplier. In return, Carlos moves on the B.G.A. and take them out of the cocaine business. Montana, however, is fiercely against allowing La Onda to enter the drug trade, saying that drugs will destroy La Onda and that the Aryan Vanguard want to start a war between the Black and Chicano inmates. The other Council members agree with Montana and vote against it. This causes Carlos to leave La Onda to work with the Aryan Vanguard, causing other members to follow him. Carlos murders a B.G.A. soldier named "Pockets" who is running the B.G.A.'s cocaine operation. He also contacts his brother, Smokey, outside of prison to bomb a B.G.A. hangout where they move their drugs. After all of this happens, Carlos' usefulness has come to an end and the Aryan Vanguard drops their protection of him. The B.G.A. then takes the opportunity to murder Carlos. Despite his death, Miklo agrees with Carlos's outlook after being convinced by Carlos's old drug supplier.

text: With hostility high between the Black and Hispanic inmates, Montana and Bonafide meet in the prison yard. Montana convinces Bonafide to agree to a truce if Montana reaches out to La Onda leaders in the Folsom and Chino prisons to end the violence. The warden grants Montana special permission to visit the Chino and Folsom prisons and Miklo is left in charge during his absence. Montana is granted a special request, and he gets to stay overnight at Delano penitentiary where he can see his daughter. On the morning of the visit, Montana is stabbed to death outside his cell by a member of the B.G.A.. Believing that the Aryan Vanguard sent forged orders to the hitman, Paco arranges a peace conference between La Onda and the B.G.A. However, Miklo, La Onda's new leader, manipulates the peace talks in order to build an alliance with the B.G.A. and they agree to kill the Aryan Vanguard leaders.

text: Later, enforcers for La Onda and the B.G.A. sweep through the walls of San Quentin, killing the leaders of the Aryan Vanguard. After the killings are done, however, Miklo's men promptly exterminate the B.G.A. leaders as well. Paco is enraged that his own cousin has played him for a fool and angrily confronts Miklo in the prison visiting room. Paco leaves his cousin in disgust, disowning him forever.

text: The members of La Onda hold a final gathering after the warden vows to split the council up transporting some members to their home states. Miklo plans on using this to expand La Onda to other states in the South West. Later, Miklo and his cellmate "Magic" destroy the mold which they used to send the forged orders to the B.G.A. hit man to kill Montana. Magic says "We both loved him, but we did what we had to do for La Onda." Back in East Los Angeles, Paco visits one of Cruz's murals after the family re-accepts him to see a portrait of his former life. In a pep talk with Cruz, Paco realizes that by ordering Miklo to go after Spider, Paco is responsible for all of the things that have happened to Miklo. This causes Paco to feel guilty for his actions and ultimately forgive Miklo.

text: Cast[edit]

text:
Damian Chapa as Miklo Velka
Jesse Borrego as Cruz Candelaria
Benjamin Bratt as Paco Aguilar
Enrique Castillo as Montana Segura
Delroy Lindo as Bonafide
Victor Rivers as Magic
Geoffrey Rivas as Carlos
Tom Towles as Red Ryder
Carlos Carrasco as Popeye
Theodore Wilson as Wallace
Raymond Cruz as Chuey
Valente Rodriguez as Frankie
Lanny Flaherty as Big Al
Billy Bob Thornton as Lightning
Danny Trejo as Geronimo
Victor Mohica as Mano
Luis Contreras as Realthing
Paulo Tocha as Apache
Ving Rhames as Ivan
Richard Masur (uncredited) as Prison librarian
Thomas F. Wilson as Rollie McCann
Lupe Ontiveros as Carmen
Ashley Judd as Paco's Girlfriend ("deleted scene")
Peter Mark Vasquez as Chivo
Mark Rich as Miklo's Stunt Double

text: Production[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

text: The three prison gangs in the film are fictional creations of screenwriter Jimmy Santiago Baca and director Taylor Hackford. However, they were all loosely based on actual prison gangs, with the Aryan Vanguard, Black Guerrilla Army and La Onda representing the Aryan Brotherhood, Black Guerrilla Family, and the Mexican Mafia, respectively.

text: Actor Theodore Wilson died shortly after filming his scenes in the film.

text: Artist Adan Hernandez was hired to create the paintings the character of Cruz Candelaria was supposed to have painted. All of the paintings that were used in the film were created by him. The mural in the reservoir seen in the film's climax has unfortunately been painted over. Hernandez made a cameo appearance in the film as the drug dealer Gilbert in the art gallery scene.

text: The film was shot in and around Los Angeles and East Los Angeles and inside the walls of San Quentin State Prison. The main character Miklo is sent to San Quentin, where much of the film's plot takes place. Several of the then-inmates appear in the film as extras. In addition, several of the prison staff members also appear as others and some facilitated the production of the film by serving as technical advisors. Many members of the staff were given small lines in the film, with the warden giving an extended cameo in a part that is somewhat integral to the plot. In addition, actor Danny Trejo, who appears in the film as Geronimo, had served time in San Quentin before deciding to become an actor.

