document_title: List of Scottish Cup finals

question_text: who has won the scottish cup the most

question_tokens: who has won the scottish cup the most

root

text: List of Scottish Cup finals

text: History[edit]

text: At the time of the cup's first season Queen's Park were by far the dominant force in Scottish football, and no other team had even managed to score a goal against them until 1875, eight years after their formation.[2] This early dominance meant they were invited into the first FA Cup season and in season 1883–84 they came close to a cup double, winning the Scottish Cup but losing the FA Cup Final to Blackburn Rovers.[3] They again met Blackburn Rovers in the following season's Final but were defeated once again.[4] Other Scottish teams competed in the FA Cup such as Partick Thistle and 3rd Lanark RV and continued to compete until 1887, when the Scottish Football Association banned its members from taking any further part in the "English Cup".[5] By the time the Scottish Football League was founded in the 1890–91 season Queen's Park had been eclipsed by many of the league clubs, they finally agreed to enter the competition in the 1900–01 season, they finished seventh in their first season.[6] Their demise was reflected in their Scottish Cup results, although they reached 4 Finals after the foundation of the league they could only win one and their 1893 success was their last, reaching only one more final in 1900. Dumbarton filled the void left by Queen's Park for a time but like all Scottish football competitions the Scottish Cup would come to be dominated by the Old Firm of Celtic and Rangers.

tag: p

text: In 1909 the cup was withheld by the SFA after a riot broke out following a replay between Rangers and Celtic. The first match was drawn 2–2 and the second 1–1.[7]

text: The cup was not competed for between 1914 and 1919 due to World War I. World War II prevented competition between 1939 and 1945 although the Scottish War Emergency Cup was held in the 1939–40 season.

text: Results[edit]

text: A draw in the final used to result in the match being replayed at a later date. Since the 1981 final, however, the result has always been decided on the day, with a penalty shootout if required after extra time.

text: Key[edit]

text:
(R)
Replay, or repeat if original match was declared void

(SR)
Second Replay

‡
Match void

*
Match went to extra time

†
Match decided by a penalty shootout after extra time

Italics
Team from outside the top level of Scottish football
(since the formation of The Scottish Football League in 1890)

Bold
Winning team were also Scottish football champions,
winning The Double

text: Results[edit]

text:
Season
Winner
Score
Runner-up
Venue
Attendance
Notes

1873–74
Queen's Park (1)
2–0
Clydesdale
Hampden Park (original)
2,500
[8][9]

1874–75
Queen's Park (2)
3–0
Renton
Hampden Park (original)
7,000
[8][10]

1875–76
Queen's Park (3)
1–1
3rd Lanark RV
Hamilton Crescent
6,000
[8][11]

(R)
2–0
Hampden Park (original)
10,000
[8][12]

1876–77
Vale of Leven (1)
1–1
Rangers
Hamilton Crescent
8,000
[8][13]

(R)
1–1
Hamilton Crescent
15,000
[8][14]

(SR)
3–2
Hampden Park (original)
12,000
[8][15]

1877–78
Vale of Leven (2)
1–0
3rd Lanark RV
Hampden Park (original)
5,000
[8][16]

1878–79
Vale of Leven (3)
1–1
Rangers
Hampden Park (original)
9,000
[8][17]

(R)
walkover[18]
Hampden Park (original)

[8]

1879–80
Queen's Park (4)
3–0
Thornliebank
Hampden Park (original)
4,000
[8][19]

1880–81
Queen's Park (5)
2–1 ‡[20]
Dumbarton
Kinning Park
15,000
[8][21]

(R)
3–1
Kinning Park
10,000
[8][22]

1881–82
Queen's Park (6)
2–2
Dumbarton
Cathkin Park (first)
12,500
[8][23]

(R)
4–1
Cathkin Park (first)
14,000
[8][24]

1882–83
Dumbarton (1)
2–2
Vale of Leven
Hampden Park (original)
15,000
[8][25]

(R)
2–1
Hampden Park (original)
12,000
[8][26]

1883–84
Queen's Park (7)
walkover[27]
Vale of Leven
Cathkin Park (first)

[8]

1884–85
Renton (1)
0–0
Vale of Leven
Hampden Park (second)
3,000
[8][28]

(R)
3–1
Hampden Park (second)
5,500
[8][29]

1885–86
Queen's Park (8)
3–1
Renton
Cathkin Park (first)
7,000
[8][30]

1886–87
Hibernian (1)
2–1
Dumbarton
Hampden Park (second)
15,000
[8][31]

1887–88
Renton (2)
6–1
Cambuslang
Hampden Park (second)
10,000
[8][32]

1888–89
3rd Lanark RV (1)
3–0 ‡[33]
Celtic
Hampden Park (second)
17,000
[8][34]

(R)
2–1
Hampden Park (second)
13,000
[8][35]

1889–90
Queen's Park (9)
1–1
Vale of Leven
Ibrox Park (first)
11,000
[8][36]

(R)
2–1
Ibrox Park (first)
13,000
[8][37]

1890–91
Heart of Midlothian (1)
1–0
Dumbarton
Hampden Park (second)
10,836
[8][38]

1891–92
Celtic (1)
1–0 ‡[39]
Queen's Park
Ibrox Park (first)
40,000
[8][40]

(R)
5–1
Ibrox Park (first)
26,000
[8][41]

1892–93
Queen's Park (10)
0–1 ‡[42]
Celtic
Ibrox Park (first)
18,771
[8][43]

(R)
2–1
Ibrox Park (first)
13,239
[8][44]

1893–94
Rangers (1)
3–1
Celtic
Hampden Park (second)
17,000
[8][45]

1894–95
St Bernard's (1)
2–1
Renton
Ibrox Park (first)
10,000
[8][46]

1895–96
Heart of Midlothian (2)
3–1
Hibernian
New Logie Green
16,034
[8][47]

1896–97
Rangers (2)
5–1
Dumbarton
Hampden Park (second)
14,000
[8][48]

1897–98
Rangers (3)
2–0
Kilmarnock
Hampden Park (second)
13,000
[8][49]

1898–99
Celtic (2)
2–0
Rangers
Hampden Park (second)
25,000
[8][50]

1899–1900
Celtic (3)
4–3
Queen's Park
Ibrox Park
15,000
[8][51]

1900–01
Heart of Midlothian (3)
4–3
Celtic
Ibrox Park
15,000
[8][52]

1901–02
Hibernian (2)
1–0
Celtic
Celtic Park
16,000
[8][53]

1902–03
Rangers (4)
1–1
Heart of Midlothian
Celtic Park
13,000
[8][54]

(R)
0–0
Celtic Park
35,000
[8][55]

(SR)
2–0
Celtic Park
30,000
[8][56]

1903–04
Celtic (4)
3–2
Rangers
Hampden Park
64,472
[8][57]

1904–05
Third Lanark (2)
0–0
Rangers
Hampden Park
54,000
[8][58]

(R)
3–1
Hampden Park
55,000
[8][59]

1905–06
Heart of Midlothian (4)
1–0
Third Lanark
Ibrox Park
30,000
[8][60]

1906–07
Celtic (5)
3–0
Heart of Midlothian
Hampden Park
50,000
[8][61]

1907–08
Celtic (6)
5–1
St Mirren
Hampden Park
58,000
[8][62]

1909–10
Dundee (1)
2–2
Clyde
Ibrox Park
60,000
[8][63]

(R)
0–0 *
Ibrox Park
25,000
[8][64]

(SR)
2–1
Ibrox Park
25,000
[8][65]

1910–11
Celtic (7)
0–0
Hamilton Academical
Ibrox Park
45,000
[8][66]

(R)
2–0
Ibrox Park
25,000
[8][67]

1911–12
Celtic (8)
2–0
Clyde
Ibrox Park
45,000
[8][68]

1912–13
Falkirk (1)
2–0
Raith Rovers
Celtic Park
45,000
[8][69]

1913–14
Celtic (9)
0–0
Hibernian
Ibrox Park
56,000
[8][70]

(R)
4–1
Ibrox Park
40,000
[8][71]

1919–20
Kilmarnock (1)
3–2
Albion Rovers
Hampden Park
95,000
[8][72][73]

1920–21
Partick Thistle (1)
1–0
Rangers
Celtic Park
28,294
[8][74][75]

1921–22
Morton (1)
1–0
Rangers
Hampden Park
70,000
[8][76]

1922–23
Celtic (10)
1–0
Hibernian
Hampden Park
82,000
[8][77]

1923–24
Airdrieonians (1)
2–0
Hibernian
Ibrox Park
65,000
[8][78]

1924–25
Celtic (11)
2–1
Dundee
Hampden Park
75,317
[8][79]

1925–26
St Mirren (1)
2–0
Celtic
Hampden Park
98,000
[8][80]

1926–27
Celtic (12)
3–1
East Fife
Hampden Park
80,070
[8][81]

1927–28
Rangers (5)
4–0
Celtic
Hampden Park
118,115
[8][82]

1928–29
Kilmarnock (2)
2–0
Rangers
Hampden Park
114,780
[8][83]

