document_title: Catalytic converter

question_text: where does a catalytic converter go on a car

text: Catalytic converter

text: History[edit]

text: Catalytic converter prototypes were first designed in France at the end of the 19th century, when only a few thousand of "oil cars" were on the roads; it was constituted of an inert material coated with platinum, iridium and palladium, sealed into a double metallic cylinder.[6]

text: A few decades later, a catalytic converter was patented by Eugene Houdry, a French mechanical engineer and expert in catalytic oil refining,[7] who moved to the United States in 1930. When the results of early studies of smog in Los Angeles were published, Houdry became concerned about the role of smoke stack exhaust and automobile exhaust in air pollution and founded a company called Oxy-Catalyst. Houdry first developed catalytic converters for smoke stacks called "cats" for short, and later developed catalytic converters for warehouse forklifts that used low grade, unleaded gasoline.[8] In the mid-1950s, he began research to develop catalytic converters for gasoline engines used on cars. He was awarded United States Patent 2,742,437 for his work.[9]

text: Widespread adoption of catalytic converters did not occur until more stringent emission control regulations forced the removal of the antiknock agent tetraethyl lead from most types of gasoline. Lead is a "catalyst poison" and would effectively disable a catalytic converter by forming a coating on the catalyst's surface.[10]

text: Catalytic converters were further developed by a series of engineers including Carl D. Keith, John J. Mooney, Antonio Eleazar, and Phillip Messina at Engelhard Corporation,[11] creating the first production catalytic converter in 1973.[12]

text: William C. Pfefferle developed a catalytic combustor for gas turbines in the early 1970s, allowing combustion without significant formation of nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide.[13][14]

text: Construction[edit]

text: The catalytic converter's construction is as follows:

text:
The catalyst support or substrate. For automotive catalytic converters, the core is usually a ceramic monolith that has a honeycomb structure (commonly square, not hexagonal). (Prior to the mid 1980s, the catalyst material was deposited on a packed bed of pellets, especially in early GM applications.) Metallic foil monoliths made of Kanthal (FeCrAl)[15] are used in applications where particularly high heat resistance is required.[15] The substrate is structured to produce a large surface area. The cordierite ceramic substrate used in most catalytic converters was invented by Rodney Bagley, Irwin Lachman, and Ronald Lewis at Corning Glass, for which they were inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2002.[1]
The washcoat. A washcoat is a carrier for the catalytic materials and is used to disperse the materials over a large surface area. Aluminum oxide, titanium dioxide, silicon dioxide, or a mixture of silica and alumina can be used. The catalytic materials are suspended in the washcoat prior to applying to the core. Washcoat materials are selected to form a rough, irregular surface, which greatly increases the surface area compared to the smooth surface of the bare substrate. This in turn maximizes the catalytically active surface available to react with the engine exhaust. The coat must retain its surface area and prevent sintering of the catalytic metal particles even at high temperatures (1000 °C).[16]
Ceria or ceria-zirconia. These oxides are mainly added as oxygen storage promoters.[17]
The catalyst itself is most often a mix of precious metal. Platinum is the most active catalyst and is widely used, but is not suitable for all applications because of unwanted additional reactions and high cost. Palladium and rhodium are two other precious metals used. Rhodium is used as a reduction catalyst, palladium is used as an oxidation catalyst, and platinum is used both for reduction and oxidation. Cerium, iron, manganese, and nickel are also used, although each has limitations. Nickel is not legal for use in the European Union because of its reaction with carbon monoxide into toxic nickel tetracarbonyl.[citation needed] Copper can be used everywhere except Japan.[clarification needed]

text: Upon failure, a catalytic converter can be recycled into scrap. The precious metals inside the converter, including platinum, palladium, and rhodium, are extracted.

text: Placement of catalytic converters[edit]

text: Catalytic converters require temperature of 800 degrees Fahrenheit (426 °C) to efficiently convert harmful exhaust gases into inert gases, such as carbon dioxide and water vapor. Therefore, the first catalytic converters were placed close to the engine to ensure fast heating. However, such placing caused several problems, such as vapor lock. It occurred several minutes after the engine is shut off, as the heat from the catalytic converter influences fuel in the fuel lines, which makes it first boil and then aerate.[18] This condition of fuel results in non-start condition which lasts until the engine and fuel in the lines cool down.

text: As an alternative, catalytic converters were moved to a third of the way back from the engine, and were then placed underneath the vehicle.

text: Types[edit]

text: Two-way[edit]

text: A 2-way (or "oxidation", sometimes called an "oxi-cat") catalytic converter has two simultaneous tasks:

text:
Oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide: 2 CO + O2 → 2 CO2
Oxidation of hydrocarbons (unburnt and partially burned fuel) to carbon dioxide and water: CxH2x+2 + [(3x+1)/2] O2 → x CO2 + (x+1) H2O (a combustion reaction)

text: This type of catalytic converter is widely used on diesel engines to reduce hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions. They were also used on gasoline engines in American- and Canadian-market automobiles until 1981. Because of their inability to control oxides of nitrogen, they were superseded by three-way converters.

text: Three-way[edit]

text: Three-way catalytic converters (TWC) have the additional advantage of controlling the emission of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) (both together abbreviated with NOx and not to be confused with nitrous oxide (N2O)), which are precursors to acid rain and smog.[19]

text: Since 1981, "three-way" (oxidation-reduction) catalytic converters have been used in vehicle emission control systems in the United States and Canada; many other countries have also adopted stringent vehicle emission regulations that in effect require three-way converters on gasoline-powered vehicles. The reduction and oxidation catalysts are typically contained in a common housing; however, in some instances, they may be housed separately. A three-way catalytic converter has three simultaneous tasks:[19]

text: Reduction of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen (N2)

text:
2 CO + 2 NO → 2 CO2 + N2
hydrocarbon + NO → CO2 + H2O + N2
2 H2 + 2 NO → 2 H2O + N2

text: 2 CO + O2 → 2 CO2

text: Oxidation of unburnt hydrocarbons (HC) to carbon dioxide and water, in addition to the above NO reaction

text: hydrocarbon + O2 → H2O + CO2

text: These three reactions occur most efficiently when the catalytic converter receives exhaust from an engine running slightly above the stoichiometric point. For gasoline combustion, this ratio is between 14.6 and 14.8 parts air to one part fuel, by weight. The ratio for autogas (or liquefied petroleum gas LPG), natural gas, and ethanol fuels is slightly different for each, requiring modified fuel system settings when using those fuels. In general, engines fitted with 3-way catalytic converters are equipped with a computerized closed-loop feedback fuel injection system using one or more oxygen sensors,[citation needed] though early in the deployment of three-way converters, carburetors equipped with feedback mixture control were used.

text: Three-way converters are effective when the engine is operated within a narrow band of air-fuel ratios near the stoichiometric point, such that the exhaust gas composition oscillates between rich (excess fuel) and lean (excess oxygen). Conversion efficiency falls very rapidly when the engine is operated outside of this band. Under lean engine operation, the exhaust contains excess oxygen, and the reduction of NOx is not favored. Under rich conditions, the excess fuel consumes all of the available oxygen prior to the catalyst, leaving only oxygen stored in the catalyst available for the oxidation function.

text: Closed-loop engine control systems are necessary for effective operation of three-way catalytic converters because of the continuous balancing required for effective NOx reduction and HC oxidation. The control system must prevent the NOx reduction catalyst from becoming fully oxidized, yet replenish the oxygen storage material so that its function as an oxidation catalyst is maintained.

text: Three-way catalytic converters can store oxygen from the exhaust gas stream, usually when the air–fuel ratio goes lean.[20] When sufficient oxygen is not available from the exhaust stream, the stored oxygen is released and consumed (see cerium(IV) oxide). A lack of sufficient oxygen occurs either when oxygen derived from NOx reduction is unavailable or when certain maneuvers such as hard acceleration enrich the mixture beyond the ability of the converter to supply oxygen.

text: Unwanted reactions[edit]

text: Unwanted reactions can occur in the three-way catalyst, such as the formation of odoriferous hydrogen sulfide and ammonia. Formation of each can be limited by modifications to the washcoat and precious metals used. It is difficult to eliminate these byproducts entirely. Sulfur-free or low-sulfur fuels eliminate or reduce hydrogen sulfide.

text: For example, when control of hydrogen-sulfide emissions is desired, nickel or manganese is added to the washcoat. Both substances act to block the absorption of sulfur by the washcoat. Hydrogen sulfide forms when the washcoat has absorbed sulfur during a low-temperature part of the operating cycle, which is then released during the high-temperature part of the cycle and the sulfur combines with HC.

text: Diesel engines [edit]

text: For compression-ignition (i.e., diesel engines), the most commonly used catalytic converter is the diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC). DOCs contain palladium, platinum, and aluminium oxide, all of which catalytically oxidize the hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water.

text: These converters often operate at 90 percent efficiency, virtually eliminating diesel odor and helping reduce visible particulates (soot). These catalysts are not active for NOx reduction because any reductant present would react first with the high concentration of O2 in diesel exhaust gas.