text: In addition to prison inmates and staff and artist Hernandez, screenwriter and barrio poet Jimmy Santiago Baca cameos as a prison inmate and member of the La Onda council.

text: The film was initially entitled Blood in Blood Out but was retitled Bound by Honor before the film's release. Blood in blood out refers to the initiation ritual of having to kill someone to enter a gang and, on the reverse end, not being able to leave the gang unless killed. This is a common initiation in many gangs, including prison gangs, and is also the motto of La Onda in the film. Hollywood Pictures insisted on the name change as the studio felt that it would incite violence in East Los Angeles. In addition, executives at Hollywood Pictures, a subsidiary of Disney, were cautious about the potential effect the film would have following the 1992 LA Riots and the attribution given to Boyz N the Hood as a partial cause/inspiration of the riots. Director Taylor Hackford has stated that he was very unhappy with this decision as the film's message was the exact opposite of the one that the studio feared would be transmitted.

text: Reception[edit]

text: The film received mixed reviews from critics. It holds a 55% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 11 reviews.[2] On IMDb it holds an 8/10. The TV Guide review stated "similarity to Edward James Olmos' American Me, in which a tormented drug dealer travels the same route through prison society as Miklo. The principal difference between the two films is that Bound By Honor is by far the glossier effort, relentlessly picturesque in the seamlessly anesthetized manner of mainstream Hollywood films."[3] Film critic Jonathan Rosenbaum for the Chicago Reader wrote that this "ugly three-hour snoozefest is apparently supposed to do for East Los Angeles Chicanos what the Godfather movies did for New York mafiosi…"[4] Roger Ebert wrote "The East Los Angeles milieu and some of the characters seem familiar, because some of the same ground was covered by American Me... Bound by Honor covers similar material in a less passionate and finally less meaningful way."[5] Roger Ebert gave the film 2 stars out of 4. A critic from Entertainment Weekly, Owen Gleiberman gave Bound By Honor a B-, falling on the high end of the movie spectrum. He states "Bound By Honor comes fully alive when it moves behind bars. There's an exploitative thrill built into the genre…"[6] This film critic was definitely more interested in the second half of the movie once Miklo was in jail running La Onda. Vincent Canby from the New York Times wrote "The film is big and long, passionate and flat. It's full of heroic and tragic incident, but skimpy about the details of quotidian lives."[7] Giving a very detailed review on the plot of the story he later exalts some of the characters in the movie one in particular, Enrique Castillo. Although Vincent Canby does not give an official rating for the film, he concludes "Though it's not the epic it means to be, it is not a failure."[8]


document_title: Heptagon

question_text: size of each interior angle of a regular heptagon

text: Heptagon

text: Regular heptagon[edit]

text: A regular heptagon, in which all sides and all angles are equal, has internal angles of 5π/7 radians (1284⁄7 degrees). Its Schläfli symbol is {7}.

text: Area[edit]

text: The area (A) of a regular heptagon of side length a is given by:

text:
This can be seen by subdividing the unit-sided heptagon into seven triangular "pie slices" with vertices at the center and at the heptagon's vertices, and then halving each triangle using the apothem as the common side. The apothem is half the cotangent of

π

/

7
,

{\displaystyle \pi /7,}

 and the area of each of the 14 small triangles is one-fourth of the apothem.

text:
The exact algebraic expression, starting from the cubic polynomial x3 + x2 − 2x − 1 (one of whose roots is

2
cos

2
π

7

{\displaystyle 2\cos {\tfrac {2\pi }{7}}}

)[1] is given in complex numbers by:

text: in which the imaginary parts offset each other leaving a real-valued expression. This expression cannot be algebraically rewritten without complex components, since the indicated cubic function is casus irreducibilis.

text:
The area of a regular heptagon inscribed in a circle of radius R is

7

R

2

2

sin

2
π

7

,

{\displaystyle {\tfrac {7R^{2}}{2}}\sin {\tfrac {2\pi }{7}},}

 while the area of the circle itself is

π

R

2

;

{\displaystyle \pi R^{2};}

 thus the regular heptagon fills approximately 0.8710 of its circumscribed circle.

text: Construction[edit]

text:
As 7 is a Pierpont prime but not a Fermat prime, the regular heptagon is not constructible with compass and straightedge but is constructible with a marked ruler and compass. This type of construction is called a neusis construction. It is also constructible with compass, straightedge and angle trisector. The impossibility of straightedge and compass construction follows from the observation that

2
cos

2
π

7

≈
1.247

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {2\cos {\tfrac {2\pi }{7}}\approx 1.247}}

 is a zero of the irreducible cubic x3 + x2 − 2x − 1. Consequently, this polynomial is the minimal polynomial of 2cos(2π⁄7), whereas the degree of the minimal polynomial for a constructible number must be a power of 2.

text:
A neusis construction of the interior angle in a regular heptagon.