1929–30
Rangers (6)
0–0
Partick Thistle
Hampden Park
107,475
[8][84]

(R)
2–1
Hampden Park
103,688
[8][85]

1930–31
Celtic (13)
2–2
Motherwell
Hampden Park
104,863
[8][86]

(R)
4–2
Hampden Park
98,509
[8][87]

1931–32
Rangers (7)
1–1
Kilmarnock
Hampden Park
112,000
[8][88]

(R)
3–0
Hampden Park
104,600
[8][89]

1932–33
Celtic (14)
1–0
Motherwell
Hampden Park
102,339
[8][90]

1933–34
Rangers (8)
5–0
St Mirren
Hampden Park
113,430
[8][91]

1934–35
Rangers (9)
2–1
Hamilton Academical
Hampden Park
87,740
[8][92]

1935–36
Rangers (10)
1–0
Third Lanark
Hampden Park
88,859
[8][93]

1936–37
Celtic (15)
2–1
Aberdeen
Hampden Park
147,365
[8][94]

1937–38
East Fife (1)
1–1
Kilmarnock
Hampden Park
80,091
[8][95]

(R)
4–2 *
Hampden Park
92,716
[8][96]

1938–39
Clyde (1)
4–0
Motherwell
Hampden Park
94,000
[8][97]

1946–47
Aberdeen (1)
2–1
Hibernian
Hampden Park
82,140
[8][98]

1947–48
Rangers (11)
1–1 *
Morton
Hampden Park
129,176
[8][99]

(R)
1–0 *
Hampden Park
133,750
[8][100]

1948–49
Rangers (12)
4–1
Clyde
Hampden Park
108,435
[8][101]

1949–50
Rangers (13)
3–0
East Fife
Hampden Park
118,262
[8][102]

1950–51
Celtic (16)
1–0
Motherwell
Hampden Park
131,943
[8][103]

1951–52
Motherwell (1)
4–0
Dundee
Hampden Park
136,274
[8][104]

1952–53
Rangers (14)
1–1
Aberdeen
Hampden Park
129,761
[8][105]

(R)
1–0
Hampden Park
113,700
[8][106]

1953–54
Celtic (17)
2–1
Aberdeen
Hampden Park
130,060
[8][107]

1954–55
Clyde (2)
1–1
Celtic
Hampden Park
106,234
[8][108]

(R)
1–0
Hampden Park
68,831
[8][109]

1955–56
Heart of Midlothian (5)
3–1
Celtic
Hampden Park
132,840
[8][110]

1956–57
Falkirk (2)
1–1
Kilmarnock
Hampden Park
83,000
[8][111]

(R)
2–1 *
Hampden Park
79,785
[8][112]

1957–58
Clyde (3)
1–0
Hibernian
Hampden Park
95,123
[8][113]

1958–59
St Mirren (2)
3–1
Aberdeen
Hampden Park
108,591
[8][114]

1959–60
Rangers (15)
2–0
Kilmarnock
Hampden Park
108,017
[8][115]

1960–61
Dunfermline Athletic (1)
0–0
Celtic
Hampden Park
113,618
[8][116]

(R)
2–0
Hampden Park
87,866
[8][117]

1961–62
Rangers (16)
2–0
St Mirren
Hampden Park
127,940
[8][118]

1962–63
Rangers (17)
1–1
Celtic
Hampden Park
129,643
[8][119]

(R)
3–0
Hampden Park
120,273
[8][120]

1963–64
Rangers (18)
3–1
Dundee
Hampden Park
120,982
[8][121][122]

1964–65
Celtic (18)
3–2
Dunfermline Athletic
Hampden Park
108,800
[8][123]

1965–66
Rangers (19)
0–0
Celtic
Hampden Park
126,552
[8][124]

(R)
1–0
Hampden Park
98,202
[8][125]

1966–67
Celtic (19)
2–0
Aberdeen
Hampden Park
126,102
[8][126]

1967–68
Dunfermline Athletic (2)
3–1
Heart of Midlothian
Hampden Park
56,365
[8][127]

1968–69
Celtic (20)
4–0
Rangers
Hampden Park
132,000
[8][128]

1969–70
Aberdeen (2)
3–1
Celtic
Hampden Park
108,434
[8][129]

1970–71
Celtic (21)
1–1
Rangers
Hampden Park
120,092
[8][130]

(R)
2–1
Hampden Park
103,332
[8][131]

1971–72
Celtic (22)
6–1
Hibernian
Hampden Park
106,102
[8][132]

1972–73
Rangers (20)
3–2
Celtic
Hampden Park
122,714
[8][133]

1973–74
Celtic (23)
3–0
Dundee United
Hampden Park
75,959
[8][134]

1974–75
Celtic (24)
3–1
Airdrieonians
Hampden Park
75,457
[8][135]

1975–76
Rangers (21)
3–1
Heart of Midlothian
Hampden Park
85,354
[8][136]

1976–77
Celtic (25)
1–0
Rangers
Hampden Park
54,252
[8][137]

1977–78
Rangers (22)
2–1
Aberdeen
Hampden Park
61,563
[8][138]

1978–79
Rangers (23)
0–0
Hibernian
Hampden Park
50,610
[8][139]

(R)
0–0 *
Hampden Park
33,504
[8][140]

(SR)
3–2 *
Hampden Park
30,602
[8][141]

1979–80
Celtic (26)
1–0 *
Rangers
Hampden Park
70,303
[8][142]

1980–81
Rangers (24)
0–0 *
Dundee United
Hampden Park
53,000
[8][143]

(R)
4–1
Hampden Park
43,099
[8][144]

1981–82
Aberdeen (3)
4–1 *
Rangers
Hampden Park
53,788
[8][145]

1982–83
Aberdeen (4)
1–0 *
Rangers
Hampden Park
62,979
[8][146]

1983–84
Aberdeen (5)
2–1 *
Celtic
Hampden Park
58,900
[8][147]

1984–85
Celtic (27)
2–1
Dundee United
Hampden Park
60,346
[8][148]

1985–86
Aberdeen (6)
3–0
Heart of Midlothian
Hampden Park
62,841
[8][149]

1986–87
St Mirren (3)
1–0 *
Dundee United
Hampden Park
51,782
[8][150]

1987–88
Celtic (28)
2–1
Dundee United
Hampden Park
74,000
[8][151]

1988–89
Celtic (29)
1–0
Rangers
Hampden Park
72,069
[8][152]

1989–90
Aberdeen (7)
0–0 †
Celtic
Hampden Park
60,493
[8][153]

1990–91
Motherwell (2)
4–3 *
Dundee United
Hampden Park
57,319
[8][154]

1991–92
Rangers (25)
2–1
Airdrieonians
Hampden Park
44,045
[8][155]

1992–93
Rangers (26)
2–1
Aberdeen
Celtic Park
50,715
[8][156]

1993–94
Dundee United (1)
1–0
Rangers
Hampden Park
37,450
[8][157]

1994–95
Celtic (30)
1–0
Airdrieonians
Hampden Park
36,915
[8][158]

1995–96
Rangers (27)
5–1
Heart of Midlothian
Hampden Park
37,730
[8][159]

1996–97
Kilmarnock (3)
1–0
Falkirk
Ibrox Stadium
48,953
[8][160]

1997–98
Heart of Midlothian (6)
2–1
Rangers
Celtic Park
48,946
[8][161]

1998–99
Rangers (28)
1–0
Celtic
Hampden Park
52,670
[8][162]

1999–00
Rangers (29)
4–0
Aberdeen
Hampden Park
50,865
[8][163]

2000–01
Celtic (31)
3–0
Hibernian
Hampden Park
51,824
[8][164]

2001–02
Rangers (30)
3–2
Celtic
Hampden Park
51,138
[8][165]

2002–03
Rangers (31)
1–0
Dundee
Hampden Park
47,136
[8][166]

2003–04
Celtic (32)
3–1
Dunfermline Athletic
Hampden Park
50,846
[8][167]

2004–05
Celtic (33)
1–0
Dundee United
Hampden Park
50,635
[8][168]

2005–06
Heart of Midlothian (7)
1–1 †
Gretna
Hampden Park
51,232
[8][169]

2006–07
Celtic (34)
1–0
Dunfermline Athletic
Hampden Park
49,600
[8][170]

2007–08
Rangers (32)
3–2
Queen of the South
Hampden Park
48,821
[8][171]

2008–09
Rangers (33)
1–0
Falkirk
Hampden Park
50,956
[8][172]

2009–10
Dundee United (2)
3–0
Ross County
Hampden Park
47,122
[8][173]

2010–11
Celtic (35)
3–0
Motherwell
Hampden Park
49,618
[8]

2011–12
Heart of Midlothian (8)
5–1
Hibernian
Hampden Park
51,041
[8]

2012–13
Celtic (36)
3–0
Hibernian
Hampden Park
51,254
[8]

2013–14
St Johnstone (1)
2–0
Dundee United
Celtic Park
47,345
[8][174]

2014–15
Inverness Caledonian Thistle (1)
2–1
Falkirk
Hampden Park
37,149
[175]

2015–16
Hibernian (3)
3–2
Rangers
Hampden Park
50,701
[176]