text: Reduction in NOx emissions from compression-ignition engines has previously been addressed by the addition of exhaust gas to incoming air charge, known as exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). In 2010, most light-duty diesel manufacturers in the U.S. added catalytic systems to their vehicles to meet new federal emissions requirements. There are two techniques that have been developed for the catalytic reduction of NOx emissions under lean exhaust conditions: selective catalytic reduction (SCR) and the lean NOx trap or NOx adsorber. Instead of precious metal-containing NOx absorbers, most manufacturers selected base-metal SCR systems that use a reagent such as ammonia to reduce the NOx into nitrogen. Ammonia is supplied to the catalyst system by the injection of urea into the exhaust, which then undergoes thermal decomposition and hydrolysis into ammonia. One trademark product of urea solution, also referred to as Diesel Exhaust Fluid (DEF), is AdBlue.

text: Diesel exhaust contains relatively high levels of particulate matter (soot), consisting largely of elemental carbon. Catalytic converters cannot clean up elemental carbon, though they do remove up to 90 percent of the soluble organic fraction,[citation needed] so particulates are cleaned up by a soot trap or diesel particulate filter (DPF). Historically, a DPF consists of a cordierite or silicon carbide substrate with a geometry that forces the exhaust flow through the substrate walls, leaving behind trapped soot particles. Contemporary DPFs can be manufactured from a variety of rare metals that provide superior performance (at a greater expense).[21] As the amount of soot trapped on the DPF increases, so does the back pressure in the exhaust system. Periodic regenerations (high temperature excursions) are required to initiate combustion of the trapped soot and thereby reducing the exhaust back pressure. The amount of soot loaded on the DPF prior to regeneration may also be limited to prevent extreme exotherms from damaging the trap during regeneration. In the U.S., all on-road light, medium and heavy-duty vehicles powered by diesel and built after January 1, 2007, must meet diesel particulate emission limits, meaning that they effectively have to be equipped with a 2-way catalytic converter and a diesel particulate filter. Note that this applies only to the diesel engine used in the vehicle. As long as the engine was manufactured before January 1, 2007, the vehicle is not required to have the DPF system. This led to an inventory runup by engine manufacturers in late 2006 so they could continue selling pre-DPF vehicles well into 2007.[22] During the re-generation cycle, most systems require the engine to consume more fuel in a relatively short amount of time in order to generate the high temperatures necessary for the cycle to complete. This adversely affects the overall fuel economy of vehicles equipped with DPF systems, especially in vehicles that are driven mostly in city conditions where frequent acceleration requires a larger amount of fuel to be burned and therefore more soot to collect in the exhaust system.

text: Lean-burn spark-ignition engines[edit]

text: For lean-burn spark-ignition engines, an oxidation catalyst is used in the same manner as in a diesel engine. Emissions from lean burn spark ignition engines are very similar to emissions from a diesel compression ignition engine.

text: Installation[edit]

text: Many vehicles have a close-coupled catalytic converter located near the engine's exhaust manifold. The converter heats up quickly, due to its exposure to the very hot exhaust gases, enabling it to reduce undesirable emissions during the engine warm-up period. This is achieved by burning off the excess hydrocarbons which result from the extra-rich mixture required for a cold start.

text: When catalytic converters were first introduced, most vehicles used carburetors that provided a relatively rich air-fuel ratio. Oxygen (O2) levels in the exhaust stream were therefore generally insufficient for the catalytic reaction to occur efficiently. Most designs of the time therefore included secondary air injection, which injected air into the exhaust stream. This increased the available oxygen, allowing the catalyst to function as intended.

text: Some three-way catalytic converter systems have air injection systems with the air injected between the first (NOx reduction) and second (HC and CO oxidation) stages of the converter. As in two-way converters, this injected air provides oxygen for the oxidation reactions. An upstream air injection point, ahead of the catalytic converter, is also sometimes present to provide additional oxygen only during the engine warm up period. This causes unburned fuel to ignite in the exhaust tract, thereby preventing it reaching the catalytic converter at all. This technique reduces the engine runtime needed for the catalytic converter to reach its "light-off" or operating temperature.

text: Most newer vehicles have electronic fuel injection systems, and do not require air injection systems in their exhausts. Instead, they provide a precisely controlled air-fuel mixture that quickly and continually cycles between lean and rich combustion. Oxygen sensors monitor the exhaust oxygen content before and after the catalytic converter, and the engine control unit uses this information to adjust the fuel injection so as to prevent the first (NOx reduction) catalyst from becoming oxygen-loaded, while simultaneously ensuring the second (HC and CO oxidation) catalyst is sufficiently oxygen-saturated.

text: Damage[edit]

text: Catalyst poisoning occurs when the catalytic converter is exposed to exhaust containing substances that coat the working surfaces, so that they cannot contact and react with the exhaust. The most notable contaminant is lead, so vehicles equipped with catalytic converters can run only on unleaded fuel. Other common catalyst poisons include sulfur, manganese (originating primarily from the gasoline additive MMT), and silicon, which can enter the exhaust stream if the engine has a leak that allows coolant into the combustion chamber. Phosphorus is another catalyst contaminant. Although phosphorus is no longer used in gasoline, it (and zinc, another low-level catalyst contaminant) was until recently widely used in engine oil antiwear additives such as zinc dithiophosphate (ZDDP). Beginning in 2004, a limit of phosphorus concentration in engine oils was adopted in the API SM and ILSAC GF-4 specifications.

text: Depending on the contaminant, catalyst poisoning can sometimes be reversed by running the engine under a very heavy load for an extended period of time. The increased exhaust temperature can sometimes vaporize or sublimate the contaminant, removing it from the catalytic surface. However, removal of lead deposits in this manner is usually not possible because of lead's high boiling point.

text: Any condition that causes abnormally high levels of unburned hydrocarbons—raw or partially burnt fuel—to reach the converter will tend to significantly elevate its temperature, bringing the risk of a meltdown of the substrate and resultant catalytic deactivation and severe exhaust restriction. Usually the upstream components of the exhaust system (manifold/header assembly and associated clamps susceptible to rust/corrosion and/or fatigue e.g. the exhaust manifold splintering after repeated heat cycling), ignition system e.g. coil packs and/or primary ignition components (e.g. distributor cap, wires, ignition coil and spark plugs) and/or damaged fuel system components (fuel injectors, fuel pressure regulator, and associated sensors) - since 2006 ethanol has been used frequently with fuel blends where fuel system components which are not ethanol compatible can damage a catalytic converter - this also includes using a thicker oil viscosity not recommended by the manufacturer (especially with ZDDP content - this includes "high mileage" blends regardless if its conventional or synthetic oil), oil and/or coolant leaks (e.g. blown head gasket inclusive of engine overheating). Vehicles equipped with OBD-II diagnostic systems are designed to alert the driver to a misfire condition by means of illuminating the "check engine" light on the dashboard, or flashing it if the current misfire conditions are severe enough to potentially damage the catalytic converter.

text: Regulations[edit]

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text: Emissions regulations vary considerably from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Most automobile spark-ignition engines in North America have been fitted with catalytic converters since 1975,[1][2][3][4] and the technology used in non-automotive applications is generally based on automotive technology.

text: Regulations for diesel engines are similarly varied, with some jurisdictions focusing on NOx (nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide) emissions and others focusing on particulate (soot) emissions. This regulatory diversity is challenging for manufacturers of engines, as it may not be economical to design an engine to meet two sets of regulations.

text: Regulations of fuel quality vary across jurisdictions. In North America, Europe, Japan, and Hong Kong, gasoline and diesel fuel are highly regulated, and compressed natural gas and LPG (autogas) are being reviewed for regulation. In most of Asia and Africa, the regulations are often lax: in some places sulfur content of the fuel can reach 20,000 parts per million (2%). Any sulfur in the fuel can be oxidized to SO2 (sulfur dioxide) or even SO3 (sulfur trioxide) in the combustion chamber. If sulfur passes over a catalyst, it may be further oxidized in the catalyst, i.e., SO2 may be further oxidized to SO3. Sulfur oxides are precursors to sulfuric acid, a major component of acid rain. While it is possible to add substances such as vanadium to the catalyst washcoat to combat sulfur-oxide formation, such addition will reduce the effectiveness of the catalyst. The most effective solution is to further refine fuel at the refinery to produce ultra-low-sulfur diesel. Regulations in Japan, Europe, and North America tightly restrict the amount of sulfur permitted in motor fuels. However, the direct financial expense of producing such clean fuel may make it impractical for use in developing countries. As a result, cities in these countries with high levels of vehicular traffic suffer from acid rain,[citation needed] which damages stone and woodwork of buildings, poisons humans and other animals, and damages local ecosystems, at a very high financial cost.