An animation from a neusis construction with radius of circumcircle

O
A

¯

=
6

{\displaystyle {\overline {OA}}=6}

, according to Andrew M. Gleason[1] based on the angle trisection by means of the Tomahawk, pause at the end of 30 s.

text: Approximation[edit]

text:
An approximation for practical use with an error of about 0.2% is shown in the drawing. It is attributed to Albrecht Dürer.[3] Let A lie on the circumference of the circumcircle. Draw arc BOC. Then

B
D
=

1
2

B
C

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {BD={1 \over 2}BC}}

 gives an approximation for the edge of the heptagon.

text:
This approximation uses

3

2

≈
0.86603

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {{\sqrt {3}} \over 2}\approx 0.86603}

 for the side of the heptagon inscribed in the unit circle while the exact value is

2
sin

π
7

≈
0.86777

{\displaystyle \scriptstyle 2\sin {\pi  \over 7}\approx 0.86777}

.

text: Example to illustrate the error: At a circumscribed circle radius r = 1 m, the absolute error of the 1st side would be approximately -1.7 mm

text: Symmetry[edit]

text: The regular heptagon belongs to the D7h point group (Schoenflies notation), order 28. The symmetry elements are: a 7-fold proper rotation axis C7, a 7-fold improper rotation axis,S7, 7 vertical mirror planes, σv, 7 2-fold rotation axes, C2, in the plane of the heptagon and a horizontal mirror plane, σh, also in the heptagon's plane.[5]

text: Diagonals and heptagonal triangle[edit]

text: The regular heptagon's side a, shorter diagonal b, and longer diagonal c, with a<b<c, satisfy[6]:Lemma 1

text: and hence

text: and[6]:Coro. 2

text:
Thus –b/c, c/a, and a/b all satisfy the cubic equation

t

3

−
2

t

2

−
t
+
1
=
0.

{\displaystyle t^{3}-2t^{2}-t+1=0.}

 However, no algebraic expressions with purely real terms exist for the solutions of this equation, because it is an example of casus irreducibilis.

text: We also have[7]

text: and

text:
A heptagonal triangle has vertices coinciding with the first, second, and fourth vertices of a regular heptagon (from an arbitrary starting vertex) and angles

π

/

7
,
2
π

/

7
,

{\displaystyle \pi /7,2\pi /7,}

 and

4
π

/

7.

{\displaystyle 4\pi /7.}

 Thus its sides coincide with one side and two particular diagonals of the regular heptagon.[6]

text: Star heptagons[edit]

text: Two kinds of star heptagons (heptagrams) can be constructed from regular heptagons, labeled by Schläfli symbols {7/2}, and {7/3}, with the divisor being the interval of connection.

text: Blue, {7/2} and green {7/3} star heptagons inside a red heptagon.

text: Uses[edit]

text: The United Kingdom currently (2011) has two heptagonal coins, the 50p and 20p pieces, and the Barbados Dollar is also heptagonal. The 20-eurocent coin has cavities placed similarly. Strictly, the shape of the coins is a Reuleaux heptagon, a curvilinear heptagon to make them curves of constant width: the sides are curved outwards so that the coin will roll smoothly in vending machines. Botswana pula coins in the denominations of 2 Pula, 1 Pula, 50 Thebe and 5 Thebe are also shaped as equilateral-curve heptagons. Coins in the shape of Reuleaux heptagons are also in circulation in Mauritius, U.A.E., Tanzania, Samoa, Papua New Guinea, São Tomé and Príncipe, Haiti, Jamaica, Liberia, Ghana, the Gambia, Jordan, Jersey, Guernsey, Isle of Man, Gibraltar, Guyana, Solomon Islands, Falkland Islands and Saint Helena. The 1000 Kwacha coin of Zambia is a true heptagon.

text: The Brazilian 25-cent coin has a heptagon inscribed in the coin's disk. Some old versions of the coat of arms of Georgia, including in Soviet days, used a {7/2} heptagram as an element.

text: In architecture, heptagonal floor plans are very rare. A remarkable example is the Mausoleum of Prince Ernst in Stadthagen, Germany.

text: Many police badges in the US have a {7/2} heptagram outline.

text: Apart from the heptagonal prism and heptagonal antiprism, no convex polyhedron made entirely out of regular polygons contains a heptagon as a face.

text: Regular heptagons can tile the hyperbolic plane, as shown in this Poincaré disk model projection:

text: Graphs[edit]

text: The K7 complete graph is often drawn as a regular heptagon with all 21 edges connected. This graph also represents an orthographic projection of the 7 vertices and 21 edges of the 6-simplex. The regular skew polygon around the perimeter is called the petrie polygon.

text: 6-simplex (6D)

text: Heptagon in natural structures[edit]

text: Cactus