2016–17
Celtic (37)
2–1
Aberdeen
Hampden Park
48,713
[177]

text: Performance by club[edit]

text:
Club
Wins
Last win
Runners-up
Last final lost

Celtic
37
2017
18
2002

Rangers
33
2009
18
2016

Queen's Park
10
1893
2
1900

Heart of Midlothian
8
2012
6
1996

Aberdeen
7
1990
9
2017

Hibernian
3
2016
11
2013

Kilmarnock
3
1997
5
1960

Vale of Leven
3
1879
4
1890

Clyde
3
1958
3
1949

St Mirren
3
1987
3
1962

Dundee United
2
2010
8
2014

Motherwell
2
1991
5
2011

Third Lanark
2
1905
4
1936

Falkirk
2
1957
3
2015

Dunfermline Athletic
2
1968
3
2007

Renton
2
1888
3
1895

Dumbarton
1
1883
5
1897

Dundee
1
1910
4
2003

Airdrieonians (1878)
1
1924
3
1995

East Fife
1
1938
2
1950

Greenock Morton
1
1922
1
1948

Partick Thistle
1
1921
1
1930

St. Bernard's
1
1895
—
—

Inverness Caledonian Thistle
1
2015
—
—

St Johnstone
1
2014
—
—

Hamilton Academical
—
—
2
1935

Albion Rovers
—
—
1
1920

Cambuslang
—
—
1
1888

Clydesdale
—
—
1
1874

Gretna
—
—
1
2006

Queen of the South
—
—
1
2008

Raith Rovers
—
—
1
1913

Ross County
—
—
1
2010

Thornliebank
—
—
1
1880

text: Note: The 1909 Scottish Cup Final between Rangers and Celtic is not included in this tally.

text: By City / Town[edit]

text:
City / Town
Wins
Clubs

Glasgow
73
Celtic (37), Rangers (33), Third Lanark (2), Partick Thistle (1)

Edinburgh
12
Heart of Midlothian (8), Hibernian (3), St Bernard's (1)

Aberdeen
7
Aberdeen (7)

Alexandria
3
Vale of Leven (3)

Dundee
3
Dundee United (2), Dundee (1)

Kilmarnock
3
Kilmarnock (3)

Paisley
3
St Mirren (3)

Rutherglen
3
Clyde (3)

Dunfermline
2
Dunfermline Athletic (2)

Falkirk
2
Falkirk (2)

Motherwell
2
Motherwell (2)

Renton
2
Renton (2)

Airdrie
1
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document_title: Stained glass

question_text: when did stained glass windows start in churches

question_tokens: when did stained glass windows start in churches

text: Stained glass

text: Glass production[edit]

text: This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

tag: table

text: During the late medieval period, glass factories were set up where there was a ready supply of silica, the essential material for glass manufacture. Silica requires a very high temperature to melt it, something not all glass factories were able to achieve. Such materials as potash, soda, and lead can be added to lower the melting temperature. Other substances, such as lime, are added to rebuild the weakened network and make the glass more stable. Glass is coloured by adding metallic oxide powders or finely divided metals while it is in a molten state. Copper oxides produce green or bluish green, cobalt makes deep blue, and gold produces wine red and violet glass. Much modern red glass is produced using copper, which is less expensive than gold and gives a brighter, more vermilion shade of red. Glass coloured while in the clay pot in the furnace is known as pot metal glass, as opposed to flashed glass.

text: Cylinder glass or Muff[edit]

text: Using a blow-pipe, a "gather" (glob) of molten glass is taken from the pot heating in the furnace. The gather is formed to the correct shape and a bubble of air blown into it. Using metal tools, molds of wood that have been soaking in water, and gravity, the gather is manipulated to form a long, cylindrical shape. As it cools, it is reheated so that the manipulation can continue. During the process, the bottom of the cylinder is removed. Once brought to the desired size it is left to cool. One side of the cylinder is opened. It is put into another oven to quickly heat and flatten it, and then placed in an annealer to cool at a controlled rate, making the material more stable. "Hand-blown" cylinder (also called muff glass) and crown glass were the types used in ancient stained-glass windows.

text: Crown glass[edit]

text: This hand-blown glass is created by blowing a bubble of air into a gather of molten glass and then spinning it, either by hand or on a table that revolves rapidly like a potter's wheel. The centrifugal force causes the molten bubble to open up and flatten. It can then be cut into small sheets. Glass formed this way can be either coloured and used for stained-glass windows, or uncoloured as seen in small paned windows in 16th- and 17th-century houses. Concentric, curving waves are characteristic of the process. The center of each piece of glass, known as the "bull's-eye", is subject to less acceleration during spinning, so it remains thicker than the rest of the sheet. It also has the distinctive lump of glass left by the "pontil" rod, which holds the glass as it is spun out. This lumpy, refractive quality means the bulls-eyes are less transparent, but they have still been used for windows, both domestic and ecclesiastical. Crown glass is still made today, but not on a large scale.

text: Rolled glass[edit]

text: Rolled glass (sometimes called "table glass") is produced by pouring molten glass onto a metal or graphite table and immediately rolling it into a sheet using a large metal cylinder, similar to rolling out a pie crust. The rolling can be done by hand or by machine. Glass can be "double rolled", which means it is passed through two cylinders at once (similar to the clothes wringers on older washing machines) to yield glass of a specified thickness (typically about 1/8" or 3mm). The glass is then annealed. Rolled glass was first commercially produced around the mid-1830s and is widely used today. It is often called cathedral glass, but this has nothing to do with medieval cathedrals, where the glass used was hand-blown.

text: Flashed glass[edit]

text: Architectural glass must be at least 1/8 of an inch (3 mm) thick to survive the push and pull of typical wind loads. However, in the creation of red glass, the colouring ingredients must be of a certain concentration, or the colour will not develop. This results in a colour so intense that at the thickness of 1/8 inch (3 mm), the red glass transmits little light and appears black. The method employed is to laminate a thin layer of red glass to a thicker body of glass that is clear or lightly tinted, forming "flashed glass".

text: A lightly coloured molten gather is dipped into a pot of molten red glass, which is then blown into a sheet of laminated glass using either the cylinder (muff) or the crown technique described above. Once this method was found for making red glass, other colours were made this way as well. A great advantage is that the double-layered glass can be engraved or abraded to reveal the clear or tinted glass below. The method allows rich detailing and patterns to be achieved without needing to add more lead-lines, giving artists greater freedom in their designs. A number of artists have embraced the possibilities flashed glass gives them. For instance, 16th-century heraldic windows relied heavily on a variety of flashed colours for their intricate crests and creatures. In the medieval period the glass was abraded; later, hydrofluoric acid was used to remove the flash in a chemical reaction (a very dangerous technique), and in the 19th century sandblasting started to be used for this purpose.

text: Modern production of traditional glass[edit]

text: There are a number of glass factories, notably in Germany, USA, England, France, Poland and Russia, which produce high-quality glass, both hand-blown (cylinder, muff, crown) and rolled (cathedral and opalescent). Modern stained-glass artists have a number of resources to use and the work of centuries of other artists from which to learn as they continue the tradition in new ways. In the late 19th and 20th centuries there have been many innovations in techniques and in the types of glass used. Many new types of glass have been developed for use in stained glass windows, in particular Tiffany glass and Dalle de verre.

text: Colours[edit]

text: Transparent glass[edit]

text: Ordinary soda-lime glass appears colourless to the naked eye when it is thin, although iron oxide impurities produce a green tint which becomes evident in thick pieces or can be seen with the aid of scientific instruments. A number of additives are used to reduce the green tint, particularly if the glass is to be used for plain window glass, rather than stained glass windows. Additives that reduce the green tint include manganese dioxide which produces sodium permanganate, and may result in a slightly mauve tint, characteristic of the glass in older houses in New England, USA. Selenium has been used for the same purpose.[1]

text: Green glass[edit]

text: While very pale green is the typical colour of transparent glass, deeper greens can be achieved by the addition of Iron(II) oxide which results in a bluish-green glass. Together with chromium it gives glass of a richer green colour, typical of the glass used to make wine bottles. The addition of chromium yields dark green glass, suitable for flashed glass.[2] Together with tin oxide[clarification needed] and arsenic it yields emerald green glass.