text: Negative aspects[edit]

text: Catalytic converters restrict the free flow of exhaust, which negatively affects vehicle performance and fuel economy, especially in older cars.[23] Because early cars' carburetors were incapable of precise fuel-air mixture control, the cars' catalytic converters could overheat and ignite flammable materials under the car.[24] A 2006 test on a 1999 Honda Civic showed that removing the stock catalytic converter netted a 3% increase in horsepower; a new metallic core converter only cost the car 1% horsepower, compared to no converter.[25] To some performance enthusiasts, this modest increase in power for very little cost encourages the removal or "gutting" of the catalytic converter.[23][26] In such cases, the converter may be replaced by a welded-in section of ordinary pipe or a flanged "test pipe", ostensibly meant to check if the converter is clogged, by comparing how the engine runs with and without the converter. This facilitates temporary reinstallation of the converter in order to pass an emission test.[25] In many jurisdictions, it is illegal to remove or disable a catalytic converter for any reason other than its direct and immediate replacement. In the United States, for example, it is a violation of Section 203(a)(3)(A) of the 1990 amended Clean Air Act for a vehicle repair shop to remove a converter from a vehicle, or cause a converter to be removed from a vehicle, except in order to replace it with another converter,[27] and Section 203(a)(3)(B) makes it illegal for any person to sell or to install any part that would bypass, defeat, or render inoperative any emission control system, device, or design element. Vehicles without functioning catalytic converters generally fail emission inspections. The automotive aftermarket supplies high-flow converters for vehicles with upgraded engines, or whose owners prefer an exhaust system with larger-than-stock capacity.[28]

text: Warm-up period[edit]

text: Vehicles fitted with catalytic converters emit most of their total pollution during the first five minutes of engine operation; for example, before the catalytic converter has warmed up sufficiently to be fully effective.[29]

text: In 1995, Alpina introduced an electrically heated catalyst. Called "E-KAT," it was used in Alpina's B12 5,7 E-KAT based on the BMW 750i.[30] Heating coils inside the catalytic converter assemblies are electrified just after the engine is started, bringing the catalyst up to operating temperature very quickly to qualify the vehicle for low emission vehicle (LEV) designation.[31] BMW later introduced the same heated catalyst, developed jointly by Emitec, Alpina, and BMW,[30] in its 750i in 1999.[31]

text: Some vehicles contain a pre-cat, a small catalytic converter upstream of the main catalytic converter which heats up faster on vehicle start up, reducing the emissions associated with cold starts. A pre-cat is most commonly used by an auto manufacturer when trying to attain the Ultra Low Emissions Vehicle (ULEV) rating, such as on the Toyota MR2 Roadster.[32]

text: Environmental impact[edit]

text: Catalytic converters have proven to be reliable and effective in reducing noxious tailpipe emissions. However, they also have some shortcomings in use, and also adverse environmental impacts in production:

text:
An engine equipped with a three-way catalyst must run at the stoichiometric point, which means more fuel is consumed than in a lean-burn engine. This means approximately 10% more CO2 emissions from the vehicle.
Catalytic converter production requires palladium or platinum; part of the world supply of these precious metals is produced near Norilsk, Russia, where the industry (among others) has caused Norilsk to be added to Time magazine's list of most-polluted places.[33]
Pieces of catalytic converters can cause wild fires, especially in dry areas [34][35][36]

text: Theft[edit]

text: Because of the external location and the use of valuable precious metals including platinum, palladium, rhodium, and gold, catalytic converters are a target for thieves. The problem is especially common among late-model trucks and SUVs, because of their high ground clearance and easily removed bolt-on catalytic converters. Welded-on converters are also at risk of theft, as they can be easily cut off.[37][38][39] The tools with which thieves quickly remove a catalytic converter, such as a portable reciprocating saw, can often damage other components of the car, such as wiring or fuel lines, and thereby can have dangerous consequences. Rises in metal costs in the U.S. during recent years have led to a large increase in converter theft.[40] A catalytic converter can cost more than $1,000 to replace.[41]

text: Diagnostics[edit]

text: Various jurisdictions now require on-board diagnostics to monitor the function and condition of the emissions-control system, including the catalytic converter. On-board diagnostic systems take several forms.

text: Temperature sensors are used for two purposes. The first is as a warning system, typically on two-way catalytic converters such as are still sometimes used on LPG forklifts. The function of the sensor is to warn of catalytic converter temperature above the safe limit of 750 °C (1,380 °F). More-recent catalytic-converter designs are not as susceptible to temperature damage and can withstand sustained temperatures of 900 °C (1,650 °F).[citation needed] Temperature sensors are also used to monitor catalyst functioning: usually two sensors will be fitted, with one before the catalyst and one after to monitor the temperature rise over the catalytic-converter core.

text: The oxygen sensor is the basis of the closed-loop control system on a spark-ignited rich-burn engine; however, it is also used for diagnostics. In vehicles with OBD II, a second oxygen sensor is fitted after the catalytic converter to monitor the O2 levels. The O2 levels are monitored to see the efficiency of the burn process. The on-board computer makes comparisons between the readings of the two sensors. The readings are taken by voltage measurements. If both sensors show the same output or the rear O2 is "switching", the computer recognizes that the catalytic converter either is not functioning or has been removed, and will operate a malfunction indicator lamp and affect engine performance. Simple "oxygen sensor simulators" have been developed to circumvent this problem by simulating the change across the catalytic converter with plans and pre-assembled devices available on the Internet. Although these are not legal for on-road use, they have been used with mixed results.[42] Similar devices apply an offset to the sensor signals, allowing the engine to run a more fuel-economical lean burn that may, however, damage the engine or the catalytic converter.[43]

text: NOx sensors are extremely expensive and are in general used only when a compression-ignition engine is fitted with a selective catalytic-reduction (SCR) converter, or a NOx absorber catalyst in a feedback system. When fitted to an SCR system, there may be one or two sensors. When one sensor is fitted it will be pre-catalyst; when two are fitted, the second one will be post-catalyst. They are used for the same reasons and in the same manner as an oxygen sensor; the only difference is the substance being monitored.[citation needed]


document_title: Benedict Arnold

question_text: who was the traitor during the revolutionary war

question_tokens: who was the traitor during the revolutionary war

root

text: Benedict Arnold

text: Early life

text: Benedict Arnold was born a British subject, the second of six children to Benedict Arnold (1683–1761) and Hannah Waterman King in Norwich, Connecticut Colony on January 14, 1741.[1][6] He was named after his great-grandfather Benedict Arnold, an early governor of the Colony of Rhode Island—as were his father and grandfather, as well as an older brother who died in infancy.[1] Only Benedict and his sister Hannah survived to adulthood; his other siblings succumbed to yellow fever in childhood.[7] His siblings were, in order of birth: Benedict (August 15, 1738 – April 30, 1739), Hannah (December 9, 1742 – August 11, 1803), Mary (June 4, 1745 – September 10, 1753), Absolom (April 4, 1747 – July 22, 1750), and Elizabeth (November 19, 1749 – September 29, 1755). Arnold was a descendant of John Lothropp through his maternal grandmother, an ancestor of at least six U.S. presidents.[8]

tag: p

text: Benedict Arnold's father was a successful businessman, and the family moved in the upper levels of Norwich society. When he was ten, Arnold was enrolled in a private school in nearby Canterbury, with the expectation that he would eventually attend Yale. However, the deaths of his siblings two years later may have contributed to a decline in the family fortunes, since his father took up drinking. By the time that he was fourteen, there was no money for private education. His father's alcoholism and ill health kept him from training Arnold in the family mercantile business, but his mother's family connections secured an apprenticeship for him with her cousins Daniel and Joshua Lathrop, who operated a successful apothecary and general merchandise trade in Norwich.[9] His apprenticeship with the Lathrops lasted seven years.[10]

text: Arnold was very close to his mother, who died in 1759. His father's alcoholism worsened after her death, and the youth took on the responsibility of supporting his father and younger sister. His father was arrested on several occasions for public drunkenness, was refused communion by his church, and eventually died in 1761.[10]

text: French and Indian War

text: In 1755, Benedict Arnold was attracted by the sound of a drummer and attempted to enlist in the provincial militia for service against the French, but his mother refused permission.[11] In 1757 when he was sixteen, he did enlist in the Connecticut militia, which marched off toward Albany and Lake George. The French had besieged Fort William Henry in northeastern New York, and their Indian allies had committed atrocities after their victory. Word of the siege's disastrous outcome led the company to turn around; Arnold served for 13 days.[12] A commonly accepted story that Arnold deserted from militia service in 1758[13] is based on uncertain documentary evidence.[14]

text: Businessman

text: Benedict Arnold established himself in business in 1762 as a pharmacist and bookseller in New Haven, Connecticut with the help of the Lathrops.[15] He was hardworking and successful, and was able to rapidly expand his business. In 1763, he repaid money borrowed from the Lathrops,[16] repurchased the family homestead that his father had sold when deeply in debt, and re-sold it a year later for a substantial profit. In 1764, he formed a partnership with Adam Babcock, another young New Haven merchant. They bought three trading ships, using the profits from the sale of his homestead, and established a lucrative West Indies trade.

text: During this time, Benedict Arnold brought his sister Hannah to New Haven and established her in his apothecary to manage the business in his absence. He traveled extensively in the course of his business throughout New England and from Quebec to the West Indies, often in command of one of his own ships.[17] On one of his voyages, Arnold fought a duel in Honduras with a British sea captain who had called him a "damned Yankee, destitute of good manners or those of a gentleman".[18][19] The captain was wounded after the first exchange of gunfire, and apologized after Arnold threatened to aim to kill on the second.[20]

text: The Sugar Act of 1764 and the Stamp Act of 1765 severely curtailed mercantile trade in the colonies.[21] The latter act prompted Arnold to join the chorus of voices in opposition to those taxes, and also led to his entry into the Sons of Liberty, a secret organization that was not afraid to use violence to oppose implementation of those and other unpopular Parliamentary measures.[22] Arnold initially took no part in any public demonstrations but, like many merchants, continued to trade as if the Stamp Act did not exist, in effect becoming a smuggler in defiance of the act. Arnold also faced financial ruin, falling £16,000 in debt, with creditors spreading rumors of his insolvency to the point where he took legal action against them.[23] On the night of January 28, 1767, Arnold and members of his crew, watched by a crowd of Sons of Liberty, roughed up a man suspected of attempting to inform authorities of Arnold's smuggling. Arnold was convicted of a disorderly conduct charge and fined the relatively small amount of 50 shillings; publicity of the case and widespread sympathy for his view probably contributed to the light sentence.[24]

text: On February 22, 1767, Benedict Arnold married Margaret Mansfield, daughter of Samuel Mansfield, the sheriff of New Haven, an acquaintance that may have been made through the membership of both Mansfield and Arnold in the local Masonic Lodge.[25] Their son Benedict was born the following year,[26] and was followed by brothers Richard in 1769 and Henry in 1772.[25] Margaret died early in the revolution on June 19, 1775, while Arnold was at Fort Ticonderoga following its capture.[27] The household, even while she lived, was dominated by Arnold's sister Hannah. Arnold benefited from his relationship with Mansfield, who became a partner in his business and used his position as sheriff to shield Arnold from creditors.[28]

text: Benedict Arnold was in the West Indies when the Boston Massacre took place on March 5, 1770. He wrote that he was "very much shocked" and wondered "good God, are the Americans all asleep and tamely giving up their liberties, or are they all turned philosophers, that they don't take immediate vengeance on such miscreants?"[29]

text: American Revolutionary War

text: Siege of Boston and Fort Ticonderoga

text: Benedict Arnold began the war as a captain in Connecticut's militia, a position to which he was elected in March 1775. His company marched northeast the following month to assist in the siege of Boston that followed the outbreak of hostilities at Lexington and Concord. Arnold proposed to the Massachusetts Committee of Safety an action to seize Fort Ticonderoga in New York, which he knew was poorly defended. They issued him a colonel's commission on May 3, 1775, and he immediately rode off to the west, arriving at Castleton in the disputed New Hampshire Grants (present-day Vermont) in time to participate with Ethan Allen and his men in the capture of Fort Ticonderoga. He followed up that action with a bold raid on Fort Saint-Jean on the Richelieu River north of Lake Champlain. A Connecticut militia force arrived at Ticonderoga in June; Arnold had a dispute with its commander over control of the fort, and resigned his Massachusetts commission. He was on his way home from Ticonderoga when he learned that his wife had died earlier in June.[30]

text: Quebec Campaign

text: The Second Continental Congress authorized an invasion of Quebec, in part on the urging of Arnold—but he was passed over for command of the expedition. Arnold then went to Cambridge, Massachusetts and suggested to George Washington a second expedition to attack Quebec City via a wilderness route through present-day Maine. Arnold received a colonel's commission in the Continental Army for this expedition. He left Cambridge in September 1775 with 1,100 men. Arnold arrived before Quebec City in November, after a difficult passage in which 300 men turned back and another 200 died en route. He and his men were joined by Richard Montgomery's small army and participated in the December 31 assault on Quebec City in which Montgomery was killed and Arnold's leg was shattered. His chaplain Rev. Samuel Spring carried him to the makeshift hospital at the Hôtel Dieu. Arnold was promoted to brigadier general for his role in reaching Quebec, and he maintained an ineffectual siege of the city until he was replaced by Major General David Wooster in April 1776.[31]

text: Benedict Arnold then traveled to Montreal where he served as military commander of the city until forced to retreat by an advancing British army that had arrived at Quebec in May. He presided over the rear of the Continental Army during its retreat from Saint-Jean, where he was reported by James Wilkinson to be the last person to leave before the British arrived. He then directed the construction of a fleet to defend Lake Champlain, which was overmatched and defeated in the October 1776 Battle of Valcour Island. However, his actions at Saint-Jean and Valcour Island played a notable role in delaying the British advance against Ticonderoga until 1777.[32]

text: During these actions, Benedict Arnold made a number of friends and a larger number of enemies within the army power structure and in Congress. He had established decent relationships with George Washington, commander of the army, as well as Philip Schuyler and Horatio Gates, both of whom had command of the army's Northern Department during 1775 and 1776.[33] However, an acrimonious dispute with Moses Hazen, commander of the 2nd Canadian Regiment, boiled over into a court martial of Hazen at Ticonderoga during the summer of 1776. Only action by Gates, then Arnold's superior at Ticonderoga, prevented his own arrest on countercharges leveled by Hazen.[34] He also had disagreements with John Brown and James Easton, two lower-level officers with political connections that resulted in ongoing suggestions of improprieties on his part. Brown was particularly vicious, publishing a handbill which claimed of Arnold, "Money is this man's God, and to get enough of it he would sacrifice his country".[35]

text: Rhode Island and Philadelphia

text: General Washington assigned Arnold to the defense of Rhode Island, following the British seizure of Newport in December 1776, where the militia were too poorly equipped to even consider an attack on the British.[36] Arnold took the opportunity to visit his children while near his home in New Haven, and he spent much of the winter socializing in Boston, where he unsuccessfully courted a young belle named Betsy Deblois.[37] In February 1777, he learned that he had been passed over by Congress for promotion to major general. Washington refused his offer to resign, and wrote to members of Congress in an attempt to correct this, noting that "two or three other very good officers" might be lost if they persisted in making politically motivated promotions.[38]

text: Benedict Arnold was on his way to Philadelphia to discuss his future when he was alerted that a British force was marching toward a supply depot in Danbury, Connecticut. He organized the militia response, along with David Wooster and Connecticut militia General Gold S. Silliman. He led a small contingent of militia attempting to stop or slow the British return to the coast in the Battle of Ridgefield, and was again wounded in his left leg.

text: Benedict Arnold continued on to Philadelphia, where he met with members of Congress about his rank. His action at Ridgefield, coupled with the death of Wooster due to wounds sustained in the action, resulted in Arnold's promotion to major general, although his seniority was not restored over those who had been promoted before him.[39] Amid negotiations over that issue, Arnold wrote out a letter of resignation on July 11, the same day that word arrived in Philadelphia, that Fort Ticonderoga had fallen to the British. Washington refused his resignation and ordered him north to assist with the defense there.[40]

text: Saratoga Campaign

text: Benedict Arnold arrived in Schuyler's camp at Fort Edward, New York on July 24. On August 13, Schuyler dispatched him with a force of 900 to relieve the siege of Fort Stanwix, where he succeeded in the use of a ruse to lift the siege. Arnold had an Indian messenger sent into the camp of British Brigadier General Barry St. Leger with news that the approaching force was much larger and closer than it actually was; this convinced St. Leger's Indian support to abandon him, forcing him to give up the effort.[41]

text: Benedict Arnold then returned to the Hudson, where General Gates had taken over command of the American army, which had by then retreated to a camp south of Stillwater.[42] He then distinguished himself in both Battles of Saratoga, even though General Gates removed him from field command after the first battle, following a series of escalating disagreements and disputes that culminated in a shouting match.[43] During the fighting in the second battle, Arnold operated against Gates' orders and took to the battlefield to lead attacks on the British defenses. He was again severely wounded in the left leg late in the fighting. Arnold himself said that it would have been better had it been in the chest instead of the leg.[44] Burgoyne surrendered ten days after the second battle, on October 17, 1777. In response to Arnold's valor at Saratoga, Congress restored his command seniority.[45] However, Arnold interpreted the manner in which they did so as an act of sympathy for his wounds, and not an apology or recognition that they were righting a wrong.[46]

text: Arnold spent several months recovering from his injuries. Rather than allowing his shattered left leg to be amputated, he had it crudely set, leaving it 2 inches (5 cm) shorter than the right. He returned to the army at Valley Forge in May 1778 to the applause of men who had served under him at Saratoga.[47] There he participated in the first recorded Oath of Allegiance along with many other soldiers, as a sign of loyalty to the United States.[48]

text: Residence in Philadelphia

text: The British withdrew from Philadelphia, in June 1778, and Washington appointed Arnold military commander of the city.[49] Even before the Americans reoccupied Philadelphia, Arnold began planning to capitalize financially on the change in power there, engaging in a variety of business deals designed to profit from war-related supply movements and benefiting from the protection of his authority.[50] Such schemes were not exactly uncommon among American officers, but Arnold's schemes were sometimes frustrated by powerful local politicians such as Joseph Reed, who eventually amassed enough evidence to publicly air charges against him. Arnold demanded a court martial to clear the charges, writing to Washington in May 1779, "Having become a cripple in the service of my country, I little expected to meet [such] ungrateful returns".[51]