text: Blue glass[edit]

text:
In medieval times, blue glass was made by adding cobalt, which at a concentration of 0.025% to 0.1% in soda-lime glass achieves the brilliant blue characteristic of Chartres Cathedral.
The addition of sulphur to boron-rich borosilicate glasses imparts a blue colour.
The addition of copper oxide at 2–3% produces a turquoise colour.
The addition of nickel, at different concentrations, produces blue, violet, or black glass.[3]

tag: ul

text: Red glass[edit]

text:
Metallic gold, in very low concentrations (around 0.001%), produces a rich ruby-coloured glass ("ruby gold"); in even lower concentrations it produces a less intense red, often marketed as "cranberry glass". The colour is caused by the size and dispersion of gold particles. Ruby gold glass is usually made of lead glass with tin added.
Pure metallic copper produces a very dark red, opaque glass. Glass created in this manner is generally "flashed" (laminated glass). It was used extensively in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and exploited for the decorative effects that could be achieved by sanding and engraving.
Selenium is an important agent to make pink and red glass. When used together with cadmium sulphide, it yields a brilliant red colour known as "Selenium Ruby".[1]

text: Yellow glass[edit]

text:
Silver compounds (notably silver nitrate)[4] are used as stain applied to the surface of glass and fired on.[5] They can produce a range of colours from orange-red to yellow. The way the glass is heated and cooled can significantly affect the colours produced by these compounds. The chemistry involved is complex and not well understood.
The addition of sulphur, together with carbon and iron salts, is used to form iron polysulphides and produce amber glass ranging from yellowish to almost black. With calcium it yields a deep yellow colour.[6]
Adding titanium produces yellowish-brown glass. Titanium is rarely used on its own and is more often employed to intensify and brighten other additives.
Cadmium together with sulphur results in deep yellow colour, often used in glazes. However, cadmium is toxic.
Uranium (0.1% to 2%) can be added to give glass a fluorescent yellow or green colour.[7] Uranium glass is typically not radioactive enough to be dangerous, but if ground into a powder, such as by polishing with sandpaper, and inhaled, it can be carcinogenic. When used with lead glass with a very high proportion of lead, it produces a deep red colour.

text: Purple glass[edit]

text:
The addition of manganese gives an amethyst colour. Manganese is one of the oldest glass additives, and purple manganese glass has been used since early Egyptian history.
Nickel, depending on the concentration, produces blue, or violet, or even black glass.[3] Lead crystal with added nickel acquires a purplish colour.

text: White glass[edit]

text: Tin dioxide with antimony and arsenic oxides produce an opaque white glass, first used in Venice to produce an imitation porcelain. White glass was used extensively by Louis Comfort Tiffany to create a range of opalescent, mottled and streaky glasses.

text:
13th-century window from Chartres showing extensive use of the ubiquitous cobalt blue with green and purple-brown glass, details of amber and borders of flashed red glass.

A 16th-century window by Arnold of Nijmegen showing the combination of painted glass and intense colour common in Renaissance windows

A late 20th-century window showing a graded range of colours. Ronald Whiting, Chapel Studios. Tattershall Castle, UK

A window by Tiffany illustrating the development and use of multi-coloured flashed, opalised and streaky glasses at the end of the 19th century

text: Creating stained glass windows[edit]

text: Design[edit]

text: The first stage in the production of a window is to make, or acquire from the architect or owners of the building, an accurate template of the window opening that the glass is to fit.

text: The subject matter of the window is determined to suit the location, a particular theme, or the wishes of the patron. A small design called a Vidimus (from Latin "we have seen") is prepared which can be shown to the patron. A scaled model maquette may also be provided. The designer must take into account the design, the structure of the window, the nature and size of the glass available and his or her own preferred technique.

text: A traditional narrative window has panels which relate a story. A figurative window could have rows of saints or dignitaries. Scriptural texts or mottoes are sometimes included and perhaps the names of the patrons or the person to whose memory the window is dedicated. In a window of a traditional type, it is usually left to the discretion of the designer to fill the surrounding areas with borders, floral motifs and canopies.

text: A full-sized cartoon is drawn for every "light" (opening) of the window. A small church window might typically have two lights, with some simple tracery lights above. A large window might have four or five lights. The east or west window of a large cathedral might have seven lights in three tiers, with elaborate tracery. In medieval times the cartoon was drawn directly on the surface of a whitewashed table, which was then used as a pattern for cutting, painting and assembling the window. The cartoon is then divided into a patchwork, providing a template for each small glass piece. The exact position of the lead which holds the glass in place is also noted, as it is part of the calculated visual effect.

text: Selecting and painting the glass[edit]

text: Each piece of glass is selected for the desired colour and cut to match a section of the template. An exact fit is ensured by "grozing" the edges with a tool which can nibble off small pieces.

text: Details of faces, hair and hands can be painted onto the inner surface of the glass using a special glass paint which contains finely ground lead or copper filings, ground glass, gum arabic and a medium such as wine, vinegar or (traditionally) urine. The art of painting details became increasingly elaborate and reached its height in the early 20th century.

text: From 1300 onwards, artists started using "silver stain" which was made with silver nitrate. It gave a yellow effect ranging from pale lemon to deep orange. It was usually painted onto the outside of a piece of glass, then fired to make it permanent. This yellow was particularly useful for enhancing borders, canopies and haloes, and turning blue glass into green glass.

text: By about 1450, a stain known as "Cousin's rose" was used to enhance flesh tones.

text: In the 16th century, a range of glass stains were introduced, most of them coloured by ground glass particles. They were a form of enamel. Painting on glass with these stains was initially used for small heraldic designs and other details. By the 17th century a style of stained glass had evolved that was no longer dependent upon the skilful cutting of coloured glass into sections. Scenes were painted onto glass panels of square format, like tiles. The colours were then annealed to the glass before the pieces were assembled.

text: A method used for embellishment and gilding is the decoration of one side of each of two pieces of thin glass, which are then placed back to back within the lead came. This allows for the use of techniques such as Angel gilding and Eglomise to produce an effect visible from both sides but not exposing the decorated surface to the atmosphere or mechanical damage.

text: Assembly and mounting[edit]

text: Once the glass is cut and painted, the pieces are assembled by slotting them into H-sectioned lead cames. All the joints are then soldered together and the glass pieces are prevented from rattling and the window made weatherproof by forcing a soft oily cement or mastic between the glass and the cames. In modern windows, copper foil is now sometimes used instead of lead. For further technical details, see Came glasswork.

text: Traditionally, when a window was inserted into the window space, iron rods were put across it at various points to support its weight. The window was tied to these rods with copper wire. Some very large early Gothic windows are divided into sections by heavy metal frames called ferramenta. This method of support was also favoured for large, usually painted, windows of the Baroque period.

text:
Technical details

Maquette by Heaton, Butler and Bayne, 19th-century English manufacturers

Skilled glass cutting and leading in a 19th-century window at Meaux Cathedral, France

A small panel by G. Owen Bonawit at Yale University, c. 1930, demonstrates grisaille glass painting enlivened with silver stain.

Swiss armourial glass of the Arms of Unterwalden, 1564, with typical painted details, extensive silver stain, Cousin's rose on the face, and flashed ruby glass with abraded white motif

text: History[edit]

text: Origins[edit]

text: Coloured glass has been produced since ancient times. Both the Egyptians and the Romans excelled at the manufacture of small coloured glass objects. Phoenicia was important in glass manufacture with its chief centres Sidon, Tyre and Antioch. The British Museum holds two of the finest Roman pieces, the Lycurgus Cup, which is a murky mustard colour but glows purple-red to transmitted light, and the Portland vase which is midnight blue, with a carved white overlay.

text: In early Christian churches of the 4th and 5th centuries, there are many remaining windows which are filled with ornate patterns of thinly-sliced alabaster set into wooden frames, giving a stained-glass like effect.

text: Evidence of stained glass windows in churches and monasteries in Britain can be found as early as the 7th century. The earliest known reference dates from 675 AD when Benedict Biscop imported workmen from France to glaze the windows of the monastery of St Peter which he was building at Monkwearmouth. Hundreds of pieces of coloured glass and lead, dating back to the late 7th century, have been discovered here and at Jarrow.[8]

text: In the Middle East, the glass industry of Syria continued during the Islamic period with major centres of manufacture at Raqqa, Aleppo and Damascus and the most important products being highly transparent colourless glass and gilded glass, rather than coloured glass.

text:
A perfume flask from 100 BC to 200 AD

The Portland Vase, a rare example of Roman flashed glass

An alabaster window in Orvieto Cathedral, Italy

text: Stained glass in South West Asia[edit]

text: The production of coloured glass in Southwest Asia existed by the 8th century, at which time the alchemist Jābir ibn Hayyān, in Kitab al-Durra al-Maknuna, gave 46 recipes for producing coloured glass and described the technique of cutting glass into artificial gemstones.[9] The tradition of stained glass manufacture has continued, with mosques, alaces and public spaces being decorated with stained glass throughout the Islamic world. The stained glass of Islam is essentially non-pictorial, in the context of religious idology. It is generally of purely geometric design, but may contain both floral motifs and text.

text:
Stained glass in the Nasir al-Mulk mosque in Shiraz, Iran

Stained glass in Dowlat Abad Garden at Yazd, Iran

From a mosque in Jerusalem, this window contains highly detailed text.

text: Medieval glass in Europe[edit]

text: Stained glass, as an art form, reached its height in the Middle Ages when it became a major pictorial form used to illustrate the narratives of the Bible to a largely illiterate populace.

text: In the Romanesque and Early Gothic period, from about 950 to 1240, the untraceried windows demanded large expanses of glass which of necessity were supported by robust iron frames, such as may be seen at Chartres Cathedral and at the eastern end of Canterbury Cathedral. As Gothic architecture developed into a more ornate form, windows grew larger, affording greater illumination to the interiors, but were divided into sections by vertical shafts and tracery of stone. This elaboration of form reached its height of complexity in the Flamboyant style in Europe, and windows grew still larger with the development of the Perpendicular style in England.

text: Integrated with the lofty verticals of Gothic cathedrals and parish churches, glass designs became more daring. The circular form, or rose window, developed in France from relatively simple windows with openings pierced through slabs of thin stone to wheel windows, as exemplified by the west front of Chartres Cathedral, and ultimately to designs of enormous complexity, the tracery being drafted from hundreds of different points, such as those at Sainte-Chapelle, Paris and the "Bishop's Eye" at Lincoln Cathedral.

text: While stained glass was widely manufactured, Chartres was the greatest centre of stained glass manufacture, producing glass of unrivalled quality.[10]

text:
Medieval glass in France

Detail of a 13th-century window from Chartres Cathedral

Charlemagne from a Romanesque window in Strasbourg Cathedral

The Crucifixion window of Poitiers Cathedral

text:
Medieval glass in Germany and Austria

King David from Augsburg Cathedral, early 12th century. One of the oldest examples in situ.