text: Arnold lived extravagantly in Philadelphia, and was a prominent figure on the social scene. During the summer of 1778, he met Peggy Shippen, the 18-year-old daughter of Judge Edward Shippen, a Loyalist sympathizer who had done business with the British while they occupied the city.[53] Peggy had been courted by British Major John André during the British occupation of Philadelphia.[54] Peggy and Arnold married on April 8, 1779.[55] Peggy and her circle of friends had found methods of staying in contact with paramours across the battle lines, despite military bans on communication with the enemy.[56] Some of this communication was effected through the services of Joseph Stansbury, a Philadelphia merchant.[57]

text: Plotting to change sides

text: As early as 1778, there were signs that Arnold was unhappy with his situation and pessimistic about the country's future. On November 10, 1778, General Nathanael Greene wrote to General John Cadwalader, "I am told General Arnold is become very unpopular among you oweing to his associateing too much with the Tories."[58] A few days later, Greene received a letter from Arnold, where Arnold lamented over the "deplorable" and "horrid" situation of the country at that particular moment, citing the depreciating currency, disaffection of the army, and internal fighting in Congress for the country's problems, while predicting "impending ruin" if things would not soon change.[59]

text: Some time early in May 1779, Arnold met with Joseph Stansbury (whose testimony before a British commission apparently erroneously placed his meeting with Arnold in June). Stansbury said that he then "went secretly to New York with a tender of [Arnold's] services to Sir Henry Clinton."[60] Stansbury ignored instructions from Arnold to involve no one else in the plot, and crossed the British lines and went to see Jonathan Odell in New York. Odell was a Loyalist working with William Franklin, the last colonial governor of New Jersey and the son of Benjamin Franklin. On May 9, Franklin introduced Stansbury to Major André, who had just been named the British spy chief.[61] This was the beginning of a secret correspondence between Arnold and André, sometimes using his wife Peggy as a willing intermediary, that culminated over a year later with Arnold's change of sides.[51]

text: Secret communications

text: André conferred with General Clinton, who gave him broad authority to pursue Arnold's offer. André then drafted instructions to Stansbury and Arnold.[62] This initial letter opened a discussion on the types of assistance and intelligence that Arnold might provide, and included instructions for how to communicate in the future. Letters were to be passed through the women's circle that Peggy Arnold was a part of, but only Peggy would be aware that some letters contained instructions that were to be passed on to André, written in both code and invisible ink, using Stansbury as the courier.[63]

text: By July 1779, Benedict Arnold was providing the British with troop locations and strengths, as well as the locations of supply depots, all the while negotiating over compensation. At first, he asked for indemnification of his losses and £10,000, an amount that the Continental Congress had given Charles Lee for his services in the Continental Army.[64] General Clinton was pursuing a campaign to gain control of the Hudson River Valley, and was interested in plans and information on the defenses of West Point and other defenses on the Hudson River. He also began to insist on a face-to-face meeting, and suggested to Arnold that he pursue another high-level command.[65] By October 1779, the negotiations had ground to a halt.[66] Furthermore, Patriot mobs were scouring Philadelphia for Loyalists, and Arnold and the Shippen family were being threatened. Arnold was rebuffed by Congress and by local authorities in requests for security details for himself and his in-laws.[67]

text: Court martial

text: The court martial began meeting on June 1, 1779 to consider the charges against Benedict Arnold, but it was delayed until December 1779 by General Clinton's capture of Stony Point, New York, throwing the army into a flurry of activity to react.[68] Several members on the panel of judges were ill-disposed toward Arnold over actions and disputes earlier in the war, yet Arnold was cleared of all but two minor charges on January 26, 1780.[69] Arnold worked over the next few months to publicize this fact; however, George Washington published a formal rebuke of his behavior in early April, just one week after he had congratulated Arnold on the March 19 birth of his son Edward Shippen Arnold:[70]

text: The Commander-in-Chief would have been much happier in an occasion of bestowing commendations on an officer who had rendered such distinguished services to his country as Major General Arnold; but in the present case, a sense of duty and a regard to candor oblige him to declare that he considers his conduct [in the convicted actions] as imprudent and improper.[71]

text: Shortly after Washington's rebuke, a Congressional inquiry into Arnold's expenditures concluded that he had failed to fully account for his expenditures incurred during the Quebec invasion, and that he owed the Congress some £1,000, largely because he was unable to document them.[72] A significant number of these documents had been lost during the retreat from Quebec. Angry and frustrated, Arnold resigned his military command of Philadelphia in late April.[73]

text: Offer to surrender West Point

text: Early in April, Philip Schuyler had approached Arnold with the possibility of giving him the command at West Point. Discussions had not borne fruit between Schuyler and Washington by early June. Arnold reopened the secret channels with the British, informing them of Schuyler's proposals and including Schuyler's assessment of conditions at West Point. He also provided information on a proposed French-American invasion of Quebec that was to go up the Connecticut River (Arnold did not know that this proposed invasion was a ruse intended to divert British resources). On June 16, Arnold inspected West Point while on his way home to Connecticut to take care of personal business, and he sent a highly detailed report through the secret channel.[74] When he reached Connecticut, Arnold arranged to sell his home there and began transferring assets to London through intermediaries in New York. By early July, he was back in Philadelphia, where he wrote another secret message to Clinton on July 7 which implied that his appointment to West Point was assured and that he might even provide a "drawing of the works ... by which you might take [West Point] without loss".[75]

text: Major André returned victorious from the Siege of Charleston on June 18, and both he and General Clinton were immediately caught up in this news. Clinton was concerned that Washington's army and the French fleet would join in Rhode Island, and he again fixed on West Point as a strategic point to capture. André had spies and informers keeping track of Arnold to verify his movements. Excited by the prospects, Clinton informed his superiors of his intelligence coup, but failed to respond to Arnold's July 7 letter.[76]

text: Benedict Arnold next wrote a series of letters to Clinton, even before he might have expected a response to the July 7 letter. In a July 11 letter, he complained that the British did not appear to trust him, and threatened to break off negotiations unless progress was made. On July 12, he wrote again, making explicit the offer to surrender West Point, although his price rose to £20,000 (in addition to indemnification for his losses), with a £1,000 down payment to be delivered with the response. These letters were delivered by Samuel Wallis, another Philadelphia businessman who spied for the British, rather than by Stansbury.[77]

text: Command at West Point

text: On August 3, 1780, Arnold obtained command of West Point. On August 15, he received a coded letter from André with Clinton's final offer: £20,000 and no indemnification for his losses. Neither side knew for some days that the other was in agreement with that offer, due to difficulties in getting the messages across the lines. Arnold's letters continued to detail Washington's troop movements and provide information about French reinforcements that were being organized. On August 25, Peggy finally delivered to him Clinton's agreement to the terms.[78]

text: Arnold's command at West Point also gave him authority over the entire American-controlled Hudson River, from Albany down to the British lines outside New York City. While en route to West Point, Arnold renewed an acquaintance with Joshua Hett Smith, who had spied for both sides and who owned a house near the western bank of the Hudson about 15 miles south of West Point.[79]

text: Once Arnold established himself at West Point, he began systematically weakening its defenses and military strength. Needed repairs were never ordered on the chain across the Hudson. Troops were liberally distributed within Arnold's command area (but only minimally at West Point itself) or furnished to Washington on request. He also peppered Washington with complaints about the lack of supplies, writing, "Everything is wanting."[80] At the same time, he tried to drain West Point's supplies so that a siege would be more likely to succeed. His subordinates, some long-time associates, grumbled about Arnold's unnecessary distribution of supplies and eventually concluded that he was selling them on the black market for personal gain.[80]

text: On August 30, Arnold sent a letter accepting Clinton's terms and proposing a meeting to André through yet another intermediary: William Heron, a member of the Connecticut Assembly whom he thought he could trust. In an ironic twist, Heron went into New York unaware of the significance of the letter and offered his own services to the British as a spy. He then took the letter back to Connecticut, suspicious of Arnold's actions, where he delivered it to the head of the Connecticut militia. General Parsons laid it aside, seeing a letter written as a coded business discussion. Four days later, Arnold sent a ciphered letter with similar content into New York through the services of the wife of a prisoner of war.[81] Eventually, a meeting was set for September 11 near Dobb's Ferry. This meeting was thwarted when British gunboats in the river fired on his boat, not being informed of his impending arrival.[82]

text: Plot exposed

text: Benedict Arnold and John André finally met on September 21 at the Joshua Hett Smith House. On the morning of September 22, the outpost at Verplanck's Point under command of Col. James Livingston fired on HMS Vulture, the ship that was intended to carry André back to New York. This action did sufficient damage that she retreated downriver, forcing André to return to New York overland. Arnold wrote out passes for André so that he would be able to pass through the lines, and also gave him plans for West Point.[83]

text: Major André was captured near Tarrytown on Saturday, September 23 by three Westchester militiamen named John Paulding, Isaac Van Wart, and David Williams.[84] The papers were found exposing the plot to capture West Point and sent to Gen. Washington, and Arnold's intentions came to light after Washington examined them.[85] Meanwhile, André convinced the unsuspecting Colonel John Jameson, to whom he was delivered, to send him back to Arnold at West Point. However, Major Benjamin Tallmadge, a member of the Culper Ring established under Washington's orders,[86] insisted that Jameson order the prisoner to be intercepted and brought back. Jameson reluctantly recalled the lieutenant who had been delivering André into Arnold's custody, but then sent the same lieutenant as a messenger to notify Arnold of André's arrest.[87]

text: Benedict Arnold learned of André's capture the following morning, September 24, when he received Jameson's message that André was in his custody and that the papers which André was carrying had been sent to General Washington. Arnold received Jameson's letter while waiting for Washington, with whom he had planned to have breakfast.[88]

text: Benedict Arnold hastened to the shore and ordered bargemen to row him downriver to where HMS Vulture was anchored, which then took him to New York.[89] From the ship, Arnold wrote a letter to Washington,[90] requesting that Peggy be given safe passage to her family in Philadelphia, a request that Washington granted.[91]

text: When presented with evidence of Benedict Arnold's activities, it is reported that Washington remained calm. He did, however, investigate its extent, and suggested that he was willing to exchange André for Arnold during negotiations with General Clinton over the fate of Major André. Clinton refused this suggestion; after a military tribunal, André was hanged at Tappan, New York on October 2. Washington also infiltrated men into New York in an attempt to capture Arnold. This plan very nearly succeeded, but failed when Arnold changed living quarters prior to sailing for Virginia in December.[92]

text: Benedict Arnold justified his actions in an open letter titled To the Inhabitants of America, published in newspapers in October 1780.[93] In the letter to Washington requesting safe passage for Peggy, he wrote, "Love to my country actuates my present conduct, however it may appear inconsistent to the world, who very seldom judge right of any man's actions."[90]

text: After switching sides

text: British Army service

text: Raids in Virginia and Connecticut Colonies

text: The British gave Benedict Arnold a brigadier general's commission, with an annual income of several hundred pounds, but paid him only £6,315 plus an annual pension of £360 because his plot had failed.[4] In December 1780, Arnold led a force of 1,600 troops into Virginia under orders from Clinton, where he captured Richmond by surprise and then went on a rampage through Virginia, destroying supply houses, foundries, and mills.[94] This activity brought out Virginia's militia, led by Colonel Sampson Mathews, and Arnold eventually retreated to Portsmouth to either be evacuated or reinforced.[95]

text: The pursuing American army included the Marquis de Lafayette, who was under orders from Washington to hang Arnold summarily if he was captured. Reinforcements arrived in late March led by William Phillips (who served under Burgoyne at Saratoga), and Phillips led further raids across Virginia, including a defeat of Baron von Steuben at Petersburg, until his death of fever on May 12, 1781. Arnold commanded the army only until May 20, when Lord Cornwallis arrived with the southern army and took over. One colonel wrote to Clinton of Arnold, "there are many officers who must wish some other general in command."[96] Cornwallis ignored advice proffered by Arnold to locate a permanent base away from the coast, advice that might have averted Cornwallis's later surrender at Yorktown.[96]

text: On his return to New York in June, Benedict Arnold made a variety of proposals for attacks on economic targets to force the Americans to end the war. Clinton was uninterested in most of Arnold's aggressive ideas, but finally authorized Arnold to raid the port of New London, Connecticut. On September 4, not long after the birth of his and Peggy's second son, Arnold's force of over 1,700 men raided and burned New London and captured Fort Griswold, causing damage estimated at $500,000.[97] British casualties were high; nearly one quarter of the force was killed or wounded. Clinton declared that he could ill afford any more such victories.[98]

text: British surrender and exile in England

text: Even before Cornwallis's surrender in October, Benedict Arnold had requested permission from Clinton to go to England to give Lord George Germain his thoughts on the war in person.[99] When word of the surrender reached New York, Arnold renewed the request, which Clinton then granted. On December 8, 1781, Arnold and his family left New York for England.[100]

text: In London, Benedict Arnold aligned himself with the Tories, advising Germain and King George III to renew the fight against the Americans. In the House of Commons, Edmund Burke expressed the hope that the government would not put Arnold "at the head of a part of a British army" lest "the sentiments of true honour, which every British officer [holds] dearer than life, should be afflicted."[91] To Arnold's detriment, the anti-war Whigs had gained the upper hand in Parliament, and Germain was forced to resign, with the government of Lord North falling not long after.[101]

text: Benedict Arnold then applied to accompany General Carleton, who was going to New York to replace Clinton as commander-in-chief; this request went nowhere.[101] Other attempts all failed to gain positions within the government or the British East India Company over the next few years and he was forced to subsist on the reduced pay of non-wartime service.[102] His reputation also came under criticism in the British press, especially when compared to that of Major André, who was celebrated for his patriotism.

text: One critic said that Benedict Arnold was a "mean mercenary, who, having adopted a cause for the sake of plunder, quits it when convicted of that charge."[101] In turning him down for an East India Company posting, George Johnstone wrote, "Although I am satisfied with the purity of your conduct, the generality do not think so. While this is the case, no power in this country could suddenly place you in the situation you aim at under the East India Company."[103]

text: New business opportunities

text: In 1785, Benedict Arnold and his son Richard moved to Saint John, New Brunswick, where they speculated in land and established a business doing trade with the West Indies. Arnold purchased large tracts of land in the Maugerville area, and acquired city lots in Saint John and Fredericton.[104] Delivery of his first ship the Lord Sheffield was accompanied by accusations from the builder that Arnold had cheated him; Arnold claimed that he had merely deducted the contractually agreed amount when the ship was delivered late.[105] After her first voyage, Arnold returned to London in 1786 to bring his family to Saint John. While there, he disentangled himself from a lawsuit over an unpaid debt that Peggy had been fighting while he was away, paying £900 to settle a £12,000 loan that he had taken while living in Philadelphia.[106] The family moved to Saint John in 1787, where Arnold created an uproar with a series of bad business deals and petty lawsuits.[107] The most serious of these was a slander suit which he won against a former business partner; and following this, townspeople burned him in effigy in front of his house, as Peggy and the children watched.[108] The family left Saint John to return to London in December 1791.[109]

text: In July 1792, Benedict Arnold fought a bloodless duel with the Earl of Lauderdale after the Earl impugned his honor in the House of Lords.[4] With the outbreak of the French Revolution, Arnold outfitted a privateer, while continuing to do business in the West Indies, even though the hostilities increased the risk. He was imprisoned by French authorities on Guadeloupe amid accusations of spying for the British, and narrowly eluded hanging by escaping to the blockading British fleet after bribing his guards. He helped organize militia forces on British-held islands, receiving praise from the landowners for his efforts on their behalf. He hoped that this work would earn him wider respect and a new command; instead, it earned him and his sons a land-grant of 15,000 acres (6,100 ha) in Upper Canada,[110] near present-day Renfrew, Ontario.[111]

text: Death

text: In January 1801, Benedict Arnold's health began to decline.[91] He had suffered from gout since 1775,[112] and the condition attacked his unwounded leg to the point where he was unable to go to sea. The other leg ached constantly, and he walked only with a cane. His physicians diagnosed him as having dropsy, and a visit to the countryside only temporarily improved his condition. He died after four days of delirium on June 14, 1801, at the age of 60.[91] Legend has it that, when he was on his deathbed, he said, "Let me die in this old uniform in which I fought my battles. May God forgive me for ever having put on another,"[113] but this story may be apocryphal.[3] Arnold was buried at St. Mary's Church, Battersea in London, England.[114] As a result of a clerical error in the parish records, his remains were removed to an unmarked mass grave during church renovations a century later.[115] His funeral procession boasted "seven mourning coaches and four state carriages";[91] the funeral was without military honors.[116]

text: Benedict Arnold left a small estate, reduced in size by his debts, which Peggy undertook to clear.[4][91] Among his bequests were considerable gifts to one John Sage, perhaps an illegitimate son or grandson.[117]

text: Legacy

text: Infamy in the United States

text: Benedict Arnold's contributions to American independence are largely underrepresented in popular culture, while his name became synonymous with traitor, in the 19th century. The demonization of Arnold began immediately after his betrayal became public. Biblical themes were often invoked; Benjamin Franklin wrote that "Judas sold only one man, Arnold three millions", and Alexander Scammell described Arnold's actions as "black as hell".[118]

text: In his home town of Norwich someone scrawled the word "Traitor" next to his record of birth at City Hall. Additionally, the gravestones of all but his mother were destroyed.[119]

text: Early biographers attempted to describe Arnold's entire life in terms of treacherous or morally questionable behavior. The first major biography of Arnold was The Life and Treason of Benedict Arnold, published in 1832 by historian Jared Sparks; it was particularly harsh in showing how Arnold's treacherous character was allegedly formed out of childhood experiences.[120] George Canning Hill authored a series of moralistic biographies in the mid-19th century, and began his 1865 biography of Arnold: "Benedict, the Traitor, was born...".[121]