Crucifixion with SS Catherine, George and Margaret, Leechkirche, Graz, Austria

The Crucifixion and Virgin and Child in Majesty, Cologne Cathedral, (1340)

The windows of the choir of Cologne Cathedral, (early 14th century)

text:
Medieval glass in England

Detail of a Tree of Jesse from York Minster (c. 1170), the oldest stained glass window in England.

South Transept window at Canterbury Cathedral, 13th century

The west window of York Minster

The Last Judgement, St Mary's Church, Fairford, (1500–17) by Barnard Flower[11]

text:
Medieval glass in Spain

Stained glass windows in the León Cathedral (13th to 15th century)

Stained glass windows in the León Cathedral (13th to 15th century)

Stained glass windows in the Toledo Cathedral (14th to 17th century)

Stained glass windows in the Toledo Cathedral (14th to 17th century)

text: Renaissance, Reformation and Classical windows[edit]

text: Probably the earliest scheme of stained glass windows that was created during the Renaissance was that for Florence Cathedral, devised by Lorenzo Ghiberti.[12] The scheme includes three ocular windows for the dome and three for the facade which were designed from 1405 to 1445 by several of the most renowned artists of this period: Ghiberti, Donatello, Uccello and Andrea del Castagno. Each major ocular window contains a single picture drawn from the Life of Christ or the Life of the Virgin Mary, surrounded by a wide floral border, with two smaller facade windows by Ghiberti showing the martyred deacons, St Stephen and St Lawrence. One of the cupola windows has since been lost, and that by Donatello has lost nearly all of its painted details.[12]

text: In Europe, stained glass continued to be produced; the style evolved from the Gothic to the Classical, which is well represented in Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands, despite the rise of Protestantism. In France, much glass of this period was produced at the Limoges factory, and in Italy at Murano, where stained glass and faceted lead crystal are often coupled together in the same window. The French Revolution brought about the neglect or destruction of many windows in France.

text: At the Reformation in England, large numbers of medieval and Renaissance windows were smashed and replaced with plain glass. The Dissolution of the Monasteries under Henry VIII and the injunctions of Thomas Cromwell against "abused images" (the object of veneration) resulted in the loss of thousands of windows. Few remain undamaged; of these the windows in the private chapel at Hengrave Hall in Suffolk are among the finest. With the latter wave of destruction the traditional methods of working with stained glass died, and were not rediscovered in England until the early 19th century. See Stained glass – British glass, 1811–1918 for more details.

text: In the Netherlands a rare scheme of glass has remained intact at Grote Sint-Jan Church, Gouda. The windows, some of which are 18 metres (59 feet) high, date from 1555 to the early 1600s; the earliest is the work of Dirck Crabeth and his brother Wouter. Many of the original cartoons still exist.[13]

text:
The Resurrection, Paolo Uccello, (1443–45) one of a series in the dome of Florence Cathedral designed by renowned Renaissance artists.

Tree of Jesse window, Church of St-Étienne, Beauvais, France, Engrand Le Prince, (1522–1524)

Detail of Adam and Eve from the Cathedral of St-Etienne, Châlons-en-Champagne, France

Renaissance window in the church of SS Giovanni and Paolo, Venice 16th century

The Triumph of Freedom of Conscience, Sint Janskerk, maker Adriaen Gerritszoon de Vrije (Gouda); design Joachim Wtewael (Utrecht) (1595–1600)

Domestic window by Dirck Crabeth for the house of Adriaen Dircxzoon van Crimpen of Leiden. (1543) The windows show scenes from the lives of the Prophet Samuel and the Apostle Paul. Musée des Arts Décoratifs, Paris.[13]

The Passion of Christ: the Capture and Crucifixion, Saint-Pierre, Limours, Essonne, France, (1520)

Glass painting depicting Mordnacht (murder night) on 23/24 February 1350 and heraldry of the first Meisen guild's Zunfthaus, Zürich. (c. 1650)

The story of how the Crown of Thorns passed from John of Brienne and Baldwin II of Constantinople to Saint Louis IX of France, Moulins Cathedral (16th century)

The Death and Assumption of the Virgin Mary, Church of SS Ägidius and Koloman, Steyr, Austria

text: Revival in Britain[edit]

text: The Catholic revival in England, gaining force in the early 19th century with its renewed interest in the medieval church, brought a revival of church building in the Gothic style, claimed by John Ruskin to be "the true Catholic style". The architectural movement was led by Augustus Welby Pugin. Many new churches were planted in large towns and many old churches were restored. This brought about a great demand for the revival of the art of stained glass window making.

text: Among the earliest 19th-century English manufacturers and designers were William Warrington and John Hardman of Birmingham, whose nephew, John Hardman Powell, had a commercial eye and exhibited works at the Philadelphia Exhibition of 1876, influencing stained glass in the United States of America. Other manufacturers included William Wailes, Ward and Hughes, Clayton and Bell, Heaton, Butler and Bayne and Charles Eamer Kempe. A Scottish designer, Daniel Cottier, opened firms in Australia and the US.

text:
Detail, Apostles John and Paul, Hardman of Birmingham, 1861–67, typical of Hardman in its elegant arrangement of figures and purity of colour. St. Andrew's Cathedral, Sydney

One of England's largest windows, the east window of Lincoln Cathedral, Ward and Nixon (1855), is a formal arrangement of small narrative scenes in roundels

William Wailes. This window has the bright pastel colour, wealth of inventive ornament, and stereotypical gestures of windows by this firm. St Mary's, Chilham

Clayton and Bell. A narrative window with elegant forms and colour which is both brilliant and subtle in its combinations. Peterborough Cathedral

text: Revival in France[edit]

text: In France there was a greater continuity of stained glass production than in England. In the early 19th century most stained glass was made of large panes that were extensively painted and fired, the designs often being copied directly from oil paintings by famous artists. In 1824 the Sèvres porcelain factory began producing stained glass to supply the increasing demand. In France many churches and cathedrals suffered despoliation during the French Revolution. During the 19th century a great number of churches were restored by Viollet-le-Duc. Many of France's finest ancient windows were restored at that time. From 1839 onwards much stained glass was produced that very closely imitated medieval glass, both in the artwork and in the nature of the glass itself. The pioneers were Henri Gèrente and André Lusson.[14] Other glass was designed in a more Classical manner, and characterised by the brilliant cerulean colour of the blue backgrounds (as against the purple-blue of the glass of Chartres) and the use of pink and mauve glass.

text:
Detail of a "Tree of Jesse" window in Reims Cathedral designed in the 13th-century style by L. Steiheil and painted by Coffetier for Viollet-le-Duc, (1861)

St Louis administering Justice by Lobin in the painterly style. (19th century) Church of St Medard, Thouars.

A brilliantly-coloured window at Cassagnes-Bégonhès, Aveyron

West window from Saint-Urbain, Troyes, (about 1900)

text: Revival[edit]

text: During the mid- to late 19th century, many of Germany's ancient buildings were restored, and some, such as Cologne Cathedral, were completed in the medieval style. There was a great demand for stained glass. The designs for many windows were based directly on the work of famous engravers such as Albrecht Dürer. Original designs often imitate this style. Much 19th-century German glass has large sections of painted detail rather than outlines and details dependent on the lead. The Royal Bavarian Glass Painting Studio was founded by Ludwig I in 1827.[14] A major firm was Mayer of Munich, which commenced glass production in 1860, and is still operating as Franz Mayer of Munich, Inc.. German stained glass found a market across Europe, in America and Australia. Stained glass studios were also founded in Italy and Belgium at this time.[14]

text: In the Austrian Empire and later Austria-Hungary, one of the leading stained glass artists was Carl Geyling, who founded his studio in 1841. His son would continue the tradition as Carl Geyling's Erben, which still exists today. Carl Geyling's Erben completed numerous stained glass windows for major churches in Vienna and elsewhere, and received an Imperial and Royal Warrant of Appointment from emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria.