text: Social historian Brian Carso notes that, as the 19th century progressed, the story of Arnold's betrayal was portrayed with near-mythical proportions as a part of the national creation story. It was invoked again as sectional conflicts increased in the years before the American Civil War. Washington Irving used it as part of an argument against dismemberment of the union in his 1857 Life of George Washington, pointing out that the unity of New England and the southern states which led to independence was made possible in part by holding West Point.[122] Jefferson Davis and other southern secessionist leaders were unfavorably compared to Arnold, implicitly and explicitly likening the idea of secession to treason. Harper's Weekly published an article in 1861 describing Confederate leaders as "a few men directing this colossal treason, by whose side Benedict Arnold shines white as a saint."[123]

text: Popular culture

text: Fictional invocations of Benedict Arnold's name also carried strongly negative overtones. A moralistic children's tale entitled "The Cruel Boy" was widely circulated in the 19th century. It described a boy who stole eggs from birds' nests, pulled wings off insects, and engaged in other sorts of wanton cruelty, who then grew up to become a traitor to his country.[124] The boy is not identified until the end of the story, when his place of birth is given as Norwich, Connecticut, and his name is given as Benedict Arnold.[125] However, not all depictions of Arnold were so negative. Some theatrical treatments of the 19th century explored his duplicity, seeking to understand rather than demonize it.[126]

text: The connection between Benedict Arnold and treason continued, into the 20th and 21st centuries. He is a member of the Jury of the Damned in the novel The Devil and Daniel Webster. On an episode of The Brady Bunch, "Everyone Can't Be George Washington", Peter is assigned the role of Arnold in the school play, and is ostracized.[127] On one of The Simpsons' Halloween specials, "Treehouse of Horror IV", Arnold is included in a "jury of the damned" – along with other figures like John Wilkes Booth and Richard Nixon – deliberating the ownership of Homer Simpson's soul. Benedict's ghost, along with the ghosts of John Andre and William Demont, are the villains of the episode "The Spirits of '76" in the 1976 cartoon The Scooby-Doo Show. He also appeared in an episode of Fairly Oddparents, in which he briefly poses as George Washington in an effort to convince the Founding Fathers to sign the "Declaration of Surrenderance" to Great Britain.

text: Former WWE announcer Gorilla Monsoon would call a wrestler a "Benedict Arnold" if they turned heel on their tag team partner or the person with whom they were portrayed onscreen as being friends.

text: Dan Gilbert, owner of the National Basketball Association's Cleveland Cavaliers, subtly invoked Arnold in 2010, upset over LeBron James's announcement of leaving the team. Gilbert's company lowered the price of posters bearing James's likeness to $17.41, referring to the year of Arnold's birth.[128][129]

text: Novels related to the American Revolutionary war sometimes feature Benedict Arnold as a character. Kenneth Roberts' Arundel series treats him more positively, covering his military campaigns.

text: Canadian view

text: Canadian historians have treated Benedict Arnold as a relatively minor figure. His difficult time in New Brunswick led historians to summarize it as full of "controversy, resentment, and legal entanglements" and to conclude that he was disliked by both Americans and Loyalists.[130] Historian Barry Wilson points out that Arnold's descendants ended up establishing deep roots in the country, becoming leading settlers in Upper Canada and later in lands further west, where they established settlements in Saskatchewan.[131] His descendants who adopted the Arnold surname are spread across Canada, most of all those of John Sage.[132] His long woollen British scarlet military jacket with a buff lining continues to be owned by descendants; as of 2001, it was held in Saskatchewan. It has reportedly been passed in each generation to the eldest male of the family.[133]

text: Family

text: During his marriage to Margaret Mansfield, Benedict Arnold had three sons, all of whom later served in the British Army:[134][135]

text: and with Peggy Shippen, he raised a family also active in the British Army:

text: Tributes

text: There is a memorial to Benedict Arnold on the Saratoga battlefield, now preserved within Saratoga National Historical Park, that does not mention his name, donated by Civil War General John Watts DePeyster. The inscription on the Boot Monument reads: "In memory of the most brilliant soldier of the Continental army, who was desperately wounded on this spot, winning for his countrymen the decisive battle of the American Revolution, and for himself the rank of Major General."[136] The victory monument at Saratoga has four niches, three of which are occupied by statues of Generals Gates, Schuyler, and Morgan. The fourth niche is empty.[137]

text: There are plaques on the grounds of the United States Military Academy at West Point commemorating all of the generals who served in the Revolution. One plaque bears only a rank and a date but no name: "major general...born 1740".[2][120]

text: A historical marker in Danvers, Massachusetts commemorates Benedict Arnold's 1775 expedition to Quebec.[138] There are also historical markers bearing his name at Wyman Lake Rest Area on US-201 north of Moscow, Maine, on the western bank of Lake Champlain, New York, and two in Skowhegan, Maine.[139]

text: The house where Benedict Arnold lived at 62 Gloucester Place in central London bears a plaque describing Arnold as an "American Patriot".[140] He was buried at St Mary's Church, Battersea, England which has a commemorative stained glass window added between 1976 and 1982.[141] The faculty club at the University of New Brunswick, Fredericton has a Benedict Arnold Room in which framed original letters written by Arnold hang on the walls.


document_title: Sam & Cat

question_text: who plays peezy b on sam and cat

question_tokens: who plays peezy b on sam and cat

text: Sam & Cat

text: Plot[edit]

text: Ever since Carly Shay moved to Italy with her father (in the series finale of iCarly), Sam Puckett has been touring the West Coast on her motorcycle and stops in Venice, Los Angeles. She witnesses Cat Valentine being thrown into the back of a garbage truck and rescues her. They become friends and Cat convinces her to become roommates after Cat's cheerful and supportive grandmother Nona moves to a retirement home called Elderly Acres. To make money rather than getting traditional after-school jobs, Sam and Cat form an after-school babysitting business called "Sam and Cat's Super Rockin' Funtime Babysitting Service", which leads them into a series of comical adventures. Besides Nona, other people involved in their lives are Dice, their next door neighbor who is notorious for aiding people for money, and Goomer, a dim-witted professional MMA fighter whom Dice manages.[11]

text: Cast and characters[edit]

text: Main[edit]

text: Jennette McCurdy as Sam Puckett, who is rude, aggressive, loves pranks, and hates working. After her best friend Carly Shay moved to Italy to live with her dad, Sam tours the west coast on her motorcycle until she saves Cat from a garbage truck. She becomes friends with Cat and joins her in the babysitting job they start. She secretly has a heart of gold and a soft spot for Cat, but will threaten violence on anyone who harms her friends. Sam is not afraid of anything and is handy at fighting or bossing her way out of any situation.

tag: ul

text: Ariana Grande as Cat Valentine, who is sweet, naive, bubbly and almost always happy. She has a playful nature, often takes things literally, and faints when she is frightened. She has a short attention span and has bright red hair dyed to resemble her favorite snack, a red velvet cupcake. Cat has been living with her grandmother Nona since her parents went away to visit her brother. She can be emotional and does not take criticism well. Despite her ditziness, she is actually very intelligent and empathetic. In the earlier parts of the show, Ariana Grande dyed her hair red when playing Cat Valentine (which she also did when playing the character on Victorious) until it was changed to her wearing a red-haired wig in later episodes.

text: Cameron Ocasio as Dice, is Sam and Cat's neighbor who lives with his mom and his weird Aunt Ferjeen (who is notorious for having "night gas"). Dice is cool, calm and collected, and he knows all the tenants and gossip. He makes extra money by wheeling and dealing, often selling unusual items like hair cuttings from celebrities (including some he obtained from Sam), hats with misspelled logos, and odd gadgets. He is a talented pitchman. Dice manages a mixed martial arts fighter named Goomer who is not bright.[12]

text: Maree Cheatham as Nona, Cat's cheerful, supportive, and independent grandmother. Fun-loving and young at heart, Nona prefers the company of people her own age. Although she is always around whenever Sam and Cat need her, she has moved out of the apartment she shared with Cat and into Elderly Acres to be nearer to her friends, allowing Sam to move in permanently. She is criticized for not being in touch with the younger generation, and tells stories which fail to interest them.[13]

text: Recurring[edit]

text:
Zoran Korach as Goomer, a professional mixed martial artist who trains at Punchy's Gym. He is 27 years old but has the mental ability of someone much younger. He is very dim-witted and easily confused. Despite his childish nature, he is very good at fighting. Dice took over his management after his original manager claimed Goomer was "too stupid to manage".
Dan Schneider as the voice of Tandy, a red robot that works at the restaurant "Bots" as a waiter.
Lisa Lillien as the voice of Bungle, a blue female robot that works at the restaurant "Bots" as a waitress.
Nick Gore as Randy, a kid who appeared numerous times in the show and is constantly introducing himself. Randy was originally supposed to appear in one episode, but the creator of the show, Dan Schneider, found him funny so he became a recurring character.[14]
Ronnie Clark as Herb, a man who appears to be homeless, but he is in fact rich and owns a condo.

text: Special guest stars[edit]

text:
Eric Lange as Mr. Sikowitz, Cat's acting teacher at Hollywood Arts, an eccentric aging hippie who occasionally doesn't wear shoes. His teaching methods are often unconventional, such as when he throws a ball at Cat while she is performing, but they are sometimes effective.[15]  He is a recurring character in Victorious and appeared in "#MommaGoomer".
Penny Marshall and Cindy Williams as Sylvia Burke and Janice Dobbins, the original creators of the puppet show Salmon Cat, a TV show from the 1970s. Marshall and Williams are famous for playing Laverne DeFazio and Shirley Feeney, respectively, on Laverne & Shirley.[16]
Kel Mitchell, as Peezy B, a huge rap star who has rejected Cat's music video audition.[17]
Abby Wilde as Stacey Dillsen, a college student previously seen in Zoey 101 who is injured during a bicycle incident and loses one of her shoes, which Cat finds, leading her to find the second shoe.
Scott Baio as Officer Kelvin, a police officer who arrests Sam and Cat for "stealing money" from an ATM at the Handy Quick when Yokvish catches on to Cat's activity.
Elizabeth Gillies as Jade West, Cat's friend from Hollywood Arts. She is mean, aggressive, violent, and often offends Cat. She befriends Sam when they discover that they have a lot in common.
Nathan Kress as Freddie Benson, Sam's friend from Seattle and ex-boyfriend. He likes technological stuff, and served as technical producer of the iCarly web show on iCarly. Cat brings him to her house in order to flirt with him at the time when Sam was hanging out with Jade.
Matt Bennett as Robbie Shapiro, Cat's friend and love interest. He is a nerd who carries a puppet named Rex (who he makes speak as a ventriloquist). He kissed Cat in one of the final episodes of Victorious. When Cat hits on Freddie out of jealousy of Sam's friendship with Jade, Robbie is brought in by Jade so that Sam can hit on him.
Michael Eric Reid as himself, he plays Sinjin Van Cleef in Victorious. Michael appears in "#BlooperEpisode" and tells Zoran Korach that he knows what it's like to be left out for not being a main character.
Danielle Morrow as Nora Dershlit, an old enemy of Carly, Sam, and Freddie. In "#SuperPsycho," her pet chicken Maurice helps Nora escape from the prison somewhere near Seattle so that she can exact her revenge.
Reed Alexander as Nevel Papperman, an old enemy of Carly, Sam, and Freddie. In "#SuperPsycho," Nevel is seen in a Peter Sinai hospital for the very sick upon contracting Porcupox (a disease which somehow comes from a porcupine). Sam and Cat visit him in order to get advice on how to find Nora Dershlit.
Noah Munck as Gibby Gibson, a friend of Carly, Sam, and Freddie. After he is visited by Nora during his date with a girl at a movie theater, Gibby tips off Sam that Nora has escaped from prison.
Jessica Chaffin as Coco Wexler, a character from Zoey 101 whom Sam and Cat meet at the airport. Coco was once married to Carl, then they divorced. Coco is devastated when Carl proposes to her mother.
Josh Server as Agent Partridge, an airport agent who interrogates Dice and Goomer after they are mistaken for a terrorist plot.

text: Guest stars[edit]

text:
Griffin Kane and Emily Skinner[18] as Max and Chloe, a brother and sister who, alongside their baby brother Darby, were among the less rambunctious kids babysat by Nona; Sam and Cat babysit them now. They appear in episodes "#Pilot","#NewGoat", and "#PeezyB".
Sophia Grace Brownlee & Rosie McClelland as Gwen and Ruby, British girls whom Sam and Cat babysit in the episode "#TheBritBrats". At first they seem polite, but later they behave quite rudely. They are experienced con artists who bilk Dice out of $500 and Cat out of her bicycle. In a loose parody of The Sting, Sam concocts a rigged bingo game to trick the British brats into surrendering Dice's money and Cat's bike.[19][20] They also were in "#RevengeOfTheBritBrats" where they return and drive a wedge between Sam and Cat. This plan failed when Sam and Cat caught onto their plans.[21]
Cyrus Arnold as BJ Malloy, a boy who loves to eat eggs and call Dice "Diceberg", because it rhymes with "iceberg" and this attitude stresses Dice. He considers Dice as his friend.
Steve Lewis as Brody, a spear fisherman that always boasts his job and is often seen with a speargun in his hand.
Ryan P. Shrime as Yokvish, a clerk at the Handy Quick who enjoys taking selfies and grooming himself.

text: Production[edit]

text: Development[edit]

text: In August 2012, Nickelodeon announced that Dan Schneider, the creator of iCarly and Victorious, would be making a spin-off of both shows called Sam & Cat, and ordered the pilot episode.[11] The series was then picked up for 20 episodes in November, with the premiere planned for 2013. Production began in January 2013,[22] and on June 8, 2013, Sam & Cat premiered in the United States. Several weeks later, on July 11, Nickelodeon doubled the season one order of 20 episodes, to 40.[1] Filming was scheduled to resume in early September 2013 to finish the second half of the first season.[1]

text: Schneider originally aimed for a March 23, 2013, premiere of Sam & Cat, following the Kids' Choice Awards;[23] however, Nickelodeon intended for the show to make its debut in the fall.[24] On April 18, 2013, the show's two stars Jennette McCurdy and Ariana Grande, via Twitter, announced its premiere was set for June.[25]

text: Cancellation[edit]

text: On April 2, 2014, Nickelodeon announced the series would be on hiatus.[26] Although they insisted the series was not cancelled, many speculated that it was. This was due to a rumored dispute between McCurdy and the network, Grande's rising musical career, and both actresses' desires to move on to other projects. On July 13, 2014, it was announced that the last episode would be "#GettinWiggy," which aired four days later.[6]

text: Controversy[edit]

text: In March 2014, Jennette McCurdy became the subject of scandal after the leak of photographs revealing McCurdy in various states of undress. Her absence was noted at the 2014 Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards, where Sam & Cat won "Favorite Show" and Ariana Grande won "Favorite Actress." McCurdy claimed that Nickelodeon was treating her unfairly and that was the sole purpose for her failure to attend the awards.[27] On April 2, 2014, despite reports of a second season and with four episodes yet to be produced, Nickelodeon abruptly put the series on hiatus. Rumors were that McCurdy and Grande were having problems with the network over their salaries, with McCurdy accusing Nickelodeon of paying Grande more money. Grande later took to social media to deny the allegations.[28] The network stated that the hiatus was planned and said the series was not canceled.[29] However, three months later on July 13, 2014, Nickelodeon announced that the series had been canceled.[6]

text: For months in between, rumors of a feud between Grande and McCurdy ran high, and continued to after the series' cancellation.[30] However, McCurdy stated in a 2015 interview with E! Online: "I just feel that Ariana and I were and are extremely close and extremely like-minded in a lot of different ways, and then sort of as the show dissolved everybody wanted to find some sort of hidden meaning in our relationship and some like drama, and I think we butted heads at times but in a very sisterly way. Like she knows me so well and I know her so well that I think it was unfortunate that things got misconstrued."[31]

text: Broadcast[edit]

text: The series airs on Nickelodeon worldwide. It premiered in Canada on August 12, 2013, on YTV and on September 7, 2013, on the original channel.[32] The show previewed on September 1, 2013, and premiered on October 14, 2013, in the United Kingdom and Ireland.[33] It previewed on September 30, 2013, and premiered on October 7, 2013, and October 11, 2013, in New Zealand[34][35] and Australia,[36][37] respectively. In Southeast Asia it started airing on October 19, 2013.[38]

text: Home media release[edit]

text: Sam & Cat: The Complete Series, containing all 35 episodes, was released on DVD in Region 1 on October 8, 2015.[39]

text: Reception[edit]

text: Ratings[edit]

text: The pilot episode debuted on Nickelodeon June 8, 2013, to an audience of 4.2 million viewers.[40] The second episode, one week later, drew 2.6 million viewers.[41] The most watched episode is "#TheKillerTunaJump: #Freddie #Jade #Robbie," which aired January 18, 2014, to 4.8 million viewers;[42] the second most watched episode is the pilot (4.2 million), while the least watched is "#SecretSafe" (2.0 million, on October 5, 2013).[43] In the United Kingdom the series premiere delivered 340,000 viewers, the most for that week. The Halloween episode premiere on October 26, 2013, brought 210,000 viewers staying in the same place.[44]

text: Awards and nominations[edit]

text:
Year
Association
Category
Nominee
Result
Ref.

2014
Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards
Favorite TV Show
Sam & Cat
Won
[45]

Teen Choice Awards
Choice Comedy TV Show
Sam & Cat
Nominated

Kids' Choice Awards Colombia
International Program Favorite
Sam & Cat
Nominated

Kids' Choice Awards Mexico
International Program Favorite
Sam & Cat
Won
[46]

Kids' Choice Awards Argentina
International Program Favorite
Sam & Cat
Nominated
[47]

Meus Prêmios Nick
Favorite TV Series
Sam & Cat
Won
[48]

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