text:
One of five windows donated to Cologne Cathedral by Ludwig II

Ghent Cathedral, Belgium

A window in the Late Gothic style, St Maurice's Church, Olomouc, Czech Republic, early 20th century

text: Innovations in Britain and Europe[edit]

text: Among the most innovative English designers were the Pre-Raphaelites, William Morris (1834–1898) and Edward Burne-Jones (1833–1898), whose work heralds the influential Arts & Crafts Movement, which regenerated stained glass throughout the English-speaking world. Amongst its most important exponents in England was Christopher Whall (1849-1924), author of the classic craft manual 'Stained Glass Work' (published London and New York, 1905), who advocated the direct involvement of designers in the making of their windows. His masterpiece is the series of windows (1898-1910) in the Lady Chapel at Gloucester Cathedral. Whall taught at London's Royal College of Art and Central School of Arts and Crafts: his many pupils and followers included Karl Parsons, Mary Lowndes, Henry Payne, Caroline Townshend, Veronica Whall (his daughter) and Paul Woodroffe.[15] The Scottish artist Douglas Strachan (1875-1950), who was much influenced by Whall's example, developed the Arts & Crafts idiom in an expressionist manner, in which powerful imagery and meticulous technique are masterfully combined. In Ireland, a generation of young artists taught by Whall's pupil Alfred Child at Dublin's Metropolitan School of Art created a distinctive national school of stained glass: its leading representatives were Wilhelmina Geddes, Michael Healy and Harry Clarke.

text: Art Nouveau. Art Nouveau or Belle Epoch stained glass design flourished in France, and Eastern Europe, where it can be identified by the use of curving, sinuous lines in the lead, and swirling motifs. In France it is seen in the work of Francis Chigot of Limoges. In Britain it appears in the refined and formal leadlight designs of Charles Rennie Macintosh.

text:
David's charge to Solomon shows the strongly linear design and use of flashed glass for which Burne-Jones' designs are famous. Trinity Church, Boston, US, (1882)

God the Creator by Stanisław Wyspiański, this window has no glass painting, but relies entirely on leadlines and skilful placement of colour and tone. Franciscan Church, Kraków (c. 1900)

Window by Alfons Mucha, Saint Vitus Cathedral Prague, has a montage of images, rather than a tightly organised visual structure, creating an Expressionistic effect.

Art Nouveau by Jacques Grüber, the glass harmonising with the curving architectural forms that surround it, Musée de l'École de Nancy (1904).

text: Innovations in the United States[edit]

text: J&R Lamb Studios, established in 1857 in New York City, was the first major decorative arts studio in the United States and for many years a major producer of ecclesiastical stained glass.

text: Notable American practitioners include John La Farge (1835–1910), who invented opalescent glass and for which he received a U.S. patent on 24 February 1880, and Louis Comfort Tiffany (1848–1933), who received several patents for variations of the same opalescent process in November of the same year and is believed to have invented the copper foil method as an alternative to lead, and used it extensively in windows, lamps and other decorations. However, a reaction against the aesthetics and technique of opalescent windows - led initially by architects such as Ralph Adams Cram - led to a rediscovery of traditional stained glass in the early 1900s. Charles J. Connick (1875-1945), who founded his Boston studio in 1913, was profoundly influenced by his study of medieval stained glass in Europe and by the Arts & Crafts philosophy of Englishman Christopher Whall. Connick created hundreds of windows throughout the USA, including major glazing schemes at Princeton University Chapel (1927-9) and at Pittsburgh's Heinz Memorial Chapel (1937-8).[15] Other American artist-makers who espoused a medieval-inspired idiom included Nicola D'Ascenzo of Philadelphia, Wilbur Burnham and Reynolds, Francis & Rohnstock of Boston and Henry Wynd Young and J. Gordon Guthrie of New York.

text:
Many of the distinctive types of glass invented by Tiffany are demonstrated within this single small panel including "fracture-streamer glass" and "drapery glass".

John La Farge, The Angel of Help, North Easton, MA shows the use of tiny panes contrasting with large areas of flashed or opalescent glass.

Religion Enthroned, J&R Lamb Studios, designer Frederick Stymetz Lamb, c. 1900. Brooklyn Museum. Symmetrical design, "Aesthetic Style", a limited palette and extensive use of mottled glass.

The Holy City by Louis Comfort Tiffany (1905). This 58-panel window has brilliant red, orange, and yellow etched glass for the sunrise, with textured glass used to create the effect of moving water.

A trompe l'oeil glass c. 1884, Eugène Stanislas Oudinot, design Richard Morris Hunt, for home of Henry Gurdon Marquand, New York City.

text: 20th and 21st centuries[edit]

text: Many 19th-century firms failed early in the 20th century as the Gothic movement was superseded by newer styles. At the same time there were also some interesting developments where stained glass artists took studios in shared facilities. Examples include the Glass House in London set up by Mary Lowndes and Alfred J. Drury and An Túr Gloine in Dublin, which was run by Sarah Purser and included artists such as Harry Clarke.

text: A revival occurred in the middle of the century because of a desire to restore thousands of church windows throughout Europe destroyed as a result of World War II bombing. German artists led the way. Much work of the period is mundane and often was not made by its designers, but industrially produced.

text: Other artists sought to transform an ancient art form into a contemporary one, sometimes using traditional techniques while exploiting the medium of glass in innovative ways and in combination with different materials. The use of slab glass set in concrete was a 20th-century innovation. Gemmail, a technique developed by the French artist Jean Crotti in 1936 and perfected in the 1950s, is a type of stained glass where adjacent pieces of glass are overlapped without using lead cames to join the pieces, allowing for greater diversity and subtlety of colour.[16][17] Definition of Gemmail Many famous works by late 19th- and early 20th-century painters, notably Picasso, have been reproduced in gemmail.[18] A major exponent of this technique is the German artist Walter Womacka.

text: Among the early well-known 20th-century artists who experimented with stained glass as an Abstract art form were Theo van Doesburg and Piet Mondrian. In the 1960s and 1970s the Expressionist painter Marc Chagall produced designs for many stained glass windows that are intensely coloured and crammed with symbolic details. Important 20th-century stained glass artists include John Hayward, Douglas Strachan, Ervin Bossanyi, Louis Davis, Wilhelmina Geddes, Karl Parsons, John Piper, Patrick Reyntiens, Johannes Shreiter, Judith Schaechter, Paul Woodroffe, Jean René Bazaine at Saint Séverin, Sergio de Castro at Couvrechef- La Folie (Caen), Hamburg-Dulsberg and Romont (Switzerland), and the Loire Studio of Gabriel Loire at Chartres. The west windows of England's Manchester Cathedral, by Tony Hollaway, are some of the most notable examples of symbolic work.

text: In Germany, stained glass development continued with the inter-war work of Johan Thorn Prikker and Josef Albers, and the postwar achievements of Joachim Klos, Johannes Schreiter and Ludwig Shaffrath. Trends included the abandonment of figurative designs and of painting on glass in favour of a mix of biomorphic and rigorously geometric abstraction and the calligraphic non-functional use of leads.[19] The works of Ludwig Schaffrath demonstrate the late 20th-century trends in the use of stained glass for architectural purposes, filling entire walls with coloured and textured glass. In the 1970s young British stained-glass artists such as Brian Clarke were influenced by the large scale and abstraction in German twentieth-century glass.[19]

text: In the UK, the professional organisation for stained glass artists has been the British Society of Master Glass Painters, founded in 1921. Since 1924 the BSMGP has published an annual journal, The Journal of Stained Glass. It continues to be Britain's only organisation devoted exclusively to the art and craft of stained glass. From the outset, its chief objectives have been to promote and encourage high standards in stained glass painting and staining, to act as a locus for the exchange of information and ideas within the stained glass craft and to preserve the invaluable stained glass heritage of Britain. See www.bsmgp.org.uk for a range of stained glass lectures, conferences, tours, portfolios of recent stained glass commissions by members, and information on courses and the conservation of stained glass. Back issues of The Journal of Stained Glass are listed and there is a searchable index for stained glass articles, an invaluable resource for stained glass researchers.

text: In the United States, there is a 100-year-old trade organization, The Stained Glass Association of America, whose purpose is to function as a publicly recognized organization to assure survival of the craft by offering guidelines, instruction and training to craftspersons. The SGAA also sees its role as defending and protecting its craft against regulations that might restrict its freedom as an architectural art form. The current president is B. Gunar Gruenke of the Conrad Schmitt Studios. Today there are academic establishments that teach the traditional skills. One of these is Florida State University's Master Craftsman Program, which recently completed a 30 ft (9.1 m) high stained-glass windows installed in Bobby Bowden Field at Doak Campbell Stadium. The Roots of Knowledge installation at Utah Valley University in Orem, Utah is 200 feet (61 m) long and has been compared to those in several European cathedrals, including the Cologne Cathedral in Germany, Sainte-Chapelle in France, and York Minster in England.[20]

text:
De Stijl abstraction by Theo van Doesburg, Netherlands (1917)

Expressionist window by Marc Chagall, at All Saints' Church, Tudeley, Kent, UK

Socialist Realism by Walter Womacka, Berlin, (c. 1965) demonstrating the use of overlaid and laminated glass

Christ of the Eucharist designed by the monks of Buckfast Abbey, Devon, England, slab glass.

One of four 64-metre (210 ft)-high stained glass panels, Rio de Janeiro Cathedral, Brazil

Postmodernist symbolism, Tree of Life at Christinae church, Alingsås, Sweden.

The Bald Eagle, from commercial studios working with traditional techniques, Dryden High School, USA

Thin slices of agate set into lead and glass, Grossmünster, Zürich, Switzerland, by Sigmar Polke (2009)

Sergio de Castro, 7th Day of Creation, Church of the Benedictines, Caen (France).

Sergio de Castro, detail of Jonah window for the Collegiate of Romont (Switzerland).

text: Combining ancient and modern traditions[edit]

text:
Mid-20th-century window showing a continuation of ancient and 19th-century methods applied to a modern historical subject. Florence Nightingale window at St Peters, Derby, made for the Derbyshire Royal Infirmary

Figurative design using the lead lines and minimal glass paint in the 13th-century manner combined with the texture of Cathedral glass, Ins, Switzerland

St Michael and the Devil at the church of St Michael Paternoster Row, by English artist John Hayward combines traditional methods with a distinctive use of shard-like sections of glass.

Postmodern design of etched glass text and cathedral glass books set as a trompe l'oeil, LGBT pride Libraries, University of Western Ontario, artist: Lynette Richards

text: Buildings incorporating stained glass windows[edit]

text: Churches

text: Stained glass windows were commonly used in churches for decorative and informative purposes. Many windows are donated to churches by members of the congregation as memorials of loved ones. For more information on the use of stained glass to depict religious subjects, see Poor Man's Bible.

text:
Important examples

Cathedral of Chartres, in France, 11th- to 13th-century glass
Canterbury Cathedral, in England, 12th to 15th century plus 19th- and 20th-century glass
York Minster, in England, 11th- to 15th-century glass
Sainte-Chapelle, in Paris, 13th- and 14th-century glass
Florence Cathedral, Italy, 15th-century glass designed by Uccello, Donatello and Ghiberti
St. Andrew's Cathedral, Sydney, Australia, early complete cycle of 19th-century glass, Hardman of Birmingham.
Fribourg Cathedral, Switzerland, complete cycle of glass 1896-1936, by Józef Mehoffer
Coventry Cathedral, England, mid-20th-century glass by various designers, the large baptistry window being by John Piper
Brown Memorial Presbyterian Church, extensive collection of windows by Louis Comfort Tiffany

text: Synagogues In addition to Christian churches, stained glass windows have been incorporated into Jewish temple architecture for centuries. Jewish communities in the United States saw this emergence in mid-19th century, with such notable examples as the sanctuary depiction of the Ten Commandments in New York's Congregation Anshi Chesed. From the mid-20th century to the present, stained glass windows have been a ubiquitous feature of American synagogue architecture. Styles and themes for synagogue stained glass artwork are as diverse as their church counterparts. As with churches, synagogue stained glass windows are often dedicated by member families in exchange for major financial contributions to the institution.

text: Places of worship

text:
The dazzling display of medieval glass at Sainte-Chapelle, Paris

The chancel windows of the Church of Our Lady, Koblenz, Germany

Sunlight shining through stained glass onto coloured carpet of Nasir ol Molk Mosque

Interior of the Blue Mosque, Istanbul.

Stained glass windows in the Mosque of Srinagar, Kashmir

St. Andrew's Cathedral, Sydney has a cycle of 19th-century windows by Hardman of Birmingham

Cathedral of St. John the Baptist in Savannah, Georgia

Coventry Cathedral England, has a series of windows by different designers.

Late 20th-century stained glass from Temple Ohev Sholom, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania by Ascalon Studios.

text: Houses

text: Stained glass windows in houses were particularly popular in the Victorian era and many domestic examples survive. In their simplest form they typically depict birds and flowers in small panels, often surrounded with machine-made cathedral glass which, despite what the name suggests, is pale-coloured and textured. Some large homes have splendid examples of secular pictorial glass. Many small houses of the 19th and early 20th centuries have leadlight windows.

text:
Prairie style homes
The houses of Frank Lloyd Wright

text: Shabaka (stained glass) at the Palace of Shaki Khans

text: Public and commercial use of stained glass Stained glass has often been used as a decorative element in public buildings, initially in places of learning, government or justice but increasingly in other public and commercial places such as banks, retailers and railway stations. Public houses in some countries make extensive use of stained glass and leaded lights to create a comfortable atmosphere and retain privacy.

text:
Stained glass in the Town Hall, Liberec, Czech Republic

Windows of the Hungarian Room, University of Pittsburgh

The Federal Palace, Switzerland

Abstract design by Marcelle Ferron at a Metro station in Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Windows by Mordecai Ardon at the Jewish National and University Library, Jerusalem

text: Sculpture

text:
The Four Seasons (1978) by Leonard French at La Trobe University Sculpture Park in Melbourne. Australia

Fused glass sculpture (2012) by Carlo Roccella Glass Sculpture in Paris. France


document_title: Cowboys–Steelers rivalry

question_text: when was the last time steelers beat the cowboys

text: Cowboys–Steelers rivalry

text: Similarities between the two regions[edit]

text: Western Pennsylvania with the Pittsburgh Tri-State area (including parts of Northern West Virginia and Eastern Ohio) and the entire state of Texas are known to be football hotbeds at all levels. High school football in both regions draws crowds in the tens of thousands and gets regular press coverage in both regions. The local communities in both regions usually shut down local businesses for these games, which also serve as the largest social gathering for many of these communities.

text: College football is popular in both regions, and have produced powerhouse football teams. Four of the ten Big 12 Conference schools are located in Texas, while Pitt Panthers, Penn State Nittany Lions and West Virginia Mountaineers are in the Pittsburgh Tri-State Region with many fans of the nearby Ohio State Buckeyes residing in the area. In addition to these traditional powers, during the birth of the college game the Pittsburgh city schools of Duquesne University, Carnegie Mellon University and Washington & Jefferson College all qualified for multiple major-bowls in the 1910s through the 1940s and annually ranked in the top 10 of the AP. While in Texas the Longhorns have had at least one player selected in each of the last 71 NFL Drafts dating back to 1938,[2] while Penn State itself had a 53-year draft streak that ended in 2005.[3]

text: Pro Football Hall of Fame defensive lineman Ernie Stautner, who played his entire 14-year career with the Steelers, later served as defensive coordinator under Cowboys head coach and fellow Hall of Famer Tom Landry during the Cowboys successful run in the 1970s, while the Cowboys would later draft another Hall of Famer, Tony Dorsett, the Pitt standout and Heisman Trophy winner and native of the Pittsburgh suburb of Hopewell Township. Both of Dallas' 1970s Super Bowl MVP's--Chuck Howley and Randy White—hail from the Pittsburgh Tri-State, as well as Super Bowls V and VI Cowboys star Mike Ditka. Conversely, two members of the Steelers' famed Steel Curtain defensive line (Ernie Holmes and "Mean Joe" Greene) are Texas natives, as is former Steelers Pro Bowl nose tackle Casey Hampton, as well as the player that Chuck Noll chose in front of Dan Marino during the 1983 NFL Draft, Gabriel Rivera. Former Buffalo Bills head coach Chan Gailey served as offensive coordinator in Pittsburgh before becoming the head coach of the Cowboys for two years in the late 1990s.

text: There have also been demographic shifts in both regions that have contributed to Pittsburgh fans living in Dallas, and Dallas fans living in Pittsburgh. In the 1980s the Pittsburgh region was hit hard by the decline and closure of many steel mills and related industries in the region. Many left the region to find work elsewhere, including Texas.[4] Since this was shortly after the Super Bowl teams of the 1970s, fans' allegiance to the Steelers naturally stayed strong – the beginnings of Steeler Nation. In the mid-2000s the reverse happened – Marcellus Shale drilling in the Pittsburgh Metropolitan region brought a significant influx of Texans and Oklahomans to the region due to the expertise needed to drill wells and related personnel originally from the Dallas-Fort Worth Metroplex. Today there are significant numbers of persons living in the Dallas Metroplex and Houston that were born and raised in the Pittsburgh region,[5] as well as significant numbers of North Texans living in the southern and western areas of the Pittsburgh Metropolitan region[citation needed]. Finally, a large number of native Texans that lived outside the DFW Metroplex adopted the Steelers during the 1970s, in what seems to be a type of blowback for the cultural pervasiveness of the "big city" "America's Team" phenomenon. This group of Steeler fans mostly grew up in East Texas[citation needed].

text: History[edit]

text: 1952–1960: Before the Cowboys[edit]

text: The roots to the Cowboys–Steelers rivalry can be traced several years before the Cowboys played a game, and to another team entirely. Following the 1951 NFL season, New York Yanks owner Ted Collins sold his team back to the NFL due to financial difficulties competing with the New York Giants in the same market, as well as the All-America Football Conference folding just two years before and putting a severe drain on the team.

text: Not wanting the team to compete with the Giants in the same market, the NFL decided to move the rights to the franchise to either the Dallas – Fort Worth Metroplex or Baltimore. Baltimore had previously been home to an NFL team, the original Baltimore Colts which had come over from the AAFC along with the Cleveland Browns and San Francisco 49ers, but had folded after the 1950 NFL season due to financial difficulties despite strong fan support. Dallas, and the state of Texas in general, was a true expansion market that was untapped, and the NFL owners liked the appeal that Dallas offered due to the aforementioned following of football in the state.

text: The NFL owners voted 10–1 to award the assets of the Yanks to the Dallas group led by Giles Miller as opposed to the Baltimore group, which became the Dallas Texans. The lone holdout was Steelers founder and owner Art Rooney.[6] Rooney, an Irish Catholic, was more tolerant of African Americans than the other owners (most of whom were Protestant and had their own discrimination towards Catholics) and was concerned about the racism that existed in the Southern United States at the time and the subsequent civil rights movement that would take place later in the decade. Rooney's assumptions would be later proven correct: while the Texans struggled on the field, it also struggled at the gate partly because two of the team's best players, George Taliaferro and Buddy Young, were both black, which made fans in Texas automatically turn away from the team simply because of prejudice.

text: The Texans folded after the 1952 NFL season and their assets would be sold to Carroll Rosenbloom to form the new Baltimore Colts, which currently play in Indianapolis.

text: 1960–1969: Early years[edit]

text: After the failure of the Texans, the NFL had no plans to return to the state in the foreseeable future. However, in 1959, Lamar Hunt, the son of oil tycoon H. L. Hunt, approached the NFL about putting another expansion team in Dallas. The NFL said no, stating that the league was not expanding at the time. He then approached the Chicago Cardinals about buying the team from owner Violet Bidwill Wolfner, who ultimately decided to keep the team and whose son Bill Bidwill remains the owner (the Cardinals did move to St. Louis, Missouri for the 1960 NFL season; the team currently is based in Phoenix, Arizona; the Cowboys and Cardinals were divisional rivals from 1961–66, and again from 1970–2001). Due to these rebuffs, Hunt formed the American Football League with his own Dallas team, the AFL's incarnation of the Dallas Texans.

text: In response, the NFL suddenly reversed course and awarded an expansion team to Dallas for the 1960 season that ultimately became the Cowboys. The plan worked: although the Texans were by far the better team on the field and won the 1962 AFL Championship, due to the Cowboys being part of the more-established NFL, the Texans took their AFL Championship north to Kansas City, Missouri, where they remain as the Kansas City Chiefs.

text: In the meantime, the Cowboys started play in the NFL in 1960. Their first game was against the same Steelers team that voted against putting an NFL team in Dallas eight years earlier, with the Steelers coming away with a 35–28 victory at the Cotton Bowl, en route to an 0–11–1 first season for the Cowboys. The following year, the two teams met again in the season opener at the Cotton Bowl and the results would be different: the young Cowboys beat the veteran-filled Steelers 27–24, the first victory for the Cowboys in franchise history.

text: The two teams would head in opposite directions the rest of the decade, with the Cowboys competing for the NFL championship in 1966 and 1967 (both losses to the Vince Lombardi-led Green Bay Packers, the latter matchup in the Ice Bowl) while the Steelers would be among the NFL's worst teams, culminating in a 1–13 record in 1969 that saw the team win its season opener against the Detroit Lions, then lose every game afterwards in the first season of Hall of Fame head coach Chuck Noll. The Cowboys defeated the Steelers 10–7 at Pitt Stadium in week 12 of the 1969 season, the final meeting between the clubs before the AFL-NFL merger.

text: 1970–1979: Teams of the 1970s[edit]

text: The Steelers would be moved to the newly formed American Football Conference as a result of the AFL–NFL merger for the 1970 NFL season while the Cowboys would be placed in the National Football Conference. The Cowboys would split the first two Super Bowl matchups of the decade while the Steelers started improving.

text: Around this time, both teams would have firm identities. Both were strong on defense with the Steelers' famed Steel Curtain defense, called a "Stunt 4–3", while the Cowboys boasted the Doomsday Defense, based around Landry's "Flex" 4–3 defense. On the offensive side of the ball brought key differences, as the Cowboys had Hall of Fame quarterback Roger Staubach and his aerial attack, as well as his reputation for fourth-quarter comebacks, earning him the nickname "Captain Comeback". The Steelers meanwhile, were powered offensively by the running game, led by Hall of Fame running back Franco Harris.

text: The teams met in September 1972 at Texas Stadium, with the Cowboys prevailing 17–13. The Steelers would go on to win the AFC Central division and qualify for the playoffs for the first time. In the postseason, Pittsburgh defeated the Oakland Raiders 13–7 on Franco Harris' "Immaculate Reception", but lost the AFC championship game to the eventual Super Bowl champion Miami Dolphins 21–17.

text: The two would have their first postseason meeting in Super Bowl X, with both teams vying to tie the Packers and Miami Dolphins for their second Super Bowl Championship. The Steelers won this game, 21–17, after safety Glen Edwards intercepted a Staubach pass in the end zone to seal the victory. The hostility was evident in the third quarter when Steelers kicker Roy Gerela missed his second field goal, a 33-yard attempt. After the miss, Cowboys safety Cliff Harris mockingly patted Gerela on his helmet and thanked him for "helping Dallas out", but was immediately shoved to the ground by Steeler linebacker Jack Lambert. Lambert could have been ejected from the game for defending his teammate, but the officials decided to allow him to remain.[7]

text: After the Cowboys won Super Bowl XII, the two would meet again in Super Bowl XIII, considered one of the greatest Super Bowls ever played and consisted of a combined 20 players, coaches, and front-office administration that ended up in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, an NFL record. The Steelers would once again come victorious, holding off the Cowboys 35–31. By this point, both teams would have rabid fan bases established nationally due to prominent television exposure.

text: The two would meet in the regular season in 1979 at Three Rivers Stadium, a 14–3 Steelers victory that many thought would be preview of Super Bowl XIV. While the Steelers did go on to win Super Bowl XIV that season, the Los Angeles Rams crashed the party, having upset the Cowboys in the divisional round of the playoffs 21–19 in Staubach's last game en route to meeting the Steelers in Super Bowl XIV.

text: 1980–1989: Down years[edit]

text: Age eventually caught up to both teams once the 1980s hit, though both remained competitive into the middle of the decade. The highlight of the decade for this rivalry would come in the 1982 season opener at Texas Stadium, when the Steelers ended the Cowboys NFL-record 17-year season-opening winning streak with a 36–28 victory against the Cowboys.

text: By the middle of the decade, both teams were rebuilding. The 1986 NFL season would be the first year since the 1965 NFL season that both teams missed the playoffs, which would happen for two more years before the Steelers clinched a wild card spot in 1989. During this time, the Steelers, with a mix of aging veterans and younger players, remained competitive in the AFC Central while the wheels fell off completely in Dallas. In 1988, both Tom Landry and Chuck Noll appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated together, asking if both coaches had lost their touch. Though both teams had young future Hall of Famers in Michael Irvin and Rod Woodson, the Cowboys and Steelers would finish 3–13 and 5–11, respectively, for 1988. New Cowboys owner Jerry Jones fired Landry after the season. Noll would retire just three seasons later after missing the playoffs by just a few games each year after his breakout 1989 wild-card spot and two playoff thrillers, a 26–23 overtime victory in Houston and a 24–23 loss at Denver.

text: 1990–present: Return to prominence[edit]

text: The Cowboys would return to prominence in the 1990s, winning three Super Bowls, while the Steelers would return to AFC Championship contention under head coach Bill Cowher. The rivalry resumed in the 1990s, but unlike the 1970s matchups that were dominated by Pittsburgh, Dallas got the upper hand this time around. The Cowboys swept all four matchups between the two teams in the decade.

text: The possibility of Cowboys–Steelers III for Super Bowl XXIX existed, as both teams advanced to their respective conference championships. Such a matchup would be a rematch from Week 1 of the regular season, which the Cowboys won 26–9. The Cowboys were the two-time defending Super Bowl champions, while the Steelers behind their "Blitzburgh" defense was the favorite to win the AFC. However, the favored Steelers were upset by the San Diego Chargers 17–13 while the San Francisco 49ers, who had lost in the NFC Championship game the previous two years to the Cowboys, beat the Cowboys 38–28.

text: Fans would only have to wait another year for Cowboys–Steelers III in the Super Bowl, as both teams advanced to Super Bowl XXX. Like the previous two matchups, the game was close, but this time favored the Cowboys, who won 27–17 after Steelers quarterback Neil O'Donnell threw two interceptions to Cowboys cornerback Larry Brown, who would be named Super Bowl MVP for his efforts.

text: The Steelers have remained competitive since and have won two more Super Bowls (Super Bowl XL, Super Bowl XLIII) and losing one (Super Bowl XLV) while the Cowboys have not been back to the Super Bowl since Super Bowl XXX and have won only three playoff games from 1996 onward. The two teams have only met four times since the 1998 NFL season. The Steelers defeated the Cowboys in the first two games, winning 24–20 in 2004 and 20–13 in 2008. The Cowboys then defeated the Steelers in 2012 by a 27–24 margin in overtime and again in 2016 by a 35–30 margin.